THE AMERICAN JOURNAL SCIENCE AND ARTS. EDITORS AND PROPRIETORS, JAMES D. DANA, B. SILLIMAN, ann E. S. DANA. ASSOCIATE EDITORS, Prorressors ASA GRAY anp WOLCOTT GIBBS, OF CAMBRIDGE, Proressors H. A. NEWTON, 8S. W. JOHNSON, GEO. J. BRUSH anp A. E. VERRILL, OF NEW HAVEN, Proressor EDWARD ©. PICKERING, or Boston. a THIRD SERIES. VOL. XIL—[WHOLE NUMBER, CXII.] JULY TO DECEMBER, 1876. WITH FIVE PLATES. NEW HAVEN: EDITORS. 1876. Miss0UR! BOTANICAL GARDEN LIBRARY BY, - 6 ~ Viti De Vogel’s Color Theory; by M. ©. Lea, ITX.—On a new Crinoid from the Cretaceous fartoation of the lh hm ea a om Bln ee ee. ri aT "G ary Botan any and Zoology.—Tree-P| Pantie Prizes for Arboricilture, 7 3.—Hetero CONTENTS OF VOLUME XIT. NUMBER LXVIL Art. I,—Contributions to Meteorology, being results derived — n examination of the Observations of = ove S. ee nal Service, and from other sources ; by Extas Loomis,-. 1 if, —The Colorado bere i as a Field Sor Geological y; by G. K. Gu UL. Notices = Recent eerie Rae Earthquakes ; ; by C. @. ee an Bee Rite ee LV, ers diacniec. a Vanadium Mica ; by J. Bua 31 V.—On some American Vanadi um Minerals; by Fr rs awe: 32 VI—On a Dinease of Olive and Orange Trees, mite in California in the Spring and Summer of 1875; by W. G. EARLOW, |. : . cesoegcius ce, Yee —On the Reaction of Sulphuric “Acid upon ‘Tri-caleic Phosphate; by H. P. Arms West; by G. B. Grease SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—True Ethyl Sulphate, MazurowskKa, 5 —Anthraflevic and Isoanthraflavic acids, ScauNK and ROEMER: ieipliouarhinine CLEVE Evolution of Hydrogen by the action of Zinc upon neutral Copper sulphate, L. EYER, 51.—Decomposition of Ammonium nitrate by heat, BERTHELOT, 52.— atl pegs tea = 56.—Magnifying Glass, J. Browning: New Bria IN, 57. —Electro-magnetic Rotations. W. Sporrisw nee ae ecent Discoveries of Extinct Nenstale be ‘Pilea —Report upon Geographical and Geological Explorations and Surveys eridian, 6 istori i i west of the 100th Meri 1.—Historical Sketch of Geological Explorations in Pennsylvania and other Sta nd Annual Repo a Agricultural pe of Texas, 63.—Prim lof Sea via: Glacial —_ Ice Age in itain : soe). of Spitzbergen, 65.— 1 Eras of India, nd a Pe: oe sic Glacial Peri raptoli Region of eruptive ‘ocks of the District of ae Hungary: Volcanic Phenomena of the Alps, 39.—Reliquize Aqui manites dentata, sd Dr. S. T. Bar , 10.— Note by Dr. Hayden, oa tb ore-bearing rocks of Colorado: Geo ology of Sumatra: Bulletin of the U. 8. National Muse I € I Report of the Geoluey al of Wis a Se a ane for Students and General R, Readers ] iiber Dolomit: Pittsburgh Meteo ay at ,F A. GENTH, ro morph- ism in Epigzea, A ges on chat “Fone of the Norwerian Flora during wth Rainy and Dry P. aie Plantarum, 4 toh iy of Cal- iv ' CONTENTS. Astronomy.—Astronomical ee comprising logarithms from 3 to 100 places, 79. Miscellaneous at Intelligence.—Probability of error in writing a series of num- bers, 79.—Record of Scien peepee Industry for 1875: Report of the British As- sociation for iene Setnents of Physical Geography: Transactions of oe Rip necticut ‘padang Vol. III, Part I, 80. Obitwary.—Angelin: E. Billin NUMBER LXVIIL ' P: Art. X.—The Colorado Plateau Province as a Field for Geo- ns logical Study 3: by:-Gs Kz Gupert, ace, and from other sources LIAS of Natural Philosophy in Yale College. Fifth paper. With plates I and 11. [Read before the National Academy of Sciences, Washington, April 19, 1876.] : Low temperature of December, 1872. important stations. As the observations of the Signal Service have since been published in full, the phenomena of that period can now be discussed more satisfactorily. sd On the morning of the 17th the high pressure from Dakota Am. Jour. ystbiiee al Serres, Vou. XII, No. 67.—Juxy, 1876, + E. Loomis— Results derived from an examination of the Observations of the Thermometer at 7 35™ a. m., Dec.16-27, 1872. ABOVE OR BELOW THE MEAN TEMPERATURE. fsa) Bsisizisia¢isidialslaisisis _ STATIONS. at gees Slagekl pen Cage: aed xs (eco gun Cm, ; 44/8/81 8}:8 18 1818181812818 18 "aA lalalalajalalajalaljaia Portland, Or.,..| 39°|— 7|— 6/— 5|— 6] Ol— 6i+ T__../+12/4+ 914 9/411 San Francisco, .| 52 11|—11|—11|—1¢ 6\— 9i— 3/4 314 814+ 84+ 1 ¢ iego, 55 |—10/— 3|—12\— 9/—10;— 9\—12/— 5] Of Of Ol4 8 Corinne, -_---- 2\—~ 6)— 1)—20 0)—22)+ 6)4+ 7)4+14)4+ 8)4+ 7+ 1 Virginia City,..| 19 — 9|—20 19}—37} +11|—36}— 7|/+14)+ 3)+13 ‘ort Benton 1 12|—-44 18|—41)—11|—2 19|—22|—22 Santa Fe, 31. |—11|—10|—17 17/— 8|—13|— 8|—10\+ 5|— 41+ 4 nver, 26 |—14|—20|—19|—28|—15|—31/+14/—19|— 8|419/4 1/— 4 Sheyenne, 26 |—19|—22|— 6|—33|—27|—33|/+ 6|—32| 0)/+11/—11)+ 8 Fort Sully, -.-.| 13 |—18)— 24| —27) —26]—38]—11| —36]—17}—13]—28]—1 -embina, —4 |__.-|—~25|—25| —21)—26|—31}—12/—30|—33] —10|—25|—33 ianola, 54 |—10/—11/— 5/— 7/—16|— 7—22/— ¢§ 32|—22/—3 ees 20 |—1 3|—11|—19|—23!—: 9|—34|—32!—17|—26| —27 kenridge 4 |—2 2 32|—27|—3 BTj—2 1 31j)-—3 worth, ..| 26 |—1 15|—15| —29 30|—39) —26| —30)—: veston, 56 }— 8)—12)— 4)+ 1 . : fi? 2 3 Shreveport, -.._| 47 |— 9}/—10|/— 10) —17|—21|—5 5 3 iy & Peal iu..s 11 }—16/— 16|—25|—18]-: 34|—36|—1 2|—28 MD, caste: 11 |—21|~14|—26|—29| 2% 37|—39|—1 §|—2% 3 ee 26 |—16)—1¢ 23.3 | 35 3 $3 a Crosse,...-. [ 25! —13) —17| —26) —% 4 A 2] i ricksb -| 49 }+ 8}~11])— B)— 7— 1-91-39) —2 Davenport, ..._| ‘ 11} ~15|—10|—21/—19|— 3 0| —2: Louis, 31 |— 8)|—15/— 11j—3 2 5|—34|—2 Memphis, --_.. 39 |— 6)—12\|— 5/— 1 9|— 29|—13|—34| —96§ New Orleans, ._ + é 0} +10)+ 2)— 3 3}—2 9} 4 2)—15)—2 airo, — 9—16)|— T}— 7|—20|—18)—37 39|—29)—2 Mobile, =. s5c55 + B+ 1+ 8+ 3/+ 7)/—2 — 13}—1 Milwai eon — 14|— 9|—24)/—17|-: 33|—34|—42|—117 4\— 6 Chicago, ...... L {— 5/—15|/— 25|—12|—24 2\ 44)-17|— 6-20 | Marquette, .._.| 18 |—17|—15|—21|—27|—12]-:; 8|-—28|—32|—15)— 5|— 5 Escanaba, -.... } bs 1 1 2 Li ~3' 1 8i— 4 Nashville, _.__. 39 |}+ 4'— § — Be 31|—1 Li e Montgomery, .-| 48 |+ 7/4 4/+15)+ 2)+ 2/— 3/— 6/—10/—2: Grand Haven,..| 26 |+ 6/— 5|— 2 1 3 26|—15|— 6 dianapolis, 30 |— 6/—19/— 12/— 32}—17|—22 uisville, 35 j— 3\—13)\— Aa— 6i— Z 35) —25) —15)—5 Cincinnati, _...| 34 |— 1;)—14/— 6;— 6)— 3}—31)—15 Cnoxville, 38 |+ 2i— 8/4 2j— 3/4 11|—34 es ee Miedo ok 28 |— 9|\—15|— 4)/—15|— 7/—23]/—4: 7|—22; — 20; Ipena, 23 |—-10|—14|—11|—18|— 1]—17|—3¢ 33| -18|—18| it a8 |— ii—1s|— #— oa 39 19|—18) Lake City,..... §2 )— 4+ 3)411)4+12/4+1k 20|~—1 4)+ 4) - 9— Punta Rassa, _.}) 65 i-— 3)\— 21+ 1 0+ 3)— 13|~—1] B/+ 234+ L-— 6 Lugusta, O14 6+ 6+ 21+ 1/— 7-20 7|—16|—16|—22 ey West, ....; 70 |(— 3)+ lit 2i+ 2/+ 4/— 4/— 5i— 3i— ale 4/4 3i— 3] ksonville, — T— 1+ M+ 6412) O—17/—1 T+ 2|—10|/—2 Cleveland, . .... 28 |— 6—11\— 2\— 5)4 4)—16|—40|—13|—29|24| 13) —1 Saugeen, ---... : 10|—12|— 6|—12|27|—20| 24) 27| 24) ort Stanley, ..| 28 |—12,—15|— 7|/—19|— 3}—20|~44|—16 —37|—23|—29| —: vannah, 0j|- 4 +13/+ 3/4+11|/— 20'—1 8i\— 4|—18/—3 ort Dover, 28 |—11/—14;— 5|—15/— 3] 41\—15|—37'— 25|—21)| ~¢ Observations of the United States Signal Service. 5 Table—continued. ABOVE OR BELOW THE MEAN Gy sister | soilalsi[ailalalwielesle STATIONS. mas PS Peg Se ~ sie Wenge Caec® Bad! Baya Se 2 Bu) 2 ro) 5 5 >] 3 3 3 o SPA A/AlA Bal alalalalala Charleston, _...| 49°|— 1/4 9/4 2/4 1/+11/+ 1\—16\—12\— 4|—17|—1¢ Pittsburg, .__.. 1 3\—18)\— 81d 4 1d 30/—26|— 9/22 Toronto, -__° .. 23 si\—10|\— 2|— 9/+ 13'—33|—12|—-28/ —24|—¢ Lynchburg, -...| 36 Ol+ Qi— 4\— 4\— 3\— 8i—-s 18|/—2¢€ Macacs: 29 Bhan Ble: Gln Th 11\—30!—12|—-27|—23 i cexl an Saale Mey 2s 5|—25|—- 8| 19} 12 Rochester, ____- 25 i 6 8 0 Sd 9|—12}—-24| —24|—39 Washington, ...| 3 9— 3)—— Bia 71+ B27 27|—37-—20 timore, .___- OB fm Ole det TS dl aT 24|—$ : Oswego, _._._. 28 |— 4\— 2— 6\— 1/+ 4|— 6|— 1 20\-—2 y ngston, .___. a i Vi SS ae eS 8s 6 ae ee 8 40 |\— 2)+ ] Oj— 5) +18)— F—17)— 1é 4|—19 Philadelphia, __} 33 — 3)— 2|— 3|\— 2/+ 7/— 6|—27|— 9|—-22;—28|—2 Cape May,__._. 34 1+ %i— 2i+ 2)— 4/+10\— %}—29\— 4|—93/—22|— 3|—33 New York, ....] 32 |— 9/— 1/— 1/— ai+ 6i— 3 14|—21|—24|—2 ontreal, _____ 1614 14 6ly 2 ge BF 12|—-26'—32|—2¢ 3 m,.--.| 22 |\— 41+ 5\— 5\— 114+ 3)+ 14|\—18|—-28|—36|—z New London, ..| 29 |— 7|— 1|— 7\— 5)+ 8|— 1/—15|— 8|—20|—26/—-25 Mt. Washington,| 6 /+ 1/+ 4/4+ 1|— 6\— 1/— 4|— 5|—10|—25|—25/—10/+ 2 ee eee OT 14 1-—-T + 6— 4 9 — "Fe 6s 21|—28|—3 1 Dg: MR es 28 |\— Wi— 1l— 5i— 2+ 6+ 3\— 9\—19|—19\—3: 17 Portland, Me., .| 23 (—11/— 5|— 9\+ 1+ 6| o|— 19|—21|—-40|—26|—1: Halifax, _______ 25 |— g— i—17i— 1\—11!+ 9!— 6\—17/—16!—30|— 21 depression was at time greater than 12°; and at Corinne the only other station west of the Rocky Mountains the great- est depression w ence it is obvious that the extreme est depression was 24°; and generally at the eastern stations the 6 FE. Loomis— Results from an examination of the greatest depression was less than at western stations in the same latitude. portions of the United States. It will be noticed that from Dec. 23d to Dec. 27th, the de- pression of temperature on the summit of Mt. Washington (ele- vation 6,285 feet) was generally less than at other stations in its vicinity. On the 24th, the depression on the summit was about e same as near its base; but on the 26th the depression was twenty degrees less than near the base, indicating that at this time the vertical thickness of the cold stratum of air did not much exceed 9,000 feet. The fluctuations of temperature observed from Dec. 16 to Dec. 27, 1872, were similar in their general features to those occurring every winter, but they were remarkable for the long continuance of an unusually low temperature. What was the cause of this protracted period of severe cold? It can scarcely be doubted that this low temperature was, at least, in part, due to causes in operation beyond the limits of the United States. It is noticeable that during this period the barometer was unusually high, and there was a general corre- spondence between the curves of high pressure and of low temperature. If then we can discover the’ cause of the bigh rometer, we shall probably find the explanation of the low temperature. In my third paper (vol. x, p. 8) I gave a table showing the number of cases in which an area of high pressure was found on different sides of an area of low pressure during a period of three years. These numbers are as follows: Observations of the United States Signal Service. 7 On the North side, 23 cases. cc ce On the South side, 25 cases. Northeast “ 20:4 “c * Southwest “ oe Wes “ “ 79 if 8 0 7 “ Southeast * 75 * | “ Northwest“ 19 “ United States, we may be tolerably sure that there exists at the same time an area of high barometer ata distance of about 1200 miles, and in a direction a little south of east. In order to determine whether this coincidence was the re- comparisons which I have made also indicate that in Europe the direction of the high area from the low area is more south- erly than it is in the United States, and the distance sensibly greater. conclusions may be tested in another way. Low “2 E. Loomis—Resulis from an examination of the temperature at Iceland was at least one degree (Reaumur) ~ above the mean, and placed opposite them ina table, the tem- rague and numerous other stations scattered all over Europe. The number of months employed in this comparison was 50, and during this period the average temperature at Iceland was 2°-10 R. above the mean for the corresponding months. Durin the same months the temperature at Vienna was 0°-94 R. below the mean, showing between the two places a variation from the mean temperature amounting to 3°-04 R. or 6°°84 Fahr. If we restrict the comparison to the four months from November to February, the difference amounts to 8°°66 I then selected all those months in which the temperature of Vienna was at least one degree (Reaumur) below the mean and placed opposite to them the temperature at Iceland for the same period, and found that during the four coldest months of the year the result was of the same kind and quite as decided as in ' the former comparison; but during the warmer months the influence was less noticeable Similar differences, but not quite as great, were found to pre- vail throughout Austria and Germany, and the same influence in iminished degree prevails in France, Italy and a large part of Russia. The period employed in this comparison seems to be long enough to establish a law, and I think we must con- clude that when the temperature of Iceland is much above the mean, the temperature of Central Europe is generally depressed low the mean, and this influence is most decided during the colder months of the year. e results thus obtained for the United States and for Hu- rope suggest the idea that an area of unusually high barometer in the central portion of North America may be the result of a storm Botha. at a distance of 1500 or 2000 miles in a north- west direction. Upon referring to a map we find that the Aleutian Islands are situated in this direction, and at a distance of about 2000 miles fro regon, and we know that in the neighborhood of these Islands the storms of winter are unusually severe and the barometer often sinks extremely low. If we had maps showing the isobaric curves from day to day in the vicinity of the Aleutian Islands, and extending to the central rtions of North America, it is presumed we should find that ow pressure near these Islands was generally attended by an area of high pressure in a southeast direction at a distance of 1500 or 2000 miles. The Report of the United States Signal rvice for 1878 contains Meteorological observations at St. Paul’s Island, lat. 57°_N., long. 170° W., but I have no observ- ations from the interior of British America suitable for compari- son with them; it is, however, remarkable that in several cases Observations of the United States Signal Service. 9 in 1872-3, when the barometer was unusually low at St. Paul, it was unusually high in Oregon or Dakota. The following is an example: Date. St. Paul. 1872, Nov. 13 29°92 30°52 ; 14 eter at St. Paul stood at 28°05. Form of areas of maximum and minimum pressure. In preceding articles (this Jour., vol. viii, p. 11, and vol. x, p. 9) T have shown the ave f f the isobars about a storm center as derived from observations of three years. I have since made a similar comparison of observations of three years (1873-5) to determine the form of the isobars about an area of maximum oneede The isobar selected has generally been that of 30°20; ut when the observations were insufficient to show the complete form of this curve, I have taken the isobar 30°30, provided that curve was nearly complete. When both of these curves were 10 E. Loomis—Results from an examination of the The average ratio of the two axes of the isobars about an area of minimum pressure was found to be 1°94; and in nearly four per cent of the cases the major axis was four times the minor axis and column second shows the number of cases occurring in each interval. In order to eliminate the influence of accidental isobars about an area of minimum pressure as heretofore re- ported, and column 5th shows the averages of the same numbers taken in sets of three. These numbers also show a decided nomenon is of a local nature, I have made a similar comparison of European observations. I took Hoffmeyer’s charts from Dec., 1878, to Nov., 1874 and measured the form of the isobars about each storm center. Position of the Major Axis of the Isobars. UNITED STATES. EUROPE. DIRECTIONS. | High Barom. Low Barom. Low Barom, High Barom. Cases. | Aver. | Cases.) Aver. || Cases.| Aver. | Cases. | Aver. 0° 10° 19 16 li 12 7 5 2 “3 10 20 12 15 18 it 8 6 3 2 20 — 30 14 a | 15 22 4 6 2 2 30 — 40 25 20 34 24 6 6 1 1 - 21 25 23 26 7 % + 1 50 — 60 29 22 22 Vi 7 6 2 3 60 — 70 17 17 7 15 4 5 és 5 76 — 80 8 12 16 10 4 3 5 6 80 — 90 1l y 8 13 1 2 5 4 90 -100 3 5 14 1 ] 2 4 100 -110 2 3 9 10 ae 2 5 2 110 —120 5 4 7 6 3 2 3 4 120 -130 6 5 3 6 3 4 5 a 130 —140 5 i 7 6 5 4 r F | 140 -150 9 5 8 8 3 3 2 1 150 -160 6 8 8 8 2 2 1 1 160 -170 9 10 8 9 1 2 1 2 170 -180 14 15 | 10 | 12 3 4 3 - Observations of the United States Signal Service. 11 Only those cases were selected which contained an isobar as low as 740 millimeters. The isobar selected for measurement was seldom the lowest isobar drawn on the maps, but the largest isobar which was complete (or nearly so) about the storm cente number of cases employed was 70, and the aver- age ratio of the two axes was 1°60. Column 6th in the precedin table shows the number of cases for each 10° of azimuth; an column 7th shows the averages of the same numbers taken in sets of three. In a similar manner the isobars about areas of maximum pressure were measured. Only those cases were selected which contained an isobar as high as 775 millimeters, and frequently this was the isobar selected for measurement; but if the map rs taken in sets of three. The following table presents a summary of the preceding re- sults both for low and high pressures in the United States and urope. Summary of Results for Isobars. LOW BAROMETER. || HIGH BAROMETER. | United States.) Hurope. || Unite States.| Europe. Ratio of the two axes, 1:94 | 1-60 i 191 | 182 Prevalent direct. of major axis,’ N.39°R. |N.3i°E.!| N.44°E |N. 76° B. This table suggests some obvious reflections, but I prefer to withhold them until I have obtained a longer series of observa- tions from Europe. Relation of rainfall to variations of barometric pressure. In former articles (this Jour., vol. viii, p. 4 and vol. x, p. 5) T have shown a close connection between the rain-fall and the direction and_ velocity of a storm’s progress. I have also en- have discovered a decided connection between the amount of rain-fall and the pressure at the center of the storm. For the purpose of comparison, storms were divided into three classes ; one class including those cases in which the barometric depres- sion at the center of the storm was the same on two successive 12 E. Loomis—Resulis from an examination of the days, or the change was. less than 0°05 inch. A second class included those cases in which the pressure at the center de- creased to the extent of at least 0:05 inch; and a third class included those cases in which the pressure increased to the extent of atleast 0°05 inch. The following is the result of this comparison including 194 cases for eleven months of observa- tions. Influence of variations of barometric pressure. | AMOUNT OF RAIN-FALL. Within | Within No.of} Barom. Variation isobar isobar Greatest - cases. | at centre. | in 24 hours. 29°90. 29°80, fall. Pressure increasing, A5 29°58 +°100 “069 078 0°65 “ stationary, 81 29°56 —"005 “120 “149 0°86 x decreasing, 68 29°48 — 128 134 "159 1°02 Column 2d shows the number of cases of each of the three classes of storms investigated ; column 8d shows the average pres- sure at the center of the storms under investigation ; column 4th shows the average change of pressure at the center of the storm in twenty-four hours, + increasing, — diminishing ; column 5th shows the average rain-fall for eight hours at all the stations included within the isobar 29°90 ; column 6th shows the average rain-fall at the stations within the isobar 29°80; and column 7th shows the average obtained by taking the greatest rain-fall re- or each storm at any of the stations. This greatest Stationary storms near the coast of Newfoundland. In a former article (vol. xi, p. 17) I have noticed the fact that ! aie n unusual precipitation of vapor in that vicinity. The vapor is furnished by the warm water of the Gulf Stream, and the high-lands near the coast afford facilities for its precipt- Observations of the United States Signal Service. 13 rain-fall at various stations along that part of the coast. For this table I am indebted to Mr. G. T. Kingston, Superintendent of the Meteorological Sarvise of Canada. Annual Rain-fall in Nova Scotia and its vicinity. STATIONS. Latitude. | Longitude. | AYerage - hg Inches. Mt Slee cnc. ck. . S. 47° 33’ | 62° 40° | 55°86 4 Harbor Grace, ....... 47 42 63 15 48°36 4 Bay St. George, -....- 48 30 68 29 47-75 1 Glace Bay, .<..-65..< 46 13 69 58 61°81 6 SYANGY) . opi cee it ce 46 12 60 14 68°36 6 Cape North, ..-.....- 47. 8 60 25 A735 1 Port Hastings, 2... 45 39 61 29 43°67 2 Guysborough, . senrgees eer 45.93 61 36 60°40 3 Bi, al ao dae oe ee 45 42 62 40 50°58 2 Charlottetown, ee als & 46 14 BS 18 41°90 3 45 20 63 20 49°50 4 ia ed Geena eee 44 63 34 41:87 2 Pahlek gd: asec, ore 44 40 63 36 51:29 pa: Beaver Bank, .-...-.- 44 34 63 39 42°94 3 indsor, 44 64 | G4 7 | 42°53 1 Dorchester, sss. 6. 45 46 64 18 48°53 4 ‘ape Rozier, 48 56 | 64 21 | 33°17 3 2 Cy ee eee 45 5 64 41°88 8 Baws River, 025.00 i. 46 30 65 12 38°21 6 ini S305 a cece a 233 65 30 44°4 2 SLE | peed aptareeetie e P 4134 65 41 33°21 2 Pb. SOND, < bine eo 45 14 sb 54°68 9 Fredericton, ........- 45 65 | 66 40 | 45°52 4 Quebec. 46 48 "mw 37°27 6 It will be noticed that near the southern coast of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland there is a dine of stations where me syn ay is ‘eerdioe excessive, oa is sometimes snfficient to hold a storm nearly stationary for several days. Course and velocity of storms in tropical regions. In order to discover the causes of the movement of storm- have prepared a list of all the storms originating near the West India — for which I have found definite paths as- signed by any investigator. The principal results are exhibited in the crarjatm table. Column Ist shows the date of com- mencement of th column 2nd shows 14 E. Loomis—Results from an examenation of the among 6476 observations, eight galesare reported. On Maury’s chart for the eastern half of the North Pacific Ocean, among 17,854 observations, 35 gales are reported between the equator and 5° N. latitude; and between 5° and 10° N. lat. among 9352 observations, 33 gales are reported. Storms do therefore sometimes occur almost directly under the equator, but on an average only once or twice a year. into the middle latitudes. The average course of the storms ere mentioned while moving westward was west 24° north ; and the average hourly velocity in this part of their course was 17°4 miles, The average latitude of the storm’s center when moving due north was 294 degrees, and the latitudes range from 284 to 84 d During the three summer months the average lati- tude is 30°-6; in September it is 29°-7, and during the other months of the year 26°°7, indicating that the point where the course changes from west to east is more northerly in summer , than in winter. Observations of the United States Signal Service. 16 The average course of these storms while traveling eastward to the parallel of 40° was E. 383° N. rang- The average hourly velocity in this part ing from 17° to 60°. of their course is 20°5 miles, which is almost exactly the aver- age velocity of storms in the United States for the months of ugust and September according to the Signal Service obser- vations. Course of Hurricanes originating near the West India Islands. sh Bigs N af : E —— ae ES Course Be = 8 ATE OF Al while [28/0 while | §| Rain-|% Sromu. 3°) moving |S - 3 2! moving 3 a fall. |S Where Recorded. sao Westward ‘hai Ss Eastward. Ss Ms - als € | E 5 1780, Oct. 3.|16°5° H. 615° N. ‘ain. \R \Law of Sts., p. 273. 1780. Oct. 12.}11°8 |W. 31° N.} 17-8/23-3°|K. 39°5 N.| 17-2 Rain. |R |Law of Sts., p. 273. 1804. Sept. 3.)15°7 |W. 30 N. | 20-4/31-2 |B. 46 N. | 18°1/Rarn. (WJ. S., v. 20, p. 17. 1821. Sept. 1.}21-7 |W. 27 N. | 35-0/31-2 |B. 55 N. | 25-0'Rain. |WiJ.S., v. 20, p. 17. 1827. Aug. 17.|14:8 |W. 29 N. | 12-9/30°0 |B. 43 N. | 10-0Raim. |WIJ. S., v. 31, p. 123. 1830. Aug. 12.\17°3 |W. 23-5 N.| 23°8/31-4 (E. 37 N. |16°3/Ram. (WJ. S,, v. 20, p. 34. 1830. Aug. 22.)22°3 |W. 27 N. | 18-7/30°3 [E. 40 N. | 160!Rain. |WiJ.S,, v. 20, p. 39. 1830. Sept. 29.|20-2 |W. 33-5 N.| 26-4/30°4 |B. 43 N. | 29°6! WiJ.8., v. 20, p. 42. 1831, 13.|30°0 30°0 |B. 53°5 N,| 16°6 Snow. |W/U.S. N. Mag. 1836, 1831. June 23./10°3 |W. 14-5 N.) 20-4 jWiJ.S., v. 31, p. 123. 1831, Aug. 10./12°3 |W. 25-5 N.! 16°6/30°7 Rain. |WiJ. 8., v. 21, p. 192. 1835, Aug. 12./16-3 |W. 17 N. | 17-8 Rain. [W/J.S.. v. 31, p. 124. 1835. Sept. 3.)12-4 |W. 38 N. Rain. |R \Law of Sts., p. 36, 1837. July 26./11-0 |W. 29 N. 30-0 Rain. |B |Law of Sts., p. 48, 1837. Aug. 2./17°3 |W. 31-5. N. Rain. |R Law of Sts., p. 48. 1837, Aug. 12.;17-6 |W. 20 N. 31°7 |E. 245 N. /Rain. )R ‘Law of Sts., p. 69. 1837, Aug. 24./32-7 E.47.N. | 175 Rain, |R \Law of Sts., p. 109. 1837. Sept. 27.|15°7 |W. 24. N. | 9-3/26-2 |B. 17°56 N.| 13°4\Rain. [R |Progress, p. 13 1839. Sept. 12./18-5 |W. 26 N. 2 Rain. \R \Progress, p. 39. 1842. Aug. 30./21°6 |W. 1N. | 10-0 Rain. |WiJ. 8., v. 1, p. 2. 1842, Oct. 2./20-0 E.18N. | 10°6 Rain. |WiJ.8., v. 1, p. 153. 1844. Oct. 4./18-6 E. 54.N. | 30°4'Rain. |W)J.8., v. 2, p. 312. 1846, Sept. 11,|13-3 |W. 62 N. | 10-3/29°2 |E. 47 N. | 14:3\Rain. |W)J.S,, v. 18, ¢ 1846. Oct. 6.|14-2 |W. 60 N. 30°0 |E. 60°5 Nj 23°65 Rain. [WIJ.S., v. 18, 1847. Oct. 10.)12-8 }W. 115 S| 21-2 (Rain. |R |Progress, 1848, Aug. 22./15-0 |W. 28-5 N. 27-4 |H. 22 N. R | Progress, p. 33. 1848. Aug. 29./15-0 |W. 22 N: 29°0 /E. 24 N. Rain. \M|Phys. Geog., p. 60. 1850, Sept. 2./16-0 |W. 5 N. 13°8 Wid. 8., v- 18, p. 176. 1851. Aug. 16,/13°5 |W. 15 N. | 17-5/97-3 |B. 34.N. |18-7/Rain. |WIJ.S,, v. 18, 1853. Aug. 30./19°5 |W.12°5 N.| 26-3131-1 |E. 24-5 N.| 28-4(Ratw. [W(J. 8, v. 18, p. 1. 1853. Sept. 26./28-8 29°2 |E. 27 N. Rar. |W)J. 8., v. 18, p. 180. 1853. Sept. 29./13-9 |W. 9 N Rain. |W\J.8., v. 18, p. 178. 1866. Oct. 1./19-0 |W. 15 N. | 15-0/26-4 |B. 25 N. | 30°0/Rain. |B |Han. Book, p. 151 1867. Oct. 29./18°5 |W. 28. Ram. |E }Pamphiet. 1871. June 1,/23-5 |W. 14 N. | 12-3/31°5 [B. 45 N. | 23°5|Rain. |S |Rep. 1872, p. 282. 1871. Sept. 5. 38 N. | 15°0/Rain. |S (Rep. 1874. Ma 1873. Aug. 18,/20-0 |W. 32 N. 12°3/33°0 |E. 37 N. | 18°4/Rain. |S |Rep. 1873, p. 1029, 1873. Aug. 20./25-0 |W. 51 N. | 10-5(34:3 |B. 41 N. | 16-4|Ram. |T |Met. Soc.,¥.2, p.16. 1873. Oct. 6121-3 |W. 28 N. | 9-5/24-3 |B. 45 N. | 30°1|Rain. |S |Montbly Map, 73 1874. Feb. 7./24-0 5 18.45 N. | 23°5|Rain. |S |Rep. 1874. 1875, 23°0 |W. 22 N. | 26-1/28°5 {E. 24 N. (29°6|Zain. [8 |Monthly Map. 16 G. K. Gilberi—The Colorado Plateau Province. In column 8th the word rain when italicized signifies hard | rain; when in capitals it signifies VERY HARD RAIN, or rain descending in TORRENTS. It will be perceived that rain gen- erally accompanies hurricanes. In four of the cases I find in the published reports no mention of rain, but it is presumed that this is simply an oversight, since in most of the other cases rain is only incidentally mentioned. In all the investigations _ of Redfield and Reid the circumstances upon which they in- — sist as specially important are the direction and force of the © wind ; and it is only by consulting the extracts from the log- — books which they have furnished us, that I have discovered — any mention of accompanying rain. It is believed that tropical — hurricanes never occur without rain, and generally the rain is described as descending in torrents. Further remarks upon the preeeding table are reserved for a — future article. In preparing the materials for this article, I have been assisted by Mr. Edward S. Cowles, a graduate of — Yale College of the class of 1878. ’ Art. II.—The Colorado Plateau Province as a Field for Geologi- cal Study ; by G. K. Ginpert. I. Definition and Description of the Province. In the Mississippi Valley and “the Plains” the strata are almost undisturbed and lie nearly level. They have, indeed, been lifted above the parent ocean, and in part raised to a height of thousands of feet, but broad areas have moved together and all flexu ave been gentle. There are no traces of the fold- ings which characterize the Appalachian region. The preva- lent features of wd are plains and hills. From the western edge of the Plains to the Pacific Ocean the characteristic features are mountains. The strata are bent and broken, and upturned at all angles. The typical structures are structures of displacement. ithin this region of t disturbance is a restricted area of comparative calm. Disloca- tions of strata are not unknown in it; indeed, they are of fre- quent occurrence; but they are less frequent, less profound, and less complex, than in the surrounding region of mountains. Its mountains are few and scattered, and its typical eg form is the table or plateau. It is called the Colorado Plateau province, This region of ones was crossed by many lines of early exploration, and the salient features of its topography were erik y numerous observers. The first writer who called attention to the extent of the district, and colligated the north- G. K. Gilbert— The Oolorado Plateau Province. 17 ern portions with the southern, was Professor W. P. Blake (Pac. R. Repts., vol. iii, part Iv, pp. 8 and 42, 1856.) The title of “Colorado Plateau” first appeared in the map of Ives’ Colorado River Report in 1861, and was written between San Francisco mountains and the Grand Cafion. Later usage extended the term to include the broad upland through which the Colorado has excavated its deep channel; and finally, as the minor pla- teaus of which the great one is composed began, in the progress of geographical knowledge, to be discriminated and named, the comprehensive title of the whole became the Colorado Plateaus or the Colorado Plateau Province. Portions of the region have been studied, described, and mapped by numerous geologists and geographers, but the chief contributions to our knowledge of the Province as a whole, and of its limits, have come from the surveys conducted by Major Powell and Lieutenant Wheeler.* t would avail little to describe in detail the boundaries of the province without the aid of a map. On the east it is separated by mountains for which there is no comprehensive title. Its or one-twenty-fourth part of the territory of the United States. It is drained chiefly by the Colorado of the West and its tribu- n, and the Puerco of the East in its eastern, and the North Platte drains its northeastern angle. The plateaus which compose it range In altitude from 5,000 to 11,000 feet above the sea, but the lines of drainage are much lower, and the streams run at the bottoms of deep gorges or cafions. The plateaus are terminated mn vet by cliffs, and the cafion walls are cliffs. Plateaus, cafions, and cliffs are the characteristic features. The chief mountains are of volcanic origin, and they are doubly conspicuous, since PowegPloration of the Colorado River of the West and its tributaries; by J. W. n. 7 In defining the province in my report to Lieut. Wheeler (see U. S. Eng. Expl. the Sur. W. of the 100th mer., =. ii, Geology, pp. 43 and 542) I have not included ;_. Portion south of the Uinta mountains. 1 was not aware, at the time of writ- the that the plateaus south of the Uintas were continuous with those of Wyoming, Uinta uplift not in, to the Park Mountains. AM. Jour. 8ct.—Turrp Series, Vou. XII, No. 67.—JuLy, 1876. 2 18 G. K. Gilbert—The Colorado Plateau Province. they not only constitute some of the loftiest points, but are ex- ceptional to the general character of the topograph he climate is extremely dry—so dry that agriculture is impossible without irrigation. Vegetation is scant, except upon the heights. Below 8,000 feet altitude it is too sparse to inter- fere with the examinations of the geologist, and there are vast stretches of absolutely naked rock. Travel is greatly obstructed, except along certain lines, by deep cafions which ramify through ~ the plateaus, and the selection of routes for wagon-roads and — railroads is a work of great difficulty. : All this description applies more especially to the southern portions of the Ft i streams flow in shallower and broader valleys, and are more sluggish. The Green river, the main artery of drainage, is there less deeply sunken in the plain than in its lower course, and all erosion by running water Is hence less powerful. The profiles of the topography are more rounded, and accumulations of local drift and soil give rise to man’ ssy plains. he only important economic mineral of the whole region is coal, and this, though unlimited in quantity, is now utilized only where the Pacific railroad affords a market. Mines of the © precious metals are nearly unknown, and in default of these, Il, How the material is exposed for study. Asa field for the studies of the geologist, the Plateau province offers valuable matter in an advantageous manner. Let us be- gin with the consideration of the manner. First, the Climate. The air is so dry that, except on the heights | and at the margins of springs and streams, there is no turf, no accumulation of humus, often no soil, and so little vegetation that the view is not obstructed. From a commanding emi-— nence one may see spread before him, like a chart, to be read almost without effort, the structure of many miles of country, | and in a brief space of time may reach conclusions, which, in a — istrict. North of the Uinta mountains the ~ G. K. Gilbert—The Colorado Plateau Province. 19 humid region, would reward only protracted and laborious ob- servation and patient generalization. There is no need to search for exposures where everything is exposed. Dr. Newberry, speaking of one of the southern plateaus, says, “On our way to the Moqui villages we passed through a region singularly favorable for accurate geological investigation; where there is no vegetation to poi ihe the view; where the strata are entirely undisturbed, and are cut by valleys of erosion, in the wall-like sides of which every inch of the series may be exam- ined. In this journey we ascended in the geological scale from the summit of the Carboniferous to the base of the Cretaceous series. Of this interval there is no portion of which the expos- ures are not as complete as could be desired.” (Geol. Ives’ Exped., p. 77. This aridity is not peculiar to the plateaus: it pertains to the Basin Ranges, and in a less degree to the plains. But in the mountain ridges, and these are filled with monotonous Quater- nary gravels and clays, which hide all other beds, while the ranges themselves, which are of more interest to the geologist, catch all the precipitation, and are in some degree clothed with ing benches decay more rapidly than they are undermined, an their rounded outlines are clothed with soil. But the Colorado uous velocity and sweep out the detritus. The rocks of the upland are removed as fast as they decay, and soil cannot accu- mulate. Thus does thorough drainage conspire with aridity to prepare for the geologist a land of naked rock. 20 G. K. Gilbert—The Colorado Plateau Province. No less important to the student are the cafions themselves. They bear the same relation to a plain that geological cross- sections do to a geological map. They introduce in all ca gories of observation a third dimension, and enable the con- of the eastern seaboard that it does now. It was then, as now, — a little colder than the latter, and a great deal drier; and it was its dryness which prevented, even at an altitude of some thou- — sands of feet, the accumulation of such a deluge of ice as visited — the Atlantic seaboard in the same latitude. Only on the high- | est mountains was the winter’s precipitation in excess of the summer’s melting. But while the mantling by glacial drift is inconsiderable, xtent. me of ose exceptional thoroughness. They are indebted to ad climate, in ancient and modern times, for the almost entire se glacial drift, and for the suppression of vegetation. They are indebted to peculiar conditions of drainage for their poverty of soil, talus, and loeal drift, and for a system of nat cross-sec- tions. Their chief detraction is a mere restriction of their area of exposure by overlapping lavas. IIL. The material Jor study. It remains to consider the nature of the material which is so fully exhibited, and examine its claims to attention. It pertains chiefly to four departments of geological investigation, viz: G. K. Gilbert—The Colorado Plateau Province. Re Mountain building by displacement; Mountain building by eruption; Stratigraphy; and Erosion; and will be discussed under these heads, in the order indicated.* Their entire phenomena may be comprehended, measured, de- daiineatedi The course of many a fault can be the axis. There is in nature a third type, which involves a dip in only one direction. ; This is the monoclinal fold. It is a double flexure, connecting Strata at one level with the same strata at another level. In figure 1, the curvature between aa and 6) is a monoclinal fold. * The writer travelled, during three summers, with field parties of the Survey in charge of Lieut. M. Wheeler of the U. S. Engineers, and during « fourth with a field party of the Survey in charge of Major J. W. Powell. His reports to Lieut. Wheeler are published in the third volume of the re of “Explorations and Surveys west of the 100th ian.’ own observations, the c m which he has derived the material are: 1. The ob- Servations of Major J. W. P. publi his the “ Exploration of . W. in hi rt on the Colorado River of the West and its sues” and. in part unpublished. 2 3. The observations of Mr. E. E. Howell andof the late Mr. A. R. Marvine, published in vol. iii, of Lieut. Wheeler’s Reports, and in part unpublished. 4. The observations of Dr. J. S. Newberry, published in Ives’ ‘‘ Explorations of the Colo- rado,” and in part unpublished. 5. The writings of Mr. Clarence King, “ Fortieth Farallel Survey,” vol. ii. 6. Mr. T. B. Comstock’s report in the U. 8. Engineers Lieut. Wheeler, published in the U. 8. Engineer report for 1875. 22 G. K. Gilbert—The Colorado Platzau Province. It is evident that if two monoclinal folds are combined back — to back, the result will be an anticlinal; if they are joined foot to foot, they will form a synclinal. Hence the monoclinal fold level to the lower; and that at another point they are broken across, and the dissevered edges have slidden past each other. 2. tum had been fractured, iain Tea while another, less rigid, or coerced perhaps by a 23 : & incumbent rock, had been only flexed. A third mode of com- representation of two blocks of strata, 4 and B, cut out from their surroundings, so as to exhibit the manner of their relative Se cenenh The front of the segment shows a flexed bed erlying a faulted one. The top of the segment shows a fault at the front, a monoclinal fold at the back, and a compound displacement midway. he monoclinal fold is not unknown in other parts of the 23 G. K. Gilbert—The Colorado Plateau Province. Paria Displacement. 3 .08°N YO FOG Marble Cafion Block. East Kaibab Displacement. Kiabab Block. West Kiabab Displacement. Toroweap Displacement. north of scale, ks Kanab Block. Cnt po =a sas Lewwe23%: fea Pr 2 3 ma 3 : Ay Marble Cafion. hoses so oof yr aa TT TY : ST = a Kaibab Plateau. Bak a | i ae oadn ces eheenaaberone vamnaalll bs yo00 0 004 ii 7 e. es x4) f Horizontal [600 500 0 0 00 0 0 0 Int: Aye Ted ~ It .) ' to east across the plateaus 24 G. K. Gilbert—The Colorado Plateau Province. line bears to the angle or area which it limits and defines. A large portion of the Plateau region is divided into great blocks —usually a few miles in width and many miles in length—and these have been unequally lifted above the ocean which de- posited their common sediments, so that each differs from its neighbor in altitude. They are bounded by lines of displace- ment. The blocks which have been lifted highest have been most exposed to erosive agencies, the tendency of which is to ideal one, but was carefully drawn to represent a tract of country, lying in Utah and Arizona, of which the main geolog- ical features are clearly understood. The geological section in the foreground is, in the main, the section which is exposed in the walls of the Grand Cafion, and is 106 miles long. The vertical scale is four times as great as the horizontal. The base line marks the level of the ocean, and the dotted line the level of the Colorado river. The rock bed marked with small ment is 1800 feet. It is known only asa simple fold. Along the lines of the first three had the ce wall has risen, or the western has fallen; but with the remaining two the reverse is the case. [To be continued.] C. G. Rockwood— Recent American Earthquakes. 25 Art. III.—Notices of Recent American Earthquakes—No. 6; by Prof. C. G. Rocxwoop, Jr., Rutgers College. In the following notices, facts given by single newspaper reports, and which could not be otherwise verified_are printed in smaller type, and the source from which they were obtained is indicated. For information received I am indebted to John M. Batch- elder, of Boston, and Samuel Barnet, of Washington, Ga. 1874. May.—The disturbances at Bald Mountain, N. C., in February and March, already noticed (III, ix, p. 332) were reported as con- tinuing at intervals during the months of April and May. (U.S. Signal Service. July 23.—A light shock at Camp Russell, Neb. (U.S. Sign. rv Aug. 3.—During the evening a light shock from the east at Clifton, San Bernardino Co, Cal. (U.S. Sign. : Dec. 12.—A slight shock between 10 and 11 p. M. at Garri- son’s, N. Y. 1875. _ January.—Earthquakes preceded and accompanied an pia tion of the volcano Trélladyngja, in the central part of Iceland. The volcanic disturbance appears to have begun by subterra- nean thunders during December, 1874, extending through nearly two-thirds of the island. Early in January, 1875, earth- quakes occurred in all directions and then an old extinct vol- cano near Vatrayskud opened and for four weeks continued to emit ashes, lava, ete. When this eruption ceased, another ex- tinct voleano near Myvatu, 100 miles farther north, opened and continued in action for several weeks. Both of these eruptions occasioned great destruction of life and property. Karly in March there seemed to be a general upheaval of the earth in the whole central portion of the island. The ashes from these or still later eruptions fell to the depth of several inches on the coast of Norway in the latter part of April. It is stated that “the geysers have dried up since the eruption began, and in- Stead of water emitted quantities of hot smoke and ashes.” Jan. 24—A heavy shock at 4 A. M. in Butte, Plumas, and Sierra counties, Cal.; felt also at Sacramento, Cal., and Carson ity, Nev., where two shocks were reported, the first light, the second quite severe and lasting several seconds. The direction was from the northeast. Feb, 7.—Two severe shocks at San Francisco, Cal., the first at 10.56 and the second at 11.50 A. M., each lasting two to four Seconds. (U.S. Sign. Serv.) 26 0. G. Rockwood—Recent American Earthquakes. Feb. 16.—A shock at Orezava and Minatitlan on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. (J. M. B.) Feb. 11 and 18.—A letter from Guadalajara, Mex., dated March 2, 1875, says: “Since the 11th ult. we have had almost continually slight shocks of earthquake. In all we have had ut four very severe shocks; the first (two?) on the night of the 11th and two on the 18th. The majority of the churches in Guadalajara are greatly damaged. In San Cristobal, a small village about eight leagues from this city, 35 or 40 lives have been lost and nearly all the houses reduced to ruins.” March 9 and 10.—The same writer says under date of March 10: “The earthquakes continue. We had one yesterday that lasted three minutes, not severe. We felt a sharper one to-day at 1.20 Pp. M. but it only lasted a few seconds.” March 9.—A shock at Phenix, R. I. (J. M. B.) ue) 1.—A heavy shock in the evening at Eureka, Nev. (J. May 6.—A shock at Wolfborough, N. H. (J. M. B.) May 15.—A slight shock about 10.15 a. M. at Cambridge, West Roxbury and Milton, Mass. ay 18.—A very destructive earthquake occurred at 10.10 A. M. in the Colombian Andes. The area affected extends from Carthagena and Maracaybo on the north to Bogota and Honada on the south, over six degrees of latitude. The center of dis- turbance was at the city of San José de Cucuta. This is a city of Venezuela, situated on the border of New Grenada, in N. lat. 7° 30’, W. long. 72° 10’, and before the catastrophe had a population of 18,000. It is between the two ranges of the Andes which unite not very far south of the city. The first premoni- tion of the disturbance at Cucuta was a subterranean rumbling noise heard on the night of the 17th, but unattended by any tremors. At 11.10, (some accounts 11.80) on the forenoon of the 18th two tremendous shocks of earthquake occurred fol- lowed after a short interval by three others of nearly equal intensity. By these shocks, the city and most of the surround- ing villages within a radius of twenty miles were completely destroyed, with great loss of life and property. In Cucuta only one building remained standing; and in San Cristobal (population 11,000) only one house was left and that so shat- tered as to be unsafe. C. G. Rockwood—Recent American Earthquakes. 27 fell.” A telegram from Chiquinquira, May 22, says: “the shocks are repeating. Two last night, one to-day.” It was noticed as a remarkable fact that the disturbance was only felt on the west side of the mountain range. May 18.—A prolonged shock just before midnight at St. Thomas, W. I. (J. M. B.) May 30.--Advices of this date from City of Mexico say: “slight shocks have been felt in Jalisco.” (N. Y. Times.) June 4.—A shock at 8 A. M. felt on board the ship Hamilton in N. lat. 19° 16’, W. long. 57° 51’. “When the disturbance first began the sea was quite smooth, but as the shock increased in violence the waters became correspondingly agitated. Sud- denly the vessel received a shock as if she had grounded, and a peculiar rumbling noise filled the air. Simultaneously with the shaking the sky assumed a dull leaden hue. The atmo- ten minutes.” June 13.—Several shocks at Chinaltenango, San Salvador. in the vicinity of Lafayette and Logansport, Ind. ‘The state- ments in regard to time are various aud contradictory. The United States Signal Service Observer at Indianapolis reports the shock as occurring at 7.48 4. M. All other accounts vary from 9 to 11 4. m. No account mentions more than one shock. Slight shocks were felt in San Francisco on the same forenoon. y 8.—Three shocks at 12.05 Pp. M. at Nuevitas, Cuba. The first and last slight, the second rather severe, the whole lasting about fourteen seconds. (N. Y. Times.) July 28.—A shock at 4.10 a. M. felt quite generally through- 28 C. @. Rockwood—Recent American Earthquakes. out the northwestern part of Connecticut. It extended from Hartford and Springfield on the east to the line of the Housa- tonic R. R. on the west, and from Danbury and Waterbury on the south, to Chester and Becket, Mass., on the north, being felt at numerous places in Litchfield and Hartford counties. At most places the shock was preceded or accompanied by a } rumbling noise. At Collinsville it lasted fifteen seconds. “At a Winsted it is stated to have lasted forty seconds, the sound — coming from the north and passing away toward the south. uly 28.—A shock at 6.05 P. ., at Milledgeville, Ga., with a loud explosion. (Atlanta Herald. July 31.—Advices of this date from the City of Mexico, report an earthquake in Jalisco. Y. Times), Aug. 3.—A shock at 8 a. M. in St. Thomas, W. I. uur 8.—A heavy shock in the morning at Hollister, Cal. (J. + Bs) Aug. 29.—A shock was felt at 8.30 P. ., on board the bark St. Lawrence, in N. lat. 18° 50’, W. long. 61° 30’, being between St. Thomas and the Island of St. Bartholomew, 140 miles from land. It lasted thirty seconds. (N. Y. Herald.) ‘ Sept. 17.—Three shocks at St. Vincents, W.I. The last about — 9 P. M. was rather severe. (London Times Correspondence.) Sept. 25.—A shock about 9 Pp. mM. at Stepney, Conn. (New Haven Palladium. Oct. 7.—Slight shocks at Memphis, Tenn., and Cairo, Ill. (U. S. Sign. Serv.) Oct. 14.—A sharp shock about 6 Pp. M. at San Francisco, and in the Santa Clara Valley, Cal. The vibrations were from east to west. Reports from various points on the coast from Santa Cruz to Cape Mendocino, mention a heavy sea without wind, and the waves rolling up on the beach 100 to 300 feet beyond the usual high water mark, for several days after the above. From this it might be inferred that this earthquake had its origin somewhere in the Pacific Ocean. MB) 15.—A shock at 1 a, Mm. at Kingston, Jamaica, W. I. (J. Oct. 27.—Three shocks in the night at Memphis, Tenn. ; strong enough to rattle windows. Also a shock, probably the same, at 9 P. M. at Purdy, McNairy Co., Tenn. Oct. 31.—A slight shock at 9.18 P. ut at Cambridge, Mass., of three or four seconds duration. Barometer 29°70 in. ville, Atlanta, Madison, Athens, Union Point, Washington, Augusta, Forsyth and Macon, Ga., and at Spartanburg and Columbia, S.C. It lasted about thirty seconds, and at Wash- C. G. Rockwood— Recent American Earthquakes. 29 ington and Augusta some observers noticed two or three shocks. A rumbling was heard at the former place. The reports of the direction of vibration are too contradictory to be briefly stated. No damage was done, but the shock was sufficiently strong “to cause a mirror to nod back and forth from the wall.” Nov. 2.—Advices of this date from San Francisco say: “A severe shock of earthquake is reported at Fort Yuma on the orado River.” Nov. 7.—A heavy shock in San Benito County, Cal., accom- panied by a harsh rumbling noise. The direction of vibration was from east to west. Nov. 8.—A shock at 4.40 a. M., felt at Leavenworth, Law- rence, Burlingame (direction S.W. to N.E.), and Manhattan, ansas. At the latter place the time was “about 5 A. M.,” the direction west to east and lasting a minute. Nov. 12.—A shock at 2 A. M. at Knoxville, Tenn., lasting ten seconds. The vibration was from west to east, and accom- panied by a rumbling noise. Nov. 14.—A shock at San Francisco and San Jose, Cal. (U.S. Sign. Serv.) Nov. 15.—A smart shock at 7.55 P. M. at San Francisco, Cal.; vibrations east and west. Nov. 27.—A shock at San Francisco, Cal. (U.S. Sign. Serv.) Dec. 1.—Two slight shocks at 4 and 6 A. M. at Keene, N. H. Dec. 8.—A heavy shock in the afternoon at Grass Valley, Cal., lasting ten seconds, vibrations north and south. Felt slightly at 3 Pp. M. at Carson City, Nev. Dec. 4.—The town of Abancay, Peru, was destroyed by an earthquake, “ between 4 P. M. of the 4th and 9 A. M. of the 5th, no less than thirty-seven shocks occurred, some of them very severe” This town is east of the Andes and some fifty miles from Cuzco. Dec. 8.—On the night of the 8th and 9th, an earthquake occurred in Porto Rico by which the town of Arecibo was almost entirely destroyed, “two churches and only six houses remaining.” Dec. 8.—On the same day as the preceding, hour not stated but spperennly about breakfast time, the bark Mora experienced an earthquake at sea in N. lat. 10° 7’, W. long. 42°. Dec. 9.—A slight shock at 3 A. M. at Nebraska City, Neb. Dec. 15.—A shock at 2.45 p.m. at Maricopa Wells, Arizona Terr. (U.S. Si say h : Dec. 21.—A shock at Santa Barbara, Cal. (U.S. Sign. Serv.) _Dec. 22.—An earthquake was felt about 11.45 P. M. in Vir- ginia. It was most severe at Richmond and vicinity, where three distinct shocks were noticed, lasting twenty or thirty 30 C. G. Rockwood—Recent American Earthquakes. seconds, and accompanied by a rumbling noise. The shocks 2 “were not sharp or sudden, but coming on rather slowly, swell- ing in force, and then quickly dying out.” The direction of the vibration was north and south, and it was sufficiently strong to knock down plastering, ete. It was felt toward the north as far as Washington and Baltimore, and toward the northwest at Staunton and Gordonsville, at which latter place the a hes : e a stated at 11.30, and the duration “fully three seconds.” U. 8. Signal Service reports: “Two shocks at 11.30 at Fortress Monroe, Va.; about 11.30 at New Market, Ind.; shock lasting twenty seconds at 11.45 at Greensboro, N. C.; ; two shocks saa east-southeast to north-northwest, the first lasting five or s seconds, the second not quite so heavy at. 11.40 ‘Wiashinebod time) at Alto Vista, Va.; two shocks from east to west, ‘first lasting ten or fifteen seconds, the second milder, at 11.33 at Petersburg, Va.; shock from northeast to southwest with rush- ing roaring noise at Weldon gn IES RT os Be tare LE Dec. 23.—A shock at night in 1 Placer, Nevada and Yuba ~ Counties, Cal. Dec. 24.—A shock in the evening at Grass Valley, Cal. (N. Y. Times.) 1876. Jan. 7.—Three shocks at the Island of St. Thomas, W. L., the morning, “the first at about four o'clock, the second “ about half past four, which was very severe, and the last three minutes later.” (Newark pa Advertiser. Jan. 7.—A shock at 2.20 Pp. m. at Warner and Contoocook- ville, N. H. Its apparent hues was from west to east and its duration two minutes. . Jan. 8.—A shock at 4.30 Pp. mM. at Lockport, N. Y. (U.S. Sign. Serv.) Jan. 15.—A severe shock at midnight at China, Me. Jan. a1 —A shock between 3 and 4 a. M. at San José, Santa Cruz and San Francisco, Cal. (U.S. Sign. Ser) Jan. 27.—Two shocks - Ascoineet Mich. (U. wads Jan. 29.—A shock at 9.05 Pp. mM. at a Ata. (U. 8. rv. feb. 7.—A shock in the City of Mexico. (U. 8S. Sign. oe) Feb. 27.—A shock at Detroit, Mich. March = —— slight shocks at 6 a. Mm. and 1 p. mw. at Oakland, Cal. (U.S. Sign. Serv.) April 10. —A shock was felt in a large portion of St. sie County, Md., attended by a rumbling sound. (N. Y. Times.) New Druamehic N. J., May 3, 1876. J. Blake—Roscoelite, a Vanadium Mica. 31 Art. [V.—On Roscoelite, a Vanadium Mie; by JAMES BLAKE, M.D., San Francisco, California. been principally deposited in fissures in the porphyry, and is usually found in layers from a tenth to half an inch thick, and seldom extending continuously for more than two or three h having been washed out from a single panfull; and while at the mine I saw $40 taken from a few handsfull. The gold is commonly found in the form of fine scales which have been deposited between the crystals of the mica. So generally is it diffused that it is impossible to find a piece of the mica as large as a bean that does not contain gold. The mine is worked b compound. When I first discovered the mineral, I expected to find a mica rich in chromium, and, on heating some of it ina test tube with HCl, I obtained a green solution. Finding that by continued boiling with acid the whole of the color was en- $2 F. A. Genth—American Vanadian Minerals. of the substance to the Microscopical Society and at the Acad- emy of Sciences of California in September, I made the gene- ral statement that it was a potash-mica, containing 23 per cent — chromic oxide and traces of lithia. It was not until I had sent a specimen of the mineral to Dr. Genth to analyze that the pres- ence in it of vanadium was discovered, and to him is due the entire credit of having first detected the true character of this interesting mineral. I have availed myself of the action of — nitrohydrochloric acid on the mineral to prepare a considerable quantity of vanadic compounds for physiological experiment, — as this affords about the easiest method of obtaining vanadic acid, although it is impossible thus to extract all the vanadium ~ m the mica. aii Art. V.—On some American Vanadium Minerals; by F. A. GENTH. 1. Roscoelite. I am indebted to Dr. James Blake of San Francisco, Cali- fornia, for a small quantity of the very interesting mineral, which he called “ Roscoelite,” in honor of Professor Roscoe, whose important investigations have put vanadium in its proper place among the elements. scoelite occurs in small seams, varying in thickness from a3 to ;; of an inch in a decomposed yellowish, brownish or greenish rock. These seams are made up of small micaceous es, sometimes } of an inch in length, mostly smaller and frequently arranged in stellate or fan-shaped groups. They show an eminent basal cleavage. Soft. The specific gravity een. _ Before the blowpipe it fuses easily to a black glass, color- ing the flame slightly pink. With salt of phosphorus gives a skeleton of silicic acid, a dark yellow ne in the oxidizing O slightly acted i a by acids, even by boiling concentrated ut readily decomposed by dilute sulphuric : nS tani te mass. The roscoelite, which I received for Investigation was so much mixed with other sub- F. A. Genth—American Vanadium Minerals. 83 able to repeat my analyses with better and purer specimens ; but I now give the results of my analyses because there is no — of getting any more of this mineral, as will be seen rom a letter of Dr. Blake, dated San Francisco, April 5th, 1876, in which he says, that the mine in which it occurs cannot be worked any farther until a tunnel has been run, and that it is quite uncertain when this will be done. Although by no means perfect, my results approach the truth and give a fair idea of the composition of the mineral, even if the evident admixture of other minerals, varying in the twelve per cent, does not permit one to calculate the atomic ratio of the constituents and establish the constitution of this i e is especially an uncertainty with reference to . species. ‘Ther I the quantities of silicic acid, alumina and potassa which belong only about six per cent of potassa, while fusion with calcic car- sibility of washing the precipitates completely without loss of vanadium. It was therefore always determined by the only method which I found to give fully reliable results—by titra- no matter whether only a very minute quantity of sulphuric is present, or a very large excess, the V,0, is completely 84 F. A. Genth—Amerrcan Vanadium Minerals. dium in the roscoelite, a quantity of the mineral was dissolved : in dilute sulphuric acid in a sealed tube at a temperature of _ about 180° C., and was titered after cooling; the liquid was then reduced by hydrosulphuric acid, and after boiling off the _ excess of the latter, it was again titered. From the quantity of | oxygen required for oxidation in both cases it was found that | vanadium in the mineral is present as V,O,, = 2 V,O,, V205- The determinations of the other elements were made by the usual methods. F uy a b ca cB a € 1 Insoluble silicates, quartz, gold, &c. == [0°85] _... 11°45 _... 8°91 [5°60] iO, = 47°39 47°82 4846 48°60 .... 46°81 Al,O, ss. 16010, 19805 1067 1296: 1608 FeO m=. IG2. 820.908 S25... be 800. (968 9. 15 ee CaO0 : == trace trace 0°20 0983 .... trace Na,O (trace Li,O) = 0°19 0°38 0.30 84) .. 0°60 K,O = 759 803 5:35 5-98 ¢ 5:96 8°89 V¥.0;, == 22°02 21°36 20:50 23°92 .... 20°16 Ignition = 496 S18 532 595 6°34 3°87 * 100°22 101°00 100°87 100-00 100°00 F.. A. Genth—American Vanadium Minerals. 85 A mineral, very similar in composition and perhaps a com- pact impure variety of roscoelite is found associated with the scales. It has the appearance of a massive dark green chlorite or that of some varieties of serpentine. The analysis was made by fusion, &c., and gave: SiO, = 46°09 Na,O = 0-18 Al,O, =1746 K.0 <= eee eO = 1°95 o,; =e MgO = ae Ignition = 6°37 100°42 2. Psittacinite, a new hydrous vanadate of lead and copper. In a paper on American Tellurium and Bismuth minerals, read before the American Philosophical Society at the meeting of August 21st, 1874 (Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., xiv, 223-281), I mention, on the authority of Mr. P. Knabe, a siskin-green ulverulent mineral from the “Iron Rod Mine,” Silver Star istrict, Montana, as a new “ Tellurate of lead and copper.” I had at that time no opportunity to examine into the merits of this mineral, having mislaid the small sample which he had sent me. On receiving a copy of my paper, Mr. Knabe fur- nished me with several specimens, which gave me a sufficient quantity of fair material for an analysis. A qualitative exam- mation proved it to be a hydrous vanadate of lead and copper and not a tellurate. When I communieated this result to Mr. Knabe he gave me an interesting account of how he fell into his error. At the Uncle Sam’s Lode, in Highland District, occurs with the tetradymite a siskin-green mineral, which has not yet been analyzed, but which appears to be a tellurate. It looks exactly like the pulverulent variety of the psittacinite from the Iron Mine. When Mr. K. 2 Sather the latter in hydrochloric acid, the evolution of chlorine indicated the presence of a higher oxide; the solution precipitated with an excess of ammonic sulphide gave sulphides of lead and copper and a filtrate which, on addition of an acid, gave a black precipitate—vanadic sul- phide—which he mistook for tellurous sulphide. : Psittacinite occurs in very thin cryptocrystalline coatings, sometimes showing a small mammillary or botryoidal structure, ¥so pulverulent; color siskin-green, sometimes af ‘int, to olive-green. Before the blowpipe it fuses easily to a black shining mass. With fluxes gives the reactions of vana- dium, lead and copper. Soluble in dilute nitric acid, the solu- Hon yielding on evaporation a deep red mass. _ 8 it was impossible to get any of the mineral in a pure state, I had to use coatings with quartz attached to them, some- ‘umes contaminated with a little limonite; but these admixtures 36 F. A. Genth—American Vanadium Minerals. could not influence the analysis farther than very slightly with — reference to the amount of water which it contains. : The following are my results: a 6b c d e PhO = 41°36 50°17 42°89 27°12 42°38 Cu0 = = 14:34 16°66 14°72 9°75 15°03 ¥,0, = ieee 19°05 15°87 9°96 15°77 H.O:. =: T2 not determined ---- 7°25 Si0, = 15:13 10°10 15°57 Al,0, Pr 1°29 3°83 Fe,0, = 2°72 7°60 2°19 48°84 4-00 MgO | not det ings CaO t : 0°15 The oxygen ratio of PbO: CuO: V,0,:H,O in the above analyses is in: a = 2°97 2°89 oat - 660 b = 3°60 3°36 8°34 ions c ro 3°08 2°97 dine ee d = 1°94 1°96 4°36 ;: ewe é = 3°04 3°03 6°00: 6°44 or @ = 1 0°97 ig =. 210 b = 1 0°93 2°31 noe c = 1 0°97 2°26 sese ad = 1 1°01 2°25 eras é = 1 1 Sad. tL 2 The average of the five analyses gives the ratio of 1 SOUS ya es 9 ~ ee ae corresponding to— 3 (3 PbO, V,0,) +(3 CuO, V,0,)+ 6 (CuO, H,O) +12 H,0. giving the following percentage: PbO = eis CuO = 18°95 ¥,0l = ‘1942 H,O = 8°58 100-00 inite” from psittacinus, siskin- W. @. Farlow—Disease of Olive and Orange Trees. 87 Art. VI.—On a Disease of Olive and Orange Trees, oceurri: in California in the Spring and Summer of 1875; by W. G. Fartow, Assistant Professor of Botany in Harvard Univer- sity.* With Plate III. DurinG the past summer, numerous complaints have come from southern Galifornia of a fungus which had attacked the olive and orange trees, and which was causing a considerable loss of those two crops. Our attention was first called to the subject by Dr. H. W. Harkness, who, in a letter from San Fran- cisco dated May 11, sent a specimen of the fungus on an orange- leaf from southern California. Of the extent of the ravages of lemon and orange trees. A small fungus appears on the leaves, twigs, and branches, at first visible only with a microscope, and of a green color. As it increases in size it turns brown, and then black. The olive is so exhausted that it is unable to fruit. The orange and lemon stand it better, but their fruit is so infe- rior as to be practically worthless.” On the day of the receipt of Dr. Thurber’s letter, another was received from Professor Dana, also enclosing specimens from Santa Barbara. From the general tenor of letters from California, it is evident that, if this is not the first year of the appearance of the disease, it is, at least, the first in which it has attracted general atten- * Copied from the Bulletin of the Bussy Institution. + We are in receipt of a letter eas ee Cleveland, dated early in es rope in which he sends specimens of the fungus on orange-leaves, which, at that ti at San Diego. 88 =o W..«G.« Farlow—Disease of Olive and Orange Trees. the disease are somewhat curled and shrivelled, and are of a browner color than normal leaves which have been gathered ; but a few weeks. On both surfaces of specimens sent us are — black spots of greater or less extent, but in no case is the leaf perfectly black. On the upper surface the black spots are more : numerous, more distinct in outline, and harder in substance, than on the lower, where they were more diffuse and of a pow- dery consistence. The — of which we received only small — specimens, are covered wit The haustoria as in the case of some of the leaf parasites belonging y do not enter into the cells of the olive, and there are nO — 4 W. G. Farlow—Disease of Olive and Orange Trees. 39 to the Hrysiphei. Occasionally there are little knob-like pro- jections of the cells which seem to indicate haustoria; but, by the most careful examination which we have been able to make, we have not been able to see that they enter into the cells of the stellate hairs or epidermis and act like haustoria. The sur- face of the hairs and epidermis, however, seems covered with a sticky substance (of which we shall have more to say hereafter), to which the hyphe closely adhere. Plate 3, Fig. 2, shows one of the stellate hairs seen from below, with a portion of the mycelium growing upon it. Various modifications of the mycelium are found principally on that portion growing on the outer part of the stellate hairs exposed to the air. After reaching a certain mee of develop- ment, they grow together in such a way that the hyphae coming together laterally form a sort of membrane, as shown in Plate 8, ig. 1,d. This membrane is composed of only one thickness of cells, but is very uneven as it follows and conforms to the inequalities of the hairs. Its general direction is parallel to the surface of the leaf or stem on which it is found. , Voniwa.—The hyphe, at their free ends, branch in all direc- tions, and bear reproductive bodies of several kinds. The sim- plest form is that shown in Plate 8, Fig. 3, d, where the ordinary cells of the mycelium divide by cross partitions into two parts, which do not respectively grow to the same shape as the mother cell, but remain together two by two, as shown in the figure; the hypha becoming zigzag by the alternate lateral displace- ment of the pairs of cells, which finally drop off and readily germinate, each cell producing a germinal tube. In other parts the mycelium, the terminal cell of certain threads divides by means of partitions, parallel to and at right angles to the axis of the filament, until a compound body is formed, which resem- bles the spores of the so-called genus Macrosporium. These bodies, which can only be described as irregular conglomera- tons of cells of an outa) Onli are produced in great abundance and average 015 mm. by ‘025 mm., but' are often much larger, though often smaller. They easily drop from their attachments and germinate, each cell being capable of producing a germinal tube. Other hyphe, rising at right angles to the plane of the membranous portion of the mycelium, grow more and more attenuated, and branch at the tip; the terminal cells divide in two, as in Plate 8, Fig. 8, ¢, fall from their attachment, and germinate. This last modification of the ee which is by no means so common as the two previously described, will be recognized as corresponding to the so-called genus Helminthos- cells have dvidaa. It is out of the question to give specific names to such forms as those just described, which, since the 40 W. G. Farlow—Disease of Olive and Orange Trees. publication of Tulasne’s “ Carpologia Fungorum,” are known . to be different states of development of species of Pyrenomy- “ cetes. a Pycnidia.—Besides the forms already described, there are % other bodies of a more complicated nature. Plate 3, Fig. 8, 4,4, — represents the pycnidia, which are quite numerous in the spots, — both on the leaves and the stems. Their general shape is sphe- — roidal. They consist of a membranous sac of the same color as _ the darker parts of the mycelium, in which are contained the small bodies, which are represented as being discharged in Fig. is 3,5. Their average diameter is 04 mm. In general appear- ance, the pycnidia resemble so closely those with which every one is familiar in other Pyrenomycetes, that any further deserip- A tion is unnecessary. 2 Stylospores.—In examining the larger black spots on the — stems of the olive, other bodies are seen,—the stylospores, to adopt Tulasne’s nomenclature. They are represented in Fig. 1, a, and we pends by being less inclined to a spherical shape. The eig 4 : e mm. ‘I'he wall of the flasks is composed of dark-colored cells, ; an the base generally sends up branches around the flask, it is only by a careful dissection that the base can be clearly seen. At first, the mouth is closed, and there is a depression of the cells at the center ; but, later, they spring back so as to form, round the open mouth, a circle of shghtly reflexed teeth, whose tips are perfectly hyaline. The neck of the flask is hollow: but, in the swollen portion, spores are borne. They are oval, and divided W. G. Farlow—Disease of Olive and Orange Trees. 41 into four parts by cross partitions. They are not contained in asci, but are attached to short filaments which line the surface of the base and lower portion of the sides of the flask. They escape readily through the open mouth ; and slight pressure on the covering-glass generally causes a fresh discharge. So far, we have spoken of the fungus as seen on the olive. The orange-leaves sent us are also covered with a black sub- stance, which is not so much in spots as in powdery sheets upon both surfaces of the leaves, more particularly the upper. e attachment to the leaf is by no means as strong as in the olive; and the deposit can easily be scraped off, even without previous moistening. In fact, in some places it falls off on the slightest © specimens of diseased orange-stems were received for examination. A microscopic examination shows why the deposit was more easily removed from the orange than the olive eaves. The smooth surface of the former gives no permanent attachment to the fungus, which, as we have before said, does not penetrate into the interior of the cells of the mother plant; while, on the other hand, the hyphw wind themselves tightly around the stalks of the stellate hairs of the olive, from which they cannot be removed. If the fungus should attack both oranges and olives, it is very evident why the latter would suffer much more than the former. Apart from the absence of hairs, which invariably constitute a large proportion of the scrapings of the olive-leaves, that from the orange-leaves is precisely iden- tical—the same moniliform hypha, bearing Macrosporium and Helminthosporium spore-like bodies, the same pycnidia and sty- lospores. Micrometric measurements only confirm the identity. On the orange-leaves sent me, there is a greater proportion of pycnidia, and a smaller proportion of stylospores, than in case of the olive-leaves; but that is, of course, an accidental difference, as the olive-leaves themselves vary. On the orange, the propor- tion of Helminthosporium-like spores is much greater than on the olive; but, from the facility with which the so-called second- ary forms of fruit are produced in fungi, and their great varia- bility, that it is not a fact of any importance; and we can in the a decided manner affirm that the fungus is the same on both plant The first account of a fungus growing es orange-trees, re- : ; ws quz sspe tota induit.” ter, Turpin published an account, with a figure, of a species which he also called Fumago Citri, which ontagne made the type of a new genus, Capnodium, 42 = W. G. Farlow—Disease of Olive and Orange Trees. ublished in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 3 série, tome | , 1840. Montagne seems to have had doubts as to the identity — of the Fumago Citri of Persoon with that of Turpin. Almost — simultaneously with the publication by Montagne of his genus Capnodium, Berkeley and Desmaziéres published, in the Jour- | nal of the Horticultural Society of London, vol. iv, p. 252, an article “On some Moulds referred by Authors to Fumago.” In | this communication, there is the following description of the — orange fungus briefly referred to by Persoon and Montagne: — “Capnodium Citri, Berk. and Desm. Sparsum, setosum; peri- — diis elongatis; mycelio ramoso moniliformi pulcherrime reticu- lato; sporidiis oblongis minutis. Fumago Citri, Pers., Myc. Hur, vol. i, p. 10; Turpin, 1. ¢. On leaves of different species of — itrus. France: Persoon, Léveillé.” a Of fungi occurring on olive trees, we have an early account — by Montagne in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 3 série, | The fungus from California is evidently the same as that which — has been known in Europe since 1829. We have examined — two authentic specimens fg sowie eleophila Mont.,—one from the Duby Herbarium, the other from that of De Notaris, and the structure is precisely that of the pyenidial-bearing pot tion of the California fungus. The stylospore-bearin portion — of our fungus is the Capnodium Citri of Berkeley and Desmazi- — éres, to which they refer the Fumago Citri of Persoon and Tur — pin. Montagne had observed only the pyenidial form—his — W. G. Farlow—Disease of Olive and Orange Trees. 48 We have not been able to find any recorded instance of asci having been found in Capnodium Cite Tulasne remarks,— uite pertinently, as it seems to us,—that, until better known, apnodium Citri and Antennaria eleophila can scarcely be con- sidered distinct from Fumago salicina.* The specimens from California certainly seem to strengthen Tulasne’s suspicions; and we must confess ourselves quite unable to distinguish be- tween Fumago salicina—found on willows, oaks, birches, haw- thorn, quince, and pear—and Capnodium Citri, found on oranges, and, as the Californian specimens show, also on olives. If it be said that no asci have been seen by us, that is no reason why the fungus should be removed from Fumago salicina, which, in the conformation of its mycelium, its conidia, eam and stylo- spores, it most closely resembles. Evidently, in the group of fungi which we are considering, too much stress must not be laid on the length and shape of the stylospores. We see, in the specimens before us, how great is the variation in what is un- doubtedly a single species. Neither is the fact of the branch- ing of the stylospores very significant, as, in the present case, there are both simple and ‘Sianalaitg stylospores, If the reader will compare our Plate 3, Fig. 1, with that of Fumago salicina, by Tulasne, “Carp. Fung.,” Plate XXXIV, Figs. 14 and 20,— leaving out of sight, as far as possible, the different artistic merits of the two,—we think he will admit that, in all essential partic- ulars, they are alike. In reality, the resemblance is even greater than the limited size of our drawing would indicate. We have said that we found no asci; but Plate 1, Fig. 1, c, would seem to be the early stage figured by Tulasne, | ¢. Fig. 20. The asci will probably be found in California; and we do not doubt that they and their contained spores will prove to be like those of Fumago salicina. : If we seem to the reader to have gone too minutely into the consideration of the systematic position of the fungus, it was for the purpose of bringing out more forcibly the fact that it is noth- ing new, or peculiar to California; and that it is not even limited to orange, lemon, and olive trees, but, as we have seen, is found on a number of other ‘trees. How does it happen, then, that a fungus so widely diffused should sudden! a gtr to such an extent as to injure two important‘crops? We remarked, in pas- po hae the hyphz seemed to be, as it were, ome to the te hairs, and, in some cases, to one another, by a sticky sub- Stance. We do not forget, that, when any mycelium is grow- mg on a leaf, a certain amount of dirt—including, of course, Some oily matter—is sure to be entangled in its meshes. In the * “Donec melius tur, a Fumagine descripta egre discriminantur, nisi sede ibi singulis is assueta, tum Fiwmago Citri, Persoonio seu Capnodium, Oiiri Montanio; tum etiam Antennaria Montanio,” £0. (Sel- ecta Fungorum Carpologta, pp. 283, 284.) 44 W. G. Farlow—Disease of Olive and Orange Trees. leaves and stems is in many places covered with a gummy de- posit, presumably of insect, certainly not of fungus, origi yet it is evident that it has reached such places oy growing oe er than that it must confess that the expression “ matricique vive instar gummi — soluti illitus heret,” seems a little indetinite, but the figure looks — magines in fructicibus potissimum pro — Venire quos aphides primum occupassent, tamquam si ex humore dulci quem bes tiole iste: emittunt, aut ex latice viscido q trix ab iis 1 pi liquando illat, suum eae traherent; necessitates autem hujus modi duplici de caus# minime verisimiles censemus. Hine enim sexcenties nobis contigit Fumagine ! idere in arboribus, omnis aphidum generis ibus ; iline Soc. Hortic. Londinensium, nec non mentatiu: i (pp. 1-6) editam cirea the Coffeo-bug and mildew. (Carp. Fung,, ii, p. 280.) W.G. Farlow— Disease of Olive and Orange Trees. 45 exceedingly like a collection of oil-globules, or very small eggs. e do not pretend to say that what Tulasne saw was nota membrane of vegetable substance,—a part of the fungus itself ; but, in the Californian specimens, we had something which looked very much like the mm. of Tulasne’s figure, and, in this case, we have satisfied ourselves, by observation and experiment, that it is of animal nature, and not a part of the fungus, which, instead, was growing upon it. It is a little difficult to under- stand, from what is already known of the developement of fungi, ow any fungus could begin as a very thin membrane, compos of small cells filled with oil. The initial stage of fungi, if we except the Myxomycetes, as far as we know, is filamentous, not membranous. The result of our examination of the diseased orange and olive leaves is briefly as follows: The disease, although first attract- ing the eye by the presence of a black fungus, is not caused b it, but rather by the attack of some insect, which itself deposits some gummy substance on the leaves and bark, or so wounds the tree as to cause some sticky exudation, on which the fungus especially thrives. It.is not denied that the growth of the fun- gus greatly aggravates the trouble already existing, by so encas- ing the leaves as to prevent the action of the sunlight; we only say, that, in seeking a remedy, we are to look further back than the fungus itself,—to the insect, or whatever it may be, which has made the luxuriant growth of the fungus ible. With regard to the fungus, we are able to assert that it is the same on both olives and oranges,—the species described by Berkeley and aziéres under the name of Capnodium Citri, which seems to us, together with the pycnidial state described by Montagne under the name of Antennaria elwophila, to be but two states of & species identical with that described by Tulasne as Fumago salcina. It remains yet to find tbe asci on olives or oranges which will probably be accomplished without difficulty in Cali- fornia. The earliest stages of the fungus should be studied by Some one living near orange groves; for, although the disease been known to attack greenhouse plants, it is not very com- mon, or, in that case, so favorable for study. specially is it to be desired that careful notes of the extent and manner of se ance of the disease, and the climatic and hygrometric conditions attending it, should be carefully recorded. : As a remedy, alkaline soaps, as strong as the trees will bear, Will no doubt prove advantageous in ease of the oranges; but, in the case of the olives, much less good is to be ex Owing to the nce of the stellate hairs on leaves and twi ith this, our notice of the disease from a botanical stand-point ends; and we commend the subject to the attention of entomo- logists, 46 H. P. Armsby— Reaction of Sulphuric Acid Art. VIL—On the Reaction of Sulphuric Acid upon Tri-caleie Phosphate; by H. P. Anmssy. a THE following experiments were undertaken to ascertain the influence of temperature and time on the reaction between one : molecule of sulphuric acid and one of tri-calcic phosphate. __ he materials employed were precipitated tri-calcic phos phate and a solution of sulphuric py i : 0°8784 grms. H,SO,. . The tri-calcic phosphate was prepared by precipitation from — an ammoniacal solution of calcium chloride by di-sodic phos- — phate, the precipitate being washed with cold water. An anal a ysis gave :— | containing in 1 ¢.¢, | Re Cine sre oie 53°82 8 Aaa s ye not determined, Although washed by decantation till the washings gave 10 : precipitate with silver nitrate the substance still contained : traces of soluble phosphoric acid, probably as phosphate of soda. | e experiments were conducted as ie; sath a weighed quan- tity (generally about five grms.) of tri-calcic phosphate was mixed | a re eee 33°73 per cent. - (73 “ tam : by rubbing in a mortar with the equivalent quantity of sulphu- ric acid, and treated as follows :— a I. Stood 23 hours at 100° C. “ “ce sc “ 4 we 34 oe ae “ ordinary per — IV. * heer. & S « Vv. “ 5 minutes at “ = i The mixture was then washed with cold water till the wash- ings ceased to show an acid reaction, the filtrate diluted to 500° acid, the excess ‘of the latter over that required to form tri-calci¢ phosphate being considered to exist as the only other insolubl upon Tri-calcie Phosphate. 47 os ie IE Iii. IV. Vv. Ca3(PO,). |10°000 grms.|10-000 grms.|10°000 grms.|10°000 grms. |10-000 grms. H,S0, o143.. * 3-748 Ht 3°209. * 3209 = 3°2 FOUND, soluble. CaSO, 2°124 grms,| 2°459 grms.} 2°960 “ | 1140 grms, CaH,(PO,), st eas FOTT 1334 *Sn01* 3°562 grms. H;P0, 209." 25. = i eee 448 * Insoluble. 2°168 s.| 2°784 grms.| 1°504 grms.| 3466 “ CaHPO, 6°467 ne C2208 5°415 5°493 Ca;(PO,)2 | 1065 “ | -g03 “ | 1899 “ | 1-947 « It will be seen that the amount of di-calcic phosphate increases and that of mono-calcic phosphate decreases the longer the mixture stands and the higher the temperature to which it is exposed. The following table shows the decrease of mono-calcic phos- phate still more clearly. If the reaction take place according to the equation Ca,(PO,),+2H,SO,=CaH,(PO,).4+2CaS0, one molecule of sulphuric acid should render soluble one mole- cule, or its own weight, of phosphoric acid. The fourth line of the table gives the per cent of this theoretical quantity which was actually found. LG Il. i. LY: % Applied, Ca;(PO,), |2°784 grms.'2°972 grms./4°377 grms.|4°377 grms. |4°377 grms. woe? eal Os) Geer grm grm ae 2 204 Ps: ia0e:: & 2 2405) “ Found H;P0, “420 5b5 tt 507 20 «61-305 82 “i & of theoret. H,PO,| 32:24 371% 395% 361% 92°3 % _ 4n order to be sure that these differences were not due to incomplete washing a second set of experiments was made with Smaler quantities. The tri-calcic phosphate was mixed with thin paste, the sulphuric acid added, the mixture Well stirred, and treated as follows :— I. Stood 3 hours at 100° C. IL “« “ « ordinary temperature. IIL T3 4 hour “ 73 (73 IV. “ 65 minutes at “ ss It was then filtered on the pump, washed with cold water till the washings showed only a very faint reaction for phosphoric acid with magnesia mixture, the filtrate diluted to 500 cc. and eth — the phosphoric acid determined by the molybdic 48 M. C. Lea—Dr. Vogel's Color Theory. a L I. Il. IV. 3 Applied, Ca;(PO 1-751 grms. | 1-751 grms. | 1-751 grms. | 1-751 grms_— a HNO, ae agge | agg ee | -agge | 43g Found, H,PO, 172“ | 200 & 209 “ | -415 ¢ of the theoretical H,PO, | 39-2 ¢ 45°6 % avrg | 9478 To ascertain the extent of error from incomplete washing the insoluble portion of I. was further washed with about 250 CC. of cold water and the phosphoric acid in the filtrate determined. Its amount was 0:018 grms. a part of which was doubtless due to di-calcie phosphate which is slightly soluble in water, though not sufficiently so to introduce any material error into the experiments. : From the above results it appears that the reaction betwee) — sulphuric acid and tri-calcic phosphate, when the two are present in the proportion of one molecule of each, passes through two sta; es, ; : ist. The sulphuric acid reacts on half the tri-calcic phosphate, producing mono-calcic phosphate. Whether free phosphoric acid is at first produced cannot be determined from these expert ments, but if it is, it must quickly disappear. : 2d. The mono-calcic phosphate thus produced reacts more slowly on the other half of the tri-calcic phosphate in the mat ner described by Piccard (Zeitschr. fiir Chemie, ix, 545), pre ducing di-calcic phosphate, : CaH, (PO,),+Ca,(PO,),—4CaHPO,. A high temperature appears to favor the reaction. Chemi: ry of the University of Leipzig, March, 1876. Arr. VIIL—Dr. Vogel’s Color Theory; by M. Carzy Lea, — Philadelphia. M. C. Lea—Dr. Vogel's Color Theory. 49 nied by proof that some of these colorless substances showed a power of absorbing the rays to which they increased the sensi- tiveness of silver bromide. No such proof wasgiven. Although scarcely called upon to prove a negative, yet desiring to leave no side of this question unexamined, I have recently subjected to careful spectroscopic examination those colorless substances which I have described as distinctly increasing the sensitive- was first filled with water and interposed, then the argand burners used were moved to such distances as to make the two spectra exactly equal in intensity. In the examination, the size of the slit was varied from that which barely gave a visible spectrum, up to such as gave a powerful illumixation, and the comparison was made with all intensities, though of course the faint illuminations gave the most critical tests. e substances examined were potassic arsenite, codeia, salicine and morphia acetate. All of these substances, as I have elsewhere shown, exhibit a marked power of increasing the sensitiveness of silver bromide to the green rays. _ No elective absorption could be detected in any of them. It is therefore certain that their capacity to increase the action of the green ray is independent of any power to absorb that ray. Certainly if a law such as enunciated by Dr. Vogel existed, there ought to be found, without difficulty, very many sub- Stances which would exemplify it. On the contrary Dr. Vogel named very few cases in which he has recorded results con- forming to his hypothesis. Indeed his hypothesis has seem to rest chiefly upon three substances, coralline, chlorophyll, and naphthaline red. T have very carefully examined the action of all three of the substances with the ehowing results: ig ralline, as 1 have before said, enhances the sensitiveness more to the color which it chiefly transmits, red, than to those Which it absorbs. Moreover its power of increasing sensitive- hess (at least as far as the green rays are concern 2 may the con : Am. Jour, a Serres, Vou. XII, No. 67.—JuLy, 1876. 50 Scientific Intelligence. : Chlorophyll is perhaps the only substance that corresponds to some extent in its action with the demand of the theory. — certain that this substance unless it is used in very tion, allows the yellow rays to pass freely, stopping only the | SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. : I. CHEMISTRY AND Puysics. : 1. On the true Ethyl Sulphate-—By acting on ethyl sleohol Te wok a sulphuric acid, Wetherill obtained a neutral body which has been regarded since that time as the true sulphur ether, SO, | Salat: Later Baumstark obtained a substance My. 2 acting on alcohol by sulphuric oxychloride, which he sup eo identical with Wetherill’s ether, but which Max Miller regardel a8 an isomer of it, ethyl oxyethansulphonate, C,H, } $0,00.Hy Mazurowska has prepared anew this latter compound, and om examined it more thoroughly. It appears as a yellowish, odor: neutral liquid, of syrupy consistence and having a sp. gt. of } Fs It dissolves readily in water, decomposing and becoming Tis eated above 100° it carbonizes, Analysis gave it the formu" Chemistry and Physics. 51 series. Wetherill’s ether, however, is markedly different i: its properties. It is an oily, colorless liquid, with an odor like pep- permint, of sp. gr. 1°12, and which can be distilled, oily drops passing over at 110° to 120°. To ascertain which of these bodies was the true ether, the ethers themselves as well as the acids derived from them, were treated with potassium sulphydrate. In this way, Baumstark’s body was proved to be the true ethyl sul- phate, retherill’s being its isomer as above. Similar ethers were obtained with = srt nitro-phenol and thymol.—J/. pr. Ch., U, xiii, 158, March, 1 G. F. B. 2. Anth chitaels and Isoanthraflavic acids,—Scuunk and Roemer have detected in crude artificial alizarin a new acid, sere a sintatiols of water. The salts of the new acid were pre- hee and analyzed, and compared with those of anthraflavic acid. ese as well as the substitution derivatives showed marked dif- ferences between the two bodies. Both, it should be remembered, rot isomeric with alizarin.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges. ix, i, March, 876. 3. On Sulphonaphthalide—Cuxve has examined the substance obtained by Berzelius in 1837 by the action of sulphuric acid on naphthalene, and which he called sulphonaphthalide. C vecallisid from absolute alcohol, it appears in perfectly white needles, often some centimeters long. it melts at 175°5°, is insoluble in water, ultly so in alcohol and ether, very soluble in benzene. Analysis gives it the formula C,,H,,SO,, or 80, {6 ah oO Heated with = horic chloride and with ammonia, it yields ¢ hich ether extracts a solid body tons nae: a Cl, leaving behind the amide of 6-naphthylsulphurous ai ‘che clio being C, gH,S0,CL—Buld. Soe, Uh UI, xxv, 256, March, 1 oni G. F. Evolution of pe fe by the action of Zine upon newtrat e.—For the preparation of 4 considerable quantity of finely divided covet by ‘Schif's method, Lorman Meyer heated to 60° C. a mixture ve copper sulphate crystals, metallic zine and water, re wer a rapid evolution of pure hydrogen 4 fact noted in 1840 by Leykauf. Further experiments ts showed that the nt at iy of hydrogen takes place at Sdleary tempera- i 52 Scientific Intelligence. tures, but is very slow, continuing for months. The resulting — solution contains only normal zine sulphate, no basic salt being — present. A dark gray powder is deposited, however, which com — filled with fragments of glass. The capsule is placed in a sand 0° to 200°; the sublimed salt attaches It self in brilliant crystals to the sides of the capsule and the pee ; cover, a portion also passing through and covering the glass. 5 composition was verified by analysis. That this is not a dissocl& — tion into ammonia and nitric acid is shown by the fact that the paper is not attacked.— C. R., Ixxxii, 932, April, 1876. GF. Bo 6. Additional facts concerning Gallium.——Bo1sBAUDRAN, the grams of the crude material. Unlike the specimen first made _ and which was solid owing to impurities, the author finds pute — gallium to be essentially a liquid metal, since it melts at 29°55 and is therefore easily liquefied between the fingers, It exhibits markedly the phenomenon of surfusion, a globule remaining — to zero, though easily cut and somewhat malleable. When melted it adheres strongly to glass forming a whiter mirror than mercury: Heated to redness in the air, it oxidizes only superficially and does not volatilize. It isnot sensibly attacked by cold nitric acid. Its : density is 4°7 at 15°. Deposited on platinum by electrolysis from — solution in ammonium or potassium hydrate, it presents a grayish ; white mat surface, formed of minute globules. Cold dilute hydro chloric acid dissolves it, disengaging hydrogen; but the residue — obtained by evaporating this solution, is not colored by potassiu® — ] q Chemistry and Physics. 58 ampere ammonia, or ammonium sulphydrate.—C. Z., war 1036, ay, 1876. B. OMe Metalic Cer ee Lanthanum, and Didymium. oe, roe E- BRAND and Norron, in Bunsen’s laboratory, have obtained, by the electrolysis of the cerium, lanthanum and didymium chlorides, the metals in quantities sufficient for careful investigation. As proof of the puri ity. of the mag inane emp! (Doge. ee refer to the Its kindling thinparatiixe is air oxygen is much lower than magnesium. Pieces scratched off inflame, and the wire ignited in a flame burns more brilliantly than magnesium wire. It Seria ‘hes heated in chlorine, less readily in bromine vapor, and without incandescence in iodine vapor. Water at common peratures is ae decomposed by it; cold concentrated sul- phuric acid and cold red fuming nitric acid do not attack it, but these acids pr “aitibe, and also hydrochloric acid, dissolve it. Metallic hty reer is much like cerium in its gen neral chemical deportm t, but by concentrated nitric acid it is easil attacked. nent in air, and even in dry air its color soon diiiges to a steel blue, — The by Siac gravity of a piece deposited by meg 29 Its miclting point appears hea ear that of cerium, hey pra indling te emperature is hi shoe Small pieces from filing or strik- ing on flint do not be Sots ante rag in the air, but burn bril- liantly in the flam Their analysis shows less than one per cent Impurity in oe 8 imen ‘. Metallic’ didymium is more like lanthanum than cerium; it not less pce ductile or permanent in air than lanthanum, nad has about the same hardness ; its color is not as white, and moist air turns it ‘yellow. Fine particles of the metal do not ignite Te a oon in the air, but burn when heated in a lamp fusion has a a specific gravity of 6-544. —Pogg. Ann. a a wee 8. On Gentisin—Huastwetz and Hanermann have pebtiohed & Second paper on Gentisin, a crystallized non-nitrogenous body from gentian root (Gentiana lutea). In their a Paper they showed that under the a apeen om a ie. nese lits up into phloroglucin C,H,O, rmula & H,0,, to sales the gave the name "geste acid, 54 Scientific Intelligence. Under the action of heat, this latter body loses carbon dioxide and yields a neutral body of the composition C,H,O,, provision the authors give to gentisin the rational formula | C 3 C,H, OS i | O~ and suppose that it is formed from an isomer of pipe : ronal united to phloroglucin, thus: CoH, | OF OH C C,H, Oy On 0 = do wat 3 + c4tt, } Off ~H,0= sa CoH Seb C,H, | OH (tau, #2 FO2+(H2O)a=(CpHT 605). 4(C111,04),+ Cg Oe 9. On me BurLErow has examined the milky juice of Cynanchum acutum, » : : ; from the amide of any acid in this way. 9G c Feies anekaunide 3 Soe ean ite oe Staub) Chemistry and Physics. 55 NH NHC,H NHC,H vr 2 A 2°" 6 or errs CHLCK CH, CK CH,CY we have Acetamide. Acetethylamide. Acetanilide pe sf NHC,H NHC,H CH,Cr CHOK eg Ss eae ite NH N 28 6°" 5 Acediamine Ethenyl-diethylamimide. Ethenyldiphenylamimide. (the amidine of acetamide). In the same way, guanidine is the amidine of carbamide or urea. Under the influence of water the acid amides are regenerated. BERNTHSEN has examined several new bodies of this class, phenyl- acetamimide C,H, —CH, — CO ' its mono-phenyl and mono- NH tolyl derivatives, benzenyl-monophenyl-amimide, ve 2 C,H,—-C ‘ N\NC,H, and the diphenyl, mono- and di-tolyl derivatives.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., viii, 1575; ix, 429, March, 1876. G. F. B. 1}. On Fermentation ; by P. ScuttzenspEerGeER. [International Scientific Series. D, Appleton & Co., New York.|—This volume, although rather too technical for the general reader, gives to the student in a convenient form a résumé of the early and of the most € most serious error is, perhaps, the translation of “ matieres hydrocarbonées” by “hydrocarbons.” On page 65 and following, and throughout the book sugar, cellulose and starch are spoken of as “hydrocarbons!” A mistake scarcely less serious occurs in the description of Schiitzenberger’s process for determining dis- solved oxygen (pages 108 and following). Here Schiitzenberger’s “hydrosulphurous acid” and “ hydrosulphite” are rendered, very properly, “hyposulphurous” and “ hyposulphite,” but no note or comment (except the symbol) tells us that the sodium hyposul- phite thus indicated is not the common “ hyposulphite of soda which still in the arts and indeed generally bears the old name. On other pages hyposulphite is used in its former sense (instead of “thiosulphate” or other name). It would therefore seem that the mistake arose from ignorance or carelessness on the part of the translator. : Among other less important blunders it may be said that poudre de zine” is not “powdered zine” but zinc dust (zine- ; Sterry Hunt regarded the albuminoids as “nitriles” not 56 Scientific Intelligence. as “nitrites” (and as this mistake oceurs in several places it can hardly be a printer’s error) ; “ éant ramenée” (page ili) should be — rendered “reduced” and not “ “brought back,” as it is a question — der “ invertie.? « eh ” ete. by “ alter ” “altered,” etc., instead of the much more familiar “i invert, 1c inverted,” ete. It is prob ably also to the aie of the translator that we owe the terms bs potass, kd a hydrat ation,” “ dishydratation, ” “magnesium subear bee and “ marine salt.” We may pass over various misprints, mentioning one on ly, by which a paragraph headed in the original “ Gaz Lumiere” ap pears with the heading “ Gas-light” to the confusion of the reader. — We may, however, criticize the constant use of the French words, — with accents, to indicate the weights and measures of the metric — system, and also the giving in every case the equivalent in Eng: lish weights and measures (often to the third place of decimals) even where an approximate or relative number is mentioned. As a single instance, we read on page 111, “about 1 cub. centimétre — of oxygen (061 cub. in.) for each 10 "oud, cent. (-61 cub. in.) of the solution. It is most oe to be hoped that the promised volumes of urtz, H. SteClaire Deville, and Berthelot will not suffer such berger. As far as the reader is concerned, it is at — pres procure the works in the oni al tongues; and thus one th ks of the International Series fails to be fulfilled. .N. iquid Films.—Dr. Sonpuavss has extended the obser _ different liquids may be com in this t. = uss prefers the circular wi nd compares vi to size) the films of forty-six different liquids. One film = d ion, to which a little glycerine had a wor over oy a of mer aiaees S xiv, 37. 8 a center, the ratio of whose radii is the index of refraction. If the incident oy is a to meet the inner circle, and through the point of intersection a vertical line be drawn, the line drawn from Chemistry and Physics. 57 remain vertical. By this means the two rods always represent respectively the incident and refracted rays, and the index of matic and sph aberrations are corrected by a central lens of dense glass s lens is nearly three times as thick as the crown- glass lenses. The or curves a emispheres, ‘The by reflection from the surface of the deep curves e platyscopic lens is made of three powers magnifying respectively 15, 20 an 30 diameters. It possesses the convenien oddington lie . P. 15. New Hlectro-Magnet.—M. V. Sexrrin calls attention to the difficult experienced with powerful electric lights from the heat- ing of the magnets in their regulators. The effect of this is to burn the insulating material and destroy the effect of the magnet by — vireuiting it. This difficulty is avoided by a metallic helix easily taken to pieces. tibly to the touch with even a powerful . ’ may be heated to redness without undergo- mg sensible change or losing its efficiency. Some further im- provements have been introduced into the lator so that the luminous point may be moved without extinguishing it, a mat- ~ 58 Scientific Intelligence. ter of great importance in light-houses. In the model the car- bons are 15mms. on a side and yet notwithstanding their large size the sensibility of the apparatus is so great that a small rin of rubber placed between the two carbons is capable of arresting the motion without undergoing a sensible change in form.— Comp- tes Rendus, \xxxii, 1054. B® 16. Electro-magnetic Rotations.—Mr. W. Sporriswoope in 4 nomenon known as the rotating spark. A powerful magnet being The discharge, as is well known, consists of two parts, the spark proper and a bright cloud or flame surrounding it which tile chlorides to flow across the field of action. The following . Supposing the magnetic fie during the greater again as the discharge fall, € axis. nerating line. The appearance of the discharge when viewed in a revolving mirror confirms the above remarks.— Nature, xiii, 698, E. © P. Geology and Mineralogy. 59 IJ. GeoLtocy AND MINERALOGY. 1. Recent Discoveries of Fietinet Animals by pollen a Marsh. logical jamsaaebas in the Roe ocky Mountain region. His explora- tions, which were attended with much hacia ip and danger, have been mainly confined to the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations, and especially to their vertebrate fauna. During the past six years, the expeditions u under his charge have brought to light more than 300 species of fossil vertebrates new to science, about 200 of which he has already described. Among the extinct animals thus discovered, mee many new groups, representing forms of life hitherto unknown. The most interestin ng of these are the Cretaceous Odontoracthes or Birds with teet h, which constitute a new sub-class, containing two dis- tinct orders, viz: the Odontolew, which have the teeth in grooves, and the Odontotorme, with teeth in distinct sockets. The form a new order, Pteranodontia, from the typical genus Pter- anodon, six species of which are now known. With these fossils were found large numbers of Mosasauroid reptiles, and Temains of more inte & 500 different seca cage were coheed ture of = reptiles, and to acuiinn that they possessed hind paddles, an re covered, in part at least, with bony dermal scutes. Man ates ms Renities: and Fishes were found in the same Cretaceous strat € discoveries of oe Marsh and party in the Tertiary of West were of no less importance. e most interesting a he t e t mountains, and the Wahsatch Range. These basins were ex- P by Professor Marsh in 1870, and their Eocene age then 60 Scientific Intelligence. rumana, the first found in the strata of America. These ony Primates appear to be related both to the Lemurs of the old world, and to some of the South American Monkeys. Two families are known, the Lemuravide, from Lemuravus, the principal genus which has 44 teeth, and the Limnotheridw, which have not more than 40. The latter group is rich in genera and species. Among a arg produced the modern horse. In ad Mammals, many species of Birds, Serpents other vertebrates were collected : . he discoveries made by the same expeditions in the Miocene and Pliocene lake-basins of the Rocky Mountains and Pacific coast were likewise very numerous, and many new forms of animal life” were brought to light. One group of mammals found in the early Miocene of Oregon is allied to the modern Rhinoceros, but dif fers in having a transverse pair of horn-cores on the nasal bones. The genus was called Diceratherium, and one of its species is the oldest known member of the Rhinoceros family, if not its progeD- itor. The most remarkable mammals found in the Miocene were ; de, which are apparently allied both to the Eocene Dinocerata, They equalled the so an elevated pair of horn-cores on the y bones. One genus of this family was previously know2 ? Geology and Mineralogy. 61 by imperfect specimens. Besides Brontotherium, several other new genera of this group were found, represented by portions of over 200 individuals. With these remains was discovered cerebellum and olfactory lobes have even diminished in size. here is some evidence that the same general law of brain-growth holds good for Birds and Reptiles from the Cretaceous to the present time, Some additional conclusions in regard to American Tertiary far as no own, are as follows: First, all the Ungulata from the Eocene and Miocene had upper and lower Meisors; second, all Eocene and Miocene mammals had separate scaphoid and lunar bones; third, all mammals from these forma- tions had separate metapodial bones. In conclusion, Professor Marsh stated that his work in the field aS now essentially completed, and that all the fossil remains in i ere now in the Yale College Museum, In future, he should devote himself to their study and full description; and hoped at no distant day to make public the eee results, ae ; tteport upon Geographical and Geological rations and Surveys sale of the 100th Meridian, in charge of Lieut. G, : Army. 62 Scientific Intelligence. are to be two atlases, one topographical and one geological. Volume III, and Part I of volume IV have recently been published. Vol. II. Geology, 682 pp. 4to, with maps, sketches and sec- tions. The geological reports, on pirtierte of California, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, New Mexico and Arizona, making up this vol- ume, are a record of good work and of valuable results. Two 0 the reports a - by G. K. Gilbert, and one each by A. R. Marvine, E. E. Howell, J. J. Stevenson and Oscar Loew. Part of the observations ea sparen of Mr. Gilbert are brought out in an volume. They cover the sabpoets of orology, erosion, glacial ocecgeeet voleanic rocks, and tke stratified rocks. All the reports, and especially Mr. Gilbert’s, throw much light on the characters and dynamics of displaced and folded rocks,—a subject which the prevailing absence of soil and forest makes easy of in- vestigation. The volume is illustrated ot several fine plates of — scenery along the valleys illustrating erosion, and one a case of : rain-sculpture ” exemplifying admirably the origin of mountain orms. Mr. Loew’s report discusses the agricultural resources and soil of the regions examined in Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona, gives analyses and descriptions of mineral waters and minerals, and describes the eruptive rocks. Vol. IV. Paleontology, Part I. Report_on the Invertebrate Fossils collected in portions of Nevada, Utah, Colorado, New Mexico and Arizona, ee the expeditions of 1871- 1874, by ‘OA White, M.D., 220 pp. 4to, 1876.—After some general observations on the collections and the periods they represent, Professor White takes up the description ot the fossils in the order of the beat tions, and illustrates the large number of species Ait twenty-on' well-filled quarto plates. The fossils belong to > Primordial Canadian and Trenton periods of the Lower Siturian ; a few species to the Devonian; nearly half of all to the Carboniferous age, some of them Subcarboniferous, but the larger part of the Coal period ; and described ba Acrotreta igs White, Zrematis pannulus White, Hyolithes primordial, P47), Agnostus intestrictus White, Conocoryphe Kingit M te leben Wheeleri Meek, Olene 0 Gilberti Meek, 0. Howelli Meck.—The beds of the eri n period (Quebec ne afforded him twelve species, m o . ont alus ? flagricau ee hite. Fo ur species of ich hg are men- tioned from the Trenton “Wella: G. pristi is? and G. quadrimucro- natus? of Hall, G. ramul us White, and G, its bees bie” Utah, from Pioche in Nevada, and from Ophir City, Ocaierh Sorelle in Utah; the Quebec fossils are from Fish Spring in House Range, and from Schellbourne and Queen Spring Hill in Schell Geology and Mineralogy. 63 Creek Range in Nevada. Of Subcarboniferous species, five from a locality below Ophir City, are identical with Mississippi Valley species, of the Kinderhook group, Strophomena rhomboidalis, Spi- rifer peculiaris, Sp. centronatus, Sp. extenuatus, and Terebratula ” : rem n conditions in the coal-measure area over the Rocky Mountain 8. Historical Sketch of Geological Explorations in Pennsyt- vania and other States; by J view of early American geological papers and explorations, con- stituting his chapter I, will be read with great interest. It is itt of the first geological survey of Pennsylvania, and has special value since some of the most important principles now adopt 4. Second Annual Report of the Geological and Agricultural Survey of Texas; by S. B. BucKxey, State Geologist. 96 pp. 8vo. Houston, Texas, 1876.—This report makes brief mention of some localities of the different rock-formations of the State, and treats More at length of the mineral and agricultural products. It is Stated that in the valley of the Rio Grande, from six miles below Fort Quitman northward to El Paso, there are two and sometimes three terraces, wo upper consist of sand and gravel. The Stavel is often filled with large water-worn quartz pebbles, and in 64 Scientific Intelligence. din the Organ M E] Paso County, and in the Chinati Mountain, Presidio County, (affording 16 to 76 dollars of silver to the ton); and five miles northeast of Mason in Mason County. mass of meteoric iron is contained in the State collections at Austin, weighing 315 pounds, which is said to have been found on (Geol, Mag., April, 1876, p. 146, in a reply to a paper by Mr. H. Hicks), the oldest fossiliferous rocks of Scandinavia consist, mn ascending order, of (1) the Eophyton sandstone; (2) the Fucoid standstone ; and (3) the Paradoxides schists; and the last corre d . P Paradowides (Anopolenus, Plutonia), Conocoryphe (Hrinnys), tcrodiscus, Arionellus, Agnostus, and also Leperditia, Hyo- lithus, Lingulella, Obolella, Orthis, Protospongia, etc. The beds sandstone has afforded two species of Lingulide, and the this is no evidence that the former are younger than the latter. nosus, Ellipsocephalus Hoffi and Agnostus rex. : 6. Glacial flood.—In a paper “on the Drift-deposits of the — Northwest,” in the Popular Science Monthly for July, 1873, Prot — N. H. Winchell presents the view that the terraces along the riv- ers and about the lakes of the Northwest [the northern part of the Continental Interior] are due solely to fi along the - Prof. Winchell argues, thence, against the opinion that the Champlain period was one of more or less depression of the — Geology and Mineralogy. 65 land over the higher latitudes of the Continent. But this conclu- sion does not necessarily follow, as is evinced by the facts over ew England. When he says “ the four-hundred-foot beach near Montreal may have had the same origin as the so-called beaches that rise several hundred feet higher in the State of Ohio,” his lan- guage is ambiguous; but interpreting it by the context it is wrong, if we may trust Logan, Dawson, and others, who have studied those high St. Lawrence “ beaches ;” for these geologists describe them as true sea beaches and under-water marine depos- its, containing marine shells, and some of the beds, as | know from that the Continental Interior, farther west, participated in the sub- sidence; and yet this may have been a fact. Whether so or not facts that will demonstrate the truth are difficult to find over the interior of a wide continent, and hence a uniform opinion among geologists may never be reache J.D. Dz io German Ocean on the other, and presents reasons for believing oat there was dry land over the region in the Glacial era; that e Glaciers of Great Britain came over this emerged land from howsepe The depth between Britain and Iceland mostly does not ceed 100 fathoms, and no where exceeds 1,000; and one tract of Greenland is small compared with the average depth sarge The author closes with the conclusion, that one ics ne sire “ level, such as have often occurred over the irons ith ‘a ad the effect to “unite Britain and Northern gh reenland and the Arctic regions;” “to give the Steam and free Northwestern Europe fi its i pa and» e from its influence ; = = a abate probably with some diminution in the influ- e do to produce a Glacial epoch.” the ys en.—The following facts and views on ee of Spitzbergen are taken from articles by Prof. Nord- 8cl.—Tump oe Vou. XII, No. 67.—JuLy, 1876. 66 Scientific Intelligence. enskidld in the January and February numbers of the Geological Magazine, edited by H. Woodward, I.R.S.—The glacial scratches in the fiords opening into Bell Sound appear to indicate that the west coast of Spitzbergen extended at least to the series of islands and rocks by which the land is now environed ; and that “ during the Glacial period that coast was the west coast, not merely of an island, but of a considerable Arctic continent, which toward the south was connected with Scandinavia and toward the east with Continental Siberia.” These words are italicized. The rocks of the Carboniferous age include a lower and au upper Subcarboniferous limestone, and the true Carboniferous for mation. Sphenopteris Schimperi Gapp., Lepidodendron Veltheimianum St., L. commutatum Sch., L. Carnehgyianum H. ijkianum a. ridophyllum Roemeri Knorria imbricuta St., low, of (1) dolomite; (2) red and white sandstone; (3) Cyathe : phyllum limestone, containing fossil corals, Brachiopods, Crinoe — 4 species of polyp corals, 2 of Crinoids, 7 of Bryozoans, 34 of rachiopods, 11 of Lamellibranchs, 2 of Gasteropods, 2 os n playi Vern., P. horridus Sow., Strophalosia lamellosa Gein. us is very abundant and occurs of great size (86 mm. by f jan. a horrid nearly twice as large as is known from the Permian. The be contain also the Silurian species Rhynchonella pleurodon Sows — ut no Orthis; the Russian Subcarboniferous species Spirif@ — ; Pa bisuleatus var. Sarana, Terebratula fusiform — Productus Humboldti, Chonetes variolaris ; and the Carbonifer — incrassatus. Geology and Mineralogy. 67 ous species Huomphalus cuttilus, Monticulipora vega Che- tetes radians, Cyathophyllum ibicinum, Syringopore, e The Coal-Measures have been dis tinguished on Spitcbargea only “in Robert’s Valley, on the eastern side of the great bottom ange in Recherche Bay,” where the thickness is 1,000 to 2,000 feet. There is some black shale but no true coal. Species of Sphe- nopteris, Condutise (C. ae and C. primordialis), Lepidoden- dron are common, and some o of Stigmaria, Sphenophyllum, Asterophyllites, but none of Pesopiorts and Neuropteris. The same strata probably extend over Cape —— to Van Keu- len’s Bay, and may occur at various other plac The Triassic formation is met with in ee Sonal The beds are principally bgt Bares slate with some beds of limestone and ee 1 tab the beds have afforded remains of soniye sau- ru oal Eras of India, ae a Permian or Triassie Gla- cial period.—Mr. H. T. Bla nford, in an able paper in the Quar- terly Journal of the Geological Society of London for 1875, 519, discusses at length the age of the coal-bearing strata of India and the evidences of a Glacial era in underlying conglom- erate beds, (1). Coal beds and Eras.—He arrives at the conclusion, — regard to the “oats, that they range from the Lower Permia to the latest Jurassi meant group, 1,500 i. and Ae ), C loarse ibe ie ‘and con- yo sree 500 fee e flora of the R&ni anj pia? includes Sees ; Brownian . hyllotheca Indica, a P. ea, besides other species of these genera, and some also of copteris, Cyclopteris, Sphenophyllum, Calamites, pad Schizo- pesca The overlying Panchét group oe species of Sphenop- re opteris, Neuropteris (?), Schizoneura, Preissleria ; also in brethoind (Huxley), a Dicynodont, a Thecodont, (.An- vad th n Indicus Huxley), an Estheria, et the Rajmahal hills, beds, supposed to be ‘equivalents of the R&- wigan ‘) group, are overlaid uncon ormably by the Rajmahal group, sihies Contain, besides species of the last-mentioned genera, specificall alehia , Voltzia and an abundance of Cycads ; all are o ive] te yg ee Ss g Qu = 8) o = =e lore eo) es —O 2a z8 me 5 % = eo a a «qo ie — otis to North American Selon 0. 2, Contributions to aise Natural History of Kerguelen Is- 72 - Scientific Intelligence. idx. The Introduction states that the highest peak of the island, although the island is 90 miles by 50 in area, there are no P| irds or mammals living on the island, and but a single shore-bird, nor. 20. COhemisch-genetische Beobachtunyen waber Dolomvit, (mit be- sonderer Beriicksichtigung der Dolomit-V orkomnisse ost- Dr. C R clter are given, em racing a considerable number of analy- ses. The authors reach the following conclusions, confirming i part the results of some earlier authors. is 1.) A large number of extensive strata of limestone, weakly dolomitic, have been deposited immediately through the instrumen- : tality of organic life in the ocean. (2.) Some minor occurrences of normal dolomite are due to ae - quent metamorphosis, through the introduction of carbonate of : = : magnesi . On the Dr. F. fk chemical examination of the Pittsburg meteorite yielded the fol- Botany and Zoology. 73 of the exceedingly minute schreibersite crystals are cut across and are seen as small dots on a frosted surface; some appear as minute needles, arranged in parallel lines, like the trees in an orchard. A few elongated patches of a whiter iron-nickel alloy are also visible. he analysis of a somewhat oxydized piece, gave the following composition : ory 2 ie 92°809 (Mapper So Pa ee 0°034 Conatt 22 eit sa 0°395 Nickel 22 ce ee 4°665 Mémnganése 220 5 285 oe 07141 Biiphar: So 2 ee 0°037 Phosphoras 2-2 277 0°251 98°332 0°251 per cent of phosphorus is equal to about 1°8 per cent of schreibersite—— From the Report of the Geological Survey of Pennsylwania for 1875. Til Botany anp ZOOLOGY. issued. The economical importance of re-foresting poor or agri culturally worthless lands in that State, and elsewhere, was his board offers, in the first place, for the best plantation of a ess than five acres of larch, or on the cape, &e., of Seoteh or Cor- ‘ican pine, originally of not less than 2700 trees to the acre, on 0 uU 1 for rocuri e ot hy 4 trees for the purpos 74 Scientific Intelligence. of the seedling trees, which in such quantities and for next year’s planting wo ave to be obtained mainly in Europe, at least the pines and larches. The ashes, probably, would have to be raised fro ; and the time, if need be, would doubtless be extended. The prizes to be awarded in the summer of 1877. Mr. Sargent’s estimates promise a handsome return for the capital and labor invested in judicious tree-planting for economical purposes; these timely prizes may stimulate enterprise ; and the sense of contribu. ting to the adornment as well as to the material resources of the country should also be a motive and a reward. AG. teromorphism in Epigea.—The May-flower, being more known in all the details of structure. But it hardly isso. Lhe structure of its stigma was first well described in the 5th edition of my Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States, and 1 apex of the style is as it were hollowed out or extended into 4 ring, with a 5-crenate border, to the inner face of which the five stigmas are adnate, each before one of the small teeth or lobes, and extending sometimes slightly beyond it, but remaining short and erect, sometimes much beyond and radiately expanded, : In Michaux’s Flora is the note “Flores omnes in nonnullis individuis abortivi,” and botanists are generally aware that frult is seldom met with. The flowers have been said to be unisexual About ten per cent of the specimens have a style consider (1. atl longer than the stamens, raising the stigmas a little out of the throat of the corolla, in which the anthers are included: the — ruil ing specimens gathered at the same station in former years = all evidently belong to this form, as the persistent style and long — i form manifest # stigmas show. One or two specimens of this disposition to convert their anthers into petals; but this is occa rms, sionally seen in other fo iia i Botany and Zoology. 75 (2.) A smaller number of specimens show the stigmas of the at all, and even the filaments are smaller, abortive, or occasionally altogether wanting. This sometimes happens in No. 1 also. 3.) The larger number of flowers, perhaps three-fourths of the specimens under examination, have the long style of No. 1, an gets well covered with pollen from the contiguous anthers. The difference between these stigmas and those of the foregoing forms 18 striking and constant, no gradations between them havi n 76 Scientific Intelligence. forms of Epigea are ever fruitful, or fully so. It might not be difficult to ascertain the kind of flower in any case which has matured fruit; for the style and stigmas persist until the capsule is well formed in the fruit thus far known. The exstivation of the corolla is that of the tribe, imbricated, but with a strong tendency to convolute ; more commonly thereis be. G only one exterior and one interior lo way); by Ax ; . is the substance of two lectures delivered by Dr. Blytt at meet- insular species. To explain these leaps is to bring in the question short distances at a time?” Ithough drifting ice, bring™g — seeds and plants lodged in earth, is a known means of transport, — Botany and Zoology. 77 wastes of Spitzbergen, North Greenland, and Melville Island,— small, hardy, and tuft-forming plants, which often display an un- expected splendor of flowers with the purest and deepest colors. Then came the gray osiers, juniper and birch, cherry-ash and rowan, with a host of new immigrants. The moisture increased, Siving up. tain districts, on the moist mountain slopes and in the forest val- leys, as also on wild rubble-slopes, under steep walls of rock, = also found beyond the borders of the country ; there are peculiar forms, but none distinct enough from its congeners to be upei? a i i , trict With a race markedly different from the common type of the Species elsewhere. — 4. Genera Plantarum auctoribus G. Bentaam et J. ? 1. secund : ; iim Ordines XLV, Caprifoliaceas—Plantagineas. Londoni, 1873 ~1876.—This is the title page, somewhat shortened, of the s 78 Scientific Intelligence. up to 1279 pages, and the subject to the end of the Gamopetala, ‘followed by some corrections and a good index—-is now appily ore us. Our scattered botanists will be glad to know this; also that the third and final volume, according to present ye t. A. G. 5. Botany of California. Vol. I. Polypetale, by W. H for carrying it on after the State abandoned it, viz: Lelan He Jord, D. 0. Mills, Lioyd Tevis, J. C. Flood, Charles McLaughlin, . B. Woodward, William Norris, John O. Earl, Henry e Oliver Eldredge, 8. Clinton Hastings. The scientific gentlemet engaged have done their part, and those who have done the State’s duty in the premises are understood to be ready to su exceptional cases and Se ; other, and greatly assist the ordinary student or amateur bota who cannot be expected to have the characters of the orders in hand, nor to recognize aberrant me esas Such keys are very useful, almost indispensable; but it is a sible to make them perfect so as to provide for every case. ey Miscellaneous Intelligence. 79 should be used as helps, not as an absolute reliance or as a me- chanical substitute for brains. The Polypetale occupy 276 pages; the Gamopetale, 346. Without reference to the scientific merits of this work—of which others will judge—we are free to pronounce its plan and its typo- graphy as unsurpassedly excellent. A. G. 6. Quarterly Bulletin of the Nuttall Ornithological Club, Cambridge, Mass., vol. 1, No. 1, April, 1876. 28 pp. 8vo, with one beautifully colored plate.—The annual subscription for this valuable publication is only one dollar, or 30 cents per number. It is to be issued quarterly in numbers of 16 pages. ITV. AsStTrRonomy. 1. Astronomical Tables, comprising logarithms from 3 to 100 . New York, 1876.—We have large number of decimals, to 8, 10, 15, 20, 30, 60, and even 100 places, by a method which the author claims as new. Or inary four-figure tables of logarithms, addition and subtraction log- arithms, log. sines, tangents, &c. Numerical tables, as primes, least. divisors, reciprocals, multiples, squares, &c., follow, which with the logarithms make about three-fourths of the tables. The remainder consists of about 40 astronomical tables of various kinds. In Parts 2d and 3d are explanations of the use and the i u cer- of Viations at the expense, in some cases, of clearness. a tainly succeeded in putting into a moderate size a large variety tter. has been investigated quite at length with numbers of from five to ten digits. It is found that the probability of error is in all cases expressed by the terms of the expanded binomial ~ (a+b) where n is a function of the number of digits. Thus far a apd 6 80 Miscellaneous Intelligence. have always been unequal, with all the persons yet experimented upon. The probability of error is greatest just after the middle of the number. aes f This has led to an interesting investigation on the power ke | memory. Allowing definite intervals (t) of time to cone ; tween the giving and the writing of the number, and it is eviden the amplitude of the beats of a pendulum, in time, as due to a resisting medium. F. E. ie 2. Record of Science and Industry for 1875; edited by Sr ‘ cER F. Barrp. 4 pp. 8vo, ork, 1876. (Harper Brothers.)—Professor Baird’s scientific annual for 187 5 has recently : : 1 coveries in science and the practical arts, and learn something of the world’s progress in knowledge. L 3. Transactions of the Connecticut Academy, vol. Ii, pee —This volume contains: I A report on the dredging in the ie h of St. George’s Banks in 1872, by S. L. Smith and O. Harger, cha 8 plates; Lt. Descriptions of new Hydroids by 8. F. Clark, ve g plates; {11 On the Chondrodite of Brewster, N. Y., aie Dana, with 3 plates—the paper which was condensed for vo er ix of thi al; IV. On the Transcendental Curves ee my = a sine sin ne + 6, by H. A. Newton and A. W. Phil i: with 44 plates, containing photo-lithographic transfers of . different examples of the curves; V. On the equilibrium of Hete' geneous paper, occupying 150 pages, putting new methods of analysis a the hands ot mathematicians and physicists. Notes of the following works are unavoidably defe ur Repo: I region of Country adjacent thereto; by J. W. Powell. 218 pp. 4to, with an Washington. Department of the Interior. 1876. atural Hi Su ul, ; ertebrate Cretaceous and Tertiary Fossils of the Upper Mis: souri Region. 630 pp. 4to, with 45 plates. 1876. Vol. ix ef the Benes the U. 8. Geol. Survey of the Territories in charge ment of the Interior, OBITUARY, a ANGELIN, the eminent Swedish Paleontologist, died at Stock a holm on the 13th of February, aged seventy years ge d, ILLINGS, the abl Paleontologist of the Canadian Geological a Survey, has recently died, ae APrine +. Art. [X.—On a new Crinoid from the Cretaceous formation of the West; by GkorGE Brrp GRINNELL. With Plate IV. AMONG the many interesting fossils recently received from the West by the Yale College Museum, is a new Crinoid from the Cretaceous of the Uinta Mountains and of Kansas. No crinoids from the American Cretaceous have hitherto been described, and for the discovery of this species we are indebted to Prof. O. C. Marsh, who has done so much to bring to light the geological treasures of the West. The Crinoid in question belongs to the group Astylide, or free Crinoids, and, as suggested by Prof. Marsh in his earliest paper on the Geology of the Uinta Mountains,* is allied to the genus Marsupites of Miller. From that genus, however, it differs widely in the number and arrangement of its plates, in aving apparently ten arms, and in other characters; and it is possible that an examination of additional material may show it to be the type of an entirely new group. This point, how- ever, cannot at present be determined. Vintacrinus socialis, gen. et sp. NOV. body as seen is somewhat discoidal in form, owing to pressure, but in life was evidently subglobose. The basal and subradial plates are imperfectly known. In the most perfect without inward, their shape being sub-elliptical. The arms give Support to delicate pinnuls, or tentacles, for a portion of their * This Journal, vol. i, p. 191, March, 1871. 82 Grinnell—a new Cretaceous Crinord. length, though at what point these first appear is as yet uncer- tain. The more distant arm pieces show, when the articular surfaces can be examined, a distinct radiate structure, and there — are traces, in some of the pieces which are exposed, of a canal, which in life may have given passage to the ‘‘axial cord” (nerve) of Dr. Carpenter. There is also to be seen on the inner side of several of the more distant arm pieces a deep depression, the radial furrow, which gives to the plates a subcrescentoid shape. These characters cannot be well made out, as all the pieces which show them are badly weathered. The arm pieces dimin- ish very gradually in size, and the arms are long. On one of the slabs they have been traced continuously for a distance of eight inches with but little change in size, and it seems probable that in life the spread of the outstretched arms may have been soon disappearing beneath the arms. A very small uadran- gular plate is inserted between the first and second radials and the interradial pares which are opposite these. It is not cer tain, however, that this arrangement is altogether constant. In fact the other side of the specimen from which this is take, though too imperfect for use, suggests a larger interradial arm, and hence, a probable difference in the number of the plates. The interaxillary areas consist of about ten large plates and from sixteen to twenty smaller ones, the latter arrange much as in the interradial arm. Of the larger ones, seve hand. The inferior plate is the largest. It is higher than wide, octagonal, and somewhat shield-shaped, apparently support on its superior sloping sides two high and rather narrow piece’ which in turn, give support to two small subtriangular plates — — Grinnell—a new Cretaceous Crinoid. 83 Above these are four others in pairs, and these are followed by the smaller ones in fours, becoming rapidly less in size, as in the interradial arm. | he specimens are found in a soft light-colored limestone, and a considerable mass of the rock is often made up of their remains, as shown in the accompanying plate, figure 2, indica- ting that the individuals of this species lived together in large numbers. To this fact the specific name refers. It is needless to remark at length on the great interest which attaches to this species, the first crinoid known from the Cretaceous of the new world. The fact that it lacks a stem, thus resembling the genus Marsupites from the English chalk, suggests the advance made by some of the Crinoids that survived until the Cretaceous, tains during the autumn of 1870. It was found associated dials, interaxillary area, arms and 3 gions seine Sasacidtanedaun. showing th - furrow * ; and indistinetly, the grooves radiating from the ISOBARIC CURVES DEC 241872,735.AM Ee! i. ae 1ie 7 m3 is ii 109 107) 108 JO 101 ao a7 ch Lt 52 Cid Ce ee A i : her a j ’ ae, a 3 ¥ . io Bigs: : 4 = Jo : oe late. hF 6 = - : : - = ; - | a é -*) * ‘ G =f AS = AS j - | / oe Seek =, ‘ | i - S 1 rte aay ae z ; # £5 Bose alee sie = ; ; 2s : i hs ‘! it? : hers x ° a a e/a " ate | oo Age ee é : cee mee { os. / i = ‘ t . D 2 I E ; - “eens t fi 3 ‘ = . “ ac) hf “ sang > : 23 : er ONS of: L \ = 5 3 oe 6 : = | = j ‘ . ie - -3 | aS pS se ? } } oe Se — : j } : n z s 4 i _ e “a > | + re nen =. : the od Ss 7 | } | a ee * é eh hee a q * \ \ | j | ; i \ | \ 52 | ay i , = "Tiga o | \ \ pe > pale ae j I g- P \ ee ita | \ Po. 4 20 a. | / | | ’ i ey i _—— x | } | u | | f j = Senne BS \: | t : \ ; | 4 | | \ ' ae \ ane ie tt . ! \ u } } wa i i119 1 10F 195 163 Mal oo 7 95 93 91 89 o7 85 ae fi = “ THERMIC TSABNORMALS DEC 24.1872,73 5, AM PLATE I 109 doy. 405-103-101 ao a7 ) 3 > 84 57 85 52 6i 9 UZ 75 14. can : 1 : = C7 a \ z | ; , \ q ? AN ae 3 q : + iin = / 4 Pe \ sie oe - ‘J } ¥ 77 3 poe 7 4 ;. » Os iis 5 we ye a, Y, ‘ail A 4% A * , : p ‘yy \ “1A o a | j i x ime ; + . - “en , a «> gig - /— he 1 Be tpn. Jv . \ x ; 5 2 ie, bow J 7 i f \ - a b en ae ve j int hy sy -6 _ \ | i | \ 1 | ae P| a a it nile \ \ \ = we \\ © e eee \ fe a. \ \ ‘i <7 uae Te \ \ | led | 5 \, \ | \ P $s ge —— gt — 9, gS ped 4 anal, Vow Hav PLATE If. T. Sinclair & sen, lth, Phila > _ JOUR. SCI., Vol. XII, 1876. UINTACRINUS SOCIALIS, Grinnell, Plate IV. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [THIRD SERIES.] 7 Art. X.—The Colorado Plateau Province as a Field for Geologi- cal Study ; by G. K. GILBERT. [Continued from page 24.] _ [It has happened that the division of this paper into parts has interrupted the sense, and I shall therefore have to ask the reader who would understand this page to refer again to the figures on page 23 of this volume. : a gentle dip to the north. Its cap of Car- boniferous limestone is divided in the foreground by the cafion h erally to call attention, are: ay aed 86 G. K. Gilbert—The Colorado Plateau Province. First, that there are no anticlinals and no synclinals, but only monoclinals and faults; . Second, that the throws of the displacements are not all on the same side; u. In some the block has been lifted more on one side that on the other, so as to acquire a dip; in other cases there are 2, number of blocks of different elevation in the same range; 1 yet other, the blocks are somewhat curved. I shall not attempt to enumerate the variations of the typ which arise in these several ways. The purpose of the illustra uals of geology di When the splacements of the regi ked nies ‘ gion have all been worket out, 1t will be possible to construct a model which shall exhibit é least one hundred and fifty thousand square — — of the earth’s crust, showing the neice and position 7 ~ of the blocks which compose it; and I conceive that such G. K. Gilbert—The Colorado Plateau Province. 87 Mountain building by eruption.—The studies, which the Pla- teaus afford in the phenomena of eruption, are scarcely less interesting and important than those of uplift and downthrow; ut they have received less attention up to the present time. It happens that a number of extinct eruptive mountains stand near the cafions of the Colorado River. The country about them has suffered and is suffering rapid denudation, and not only are their bases nearly free from detritus, but their flanks are so deeply scored, and their summits are so degraded, that their internal structure is exhibited. Those that are best known have been found to be composed chiefly of sedimentary strata, protected from denudation by the superior durability of the eruptive rocks with which they are associated. In the U’-in-ka-ret mountains Major Powell found a mass of undisturbed strata, which had been preserved from erosion by a mantle of lava, while the surrounding country was degra ‘More than a thousand feet. The eruptions were extended through a long period of time, and the successive outflows mantled the flanks of the surviving strata almost as thor- oughly as they did the summit, so as to give the appearance, at first glance, of a range made up entirely of volcanic matter. In the Henry Mountains the strata are not undisturbed, but have been lifted into a number of bubble-shaped domes, one for each individual mountain of the group. Each dome has been fractured at top, and divided by fissures radiating from the center toward the sides, and all the fissures have been filled by molten rock. Moreover the strata have in many places cleaved apart, and lava sheets have been interleaved with them. ubtless the intrusion of these dikes and sheets was accom- panied by extrusion, but none of the extruded masses appear to have survived the subsequent erosion. The mountains as they stand are simply domes of curved strata, each traversed by a plexus of crystalline dikes. Similar in structure to the Henry Mountains are Navajo Mountain, Sierra la Sal, and Sierra Abajo. Mount San Fran- cisco, and perhaps Mount Taylor, are related to the Uinkarets. This enumeration includes but a small portion of the volcanic mountains of the district, and to the two types of structure Mentioned, several others might be added. But the mountains of the Uinkaret and Henry types are most favorably situated for study, and at the same time diverge most widely in charac- ter from those with which geologists are already familiar. Stratigraphy.—In the stratigraphy of the Plateaus attention has thus cae confined to caailde that are chiefly of local importance, but a thorough study of the phenomena Which are accessible can hardly fail to throw light on the 88 G. K. Gilbert—The Colorado Plateau Province. all points of the compass, so as to learn its changes, not merel along a simple line, but throughout an extended area. Wit such exposures, unconformity cannot escape detection, and the history of a system of sediments can be made out with a com: pleteness that surely cannot be excelled elsewhere. Part IL. Eroston. It remains to indicate the scope of the material bearing upon the subject of erosion, and with that intent I will discuss cer tain problems which the region has propounded. The first may be called The Problem of the Cations. duced only under conditions equally extreme; and natural laws are often best tested and exemplified by the consideration of their operation under exceptional circumstances. Already ess important factors, and in undertaking it I shall take the ntegration and transportation. nsportation is chiefly peformed by running water. G. K. Gilbert—The Colorado Plateau Province. 89 Disintegration is naturally divided into two parts. So much of it as is accomplished by running water is called corrasion, and that which is not, is called weathering. Stated in their natural order, the three general divisions of the process of erosion, are (1) weathering, (2) transportation, and (3) corrasion. The rocks of the general surface of the land are dis- integrated by weathering. The material thus loosened is érans- ported by streams to the ocean or other receptacle. In transit it helps to corrade from the channels of the streams other ma- terial, which joins with it to be transported to the same goal. 1.) In weathering the chief agents of disintegration are solu- tion, change of temperature, the beating of rain, and vegetation. The great solvent of rocks is water, but it receives aid from some other substances, of which it becomes the vehicle. These substances are chiefly products of the formation and decompo- sition of vegetable tissues. Some rocks are disintegrated by their complete solution, but the great majority are divided into grains by the solution of a portion ; and fragmental rocks usu- ally lose by solution the cement merely, and are thus reduced to their original, incoherent condition. The most rigid rocks are cracked by sudden changes of tem- perature ; and the crevices thus begun, are opened by the freez- ing of the water within them. The coherence of the more porous rocks is impaired and often destroyed by the same ex- pansive force of freezing water. The beating of the rain overcomes the feeble coherence of earths, and assists solution and frost by detaching the particles Which they have partially loosened. ; Plants often pry apart rocks by the growth of their roots, but their chief aid to erosion is by increasing the solvent power of percolating water. (2.) A portion of the water of rains flows over the surface and is quickly gathered into streams. A second portion is ab- sorbed by the earth or rock on which it falls, and after a slow underground circulation reissues in springs. Both transport the products of weathering, the latter carrying dissolved min- erals, and the former chiefly undissolved. ‘ ransportation is also performed by currents of air, and by the direct action of gravity; but in the present discussion it will not be necessary to consider these accessory agents. -) In corrasion’ the agents of disintegration are solution and mechanical wear. herever the two are combined, the Superior efficiency of the latter is evident; and in all fields of rapid corrasion the part played by solution is so small that it = be disregarded. : _ the mechanical wear of streams is performed by the aid of hard mineral fragments which are carried along by the current. 90 G. K. Gilbert—The Colorado Plateau Province. i i : Is are mud, The effective force is that of the current; the too nag sand, and bowlders. The most Important of them is eer yes chiefly by the impact and friction of Erie of sand that tl rocky beds of streams are disintegrated. 3 Sivesias of clear water corrade their beds by solution. Muddy streams act partly by solution, but chiefly by attrition. Streams transport. the combined products of corasion ay weathering. A part of the debris is carried in so ee a part mechanically. The finest of the undissolved detri ee a4 im suspension ; the coarsest is rolled along the bottom; a ee is a gradation between the two modes. There is a ¢ “ints: bbles, transportation is thereby accelerated. Bowlders and pe | while they wear the Micasisbeal by pounding and be worn still more rapidly themselves. Sand grains are bile a broken by the continued jostling, and their fragments 0 ne: suspended mud. Finally the detritus is all more or les solved by the water, the finest the most rapidly. - hy chin _In brief, (1) weat ering is performed by solution ; Ve vine of temperature, including frost; by rain beating; and by veg' tation. ‘ (2) Transportation is performed chiefly by running water. (3 i Corrasion is performed by solution, and by mechanical Corrasion is distinguished from weathering chiefly by Bo eluding mechanical wear among its agencies, and the py ance of the distinction will be apparent when we come to sider how greatly modifying conditions. ‘pee n the region of cafions, the rogress of corrasion ere Stripped that of Weathering, and to discover what con r A have determined this result, is to solve the problem o cations, B. The chief conditions which affect the rapidity of erosion are (1) declivity, (2) character of rock, and (8) climate. ak (1.) In general, erosion is most rapid where the slope is — but weathering, ‘trans ortation and corrasion are affecte different ways and in different degrees, ning water, and with that sons increase in its power to transport , undissolved detritus, The abili enhanced by ; mechanical wear kee the: may even increase more rapidly. For not only does the bot- Oes increase in the velocity of run- G. K. Gilbert—The Colorado Plateau Province. 91 n Weathering 1s not directly influenced by slope, but it is o reached indirectly through transportation. lution and frost, (2.) Other things being equal, erosion is most rapid when the eroded rock offers least resistance; but the rocks which are most favorable to one portion of the process of erosion, do not neces- sarily stand in the same relation to the others. Disintegration by solution depends in large part on the solubility of the rocks, but it proceeds most rapidly with those fragmental rocks of which the cement is soluble, and of which the texture 1s Open. Disintegration by frost is most rapid in rocks which ab- sorb a large percentage of water and are feebly coherent. Dis- integration by mechanical wear is most rapid in soft rocks Transportation is most favored by those rocks which yield by disintegration the most finely comminuted debris (8.) The influence of climate upon erosion is less easy to formulate. The direct influences of temperature and rainfall are comparatively simple, but their indirect influence, t rough vegetation, is complex, and is in part opposed to the direct in- fluence of rainfall. emperature affects erosion chiefly by its changes. Where the range of temperature includes the freezing point of water, frost contributes its powerful aid to weathering ; and it is only where changes are great and sudden that rocks are cracked by their unequal expansion or contraction. 92 G. K. Gilbert— The Colorado Plateau Province. All the processes of erosion are affected directly by the amount of rainfall, and by its distribution through the year, All are accelerated by its increase and retarded by its diminu- tion. When i 3 ® 3 bee m fe} } =| fe) (a>) 3 = be] oD ro mee = ° 5 * ' + Zeit. Chem., 1870, 235. t 124 P. T. Austen—Reaction of Dinitrobrombenzol, C°H®(NO?)*Br+2KNO2=C*H*(NO?)2OK-+KBr-+ (N20? ?) tions with 99 per cent alcohol, there was but an exceedingly slight reaction, only traces of the phenol having been formed, which doubtless owed their origin to the small amount of water shall describe the application of this method of phenol forma- tion to other compounds at another opportunity. Dinitrobrombenzol, Benzol, and Zine. Since benzylchloride treated with benzol and zinc dust gives a benzylbenzol, it seemed not improbable that dinitrobromben- zol might give a dinitrodiphenyl, owing to the weakened attraction of the bromine atom from the presence of the nitro- group, although in this case the bromine atom is attached directly to the benzol skeleton, and not indirect] , as in the id hours in a closed tube at 100°, and then again at 160°. both cases there was no action. Toluol instead of benzol also remained unchanged. Perhaps nitro toluol, in which the hydrogen atom of the methyl-group may be weakened by the Sa of the nitro-group in the benzol kernel, may give Dinitrobrombenzol and Sodium Acetate. Wishing to ascertain if a dinitrophenyl acetic ester could be obtained according the reaction O*H*(NO?)?Br,+-CH?COONa=CH?COOC*H#(NO2)2-4-NaBr, I heated the substances with alcohol for six hours in a closed tube at 100°. There was no pressure on opening the tube, but a strong smell of acetic ether. The tube contained orange-red crystals of sodium dinitrophenylate, and in the solution there was considerable sodium bromide. The reaction had probably gone. L C&H3(NO2)2 BrNa|O.00.CH® {encooctn” Hj = co sen Il. GoH*(NO2)20/H = C*H3(NO2)20Na N*.COONG| _ 1 CH3.COOH. Il. CH%.COo|FI = CH?.COOC?H$ C*H/0H| ~ ( H?0. J. D. Dana—Discharge of the flooded Mill River. 125 So that the whole reaction would be— C°H*(NO*)*?Br+-2CH*.COONa +202H*OH=C*H3(NO2)20Na +NaBr+H?0 +2CH*COOC?H5, The next time, to avoid the formation of acetic ether, the substances were heated with glacial acetic acid at 160°. The whole product was sodium dinitrophenylate. Hence probably, USHS(NO?)?(Br.| C*H3(NO2)20Na CH?,COO|Naj| = (C2H20)20 NaBr, tadicals. Thus dinitrobrombenzol reacts easily with ammonia, but with potassium nitrite or sodium acetate there is no analo- gous reaction. By inversion it naturally follows that in aniline the amido-group must be rendered much more stable by the Introduction of nitro-groups. This is shown to be so by the ct that while aniline is most violently acted on by amylnitrite, tnitroaniline remains, under the same treatment, utterly un- affected, eee IX — On Southern Naw England during the melting of the Great Glacier;* by Jamus D. DANA. Apprenprx : On the discharge of the flooded Mill River into the uinnipiac, and the effects as registered in the drift deposits of the New Haven plain. _ IN my ing of the great Glacier,” I reached the conclusiont that, during the Champlain period, or that which opened with the melting than fifteen feet, and perhaps less than ten. It w hounced,t as a consequence of this fact, that the high terraces of Stratified drift about the heads of the estuaries and along the river valleys could not have been made by salt water, and ‘aust have been due to the freshwaters of the enormously ne ; : such teehee x, 168, 280, B85, 400; aha, aa — are contained in this Journal, III, x, tIbid, x, 434 ¢ Ibid, x, 435. 126 J. D. Dana—Discharge of the flooded flooded streams; and that all the drift-deposits of the New Haven region, now thirty to fifty feet above mean tide, were included in the freshwater formations—the saltwater beds be- twenty feet has the revers cross-bedding. ow if it can be shown that Mill River was throughout its course a violent * Tbid., x, 191. + Ibid., x, 173. Mill River into the Quinnipiac. 127 ast Rock, where the valley terrace is seven feet higher than that of the Quinnipiac adjoining. It is therefore manifest that, on reaching the southern extremity of the ridge separating the two valleys, it would have made a quick turn around the pro- montory and plunged into the Quinnipiac basin ; and this would ve carried it northeastward directly over the place where the evidences of reversed currents occur in the drift deposits. This place of discharge would not have taken off all the Mill River waters, or the larger part; for the water level there, when the flood was at its height, was still thirty to thirty-five feet above the sea-level—height enough to have kept the tumultuous waters mainly on a seaward course. . . We hence learn from the drift deposits at this place of june- hon of the two streams, southeast of Hast Rock, (a mile north of the present head of New Haven Bay and six miles from its fastern cape), the following facts : - Until the waters of the flooded streams had reached, at the place mentioned, a height of fifteen feet above the then- rxisting sea-level, neither stream overbalanced the other; for the deposits of the lower stratum within the range of the Quin- nPlac valley show, by their structure, that they were made by © How of Quinnipiac waters. The pitch of the waters to the und was then but two or two and a half feet a mile. ah gay ne same water-level was riael oe: seg bia and plunging, as proved by the flow-and-plunge structur . the beds—was pate ota with what followed ; for this wer stratum consists mainly of sand and fine pebbles. ». The increase in the flood on passing that level was sudden, 48 if the dissolution of the glacier bad then received greatly the erated progress, For the transition in the bedding, and in ‘he color of the sands, is abrupt, with no fine layer between to Cate an epoch of repose ; and, moreover, the upper stratum 1s * Tbid., x, 413. Bey 7 128 J. D. Dana—Discharge of the flooded Mill River, very much the coarsest; along Mill River valley, it is toa great extent, in contrast with the stratum it overlies, a cobble stone de- posit, and this evidence of hurrying waters continues along its course through the New Haven plain for a mile and a half to the Bay.* Further, the height of the deposits where the stones are coarsest is ten feet below the normal height, because in the dashing flood, the finer material was drifted off. 4. The flow from Mill River into the Quinnipiac basin dimin- acter diminishes, and finally, in the course of three-fourths of a mile, the beds consist largely of sand. 5. The great plain of stratified drift, southeast of East Rock, contributed by the Mill River torrent, ; 6. The Quinnipiac waters added little to the height of this drift-deposit plain or terrace: for the upper stratum bears evr dence of Mill River action nearly or quite to its top. There v te the Quinnipiac waters after the Mill River floods had su sided. 7. Mill River—now not over fifteen miles in length—is an example of a little stream that was a great river during the Glacial flood. It owes this partly to its having been one of the the New Haven plain had reached their extreme height. +e x, 175. Ibid., x, 179, 180, where a figure is gi iol beds is other ‘ : : given. The origin of these be — at that place, the error that the estuary beds were marine, coloring ast the za in that first paper on “ Southern New England.” «) X, ‘ : G, W. Hawes—The Greenstones of New Hampshire. 129 Art. XX.—The Greenstones of New Hampshire and their or- ganic remains ; by GEo.W. Hawes. With plate V. _ THE occurrence in Eastern North America of rocks pertain- ing to what is appropriately styled the ‘“ greenstone” series has been noticed by. different observers. In a report upon the geology of the Connecticut Valley, Professor Edward Hitch- cock distinguished these from all the other rocks, by the name of “ chloritic and talcose schists.”* Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, in the Geology of Canada, has given analyses and descriptions of greenstones, and has discussed their mode of formation. Pro-- fessor C. H. Hitchcock has noticed these rocks in New Hamp- shire, and has carefully studied their extent and distribution.t he “ chloritic formation” near New Haven, which was noticed * This Journal, rT a » Vi, 26, : Re an Journal, III, vii, 468 aud 557, also yol. i, Geology of New Hampshire, +This Journal, TIT, xi, 119. 130 = G. W. Hawes—The Greenstones of New Hampshire. they were accumulated in quiet waters and consolidated under well nigh impossible to distinguish them in hand specimens; most careful microscopic study is inconclusive. Although only extended observations made in the field can decide whether the rocks are truly stratified or intrusive, yet it is believed that some characters are given in the descriptions beyond which will be of service in their classification. The old name “ greenstone” is a good general term to apply to the whole group, because the prevailing color of the rocks is green; indeed it is so common that the formation has always greenstone has now ‘ may well embrace all the rocks of the formation. It is intended ‘ ts Ophen properties shows it to be triclinic. Whether it be oligoclase | or labradorite is not a matter of great importance, since a Vey slight variation in the composition of the sediments would pr” duce a change in the species, G. W. Hawes—The Greenstones of New Hampshire. 181 The microscope furnishes as conclusive proof as the strati- graphy that these diorytes are metamorphic. Often in these basic rocks free quartz is associated with feldspars low in silica ; and in Stewartstown there is a dioryte in which carbon- ate of lime is associated with a triclinic feldspar, and also free lige Such circumstances as these are easily understood, if these rocks were consolidated under very gentle metamorphic influences, but would not be expected in a rock which had een once in a condition of igneous fusion except as a result of alteration. It seems as if the mass had been under such condi- tions of heat and pressure as to give action to chemical affinities, but only within a very narrow range; so that crystals of different minerals might be formed from fine mud, while a larger grain of sand would be left unaffected. The conditions of metamor- labradorite, making a porphyritic dioryte. At North Lisbon some specimens are very hornblendic, and large crystals of hornblende are developed in the finer ground-mass. At Lan- Coarse-grained and fine-grained varieties. Fig. 1, plate IV. is intended to illustrate the appearance of the minerals of these diorytes under the microscope with ordinary transmitted light. It is drawn from a thin section of the North Lisbon rock, and 1s magnified 85 diameters. It shows the color of the horn- To Seve as a basis for calculation, the hornblende contained in - dioryte from North Lisbon was analyzed. In it the horn- oe in places had crystallized out in as orbicular masses alf an inch in diameter. It appears under the microscope in and structure like the large crystal in the section figured. © crystals are fringed on the edges, and consequently on the pure, as was proved with the microscope. A portion of the hornblende fee trot associated ingredients was analyzed following results : 132 G. W. Hawes—The Greenstones of New Hampshire. MUNN sed syn ony 540-08 IER es ate Gedo 13°72 Ferrous oxide._____-. -.9°84 Manganous oxide. ___._ "40 SRN PE cong 11°22 MADONNA... 5. 11°96 _ SS Pee Sees 2°40 Water (ignition) _..__- “90 99°47 as fa th as Hanover. They are often quite complex 1 structure, but, as in the case of igneous diabase,* the chlonte distinguishable from the diorytes. In plate V, figure 2, the of this rock is represented. The figure : an hous appearance, occurrin ; t gure, 1n irregular masses, with little appearance of pare : yet, as it exhibits bright colors between crossed nicols, 1t 18 @ * This Journal, vol. ix, March, 1875. G. W. Hawes—The Greenstones of New Hampshire. 188 crystalline. The pyroxene shows the characteristic cleavage, as indicated in the figure and also exhibits bright colors between the nicols, such as are seen in the pyroxene of figure 4, The feldspar looks impure and is filled with rifts and with numerous particles of chlorite and amorphous matter yet shows its characteristic bands of color between the nicol prisms. Hornblende sometimes replaces the pyroxene in these rocks, and is often present with it. The occurrence of these two minerals in the same rock is interesting, and the following analyses throw some light upon it. The first one is of a wholly chloritic kind, from Littleton ; while the latter, from Pittsburg, is of a variety containing hornblende. The specific gravity of each is 2°96. Littleton. Pittsburg. SNR a ce 48°79 PA 16°57 16°97 Perms oxide... 3 an 36 1°69 Ferrous oxide ...._.....-. 9°40 8°97 Manganous oxide ._..._-.- “20 "20 ie ee 8°01 9°98 Magness 22.2. 22 eS 6°98 Tinea 2 SO ee, 1°20 Meas Se ae 2°55 3°30 THtanit Q0id 0) tb 1:20 1°10 Seer es Aes 3°93 2°65 Carbonié acid: 2.2 262k 1°02 100°34 100°63 and smaller of water, for the lime and magnesia are capable o replacement in either the hornblende or pyroxene. The Ma rock will be made a subject of further study. It seems to € to be dependent upon a low grade of metamorphism at a - Jour, ~~ Serres, Vou. XU, No. 68—Aveust, 1876. 184 G. W. Hawes—The Greenstones of New Hampshire. these rocks contains so large a proportion of alumina and also alkali, it will be seen how many combinations could be made from the same material. They both contain about two per cent of titanic iron and the oxygen ratio of the whole makes it n the metadiabase of Hanover another form was found, which is represented in figure 6. This is very likely a section of a fragment of the same species of rhizopod cut in a different direction. * These forms, distributed through the massive rock, have & structure, as the figures show, which cannot be attributed t0 crystallization. They seem to make it evident that rhizopods must have been living over the sea bottom during the accumu lation of these sediments, and became buried in the mud which is now the material of the rock. These forms are com : of silicates, but of what precise kind it is difficult to determin since the particles are minute and their optical properties #° obscure. Yet upon placing a drop of acid upon one of thet — it effervesced for a short time, showing that carbonate of lume existed in it—perhaps part of that of the origival foraminiler. The presence of these remains of rhizopods in the me : * It also calls to mind the series of cells of a Bryozoan. See figures of Licker Pea Va acess Sem ny ot Hew fo PT G. W. Hawes—The Greenstones of New Hampshire. 185 base is additional evidence of the sedimentary origin of these s; and they also confirm the view that the metamorphism was feeble in its degree, since it allowed of the preservation of these forms. It suggests, moreover, a source for the lime of the labradorite and other minerals of the rock, as well as for its pyrite and phosphate. Associated with these rocks are exten- sive beds of argillytes, which are scarcely altered. Everything points to quiet waters during the original deposition ; and finally to gentle metamorphism. 4, Chlorite Schist. Metadiabase Schist.—Metadiabase, by the development of a schistose structure, becomes metadiabase schist ; or, as it is commonly called, chlorite schist. This rock Ch ee Binns ... eee Werle Oxide .... eae 2°58 Ferrous Oxide... eS ebbing a ee Manganous oxide... -.... - sd ee. "25 ime = ee ee) ee wernetisn: 8. oo as 6°67 ash . Beart meee ee, “09 ieee Greet) Ge ee ee ee 3°31 Seanic acid... ac as "52 Str ee 2°39 100°42 _ This rock which, as the microscope shows, contains but little titanic iron, yet has more than twelve per cent of oxides of iron ; and hence the analysis indicates a ferruginous chlorite contain- ing but little magnesia. The chlorite which best fulfills the conditions of composition and optical properties is the one Which occurs in igneous diabase—the diabantite ;* and which 8 very apt to be formed in ferruginous rocks. If we consider ne water as an index to the amount of this chlorite, and the temaining magnesia to indicate pyroxene, we find that the rock Consists of 25 per cent of chlorite, 20 per cent of pyroxene, 1 Per cent of titanic iron, and a residue nearly identical in com- Position with labradorite. These schists are sometimes highly * This Journal, vol. ix, June, 1875. 136 G. W. Hawes—The Greenstones of New Hampshire. porphyritic, and sometimes large crystals of feldspar are sparsely scattered through the mass. e stratified kinds give us the plainest conceptions of the mode of origin of the whole. 5. Metamorphic Doleryte.—There is one more massive rock to which I refer on account of its lithological interest. It is the compound of pyroxene, triclinic feldspar and titanic iron, which is found at Littleton. The rock has the com position of a color of this rock is quite dark gray, and large orbicular erys- talline masses of diallage are developed in a finely granular base. Its composition is as follows: Me es 40°25 "ctrl gf CTA evens ie muitos Se our 13°62 Pete Obs ce 5°46 SrPOUn UNIO os; pour a a ce 10°36 Piss e URES ro; ee 8°86 Thee ARSON SMa eene sa _cnggn CE Saha: ae ee ea 1°96 Ti Oe 6°53 Water a “74 98°68 microscopic structure of this beautiful rock is illustrated in figures 3 and 4 o a - Fig. 3 represents the appear ance of a thin section magnified thirty-five diameters, by ordi- nary transmitted light, while fig. 4 represents the appearance of the same between crossed nicol prisms. It contains as the It is quite evident from a study o ae the colored mineral was originally all pyroxene, and that it has now been partly changed into hormblende. That the horn- G. W. Hawes— The Greenstones of New Hampshire. 187 blende resulted from the pyroxene is shown by the spots of hornblende in the pyroxene; the outline of these altered spots is quite indefinite and indistinct, indicating plainly the fact of change. When change of species takes place with no change whatever of chemical composition, it does not follow that the alteration should begin at the outside as in other cases, and as here seen this change began at the middle. Other crys- tals are seen to have so completely changed as to develop beautifully the cleavage of hornblende, while at the same time a good illustration of the cleavage of pyroxene is seen in the same slide. This alteration, which is not uncommon in other regions, is of much importance in New Hampshire, for in nearly all the trap rocks, the same change has taken place. It will be noticed that the pyroxene changes into a yellowish-brown strongly dichroic hornblende, and not into the bright green one which characterizes the original diorytes. 6. Argil/yte.—In closing, I give an analysis of one of the non- crystalline rocks which abound in the region, in support of some of the views that have been advanced. The one that I select is from Woodville, and is a corrugated argillyte. The composition obtained is as follows: faa ia rouis. sa let ee Mie Ss. Cur Sola oe ee ee Perie O¢x1d) ss ee “48 errous oxide liv Se pote ee ime ... J la eu ee Moawnosia 2c cic cdi ek ee EES NOW te eee oe) fe gee 3°44 OR ts Py ee ets ae ee 2°55 Water i633 io bog pai nebo 3°66 99°92 _In this rock the microscope shows only incipient erystalliza- tion ; yet it a composition that would have made a I percentages of lime, magnesia and iron. _*0 conclusion, it appears from the facts described, that the greenstones of New Hampshire have been formed from fine 0 oa iments, has determined the character: of the greenstone . *ld Laboratory, New Haven, Conn. 138 Serentifie Intelligence. SCIENTIFIC IN TELLIGENOCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND Puysics. 1. On the constitution of Naphthalene.—The constitution of the hydrocarbon naphthalene has been fixed, from its close analogy with benzene, as follows :— oan HC/\C-~CH=CH eas | ihe HC\ -C~CH=CH CH Wrepen has recently proposed two other formulas for this sub- stance and has given his reasons for preferring them. These ra- tional formulas are both unsymmetrical. The first is the most important, and is :— € Symmetrical formula, 6th, the existence of two perchloro- naphthalenes, And 7th, the existence of two analogous com- pounds, isomeric with styrene and acetenylbenzene, which this theory foresees may be synthesized from benzene and ethylene. The second formula, isomeric with the first, is:— CH Ree ae HC\ 7 “baba CH It differs from the s trical £ ; ae rae bination of the ahioh ai oma ormula only in the mo also to 1t.— Ber, Berl. Chem. Chemistry and Physics. 139 sealed up in ae tubes a cold seen solution of the former and a hot saturated solution of the lat This last tube on cool- ing deposited erystals while the first ie did the same on heating. After repeating the experiment for class instruction many times, the eaeney of the normal butyrate crystals appeared to lessen on heating, and on strong cooling crystals appeared eee the isobutyrate. This result careful examination confirme ince boiling for eight days did not effect the change, time must be the oe —Liebig’s Ann., clxxxi, 126, May, 1876. G. Bt Be . On the Influence of Z sparagin on Saccharimetry.—Cua wer of asparagin upon the indications of the saccharimeter. Its aqueous solution NE se saturated 1°66 to 1°72 per cent) rotates ae ec ° 14’; after adding ten per cent of am- monia — F Pa gard light the rotation — 11° 23’ was ob- 8.0 coreponing ai pa with that of M. Honehns ite ges amount to 0°7 gram of sugar in the 100 c.c. Whe authors eI how ever, that the ro oe power of the asparagin is entirely jenkogsd by the addition of acetic acid. They recommend the addition to the solution, after treatment with the basic acetate, of 10 c. ¢. 0 acetic acid (at 8°) to every 100¢.c. The same fact to a less de- Sree is true of the juice of the cane. The authors propose the titer before and after the wees of the acid, as a method for estimat- ing as sl in.— C. R., lxxxii, 819, Apr il, 1 876. G. F. B. h é Alkaloid princi: and some og Bodies.—HeEssE He iubjectod to a new and exact investigation the cinchon a alka- act i loid discovered in 1829 by Pelletier and called aricine, quad rom a new bark Cinchonu pelleterana. He comes to the conclu- ew BEV O-TO by rj med 73, re aie b in the ay state with cinchonidine. The alkaloid je hol second ¢ r gives a true record of the amount of recite pos Satan in it. The principle on which this measuring appa- in acts may be shortly described thus: The volume of liquid® hrou volvi 140 Scientific Intelligence. record of the total volume of passing liquid. The liquid on its way to the measuring drum passes through a receiver containing tion of the measuring drum. Thus, if water only passes through the alcohol counter, but in proportion as the lever ascends a greater proportion of the motion of the drum will be communicated to the alcohol counter, and this motion is rendered strictly proportionate to the alcohol contained in the liquid, allowance being made in the instrument for the change of volume due to chemical affinity between the two liquids. Several thousand instruments of this oti iscosity are th — factors, which determine the amount of the conductivity. 4 C.F asex—Hnrr von Osermayer has recently communicated a memoir to the Vienna Academy on the relation of the coefficients of internal friction of gases to the temperature If we accept for the coefficients of friction pat ¢° OC, the formula Chemistry and sce dae 141 f=, (1+at)" while a is the coefficient of expansion of the gas taken as a basis of the calculation, then the e pe ices of Ober- mayer give the croomeias. values of 2 :—Air, 0°76; hydrogen, °70; 14 oxygen, 80; ¢ ; ethylene, 96 ; ; nitroge en, ‘74; pro- toxide of nitro ; 93; ¢a arbonic acid, 94; ethyl chloride, "98. The coefficient of ‘ietion of the permanent gases is, according 0 these experiments, approximately proportional to "the 2 pow and that of the -soersible gases to the I-power of the absoluee temperature For temperatures: age 150° and 300° C. air gave the same values of n as between the lower temperatures —21°5 and 53°5. 80. Pal ellascoes Sounding of two apa —Dr. R. Konre “ns i 4 the results of an elaborate series o be ese cie of the effect of two tuning forks sounded together as follow I, (1) The eerie of beats of two notes n, n’ is ears equal to the positive and negative remainder of the division — —; that is, equal to the numbers m, m’, which are produced ed ‘ttle n= “el aa +1)n —m’, while m, »' are the number of double n!' i, The cause of the beat-notes is simply the periodical coinci- ence of the co ommon maxima of the two sound-waves. (2) Th the relations 1: 8 and even 1:10, and may, as well as the beats of the unison, be regarded as penal directly from the composition of the vibrations of the primary notes, without the help of result- ant intermediate note es, whose existence cannot be proved. ®) oth the beats m and the beats m’, not only of the interval nN; m, but also of the interval x» : hn--m (h=2, 3, 4), when the fi intensity of the shared notes and their number are ‘sufficient, a Ly into Shea no ry notes. fi en the be phan | of the beat-notes i whieh they are > ei and their numbers are sufficien t, these fe cute pace nge to a ssidean beat-note, as prim beats change to a Primary beat-note. > primary OL (6) The AUfedenecunttes and summation-notes, which 142 Scientific Intelligence. IV. (7) The beat-notes cannot be explained by reason of the difference-notes and summation-notes, because the number of their vibrations is in many cases different from what this cause might produce. (8) The audibility of the beats depends solely upon their num- ber and upon the intensity of the primary notes, and is independ- ent of the distance of the interval. g en the vibrations of a note vary periodically in intens- ity, the periodical maxima of vibration change into one note, if their number is sufficient. (14) The beat-note which is formed by two primary notes must always be weaker than the latter, although single beats are Giana than the notes which form them.— Phil. Mag., |, 417, : E. Oe Il. GkoLogy AND MINERALOGY. with fuller illustrations, and adds planations of his theory of : dds e the origin of mountains. The discussion should be read by all sions. His discussions are not free from misunderstandings of eological facts, and if they fail to be finally received it will or this reason. The subject is too large a one for a full state ment, in a book-notice, of the apparent difficulties and sources of doubt which might occur to an advocate of the latter theory. principal points in his theory of mountain-making as explained in the later part of his ements . : Accepting the proposition that there is a plastic condition of pata beneath the earth’s crust and that metamorphism is a “ hydro- - ermal process,” and believing that “the penetration of water to Geology and Mineralogy. 143 silica, alumina, ete., in th are obtained in the soluble hydrous condition, and therefore they at the classes of facts already set forth as the concomitants of those features,” etal P ¢ “er aya areas, which are less heavily weighted, forming at once . synclinals and anticlinals, If the difference in the densities u greater, but assumes new phases the Juras and Appala- Sane: and finally when the two conditions become extreme, the Puen become erup ments are hence accord- Tu the to hydrostatic law. He says further: “In mountain-making disturbing agents have been extreme. All typical mountains Sust of granitoid cores protruded through strata and towering above them”—as in the Sierra Nevada. “The thickness of the 144 Scientific Intelligence. tation would inevitably propel it.” “In the Coast Range, the Uintahs, Wahsatch and the Park Mountains of Colorado, strata miles in thickness have sunk, and right at the upturned edges come up the towering granitoid mountains.” “ On the one hand, matter has been displaced and gone somewhere [southeastward], on the other, displaced matter stands revealed in immediate con- tiguity.” The Uintah range is a good example. “Disregardin the enormous Cretaceous deposits, the freshwater Tertiaries turne up on the flanks of these mountains are 10,000 feet thick. That these beds subsided by their gross weight as rapidly as they grew admits of no shadow of doubt.” “What became of the matter displaced by the sinking strata, and whence came the displaced matter which slopes down to their upturned edges, and how can the conclusion be avoided that they are one and the same?” In other words the granitoid core was extruded as the sinking went forward, or during the later part of it For further details respecting the theory we refer to the original memoir. With regard to this new theory, we might reasonably question the existence of the colloid magma—a condition fundamental to . . of which the rocks were made came from land once existing toa sinking by weight where the material was thickest above, 9 so making the synclinals; whether in the case of the Appalachians, Geology and Mineralogy. 145 diately” sounds quick to one who appreciates the slowness of geo- logical changes. The Carboniferous age was very long; and some where in that part of geological time, either before the age had im fully ended, or some time after its close, the epoch of catas- trophe began. But this catastrophe, according to the apprehen- Sion of geologists who best appreciate the of the earth’s of the Upper Missouri Country ; by F. B. Meex. 609 pp. quarto, With an Introduction of Ixiv pages, and 45 quarto lithographic plates, of about 1000 figures, constituting volume ix of the Report of the U. S. Geological Survey of the Territories, F. V. Hayprn, -o. Geologist in charge.—Mr. Meek’s labors in connection with 146 Scientific Intelligence The Introduction to the volume, after presenting sketches of the earlier explorations in the Upper Missouri region, describes the formations from which the fossils were collected, giving sections showing the thickness and order of superposition of the various subdivisions. The geographical extension of the same west of the Mississippi is also shown; and their relation to the subdivisions retaceous in Mississippi, Alabama, New Jersey, and in the Old World are fully discussed. The author also makes some re- marks on the mooted question in regard to the relation of the Lignites of the far-west to the Cretaceous and Tertiary systems, maintaining, as he had previously done, that these deposits belong in part to the Cretaceous and in part to the Tertiary: that is, that the beds at Coalville, Utah, and Bear River, Wyoming, are clearly Cretaceous, like those of Western Colorado; that those of Bitter reek, Wyoming, especially those below the horizon of the Hall- ville coal, are almost certainly Cretaceous; that those above, to the horizon of the Saurian bed at Black Butte Station inclusive, probably belong also to the Cretaceous, but may be Eocene; and t the Evanston and Carbon Station coal-bearing strata of ary. The Judith river fresh- and brackish-water beds of Montana, iti ica, i of Saurians : Eocene types 0 and new species of shells that would be called Tertiary forms by almost any paleontologist (judging from their affinities), he thinks, may be Cretaceous, but he does not regard this conclusion e affinities and geological range, so far as known, of. each genus, are also fully discussed; and when represented by existing species, its habits and geographical distribution are generally stated, Most of the species, and some of the genera in the work, are here for the first time illustrated. y a few of the species are known to occur in the old world, and at localities in this country east of the Mississippi; and thesé are all from the Cretaceous, and show that the Niobrara and Fort Benton Groups, as well as perhaps the Dakota Group, represent the Lower or Gray Chalk, with possibly also the Upper Green Sanh Geology and Mineralogy. 147 and the Fort Pierre and Fox Hills Groups the Upper White Chalk, and, possibly, also the Maestricht beds of Europe. 3. Shower of Volcanic dust over Scandinavia.—In March of 1875, according to A. E, Nordenskidéld, a shower of volcanic dust fell widely over Sweden and still more abundantly over Norway, making a layer over some places a quarter of an inch thick. The dust was pumice-like in constitution. It is traced to Iceland. On the 30th of March the winds were northwest and west. eruption began in Iceland in the preceding December, from nu- merous craters in the interior, and the most abundant ash-shower occurred over the island on the 29th of March, covering so astures six inches deep; and if the ashes of the same shower Mobius, of Kiel, in 1874, on a coral reef off Mauritius, of an incrust- ing foraminifer, which, in mode of growth and peculiarities of Structure, approaches rather closely the Eozoon. ; Dr. Dawson states that Mr. Richardson has found at Chibogo- mon, Canada, in a great bed of olive-green serpentine (a kind an- aly zed by Hunt) a specimen of tabulate coral, having many of its thin-walled hexagonal cells filled with serpentine, while others ti r. Dawson has described ar. Jour, Geol. Soc., Feb., 1876) ‘pecimens of eng nip ce from Cote St. Pierre, in the 148 Scientific Intelligence. Seigniory of Petite Nation, on the Ottawa, in a limestone of the Grenville band of Sir W. E. : eriments on Schistosity in rocks, and on the deforma- tions of fossils attending its production ; by M. Dausrhe (C. R., Ixxxii, March 27 and April 10, 1876.)—The production of folia- tion in rocks is here discussed at length and illustrated by facts rom experiments; and the results are made by Daubrée to include all examples of a schistose structure. His experiments were made by the hydraulic press used by M. Tresca in similar researches, and under the advice of this physicist. Clay contain- ct having taken a position parallel to the surface. Thesa the scale of mica the more perfect the parallelism. These clays thus made foliaceous called to mind, strongly, M. Daubrée ob- serves, the foliaceous character of mica schist and gneiss. By the same process, the compression of fossils was illustrated and also the occasional subdivision of one into a series of separated parts. A belemnite was too firm to answer for the ex eriment; but 4 piece of chalk cut into the form of a belemnite, gave precisely the acture and separation of parts so often seen. Daubrée states that in the production of the foliated or schistose structure, there is a sliding of the parts unequally in the direction rapid. e experiments Daubrée draws the wide conclusion that i ist, as well as that e for example, movement under pressure of the protogine mate when pressed out in a plastic condition was the cause of all the schistosity the rock presents. . vere gneiss, mica schist, quartzyte, limestone occur in alter nating beds, : planes of junction, they must of course be regarded as successive structure of gneiss or mica schist was occasioned i Bias a not, is to be ascertained by a direct study of the rocks in place. Geology and Mineralogy. 149 8. The Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota; 4th Annual Report, for 1875 ; by N. H. WincHELL, State Geologist, assisted by M. W. Harrineron. 162 pp. 8vo. St. Paul, Minn. 876.—This report contains a Report on Fillmore County, by Prof. Winchell, and others, on Olmstead, Dodge and Steele Coun- ties, by Mr. Harrington, together with a long table of railroad b in diameter. The St. Lawrence limestone, Jordan sandstone and Shakopee limestone underlie the St. Peters sandstone and corres- pond to the Lower Magnesian limestone. 9. Revue de Géologie of Messrs. Delesse and Lapparent. Vol. xu for 1873 and 1874, 224 pp. 8vo. 1876. (P. Savy, éditeur).— A very convenient volume for the geologist, posting up the new facts and discoveries in lithological, stratigraphical and dynamical geology. We cite from it the following observations: M. Gérardin has shown that the waters of subterranean streams, feeding artesian wells, contain no oxygen, as Péligot had before shown to be true of the water of Grenelle. According to M. Ed. Jannettaz, the conductibility for heat of slaty rocks is much the greatest in the direction of the slaty struc- ture. Thus the ratio is in a talcose slate (a hydromica slate ?) from the United States 2-007; in argillyte (phyllade) 1°988; mica schist from Aurillac (Cantal) 1°82; in a ferruginous talc slate (hy- dromica slate?) making part of the itacolumites of Guyanne, 1°87 ; sas vy tn of Angers, 1°6 euse and Cape Fear River in North Carolina, and of a line to connect the waters of Norfolk Harbor in Virginia, with the tae of Cape Fenr River at or near Wilmington in North arolina ; by Mr. S. T. Apert, U. S. Engineer. Engineer tai * Senate Ex. Doe., 44th Congress, No. 35.—This Report con- ams much valuable matter on the physical features of the coast — of North Carolina and Virginia, and of the changes which ee € origin of those changes. Jour. Sct.—Tarrp Serres, Vou. XII, No. 68.—Aveust, 1876. 10 150 Scientific Intelligence. . Mines and Mineral Statistics of New South Wales, compiled by direction of the Hon. Joh of the remarkable mineral transformations at Bourbonne-les-Bains have been given in volume x of this J ournal, at pages 228 and 391. They were from abstracts of his communications to the Académie des Sciences in 1875, in the Comptes Rendus, lxxx, i memoir has sion of the characters, conditions of occurrence, and modes of origin, of the several species, together with many valuable sugges- hydrous silicate of iron, gelatinizing with acids, as had_ been observed by Daubrée also at Plombiéres, Vivianite is another of the iron minerals, : In addition to the zeolites, chabazite, and harmotome, there is One in regular hexagonal prisms which Daubrée refers with a query site or the material known as Savon de Pilom biéres. whole number of crystallized species found to have been formed in the bottom of the old Roman well is at least four, Daubrée remarks that they may be looked upon a hough the are Of so various kinds as to illustrate well the associati minerals in some metallic veins, The changes were produce Geology and Mineralogy. 151 Bourbonne, as they were also at Plombiéres, within eight meters of the surface, and at a temperature but little elevated; how great, then, asks Daubrée, must be the transformations we should witness if we could descend to the deeper parts of the conduits of thermal waters; and what the changes that must have gone on at all times through the waters penetrating the earth’s deeper rocks and fissures. Further notes on inclusions in Gems, by Isaac Lea, LL.D. ll pp. 8vo. Philadelphia, 1876.—-Dr. Lea, in continuation of his former paper on this subject, describes cavities and minute crys- tals observed by him in tourmaline; of a cubic form and including a fluid, in an emerald; blue, and 4-sided, in iolite; tubular cavities, with a cubic crystal with fluid in one cavity, in blue corundum o North Carolina; minute acicular crystals in corundum of Dela- ware Co., Pa., producing a bronze-like luster; and other results of er observations. The paper is accompanied by a lithographic ate 15. ae ery Map of EHurope.—A small colored oad fa) K J . . . 242 k xis, lwo vari up of hexagonal lamelle, with perfect cleavage, and the other very compact, with the cleavage scarcely visible. Double refrac- i i ative. H.= 4°75, G.= 3°07. Color rose- red; streak pinkish-white. ‘Transparent in thin fragments, i th varieties mentioned give the same composition ; in fact they 8s into one another. M. Bertrand writes the formula 4MnO, ound at the manganese mine of Adierville, valley of Louron E. 8 Cra | e a sae 5°] te bar fenhs =] Os oO — ~ . R., May 15, 1876. + 17. Analeite not isometric.—Prof. Schrauf, (1. ¢.) from an ex- ied system. The 152 Scientific Intelligence. existence of a dome as twinning plane, with an angle of 44° 45’, and giving the axial ratio 1:0°991. Irregularities in the optical properties of analcite were observed by Brewster. E. 8. D. Angewandte Krystallographie (Ausbildung der Krystalle, Lwillingsbildung, Krystallotektonik) nebst einem Anhange tber Zonenlehre, von A. SavEBECK. 284 pp. 8vo, with 23 plates, Berlin. 1876.—The present volume forms pro erly the second part of the Elements of Crystallography (of G. Rose) published by Prof. Sadebeck in 1873. The object of the work is to describe crystals as they actually appear in nature, not the ideal forms which are of only theoretical existence. The special subjects con- sidered are: 1. hemimorphism and seudo-symmetry, the latter also in the interior of crystals. This last subject is one of great theoretical interest, and in the discussion of it the author has in- troduced much matter which is new obtained from his own exten- Sive researches ; it is elucidated b many excellent figures. Th ast chapter of the work discusses the subject of zones, considered E. S. D. 19. New Journal devoted to Mineralogy and Crystallography. —Professor Grot , in a letter to the editors dated Strasbourg, May 28th, 1876, announces the commencement of a new Journal for special miner alog e plan of this Journal embraces the followin cts :—theoretical, physical and chemical crystallog- raphy; investigations regard to artificial crystals; mono mination under the microscope; in a word the Journal will cover the whole field of mineralogy, with the exclusion of geology: wherever publis There are to be from six to eight numbers ng ear, appearing every six er eigh with the ex- clusion of the vacation months, e chief editorial duty will performed by Prof. Groth, with the especial codperation 0 vom Rath of Bonn, and Prof, Klein of Heidelberg. The pub lisher is Engelmann of Lei zig. + thi The plan deserves the oe support of all interested in this department of science, Botany and Zoology. 153 IlL Borany AND ZOOLOGY. ing results of the long and close scrutiny which Dr. Engelmann has given to this vexed genus of trees. The paper begins with , var, Uthensis, DeC.), Q. Gunnisoni, Q. undulata, described by Torrey long ago from this district, Q. pungens of Liebman, in part, Q. oblongifolia, @. grisea, an Drum- mondii of Liebman,—‘ in herbarium specimens all distinct enough, but, looking around us, the very abundance of material must shake our confidence in our discrimination [since] within the com- pass of a few hundred yards we find not only the forms above unite them all as f one single, polymorphous species one oak behaves thus, why not oth Thrown upon a sea of r. Engelmann reviews the principal characters, one by one, to settle their relative value; and, in doing so, brings out the main ~ ,» as ize attained, while it gives character to eastern species (only the southern live oak occurring both as lar tree and shrub, an ually fruitful in both forms), fails on the between ‘white oaks’ and ‘black oaks’ is based on correct ob- servation. The paler, ashy-gray bark of the former, and the darker ) Am i ar Sealy or flaky, that of the black oaks is usually rou, her and deeply cracked or furrowed.” “ Moreover, the wood of the white oaks is “ d of m g narrower and nar- rower rings as they grow older, the oaks either hold their own, the annual rings being as wide in age as in youth, or they grow i Tapidly after the first 50, 100, or even 150 years of their ex- ce, 154 Scientific Intelligence. The winter buds give characters in some species. Ag to the shape of the leaves, so extremely variable, it is remarked, “that those oaks, which in the perfect state have deeply lobed or pinnati- fid leaves, show in young shoots and on adventitious branchlets less divided or even entire leaves; while, singularly enough, the oaks whose leaves in the adult tree are entire, or nearly so, often eaves.” The vernation of the leaves, although more commonly condupli- cate, both in white and black oaks, furnishes other types, which Dr. Engelmann has first brought into prominent view, and finds of great account in distinguishing allied species and doubtful vari- eties, and in unravelling intricate questions of hybridity or affinity. The nature of the down on young leaves may also be turned to use. The venation occasionally enables easily confounded species, such as Q. agrifolia and Q. Wislizeni, to be distinguished even in ster- The persistence of the leaves is a good character in some species, while in others it is of no account. The leaves of some oaks per- sist even to the third year, “ Only such oaks ought to be called evergreen which retain the greater part of their old leaves, at least until the new ones are fully grown.” In the male flowers the size and number of the anthers furnish good distinctions, being small and mostly 5 to 10 in the white oaks, four or sometimes 5 to 6 and larger in the black oaks; the S var several, male flowers distinguish the principal groups, especially the styles, which in the white oaks are ses i the shell is thicker and lined with a silky down. All these matters relate to the true oaks (section Lepidobalanus), with scaly acorn-cups, pendulous male catkins wholly apart the solitary or distant female flowers. But in California we have, m Q. densiflora a representative of the otherwise Asiatic sub- tkins, linear pointed stigmas, and a spinose cup, which, how- is ba of an oak rather than like the prickly involucre of the eatheut, The paper continues with a systematic enumeration of the 38 recognized species, and notes are appended to about half of them. 5 bess Botany and Zoology. 155 Finally, hybrid oaks are discussed; and six well determined ones are enumerated as known to the writer, three of which have been described as species, namely: @. Leana, Q. tridentata, and . inuata, One parent of four of these hybrids is @. imbricaria ; es that Q. heterophylla of Michaux is received, not as a hybrid, ut as a well-marked species, of the Phellos, laurifolia, and aquat- ica group. Dr. Engelmann’s six real hybrids are all of the Black oak group: this group never crosses with White oaks; and no hybrid of the latter group is known to our author. The black oaks are now unknown in Europe; but we learn that they existed germinated; in fact, as far as I know, no difference in fertility or germinating power between them and the acknowledged species has been discovered. The seedlings of such questionable individ- struggle for existence.” There is another reason, to us & MO” probable one. The hybrid tree, when isolated in cultivation, 18 likely to self-fertilize and so be continued in its progeny; but in its native forest, surrounded and dominated by its two parents, its female flowers will almost inevitably be fertilized by the pollen ber of the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, an interesting and porthy tribute by Dr. Bornet to the director ~g companion a : ft his studies and researches, to whom eft the sacred duty 0 completing them, so fa possible. To the full biography 18 ; i 156 Scientific Intelligence. oe esieanga Phytographie Australie, contulit Liber Baro — NaNDUs DE Muriter. Vol. IX. M elbourne, 1876.—This ninth ici bears testimony to the untiring industr y, zeal, and ability with which Dr. Von Miller kee eps up his investigations into the botany of the adopted country for which he has done so much in various ways; and his s Descriptive Notes on Papuan Plants, and other publications upon the botany of the Pacific Islands, show how, from his vantage ground, he w idens the already ample field, making the most of opportunity, ever active him- —_ and inciting and a chine the activity and advantages of ot 4, Flora grantor, ed. Auc. Guin. Ere ean Cp ‘om- Vol. vi, part 2, with 398 pages of letterpress and 102 plates. The enlightened and active-minded emperor, Dom Pedro, may be well pleased at having _? a flora of his empire, and at the —_ of its early peeries eis of Michigan at the Centennial pe sition ; by Prof J. W. Beat, of the State Agricultural College.— A pamphlet t of 16 pages, 8vo, giving an account, not only of the collection exhibited, but. of the trees of the State, both the com- 0 trees: “At Clam Lake an old lumberman informed me that he could furnish — of pine 175 feet long and not over an feet through at the butt. He had cut them 200 feet lon ng.” : tré of Iowa, a catalogue of the Phenogamous plants; by G. C. Arravr. '1876,—A neat cata- for) S 32 ~ i) > i) 38 - g logue; with an appendix containing apie, rin generic and i the sy detected in Towa which are not in Gray’s eg twenty or so in number, sei good notes ae some a en ocust invasion of 1874,—Mr, G. M. Dawson bas pabiished @ paper in the Eepedion Naturalist on the Locust invasion of t Salah big of the United States. He remarks that they, pee 10 Manitoba in 1818, and from there have caused seri travel ™ a certain direction, and the mecttiel peg Ww them to a wind favoring their intention.” One Botany and Zoology. 157 reached the shores of the Lake of the Woods, long. 96° W. They do not eat sorghum or brown corn, and the Leguminose (pea and bean family) are decidedly disliked, while potatoes, tomatoes, and beets are usually exempt. Mr. Dawson asks whether this dislike 8. United States Geological Survey of the Territories. Volume X, M 8. Packarp. Washington, 1876. 4to, with 13 Plates.—This is the first complete greatest praise for his descriptions of species. Dr. Packard begins his work with the lower genera, ascending to the higher; so that the usual arrangement of the material is reversed. In the absence of a similar treatment of the other families of Lepidoptera, this ackard is fortunate in having so large material as to be able. arte several species hitherto regarded as distinct (e. g. the species of Drepanodes and E. llopia); with regard to the species of Ellopia B. Packard says: “If I had had Mr. Grote’s types alone of male th bibularia and female pellucidaria, 1 should have regarded re as distinct.” Perhaps in uniting Endropia ammnaria av arefactaria Dr. Packard may prove less fortunate. _In the . few which will not stand. Eur 158 Scientific Intelligence. gonia is preoccupied in the Butterflies. Hutrapela must be used for Kentaria and Alciphearia ; asin des for be = called Lue Che coe were drawn on stone by Trouvelot. Dr. Hayden is to be ing of the Geological Survey, and Dr, Packard eo ree — tude of entomologists for - treatment of the s abulute Corals. — . Lindstrém, in a aper a gene tion of which is given in ithe Ann. Mag. Nat. — t. for July, _ Striat Hall, ete. ; os Halysites, Lyellia E. & ., Plasmopora (wit E. .. Calapecia ae Thecostegites KE. & H., ” ake Heliolitide ; Heliopora an tremacis to the Alcyonaria; Chwtetes, Monticulipora, Danie Stellipora, Alveolites in part, #7 ‘stulipora i in part, to the Bryozoa: Poeillopora (following Verrill) to the Oculinide, with, garter Seriatopora ; Columnaria, to the Cyathopyllide ; Fletcheria an Michelinia to the Cystiphyllide ; Syringopora, to the vicinity of [ aoneetne and pies! phyl 11. syn opsis 0 stouctnon Wa by Henri pe Saussure of Geneva, Re Solitary ate Sithounial Miscellaneous Collections, _ 254. 386 pp. 8vo, with 4 plates. Washington, = ning ee es N, on Ophivariden one “aha collected by the Hleneids Expedition and Dr. W son. strated Cataloght of the Mus. Comp. Zool. at Basan 1 Co alee N o. VIL 34 PP 4to, with five excellent plates. he 3. Bulleti: the U. 8. National Museum, a under? — of the Smithsonian Institution, No. 4. Birds of South- stern — = ed vc F. E. Sumichrast, eo by ‘the -cessami ce. vo.—No. 5. a of the Fishes of 6. Bermudas, by ne Brown Goode. 82 pp. 8 Washington, we Catalogue of the Stalk- and Sessile-Eyed Crustacea of New segrer ws — rt » F.LS., Assist. Zool. Dept. Brit. Mus., Colonial M ba: rarrey Department, James Hector, M.D., Director. 236 pp. 8vo, oth 3 plates. : ine ee of the Birds of Kansas, by F. H. Snow. 3ded. 14 PP a vat ot Ska revatio Crania in the Section of Comparative Anatomy ot Miscellaneous Intelligence. 159 IV. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. On Oceanic Circulation ; by Wu. B. CarpextEr.—The very decided expression of opinion on the part of Professor Wyville Thomson, to which currency is given in the Athenwum, against the doctrine of “a general vertical circulation of the water of the ocean, depending on differences of specific gravity,” is far from being decisive of the question; and might, perhaps, have been advantageously withheld, until my friend should have learned, on is return home, what progress has been made towards its solution by ee inquiry, during his three and a half years’ absence. If he had b (74 : gradient.” And e might have further received from Mr. Froude ie point furnished by his extended observations on harbors, lochs, io fiords; to the effect that wherever the specific gravity of the Surlace-water of any such inlet of the sea is reduced by a river : orway, there is a deep channel, along the Cattegat Thi cial water can be traced southward as far as f _. Pressure over the northern end of the trough, constant! mal : gh, co y sree y the reduction of downward pressure over its sou ity, which results from the admixture of fresh water. 160 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 3 Until, therefore, Prof. Wyville Thomson shall have been able to disprove these results of combined theoretical and practical research, by showing that differences of specific gravity, produced by differences either of temperature or of salinity, will not produce movements in oceanic water tending to the restoration of its di turbed equilibrium, I venture to affirm that his dictuin will not find acceptance with the physicists who have most carefully studied the question. His present doctrine, that the underflow of primum mobile is the excess in the specific gravity of polar per causing its continual descent and a complemental ascent in the equatorial zone, Miscellaneous Intelligence. 161 may submit them to the judgment of the distinguished physicists who will doubtless be there assembled. To such a judgment I pledge myself implicitly to bow; no one being better aware than myself of the disadvantage under which I labor in possessing no more than an elementary knowledge of physical doctrine.— Atheneum, May 13. 2. Reclamation. — Letter to the Editors, from Mr. George Davidson, U. S. Coast Survey, dated San Francisco, March 7, 1876.—In the March number of your Journal (No. 63, vol. xi,) Article xxix, by Professor Lovering, the statement is made that “the late Professor Winlock [in February and March, 1869] sent electrical signals from Cambridge to San Francisco, and thence by other lines to Canada, and back again to Cambridge, over a loop of wire measuring 7200 miles.” Professor Winlock and I were always in full accord in this and other matters, and I am sure he never made the above claim. O the contrary, he gave me full credit for the inception of the experi- \ sala and the successful determination of the wave time over a a : : ; Moreover, the experiment was not made at boars it was rancisco, ? unfortunately the cable across the Golden Gate broke after passing the first series, and no more were undertaken. The whole work is fully detailed in the records of the Coast Survey, and, by permission of the Superintendent, the results and modus operandi were verbally communicated by me to the Cali- fornia Academy of Sciences. If, however, the details of my work and of Professor Winlock’s device are of any interest to experimentalists, I can readily supply em from the original memoranda. 3, Men of Science, Jrom abroad, at the U. S. International Exhibition —No occasion has before drawn together so many dis- hguished men of science from abroad, in various departments, as the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia. Without attempting AWKSuAW, the eminent engineer who was last year President of he British Association; Sir Cuartes Reep, President of the - th Group of Judges—for Education and Science; Capt. OUGLAS Garon, President of the Judges under the XVIIIth roup—Railway Plans, etc.; Mr. Isaac Lowrntan BELL, the a eed bd Oe et bg oh oct er Ny 162 Miscellaneous Intelligence. most eminent iron metallurgist in Great Britain, and author of the well-known treatise on the ‘Chemistry of the Blast Furnace, President of the Judges of Group I—Minerals, Mining, Metallurgy, 3; Dr. Wittiam Optine, Wayntlete Professor of Chemistry in Apo , Prof, . Anestrim, Polytechnic Institute, Prof. O. M. Toret, Chief of the Geological Survey of Sweden, and Ricuarp AKERMAN, of the Royal Swedish School of Mines, all from Stockholm, under whose immediate superinten- dence the excellent geological, mineralogical, and metallurgical display of Sweden, at the Exposition, has been made; from Rus sia, Major General AxeL Gapoine, an eminent Russian engineer, and Prof. L. Nionoisky, Mining Engineer and adjunct Professor collection in the Exposition; from xermany, Dr. Wepp1nNe, Royal russian Counsellor of Mines, Dr. Rupotpa Von Waener, the well-known Editor of Wagner’s Jahresbericht, and Dr. G. Sust- Horst, of Nuremberg; from France, Mr. L. Smmontn, J. F. Kvnt- MAN (fils), M. E. Levassrur, and M. Emre Gurwet, of Lyons; from Italy, Prof. EMANUEL PatERNo, of Palermo; from Mexico, Martano Baxrcena, the mineralogist, The Emperor of Brazil, without claiming the position of a man of science, manifests the most intelligent and cultivated under a raising thereby of the surface of the Caspian—now below sea duty it shall be to prepare and submit to the consideration OF | i : ith estimates Miscellaneous Intelligence. 163 rector and all other officers shall hold office during the pleasure of um, including expenses. Under the first resolution the board proceeded to choose a Director, and Prof. James T. Gardner, at present et of the American Geographical Society, was seoag d.—N. Y. Times, July 1 pA sda chiu, June, 1876, vol. I, No. 1, 62 pp. 8vo. Boston A. ° Wilthane & Co. Published for the p an han Mae Club.—The Appalachian Mountain Club was pea a age in 1876 “for the advancement of the interests of those who visit the Mountains; an mies of a paper on the “ Atlantic System of Mountains,” by C. H. Hrrcucock ; a day on Tripyramid, by ©. Fay; on two new forms of Mountain Baromet eter, by 8. W. Hot- MAN; anew map of the White Mountains (with a Map) by Mr. J. B. Hencx, Jr.; on the East Branch of the Pemigewasset, by W. Urnam; fopeibee with reports of the Councillors for the spring of 1876, 6, containing suggestions of work proposed for the summer. merican Association for the Advancement of Science.—The ae 5) bers on arrival will find the Permanent Secretary at the Tifft House. By means of pel ime obtainable of the Permanent Benretary: at Salem, Mass., tickets at reduced prices may be had on the following rallies ds: Erie, Grand Trunk, Canada Southern, Great Western , Pennsylvania, Lake Shore and Michigan Southern, Cleveland, —— Cincinnati and Indianapolis, New Orleans, t. eb and Chic le 8 0 ‘Phy sical Geography, for the use of Schools, Academies wand 0 eileces b Mit ry, Houston, A.M., Prof. P ys. Ge 98> < Bik Phil., Central High School, Philadephia. 0, with m any illustrations. Philadelphia, 1876. ored 9. "pater gs oR the 1 ——o y. Natural we vol, i eupied with a article vive. he vanes of Mr, Coar tins e Warr dette, in vag article entitled “ Studies upon the st leet of the Earth’s Axis. ; 10. Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science, eek § iv. ¥ — : ig bolle = This volume contains papers E. alysis of Kansas sila and on 3 : ue,” on Kansas Mammalia; G. F. 164 Miscellaneous Jntelligence. Gaumer, on the habits of some larves; W. Osburn, on the Cotton- wood leaf-bee tle; F. H. Snow, on the Rocky Mountain Locust, the larve and chrysalis of the Sage Sphinx, Catalogue of the Lepidoptera of E. Kansas (503 species), and Meteorological Sum- mary for 1875. The meteorological summary states that the amount of rain (including snow) at Lawrence ce, Kansas (38° 58’ N., ° 16’ W., at an elevation above the sea- level of 884 feet) was 28°87 inches, the same as for ep cee 4:11 inches below the so rainfall . ae a eight —A nD ralogical acclety has been bay in Eng- feat ee the hil, (=e Prof. Miller as its Presider Medical eb of a Provost Marshal General’s Bureau. ie under the direction of the Secretary of War, by J. H. Baxter, A.M.,M.D. Vols. I and I. Thi a ai Se Principia or Basis of Socia 1 Science; by R. J. Wright. Second Edition. 542 pp. 8vo. Philadelphia, 1876. (J. B. ‘Lippincott & Co.) OBITUARY. Porter Pornter, only son of Elisha B. and Frances A. Poinier, of Newark, died in New York city on Sunday afternoon, une lith, aged 23 years. He had given himself to the study of Physics, and in the Polytechnic Institutes of Troy and Hoboken, — e had thus early developed a very remarkable genius in the depititent of applied science. His studies had led him, with . great success, into original investigations of heat as 4 force m under whom he studied. He attained to such hea = vals were found worthy of public notice, and he was engngee ™ bs 4 ge and ng ae of an original work on the pute eat, with t roval of his professors. His eothaane é a able disease, and, while orga to = his bok es the press at Cambridge, he was pronounced b eyond 1 . be ardor in study was suddenly quenched by dia “and sadly fell in eres midst of his successes. mise in the field of research had been eh: o the notice of the Johns PLATE Iv. x mJ. 8ci.3#S8er. Vol A =! 7), 4y i 4 4h ‘ Diy ; HY | 6 By Ling iM - = “i; Ke “Uy, 4 en rel 4 . Bhat ees 3 Pundersonk Cricand NewHaver.v ‘- SS Uite by G W Hawes AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [THIRD SERIES.] Art. XXI.—On the Gases contained in Meteorites. Second paper; by ArrHurR W. Wrieut, Yale College. In a previous article, published in this Journal, April, 1876, the writer gave the results of investigations upon the nature of the gases evolved from a number of meteorites of both the iron and the stony classes, when exposed to a more or less elevated More common type, containing a considerable percentage of nickeliferous iron, without any appreciable quantity of uncom- ? Several other points of importance, referred to in the previous Yale College. Tt contains an inconsiderable propor- Sct.—Turep ct tae Vou. XII, No. 69,—Sspt., 1876. 166 A. W. Wright—Gases contained in Meteorites, e suilicient to mention that, as the meteorite gives I e Kold Bokkeveld. : co Sn N. 300°-350° 87°34 5°08 = 55°93 trace? «1°65 = 7°45 500° 95°53 P82 914 004? 047 1 Total. 93°11 2-42 325 0-38? 0°84 25°23 e volume of the gases obtained is much greater in this than in the previous determinations; but it will be seen that The percentage of carbon di-oxide is somewhat larger at the higher temperature than in the other cases, but the real differ- that 1s, with more carbon atoms than are contained in I- Bas, might be found. But both the analyses, and special “ Die chemische Natur der Meteoriten. Abhandl. der Konig!. A. W. Wright—Gases contained in Meteorites. 167 again in the cooling-tube without decomposition. No attempt was made to collect it separately. The amount of water driven off by the heat and collected in the cooled tube was found to be about ten per cent of the of a light yellowish substance was deposited in the cold part of the tube, which appeared to be sulphur, but was not specially examined. _ The differences in the gaseous products obtained from meteor- ites of the different classes may be made more apparent by Mnging together the results of analyses hitherto made. The. following table gives the total percentage of the gases yielded y the different specimens, the first seven being irons, the re- mainder belonging to the stony class. It represents the com- Position of the total amount of gas given off up to incipient or low r except in the first two instances where the heat, ‘emperature employed was much higher. Tron meteorites, CO,. OO. CH, H. NN. Vol. Observers. Lenarto, 4°46 0°00 __. 85°68 9°86 2°85 Graham. Augusta Co., Va., 9°75 36-33 _.. 35°83 16°09 3°17 Mallet. Tazewell Co., Tenn., 14°40. 47°93 2 =. 4066 771 ingle Spr., Cal., 13°64 12°47 __. 68°81 5°08 0-97 W. Dare 8°59 1462 __. 76°79 0°00? 1:29 W. ckson Co., Tenn., 13°30 15°30 ___ 71°40 0°00? 2:20 W. Arva, 56 67°71 ... 18°19 1°54 47°13 W. meteorites. lowa Co., 2-64 0-0? 43°93 3:92 2°50 W. Gy 49°51 Pultuces ~°7 Ohio, 59°88 4-40 2-05 31°89 1°78 2°99 W. P. nak; 60° 4°35 3°61 29°50 2°25 1°75 W. emallee, 81:02 1°74 2°08 13°59 1°57 2°63 W. 80°78 2-28 1°63 13°06 2°33 3°49 W. 93°11 2°42 3°25 0°38? 0°84 25°23 W. 168 A. W. Wright— Gases contained in Meteorites. : eee ara The celestial origin of the Ovifak iron is vety “a : of detected the fact that the former numbers were calculated from the change in the reading of the gauge of the air-pump on evolution of the gas, and were not corrected for the small amount 0 : a rough estimate. In the case of - Arva iron, where the volume of the gas was much larger; 4 h was not serious, and the volume corresponds mue A. W. Wright—G@ases contained in Meteorites. 169 very variable, in one ‘instance reaching to 12 or 13 per cent. experiment with a portion of the Weston meteorite. After the gas had been driven off from this by a red heat, pure, dry car- aang in greater or less quantity had a similar effect upon the r. Sorat the questions discussed in the previous paper, was manner of the occurrence of the carbon di-oxide. This has * Watts’s Dict. of Chem. 170 A. W. Wright— Gases contained in Meteorites, been subjected to further examination, with the result of mod- ifying somewhat the conclusions there arrived at. That it has p character of the carbon di-oxide, as in the presence of, or com- bined with. water. But in this case the carbonates formed by as well as absorbed within it, With a view to test the correct- ness of this supposition, a special set of experiments was under- taken. A quantity of the substance of the Iowa meteorite was red heat.- The following were the results obtained : 2 and CO. H. N. Volumes. Powder, 66-96 30°96 2°08 0°97) yas Tron, 38°72 59°38 1:90 0°51 Fragments, 48-07 50-93 00 Although, from the nature of the case, no very precise result could be sa eth from this mode of experiment, inasmuch as it was Impossible either to Separate the iron entirely from the min- eral portion, or to free the iron completely from the ston y matrix, _ the numbers above given indicate clearly that the stony por- _ tion yields a considerable portion of the gas given off at the -< wages ! I; _ lon of the carbon oxides than that obtained from the iron, which, on the other hand, is richer in hydrogen. The product A. W. Wright—Gases contained in Meteorites. 171 of the stony fragments is, in its composition, approximately a mean between the two others, as was to be expected, but it experiments by the writer may be mentioned here, as illustra- Hons, though but little weight is attached to them as quantita- ‘0 contain about 13 per cent of carbon di-oxide, the residue ne chiefly hydrogen. Another specimen of trap containing the mineral prepared for microscopic examination. T his gave off Somewhat more than its own volume of gas, which was found to contain some 24 per cent of carbon di-oxide. The gas in these evo Was not given off as readily as from the meteorites, and was - ved rather suddenly as a temperature ap roaching red-heat 4s reached. If it should appear improbable that the large * Proc. Royal Soc., June 16, 1864. + Chem. News, June 9, 1876, p. 237. 172 A. W. Wright—G@ases contained in Meteorites. temperatures employed, as has often been observed in expeti- ments with meteorites. t has been pointed out by astronomers that on —s the mean distances of the asteroids in a series, there are foun to be certain gaps in the list. as if some members were wanting. Now it is further found that the periodic times of these missing bodies stand in a simple relation to the time of Jupiter's revo- : ' ‘i Changes of temperature in a mass of considerable absorptive and low conducting power must give rise to powerful stresses, the action may be sufficiently energetic to cause the splitting up of the bodies themselves” The disruptive action requisite to separate a mass from the principal body entirely, and so as not to return, would be less as the mass of the body is smaller, and would, for a mass no larger than some of the asteroids, be A. W. Wright— Gases contained in Meteorites. 173 with their orbits in such a relation to that of Jupiter as to sug- ad the possibility of their derivation from the asteroids. imilar considerations also apply to the group of comets asso- ciated with the orbit of Neptune, the existence of which sug- gests the question whether there may not be another group of asteroids, exterior to this body, yet remaining to be discovered. But without assuming the asteroidal origin of these comets, the effects of solar heat just described may be safely predicated of them, as well as of other comets or meteoric masses revolv- ha matters which are present in some of them. correspond With the sibly acid oo ity of origin. Additional and most striking testimony to the real connection 174 A. W. Wright—Gases contained in Meteorites. of the meteorites and comets is afforded by the close resemblance of the spectrum of the gas obtained from the stony meteorites to the spectra of those comets which have thus far been observed. any observations respecting this point were made upon the gases collected from the various meteorites examined, in the course of the investigations which have been described. Vac- uum-tubes of the form usually employed in spectroscopic work were attached to the pump and filled by the meteoritic gases as they were evolved. After the latter had been pumped out for the most part into the coilecting tube, a freezing mixture was applied to one of the tubes of the pump and allowed to remain until the watery vapor was condensed, thus rendering the gas in the vacuum-tube very nearly free from moisture. As tubes when placed before the slit of a spectroscope, a spectrum is seen. which varies with the conditions. That from the capil- lary portion of the tube shows the hydrogen lines brilliantly, together with the bands due to carbon compounds. In the wide part, however, the hydrogen lines are entirely absent, only the carbon bands being visible. When the illumination is sufl- ciently strong these are five in number, all sharp at the least appeared. Of the latter, the one in the greenish-blue is brighter than the other. A resemblance to the spectra of the comets 1s A. W. Wright— Gases contained in Meteorites. 175 As the greater breadth of the cometary bands indicates a density of the cometic gases greater than that in the tubes ex- mained, an experiment was made, as follows, for the purpose of observing the effect of increasing the density of the gas. A glass tube, having an internal caliber of about one centimeter and some twenty centimeters in length, was closed at one end, and through the sides were inserted two platinum wires, at are the middle of the tube, the inner ends of the wires eing In its axis and separated by an interval of about one cen- meter. Small fragments of the Kold Bokkeveld meteorite were dropped into the tube and shaken down into the closed end. The upper end was now drawn out to a narrow neck, and the whole attached to the pump. After exhausting the air, the neck was sealed, the tube withdrawn, and supported in a vertical position so that the interval between the wires was be- fore the slit of the spectroscope, the end containing the meteor- te being below. By means of wires connecting the platinum points with an induction coil, sparks were passed across the in- terval, and when the lower end of the tube was gently heated, the characteristic spectrum of the gas evolved became visible. t first it was very similar to that which had been observed Previously, but as the heat was increased, and the pressure of © gas became greater, the bands were seen to widen out, until they at length fully equalled in breadth those of the haan and finally they showed a tendency to run together. € order of their relative intensity there was no appreciable ae slight disagreement in the positions of the first two fads with the reported observations of cometary spectra is y explained when we consider that for the latter a Point of maximum brightness removed toward the middle of of ath, “t : fag of the thes a edge of the slit. A simple experiment with . account for the apparent want of agreement iscrepancies ; the bands, and also to explain some of the és In the results of different observers, as to the posi- 176 F. H. Storer—Schenbein’s Test for Nitrates, tion of the cometary bands, especially when regard is paid to the faintness of the light and the consequent difficulty of precise determination. Measurements of the first two bands, with the satisfactory, as it appears to be somewhat. less refrangible than its cometary analogue, as determined by the majority of obser- vations of the latter, though it agrees very well with some of them. Not improbably, however, the hydrocarbons existing m small quantities in some of the meteorites may be present im the comets in sufficient amount to modify their spectra some- what. Yale College, July 28, 1876. ArT. XXII.—Schenbein’s Test for Nitrates; by F. H. STORER, Professor of Agricultural Chemistry in Harvard University. act upon the nitrate in order that the iodo-starch reaction may oceur, does not in any case change the whole of the nitrate into a nitrite and no other nitrogenous product. The zinc oy fail, upon the one hand, to reduce the whole of the nitrate, action. Some of the nitrate is always changed, withal, t “ ammonium salt and so destroyed in so far as the power © reacting upon iodo-starch is concerned. These considerations have often been urged, and they ee undoubtedly familiar to most chemists. But in the lack o ® better, the iodo-starch test for nitrates has come into Vel general use and has been held in high estimation. The re™ if, of Carius must have struck scores of chemists, as it did mys® * Annalen der Chemie, 1874. clxxiv, 14, note. F. Hi. Storer—Schenbein’s Test for Nitrates. 177 as extraordinary and hardly credible. It was neither consistent with Schoenbein's statement as to the delicacy of the test nor with the reputation which the test had acquired. I have thus n led to examine the matter somewhat attentively and to subject the test anew to critical study. It appears from this examination that the lack of delicacy observed by Carius was due to the kind of manipulation employed -him, and_ that while his statement is doubtless literally correct it fails to con- vey a just idea of the much higher degree of delicacy which is readily obtainable by applying the test in a somewhat different wa lwo methods of using the test were described by Schoen- bein,* viz: Ist, To add dilute sulphuric acid and iodo-starch paste directly to the nitrate solution and to stir the mixture with a zine rod; or, 2d, and better, as we must infer from Scheenbein’s statement, to reduce the neutral solution of the nitrate in the first place, by means of zine or cadmium, there- after to acidulate it with dilute sulphuric acid, and finally to add the iodo-starch paste. Both of these modifications have come into general use, but the second has been applied perhaps even more frequently than the first in cases where very sm amounts of nitrates were to be sought for. It is in fact more delicate than the first method. Carius, however, in the experi- thents above referred to, employed the first modification and not the second. or cadmium, as if to test it for a nitrate, will react upon iodo- Starch precisely as if a trace of some nitrate had been dissolved in the water, The explanation of this behavior is not far to seek. The eee of the iodo-starch is caused by peroxide of hydrogen Which has been formed in the water by the action of the metal, according to the familiar experiment of Schcenbeint in which Peroxide of hydrogen is prepared by shaking zinc-amalgam in Water and aint . a . Pp. ay thoy example, his paper in Fresenius’s Zeitschrift analyt. Chemie, 1862, i, Ms, 16 R peendorit's Annalen, 1861, exii, 288. - that tnt has himself shows (ctinant far prakt. Chemie, 1861, Ixxxiv, 206) aqueous soluti of hydrogen is formed simultaneously with a nitrite, when the the {lution of a nitrate is treated with zinc or cadmium, | to looked the the i test, but he seems to have completely over- of his “sedi Aroha? hmong of the peroxide yee we preclude ra ain only . rt ; cases ion ® small quantity ite where the solutio: examined contained a 178 F. H. Storer—Schenbein’s Test for Nitrates, reaction is far too strong to admit of its being neglected, sub- tracted, or allowed for, when searching for traces of bith Hence it happens, that in highly dilute solutions of ieee 0 potash it is impossible to detect the nitrate by means of i - starch as ordinarily applied, not because the products of the reduction of the nitrate by zine, or the like, cease to act ee the iodo-starch, but because the reaction produced by t i. products is identical with that of the peroxide of h yin tha is formed simultaneously with them, and which woul formed just as well in pure water totally devoid of nitrates. ; Whenever the degree of coloration of the iodo-starch obtained in testing for a nitrate according to Schcenbein’s mies less intense than the tint obtainable from 0-0001 gram Fi oe (=0:000187 gram KNO,) in 50 cc. water it is difficult to sige whether the coloration may not be wholly due to peroxt i de hydrogen. It is easy, at all events, to obtain as much eae of hydrogen by boiling cadmium, zine or amalgama ad ee? with mere water, as will give a reaction with ree 5 o zine-starch equal to that obtainable from 0:00005 gram Mi perhaps even more. The following experiments will illus this point. : A. To 50 ¢.c. of pure water 000005 gram N,O, (in the = of 0:0000936 gram of nitrate of potash) was added, the mx 1 ask, then cooled, transferred to a porcelain capsule, acidulated and tested with iodo-zine starch. : ter to € same experiment was repeated with pure wa which no nitrate had been added. : ad instead me as A., with the exception that zinc was used ins of cadmium. : . Same as B., with the exception that zinc was used instead of cadmium. darkened The four capsules were placed side by side under a a ap- bell glass and left to stand over night. On examinatioe ad peared that while the contents of capsules B, C and Ds f cap to be of one and the same depth of color, the contents re pe? sule A were distinctly lighter colored than those of eit and the other dishes.) These ex riments were srmultaneer ule care was taken that they should be strictly compa ee one with another. Each experiment was conducted at ie nitrate were being tested for. Equal surfaces of me ids, in nearly as might be, were exposed to the action of the liquias each instance. F. H. Storer—Scheenbein’s Test for Nitrates. 179 Repetitions of these tests gave similar or analogous results Sometimes the contents of one capsule in the series wou be more or less strongly colored than the rest and at other times another, but everything went to show that by this zine was used instead of the simple zinc or cadmium. It is filtered, and acidulated with sulphuric acid; but since water that is absolutely free from nitrates will do almost precisely the same thing when similarly treated, the statement is of no value either as regards the delicacy of the test, or the limit of its ap licability. Proof that the cause of the reaction in the water free from nitrates is really due to the presence of peroxide of hydrogen been in contact with a metal is similarly treated. —_ : With pure water these results are constant and invariable, um rpecated, while no such coloration was observed when sam- aaa rain or well water were tested in this way; far from oo the liquids soon acquired a rusty color, as if re Zeitschrift analyt. Chemie, 1869, i, 18 inet, Of instead of simple ferrous sulphate, the double sulphate of protoxide of nmonia may be used with advantage, as was suggested by Struve, Fre- the text analyt. Chemie, 1869, viii, 319. Most of the tests described in solution of it~ made with this double salt. Two or three drops of a yy normal 180 FE. H. Storer—Scheenbein’s Test for Nitrates, ing the test (ammonium-ferrous sulphate and iodo-zine-starch) to acidulated water, that had not been in contact with cad- m were to be tested for a nitrate, the cadmium was removed, the have been present in the first portion had been completely ex- pelled by the boiling, while much of the peroxide of hydrogen t gether useless in delicate experiments to apply, in the presence of peroxide of hydrogen, that method of testing for a sequent testing, with iodo-starch plus acid, for nitrous are! the distillate. The following experiments will illustrate * importance of this consideration. Two portions of pure peck each of 250 c.c., were taken, and one was distilled directly 71 _ {Compare Gmelin-Kraut’s Handbuch der Chemie, 1872, i (ate Abtb.), p- 58. ele Tecognized, 1 believe, by Schcenbein. Bea Will's Gahresbericht 1966, ¢ Frosenius’s Zeitschrift analyt. Chemie, 18¥5, xiv, 141. Pe, F. H. Storer—Schenbein’s Test for Nitrates. 181 acetic acid while the other was boiled with cadmium for five ‘minutes and thereafter distilled with acetic acid, pains being taken to make the two experiments alike in all other respects, The first 50 c.c. of distillate were collected in each instance and tillate was subjected to the test in each instance. In both trials the portions tested directly gave a stronger coloration than was obtained in either of the distillates. In order to be sure that the acetic acid had no improper influence on these though the mixtures were allowed to stand twenty-four hours after the application of the test. oe 3 i] o bar} =} a wR oa oS a 4 re) oo fo Bo oO =] f=] ag i) re wT isc) o) a =" en 9 =} =] oO <4 o a Genaty Step, before the acidulation of the liquor or the ad- m OF the lodo-starch, is decidedly preferable to the other * Poggendorff’s len, 1862, cxv, 128. Ax.Joun, Scr, hae Serres—Vou, XII, No. 69.—Sert., 1876, 7 182 F. H. Storer—Schenbein’s Test for Nitrates. has remarked, it seems to be immaterial whether the nitrate solution be boiled for a few moments with the cadmium or zine, or left to stand for some hours in the cold in contact with one solution.t The capsule, with its contents, was then placed under a darkened bell-glass and examined at stated intervals _ Tested in this way, a solution of nitrate of potash, containing * The dilute sulphuric acid is prepared by mixing one volume of oil of vitriol ater, boiling the mixture for an hour, and finally adding enough pure water to that which has e pated. : + The solution of iodo-zinc-starch is prepared as follows, after Kubel-Tiemant, “ Anleitung zur Untersuchung von Wasser,” Braunschweig, 1874, p. 140: Rub 4 mortar wi a : h in a porcelain ith a li ial milky liquid, little by little, into a boiling solution of 20 grams pure commerci * E . . . fay e mixture is dissolved in rain-water to color the liquid strongly ; the : for 24 hours, and then transferred to a copper still. A lump of lime is added re is distilled slowly, the first fractions of distillate being re} nitrites with iodo-zinc-starch, plus acid, it will not show any trace of colorati Ae : the end of an hour, and will seldom show any appreciable tinge of colo eft to stand over night, on ding for 24 hours shade of color will usually appear. I have commonly ted dency to giv? reaction to the presence o: i S trace of nitrite, but it is not 1m i mal eans that it may be due to peroxide of hydrogen that has been formed by m' thi - It would undoubtedly be better, when ee to ; ch Wa . pared, by acidulating with acid sulphate of soda the pure water obtained = partis Is) and istilling i in a glass k. Free nitrous ac ie ; at first as well as from peroxide of ydrogen. Sx te Most well waters it should be said, are, if anything, rather better than rain-¥® ter for preparing a pure product. .- instead By making the mixture of permanganate and water alkaline with lime Bn ‘ahatgnberrat- diag ich contaminate #? tie ane avcldnd. compounds which almost always F, H. Storer-—Scheenbein’s Test for Nitrates, 183 00005 grm. N,O, in 50 c. c. water, gave an immediate colora- tion on being mixed with iodo-zine-starch plus acid, after hav- ing been boiled for five minutes upon cadmium; with a solution containing 0°0002 grm. N,O, the blue coloration appeared about 5 minutes after the addition of the iodo-starch, and with a solution containing 0:0001 grm. N,O, the color began to ap- pear in about 8 minutes. The last named quantity indicates very nearly the limit of applicability of the test, since the de- gree of coloration derivable from an amount of the nitrate any smaller than this, could hardly be distinguished from that due to the peroxide of hydrogen that is obtained on boiling pure water upon cadmium or zinc. It is true that the coloration caused by the products of the reduction of a nitrate generally appears rather more speedily than the coloration produced by peroxide of hydrogen, but since the reaction of the peroxide often begins to show ten or fifteen minutes after the addition of the iodo-zine-starch and acid, and sometimes éven sooner, no dependence can be placed upon mere rapidity in the appearance of the coloration, as a means of distinguishing the nitrate from the peroxide. In case the mixtures are left to stand over night, or for a number of hours, after the iodo-starch has been added, this seeming advantage in favor of the nitrate solutions disap- = for after long standing the coloration due to peroxide of ydrogen is often as deep as that obtained from 0:00005 grm. N,0,, and the difference between this tint and that obtained from 0-001 is by no means large enough to permit of distin- Suishing the one from the other with any certainty. ults very different from the foregoing were obtained When 50 cc. of the pure nitrate solution, mixed directly with two drops of the dilute acid and 2 c.c. of the iodo-zine-starch Solution, were left to stand in contact with a rod of zine, accord- he ‘o the method employed by Carius* On proceeding in this way, a solution containing 0-01 grm. of N,O, (=0°01872 tely when the zine was added; and a solution containing grm. blue coloration at the lower end of the zinc rod in a few doe While in a solution containing 0-002 grm. N20, =000874 orm, KNO,) no coloration could be perceived even after the lapse of two hours, though the liquid was con at frequent intervals. On repeating this trial with whi N rely short time. Trials similar to the above, in mMalgamated zinc was used instead of simple zine, gave * Annalen der Chemie, 1874, clxxiy, 14.. 184 F. H. Storer—Schenbein’s Test for Nitrates. no better results, but rather worse on the whole. Rods of cadmium appeared to be somewhat preferable to those of zine, though not much. It will be observed that the results of these tests are even less of delicacy above mentioned. Thus, on repeating some of the foregoing trials and using rain-water to dissolve the nitrate, instead of the pure water previously used (see page 182, note) less favorable results were obtained. A solution of the nitrate equal to 0-005 grm N,O,, in 50 cc. cistern water gave no reaction with the iodo-zine-starch in the course of an hour. On repeating the trial with cistern-water that had just been boiled, a slight reaction was obtained, but the blue color instead of increasing faded away after a time and disappeared. The pro- portion of acid employed to acidulate the mixture is not with- out influence upon the delicacy of the test, and it may well be that in order to the best results a larger amount of acid 1s required than was used in the foregoing trials. The small quantity of the acid actually taken was chosen in order to con- form to Carius’s injunction that “ the addition of but little acid is a condition of success.” But it appeared once on peg the trial with the nitrate solution, in pure water, that. contain ( ,O, in 50 cc. that while no coloration of the iodo-starch had appeared after some time so long as only two drops of sulphuric acid had been added, the reaction soon in on the addition of two more drops of the acid. The defect of the usual method of testing for nitrates having been made apparent, I have naturally endeavored to discover which should not at the same time occasion the formal pe of hydrogen, I have finally hit upon the es : utral solutions, as has hitherto been recommended. ntrary od what might have been inferred from what has been paar al ~ eam and — what is known of the Ss ao water upon metals in the cold, no peroxide of DY@'o.. .. formed when water slightly ieidalaied with sulphuric acid _ boiled upon metallic cadmium; and since the reduction F. H. Storer—Schenbein’s Test for Nitrates. 185 ard against the loss of any nitrous acid by volatilization. about five minutes. C. 0:0001 grm. N,O, gave a reaction in rather less than fif- teen minutes. D. 50 cc. of pure water acidulated with two drops of the dilute sulphuric acid, and boiled upon cadmium, without cm dition of a nitrate, gave no reaction with iodo-zine-stare plus acid, not even on standing over nigh ght. : ; Repetitions of these trials gave results that were identical a the end of half an hour the solution that had contained the Nitrate gave a rather strong coloration with the iodo-starch, While the pure water remained perfectly colorless. F. 000001 grm. N,O, in 50 c.c. water was tested as above. But no reaction was obtained with the iodo-starch, not even ted water actually destroys peroxide of hydrogen at the temperature of belting, 100 ed of pure water were boiled a cadmium and left to stand in contact with the metal over night ; tion until after the lapse of two hours, and then the coloration Was but slight. In seating this experiment, 100 ¢. ¢. of pure 186 F. H. Storer—Scheenbein’s Test for Nitrates. water were boiled upon cadmium for five minutes; 50. ¢. of the water were then poured off to be tested, while two drops of dilute sulphuric acid were added to the flask, and the acidu- lated liquid was again boiled for five minutes with the cadmium. On decanting and testing the acidulated liquid with iodo-starch, it gave no coloration, not even after the mixture had stood over night, while on testing the portion that had been boiled with- out acid it gave a strong coloration in due course. To see if hydrogen alone would so quickly destroy the peroxide, a stream of hydrogen gas was made to flow during five minutes through a solution of peroxide of hydrogen, pre- pared as above, that was kept at the temperature of boiling. But the liquid thus treated gave almost as strong a reaction with iodo-starch after the passage of the hydrogen as it had done before. On trying whether some one of the more common metals might not perhaps be used in testing for nitrates by the new method, it appeared that neither of them is on the whole so well fitted for the purpose as cadmium. Thus on repeating the foregoing experiments, with zinc, amalgamated zinc, aluminum, and iron, it appeared that while no peroxide of hydrogen was formed on boiling acidulated water upon these metals, neither of them was so well fitted as cadmium to reduce nitrates to nitrites in acidulated solutions. From zine and from amalga- a considerably stronger solution a reaction was obtained. ‘led solution containing 0°01 germ. N,O, in 100 cc. water bo 0-01 grm. N,O, in 100 cc. water after adding to ita sma” os of acidulated sulphate of silver and boiling the ™ n n re ~ iron. Payee t Both lead and magnesium easily reduce nitrates to nitrites” ¥ F. H. Storer—Scheenbein’s Test for Nitrates. 187 process is finished. In experiments with lead it was found that a solution con- taining 00001 grm. N,O, in 50 cc. gave a decided reaction With iodo-starch in less than half an hour, and that a solution containing 000005 grm. N,O, gave a distinct reaction in half an hour, though it was not quite as strong as the reaction ob- e. tained with cadmium under similar circumstances. rom 2 . ‘. S “ within fifteen minutes; and that a solution containing 000001 end of two hours. With silver, an acidulated solution contain- Ing 0-025 grm. N,O, in 50 cc. water gave a very slight reac- tion with iodo-starch in the course of two hours, while a weaker neutral solution, containing 0°01 grm. N,O, in 100 ¢.c. water, that was boiled upon silver gave no reaction. : t is to be observed that in the foregoing set of experiments the solutions were acidulated in every instance before the boil- ing, and that an inverted condenser was always attached to the x in order to prevent the escape of any nitrous acid. Solutions containing 0-005 grm. N,O, in 50 c.c. acidulated Water, left in contact for eight hours or more in the cold with metallic aluminum, iron or zinc, and then tested with iodo- Starch gave no reaction in the cases of iron and zinc, and only 4 slight coloration in the case of aluminum. , © reaction for peroxide of hydrogen was obtained in acid- 188 F. H. Storer—Scheenbein’s Test for Nitrates, ulated water that had been boiled five minutes upon a mixture of pieces of tin and platinum, nor was any reaction obtained from an acidulated solution of nitrate of potash that had been similarly boiled. Numerous trials were made to discover, if possible, some re- ducing agent which, though proper to change nitrates to nitrites if not all, of these substances readily form peroxide of hydrogen when left in contact with water and air. Among metals,* I used as substitutes for cadmium or zine, in testing for nitrates by the old method. Both these metals readily reduce nitrates to nitrites in dilute neutral solutions at the boiling temperature; ut they, as well as magnesium, aluminum, and copper,t cause the formation of peroxide of hydrogen also, when boiled m another flask 50 c. c. of pure water, plus 00005 grm. N,05, : _ the form of nitrate of potash, were boiled upon an equal amout as yet, made 10 experiments with the alkali metals or their “at nes ‘ Kraut’s Handbuch, i * T have, + And various other p. 56 Since the above statement, that iron forms peroxide of hydrogen on ome ca ack wit ok ict with Schoe oe eal ' | § é 3 3 that the well to give the evidence on which it nds. pe Bi wire for five minutes: the cold liquid was mixed with iodo-zine-s are dilute sulphuric acid, and left to stand over night. A purplish gee Was obtained. On d, th : ‘ preci sely * reaction. ob- - e experiment, similar sad fee Served. This coloration is rather less, it should be said, than that one and rong ‘ : , and the other ry In he ano where ret ‘Sheet j ~1 0 reaction for peroxide of hydrogen was obtain * toaty: tint, and no blue coloration could be perceived. F. H. Storer — Scheenbein’s Test for Nitrates. 189 of the iron wire. When cold, the liquids were transferred to reelain capsules, mixed with iodo-zine-starch and acid, an eft to stand over night. Decided reactions were obtained in both instances, but the liquid to which the nitrate had been » added was deeper colored than the other, and the difference in tint between the contents of the two dishes seemed to be rather more marked than was the case in similar experiments where cadmium or zinc had been used instead of iron. It is not un- likely that iron would have been rather better fitted than either of these metals, for use in testing for nitrates according to the old plan. On repeating this last experiment with metallic lead, instead of iron, decided reactions were obtained with the iodo-starch in both dishes; but the colorations were of about the same depth as those ordinarily obtained with cadmium, and that obtained from the nitrate solution was no stronger than that from the pure water. Solutions of nitrate of potash (0:01 grm. N,O, to 100¢. c. water), made alkaline with potash or with lime, were reduced, with formation of some nitrite, when boiled for five minutes upon iron, or left to stand over night in contact with the metal in the cold; but the reactions with iodo-starch that were ob- tained in this way were less strong than those got by operating upon neutral solutions of the nitrate. The following substances failed to reduce nitrate of potash when boiled for five minutes with neutral solutions of that sub- Stance, containing 0-025 grm. N,O, in 100 c. ¢. water, or, at the least, no reaction could be obtained with the iodo-starch after pi ee phosphorus, glucose, or ferrous melee en i = © : 5 tas Was a ution that had been mixed with hydrate of po Pp tated ide, boiled “en five minutes with neutral, acid, and alkaline solutions of trate of potash (0-01 N ,0, in 100 c.¢. water), reduced some tne nitrate in each instance, so that reactions were obtained m adding iodo-starch to the several socio as the reac- ens were not very strong there seemed to be little encourage- —e proceed with the inquiry. If it were less difficult than it is, to manipulate with thor- ugly boiled water so that no atmospheric air should come 190 J. H. Bill—Decomposition of Potassie Bromide, ete. by the action of cadmium or zinc upon water that has been thoroughly boiled, in a glass flask, provided with a long and very narrow outlet. Hven when no special pains are taken to preserve such water from contact with the atmosphere after the boiling, it is easy to perceive that peroxide of hydrogen does not readily form in it. So too, though in a lesser degree, with water that has been well nigh completely deprived of air by distillation in the vacuum of an air-pump. But no such in- ability to yield peroxide of hydrogen was observed in water that had been boiled for a long time in a copper flask, into the neck of which a long and very narrow brass tube had been so dered. The boiled water from the copper flask gave a reaction for the peroxide even when tested directly, without having been put in contact with any other metal. Iam much indebted to my assistant, Mr. D. S. Lewis, for his cooperation in this investigation. Bussey Institution, Jamaica Plain, Mass., June, 1876. Arr. XXIII.—Note on the double decomposition of Potassic Bro- mide and Sodic Chloride ; by J. H. Bru, Surgeon U. S. Army. In the practice of analytical chemistry it is the custom sf arranging and recording the results to associate the “ strong® acid” with the “ strongest base.” Thus, if barium, potassium, sulphuric and nitric anhydrides are found in a compound, 1 the statement of the analysis we associate together the. ene: = sulphuric anhydride and the potassium and nitric anhy e. rates as an insoluble powder, the potassic nitrate remaining in solution a soluble crystalloid. ine, ale in, if potassium, sodium, chlorine and bro found in a mixture we record the results as so much Pia chloride and sodic bromide, or if we mix solutions of Y cal romide and sodic chloride we hold that potassic apie ble In this reeord nothing is assumed, for the basic sulphate sepa i¢ bromide exist in the mixture in consequence 0 55 oe decomposition. On what do we rest such an assalsp a it on anything more than analogy? The haloid salts sium and of sodium have nearly the same solubility, talline forms. We get no precipitate on mixing their soluon hor characteristic crystals on evaporating these, nor change - and crys J. H. Bill—Decomposition of Potassic Bromide, etc. 191 color in the solutions themselves, nor other evidence that the chemical relations of the several bodies have been altered. In short our belief in this alteration is purely hypothetical. Several years ago while conducting a physiological research on the action of the bromides I observed certain facts which I here offer as a demonstration of the proposition that potassic bromide and sodic chloride, when brought together in solution, httle bromine will be found. Bromides, however, may be de- tected for two weeks after the last dose taken, whilst excess of potassium will be found only after the first day. T can account for these facts only on the supposition that the b and sodic bromide—retained in the blood as a substitute for — of urine when the body was under the influence of th m five to ten grams of potassic bromide. The results show € amounts of the whole twenty-four hours, all the urine for Potassium. Sodium. Chlorine. Bromide. grms. grms. grms. grms. 4-21 7°67 9°56 [oan 7°82 11°45 0°04 No bromide taken Seven grains (average of arriba t ss Z have waited for a chance to extend these experiments to reaction of the iodides and chlorides, but seeing no proba- bility that an i i i n immediate opportunity of doing so will present eres I publish this note for fae it 1s worth. York, June 15, 1876. 192 J, D. Dana—Note on Erosion. Art. XXIV.—Note on Erosion; by James D. DANA, In Professor Gilbert's very valuable paper on “The Colorado Plateau Province,”* the author speaks of the process of erosiont as including the three general divisions, ‘‘(1) weathering, (2) transportation, and (8) corrasion ;” and states that “ corrasion is rtance, since it determines, not only the speed, at, a great extent, the size of the pestles which grind the rocks.” He and sides of a stream generally causes, besides a dimination of ; merair } on, at of other sources of resistance to displacement, in the a at acted upon. The operation is exhibited, on a small scale, rather firmly consolidated gravel bank, and, in an incredib short time, levels the thick deposits over a | arge a imvi ” and yet it erodes oe. water that impinges has “ no load of detritus, with tremendous efficiency. The flooded rivers that teat eo : from their foundations, and break off or uproot t traps other examples; for the work is, first, rending, and then, un portation, The sudden rise of several feet or yards in 4 0 98 tain stream, or along a western cafion, sometimes occurring Z * This volume, pages 16, 85. + Ibid., p. 89. J. D. Dana—Note on Erosion. 193 + 194 7. B. Brooks—Rocks observed in the Huronian Series, Art. XXV.—Classified List of Rocks observed in the Huronian Series, south of Lake Superior, with remarks on their abundance, transitions, and geographical distribution; also a tabular pre- sentation of the Sequence of the beds, with an Hypothesis. of Liquivalency ; by T. B. Brooxs. Durine the last ten years I have explored more or less thoroughly the east and north portions—about one-third—of the large Archean area lying southwest of Lake Superior, em- bracing the iron and copper regions of northern Michigan and Wisconsin.* Besides observations in the field, I have collected and catalocued over 3,000 rock specimens, mostly Huromian, with the rocks of Saxony. Prof. Geo. J. Brush has made seV- eral analyses and determinations of essential mineral constitu- ents. Prof. R. Pumpelly placed at my disposal bis numerous field-notes, made in the Archean area. r. A. A. Jali rom chiefly drawn. As many of the rocks are fine-grained, waite aphanitic mixtures of obscure amphibolie and feldspathic pet erals, the different kinds and varieties graduating — other, it is to be expected that similar specimens would 0 : : is h in Te with the hornblendic rocks diorytes, diabases, and ¢¢ magne: lated chloritic: schists, also to a less extent with hydro- see Brooks and Pumpelly, Am. J Archean of Michigan, their Map No. 1, Atlas of Michigan ase — little of Northern Wisconsin is mapped in ome £ his labors. - Wichmann is preparing a: r embodying the results 0 urvey; $Mr. Wright’s work sik Soa ee the Wisconsin Geological Survey; Tesults are not yet published. our. Sci., vol. iii, June, * For geographical distribution and structural relations of the OO also ie — i ical Surveys — Sat Sap SO res hha but the T. B. Brooks—Rocks observed in the Huronian Series. 195 sian, argillaceous, and micaceous rocks. An effort has been made to reconcile these different views through the results of the microscopic investigations of the gentlemen above named, as well as by observations in the field, where a fine-grained or altered rock can often be traced through its various transitions to a coarser and typical variety. : The age and distribution of the different members of the Huronian series given in the annexed table are chiefly based on my own observations; use, however, has been made of the notes of Prof. Pumpelly and Mr. Wright, and the publications of Dr. Credner, whose descriptions of the transitions of the various rocks are excellent. The hypothetical scheme of equivalency presented in the table is my own.* That subject was also discussed in a paper entitled, ‘On the youngest - Huronian Rocks south of Lake Superior, and the age of the pps ere Series.”+ ones he examined) in the Menominee Region. In one instance, however, owing to his having mistaken cleavage for bedding planes (bed IX), he overlooked at least one synclinal and one anticlinal fold, thus counting the same bed at least three times. uronian of Canad i siete es my oldest fourteen beds of the Marquette series the deutschen bed I the Menominee series. See Zeitschrift der ognize geologischen Gesellschaft, xxi Band, 1869. His having failed to rec- eenize the upper Huronian, detracts considerably from the weight of this hypoth- Published in the jae ~ proceding volume of this Journal, page feo enn, the proce in the above note. 196 T. B. Brooks—Rocks observed in the Huronian Series, EXPLANATIONS, 1st. The numbers following many names refer to typical specimens of that rock contained in my Michigan State Collec- vol. ti, p. 201), partial duplicate suites of which were furnished the University of Michigan, Boston Institute of Technology, 2d. Those rocks marked L have also been observed in the Laurentian system, which has however been but little explored. No Huronian rocks are believed to be identical with those of the copper-bearing series, although some of the greenstones have considerable resemblance. : : : e Marquette region embraces the important iron-min- ing district southeast of Keeweenaw Bay; of which Marquette in Michigan is the chief port. About fifty or sixty miles south is the undeveloped Menominee iron region extending into Wis consin. One hundred and twenty-five miles west of Marquette, on Black River, Mich., and thirty miles farther west, where Bad River crosses the Penokie Iron Range, Wis., the Huronian series is well exposed. See table. ; 4th. The Roman numerals of the table express the approxt mate relative age of the twenty beds into which it has > found convenient to divide the Huronian of the Marquette Menominee regions, numbered from the oldest upward. : equivalency has been extended with less certainty to the Blac River and Bad River series, and with still less to the Huroman of Canada. See table, : 5th. The names of rocks which have not been observed 12 the Huronian are usually printed in italies. oth th. The varieties of each kind of rock are arranged in t order of relative abundance, so far as known. 1. FRAGMENTAL Rocks, EXCLUSIVE oF LIMESTONES. scur in Tr ue quartz-conglomerates are not abundant, but — o the Middle Huronian, both in the Marquette and Menom Regions ; and in the latter, at the base of the series, ¥* 7 pie gine conglomerate holding pebbles of granite, gneiss, 40 y geee ie oy revised and extended descriptive catalogue of this ei mneo WY much extended, is in course of preparation. 4 _ +The specimen numbers in italics were selected by Dr. Wichmann 38 Pos 2 Beye, Steatest lithological interest. Duplicates have been given » from which I understand he will furnish mounted thin séctions. By T. B. BROOKS. e Sequence of Huronian Strata at several points near Lake Superior, with Hypothesis of Equivalency. NORTH OF LAKE HURON, CANADA. Geology of Canada, 1863. Norg._Important beds of iron-ore, pro — , occur or in Canada, but — stratigraphi- ae hen is not known to m l. White quartz, chert and limestone. k. Yellow chert and limestone. i. White quartzyte. Greenstone. Yellowish chert and limestone. i. White quartayte. h, Red jasper conglomerate. g. Red quartzyte ? ee Slate conglomerate with beds of green- <. Limestone, so ibbed. me beds dolomitic and d. Slate conglomerate, with h ‘ stratified beds of greenstone. oe * Greenstone. b. << oneal and epidotic ting well he srong_ and oh solid, void re- Slate conglomerate. hably near the eastern whore. of ¢, White ate eritic. quartzyte, sometimes conglom- 2 5, 6, 73, 14. ee TRON REGION, {ICHIGAN. T. B. Brooks. LOWER SILURIAN. CopPER SERIES (WANTING). XIX. Grayish-black mica schist, often staurolitic and holding andalusite and gar- nets; rarely chloritie schist. Quartz in hes ache es er ne and Aueubleans seams, Cae Qua rizyte? Probably soft slate. XVII. Anthophyllitic? schist, usually mag- netic, and containing manganese. 58, 59. XVI. Banded ochrey porous quartz schist. 57. XV. Blackish argillaceous slate, with im- perfect cleavage, rarely micaceous, and sometimes holding garnets. 56. XIV. Gray arenaceous quartzyle, often semi-schistose and sometimes micaceous ; quartz conglomerate. 50, 51, 145. . Pure ete or and ma ou ‘Trap dykes” at ington Mine. 36 to 49, 52 to 55, 89. Me on . Red —— quartz schist, — ed with micaceous-i ; quartzose limonitic ores. =. 52. 33, rea 38.) XI. Dioryt nblende schist, chloritic schist, +/6.0_.11°0 397 L19. 1 0 53)/+46 12)160°+/10- +/8°0_.10°5 398; 0% Arg 1200 1 4 52/+47 10) 60°+} 2° +/8°0_..8 399 Ceti 211 1 21 46/—11 31/301°2 | 1°49 |6°5__10-0 40 W'IIT. 50 38 5 18\— 4 16) 45°-+/15> +/7-0_.11°5 401 W'III. 830 3 44 10/\— 1 52/260°+| 4° +/7°0..11°0 402 W'TV. 318 417 — 1 33} 75°-+]| 5° +/8°5_-10°5 403 WIV. 379 4 19 18;— 2 20/100°3 | 2°00 |7°0___8°5 404 Arg(8°) 805 4 49 + 8 58/113°4 | 1:49 |9°0_..9°5 405 W'V. 1045 5 42 22/—13 34/150°+|10° +/8°5-.11°0 406 W'V. 1068 5 43 1)/—13 28/260-+}| 8° +/|9°0--12°0 407| W'VIIT. 1159 8 45 50\— 6 20/160°+| 6° +/8°0_.10°0 408 R 223 8 48 58'+63 54/350°+| 2° +/7°0_.10°0 409| W'VIII. 1383 8 54 55|\— 8 43/180°+|10° +/|8°0_-10°0 410) B.A.C.3127 9 0|—25 19/160-+) 1°5+)|7°0--.9°0 411 Lac 4360 10 30 25;—26 3/310° 1:3+/7T0__.9°0 412 L 22722 2 2 10/—17 55/160°+/] 1°5+/8°0-..9°5 413 Lac 5686 13 42 15),—27 46|110°2 |77°7 |6-8_.10°0 414, Centauri 315 (14 34 42/—30 25/160-+| 1° +/6°5--.6°5 415; O*% Arg ip. t 15 44 50465 57 3368 12°72 |8°5..11°5 Aand B A and C 357°6 |30°82 12°0 416) — Scorpii 3 t 17 10 46|—34 51/240°+ 5 8+ 16°0_..8°5 AandB A and C 130°+'15- +! 10°0 391. This is x’ es. 303, Very diffion og gt of some of the star catalogu 395. B.A LO. 160, magni de 396. A pair of the most extraordinary difficulty, very close and ssnegel Not easy test for perture. Heis gives this as nak aked-eye 397. There is but ae doubt ie is the pair 0 nen for H 2018, but error of 1" in Herschel’s declination is nothing in his place. 399. The small ee was s Beit 7 Dec., aie Pont not verified until tw Aw later. Measured by Dembowski is eat 07). There is a very distant aha Panion in the direction of 67° which makes the soa Heat din iy Dents seek ipl rror of 1™ R. A. in 02 90. Measures by d in ve uspected error of 1™ in Denbow (1876-07.) 405. This and the next following were found in looking for £801 rg. 408. In Argelander 67m. 0g ster mecegrdbginas — Not propeiy a s double pf eg eee for its = red color. Wski calls it “perfec blood! red Most of the red stars of this class My eae = not a ees The small star appeared cided blue. of Red Stan measures of se sad Ge Not in Schj 415. Measures by Dembowski (1876-39). — A and © make the double star, H 4935. Close pair easy, although very 206 S. W. Burnham—Seventh Catalogue of New Double Stars. R. A. | Deel. No.| Designation. 1880. 1890. | Pos. | Dist.| Mags, hm °s ° ° a 417 L 32929 17 52 13/439 27/270-4| 1°5+/8-0___95 8|+64 262404110" +(85..11°5 — 7 55] 40°41 1:54:/8°0...9°5 420| W®XVIIL. 722) |18 25 53/437 61280°+| 15 +/85..10°0 AandB t i es Ce) _ oo bo or > bo bo AandC 200°+/20° +] 11°0 421) W°XVIII. 1452) |18 48 3/443 15/270-+| 1- +/8°5._.9°0 A and B } A and 230°+/30° + 9:0 422) Ol. Arg 19281 {19 7% 34/—18 16) 50°+] 8 +/85_.115 423} O!. Arg 19560 [19 20 17/—29 ar +1] 1°24/8°0._.8° 42 he 6 9 23 5/4+35 49) 60°+| 2°54+/8°5_.10°0 425 L3 9 52 15)4+19 58 eat 1°33 |8°5._.8°7 426 O% Arg 19938 [19 59 13/+54 18140°+/ 6 +[8-0..10°0 427| O% Arg 19952 {19 59 28'+54 20160°+/ 3- +/8.0..10°0 428) Arg(12°)4226 |20 1 7/+12 36/346-4 | 0°52 |7-2__.8-0 429 LS at 10-1 27/435 27) 80-4! 7 +/7°5-.115 dB A and 301°0 |10°79 | 100 A and D 90° + |25- 11-0 AandE 28°2 36°52 9:0 430) Arg (35°) “ed 20 6 48|+35 28] 30°-+] 1° + ae A and B A, B and C 55°1 |20° + 95 =H 1489 431; W°XX.530 (20 15 25'+35 53:240°+)| 0°5 (8°0---8°5 432 W°XX. 698 20 20 13/+35 23/220°+/| 1°2 |8°0--10°0 433) Arg (50°) 2399 ) (20 23 36/455 55/220°+| 6° +/9°0--110 AandB AandC 250°+/20° +] 105 434) W°XX. 941 (20 28 4/+41 27/100-+| 1-24/8°5..-9°0 435, 39867 20 33 14) +14 35)112°5 | 2°95 |8-0.-110 | 436) O*. Arg. 23612 [22 6 44/457 21/340°+| 15°+|8°0-.108 | 417. In the field with alge 419. Found in looking for one of Herschel’s suspected pairs, H 5496. 425. Measured by De mbowski Vipelsh « oat has aetna: a very minute com ars about 10’ feliattig: Ye failed to a . In the same field with No. 49%, the two forming with a third 8™ star ona 428, Close and difficult, The wide —. of small stars in the field is Ht — The large star is — strangely wanting in all the other Star Catalogues I have spe to. Measures by Dem ae! ski, “ed eg shy miner 73). IIL 113= The i ad D are , © and E make UL did = 26 rej. = Sh 314. res with Horechal’s n in tens (1783°7). In a splen ° ” 430. As a wide pair this is H 1489, entered by Herschel, 236°'3 : 19 sei = 10..10. There is probably an error of 180° in his angle, as the yf eptr’ rgest, an Argelander who noted the magnitudes as pier 9°5. By arough measure I found 55°°1, showing no material change has aro ial diffi- since 1828. From the faintness of the components, the close pair is @ Ver ya i nditions. 435. About 26" 7 B Delphint gg ate by Dembowski (1875°76). Chicago, July’27, 1876. ete Wen ee Neb ye ele ae : aS) SRN Sowers. IY Sg eae ag ene he eta IY pegs ee he’ A ee ls Seer he eee gr ae ee J. L. Smith—New Wisconsin Meteoric Stone. 207 Art. XX VIL—An account of a New Meteoric Stone that fell on - the 25th of March, 1865, in Wisconsin, identical with the Meno- Meteorite; by J. LAWRENCE Situ, Louisville, Ky. THE Wisconsin meteorite, which fell on the 25th of March, 1865, and is one of much interest, attracted no attention at the time of its fall outside of the immediate neighborhood where it was observed, a fact due to the comparatively sparsely inhab- ited condition of the country. It was brought to my attention only a few months ago by one living in the region not far from where it fell. He sent me a small fragment that had been pre- sented to him, and so similar was it in its appearance to the Meno-Meteorite that fell in 1861, that, not having heard of any fall at the period when this one was said to have been found, I considered it at first a fragment of that rare meteorite which had found its way to that part of the country. But on further inquiry and search I was soon satisfied that it was a piece of an undescribed meteorite; I have designated it the Claywater meteorite, The following is the account I have been able to gather in relation to its fall. In Vernon County, State of Wisconsin, about lat. 48° 30’, long. 91° 10’, at nine on the morning of the 25th of March, 1865, a body was seen by several persons passing rapidly through the atmosphere, accompanied with a loud rumbling noise. It was luminous and showed flashes of light. Its course was from northwest to southeast, and it exploded at a supposed altitude of four miles. At the time that the small fragments were thrown off from the main body, a noise like the rolling of musketry was heard. The main body seemed to have a rotary motion, making about one revolution in two sec- onds of time, The observer from whom the above facts were obtained, thinks that the main body did not fall but passed into 7 0 fragments were found until about five days after the fall, when two were discovered, weighing in all fifteen hundred grams. The curves of the surfaces of these fragments would indicate that they had pertained to a mass having a diameter of about thirty centimeters. No data were obtained by which to calculate its velocity, but the observer already referred to Says that it was variously estimated from fifteen to twenty-five miles per second. Of the two fragments that fell, one has been lost or destroyed; the other has been placed in my possession by Mr. Claywater, who made the observations already recorded, and to whom we are indebted for the preservation, of what we have of this interesting meteorite; for it differs in its physical “spects from any yet observed in this country. 208 J. L. Smith—New Wisconsin Meteoric Stone. tones. Examined with a glass the grains are of a dirty green through the mass, and particles of troilite are also visible. Its specific gravity is 3°66 and it is composed of: t rites ts EL Cee ee 78°33 per cent. Metallic particles _............2... 1707 “ WONNNSO Ss 200 i ee Sale. 460 * 100°00 The stony matter treated with aqua regia furnished : Permittee SS OE 47°20 per cent. Ensoluble matter... 52°80 “ 100°00 The composition of these two portions are: Soluble. Insoluble. 32°5 57 ee es 5 “£1 Lrotosiaes of an 2 30°40 9°50 ic NeoPa nia’ ape viele UaRGE ae tae trace. 4°00 pee a eae 35°80 22°80 ime Se ee ee 3°70 Bi re tee 60 2:01 99°35 99°42 The metallic particles, completely separated from the stony portion, are composed of: eo 92°15 ON ae 7°37 Ee 0G 28 Copper very minute quantity ; ae eee Phosphorus hes estimated. 99°80 In regarding the above analyses, it is very evident that the meteorite is made up of ronzite, with probably a little anorthite -.-. 41°35 ite (olivine) --- 36°98 on =< As I was not Pee a find analysis of the Meno (Alt Strelitz Mecklenburg) meteorite, which fell Oct. 1st, i midday, and as the physical aspects of the one just descr! eee gee J. L. Smith— New Wisconsin Meteorie Stone. 209 were so strikingly similar to those of the Meno, I was interested to ascertain the mineralogical and chemical relations of the two. An examination was made of this last meteorite, the result of which is placed in contrast with those obtained from the Claywater meteorite, Claywater Meno DPONY DIMER sac ce es oes 78°33 77°76 Metallic particles ...........-.- 17°07 18°00 Rt oye ccd ec, 4°60 4°24 100°00 100°00 Stony part, soluble __........... 47°20 48°70 Stony part, insoluble __..._-.--- 52°80 51°30 100°00 100°00 Silica... pede * 44°70 Protoxide of iron and alumina__. 21°95 22°26 PEE SES ee a een SPD 30 28°97 Nala peerage Se ce Ae res ei 1°80 1°85 (es 1°32 1:20 99°35 98°98 Metallic particles. | ve ieeceera i ae repens ay ‘ ores 92°15 91°86 SOM er ee a Cobalt _. 28 13 Copper and phosphorus. .__.-.-- traces in both. Specific gravity 3°66 3°65 It will be observed that the specific gravity of the Meno here given, is lower than that stated in Poggendorf’s Annalen, Cxvl, 637, it being there given as 4:1; but this must have h ments, broke a very fine specimen sent me by the late Wm Nevill, of London, which were examined in my usual after weighing the fragment erse it in of the two as made out by me do not differ more than those » ‘wo fragments of the same meteorite, while they both differ in their physical aspects from the ordinary type of meteorites, wa in fact, they have few or no parallels in the collections of ese bodies; there are certainly none in mine, embracing stony Meteorites representing over one hundred falls. 210 G. H. Seyms—Relation of Franklinite to the Spinel Group. Art. XXVIIL—Five new Variables, and a new Planet, found at the Litchfield Observatory of Hamilton College ; by 0. H. F. ETERS. RECENTLY the variability has been ascertained by me of stars in the following positions: Right Ase. Decl. Max. Min. = m. 8. mag. 10 16 82 +14° 42'7 10 @ ee See 2 | —19 53°0 6 10 10. 0. 19 —21 8°9 10 © 20. € 15 —22 24°0 11 @ 21° O.. 82 —21 54°6 10 © The limits of magnitude given are gathered from only occasional notes taken during the later years. For fixing them more accurately, and also for determining the times of period: icity, more systematic and continuous watching would be required. he positions refer to the equinox of 1860, which is the epoch arts. Aug. 9, 1876. 10" 34™ 27°, a(165)==21 27™ 498, 5(165)= —10° 0’ 18”. The motion is nearly parallel to equator, perhaps slightly southward, 56° in right ascension. Art. XXIX.—On the Relation of Franklinite to the Spinel rer of Minerals; by Guorae H. Sryms. (Contributions the Sheffield Laboratory, No. XLI.) HE amount of iron in Franklinite, as shown by pie determinations that have been made in the Sheffield Fe ther tory, is subject to considerable variation. To determine wie to supplement the recent investigations upon its composition and relation - the Spinel group, hs the akjeot in making the yses. The first experiments were made on rfectly formed cry* tals, in a matrix of limestone, from Mite Hill. The analyses - gave results which may be best expressed as follows: @, H. Seyms—Relation of Franklinite to the Spinel Group, 211 I I Mean SiO, “17 17 17 Fe,0, 63°42 63°38 63°40 Mn,0O, 4°44 4°44 444 nO 10°39 10°53 10°46 ZnO 23°11 2312 23°11 101°53 10164 101°58 The relation of the metals to the oxygen, taking the mean of the two analyses, is given in the subjoined statement. Metals. Oxygen. Fe, 44°38 19°02) oo. Mn, 3-09 1°35 clas Mn 8°10 $30} 24 0 18°55 4°56 Zn Dividing the amount of each element by its atomic. weight gives as the ratio of the metals to the oxygen, R: 0 :: 3:3°999 =R,0, nearly, or an oxygen ratio of the protoxides to the Sesquioxides of 1: ‘981 or nearly 1:1, which corresponds to the formula of the Spinel group, (R,0, +RO=R,0,). he state of oxidation of the manganese here given was determined by solution of the mineral in HCl, and estimation of the clorine liberated, according to Bunsen’s iodine method. L IL. ll. IV. Mean. "08 one 08 08 ALLO; 65 65 eas ei 65 mice 67°43 67°50 67°32 67°42 67°42 F 15°68 15°62 ct saliaiaee 15°65 ZnO 6°79 6°81 6°76 6°75 6°78 MnO 9-71 9°47 9°51 9°44 9°53 100°31 100°16 99°97 99°99 100°12 This gives from the mean of the four analyses: Metals. Oxygen. Al 35 “30 a Fe, 47°19 20-23 ¢ 20°58 Fe 49-17 3°48 Zn 5°44 134} 6°97 Mn 7°38 2°15 212 Scientific Intelligence. Deducing from this the atomic ratio of the metals to the oxygen we have as a result R: O:: 1: 1:331 or as 8: 3-994 = R,0,, and we find the oxygen ratio of the protoxides to the sesquioxides to be as 1: ‘981 or nearly 1: 1. The amount of iron protoxide shown in these results was found directly in the usual way by potassium permanganate, As it has been stated that some varieties of franklinite give with HCl a solution containing FeCl,, and at the same time evolve chlorine, this variety was quantitatively tested b Bunsen’s method with a negative result. Careful experiment failed also to show any iron protoxide in the variety first analyzed. In both cases, therefore, the total amount of oxygen may be said to be fairly determined. The results of these analyses give in both cases a ratio very nearly corresponding to that of spinel, notwithstanding the great differences in the relative amounts of the iron, zinc and manganese. April 6th, 1876, SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND Puysics. hydrochloric acid, previously titered. -At the end of twenty to ¢ : : “eg was determined. In two experiments, the oxygen absorbed big 30°3 and 51-9 milligrams, corresponding to 90°9 and 155°7 ml’ e grams of ozone; the heat set free being 118°2 and 223°7 calorie calories for the heat set free by conversion of one mo ozone into oxygen, and of course —29°6 calories in the Chemistry and Physics. 2138 oc he formation of the same volume of nitrogen monoxide or of chlorine monoxide, in both of which the value is —18. It is two-thirds of that given in the formation of nitrogen dioxide —43°3, In the three cases of direct synthesis of compound gases under the influ- ence of electricity, the author finds :— 0,+0,=(0,), (4 volumes) —29°6 cal. (spark or silent discharge), N,+0,=N,0, (4 volumes)—24°3 cal. (spark), C,+H,=(C.H,), (4 volumes) —64- cal. (electric arc),— an obvious proof of the function of electricity in chemical synthe- sis. Ozone therefore is a body in whose formation heat is ab- sorbed, and the activity of which is due to this heat, which is again set free when it combines. It is thus a magazine of energy stored up under the influence of electricity. This is notable when It is remembered that it is condensed ox en; condensation generally setting free heat.— C. R., Ixxxii, 1281, June, 1876. 2. On Eh culty of freeing stibine from hydrogen, and to the fact that it Spontaneously decomposes even at ordinary temperatures, its exact iti ver i examin 0 P der, Chancing to observe the ready action of the gas on sulphur, according to the reaction (SbH,), +S,—=Sb,S,+ (H,S), the author made use of the fact in order to analyze it. The dry 848 Was passed through weighed U-tubes containing sulphur, then through a calcium chloride tube, and then through a strong solu- tion of copper acetate. The apparatus being placed in sunlight Phide (SbH,), +(H,S).— . By screening the empt scene of ae (H,8),=Sb.8,+(Hz),- By 8 in id Sened; and by allowing for it, the amount of hydrogen combined 22 parts (one atom) of antimony was found to be in two ceeriments, 3°34 and 3°13 respectively; whence the author con- 4 udes upon SbH, as the correct formula of stibine. He foun - reaction of this gas on sulphur so delicate a test for the pres- pets of light that he made some photometric and sap ae - Soc., elxi, 641, May, 1876. f Cl Ss : Colum inm and tantalum in carbon crucibles. A mixture of M. JOUR. 8-1 Tarp Series—Vot. XII, No. 69.—Sxpr., 1876, 14 214 Screntific Intelligence. columbic oxide, sodium carbonate and pure carbon thus heated to whiteness, affords a crystalline mass of an olive color and friable. Heated to the temperature of fusion of nickel for six or seven hours, product formed at the temperature of fusion of steel contained } of a molecule of the latter to one of the former; when heated fora longer time 4 of a molecule; and that formed at the temperature of fusion of manganese, 1 to 1. Tantalic acid thus treated acts similarly except that the carburation may be carried higher; one product, of a beautiful bronze-yellow color, obtained at the tem- perature of melted steel, containing only 0-7 per cent of nitrogen. —Bull. Soe. Ch., Tl, xxv, 506, June, 1876. GF. B 4. New mode of effecting the Substitution of Chlorine or Bromine in Organic Compounds.—DamotsEau has called atten- fumes of hydrochloric acid appear, and oily drops collect on the walls of the tube. By varying the proportion of the two gases, monochlorinated, dichlorinated, trichlorinated, tetrachloine= : ingly er. : with pumice, wood charcoal, alone or platinized, or even with platinum sponge itself, the effect is insignificant.— C. ., xxx, 60, July, 1876, O. Fle 5. On Physical Isomerism.—In studying nitrometachlormtro ment of it, as the liquid cools. The crystals ar . . 1 - 9980 with a well-defined cleavage, in which a: b:e1°8873: 1° ; Chemistry and Physics. 215 363°. The second, or /-modification is obtained by fusing the f to nd allowi first completely at a temperature of 39° cool. Long concentric groups of thin prisms are in this way ob- “i A on introducing a crystal of this form. It also is monoclinic S — oo wm = a =) tie} = 4 Cc oars =] > ee oa) iS) I pe =o + ro Qu ° | > B co) Su 4 and Si -H= On co: ns pees 3 ly ah or F a The others from Two Islands. Calculated from + Rammelsberg’s Handbuch der Mineralogie, p. 626. A. B. Howe—Gmelinite from Nova Scotia. 273 analyses with those given by Rammelsberg, it will be seen that, like the majority of those, they give an excess of silica over that required by the ration 1:1:4. This excess is very marked in the Nova Scotia varieties, but in these it may be partly accounted for by a slight decomposition which may have taken pla ergen Hill crystals, however, were ve evidently sound and undecomposed, and the excess in this case can not be accounted for in that way. Both the Nova Scotia varieties had apparently undergone a slight alteration. The crystals were somewhat porous and hol- low, and thus would be exposed to easy decomposition ; or this structure may have been the result of alteration. Thin sec- tions examined under the microscope with polarized light afforded no evidence of free quartz. If the bases had been chlorie acid, decomposition with separation of finely-divided Silica took place, but there were no traces of gelatinization. _ Several experiments were made on the loss of water by heat- Ing, but with no satisfactory results. The mineral, even when also found at 160°-180° corresponding to a loss of 17°02 per be Lagat others were found at 200°-210° and at 250° equal 19-42 and 20-40 per cent respectively. At every tempera- ‘ure mentioned the loss was rather rapid at first, peasnally ming slower and slower till a constant weight was obtained. sar nerently the mineral possesses the property of giving a con- t weight at any temperature, which may account for the Th various results which other experimenters have obtained. d € water is driven off completely at a red heat, and the pow- on sintered together into a mass but without absolute Itis interesting to notice the fact that the habit of erystalli- 274 Hanks on the occurrence of Durangite in Durango, Mexico. zation corresponds to the difference in chemical composition, at least so far as these three varieties are concerned. cimens from Five Islands, in which the protoxide bases are almost wholly made up of soda, the crystal is decidedly rhom- bohedral in character; the plane —i is exceedingly minute and the basal plane O is wholly wanting. In the Bergen Hill crystals which were used in the analyses, and are intermediate in composition between the other two, the crystals have not so decidedly a rhombohedral appearance, although R and —1 are very unequally developed. In the crystals from Two Islands, one, but must remain unanswered till specimens containing more lime are analyzed and described. Art. XXXIV.—On the occurrence of Durangite in the tin-bear- ing region of Durango, Mexico; by Henry G. HANKS. the last seven years, since the first description appeared in ree Journal, I have never been able to obtain anything reliable until now. : ee It has been stated in a general way, that this rare eee was found with stream tin in Durango, Mexico; but as 5 hardness of durangite is only 5, it has heretofore been ae sible to account for the perfect state of the crystals as they reach us. : sid T am able at last to throw some light on this subject, deriv! ~ my information from Mr. J. F d, of Durango, and ™I . J. F. Boyd, he Ayres, of Coneto, Mexico, both of whom have lately visited San ¢v 2 Dn Francisco. According to these gentlemen, durangite ee found only in the “ Barranca” tin mine and never in the about streams. The tin fields in which this mine is located “i ae eighteen miles northwestwardly from Coneto, State of rae bh Mexico, and about ninety miles in the same direction roy 30! north, long. 104° 80’ west. The mines are embraced in * ha cle which could be swept by a radius of thirteen miles. . from ten ' In the of these arroyos, through all of which water runs during @ sei he tin ore is invariably found in what Mr. Boyd describes as a “whitish cement” which softens readily in water, allowing the cassiterite to fall to the bottom of the washing troughs. _ Mr. Boyd thinks the character of this formation controls the purity of the tin. When it has a yellowish shade he expects to find the tin contaminated with arsenic, iron, and bismuth. If light gray or white, he notices that the vegetation is stunted, but the character of the tin produced is much improved. Ores yielding from eighteen to thirty per cent are very abundant, but 0 not pay to smelt without concentration. Associated with the tin ores are found fluor spar, calcite, chaleedony, and topaz. old, silver and lead-producing formation. Sometimes a high ill or mountain top is seen to be capped with the tin formation. Over the entire tin fields prospecting holes have been sunk, the bed rock being reached at a depth varying from three to ten feet. These shafts have never failed to develop stream tin m greater or less quantities. During the wet season, com- Mencing in the middle of June, great quantities of rain fall. Advantage is taken of the abundance of water to sluice out the 18 done in a rude way in furnaces built of adobes, yet it is Stated that metallic tin can be produced at a cost of two cents p : i of a man’s head. A curious form resembling small cylin- “ts or stalactites is not uncommon. : ". Boyd estimates the number of veins known at six hun- dred, and the number of streams or arroyos yielding stream tin 276 Hanks on the occurrence of Durangite in Durango, Mexico, at three hundred. This gentleman thinks that the tin ore is still forming. He assures me that work having been sus- pended on a mine in 1864, a portion of the vein was left stand- ing. In 1870 he visited it again and found that new films or layers of cassiterite had formed, and in some places noticed that peculiar variety known as toad’s-eye tin which he believes had formed during his absence. These mines were discovered and worked on a small scale by the Spaniards from 1790 to 1824. From 1885 to 1846 they have been worked by Don Manuel Gracia, a native Mexican of Spanish descent, who amassed a fortune by extracting the tin and carrying it on mules to the city of Mexico, 590 miles distant. cafion, is nearly vertical, dipping but slightly. The fissure 1s filled with loose vein matter containing cassiterite in cylindric pieces, quite small. Crystals of durangite occur singly with cassiterite in the white pulverulent matter before described. Beautiful crystals of a larger size and of a light orange color are sometimes met with attached to the walls of the vem. have a few of these in my collection; they are quite different from those found in the vein matter. It was this variety which was first described by Prof. Brush. “+h he vein matter is described as being highly charged wit arsenic. When thrown into the furnace, so abundant are the arsenical fumes evolved that the workmen cannot endure rae and a preliminary washing process is resorted to, by which @ large proportion of the arsenical matter is removed. Some times in washing the vein matter, crystals of duane found, as are also those beautiful topaz crystals which ha of found their way to the cabinets of mineralogists in all parts the world. re I understand Mr. Boyd to say that the crystals of ce ns are only occasionally met with. The largest crystal know teat now in my possession. It weighs 3-022 grams. Its ore ik length is 19 millimeters and its extreme thickness pe meters. The edges are sharp and all the angles well of the and perfect. There aré some imperfections on some bling fac It is of a beautiful orange-red color, resem bichromate of potash. 1, and The crystals found in the vein matter are usually hem to of a darker color. On weighing one hundred of se only ascertain the average, I found their combined weight to 7-750 grams. _- _ San Francisco, 619 Montgomery St. J. P. Kimball—Grahamite in the Huasteca, Mexico. 277 Art. XXXV.—On the occurrence of Grahamite in the Huasteca, Mexico, and Notice of the Geology of that Region; by JAMES P. KimBauu, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa. that neither variety isa true mineral species, any more than other native hydrocarbon compounds, like petroleum, asphal- tum, or mineral coals. The following observations serve to contirm the received theory of the nature and origin of albertite and grahamite, and to demonstrate that these bodies are ‘ssentially mineralized or fossilized asphaltums, derived from asphaltic petroleum, ittasphalt or maltha, by the loss of iydrogen and the addition of oxygen. In the degree of this _. to such anthracitic bodies, low in oxygen, as are N found in cavities of the rock in the older formations. Sine ous Springs of asphaltic maltha, forming in places kta deposits of solid asphaltum, occur on the eastern Pe of the Cordilleras of Mexico, or rather, in the littoral zone * This Jo: * : PTS Bears vi, IT, 1873, 108. Thid., xii, TH, 1866, 420. vm. Sct. Taump Sentes—Vor. XII, No. 70.—Ocr., 1876. 278 J. P. Kimball—Grahamite in the Huasteca, Mexico. pes. A considerable quantity of chapapote, as it is called, is rought down by these streams, washed out to sea, and finally left upon the beach by the action of the waves. After sucha thorough exposure to the elements, it loses its pitehy consis- tency, and becomes brittle and lustrous like jet. It has thena conchoidal fracture. In this condition it is sometimes gathered, and, though not extensively known, is highly esteemed as an article of export. The northwestern portion of the state of Vera Cruz is known as the Huasteca, which may be described as the area south of the Panuco River, embracing the territory to the north of the plateau of Anahuac, watered by the three forks of the prise affluent of the Panuco—the Rio San Juan de Mexico—namely, the Capadero, the Amajaque and the Moctezuma. This section posed it to have an easterly, instead of a northerly, course, and to empty into the Laguna de Tamiagua. Saussure’s map of the plateau of Anahuac represents this portion of Mex ico with some approach to its geography, if not to its to pography.+ . Last April I made the journey from Tampico to Tempoal 0 the Capadero, crossing the Topila at Tanseme, and returned to the same port by way of Trinidad and Panuco. The top graphical features of the country, which thus came under observation, are not unlike what I have described to be = character of the eastern slope of the Cordilleras farther north observed in Chihuahua. ted b The same succession of longitudinal valleys separa a 4 parallel ridges is here seen, together with the same gradu clivity toward the summit of the Sierra Madre, whic are, latitude is about Zacatecas. The valleys, though broad, 3% unlike the champlain valleys of Chihuahua, comparatively zs ged, owing to the uneven erosion of the se imentary ee which is caused by intrusions of trachyte. Their eon is largely due to the successive changes of the beds of st * Taylor, Statistics of Coal, p. 498. + Coup d’ceil sur ’hydrologie du Mexique, Geneva, 1862. } This Journal, xlviii, 1869, p. 385. :e J. P. Kimball—Grahamite in the Huasteca, Mexico, 279 caused by the gradual elevation, or periodic oscillations of level, of the Cordilleras during the Tertiary period and afterwards, and which phenomena, as I have elsewhere noted, are likewise strongly marked in northern Mexico. The area over which my route lay, is occupied by argillaceous sandstone, calcareous in places, whose foldings seem, generally speaking, to correspond with the present configuration of the surface, the whole of which, however, has been subjected to a ey powerful erosion. One of the most remarkable evidences, of the gradual character of the elevation of the Cordilleras in the lower latitudes, and of the fluvial character of their ero- that they are more logically referred to the Tertiary. These shales are important as the seat of the grahamite deposits in the Vicinity of Tempoal, and probably throughout the much larger ¢ cageesea including, at least, the middle portion » the Capadero basin, or so much of it as lies between the uejutla Mountains on the west and the Alacranes hills on the st The region thus defined corresponds to the so-called Coal-field of the Huasteca,” the coal, however, as I judge from * This Journal, xlviii, 1869, p. 381. 280 J. P. Kimball—Grahamiite in the Huasteca, Mexico, such specimens as I have seen, really being grahamite and other less thoroughly altered asphalts.* Judging from a number of specimens of these outcrops from farther up the Capadero than the district visited by me, as well rom such facts as I could gather by inquiry, it seems most probable that the shales of Tempoal and of the Cristo Mine, which came under my observation at these and other points in the banks of the Capadero, extend, at least, some 60 miles farther up the river, as far as Chalma, so as to include the so- called coal deposits at the base of the Cochiscuatitlan hills mentioned by Antonio del Castillo, viz., Purisima, Providencia and Virginia. A specimen of grahamite, now if m posses- sion, from Huautla, 50 to 60 miles still farther up the river, suggests a still greater extension of the same shales, found to be the seat of grahamite at Tempoal and elsewhere. Except in the banks of the river, and the beds of branching arroyos, the grahamite-bearing shales nowhere come to the sur- face in the Capadero basin, within the range of my observation, although not far below the level of the valley-plain, or lower terrace of the river. Together with grahamite, they are repo and may be readily believed, to outcrop in the Huejutla Moun- tains, as at the Venados, where a deposit of the former was described by the messenger sent thither for specimens, to be upward of two feet in thickness. ately overlaid by the heavy deposit of fine alluvium, the least thickn 60 feet. the Cristo Mine, it is near the water’s edge, though rising rectly on either side. We have as yet no data adil thickness of the shale, as its edges are everywhere concea® not by overlying alluviums—by a detritus resu own weathering, as it slacks at once on exposure to * Some attention of late, in the City of Mexico and elsewhere, has oe extent to this region upon the strength of rather venturesome comput of what is and value of the alleged coal deposits, based upon unexplored outcrops Criaderos de. assumed to | of bituminous coal. (Compania Explotadora bee Carbon de Piedra, Mexico, 1876. A report by Antonio del Castillo.) the alr. J. P. Kimball—Grahamite in the Huasteca, Mexico. 281 #8¢ of the sandstone series—requires the support of other facts. rock surfaces are absolutely unbroken, while covered with a ry forest ; hence the present impracticability of a success- Search for fossils in this part of Mexico. nA Burkhart also identified in the banks of the “Rio Grande (Amajaque) the same formation of clay shale observed by him igq¢'tfeuthalt und Reisen in Mexico in den Jahren 1825 bis 1834. Stuttgart, "1, p. 53. 1827, ta Geognostica de los principales Distritos Minerales del Estado de Mexico, 282 J. P. Kimbali—G@rahamite in the Huasteca, Mexico, between Chapula and Pinolco in the Capadero basin, and thence inferred the geological identity of these neighboring basin now proceed to describe the deposit of grahamite known as the Cristo mine.* The original outcrop of the deposit appeared at the base of the west bank of the Capadero, on’ the Cristo Ranch, near the edge of the river at low water, and below the surface of the water during the rainy season. It appears to have been long observed, and to have been regarded by some persons as a deposit of bituminous coal, and by others as chapapote, but to have re- mained unexplored—perhaps through some discovery of its ill adaptation to the ordinary purposes of either fuels or asphalts. In 1873, the deposit was denounced as a coal-mining property. The deposit consists of two continuous parts, the one occupy- ing a nearly vertical fissure traversing the fossiliferous shales, and the other part conformably overlying these shales, which are slightly inclined. We have here the phenomena, first, of a deep-seated fissure transverse to the bedding of the formation, and filled out with grahamite; and, second, a nearly horizontal, and originally superficial, deposit of the same material over spreading the shale formation for a limited distance from the fissure. The latter 0c- currence is an overflow from the fissure, and, as it lies between the two surface, .as @ Te and from the evaporation oxidation of s pasty malthas, issuing from sluggish Peat oe in the rtain stratum more extended sources, as from a ce atone below, are to be seen beyond the boundaries of the sha the neighborhood of the Cristo mine, and indeed are * J. P. Kimball on a deposit of grahamite known as the Cristo Plate. 24 pp. 1876. * J. P. Kimball—Grahamite in the Huasteca, Mexico. 288 common in the surrounding portions of eastern Mexico, as That portion of the overflow which originally appeared at the base of the river bank, has now been worked out, 210 tons having been quarried and shipped. So far as can now be ascer- tained, the overflow was altogether west of the fissure, which sides, and shrinkage partings, or joints, parallel to its sides. It has thus far proved remarkably homogeneous in structure, and adam to a depth of ten feet, and, at the same place, measured feet deep, sunk from the top of the river bank or terrace, 196 feet from the edge. From the bottom two levels have been run out at right angles, one 194 feet long toward the river (east), and the other 274 feet long toward the north. These work- ings are in that portion of the deposit which for convenience I 1 the overflow. Its greatest thickness is iene in the 15 inches, and a dip of 20° to the northeast. In the shaft the thickness of the deposit falls from 34 inches at the southeast corner, to 154 inches at the opposite N. W. corner, to 20 inches at the S. E. corner, and to 15 inches at the N, E. corner. | It therefore appears that the overflow of the vein has a limited to its ed : is of entle Eygts ges. The fissure occupies the axis 0 ag oe with a dip of 14° W. on the W. side, and of 4° E. on Ne opposite side. As the overflow conforms to the steeper dip, 284 J. P. Kimball—Grahamite in the Huasteca, Mexico. it appears that the fissure must have been made at the time the elevation of the shales, and soon afterwards filled wi asphaltum, which continued to form after it had been filled. That no great period was required for this operation, is shown by the fact that the overlying conglomerate also conforms to the stratification of the shales as well as to the outline of the overflow of the grahamite, locally intervening. The occurrence of such a fissure in shales so imperfectly hard- ened, and so easily weathered, affords another proof that the filling of the fissure immediately followed its formation, that is, after the emergence of the shales and before the deposition of the overlying alluvium. It is from this evidence of the direct sequence of terranes, and the relation thus established with sub- sequent alluviums that, in the failure of the evidence of their fossils, I refer to the Tertiary the grahamite-bearing shales of the Capadero basin. These are probably remnants of the littoral Tertiaries of eastern Mexico and Texas.* : The strike of the fissure is nearly north and south, directly across the river. No attempts have been made to trace It beyond the excavation near the water's edge, its character as 4 fissure not having been recognized previous to my visit length of about 300 feet upon it had at that time been of chapapote or asphaltum. Numerous deposits are said to occur aed of the Pecan River. One deposit, which I visited, is found on the Tanelul Ranch, occupying an elevated basin oF cul-de-sac between two hills of the Alacranes range, here — ing the boundary of the Capadero valley. The pomt ae 24 leagues east of the Cristo mine, and directly mm range WUS’ course of the Cristo fissure as far as traced. The chap eee accumulated from the evaporation of liquid maltha, whieh . : . ber of orl issues in the form of a sluggish spring with a ; wie the above inally formed. and forced issued from the depressed portions of this formation, and a the J. P. Kimball—Grahamite in the Huasteca, Mexico. 285 —in fissu rstic the roc as pr duced grahamite, albertite and other less hydrogenous hydro- carbons of the same ty *tructure, conchoidal in fracture, and of a resinous and brilliant luster, the Ritchie and Cristo varieties, which are very similar, he rather granular consistency. They possess a very distinct roa a jointed, structure, as well as columnar partings 10 the * W. P. Jenny, Am. Chem., v, p. 10. 286 F. H. Bradley—Geological Map of the United States, . Both varieties are found at the Aguacates in veinlets, Some of these are filled with a conchoidal variety, like that from the _ Albert mine, while others consist of the same columnar and sub-conchoidal material as that from the Cristo mine. The con- choidal fracture in both differs simply as to degree, varying : with the degree of brittleness. _ A few barrels of the mineral from the Cristo mine havin | been sent last autumn to Glasgow, an analysis and technical examination of the sample were made by Mr. William Wallace, 4 of that city. : ANALYSIS OF CRISTO-GRAHAMITE. a Specie pravity -o. FS eS 17156. : Illuminating gas... ..--61'3 a Volatile matter __._..._- har chs eee 46 > O2°1R 3 Water. .cc. au a : a Fixed Carbon ..------- 31°63 te tie et oe en | Sap A A io oe cg Bhai ale 100°00 ANALYSIS OF COKE. ROG ba as eu ce ide es de ee 83°56 PURDUE ie oo on ps one coe cae ee a Art. XXXVI.—On a “ Geological Chart of the United States + of the Rocky Mountains, and of Canada ;” by FRANK BRADLEY. In publishing a new compilation of the gear ena geological surveys of the eastern United States and ep ne writer has felt under obligation to state the react adoption of any peculiar features of the chart, and also of data of noting some theoretical points to which this revision has called attention. + 8 298 Screntifie Intelligence. Mountains, yet some of aks oghnes are identical, and others closely correspondent, as follow Wahsatch. Suessonien. Ambloctonus. i Hyracotherium. Hyracotherium. Corypho ryph pert bows Gastorn Lepidost Lepidosteus As a point of difference between the beds, may be mentioned the absence of the Teniodonta mins the Suessonian, a sub-order not yet known out of North Am The Wahsatch sc/isisieaien Fadliaee the Green River Beds of Hayden, a name which I formerly used for the entire series. It, however, applies properly to the fish shales of Green River, con- taining ‘Asineops, Clupea, Osteoglossum, etc., which are probably local in their character. : The Bridger formation will then represent on the American continent, , more nearly than any other, the Middle Eocene or Pa- risien of Cuvier, Brongniart, and Renevier. The teeth of sharks described in the reports quoted are of uncer- tain origin. They are associated with oyster shells, and both have the appearance of having been transported ; nev ertheless, some of the mammalian teeth found associated with them have a similarly rolled appearance. It therefore remains uncertain whether the a which ye its hor Similar age in one instance the sam : ecies of sharks were fund in both formations, the division of e Cretaceous being No. 3 and 4 of Hayden. n conclusion, the Lomein of the North American Eocene may be represented as follow Formation. Equivalent. Locality. cee “a Brid. Jorm. i ; S. W. Wyoming. Tillodontia. ridger Form Middle Eocene yoming. Dinocerata. carats i Teeniodon Wahsatch Form. Lower Eocene. | etnies youlaie Ler 2. Note cl se the Geological position of the Serpentine Live stone of Northern New York, — an inquiry regarding ¢ "4 tions of this Penekeans to the Eozoon Limestones of Uanaa4, Prof. James Hatt.—(The fo Slane is an abstract of this Be veal before the American Association at Buffa ng er gt reddish tint. The formations suai this space were sl ee Primary, and more recently Laurentian. The v The same of things exists in ue eaosies Daeg! as the th of es Vaud, Switzerland. Mingled with the mammalian o Harpe remarks that ticks ¢ appearance ais a warrant the bli that they have been transported, or are not indigenous to the Eoce Geology and Mineralogy. 299 the oldest rock formations of the State, as well as of the eastern tiles, a presence of the Postdam and Calciferous sandstone and the Chaz rocks of the lower division of the Laurentians consist of black hornblendic, gray garnetiferous and coarse feldspathic and quartzose gneisses, with extensive beds of magnetic iron ore, se are succeeded by massive beds of labradorite rock—the limestone in the eastern counties of northern New York has been believe by all geologists. = ie = Uaring, in 1866, been occupied in some critical examinations of '¢ Tegion in the neighborhood of Port Henry and Westport, I Pasha a part of the lower Laurentian series of strata, but uncon- ormably overlaid the upturned edges of the gneissic beds of that seg of the system. Neither does it conform to the upper or i Having had occasion to pass ;ver the same region almost annually since that period I have 8 flanking the Laurentian rocks to the southward, and is — th vously present in the town of Minerva, and it is apparently * *ame belt which is known in Warren county. From the latter y it has been reported as containing Eozoon. 800 Scientific Intelligence. The limestones of St. Lawrence and Lewis counties are usually beds of granitic and other rocks, with specular iron-ore, are not of true Laurentian age, and their relations to the latter are at present not well determined, except that they are of more recent date in the geological series. e simple point which I wish to demonstrate is that this lime stone of Essex and adjacent counties does not belong to the Laurentian system, either lower or upper. That it is a formation deposited along the flanks of, and within the Laurentian area, at a period subsequent to the deposition, metamorphism and disturb- ance of the rocks of authentic Laurentian age, and that it appar ently holds a place in the series between the Laurentian and Potsdam periods, but whether of Huronian age or otherwise Id not pretend to say, and it may even prove of later date than this. ith these facts before us it becomes a matter worthy of a age, are really Laurentian, or hold the place and position of those of Northern New York. ae : orE.—Since preparing the statement giving views here pre add this note, but with the permission of the Associat make a more extended reference in the final publication.— Courier, Aug. 25. New York and = : 3. On the Geology of the Southern C ote of New to the is mainly to state and illustrate the results of four years a " pie chiefly in the southern counties of New York and the ad) Ir. Andrew Sherwood, Red Sandstone, or Catskill group, within the limits of New Tork, geological map of the State. : ae tate The assertion of the non-existence of this formation 1 pense . me portions found : eded in the eluet g fact, it became evident that one could travel from Schoharie county t? - a Geology and Mineralogy. 301 seeing the Red Sandstone. And from this circumstance arose the statement of the absence of this formation from the State of New t became a very different matter, however, when one Sir William E. Log Andrew C. Ramsay, (the latter now Director of the British Geological Survey,) the question of t geological age of this great accumulation of strata assu a area is colored as the Catskill Group without indication of am a cal structure. A similar feature was seen in northern New York; * rm of 1871, and has continued till the close of 1874. cost the labor of two men for four years. It now presents the atpect of a piece of work completed, except that from the erroneous maps of the State we are unable to give more than the approximate h The work has not only accomplished what was undertaken, but a8 proved conclusively the existence (first suspected in 1857) of Western limits of the red rocks, in Chenango county, presents a Series of nearly parallel anticlinal and synclinal folds ; and the inued imit prmation probably thins out entirely, before reaching the western undary of New Y ia. kill € topographical sketch presents a view of the Catskill range from the east side of the Fiotacia river, opposite to Catskill, look pe ee the shales of the Hudson River Group; the general tae West and southeast is shown, forming synclinal and anticlinal folds, of which five synclinals and six anticlinals are included in given, 302 Scientific Intelligence. the map. In the Catskill region the general direction of these flow and the main roads of th untry are made; the road from Kingston to Delhi being the principal exception. In going to the have long remained ignorant of its geological structure. mountains, where we have an elevation of nearly 4,000 — tide-water. The cause of this greater elevation is shown to “ : “69 : : f tion. To this condition we are indebted for the higher portions Schene- vus to Glasco, is on a line south of the culminating ridges, = t lower rocks of the section are of the Chemung Group * rom the a to Carbondale. Ch e lower beds shown, of Portage and Chemung, = tae ness of more than 2,000 feet; while the rocks above, ee y be referred to the Catskill, are about 3,000 feet. ee ad TOP; higher beds, of Vespertine, extending to the summit of Ro may be reckoned at about 800 feet.* sed 4,000 * That the entire mountain elevation above tide-water does not ¢ less thaD feet, is due to the dip of the strata, which makes the elevation 80 much the thickness, have a tbick- Geology and Mineralogy. 308 The passage from the red rocks to the gray sandstone and con- glomerate is gradual, with alternations of red and gray rocks, and does not afford any strong line of demarcation. The remains of Holoptychius, in the form of bony plates, frag- ments of bone, etc., extend through a thickness of more than two hundred feet. In its western extension, the red rock, with its alternations of green and mottled beds, shows a gradual thinning, and finally seems to be lost entirely. One of the greatest difficulties met with in this investigation, has been the occurrence of red and greenish shales in the Chemung and Portage beds; and the finding of gray beds with Chemung fossils at an elevation of at least one hundred and fifty feet above the base of the red rocks, which had always been referred to the Catskill formation. We have finally, however, ascertained, as I believe, the limits of the formation, and though not always in strong contrast with the rocks below, we have been guided both by physical and biological conditions. Inthe interval between well-marked Chemung and typical Cats- kill, there are beds of intermediate character, and we sometim find a few fossils of the lower rocks. e same means of distine- tion do not occur in all localities. Tn some places the indications h cardites Catskillensis, The occurrence of this fossil may, in we opinion, be relied on as characterizing the base of the Catskill formation, while the Holoptychius marks the beds above, but still 18 not known above the middle of the formation. Another question, involved in this investigation, has been the determinations of the relations of these red rocks to the superior sandstones and conglomerates, which in eastern New ork and ra I 0 may or may not be a continuation of the former. i n some localities in the border counties of western Pennsylvania, i y Indeed, trom the little I have seen, I should say, that in the ante referred to, there are more species of fossils passing from ¢ Upper Chemung into the Waverly formation, than there are Species passing from the lower to the upper division of the Che- ) proper, fc, Jduestion is of great interest in view of the supposed horizon fo Carboniferous forms; but if we are able to substantiate the Tegoing proposition, I think it will be shown that the Chemung 304 Scientific Intelligence. of the country. he mec is still unfinished in the western part of the State; but w esau indications of what we may expect to say on farther sR a n.— Proc. Amer. Assoc., Detroit, 1875, p. 8 ihe Erosion of Rocks ; b - E. B. ANDREWS. (Commas si to the Editors, dated Lancaster, Ohio, Sept., 1876.)— Attention having been ‘vecently called to the subject of erosion by the excellent papers of Mr. G. K. Gilbert, I beg a_little space " oh sige one feature of the weathering of rocks, which may orthy of more consideration than it has receive wen is likely, at least for some time, to remain undetermined in ome parts valleys bordered by high cliffs, from fifty to two hundred feet high. These cliffs often overhang their bases forming recesses from thirty to one hundred and fifty feet in depth from a vertical line dropped from the top. These rock-walled valleys when fol- lowed up are often found to terminate in semi-circular cliffs over which the little streams fall in pretty cascades. Behind the falls of mud se the walls of the cavern. us spray beco svn bis agent of undermining the cliff, just as the lan SF EAag ( oe, wsanio mlleh remarks on the use and interpretation of particular integrals ae by La eas differential equations expressive of dynamic problems, sugges P we 8 dynamic theory of the tides, J. @. BARNARD. 4 Uation of > sana Sn ive temperature, JW ms acon a “of Lquid ometers by com id. iments on the gyra masses in rotation, id. y comparison, id. Expe 318 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Observations on the diurnal variation in the humidity of the air, H. Hamprre. On the increase of index of refraction accompanying change of temperature, T, C. MENDENHALL. Dielectric polarization, E. R Essay on the molecular character én steam, 8. M. ALL A tide gauge for ci in cold ¢ 8, J. M. Baroms.oen Meteorites of Am Iowa a pete G. Hiyricus, On the datelbution a errors in numbers written from me mory, F. E. NIPHER. A an of a series of experiments on the refrigeration of air by expansion, P, H. Van der Wrypr. On the » combined compression and stage-forceps carrier, R. H. WARD. Proposed method of evolution _ J.D. Wa Exhibition of capillary coke, from Tra acy Ci ity, Tenn., N. T. L : Relative market prices of gold and Saeed and their ‘nti on er metallic monetary standard of the United States, E. B. Exuiorr. Prices of the bonded securities a the United States and the coenamnaesdiige rates of inneeetl realized to investors IL. Section of Geology and Natural History. n . H. Daw, On the origin of kames or eskers in New Hampshire, Ww. UPHAM. Some new points regarding the ton: ngue of Picus viridis, J. LINDAHL. York, pi pe »ingtiry tee stage the relations of this limestone to the Eo stone of Canada, J. ‘ On emg tt in flowers, T. Muenan. On graft ages e group of Buffalo, R. Grote and W. wee _ Suber! pti a get WO tage mia oO ae slight morphological value of natural rma and numerical composition, B.G. WiupER. Notes on the brains of fish-like rtebrates ; myxinoids, a“ and skates, chimera teleosts, i on the Ni owt American ibe e origin and mode of torMation of the Great Lakes, J. S. News The raletions of the rocks of Ohio to those of Pennsylvania and i New "York, id. Principal characters of American i apres odie . MARSH. tg ie on the pitchstones of Arran Sycotypus — iculatus Linn F. . praia A brief ee rg of the butte tterfly faunas of Europe a and eastern North America, with hin peeinoniine the inion: of the eee: S. H. rica na On the reciprocal relations of certain n genera of articulated brachiopods, New facts relating to Eozoén a e, J. W. Daw ae On the siphon of Endoceras genus of ‘chambered. sli, A. Wine ariation in color in animals, 8S. W. GARMAN. AMAN. Description of new fungus on the leaves of we pear tree, W. rie ees The edible ‘crab of Marvland, Callinectes hastatus (Ordway), P. on Phyllotaxis of cones, W. J. Bran. Can the Thos see? id. ron — the apple blossoms, id, Sensitive stigma i ow riieicel soca oa ue emmy worm (Lenonete puncta, Haw. aah Ae No A Roar note on Menopoma Alieghanionbie: of Harlan, A. R. Am Hieco : rigin of mineral veins , CO. WHITTLESEY sate ement to the glacial theory, W. C. KERR. and Evidences in Boone 1 ened of lai or ice deposits of two dent Widely distant-pe periods, G. § Miscellaneous Intelligence. 319 On the burial place of the Yorkshire Mastodon, discovered in Broome Co. . +e Y,, T. B. Comstock. Some unexplained ee ain the Geyser Basins of Yellowstone National Park, id. The “tw n water,” the union of the yn soe and P, Oceans in the Rocky icuneaites 2 III. Subsection of Chemistry. vane relationship of structure, density and chemical composition in steel, J. W. LEY. On the limit of og aha in ihe indirect estimation of sodium and potassium chlorides, H: W. W. Some modified forms of apparatus; flue with artificial or flue with atl draft ‘id ae bath, apparatus for sugar and fat sg pote é eo indigenous Indiana woods, their specific gravity, per cent of ash in wood and bar! ferns the chemical composition of a saline efflorescence occurring at Goat Island, A aos acid ‘the rocks of the Galapagos Islands, F. A. Gooo On the chemical composition of Pennsy: svete petroleum, 8. P. “SADTLER. _ Contribution to the chemistry of ie. ie as the reduction of silver at oaaaee rere in the presence of free ie 18 deposit from the interior of a hollow mass of limonite, with ae sicaes a the molecular movements of rig ad eee matter, N. T. Lupton. On the so-called alkali of the nese plain On the analysis of milk, E. H. v. Ce _Notes of a min eralogical tour in Western North Carolina, made under the aus- » > tear y, A. A. JULIEN LTON. Sugar analysis, A, SPRINGER. Action of cada heat on bituminous ‘"™ E. T. Cox. iation of phosphorus in the blast furnace, W. H. CHANDLER and itrates in natural mination of nitric acid, id. IV. Subsection of Microscopy. wma of measurements of eleven of Moller’s Dietomaceen Probe-platten, E. Micromet ¢ measurements sa mines on glass, Bei Mr. posal metric measurements of rulings on glass, by Mr. RUTHE fone see by Sten mous of muscular tissue of beara with picric R Simple iisite oh haces the binocular microscope to defects in the eye, W. #. Remarks on some American contributions to the development of the modern On reted system of fin finder for ne — cope. a lew simplifications « of the polarizing and of the spectroscopic microscope Some modifications and sti attachments to the microscope for a 3 hal ep V. Subsection = Anthropology. ; tion ap tities of the femora from in Michigan, H. GILLMAN. Investiga- of the burial ground at Fort Wayne on the Desc 4 river, Michigan, id. Some The "orem on the orbits of the crania from mounds, id The son rmatio bols for shite of prehistori archeology, 0. T. Mason. Pe of anthropology, and the classification of its materials, ‘a “Archzo- collections from Porto Rico, id. : confederae uois phratry, L. H. Mor@an. The Iroquois gens, id. The Iroquois Etruscan ; fe Greek art in Jewelry, and its revival, A. CASTELLANT Hybridity ana absorption aunaiie the faces of the New World, D. WiLson. 320 Miscellaneous Intelligence. On the mythology of the North American Indians, J. W. Powstt. Brain-weight and size in relation to the relative capacity of races, D. Winson. some fragments of pottery from Vermont, G. H. PERKINS, On the ancient and modern Pueblo tribes of the Pacific slope of the U. §., E. A. BARBER. The mood of the verb in conditional clauses, Isaac B. CHOATE, The museums of industrial art in Austria, HEINRICH FRAUBERGER. The archeology of Europe and America compared, 8. D. Pret. On the state of society in the Primitive age, id. 3. Geographical Distribution of Plants and Animals ; by C. Pickrrinc, Wilkes’ U. S. Exploring Expedition, author of the Races of Man. Part II, Plants in their wild state. 524 pp. 4to, with several colored maps. Salem, Mass. (Naturalist’s Agency.) It is a large storehouse of facts, on a subject of general interest, gathered with great labor and fidelity. It gives observations Scenery, etc., that came under the author’s observation. text is illustrated by maps of the world, presenting by colors the conclusions arrived at by the author. ‘i 4. Proceedings of the Davenport Acadeny of Natural Sciences. Vol. 1, 1567-1876. 284 pp. 8vo, with 35 plates. Davenport, ; re : Putnam; Botanical notes by Dr. C. C. Parry; and lists 0 or of plants, and of land and fresh-water shells, of Cl 3 a OBITUARY. P Esenezer §, SnE.L, of Amherst College, Massachusetts, oe fessor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy, died, Sep 18th, aged seventy-five years. rks, Prof. Cuar.es Davizs, author of various mathematica! W 1867 a graduate of West Point of distinction, and from 185 pron Professor of Mathematics in Columbia College, died Se} eighteenth, in his seventy-ninth year. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [THIRD SERIES] Art. XXXVIIL— Observations on the Displacement of lines in the Solar Spectrum caused by the Sun’s rotation; by Professor C. A. Youne, of Dartmouth College. [THE substance of this paper was read at the Buffalo Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 7 ior astronomers, it has produced a wide-spread distrust, whic of the latter s sh Z Christie, recently published in the Monthly Notices, eae the substantial agreement of the results obtained by different observers after they had learned the delicate pre- essenti ; ] ~ertainly it seems little short of self-evident that, whenever a vhs 's communicating periodic vibrations to any medium — and, by means of this medium, transmitting them to Ware e point at a distance, then the frequency, or virtual An 1 uth; Of these pulses received at the second point must - Jour, ooectaee i Vou. XII, No. 71.—Nov., 1876. 322 0. A. Young—Displacement of lines in the be affected by any relative motion of approach or recession between it and the source of the vibrations. It is not difficult to verify this conclusion in the case of sound waves. The beautiful experiments of Vogel, lately published, show as the result of careful quantitative measure- ments, that the pitch of a locomotive whistle actually undergoes the precise alterations which theory requires, when the engi is either approaching the observer, or receding from him at a known velocity. Undoubtedly a considerable point would be gained if we could obtain a similar verification in «the case of light—if an alteration in the luminous pitch or wave length, produced in a ray of light by some known rate of motion, could actually be made sensible, measured, and shown to coincide with theory within observational limits of error. This verification unfor tunately is not easy to obtain, because the velocity of light 1s so enormous that it is difficult to find an object sufficiently bright, and moving rapidly enough, to make the change of wave length perceptible in our instruments. 2 I think it was Zollner who first suggested that the rotation of the sun might furnish the desired test, since its eastern an western limbs have a relative motion of nearly 24 English miles er second along the line of sight. But the displacement 0 ines in the spectriim due to this velocity is so small (in the case of the D lines about ,'; of the distance between them) that the dispersive power of the instruments heretolore employed by most observers, has been insufficient to make it clearly evident. Vogel alone (in 1871) seems to have succeeded in getting any measurements; his results for the sun’s equatorial velocity of rotation ranging from 0°35 to 0°42 of a geographical mile, oF from 1°62 to 1°94 English miles. By using a diffraction grating, however, combined with 4 prism in such a way as to separate the overlapping spectra i the higher orders from each other, as described in my rece? note* on the duplicity of the 1474 line, it is possible to oe much greater dispersive power, and the displacement then comes quite sensible. ; The apparatus which I have employed consisted of oe fine diffraction grating of 8,640 lines to the inch (for whic am indebted to Mr. Rutherfard) combined with a telescoh” : : he refracting edg® and the object glass of the eye-telescope. The ap on the grat en ing. The grating, collimator, &c., were mounted on * 4 to be framework constructed for the purpose, and arrang * This Journal, June, 1876. ' . Solar Spectrum caused by the Sun’s rotation. 823 circle. Between the two D lines, the spectra of the sixth and eighth orders usually showed no less than eight other lines, most of which are supposed to be water lines, produced by the vapor In our atmosphere, and therefore of course not subject to dis- placement by the sun’s rotation. I was in hopes to make use em as reference points, and to determine the displacement of the D lines by simply measuring the intervals with the micrometer. I soon found, however, that the atmospheric lines Were too f bisection, the microm In a feeble light. I was accordingly compelled to make the ob- i] ee i= 72 oS fo cr =) ct o o S fe) =) os <3 ~ 5 fa) ° . eh: ot cr ia] wn = 5. i) 8 En) oC Qu oo 4°) ie) 9 ee 5 ? intervals This will account for the small variations of the measu prone between the same lines as determined on different occasions—variations derably exceeding the probable errors of reading. 824 C. A. Young—Displacement of lines in the vision ; after this no adjustment of either telescope or spectro- scope was touched in the slightest until the observation was limb was brought to the slit, and the micrometer readings were repeated, running down and back twice, so as to give four read- ing possible constant errors) was found to be about ;%, of one nated by inverting the spectroscope, i. e., rotating the spectroscope 180°, around the line of collimation; this, how ever, in one of the series of readings always brings the ey piece into an inconvenient position. One set of observations : : ‘ ions are as e formule employed in reducing the observations * Solar Spectrum caused by the Sun’s rotation. 825 velocity of light = 186600 English miles per second, according to the latest determination of Cornu. Then, by Doppler’s theory, U=186600 x a (1) If now, in any group or spectrum lines of small extent, I is put for the difference of wave length of the extreme lines of the group; 4 for the interval between the extreme lines meas- ured in micrometer units, and 6 for the displacement as indica- ted by the difference between the micrometer readings on a reo line when the slit is placed on the eastern and western imbs of the sun’s image respectively, we shall have a) Oe hecho i se d\=Ix z and U 186600; x-—, (2) where A of course is to be taken as the mean wave length of the group, Taking Angstrém’s wave lengths, we find for the D group U=1903" and for the 1474 group u=36112; which amounts to saying that a velocity of 190°3 English miles would displace one of the D lines by a space equal to the distance between them, and for the other group a.velocity of 861:1 miles would be required, : From the sun’s known dimensions and period of rotation, adopting Faye’s numbers, the equatorial velocity of its surface 's easily found to be 1248 English miles per second; U, o course, ought to come out double this, or 2-496. _ The tables need little explanation ; the expression “ grating right,” means that the grating was so inclined as to throw the reflected image of the slit to that side of the collimator which was remote from the eye-telescope. In this position the spec- tra were more dispersed, but less satisfactorily defined than those of the same order obtained by turning the grating “ left, eae \ &, toward the eye-telescope. The first column contains ‘ons of the micrometer head; the difference between these, Siven at the bottom of the column is 4. The fifth column con- tins the differences between the numbers in the second and fourth columns, and their mean, given at the bottom of the Column, is 6. n the earlier observations of the D group several other lines Were observed besides the three given, but they were so faint © readings were very discrepant, sometimes to the extent 326 C. A. Young—Displacement of lines in the of two or three divisions, and they are therefore omitted, The readings of the nickel line are retained, though far less reliable than those of the two Ds. (1.) July 10, 1876; 9.80 to 10.15 a.m. (civil time); grating right; spectrum of 6th order; definition poor. West. Mean. | ‘East. ae a ete 6 Dp; 4 45°65 | 284°70 | 4 43°75 1°90 Pecaiitc:. Ni | 3 52:90 | 3 49°75 | 2:15 ||U=3°55 D, | 2 59°00 | 178°05 | 2 57-10! 1-90 A=106°65 =1°98 If we reject the nickel line 6’=1-90, “=0-0178 and U’=3 83. (2.) July 10; 10.30 to 11.10 a.m. D lines; grating right; spectrum of 6th order; definition medium. West. Mean. East. Tr d d D, 4 26°40 | 265°57 Ni | 3 32°05 3 29°65 | 2°40 iis 3 39°95 158°97 3 38°00! 1°95 iU=3°57 © o-0187 A r d d 4 24°75 | 1°65 d A=1096°60 d=2°00 Rejecting the nickel line, 6’=1-80 ; © = 0.0169. U'=3 22. (3.) July 10: 11.85 to 12.00 a.m. D lines; grating eft; spectrum 6th order; definition fine. West. Mean. East. r d i; d d 6 016 D, | 4 13°50} 253-87 s 14°25 | 0-75 | =eORe Ni | 4 51°00 bs 51°82 | 0°82 as D,'5 16°87| 31728 |5 17°70| 0°83 | U=2 A=63°41 =0°80 (4.) July 15; 10.15 to 10.40 a.m. Observation ina by clouds when half completed. D lines; grating 717 1; spec trum 6th order ;. definition poor. West. Mean. East. | : ‘| 3 by d d r d d : D, | 5 ted 30815 | 5 07:90 | 0-50 ||=0°0061 Ni | 4 12-70: 4 12°00 | 0°70 reer i D,!3 22-05 | 201°67 | 3 21:30! 0-75 is abies we A= 106°48 60°65 to little weight. Seg eee : um- (5.) August 10; 9.80 to 10.40 a.m. Twice the ant th ber of readings taken. D lines; grating lef; spec order; definition excellent. Solar Spectrum caused by the Sun’s rotation. 327 West. Mean. Kast. rT d d r d d 6 D, | 0 33°30 88°27 | 0 34°25 | 0°95 |i—==0°0146 mat 1 13°47 £18004. 41 Te U=2°78 ¥.1:1 86°25 1238740 Cue : This ob tion deserves D, | 1 52°92| 113-45 | 1 53°97 se double weight, on sccount of d the ppt readings and A=80°18 b= 1°17 lllines observ (6.) August 10; 11.10 to 11.50 a.m. D lines; spate right ; spectrum 6th order ; definition poor. West. Mean. East. r ad d r d d é mt 2 18°70 137°63 2 16°55 2°15 {=00188 Ni | 1 25°65 1 22°85 2°80 =3°59 Dy 4: 0 82°05 31°52 0 31°00 1°05 A=106'11 6=2°00 | Rejecting the nickel line, 6’=1°60, °=0-0151 Ul'=257. (7.) August 12; 9.80 to 10.10 a. “1474 group ; grating left; 8th order ; definition fine -* instrument tnverted. West. Mean. East. ¥ d d r d K1463,| 2 51-72 17222 | 2 52°72 1:00 1/6 _ 9.90783 1467 | 3 5100 3 52°28 1°28 ||4 4 49°65 4 51°60 1:95 ||;U 2°66 1474 5 49-20 349°71 5 50°23 1°03 A=177-49 §=131 || Bo ATT ee (8.) August 12; 10.85 to 11.10 a.m. 1474 group, grating kft; spectrum 8th order; instrument erect ; definition fi West. Mean. East. K r d r a 1474} 2 29-90 149°32 2 28°75 19S 10 ans 1467 | 4 28-00 4 26°82 118 || 1463,| 5 27-63 | 32661 | 5 2642 | 1°21 P 9°41 Se ch piaSla A=177°29 6==1° 18 (9.) August 12; 11.30 a. M. to 12.20 P. M. 1474 group; grating left ; spectrum 8th order ; slit radial ; definition ‘tine, eae ot HPeoee eacns onemanee pie | ee 1463,) 0 52-92 53°46 | 0 54°00 | 1:08 |= 0°00651 1467 | 1 52-85 - 41-5415 | 1°30 = 2°35 i474 | 8 51:18 | 981-72 | 9 62°97 4 100 A=178°26 d=1'16 eee * The definition Pig such that 1474 constantly showed double, and on rll slit to the base of the chromosphere, the bright line which speared wes due early seen to coitide with the more refrangible of the two components. 828 C. A. Young—Displacement of lines in Solar Spectrum. Since the points observed were not situated upon the solar equator it is necessary to correct each result by multiplying it by a factor depending upon the heliographic latitude, ¢, of the point. Ifthe sun’s surface rotated as a coherent mass the factor would be simply, sec. g. Since this is not the case however, the expression becomes more complicated. Adopting Faye’s constants and formula of solar rotation, we find the factor, 1 t— “eos p(1—0°216 sin? p) On July 10, p=2°, f=1:001; on July 15, p=8°, f=1°002; on Aug. 10, p=14°, f=1:044; on Aug. 12, p=15°, f=1051. Appiying the corrections we have the following, in which the column headed Us, gives the results without discrimination, while the column U’¢ contains the results obtained by throwing out the ni-kel line in observations (1), (2) and (6), and rejecting entirely (4), while (5) is counted twice, as having double weight for the reasons assigned. Ue Ue (1) 3°55 (1') 3°33 (2) 3°57 (2) 38°22 (3) 2°40 (3) 2°40 (4) 1:16 (4) 2°90 (5) 2°90 (5) 2°90 (6) 3°75 (6) 2°99 (7) 2°80 (7) 2°80 (8) 2°53 (8) 2°53 (9) 2-47 (9) 2°47 Mean 2°79 + 0°18 2°84 + 0°07 The two results do not differ materially, but the second is much more reliable. It makes the velocity of the sun's rota Hanover, N. H., Sept. 12, 1876. A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics, 329 Art. XXXIX.—Researches in Acoustics; by ALFRED M. MAYER. Paper No. 8, containing: 1. On the obliteration of the sensation of one sound by the simultaneous action on the ear of another more intense and lower sound. e ; 3. On a proposed change in the usual method of conducting orchestral: music, in- icated by the above discoveries. 4. Applications of the interf f relative intensities of sounds. ra + aoe . red . the THIS communication is preliminary to an elaborate paper on the above subjects. For conciseness and clearness, I present the few facts I have now to offer in the form of notes of experi- ments :— 1. On the obliteration of the sensation of one sound by the simul- taneous action on the ear of another more intense and lower sound, Experimental Observations on the Obliteration of one Sound by another.—Several feet from the ear I placed one of those loud- ticking spring-balance American clocks, which make four beats ma second. Then I brought quite close to my ear a watch (made by Lange, of Dresden) ticking five times in the second. In this ‘position I heard all the ticks of the watch, even those Which coincided with every fourth tick of the clock. Let us call the fifth tick of the watch which coincided with one of the ticks of the clock, its fifth tick. I now gradually remoyed the natch from the ear, and perceived that the fifth tick became unter and fainter, till at a certain distance it entirely van- roe and was, so to speak, “stamped out” of the watch. Similar and more striking experiments were made with an old silver watch, beating four times to the second, by causing ants watch to gain about thirty seconds an hour on the clock, 60 that at every two minutes the ticks of the watch and clock exactly coincided. When the watch was held near the ear, very one of its ticks was heard distinctly; but on gradually "moving it from the ear, the ticks of the watch became fainter rang? Publication i i Aug. 10, 1876, my friend Mr. a pmander 5° Ellis, PRS, ssi the tcllowing’ pote fo the above experiment a9 meg cor ak dere in Phare hm of ite american pendulum elock laced ise sates which increased the po ticks, : A ‘ . half-second ic nd a watch beating five times in nds. . hary e he has often noticed a similar e at night : ae “x4 Proper vs tion produced by the obliteration. of the aa when on sudden diy; watch from the n a e sh It ig Sion of the ticks into pe separated by silences, is ar. 330 A, M. Mayer— Researches in Acoustics. and fainter at the coincidences, and when the watch had been removed to a distance of nine inches from the ear, the ticks of the watch were utterly obliterated during three whole seconds of its ticks about the time of coincidence.’ On removing the watch to a distance of twenty-four inches, I found that I lost its ticks during nine seconds about the time of coincidence. It is here important to remark that the ticks of the clock are longer in duration, as well as dower in pitch, than those of the watch’s. With the watch remaining at the distance of twenty- four inches from the ear, I listened with all my attention, as tick by tick the watch approached the time of coincidence. Since the ticks of the watch are shorter in duration than those of the clock, they are overlapped by the other about the time of coincidence. Hence as, so to speak, the short ticks of the watch glided tick after tick, under the long ticks of the clock, I per ceived that more and more of the duration of each successive watch-tick became extinguished by the tick of the clock, until sod the tail end of the short tick of the watch was left audible and at last even this also crept under the long tick of the clock and the whole of the ticks of the watch were rendered inaudible for nine seconds, at the end of which time the front or head of the watch-tick, as we may call it, protruded beyond the cloc : tick, and then slowly grew up into a complete watch-tick as before. In this succession of events the tick of the old silver watch (made by Tobias) disappears with a sharp chirp, like a cricket's, and re-appears with a sound like that made bya boys marble falling upon others in his pocket. By this experiment, therefore, a gradual analysis is made of the effect. of the tick of the clock on the tick of the watch, affording a beautiful illus tration of the fact that one sonorous sensation may overcome and obliterate another. bs axperiments to determine the relative intensity of the Clock-ti which obliterate the Watch-ticks.—The clock was placed on pari in the middle of an open level field in the country, oD MS ts when the air was calm and noiseless. The ticks o became just inaudible when my ear was removed to a ¢ ta of 350 feet. The ticks of the watch became just inaudible ae distance of- twenty feet. The ratio of the squares of t is numbers makes the ticks of the clock about 300 times oat intense than those of the watch. On the same nights thé t made the above determinations I also put the clock on 9 oi and placing against my zygomatic process a slender sti¢ a duated to inches and tenths, I stood with my ear at _ from the clock of from eight to sixteen feet, and then. e 4 oi watch above and along the stick (taking care that It oe tg touch it) until it reached such a distance from the eat ote fifth tick just disappeared. Knowing the relative in i the ticks of clock ‘and watch when placed at the same ® A. M. Mayer— Researches in Acoustics. 331 The general result of the numerous experiments thus made shows that the sensation of the watch-tick is obliterated by a coincident tick of the clock, when the intensity of the clock-tick must be regarded as merely approximative, not only from the manner in which it was obtained, but from the complenity of the sounds on which the experiments were made. It is interesting, perimenting with musical sounds. At the outset I will remove an objection always made by those versed unacquainted with these new phenomena. It is as follows :— ‘You say that one sound may obliterate the sensation of sounded forcibly, and at a few feet from it is placed the mstru- ment emitting the sound to be obliterated, which may be either 4 tuning-fork on its resonance box, or a closed organ-pipe com- ihunicating with a separate bellows. Suppose that in the fol- owing experiment both tuning-fork and closed organ-pipe Pr>- duce a note higher in pitch than the more ‘ntense or extinguish- ing sound of the open organ-pipe. Now sound the fork — pareniel y o% sound emitted b i his change cannot occur y the open pipe, this ¢ ng xcept when the fork is soandet and hence, if it occurs at all, 332 A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. it must occur in the regular measure in which the fork is sounded. The following are the facts really observed. At first every time that the mouth of the box is open, the sound of the the hand. 2. On the discovery of the fact that a sound even when pre" cannot obliterate the sensation of another sound lower than in pitch, tense sound higher (instead of lower) in pitch. In this pi when the ear decides that the sound of the (lower and aie tuning-fork is just extinguished, it is generally discovere | | A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. 333 The development of the applications and of the further illus- trations of these discoveries would occupy too much space; must therefore restrict myself to mentioning some of the most interesting. Let a man read a sentence over and over again with the same tone and modulation of voice, and while he is so doing forcibly sound ac’ pipe (256 double vibrations), A remarkable effect is produced, which varies somewhat with the voice experimented on, but the ordinary result is as follows. It appears as though two persons were reading together, one with a grave voice (which is found by the combination of all the rea- der’s real vocal sounds below c in pitch, or having less than 256 double vibrations), the other with a high-pitched voice, gener- ally squeaky and nasal, and, I need not add, very disagreeable. course the aspirates come out with a distressing promin- ence. Ihave observed many curious illustrations of this change in the quality of the tone of the voice, caused by the entire or partial obliteration of certain vocal components, while listening Pa steam whistle, or in ine action on the ear of all the components or partial tones, low it in pitch. Thus the higher the pitch of any component or r of lower components which y * Sound of which, after its higher components have disappeared, at eep simple tone. This bass sound holds its own with total x iperence to the clatter of horses, or to any sounds above it in - It dies out with a smooth gradient, generally without - slightest indentation or break produced by the other sounds the street. Indeed, in this case, as in all others where one 334 A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. sound remains unaffected by intense higher notes, the observer feels as though he had a special sense for the perception of the graver sound—an organ entirely distinct from that which re- ceives the impress of the higher tones. . That one sonorous sensation cannot interfere with another which is lower in pitch, isa remarkable physiological discovery, and next after the demonstration of the fact that the ear is capa- ble of analyzing compound musical sounds into their constitu- ent or partial simple tones, is probably the most important ad- dition yet made to our knowledge of the nature of hearing. It cannot fail to introduce profund modifications into the hypothe- ses heretofore framed respecting the mechanism and functions of the ear. 3. On a proposed change in the usual method of conducting Orchestral Music, indicated by the above discoveries. We have seen how an intense sound may obliterate, entirely or in part, the sensations of certain partial tones or components of any musical tone, and thus produce a profound change in its uality. In a large orchestra I have repeatedly witnessed the entire obliteration of all sounds from violins, by the deeper and alone holding their own. I have also observed the sounds of the clarinets lose their peculiar quality of tone and consequent charm from the same cause. No doubt the conductor of the orchestra heard all his violins, ranged as they always are close around him, and did not perceive that his clarinets had lost that quality of tone on which thé composer had relied for producing a special character of expression. The function of the conductor of an orchestra seems to be threefold. First, to regulate and fix the time. Secondly, ‘I regulate the intensity of the sounds produced by the individu in the urely relations from his own in respect to their distance ere a various instruments in action. Is it not time that he she ‘ pay more attention to his third function and place hi ‘sn the position occupied by an average hearer? This Perence would be elevated, and somewhere in the midst of the auale! The exact determination of its place would depend on V A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. 835 cate and touching qualities of orchestral and concerted vocal music I have no doubt, and I firmly believe that when he are so multiplied and various as to be be ond our mental con- such laws until, firstly, we are in possession of a quantitative ° analysis of the compound tones of all musical instruments (that 1S, until we know the relative loudness of the partial tones of which they are composed at all parts of their compass), an secondly, we have determined throughout the musical scale the relative intensities of the sounds (of simple tones) when oblit- eration of the sensations of higher (simple) tones supervenes. The powerlessness of one sound to affect the sensation due to another sound lower than itself in pitch greatly simplifies this problem. ’ deterninations of the Relative Intensities 9 So Quantitative analysis of the compound tones of musical ge 1 ; t 1s 4, Applications of the interferences of sonorous apa to the yf Sounds. teristic oc partials (overtones, harmonics) shoul predomin- alee ame aggerated peculiarities in their qualities of tone, which will render them unfit to be played on alone, and uninfluenced by other orchestral notes. It is surely not t empirical rules may be attained, which will guide the musical instrument-maker to the production of those special qualities of tone required in orchestral instruments. Ttis fortu- 336. Address of Sir Wm. Thomson at the Glasgow Meeting, Art. XL.—Address at the Glasgow Meeting of the British Asso- ciation; by Professor Str WiLL1AM THomson, President of the Mathematical and Physical Section. A CONVERSATION which I had with Professor Newcomb one evening last June, in Professor Henry’s drawing-room in the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, has forced me to give all my spare thoughts ever since to Hopkins’s problem of Preces- sion and Nutation, assuming the earth a rigid spheroidal shell filled with liquid. Six weeks ago, when I landed in England after a most interesting trip to America and back, and became painfully conscious that I must have the honor to address you here to-day, I wished to write an address of which science 0 America should be the subject. I came home, indeed, vividly Impressed with much that I had seen, both in the Great Exhibt- tion of Philadelphia and out of it, showing the truest scientific spirit and devotion, the originality, the inventiveness, the patient persevering thoroughness of work, the appreciativeness, and the generous openmindedness and sympathy, from which the great things of science come. Qéd oo Aéyery ‘Ar perdas ‘ a” Oér@ dé Kvd pov adeiv. Address of Sir Wm. Thomson at the Glasgow Meeting. 387 tain Sigsbee, who followed with like fervor and resolution, and made further improvements in the apparatus by which he has done marvels of easy, quick, and sure deep-sea sounding in his little surveying ship Blake ; and of the admirable official spirit which makes such men and such doings possible in the United States Naval Service. I would like to tell you too of my rea- son for confidently expecting that American hydrography will soon supply the data from tidal observations, long ago aske of our Government in vain by a Committee of the British Asso- ciation, by which the amount of the earth’s elastic yielding to the distorting influence of the sun and moon will be measured ; of my strong hope that the Compass Department of the American Navy will repay the debt to France, England, and Germany so appreciatively acknowledged in their reprint of the works of Poisson, Airy, Archibald Smith, Evans, and the Liver- pool Compass Committee, by giving in return a fresh marine survey of terrestrial magnetism, to supply the navigator with data for correcting his compass without sights of sun or stars. an I go on to precession and nutation without a word of what I saw in the Great Exhibition of Philadelphia? In the U.S. Government part of it, Professor Hilgard showed me the measuring-rods of the U. S. Coast Survey, with their beautiful mechanical appliances for end measurement, by which the three great base lines of Maine, Long Island, and Georgia, were measured with about the same accuracy as the most accurate scientific measurers, whether of Europe or America, have attained in comparing two meter or yard measures. In the United States telegraphic department I saw and heard the Canadian department I heard “To be or not to be,...- - se a the rub,” through an electric telegraph wire ; but, scorn- a monosyllables, the electric articulation rose to higher — a a : ° : ao of just such another little electro-magnet as this which Jour. eo tease | Serres, Vou. XII, No. 71.—Nov., 1876. 888 Address of Sir Wm. Thomson at the Glasgow Meeting. dations. I was much struck with the prevalence of paten inventions in the Exhibition: it seemed to me that every good become the nursery of useful inventions for the wor I should tell you also of “Old Prob’s” weather warnings, which cost the nation 250,000 dollars a year; money well s ‘ee urvey, no one would for a moment think of proposing ? _And the United States Naval Observatory, full of hee highest science, under the command of Admiral Davis - mit get on to precession and nutation, I had resolved to ° Address of Sir Wm. Thomson at the Glasgow Meeting. 389 telling you that I had there, in an instrument for measuring os of the transit of Venus—shown me by Professor arkness, a young Scotsman attracted into the United States Naval Service—seen for the first time in an astronomical ob- servatory a geometrical slide, the verdict on the disaster on board the Thunderer, published while I am writing this address, forbids me to keep any such resolution, and compels me to put the question, Is there in the British Navy, or in a British steamer, or in a British land boiler another safety-valve so con- structed that by any possibility, at any temperature, or under any stress it can jam? and to say that if there is it must be instantly corrected or removed. T ought to speak to you, too, of the already venerable Har- vard University, the Cambridge of America, and of the Techno- logical Institute of Boston, created by William Rogers, brother of my late colleague in this university (Glasgow), Henry Rogers, “ and of the Johns Hopkins University of Baltimore, which with to edit it, are left; but the appointment to a Fellowship in the Johns Hopkins University came a day too late to gratify his noble ambition. ut the stimulus of intercourse with American scientific men left no place in my mind for framing, or attempting to frame a report on American science. Disturbed by Newcomb’s Suspicions of the earth’s irregularities as a Time-keeper, I could think of nothing but precession and nutation, and tides and tonsoons, and settlements of the equatorial regions, and melting of polar ice. Week after week passed before I could put down ‘wo words which I could read to you here to-day: and so I ~~ nothing to offer you for my Address but— Review of Evidence regarding the Physical Condition of the Earth ; tts Internal Temperature; the Fluidity or Solidity of tts In- ferior Substance ; the Rigidity, Elasticity, Plasteity, of is External Figure; and the Permanence or Variability of tts Period and Axis of Rotation. _ The evidence of a high internal temperature is too well known ‘0 need any quotation of particulars at present. Suffice it to Say that below the u ermost ten meters stratum of rock or Soil sensibly affected by diurnal and annual variations of tem- 340 Address of Sir Wm. Thomson at the Glasgow Meeting. perature, there is generally found a gradual increase of tempera- ture downward, approximating roughly, in ordinary localities, to an average rate of 1° C. per thirty meters of descent, but much greater in the neighborhood of active volcanoes, and cer- tain other special localities of comparatively small area, where hot springs and, perhaps, also, sulphurous vapors prove an intimate relationship to volcanic quality. It is worthy of remark in passing, that, so far as we know at present, there are no localities of exceptionally small rate of augmentation of underground temperature, and none where temperature dimin- ishes at any time through any considerable depth downward below the stratum sensibly influenced by summer heat and would be sensibly reached at a depth of 600 meters. By a simple effort of geological calculus it has been estimated that 1° per 30 meters gives 1000° per 30,000 meters, and 3333 per 100 kilometers. This arithmetical result is irrefragable, but what of the physical conclusion drawn from it with mar vellous frequency and pertinacity that at depths of from 30 to 100 kilometers the temperatures are so high as to melt all sub- stances composing the earth’s upper crust? It has beep remarked, indeed, that if observation showed an diminution or augmentation of the rate of increase of undergroud tempera ture in great depths, it would not be right to reckon on the uniform rate of 1° per 30 meters, or thereabouts, down to 30 oF 60 or 100 kilometers. ‘But observation has shown nothing of temperature downward were found at a depth of one he this would demonstrate* that within the last 100,000 years eat I * For proof of this and following statements regarding Underground H refer to “Secular Cooling of Heng ,” Transactions of the Royal Society Edinburgh, 1862, and Thomson and Tait’s “Natural Philosophy,” APPe™ Address of Sir Wm. Thomson at the Glasgow Meeting. 341 upper surface of the earth must have been at a higher tempera- ture than that now found at the depth of one kilometer. Such less than about 4000° C. It would not take much “ hurrying aed be quite sure the earth is solid in its interior ; not, I admit, ‘hroughout its whole volume, for there certainly are spaces 10 342 Address of Sir Wm. Thomson at the Glasgow Meeting. voleanic regions occupied by liquid lava: but whatever portion of the whole mass is liquid, whether the waters of the ocean or melted matter in the interior, these portions are small in com- parison with the whole, and we must utterly reject any geologi- ypothesis which, whether for explaining underground heat or ancient upheavals and subsidences of the solid crust, or earthquakes, or existing volcanoes, assumes the solid earth to be a shell of 30, or 100, or 500, or 1,000 kilometers thickness, resting on an interior liquid mass. This conclusion was first arrived at by Hopkins, who may therefore properly be called the discoverer of the earth’s solidity. He was led to it by a consideration of the phenomena of pre- cession and nutation, and gave it as shown to be highly prob- able, if not absolutely demonstrated. by his confessedly imperfect and tentative investigation. But a rigorous application of the perfect hydrodynamical equations leads still more decidedly to the same conclusion. I am able to say this to you now in consequence of the con- versation with Professor Newcomb to which I have already alluded. Admitting fully my evidence for the rigidity of the earth from the tides, he doubted the argument from precession and nutation. Trying to recollect what I had written on it fourteen years ago in a paper on the Rigidity of the Earth, published in the Transactions of the Royal Society, my con science smote me, and I could only stammer out that ad convinced myself that so and so, and so and so, at which I had arrived by a non-mathematical short cut, were true. He hint that viscosity might suffice to render precession and nutation the same as if the earth were rigid, and so vitiate the argument for rigidity. This I could not for a moment admit any more than when it was first put forward by Delaunay. But doubt on prvocssion and nutation of an elastic yielding of the ce surface, i When those passages were written I knew little or nothing of vortex motion; and until my attention was recalled to t pce Professor Newcomb, I had never once thought of ins Siaity in the light thrown upon it by the theory of the quasr7! Address of Sir Wm. Thomson at the Glasgow Meeting. 348 oa to the liquid, and to cause the liquid (homogeneous or eterogeneous) and the shell to have sensibly the same preces- sional motion as if the whole constituted one rigid body. But it is only because of the very long period (26,000 years) of pre- cession, in comparison with the period of rotation (one day), Would be too small, but that an ellipticity of one or two hundred times this amount would not be too small, to compel approx!- mate equality of precession throughout liquid and shell. _ (2) That with an ellipticity of interior surfave equal to gia) if the precessional motive were 26,000 times as great as It 1s, the motion of the liquid would be very different from that of a (3) That with the actual forces and the supposed interior ellipticity of ;1, the lunar nineteen-yearly nutation might be affected ‘to about five per cent of its amount by interior liquidity. (4) Lastly, that the lunar semi-annual nutation must be largely, and the lanar fortnightly nutation enormously, affected 344 Address of Sir Wm. Thomson at the Glasgow Meeting. closed in an ellipsoidal shell, has brought out results which I confess have greatly surprised me. W hen the interior ellipticity of the shell is just too small, or the periodic speed of the dis- turbance just too great to allow the motion of the whole to be sensibly that of a rigid body, the deviation first sensible ren- ders the precessional or nutational motion of the shell smaller than if the whole were rigid, instead of greater, as I expecte The amount of this difference bears the same proportion to the actual precession or nutation as the fraction measuring the pert- odie speed of the disturbance (in terms of the period of rota- tion as unity) bears to the fraction measuring the interior ellip- ticity of the shell; and it is remarkable that this result is inde- pendent of the thickness of the shell, assumed however to be small in proportion to the earth’s radius. Thus in the case of precession the effect of interior liquidity would be to diminish the periodic speed of the precession in the proportion stated ; in other words, it would add to the precessional period a num- ber of days equal to the multiple of the rotational period equal to the number whose reciprocal measures the ellipticity. Thus in the actual case of the earth if we still take gj, as the ellipticity of the inner boundary of the supposed rigid shell, the effect would be to augment by 300 days the precessional period of 2,600 years, or to diminish by about ;';” the annual precession of about 51’’—an effect which I need not say would be wholly insensible. But on the lunar nutation of 18°6 years period the effect of interior liquidity would be quite sensible ; 18°6 years being 23 times 300 days, the effect would be to diminish the axes of the ellipse which the earth’s pole describes in this period each by ;'; of its own amount. The semi-axes of this ellipse calculated on the theory of perfect rigidity from the very accurately known amount of precession and the fairly accurate knowledge which we have of the ratio of the lunar t the solar part of the precessional motive are 9/22 and 6 $6, with an uncertainty not amounting to one-half per cent on a& count of want of perfect accuracy in the latter part of data. If the true values were less each by 3; of its own amount, the discrepance might have escaped detection, or might not have es caped detection; but certainly could be found if looked fe So far nothing can be considered as absolutely proved wit reference to the interior solidity of the earth from preecesy and nutation; but now think of the solar semi-annual and M lunar fortnightly nutations. The period of each of these less than 800 days. Now the hydrodynamical theory shows ness of the crust, the nutation would be negative; if the period were equal to this second critical value, the nutation would be infinite: and if the period were still less, the nutation would be again positive. Further, the 183 days period of the solar nutation falls so little short of the critical 500 days, that greater semi-axis of the approximately circular ellipse described by the pole amount to 19x 00885, which is 1-7. It would be negative and of some amount between 1’ and infinity, if the thickness of the crust were anything from zero to 120 kilo- problem is, it cannot afford a decisive argument against the earth’s interior liquidity. It assumes the crust to be perfectly stiff and unyielding in its figure. This of course it cannot be, €cause no material is infinitely rigid; but, composed of rock and possibly of continuous metal in the great depths, may the ters thick, it would yield very nearly as much as if it were Eber, to the deforming influences of centrifugal force n coherently worked out, I think I see far enough towards 4 complete solution to say that precession and nutations wl f ae neally the same in it as ina solid globe, and that the ides will be practically the same as those of the equilibrium 346 Address of Sir Wm. Thomson at the Glasgow Meeting, theory. From this it follows that precession and nutations of the solid crust, with the practically perfect flexibility which it would have even though it were 100 kilometers thick and as stiff as steel, would be sensibly the same as if the whole earth from surface to center were solid and perfectly stiff. Hence pre- cession and nutations yield nothing to be said against such hy- potheses as that of Darwin,* that the earth as a whole takes relatively to land. i The state of the case is shortly this:—The hypothesis of a perfectly rigid crust containing liquid violates physics by as- suming preternaturally rigid matter and violates dynamical as- tronomy in the solar semi-annual and lunar fortnightly nute tions ; fiat tidal theory has nothing to say against it. On the other hand the tides decide against any crust flexible enough to perform the nutations correctly with a liquid interior, or a8 flexible as the crust must be unless of preternaturally rigid matter, relative densities of rock, solid and melted, at or about = temperature of liquifaction, it is, I think, quite certain that “bl lid rock is denser than hot melted rock: and no possible degree of rigidity in the crust could prevent it from bre . ieces and sinking wholly below the liquid lava. Somet ike this may have gone on and probably did go on for shoe * “ Observations on the Parallel Roads of Glen Roy and other P — < ber in Scotland, with an attempt to prove that they are of Marine Origin. actions of the Royal Society for Feb., 1839, p. 81. Address of Sir Wm. Thomson at the Glasgow Meeting. 347 process must go on until the sunk portions of crust build up from the bottom a sufficiently close-ribbed skeleton or frame, to allow fresh incrustations to remain bridging across. the now seem sufficiently great and various to account for all that we learn from geological evidence of earthquakes, of upheavals and subsidences of solid, and of eruptions of melted rock.”* aving altogether now the hypothesis of a hollow shell ing influence of sun or moon. The effe on the plumb-line of the lunar tide-generating influence is to ZO overhead, and is greatest in either direction when the moon is above or below the horizon. When this greatest value 1s Teached, the plummet is drawn from its mean position through * “Secular Cooling of the Earth.” Transactions of the Royal Society of Ed- ee (W. Thomson), and Thomson and Tait’s * Natural Philosophy,” * ¥ 348 Address of Sir Wm. Thomson at the Glasgow Meeting. a space equal to tzssb000 Of the length of the thread. No ordinary plummet or spirit-level could give any perceptible indication whatever of this effect; and to measure its amount it would be necessary to be able to observe angles as small as tzo0doc000 Of the radius, or about z4,”. Siemens’ beautiful hydrostatical multiplying level may probably supply the means smaller or southern cistern will rise from its lowest position to its highest position while the moon is rising to maximum altl- tude, and fall again after the moon crosses the meridian till she sets: and it will rise and fall again through the same range from moonset to moonrise. If the earth were perfectly rigid, and if the locality were in latitude 45°, the rise and fall would be half a millimeter on each side of the mean level ; ora little short of half a millimeter if the place is within 10° north or south latitude 45°. If the air were so absolutely quiescent during the observations as to give no varying differential pressure on the two water surfaces to the amount of z$5 millimetre of water, oF rzsx of mercury, the observation would be satisfactorily pract cable, as it would not be difficult by aid of a microscope serve the rise and fall of the water in the smaller cistern téo of a millimeter; but no such quiescence of the atmosphere could be expected at any time, and it is probable that the vari tions of the water-level due to difference of the barometric pres sure at the two ends would in all ordinary weather quite ov power the small effect of the lunar tide-generating motive. however, the two cisterns instead of being open to the = phere were connected air-tightly by a return pipe with no vt in it, it is probable that the observation might be success “o made: but Siemens’ level or some other apparatus sien Pa larly small scale would probably be preferable to any elabora method of obtaining the result by aid of very long pipes eee the ground ; and I have only called your attention to e ere Tides in an open canal or lake of twelve kilomete - wo of just the amount which we have estima be enor: cisterns connected by submerged pipe; but would be Address of Sir Wm. Thomson at the Glasgow Meeting. 849 mously more disturbed by wind and variations of atmospheric ressure. A canal or lake of 240 kilometers length, in a proper direction in a suitable locality, would give but ten millimeters rise and fall at each end, an effect which might probably be ana- lyzed out of the much greater disturbance produced by wind and differences of barometric pressure ; but no open liquid level short of the ingens cequor, the ocean, will probably be found so well adapted as it for measuring the absolute value of the dis- turbance produced on terrestrial gravity by the lunar and solar tide-generating motive. But observations of the diurnal and semi-diurnal tides in the ocean, do not (as they would on smaller and quicker levels) suffice for this purpose, because their amounts differ enormously from the equilibrium values on ac- count of the smallness of their periods in comparison with the periods of any of the grave enough modes of free vibration of the ocean as a whole. On the other hand the lunar fortnightly declinational and the lunar monthly elliptic and the solar semi- annual and annual elliptic tides have their periods so long that their amounts must certainly be very approximately equal to the equilibrium values. ut there are large annual and semi-annual changes of sea- level, probably both differential on account of wind and differ- ences of barometric pressure and differences of temperature of the water, and absolute depending on rain-fall and the melting away of snow and return evaporation, which altogether swamp the small semi-annual and annual tides due to the sun’s attrac- hon. Happily, however, for our object there is no meteorologi- Not succeeded in obtaining any trustworthy indications of either of these tides. The St George’s pier landing-stage pon- — was unhappily chosen, for the Liverpool tide gauge cannot : calculation were expended before the long-period tides for elbre Island could be attacked, and three years of Kurrachee More Pp The absence from all the results of auy indication of a 18°6 850 Address of Sir Wm. Thomson at the Glasgow Meeting, yearly tide (according to the same law as the other long-period tides) is not easily explained without assuming or admitting a considerable degree of yielding. Closely connected with the question of the earth’s rigidity, and of as great scientific interest and even of greater practical moment, is the question—how nearly accurate is the earth asa time-keeper? and another of, at all events, equal svientific interest—how about the permanence of the earth’s axis of rota- ion? tion Peters and Maxwell, about thirty-five and twenty-five years ago, separately raised the question, how much does the earth's axis of rotation deviate from being a principal axis of inertia? and pointed out that an answer to this question is to be ob- tained by looking for a variation in latitude of any or every place on the earth’s surface in a period of 806 days. The model before you illustrates the travelling round of the instan- taneous axis relatively to the earth in an approximately circular cone whose axis is the principal axis of inertia, and relatively to space in a cone round a fixed axis. In the model, the ’ . . amounting to about ;,”’ of the axis of rotation from the princr the subject, he kindly did so at once, and undertook to analyze a series of observations suitable for the purpose, which ha been made in the United States Naval Observatory, Washing: ton. . 1872, and containing the following statement of his conclu sions :-—_ ; fee “The investigation of the ten month period of latitude ie the Washington prime vertical observations from 1862 to 18 completed, indicating a coefficient too small to ne with certainty. The declinations with this instrume ject to an annual period which made it necessary to discu : of each month separately. As the series extended eee ae full five years, each month thus fell on five nearly eq™ ” Address of Sir Wm. Thomson at the Glasgow Meeting. 251 points of the period. If x and y represent the co-ordinates of the axis of instantaneous rotation on June 80, 1864, then the observations of the separate months gave the following values of aand y:— a Weight. y Weight. January -- — 0°35 nee 10 ke + 0°32 February -- — 0°03 es 14 pak + 0:09 March oe O17 as 16. + 0-16 ae Sao T Saas go ae ree May .. -- + 0°08 Tae 16 ies + 0°02 yume .. .. — OO1 ce 14 ae — 0°01 July — 0°05 ee 14 ist: — 0:00 ugust -- — 0°24 meg 14 oe + 0°29 September _. + 0°18 1B. 14 a + 0°21 October .. + 0°13 Pe 14 tas — 0°01 November + 0°08 pay 17 are 0°30 December — 0°08 eis iii se — 008 Mean 0-01-03 + 0’ -05+'"'03 : Accepting these results as real they would indicate a radius of rotation of the instantaneous axis amounting, at the earth's ; ess of the co-efficient over its probable error is so slight that this result cannot be accepted as any- thing more than a consequence of the unavoidable errors of ”) From the discordant character of these results we must not, however, infer that the deviations indicated by Peters, Maxwell, and Newcomb are unreal. On the contrary, any that fall within axis As for geological upheavals and subsidences, if on a very large ce ot area, they sit produce, on the eriod and axis of the earth’s rotation, effects comparable with those p uced by changes of sea-level equal to them in vertical amount. For simplicity, calculating as if the earth were of equal density throughout, I find that an upheaval of all the earth’s surface 1n say, of the axis of maximum inertia from the instantaneous 352 Address of Sir Wm. Thomson at the Glasgow Meeting. north latitude and east longitude, and south latitude and west longitude, with equal depressions in the other two quarters, amounting at greatest to 10 centimeters, and graduating regu- larly from the points of maximum elevation to the points of maximum depression in the middles of the four quarters, would shift the earth’s axis of maximum moment of inertia through 1” on the north side towards the meridian of 90° W. longitude, and on the south side towards the meridian of 90° E. longitude. If such a change were to take place suddenly, the earth’s in- stantaneous axis would experience a sudden shifting of but 1,” (which we may neglect) and then, relatively to the earth, would commence traveling, in a period of 806 days, round the fresh axis of maximum moment of inertia. The sea would be set great angular separation between the instantaneous (ine axis of maximum moment of inertia for the time being. fs 10 e nal sections of the sea-level, we need no brush 1 tite Comets tail,a wholly chimerical cause which can neve by Capt. Clarke at about ;', of the mean ellipticity 2 4 megeny | Address of Sir Wm. Thomson at the Glasgow Meeting. 358 been put forward seriously except in ignorance of elementary dynamical principles, to account for a change in the earth’s axis; we need no violent convulsion producing a sudden distor- tion on a great scale with change of the axis of maximum moment of imertia followed by gigantic deluges; and we may not merely admit, but assert as highly probable, that the axis present geographical position, and may have gradually shifted apparent acceleration; and how Delauney in 1866 verified ams’s result, and suggested that the explanation may be a retardation of the earth’s rotation by tidal friction. The conclu- . sion is that since March 19, 721 B. C., a day on which an eclipse 354 Address of A. R. Wallace at the Glasgow Meeting. tee’s reductions of tidal observations for several places in differ- ent parts of the world, allow us to admit to have possibly taken place. The assumption of a fluid interior, which Newcomb suggests, and the flow of a large mass of the fluid “from equato- rial regions to a position nearer the axis,” is not, from what I have said to you, admissible as a probable explanatioy of the remarkable acceleration of rotational velocity which seems to Art. LXIL—Address at the Glasgow Meeting of the British Ass0- ciation, by ALFRED RussEL WALLACE, President of the See- tion of Biology. Introduction. THE range of subjects comprehended within this Section if so wide, and my own acquaintance with them so imperfect an@ — observations, of some interest to biologists, and at the same ee not unintelligible to the less scientific members of the Associa: sister-science, which has been termed Surface-geology, OF bot 4 sculpture. In the older geological works we learnt much i - strata, and rocks, and fossils, their superposition, conto tions chemical constitution, and affinities, with some general err of how they are formed in the remote past; but we ofte? Address of A. F. Wallace at the Glasgow Meeting. 855 to the end of the volume no whit the wiser as to how and why the surface of the earth came to be so wonderfully and beauti- fully diversified ; we were not told why some mountains are rounded and others precipitous; why some valleys are wide and open, others narrow and rocky; why rivers so often pierce through, mountain-chains; why mountain lakes are often so enormously deep ; whence came the gravel, and drift, and erratic blocks, so strangely spread over wide areas while totally absent account of the varied phenomena presented by its surface. But of late years these surface-phenomena have been assidu- geology with a new and popular interest, and at the same time elucidating many of the phenomena presented in the older for- ations. Now, just as a surface-geology was required to complete that scence, so a surface-biology was wanted to make the science of f ilies, genera, and species; while the field-naturalist studies ous their food and habits and general economy. But till quite recently, none of these earnest students, nor all of them *nimals so often larger than those which are now living? What - end ed to the production of the gorgeous train of the peacock of the two kinds of flower in the primrose? The solution Reb ia 856 Address of A. R. Wallace at the Glasgow Meeting. of these and a hundred other problems of like nature, was rarely approached by the old method of study, or if approached was only the subject of vague speculation. It is to the illustrious author of the “Origin of Species” that we are indebted, for teaching us how to study nature as one great, compact, and beautifully adjusted system. Under the touch of his magic wand the countless isolated:facts of internal and external strue- ture of living things—their habits, their colors, their develop- ment, their distribution, their geological history,—all fell into their approximate places; and although, from the intricacy of the subject and our very imperfect knowledge of the facts them- selves, much still remains uncertain; yet we can no longer doubt that even the minutest and most superficial peculiarines of animals and plants either, on the one hand, are or have been useful to them, or, on the other hand, have been developed un- system of observation and study, guided by certain ord os ould © his having developed, with rare patience and judgment, a gate : ey have infused life and vigor into our science, ere : ‘opened up hitherto unthought of lines of research on - Address of A. R. Wallace at the Glasgow Meeting. 857. 2. On some Relations of Living Things to their Environment. Of all the external characters of animals, the most beautiful, the most varied, and the most generally attractive, are the bril- liant colors and strange yet often elegant markings with which 8omany of them are adorned. Yet, of all characters, this is the most difficult to bring under the laws of utility or of phyaipel connection. Mr. Darwin—as you are well aware—has sho how wide is the influence of sex on the intensity of coloration ; and he has been led to the conclusion that active or voluntary - Sexual selection is one of the chief causes, if not the chief cause, one as to which I myself differ from him. I have argued, and still believe, that the need of protection is a far more effi- seems to be an influence depending strictly on locality, whose — we cannot yet understand, but whose effects are every- Where to be seen when carefully searched for. ; are therefore led to seek some other cause for the varied ep that prevail among insects; and as this variety 1s most an any other—it offers the best means of studying the sub- some Che variety of color and marking among these insects . thing marvellous. There are probably about ten thousan 858 Address of A. R. Wallace at the Glasgow Meeting. different kinds of butterflies now known, and about half of these are so distinct in color and marking that they can be readily distinguished by this means alone. most every con- ceivable tint and pattern is represented, and the hues are often of such intense brilliance and purity as can be equalled by neither birds nor flowers. Any help to a comprehension of the causes which may have concurred in bringing about so much diversity and beauty must be of value, and this is my excuse for laying before you the more important cases I have met with of a connection between color and locality. vailing blue green color not found in an other continent.* Again, we have a group of African Pieride which are white is colored so exactly like these that it was at first described as a species of Pieris. None of these four groups are known to be in any way specially protected so that the resemblance cannot be due to protective mimicry. In South America we have far more striking cases. For in the three sub-families— Danain, Acreenis, and Heliconn®— all of which are specially protected, we find identical tints and » in South Brazil. In Mechanitis, Melinea, and Heliconius, = sometimes in Tithorea, the species of the Southern k . 3 and blac uiana, all represented by allied species with white apical spots . almost always orange-yellow and black. Other ¢ like nature, which it would be tedious to enumerate, bu pare are very striking when specimens are examined, occur ™ ree of the same groups inhabiting these same localities, a8 We < Central America and the Antilles. The resemblance thus pm * Romaleosoma Euryphene (Nymphalide), Papilio zalmoxis, and several of the Nireus group (Papilionide). Address of A. R. Wallace at the Glasgow Meeting. 359 duced between widely different insects is sometimes general, but with only a general resemblance in the marking. Yet broadley banded Bf suffused with white, their allies in the from the small Aru and Ké islands (D. deois, D. Hewitsonia, and D polymena) are all more conspicuously white-marked than ethosia, a species from the small island of Waigiou (C. ene) is the whitest of the genus. _Prothoe 18 represented by a lue Species in the continental island of Java, while those in- habiting the ancient insular groups of the Moluccas and New Guinea - all pale yellow or white. The genus Drusilla, al- areall very pale; while in the small island of Waigiou is found a iffering com- Pietely in the neuration of the wings, has exactly the same pale 360 Address of A. R. Wallace at the Glasgow Meeting. colors and large ocellated spots as Drusilla. Equally remarka- ble is the fact that the small island of Amboina produces larger-sized butterflies than any of the larger islands which sur- it. This is the case with at least a dozen butterflies belonging to many distinct genera,* so that it is impossible to attribute it to other than some local influence. In Celebes, as I have elsewhere pointed out,t we have a peculiar form of wing and much larger size running through a whole series of distinct butterflies, and this seems to take the place of any specialty in color. From the Fiji Islands we have comparatively few butterflies, but there are several species of Diadema of unusually pale colors, some almost white. The Philipine Islands seem to have the peculiarity of devel- oping metallic colors. We tind there at least three species 0 upleat not closely related, and all of more intense metallic luster than their allies in other islands. Here also we have one of the large yellow Ornithopteree (O. Magellanus), whose hind wings glow with an intense opaline luster not found in any other species of the entire group; and an Adolvas§ is larger and of more brilliant metallic coloring than any other species int Archipelago. In these islands also we find the extensive and wonderful genus of weevils, Pachyrhynchus, which in their bril- liant metallic coloring surpass anything found in the whole eastern hemisphere, if not in the whole world. In the Andaman Islands, in the Bay of Bengal, there are a considerable number of peculiar species of prea hae e airee: 2 i ularly white- eratt are ntinental 1€8, a * Ornithoptera priamus, O. helena, Papilio deiphobus, P. Ulysses, eo Cm P. codrus, Iphias leucippe, Euplea prothoe, Hestia idea, Athyma jocast, pandarus, halis pyrrhus, N. ewry Drusilla jairus. « Contributions to the Theory of N atural Selection,” pp. 168-173. Euplea Hewitsonii, E. Diocletiana, E. letifica, E. dupesnii. — rhodifer (near P. Doubledayi) and Papilio charicles (near P. mem lio mayo. tt Euplea Andamanensis, Cethosia biblis, Cyrestis cocles. Danais nossima, Melanitis massoura, Diadema dexithea. “ Address of A. R. Wallace at the Glasgow Meeting. 361 assing to the West Indian Islands and Central America (which latter country has formed a group of islands in ver recent times), we have similar indications. One of the largest of the Papilios inhabits Jamaica,* while another, the largest of its group, is found in Mexico.¢ Cuba has two of the same fine genus, whose colors are of surpassing brilliancy ;t while the genus Clothilda—confined to the Antilles and Central Ameriva— America we might have raccoons, squirrels, and opossums in le the skunk of the same country ; while in South America they might be black, with a yellow throat patch, so as to re- semble with equal closeness the tayra of the Brazilian forests. Were such resemblances to occur in anything like the number, and with the wonderful accuracy of imitation met with among the Lepidoptera, they would certainly attract universal atten- hon among naturalists, and would lead to the exhaustive study valu influence of local causes in producing such startling re- uits, we have imagined; but as the Aard-wolf and the hyzna-dog are both weak ‘animals compared with the hyena, ptbmcnd blance may be useful, and in that case would come under the head of mimicry. This seems the more probable groaning 4 rule, the colors of the Mammalia are protective, and are too little varied to allow of the influence of local causes producing any well-marked effects. i en we come to the birds, however, the case is different ; for although th ey do not exhibit such distinct marks of the influ- *nee of locality as do butterflies—probably because the caukes * Papilio Homerus, + P. daunus. Eee » 862 Address of A. R. Wallace at the Glasgow Meeting. which determine color are in their case more complex—yet there are distinct indications of some effect of the kind, and we must devote some little time to their consideration. One of the most curious cases is that of the parrots of the West Indian Islands and Central America, several of which have white heads or foreheads, occurring in two distinct genera,* while none of the more numerous parrots of South America are so colored. In the small island of Dominica we have a very large and richly-colored parrot (Chrysotis augusta) cor- responding to the large and richly-colored Papilio homerus of amaica. The Andaman Islands are equally remarkable, at least six of the peculiar birds differing from their continental allies in being much lighter, and sometimes with a large quantity of pure white in the plumage,t exactly corresponding to what occurs among the butterflies, In among the butterflies. ; n Celebes we have a swallow-shrike and a peculiar small crow allied to the jackdaw,t whiter than any of their allies m the surrounding islands, but otherwise the colors of the 61 call for no special remark In Timor and Flores we have white-headed pigeons,§ and 4 long-tailed flycatcher almost entirely white.| In the small Lord Howe’s Island we have the recently tinct white rail (Notornis alba), remarkably contrasting with its allies in the larger islands in New Zealand. as but- terflies, in the smaller Moluccas, the Andamans, and Madagas ar locali- There are other cases, however, in which local mnie seem to favor the production of preservation of intense cr! * Pionus albifrons and Chrysotis senilis (C. America), Chrysotis Salleei pare + Kittacincla albiventris, Geoci albigularis, ia Andamanensis, grisola, var., Fanthenas palumbotdes, Osmotreron chloroptera. lopus cinctus, P. albocinctus. || Tchiterea afinis, var. ? Address of A. R. Wallace at the Glasgow Meeting. 363 ora very dark coloration. Thus in the Moluccas and New Guinea alone we have bright red parrots belonging to two dis- tinct families,* and which, therefore, most probably have been independently produced or preserved by some common cause. Here too and in Australia we have black parrots and pigeons ;t and it is a most curious and suggestive fact that in another insular sub-region—that of Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands—these same colors reappear in the same two groups.} Some very curious physiological facts bearing upon the pres- ence or absence of white colors in the higher animals have lately been adduced by Dr. Ogle.§ It has been found that a colored or dark pigment in the olfactory region of the nostrils is essential to perfect smell, and this pigment is rarely deficient except when the whole animal is purely white. In these cases the creature is almost without smell or taste. This, Dr. Ogle believes, explains the curious case of the pigs in Virginia ad- du y Mr. Darwin, white pigs being poisoned by a poisonous root which does not affect black pigs. Mr. Darwin imputed éscape; white Euphorbia candelabrum ; and white horses are said to suffer om poisonous food where colored ones escape. Now it 1s very improbable that a constitutional immunity from poisoning Y 8o many distinct plants should in the case of such widely smell and taste are dependent on the presence of a pigment Which is deficient in wholly white animals. The explanation has Owever, been carried a step further, by experiments showing that the absorption of odor by dead matter, such as clothing, is greatly affected by color, black being the most powerful ab- Sorbent, then blue, red, yellow, and lastly white. We have ere a physical cause for the sense-inferiority of totall white animals which may account for their rarity in nature. or lew, if any, wild animals are wholly white. The head, the face, or * Lorius, Eos (Trichoglosside), Eclectus (Palzornithide). t Microglossus, Calyptorhynchus, Turacen: ENnas. ie Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, vol. liii, (1870). 2 364 Address of A. R. Wallace at the Glasgow Meeting. at least the muzzle or the nose, are generally black. The ears and eyes are also often black ; and there is reason to believe that dark pigment is essential to good hearing, as it certainly is to perfect vision. We can therefore understand why white cats with blue eyes are so often deaf—a peculiarity we notice more readily than their deficiency of smell or taste. If then the prevalence of white coloration is generally accom- panied with some deficiency in the acuteness of the most im- itself in a wild state, while melanism does. The peculiarity of some islands in having all their inhabitants of dusky colors— as the Galapagos—may also perhaps be explained on the same sae" t more fully developed and more important to his welfare ne mere sense-acuteness, the lighter tints of skin, and bene Ss on the n islands. paid to the subject, and the relation of these two very Gl! classes of natural objects has been found to be more UNIV Address of A. R. Wallace at the Glasgow Meeting. 365 and more complex than could have been anticipated. Whole genera and families of plants have been so modified, as first to attract, and then to be fertilized by, certain groups of insects, and this special adaptation seems in many cases to have deter- It is also known that some species of plants can be fertilized any seeds are, no doubt, carried by oceanic currents, others probably by aquatic birds. Mr. H. N. Moseley informs me that the albatrosses, gulls, puffins, tropic birds, and many others, nest inland, often amidst dense vegetation, and he be- lieves they often carry seeds, attached to their feathers, from island to island for great distances. In the tropics they often hest on the mountains far inland, and may thus aid in the dis- tribution even of mountain plants. Insects, on the other hand, are mostly conveyed by aérial currents, especially by violent gales; and it may thus often happen that totally unrelated plants and insects may be brought together, in which case. the former must often perish for want of suitable insects to fertilize them. This will, 1 think, account for the strangely fragmentary nature of these insular floras, and the great distances that often exist between those which are situated in the same ocean, as menoptera accompany them, and : islands the flora a 2 rs to be ara ae varied, and especially 866 Address of A. R. Wallace at the Glasgow Meeting. as may be seen by examining the plates of Dr. Seeman’s “Flora Vitiensis.” Darwin and Pickering both speak of the great preponderance of ferns at Tahiti, and Mr. Moseley, who spent several days in the interior of the island, informs me that “at an elevation of And he adds, “I have nowhere seen ferns in so great pro- portionate abundance.” This unusual proportion of ferns isa general feature of iusular as compared with continental floras; but it has, I believe, been generally attributed to favorable conditions, especially to equable climate and perennial moist- ure. In this respect, however, Tahiti can hardly differ greatly from many other islands, which yet have no such vast poe derance of ferns. This is a question that cannot be decided by mere lists of species, since it is probable that in Tahiti they are less numerous than in some other islands where they form a far less conspicuous feature in the vegetation. The island most comparable with Tahiti in that respect is Juan Fernandez. Mr. Moseley writes to me-—“In a general view of any wide stretch of densely-clothed mountainous surface of the island, the ferns, both tree-ferns and the unstemmed forms, are seen at once to compose a very large proportion of the mass of foliage. As to the insects of Juan Fernandez, Mr. Edwyn C. Reed, who made two visits and spent several weeks there, has kindly fur- nished me with some exact information. Of butterflies there g EF of moderate size were observed—all Chilian, and a few larve and pupx. Of bees there were none, except one very yes 3 species (allied to Chilicola), and of other Hymenoptera, a fie € excessive minuteness and great abundance of fe — causes them to be far more easily distributed by winds than Address of A. R. Wallace ai the Glasgow Meeting. 367 abundance of dark blue flowers, was also plentiful; while a White-flowered Liliaceous plant formed large patches on the hill- Sides. Besides these there were two species of woody Com- Posite with conspicuous heads of yellow blossoms, and a “pecies of white-flowered myrtle also abundant; so that, on the Whole, flowers formed a rather conspicuous feature in the aspect the vegetation of Juan Fernandez. : é But this fact—which at first sight seems entirely at variance 368 Address of A. R. Wallace at the Glasgow Meeting. with the view we are upholding of the important relation be- tween the distribution of insects and plants—is well explained y the existence of two species of humming birds in Juan Fernandez, which, in their visits to these large and showy flow- ers fertilize them as effectually as bees, moths, or butterflies, r. Moseley informs me that ‘these humming birds are eztra- ordinarily abundant, every tree or bush having one or two dart- ing about it.” He also observed that ‘“ nearly all the specimens killed had the feathers round the base of the bill and front of the head clogged and colored yellow with pollen.” Here, then, we have the clue to the perpetuation of large and showy flowers in Juan Fernandez; while the total absence of humming: birds in the Galapagos may explain why no such large-flowered plants have been able to establish themselves in those equato- rial islands. siderable number of flowers are occasionally fertilized by hum- ming-birds in North America; so that there can, I think, be little doubt that birds play a much more important part in ca respect than has hitherto been imagined. It is not improbabe that in Tropical America, where this family is so enormously developed, many flowers will be found to be expressly adapted to fertilization by them just as so many in our own country gi specially adapted to the visits of certain families or gener insects. _ It must also be remembered, as Mr. Moseley has suggested me, that a flower which had acquired a brilliant color to alu insects might, on transference to another country, and ming so modified as to be capable of self-fertilization, he colored petals for an indefinite period. Such is probably ¢ h explanation of the Pelargonium of Kerguelen’s land, W oe . forms masses of bright color near the shore during the flower” Address of A. R. Wallace at the Glasgow Meeting. 369 ing season; while most of the other plants of the island have colorless flowers in accordance with the almost total absence of winged insects. The presence of many large and showy flowers among the indigenous flora of St. Helena must be an example | of a similar persistence. Mr. Melliss indeed states it to be “a remarkable peculiarity that the indigenous flowers are, with very slight exceptions, all perfectly colorless ;"* but ‘although this may apply to the general aspect of the remains of the indi- genous flora, it is evidently not the case as regards the species, since the interesting plates of Mr. Melliss’s volume show that about one-third of the indigenous flowering plants have more or €ss colored or conspicuous flowers, while several of them are exceedingly showy and beautiful. Among these are a Lobelia, three Wahlenbergias, several Composite, and especially the hand- some red flowers of the now almost extinct forest-trees, -. have every reason to believe, however, that when St. Helena was covered with luxuriant forests, and especially at that re- mote period when it was much more extensive than it is now, itmust have supported a certain number of indigenous birds and insects, which would have aided in the fertilization of these aily-colored flowers. The researches of Dr. Hermann Miiller ave shown us by what minute modification of structure or of function many flowers are adapted for partial insect and self- fertilization in varying degrees, so that we have no difficulty in understanding how, as the insects diminished and finally disap- ted, self-fertilization may have become the rule, while the arge and showy corollas remain to tell us plainly of a once different state of things v ; } : : : 1Presentatives of totally different tribes of this extensive order ming arborescent in each group of islands. The immense o an advantage to gain increased size and longevity, so that *rtilization at an interval of several years might suffice for the ®ontinuance of the species. The arborescent form would com- ie * Melliss’s St. Helena, p. 226, note. Jour. Sct.—Tarmp Serres, VoL. XII, No. 71.—Nov., 1876. 24 370 Address of A. R. Wallace at the Glasgow Meeting. bine with increased longevity the advantage of increased size in the struggle for existence with the ferns and other early colo- nists, and these advantages have led to its being independently produced in so many distant localities, whose chief feature in common is their remoteness from continents and the extreme poverty of their insect life. As the sweet odors of flowers are known to act in combina- tion with their colors, as an attraction to insects, it might anticipated that where color was deficient scent would be so also. On applying to my friend Dr. Hooker for information as to New Zealand plants, he informed me that this was cer- tainly the case, and that the New Zealand flora is, speaking generally, as strikingly deficient in sweet odors as in conspicu- ous colors. Whether this peculiarity occurs in other islands I have not been able to obtain information, but we may certainly expect it to be so in such a marked instance as that of the Gala- pagos flora. ne Another question which here comes before us is the ongin these abound, and would thus not be required in come where insects were very scarce. But it seems opposed to a ants, except where the secretion is only slightly the orange tribe, orange-trees being sometimes entir - Address of A. R. Wallace at the Glasgow Meeting, 871 of their leaves in a single night. Aromatic plants abound in the Andes up to about 13,000 feet, as well as in the plains, but hardly more so than in Central and Southern Europe. The may lead to valuable results. But these problems are, as you see, for the most part connected with questions of locality, and require full and accurate knowledge of the productions of a number of small islands and other limited areas, and the means of comparing them the one with the other. To make such comparisons is, however, now quite impossible. No museum contains any fair representation of the productions of these localities, and such specimens as do. exist, being scattered through the general collection, are almost useless for this Special purpose. If, then, we are to make any progress in this iiquiry, it is absolutely essential that some collectors should gin t basis, keeping together the productions of every island or . Rise and Progress of Modern Views as to the Antiquity and Origin of Man. T how come to a branch of our subject which I would gladly Associ vided touching on, but as the higher powers of this thro ‘ation have decreed that I should preside over the An- “Pological Department, it seems proper that I should devote 372 Address of A. R. Wallace at the Glasgow Meeting. some portion of my address to matters more immediately con- nected with the special study to which that department is devoted. As my own knowledge of, and interest in, Anthropology, is confined to the great outlines, rather than to the special details of the science, I propose to give a very brief and general sketch of the modern doctrine as to the Antiquity and Origin of Man, and to suggest certain points of difficulty which have not, I think, yet received sufficient attention. Many now present remember the time (for it is a little more than twenty years ago) when the antiquity of man, as now understood, was universally discredited. Not only theologians, but even geologists, then taught us that man belonged alto- gether to the existing state of things; that the extinct animals of the Tertiary period had finally disappeared, and that the earth’s surface had assumed its present condition before the human race first came into existence. So prepossessed were even scientific men with this idea—which yet rested on purely negative evidence, and could not be supported by any argu- ments of scientific value—that numerous facts which had been presented at intervals for half a century, all tending to prove the existence of man at very remote epochs, were silently ignored ; and, more than this, the detailed statements of three distinct and careful observers were rejected by a great scientific society as too improbable for publication, only because they proved (if they were true) the co-existence of man with extinct animals |* amined in Switzerland—refuse heaps in Denmark—an tht k whole series of remains have been discovered carrying ba¢ the history of mankind from the earliest historic periods t0 *In 1854 (?) a communication from the Torquay Natural History Society a: ing previous accounts by in-Austen, Mr. Vivian, and the oar McEnery, that worked flints occurred in Kent’s Hole with remains of estat cies, was cted as too improbable for publication. Address of A. R. Wallace at the Glasgow Meeting. 878 long distant past. The antiquity of the races thus discovered can only be generally determined by the successively earlier and earlier stages through which we can trace them go back, inetals soon disappear and we find only tools and weapons of stone and of bone. The stone weapons get ruder and ruder; pottery, and then the bone implements, cease to occur; and in the earliest stage we find only chipped flints, of rude design though still of unmistakable human workmanship. n like manner domestic animals disappear as we go nae : and though the dog seems to have been the earliest, it is doubt- ful whether the makers of the ruder flint implements of the gravels possessed even this. Still more important as a measure of time are the changes of the earth’s surface—of the distribu- tion of animals—and of climate—which have occurred during the human period. At a comparatively.recent epoch in the record of prehistoric times we find that the Baltic was far salter than it is now, and produced abundance of oysters; and that Denmark was covered with pine forests inhabited by Capercail- aes, such as now only oceur further north in Norway. ittle earlier we find that Reindeer were common even in the South y had streams flowing through them, at least in times of floods— and this often implies that vast masses of solid rock have since d led beneath two separate beds of stalagmite, each having a “'stinet texture, and each covering a deposit of cave-earth hav- Pe differential characters, while each contains a istinet assemblage of extinct animals. - briefly, are the results of the evidence that has been a JY accumulating for about fifteen years as to the antiquity a liken: and it has been confirmed by so many discoveries of owe in all parts of the globe, and especially by the of parison of the tools and weapons of prebistoric man with those Pater Savages, so that the use of even the rudest flint im- * Lyell’s Antiquity of Man, fourth edition, p. 115. 874 Address of A. R. Wallace at the Glasgow Meeting. to understand, what there was in the earlier discoveries that should have aroused such general opposition and been met with such universal incredulity. But the question of the mere “ Antiquity of Man” almost sank into insignificance at a very early period of the inquiry, in comparison with the far more momentuous and more excit- ing problem of the development of man from some lower ani- mal form, which the theories of Mr. Darwin and of Mr. Herbert Spencer soon showed: to be inseparably bound up with it This has been, and to some extent still is, the subject of fierce con- flict; but the controversy as to the fact of such development is now almost at an end, since one of the most talented represen- tatives of Catholic theology, and an anatomist of high standing —Professor Mivart—fully adopts it as regards physical struc: ture, reserving his opposition for those parts of his theory, which would deduce man’s whole intellectual and moral nature from the same source, and by a similar mode. of development Never, perhaps, in the whole history of science or philosophy has so great a revolution in thought and opinion been effected of publication of Mr. Darwin's “Origin of Species and “ scent of Man.” Up to the commencement of this period the belief in the independent creation or origin of the species animals and plants, and the very recent appearance of man upon the earth, were, practically, universal. Long : end of it these two beliefs had utterly disappeared, not only 75 the scientific world, but almost equally so among the literary and educated classes generally. The belief in the independent origin of man held its ground somewhat longer, but the eation of Mr. Darwin's great work gave even blow, for hardly anyone capable of judging now doubts the derivative nature of man’s bodily stra one extreme to the other, from a profession (so few seer total ignorance as to the mode of origin of all living things to a claim to almost complete knowledge, of the whole prog ‘0 of the universe, from the first speck of living protoplasm UP Bi Bi be : | { | : Address of A. R. Wallace at the Glasgow Meeting. 375 the highest development of the human intellect. Yet this is really what we have seen in the last sixteen years. Formerly difficulties were exaggerated, and it was asserted that we had not sufficient knowledge to venture on any generalizations on the subject. Now difficulties are set aside, and it is held that our theories are so well established and so far-reaching, that they explain and comprehend all nature. It is not long ago (as Thave already reminded you) since facts were contemptuously ignored, because they favored our now popular views; at the present day it seems to me that facts which oppose them hardly receive due consideration. And as opposition to the best in- centive to progress, and it is not well even for the best theories to have it all their own way, I propose to direct your attention toa few such facts, and to the conclusion that seems fairly deducible from them. _ It is a curious circumstance, that notwithstanding the atten- tion that has been directed to the subject in every part of the world, and the numerous excavations connected with railways and mines which have offered such facilities for geological dis- covery, no advance whatever has been made for a considerable number of years, in detecting the time or the mode o ; with the lower animals has yet appeared. _ Itis, indeed, well known that negative evidence in geology 18 of very slender value, and this is, no doubt, generally the case, rhe circumstances here are, however, peculiar, for many Converging lines of evidence show that on the theory of devel- opment by the same laws which have determined the develop- ment of the lower animals, man must be immensely older than any traces of him yet discovered. As this is a point of great interest we must devote a few moments to its consideration. “ye e most important difference between man and such of the lower animals as most nearly approach him, is undoubtedly in the bulk h form capacity of the cranium. We should therefore antic- marks of degradation. ‘The former does not present so low a ao as that of most existing savages, but is—to use the words ha tol, Huxley—“a fair average human skull, which might ve belonged to a philosopher, or might have contained the 876 Address of A. R. Wallace at the Glasgow Meeting thoughtless brains of a savage.” The latter are still more re- markable, being unusually large and well-formed. Dr. Pruner- Bey states that they surpass the average of modern Huropean skulls in capacity, while their symmetrical forms, without any trace of prognathism, compares favorably not only with the foremost savage races, but with many civilized nations of modern times. One or two other crania of much lower type, but of less an- numerous carvings and drawings representing a variety of ani- mals, including horses, reindeer, and even a mammoth, exe- cuted with considerable skill on bone, reindeer-horns, and mammoth-tusks. These, taken together, indicate a state of civilization much higher than that of the lowest of our modern savages, while it is quite compatible with a considerable degree of mental advancement, and leads us to believe that the cranta of Engis and Cro-Magnon are not exceptional, but fairly repre sent the characters of the race. If we further remember that these people lived in Europe under the unfavorable conditions of a sub-Arctic climate, we shall be inclined to agree wit e Daniel Wilson, that it is far easier to produce evidences of de- terioration than of progress in instituting a comparison between the contemporaries of the mammoth and later_prehistori¢ races : ic Man,” 3d ed., vol. i, p. 117. + Man and Apes,” pp. 171-193. , : | | heen Sek DN ak ea en 3 : : : Address of A. R. Wallace at the Glasgow Meeting. 877 ences are so numerous and so diverse that on the theory of eyvo- lution the ancestral form which ultimately developed into man must have diverged from the common stock whence all these p to man branched off at a still earlier peri And these early forms, being the initiation of a far higher type, and hav- ing to develop by natural selection into so specialized and altogether distinct a creature as man, must have risen at a very early period into the position of a dominant race, and spread in dense waves of population over all suitable portions of the great continent-—for this, on Mr. Darwin’s hypothesis, is essen- tial to rapid developmental progress through the agency of natural selection. almost tropical climate in Miocene times, but we must — an *mnivorous, since it must have taken ages of slow modification to have produced the perfectly erect form, the short arms, an the who ly non-prehensile foot, which so strongly differentiate man from the apes. ; € conclusion which I think we must arrive at is, that if man has been developed from a common ancestor, with all ex- ace apes, and by no other agencies than such as have affected cor development, then he must have existed in something ap- Proaching his spun form, during the tertiary period—and not ‘ of Europe and Asia fail to bring to light any proofs of heey it will be at least a presumption that he came into 878 Address of A. R. Wallace at the Glasgow Meeting. origin is due to distinct and higher agencies than such as have affected their development. here is yet another line of inquiry bearing upon this sub- ject to which I wish to call your attention. It is a somewhat curious fact, that, while all modern writers admit the great an- tiquity of man, most of them maintain the very recent develop- ment of his intellect, and will hardly contemplate the possibility of men equal in mental capacity to ourselves, having existed in prehistoric times. This question is generally assumed to settled, by such relics as have been preserved of the manuiac- tures of the older races showing a lower and lower state of the arts; by the successive disappearance in early times of iron, bronze, and pottery; and by the ruder forms of the older flint implements. The weakness of this argument has been we shown by Mr. Albert Mott in his very original, but little known presidential address to the Literary and Philosophical Society of Liverpool in 1873. He maintains that “our most are found among ourselves.” In support of this view he ad- duces a variety of striking facts and genious arguments, a few of which I will briefly summarize. , On one of the most remote islands of the Pacific—Haster Island—2,000 miles from South America, 2,000 from the Mar- quesas, and more than 1,000 from the Gambier Jslands, are = & the island has only an area of about thirty square miles, or considerably a islands scattered widely over the Pacific add weight argument. * Journ. of Roy. Geog. Soc., 1870, pp. 177, 178: RO tee ae ES 5 ee Enna a eed Na Ege ae Bees oe ny Ve eens ete, Address of A. R. Wallace at the Glasgow Meeting. 879 The next example is that of the ancient mounds and earth- works of the North American continent, the bearing of which is even more significant. Over the greater part of the exten- sive Mississippi valley four well-marked classes of these earth- works occur. Some are camps, or works of defence, situated on bluffs, promontories, or isolated hills; others are vast inclos- ures in the plains and lowlands. often of geometric forms, and having attached to them roadways or avenues often miles in ength; a third are mounds corresponding to our tumuli, often seventy to ninety feet high, and some of them covering acres of ground; while a fourth group consist of representations of various animals modelled in relief on a gigantic scale, and oc- curring chiefly in an area somewhat to the north-west of the other classes, in the plains of Wisconsin. The first class—the camps or fortified inclosures—resemble in valley, which seems to have been a fortified town, incloses an area of 127 acres, the embankments measuring three miles in length, and containing not less than three million cubic feet of arth. This area incloses numerous sacrificial mounds and symmetrical earth-works in which many interesting relics and Works of art have been found. f The second class—the sacred inclosures—may be compared or extent and arrangement with Avebury or Carnak—but are x some respects even more remarkable. One of these, at fi to important, the dimensions of some of these geometrical ae. id in different parts of the country and seventy miles apart th wentical. Now this proves the use, by the builders of «Works, of some standard measures of length, while the agonal fizures—shows a considerable knowledge of rudimen- aig ceomerry, and some means of measuring. angles. The ty of drawing such figures on a large scale is much 880 Address of A. R. Wallace at the Glasgow Meeting. the accuracy of these is far beyond what is necessary to — the eye. We must therefore impute to these people the wis plates of mica are found cut into scrolls and circles; the pottery, of which very few remains have been found, is far sup h of any of the Indian tribes, since Dr. Wilson is of opinion that they must have been formed on a wheel, as they are often of — thickness throughout (sometimes not more than one-sixth ** inch) polished, and ornamented with scrolls and figures 0 one and flowers in delicate relief, But the most instructive objec cause they present to us the features of an in civilized people. The nose in some is perfectly straight be 4 jand forest growth to indicate an age of at least 1,000 years. But it 1s well known that it requires several generations of trees to pass away before the growth on a deserted clearing comes to have ligne’ &xisted ; that they must have been populous and ave lived under some established government ; while there are “ that they practised agriculture largely, as indeed they ast have done to have supported a population capable of thousand, _In their habits, customs, religion, and arts, they strikingly from all the Indian tribes; while their love * Wilson’s “ Prehistoric Man,” 3d ed., vol. ii, pp. 123~130. 882 Address of A. R. Wallace at the Glasgow Meeting. of art and of geometric forms, and their capacity for executing the latter upon so gigantic a scale, render it probable that they were a really civilized people, although the form their civiliza- tion took may have been very different from that of later people subject to very different influences, and the inheritors of a longer series of ancestral civilizations. e have here, at all events, a striking example of the transition, over an exten- sive country, from comparative civilization to comparative arbarism, the former having left no tradition, and hardly any trace of influence on the latter. r. Mott well remarks :—Nothing can be more striking than the fact that Easter Island and North America both give the same testimony as to the origin of the savage life found in them, although in all circumstances and surroundings the two cases are so different. If no stone monuments had been con- structed in Easter Island, or mounds, containing a few relies saved from fire, in the United States, we might never have suspected the existence of these ancient peoples. He argues, therefore, that it is very easy for the records of an ancient nation’s life entirely to perish, or to be hidden from observa: tion. Even the arts of Nineveh and Babylon were unknown only a generation ago, and we have only just discovered the facts about the mound-builders of North America. But other parts of the American continent exhibit parallel phenomena. Recent investigations show that in Mexico, Ven- tral America, and Peru, the existing race of Indians has been preceded by a distinct and more civilized race. This 18 proved by the sculptures of the ruined cities of Central America, °Y the more ancient terra-cottas and paintings of Mexico, the oldest protrait-pottery of Peru. All alike show markedly non-Indian features, while they often closely resemble eee European types. Ancient crania, too, have been found in au these countries, presenting very different characters from th of any of the modern indigenous races of America.* There is one other striking example of a higher being Se. ceeded by a lower degree of knowledge, which 1s 1n Gane of being forgotten because it has been made the foundation theories which seem wild and fantastic, and are probably 18 great part erroneous. I allude to the Great Pyramid — whose form, dimensions, structure, and uses have recen vib. the subject of elaborate works by Professor ee Now, the admitted fact about this pyramid are so I beg to a 46 and so apposite to the subject we are considering, th hat this recall them to your attention. Most of you are mosey € oe + | pyramid has been carefully explored and meas sive Egyptologists, and that the dimensions have lately become # Wilson’s “ Prehistoric Man,” 3d ed., vol. ii, pp- 125, 14# Address of A. R. Wallace at the Glasgow Meeting. 388 capable of more accurate determination owing to the discovery of some of the original casing-stones and the clearing away of the earth from the corners of the foundation, showing the order to fix the dimensions and angles of all accessible parts of the structure ; and he has carefully determined these by a com- parison of his own and all previous measures, the best of which agree pretty closely with each other. The results arrived at are— 1. That the pyramid is truly square, the sides being equal and the angles right angles. 2, That the four sockets on which the four first stones of the corners rested are truly on the same 1. That the direction of the sides are accurately to the four cardinal points. 4. That the vertical height of the pyramid bears the same Proportion to its circumference at the base, as the radius of a circle does to its circumference. ow all these measures, angles, and levels are accurate, not a8 an ordinary surveyor or builder could make them, but to such a degree as requires the very best modern instruments and all the refinements of geodetical science to discover any error at all. In addition to this we have the wonderful perfection of with the utmost accuracy, while every part of the building exhibits the highest structural science. remarkable, and worthy of the deepest consideration. They are facts which. in the pregnant words of the late Sir John Herschel, “according to received theories ought not to happen,’ and Which, he tells us, should therefore be kept ever present to eur minds, since “they belong to the class of facts which serve ‘Peceding lower state; and it is inferred that this progress is Visible to us throughout all history and in all the material ords of human intellect. But here we havea building which hg far inferior, is very much superior to all which followed ‘ Great men are the products of their age and country, and ~ Geésigner 384 Address of A. R. Wallace at the Glasgow Meeting. could never have arisen among an unintellectual and half-bar- barous people. So perfect a work implies many preceding less perfect works which have disappeared. It marks the culmina- ting point of an ancient civilization, of the early stages of which we have no record whatever. The three cases to which I have now adverted (and there are many others) seem to require for their satisfactory inter- pretation a somewhat different view of human progress from that which is now generally accepted. Taken in connection with the great intellectual power of the ancient Greeks—which Mr. Galton believes to have been far above that of the average of any modern nation—and the elevation, at once intellectual and moral, displayed in the writings of Confucius, Zoroaster, an the Vedas, they point to the conclusion, that, while in materia progress there has been a tolerably steady advance, man’s intel- lectual and moral development reached almost its highest level in a very remote past. he lower, the more animal, but often the more energetic types, have however always been far the more numerous; hence such established societies as have nere and there arisen under the guidance of higher minds, have always been liable to be swept away by the incursions of bar- barians. Thus in almost every part of the globe there may have been a long succession of partial civilization, each m tum succeeded by a period of barbarism; and this view seems 4 ported by the occurrence of degraded types of skull along wit such “as might have belonged to a philosopher’—at a time when the mammoth and the reindeer inhabited southern France. Nor need we fear that there is not time enough for the ou and decay of so many successive civilizations as this view woul gap—marked alike by a change of physical conditions, bi animal life—which in Europe always separates him from 4s neolithic successor, was caused by the coming on an passin away of the great ice age. If the' views now sieved are correct, many, perhaps ~ of our existing savages, are the successors of higher races; ¢ ne their arts, often showing a wonderful similarity m distant eer tinents, may have been derived from a common source amo more civilized peoples. must now conclude this very imperfect skete Tt will, the offshoots from the great tree of Biological study. al a perhaps, be thought by some that my remarks have ten! i to the depreciation of our science, by hinting at impor he in our knowledge and errors in our theories, where more ’ siastic students see nothing but established truths. that I may have conveyed to many of my hearers Cie Biate acee han LE a Pil Bots 5 Chemistry and Physics. 885 impression. I have endeavored to show that even in what are usually considered the more trivial and superficial characters presented by natural objects, a whole field of new inquiry is opened up to us by the study of distribution and local condi- tions. And as regards man, I have endeavored to fix your attention on a class of facts which indicate that the course of his development has been far less direct and simple than has hitherto been supposed; and that, instead of resembling a single tide with its advancing and receding ripples, it must rather be compared to the progress from neap to spring tides, both the rise and the depression being comparatively greater as the waters of true civilization slowly advance towards the years, we have passed from complete ignorance to almost. per- fect knowledge on two such vast and complex subjects as the origin of species and the antiquity of man. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMistRY AND Puysics. “xposing two or three cubic centimeters to a dro of fuming iitric acid. On diluting with water, the characteristic odor of exist in minu Pylene, butylene, and alivione ava t ent, 386 Scientific Intelligence. no products volatile below 360°-400°, and was probably composed of polymers of some pier previa hydrocarbon, The acid itself, fractionated, gave aceton 5 gram per 100 cubic meters, com- ing from the hydration of tit ob The sulphuric acid collected upper oe of liqui , In amount about 25 grams to 100 cubic meters of gas, consisted of hydrocarbons, be ave on fractioning, benzene (with a little toluene) 2 per cent, mesitylene (C,H,,.) 5 per cent, ASO (Cro H,,) ~ ae cent, tricrotonylene (C,,H,¢) 30 r cent, residue xed t analysis : Benzene (C, eh in vapor 30000 to 35000 Acetylene (C,H ) 1000 (about) Ethylene (C,H s 1000 to 2000 Propylene (C,H,) a Allylene (C,H, 8 Butylene (C, H,) and analogues traces Crotonylene (C, Hy) 31 +} ie Terene (CU 12 Hydrocarb’s transfor’d into fixed polymers, est’d 83 Diacetylene and analogous hydrocarbons, est’d 15) The author regards these products as derived according to the reactions upon which he founds his theory, from the four funda- mental gs odie A these, C2 H,, ethylene C,H,, dimethyl ethane CH dull red heat wi ae to “form aight C, 2, rence rap Benes zene in Rosin Oil,—W atso x Sarr ‘has antned the light oils obtained as a bye-product in a refining Chemistry and Physics. 387 of rosin by distillation in a current of super-heated steam. In 1867, he examined a sample which began to boil at 50° and. which distilled almost completely below 100°. On fractioning, a liquid to condense at 116°. hen fractionated, toluene was the sub- stance of lowest boiling point obtained. Hence the temperature of distillation determines the products.—/. Chem. Soc., I, xxx, 29, July, 1876. G. F. B 3. On the Constitution of the Benzene Derivatives.—W ro- BLEWSKY described in 1875 two metabromtoluenes having identi- other the 1:5 position en escribes two ortho-toluidines aving the methyl and amidogen groups respectively in the posi- tions 1; 2 and 1 tarting with dibromparatoluidine, in which amido-produet obtained from this with sodium amalgam, a second ortho-toluidine was obtained, identical in properties with the for- inet, thus adding a new confirmation to Kekulé’s theory. The Progress of the replacements is thus represented : CH, CH, CH; CH, ve 1 2 a r 6 | NH, 5 ; 3 Bee I I I CH, CH, CH, CH; Ais. of A 1\ Gey ; mle ale als He war 3| Br A \Y : [5 2 6 ‘nc 6 2} — =Brfd 3 Br Br Is Pat : r [6 3| Br Pe 7. Ey Ni NH, 4 5 V/ A ‘ I Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., ix, 1055, July, 1876. G. F. B. 388 Scientific Intelligence. 4. On the Action of Malt-extract on Starch.—O’Sutiivan has examined more fully the conditions under which malt-extract acts on starch. He formulates his conclusions as follows: (1) Maltose and dextrin are the o only products of the action of malt-extract on starch. (2) Cold malt-extract does not act on pe tice starch. (3 esta begins to dissolve starch at the tem ature of gelatinization or a few degrees lower. (4) Maltextct dissolves gelatinized starch in the cold, (10° to 20°) almost co pletely if the gelatinization be perfect. (5) When starch is dis solved by malt-extract at any temperature below 63°, if the solution be immediately r AS or 10 eer? ee 35 and filtered the product cent latter. (6) If the temperature of the action be between 64° and 68 ay the ng J shies is 34°54 per cent and the dextrin 65°46 tion that carbamic acid i duced FS a nitrogenous sub- s opinion are untrustworthy, inasmuch as the production of a 1s aber on boiling, | after having filtered off the ie pro- ced by calcium nitrate, cannot be taken as proo of of the ence 5 Sa hatiin acid. -. J. pr. Ch., Il, xiv, 17 i Aug., 1876 % 6. Friction o _— IE the ases,—M. nN has su changes in the coefficients of friction of gases with changes in the temperature by a new form of apparatus. In a a Leg. on the specific heat of gases he claims that a gas under, of dissociation upon a change of temperature and that the diameter of the molecules ought not to vary with the temperature acco ing to the same law as if the gas was not decomposed. bi according to the new theory of gases, the coefficient of friction o ases gives a relative measure of the ae of its molecules. e gas is contained in ay glass bulbs 7° se 8. i and 4°5 cms. high. One is placed above the other and they are connected by a 1 glass tube ‘8 ems. in diameter and 15 re ris.7 Chemistry and Physics. 389 allows the mercury to pass out. The upper bulb is connected with a water manometer and drying tube and with a capillary tube. The latter is attached to a larger tube 1°8 cms. in diameter and 4°8 cms. long, filled with copper turnings by which the gas is brought to any required temperature before entering the capillary. Both these tubes can be immersed in a vessel of cold water or in a tube with a double wall in which circulates the vapor of aniline or water. level of the mark. The weight of mercury gives the volume of gas transpired. The following table gives the result of the mea- surement of six gases at temperatures, 8°, 100° and 184°5°. The first column gives the name of the gas, the next three the coefhi- cients of friction at 100° and 184°5° taking the coefficient of air as 100. The last two columns give the friction compared with that of air at 8°, 0° 100° 184°5° 100° 184°5° ee 100 100 100 123-1 141-1 Carbonic oxide __._ __ 96°87 er a 96-42 pace 136°0 Carbon acid .__.____ 85°63 87°50 104°8 123°4 Protoxide nitrogen _ 80-5 85°82 87-94 105 124°1 oye! peat 2 60-02 61°93 73°89 87°38 Hydrogen __.._____ 5151 51°81 It is commonly assumed that the friction is proportional to some in the radiometer. In half obscurity, three radiometers were Placed on the interior tablet of a chamber organ. The bass notes, faces fj 390 Scientific Intelligence. tion in the ordinary direction (bright surfaces first) ; the rumble of ht is at first insufficient to is lessened during certain intervals, and the apparatus is thus rendered more sensitive to light.— Nature, xiv, 419. BE. 0. P. . Fusion of Soft Bodies.—M. PraunpueR has presented to the Imperial Academy of Sciences at Vienna, papers on the nature of the soft or half liquid state of aggregation, and on regelation and recrystallization. After dividing the bodies in question into mixtures of small solid parts with true liquids, soft bodies proper, containing no dissimilar parts, and mixtures of the two classes, he gives a hypothesis on the process of melting and the soft state. e common ideal melting process, when the temperature remains the same from the beginning to the end is not according to fact. ed. the Electro-magnetice action of Electric oe by Dr. Hetmnorrz. A report on some experiments carried ou * Monatsbericht of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, June 17, 1875, P- 405. Chemistry and Phystes. 391 mained unproved. r. Rowland has now carried out a series of the middle to admit the axis of the ebonite disk. The glass disks of these parts, iron was avoided. Re : Close above the upper glass disk an extremely sensitive astatic 15 centim, long, but at a considerable distance (17°98 centims.) from each other, Their deflections were read off with a mirror an 4 telescope, The opening in front of the mirror was protected < se action of rotation-magnetism was shown, mostly arising fro e brass axis of the rotating disk, and considerably diminished by > ucing it to 0-9 centim. thickness. The action of the electrifica- Hon of the disk could be separated from that of the an eseieptra oi the rotation was maintained unaltered. The displacement of the em pa the position of equilibrium amounted to from 5 to 74, fis ; of oscillation on changing the electrification, therefore, to ™m 10 to 15 scale-divisions, This result ensued in hundreds of 392 Scientific Intelligence. rest could not at any rate become considerably charged without discharging themselves by very short sparks from one to the other. Two electrified plates, each having the form of a sector of a cirele, but which did not reach to the axis, were placed, opposite to one another, above and below the rotating plate. Under these there were in each ring two paths open, between h have divided itself in the inverse ratio of their resistances. Ifthe inducing sector comprises | of the circumference, the resistance of the path in the sector is to that of the path outside of it as 1:n—1; and therefore ”“—! of the current returns through the n sector, and + outside of it. In the sector a quantity corresponding n to the sum of the two currents is carried forward against ne current by convection. If, then, a convective motion of electri¢ y Chemistry and Physics. 393 acts like a conducted motion, the total motion in the sector is oe 1 But if the action of convective had been greater a or less than that of conducted motion, the excess, in one or the other direction, must have been shown on the sector. € experiments showed that, when the sector was small (} of the circumference), the small difference between the convection 1 e conduction 4 in general could not (or at least not with certainty) be detected, that therefore, with approximate equality of convection and conduction, the electro-dynamic effect of the one sensibly neutralized that of the other. en, however, the sector took in half of the circumference, the here assumed current could be observed even in the free portion of the disk, though the amount was too small for safe measure- ment The observed electro-dynamic action being so little in the fore- golng experiments, in which the disk was electrified and covered i its whole extent by the induced plates, theoretical calculation of the amount of the action from the known absolute values of the electro-dynamic constants promised only approximately accordant values, Nevertheless it was carried out by Mr. Rowland. € proportion in which the action of the earth’s magnetism upon the pair of astatic needles was diminished was ascertained by find- Ing the oscillation-period, first with the needles equally directed, and then arranged astatically. law of spark-leneth given by Sir William Thomson, which in this case appeared sufficiently accurate. Before and after each experi- Ment, a smaller jar was charged from the battery of nine large ones containing the store of electricity, and on it the length of the Spark was determined. sane velocity of the rotation was regulated by the position of the lls of a centrifugal governor, which was applied to one of the Tevo ving : lise the calculation of the distribution of the electricity on the ‘*, and its electro-magnetic directing-force, the surplus charge Value wh; margin of the disk was reckoned according to the infi eel holds for infinitely thin disks, and considered as an witely thin thread concentrated at the margin—a proceeding of i wasn both ways only approximately correct, but, in presence € minuteness of this portion, was sufficient. 1 ® iniluence exerted upon the upper needle was about 3; of r ciate uh, Which was for some time attached to the most rapidly axis, m was put equal to 0°182 (using the centimeter, gram, and Second as units): the electro-dynamic constant was put by Mr. 394 Scientific Intelligence. Rowland, after Maxwell’s determinations, equal to 28,800 millions, , Weber's value would be 31,074 mi illions. I give "below under M. ‘the results calculated with "the former value, under W. those calculated with the latter. The following is the result of the calculation of Gaby three series of n> Saeeat conducted under favorable circumstances :— (1) Ten experiments with mercer opposite ee In a three readings, of which the middle one was ma with the electrification of the disk. phic to that of the first. and third. an difference of the position of equilibrium, in scale-divisions -.-- 6°735 Seri length fs pe ie Electro-dynamic force acting on the astatic pein nha py skewed 0000327 ulated, ~ ce ae “o0000ast ni * " 0°00000311 (2) Four aay sas the same. Difference of the position _-...---.---. Spark-length ‘ - 0°2955 Ele ctro- dynamic force—observed cine ORS 0-00000317 cale ulated, M. __-- 0°00000349 - W. DAL ee See eee 000000322 ay Five experiments, the same. Diuteronce.of the nogithon. ooo base eae nom wn deena ee een 7-60 eh EE os ew hee te a me gs os b= ee 02926 ectro-dynamic eet femly ¥ eines Segui a at sa pipe ess 000000339 calculated, - Jae 000000355 ft 0-00000328 The accordance may be an upon as satel a the e measurement of a force which amuunts to only sp3o0 © of the earth’s magnetism, since in two of the series the observed values fall between those corresponding to the different measured values of Weber’s constant. ' As regards the signification of these experiments for the theory mponents of this polarization would constitute which i is indicated by the astatic pair of needles —Mon 3 On. preuss, Akademie oe ssdananpraics fee zu “Berlin, 91 » PP 211-216; Phil. Mag., Sept. 1 Geology and Mineralogy. 395 II. GEoLoGy AND MINERALOGY. 1, Note on specimen of Metadiabase from Connecticut Lake, collected and sliced by G. ves.—The fragments, appar- game. On the whole, though these objects are unlike any purely tineral substance with which I am acquainted, and are probably gments of some organic body, I do not think it possible at Present to indicate with any certainty their probable affinities. Sept. 7, 1876, : J. W. D : Ke On Streams of Water beneath Glaciers. — Mr. Cuarves ‘SuT, in the Philosophical Magazine for June, states that, *cording to Professor Wm. Thomson’s experiments, the freezing 396 Scientific Intelligence. Appendix by Domeyko to his pests of Chili follows the fourth after an interval of two s. It contains much valuable and interesting matter, haat apg the description of the following new minerals : Daubreite. 6 ero. say In structure earthy and compact, in parts fibrous. H.=2°5. G.=6-4-6°5. Color yellowish to gray- ish-white. Opaque. a analysis gave Bi,O, 89°60, Cl 750, H,O 3°84(?), Fe,O, 0°72, which corresponds. to the formula i iCl,. Krénkite.—In ene eerie masses with coarse fibrous structure; probably triclinic. Cleavage distinct parallel to an edge o the prism. Color azure-blue, changing somewhat on ate sr copper mines near Calama, on the road from Cabija to Potosi, ol Phill ipite—Forms small irregular masses and bands in the same argillacous ochre in which the copper pyrites occurs, by the decomposition of which it has been forekads Structure putas sometimes compact; never prismatic like Kronkite. Color azu blue. Luster vitreous; translucent. Soluble in water, but oe fected by exposure to the air, Composition CuSO P#eS50 12+ nag. Analysis gave SO, 28°96, FeO, 9°80, CuO 14°39, MgO 0°89, H,O 43°72 AlO, t=1 00: 00. Found: at the i en mines in the Cordilleras of Condes, Province of Santiago Huantajayite. —Isometric. Crystallizes in ie like the chlo- rides of sodium and silver. H.=2. Transparent. Color W ite, powder, not sectile like cerargyrite. omposition 20NaCl+ AgCl; an analysis gave NaCl 89, AgCl a) a —_ tates and fuses easily, losing its transparency ; h soda yie Soa abe Found at the mine of San Pleat in ee Cerro de Huanj The entra of the following new minerals in the Appendix are given by Sr. Raimondi. imately Cuprocaleite.—Occurs in small masses, a in eee io anes with a ferruginous carbonate of calciu . olor bright ag on ape: The analysis pid ug 20°16, CO, 24-00, H,O 3-20, FeO, 0°60, AIO, 0° ie SiO, 0-30=99:88, This sie urge ney Stee — (Cts) rf d 2CaCO,+H,0, which requires Cu,O 52°2, CaO 20°4, i 20 3°3=100. Soluble in hydrochloric acid with e pie The solution, formed with exclusion of the air, has a strong f go dizing power, precipitating metallic gold from s solutions 0 fe salts. Found at the mines of Canza, near the city ye Bas in yet oy anite—Occurs in powder, or in masses : 4 adheres to powder. ag white. Gives an argillaceous pity Th Dp cae ee Me denied oan te six additional skeletons including two new specles: DB whole six batrachian species were more or less perfect! Millepedes, t y re - a is Seudder to made a careful study of the pee ae Eee Bras Dawson—New Carboniferous Batrachians of Nova Scotia. 441 with remains was obtained, and its contents will form the sub- ject of the present communication. Two others were extracted for me by the kindness of Mr. Hill, superintendent of the Cumberland Mine, but proved to be filled merely with sand- stone without animal remains. ‘This is an illustration of the fact that, even in this bed, only certain trees remained open long enough to become burial places of land animals. | All the remains found in these singular repositories are those of air-breathing animals, except certain worm-like bodies of uncertain nature, which Mr. Scudder suggests may be remains appendages, more akin to those of modern lizards than to those of batrachians. Again, though we know from the footprints of Sauropus unguifer,+ found in Cumberland County at no great distance from the Joggins, and from those of Sauropus Sydne und in Cape Breton, as well as from the osseous remains — the alligator-like Baphetes, that there were large terrestrial byrinthodonts in the coal swamps of Nova Scotia, these Were of course too bulky to fall into the erect Sigillariz ; con- oy the remains found are those of the smaller species nly, The state of preservation of the specimens is also peculiar. All the bones of each specimen are sure to be present; but t n vegetable fragments on which they lay, so that the skeletons are usually disarticulated, and the bones, though individually ect, are so entangled in the matrix that it 1s impossible to Uncover the whole of them. In other, though rare cases, the and its soft parts, before they were finally covered up, he bones are often muc allen i h * By Huzle Geol uxley, Von Meyer and Cope. sg og} _ $ Acadian Geology, > 358. 442 Dawson—-New Carboniferous Btarachians of Nova Scotia. even microscopic examination of the parts, they do not often furnish skeletons with their members in situ, as in many of those described by Von Meyer, Huxley and Cope. e tree of 1876 was found by me in “the reef” or extension of the sandstone seaward, and near the low-water mark. The upper part of the stump, probably filled with sandstone, had been removed by the waves, but about two feet of the lower art remained. It was extracted with as much care as possible y two miners with picks and crowbar, and the disk-like frag- ments, into which it naturally split, were carried up to the foot of the cliff and subsequently numbered and dissected at leisure. In the hurry of working against time to escape the tide, the men it seems left in the hole a portion of the lowest layer, and a fragment of an upper one. The former was afterwards re- moved by Mr. J. C. Russel of Columbia College, New York, and the latter was found by Mr. Hill. Both have been kindly placed in my hands by these gentlemen, so that the whole of the material has been collected and carefully labelled, in such a manner as to keep together the parts belonging to each skeleton. where named Trigonocarpum sigillarie. In some places - sediment was finely laminated, the laminz being often muc contorted. In other places the earthy matter existed in pee a tons recovered in a more or less complete state was no thirteen in all, belonging probably to six species, besid Is bones contained in Coprolites, and several Millepedes, and it of Pupa vetusta, the latter almost entirely in the lowest layers. e first animal introduced was a specimen of Hy!@7] rt Dawsoni Owen, whose bones and scutes, after decay of ¢ Dawson—New Carboniferous Batrachians of Nova Scotia. 448 connecting parts, had slid down the slope of silt from one side toward the center of the space. Next, after a few inches of filling, came a specimen of Dendrerpeton Acadianum Owen, whose bones lie along the center of the layer and nearly in one plane. Above this a large flake of bark had fallen in, forming an imperfect floor over the remains. Then, after an inch or Dendrerpeton. Taking these specimens in the order above given, we may notice the new facts which they have disclosed on a preliminary examination. 2. Remains of Hylerpeton. on its structure. It had at least twelve teeth in each ramus 0 the mandible, and they are large in proportion to the size of the animal, bluntly conical and somewhat acuminate, and faintly striate at the apex. The vomerine bones are beset with humerous small blunt teeth. The skull is long, and its bones indi d strong, the icate a short tail. The limbs were large and strove tet ris short and biconcave, and with large dorsal lly was protected by numerous imbricated 444 Dawson—New Carboniferous Batrachians of Nova Scotia. larger size than the scales. On the whole this species was probably a somewhat clumsy creature, of toad-like form and slow gait, and with a dentary apparatus suited to pierce and crush crusts and shells. It is perhaps significant of its habits, in these respects, that the layers of this tree in which its bones occur are alone those in which shells of Pupa vetusta are found. The second species of Hylerpeton, which I may provisionally name Hf. longidentatus, was of somewhat smaller size, with the bones of the skull thinner and more slender, and the teeth very long and sharply pointed, with the apex finely striate but with no corrugation of the denti The vomer is covered with minute teeth, and there are long and slender canines. The best preserved mandible shows eighteen teeth which are strongly inclined backward. The scales are very narrow and there 1s a large thoracic plate. The general form of body may have been as in the last species, but the skull was probably narrower and the feet longer. ; Another species of this genus, or belonging to a genus inter- mediate between it and Hylonomus, is represented by a confu mass of bones showing long and narrow jaws, armed with short and blunt teeth, of which, at least thirty occur on each side of the lower jaws. The sculpture of the bones is as in the prevl ous species, but the pulp-cavities of the teeth are smaller and their walls stronger, and they show no sculpture on the apex; in which respects they resemble those of Hylonomus. The vertebre also are more elongated and the femur is a large bone indicating a powerful hind limb. The abdominal scutes are very long and narrow, resembling slender semi-cylindric a point in which this species differs from all the others found with it, although it resembles some of those found in Ireland and Ohio. This species I would name provisionally, in allusion to the form of its teeth, Hylerpeton curtidentatum. In all these species of Hylerpeton, the teeth are simple, and are anchylosed to the bone and placed in linear series In a shallow groove. 3. Remains of Dendrerpeton. as to to the er species, except in the form of the teeth and scales. the most interesting facts presented by a cursory eX of the specimens relate to the skin and its appendages. Dawson—New Carboniferous Batrachians of Nova Scotia. 445 Menobranchus mark the bands of subcutaneous muscles. The ae in previous papers described detached examples, and ve compared them with the gular and cervical lappets and nd which al arranged in series and also in 446 Dawson—New Carboniferous Batrachians of Nova Scotia. lizard-like in form, with a somewhat flat and broad head and strong teeth with folded dentine. Its back was covered with a shining skin filled with microscopic horny scales. Its sides were marked by vertical bands separated by delicate indented lines. Anteriorly it was ornamented with numerous cutaneous lappets or pendants. The sides were bordered wi above mentioned, found in 1859. Hylonomus Lyelli had a far more ornate set of cutaneous appendages, as evidenced by re The tree of 1876 contains no cuticular remains referable to these species. 4, Remains of Hylonomus. The bones of this genus are all, I think, referable to H. Lyelh, and to specimens about the size of those previously found. They throw little additional light on its character, except to indicate that it was probably very abundant, and to render it probatle that the specimens formerly described were adult. Pwo of the skulls in the tree of 1876 are better preserved than those previously known, and confirm the statement already made as to the smoothness of the bones and the greater cranial elevation as compared with other batrachians of the Carbonifer- ous period. This is indicated, among other things, by the skulls lying upon one side, which is not found to be the case . with the other species, Coal-formation of Ohio,t he places Aylonomus in the same family, Trwhitanide, with Dendrerpeton. This I thin express its true affinities. The more elongate and narrow skull, with smooth bones, the differently formed vertebra, the an order oF sub-order, for which I proposed in 1863 the name Microsauria. T observe that in the report on the Labyrinthodonts a at by Mr. Miall for the British Association in 1878, and in re Tabular View appended to it in 1874, while the group _ rit is retained, Vendrerpeton is placed in it, as well as Hy/erpe! * Journal Geol. Soc., vol. xvi, also “ Air-breathers,” 1863. + Paleontology of Ohio, vol. ii. Dawson—New Carboniferous Batrachians of Nova Scotia, 447 and Hylonomus. This I think is an error in so far as the first genus is concerned. I may add my continued conviction that Hylonomus and its allies present many points of approach to the lacertian reptiles, which I hope in future to be able to work out more in detail. Several masses of Coprolite, filled with small broken bones, were obtained in ing e material surrounding the skeletons. I presume these bones belong to one or other of any of them to be sufficiently characteristic to warrant any confident statement on the subject. These Coprolites must have been produced by Dendrerpeton or Hylerpeton, most prob- ably the former. The above statements must be regarded as imperfect, and preliminary to more detailed description and illustration of the specimens. These will require long and patient work and microscopic examinations of the bones and the teeth, and when this is completed they will be placed in relation, as far as pos- sible, with the remains previously found in Nova Scotia, and with what is known of coal batrachians elsewhere. | Ithink it quite possible that further examination may en- i I have been guided mainly in the reference of the specimens to species by the structure of the teeth and the cranial bones; but ‘some z s ler the same conditions, there is less liability here, than in most cases, to multiply species ick 8 have swarmed upon us of which we proba- Which has already afforded remains of i Some precursors of the Carboniferous batrachians. * Paleontology of Ohio, vol. ii. . Ph ee ig cia laa 448 EH. 8S. Dana—Association of crystals of Quartz and Calcite, Art. XLIX.—Mineralogical Notes. No. IV; by Epwarp 8. Dana, Ph.D.—On the association of crystals of Quartz and Caleite in parallel position, as observed on a specimen from the Yellowstone Park. THE occurrence of crystals of quartz in parallel position upon the faces of a rhombohedron of calcite was long since descri by Breithaupt. The relation of the two minerals is shown in gure 1, given by him; each crystal of quartz has its pyramidal A somewhat analogous case was described by Roset and Eck from Reichenstein in Silesia ; more recently vom Rath and Frenzel§ have given a full description, illustrated by a number of figures, of a similar occurrence from Schneeberg, Saxony. In the spect- mens described by them the calcite rhnombohedron (-} 2) was com- pletely enveloped by the quartz. Each rhombohedral face of the former having upon it a pyramid of quartz, united by @ yramidal face, and the extension of these six crystals regularly d produced a form which with its reentering angles appea to be a trilling (a compound crystal of three combined crystals) of quartz. It was further shown by vom Rath that the caleite alone had determined the position “of the quartz crystals, an consequently that the form, which had resulted, was only 4 pseudo-trilling. Both the vertical twinning-plane, and the hori- zontal plane of the compound crystal were pronounced to te forms with quartz. oe any cases of the association of crystals of different species ® parallel position have been observed (as for example; of san on orthoclase, of pyroxene on hornblende, of chrysolite ‘ll humite, etc.), but the case here mentioned is of an exceptionaly, anomalous character. It is a matter of some interest, therefore, to note the discovery of a new case of this association of quartz and calcite and one which offers some features not — Dserved, affording at least a partial explanation of this geo™ nical relation between the two minerals. * Berg- u. Hiitten. Zeit., 1861, 54. H. Eck, ZS. G. Ges., xviii, £26 +G. Rose, Pogg. Ann., Ixxxiii, 461. & Pose Ann., cly, 17, 1874. E. & Dana—Association of crystals of Quartz and Calcite. 449 The specimen in hand was obtained by the writer in August, 1875, when visiting the Yellowstone National Park in connec- tion with the party of Col. William Ludlow, U.S. A. It was found in the neighborhood of what has been called ‘‘ Specimen Mountain,” a locality which has furnished many fine amethysts, geodes of chalcedony, and fragments of silicified wood. The rock is an igneous conglomerate. : The specimen itself consists mostly of chalcedony, upon the surface of which have been implanted rhombohedrons (— }/) of calcite, and finally, as a still later process, the quartz has incrusted both the calcite crystals and simultaneously the ex- posed surfaces of the chalcedony. In the latter position a simple drusy surface of fine quartz crystals, irregularly planted, has resulted, but the crystals upon the calcite, though unques- tionably of simultaneous formation, are all in a similar parallel position, analogous to that shown in fig. 1; the pyramidal faces o the quartz crystals (22 or —#) being parallel to the rhombohedral (-R) face of the underlying calcite. In some cases a collection of small parallel crystals of quartz form a coating upon each crystals is very uniform ; itisshown In fig. 2. the smaller crystals (to finch broad), the symmetry of the planes was nearly as perfect as in the drawing. A comparison of this figure with those given by vom Rath will show that though in the Sepa features similar, still the — ae tebe one here given differs in some most 1mpor . The first examination of the ov gaggeste t° apes x} ‘ee bn : Ee y thy ] ? rn of the zon (3) pt” aye ve ct 1 around the erystal are obviously repetitions of the same series of plan A more critical re Ao aon however, by the aid of the reflecting igoapeeaige he oles Sy a eee Sk vpavaltel iba is very slight. tr they are continued aroun time that the deviation from pe It is in fact a remarkable case of pseudo-symmetry- 450 E. S. Dana—Association of crystals of Quartz and Calcite. The following angles were measured in these “ zones,” as they may for convenience be called. A double-telescope goni- ometer was employed for the purpose, though the character of the planes was not such as to allow of the highest degree of accuracy. 1. Zone i, -R, —R’, 7’ t A-~R=113° 12’ ¢ ,~-—R’'=148° 48! -R,A-Rk'= 149’ 28! #A-f'=118° 10". i?’ 7 —-R —143° 45' tiat= 77° 39° 2. Zone i, R, R’, i”, —R", — Rv : tAi'= 102° 8’ Bate a 1: 8 eg ee 149° 13° Supposing for the moment that the two series of planes mentioned are true zones, and also that, as appears at first sight to be the case, the whole erystal is a complex twin, it is ob- vious that the twinning-plane for the two upper crystals of quartz must be a plane in the zone 1, —R, ete., and must either halve the angle 747’, or which is the same thing —RA- y, OF else be normal to this bisecting plane. Similarly, for either crystal above and the one diagonally below, the twinning-plane must also lie in the zone 7, +2, etc, and must be either that plane which bisects the angle 7a7z”’, and RAR”, or one at right. angles to it. For the first case the measured angle of —R~—-R’=149° 28, gives 88° 24’ that is, 141° 36’ or the angle between the twinning-plane and the prism ¢ Again, the measured angle 77° 29 for iAv' gives 88° 444, that is, 141° 154’ for the inclina- tion of the twinning-plane upon the prism 7 : For the second case, the angle of R~ R’=124° 2! gives 128° 58’ for the angle between the prism and the twinning-plane, or 141° 7’ if the twinning-plane is normal to the com position- plane. Again the angle of ¢,7”=102° 8’ gives for the same angle 128° 56’, or, on the other supposition, 141° 4’. If we compare this angle (141°-142°) thus obtained with the inclina- tion of the prism upon the successive planes of the zone be- tween 7 and & having the general symboi m- we are sur” m— prised to find that it agrees quite closely with that which is re- quired for 7. 2-2, viz. 142° 2’. This plane 2-2, one of the most commonly oceurring of all the various forms of quartz 1s thus approwimately the twinning-plane. In the first case we. og tained 141° 36’ and 141° 154, and in the second case 141 Ag and 141° 4". There is here some discrepancy, but considering 4 relation of the crystals the correspondence is very remark- able. | The conclusion to which we arrive then, is this: that although the position of the quartz is unquestionably determined by the Chemistry and Physics. 451 calcite, nevertheless the resulting form possesses a remarkably high degree of symmetry, and approximates very closely to that which would be produced by a twinning parallel to the plane 2-2. The two adjacent crystals are united by the twin- ning-plane, and the two diagonally opposite by a plane normal to this, but the same law of twinning applies to both cases. It can hardly be questioned that-this fact, that by this method of grouping the form of the quartz approximates so closely to a form which might well exist independently, must be at least a partial reason why it is here placed in so remarkable a geomet- rical relation with calcite. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 1, On the Size of Hydrogen Atoms.—ANNAHEIM has described asimple lecture experiment in which the coloring power of fuchsin and cyanin is made use of to illustrate the extraordinary divisibil- ity of matter. To form an idea of the amount of coloring matter visible to the naked eye, he weighed out 0°0007 gram fuchsin 3HCl)—a fragment about half a millimeter in diameter —dissolved it in alcohol and diluted the solution to a liter. 1p each is 337°5, the maximum weight of a hydrogen atom iS 337-5 0°00000002 gram, or 0000000000059 gram! The sam One milligram dissolved in ae 51, September, 1876. #3 2. On the Atomic Weight of Selenium.— PETTERSSON and Ex- lenium, yzing for this purpose calcium, m um and silver selenates, siti ee se fetta Jenate, silver selenite, tt selenous oxide, all of the greatest attainable purity Silver selen- data for determini ight are obtain ng the atomic wel are ¢ of seven anal yses, che atomic weight obtained was 79°01. By 452 Scientific Intelligence. reduction of selenous acid by sulphurous acid, collecting and dry- ing the precipitate and weighing it, another determination was made. e mean of five determinations, which agree well with each other, is 79°08. The authors, believing the latter determina- tion to have more weight, assign the atomic weight 79°08 to selen- ratus with the combustion tube, the other furnished with a quetsch- hahn, for drawing off the liquid within. The two tubes are held parallel and upright and form a U tube. By turning the meas ing tube down it may be filled with a potash solution. The combustion is proceeded with as usual, carbon dioxide evolved from hydro-sodium carbonate being used first to drive out the air. As the bubbles rise through the potassium hydrate, they are more and more perfectly absorbed. When this process is finished the substance is heated and the nitrogen is allowed to come ae Its temperature is noted, and, after making the level of the liqui he same in both tubes, its volume is read and reduced t Some careful observations on its physical properties. Its e hee is about 29°5°, so that the heat of the hand liquefies < hen liquid, it exhibits the phenomena of surfusion to a pine able degree. It has remained liquid for more than a month, t i sit eg being frequently broken and reunited again by a ore lade, in a room the temperature of which often fell below freezing point. Contact with a bit of solid gallium however, to glass. Only a few degrees below its fusing point, the me ted hard and remarkably tenacious; but it may be cut with a knife as aluminum may. “ It crystallizes with facility, oryotle eiae “i 58 ee Getter avis amici wn ce eee ee: te Beer # : Z f Chemistry and Physics. 453 points.—The labor consequent upon the determination of a vap density in the case of a substance of high boiling point by the method of Deville and Troost, has led Vicror Meyer to contrive anew method which is simple and easily applied, using no mor material than the method of Hofmann and yet making determina- tions up to the boiling point of sulphur, 444°2°. In place of mer- cury, Wood’s fusible metal, fusing at 70°C. is used. The principle involved consists in volatilizing a small but accurately weighed quantity of the substance in a vessel previously completely filled with the fusible metal, and then determining the volume of the vapor by heating in sulphur vapor and measuring the quantity of metal which has overflowed. The vessel employed is a bulb of about 25 ¢. c. capacity having a fine point at top and a tube 6 to 5. New Vapor-density method for Substances of high Boiling- or ow. caleulated and reduced. All the data are now known, and in cal- ey ms a oo <4 ud or oo =} m ° io + = = oO fos —_ mM Al ww Led) Cf i) od or oo bo © — f] r= + 2 bax | b=] OQ @ ro ct o> bo rs we cal. 6-15. Of triphenylamine 8°49; cal. 8°48. Of anthraquinone (22; cal. 7-19. Of paradibrombenzene 8°14; cal, 8°15.—Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., ix, 1216, September, 1876. G. F. B. 8. On Glycero-phosphoric acid from Brain Tissue.—Tuvvt- cHum and Kinezerr have described some of the salts of glycero- Phosphoric acid obtained from kephalin, a substance prepared the former from brain tissue. en boil barium salts of certain fatty acids, barium glycero- hosphate, and one or two nitrogenous bases result. Th 454 Scientific Intelligence. glycero-phosphate. The authors give certain theoretical views concerning the kephalins, myelins and lecithins in the brain, all of which yield this acid.—J. Chem. Soc., xxx, 20, July, 1876. GF. B 7. Chemistry: General, Medical, and Pharmaceutical, including the Chemistry of the U. S. Pharmacopeias. A manuat of the general principles of the science, and their applications in medicine and pharmacy ; by Joun AtrFtexp, Ph.D., F.C.S., ete. Seventh the convenience of American students in medical chemistry. Iti an excellent book in many respects, and evidently meets the wants of the class of students for whom it was prepared. The modern nomenclature and philosophy of chemistry and the metric system are used in the work. B, 8. A Systematic Hand-book of Volumetric Analysis, ete.; by Francis Surron, F.C.S., etc. Third edition. 438 pp. 8v0 Philadelphia, 1876. (Lindsay and Blakiston.)—The former edi- tions of Mr. Sutton’s excellent hand-book have long been in the hands of chemists. e second edition has for some time been out of print, however, and therefore the third edition is the more acceptable to working chemists who will find in it a careful digest of this department of chemical literature brought down to Sep tember, 1876. It bears marks of careful revision throughout. The sections on the analyses of potable waters and sewage have been completely revised and much enlarge r sas long connected with the Pollution of Rivers Commission, as Chie emical Assistant under Drs. land and Armstrong. The methods of analysis of potable waters introduced by these shea are in this volume carefully collated from the original sources an nglish science-manual escape the mutilation too frequently igh mitted in the so-called “ reprints from the last London — met Bop: ae 9. Chemia Coartata, or the Key to Modern Chemistry + Pi is ) . Ko.tmyrr, A.M., M.D., e iii pp. 12mo. — pete _ (Lindsay and Blakiston),—-This is an attempt to present S08 ~ Chemistry and Physics. 455 attention, and to give no more explanatory matter than is actually required to render each subject perfectly intelligible.” It is Sip in the apparatus for producing these curves. Two tge tuning forks are maintained in vibration by an electric cur- rent circulating around a magnet placed between the prongs. Tk e itch is regulated approximately by two weights of five or six " : ll. Mechanical Equivalent of Heat.—The committee of the British Association appointed to determine this constant, report progress as follows: Dr. Joule has been engaged in further meas- ements by means of the friction of water, and as the average Tesult of sixty experiments gives 772°2 in British gra at Manchester, The greatest deviation from the above average 1s ‘i . o 2, fe] 7] oh Pe > S bs] > 2 ~ = 5S w® ~ i) = SS a eu) this source is pr Y $y and that from the incorrect boiling Point of the thermometers ximum value of these two _12. Ohm’s Law.—Prof. Maxw#1t presented to the [ lation at their last meeting the Report of the -oageg ome fed Testing Experimentally the Exactness of Ohm’s Law. The p 456 Scientific Intelligence. cipal difficulty arises from the fact that the current generates heat, so that it is extremely difficult to keep the temperature con- stant with different currents. Since the resistance is the same whichever way the current passes, the resistance, if not constant, must depend upon even powers of the intensity of the current through each element of the conductor. Hence if we cause a cur- conductor of smaller section, and if the resistances are equal for mall currents they will be no longer equal for large currents, The first test was by means of five coils each of thirty ohms resist- nce, and two others to complete the bridge. A difference of over ieensailiontte in the relative a of any two of these coils proved to be measurable. According to Ohm’s law, if either four of these were connected two an oe rie the resistance should be the other four. The results showed a small pes from the law, probably due to irregularity in the conducting power of the connections since it was not confirmed in the more faerie tests ngtabetoes appliec A second method was next adopted in which weak and strong path were alternately passed through two wires of nearly equal resistance but one short and fine the other coarse and long. The currents were changed thirty, and sometimes sixty times a pieced: so that the wire could not sen ~~ change in temperature in the interval. Since the current has ar greater intensity in the fine than in So coarse wire the ‘leviation sho — e — acai must arise from a succession af equal and so currents those in one direction due to the stout wire, those in the ad result. Mr. Chieystal: by whom the experiments were perior” as put his result in the following form: If a conductor of i platinum or German silver of one square centimeter section has a resistance of one ohm for infinitely small currents, its pire when acted on by an electromotive force of one volt (provided mperature is kept the same) is not altered by so mue millionth of the millionth part. d to It is seldom, if ever, that so searching a test has been applied a law which was originally om TRE by experimeut, an me = still be considered a purely empirical law, as it has not ee rto been deduced from the Scikceeentat irincapiee of dynamics. . Chemistry and Physics. 457 of elementary dynamical principles.— Nature, xiv, 452. _E. © 13. Protection of Buildings from Lightning.—Prot. Maxwkt popes another system of protecting buildings quite unlike that Samat nave Attention is generally especially devoted to the ae : of the conductor, to secure an elevated and pointed ter- nal above and a good connection with moist earth below. This dis i iff discharge cannot occur between two bodies unless the difference aml by good conductors as wire ropes. the 1 the exterior is covered with a good conductor. Thus, if roof, walls ana ground floor are covered with thick sheet- “hil no electrical effect could be produced inside by a thunder 0 N and the building hot necessary to take ~~ to facilitate ature, xiv, 479. Larth.—Mr. Jamzs Crout, L1.D., F.R.S., of the Geological Survey, ey a paper “ On the Tidal Retardation Argument fo the Age of the Earth.” Many years Si illiam Thomson demon- - physical considerations that the views' which then Prevailed in regard to geological time @ the age of our globe were perfectly erroneous. main @ ents, as are well ible age; and known, were—first, that based on the sun’s possibl condly, that based on the secular cooling of the earth. More t (Trans. Geol. Soc of k §0 sips Bh .d on tidal retardation. It is well i that owing to tidal retardation the rate f ®n is slowly diminishing, and it is, therefore, evident that if we 458 Scientific Intelligence. go back for many millions of years we reach a period when the earth must have been rotating much faster than now. Sir Wil- tidal-wave, that the sea-level must be slowly sinking at the equa- tor, and rising at the poles. This, of course, tends to protect the. polar regions, and expose equatorial regions to subaerial denuda- ti greater than in the temperate regions. n shown In the papers above referred to that the rate at which a country is being lowered by subaerial denudation, is main rmined, not 80 Geology and Mineralogy. 459 15. Sound, by Joun TyNnpait. 448 pp. 8vo. Third edition, re- vised and enlarged. New ‘York. 1876. (D. Appleton & Co.) forth. The most important new matter introduced is an account of the author’s investigations on the acoustic transparency of the atmosphere in relation to Fog-signaling. The preface contains an account of work done in the same line in America, and_ especially n any one’s intellect has been thus cowed in this free age, no one Is to be blamed but himself. 16. Entwickelung der theoretischen Ansichten iiber die gepaar- ten Schwefelverbindungen von Georcr A, SMYTH (of Amherst, Mass.) 122 pp. 8vo. Berlin. 1876. — Il GroLoagy AND MINERALOGY. 1. Report on the Geological Map of Massachusetts, prepared by W. O, Crospy, Assistant in the Laboratory of the Boston So- 8 : —The map here referred to is one colored for the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia. Mr. Crosby lays down the distribution of Norian, berg formation (1 ‘ ower or upper € and quartzyte, anaes to be folded by the author with the Mont- 460 Serentifie Intelligence. Such a conclusion is at variance with the fact of the exist- ence of Lower Silurian fossils at some Vermont localities in the of the Nashua Valley, by L. 8. of Vigo and Huntington counties, by Mr. Cox; of Riply and Jen- nings counties, by W. W. Borden; of Orange, by M. N. Elrod and E. § i a depth of 3,000 feet; the first 88 feet were of drift; and then it entered a Niagara limestone, and continued through limestone and calcareous shale to 2,500 feet ; thence, through soft caleare- L upper stratum.” In another well 1,923} feet deep at Terre ape lieved, in the N iagara, the temperature obtained throug nie was 81° F.; and this is referred to waters from the lower part of the well filling it. 5 t ; i - Geology and Mineralogy. 461 38. Geological Map of Scotland, by Arcuipatp Grrxre, Di- rector of the Geological Survey of Scotland. Edinburgh. (W. & A. K. Johnston, Geographers and Engravers to the Queen).— Professor Geikie has contributed much by his own labors to the one foot ten inches by two feet ten. 4. Huronian of Canada: Letter from Mr. A. R. C. Serwyn. Director of the Geological Survey of Canada, to J. D. mentioned Sir William Logan’s name to Mr: Bradley, in the mat- ter; and certainly if Sir William held the views attributed to him, he never informed me of the fact. When Mr. Bradley sent me a i “P? ‘3 2 s . . Si evidence which would warrant us in classing them with the Uurlan, 5. Geological Survey of Michigan. Fossil Corals, by Dr. C. Romycrr, State Geologist. 4 pp. 8vo, with 55 gee - flvance copy, unrevised by the author,” has been received, an leasure to announce the appearance of a work are alb, : . f the art, being among th ay ho and beautiful specimens of the art, New York. The sciene untry owes much to the Geological Board of the Stat fit lication of so complete and well-illustrated a Report on 462 Scientific Intelligence. 6. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India. Paleontolog- ica Indica.—Published by order of the Governor General of In dia in Council, under the direction of Thomas Oldham, LL.D., Superintendent of the Geological Survey of India. Vol. i, Parts 2,3 and 4 (1875), contain the continuation of the memoir on the pure, without admixture with potash salts. The maximum thick. ness of the salt rock is not less than 1,230 feet. It is associated contain a brief Annual Report, together wit Geology of Sind, by Wm. T. Blanford, the rocks of which, thus far observed, range from the Infra-nummulitic, supposed to be Lower Eocene to the Pliocene and more recent. : 7. Detritus of Rivers. —The Liverpool Geological Society held its first annual meeting of the session on the 10th instant, when the retiring president, Mr. T. Mellard Reade, C.E., F.G.S, delivered his annual address. The subject was an interesting one, being a calculation of the amount of solid matter removed annu- ally from the surface of England and Wales in solution, in rain, . the age of sedimentary deposits, the calculations taken, together with the amount of matter annually brought down in river water _ Geology and Mineralogy. 463 in suspension in the form of mud, are extremely interesting, and Mr. Reade deduced from them that the minimum amount of tim which must have elapsed since the first sedimentary rocks we know of were laid down is, in round numbers, 500 millions of years, thus supporting the views of Lyell, Hutton, and other great geologists, as to the immense age of the world.—Nature, Oct. 26. 8. Mallet’s Theory of Voleanic Energy.—The paper of Prof. Mallet upon volcanic energy, which was translated into German by Prof. A. von Lasaulx, has been somewhat severely criticized in the Gottingen Gelehrte Anzeige by O. Lang. This criticism has recently been fully answered by Prof. Lasaulx. He gives a satis- factory demonstration of the mathematical formula referred to a , that by which Mallet proves that a crushing of the 9, ‘p The American Association for the Advancement of Science, at its Session on the 25th of August last, umanimously adopted the fol- lowing resolution :— esolved, That a Committee of the Association be appointed by the Chair to consider the propriety of holding an International Congress of Geologists at Paris, during the International Exhibi- tion in 1878, for the purpose of getting together comparative col- lections, maps and sections, and for the settling of many obscure points relating to geological classification and nomenclature. And e sa t of Prof. William B. Rogers, Messrs. James Hall, J. W. Daw- son, J. S. Newberry, T. Sterry Hunt, C. ch and German, and to be distributed to geologists ee da out the world, asking their codperation in this great work “i an International Geological Exhibition and an International 0B. ‘cal Congress to be held at Paris in 1878; the precise date of the gress to be subsequently fixed. ‘ This cireular fected: with reference to the objects of the \ 464 Scientific Intelligence. new species of the genus Lingula.t In his review of the geology of this region, Professor Hartt remarks:t{ “The great repository ich ppears rm s a few inches in thickness, interstratified with the shales in Th . their upper part. [N. B.—These shales are probably not the equivalents of those previously mentioned, for they are exposed survey of the whole area. The importance of the results obtained by them, as reported in a recent letter from Mr. Derby, will be better understood after a brief review of the general ph siognomy of the district under consideration, The villa of Monte Alegre (upper town) is perched upon the top of a comparatively level block of horizontal Tertiary li rt ical Geography of the Ereré-Monte Alegre District, ty Exiauer Of Deo. fonts on ae pedition, in Bulletin of the Buffalo Soc. Nat. Sci., January, 1874. eee tL. na Rathbun, and L. Stawntoniana Rathbun, figured and described i his paper “Qn the Devonian Brachiopoda of Ereré, Province of Paré, Brazil, in Bull. Tid, ~~ Nat. Sci., January, 1874, p. 259. 4 i a E 4 : ; Were Pat beet eee sy. Ss, ight, Oe et See e lt aa Geology and Mineralogy. 465 bold serras of more complicated structure and of other formations. A series of ridges extending across the southern limit of the plain - comprises the serras of Ereré; Aroxi and Aracuré, the western d occupies the eastern end of a row of ridges along the northern side, and the Monte Alegre plateau completes the enclosure. The the rocks are much contorted, are composed largely of Cretaceous beds extending downward into the upper Paleozoic formations, Carboniferous and Devonian. North of Ereré, they discovered 0 f i Sition.”” An apparent conflict in geognostical and paleontological id on Martius, in fact, was the onl: i isitor to the serras. He reported : : ly previous visitor n Brasili lor Theil, S. 1326), upon the botany of one of the Serras de i logy. geology Bull. Buff. Soc. N. &., ibid., p. 228, e¢ seq. sera iie ‘by the writer (Reconn. N. W. Wyoming, age, ot was su Reco! : — Jones, 1874, p. 143) as convenient to apply to beds of the same relative true synchronism is uncertain. hen 466 Seventifie Intelligence. records is thus harmonized, as it appears. The same number of species is reported from the ‘Upper Devonian of the Ereré district, and the Carboniferous beds have yielded a similar number to Mr, H. H. Smith, among which there are probably some entirely new pears to extend South America, as elsewhere. ‘The fossils identified by Derby, which were collected on the Morgan expeditions, fe arde hi Carboniferous fauna and to other s of similar age (Goal measures) in both North and South pai and in Kurope.+ The Cretaceous beds of the serras have afforded m many fossils, in places, but no details are furnished by the members of the Imperial Survey. Professor Hartt, at latest account, was engaged in a personal exploration of the Coal-Measure area in the southern province of Santa Catharina, where characteristic plant-fossils and workable beds of coal are known to exist.t The occurrence of coal in the valley of the Amazonas has 8s suspected ; there is probably no region in the world where it cou e more advantageously em- ployed. but as yet no. exposure of valuable beds has been reported. 1, New Miverats. Mottramite, Roscoclite.—Prof. ia has recently described a new vanadium mineral, under the name 0 ottramite. It occurs as a crystalline incrustation on the Keuper sandstone at Alderley Edge, and at Mottram St. An- drew’s, Cheshire, England. The incrustation is usually thin, but sometimes 3 or r4 mm. in thickness. Occasionally in minute crys- tals of a black velvety appearance in the mass, but by transmit- ted light yellow. Also compact, opaque, and of a purplish brown color. Luster resinous. Strea yellow. H.=3; G.=5'894. The mean of two analyses gave V,O, 17° 14, are rik CuO 19°10, (Fe, Zn, Mn)O 2°52, G0. 2 i3, ‘MgO 02 3°63, moisture 0°22, silica 1°06—=97.03. e formula is write (Poca), Ver 2H.(PbCu)O, analogous to erinite and dih Prof, Roscoe has also examined the rosoaite nam Blake, and cine described b enth is — I, xii, 31, 32), e formula to which his iat es leads is as fol- low s:—2AIV, “se +K,Si,O,, +aq.; this is quite a different result fromm that obtained ie Dr. Genth. aire c. Roy. Soc., June 15, 1876. The ; a carbonate of calcium, containing small sore of the o bye scibuiary, of the Amazonas, entering the latter from the per Santarem, not many miles above Monte Al + See paper “On the Carboniferous Brachiopoda of Itaitiba, Rio Le a Province of P iatons ha ee Science), - Vol. I, No. 2, where denese on) descriptions are + Hartt, Geology and Physical Geography of Brazil, 1870, p. 519. 4 ; it < i Botany and Zoology. 467 of iron and manganese, to which the variegated colors are due, for which the rock is so much admired. The specific gravity, 2°9, shows that it is aragonite. Ill. Botany AND ZOOLOGY. 1. Relation of Coloration to Environment.—Mr. W allace’s over- sight about a “ Pelargonium of Kerguelen’s Land,” has been pointed out in Mature and noted in this Journal (p. 400). There flowers, apparently produced only at the close of summer, have capillary styles of half an inch to a full inch in length, mostly eeply three-cleft with unequal pie. sometimes three-parted rescence, Mr. Morong noticed that the flowers in his specimens Were triandrous ; but I find that some are diandrous. These long- anty. They : r Toate “piaiit) of Griffith’s Ben- gal collection. This American variety, or species, has narrower Spikelets and more carinate scales than is usual in 8. og aE 468 Scientific Intelligence. 3. Dictionaire de Botanique ; par M. H. Battuon. Dessins de A. Facurr. Premier fascicule. (5 francs.) Paris: Libri Hachette & Cie.—This is a large undertaking. ‘The first fasci- culus just issued consists of 80 pages, large 4to, double columns, with one chromolithic colored plate (of an Esch ynanthus) and wood-cuts, some of which have done service in the editor’s other works. To this we would not object, nor to the more profuse than pertinent illustration of the first article of the book, viz: a privative, by sixteen figures, five to explain its use in the word acetylédone, ‘three for that of asépale, six for apétale ; but we do object to the teaching that Rubia, Loranthus and 7 els it should bea a ‘Beet for those he do, a great conven- on. The list of collaborators already ee nd who have contributed to this fascicle contains good na sy more notable being those of De Seynes, beep est Poarnign Bureau, Weddel d Ascherson, Amon g them is the name of Ra nesque ! Ap- parently all oo names are te be given, the genera in French or Latin form, or in both, = characters sketched, important genera Siastaiatod popular es explained or referred, botanical terms define , and botmitaed Gathers biographically noticed. The physiological opie are encyclopedic ; that on absorption fills almost six of the large pages, aceroisement four and ahalf, Accu- racy in such a deat is of the first importance, and we may pre- sume that all reasonable pains will be taken. But we notice that, on p. 27, the akene of a Valerian, with its pappus, figures for that of a compose, and on p. 41, Tra utvetteria gs ogg Acta oS and Agassiz is said Pe have died at New 4. Nuovo Giornale Botanico Rittedo diretis du T. Cimon Pisa. Vol. viii. 1876.—This volume was issued in four parts, of unequal size, the first in January, the fourth in October; the jour- nal is apparently well sustained; and, besides the editor's own articles, has papers by De Notaris, Deipino, Arcangeli, — ee . Flora Orientalis ... auctore Evmonp Bossier. tne third eS i) TR oO 28 a Cant a Or co 4 at Sh cf o o eh = = = ia #3 a = ia*) 2 4 ,2 "mm — e ® ewis issued (280 pipes); contents the Gamopetale, Borraginee being the largest order. The remainder of this volume may soon be ex- A. G. aan hil aaa MIA gt ea ced oes Sie cial Botany and Zoology. 469 6. On the Barringtoniacee, by Joun Miers, F.R.S., ete—An elaborate memoir of this group of tropical plants, published in the first volume of the new series of the Transactions of the Limmean — pared by Gro. Vasny, M.D. Yashington, 1876. 38 pp. 8vo.) All agree in awarding great credit to Dr. Vasey for the United played, and nstructive. pamphl useful in illustrating the exhibition, will still be convenient and valuable for reference. ‘As G5 Morphology of the Carpellary Seales of Conifere.—The true of Conifers has been an important the limit of tree vegetation on the Sudetic Mountains, is that Mohl’s view of the structure of the fruit-scale, based on the nature of the double leaf of Sciadopitys, is the correct one. | The t of leaves or bracts in Coniferee always are . é ? rheir back toward the axis of the inflorescence (the cone) and . 470 Scientific Intelligence. and Taxinew, which have no fruit-scale, we must come to the same arial ision, assuming a virtual suppression of the scale. e alge difficulty seems to arise from the position of the ovules n the — side of the see carpel, which is not seen in any angiospermous plants; however, the anther-cells, which morpho- logically correspond to the fic are in Conifere also borne on the lower side of the stamen- scale ; and for further analogy we have to look to the Cy cadec, and, be | it boldly announced, to the Ferns. Lycop odincer, on the other hand, bearing the spore-cases on the upper side of the leaf, cannot be regarded as the progeni- tors of Coniferze, as nei been ‘thought. The relationship of Coni- fere is with Cycadew and Ferns, while Gnetacew become still bies Canadensis, either into a distinct or a more or fon connate pair of leaves ; but a i! at the base, not, as in other ap it at the oer of = co 9. Speci Don enera, et Ordines Algarum. Volumen Tertium: De "Florideis Cure Posteriores. Auctore J. G. Acarpu. Lund. 1876.—In the present volume, the author reviews the species described in the first, second, and a portion of the third 7 of volume second of his classic work on alge, giving frequent emen- dations, and interpolating the species described since the publica- tion of that volume. The whole forms a volume of 700 pages, and, with the exception of the Rhodomelee and Vorallinee, pur- rts to be a complete monograph of the orders of Flortdee. in the execution of the v olume, the author has followed the same lan as in the preceding, and the text shows a careful — ing comparatively free from wiccteprcal errors. Twent species and two sap are either new to the United States or, for the first time, fully described. Centrocerus Uregonense Ag., seems to be Rouieccons pein Farlow, published in the Proce. Am. A -, March 9, 1875. In _th e ca pte oe of the species been supposed to be identical with European species, as, for instance, Sarcophyllis Selena’) edulis, taken_ to be oe same as S. edulis of Europe, and @ to be G. Gi — Tt i isa well. known fact that species: oan Palge Botany and Zoology. 471 exception of Kiitzing, would separate the Californian form as a distinct species. Should the Californian species of Agardh be accepted as genuine, it would go far to overturn the conclusion se . Th to the readers of this Journal from the writings of Professor Gray. The present volume, except for the preface and occasional foot- notes, might be called a worthy sequel to those which have pre- ceded. But in the preface, Agardh not only denies the fertilizing action of the antherozoids of the Floridew, but even declares that i thing more than nature of the trichogyne, but the correctness o uret’s and ornet’s observations have been confirmed by numbers of algolo- gists on the sea shore, and the fertilization. of the more simple tories of Europe, and at least of one in this country. _W. . F. 10. Notes Algologiques. Fascicule I. Par M. M. Ep, Borner et curing capable engravers, the plan was abandoned. Not, ow- ever, wholly relinquishing his plan, he had many less complicated drawings prepared, which, on his untimely death in the spring of oti were bequeathed to his friend and co-worker, Dr. Bornet, WwW . tated Thuret’s articles on zodspores and antheridia in the Anna € work is to algology what the Carpologia Fungorum Selecta ) ri represent species referred to by Bornet in his iéme Note sur onidies des Lichens, or which were ; Morocco and determined by Thuret. The notes are a maces y €xposition of the reproduction in the Nostochinew and Floridew - are so replete with facts that a single reading © Sive a general notion of the contents. icula ; are the description of the reproduction of Calothrix confervicola, 472 Scientific Intelligence. and the comparative description of the fruit of the different genera daclnded by older writers under Callithumnion. The fertilization of Polyides, similar to Dusan. is referred to, but will proba- bly be figured later. The work of Agardh is an encyclopedia i in which one may find the name of any /Joridic more easily perhaps than in any other. The work of paula and Slate has a differ- ent object. Determination of names by a what artificial grouping is subordinated to a true i Eno wiedne of ‘the relations of alge through a study of their minute anatomy and develo ome nt. Ww. 11. Nuttall reettets Aut Club.—Bulletin No. 8, for saptetibled contains, besides various miscellaneous notes, a paper . Allen on the Pearcage of Birds in Massachusetts one by ‘Dr. Elliott Coues on the number of Primaries in Osc one by Samet “gciaee on the Yellow-bellied Woollbesker " phyrale cus v 12. a Ones of Practical Instruction in Elementary Biology, by T. H. Huxixy and H. N. Marrry. Second edition, revised. 280 pp. 8vo. London and New York. 18 76. (Macm millan & Co.) 13. On Casting the skin in Menopoma Alleghaniense; by A. R. Grore. A es fo Seine observation has been recently made by Mr. Grote on a specimen in the aquarium of the Buffalo Society of Natacsl Sciences. The wide mouth is opened several times to its fullest extent, by which means the skin is parted on the lips, and then rolls backward over the head. Before this, the Lo aR pellicle was observed to be loosely surrounding the surface of the animal from which it had separated. By short jerky pot eniends the ee shee then withaiee its front legs from the old skin. The 3 mal next moved in a for ward directo’: e Menopoma then turned _Shortly round on itself, an taking be was retained in *the mouth and subsequently swallowed The whole operation was quickly performed. lV. ASTRONOMY. 1. Intra-Mercurial Planet.—In his discussion of the theory of Mercury, Mr. Le Verrier found reason to believe in the existence of a planet, or of matter enough to form a planet, revolving arou the sun within the orbit of Mercury. An observation of Mr. Weber, of Peckeloh, of a black round spot seen by him last — upon the sun, has revived the question, though Weber i is proved by observations at Madrid and Greenwich, to have seen only an Spo From nearly thirty observations within the last 115 years of spots supposed to have been such a planet, Mr. Le Verrier selects ten as most worthy of confidence, because the spot is reported to have been in motion. Of these, five are in March and October, ee” | En et ee ee eee) ee ks eee te ee 2S Eee regi Lee eX” Sey ee ee Miscellaneous Intelligence. 473 and they are fairly represented by a planet revolving in an orbit either in 33°02 or in 27°96 days; less exactly by an orbit of 24°25 days, or one of 40°32 days. At Mr. Le Verrier’s request the sun was observed early in October, both in this country and in Europe, but without result. He thinks a transit possible on the 22d of March next, if the orbit is one of 33°02 days. No other spring transit occurs with that supposition before 1885. For an October transit we must wait till about 1881. None of the observations made use 0 Verrier, however, appear to be so free from doubts as to establish the existence of a planet within the orbit of Mercury. 4H. A. N. 2. November Meteors.—On the morning of November 14th, between twelve and one o’clock, the sky at New Haven was partly clear. Out of about twelve meteors seen, three migh called conformable to the radiant in Leo. Shortly after one o'clock the sky became wholly overcast. H, A. N, IV. MiIscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. On the Extirpation of Npecies ; by Prof. Atrrep Newton, (From his Address, Brit. Assoc., as published in Nature of Sept. 14.)—And now to follow out the idea with which I began. Hav- ing touched on the two chief zoological events of the year, let us see if they do not suggest something that will not be beneath your consideration for the remainder of this address. I have spoken of the certainty of the expedition from which we now welcome our known to possess a rich and varied animal population, that its present fauna had disappeared ? that its only mammals were feral pigs, goats, rats, and rabbits—with an infusion of ferrets, intro- duced by a zealous “acclimatizer” to check the seperabundance of the rodents last-named, but contented themselves with colonists’ chickens? that sparrows and starlings, brought from urope, were its only land-birds, that the former had propagated : eel of the original flora, and the rabbits the rest? that the pigs _ devastated the potato-gardens, and yam-grot | o f ful picture, peter not to the gift of prophecy ; — is As : weuly alien to the scientific mind; but if we may reason rom t 474 Miscellaneous Intelligence. known to the unknown, from what has been and from what is to what will be, I cannot entertain a doubt that these things are coming to pass; for I am sure there are places where what is very like them has already happened first principles of biology which our great master, Mr. Darwi has laid down for us. -The weaker, the more generalized forms of life must always make way for the stronger and more specialized. The other part of the answer is supplied by Mr. Wallace; for no one can have studied his volumes to much purpose without per- the globe, which have been, so to speak, elaborated by nature and turned out as the latest and most perfect samples of her handi- work. on for ages is that, adapted to the condition under which they find themselves, they maintain their footing on the grounds of equality mong one another, and so for centuries they may have “kept the noiseless tenor of their way.” Suddenly man interferes and lets loose upon them an entirely new race of animals, which act and re- act in a thousand different fashions on their circumstances. It is not ak that the new comers should be predacious; they may Ey Seed > see eT ape ae ee ae : Ei a 2 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 475 and a population unused to warfare. It is that of Spaniards with : h _ matchlocks and coats of mail against Aztecs with feather cloaks and bows and arrows. Mala salus victis. ew years, and the majority of native species are exterminated. But this is not the t. e species which perish most quickly are just those that naturalists would most wish to preserve; for they are those veculiar and endemic forms that in structure and constitution rep- resent the ancient state of things upon the earth, and supply us with some of the most instructive evidence as to the order of nature. With the progress of civilization it is plain that there will soon be hardly a land but will bear the standard of a European nation or of a community of European descent, and, as things are going be overrun by their imports. If this were inevitable, it would be useless to complain. But is it inevitable? Is it not obvious or careless in the importance of the subject? I cannot divest my- self of the belief that the course of the next century will see the extirpation, not only of most of the peculiar faunas I had in view a few minutes ag t of a great multitude of other species of d such extirpation is not merely a matter of sentiment. Here sentiment and science are for once on the same side. A g- ee But outside this audience there are many who care little for Consequences like these. Such persons may, however, be um presse d by thinking that the indiscriminate destruction of animals iting the slaughter of the sea-otter and the fur-seals of the adjacent . the assistance we get from Siberia, our supply of ivory will con- 476 Miscelluneous Intelligence. that d mes, it wou nly prudent to do something to k the wasteful destruction of elephants. Many people may think that the continent of Africa is too and its animal inquire, however, we shall find that this is not the case, and that there is an enormous tract of country, extending far beyond our colonies and the territories of the neighboring republics, from which most of the larger mammals have already disappeared. There is good reason to believe that at least one species has be- come extinct within the last five-and-twenty years or thereabouts; and though I do not mean to say that this species, the true zebra, had any economic value, yet its fate is an indication of what will befall its fellows; while to the zoologist its extirpation is a matter of moment, being probably the first case of the total extinction of a large terrestrial mammal since the remote days when the Mega- ceros hi | The manatee and dugong have been recklessly killed off from hun- dreds of localities where but a centur or so since they abounded ; and with them the stores of valuable oil that they furnish have been lost. That very remarkable Sirenian, the huge Rhytina gigas. which was once the cause of a flourishing industry on the coasts of France and Spain. e same greed has almost exterminated the right-whale of the northern seas, and is fast accomplishing the “Sires, mothers, children in one carnage lie.” But, whether through official indifference, or what; I know not, the treaties with foreign nations authorized by that Act were not oming. 2 d at the session of the National Academ| 3 os neces held at Philadelphia, Pa., October 17th, 18th, and 19t! Miscellaneous Intelligence. 477 _ Contributions to Meteorology, by Ex1as Loo: Upon the direct comparison of Solar radiation m with that oon the Bessemer Fur- on the On sound in relation to Fog Signals, by JOSEPH The Results ef = investigation upon the Teli emails of Planorbis multi- formis, by ALPH On the Maeeninesnt of the shock of the explosion at Hell Gate, by H. L. Asp . On the geological structure and topographical aspects of the Catskill obhshin, y JAMES Han On the physical structure and altitudes of the Southern groups of the Catskill Mountains, b - On the force savored? in Crookes’ Radiometer, by 0. Fete udyi Ona property of the Retina first observed by Tait, by 0. DNR . On a series of molecular changes in the basaltic rocks of Lake rd a by R. UMPELLY. On r of sre substances id = tsigg salts from their solution in water by “oan rough th Note new sicipenenlins of a pee heretofore described, by J. Law- The following is a list of the members elected at this re F. Barker, Philadelphia, Pa.; Joel Asaph Allen, Cambri Mass, ; William M. Gabb, Philadelphia, Pa.; E. 5. Morse, Sela, Mass ; John Newtons af S. Army. 3. Proceedings 0 of th Bidisaso ton poicail of Natural History. —No. 1 of these Piouldieiga “ January, 1876,” has been recently The Scientific Monthly, a "Ma azine devoted to the N aturdl Sciences. E. Wt ITCH, hy an "a proprietor, Toledo, Ohio.— The August number of this monthly, No. 11 of ped a tire contains various papers of popular interest. A. Fite ~Haerrod $24 —* ie bhi sich 3 is natuaia ie a ay giving a view of a mud vole ie Universal Metric Suit: “by Axpeew CoLtn, o Beincipal of a Preparatory Scientific ‘School. 50 pp. 12mo. ew York, 1876. (D. Appleton & Co.)—This little wee ‘was . l, as the author states, “ especially for candidates for schools of sci- d othe it is well dee “ em because, although first adopted by the French, almost the nations of the world have now adopted it, —— undoubte edly be soon actually u universal. The explanations of the Subject are simple and precise ; and numerous problems are given, clattook pages, in order to make the work a g 478 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 6. Bulletin of the Minnesota Academy of Natural leeiiey Sor the year 1875. 44 pp. en —This Bulletin contains a Prof. N. H. WincuHE tz on early ees of the Minnesota ae (continued); a report on Ornithol ogy by Dr. F. L. Haren; notes on Entomo O87) by R. ENDENHALL, treating of some noxious insects; notes on a storm on the 18th of J uly, i over Pope a Douglass octet Minnesota, by G. B. Wric ae rain nfall ‘of which, in Sau entre, amounted to at least “ 30 inches and pro bably reached 36 inches ; ;’ meteorological statistics, abe WIiLiiam CHENEY; and notes on a deep well drilled at vat pea eS y N. H. Wincuett. The depth of this well was 1421 feet, and it descended, after passing the surface soil, throug h te Trenton limestone and subjacent strata, to a clayey sandstone of the Pri- mordial—the formation that affords the well known “ pipestone” or sprees of Minnesota. . Arrangements for a Meeting of the British Association— an ete worth following.—When the British Association met at Belfast (we cite from the Athenzum for Sept. 9), an excellent guide-book was prepared for the occasion and presented to mem- bers of Committees. In 1875, the promoters of the Bristol were surprised the issue of a work in three volumes, one describing the geology of ras seis another its fauna and flora, and the third its manufactu Moreover several scientific col- y on his African a pe Sa acnasy evening, by the same, to the _workingmen 0 lasgow. In addition, we excursion while of various kinds, were mainly for scientific purpo The following works were received too late to in here noticed: Reports on the Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, by J. J. Stevenson and Professor hen, dr. of them core of Lieut. Wheeler’s Expedition. 1020 pp. 4to. with many plates, part them co The American Bisons, living and extinct, by J. A. Allen. bod pp. 4to, with 12 plates. Memoirs of the Mus. Compar. Zool., ‘Giaishtidess Mas Monograph of American Trilobites, Part I; by A. vunkee U; B.A. 0 DP Tampa, Florida. 1876. OBITUARY. pressed in his will, no official Powis of gs Academy W ihe present at his funeral, and no funeral oration was pronour over his grave APPENDIX. Art. L.—Principal Characters of American Pterodactyls ;* by Professor O. C. Marsu. responding facet of the opposite scapula by a thin. median plate, which is apparently a neural spine of a dorsal vertebra. The foot of a bat whict orts the patagium. The first three | oacy ey and do not reach the carpus. At their distal end they supported sharp, curve claws. In some species, the distal phalanx of the wing finger The pelvis in Pteranodon is of moderate size. The ilia are elon- gate, and the acetabulum is imperforate. The ischia are broad, and united on the median line. The tail is short and slender, and the distal caudals are sometimes coossified. The posterior limbs are well developed. The tibia has at 1ts distal end a ‘Pulley-like articular surface. There are two tarsal bones o * Abstract of a paper read before the American Association for the Advance- Ment of Science, at Buffalo, Aug. 28th, 1876. t This Journal, vol. xi, p. 507, June, 1876. 480 0. C. Marsh—American Pterodactyls, nearly equal size, and a small lateral bone, which may possibly be the distal end of the fibula. There are four metatarsals of nearly the same length, and their ungual phalanges are pointed, but not much curved. The known species of Pteranodon are as follows: Pteranodon occidentalis Marsh ( Ornithochirus harpyia Cope), Pteranodon ingens arsh (Ornithochirus umbrosus Cope), Pteranodon velox Marsh, Pteranodon longiceps Marsh, and Pteranodon comptus Marsh. Nyectosaurus, gen. nov. the upper Cretaceous of Western Kansas. The type specimens of all the above species are preserved in the Museum of Yale College. ‘ INDEX TO FY OLUME XII* A Abbe, C., Tapeeagrag notice, 3 Abe 8. T survey in North Oarstins, iin y, Nati tional, Oct. meeting, 476. Acids, synthesis of phe 294. 329 rate, de Fens by E B., erosion of rocks, 304. glass es for measuring, Rutherfurd, 1 Annaheim, size ot atoms, 451. seg ny, W.A.,electro-magnetic machine, Chechen onsets noled, ‘Iss. alkal i P, r ae of sulphuric hi Asparagin and — 139. see ae nm, A — pata 163, 316. ‘ ak Association, Brith at t Belfast, 4 478. Artesian sg 3 in Indiana, 460. aaapee siz f, 151 ifting of Ati re _homisiry, 4 eciimanecmla 11 iloniin and pet B Baillon, Dictionnaire Botanique, 468. ane 8. F., Record of Science, 80. G. F, chemi abstracts, 50, 138, "a19, 292, 385, 451 Barrett, 8. T, Dalmanites —— — Bathybins, Challenger Exped. o Beal, O W. S rcaneee of —— 156. sensiti ive sti botanical pape: coticed, 6 ea and Hooker Genera aa a Bewzone “ea iigiengee —— of, 387. in oil, 38 anit Index contains the general heads Bor: Under each the titles of “Articles Fe ferring thereto i ckley, 8. B., oe Report, 63. lake, J., roscoe man for d, 2 Bie om sh a dupes, 67. Bernstein, J., Sen nses of 3) ohray en, amidines of saesbelis acids, Blirsheles , eorome 2 g of ammonium to e, 212. wh rb of ers n, 292 pyrogenic hydrocarbons in coal gas, 85. decomposition 0: Pcidles bromide and sodic chloride, 190. f a ~ immigration of Norwegian biels et gallium, 52, 452. Boissier, E., Flor: Sota 468. Bornet, AS “Thu on ign, d orks on, POE 470, 471. ce of, 5 rnet and Thuret, 0 Boraxs— liforn Ooloeniis 2 Conifere, srk a gris * 469. Diatoms in straw, 232, 4 Dionza, leaves of, 232. Epigzea, heteromorphism in, 74. Fertilization by insects, 397. and sensitive sti , 308. Flora, immigration of, Oaks of United States, 153. Orange @ d olive, disease of, Farlow, Periodicity of vegetation, 398. wers in, 467. Scirp ) per gordo Fas Utricularia vulgaris, 398 Bourbonne-les- s minerals, 1 mabey Se F. ee —— chart P Uni- ted 8 Superior, Browning, 1, pate magnifier, 57. ANY, GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, ZOOLOGY, and are —" 482 gene be W., catalogue of double Psriateg rae of Asclepiad, 54. Burton, B. — eteorite from North Caro- lina, 43 Cajilletet, high-pressure manometer, a16. oir: figret spans the of, 399. acid in nimal fluids, 3 as oceanic seal Caruel, T., Botanical Journal, 468. Caspian and Black Seas t, connection of with animal development, Dana, 245. scrnan metallic, 53. nger Exped., on sea-bottom de- posits 255. and Pellet, asparagin and 39. peak Chawmont, th eory of ventilation, 24 a decomposition of sodic, ‘pu Chlorine or Lebesaee ering se 214, Chwolson, —— ¢ induc oe Ag action - gal ie vector on, Cincinnati Soe. Nat. Hist., Proe., ATT. oo and tantalum ‘compounds, tric system, 477. Colloids, Packers 294. Color theory, Py os 8, Lea, Comstock, T. B., phatase = Brazilian Geological Commission, 464, Utricularia, 398. Connecticut Academy, Transactions, ~ Cope, ., Hocene fauna of New Mex eptilia, 7 Kerguelen eat to, Cox, E. T. , Geological pany ‘ Sea Crépin, Monographize Rosart aioe J., tidal retardation pos = of 5 Ei eam W. 0 _moclagtcat map of Massa- chusetts, 4 Curves, Lasabcoe! 455. D Sombie Rheetic Strata, 223. Damoiseau, substitution of chlorine for 214, | palates ct rece INDEX. Dana, E. 8., association of quartz and ~ calcite in parallel position, 448. eralogical notices, 72, 151, 229, Dana, J. D., on the glacial flood, 64, 125. note on er si on, 192 tion, connection of, with harem pH ée, on schisto a Davencint Academy, "Provedings, 320. Dawidson, G., reclam Dawkins, B., Robin-Eood Cave, Da aon, J. W,, Carboniferous Pulmon- ates, Carboniferous batrachieniir in Nova Sco te Can - O: leaves of gir 232. Hearts Revue de Géolo emole, 8 g of atoms, gery Cloize chondrodite, 229. idymiam, metalli c, 53. t mbenzols, Austen, 118. aed a niline, Austen, 121. Dealer ne Hearne on riemeye 72. ko, f., m nerals of Peru, 395. Dati C. E, ype pet evolution, E Earth, interior of, Po 339. age of, Croll, ie ibility of ues of axis, Thom- 50. retardation and ee of, 457. pant cal — of, 14 : t, Fo action of copper ain couple on _orates ~~ perchlorates, 293 Hichler, A. G., Flor. s Basen "156. Flectri ric convection, Elec! poe 7 ocity of ” pavideom, 161. 295. Slsstessenioieie = Anthony, 251. rotation Electro-magnet, ni Bogelmann, Goa pare of vu. States, 153. elmann, H., Geological Report, 221. ee relation living things to, Wallace, 35 357, 4 CT. lenmeyer, normal jee iso-butyri¢e acid, 38. 1 par of —. Gilbert, 88; Dana, 92; ther, rine mo BG Ethyl sulphate, 5: 4 Evolution, th: e; ith 0. agp neg ‘ot, oe abe Wallace 356. nnection of cepbalization with, a F Farlow, W. Oe disease of orange and olive t trees, 3 St ~ ay Fran. ee in waters 292. : Saar, soft bodies. Gallium, 5 coal eka Sevag so in, 385. Geikie, A., geo logical map, noticed, 4 Geinitz, F. sok axons pall duaberie ak Genth, F. A um minerals, 32. meteoric i ee res 2. Gentisin, Geological cha chart of United States, Brad- ’ 6, Seng 21, Bay aoe. Massachus ichiga Victoria, 14 : ao of foal Meridian (Wheeler’s), : Wcone in, 71. — elogical re reunion at Paris in 1878, 463. aay Beds, fossils from, 222. <7 anepes ‘Carboniferous, Dawson, -* Eocene, Cope, 306. INDEX. 483 GEO Coal pels 3 plants of Chili, 308. sae “yp S, marine plants i in, 221, Colora 0, ore-bearing rocks of, 71. i 16, 85, Dolomi Eocene fauna of N. Mexico, sii 297. Eozoon, had serpentine, 147 Eozoon limestones, 298. Erosion, Dana, | G. 'K. Gilb 8. by spray Andrews, 304, Glacial era, 6 floo 1 ? i br oer oe New Hampshire, Hawes, 129, 395. Hungar ee eruptive rocks of, or od of ee Selwyn, 4 uth of Lake Superior, Brooks, 194, oe sain gre 401. gery in Robin-Hood Cave, 2 Man oben er Pliocene, 147. Marbles neahip. mt Mascarene of New Brunswick, 218. i pbenacrig a aay shes st 328. etadiabase, see GREEN! Mexico, the Huasteca, Kimball, 277. , Dutto ] Moun Mountain structure, Powell er ] odactyls, Rivers, detritus of, 462 Schistosity, experiments on, 148 Serpentine and Eozoo 7 Serpentine limestones of N. York, 298 urian dioryte, etc., in and, 225. Spitzbergen, 65. — riodonts, Permian, Owen, 224. Vertebrates of New Mexican Eocene, Alps, Voleanie phenomena mena of the 69. | Gilbert, G. K., Colorado Fistoan, 16, 85. streams meath, 39 Brachiopods, Swedish, 227. _—, further at it nmr rent 29: Carboniferous Pulmonates, Dawson, tin in Indiana, 307. Catskill Mt. range, Halt, 300, Coal eras of India, 67 | Glyce: Good rine crystallized, le, G. B., Fishes of Bermudas, 239. Gray, A., botanical notices, 73, 153, 232, 397, 467. a Gray, A. , heteromorphism in Epigwa, 74. olor ation and environment, 467. flowe 18, sai Darwiniana, noticed, 2 A. H., Physical Geo’ sales. 71 maus, Synthesis of allantoin, 215. Seca G. B., Sry crinoi ote, A. R., on Menopoma, 313, AT 2 Mbt oological notice, 157. Grotrian, viscosity of salt-solutions, 140. Guthrie, freezing colloids, 294. H eae Sind eres limestones, 298. of southe ern New York, 300. B. J., analyses of minerals, Haugh a Lavas of Vesuvius, 227. Hartt, C he ecologic. ‘al discoveries, 464, Hawes, _ are nstones of New Hampshi ire, 129, 395. mae vabtiatiins of oy digas un- it 71, 145, 157, 219, eat, mechani ical stiuivelen a of, 4 Boeke of Lake Winnipeg sy rela Helmholiz, electric chee a 390. Hesse, alkaloid aricine, 1 Hicks, W. M. ez and Hi Hofmeister, carbonic acid animal ids, 388, Hooker, J. D., Flora of India, 3 Houston, E. Zz Physical ioeuty Zins, & B., gmelinite in Nova Scotia, Husley Martin, Biology, 472. Huxley i in oe “ani 399.) Hyatt, J. iH evh tiene vegetation, 3 Hydrogen a diranmine = oe ‘a, Hydrogen, ‘analehites of, 51 I Indian mounds, ge a, 320. Isomerism, physi I eannel, sound and radiometer, 389, say columbium and tan talum, 213. ae Jones, hydrogen antimonide or stibine, ie D. S., Manual of Vertebrates, Rafinesque’s Ichthyologia, 158. Joule, equivalent of heat, 455. | ect in Lower Pli INDEX. oo ree aay ee 163, ro. E ee History of Ker, gue nel Is., 72 psec ee S aiiie ip steel by tem- ing, 1 Kimi J. P, grahamite in and geology e Huasteca, 2 277. ote er, ee Practical Botany, 234. Kollmyer, A. H., Key to Kin « Saetanat, o mer, pbjeitel isomerism, 214. Lea, I. Sela! in gems, 151. Lea, ue Vogel’s color theory, 48. ess, 3 ley, J. P., Geological Repo: Lesquereus, marine plants ie coal- ures, 221. Light ing, pro otection from, 457. Liquids analysis of mixed, 139. Loomis, £., contributions to meteorology, Loven, S., Echinoidés, 239. Lyman, T. , Ophiuride, 158. M Macomb, J. N., pela oe under, 220. Magnetic oer Magni ss, new Maillard, explosion of heo-d amp, 295. — et’s of volcanic energy, 463. rg pages er ocen n, origin and antanier of sala 371. — of sea-bottom, 2 se ter, high pressure, Marsh, 0. . , new Tertiary mammals, 401. Characte acters of American Pterodac- tyls, 4 msde —— prs 59. Maxwell, Ohm's re aes inal hing, 457. Mayer, A 7 329, Mercadier, Lissajous’ curves, Metadiabase, Hawes, ge Tare INDEX. Meteoric iron, > 72. Meteoric ston ne, - new, Smith, 207. cogeealaa fall of, Parker, 316. orth Carolina Burton, 439. Meteorite tes, gase Meteorology, soeanbecge to, “Bisa 1. , Barringtoniaces, 469. Mine ineralogy, Journal of, 152. INER _— Analcite not isometric, 1 Aragonite on meteoric i Sy ‘Smith, 107. Calcite, quartz and, EZ. S. Dana, 448. Calcozincite, 231. ondrodite, 5 Bioroeirite Daubrste, ‘Sint, 109. Daubre Dolomi Du ant, 274. Euchlori niin and spinel group, Seyms, tedcliie Gmoetinite i: in N ova eo Howe, 270. - Grahamite, Kimball, 2 Krénkite, 396. Malinowskite, 397. Mottramite, 4 Pelhamite si Philli pite, 3 Paittacinite, li h, rtz an ‘calcite z Ss. Dana, 448. “e 31, 32; Roscoe. Tripoli, Carboniferous Indiana, 307. Vanuxemite, 2 Werthomanit, aoe f Bourbonne bains, 150. Minne Academy, Bulletin, 478 Miller, ¥. de; P A ; 156. rey, J. , Sea-bottom, useum, Natio cca Sealiatienss 158, 239. N Naphthalene, 138, 485 Nipher, F. E., probability of error in wri numbers, 79. Nitrates, Schoenbein’s test for, Storer,176. Ni itrogen, absorption of, 292. cada table pir cag we ing tube, 4 sawndosey ii viscosity of gases, 140. OBITUAR Angelander, F. W. A,, 113. Davi s, Char Devil charles dainte-Claire, 478. Ehre Nevin, “baara 244, McCheen peongg Porter 164, nell, Ebene Oca — oe ‘Britain and Green- ie bt of, Challenger Ex- pedition. Oceanic culation Carpenter, 159. ined s law Orton, J., iene ve Zoology, Ost, synthes is of sobpbeble acids, 04 O' Sullivan, are bm tract on starch, 38 en, R., Permian Theriodonts, 224. Deses. jac 4 “of, 212. P Feeds A. §., Geometrid rare igs ker, J. D., fall of meteo ees H. M., Astrmomioa table Pen nga compensating, é H. F,, new gore is ae eo selenium, 451. ‘aundler, fusion of soft bodies of salphare acid pon tri-calcic, Phosphoric aci cero- teh ibe See OC. Dinsindien of icas WA ysical abstracts, 56, 1. ate 5, nak ie 456. 139, 21 : i TY ig noticed, 240. 486 Putnam, F. W, caoeaseh Report, | R Radiometer, phamred Rood; 405. ect of 80 389, Refraction law a 56. Richar ce Age, 6 Rig de 1 aay Archivos bi “Muse eu, 239. Bockwood, C: 0. G., Jr:, recent earthquakes Heminces C, Fossil Cor: r, 40 oa giyeeln 293. netic action i 390. ; Rutherfurd, L. M., “Vines cireles for measuring angles, 112. Ss beck, = Cnytalography, 152. Salt solution static and i iso- , fe ermen ntation, 55. Hh mimi in butterflies, 311. Schade atoms weight of, 451. Selw uron 57. , G. H, franklinite and spinel 210. , OC. U., new ge ae 231. avey, new mineral rals, Sie new meteoric ston ne, Smith, W., stoma in ne ot 386. Solar, see iadihaiced liga id films, 5 Sounding of two tp simultaneous, 141. Species, olga eee ion Spice i orupaaee’ sedate of tun- ing forks, 411, , W., electro-magnetic rota- slau 58. — catalogue of double, setae 204. in, Kimbal, tibiae hd r hydrogen ee ss Stor , Schcenbein’s test for ee | Sulphonaphthalide, 6 51, displacement of lines in spectrum a Young, 3 Sutton, ¥ * cinantiln Analysis, 454. INDEX. T seronnag We British Association Ad- | Fhudicum Kenguett, _glycero-phos- phorie acid ar brain, 453. Tuning forks, sympathetic resonance of, Spice, 411. Tyndall, J., Sound, 459. U , Uric acid, ethers of, 428. Vapor deniitty, 4 Variables, new, ps Vasey,- G., Catalogue ry toe, 469. Ventilation, theory o. pe ogi Voht, mrs acid from i nosite, 94, Voloani dust, mags of, 147. Voloadie energy, 4 - Wallace, A. R., per Association Ad- Pm 354, 400, 467 : sae Waters, nitrogen in potab e. Waves on Lake Gene a, 216. lnabal Report of iatoms in straw, 232, 400. Winchell “7 ud Harrington, Geological Report. Wreden, naphthalene, 138. Wright, A = some book Sichiacale. ae Asiatves, 387. Wynne, Indian Geology, meteorites, 165. ¥ Young, C. A., og yagi 3 ‘a lines in solar s spectrum, Z Dialer of sharks and skates, Wilder, 103. Butterflies, mimicry in, Scudder, 3Ll. ry of, - py 156. f 187 ‘Locust acre 0 hg ote, 313 472. 79, 472.