ee ee ee THE ae AMERICAN JOURNAL SCIENCE AND ARTS. EDITORS, JAMES D. DANA, B. SILLIMAN, ann E. 8. DANA. ASSOCIATE EDITORS, Prorrssors ASA GRAY, WOLCOTT GIBBS anp J. P. COOKE, Jr., or CamBriner, Prorrssors H. A. NEWTON, 8. W. JOHNSON, G. J. BRUSH anv A. E. VERRILL, or New Haven, Prorressor GEORGE F. BARKER, or PuiLapELpHtia. THIRD SERIES. VOL. XV.—[WHOLE NUMBER, CXV.] - Nos. 85—90. JANUARY TO JUNE, 1878. WITH TWO PLATES. NEW HAVEN: EDITORS. 1878. MISSOURI BOTANICAL AROEN LIBRARY | a CL ae a ere eee) oe P Art. I.—Contributions to primed 2h being results derived CONTENTS OF VOLUME XV. NUMBER LXXXV., from an examination of the Observations of the United States Signal Service, pee from other sources ; ae Exias Loomis, Eighth paper. With plates 1 and 2,.-_____._- 1 —Under-water Oceanic Temperature; by G. E. Betknap, 27 Ag IV. oopeaaieg Effect of Electric Convection ; ; by H. A. Row- VE si: sipitex and its Satellites; by Marra Mrrenet, __._ ~~. 38 VI.—Revision of the Atomic Weight of Anemos: oe an F COORE te we a 41 Jos Vil. By fophusphnciias n Anhydrous Pyrophosphate of Lime from the West india: ; by C. U. Suusparp, Jr.,.... 49 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. e Direct Combustion of Fe itrogen, hemistry and Ph nm, KAMMERER: On the Relative Beng aigsice of Caves fs for Hydrogen a d Carbonous oxide, Horsr- MANN, 51.—On the Sulphides of Platinum, Rrpan, 52 .—On the Destructive Dis- tillation of Phat and Chlo’ ett. ra KRAMERS: Boracic Acid, M. L ULAPAIT, 53.—Photo-electric Phenomena, R. BornsTetN, 54, HANKEL, 5. 55.—Specifie Heat of air at constant pressure and constant yolume, H. Kayser : Fluorescence of the Retina, 55. of Wi in, 61. : Biberisn Steppes: co Physiographie der massigen Gesteine, H. Rosensuscu, 65.—A Guide to the Determination of Rocks, by E. Jannetaz: Tables seal the Seuiiisetion ot Minerals, by P. FRAZER, Jr.: Tridymite in Ire- land: ennsylvania, 66. ee —The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the same Spe- cies, c DarRwIs, 67.—Ferns of North America, D. C. Eaton: Notes on Botrychium simplex, G. E. DAVENPORT, 72.— Researches in in regard to the in- fluence of light i radiant heat upon transpiration in plants, J. WIESNER: Ueber Botrydium granulatum; J. Rosrarinski and M. Worontn, 73,—Om Spetsbergens marina Klorofyll forande — 74. —Felei e Bi ay . ae affini — a Borneo: Notes on Botrychium simp te on the Habits of young Tinie, a AGassiz, 75. nie Se. sn of ena a from the Jurassic; O. C. Mars Astronomy.—The Nag Meteors: On Schmidt’s en Cygni, 76.--The Report | of Professor Pickeri —Norwegian Exploring eg ther sone ogi Miscellaneous Scientific ee nana of Weisbach’s Mechanics, 78.—A New Treatise on Steam Engineering, ete. : List of Writings relating to | , MERRIMAN: Elements of the Method of Least Squares, by M. MERRIMAN: Royal Society, 79. Obituary.—Jared Potter Kirtland, 86. iv CONTENTS. N UMBER LXXXVI. Arr. her —Photometric comparison of Light of aitrdny | colores by U.N. eon, (25. eon ae 81 ' IX.—Echinoid fauna of Braz il; by Ricnarp Ratu : 82 : X. Stiga sin Aa in the tail of Coggia’s Cosas, ae | Sve eee ee ee ee 84 XI. = Suede extinction of the light of a Solar Protuberance; | L. Trou 85 eer) Reger Seta Ng He es elon bal Rati a and its relation to tae force find vital liesit S, LuContrs, 99 XV.—Revision of the Atomic Weight of Antimony ; by Jostan P. Coo KE, Jr. (concluded), --__.._. - 1 X VI.—Two new species of Primordial Fossils; ; by! S. W, Foro, 124 XVIL—N Note on mailed colata; by. XVIII. ; byS. W. Fo RD, 129 XIX. —Schweitzer’s “New Aid Ammen Sulphates ; “ge by HNSON and R. H. Currrenpen, -.__ .-.--__ 2. 131 XX, = Poplar of North America ; by SERENO Watson, ---. 135 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—Viquefaction of Oxygen, M. Raout Pictet, 137.—Lique- faction of Oxygen, ehh ee and Hydrogen, 141.—Liquefaction ‘of Rewyiene, Nitrogen ioxide, and obebly Marsh gas, (LLETET, 142.—Flame-tempera- s ETT M um Wor'! E ‘ — n ealled Idryl, GOLDscHMIEpDT, —Determination of Nitrogen in Nitroglycerin, Laur a R: Aromatic Hydantoins, Sc , 145.—Behavior of Be acid in the Organism of Birds, Jarre: Le Sage’s Theo eory of Gravitation, J. Crout, 146.—Thermal Conduetivity and Diathermancy of Air and H ydrogen, H. Burr, 147. “Se Sacre of the Electric Spark in compressed gases, Cazin and Wiruxer, 14 and Mi ebay La —Silurian tbe by Leo LEsQUEREUX: Modified dri New Hatioate © y W. UPHAM, 1 mig vse das Krvstallsystem aa die Winkel des Glimmers, von N. v. Sproles : Die Glimmergru FELD, 153.—Beitrage zur Bntvwickelungsgeschichte de “aor — by E. Stan.: Acetabularia Mediterraneanea, by A. DE BARY E. STRASBURGER, 155.— Entwickelh hichte reat Prothalliums von Cvddeneene leptophylla, by K. GorpeL: New Species of Parasitic ey : by E. P. cee Transpiration in Plants: Japanese Lingula an ds, E. ig iets ae = Le aa ey i eee le 2 eR ee eR ee oe Rr TT a5 oN OPN SO Re R RG e ye EE ee eS Ty Re eas ree S. Morsg, —The American Naturalist: Bulletin of the r uttall Ornithological Club: 3 eae foie “the me 158. Meteors observed in Cambridge, Mass.: Prize for the discovery of > Oana 158. —Index posta tp a and Sombie relating to Nebule and Clusters, &c.. ly E. i tae Miscellaneous Scienti, —teephon in England, 159.—Manual of Heat- ing and Ventilation, Peng comme esmerism, Spiri , ete., historically Se a by W. B. CarPENTER: The Telephone : Auguste os de la Rive, 160.— Rhumkorff, 160. RSE ce ot oe a P eamey UE ea ay ™ Pate mene Sears CONTENTS. Vv schecassecee LXXXVIL. xL— ‘ture ; Phys eory of Cote, by . Norton,.- 161 XXU.—Transmission of Earth Waves; by H. L. Apso A eR XXIII. Sec oreamey of Chemical Notation ; by Brrtuexor and NEARIGNACE 2 20 ee ae eo ae eee 184 epee —Renction of Silver Chloride and Bromide; by M. C. pec teate ss 189 XXV. ot ournal Friction at Low Speeds; y A. S. Kiwparn, 192 XXVI.—Brightness of the Satellites of Uranu iit bomsel bah 5 XX VIL—Decomposition of Chromic Iron; by E. F. Smrrn,. 198 IL. B. Wison,- XXIX.—Tantalite from Coosa Co., Alabama; by J. L. Smrru, 203 XXX.—Am sug ines Silver Nitrate; by W. G. Mrxrer,_ 205 XXXI—C lization of Variscite ; by = = CHESTER,... 207 XXXII.—A Ney Planet ; by C. H. F. 208 XXXIIL—New Dinosaurian Reptiles ; sie "0. ro Marsu,.--. 241 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. og wrant J and Physics.—New mode of determining Vapor Densities, ve ndecoes NN, —New Oxide of Sulphur, Peteatphatis — BERTHELOT, 209.—Formation fs ‘Ammonium Nitrite in Combustion, ZOLLER and GRETE: Fiuoranthrene, a r TT ; ratory of the Johns Hopkins University, 2 Geology and Mineralogy. —W isconsin ae Socioers Geological Survey of New Jersey, 216.—United States Geological and Geograpl hical Survey, sacle .—Geo fm 2 + b a2 ° eee Boers a gees ae a2 a oF. Te 38 3 gs @ ernary beds of Grinn A Leda Clay ee pe or beds) of a Ottawa valley: Mineralogy and Petrography a an DSWORTH: " Setunrekite from Mitchell Co., North as ate ils i slaeelasters Note to the Review of Darwin’s “ Forms Flo 221.—Historia Filicum, 222. i F wers,” ria Filicum, 222 Pires of North America: List woth! found in the vicinity of Boston, 223.—Journal of the ean Society: Guide du Botaniste in Belgique: Insect-fertilization in , 224.—Botanical Ne- crology of 1877 aoa et ogoniese, 225 Cg new Species ime from rican wa Dr. Warring’s a on the growth-rings of eee plants a proof of siorublanis seasons, Astronomy. oe of the Sun, J. Crobu, 226- ee By the Cordoba Obser- _ vatory, B een 230.—-Moon’s Zodiaca | Light, E. S. Houpen, 231. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence —Address of the President of the Royal Society, 231. cetaniatbone weld Flasks Pye on the Alps, ota Dog as of Tight upon Bacteria and beara Or vEs and T ditures for Universities in Germany, cot —Earthqake of of Nov. “tb. 187% 238.— Geological — of repaect: Palzeon teer Weat er Service . Beiblatter n Annalen der Physik und oat pone Obituary. iste César Becquerel, 239.—Henri Victor Regnault, 240. vil CONTENTS. NUMBER LXXXVIII. Pi ART. oa ae —Surface Geology of Southwest Pennsylvania ; 2 xv eb WTEC RNMON (cs. ays ks ok So ees 5 xX a Driftless Interior of North America; by J. D. Ba ee UES ss es eee ee oe ia 50 XXXVI ~The Ancient Outlet of Great Salt Lake; by G. K. Gotnuer: 53s n ba ce ceed oe a eo 256 XXXVIL—Projection of Microscope Photographs; by J. C. Dinar et oes ei oe a ws aa 59 XXXVIIL. iy Pee Silurian Fossils in Limestone associated with Hydromica slates in Pennsylvania; by F. Pri, Jr., 261 XX XIX.—Influence of Temperature on the ‘Optical Cousomes of Glass; by C. 8. Hastings, - - XLI.—Intrusive Nature = ~ Triassic finer of New gerepy > by Lo iotseeemrs, 3g Sek et 277 XLIT. eres Unit of "Blcctrical Resistance; by H. A. POOWEAWON or ce eke og ae 281 XLIT. Groll’s H a = the Origin of Solar and Sidereal Heat; by D. RWOOR Sos bce as ES ie 291 XLIV. —Chemieal Composition of Guanajuatite, a Selenide of Bismuth from Guanajuato; by J. W. Maier, .__.___- 294 LV. ge on Solar Victories and Optical Sindics: ; by 8. RROGIN Serio ey ecient. ce tees 297 XLVI.—Tree-like Fossil Plant, AL h came in —_— Upper Silurian Rocks of Ohio; by E. W. Crave poumiinns eee Chemistry and Physics.—Fundame: RTHELOT, 304.— Data, Br - Relations ‘between the ‘Koa: pe of = ce nts, WACHTER: Prepara- ion n, GATEHOUSE: Method of separating Crystallize spe- from Silicates, LAUFER, 305.—Stannous Chlori the analysis of Nitro-compounds, Lue T: Catalytic action of Carbon Disulphide, HELL and 306.—Conversion of Nitriles into Amides, PINNER an Que a Pentacid Alcohol, Homa Acids o utter, Kinezert, 307 TT, New Class of Acid ge ViLiieRs: Electro-Magnetic and Calorimetric Absolute Measur Ek: Chemi ynamies, C. R. A. Wrieut and A. P. Lurr, 308. aa For ae? : Haloid ae of Antimony, J. P. Cooks, Jr., 310.—The Telephone, an Instrument of Pre ion, G. Fo = 12. srishatin = Teen Shake of ay ortho R. D. sarees, 313.— ; 315. New Jersey, 316.—First and Second lacial Eras of s with flowers from the Coal-region r Pemmepoae : Mineral Caves of Biches Peru, H. SEwELt, 317. ~Homilite, 318, Botany and Zoology.—Flora o rhea Nae Africa, 318.—Ferns of Nerth America _ Fossil Plants of pean Norma 339. -Elias Magnus Fries : Pourage of the Phar- 7 eras of parestbes 1877, Dawson, rederick Hartt: Hagel Sees - * . citing pee Geet XL.— —Experiments with Floating Magnets s; by A. M YER, 276 ae . Ee . * z ¥ : ss a esha aes ee LE Ge RPE ee eR Ee Oe SN, RT, EE Oe en OST TEES OM PRR SRe SOMES 2 eee RE PU LP Lee eT EIN Se er ee TE Ee Ne Stl Fe ee a et Re CONTENTS. vil NUMBER LXXXIX. Page Arr. XLVIL. gag eet. on the Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance ; by y A. Row ji cteeee ces eee XLVIIT.—Meteorie fron peo Vieginia: by J. W. Matiet,.. 337 rift Fo L.—Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, under the direction of J. W. Powell,. 342 LL—Just Tacsnaton 3 in Music ; by H. Warp Poots,.----- 359 LII.—Brachiopoda in the Swedish Primordial: ; by 8. Ww. Forp, 364 LIT.—On the “ Geodes” of the Keokuk Formation, and the Genus popes by Samoms J. WALLACE, . 2 J...242. 366 LIV.—The Coralline, or Magars Timestove ‘of the Appala- chian ed. e PAREBTES, coor ee oe neces 370 LV.—Isopoda from ow England ; ee Oscar Harcer,. ---- 373 L monio-argentic Iodide; by M. Carry Lra,.---- 9 —Am y M. y Lea LVII.—Fossil Passerine Bird from Colorado; by. J. A, 'ALLEN, 381 LVIUI.—Terrestrial Electrical Currents; by W. L. Brovun,.. 385 LIX.—Notice of New Fossil Reptiles ; by O. C, Marsn,.... 409 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—Specific Heat of Beryllium, Nitson and Perrersson: Syn- thesis of Olefines, E:rexorr, 386.— Transformation of Olefine bromides into bro- les DEM etc. eae 387. — Distillation of _ and resin acids with zine dust, ean Sa tains eed the Falls of the Ohio, James Hatt, — —Fossil Plants of the Se yowsiager Gravel Deposits of the Sierra Nevada, LEsQurrEvx: Fossil wood from the Keokuk form oe S. J. WaLtace: has accompanying the Report of the Getlogics! Exploration of the Fortieth hie C. Kine, 396.—Geological and Geographical Atlas oF bart F. : Botany and Zoology.—Synoptical Flora of North America, Gray: Bibhographical are to North American ager case ‘Ss. Wamso N, 400.—Some points in the Morph- of Prim hy of Floral Aistivations, etc., G. H U. * mioe 401.—Floral Stru sare a and k ‘Affinities of Sapotaceze, ag M. Hartoe: North American Plants: Spore-Formation of the Me esocarpex, V B. Wrrrrock, 402.—Non-Sexu al O spegcapee — on Fern Proth oe 403. —Cata logue of the Flower- ants wi s of Yale College Astronomy.—Der ae x Persei, ete., H. . ee OGEL, 404. Reo eerie Jouraes 3 of Mathematics : Publications of the Cin cinnati Observatory, 406. mre gy vents on Chemistry, H. e and C. Rep tendent of the Coat Boasts for 1874: Minneahe peice. of Nai atural oe Re tions to North Ame bsacig tomy 8. Powers, 407. a ey ARLES PICKERING, 408. vill CONTENTS. NUMBER XC. Art. LX.—Transmission of eee and Volition eG the Nerves; by MoM, Gakvans. oo0 oe sere Page "43 0 EXIIL.—Ancient Outlet of Great Salt zake ie C. Prats, 439 Lx ANGL 457 LXVIUL—Fossil Mammal from the Jurassic of ‘the somes > y O. C. Marsa, LXIX.—Shale recently discoverd pos the Devonian ee! Cat stones at Independence, Iowa; by S. igh Pe apatite Spa 460 fim Xone, UNE LL Dic. ay ted a 462 LXXI.—Letter from B. A. Goup, Director of the Cordoba We ee ee SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. hemistry and P. —Expansion of the Solid Elements a Function of their : Atomic weight, ma 472.—Gallium, LEcog DE BoIsBauUDRAN, 473.—Dimethyl- ; ethylene, or pe: Butylene, Erarp, 474.—Oil of Tansy and Oil of Valeri : BR inates 5.—Xanthin-li odies uminates in Pancreatic Diges- tion, apa Present Condition of Electrical Meteorology, PALMIERI, 476. Floa‘ t ote on ting Magnets, A. M. Ma Geology and eralogy.—Supplement to the Second Edition of Acadian Geology, J. W. Dawson, 478.—Recherches expérimentales sur les cassures qui traversent te vom RaTH: Das Erdbeben von Herzogenrath am 24 Juni, 1877, Dr. von 4 : Die 2. i Botany and Zoology.—Karly Introduction and Spread of the Barberry in viet New England, 482.—Ferns of North America, D. C. Eaton, 483.—Dictionnai _= Botanique: Vargas considerato como Botanico: Dr. Thomas mas Thomson, 484. istry: Smithsonian Institution: a Association emigre Rate of Earthquake Wave Transit, 48 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [THIRD SERIES.] * Art. L—Contributions to Meteorology, being results derived from an examination of the Observations of the United States Signal Service, and from other sources; by Ex1as Loomts, Professor of Natural Philosophy in Yale College. Eighth paper. With plates I and Il. [Read before the National Academy of Sciences, New York, October 24, 1877.] The origin and development of storms. In order to determine the circumstances under which storms originate, and ultimately acquire their full intensity, I selected from the published volumes of the Signal Service observations (September, 1872, to May, 1874), all those cases in which the barometer fell below 29°25 inches at any station. It was found that the barometer on Mt. Washington was frequently very much lower than at the neighboring stations, Burlington and Portland, indicating some peculiarity of this station. these cases were therefore set aside, and reserved for separate examination. During the entire period under discussion, the mean height of the barometer at Virginia City was nearly a third of an inch lower than at the neighboring stations, and these observations were therefore eliminated from my list. There remained one hundred and forty-eight cases in which the barometer fell below 29-25 inches at some one of the other stations. Sometimes at the same hour the barometer was below 29-25 inches at a considerable number of stations all included within the same low area. In such cases only one of the stations is included in the table, viz., the station at which the barometer was lowest. These one hundred and forty-eight cases correspond to forty-four different storms, and are shown in the following table, in which column Ist shows the number of the storm; column 2d shows the date at which the barome- ter was below 29:25 inches; column 3d shows the least height. of the barometer observed at that hour; column 4th shows the Am. Jour. ee Serres, Vou. XV, No. 85.—Jan., 1878. 2 Li. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. name of the station at which the given height was observed ; column 5th shows the total rain-fall (in inches) for the preced- ing eight hours, at all the stations included within the area of low barometer; column 6th shows the date of the storm’s origin so far as can be determined from the observations; locality named in column . Several additional columns which I had prepared, I am obliged to omit in order to reduce the table to the limits of the page of this Journal. Barometer below 29°25 inehes. Bar. Rain | Storm originated.| High on Eastside.’ | High on Westside _ No. Date. low- Station. ‘in fa n oe | est. low. | When. | Where.| **"-| Bar. |Direction| Dist.| Bar. | Direction. DB) 1872. ea a Nov. 7.2.29°12)Portland, Me.| 6-00,Nov. 3 Wy. 0 |30.25)S, 70° B.| 850 30°18|N.72° W.| 927 ; 7.3, -13/Quebec 2°43 3 8.1} -07;/Quebec 6°75 8.2) *19| Quebec “25 ee | 30.1} -10/Quebee 2°-26/Nov. 28n. Mi. | 0] -‘38/S. 56 BL] 71) West 3 Dee. 24.1) -15|Portland, Or. | 1-84/Dec. 23'n. W. “70| East Py 4 27.1) -17|Halifax ‘T5\Dec. 23.G.M. | 0 | -35'Hast “T0IN. 12 W.il 6-09\Jan. 1N.M./| 0| -42\N.80E. “15|N. 82 W.| 5-62 a “12 i 74 Jan. 25 Col. 0} 365: “1T| West A } jJan. 28n. Mo.| 0 | 72/8. 54 EL 18) West 6 > 2°54\Feb. 50. Mo.| 0/| ‘308.49 EL) “4118. 20 W. |LI® 39, -29|N. 62 E.| | *48|N. 79 W.|20 bo 3 ty Sy f-r) b> P 156 Feb. 20.N.M. | -o1] -341N.70K.|1100| -59|N, 62 W.j20F i) ‘Mar. 14\Dak. | -02| -46/S.78 E.| 930; -36| West Barometer below 29°25 inches. 1090 a Rain | Storm originated.’ High on Eastside. | High on West side. low: Station. in Rain esi. | low. | When. | Where all.) Bar. Direction Dist.) Bar. | Direction.| Dist. ¥ ‘ | Ne Mar. 21.1/29 19|Por tland, Me. 4°63 Mar. 16)n. Mo. 0 |30°44 S.58°E.!} 820/30714'S, 40° W.| 900 21.2} *19\Portland, Me. | 1-78! 26.3 16 Portland, Me, |} 2°98 M: 23in. T. 0 ‘41 N.16E.| 960) . °14'N. 74 W.!1200 19.2)29 hes ego 10°42/ Mar. 26in. Mo. 0 *37S. 84 E.) 650) °11.8.41 W.| 900 29,3 28°80B lingto 5°13 30.1/28°87 Portland, Me.} 2°78 30.2 29°20) Portland, Me. | 1°40 . 24.2) 29°03) Halif; 112,Ang. 23/A. 0. 0 -36 N. 54 W.'1000 24 3/28-99| Halifax "3| 25.3|29°18) Yankton 1°70|Sept. 23) Dak. 0 ‘118.83 BE.) 435) -10;West 1080 26.2} °20)Fort Garry 3 6.2 0'Punta Rassa | 6°40/Oct. 5/Cub. O01)" -39,N. 33 W./1600 6.3} °02/Punta Rassa | 5°46 17.2} °23/St. Paul 5-94'Oct. 16\n. D. 0 318.70 E.| 680) -41) West 1200 17.3| *02|Duluth 4 | 27.2| °22)Portland, Me.| 8°41/Oct. 25 Col. ‘04, “50 N.74E.' 710; -47'N. 72 W.) 920 8.2! *14| Eastport 10|Nov. 4:n. W. 0 | 42 East {1200 8.3/29°12/H. 1 | 9,1)2: ic pe sier 6 13.1)28°99 Cape Rosier | 3°78|Nov. 10|Neb. 0 “24 N. 73 440| °38 West 850 17.1, 29-00; Wilmin ngton 91|Nov. 13;n. Mo. 0 358. 31 E./1520| °12S. 16 W.| 440 17.2) 28°82! Norfolk 23 17.3)28°82/Cape "32 18.1|28°66|New London | 8°23 18.2/28°47| Eastpo: 9°12 ds 284 Chatham 2°16 .1/28°97\Cape Rosie’ 1°98 243 29-09|Bastpo 3°14'Noy. 21/N. M. 0 398.82 E.|1460; ‘14 N. 52 W.)1090 25.1/28°82 Hal 4531 25.2/28°80, Sy y 79 aan cranes 0°66 26,1) 28-85 Sydney 0-78 26.2 29°17 Sydney 0-07 3.3/ 29-08) Escanaba 13-99|Nov. 30 Mon. 0 “70'S. 83 E.| 1650: 1 ba oo 3°67 4.1/2 0:°95'Dec. 11|N. M. | 0| °37S.82 E1500) -28N. 51 W. ae 28.128. 88 Porta, Me.| 2°52 24 n. W. 09' -51\East 1075 2:28°91| Eastport 4°29 ) 3853 28-98\srdene ‘49 31,2 29-23|/Fort Garry ~ 20 i W. 0| ‘63S. 74 E1400 2.2) -09) . Blin. Mo.| 0} °64S.60 E./1750 232 2) 3.3 | . 16. . 1 . | 10) 5ON. 765. 900) 87 N. 47 W. 15.3, an. 14/P.0.-| ‘Oi ast |1070 | 16.1 16.2 16.3 | 17.1 hie 4.1 31N.M. | -03| -64.N.55E.| 950} -20.N. 82 W.| 900 — 4.2 oe 10.3 8'G. M. | -04| -64N.20E,|1480| -22.N. 70 W. see 28° “8 Syiney | 9.0. 0 548. 81 E.1200 sda ee Barometer below 29-25 inches. . ar, Rain | Storm originated.|_ _—_—| High on Kast side. High on West side, No. Date. low- Station. in hain. - est. low. | When. | Where.| fll.) Bar, |Direetion Dist.| Bar. | Direction. 1874, | Feb. 16.3 29:09|Quebec 1-76/Feb. 12/Or. 0 30.53 Kast 1060 17.1| ‘0T|\Cape Rosier "30 17.2; °12/\Cape Rosier 06 i 35 - Mar. 1.2) °23/Fort Garry *02\Feb. 28\n. Mo. 0 38'S. 72° E.|1800/30-25'S. 15° W,) 4 1.3) ‘05 Fort Garry 09 : 3 6.2! °23)/Keokuk 4:45 Mar. 3/Mon. 0} ‘30N.70E.) 730} -21'S.18 W./@ 6.3] ‘16| Dubuque 4°2¢ 7.1} -17|Milwaukee cy 7.2} +24 Alpena 3°98 : 8.2| -22| Kastport 2°38 ‘ 8.3] +19, Quebec 1-6¢ | -24! 2-35 z 1-07 1:4] 36< “9S 1-5¢€ a 212 aL 91 14 40 56 66 a 09 6°85} Mar. 13) Mon. 03} +-41/East 740 cy fy 1-2: ea § 0| April 11| Ut. 0 | .45|N. 54 BE} 940 : *39 ] ge 6°34) April 23\G. M. | -07| -17)N.15 £./1200) -12/N. 70 W. it 371s - 1°92 Sydney of 11/Father Point | 3-00/April 26) Wy. 0 *241N. 66 E.| 770} -19) West 30.2/28°97|/Father Point | 1-6 29°11/Quebee * °05|/Father Point | °4 °22\Father Point | °8 *13!Fort Sull 43) April 29! Dak. 0 | ‘38i/East {| 620) Fort Sully 0 16)Fort Sully 0 “233i - +25] 156) ‘17|Leavenworth | 2°6: ; Fort Sully *b1|May 7\Mon. 0 23/8. 54 E. 1370 12/Fort Sully 04 *17|Fort Sully *92) -01/Fort Sul | 2-04 “15 92 "24! Alpen 0 | °20/S.80 E.| 440 *17|Ottawa -24' Ottawa Eee 16|Fort Sully 0} -20/S.36 E.! 550 -16| Fort Sully ||Fort Sully Observations of the United States Signal Service. 5 Of these forty-four storms, thirty-two occurred during the five months from November to March, and only two occurred dur- ing the four months from June to September. The third column of the following table shows the number of cases in which a storm originated in each of the different localities named in column 2d. The first column shows the letters by which the locality was designated in column 7th of the table on pages 2 to 4. Symbol.! Where storm originated. | Cases. ||symbot.! Where storm originated. | Cases. P. 0. |Pacifie Ocean, north of n. D. |North of Dakota. 1 Washington Territory. 2 |/Dak. Dakota. 4 n. W. |North of Wash’n Terr. 4 |\Neb. |Nebraska. 1 Or. 1 |in. T. |Northern Texas. 1 Ut. ta 1 jin. Mi. [North of Michigan. 1 n. Mo. |North of Montana. 7 ||Ark. |Arkansas. 1 Mon. |Montana. 5 |iG. M. ‘Gulf of Mexico. 2 Wy. yoming. 2 ||Ala. |Alabama. 1 Col. Colorado. 2 |\Cub. |Near Cuba. 1 N. M. |New Mexico. 5 ||A. O. |Atlantic O.,nearlat 37°.) 1 nate north of latitude 36°. The first stage in the development of each of these storms was an area several hundred miles in diameter, over which the height of the barometer differed but little from thirty inches, with an area of high barometer both on the east and west sides, and at a distance of about 1,000 miles. In the few cases in which a high barometer is not reported on both sides of the origin, It 1s 6 LE. Loomis—Results derived from an examination of the because the area of the observations was not Pig po! Bs oe tended. The mean value of the high barometer on the ea side was 80°42 inches, and the mean distance 1,033 miles; on the west side the values were 80°31 inches and 977 miles. If the area of the observations had been sufficiently extended towards the north, it is presumed there would sometimes have been found three areas of high barometer within a distance of 1,000 miles from the locality where the storm originated. On Hoffmeyer’ s storm charts we frequently find three areas of high barometer and occasionally four areas of high barometer sur- rounding an area of low vpn sa tendency of the air towards an intermediate point, and the currents thus set in motion are deflected to the right by the earth’s rotation, whence results a diminished pressure over the central area. is diminished recta causes a still stronger inward flow of the air, which results in a still greater ea sion of the barometer. Sinise the air shicahies in on all s towards this area of low barometer, the area tends to ssdieten an oval form, which may become sensibly circular if the winds are very violent, and the wee force resulting from this revolving motion causes a still further fabio of the bar- ometer. This partial vacuum would be soon filled, and the inward movement of the air would sane wor it not for an upward motion by which the inflowing air escapes. The air in its upward motion, eg ae: with it a large amount of aqueous vapor, is cooled, and its vapor is condensed, producing rain. 'The heat which is liberated in the condensation of this vapor causes a further expansion of the air, and increases the force of the inward movement of the wind. Rain is then one of the circumstances which increases the force of a storm, and it invariably attends. storms when they have aM! to consider- able _ as is shown by the rain-fall m column 5th the table on page 2. This table chicrpten shows a large rain- fall whenever the storm is so situated as to permit observations on its eastern side; but when the center of the storm passes beyond our stations of observation, the observed rain- fall rapidly diminishes. See Nos. 1, 9, 10, 11, 28, 34, 36 and 37. I have shown in my 7th paper, pp. 14, 15, that an area of of considerable m low barometer agnitude may be formed and continue for several a with vay little rain ; but in these cases the barometer was never observed to fall as low as 29°25 rei ree: it will be’ sioniaieds that some rain was invariabl ed barometer RE Pee isi. est Sine ee enever:the: fell below 29-4 inches, an Observations of the United States Signal Service. 7 generally there was some rain reported whenever the barometer fell below 29°5 inches. I have found no storm of great violence which was not accompanied by a considerable fall of rain. Rainfall is not, however, generally the cause of that first move- ment of the wind which results in a great barometric depres- sion. This appears from column 8th of the table on page 2, which shows that over a circle of 600 miles in diameter sur- rounding the locality where the storm originated, in thirty-one cases no rain for the preceding eight hours was reported from any station, and in only one instance did the total rain-fall within this circle exceed one-tenth of an inch. It may be said that in the neighborhood of these localities the stations were few in number, and that rain-fall may have occurred at inter- mediate points from which we have no reports. But in at least a quarter of all the cases, this circle of 600 miles in diam- eter included as many as four or five stations, so that we seem fully justified in concluding that generally the inward movement of the air toward a central area begins before there is any considerable precipitation of vapor. ter an area of low barometer has been formed, it soon begins to change its position. This movement appears to be mainly determined by the same causes which control the general circulation of the atmosphere. Throughout the United States (with the exception of the extreme southern margin) the aver- age annual progress of the wind is from west to east, and this movement is determined by causes which are general in their operation, and cannot be permanently changed by the influence of local storms. When an area of low barometer is formed, the wind sets in both from the east and west sides to restore storm, and generally extends much beyond these limits, and at ll points is exerted nearly in parallel lines. Moreover, the disturbance of the atmosphere by storms is mainly confined to the lower half of the atmosphere, while the regular movement of the upper half is much less disturbed. The force of this pr current from the west, combined with that of the lower f of the atmosphere, pressing upon the west side of an = ha 8 . Loomis—Results derived from an examination of the vails within an area of low barometer takes piaen principally on the east side of the low center, as is indicate iti of the rain-areas described in my 7th paper. By this upward the west side of the low center. Thus the low center is steadily transferred toward the east, or the storm travels east ward. The areas of- high barometer which uniformly mark the commencement of a storm, invariably attend it during its pro- gress eastward. During the progress of the storms recorded in the table on page 2, the average value of the high barometer on the east side was 30°39 inches, and on the west side 30°32 inches, which numbers are almost identical with the values n atmosphere, and this supply evidently comes from the areas of low barometer. In other words, during the progress of storms barometer. An inspection of column 4th of the table on page 2, shows that these cases of low barometer occur most frequently in the neighborhood of the Atlantic Ocean. This will appear from the following table, in which the stations are SS into three classes; one class including the stations near the Atlantic coast or the Gulf of St. Lawrence, a second class including the ‘stations between the preceding class and the meridian of 92° from Greenwich, the hind clase including stations west of the sridian of 92°. | MDM aii ten a estas =a?-+(C+6)?, N=a?+(C—2)2, H. A. Rowland— Magnetic Effect of Electric Convection. 35 From this must be subtracted the effect of the opening in the center, for which the same formula will apply. The magnetic action of the excess at the edge may be caleu- lated on the supposition that that excess is concentrated in a circle of a little smaller diameter, C’, than the disc; NE ak 2—k? WAG: where ae at ia a and F(x) and K(#) are complete ellip- tic integrals of the second and first orders respectively. he determination of the potential was by means of the spark which Thomson has experimented on in absolute meas- ure. For sparks of length 7 between two surfaces nearly plane, we have on the centimeter, gram, second system, from Thom- son’s experiments, V—V'=117°5(7+ 0135), and for two balls of finite radius, we find, by considering the distribution on the two sheets of an hyperboloid of revolution, r V/r+1+1 Wrpi 9 VSrpi-l where r is the ratio of the length of spark to diameter of balls and had in these experiments a value of about 8. In this case V—V'=109°6 (74-0135). (6) A battery of nine large jars, each 48-¢. m. high, contained the store of electricity supplied to the disc, and the difference of potential was determined before and after the experiment by charging a small jar and testing its length of spark. Two determinations were made before and two after each experi- ment, and the mean taken as representing the potential during the experiment. The velocity of the dise was kept constant by observing a governor. The number of revolutions was the same, nearly, as determined by the sizes of the pulleys or the sound of a beck siren attached to the axis of the disc; the secret o this agreement was that the driving cords were well supplied with rosin. The number of revolutions was 61: per second. In such a delicate experiment, the disturbing causes, such as the changes of the earth’s magnetism, the changing temperature of the room, &c., were so numerous that only on few days could numerical results be obtained, and even then the accuracy could not be great. The centimeter, gram, second system, was used V—V'=117'5 (J-+--0135) log. First Series. a=205, b=9-08, n=-697, D=110, H—-182 nearly, B=1°68, 6=50, C=1055, N—61+, v=28,800,000,000;, n' =-0533, C’=10. 86 H. A. Rowland—Magnetic Effect of Electric Convection. Deflection on Direction of | Electrifica- [Scale reading; reversing Length of motion. tion of disc. in mm, electrifcat'n spark. 99- + + 1075 7°25 "295 _ 101°5 68°5 se — 165 8°25 290 = 68-0 ® + 97 + a 91°5 7-00 282 - 100: ne 59° pa _ 65°5 6°75 265 . a 58°5 + 92°65 ee _ 85° 6°75 290 - 91-0 + 52°5 ee a 57-5 5°50 285 _ 515 + 82°0 + _ 760 5°85 285 + 81-7 + 36°5 ces —_ 43°0 6°50 275 55 36°5 + 68°0 re as 61-0 7-00 290 1 68-0 + 27°5 = 33°5 6°50 “288 ~ 26°5 Mean values. | 6435 | 2845 "6735 Hence, 4=—,- ='337 and /=°2845. From equation (1), X—99 X’= nee =00000327. ~~ 305700" By calculation from the aoe oe we find —-99 X’=—_—— = 00000337. xX—°99 —— ea: 0337. The effect on the upper needle, X’, was about ;', of that on . the lower Second 3 Everything the same as before except the following. b=7°65, n’=0525. Hf, A. Rowland—Magnetic Effect of Electric Convection. 37 Deflection o Direction of | Electrifica- + main Lipeetaeal eae alent | engin of + 172°5 + _ 165°5 7-0 “300 172°5 + 120°0 aes _ 127°5 ‘i + 121°5 fi ~~ = 129°0 _ 163°5 + 170°5 x i, - “a aa 1-25 297 fe 170°5 + 118°0 _ 127-0 3 x 2 pets 8-25 270 —_— 127°5 Mean values. 7°50 "2955 s 22 Sia, t= -2955. Hence for this case we have from equation (1), X—-'99 X’= eee, Sonor -00000317. ~~ 315000° And from the electrification, x—'99 X’— : ——-==°00000349. 286000" Series. Everything the same as in the first series, etieet vs =8'1, n’=-0521, D=114. Direction of | Electrifi Scale reading yg on a Length of. motion. tion of disc. be mm. elecirifieat’n spark. + 151-0 — 158°5 7°50 "287 - 151°0 + 192°0 mo —_ 185°5 726 292 ee 193°5 _ 1575 Ss - 148°5 : ; ee 1575 8°25 295 - 150°0 _ 185:0 + 192°5 + a. 185°5 7-45. 302 + 193°5 —_ 151°0 _— ad 143°5 7-25 287 — 150°5 Mean values. 760 486| =| 2926 38. M. Mitchell— Observations on Jupiter and its Satellites. ° Ate "380, f= *20926. For this case Fri equation (1) 1 — 99 X’—— —_ — 000 0339, x < 295000° ‘niet and from the electrification X—-°99 X’=— -— =="00000355. sais00. The error amounts to 38, 10 and 4 per cent respectively in the three series. Had we taken Weber's value of v the agreement would have been still nearer. Considering the difficulty of the experiment and the many sources of error, we may con- sider the agreement very satisfactory. The force measured is, we observe, about 50000: of the horizontal force of the earth’s magnetis The difenenes of readings with + and — motion is due to the magnetism of rotation of the brass axis. This action is eliminated from the resu meters per r second satisfies the first and last series of the experi- ments the best. Berlin, February 15th, 1876. Art. V.—Notes of Observations on Jupiter and its Satellites ; by | Maria MITCHELL. THE following observations were made at the observatory of Vassar College; longitude 45 55™ 38s, latitude 41° 41’ 18”. The instrument used was the Equatorial telescope; the power usually 230. 1874, May 2.—Observations on Jupiter began at 10% 18™. The seeing was excellent. With a power of 600 the ruddiness of the equatorial belt was brought out; two Janae dark spots on its upper portion were —— striking in appearance, the ted space between them being conspicuously white. The shadow of the 4th satellite was near egress. It touched the limit of the planet, in internal contact at 105 37™ 10s3, ore was last seen at 11" 2m 4588. At times during the hour I ht the shadow was followed by a companion s at rh May 3.—The 3d satellite of Jupiter was occulted a 95 11m 98-5. [This observation is by Miss Fisher iealents with a small telescope.] 556 ee M. Mitchell— Observations on Jupiter and its Satellites. 39 1874, May 7.—The ingress of the Ist satellite of Jupiter was observed. The satellite was in external contact at 105 50" 39s. The internal contact was at 105 55™ 7s, 1874, May 14.—Observations on Jupiter began at 8 P. M. The broad equatorial belt was rosy and was seen fully out to the following limb. The shadow of the 3d satellite was upon the disc. The shadow was dark but not black. I could not~ call it circular; the longer diameter was nearly parallel with ~ the equatorial belt. It left the planet’s disc at 10 1™ 118-1. 1874, May 19.—The noticeable peculiarity of the planet's disc is that of a large white spot on the broad belt near the center at 8410™ p.m. At 95 45™ no trace of this spot could be found, although the equatorial belt was seen out to the preceding limb. 1874, May 22.—There was a very decided change in the spots from dark to light between 95 6™ Pp. M. and 95 35™ P, M. 1874, May 28.—The planet was unusually striped. The broad belt was much spotted and its upper part heavily shaded. There was a rosy tinge over the whole belt. The 3d satellite touched the limb of Jupiter, at ingress, at 9" 56" 44s p.m. Its internal contact was at 10° 6™ 15° p. M. Although it entered on a part of the planet which was not bright, it could be fol- lowed only ten minutes. 1874, June 2—There were peculiar white markings on the lower part of the equatorial belt of Jupiter; these were beyond the center-at 8" 25™. The 2d satellite touched the limb in The internal contact with limb was at 0° 46" 16%. The satel- lite was last seen 1" 2™ 51°, although it was upon the dark belt. The shadow was followed for some six minutes longer. 1875, April 23.—The 8d satellite of Jupiter was wholly off from the dise of the planet at 7°15" 2° p.m. The shadow of the 3d satellite touched the limb, at egress, at 7° 43™ 7° P. M. The shadow was wholly off at 8° 1™ 51° p. M. Measurements were made of both satellite and shadow. The diameter of the satellite measured 2’"17, of the shadow 17°95. : 1875, April 30.—The 3d satellite touched the following limb of Jupiter at 8° 21™ 19°-3. The internal contact was at 8" 40™ 24*-3. The shadow of the satellite was fully upon the disc at 9" 48" 9*-3. The equatorial belt was slightly ruddy, and dark and white spots could be seen upon it. The Ist and 4th satellites were so nearly of the same size that I could dis- tinguish them only by position. : 1875, May 10, 8 to 9.30 P. Mi—A white loop extended diag- onally over more than half the equatorial belt of Jupiter. 40 M. Mitchell—Observations on Jupiter and its Satellites. 1875, June 2.—Observations began at 7°55" p. M. A very remarkable white spot was at once seen, nearly at the center of Jupiter’s disc. It was followed by a very dark shading, so that it strongly resembled a satellite and shadow in transit. The white spot was so well defined as to be easily measured. ve escisa'g diameter (oblique to equatorial belt) was 1’'°7. . . the white spot was approaching the limb of the tess stnidag a es with the planet, and was followed y one ate and less distinet. 5, —Observations began at 7° 30" P. M. At Ya oa no Petites spot could be seen. At 3 15™ the white spot with the _ appearance of shadow eee could be seen, as on June 2. It was, at this time, 4 of t iameter of Jupiter, distant from the following limb. At gh 15™ the sec- ond white spot was seen, following the first, as on June 2. The 1st satellite touched the limb of Jupiter at 8" 21™ 24* Pp. M. The internal contact was at 8" 26™ 19° p. m. The satellite entered upon the planet below the broad belt, very white, more brilliant than the spot, but smaller and scarcely more conspicuous. The vipa 3 of the satellite was first seen upon the disc at 9° 23™ . M. 1876, May 30. LOBbertaons began at 9" 39" p. Mm. The broad belt on the dise of J upiter was mostly above the equator. lt was mottled with large white spots, somewhat rose-tinged. th 1st satellite as it approached the planet was of a dazzling whiteness; it entered upon the disc above the lower margin of the equatorial belt, yet it could be seen for only twelve min- utes. The shadow entered on the disc about sixteen minutes later very black, but not round, the longer diameter bein =~ a perpendicular to equatorial belt. 1st satellite touched limb of . at 9" 538™ 26° Pp. M.; was at internal contact . 59™ 22°. ‘The shadow was wholly on the disc at 10" 15™ 128 ca The satellite was seen at 10° 11™ 32*p.m. It is poets that the satellite was faintly seen at 10° 34™ 2°. 1876, May 31.—The peculiarity in the appearance of Jupiter is the presence of bright white spots on the upper portion of the disc, markings resembling facule on the he first satellite was seen to come out of eclipse at 9" 44™ 41°-99. 1876, June 15.—Observations on Jupiter began at 8" 20™ P. M. The first satellite was known to be in transit, but could not be seen upon the disc. The shadow of the Ist satellite was wholly within the limb at 9" 34" 51°9. At 9" 55™ 36°9 the 3d satellite was seen to come out from eccultation. At 9" 58” 11*-9 the 3d satellite was wholly out and shining with brilliant white light. At 9" 20™ 42° the Ist satellite was found, a ing the preceding limb, a dull gray figure, elliptic in shape, the major axis being perpe equatorial belt. When this J. P. Gooke—Atomic Weight of Antimony. 41 satellite reached the limb it was as white as the 8d satellite, and rou e transit was made across the brightest part of the disc, and where there were no perceptible variations of brillianey. The 1st satellite’s last contact with limb was at 10" 2™ 47® 1876, June 22.—Observations began at 10°12" p.m. The Ist satellite, known to be upon the disc, could not be found. The shadow was wholly on at 10°26" 56%. The satellite was seen, dusky, oval and gray, from 10" 55" 33° to 11" 10™ 33°. 1877, June 13.—The shadow of the 2d satellite was seen, wholly entered upon the disc, at 11° 20" 45%. The satellite itself touched the limb at 11" 36™ 07°; was at internal contact at 11" 43™ 30°. 1877, June 19.—The 8d satellite touched the limb of the lanet at 10° 47"58°. The internal contact was at 10" 59™ 10%. he 1st satellite reappeared from occultation at 11" 4™ 51%. The ruddiness of the equatorial belt was noticed by several observers. Art. VI.—Revision of the Atomic Weight of Antimony; by JosraH P. Cooks, Jr. [Abstract of a paper, in the Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, xiii, 1, prepared by the Author.] antimony glance by means of hydrogen and his investigation was a model of its kind. In his paper* all the details of the experimental work are given and it is evident that every precau- tion was taken which the circumstances required. In 1857, this result was apparently closely confirmed by Dumas, whose analyses of antimonious chloride gave almost precisely 122. he present investigation was undertaken with the view of reconciling if possible the large discrepancy between the results suggested by the method, devised by the author, of precipitating sulphides which was described in a previous number of this * Poggendorff’s Annalen, xcviii, 455, June, 1856. i c, 563, April, 1857. + Ann. Chem. et de Phys., II, lv, 175, Feb, 1859. § This Journal, If, xiii, 427. 42 J. P. Cooke—Atomic Weight of Antimony. from the circumstance that the antimonious sulphide as usually precipitated occludes a small amount of tartaric acid on the one hand and of oxichloride of antimony on the other. These occlusions tend to produce errors in opposite directions, for when, before weighing, the red antimonious sulphide is heated to the point of its conversion into the gray modification, the tartaric acid is charred, and the carbonaceous residue increases the apparent weight of the product; while on the other hand the oxichloride of antimony is decomposed at the same tem- perature and the antimonious chloride, which volatilizes, tends to diminish the weight of the product. In the earlier deter- minations these causes of error were balanced as nearly as possible by regulating the conditions of the precipitation; but it was subsequently found to be possible to entirely prevent the occlusion of antimonious oxichloride, and in all the later deter- minations allowance was made for the small amount of carbon- lowing determinations of the specific gravities of the different C., on the assumption that the coefficient of cubic expansion for anti- mony between 0° and 100° C. is for each degree 0:0000838, as bserved by Kopp. The letters here given will be used throughout the table to designate the various specimens. As might be supposed, the specimens were prepared at different times and at different stages of the investigation, but the results are united here for the convenience of comparison and of refer- ence. Spreciric Graviries oF Butrons or Pure Metatiic ANTIMONY. Observations of J. P. C., Jr. Observations of W. Dexter. A ie 1000 | DL. . 6°7087 Be 70s |) 6 ee 6°7026 » 6°6957 | ¢ . .6°6987 D 6°7070 | d 6°7102 Bec Se Oe ee 6°7047 Rea, Re Aeien ee 6700S) SiS Se 6°7052 Mean...... -. ....6°7022 | Mean 6°7050 The processes used in preparing the several buttons just referred to, the method by which the metal was brought into solution in its lowest condition of quantivalence, and the man- ner in which the antimonious sulphide was precipitated, col- lected, dried and ene are all described at length in the original paper. The following table shows the results which were obtained. *Poggendorff’s Annalen, ¢, 564 (I. c.). Synruesis oF SULPHIDE OF ANTIMONY, Wt. of red ee oat Wt. of black Wg pr No. Wt. in day of Wt. dissolved Total weight Sb,8, Per seb of 8 gal {Sb Sb,S, dried at Per cent. of S Ape f Sb Sb taken from balls. of Sb used, dried at 180°C. in same. 1en ‘pasa 210° C. in same. hen 839, 1, A. 2 0036 0°2023 2°2059 8°0898 aie ee 79 3088 28°57 "hue-0c 2,. Be 20017 02662 2°2679 3°1778 28.63 119°64 3°1764 28°60 119°82* $ KE, 2°0113 00853 2°0966 2°9383 28°65 119°56 2°9350 28°57 120.03* 4, A, 1°09 00798 20771 2°9051 28°50 120°41 2°9021 28°43 120°85 5, E. 2°0019 01087 2°1106 2°9508 28°47 120°57 2°9486 28°42 120°89+ Mean se Determinatiote 3... °°" > SK. 28572 119°994 wee eo 28°518 120°32 G -AY .1'768 00430 1°8068 2°5301 28°59 119°91 got OS e eiee ae 7 Ag «2 ers 00894 2°1169 2°9639 28°57 Pie ee, Om ae. 2 Be 5 ae 8 B. 20116 00188 2°0304 2°8423 28°57 120°04 2°8410 28°53 120 238 9, -B. 2 20027 0°1000 2°1027 2°9429 28°55 120°13 2°9409 28°50 120°41 10, 22015 01424 2°1439 3°0025 28°58 119°94 2°9931 28°49 ~ -120°47 11, E. 2:0038 0°3379 2°3417 3°2792 28°59 119°90 3°2788 38°58 119°95 12. E. 20014 02168 2°2182 31061 28°59 119°92 3°1022 28°50 120°44 Mean of ot & Determigations -25. 2." 5, S..s<. 28°576 716-086. = So. 28°520 120°298 13, 6 0°3787 2°3843 3°3369 28°55 120°34 _ 83369 28°51 120°14|| Mean of the 18 Determinations <...2°. 4; =k Babiab. - $1094. 9 =4-.2- 28°522 120°295 Large residue of eB small sublimate. | No sublimate or loss of weight on drying and conversion. Residue large, We ight of black bey Sam ound. be made under conditions. Hit ie sidue of ca ea sublimate. but weighed and subtracted. The best determination, and as perfect as can Both residue and sublimate see 44 J. P. Cooke—Atomic Weight of Antimony. We were for some time in doubt in what condition the sul- phide of antimony ought to be weighed, in order to obtain the most accurate results. Our final judgment was that the errors already referred to would best be balanced, while others would be avoided, by weighing the sulphide, after it had been dried, at from 180° to 200° , but before it was actually converted into the gray sulphide "This conversion takes place between 210° and 220°, varying to that extent in different cases. The change, as we infer, is attended with a sudden evolution of heat, and the action is quite violent. Small particles of the material are See projected from the vessel, and we sometimes noticed that the surface of the platinum nacelle became coated with the familiar sublimate of sulphide of antimony. If there is oxi- chloride in the precipitate, there may be an additional volatiliza- tion of chloride of antimony at this time; but the main loss, as we have constantly observed, ee place before the point of conversion is reac e therefore concluded that more trustworthy results could be deduedl from the wees of the red sulphide dried, as we have described, than from that of the gray ; and, as will ‘be seen, this judgment was fully confirmed by subsequent experiments on the haloid compounds. We have, however, in all but two instances weighed the sulphide in both con ditions, and we give the results of both yelptiaes : and on comparing these results in determinations eight to thirteen inclusive of the table on page 48, which were made under the nearly identical conditions we have above indicated, it will be seen that the differences are far smaller with the red sulphide than with the gray, which shows conclusively that additional causes of error must have affected the last weights, —a circumstance which sustains our judgment. n the first twelve determinations we did not estimate the amount of the carbonaceous residue, which is assumed to without the usual occlusion — een onde In this case, there was no evidence . sublimation nor loss during conversion, but a proportionally large carbonaceous residue, which was deducted from the ncaa of the sulphide; and the result of this deter- mination, as ‘will be seen, still further corroborates our conclu- sion. The same is true of the analyses of chloride of antimony made more recently, in which we dissolved crystallized chloride of antimony in a concentrated aqueous solution of tartaric acid, without using any excess of hydrochloric acid. In these cases , the drying of the precipitate, and the conversion from the red to the gray modification, were attended with no appearance J. P. Cooke—Atomic Weight of Antimony. 45 of sublimation. Were we to repeat the investigation with our — knowledge, we should follow the indications of these ast analyses; and instead of attemping to make the two chief errors as small as possible, and balance them, we should seek to remove from the solution all the free hydrochloric acid, and thus eliminate the error due to the occlusion of oxichloride. It would then, of course, be necessary to determine in all cases the carbonaceous residue, which might however be very large, without impairing the accuracy of the result. Still, our experi- ence with shea antimony determinations would lead us to fear that we might thus raise up as many hindrances as we avoided, and the determination we have given as No. 13 is sufficient for all purposes of comparison. his point in our investigation was reached in the spring of 1876, and the results given above were presented to the Ameri- can Academy of Arts and Sciences at their meeting of June 14th, 1876. But although they agreed so closely with the results of Schneider, and although the close confirmation of his analysis thus furnished by our synthesis seemed so conclusive, ier we could not rest satisfied so long as the great discrepancy tween this value of the atomic weight and the higher number obtained by Dumas remained unexplained. We therefore chloride, and the r are united in the following table. Beginning with crystallized chloride of antimony obtained from different dealers, an in a commercial sense, we first further peso by repeated crystallizations from fusion. As e latent heat), it is easy to arrest the process at any point, and ed off the still liquid portion from the erystals which have iormed. The 46 J. P. Cooke—Atomic Weight of Antimony. repeated, and so on indefinitely as long as the material lasts. In this way, from several ‘kilograms of the commercial chloride we obtained the few grams of beautifully clear and perfect crystals used in our analyses. In the fifth preparation, the crystals were obtained not by fusion, but by cooling a saturated solution of the previously distilled chloride in purified sulphide of carbon. Such a solution, saturated at the boiling point of sulphide of carbon, deposits the larger part of the chloride, when cooled to the ordinary temperature. Naturally, every precaution was taken during the course of these prepara- tions to protect this exceedingly hygroscopic substance from contact with moist air, and all the transfers were made in a portable photographic developing chamber, the air of which was kept dry by dishes of sulphuric acid. The portions for analysis were transferred, in this chamber, to tightly fitting weighing tubes; and, after the weight was taken, they were dissolved in a concentrated aqueous solution of tartaric acid, using about five grams of tartaric acid to each gram of chloride of antimony. Thesolutions were then diluted in an air bath at temperatures varying from 110° to 120°. They were weighed with the small dis k of paper used in this H. ay and, ‘the excess of this reagent having Beene ved by warming the filtrate with a small eae: of ferric aie: the bea abies tallized chloride of Veron and Fontaine, Paris, which was Purified in the manner described above, 6 Was made from a erystallized chloride marked Rousseau Fréres, Paris, purified as before. c Was tasters again distilled and crystallized. d, The same c, after ten additional distillations. u et eee J. P. Cooke---Atomic Weight of Antimony. 47 e, The same as d, again distilled below 100° in a current of dry hydrogen gas. f Was made with a crystallized chloride from Merck of Dermoid purified by ulphide of car- g, Same as f, but in this determination the antimony was first precipitated from the solution ANALYsis OF ANTIMONIOUS CHLORIDE. DETERMINATION OF CHLORINE. % of Chlorin SbCl, AgCl. C1=35'5 At. Wt. of Sb No. grams. grams. g=108. =35 LG 1°5974 yielded 3°0124 46°653 121°78 2a 1°2533 = 2°3620 46°623 121°93 3 a. 0°8876 v2 1°6754 46°696 121°57 4b, 0°9336 is 15674 46°516 122°46 5 6. 0°5326 #: 1°0021 46°446 122°30 6 0°7270 34 1°3691 46°588 122-10 TSG 1°2679 se 2°3883 46°599 122°04 8 « 1°9422 oa 3°6646 46°678 121°66 9e 1°7702 Ke 3°3384 46°655 121°77 10d. 2°5030 oe 4°7184 46°635 121°87 11 d. 2°1450 ng 4°0410 . 46°616 121°96 12 e 1°7697 . 3°3281 46°524 122°42 13 @. 2°3435 3 4°4157 46°613 121°98 14 f. 1°3686 ss 2°5813 46°659 121°75 157. 18638“ 3°5146 46°650 121°79 16 f. 2°0300 e 3°8282 46°653 121°78 17 g. 2°4450 “ 4°6086 46°630 121°89 Mean value for all analyses 46°620 121°94 Theory when Sb = 122 46608 122° : “g: == 120 47-020 120° If in calculating the per cent of chlorine from the results of the above determinations we use the atomic weights for silver and ehladne obtained by Stas (namely, Cl=35°457 and Ag= 107-93), these per cents will be in each case very nearly 0-020 lower, and we shall obtain for the mean value 46°600 instead of 46-620. pons on this assumption the atomic weight of antimony, deduc m Dumas’s cag of the chloride, would be 121-95 foatead of 199 Again, if we use Stas’s value of the atomic weight of sul has (S=32-074) in pA ee tlfe atomic weight of antimony rom ourown results, on the synthesis of the sulphide, we should para 120-28 instead of 120; and, lastly, the values Sb=120-28 Cl=85'457 give for the per cent of ehlorine i . antimonious chloride the value 46-931. ere, then, is a most striking result: for these determina- tions Nitin the value of the atomic weight of pulicoat 48 J. P. Cooke—Atomic Weight of Antimony. obtained by Dumas as closely as did the previous determina- tions confirm that obtained by Schneider. Evidently, there was a large constant error in one case or the other. Moreover, it appeared improbable that in either case any error could arise in the chemical process employed: for, in the first instance, we had a synthesis by one method confirming an analysis by a wholly different method ; and, in the second instance, the analy- tical process employed is regarded as one of the most accurate known to science, and we had apparent’). shown that its accu- racy was not impaired under the peculiar conditions present. It appeared, therefore, reasonable to assume that the results did truly indicate both the actual proportion of antimony in the sulphide of antimony and of chlorine in the chloride of anti- mony analyzed, and to look for the cause of the discrepancy to some impurity in one or the other compound. e therefore next sought to determine how much sulphide of antimon could be obtained from a given weight of chloride of antimony, hoping that by thus bringing the relations of antimony to chlorine and sulphur into close comparison the source of the error might be indicat The following table exhibits the results of these antimony determinations, as well as the general result of the assumed complete analysis of antimonious chloride. The per cent of chlorine taken is the mean of the first thirteen determinations of the previous table, as these only had been made at the time the second table was drawn up, and it therefore exhibits the results exactly as they were presented to us at this stage of the investigation. ANALYSIS OF ANTIMONIOUS CHLORIDE. DETERMINATION OF ANTIMONY. SbCl, taken in Sb,S, obtained ¢ of = irra mem when @ of Antimony if grams. in grams. = S=-120: 42.* Sb: S=122 : 32.+ 15. 3°8846 2°8973 53°275 53°525 26. 5°1317 3°8417 53°473 53°725 36, 44480 3°3201 53°316 53°567 4 b. 506 3°4009 53°882 53°633 56. 4°8077 3°6072 53°593 53°845 6 774 3°1958 . 53°367 53°618 Mean of all Analyses 53-401 53°652 : MEAN RESULTS OF COMPLETE ANALYSIS. Antimony, the mean of six determinations 53°401 53°652 Chlori «“ thirteen “ 46°611f 46°61 er, 100°012 100°263 *Or wie that of the gray sulphide is antimony, as deduced from actual > sain generall. pted theory. En Oe ee aed 1g=1G8. Cocttaing © Dewie: C. U. Shepard, Jr.—A new mineral, Pyrophosphorite. 49 As they at first repented themselves to us, these new results, so far from throwing light on the subject, only rendered the problem the more obscure and baffling. Towards interpreting value our own spe eriments and those of Schneider might have in fixing the atomic weight of antimony, they had at least established, SR: all doubt, the proportion of this element in the gray sulphide weighed in our antimony determinations. For if we assumed, as those experiments indicated, that five- sevenths of the gray sulpbide was antimony, then the amounts of antimony and chlorine found in the analysis of antimonious chloride just made almost exactly supplemented eac while on the other hand, if this material was, as generally believed, pure Sb,S,, in which Sb:S=122: 32, then our deter- minations of one or the other of these elements must be greatly erroneous, and the excess obtained far too great to be explained y any known or probable imperfections of our Of course, although the gray sulphide might contain, on the aver- age, five-sevenths of its weight of ne ape it was a possible etDpomnos that it rca also occlude a constant amount of and taken into the account, and in our later determination even this had been reduced to sosmall an amount as to be wholly insignificant [To be continued. ] Art. VII.—On a new ecineral Pyrophosphorite: an Anhydrous Pyrophosphate ve Lime from the West Indies ; by CHARLES UpHaM SHEPARD, Jr., Professor of Chemistry in the Medi- cal College of ne State of South Carolina TurovuGu the kindness of Mr. C. C. Wyllie of London, Eng- land, I have been put in the possession of a few small fragments of a mineral phosphate from a new locality in the West Indies. Commercial considerations forbid at present the aes a of the precise position of this deposit, but later I hope to to announce it, as also to give iatorseten with regard to the — amen of occurrence, and so 0 R. Scr.—TutepD Sees Von. XV, No. * —Jan., 1878. 50 CU. Shepard, Jr.—A new mineral, Pyrophosphorite. The mineral is generally snow-white and opaque, with here and there aslight tinge of bluish-gray. The white portion is = and has an earthy fracture like magnesite; the grayish—c stituting perhaps one-third of the mass—is small- bothyoidal like gibbsite, and is somewhat the harder of the two. The specific gravity varies between 2°50 and 2°58; hardness between 3 and 8°. Before the blowpipe it melts with diffi- culty on the eles to a whitish enamel. The following are the results of several chemical analyses of the mineral, as ‘executed on two different portions of material : 1st Series. 2d Series. Mean. ee on imitans. wie OBOO. 6 eas 0°390 Rar os Sot Bes Se 44°50 44°424 44°462 Ma: meee (AL a. eet 3°141 3°090 Stloberie WGd 0°57 0°687 0°628 Eoeephoric A010. ods aes « BOOT 50°629 50°799 Silic =i pe gp OE | ge 0°434 0°367 Oxide of iron and alumina .--- 0°437 0°437 100°1738 If we add together the adventitious ingredients, viz: the pyrophosphates of iron oe alumina (taking an equal portion of phosphoric acid as the oxide of iron sehen the sulphate of lime, silica and ‘cs on ignition, we obtai ae sank BLA sole aay of iron and alumina -_-.---- 0°874 Sulph Mie siud oak Peelers ee ee Silica Siwalesse bas eee ee Ce Bee 0°367 AO Ob, SOWICION 5 0 as 2 a ns oe ee 2°699 There remain, t. Mare tid co's apie 44°022 or 45°16 ee 3°090 3°17 | on raising the Phasphoris acid 50°362 51°67 2 ihe 4 per cent. ee 0 per cent, 97°474 100°00 The above composition agrees with the formula 2MgO, P,0,+4(5Ca0, 2P,0,)* or2MgO, P,0,+4 } ocaO FO" which would require the following amounts of By calculation. Actually found. Ene ors sas 45°20 per cent. 45°16 per cent. Magnesia. --- ---- oo 8°17 Pheaphicks baa 51°57 51°67 100-00 | 100-00 : Ca,P,0 * Expressed according to atomic system Mg,P,0, +44 Cro ; Chemistry and Physics. 51 The mineral therefore is (essentially) s protvar ortho- pyrophosphate of lime with pyrophosphate of magnes absence of water naturally suggests that its popoatiits must have — in contact with some igneous formation. The p SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysIcs. 1. On the Direct Combustion of Nitrogen.—K&mMERER has described an interesting lecture e experiment to show the direct union of the nitrogen and ox ygen of air. Ina cylinder or globe about two liters capacity filled with air, a piece of burning magnesium ribbon about thirty to forty centimeters long, is laced. When the combustion of the magnesium is ended, a intense odor of nitrogen tetroxide is sancti and when the soe nesium oxide has deposited, the characteristic color of this gas : oO color when starch tion | is added.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., x, 1684, lear 1877. “2. B, 2. the Relative — of Oxygen for Hydrogen and Oardonous oxide.—Bun n his “ Gasometric Methods,” has e hydrogen and carbonous oxide are mixed with oxygen in quantity insufficient to burn them both completely, and exploded; from which he draws the ons that the atomic ratio of the com- ee products (H,O:CO,) is always oe by simple changing from one to the other per saltum as the portion of hydrogen varies. Horstmann has experimented anew in this direction and has obtained quite different results. © finds: 1st. That when electrolytic gas and carbonous oxide are carbon ing ratio. Thus while the hydrogen, relatively to the carbonous oxide, varied from 0°25:1 to 2°33:1, from 20 to 70 per cent of the mixture being burned, the ratio.of the combustion- products (H,0: CO,) varied from 0°8:1 to 45:1. Nothing like a sudden change of ratio was anywhere observed. 2d. That when to a mixture of carbonous oxide and hydrogen, increasing quantities 52. = Scientific Intelligence. of oxygen are added and the whole exploded, as in E. v. Meyer’ 8 method, ‘aqueous vapor and carbon dioxide are formed in a con- oxygen between-these two combustible gases does not take place according to the law laid down by Bunsen. As to the cause of the discrepancy, he says that’ | while his experiments were made with dry gases in dry tubes, he has observed that see aqueous vapor is hag in the tube, less hydrogen n and more carbonous oxide is burned. e ratio of H,O: CO, is always Teena and the more, ‘the reater the amount of moisture present. On the other hand, in presence of carbon dioxide, more hydrogen and less earbonous oxide is burned. Now v. Meyer's experiments were with moist gases. Moreover, the variation in the ratio of the com- es is peculiar. As the oxygen increases, this ratio at ncreases, reaches a maximum, when the amount of com- bustible gases burned is about 30 to 35 per cent, and then falls uniformly — to the limiting value reached when the coma late bonous oxide in the unburned residue. Since therefore relatively more lane. is always b Ae than carbonous oxide, the attrac- tion of o eater oe ‘she former than for ~ _— ges Chemistry and Physics. 53 various special devices, such as pouring a solution of platinic chloride into a sulphide, drop by drop, or in fusing platinic sul- ammonium, thus resembling copper; 5th, t platinous sulphide y be considered soluble or insoluble according to hysical state and the nature of the sulphide used us salts occur G. F. B. 4. On the Destructive Distillation of Phenol and Chlorbenzene. amined th d ceived were fractionated and yielded benzene, toluene, xylene, naphthalene, anthracene, and phenanthrene. Chlorbenzene thus treated gave diphenyl, parachlordiphenyl, paradichlordiphenyl and an isomer of it, and diphenylbenzene.—Liebig’s Annalen, elxxxix, 129, 135, October, 1877. . F. B, . Boracic Acid.—In the Annales de Chemie et de Physique, he calls the normal sea water, and he opens his paper with the following broad generalization: ‘Toutes les substances, salines existant en amas et en couches dans les terrains s¢dimentaires ont fait primitivement partie d’une mer normale. D’un autre cote, a In order to establish this conclusion in the case of the borates he gives in the first place experimental evidence that the water of the Mediterranean contains at least two decigrams of boracic acid in each cubic meter, and, further, that on evaporating the brine racic acid accumulates in the bittern until after the deposition of carnallite. In the second place, he insists that in the very characteristic deposits of Stassfurt the borates are found above e carnallite as we should expect, if these deposits were formed 54 Scientific Intelligence. as assumed, by the drying up of extensive salt lakes. Again, aving confirmed the previous statements that the chief salt beds of the world are found on two geological somal the Lias and the middle Tertiary, he ah evidence t the aremma of beds—heated ‘it is ek b vetosnts aie —determines well- known chemical changes, from which result the peculiar acid va- pors there discharged. But we can only give here the barest out- boracic acid. rejects the test aco turmeric as menlarcirieyae in the presence of such a mass of salts as are found in bittern, an he finds the flame reaction by far the most sensitive as well as the most trustworthy of all the tests with which he has ri er aang When the Bunsen lamp is supplied with pure hydrogen, that the flame reaction will indicate the one-millionth of a gram of boracic acid. His method of applying the test is as follows: The material to be tested is first m with an excess of oil of vitriol, and this ea held in a loop of mpbichnrit wire is brought near— hin four millimeters—but never nearer than two millimeters to the visible mantle of the hydrogen se? so that the flame may not be colored in the least by sodium always present. If the assay contains boracic acid, th states green coloration appears, which can be identified with absolute certainty, by means of a spectroscope, and the coloration can be most delicately ob- served by looking through the mantle of the dame oo P 6. Photo-electric Phenomena.—R. BornsTEIN enktiib es veins 8 ex- periments on the influence of light on the electrical tension in metals, and shows that the effect is not a thermo-electric one. The -Photo-electric series of the metals runs in this order :—Alu- minium, gold, copper, platinum, silver. While the thermo-electric series is as follows :—Silver, platinum, copper, gold, aluminium. His conclusions are as follows (1.) In a hee oma of 1 two different metals, a photo- electric current merated whenever the two junctions are ex- posed to arileeton jeaiacioms of different nro tee (2.) When the same junction is exposed in one case to an in- temperature, and in sauces to a more javeane illumina- Geology and Mineralogy. 55 tion, the thermo-electric and photo-electric currents Teepeckirely generated i in these cases are opposed to each other in direction. Phil. Mag., Nov., 1877, p. 330. J. T. NKEL concludes from a series of experiments upon the photo-electricity of varieties of fluor-spar, that the pes ao phe- nomena are largely due to the influence of the chemical rays of the spectrum, which cause chemical changes in the eoqatinee ae of the crystal. —Ann. der Physik und Chemie, No. 9, 1877, p. 66. a eae soe of air at constant pressure and constant vol- —li. K R has erence the specific heat of air at con- by the transverse aes of steel nae excited by a wichopalia bow. A were compared with those of a tuning fork. H. Kayser conelndss from his experiments that the true value of the velocity of sou in free air is 332-5 m. The value of &, the specific heat, has been — assigned as will be seen from the following table: Maso 220 ete 2A ew Cand Biss 25S ee. 1°41 Weisbach Se Fay ees 74005 ~Rontpér i222 2S its 1°405 H, Kayser concludes ee the true value is k=1°4106. rah alnn., No. 10, 1877, p. 218. worescence of the Retina.—M. von Bezold and Dr. hn Mag., Nov., 1877, p. 397; Trans. from Berichte d. baier. bane Math h. Phys., June, July 7, 1877. Il GroLoGgy aND MINERALOGY. 1. Reports of the United States dtl 8a Surveys west of the ‘One-hundredth meridian, in charge of First Lieutenant Guo. Wueerer, Corps of Engineers U. 8. Army, under the diree- tion of Brig. -Gen. A. A. Humpar nys, Chief of Engineers, U. S. Vol. LV. Paleontology; quarto with 83 plates. Washing- ton, 1877, Engineer department, U. S. Army.—This large vol- ume, a contribution to the science of the country from the Wheeler expedition, Bane ae War Department, comprises two important memoirs, as foll (1.) Report =e the Invertebrate Fossils collected in portions of Nevada, Utah, Colorado, New Mexico and Arizona, by pa rties of the Expeditions ‘of 1871, 1872, 1873 and 1874; by € Cuar.es A. Warre, M.D.: comprising general observations upon the collec- tions and the periods they represent; a general view of the classi- fication adopted; and descriptions, in successive chapters, of the 56 Scientific Intelligence. fossils of the Primordial, Canadian, Trenton, Subcarboniferous, Carboniferous, Jurassic, — ous and Tertiary Periods ; and illustrated by twenty-one plate (2.) Report upon the extinct Vortebreta obtained in New ora’ by parties of the Expedition of 1874; f, AED fossils of the Mesozoic periods, and geology of Meso- oic and Tertiary beds; (2) fossils of the Eocene; (3) fonetls of the Loup Fork group; and illustrated by sixty-two plates rof. White’s valuable re ods has already been psielly “noticed in vol. xii of this Journal (18 Prof. Cope’s report ren descriptions of a large number of vertebrate fossils, including species of fishes, ge Pq and mammals. Some ‘of t e general saute arrived at w regard to the species of the Eocene of New Mexico are pres ones in vol. xii of this Journal, asre, p- 297). The Loup Fork (or Loup River) group, a s Dr. Cope observes, has now been identified at three widely eratietie" localities: by "Dr. Hayden in the Upper Missouri region, and by Dr. Cope in Colorado, and in New its the Santa Fé a first studied by Dr. Hayden, bein ng f this horizon. The group underlies the “ White River group” in the Missouri region, and has been regarded as Pliocene. Dr. Cope has described thirty-four species of Vertebrates from these those of the White River beds, they appear to be somewhat older in oe geological relations than —_ and hence, he has sug- ed (first in 1875) that they may be Upper Miocene, Th = favoring this supposition are stated to be Amphieyon, elaepe Hippotherium, Aceratherium (Aphelops), 2 Mastodon of M. angustidens, Pseudelurus, Steneo The tice "Fy the White River and Loup Fork — differ, widely in genera from those of the Eocene. The 6 2 lithographic plates of fossils illustrating Prof, Font s Memoir are crowded with good gures. Nineteen of them are occupied with figures of parts o skeletons of different species of oe (Bathmodon of Cope 1872-1875) named by Dr. Cope, CU. cuspidatus, C. lobatus, ©. et C. radians, C. latidens, C. elepha ntopus, C. molestus, C. simus. Prof. Cope discusses several controverted points, Shak we leave without no 2. Summary of field pee ve the United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, under the charge of Dr. AYDEN, for the season of 1877.—The work of the United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Terri- tories in charge of Dr. F, V. Hayden has been prosecuted with — success during the past year. The surveys in Uolorado g been completed psn the previous year, the parties png Ae: their work ina belt of country lying mainly in the western half of Wyoming, but also embracing piissead pact of Utah ae Idaho; all lying immediately north of the region embraced in the e Survey of the 40th Parallel by Clarence King. The parties “all took the field on the first of June. Geology and Mineralogy. 57 The primary-triangulation party, upon the work of which that of all the topographical parties is based, was, as usual, in charge of Mr. A. D. Wilson, Chief Topographer. He took the field at The area embraces about 28,000 square miles, and within it twenty- tant. From these, connections were made at six points with the triangulation of the Survey of the 40th parallel. In addition there were three other fully equipped divisions for topographical and geological work, and another under the direc- tion of Dr. C. A. White, for special geological and paleontological work. The party first surveyed that portion of the district which is ohn y j i ) sedimentary origin. A comparatively small space is occupied by strata of Silurian age; the others range from Carboniferous to beds of the Green River and Bridger groups, probably of Eocene age. Coal was found to exist in large quantity on Upper Bear River and its tributaries, and also on some of the branches of Green River, being especially abundant between Twin Creek and Ham’s Fork. In the Malade valley, Dr. Peale observed deposits that are of later age than the Bridger group, but still, probably of Tertiary age, : : The Sweetwater division in charge of Mr. G. B. Chittenden, * A map showin ri trian ions of this survey has quite recently been published. $e te 58 Scientific Intelligence. with Dr. F. M. Endlich as geologist, covers rectangle No. 57, which is bounded by meridians 107° and 109° 30’, and parallels 41° 45’ d 43°, embracing about 10,800 square miles. The k the field at Salt Wells station, on the Union Pacific Railroad, and been of late Tertiary outflow, and quite extensive, the region is occupied by sedimentary or stratified rocks; which he refers to Lower Silurian, Carboniferous, J ura-T'riassic, Cretaceous and Ter- tiary ages. Th all parts of the district. Besides these, he mentions other deposits in the valley of Snake River, later than the Tertiary strata just referred to, but still probably of Tertiary origin. It seems y eale, may prove to be of the same age as the Lake Beds of Dr. Hayden in Middle Park, the Uinta Group of Mr. King, &e. Geology and Mineralogy. 59 . A. W paleontologist of this survey, and he took the field at the begin- ning of the past season, continuing his labors until its close. He has pursued his researches with such success as to demonstrate the necessity of continuing this class of investigations by various lines of travel across what is generally known as the great Rocky Mountain region, especially those portions of it that have been surveyed, as well as those in which the surveys are now in pro- Rivers; thence, crossing Green River, he pushed his investiga- tions westward along the southern base of the Uinta chain, as far as Great Salt Lake. Thence recrossing the Wasatch Mountains, he carried his work eastward across the Green River basin. continuous within what is now that part of the continent, from the earliest to the latest of the epochs just named. uring the progress of the field work, large and very important collections of fossils were made, which are now being investigated. : Messrs. S. H. Scudder of Cambridge and F. C. Bowditch of ton spent two months in Colorado, Wyoming and Utah, in making collections and observations in fossil and recent entomol- ogy, with very gratifying results. Mr. Scudder is making arrange- ments to add materially to his labors in this department, in connee- tion with the survey. : Professor Joseph Leidy spent some time during the season in Green River Basin, making observations and collections for his large work on Rhizopoda, which is to form one of the quarto volumes of the survey. : e botany of the survey was represented during the past sea- son by the two great masters, Sir Joseph D. Hooker, Director of the celebrated gardens at Kew, England, and Professor Asa Gray 60 Scientific Intelligence. partment, was directed to visit and report upon those ruins, in connection with his usual work; which he did, and the results h l en up, and added to his department, the work of repro- ducing these models as well as those of ancient pottery found with them. In furtherance of this work he visit Nort ern , the dwell- ings of the forgotten people; forgotten, because the builders of ; et i : Geology and Mineralogy. 61 But in February, 1876, it again passed into the hands of able geologists through the substitution of Prof. T. C. Chamberlain, of Beloit College, and under this arrangement, the new volume, above announced, to order. Dr, Lapham was displaced, unreasonably, in 1875, Dr. O. W. White. ney being vol. I) contains Dr. ham’s annual reports for 1873, 1874, and Dr. White’s for 1875 as introductory to the reports of IL On the Geology of Western Wisconsin, by Prof. Roland D. ages. Ill. On the Geology and Topography of the lead region, by es ese R with ability and care, and with a full appreciation of what both science and the econ 8 are the subjects of valuable ee and then the distribution and characteristics of the severa are stated ; ts “Stand” Rock, of Potsdam Sandstone, which is almost as remark- able as anything of the kind in Rocky Mountain scenery. The post usual interest. The third report, on the lead region, is, as its author states, much briefer than the subject demands. It serves 62 Scientific Intelligence. to supplement and extend the account by Prof. Whitney, adding the results afforded by the more recent mining operations and a further study of the regions. e Atlas consists of a series of colored plates, illustrating in sections the geology of the State; and others for eastern Wi think, for the small amount of detail in the geology. e cite from the volume the following facts and conclusions relating to the Wisconsin drift. In the first place the facts with regard to the driftless region, which covers Southwestern Wisconsin and the borders of Minne- st ‘ and Iowa adjoining, described a d rof. J. D. Whitney, are brought out with additional observations; and th view of Dr, Percival, its first describer, an f. itney is sus- southeast town of Minnesota—that of Houston. The former absence of the ice is proved by the absence of gravel and stones, which suddenly cease on entering the region, and, as Prof. Irvin states, by the character of the hills and ravines and the existence over it of numerous fragile sandstone peaks. The origin of this 2 ? . latter brings out, in his report, a new theory in explanation of it. According to the observations of Prof. Irving, in connection h h west (3) along a Keweenaw Bay depression, west of southwest : depression, as a ; reached to Illinois. While those of the Keweenaw Bay depres sion and Western Lake Superior continued westward and south- Geology and Mineralogy. 63 ward over Minnesota, and thence, as N. H. Winchell has shown, south to Iowa, where it was connected with the ice over northern Tilinois. The independence of the glacier-mass of the Michigan Bay de- — and that of the long Green Bay valley is well proved by of. of ponds and pools over its surface. It is one to ten miles wide, west outlines of the Green Bay valley glacier. It consists of gravel, bowlders, sand and clay, unstratified, but with portions here and h glacial scratches made by the Michigan and Green Bay ice- c Bay side and a southeast on that of the Green River Valley, thus pointing to the range as a moraine ridge between the two ice- masses or along their blending borders. Again, on the west side of the Green Bay Valley the glacial scratches run southwest- ward (while southeastward on the east side) and terminate in the edly have an undermining action and may have produced part of the depressions, Over the regions of Wisconsin between the Green gion was left iceless and driftless. He states that the surface is not higher than that of Wisconsin to the east, and is lower than that of Minnesota to the west; and hence that no argument can be rawn in favor of its escape from the ice by its altitude or by an elevation of the land. The explanation, though different, is closely 64 Scientific Intelligence. related to that given by Professor N. H. Winchell, in his Minne- sota Geological Report for 1876, (published in 187 7)* and that the hills of the granitic =. stretching sacar aie from Keweenaw Point, and from the south shore of Lake Superior farther west, prevented the Spasaasie of shes great glacier from Lake Superior i in that dire Both Professor Chamberlain and Professor Irving state that there is abundant evidence that during the Glacial era the continent in that part was higher above the sea-level than now; and that this elevation was followed by a depression below the present | level —that of the Champlain period. The former states that “some of the streams have cut channels from one to three RE feet deeper than those they now rola DASE oy pointing to the fact of greater elevation during the Glacial e The chapters on the drift contain numerous facts with regard ba the sources of the — proving ee coe for 100 to 300 The observations on the Champlain deposits and terraces are also highly interesting. wo other facts we cite here. The Milwaukee brick have a cream-white color and this has been attributed to the absence of iron. But Professor Chamberlain states that the clay is red, and contains, according to analyses of the brick, nearly jive per cent of oxide of iron; and that the absence of color must be due to the formation of a silicate of lime and iron, lime being also present in the ¢ [The eee. is probably a variety of epee, the formation of Which 3 in the Triassic red sandstone of the Con necticut valley where it adjoins "Ses dikes has often been oleckvad the writer to be connected with a discharge of the red color of the sandstone. The Niagara fimestone of southern Wisconsin includes two distinct varieties of limestone which were of simultaneous origin; and, according to Professor _ Chamberlain, sa "oe ah kind ral reef seas, and the granular to the beach sand-rock, sik is ations made along the shores of the coral reef regions out of — sands. . D. De Jo + Mr. A. H. Wo rthen states, in the first volume of hie palace rhe , of i pean to oelow Galena within the driftless area but not far north of its southern limits) he observ: . Beebe informed in Lucas county, near the middle of southern Iowa, which weighed more than beg pounds. Galena is about 350 miles ina straight line south southwest from sl an era w copper region, and Lucas county is 170 miles southwest-by-west arom Cralens, or about 465 miles southwest-by-south from the Keweenaw region. prRreneyy a di lise ae ee &, Geology and Mineralogy. 65 4, Probabie pion — of the Great Salt Lake,—It is be- lieved that the explorations of the survey under the direction of r. Hayden, the past satan have determined the probable an- cient outlet of the great lake that once filled the Salt ‘ake Basin. t the head of Marsh Creek, which occupies the valley, continu- ing directly south from that of the lowest Portneuf, is the lowest pass between the Great Basin and the drainage of the Columbia. In fact so low and flat is it, that a marsh directly connects the two streams, one flowing to the Bear River and the other to the Portneuf and Snake Rivers. This fact was observed by the Survey in 1871 and 1872, but this district has been carefully examined the past season by Mr. oe and Dr. Siberian Steppes. —Professor John Milne, in a paper enti- tled “Across Europe and Asia, Part V, from Ekaterinburg to Tomsk” (Geol. Mag., ages ree ar suggests that the material of ~~ ted b great — of Siberia y the rivers while t were r floods paused oy Abi being dammed about hae shouths 3 in eekaeaaides of the ice of the stream not having there melted. He shows that although ae — of — of the wa- ters in autumn differs but a week o in the more northern and asiot heat parts of the rivers, the Gies of saclline i in the spring often Iife nth Consequently the ice toward the mouth of the their norther were neath the sea—more or less constantly coin alah a lake of tur- bid water.” Floods ra this source occur now in Siberia. This One, plain accompanies it; and as it expands in flowin northward, so with the plai The widening “ se plains con- = until they unite to — that ge aa which a Mikroskopiache Piysiographie de pases Gesteine, von Rosenpuscu. 6 pp. 8vo. Stuttgart, 1877. (E. Schweiger- ~ sche Verlagshandlng. apna presen t work forms ane operly a Am. Jour. S8cl.—Tuirp Serres, Vou. XV, No. Se 5 Nat emes | Tea Sacie aaies ae 66 Scientific Intelligence. method of classification adopted is as follows:—(i) orthoclase rocks ; (2) orthoclase-nepheline, and orthoclase-leucite rocks; (3) plagioclase rocks; (4) plagioclase-nepheline, and plagioclase-leu- cite rocks; (5) nepheline rocks; (6) leucite rocks; (7) olivine, or chrysolite rocks. The special system of ercesiaarn ot thes se ular, syenites, or (2) Abe porphyries ‘with no ‘iit Secondly, the younger rocks (I) ie a * sore. and are (1) gran- ular or porphyritic, liparites, or (2) glussy, obsidian, trachytic pitchstone, perlite, eooreeds or Ries are (II) without quartz, includ- “— the trachytes and e glassy rocks The description of the i individual rocks are very a ieee espe- cially the references to their microscopic character. valuable portion of the work is the list of books and memoirs on nef aeraan cal subjects covering about thirty pages. E. 8. D. 7. A Guide to oe of Rocks, being an intro- duction to Litholo ee by E. Janyeraz. Translated from the French by G. W. Pl mpton, C.E., A.M. 165 pp. 8vo. New see 1877. (D. Van Nostrand.)—This little book has some very escribed as due to the ‘ ria eay of fragments of the rock in which wos — found,” (p. 36); pyrites (FeS,) j is said to be reduc o FeS (p 109) ete. Besides, such words as Cordveritfels, Cavite, lopfstein, Gallinace, ete., do not belong to the English language. 8. Zubles for the Determination of Minerals. Based upon the tables of Weisbach; enlarged, and furnished with a set of mineral formulas, a column o: of 8 specitic gravities and some of the character- istic blowpipe reactions; by Persiror Frazer, Jr., A.M. 119 pp. 8vo, Philadelphia, 1878. _(- B. Lippincott ’& Co ne —The first ‘eine ix of this J urnal. e revised wor ides numerous cor- _ rections and minor sadieign ns, contains s some new fe. atures, as for instance, the indication of the comparative rarity of the less aes species _ 9. Tridymite in Ireland.—Prof. A. von Lasaulx reports the dis- covery, of tridymite in the trachyte-porphyry of onl Antrim, 10. Anihracite of Pennsylvania.—Mr, E. T, Hardman, in a n the Journal of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland = 200, 1876), attributes the change to anthracite in eatin series of trap-dikes to the eastward—not tec ae at that these upriibes are Triassic or Jurassic in yin pe the nearest over fifteen miles distant from the coal. Botany and Zoology. 67 III. Borany anp Zooroey. 1. C, Darwin. The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the same Species. (London, Murray ; New York, D. Appleton & Co. 1877.) 12mo, 352 pp.—Circumstances have prevented an earlier notice of this volume, Mr, Darwin’s last work upon the fertilization ting qualifications. He a 8, moreover, succinct notices of what as been done by others in the same field. Six of the chapters relate to dimorphous blossoms, such as those of Primrose and Houstonia, including also the trimorphic cases, as of Lythrum Salicaria and some species of Oxalis. The seventh chapter discusses Pol gamous, Dicecious Diccious ygam: , and Gyno- Plants; the eighth and closing chapter is devoted to Cleisto- Flow sexual organs themselves (calyx, corolla, ete., being alike in the two sorts),—Mr. Darwin adopts Hildebrand’s term of heterustyled. rm, a Oo and pistils, not in the floral enve opes, and avoids the erroneous implication of the term heterostyled, that the style is only or mainly ‘ ; gonous. We were too late to ensure its adoption in this work. A fairly good term once in use ought not to be exc anged for a new one without very sufficient reason ; and for the present purpose the this botany as a part of the character, of the genera or species which we shall write Flores hermaphroditi, Didi moncecet, dicecei, Jyno-dicecei, polygami, as the case may be. ; One good set of terms for phytography we owe to Mr. Darwin - ne g and the present book, i. e., that of gyno-dicecious and gyno-monc- 68 Scientific Intelligence. cious, for the case of those plants which produce their two kinds of blossoms as hermaphrodites and females, either on distinct indi- viduals or on the same plant. ‘So, likewise, the term andro-mone- cious and andro-diecious for the case of hermaphrodite and male flowers, on the same or on separate individuals. As to andro-dice- ism, Mr. Darwin ‘remarks that, after making enquiries from sev- eral ‘bouaAintie I can hear of no such cases. The last summer brought one such case to light in our Cambridge Botanic Garden, perhaps exceptionally, but it raises the inquiry whether Diospyrus Virgiiana, our Persimmon tree, may not be of this character. A solitary female tree here, and wi ith no male tree in the town, sets fruit more or pith n most seasons ; ; but the persimmons are under sized and seedless. This year it was loaded with full-sized fruit; well furnished with seeds, the latter with a good embryo.: The female gp always bear stamens; but these are generally thought to be impotent; perhaps they besten produce some pollen ; they doubtless did so upon this oc . Darwin asserts, it would be Prenat and conduce to ric i and females co-exist. This ur in two ways, and possibly in three. The English Ash, as he remarks, is tricecious, or has the three kinds on as many individual trees ; while some Maples bear all three on the same tre If we rightly read a sheaiivit on p.10, it implies that proterandry and en are known to occu r only i in “some few hermaphro- dite plants.” But it can hardly mean that, cases of it being com- mon and abvions s in many natural orders The first chapter of this volume is dev oted to Primula and its allies; the second, to hybrid Primulas, mainly to the Oxlip, which is shown to bea spontaneous hybrid between the Cowslip eit: the Prim A note is added on some wild hybrid Verbascums, spe- cially tho those babtbeen Verbaseum Thapsus and V. Liyehoiteid which cross with the greatest ficility, and produce a series of forms which almost connect these two widely distinct species lly hybrids of the first generation almost wholly self-sterile. ch cases as this and that of the Oxlip, which was thought to prove that the ee and the Primrose were varieties of one speci “ show, as Ir. Darwin remarks, “ that bot- ben Gini particulart those of some s ax of stonia, Mitchella, and other Rubia “The fourth chapter discusses the t fl wers of the same ere ah stars Botany and Zoology. 69 striking case was first brought to light. Our Vesa verticillata is also referred to, the trimorphous species of Oxalis Aaaee eek, and finally Pontederia, the only monocotyledonous genus now known to be heterogone. e trimorphism in this genus was dacacie a data, our common Pickerel-weed. by Mr. Leggett of New “York. Chapter VI is a detailed discussion of experiments on the illegiti- mate offspring of heterogone flowers; i. e., offspring produced by breeding shea the danse ofthe same ‘form, short-sty ed with long- ' stamened, or th The conclusion is that in all points e con “the patallelison | is moudeetals close between the effects of illegit- imate and hybrid fertilization. It is hardly an exaggeration to assert that seedlings from an Fh ager aay cde fertilized — of Lythrum or Primula for the sake of ascertaining whether the were specifically distinct, and he found that they could be united nly with some di culty, that their offspring were i’ whole series of tions crossed species and Lad Ae brid off spring, he might maintain that his oe had b roved to be good and true species ; but he w be co mpletely deceived.” The cause of this sterility between gre iduals w may h sprung from the very same parent or parents an from the same = must evidently in their 1 e organs reproductiv n some recondite incompatibility of their sexual ele- ments, ase in any general difference of structure or constitution. And Mr. Darwin effectively argues that the same holds in ca of distinct species of the same genus. “ We are indeed led to this same conclusion,” he adds, “ the impossibility of detecting any differences sufficient to account for certain species crossing with the —— ease, whilst other state allied se cannot be crossed, or can be crossed only with extreme di are led to this. conclusion euigie more forcibly by causitienie the great difference which often exists in the facility of crossing reciprocally the same two § sea: or it is manifest in this case ility of hybrids ceas es to be a criterion of specie The 6th ee follows up the subject in a series of pee penis remarks. It refers to those cases of more or less recip rocal differences i in stamens and style which are una prt any difference in size or form of pollen-grains; and it tabulates the difference in pollen-grains of the two sorts. “ With all the oe in which the grains differ in diameter, there is no excep- to the rule, that those from the anehaee of the short-styled * 70 Serentifie Intelligence. form, the tubes of which have to penetrate the longer pistil of the long-styled form, are larger than the grains from the other form.” “This curious relation led Delpino (as it formerly did me) to believe that the larger size of the grains is connected with the greater supply of matter needed for the development of their on ubes.” But it proved that, in many cases where the pollens differ mach in size, the styles differ moderately in length 1 ? a ce versa, and that in plants generally, there is no close relationship between size of pollen and length of style (the grains ing of the same size in Datura arborea and in Buckwheat while the style of the one is nine inches long and of the other very short); yet still “it is difficult quite to give up the belief that the pollen grains from the longer stamens of heterostyled plants have become larger in order to allow of the development i and it would have been of little use to such plants to beco heterostyled e can thus understand why it is that not a single enera are mentioned which ‘have probably passe on from the heterogone condition to the diwcious, Coprosma is tendencies in the same direction. On the other han , Mr. Dar- 8 observations on Ewonymus Europeeus are “ very interesting, h : obvious tendency towards dicecism, the principal illustrations are : : . , ete, The eighth and last — is devoted to Cleistogamic flowers. nds of flowers are evidently arran ~ a n howy blossoms, produce others which fertilize and fructify with- Botany and Zoology. ; 71 of the ordinar y flowers self-fertilize without expanding or full rine their development; but in others these comparatively . nute and ever-closed flowers are profoundly modified paca Narsityss in reference to — function. Dr. Kuhn, in 1867, gav them the appropriate name of flores ea teh cleistogamic, or as we prefer auepainoushe flow The literature of the subject gathered known of these blossoms is condensed. e cannot here attempt a recapitulation. In brief, “ they are conastenida for their small size and fi rer opening so that they resemble buds; their e petals are rudimentary or quite aborted; their stamens are often . ; F educed in number, with the anthers of very small size, contain- ing few pollen-grains, ee have remarkably thin transparent coats, and which generally emit their tubes while still enclosed within the anther-cells; and lastly the pistil is much reduced in ~~ with the stigma ‘in some cases hardly a . “es oo quently insects do not visit them; nor if they “id aan see find h flow an entrance. Suc wers are therefore invariably self-fertilized ; Indee : insects ; in some, such as Orchids, they are dependent upon this agency for such fertility as peat possess. Cleistogamous flowers are known in about twenty-four natural orders, yet not ina larg caabed of genera. The list given by y enlarged; but in one particular it may be diminished, for Auellia, Dipteracanthus, and Cryphiacanthus are really all of one genus. original pula — and irrespective of this var rushes and grasses, ” Among the latter, it is singular that one of the earliest: ee n and strongly marked cases, that of Ampht- carpum (Milium amplicanpem Pursh), — be overlooked. Since this notice was written, Mr. Pringle has announced to us the serbia ’ a flowers re regularly ooeunriny within the leaf-sheaths of Danthonia spicata a and other on 72 : Scientific Intelligence. which figures give for the study of Ferns. _ Books of this kind, of various pretension and merit, abound in Great Britain, and there is evidently a great demand for them. But our own fern-fanciers are becoming numerous and active, and this work will aid them and bring many more into the field. At least our botanists and botanical students want it. And this work seems to us well plan- ned to meet all these requisitions. Well executed it certainly is, the specimens of chromo-lithography. Plate II, representin etlan- thes vestita and C. Coopere (a new species, detected in California ° by Mrs. Elwood Cooper, whose name it bears), is to o in best ; and the synopsis of the species of the genus, arranged und the sections, was a thought. The figure of A um ser ratum, a tropical American Fern, recently discovered in Fl r. Garber, is well managed and characteristic ; amp- light the green is too blue. Under the same conditions the Ly- godium, which is well chosen for a leader, seems too pale and dull. A little more practice will set this all right. The prospectus in- ter. We hope, and we do not doubt, that the sale will warrant A. G 3. Notes on Botrychium simplex, by Grorcx E. Davenrort, 1877.—Here is more Fern-lore, an exhaustive mono e frond. Two large quarto plates crowded with figures (48 in number), illustrate the forms which these two peci ein this country, and the account of them fills 22 pages of letter-press of th: i The result of this thorough treatment is to con- the figures are heliotype reproductions of Mr. Emerton’s outline drawings. It is stated that “if the publication of these notes shall Botany and Zoology. 73 prove to be of any service to fern-students [which it surely will], _ they will owe it entirely to the generosity of Mr. Robinson.’ 4, Researches in regard to the influence of light and vadiaie heat upon transpiration in plants, by J. Wimsnur ameerey . Ann. d. Se. Nat., Sept., 1877, from ‘Sitzun ngsb. der k. Akad. Wissensch., 1876, t. 74). Wiesner prefaces his memoir ae a ee historical account, of which we here give an abstract. Near the middle of the last century, Guettard demonstrated by rude ex- periments that light favors transpiration. Unger, and, later, Sachs have supposed that the movements of sto mata under the quent excitation. Wiesner, in the memoir now noticed, gives a detailed account periments, and presents the following conclusions. A part of the light, which has traversed chlorophyll is trans- e - feeble in the dark, although the stomata were widely open. Also that th rk heat-rays are less active in transpirat the luminous rays, and that the ultra-violet rays have no influence at all; that, whatever may nature of - rays, they act solely by elevating the ee of the tiss 5. kes Botrydium granulatum ; by J. eeckeeninics and M. Worontn.—This is an interesting paper which appeared in the Botanische Zeitung of Oct. 12. The investigations were carried on simultaneously by Rostafinski in Strassb and Woronin in St. - fect the i peng which are beautifully done, being drawn by Wor As is well known Botrydium granulatum is a unicel- 74 Scientific Intelligence. lular Alga of a more or less pyriform shape, from whose smaller end grows a branching root-like process by which the plant is fastened in the moist ground. Small as it is, it is amply provided — with reproductive bodies as will be seen by the following : ere The contents of the pyriform portion may change into a lar, number of zodspores each provided with a cilium. 2d. If the PER becomes somewhat dry the pyriform portion shrivels, and the root fibres ave up into a apretea: of cells which m sc be transfor med which, after —* from the spore, unite in twos or some larger number so as to form what Rostafineki would call an isospore or, as is more cesenily expressed, a zygos The cells of Botrydium sometimes bud out at the ere and the budding processes, labs a time, send out hyaline _— and finally separate from the mother cell, forming a new indivi - In this connection, we would refer toa plant “which we Seals jena the past summer at Eastport, Maine, and Gloucester, Mass., where it was not rare on rocks and wharf at seid ring The species seems to be identical with Celiolum gregurium A. Br., found by Brown and afterwards by Pringsheim at icligeland, in company with least C. gregarium, should be included in Botrydium. w. 6. Om gars aca marina Klorofyll firande Thalloph rte By Dr. F. R. Kjellma Ueber die — Vajetatio des Murmanschen Meeres. By Dr. F. R. Kjellm Bidrag til Shanealeial af Kariska hafvets Algvegetation. By Kjellman. Bed. hE: The above named articles, which are extracted from the proceed- ings of the Swedish Royal "Academy are important contributions to our knowledge of arctic Algw. Dr. Kjellman as botanist of coast, in striking contrast to that of Norway, that there is an aiacet entire absence of littoral Fuci and ora, of all littoral * Botany and Zoology. | 75 species whatever. The most prolific region was in water about ten fathoms deep. W. G. F. 7. Leleie Specie nei Gruppi affini raccolte a Borneo. By Vin- cenzo Cesati. Prospetto delle Felei raccolte dal Signor O, Beccari nella Polinesia. By Vincenzo Cesati, Napoli.—The former article forms a pamphlet of forty-one pages, with four plates, in pea the writer enumerates the higher er yptogam s of Borneo and describes a number of new species. The latter aetials is much shorter and’ contains descriptions of about thirty new species and = es. w. . Notes on Botrychium simplex nner ; by GrorcE E Day opel 1877. Salem, Mass. 4to, pp. tab. 2.- o. Bacrehiaa. simplec i is a little Fern which was sch atari docnaag and figured in this Journal in 1823 (vol. vi, p. 103), by President Hitchcock. For many years it was very little known, and was confused with several other species of the same genus. "Dr. Milde, in vol. xxvi, of the Nova Acta Acad. Nat. Curiosorum, was the first to cle early define it, to associate with it forms more ‘hi ighly developed than the specimens known to hae Hitchcock, and to illustrate the species with ny se its several forms and Speen fe cea results of his studies upon other species. D. C. EATON. that when collecting fossils he finds large numbers of Trilobites on their back;* from this he argues that they died in their nat- ural position, and that when living they probably swam on their acks. He mentions, in support of his view, the well known fact that position. I have for several summers kept young horse-shoe erabs in my j and have noticed that besides thus often swim- hon on their Reoke, they will remain in a similar position for hours, perfectly quiet, on the bottom of the jars where mg are kept. When disy cast their skin it invariably keeps the same attitude on the bottom of the jar. It is not an uncommon thing to find on beaches, where Limulus is common, hundreds of skins thrown up and left dry by the tide, the greater part of which are turned on their backs, ‘An additional point to be brought for- Sea Lye. “Wat Hist., -xi, p. 155, dein: Twenty-eighth Report N. Y. State Museum, Dec., 1876. : 0 aaa 76 Scientific Intelligence. browsing, as it were, upon w what — find in their road, and washing away what they do not need Bo means = a pow erful current produced by their abdominal apy d by the hor. 10. New Species of Cer atodus, from the Jurassic ; by O. C. Marsu.—Among the interesting vertebrate remains recently found in the Jurassic of Colorado is a tooth of a Ceratodus, in good projections, which are separated by four notches. The front pro- Jection is longest, and most pointed. The et is attached to a portion of the dentary bone, as shown in the accompan ou The length of this “dental plate i is 20 mm., and the transverse diameter 11 mm. The species is the first Mesozoic Cerato- dus found in this spied aud hence of : much interest. It may be named Cerat- Ceratodus Giintheri. odus Giintheri, in aun of Prof. Natural size Giinther of the British Museum, The eam usc of this species is in the Atlantosaurus beds of ve upper Jurassic.— Communicated by the Author. ' JV. Astronomy. The phish Meteors.— At my request, Messrs. Benjamin Vail and John P. Carr, students in the State University, kept watch last night for the November meteors. The earl part of the night was too cloudy for observations, but tefokS. ta o’clock this morning (the 14th) the sky had become quite clear. In one hour and fifty minutes—from 1.55 to 3.45—fifty-four meteors were oe gia by the two observers. is was at the rate of thirty per hour. Nearly all were Leonids—that is, the ee from which they radiated was in the constellation Leo. 0 ONH. ? 3+" S80, SO.< : ~ONH, + 380,<0N Ht —3NH,=380: Rha ae Bigg u and so remained up to a hei ht of four or five centimeters, Teach- ing 650° at the height of six centimeters. Mixtures of air and Sid in a Bunsen burner closed below, and the temperature measured in the hottest part of the flame. For one one volume of gas and three of air, 1116° ith four volumes of air the mixture would no longer burn in a Bu ; and burned from a at-wing burner gav mapera- and one-half CO,, a temperature of 1000°; one volume gas and two of CO, gave 860°; moe with three of CO, 780°. With four Hommes CO,, the mixture burned only in contact with a flame.— az. Chim. Ital., vii, 422, Sept. 1877. 2, 2 Sa 5. On the nciple of Maximum Work, as illustrated by the Spontaneous decomposition of Barium perhydrate.—As & funda- 144 Scientific Intelligence. mental deduction from his thermochemical researches, BERTHELOT proved long ago the tendency of chemical systems toward that composition which corresponds to the maximum evolution of heat. He now notes an excellent illustration of this law in the case of barium perhydrate, which decomposes spontaneously, while barium peroxide is permanent. A specimen of BaO, prepared in 1874 contained 9:4 oxygen in excess, and in 1877, 9°2 of this oxygen; showing its permanence. The hydrate however, BaO, (H,O),, prepared pure and kept moist, gradually decomposes, gas bubbles of oxygen developing in the mass, generating a pres- sure in the vessel, and forming a crystalline mass o hydrate BaO, (H,O),,. This decomposition is even more rapid under water. A specimen prepared in 1874 and kept moist, had spontaneous decomposition of barium perhydrate is not to be found in any symbolic considerations, drawn from a figurative arrangement of atoms; but is explained by very simple and very obvious principles, resulting from the regular action of molecular mechanics,”— Bull. Soc. Ch., I, xxviii, 502, Dec. 1877. G. F. B. 6. On the Hydrocarbon called Idryl.—Gotpscumiept has sub- ul was the alcoholic extract of the chamber deposit, and fused from 75° to 86°. By solution in alcohol, difficultly soluble flocks were observed which were filtered off and marked A. They fused at about 200°. From the filtrate, or from the more fusible por- dissolved in aleohol and mixed with a solution of picric acid. Red crystalline precipitates were thus nt. On concentration, additional picrate was obtained but ighter in color as it was more soluble. The portions having Chemistry and Physics. 145 nearly the same fusing point were united and recrystallized till this point was constant; eighty fractions being in this way con- i ee. The first ( in dark red i fusing at 220°; the second (D) was in large bright red_ brittle needles, fusing at 185°; the third AE) was in oot: yellow fine deli- cate needles, which fused at 144°. On examin ing the fractions obtained A yielded a small care of a body insoluble in ben- fraction D a new hydrocarbon having the formula C a whisk though not Gas al with Bédecker’s substance—this being pro ably a mixture of pyrene and phenanthrene—the author proposes to call idryl. Further researches lagp 8 its constitution are in progress.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., x, 2022, Dec 1. Onthe Determination of Nitrogen in Ni troglycerin. —LAUER and Apor have made a series of experiments to ascertain the best method of determining nitrogen | in be POLL eh Solution of the of the nitrogen by Reichhardt’s method, gave too low results. The dynamite was then shaken with water, the deposited nitroglycerin dissolved in alcohol, the alcoholic solution treated with potash and on ssiwnesly and yielded she, theoretical ‘quantity, 18°5 ap: ia — rl. Chem. Ges., x, 1982, Dec 8. On Anis Hydantoins. gtr we direct union of pono acid and glycocoll, hydantoic acid is produced : door *4+CONH =Cco Ry e &. eel ® Qu 9 ° re) ro) Ps =] ea %, e =a oO ae) ber } 4 ct > ° ba ae o fas) several months and attain a considerable size. Ww. G F. anew Species of Parasitic Green Alga belonging to the Chlorochytrium = found b Prot. Wright on several plants, the parasite which is very common on Keto rpi of o coast. At the end of the second article is a consideration of the iferent forms of sporangia found in British species of Eetocarpus. . that his method is free from errors, he submits the following ex- spiration are the ones absorbed by chlorophyll trauspiration be ee mee to their own convertible energy ; it t with greater energy, although only partly ab- sorbed by chlorophyll, than can a blue ray, pene inca orific radia- e a é bsorbed. ah @ ; ; apanese Lingula and Shell Mounds.—At a meeting 0 = Boston Society of Natural History, December 19, Professor WARD 8. Morse communicated some of the results of his work Botany and Zoology. 157 in Japan. His main object in visiting Japan was to study more fully a group of animals upon which he has been at work for a long time—the Brachiopoda. Accepting an appointment as professor of Zoology in the Impe- rial University of Tokio he established a Zoological station on the coast for the purpose of collecting material for the University Museum and for the training of Japanese assistants in the work. Ilis studies of Lingula have brought out many points new to science. The discovery of audito In ss been changed twice since August 20th, and yet no specimen died. This illustrated more fully the vitality of Lingula than the experiments he had made on the North Carolina Lingula several years since. : A description was also given of an ancient shell-mound discov- ered by Professor Morse at Omori near Tokio, and photographs of many of the vessels exhumed were exhibited. The general aspects of the deposit were like those described by Steenstrup in Denmark, ’ ates coast. The implements were mostly horn. Only three rude stone imple- ments were discovered. The pottery was remarkable in showing = Low | a <4 oO oe ° Laur) ° J S ) 5 fae) 5 E =) 5 + 5 s emt cr = EA < d F Qu ® ~ =] In the character of the raised knobs for handles on the edge of the vessels it shows the closest resemblance to pottery discovered by Professor Hartt in Brazil. Mr. Morse was not pre whether it was early Aino or a race which ‘ the Ainos and which the Ain i in their occupation of the island 158 Scientific Intelligence. The American Naturalist.—The January number of this sci- entific monthly comes to us from Philadelphia, where this Journal is to be published hereafter by Messrs. McCalla & Stavely. Protessor E. D. Cope is now associated with Professor Packard in the editorial management of the journal. It has always been successful in combining the scientific and popular in its articles, and has contributed greatly to scipnoeeducation 4 in the country as well as to the progress of geet ; and the Prospectus states that this will, be still its aim. It is also announced that the depart- ment of birds will be edited by Dr. Coues, and that of micros- copy by Dr. R. oe Ward; and that Professor O. ia poe will interest, maki an attractive journa mateur as well as the man of science. It has for its mata a a beautiful col- ored plate of Baird’s Bunting,—Passerculus of Coues,— illustrating a paper by Dr. Elliot Coues, U.S. A. Professor J. A. Allen has a paper on An inadequate “ The birds’ nests,” in which, after stating various facts, expresses the following conclusion: ‘“ surprising thing about Mr. allace’s ‘theory of birds’ nests’ is its inadequacy and its irrelevancy to the as proposed to explain; espect it was a >a for the Bulletin is only two dollars Nests of “ the dener.”—In the Annali ai Stori ria naturale ael pt Civico di Genova, the illustrious traveller and botanist, Prof. eccari, describes the wonderful gallery or bower-con- structions of the Amblyornis inornata, observed by himself in the Arfak Mountains. The huts and gardens, as built and laid out by this bird, which is called “the gardener,” to surpass any production of intelligence and taste for the waniited hitherto described and observed in birds of the Paradise family.— Nature, Dee. 6, p. 110. IV. Astronomy. tie Meteors observed in Cambridge, Mass,, November 3, 1877. m the d same radian. which was near 0 Mars, pea! their directions were towards the S.W., all Avene Is to the ‘Mere radiant. B.A me Ps. H. . Prize for the discovery of Comets,—The ye my of aSrideni at Vienna has resolved to continue, un raat notice, the prizes, Belecte se Since 1872, for the discovery of telescopic of such a prize, consisting, according to the wish of the receiver, either in a gold medal or in its money Miscellaneous Intelligence. 159 value of twenty Austrian ducats, is connected with the following conditions : (1.) Prizes are awarded only for the first eight successful dis- coveries of each calendar year; for comets that, at the time of their discovery, were telescopic, i. e., invisible to the naked eye, that had not been seen before by any other observer, and the c be supplemented at the next occasion by later observations. (4.) If the comet should not have been verified by other observers, the prize will be awarded only when the observations of the dis- coverer are sufficient for determining the orbit. (5. e prizes each year. If the first notice of the discovery a t the first March and the last May, the prize will be decided in the gene ay session of the Academy in the next year. ) Application for the prize is to be made within three months after e ews of the discovery has arrived at the Imperial Acad- emy. Later applications will not be considered. (7.) The astronomers of the observatory of the University at Vienna will be judges, whether the conditions contained in arts. 1,3 and 4 have been fulfilled. ; 3. Index Catalogue of Books and Memoirs relating to Nebule and Clusters, de. ; by Epvwarp S. Hotpey. Smithsonian Institu- tion, Washington, 1877. 8°, pp. ix and 111.—About half of this Holden is devoted to the catalogue : a list of books and memoirs relating to the nebula in Orion; a similar list of those Nebule and Clusters. V. MisceELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. Telephone in England.—Col. W. H. Reynoxps has concluded a contract with the English Government by which the Post Office Department has. adopted the Bell telephone as a part of its tele- was heard through the telephone, and individual voices were dis- tinguished. This important experiment was conducted by Mr. J. Bourdeaux, of the Submarine Telegraph Company. very Successful experiments. were made with the telephone on Saturday 160 Miscellaneous Intelligence. o9) =) =] 0g wm p<) 3 3.8 O° a © 2 N is") nm 4 oO vg o Qu pe if] ae re =} Q ct — Bs cot os = ow mR ss E. co a cas) Ss S 5, © ° 5 ® => ng > ad Ss 5 a es ae Ni Ss. ~ g Py d oe S ~ o Art. XXI.—Coggia’s Comet—its Physical Condition and Struc- ture. Physical Theory of Comets; by Prof. W. A. Norton. ments of the pa ted by M. Schulhof (Astr. Nachr., No. 2003). T=1874, July 885664, G. M. T., 7=271° 6 195, O=118° 44’ 25’°3, 1=66° 20’ 58’6, log. g=9°829826, which gives, per. dist. g=0-67581. Motion direct. ° Nature and Condition of the Cometic Matter.—The following are the general results of. the observations made with the spec- troscope and polariscope* with the view of ascertaining the nature and condition of the matter of the comet; in the nucleus . and coma or envelopes, and as more widely diffused in the tail. (1.) The light of the tail and coma was partially polarized in a plane through the axis of the tail. (2.) The spectrum of the comet consisted of three or more bright bands on a continuous spectrum. This continuous spec- trum was faint on July 7, but became much brighter by July 14. The three bright bands were identical with those obtained by passing a spark from an induction coil through gaseous * Month. Not. . Soc., 187 489 to 491; 1874-5, p. 83. Aatz. Nachr,, No. 2018 9p. 181082 Am, Jour. Scr.—Tarrp Senet. Vou. XV, No. 87.—Maxcu, 1878, 162 W. A. Norton—Coggia’s Comet. dioxide of carbon (carbonic acid gas). Other experiments have shown that the volatile hydro-carbons give, with the electric spark, the same spectroscopic bands; and that these are wholly due to the momentary incandescence of the carbon molecules of the compound. - Several other comets have given the same “carbon bands.” Brorsen’s comet, a faint circular nebula, invisible to the naked eye, proved to be an exception. Three bright bands were observed in its spectrum, but they differed in position and other features from the carbon bands. (3.) “The spectrum of the nucleus was continuous, but it appeared to have traces of numerous bright bands, and three or four dark lines also were seen.” (1.) From the bright bands observed we may infer that the vapor of some hydro-carbon. ; ‘ é e light of incandescence of the gaseous particles, which furnished the bands, must have been of electric origin; since the heat of the sun could not have been sufficient to ignite the most inflammable vapor. (3.) The continuous spectrum on which the three, carbon bands were seen, affords no decisive evidence of the presence 2 the coma of discrete solid particles, since it may have resulted from the solar light reflected from the gaseous particles. Such light would not have been sufficiently intense to give the dark solar lines. (4.) The “traces of bright bands” seen in the spectrum of the nucleus reveal the presence of vapors at its surface shining by electric light. The bright continuous spectrum may have wholly due to reflected solar light (since dark solar lines were not wanting), or partly to discrete solid particles render luminous by electric discharges. The light reflected from the solid nucleus, or from dense vapors or clouds near its surface, may well have been of sufficient intensity to make the gaseous n bands resulting from electric discharges inconspicuous. (5.) The spectroscope did not give any decisive evidence with to the state of the matter in the tail—whether gaseous or composed more or less of discrete solid particles; but since the tail was formed of matter flowing in continuous streams from the head, we must suppose that it was made up chiefly of gaseous particles, like the head. j (6.) The light of the tail was exclusively reflected solar ight. Si - W. A. Norton—Coggia’s Comet. 163 e ‘ The experiments of Professor Arthur W. Wright, of Yale College, on the: gases from stony meteorites,* have furnished strong evidence in support of the hypothesis first propounded by him, that the cometic substance is gaseous carbon dioxide. He found that “in meteorites of the stony kind, the character- istic gas is carbon dioxide, and this, with a small proportion of carbonic oxide (oxide of carbon), makes up more than nine- tenths of the gas given off at the temperature of boiling water, and about half that evolved at a low re 4 e spectrum of the gases, obtained by passing an electric spark through a small tube containing the gases at a low tension, consisted of the hydrogen and carbon spectra together. The three bright bands of the carbon spectrum were éoincident in position with those in the spectra of comets, and had the same relative order of intensity. The close relationship now known to subsist between comets and meteors renders it highly probable, as sug- ested by Professor Wright, that the cometic matter is iden- tical with the gaseous matter found associated with stony mete- orites, and consists chiefly of carbon dioxide disengaged from the nucleus of the comet by the heat of the sun. If we adopt this hypothesis with regard to the nature and origin of the cometic substance, the question arises in what condition does the carbon dioxide exist, in its association with the matter of the nucleus? We may at once admit, with Pro- of approaching the sun, the increasing amount of heat received from the sun should give rise to copious evolutions of the * This Journal, III, vol. ix, July, 1875, p. 44. 164 W. A. Norton—Coggia’s Comet. carbon-dioxide in the gaseous form—either continuously or in- termittently—and these may occur either simultaneously over large areas, or in limited streams or jets. A portion of the vapor evolved may be condensed into solid particles by the cold resulting from the rapid evaporation. In so far as the gas is in intimate physical association with the solid matter of the nu- cleus, it would seem that the heat of the sun would not at the perihelion distance of either Coggia’s Comet, the great comet of 1861, Donati’s Comet, or, indeed, of any of the conspicuous comets with a few exceptions, be intense enough to occasion such copious evolutions of gaseous matter as have been actually observed. Evolutions of occluded gas may, however, consti- tute the chief phenomena, produced by the solar heat, in the cases of the inconspicuous comets of short period, which, in re- treating from the sun do not pass sn the limits of the planetary system. The conclusions that have now been reached apply strictl only to the comets that have been spectroscopically observed, but they may be regarded as probably applicable also to other comets that do not differ greatly from these in the circumstan- ces of their approach to the sun and recess from him, and in the physical phenomena they have presented. The great comets of 1848 and 1860, that approached very near the sun, may have given off, in great abundance, aqueous or other forms of yaporous matter, derived from the liquefaction and the earth, permeated by free electricity increasing in tension from the surface of the nucleus upward; and that whatever Physical — of the Comet.—From numerous published the comet, I select that in which its peculiar eatures are most conspicuous. The cut is a copy of a drawing W. A. Norton— Coggia’s Comet. 165 communicated by R. S. Newall to A. C. Ranyard, showing the aspect of the comet, as seen at Ferndene on July 12th. In the accompanying description* it is stated that “the nucleus was very bright, with a disk tolerably well defined. In front of the nucleus (i. e. on the side toward the sun) was a fan- shaped light which seemed to arise from the overlapping or du- plication of the two tails, which streamed away behind (the nucleus) for a length of about 15°, forming, as it were, two luminous veils, delicate, transparent and flickering, having be- tween them a black space well defined up to the nucleus. The edges of these tails appeared to be brighter than the middle part, and crossing over the nucleus they formed the sides of the ; the outside edges also crossing over formed the top of the fan and head of the comet. In front of this was another cov- ering semicircular and brightest in the preceding part, and in front of that was again another fainter envelope or cloud. This outer faint envelope, or duplex envelope, has been a no- ticeable feature in the aspect of other comets (e. g. Donati’s). et I. Physical structure and condition of the Comet.—Upon the vari- ous drawings made by different observers, Mr. Ranyard has the following remarks:+ ‘The drawings that were made o Coggia’s comet during the early part of July, 1874, show that although there was but one small almost stellar nucleus, there were two sets of parabolic envelopes situated side by side, ently overlapping one another just in front of the nucleus. * Month. Notices of Astr. Soc., 1875-6, p. 279. + Ibid. 166 -W. A. Norton— Coggia’s Comet. were shown in the drawings made by Mr. Huggins and Mr. Christie. They are also to be seen in Mrs. Newall’s drawing (see cut, p. 165), and they were described by Mr. Lockyer in a letter published in the Times, of July 16th, on the structure of the comet. When the comet was again visible in the Southern hemisphere, the inner duplicate structure was still visible, but the outer ares had been dissipated.” The duplicate structure here referred to is a highly significant fact. That it may be uly appreciated it must be borne in mind that at the period when this structure was observed, the line of sight from the earth to the nucleus was inclined under a small angle to the since the ere contrast between the dark space behind the nucleus and W. A. Norton—Coggia’s Comet. 167 from the region exposed to the normal incidence of the sun’s rays, it appears, then, altogether fails of application to Coggia’s . comet. It gives the single hollow paraboloidal tail without duplication, which is entirely at variance with the facts of ob- servation. Physical Theory of cometary phenomena.—Now, if there be, in fact, two systems of jets, eminating from opposite hemis- pheres of the nucleus, and passing over from one to the other, we can look for the origin of such a state of things only in a supposed magnetic condition of the nucleus, and in the hypoth- esis that the lines of initial discharge lie in the direction of the . lines of the magnetic force ; or in lines having a certain relation to these. This consideration brings us to the proper point of view for the presentation of the definite physical theory of com- nucleus. This envelope, consisting of a diamagnetic gas, is traversed by the ideal lines of magnetic force proceeding from the nucleus, which are also lines of electric conduction through the diamagnetic gas. The electricity set free by the ascending currents of the gas, by reason of the diminished gaseous pres- sure, is propagated along these lines; and the impulsive force of the electric currents detaches streams of successive mole- cules of the gas, in the direction of the lines of conduction. La Rive’s well-known experiment of transmitting electricity through an attenuated gas or vapor surrounding a magnet, showed that the lines of force in the magnetic field were also Operate on other molecules not thus detached, with an intensity ‘sufficient to overcome their gravitation toward the nucleus. ' In my mathematical discussion of Donati’s comet* I reached the result that the tail of the comet was made up of matter of which a portion was solicited by an effective solar repulsion, * This Journal, Il, vol. xxxii, No. $4, July, 1861. 168 W. A. Norton—Coggia’s Comet. Frying Mer Aap showed that the ‘columnar structure” of the tail, signalized by Prof. Bond, was attributable to considerable variations, at short intervals, in the quantity of matter detached from the head of thecomet ; while the limits of variation of the effect- between the limits, repulsion=1-415 A and attraction=0°786 A. orce of Cosmical Repulsion.—Several hypotheses have been propounded with regard to the nature and origin of this force. But none of them appear to be free from serious objections. Several years since (1861) I suggested the hypothesis that the solar repulsion might consist in the repulsive action of free statical electricity. We have abundant evidence of electric excitation both at the surface of the sun and in the cometa sun as an electro-magnet + on the gaseous molecules of the comet. - - F. Zollner, in two elaborate papers published in the Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 2057-2060 and No. 2082-2086, has endeavored to remove the force of the several objections urged by Dr. Zenker to the electric theory of the lar repulsion, and gang the adequacy of this theory. Dr. Zenker has pub- our =m ‘ y A discus- sion, it does not appear that the above-mentioned objection has been set aside. It must be admitted, I think, that at present the tric theory rests under a of doubt. As for Dr. Zenker’s own reaction theory, to mention no other objec- tions, it is certainly wholly inapplicable to the case of a co ming as near the sun as did the comets of 1843 and 1860; and it obviously affords no explanation ee oe ure of ia’s comet. e term electro-magnet is meant a magnet which derives its magnetic condition from the continued operation of some external cause. ae W. A. Norton—Coggia’s Comet. 169 It_ was conclusively established by Faraday, by a series of careful experiments, that the gases, with the exception of oxygen, are rapidly changing one, in approximate correspondence with the varying rate of the orbital motion. The circular magnetic cur- Inequality of the Solar Repulsion.—Faraday established that the diamagnetism of a gas increased with its temperature. But by changes of temperature. But may not material variations oO diamagnetic condition result from the ewe discharges to — which the gaseous molecules are expose Looking at the matter from the general point of view I have taken in my papers on Molecular Physics, it appears that such dis- * This Journal, II, vol. xli, Jan., 1866. 170 W. A. Norion—Coggia’s Comet. cometic particles may differ greatly in size or mass. This coma. But both of these suppositions seem to be irreconcilable with certain facts of observation. Explanation of General and Special Phenomena.—It should be repulsion, whatever may be its origin, is exerted normally, or approximately so, to the surface of the body, and that the radial impulses of this force take effect unequally on different gaseous bly on solid cometic particles differing in size or mass. A mag- netic condition of the nucleus, sufficiently decided to determine e field, is however an essential feature of the theory. The precise character of the phenomena should depend, to s of rotation of the m this position there will be two efficient causes of special phenomena to be considered : (1) the point of maximum evap- W. A. Norton—Coggia's Comet. - 171 orating effect of the sun’s rays will probably fall at some point of either the northern or the southern hemisphere of the nucleus, instead of on the equator; (2) the magnetic poles will not coin- cide with the poles of rotation, and the magnetic equator will be more or less inclined to the plane of the equator of rotation, as well as to that of the orbit. From this it follows that the lines of force will, in general, be more or less inclined to the astronomical meridian planes of the nucleus; and hence that the initial directions of the jets of cometic matter will be in- clined to these planes b a meridian should result from the cold produced by a copious evaporation and the intercepting action of the vapors already be supposed : tor, and extend gradually both north and south. The Neti, directions of the discharges, and therefore also of the initi side, the gedaera becomes parallel to the equator (ecg), and thus to the radius vector (ce). From 0° to 35 172 _ W. A. Norton—Coggia’s Comet. this line, and beyond 385° diverges from it under a larger and larger angle. If the initial velocity is constant, as well as the solar repulsion, the escaping molecule should attain to its great- _est distance from the nucleus when the discharge occurs from the latitude of 35°, and in the precise direction of the sun, If then the process of electric dischar egin near the equator, and extend gradually to the north and south, the outer surface of the envelope formed will gradually move away from the nucleus, and attain its greatest distance when the process reaches the latitude 35°. The jets that issue from latitudes greater than that (about 35°) at which the direction is parallel to the radius vector, do not pass sensibly beyond the boundary line of the jets that proceed from points between 0° and 35° of the other aay wed, unless for such jets the projectile velocity is greater, or the solar repulsion less. BR 2 What has now been stated should be the precise result if the molecules after receiving a projectile velocity were exposed only to the retarding force of the solar repulsion. The effect- ive action of the nucleus would obviously modify somewhat the curve for each initial direction, and alter the limiting lati- tude for which the recess in the assumed direction is a maxi- mum. If this effective action is attractive, this latitude will exceed 35°, if it is repulsive, it will be less than 35°. * Ei ye, tiie W. A. Norton—Coggia’s Comet. | 173 distance to which the jets recede in the direction of the sun. We may then regard any expelled particle as issuing from the small sphere of sensible action of the nucleus with an initial velocity resulting from the projectile force of the electric dis- charge, and the retarding force of the nucleus (or accelerating force if the effective action should be repulsive); and as subse- quently retarded by the solar Pe Heeiate s we have seen, p. the solar repulsion, its velocity and direction of emergence from this sphere, becomes thei{initial velocity and direction. RR Ie 3. : : As, for any one molecule, the solar repulsion is sensibly constant t within the extent of the head of the comet, the p j molecule will be parabolic. If we regard the initial velocity est rec d which suffer the greatest retardation should form a similar luminous surface at a lower depth. The latter would eventu- 174 _ W. A. Norton—Coggia’s Comet. form the following side. The time required for any receding particle receiving an initial velocity in the line of direction of the sun, to reach its point of greatest recess, must have been less than twenty-four hours, in the cage of the two comets (Donati’s and Coggia’s) for which the intensity of the actual solar repulsion has been determined. Let nes gq (Fig. 3) represent the nucleus, or more strictly the surface of projectile discharge, and n’e’ s’q’ the sphere of sen- sible action of the nucleus ; e g being the equator and ce R the direction of the sun. The point p is at lat. 35°, and ris the point of projection of the jet which issues from the sphere n’e’ s'q’ in the direction 7’ A parallel toce R. The jets pro- ceeding from the are er issue from this sphere at various points from u to 7’. One of these jets proceeding from a certain point near e will have at v a direction at right angles to ce R, + If the jet discliarge extend beyond r to some point z the jet proceeding from z will emerge trom the sphere n erge the same sphere between 7’ and z’. Now letn’e’s' 7 (Fig. 4) any jet emerging from this sphere to the line n’cs' perpendic- ular to the radius vector ce’ &. Sup a Cosiated from W. A. Norton—- Coggia’s Comet. 175 shown in the diagram. The jets proceed from n’ ve’r’, and _were projected from the lower latitudes of the right hemis- phere, or between e¢ and r (Fig. 8). Jets issuing from the corre- sponding are e r, of the other hemisphere, would form a similar set of curves to the right of ce’ #. Other sets of parabolic jets are projected from latitudes above 35°, or from the ares r z and r, « (Fig. 8); but these will have sensibly the same outer boundary as those from e7’ ander, unless the initial velocity or the solar repulsion is different. It is to be observed that ce is so small a fraction of ce’ (Fig. 8) and ce’ so small a fraction of ¢ V (Fig. 4) that we may without material error regard v as coincident with n’, and 7’ as coincident with e’. ° ‘g oa’ 100 nie he 1B0 5, The hypothesis made in the construction of Fig. 4, that the solar repulsion is constant for all values of a, or in other wo magnetic needle on the earth’s surface, and varies, we may su pose, with the latitude according toa similar law. Let it be denoted by £. 176 _ W. A. Norton—Coggia’s Comet. In Fig. 5 the solar repulsion is assumed to be inversely pro- portional to sin 6. The change of direction of the jet while passing through the sphere of sensible action of the nucleus is neglected in the application of this law. Two systems of curvilinear jets are shown—one answering to values of a varying by 10° from 50° to 90°, and emanating from latitudes less than 35° of the right hemisphere, or from a portion of the arc er (Fig. 3); and another answering to values of a varying by 10° from 90° to 180°, and estimated from right to left. These em- anated from latitudes greater than 35° of the left hemisphere, or from a portion of the are r, x (Fig. 8’. The other corres- ponding systems of jets, emanating from portions of er, and r 2, would form the other half of the comet. If we consider all the jets issuing from the right hemisphere as forming one sys- tem, and all those issuing from the left hemisphere as forming another system, then for each system a will vary from 50° to 180°: and will increase from left to right for the first, and from right to left for the second. They answer to the supposition that the outstreaming extends from latitude 174° to 574°, in each hemisphere. It will be seen that the jets proceeding from the latitudes higher than 35°, for which a varies from 90° to 180°, recede to greater distances from the nucleus than those emanating from latitudes less than 35°, for which a varies from 50° to 90°. This of course results from the greater values of sin 6 that obtain for the first-mentioned set of jets. Thus, for the 130° jet sin 6=0-953, while for the 50° jet sin 6=0534. _ The envelope, Vaéd, or outer boundary of the latter system of jets thus falls within that, Va’ d’ a’, of the other system. The overlapping of the two systems of jets should accordingly be conspicuously visible, and an appearance presented similar to at of Coggia’s comet on July 12th, as shown in the drawing on page 165. Certain comets have presented peculiarities of appearance which I find, on a careful examination, admit of pisisdocsoty explanation on the hypothesis that the equator of the nucleus was inclined to * W. A. Norton—Coggia’s Comet. 177 the two branches of the normal tail, in connection with an anom- alous curvature of the first portion of the longer branch, when the comet was viewed from certain positions of the earth relative to the plane of the orbit, observed in the case of Comet II, 1862, and elaborately discussed by Prof. Schiaparelli and Prof. Bredichin. n this case we have only to suppose that the sun was vertical to points of one of the hemispheres, and as a consequence the jet discharges were mostly confined to that hemisphere. The longer branch of the tail was composed of jets issuing from the lower latitudes, while the less copious and more fluctuating discharges of matter subject to a diminished solar repulsion (p. 176) from r. The anomalous curvature of the former system of jets, and their interlacing with the other system, was a simple consequence of the greater intensity of the solar repulsion in operation on the former than on the latter. e curious phenomenon of the oscillation of jets first observed by Bessel in the head of Halley’s comet, and of which he offered in explanation the improbable hypothesis of a polar attractive force exercised by the sun upon the nearer portion of the nucleus, planes of different local meridians on the nucleus. As the planes * To illustrate, if the outstreaming were perm Be right perpen we (Fig. : : : us thoes easing Pe ress oc oul oor Am. Jour. Sci.—Tuirp Serres, Vou. XV, No. 87.—Maxcu, 1878. 12 £. Ue Vthe 178 H. L. Abbot—Transmission of Earth Waves. Art. XXIIL—On the Velocity of Transmission of Earth Waves ; by General H. L. Assor, Corps of Engineers. ADVANTAGE was taken of the explosion of 50,000 pounds of dynamite at Hallet’s Point, on September 24th, 1876, to meas- ure the velocity with which the shock was transmitted through the ground, both across Long Island and along the south bank of Kast River. The results were embodied in a paper read by me before the National Academy of Sciences, on October 18th, 1876, and subsequently again read and printed as one of the papers of the Essayons Club of the Corps of Engineers. n the number of the London, Edinburgh and Dublin Phi- losophical Magazine, for October, 1877, appeared a short review of this paper from the pen of Mr. Robert Mallet, F.R.S., a gen- tleman well known for his numerous and able contributions to seismology. In this article, he suggested reasons which | him to doubt the value and accuracy of the Hallet’s Point resu Even if I had felt disposed to enter into a controversy upon the subject, 1 should have been quite disarmed by the conclud- ing sentence of this article, which expresses views so just an liberal that it may well be quoted as an exemplar of the man- ner in which scientific questions should be considered. He writes : “Tn these objections I wish to be clearly understood as hav- ing no a priord difficulty in accepting a higher velocity of wave transit than the highest attained experimentally by myself. It is highly probable that such may be elicited by future experi- ‘ment. But should such cases arise, their results like all great physical truths, should only be credited upon unexceptionable observations or experimental evidence. While feeling justi- fied in making these objections, I wish to disclaim all contro- versial spirit or intention; loss of sight, indeed, and diminished energy would prevent my engaging in any scientific contro- versy, were any called for.” Believing, at the date of my first paper, that the data secured at the Hallet’s Point explosion demonstrated the necessity for more exact and comprehensive knowledge of the subject, I have, during the past season, taken advantage of the facilities offered by large sub-aqueous explosions at the School of Sub- marine Mining at Willet’s Point, to continue the investigation ; and, on October 23d, 1877, I read a second paper before the National Academy of Sciences, giving the results thus obtained. As only a brief abstract of this paper has appeared in print, I ropose now to give a summary a ie conclusions suggested y the whole series of experiments and, incidentally, to explain H. L. Abbot—Transmission of Earth Waves. 179 my reasons for believing that Mr. Mallet has not quite under- stood the parts of my first paper to which he has taken excep- tion. Limited space forbids any detailed explanation here of the method adopted for measuring the time of transmission of the shocks; especially as this is fully given in my printed paper, together with the notes of the observers in full. Suffice it to say that the instant of explosion and the time of arrival of the tremors, were electrically recorded on the same moving paper with extreme precision. The following table exhibits the data, of which only the first six observations were known to Mr. Mallet when he wrote his article. 88 3 3s Peer et . 33 Date, Observer. Cause of shock. 53 Se ; “Traperale ok e| ° | on. “ ele CCC miles. sees. secs. |ft. per sec. 1 |Aug. 18, '76.'Capt. Livermore |200 Ibs. dynm. + |B} 5 + 5280 + 2 |Sept. 24,°76.\Lieut. Young /[Hallet’s Pt. ex.| 5-134/A.| 7 +634 | 3873 + 3| “ “ & |Tieut. Griffin “ «| g-330/ B.| 63 |72°3 | 8300 4; “ “ ‘Lieut. Kingman] “ “ “ | 9-333) A./10°9 |23°5 | 4521 5} “ * |Tieut. Leach “ «& & 119-769| B. {12-7 |19°0 | 5309 6 |Oct. 10, '76.'Lieut. Kingman |70 Ibs. powder.| 1°360| A.| 5-8 |inst.| 1240 7 \Sept. 6, "77. Lieut. Kin Ibs. dynm.| 1°169| A.| 1°8 | 78 | 3428 8| “ “ & ‘Lieut. Leach © & "& 1 7-169|B.| O-7% [178 |; 8814 9 |Sept. 12, 77. Lieut. Griffin [200 lbs. dynm.| 1-340| A.| 1-05| 8:8 | 6730 a a hed Lieut, h « «© "«& | 4-349} B.| O8L)17-1 | 8730 1l| “ “ & |Tjieut. Griffin /70 Ibs. powder.) 1-340| A.| 1°27] 4°8 | 5559 | Dr eee Hplt # 1:340'B. | 0-84'15°1 | 8415 Mr. Mallet’s results mat ed Royal Society, and unquestionabl were reported many years ago to the y are to be accepted as exhib- figures : in sand : Be eee Boma. in discontinuous and much shat- te (tec i AR. Velocity in ft. per second - “ “ ve 5 ‘in more solid granite .--. .-.-- in quarries at Holyhead (mean) 1320 ft. The extraordinary differences between these rates and those measured at the Hallet’s Point explosion, and the apparent dis- crepancies of the latter among themselves, led me to so plan the new observations as to throw light upon two points: Ist, Does a telescope of high power detect a tremor in the mercury in advance of the one first revealed by a lower power? 2d, Is “ is bd “ “cc 180 H. L, Abbot—Transmission of Earth Waves. there a difference in the rate of transmission of the shocks, due to differences in the intensity of the initial explosion The method adopted was to station two observers near each other at a carefully selected inland position; each observing a mercury seismometer, and holding in his hand the key of an accurate Morse register to record the instant of arrival and the duration of the tremor. These seismometers were the same instruments used at the Hallet’s Point explosion. They dif- fered from each other only in the optical power of the telescope, that designated A in the table having a magnifying power of 6, and that marked B of 12. A fuse in the electrical circuit which fired the torpedo, was bedded in the cartridge of a field gun directed toward the ob- sion of the shock, the rejection of all the observations made with type A follows as a matter of course. They are valuable as exhibiting the rate of advance of waves having a certain in- Lieut. Leach, using a power of 12, recorded of the second observation of September 12th (No. 12), “ The gunpowder wave was peculiar, in having a much more gradual increase than has been observed in dynamite shocks. I should say it was at least two seconds in attaining a maximum, whereas the dynam- H. L. Abbot—Transmission of Earth Waves. 181 ite usually reaches its maximum in a very small fraction of a second.” of the tremor was much less. The reason is, that the initial earth waves were far more violent in the latter case, when the torpedo lay on the bottom in thirty feet of water, than in the former, when the charge was only submerged five feet in water thirteen feet deep, and thus expended much of its energy in throwing a huge jet of water 330 feet into the air. s Thus it will be seen that these records, and the velocities observed on the two days, all tend to confirm the idea that a slow-burning explosive, like gunpowder, generates a series of gradually increasing tremors which, at a distance of a mile, are at first quite invisible with the less sensitive seismometer ; and are only detected by it when near their maximum inten- sity. If Lieut. Leach’s estimate of time for the arrival of the orgie wave be accepted, we have, therefore, for the first ile: ’ ( Power of 12 gives 8415 feet per second. p rpedo j “ce 6e “ 59 “ “ i (70 lbs.) Estimated mini- | o4g9 «@ «we er gi m pow ves Shallow torpedo; actual minimum t 1240 “« « “ (70 Ibs.) power gi by No. 6and No. 11 has been already pointed out. Fora power of 12, the table shows that for the first mile: 400 Ibs. of dynamite give 8814 feet per second. 200: 2 a one 70“ “powder (deep) 8415 “ “ “* __If it be admitted also that the velocity of the wave dimin- ishes with its advance, all the data become accordant. Thus: 182 H. L. Abbot—Transmission of Earth Waves. 200 lbs. of dynamite give for 1 mile, 8730 ft. per second. oe 6s oc “ “ “ce 5 “c ¢ oe 6 ce 50.000 “* *& “ oe “cc 8 “6 8300 “be oe % en 2 “cc se “cc 134 (74 5300 OG “cs In fine, I believe that the following general conclusions are suggested by these measurements: Ist, igh magnifying 4th, are complex, consisting of many short waves first increasing and then decreasing in amplitude; and, with a detonating explo- sive, the interval between the first wave and the maximum wave, at any station, is shorter than with a slow-burning explosive. summary of the objections suggested by Mr. Mallet to the Willet’s Point observations will now be given ; although, in the new light thrown upon the subject by these subsequent measurements, perhaps he might not desire to press them. __ Mr. Mallet considers that the explosion at Hallet’s Point furnished data ill suited to determine the delicate physical problem of the rate of progression of a wave of disturbance through the earth’s crust, for the reason that the initial impulse was due to the combined effect of many small charges, and not of one single mass of dynamite; hence, as he states : : ‘\I conceive it, therefore, impossible with sufficient exacti- tude to assign the instant at which the wave of shock sta in this instance; and to assume the appearance of disturbed water above the seat of explosion, or the shock felt from the ground closely adjacent to it, as marking that instant seems to me, in either choice, to neglect many sources of error. ing unable to read my paper personally, he has not fully understood the manner in which the instant of the starting of the wave was fixed. The great mine was fired by a mecban- ical drop, which closed simultaneously all the twenty-three elec- trical circuits. One extra pin and mercury cup in this drop was provided by General Newton for my use, and the signal was absolute instant of closing the a A circuits was elevtrically i t is impossible that this records among themselves invalidate their accuracy. I have just shown how these apparent discrepancies are explained by Hi. L. Abbot—Transmission of Earth Waves. 183 the later observations at Willet’s Point; and have thus an- swered this argument which, when the results were first col- lated, suggested itself to my own mind. . Mallet next mentions certain objections that show him not quite to understand the geography and geology of the region separating Hallet’s Point from the four stations; which, in the absence of a map to illustrate the paper, is very natural. The straight line to Willet’s Point follows the shore and waters of East River, offering both a land and water route to the wave of disturbance. The other three stations lie in the in- terior of Long Island, with no water between them and Hallet’s Point. The intermediate country consists of low rolling hills formed of deposits of the clay, sand and boulders characteristic of drift, the geological formation to which they belong. The rated : rock, (3) by the fall of the water; and also to the wave-diffu- sion experienced in traversing long distances. He argues, therefrom, that the distances were too great for satisfactory ati Now the records show both the beginning and end of the mercury vibration, as well as the automatic signal sent by the explosion. The first and last determine the veloc- 184 Systems of Chemical Notation. served; and no absolute personal equation machine was avail- able. The officers were trained observers; and their distances greater will be the number of important facts developed ; and Mallet’s results and those here described to inaccuracy of obser- vation. Differences in the material traversed by the waves, and in the method of ubserving, may possibly explain them. If Mr. Mallet’s health will permit him to publish the details of his mode of observing, and to give the whole subject a general discussion, the paper will certainly find interested readers. Willet’s Point, N. Y. Harbor, Jan. 14, 1878. Art. XXIII.—On Systems of Chemical Notation. Letter of M. BERTHELOT to M. Marignac* (from the Moniteur Scientifique of December, 1877). has not been generall y accepted in France, it is because it has not succeeded, so far, in obtaining the good opinion of the majority of scientists; but, notwithstanding, imputations have not been spared that the partisans of equivalents are anima with a retrograde spirit. * An answer to the ae ; e Journal, February, ref igre tsemecag 2 Scientifique, September, 1877. (See this Systems of Chemical Notation. 185 Allow me, in the next place, to point out some observations on the fundamental part of the question under discussion. It presented itself before the Paris Academy of Sciences under two heads: the system of atoms, and the language or notation of atomic weights. You were right in separating these two things. I had tried to do the same thing, but with less dis- tinctness, in my last work, On Chemical Synthesis, in whic explained the system very fully, but without adopting it, and I said that the notation by atoms possesses certain advantages, but also some disadvantages. The discussion recently raised could not, in the nature of things, assume this methodical form; but I believe that I kept about the same ground, as I always said that the two languages expressed the same ideas in the same way, in most cases, except that special advantages belonged to each system of notation. Your conclusions seem to be about - the same as mine. The definition of equivalents, which you accuse me of not ° giving, was nevertheless presented during the discussion, and I will take the liberty of reproducing it: ‘ Equivalents express, in my opinion, the ratios of weight according to which bodies combine or substitute themselves for one another.” These ratios may be determined by the balance with infinitely as #4 base with those of the sesquioxides. It is only in a subordinate way, and for the purpose of giving greater precision to chemt- cal analogies, which are often somewhat vague, that physical oduced, such as the gaseous density, t, the crystalline form, the molecular volume in the solid state, ete. 186 Systems of Chemical Notation. ratios as in the gaseous state, it is for one of the two following reasons, either the specific heats of the solid elements change unequally with the temperature, as I believe is the case, or two gaseous molecules are united in one solid molecule, as the atom- ists suppose. In either case, it seems to me that the specific heats of solids must be put aside in the determination of abso- lute equivalents.* : L insist the more on this point that the new equivalents, if we attribute to this word the extensive meanin that you rightly give to it, introduce an undeniable complication in chemical reactions. In your classical researches on the specific heats of saline solution you found yourself obliged to double the atomic weights of hydrochloric and of nitric acid and of their salts, with the object of expressing with greater clearness the analogies and parallelism of their properties. You wrote: : H°Ccr’; Na’Cl’; N?0°, H*0; N*0°, K’0, and in the same manner you were led to double acetic acid and the acetates : C*H’O*, H’O ; C*H*0*, K’0. The same necessity has been felt by all those who have had to express the equivalent ratios of acids, of water and of bases, * I cannot accept your opinion on the absolute value of the law of Weestyn in calculation of the specific heats of solid . You know very well that M. Kopp, who went to the bottom of this question in 1864, found himself obliged, in verifying this relation, to attribute to the solid elements in their com- bination specific heats varying from 6°4 (silver, chlorine, nitrogen), down to 4 (oxygen), 2°3 (hydrogen), and 1-8 (carbon). Systems of Chemical Notation. 187 as may be seen in the remarkable papers of Mr. Thompson on Thermo-chemistry, and even in the new edition of Gmelin, now cringe) in Germany (see, among other things, iodie acid oO; HO). believe that it would be advisable, in the future, to set aside all promise such rich harvests of discoveries Benzeval-sur-Dives (Calvados), August 10th, 1877. ANSWER oF M. MARIGNAC. lot, while opposing this doctrine, seems to me to confirm it, as e was obliged to give a double definition. Sometimes these itutio ea st ~~ still this is not the value that has been chosen for its equivalent. 188 Systems of Chemical Notation. As M. Berthelot himself observes, we only differ in the opin- ion that each of us has formed on the part and relative im- acid. But if this has led me to group together two molecules of an alkaline chloride or nitrate, I was obliged, for the same reason, when taking the specific heats of sulphate of alumina or of alkaline iti i and phosphoric acid PhOS, and that the equivalents of alumin- be and phosphorus should be modified accordingly. ties of bodies by referring them to chemically equivalent weights, in cases where these — neither to molecular weights nor to the equivalents usually adopted, but we cannot conclude from this “that those weights ought to be adopted as symbols of notations, M. C. Lea—Reactions of Silver Chloride and Bromide. 189 Apart from all these things, I agree with M. Berthelot that it is not advisable to exaggerate the importance of these ques- tions, the solution of which cannot affect the important laws and theories of chemistry, and about which we can only reach a conclusion when we have arrived at more complete knowl- edge of the molecular constitution of compound bodies. This constitution itself will be doubtless revealed to us by researches on molecular mechanics, such as those on Thermo-chemistry, through which this eminent scientist aids so powerfully the advancement of science. ~ Art. XXIV.—On some Reactions of Silver Chloride and Bro- mide; by M. Carey Lea, Philadelphia. long continued action of nitric acid was there any decomposition of the darkened chloride, and even then, traces only of silver were taken up by the acid. : It therefore appears that the substance produced by the action of light on silver chloride is of a much more permanent char- acter than in the case of the other silver haloids) Some other reactions noted in the course of the examinations which appear not devoid of interest, are given below. altered substance, and completely change its character. As to the first point—the small proportion of material actually altered by light. It is generally thought that silver chloride ts by the action of light to a sub-chloride containing half 190 M. C. Lea—Reactions of Silver Chloride and Rromide. as much chlorine as the normal white chloride. _ Yet the loss of chlorine has been found too small to be weighed. Fresenius doubts if a loss in weight could be detected by the most delicate balance, and Von Bibra in the investigation above referred to, could not find the slightest loss in weight. . With a view to obtain some quantitative indication in the matter, the following determination was made. Silver chloride was precipitated with an excess of hydro- chloric acid, was well washed, and exposed to bright sunlight for five days. During this time it was spread in a very thin layer over the bottom of a large white porcelain basin, was fre- quently stirred up to bring constantly new surfaces to the light, and was kept moistened with water. Of the resulting dark powder two grams were taken and were thoroughly treated with sodium hyposulphite to remove the unaltered chloride. Previous experience had shown that extraordinary precautions were necessary to effect this thor- oughly, as the removal of the last portions of normal silver chloride is very difficult. Accordingly the strong solution of hyposulphite was many times renewed, each time being left to act for from twelve to twenty-four hours. Finally the gray residue (metallic silver) was washed, dried and weighed, an found to amount to twenty-one milligrams. It thus appears that as the result of five days’ action of strong sunshine, with frequent stirring up and mixing to bring fresh portions to the light, about one per cent only of the silver chloride was acted upon. And if we suppose this action to con- sist in removing one-half the chlorine, then the whole loss 12 weight by the action of the light should be but little over one- tenth of one percent. This proportion is of course not inap- preciable, and the observations of Fresenius and of V. Bibra above quoted must be taken as referring to shorter exposures. It was mentioned that another difficulty in verifying the nature of the action of light lay in the fact that those sub- stances which can “is or dissolving out the unaltered chloride, also unfortunately attack the altered substance. The two reagents most effectual for this removal are sodium ts s The facts here mentioned lead to the curious reflection that the permanency ¢ ordinary : prints is greatly diminished by the fixing process. FOF M. C. Lea— Reactions of Silver Chloride and Bromide. 191 When cold nitric acid, sp. gr. 1:28, is poured over a goansity C quickly whitened by aqua regia, it is reasonable to conclude that the dark matter contain less chlorine than the normal, and is either a subchloride or an oxychloride. Beyond this, we know nothing with certainty When the dark substance was boiled for several minutes with the same nitric acid, no silver was extracted. But when the vessel was placed on a sand bath and kept at or near boiling point for eighteen hours, renewing the acid as it escaped, a dis- tinct effect was produced. The substance became a little lighter in color, and the acid was found to have taken up enough sil- ver to show a strong opalescence by addition of hydrochloric acid ; not enough however to give an immediate precipitate. monia and sodium hyposulphite have this in common, that both leave metallic salien behind when the darkened chloride is submitted to their action. In the case of the sodium salt, it is of course understood that it is presented in strong solution and very large excess. Silver Bromide. Silver bromide was precipitated with excess of KBr and well washed, and exposed to light. When cold nitric acid, sp. gr. 1°28, was allowed to stand for ‘One minute over the darkened bromide it took up silver abun- dantly. Allowed to act for an hour at a heat considerably be- low 212° the color of the darkened bromide had considerably changed and at the end of seven or eight hours, com plete decom- position had taken place. The resulting AgBr is lemon yellow and has more the general appearance of iodide than of bromide. Philadelphia, Jan., 1878. influences. To a considerable on this v substitution of gold for the metallic silver. < The use of a fixi “reatment can of course never be dispensed as it is essential to remove the unaltered chloride. But it is evident that if a substance sage be found which would remove the te : chlo mechs nega reg wh by li a great advan ing that which has been da pores fem ti apgardiaggir: Ges Stopped when the right strength was obtained, without being allow for nite effect sf the fixing agent, and the print obtained w probabl: be alwa: perfectly permanent. ~ ee : The fact that both sodium ky posulphite and ammonia in removing the unaltered chloride, reduce the altered to metallic silver, explains why the gold toning opera- tion succeeds much better when applied after the fixing operation, than before it. 192 A. 8. Kimball—Journal Friction at Low Speeds. Art. XXV.—On Journal Friction at Low Speeds; by A. S KIMBALL, Professor of Physics in the Worcester Free In- stitute. experiments consisted of—Ist. A pair of cone pulleys giving i the work shop. w with a pulley by which it was driven. The journals on this shaft were seven-eighths of an inch in diameter; they revolved in cast iron boxes three and .one-half inches long, truly bored and polished. A thin cut was planed from the upper half of each box, so that when resting upon its journals it was not quite in contact with the lower half Above each box was 4 lever of the second class, by means of which it was possible to apply any desired pressure to the revolving journals. The A. 8 Kimball—Journal Friction at Low Speeds, 198 course of the experiment is obvious. The experimental shaft, loaded with a known weight, was driven at different speeds, the rewired power noted, and the coefficient of friction calculated. he results of seven series of experiments are shown in the following table, in which the first column shows the velocity of the circumference of the journal in feet per minute, the seven following columns giving the correspunding coefficients of fric- tion. Since it was found impossible to maintain the same state of lubrication for any great length of time, every series which could not be completed in one half day was left unfinished. Taste I. Af a. b C. d. é. Fo g- 5 is (-° aes 0° WPS 6: Hines 7 SPC) | RT a | 2°17 “153 150 l 131 129 114 109 5°15 122 128 122 “080 "080 097 “083 10°99 “089 086 “069 067 080 060 Sd ae ot "068 058 “066 052 053 42°86 “068 “060 "045 "041 In spite of the irregularities to be seen in this table, the law as stated above is clearly shown. Some of the discrepancies are doubtless due to variations in the state of lubrication of the journals. The pressure on the lower boxes in series a, ¢, d an e, was 180 pounds; in series 6, fand g, 210 pounds. Ina, 8, c,d and e, the journals were lubricated by wiping them with a handful of waste saturated with sperm oil. In / and g, as experimental shaft: Taste IL Speeds, 59’. 217. 616 10°99! 19°71’. 42°86" (55 4°3 3°5 2°5 2-0 2-0 54 4°2 3°6 26 1°9 19 . 5°38 4°3 3°6 2°5 1°9 1°9 Differences | 54 44 3°5 2°5 2-1 1-9 ie PES wuae ers ae 24 19 2-0 : 5-5 4°3 3°5 2°3 2-0 2-0 5-4 4°3 3°6 2°5 2-0 2-0 54 4°3 3°6 2°5 1°9 1°9 Averages, 5°41 4°28 3:65 2°47 1°96 1-96. Coefficients, 187. "148 "122 "086 068 068 The variation in observations taken at the same some is nearly identical in every series with that shown in Table Am. Jour, So. —Turep Serres, Vor. XV, No. 87.-- Manon, +78. 13 . 194 A. S. Kimball—Journal Friction at Low Speeds. In order to eliminate as far as possible gradual changes in the condition of the rubbing surfaces, the following order of observation was adopted in each series. Calling the slowest speed No. 1, four observations were made alternating between Nos. 6 and 1. “ .T4 2. 7. BE ees (74 6 5, ete. 1, a & me ho OH Ee a “cc 6. lower speeds were decisive. The most probable values of the coefficient as shown by a graphical construction of all these ex- periments is shown in BLE III. Speed, Noe 48 47 10 AG ay 40" 40. 60° 00 Coefficient, 150 *122 -104 -093 -079 -066 -058 ‘054 053 °052 -051 050 Thus we see that the conditions under which journal friction usually occurs are such that the maximum coefficient will be found at a very low speed. While using a journal 6” in diam- is great in comparison, or on the other hand so great as to pro- duce abrasion. An experimental examination of this point turbing slightly the adjustment of the machine. These results’ as the specific pressure on the journal increases even when the, pressures are quite large. Brightness of the Satellites of Uranus. 195 Taste IV. Pressures are given in pounds on a square inch of longitudinal journal section. Fr; Coef’ts at 59” per min. Coef’ts at 2°17’ per min. "154 "159 136 0 23°5 15 36°8 157 "156 138 130 50°1 149 147 119 124 63°4 149 153 117 127 76°7 153 “152 108 126 90°0 151 "150 109 123 103°3 155 "150 111 127 116°6 149 "145 113 124 129°9 147 "146 112 "123 143°2 145 "146 113 121 156°5 147 "147 113 124 169°8 146 "146 112 121 183°1 145 "148 109 124 196°4 144 "145 111 125 The larger part of the experiments referred to were made by esper, a student of the Institute, whose patience and care deserve especial mention. ArT. XXVI.— Observations of the Brightness of the Satellites of -_ Oranus. [Communicated by Rear-Admiral John Rodgers, U.S.N., Superintendent U. 8. Naval Observatory.] It was surmised by Professor Newcomb that the brightness of Ariel varied in different parts of its orbit (Wash. Ast. O 1874, Appendix I, p. 48,) and that it was least bright in p=180°+ duri 74. koe There have been observed in 1874-5-6-7 nineteen position angles of Ariel: of these, seven were 180°, and twelve were 0°+. : : A better test is the following: on fifteen nights this satellite was bright enough to allow of measures of distance. On six 0 these ee e nine the 196 Brightness of the Satellites of Uranus. Dr. H. C. Vogel has suggested that Titania also is of varying brightness in different parts of the orbit. arly attention was ven to this point. The following extracts from the observing Cooke may be of use, when an exact photometric determination comes to be made. The weight indicates the steadiness of the images, five being perfectly steady. The epee given are to the nearest degree in p and nearest second in s. 1875. Jan. 26. Titania; p=260°, s=19”. We 4, Titania is fainter than I have ever seen it—HN. 1875. March 4. Four stars visible besides Oberon and Titania. Oberon, p23ie: s= 26° Titania, p= 184° gosz 85" Star 1, p= 350°+ s= 80° Star 2, p= 20° s= 100’4 Star 3, p= 130°+ s=130°4+ Star 4, p= 95°+ $= 200°+ Order of brightness ; 4, 1, 8, 2; and 2 somewhat brighter than Titania.—HN. 1875. May 25. Oberon: p=230°, s=31”. Titania: p=21°, s=30". on very faint [and therefore as nothing is said of bright- -_ ci ptsies Titania brighter than Oberon at same dis- S76. fan. 14. Oberon: p=11°, s=28"") Titania: p=48°, s=2T7" § Titania much brighter than Oberon. Moonlight.—HN. 1376. Jan. 20. Oberon: p=821°, s=27” Titania : p= 186°, s=34” | Ser of Oberon quite difficult [and of Titania not so. }—HN. 1876. Jan. 25. — ; p=181", s=44” Wt=2. = 852°, s=31" Oberon easier = see (brighter) than Titania.—HN. 1876. Jan. 26. Titania in p=310°, s=16”. Wt. 5. — is son the smallest distance at which Titania has been 1876. Jan. 31. ~— a =716°, s=17” | w riel: p=29°, s=12” Sut Titania is at ot twice as bright as Ariel. Ti ~— is decidedly brighter than the satellite of Neptune. It is easier to see (under these conditions, Wt=5) within 16” of Tenino: than the satellite of Neptune within 16” of Neptune.—HN. 1876. Feb. 2. Oberon : p=888°, s=88" | tlania; p=T°, s= =34"{ After careful examination with 800 A and 400 A, I cannot decide which is brighter, Oberon or nee but if there is any differe’ Titania is the brighter.— Brightness of the Satellites of Uranw; - 197 1876. Feb. 18. Oberon : : ee it Titania | Wt=4t. 1876. Feb. 20. Star near aco - p=89°, s= 27’. Wt=1. This star is about ‘she brightness of ey. = Titania. an Oberon Lae ice for Thence p=lbl°+) 1876. March 3. Two stare, eo Uranus, fos slightly righter than Oberon. Star = 280°, s= Sta : ere s=50” estinated. Not much difference in the brightness of Oberon ani. Awana. [For Oberon p=236°, for Titania p=268° +}. Umbriel: p=23°, s=20" Wt=3. Ariel: p=173°, s=13” “a Umbriel i ‘5 more steadily seen than Ariel but nat aed more 80. Then reduced aperture to. fifteen inches. _Umbrie was cer tainly seen and its position eould haye been mcngarel poy was not certainly seen. Sky azy. Bright m Mar. 4. Ariel: p=’, s=18". “Mooolightand a ta: Titania is decidedly prance han Ob her f 1876. March 18. Oberon? ps , 8 cy 05'S Titania: palo’, s=80"S oe eda Oberon is Baki? than Titanta,—H. Aine agi ike’ oy. 1876. March 14. a R penes g=1 mbri pale’ s=19" Titania : p=126°, s=18" one speci e327" 1876. March 22. Conon Ea =78°, cit ne Se sa Titania : p=161°, s=26" vat ene Titania much ogee pai, “3, ue 1876. March 23 : p= s if : SS Titania : es pt We=8 Oberon ogi nae than Titania —# j u e we Titania: paar om’ Oberon brighter than Titania.-# by Epear F. Sur » Recen*ry I was’ led to try the action of bromine and sodium hydrate Hy nae fuivétibed chromic iron, and as the amount of un extracted in this manner was rather surprising, the ia followin oi dx penitent were made, to ascertain a effect. bro- : mine aloe would have upon the same substan » L Mocerate rately fine chromic iron (+1500 sine was placed in a tube o hard ‘and after adding dilute bromine water and roles | the tube, the latter was placed in an ai ir-bath and << a twele Bi 2, at a temperature about 180° C. When cool thet its contents sear upon a “filter. - The tubhele jeaided was théroughly washed by decantation, oe and upe the filter, with hot water. The filtrate after concen- peal vas treated yf a slight excess of ammonium hydrate, ; he -precipi of aluminum hydrate, etc. The Jat- solored filtrate then vs Panag The predpitate formed, after protracted digestion, was sltdveod to settle key the dei ar Itered. After washing, the pre- was'"dissol lved few drops of dilute Agee cid an ‘ecipita “Operation was repeated and the recipit 5 ‘Ynally transferred to a filter, washed, dried and ed. The amount of ahresne pete found | ereee E. F. Smith— Decomposition of Chromis, iron, 199 stance appeared to be perfectly desoreppnet, the solution was remove Ac ge the sat and evaporatedin a — to expel the large excess of moet upon the, spradual. disgp distnnearance of which a dark powder showeditself., The solution was st strongly diluted with water and filtered. The insolubje pesidue was thoroughly washed with hot gyater. Dried am Eva this weighed ‘0140 grams. condition. To this end the:material that h an impalpable powder in an, agate mortar was €le-~oted, hen dried and two distinct portions of 1600 grams e:ch placed in good hard glass tubes. To each portion was acle] 4 rather large quantity of bromine water_am from ten to Wave e dcppe af bro omine. Both tubes were heated for one day % 139° For two successive days the temperature was mailsined at 170°C. At the atone of a third ga ox of i fies and opene was removed from the oven ) ape eer to I ra complete was to have the chiens iron in an foo: the The whole was pou a beaker * Sorated, water added and PN ag The eet was thorou ile ashed, dried and ignited, then transferred to a beaker an ‘pith dilute hydrochloric acid. The entire mass dissol¥' at and without a residue. The veer eatiahtd was, ierefore complete The Bitcats from the iron oxide was evaporated ‘a me dryness after the addition of an excess of ammonium iydrate, then diluted and filtered. The sokivor was reduc with The second tube, evel at On ng pe the fst id a large amount of separated ferric oxid off the chromium solution also dissolved very readily warm, dilute hydrochloric acid, oe ‘pot the least trace o° Lig e. ae from. this, after be mg. similarly treated Babove, lelded 62:83 chromium ox! . These results accord with those of Garrett, who an), bec ore from Texas, red nisi ‘ btained a about GB: cent same chromic oxide. & yey te hae ad 200 EB Wilson— New genera of Pyenogoni scdetes al te ‘water were heated t 125° C., but invaria- bly exploded before wae decomposition was completed, and therefore 10 farther attempts | were made to use the alkali to ons me » Allthat is to effect the complete decomposition of chromic i Ne sentiag this method is that the substance be ex: ingly fine card, that the same be exposed with bromine toa temperaturef 180°C. from two to three ders The addition of near dogs pens anton the decomposition idedly Dacincd by the ignitioks of the may be brought into solution again by | acl eat m2 ue in a beaker. of Pennsylvania, Dec. Descriptions of two new genera. of Pyenogonida ; Witson. Brief Contributions to, Zoology certain genera (e. lene ulated to the hae us and ann by means of which le marillare tes Tiveitebeitll - 250, Pi be 1874 (non Stimpson) E. B. Wilson—New genera of Pycnogonida. 201 Oculiferous segment broad, as long as the two following seg- ments taken together, not emarginate between the bases of the antenne. Neck swollen. Posterior segment of body very slender. Abdomen rather more than twice as long as broad, slightly bifid at the extremity. Ocutiferous tubercle prominent, acute, placed on the anterior portion of the first segment. Eyes four, ovate, varying in color from light brown to black. Rostrum very large, longer than the oculiferous segment, con- stricted at base, thus appearing somewhat clavate. The extrem- ity is subglobose. Antenne hairy, long and slender, their bases closely approxi- mated. Basal joint. extending beyond extremity of rostrum. Chela stout, hairy. Dactylus very stout, smooth on margin. Ovigerous legs stout, roughened by minute tubercles, the outer joints with many strong hairs, most of which are di- rected backward. The two basal joints are very thick; the first is shorter than its width, the second about twice the rst. The succeeding joints are much more slender. The third is nearly two and a half the second, somewhat cla- vate, and suddenly constricted a short distance from the base. Fourth joint half the third. Fifth considerably less than fourth. Terminal joint much Fig. 1.—Anoplodactylus witus. Terminal joints of leg; 6, ov- igerous leg. considerably longer and clavate. The three following joints are much longer, the sixth being the longest. The seventh is a series of much smaller stout spines. The dactylus is stout, about two-thirds as long as the propodus. The whole surface of the body is scabrous. ‘The legs bear a few scattered hairs, which are more numerous on the outer joints. e genital orifices are situated on the lower side of the second joint of the legs, near the external margin. The sexes resemble each other closely except in the absence, in the male, of the ovigerous legs. ‘The males are also, as a rule, slightly larger than the females. ‘It is most frequently deep purple in color, but gray and brown specimens are often met with. ( Verrill). This species is common in Vineyard Sound, but does not 202 F. B. Wilson—New genera of Pycnogonida. near the base of the third joint for an articulation. Length of body in largest specimens (inclusive of rostrum and abdomen), 7 millimeters. Legs, 30 millimeters. Pseudopallene, (gen. nov.). Body robust. Neck broad and thick. Rostrum more or less acute. Antenne three-jointed, chelate. Palpi wanting. Oviger- ous legs composed of eleven joints. Legs nine-jointed. Dactylus lus is armed with two very large auxiliary claws. A Pallene, probably be referred to Pseudopallene. Having seen no speci- mens of these species, I have been unable to verify this. O collection of the Peabody Museum, dredged by the United States ish Commission in Johnson’s Bay, near Eastport, Maine, in 12 fathoms rocky bottom. Stimpson records it from deep water off rand Menan, “on Asridie callose.” His description being in- y very broad, oval, neck not constricted. Oculiferous tuburcle small, rounded four, ovate, light brow Oculiferous segment half as long as t nd and J. L. Smith—Tantalite from Alabama. 203 Rostrum as long as oculiferous segment, with a constriction on each side below, giving it the appearance of being articu- lated at this point, acute-conical, with a rosette of filamentary processes around the terminal mouth. Antenne hairy, stout and swollen, about twice as long as the rostrum, tipped with amber color. Basal joints enlarged near their attachment. The second joint has a prominent rounded tubercle on the lower end, behind which the dactylus closes. Ovigerous legs slender, eleven- jointed, terminal joint ‘elaw-like, trifid. Fifth joint somewhat cla- vate, considerably smaller than the fourth. The four outer joints are armed with three or four stout, smooth, curved spines. Legs very stout, the three basal joints short, overlapping each other in an imbricated manner. Fourt joint as long as the three basal joints taken together, much di tended by the ovaries in the speci- Dias men described. Fifth, aslong as Fig. 2 the fourth but much more slender. 4 Terminal apart Se Sixth, longer and more slender. eee a Seventh (tarsus) very short, nearly triangular. Kighth slightly curved, armed with five or six spines on the inner (concave) margin. Dactylus slender, curved, acute, without accessory claws, about two-thirds as long as the preceding joint. : All of the legs bear more or fewer prominent, conical, spiny tubercles. These are arranged in longitudinal rows on some of the joints, particularly on the fifth and sixth, which appear deeply serrate on the external margin. The entire surface of the body is rough, and more or less hairy. Genital orifices small, on the second joint of the legs. Length (inclusive of rostrum and abdomen) 3 millimeters. Legs, 7°5 millimeters. Ovigerous legs, 3°7 millimeters. _—Pseudopuliene hispida. Art. XXIX. —7anitalite from Coosa County, Alabama, its mode of occurrence and composition ; by J. LAWRENCE SMITH, Louisville, Ky. WHILE coluinbite has been long known from a number of localities in the United States and at some of them it is found in great abundance, the related mineral tantalite has never been identified, until recently I proved the fact of its eggs BOE in Alabama. Professor Kénig has described (Proc. Acad. 204 J. L. Smith—Tantalite from Alabama. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1876) a mineral which he considered to be tantalite from Yancey County, North Carolina. There must however have been some mistake about the matter, for he states the specific gravity of the mineral to be 5807. If this deter- mination was given correctly this could not have been tantalite. I have found columbite from the North Carolina localities with specific gravities from 5°6 to 6°38, varying according to the amount of tantalic acid present with the columbic acid. There is no instance. that I know of where tantalite has as low a spe- cific gravity as 7. Z I am indebted to Professor Eugene Smith, State Geologist of Alabama, for the specimen of tantalite that first came under my observation; he suspected it to be tantalite and sent it to me for verification; he had obtained the specimen from Judge Bently, to whom we owe what we know about the manner of its occurrence. It is found in Coosa County, Alabama, detached from any rock, lying loose with “bowlders” (as Judge Bentley calls them) of granite more or less disintegrated. As, however, this region belongs to the older series of rocks (Professor Eugene Smith has not yet explored it) these blocks of granite are doubt- less not bowlders, but detached masses, weather worn. They are found both under and on the surface for miles, ranning north- east and southwest. cross these in a direction northwest and southeast runs a ridge filled with quartz and flint rocks and at the intersection of the two, over about an acre of surface, some fifty specimens of tantalite have been collected, from the size of a pea to a lump one and a quarter pounds in weight. — araci -emens.—They are irregular masses, without the slightest indication of crystalline form, just such pieces as I have obtained from the locality at Limoges; they are more or ess rounded, with a ready cleavage in one direction; the spect- mens although long exposed, have undergone but little altera- tion, as indicated by examination made on several specimens. The specific gravity varied from 7°305 to 7°401. n analysis it was found to consist of: ee 9°65 : eee Lc. pieces 1°10 } 81°62 metalic acids. Stee Se ge Manganese protoxide, ..____- 3°72 Tron me A ce 13°51 Copper Gxule,. 6... “89 99°74 The tantalic acid contains very little columbic acid. _ Judging from the discoveries already made, and the large size of some of the pieces of tantalite, we may expect some important results from the future explorations in Alabama. Ee W. G. Mixter—Amylidenamine Silver Nitrate. 205 Arr. XXX.—On Amylidenamine Silver Nitrate; by W. G. MIXTER. Contributions from the Sheffield Laboratory of Yale College, No. XXX. STRECKER (Liebig’s Ann., cxxx, p. 220) states that silver nitrate produces in alcoholic solutions of valeralammonia, a white precipitate, which slowly turns black in the cold, but he says nothing as to the composition of the substance. I have obtained what is doubtless the same compound by the spon- taneous evaporation of alcoholic ammonia solutions of valeral- ammonia to which an excess of silver nitrate had been added. and then adding thirty grams of hydrous valeralammonia, from 105 for Ist Series Qd Series. ©, ,Hg3N,0s4g- Carbon. ...... 4211 42°26 3 Hydrogen ..... _ 7°89 7°90 7°76 Nitrogen ...--. 3°24 13-18 13-18 paves: 25°26 25°19 25°41 Oxygen ...... . [11°50] [11°47] 11°30 100°00 100700 Re - The equation 3(C Tr ,ONH,)+AgNO =C,,H,,N,0,Ag +3H "O doabilees represents the formation of the substance in question. It is not possible to give a gravimetric proof on 206 W. G. Mixter—Amylidenamine Silver Nitrate. account of some decomposition which occurs during the evapo- ration. The compound dissolves with but partial separation of silver in boiling water. The clear aqueous solution evapo- rated on a water bath leaves a slight black residue and a very soluble crystalline mass, which contains silver, reacts for am- monia and gives red fumes when heated with oil of vitriol. By distilling with ammonia water crystals are obtained in the distil- late which reduce silver. Hot dilute acids decompose it with the separation of an oil which has the odor of valeral, and hot oil of vitriol evolves nitrous fumes from it. The reactions show that the substance contains the amyliden, ammonio and nitro groups and that it is an amine analogous to Rose’s 3NH,AgNO,, thus: H,N C,H, ,—NH H,N } AgNO, C,H,,=NH } AgNO, H,N (sooNE The name amylidenamine silver nitrate is perhaps the best that can be given to the substance until more is known of its constitution. If the corresponding ammonio compound be gentammonium nitrate (Graham— Otto, iti, 840) the derivative from valeralammonia may be arded as di-amylid i tamylid ium = 5 Oo af nitrate, thus: Ag Ag I | a0 —O-NO, C,H,,=N—O-NO, | H,N C21, NG l “ C,H, ,=NH, Amylidenamine silver nitrate is insoluble in water, ammonia 4 ; : Calculated for. Carbon 32.023 4:99 Oo, 65°79 drogen ____. 11-25 ot 10°97 Nitrogen __.__. 9°53 Ny 9°21 Sulphur _...-._ 14-01 Ss 14°03 99°78 100.00 A, H. Chester—Crystallization of Variscite. 207 The results indicate a mixture of C,,H,,N, and 2(C,H, ,S). The oil has the odor of thiovaleral, and decomposes when dis- tilled. Hydrochloric acid added to the concentrated etherial solution of it produces a white curdy mass which was not ob- tained free from adhering oi]. This last product is soluble in alcohol, ether, and with the separation of an oil in hot water. Platinic chloride produces at once in the alcoholic solution a small light yellow precipitate and in a few minutes a dark brownish red curdy precipitate which yields to water, platin- chloride of ammonium. ‘The red precipitate after washing with water and alcohol, reacts for platinum, sulphur and a hydro- carbon. Lack of material prevented further investigation of the oe a from amylidenamine silver nitrate by the action of ydrogen sulphide. New Haven, January 10, 1878. ArT. XXXI.—WNote on the Crystallization of Variscite ; by ALBERT H. CHESTER. A MicroscoPic examination of certain small crystals of the mineral variscite from Arkansas reveals the following facts with reference to its method of occurrence and crystallization. The crystals are rarely distinct, but are usually found in complicated groups, sometimes forming clusters of a sheaf form. Very rarely single prismatic crystals are found, sufficiently dis- 1. 2. tinct to admit of measurement. Fig. 1 AoE the most common ee form, belonging to the orthorhom- bic system, and showing faces of J, %, it and O. In this crystal I,f=114° 6’. In general but one termination is seen, but crys- tals showing both ends aré some- times found lying on the quartz matrix, the bases being similar to each other. The face 7 is very small and therefore easily overlooked, and 7% is about the same size as J, so that these crystals may readily be mistaken for hexagonal prisms. Crystals showing a simple termination like that in fig. 1 are seldom seen. More frequently the basal plane is like fig. 2, or still more complicated. ‘These planes are often covered with a thin Opaque white coating, probably of quartz. : striking peculiarity of this mineral is its high lustre, like that of beryl, which it much resembles when viewed under a low power.” The crystal figured above is 0°3 mm. in diameter, and is about the average size of those examined. Hamilton College Laboratory, January 19th, 1878. 208 Scientific Intelligence. ArT. XXXII. —Discovery of a New Planet ; by C. H. F. Perers. (From a letter to one of the Editors.) In the night of February 3-4, in revising one of my Zodi- acal Charts, I found a star that I could not have omitted, as being of the tenth magnitude. Some measures therefore were immediately taken, which showed that the object is a planet hitherto unknown. Its position was, Feb. 3, 13" 46" 478 m. t. a@=10" 1™ 38*-08. 6=-+11° 23’ 34”°1, from ten comparisons with Dm. +11°.2173,—the place of this star being determined by differentiation from LL. 19882, of which there are several modern determinations, viz: W. 105.91, R. 3090, Arg. +11°.2190, Berlin Mer. Cir. in A. N., No. 1388. Last night it clouded up, before the planet could be re-ob- served. But from the measurements of the preceding night fol- lows the hourly motion —1*-75.and 4-270, or the daily motion —42s and +11’, so that there will be no difficulty in finding the planet again, it having now already entered upon Chacor- nac’s chart. There has been some confusion of late in the numbering of planetoids, arisen from neglect of prompt communication. But it seems this new member will’ have to carry the number 180. If the priority of discovery remains to me, I propose the name Hunike, in commemoration of the glorious victories won by the Russian armies in their strife for humanity. Litchfield Observatory of Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y., Feb. 5, 1878. ed SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PuHysics. y ties, founded upon the well established a ‘d- not miscible with a given liquid are distilled with this ui gv liquid, the quantity of the two bodies in the distillate, is, at @ constant temperature of ebullition, in a constant ratio. Since, 00 the mechanical theory of gases, the vapor-tension, other things being equal, depends on the number of molecules which the vapor sions of these constituents in the vapor mixture. results confirm completely the hypothesis and establish the ——— law: The ratio of the quantities of the substances in the disti late, expressed in molecular weights, is equal to the ratio of the vapor-tensions of these constituents in the vapor mixture, meas- Chemistry and Physics. 209 ured at the temperature of ebullition. If g is the weight of one substance in the distillate, m its molecular weight and p its vapor tension at the boiling point ¢ and under the barometric pressure 6; and if G be the weight of the other constituent, M its molec- ular weight and P its vapor tension also at the boiling point, we have, by the above law, An extended series of experimental results are given, which estab- lish the equality of these two ratios. From this equation it fol- lows that M= =_— If one of the substances be water, m= 18, _ t= 98°2°, the tension of aqueous vapor p = 712-4 mm. and hence the naphthalene vapor tension P =6 —p = 733—712°4 = 20°6 mm, The molecular weight of water m= 18. Substituting these values, _ 18X8°9X712°4 _ ‘ ees oat: M = Tsog = 118 The formula C,H, requires 1 This is an extreme case, but the result shows that the above formula, and not any multiple or submultiple of it, is correct. The method is capable of indefinite extension.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., X, 2098, Jan., 1878. GARE ALE oe 2. Ona new Oxide of Sulphur, Persulphuric oxide.— BERTHE- Lor has described a new oxide of sulphur which he calls persul- . phuric oxide, corresponding to perchromic and permanganic : ric of absolutely dry sulphurous oxide and oxygen uty oA § e electrolysis of con- centrated sulphuric acid, and has been confounded with the so- s also fe les, many centimeters long and of an apprec - often crossing the tube. It resembles sulphuric oxide, but th - ter is opaque, in finer needles, shorter and narrower. It 4 considerable vapor tension and sublimes spon * Ann. Chim. Phys., V, xii, 463, December, 1877. Au, Jour. Sct.—TaIrD sees ts Vou. XV, No. 87.—Mancu, 1878. 210 Serentific Intelligence. tubes containing it. Its composition was determined by synthe- sis and by analysis. Synthetically, the residual gas after the ac- tion was withdrawn by a mercury pump and measured; it was one-eighth of the original gas, corresponding to the equati foe ; or in volumes 4-+-4 originally and 1 finally. Analytically by opening the tube under a titered stannous chlo- ride solution, the excess of oxygen was determined; and y pre- cipitation with barium chloride, the sulphuric acid was ascer- ained. The ratio obtained was SO,:O::10:1; the theoretical ratio 8,0,=(SO,),: O or 160: 16. The same result was reached oxygen rapidly in presence of platinum sponge. Treated with sulphurous acid, hyposulphuric acid is formed. Barium hydrate gives barium persulphate, which is soluble in water—C. R., hundred cubic centimeters of this water distilled from pure baryta, ecm gave a distillate in which platinice chloride produced a precipitate. — Ber. he B. ae : . : = Ks eee erg Bae With zine dust, it gives fluorene, and with lime, diphenyleneketone. Chemistry and Physics. 211 Hence the _— is diphenyleneketonecarbonie acid, with the formula CAN Go cu , and the hydrocarbon has the constitutional formula osy CO C,H.—CH—C et | The authors give the hydrocarbon, therefore, C,H,—-—-C the name fluoranthrene, ee attention to the fact that Schmitz has proved the identity of ier’s fluorene with diphenyleneme- thane. In a postscript, Fittig says that he has just seen the paper of Goldschmiedt upon idryl, and has no doubt that the hydrocar- n C_H. there described is identical wr his rina eran 5. 5. Simple synthesis of Formic acid. = Mae and Denes Shine Studied the reaction of carbonous oxide upon caustic alkali, ob- an instructive class experiment. This synthesis is important in view of the fact that the hydrogen solidified by — was pre- pared by fusing together sodium hydrate and form NaOH+H.COONa =CO 16. 1,270 .* Bi 2308... ©. 10, 1.475 . * 17, 3,240. © 4, 2.288 “ tt, ooo. * 18, ‘t,100 2* 5; 3.083" * 13, ¥420 ° = 18. 1160 6. 1,820 “ 12, Tee0 | * 20. 1,100 “ i. 1,600 = 14, 1,850 “ Of these benches, those below No. 11 were recognized at many localities within an area of more than 5,000 square miles ; extreme variation in level is barely twenty feet in any case and in most of the benches the altitude is accurately the same at all places. No. 17 shows a variation of eighteen feet, and I am much inclined to believe that I have confounded two benches a long distance north and south and is broken only by gaps which the pales streams make through this small ridge on i the Monongahela River. He sees also that this plain is the divide between two valleys, one at the east between this and Chestnut Ridge, and the other at the west, in which an plain of Brush Ridge, as well as by lower benches which veak its continuity and convert it into'a succession of basins. J. J. Stevenson—Surface Geology of Pennsylvania. 247 From the summit-plain of this Brush Ridge, the surface falls off in regular steps. If, now, the observer turn his attention to the region lying directly west from the Monongahela River, he will see that No. 16 is a broad continuous plain beyond that river, but that still farther back toward the west, the fourteenth bench, on an islan of which he is standing, forms a similar plain, while stil] farther back, No. 18, with an altitude of 1,380 feet above tide, stretches _ northward and southward and is broken only by the narrow valleys in which the larger streams flow. Should the observer's position be changed to Hillsborough, fifteen miles west from the Monongahela River, where the ele- vation is about 1,500 feet above tide, he will see that No. 13 is of great extent north and south, while back of it the country rises to a still higher level, again and again, until it reaches No. Li at 1,445 feet above tide. From the river westward to Hillsborough, or rather to a ridge passing nearly north and south at three miles east from that village, the surface rises in a succession of steps which are beautifully marked. From the hill-top at Hillsborough, the descent to the river is very handsomely shown. : That these benches are simply the result of remodeling val- leys formed long before the agent making the benches began to work, is shown by the distribution of the benches themselves ; for these benches line the sides of long narrow valleys reaching far inland from the rivers, and breaking through ridges bearing valleys began, I believe, even before the anticlinal axes had been elevated sufficiently to affect the topography. he main streams of the present drainage system break through all the bol anies of Virginia. 4 d axes west from the Alleghanies a oy lene faoin their condition of preservation. If they had been of ancient origin ette county. The whole structu re of t : : : age iate vicinity. They exten ae toeiten died ee 2? ee oot Be the Alleghanies 248 «oS. J. Stevenson—Surface Geology of Pennsylvania. them by the draining away of a great lake or by the action of a great flood sweeping over the whole region. They can be no other than sea-beaches, marking stages in the withdrawal of the ocean. This supposition involves a submergence of the land to a depth of fully 2,600 feet, if we regard the higher benches as due the same cause with the lower ones, and the submergence would have to be somewhat greater to account for the even crests of the Alleghanies and other ridges of the Appalachian region west from the Blue Ridge The River Terraces. The persistent terraces are five in number and their relations are shown at the junction of Cheat and Monongahela Rivers. Three or four miles north from the West Virginia line, they are as follows :— Above river. Above river. 1. 280 feet. 4, 80 feet. 210" = SL a 180. The absolute elevation of the highest terrace at this locality is 1,050 feet above tide. ese fall down stream and are covered by detritus, consist- ing of irregularly bedded sand, clay or gravel, in which are po streams, being divided by the channel-way just as the present “bottom” is divided. In some instances a terrace is wanting on one side; but there it is clear enough that that corrasion was confined to one side, for the terrace is unusually wide on the other. The same condition is often seen in the Hood plain of the river now. in my report for 1875, these terraces are simply n the rock on which rests a thin coat of detritus. Mr. Gilbert, in his memoir on the geology of the Henry Mountains (not yet published), describes similar terraces as 0C- curring there, though it does not appear that they are found at the same height on both sides of the streams. The terraces on the Ohio, below Pittsburg, consist largely of northern drift brought down by the Allegheny and Beaver Rivers, so that they certainly date from a time later than that shelves i G. J. J. Stevenson—Surface Geology of Pennsylvania. 249 at which the drift was spread over northern Pennsylvania. Along the Monongahela and other rivers south from the Ohio, no such material occurs, but the deposits afford sufficient evidence of another kind to enable us to fix their origin within compara- tively recent times. At New Geneva on the Monongahela near the West Virginia line, the highest terrace has a thick coating, in which a layer known as the “swamp clay” holds much half rotted wood, such as is frequently seen in peat . In the same neighborhood the third terrace shows many Unio shells in an advanced stage of decay. A similar condition exists on the same terrace at Morgantown, farther up the river in West Vir- ginia. At Belvernon, on the same river, near the northern line of Fayette county, this terrace yields many fragments of wood. In this way it can be shown that the deposits on the first, third, fourth and fifth benches are of recent origin. Since these deposits are of recent origin, there would seem to be good reason for supposing that the valleys through which their streams flow are also of recent origin, at least so much of them as lies below the level of the highest terrace. But it has been suggested that these terraces are only the result of re- working the sides of thé valleys, which had been eroded pre- vious] the sides are gently sloping, whereas below it they become steep at once. Above the line of that terrace, the smaller valleys a very few miles of its mouth. ; ese river terraces are relics of river beds, which at one time stretched across the valleys, just as the river “ bottoms now do; and the valleys below the line of the highest terrace have been eroded since the drainage system was reésta ‘ished by withdrawal of the ocean below the lines of the former stream beds. Conclusions. The general conclusions to which I have come are :—1. That he erosion, to which is due the general configuration of th surface above the highest river terrace, began even before the elevation of the anticlinal axes and con Papi region was submerged in post-glacial time. 2. That t it orl- zontal benches are due to re-working of preéxisting valleys, 250 = J. D. Dana—Driftless Interior of North America, and that they mark stages of rest during emergence of the con- tinent from the ocean which covered it. 8. That the river ter- races and the valleys which they line, were formed after the drainage system had been reéstablished by withdrawal of the “yer to a level below that at which the streams had previously owed. ArT. XXXV.—On the Driftless Interior of North America ; by JAMES D. DANA. 1. Driftless area of Central and West-Central North America, € portions of two of Mr. Schott’s charts (see beyond); one (No. 1) giving the lines of equal precipitation for *Vol. ix, p. 312. Further, vol. x, p. 385, and vol. xiii, p. 80. The connection between the distribution of the ice and the amount of peal paisiiod is appealed to also in ibid., v, 206, 1873, and illustrated from Mr. Schott’s chart. J. D. Dana—Driftless Interior of North America. 251 cover the whole area (some mountain ridges not being con- i the Sierra Nevada ; from Iowa and Minnesota to Salt Lake City ; and from Minne- sota northward and westward. The line of four inches, as the copied portion of the chart shows, passes along the eastern ter diverges eastward—continues northward along the summit of the mountains. i In contrast with this, the winter precipitation over New England is 8 to 12 inches; over New York, 6 to 10 inches; over Ohio and Indiana, 8 to 10 inches; over the Southern States, from Virginia to Georgia and Louisiana, 10 to 20 inches. On the chart No. 2 is given the amount of annual precipita- tion for this same region. While this amount is 40 to 45 inches in New England; 40 to 50 inches from Pennsylvania southwestward; and 40 to 45.over Ohio and Indiana, the line of 20 inches (half the average for New England, Pennsylvania, hio, and Jess than half for the more Southern States) crosses Western Minnesota and passes just west of Iowa; and the line of 16 inches enters Minnesota. Mr. Schott’s chart shows less up to 16 inches embraces (exclusive of parts of the lines, and especially those of the summer, bend far ire ne over the dry region. The climate consequently woul piles necessarily occasioned over this central and western eepn ee _ continent, only a small amount of precipitation m - th ee : ~ era; and all the observed glacial facts prove positively tha +S a wares portions, the line 2 of No. 1, and 16, 20 and 24 of No. 2, are, according to Mr, Schott, only approximati * \¢ 7 K Kant CAAA, WSN ae. 7 1. Lines OF Equal WINTER PRECIPITATION. See, \ . Ai SS Q's SS SOS SS ws Ts SAS Ce . SS AC RASS “~ _ ASS WS S \ AY _— wk * . AN SSN SK Lives or Equal ANNUAL PRECIPITATIO 254d. D. Dana—Drifiless Interior of North America. was too small for the production of a southward moving glacier. The southwestward direction of the scratches and of the bowlder-movement over the area from Wisconsin to Lake Winnipeg not only sustains this, but shows also that the ice had its greatest height over the region of greatest precipitation somewhere between the line from Wisconsin to Lake Winnipeg and beyond, and that of the Atlantic coast. More facts needed before the northern limit of the glacierless and driftless area can be laid down. 2. Driftless area in Wisconsin. The charts accompanying this paper have been introduced here partly to exhibit the bearing of the climatal facts on the question as to the origin of the “driftless area” in Wisconsin, a description of which is given, from Professor Irving’s Report, winter chart (No. 1) the driftless area is almost wholly in- cluded within the area which has only 2 to 4 inches for the 4area. Ag (No. 2), this driftless area (excepting its south end) is the driest found in Lucas County, Southern Iowa, is distant four aA S and sixty miles from Keweenaw Point, » its probable source. From Iowa the ice stretched eastward across Illinois to the Lake Michigan region. is southwestward prolongation of the glacier from the western half of Lake Superior over a region as dry as that of a J. D. Dana—Drifiless Interior of North America. 255 the Wisconsin driftless area appears to be a consequence, as Professor Irving urges, of the great depth of the Lake Superior trough—over a thousand feet below the present surface of the water—and its lying in a southwest-by-west (or about 8. 55° W. direction, which was nearly that of the glacier motion in that part of North America. For this would have determined the nesota and Iowa to Missouri, a distance of five hundred miles, this being shown by the bowlders of copper. Whatever the pitch along that course, it was twice as great toward the Wis- consin driftless area, since the northern border of the area is hardly half as far. Down Lake Michigan the pitch continued into Illinois and Indiana; but the Kettle Range west of Lake Michigan, running along the east front of the driftless area, marks out, as Professors Chamberlain and Irving show, its moraine termination in that direction. d The eastern parallel branch of the Kettle Range lying between the Green Bay Valley and Lake Michigan, which, according to these geologists, is also a moraine ridge, is evi- dence, as they observe, that at the time when it was formed, the glacier of Green Bay Valley was distinct from that of ke Michigan. It seems probable that when the Glacial era was at its height, the two were merged in one glacier; but that later, as the ice diminished, the former became independent, and that then the eastern Kettle Range was made. 3. The earth's axis had the same position in the Glacial era as now, if the driftless character of the Wisconsin area depended on the climatal conditions explained. The concordance between the limits of the drier areas of the Glacial era and those of the present time, and especially the fact in this respect with regard to the isolated area in Wisconsin sustains this proposition. The probability that such was the trath was long since made Apparent by the observation that the southern termination of e glacier in North America and Europe was very nearly along what is now the course of the same identical oe The position and extent of the Wisconsin driftless area affo: more precise and positive evidence. s 256 G. K. Gilbert—Ancient Outlet of Great Salt Lake. Art. XXXVI.—The Ancient Outlet of Great Salt Lake; a letter to the Editors, by G. K. GILBERT. Great Salt Lake has no outlet, and its fluctuating level is determined by the balance between inflowing streams and solar evaporation. On the surrounding mountains there are water-lines rising in steps to a thousand feet above its sur- face, and showing that in ancient times a great body of water occupied its basin. This ancient body, known as Lake Bonne- finding it in Idaho, at the north end of Cache Valley, the locality being known as Red Rock Pass. The circumstances were suc as to leave no doubt in my mind that I had determined the actual point of outflow, and on my return to the East I made the announcement without reservation in a communication to ell has charge. t, in 3 January, 1878 (p. 65), there sa a statement (apparently on Dr. F. V. Hayden, but without signature) . : season, h etfs ancient outlet of the great lake that once filled ence and position of the ancient outlet beyond question. If Lake Erie were to dry away, and a Beologat of the future should examine its basin, he would easily trace the former shore- line around it. At two points he would find this line interrupted. At Detroit and at Buffalo he would meet with narrow, trough- iy ee G. K. Gilbert—Ancient Outlet of Great Salt Lake. 257 like passes, depressed somewhat below the level of the shore line, and leading to other basins. Following the Detroit P% e would be led to the Huron basin and would find there a shore line so nearly on a level with the Erie that he could not readily determine which was the higher. Following the Buffalo Pass he would find a continuous descent for many miles to the Onta- rio basin, and in that basin he would find no water-line at the level of the Erie shore. In each case he would learn from the form of the passage that it had been the channel of a river, and in the latter case he would learn from the direction and continuity of descent, and from the absence of corresponding shore lines, that it had been the channel of an outflowing river. in regard to Lake Bonneville. To discover its outlet it was necessary to find a point where the Bonneville shore line was interrupted by a pass of which the floor was lower than the shore line, and which led to a valley not marked by a continu- ation of the shore line. These conditions are satisfied at Rock Pass, and, in addition, there is a continuous descent from the pass to the Pacific ocean. All about Cache Valley the Bonneville shore line has been traced, and it is well marked within a half mile of the pass. The floor of the Pass at the the conclusion is irresistible that here the ancient lake outflowed. At the divide a portion of each wall of the ancient channel is composed of solid limestone, and its floor is interrupted by knolls of the same material. It is evident, too, that the chan- nel has lost something in depth, for Marsh Creek and some smaller streams at the south have thrown so much debris into it as to divide it into several little basins occupied by ponds and marshes. It is not improbable that twenty or thirty feet have thus been built upon the floor and that the original bed of the channel where it crosses the limestone is 360 or 370 feet lower than the highest Bonneville beach. Still we must not coexistent level of the lake, but rather that during the exist- ence of the outlet its channel was slowly excavated to that ex- is sustained in a very striking manner by the phenomena of the shore lines. on 258 G. K. @ilbert—Ancient Outlet of Great Salt Lake. cumstances asserts its supremacy and clearly marks the longest lingering of the water. It has been called the “ Provo Beach,” and it runs about 365 feet below the Bonneville Beach. When the discharge of the lake began, its level was that recorded by the Bonneville Beach. The outflowing stream crossed the unconsolidated gravels that overlay the limestone at Red Rock ass, and cut them away rapidly. The lake surface was low- ered with comparative rapidity until the limestone was exposed, but from that time the progress was exceedingly slow. Fora long period the water was held at nearly the same level, and the Provo Beach was produced. Then came the drying of the climate, and the outflow ceased ; and slowly, with many linger- ings, the lake has shrunk to its present size. In Dr. Hayden’s Preliminary Report of the field work of his Survey for the season of 1877, noticed on page 56 of the cur- geological observations, but it is to be hoped that the idea will not be advocated in that gentleman’s report. The divide referred to is near Malade City, and separates Malade Valley from Marsh Valley. The Bonneville Beach is well marked all about Malade Valley, and nowhere more strongly than in the afforded passage to the water. Eilon who visited the locality in 187 2, expressed the half formed opinion that it had been a point of outflow, but he de- J. C. Draper— Projection of Microscope Photographs. | 259 scribed no channel of outflow ; and it is evident, moreover, that he gave little thought to the subject, for he made the somewhat astonishing suggestion that four outflowing streams might have coéxisted—one at the Soda Spring Pass, one at Red Rock, one near Malade City, and one at the head of the Malade River. If he had seen the channel at Red Rock, I do not doubt that he Art. XXXVII.—On the Projection of Microscope Photographs ; ty JOHN CHRISTOPHER Draper, M.D., LL.D., Professor of atural History in the College of the City of New York. IN the lanterns that are constructed for the projection of pho- tographic or other images on a screen, the support or stage on which the photographic slide is placed is close to, and at an in- variable distance from, the condensing lens. So long as the ob- jects to be projected are nearly equal in size to the diameter of the condenser, this is the only adjustment that can be made to illuminate the whole surface of the object; but, when the diameter of the field occupied by the object is only one-half, or one-quarter of the diameter of the condensing lens, the_bril- lianey of the result obtained upon the screen may be greatly in- creased by removing the supporting stage or object carrier to a greater distance from the condenser, so that a convergent beam of light may fall on the object to be projected. T'o accomplish this I have constructed the following form of lantern: In the figure, a is a zirconia light, mounted on an adjustable base (see American Journal of Science and Arts, Sept., 1877, page 208), which may be used with a condensing lens of very short focus, since the zirconia is not burrowed into cavities Where the oxyhydrogen flame impinges, as happens with lime cylinders, and causes the flame to be reflected upon the con- densing lens and thereby destroys it. In the jet employed, the gases are mixed just before they are ignited. 4, , is a short focus condensing lens. ¢, the stage or support carrying the pho- tographie or other design to be projected. d, the projection 260 J. C. Draper—Projection of Microscope Photographs. lens formed of three sets of lenses and giving a perfectly flat rectilinear fie a, c,d, are mounted on a base board e, istance between d and ¢, required in giving the correct focus, may be obtained. The base e, f, is attached to a second or _ When a series of objects of very different sizes is to be pro- jected, as is the case with microscopic photographs taken under or ot objects as clearly visible at considerable distances as are the t. In closing this brief communication I desire is aaa that I have made phowenphs of Frustulia saxonica under a power of : ‘ he photographs in question were made 1n the City aa 2 building by a one-twentieth inch immersion e light was from the sun, reflected by a helio- stat, through ammonio-sulphate of copper solution, and con- F.. Prime, Jr.—Lower Silurian Fossils. 261 densed on the object at an angle of 80° to 40°. The photo- graph in question was direct, by which I mean that there was no intermediate or secondary enlargement of a first photograph. With this photograph and the lantern described, I awe shown Frustulia saxonica magnified more than half a million diame- ters; a result which must be seen to be appreciated. Art. XXXVIII.— On the Discovery of Lower Silurian Fossils in Limestone associated with Hydromica slates, and on other points in the Geology of Lehigh and Northampton Counties, Eastern Pennsylvania ; by FREDERICK PRIME, Jr., Professor of Metal- lurgy at Lafayette College, Easton, Pennsylvania. erles were made lies near the eastern verte of the State, south- idge. Th ings of the Philosophical Society for December 21, where it appears under the title “ On the Paleozoie Rocks of Lehigh and North- ampton Counties, Pennsylvania.—s. D. D. THE Paleozoic rocks of Lehigh and Northampton counties are: The Potsdam Sandstone (No. I); Magnesian or Aurorz Limestone (No. II); Trenton Limestone (No. II); Utica Shale (No. III); Hudson River or Matinal Slate (No. IIT). | : The Potsdam sandstone is first found in the outlying penin- sula of the South Mountains, known as Ridge, where it Am. Jour. ee Vou. XV, No. 88,—APRIL, 1878. 262 F. Prime, Jr.—Lower Silurian Fossils, occurs on the northwest flank of the hill and undoubtedly has a northwest dip. It next occurs in two small patches on the northern flank of the main range of the South Mountain near Macungie (formerly Millerstown). A small patch of it is also found associated with the gneiss, where the latter crops out through the limestone in the gorge of the Little Lehigh Creek at Jerusalem Church, two miles northwest of Emaus. But it is first seen to any great extent along the north flank of the main range just south of Emaus, where its occurrence is con- stant, but of varying thickness, and continues for a distance of four and a half miles, after which it can no longer be traced. It occurs again at the ridge of the South Mountain, close to Allentown, which forms the southern barrier of the Lehigh to the oxidation of the ferrous oxide it contains. The change ‘om a pudding-stone to a compact quartzite in the sandstone shows that there has been a a sinking of the earth's crust and an increase in the depth of the sea, thus preparing the way for the subsequent deposition of the limestone. e Potsdam sandstone often, as elsewhere, contains Scolithus. Next above the Potsdam sandstone oceur hydromica slates, which Rogers has called the Upper Primal Slates, but which really form a portion of the No. LI limestone, and gradually pass into this. They lie along the north flank of the South Mountain and cverlie the Pots Jam conformably wherever this is visible, eing far more persistent in their occurrence, continuing with few intervals the entire distance from the western boundary of Lehigh county to the Delaware River. They are of great eco- nomic importance as carrying the lowest range of brown hem- atite iron ores, to be mentioned later. : se slates are composed in t part of the mineral damourite and occur of a pink, Sigil and yellow color. F.. Prime, Jr.— Lower Silurian Fossils, 263 When exposed to the weather they very rapidly decompose to soft unctuous plastic clays in a few days, and some of these will in time probably become valuable in the manufacture of coarse kinds of pottery. Generally they contain more or less of the carbonates of lime and magnesia, and silica, mixed with the damourite.* Hydromica slate also occurs the greater portion of the distance from the western boundary of Lehigh county to the Delaware River, at the junction of the No. IT limestones with the No. III slates, here also carrying brown hematite ores in extensive deposits. It also occurs intercalated in the limestone, forming layers from the thickness of a sheet of paper to several feet, and these layers are innumerable. Their existence has been seen both in rock outcrops as well as in wells which have been sunk. The clay to which the hydromica slate decomposes is gener- ally of a white color, although sometimes brown from the pres- d Overlying the hydromica slates, and conformable with these and the Potsdam sandstone, is the No. II or Magnesian limestone ( u- roral of Rogers), which extends as a great inass varying Jrom six to It disappears, however, in the upper stra The limestone varies fr i ? ‘ being for the most part compact to semi-crystalline, while there are occasionally shaly beds. In composition it varies much. often approaching a true dolomite, again a pure limestone. But from the isolated analyses made it would seem as if or per- centage of magnesia was less in the upper beds than the lower ones. The limestone is always siliceous, often very much and hence much care is now being taken by many of the iron- i i s of it, which are low in silica, so as to masters in selecting beds of it, whic Oo nak vdeo Tt often contains minute i i : f Penn., p. 12. * Report of Progress for 1874 of Lehigh Dist. Geol. Survey : + See Geology of Tennessee, by Safford, pp. 215, 218. 264 F. Prime, Jr.—Lower Silurian Fossils. grains of pyrite disseminated through it, which weather out on exposure, leaving minute cavities behind. Numerous analyses have shown the presence of ferrous carbonate varying in amount from 0°588 to 1°305 per cent. A peculiarity of the limestone is that it is often brecciated, the fragments being composed exclusively of limestone, cemented together by calcite or dolomite. The brecciated appearance is rarely visible on fresh fracture, being usually brought to view y weathering. When seen in place it will usually be found that one or more brecciated beds occur between two others which do not exhibit this peculiarity. As the beds of the No. II limestone have been much disturbed by the force which ele- vated the South Mountain range, the probable explanation of this brecciation is that a very hard, unyielding bed occurs be- tween two more pliable ones; that these, when subjected to the lateral thrust of the uprising mass of the South Mountains, have couformed themselves to the folds of the strata, while the harder one, being unable to do this, has been fractured and re- cemented in sitt by the percolation of calcareous waters. stone (according to these observers) having been formed from the lower, the brecciated limestones are adduced as evidences of upheaval and shore action. The explanation I have offered of the formation of the bree- ciated limestone is both more in accordance with the facts ob- served and with the generall accepted view of the deep-sea formation of limestone than the hypothesis above stated ; for the brecciated limestones are as common near the base of the series as at the top. ides, the genus Monocraterion found in the Lehi limestone belongs to the same family as Scolithus, saat is there- fore no greater proof of age than the latter; and it occurs in o. II, being not more than fifty to one hundred feet from the overlying Calciferous and Trenton. _humber a dozen specimens, and have been found in but four localities. At Helfrich’s Spring, about two and a half miles west end of the hill, near of the creek forming the s species of Monocraterion, as yet undescribed. Of this half a F. Prime, Jr.—Lower Silurian Fossiis, 265 dozen casts have been found; but all efforts to discover the fossil itself have been hitherto unsuccessful. This discovery is the more interesting as the genus Monocraterion has hitherto only been known to occur in Sweden. About half a mile northeast of this five or six specimens of a Lingula were found in John Schadt’s quarry, but it is impos- sible to determine its species. About half a mile west o l frich’s Spring a single specimen of an Orthoceratite was found _ close to the Jordan, just north of Scherer’s Tavern, but so im- perfect that its species is undeterminable. Finally a specimen of Huomphalus was found on Nero Peters’ farm, two miles east of Ballietsville. Not a single fossil has thus far been found in the No. IL limestone of Northampton county. The No. II limestone, like the Magnesian limestone of the Mississippi Valley, is exceedingly soluble. Streams constantly isappear in the ground, forsaking their original beds except when the volume of water is too great to be carried off by the subterranean channels, only to reappear again as springs at eater or less distances. The effects due to this solution of the, action could begin. The different beds too are soluble in very different degrees; some apparently yield at once to the eroding action of water, while others afford a resistance to this operation for reasons as yet unknown, but which are probably rather me- chanical or physical than chemical. Knowing as we little of the conditions, under which the different layers of limestone, almost or quite identical in composition, were formed, we can only speculate that those layers which resisted erosion were more compact, hard, and dense, perhaps more metamorphosed by a subsequent crystallization than the others, while we actually have no facts on W ich to base such theories. No better illustration of the darkness amidst which geologists other. We can explain alternations of shale, limestone by changes in depth of the sea in which they were formed ; but such an explanation does 266 F.. Prime, Jr.— Lower Silurian Fossils. continuity have occurred, to be succeeded by another layer of the same material? While the greater portion of the limestone has in all proba- bility been formed in deep water, we have one instance in a quarry at Uhlersville on the Delaware where it must have been formed as a beach, since we find here distinct traces of ripple marks along the entire face of the quarry, some sixty feet high and fifty feet deep, the strata being tilted nearly vertically. It has been generally supposed that the limestone dips almost universally southward; and while this view holds good for orthampton county, except at the junction of No. II with the No. III slates and ‘along the north flank of the South Moun- tains, it is not the case in Lehigh county; for here we find northwest dips, more especially along an axis which is pro- longed some distance into Northampton county, a short distance As a general thing the limestones pass conformably under the “No. III slates, and the few exceptions where the slates dip toward the limestones, and the latter away from the slates can readily be explained by an overturning of the beds toward the south, by which means as in the slate ¢ uarry close to and south of Ironton the slate apparently passes conformably below the limestone. Overlying the No. IT limestone occurs the Trenton limestone which is more fossiliferous and contains such characteristic fossils as Cheetetes Lycoperdon and Orthis pectinella as well as the stems of an encrinite. It was first found about a mile south of This limestone resembles. in appearance the No. II, being however more compact and not at all crystalline, and of a gray black color. There has been no apparent sudden break between the two, but the transition has been a nal one, This was to be ex- pected if the subsidence of the sea-bottom was steady and slow. _ An examination of the beds between Ironton in Lehigh county and the Delaware River, as close to the junction of the limestone + F. Prime, Jr.—Lower Silurian Fossils. 267 proportion of alumina which it contains. This also was to be expected if the subsidence continued, as signaling an approach to the era of slate-formation and open-sea deposition. These limestones are utilized on the Lehigh river in the manufacture of hydraulic cements and lately Portland cement has been made at the Copley Cement Works, which is said to be nearly or quite equal to the imported. Careful search and the demand for it will no doubt cause this variety of the limestone to be explored at various other points in the two counties, and will in time render us independent of the cement now sent from the Hudson River. The limestone is of a dull, earthy appearance, entirely free from any crystalline texture and of a dark gray color. Before closing our discussion of the limestone it is necessary to speak of the large and numerous deposits of brown hematite iron-ore which occur in it, and which form the main support of the extensive iron furnaces of the Lehigh and Schuylkill Valleys. : ; The brown hematite iron-ore occurs almost exclusively in two irregular lines of deposition; the one along the northern flank of the South Mountain Range, the other at or near the junction of the No. II limestone with the No. III slates. A few other localities, at which the ore is found, but these are 1n- significant in number compared to the two lines mentioned. with damourite; the same _ else brown hematite is found zn Joco originale. its ar however found which have evidently been pockets or cavities in the limestone into which the masses of limonite have been ing the Drift Period. let more especially potash, points to : from Archzean rocks containing orthoclase ecomposition of these three all the oxides above mentioned have been derived from iron pyrites, 268 F. Prime, Jr.—Lower Silurian Fossils. which the latter offers to chemical change of any kind when exposed to the action of air and water, and its unaltered condi- tion and fresh, bright appearance in rivers and on the seashore. But the question as to how the brown hematite got into its present condition and whether it was deposited cotemporane- ously with the rocks containing it, or subsequently to these, is hydromica region of Connecticut. Hence we must have recourse to other sources. It seems most doubtful that the mineral, ates. Whence was it derived? I have already stated that the limestone contains varying proportion of ferrous carbonate and of pyrite, and when we consider the enormous erosion which the limestone has undergone, the wonder is not that the eposits of iron ore should be so great, but rather that they should be so small. The ferrous carbonate and the pyrite oxl- dised to ferrous sulphate being both soluble in water, the former when the wa became later decomposed by the action of aerated water to hydrated ferric oxide and free silica, which latter we where the No. ITI limestones oce _ It is well here to emphasize the fact that these brown hema- tite ores all belong to the Lower Silurian limestone formation, | | | C. 8. Hastings—Optical Constants of Glass. 269 since, in 1874, Dr. Sterry Hunt, after a cursory examination of Ziegler’s Mine in Berks County, situated at the junction of the No. II limestone and the No. III slates, made the mistake, in a paper on “The Decay of Crystalline s” before the National Academy of Science, of supposing that the hydromica slates belonged to the Huronian Period :—a mistake into which so eminent an observer as himself would never have fallen had he been better acquainted with the region. At intervals along the junction of the limestones and slates there occurs a black carbonaceous shale, often decompose black or dark blue clay, which I have supposed to be the rep- resentative of the Utica shales. It consists of a very carbona- ceous hydromica slate (containing damourite), without any fos- sils and may not belong to the Utica Period at all. In no instance has it been found more than one to twelve feet thick, but it sometimes carries pyrite from which a portion of the iron ores, just mentioned, may have been derived. These shales are of no economic im opened at various points for the purpose of extracting them, as, however, they have been but very slightly examined, during the progress of the present Geological Survey of the State, I shall defer a more detailed description of them to some future time. Art. XXXIX.—On the Influence of Temperature on the Optical Constants of Glass ; by CHARLES S. Hastines, of the Jobns Hopkins University. A FORMULA connecting the refractive power of a body with its density, established by Newton, 1s well known. This, er. : More recently rear: Gladstone have made an extensive study of the changes produced in the refractive and as cor powers of various liquids by increase of temperature; @ study 270 C. S. Hastings— Optical Constants of Glass. ever, to much less accordant results. Rudberg, in investigating the optical properties of several crystals, found that in arrago- nite and quartz, the variations in density and refractive index are in the same direction, but that with -calcite the case is different, the index for the ordinary ray seeming inde- pendent of changes in tem erature, and for the extra- r an elegant and celebrated method. I shall quote later, some - es ees the only quantitative ones which I have been able o find. The instrument with which the following determinations were made, is the large spectrometer by Meyerstein, belonging to the Physical Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University. The circle is 12 inches in diameter, divided to 6’, and reads by two microscopes to 2”. The probable error of one division is 1”-48, and its larger periodic errors are expressed in the formula =2"°386+7''82 sin (2+62° 36’)+2.1 sin (2 z2+157°) +432 sin (3 2+328°)+0’-46 sin (4 z+122°) N being the corrected and z the immediate reading. Much labor was expended in putting the instrument in so satisfactory a state, for in order to secure uniformity of reading it was found necessary to re-grind the axis. The collimating telescope too, was, by inexcusable carelessness in construction, directed nearly one-fourth of an inch away from the axis, thus vitiating all determinations of double deviations by the intro- duction of unknown errors of aberration in the object glass. rea ‘two verniers to single minutes of are. This platform turns independently of the large circle with inconsiderable friction, and upon it is placed the prism to be studied. The methods adopted to adjust the instrument and prism, and to measure the angle of the prism were exceedingly accurate and perhaps & proper place for description here. : | se amcecmemnmeaaeeae eee cee en eee a a aD C. & Hastings—Optical Constants of Glass. 271 In the focal plane of the positive eye-piece was a reticle con- sisting of lines on glass ruled as follows :—a system of two airs of parallel iines crossing at center of field, one pair being orizontal and the other vertical, the angular distance (measured from objective) between the components of each pair being about 1’; and a single line, vertical and about 25’ to the right of the vertical pair. Over this single line was placed a small totally reflecting prism, one of its faces turned toward an open- ing in the eye-tube. The advantage of this arrangement is at once evident, for it was possible to get a strongly illuminated image of the single line, reflected by a plane beyond the objective, between the two vertical lines, at the same time avoiding the annoyance of waste light reflected from the eye- lenses on the one hand, since the mirror was within the eye- piece, and from the objective on the other, owing to the eccen- tric position of the mirror. : instrument was put in adjustment by means of a piece of plane-parallel glass placed vertically upon the platform, ie, so that its plane was parallel to the axis of the instrument. Then the glass was turned 180°. If the image of the horizontal lines corresponded with the lines themselves it was aes ; if not, the correction was divided between the glass and the telescope. Proceeding in this way, it was easy to adjust the telescope so that once sighting the reflected image it would be again visible i i lass 180°, and that inde- pendently of the azimuth of the platform as referred to the axes of the instrument and platform are parallel, while that of the telescope is perpendicular to both. The proper adj ustment of the collimating telescope as regards focus and direction, is so evidently attainable from these that it is not worth while describing it spevially. i i i ” in the prism same intensity, and that a motion of but 30” in would carry the reflected line from one of the pair to the other. 272 C. 8. Hastings—Optical Constants of Glass. The next step was to rotate the great circle, and with it the prism, until the other face took exactly the same position ; the reading then would clearly be the supplement of the desired angle ; in practice, however, the angle was repeated by turning back the platform independently of the circle, the repetition being carried usually to six times, and then back over the same ground for verification. This method was well adapted to this work as the mass moved independently was small, and turned with little friction. It failed however, as might be expected, in measuring later the angles of deviation, for here the joints to be turned were much larger, and that limit of accuracy which is always reached so easily and quickly by the method of repeti- tion, was not below that of a single reading of the microscopes. f the adjustment of the prism for measuring the double angle of deviation for the different Fraunhofer lines, little need be said except that, besides the care taken in placing the sur- exist in every lens save for rays of a single wave length, or, in rare cases, of two wave lengths. : The position of the prism for minimum deviation of a single line was carefully determined on the small circle attached to the platform, by experiment, while those of the other lines observed wefe computed after an approximate measurement of the angle of deviation. point the telescope upon the particular Fraunhofer line which as to be ism in i etermined, with the prism in its first position of ation and in, the difference of readings being the double deviation required. With this observation was also put the temperature of the prism at the pido mepri thermometer reading to quarter degrees, estimated, however, to tenths, and then filled with water. The reading of the barom- ay daneieaunt 4 ; j : ; C. S. Hastings—Optical Constants of Glass. 273 amount determined from the formula given above. The prisms were as follows I, Of Feil’s flint glass, No. 1237, sp. -» D554, of prism, 60° 4' 56"-210"'18, ng III, Of Feil’s crown glass, No. 1219, sp. gt, 2°482. Angle of prism, 60° 10’ 9”°04+-0"°23. IV, Flint glass, sp. gr., 3°497. Angle of prism, 50° 7’ 53”°01-0"-20. V, Crown glass, sp. gr., 2°510. Angle of prism, 59° 48’ 127-404-0"-08. The materials of IV and V have been in my possession a long time, and there is no way to determine what they are except from their optical properties, and the statement of the optician from whom I procured them, that the first is of French and the second of English manufacture. I suppose IV to be a flint glass of Feil’s making, while V is doubtless of the so-called ‘soft crown” of Chance Brothers. he temperature affecting the observations ranges from 14°-9 ©. to 29° C., though most of the lines were measured with a maximum difference of 10° C. The reduction of the observations on the first three prisms to a temperature of 20° C. and barometric height of thirty inches gave the following indices of refraction : Temperature, 20° C. Barometric height, 30 inches. i IL. TL Line. n e n e n ée A 1°615258 +3 1572464 | +6 1512456 | +3 B 1-618706 3 1575332 7 1514369 3 CG 1620482 3 1576815 6 1515334 3 2 1°62542 3 1°580905 6 [517965 3 5614 1°628001 2 17583024 6 1519292 3 1°631893 2 1586214 ' 521274 3 1637756 2 1°590989 5 524182 3 4548 1°643524 3 1595660 , 526981 3 1°649086 3 1°600129 Y 1°529597 3 h 1°654848 3 1604749 y 1°532251 3 3951 1°659757 2 | 1608658 V4 1°534458 3 which the indices of refraction, in columns hea n, reter. The last line is beautifully defined and lies nearly midwa between H, and H,. The columns under e give the probable errors of each determination in units of the sixth place decimal. It should be remarked here that the larger probable errors 10 the determinations of prism II arise from the greater probable error in the determination of its refracting angle, hence the 27+ C. 8. Hastings—Ortieal Constants of Glass. values are relatively, though not absolutely, as accurate as the ers. The following table contains, in the columns under # ’ increase of refractive index also in units of sixth place, corres- ponding to an increase of 1° C. in temperature. is ii FEE Line. i’ k Kk’ k ke K A 4°12 3°79 1:70 1°74 caf — "iT B 4°04 4°22 2°35 2°04 = 5°87 2°68 3°16 + 36 F 5°69 6:57 3°52 3°63 — °09 + “14 4548 7:24 4°32 4°09 +111 G 8°53 7°85 3°86 4°51 +1°26 +144 h 8°03 8°48 4°78 493 +1°05 +1°78 3951 9°2] 8:99 6-04 5°28 + 3°22 + 2°06 It is evident at a glance that the values of k’ increase in each case with the decrease of wave length; and it was found that the quantities could be embodied, within the limits of error of the observations, by a formula of the form 1\2 The significance of the constants a and # is clearly that the first is the change in refractive power for light of indefinitely great wave length, or briefly, the change in refractive gt z SE Aue Pew Rene eS fen 1°875-+-1°1105,. 1 i 8 eae k= 4424. “15555: i Ill nie --k=—1'813-+0°6045,. : f glass, computed in the ordinary way, are as 9:8:6 nearly, while the coefficients 10 | | . Fal ea Ser Re Mae ka kee Se Re eee ies eC ka ee ee C. 8. Hastings— Optical Constants of Glass. - 275 question are as 9:6:5 nearly; hence if this relation holds approximately for all optical glasses, as is probable, an achro- combination good for one temperature is good for all others within moderate limits. Fizeau found, in the researches before alluded to, values for the refractive increment for 1°C., not unlike our own, namely : Crown glass (zinc), sp. gr., 2°626, Ap>=0°00. Common flint glass, sp. gr., 3°584, Ap>=2°6. Dense flint glass, sp. gr., 4°14, Ap=6°87. The magnitudes of the quantities £ show at once the importance of observing the temperature of the prism in every accurate deter-* mination of refractive indices, neglect in so doing generally viti- ating the fifth decimal place. It may be remarked, too, that ordinary variations in barometric pressure cannot be neglected when it is desired to limit the errors to the sixth decimal place. The prisms IV and V were not studied to determine the Temperature, 20° C. Barometer, 30 inches. Line. IV. Vv. A 1°603945 509607 B 1607306 611584 C 17609041 512580 “Ds 1°613843 515288 5614 1°616333 [516673 1°620103 518719 F 1°625751 521696 G 1°636702 1°527300 h 2 284 1°530075 3951 1°647048 1°532381 The probable errors were not computed, for the reason that the temperature corrections were assumed; but as regards their accuracy, the values under IV are perhaps quite as good as those which go before; those under V, on the other hand, have much larger errors, though probably in every case below two units in the fifth place. Ti is finds its explanation in the fact that the material was not homogeneous, thus giving less perfect definition than the others, though the surfaces of the ing the theory of the astronomical objective. Johns Hopkins University, January, 1878. 276 A. M. Mayer—Experiments with Floating Magnets. Art. XL.—A note on Experiments with floating Magnets ; showing the motions and arrangements in a plane of freely moving bodes, acted on by forces of attraction and repulsion ; and serving in the study of the directions and motions of the lines of magnetic force ; by ALFRED M. Mayer. For one of my little books of the Experimental Science Series I have devised a system of experiments which illustrate the action of atomic forces, and the atomic arrangement in ‘molecules, in so pleasing a manner, that I think these experi- ments should be known to those interested in the study and teaching of physics. A Four floating needles take these two forms Five a“ a“ “c “i “ 4“ .* Six ab “ sé nm ae ti F . Seven “ “ sb “we ““ I have obtained the figures up to the combination of twenty ree needles. Some of these forms are stable; others are unstable, and are sent into the stable forms by vibration. hese experiments can be varied without end. It is cer- tainly interesting to see the mutual effect of two or more I. CG. Russell—Triassie Trap Sheets of New Jersey. 277 vibrating systems, each ruled more or less by the motions of its own superposed magnet; to witness the deformations and decompositions of one molecular arrangement by the vibrations. of a neighboring group, to note the changes in form which take place when a larger magnet enters the combination, and to see the deformation of groups produced by the side action of a magnet placed near the bowl. n the vertical lantern these exhibitions are suggestive of much thought to the student. Of course they are merely sug- as to the grouping and mutual actions of molecules in space. 1 will here add that I use needles floating vertically and horizontally in water as delicate and mobile indicators of mag- netic actions; such as the determination of the position of the oles in magnets, and the displacement of the lines of magnetic orce during inductive action on plates of metal, at rest and in motion. The vibratory motions in the lines of force in the Bell-tele- phone have been studied from the motions of a needle (float- ing vertically under the pole of the magnet), caused by moving to and fro through determined distances, the thin iron plate in front of this magnet. These experiments are worth repeating by those who desire clearer conceptions of the manner of action of that remarkable instrument. Art, XLL—On the Intrusive Nature of the Triassic Trap Sheets of New Jersey; by I. CO: RUSSELL. ALTHOUGH the trap sheets which traverse the Triassic rocks of New Jersey and of the Connecticut Valley are commonly spoken of as being dikes of igneous rocks, yet the proof of tary rocks, is very positively shown. The rid nee See Jase have a general north and south direction, usually conformable with the strike of the associa sa of the Triassic formation. The trap rocks, also, seem neually to be conformable in dip with the stratified rocks above and below them. ‘These facts, together with the consideration of 278) «=. C. Russell—Triassic Trap Sheets of New Jersey. the rare occurrence of the exposure of the junction of the trap rocks with the stratified rocks that overlie them—owing to the removal of the latter by denudation, and to the line of contact ‘being covered with drift or overgrown by vegetation—have led to the supposition that the sheets of trap were not intrusive, but were formed cotemporaneously with the shales and sandstones as a bed or stratum of igneous rock, which was spread out in a molten condition at the bottom of the shallow sea in which the strati rocks were being deposited. The question in hand, then, is to determine (1) whether the plutonic rocks of the Triassic were spread out as a sheet of molten matter and allowed to cool and consolidate before the rocks that rest upon them were deposited, both, therefore, belonging to the same geolog- ical period; or (2) were the trap rocks forced out in a fused state among the sedimentary strata after their consolidation, which, consequently, would make them more recent than either the rocks above or below them. ewark Mountain, for some twenty miles of its course in the neighborhood of Plainfield, New Jersey. We hoped by making t. 2d. To determine, if possible, if the trap sheets seem in all eases to be conformable in bedding with the stratified rocks with which they are associated. _ It is not difficult to find the junction of these igneous rocks with the shales and sandstones that underlie them. In all such of places in the shales and sandstones beneath the trap rocks in eo Plainfield, New Jerse : ese 0 indi I. C. Russell—Triassic Trap Sheets of New Jersey. 279 were at one time inclined to suppose, before the sandstones and shales above them were deposited, then, of course, the rock ain, Jersey, and near the little deserted village of Feltville, the de- sired junction is very plainly shown. We there found one page of the history of the Triassic formation clearly legible. At this locality the stratified rocks are well exposed in the sides of a deep ravine which has been carved out by a smal] brook that flows down the western slope of the mountain. overlying rocks. The outside of these masses present a scorla- ceous or slag-like appearance; in the interior the cavities are filled with Re illtchted misenia The shales that rest directly have been intensely metamorphosed, and are scarcely to be dis- tinguished from the trap itself In hand specimens It 1s fre- quently impossible to determine from their appearance alone which is trap and which is metamorphosed shale. Ata distance of six or eight feet above the trap the shales are still very much é ightly, if at trap, the shales and sandstones are changed but slightly, if at all, from their normal condition. A bed of limestone teh bs to three feet in thickness, which is here interstratified with the shales and sandstones—a very rare occurrence In the Triassic 280 =. € Russell—Triassic Trap Sheets of New Jersey. formation of New Jersey—where it approaches the trap is con- siderably altered and forms a mass of semi-crystallized carbon- ate of lime. : cia have been filled by infiltration with calcite and zeolites. This interesting material seems to have a history somewhat similar to that of the “ friction breccias,” mentioned by Von otta, as occurring at the margins of eruptive igneous rocks, and formed at the time of their eruption. ; the igneous 8, composing the First Newar n, were intruded in a molten state between the layers of the stratified r subsequent to their consolidation. As these mountains may be that one is thousands of years older than its neighbor. As regards the conformability of the trap sheets with the associated sedimentary rocks, we have but little information to offer, independent of the section at Feltville which we have already described. The curved course which a number of the trap ridges in New Jersey follow, seems to indicate that they ust cut across the strata of the sedimentary rocks, which, throughout the whole Triassic area in New J ersey, have a nearly uniform dip of from twelve degrees to fifteen degrees toward the northwest. H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 281 Art. XLIL.—Research on the Absolute Unit of Hlectrical Resist- ance; by Henry A. Row.anp,* Professor of Physics in the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Preliminary Remarks. SINCE the classical determination of the absolute unit of elec- ment, the induction current was uced by reversing the main current, and in Kirchhoff’s by removing the circuits to a distance from each ot And ms to me that this In the carrying out of the experiment I have partly availed f my own instruments and have partly drawn on the he experiment was performe : house near the University, which was reasonably free trom * I am greatly indebted to Mr. Jacques, Fellow of the University, who is - excellent Sherrer for his assis uring the experiment, particularly in read the nt gal 282 Hf. A. Rowland—Absoiute Unit of Electrical Resistance. sary to select a region entirely free from such disturbance. The small probable error proves that sufficient precaution was taken in this respect. a The result of the experiment that the British Association unit is too great by about ‘88 per cent, agrees well with Joule’s experiment on the heat generated in a wire by a current, and makes the mechanical equivalent as thus obtained very nearly that which he found from friction: it is intermediate between the result of Lorenz and the British Association Committee; and it agrees almost exactly with the British Association Com- mittee's experiments, if we accept the correction which I have applied below. The difference of nearly three per cent which remains be- tween my result and that of Kohlrausch is difficult to explain, but it is thought that something has been done in this direc- tion in the criticism of his method and results which are en- tered into below. My value, when introduced into Thomson’s light: but experiments on this ratio have not yet attained the highest accuracy. History. The first determination of the resistance of a wire in absolute stan stance. However we know that the wire was of copper and the temperature 0° R. and that the result obtained * Bestimmung der Constanten von welcher die Intensitat inducirter elektrischer Stréme abhangt. Pogg. Ann, Bd. 76, S. 412, + Elektrodynamische Maasbestimmungen; or Pogg. Ann., Bd. 82, 8. 337. H, A, Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 288 the damping of a swinging needle. Three experiments gave for the resistance of the circuit 1903-108, 1898-108, and 1900-108 mine ; ° . —, but it is to be noted that a correction of five eighths per cent was niade on account of the time, two seconds, which it. took to turn the earth-inductor, and that no account was taken of the temperature, although the material was copper. He finds for the value of the Jacobi unit, 598-107 a Three years after that, in 1853, Weber made another determination of the spe- cific resistance of copper.* But these determinations were more to develop the method than for exact measurement, and it was not until 1862+ that Weber made an exact determina- tion which he expected to be standard. In this last determin- ation he used a method compounded of his first twoemethods by which the constant of the galvanometer was eliminated, and the same method has since been used by Kohlrausch in his experiments of 1870. The results of these experiments were embodied in a determination of the value of the Siemens unit and of a standard which was sent by Sir Wm. Thomson. As The matter was in this state when a committee was appointed by the British Association in 1861, who, by their so pevenen 4 which have extended through eight years, have done so mac in the magnetic meridian also causes re volving coil which deflects the needle from that — Whenever a conducting body moves in a magnetic le is rents are generated in it in such direction that the total re- * Abb. d. Kon. Ges. d. Wissenschaften zu Gottingen, Bd. 5. : : + Zar Creivimcstattie; Gattingen, 1862. Also Abh. d. K. Ges. d. Wis. zu Got- tingen, Bd. 10. 984 H. A, Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. sultant action is such that the lines of force are apparently dragged after the body as though they met with resistance in passing through it: and so we may regard Thomson's method as a means of measuring the amount of this dragging action. ' But, however beautiful and apparently simple the method may appear in theory, yet when we come to the details we find many reasons for not expecting the finest results from it. Nearly all these reasons have been stated by Kohlrausch, and I ean do barely more in this direction than review his objections, point out the direction in which each would affect the result, and perhaps in some cases estimate the amount. In the first place, as the needle also induced currents in the coil which tended in turn to deflect the needle, the needle must have a very small magnetic moment in order that this term may be small enough to be treated as a correction. For this reason the magnetic needle was a small steel sphere 8 mm. diameter, and not magnetized to saturation. It is evident that in a qui- escent magnetic field such a magnet would give the direction of the lines of force as accurately as the large magnets of Gauss and Weber, weighing many pounds. But the magnetic force due to the revolving coil is intermittent and the needle must show as it were the average force, together with the action due to induced magnetization. Whether the magnet shows the dragged with the coil, and hence makes the deflection greater than it should be, and the absolute value of the Ohm too small e. : The mere fact that this small magnet was attached to a com- paratively large mirror which was exposed to air currents could hardly have affected the result, seeing that the disturb- ances would have been all eliminated except those due to air currents from the revolving coil, and which we are assured did not exist from the fact that no deflection took place when the coil was revolved with the circuit broken. In revolving the coil in posite directions very different results were obtained, and the H. A, Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 285 and the deflection was diminished by its torsion 00132. No mention is made of the method used for untwisting the fiber, and we see that it would require only 2°11 turns to deflect the needle 1° from the meridian. To estimate the approximate effect of this, we may omit from Maxwell’s equation* all the other minor corrections and we have __GKw cos p =} a ae ft ) nearly, where we have substituted g—f for g in Maxwell's equation in the term involving 4 In this equation 7 is measured from the magnetic meridian; but let us take # as the angle from the point of equilibrium. en p’=g’+a and et ad where ~’ and g’ are for negative rotation and #” and @” for positive 1 R=} rotation and a= are sin =— 14+¢ Let ‘oa eect . —~ GKw Then CR = tan p(1+#)’ ; 1 CR ite ; R=3(R'+R’). Where R’ and R” are the apparent values of the resistance as calculated from the negative and positive rotations, and R, is the mean of the two as taken from the table published by the British Association Committee. If R is the true resistance, 1 | OR= oe sin a’ ‘ es tan @'(1-H0)(14 <) tan 9'(40(1~ in =) We shall then find approximately oS 1+ tan yp’ tana Be: —— — F sin a tana ii ei R14 sin 3) (1- tan yp" . (: sin p" ( a tan? When a is small compared with #” or y’, and when these are also small, we have RER(parat—W)tes) So that b¥ taking the mean of positive and negative rotations, the pedis of bortibs is almost entirely aiimpinated. Ne the angle by which the needle is deflected ge t = mag meridian by the torsion and its value is 3 (1-7) nearly, + « Reports on Electrical Standards,” p. 103. 1—tany” tana 286 H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. when @ is small, and this, in one or two of their experiments, exceeds unity or a exceeds 28°°6, which is absurd. Taking : R ; even one of the ordinary cases where —‘=1'02 and + is about zo, We a=12° nearly, which is a value so large that it would surely have been noticed. e may conclude that no reasonable amount of torsion in the silk fiber could these currents, but has failed to consider the theory of them. Now, from the fact that after any number of revolutions the number of lines of force passing through any part of the appa- ratus is the same as before, we immediately deduce the fact that, if Ohm’s law be correct, the algebraical sum of the cur- rents at every point in the frame is zero, and hence the average magnetic action on the needle zero. But although these cur- rotation, the effect is nearly but not quite eliminated. The amount of the effect is evidently dependent upon the velocity of rotation and increases with it in some unknown proportion, and the residual effect is evidently in the direction of making the action on the needle too small and thus of increasing R. - these currents are the cause of the different values of R a ta with positive and negative rotation, we should find at if we picked out those experiments in which this difference was the greatest, they should give a larger value of R than the others. Taking the mean of all the results} in which this dif- Reports on Electrical egrysa London, 1873, p. 191. and hare thong probate that te ae tre Sein Sl nt i a column should read 1:0032 and 1-0065 instead of 1:0040 and ‘9981, and in my discussion I have considered them to read thus. i ii H.. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 287 ference is greater than one per cent, we find for the Ohm 10083 earth quad. sec. earth quad. sec. , and when it is less than one per cent, 9966 , Which is in accordance with the theory, the aver- age velocities being 49.2 and 44° nearly. But the individual observations have too great a probable error for an exact colnparison. Sie But whatever the cause of the effect we are considering, the following method of correction must apply. e experiments show that R is a function of the velocity of rotation, and hence, by Taylor's theorem, the true resistance R, must be R,=R(1+Aw+Bw?-+ &c.), and when R is the mean of results with positive and negative rotations, R,=R(1+Bu?+Du!+&c.). Supposing that all the terms can be omitted a the first two, and using the above results for large and small velocities, we find R, = 9926 =e But if we reject the two results in which the difference of positive and negative rotations is over seven per cent, we find R,="9034 sahanns, The rejection of all the higher powers of w renders the cor- rection uncertain, but it at least shows that the Ohm is some- what smaller than it was meant to be, which agrees with my ex periments. : : t is to be regretted that the details of these experiments have never been published, and so an exact estimate of their value can never be made. Indeed, we have no data for deter- mining the value of the Ohm from the experiments of 1863. All we know is that, in the final result, the 1864 experiments had five times the weight of those of 1868, and that the two results differed ‘16 per cent, bat which was the larger is not stated. Now the table of results published in the report of the 1864 experiments contains many errors, some of which we can find out by comparison of the columns. The following cor- rections seem probable in the eleven at fifth columns, read 1:0032 and +082 in place of 1-0040 an +0-40. No. 11, fourth and fifth columns, read 10065 = +0°65 in place of 09981 and —0'19. Whether we make 288 H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. ' With the corrections the mean value of the 1864 experiments is 1 Ohm = 1-00071 St auae’ fourth column, it is 100014. With the corrections the dif ference between fast and slow rotation is ‘6 per cent. , and without them, using the being one formed out of a combination of Weber’s two methods of the earth inductor and of damping, by which the constant of the galvanometer was eliminated, and is the same as Weber used in his experiments of 1862. His formula for the resist- ance of the circuit, omitting small corrections, is _ 3282T?2,(A—A,) AB = ?K (A2--B?)? where S is the surface of the earth inductor, T is the bori- zontal intensity of the earth’s magnetism, K the moment of inertia of the magnet, ¢, the time of vibration of the magnet, A the logarithmic decrement, and A and B are the ares in the method of recoil. an wv approximately, wire occupied two per cent of the radius of the coil, making it uncertain to what point the radius should be measured. As the coil is wound, each winding sinks into the space between the two wires beneath, except at one spot where it must pass it would diminish the value of S? 1:4 per cent, and make Kohlrausch’s result only °6 per cent greater than the result of the British Association Committee. ~ ‘Three other quantities, T, A and K, are very hard to deter- mine with accuracy, and yet T enters as a square. It is to H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 289 be noted that this earth-inductor is the same as that used by Weber in his experiment of 1862; and which also gave a larger value to the Ohm than those of the British Association Com- mittee. Indeed, the results with this inductor and by this method form the only cases where the absolute resistance of the Ohm has Association Committ There seems to be a small one-sided error in A and B which Kohlrausch does not mention, but which Weber, in his old experiments of 1851, considered worthy of a 6 per cent cor- been found greater than that from the experiments of the British tee. Needle by the earth-inductor, and y is the velocity as deduced from the ordinary equation for the method of recoil, I find pon) CA et more exact to substitute 4 (fy f"s sin t di==4 (=) a/J a in the place of 72. The formula then becomes 2 \2\ 1-44 emis (6) (at) pt re exact when A is small than when it is large, but it is sufficiently exact in all a to give — : how long it took him to Source. Kohlrausch does not state g halk about 290 H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 7 yz, and as A=$ nearly, we have -¥ —1.0008, which would diminish the value of the resistance by ‘16 per ce n As the time we have allowed for turning the earth-inductor is probably greater than it actually was, the actual correction will be less than this. The correction for the extra current induced in the inductor and galvanometer, as given by Maxwell’s equation,* has been shown by Stoletow to be too small to affect the result appre- ciably. : We may sum up our criticism of this experiment in a few words. The method is defective because, although absolute resistance has the dimensions of “F“, yet in this method the fourth power of space and the square of time enter, besides other quantities which are difficult to determine. The instru- ments are defective, because the eurth-inductor was of such poor proportion and made of such large wire that its average radius was difficult to determine, and was undoubtedly over- estimated. It seems probable that a paper scale, which expands and contracts with the weather, was used. And lastly, the results with this inductor and by this method have twice given greater results than anybody else has ever found, and greater than the known values of the mechanical equivalent of heat would indicate. The latest experiments on resistance have been made by Lorenz of Copenhagen,+ by a new method of his own, or rather by an application of an experiment of Faraday’s. It consists im measuring the difference of potential between the center and edge of a disc in rapid rotation in a field of known magnetic intensity. A lengthy criticism of this experiment is not needed, seeing that it was made more to illustrate the method than to give a new value to the Ohm. The quantity primarily determined by the experiment was the absolute resistance of mercury, and which it revolved. * “ Electricity and Magnetism,” Art. 762. t Pogg. Ann., Bd. cxlix, (1873), p. 251. PORT al St he eg Oe D. Kirkwood—Solar and Sidereal Heat. .- Bet In conclusion I give the following table of results, a the as nearly as possible to the absolute value of Ohm earth quad. , ame ; Date. Observer. Value of Ohm. Remarks, 1849 |Kirchhoff__.-.--- 88 to ‘90 Approximately. S051" Weber 2-22.52. = *95 to ‘97 18 1-088 From Thomson’s un 62 [Weber -....-... } 1075 From lange s fale ] Siemen’s unit. 1863 ; § 10000 Mean of a ts. —4/B. A. Committee. ) 993 Corrected ris a zero velocity of coil. 1870 |Kohlrausch 10196 970 Taking ratio of quicksilver unit to Ohm 1873 |Lorenz 962. 980 Taking ratio of quicksilver unit to Ohm 1876 [Rowland ----..- ‘9912 Prom a preliminary comparison with the : B. A. uni [To be continued. } Art. XLIII —On Croll’s Hypothesis of the Origin of ae and Sidereal Heat ; by Professor DANIEL KirRKWwoo THE Quarterly Journal of Science for July, 1877, contains an able and interesting article by James Croll, LD., F.RS., on the age and origin of the sun’s heat. The theory of as Croll may be regarded as a compromise between the mathema- ticians, represented by Thomson, Tait and Newcomb, ine the geologists of the uniformitarian school, represented by ‘Playfair, Lyell, Darwin, etc. The principal points of this remarkable paper a 1. That, as had been estimated by Sir William Thomson and others, but twenty million years’ heat could be produced by the —_ epee of the sun’s mass. w determination has — made by H. F. Weber great accuracy. The result * Since of Zuri ults a befe ae at ih, i in “eho ths the the diferent an agree with comparison seems to a been made simply with a nas4 of resistance coils and snot with standa modern oe n’s Mepis seem to be reasonably exact, bu’ m the table published by the tish Association » Oomiadeee in 1864, it seems cue vat that time cer- en nearer Fess tainty as to its value. He obtains 1 S. U. = ‘9550 —_-——, wileh 18 grea or than the British Association determinati i. mae we take the dif- ferent ratios of the Siemen's to the British path unit, ranging from “14 — whee to 1°92 per cent below. In any Well with my own. The apparatus used does Sand ot seem to have been of the best i con e mes Pair of coils is used, seeing that in that case the constant, both of magn effect tnd of induction, depend on the ej Sc it nat tt cient detaile 292 D. Kirkwood—Solar and Sidereal Heat. 2. That not less than five hundred millions of years have been required for the stratification of the earth’s crust at the present rate of subaérial denudation ; and hence that the grav- itation theory of the origin of the sun’s heat is incompatible with geological facts. we suppose two solid opaque bodies, each equal to half the sun’s mass, to fall together in consequence simply of their mutual attraction, the collision would instantly generate suffi- cient heat to reduce the entire mass to a state of vapor. If, in addition to the motion resulting from their mutual attraction, we suppose the bodies to have had an original or independent motion towards each other of 202 miles per second, the con- cussion would produce 50,000,000 years’ heat; a motion of 678 miles per second, together with that due to their mutual at- traction, would generate 200,000,000 years’ heat ; and a velocity of 1,700 miles per second would generate an amount of beat which would keep up the supply at the present rate for 800,- 000,000 years. 4. The sun and all visible stars may have derived their heat from the collision of cold, opaque masses thus moving in space. The nebulz are the products of the more recent impacts, and the stars have been formed by the condensation of ancient nebulee. 5. This theory, while accepting the doctrine of the conser- vation of energy, indicates at the same time a possible supply of heat for several hundred millions of years; thus satisfying all moderate demands for geological time. The mathematical correctness of the theory here stated will not be called in question. We shall consider merely the probability of the facts assumed as its basis. To the present writer the hypothesis seems unsatisfactory for the following reasons: _ L The existence of such sidereal bodies as the theory assumes is purely conjectural, unless it be claimed that lost or missing stars have become non-luminous, of which we have no conclu- sive evidence. and in no case exceeding 200 miles per secon 3. If the two iia whose collision the sun is supposed to have been formed were very unequal, as would be most Siete the amount of heat generated would be correspond- ingly less. 4. Such collisions as the theory assumes are wholly hypo- thetical. It is infinitely improbable that two cosmical bodies should move in the same straight line; and of two moving in different lines, it is improbable that either should impinge ee ee i st -_ ei D. Kirkwood—Solar and Sidereal Heat, 298 against the other. Comets pass rownd the sun without collision containing one-half the matter of the solar system, were ap- proaching one another in the same straight line, each at the rate of 1,70 miles per second ;* that on meeting, their motion was transformed into heat; and that their united mass was at once reduced to vapor: the great question yet remains—How much of the period represented by these 800,000,000 years’ heat can be claimed as geological time? The nebula formed by the collision would extend far beyond the present orbit of Nep- tune. The amount of heat radiated in a given time from so vast a surface would doubtless be much greater than that now emitted in an equal period. No considerable contraction could occur until a large proportion of the heat produced by the ’ inevitable that much the greater part of the 800,000,000 years pon the whole, it seems more difficult to grant the demands of Dr. Croll’s hypothesis than to believe that in former ages the stratification of the earth’s crust proceeded more rapidly than at presen ormer, as we have seen, has no sufficient basis in the facts of observation. On the other hand, if our planet has cooled down from a state of igneous fluidity, the great heat of former times must doubtless have intensified b aqueous and atmospheric agencies in producing modifications of the earth’s exterior. Bloomington, Indiana, March, 1878. * This i ity mentioned by Dr. Croll. An mation would of pase Ras lB more heat, but the hypothesis + Proc. Kan Phil 860, vol. xvi, pp. 329-333 and National Quarterly Review, March, 1877, p. 292. Am. Jour. wijees dace ya: Vou. XV, No. 88.—APRIL, 1878. increased rate of would be open to 294 J. W. Mallet—Selenide of Bismuth from Guanajuato. Art. XLIV.—On the chemical composition of Guanajuatite, or Sel- entde of Bismuth, from Guanajuato, Mexico; by J. W. MALLET, University of Virginia. THIS mineral seems to have been first noticed by Sefior Cas- tillo in March, 1878, and was by him partially described* as a sulpho-selenide of bismuth. In the Guanajuato journal ‘La Republica” for July 18, 1873, Fernandez t published a full description, giving to the mineral the name Guanajuatite, and stating that it is solely a selenide of bismuth, a small amount of sulphur found being attributed to admixture with a little pyrite. In the same year or 1874 Rammelsbergt obtained as the result of a partial exam- imation on a very small quantity, EEE EES ae Se OE 16°7 ee Oak 82°1 and suggested the Phase of zinc. The mineral was more fully examined by Frenzel,§ whose analysis yielded, mencere ss 24°13 Rupee oe. Se es - 6°60 Wiemuth e250. ey ee 67°38 98°11 whence the formula has been deduced—2Bi,Se, . Bi,S,. In the 2d Appendix to the 5th edition of Dana’s Mineral- ogy | the name Frenzelite was proposed for the species, but this has subsequently been retracted | in favor of the prior claim of the name Guanajuatite given by Fernandez. The above are up to this time, I believe, the only published notices of the mineral in question. They leave two doubts in regard to its composition, namely, whether sulphur is really a constituent or only found from accidental admixture, an whether zinc is present or not. At the Bascessedl pres Exhibition of 1876, my friend Sefior . the Mexican Commission, was kind enough * Naturaleza, ii, 174 (1873); Jahrb. Min. (1874), 225, in this Journal, April, 1877, p. Mine! , p- 319. p App. to 5th ed. Dana’s Mineralogy (March, 1875), p. 22. Loe. cit. Min. (1874), 679. { This Journal, loc. cit. J. W. Mallet—Selenide of Bismuth from Guanajuato. 295 tempting to settle the above questions by careful repetition of the chemical analysis. The already pulverized specimen was chiefly used, but was supplemented by a portion of the other —neither was altogether free from the hydrous silicate of aluminum which constitutes the gangue. The method employed was the following. Water having been driven off by careful heating in a slow stream of carbon dioxide gas, collected and weighed, the mineral was mixed with ten times its weight of potassium cyanide and fused in an atmosphere of hydrogen. The mass on cooling was trea with water, and the solution filtered ; the residue on the filter dried and again fused with the cyanide to ensure complete de- composition, repeating the treatment with water and filtration. From the mixed filtrates selenium was thrown down by addi- tion of hydrochloric acid in excess, filtered after thirty-six hours on a weighed filter, cautiously dried and weighed ; it was then burned, and a minute amount of silica left behind was determined. The solution from which the selenium had used) an inum were now precipitated by ammonium sul- phide, and separated by barium carbonate, the alumina being deter The original residue of bismuth, left on the filter fusion with potassium cyanide, and weighed as me ay Silentniss.o: cuue cede aoe ulphur ......-.-------+-+--- “61 Biante is fo ss TCE OS 59°92 abe ee Ec nae 2°53 Webra OF kkk aii cee trace 4 ee ee een 3°47 Ne ee | OO 99°63 Zinc was specially looked for, both in the general analysis and using a separate portion for this purpose alone, but none could 296 J. W. Mallet—Stlenide of Bismuth from Guanajuato. be found. Possibly, as Rammelsberg had but a very small quantity of material on which to work, he may have been led to suspect the presence of zinc by a precipitate of aluminum hydrate derived from gangue. 0 evidence, physical or chemical, could be found of the presence of pyrite; the trace (unweighable) of iron appears to belong to the gangue, It is stated that this gangue is galapectite (Halloysite) ; if the amount of such mineral present be calculated from the alumina the above figures represent the specimen as composed of— Guanajuatite 1.220 22. u... 92°17 Gaasan Halloysite___..__. 6°72 gee ae 56 Moisture---_. 18 99°63 and the Guanajuatite in the pure state would consist of Rrebonetina. 20254. Soe oo 34°33 Sulphur -. "66 Re se i ck 65°01 100°00 Hence we have the atomic ratio, Bi: Se: S= 310: 432; 21, or, uniting the sulphur with selenium, Bi:Se= 310: 453 = 2:000: 2-922, It seems clear that the mineral in question must be viewed as sesqui-selenide of bismuth, with isomorphous replacement to a variable extent of selenium by sulphur. It is also mentioned (this Journal, April, 1867) that Fernan- dez has described a second selenide of bisesteh from the same locality, and has derived from his analyses of more or less pure Janssen Solar Photograph and Optical Studies, 297 Art. XLV.—On the Janssen Solar Photograph and Optical Studies ; by S. P. LANGLEY. Mr. JANSSEN, in papers lately presented to the French Insti- tute* has given an account of recent results in solar-photo- graphy, obtained by him at the observatory of Meudon, and from the comments of Messrs. Huggins, Lockyer, De la Rue and other competent judges, it has been understood that remarkable advances have been made over any before pro- duced. A copy has been published in the Annuaire du or rice-grain-” like forms as had been commonly sup- posed. The term “rice-grain,” it was carefully explained, was Incorrect, and as an illustration imperfect. * Comptes Rendus, Oct. 29th and Dec. 31st, 1877. 298 Janssen Solar Photograph and Optical Studies. : of the foliate form and subdivision, specially calling attention to them in the plate, where they are found in two squares sur- rounded by a heavy outline. It is necessary to insist on the fact that purely optical methods had informed us of the nature of the constituents of the surface with a minuteness which photo- graphy has not even now attained. It was also stated in the first of these articles that the estimated mean distances between the centers of these composite objects ranged from 2°57 to 1-42 according to the degree of disintegration introduced by magnify- ing power, and the very important conclusion was reached that the light of the sun comes to us chiefly from an extremely small part of its surface—an indefinitely small part, but which is at any rate less than one-fifth of the whole. M. Janssen’s impression that the true form and relative area of these has first been shown by the Aner is a misapprehension, though arising most naturally in part from the vicious nomenclature of the subject. : na closer view we see t rse vague macula- tions or marblings* (formed as it seems to me by waves in the solar a ing regions of greater thickness and the plate is hardly possible, but as the individual “ grains” * This is seen in the Albertype on removing it five or six yards from the eye where details are lost. The ae ie igi Brace tho ove itctt) vagueness of the aggregations is in the original _t Indicated all over the Albertype lates, and shown in specific details in the two designated squares. —" Janssen Solar Photograph and Optical Studies. 299 may be here counted, I have placed on the positive a Rogers’ reticule, consisting of very small squares, engine-divided on glass, which had been actually used on the sun for a similar purpose; and with its aid counted the “grains” in different should M. Janssen succeed in future in enlarging his photo- graph while retaining his present wonderful definition, that nition is as sharp and clear as we have escrl d it. ow,—a question evidently to be asked,—is this bad definition something in the solar atmosphere or our own? oes it mean a tremen- away from the facule as seen on the edge? I believe there has been, from telescopic study, a somewhat uncertain recog- nition that the photospheric structure differed at different times, if once recognized, would be visible to the telescope, if sought, granulations varied at different times from solar causes; but with the telescope we lack the facility for deliberate comparison of one part of the disc with another, we obtain here, since owing to the undulations which we do know without doubt, are in our own atmosphere, our best vision is but momentary, an — we can turn from one part of the sun to compare It with another the opportunity is gone. The “omg Eaoereraieg as it is, in 800 Janssen Solar Photograph and Optical Studies. the thousandth exposure may fall in the brief instant of defi- nition the observer patiently watches for, and then the results nomenon, or (what might conceivably be the case) some unde- tected causes of minute instrumental error. The difficulty of presence of residual phenomena, which, however minute, were i ty of distinguishing by @ single plate, the exact limits between the effects of solar and tremities of filaments; extremities whi aggregated, fs sg and which lifted higher than their fellows cause the * Comptes Rendus, Sept. 6, 1875, p. 438. Janssen Solar Photograph and Optical Studies. 301 tosphere to a field of grain in which from a bird's-eye view, we see, in a calm, only the rounded summits of the wheat. ta wind blow fitfully over the surface, bending the crests here and there and showing more of the form of the straws. This is, it seems to me, the suggested explanation of the elongated form of the “grains” shown in such an interesting manner in M. Jans- nomena, and it would be doubtless desirable, if possible, that before us, demand not only the finest mechanical and chem- ical methods and still more the highest skill, but atmospheric conditions so brief as to rarely or never last during even the short time mentioned. Finally, then, though without two pen ia Of equal-ehr es er, it is perhaps Allegheny, Penn., March 14, 1878. 302 E. W. Claypole—Tree-like fossil plant, Glyptodendron. Art. XLVI.—On the occurrence of a Tree-like fossil plant, Glyp- todendron, in the Upper Silurian (Clinton) Rocks of Ohio; b Professor E. W. Cuaypour, B.A., B.Se. (London), of Anti- och College, Yellow Springs, Ohio. In the month of July, 1877, while on a geological excursion in company with one of my students, Mr. Leven Siler, in the vicinity of Eaton, in Preble County, Ohio, the latter picked up and banded me a slab bearing the impression'of a vegetable stem, which proved, on closer examination, to be that of a plant allied to Lepidodendron. As the beds in which we were working at the time lie at the very base of the “Clinton” of the Ohio Survey, and within a few feet of the break which marks the summit of the Cincinnati group of the Lower Silu- rian, the specimen immediately assumed unusual interest and importance ; no indisputable traces of land-plants having then come to light from so low an horizon in America, and no re- mains of arborescent vegetation being known with certainty from strata of so old a date in the New or Old World. The slab containing the impression was not taken out of the solid rock, but lay loose on the bank of Clinton limestone. This fact will naturally raise some question concerning its age in the mind of every geologist. Fortunately, however, we are not in this instance dependent upon such evidence. To any one practically familiar with the Clinton rocks as they crop out the Cincinnati uplift no doubt can arise. The stone 1s a piece of yellow, rough, encrinital limestone, considerably weathered, with the characteristic appearance of the Clinton at Eaton and here. Moreover, by the side of the impression there me imens. But further re Boe the fossil and its nearest allies among the Sigillarids and Lepidodendrids has induced me to place it by itself in a new genus, which seems to form a connecting link between some other paleozoic genera. I append the following description :— E. W. Claypole—Tree-like fossil plant, Glyptodendron. 308 GLYPTODENDRON. ‘Tree-like; stem cylindrical; surface marked with two parallel sets of ridges running spirally up the stem in opposite directions, crossing each other and thus forming thomboidal areoles. Lower portion of areole depressed and prob- ably representing or containing a leaf-scar. Depressed porece of areole (leaf-scar?) symmetrical (i. e. alike on the right and left sides.) Vascular scars, leaves, fruit, etc., unknown. The name is from the Greek yAdga, I engrave, and alludes to the depressed areoles. Glyptodendron Eatonense. Stem thick and trunk-like; the specimen from which this description was made measured when complete about six inches in diameter. Surface divided into rhomboidal areoles by two sets of narrow ridges parallel and - peadaier vag running spirally up the stem in opposite directions. ese ridges cross bas other nearly at right angles. The are- oles thus formed measure about seven-sixteenths of an inch along each diagonal. Lower portion of areole deeply and evenly depressed and probably Hi ul a sunken leaf-scar. Upper border of depressed portion rounded in outline and ele- vated, equalling in height the spiral ridges. No trace of the vascular scars can be seen in consequence of the roughness of He says, “ The marks on your specimen, at rags sight, resemble those of the Lepidodendra of the type of the have belonged to a plant of the nature of a Tree-fern, or of a Sigillaria allied to ‘s Menardi, rather than to a true Lepidoden- 304 Scientific Intelligence. dron.” ‘In speaking of the areoles, I take it for granted that the curvature of the cast represents that of the stem.” “The specimen may, however, have been a bit of bark pressed out of shape.” My own opinion, after a careful examination of the original, is that the curvature of the cast does represent that of the stem, and consequently that Dr. Dawson’s remarks on its resemblances are wellfounded. The bark of Lepidodendra, etc., when pressed as usually occurs in the Coal-measures, is constantly flattened. In a subsequent communication, Dr. Dawson alludes to the possibility suggested above, that the fossil may exhibit a com- posite character partaking of the character of more than one existing genus. The wide diffusion of the type which it most resembles in the Lower Carboniferous is good reason for be- lieving that it is very ancient, and therefore its occurrence so low as the Clinton limestone is the less surprising. In conclusion, I gladly express my indebtedness to Dr. J. W Dawson, of Montreal, for valuable aid cheerfully rendered, and Mr. Leo Lesquereux, of Columbus, in this State, for prompt and kind replies to letters of enquiry. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYsICcs. 2 1. On certain Fundamental Thermo-chemical Data.—BERvHE- Lot has re-determined with great care the heat data belonging to certain chemical reactions, using an improved calorimeter for the purpose, described in the memoir. The heat of formation of sulphurous oxide, although determined many times, was not UP to this time accurately known. Thus sixteen grams of sulphur burned to gaseous sulphurous oxide gave Dulong 41°6 calories, Hess 41-1, Andrews 36°9, and Favre and Silbermann 35°6, the . glass, and the sulphur used the octahedral variety. The mean result was, for sixteen oe of sulphur, 34°55 calories. From lates the heat of formation of sulphuri¢ diamond, in burning to C,O, evolves 94, C, in burning to C,0, evolves 94 —68 2=25°8, or for amorphous carbon 28°8. Ethy lene twenty-eight grams, yields 334-5 calories, acetylene twenty-5!* Chemistry and Physics. 805 grams, 317°5, and benzene seventy-eight grams, 776 calories. In the formation of the hydrogen compoun nds of bromine and iodine H+Br gas=HBr gas yields 13:1 calories, while H+Br liquid =HBr gas gives 9°5, H+I gas =H gas gives Aggy 9 calories, and H-+I solid =HI gas ives —6°3. The heat of formation of bromic acid is —21-2, and * hypobromous PI ga gh tig Chim. Phys., V, xiii, ‘ Jan. 2. Relations between the pipe Weights of the Ble neat WarcuTER has described certain additional relations between the (i. e., one positive and the other Pein) are a equal to one fusing and the boiling points of the elements, so far as known, increase With increasing atomic weights and increas ig V3 ge fr atomic weights, the greater, the higher the valence. 6th. crass of the negative metallo ids—fluorine to silicon—for the e roper, diminishes be * Rae atomic weight and an increasing valence.—Ber. B Fes., Xi, 11, Jan. Ne B. 8. New Method for the Preparation of Nitrogen. s eesaes SE has observed that when ammonium nitrate and manganese perpide are heated together up to the fusing point ais the former (about 180°) a violent reaction age the mass mes red hot and nitrogen is evolv the temperature be oe t between 180° ee 200°, yea nitrogen is entirely pure, being formed according to € equatio On H NO,),+Mn0, =Mn(NO,),+(H,9).+N. One experiment, three grams NO, heated with an equal weight of MnO, in a acti & bath kept at 205°, yielded 630 cubic centimeters of gas, nearly a theoretical quantity. If the nous nit temperature rises above 216° 8 decomp — giving sachin vapors and ox sg At td the gas contai sp og per t of oxygen.— Bull. Soe. Ae, Eh xxi, a — 187 P. i “On a Method 0 separating Crystallized Silica, patois Quart, from Siltoaten- —Lavurer has suggested an improvement os 306 Scientific Intelligence. 5. On the use of Stannous Chloride in the analysis of Nitro- compounds,—Limpricut, noticing the facility with which an acid solution of stannous chloride reduced nitro-compounds, made a series of experiments to ascertain whether the reaction could not made use of to stannous chloride solution of known strength, the nett (tt) 0 oO : SnCi,+(H,0), B titrition the quantity of stannous chloride an Stototte salt in a liter of water; (3) starch solution diluted and ="0059 gr. Sn, =0-0007666 gr. NO,; (5) Permanganate solution, made and titered as usual. In the analysis, 0°2 h m 10 c.c. of the tin solution, and warmed. After cooling the flask is filled to the mark with water, 10 ¢.c. is removed with a pipette, aced in a er, dil mixed with the soda solution until the precipitate at first produced is re-dissolved, and after adding some starch solution, titered with the iodine solution until the blue becomes permanent, ‘numerous results given show the panne to be accurate.—Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xi, 35, Jan 1 G. ¥ B. 6. On a so-called Catalytic action of Carbon Disulphide. Chemistry and Physics. 307 water bath in sealed tubes for forty hours, have not the slightest n on each other, — addition of a small quantity of carbon disulphide to the mixture so facilitates the reaction that even in six hours it is ees and in one case the tube exploded from the evolved hydrogen bromide, in two hours, Further investiga- tion showed that the presence of the disulphide was not abso- lutely necessary, ‘oie for the formation of the addition or the renee products of bromine and acetic acid, but that it facil- ted the formation of both to an extraordinary degree, the time required for the action to be completed being in the exact inverse ratio of the amount of CS, present. The precise mode of action of the disulphide, the authors are now engaged in 1 iexastgatnie: —Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xi, 241, Feb. 1878. G. F. B. 7. On. the Conversion of Nitriles into Amides.—Prsner and Kietn showed a short time ago that any nitrile may be made to combine directly with = alcohol, by passing gaseous HCl or HBr into a mixture of the two. There is first formed the salt of an fotiockinnne _RCN+R’0H-+(HCl),=RC OW HC) which immediately loses HCl and becomes a salt of an imide. Thus benzonitrile and isobutyl alcohol when thus treated give the hydrochlorate of benzimidobutyl ether, C.H,C | OCH, wee By the action of alcoholic ammonia, the free benzimidobuty] ether C.H C} 06, H, and benzimido-amide (or benzenylamimide) C.H,C HCl are obtained. The authors now describe ben- siidborade and its silver compound, and the action of ethyl iodide and of acetic oxide u upon it, and also benzimidobutyl ether. so a polymer of Lggrorrtice termed kyaphenin. meee = Ges. Nes 4, Jan. 1 Wislicenus’s laboratory, which go to prove this sugar a pentacid alcohol the prolonged action of acetic oxide upon quercite in sealed tubes at 100° to 120°, a pent tate w obtained as amorphous brittle mass, having ae farina OCH H,O),. Saponification with barium hydrate confir sition. The tetra and the ean cd are Liao a ‘Uuming h eae acid was without action.—Liebig’s Ann., exe, 282, gyro bi . F. B. 9. On the cids of Cocoa Butter.—Kixezert has exa ae chemical racicoa A of the Cocoa butter of —o hav- a fusing point of about 30° C. . was as y sodium a the sodium salt converted into a barium salt, this decom- 308 Scientific Intelligence. sed by HCl in presence of ether one the fatty acids obtained by distilling off the ether, were repeatedly crystallized from alco- y re serene the fractional crystallization, there was Shenae beside olei acid, an acid of the formula C,,H,,O, and fusing point 57°5° as one extreme, and —— C,,H,,,0,, of fusing 128" 29 point. 72°2° as the other, both of which are new. To the latter J. Ch. the pegs anne the name Theobromic acid.— Soc., xxxiii, 38, Jan. G. F. B 10. On. a new Class of Acid tain iar ee has studied a new class of ee salts, the acid acetates which acetic acid’ itself plays the part of water of cotinine, Their general formula of the sodium salts is C,H,Na0,(C,H,0 )—H, oO, where n = = or 3.- Thus, a salt crystallizing in small flat efflorescent prisms has the formula C,H sNaO,(C,H ,0,)4(H,O)$. Another of the second class, where ~ Mas, is in small efflorescent prisms of the formula C,H,NaO,(C,H,O,)3(H ,O)42.— Bull. Soc. ~*~ be xxix, 153, Feb. 1 1878. ll. Electro- Magnetic and pheno imetric Absolute Mumwoneda ae the continuation of a paper with the above title, Professor F, WEBER Psat ia that the seg of the Siemen’s mercury unit of resistance lies between 0°9536 x 10° ("a) ‘oad 0°9550 * 10” ( Teen) and that the value of the British unit is the value asserted, 101° et . Professor Weber also dis- ome the experiments of Favre on the quantities of heat devel- by various electromotive forces in their circuits during the i f zinc. F of a mercury calo rimeter, an instrument which Weber sz aeattg” os ee. Mauien 1878 ape a 12 agri Ee lobstessare ER Wricut and Mr. = Mary’s Hos ital Tondon, pet made a first report to the Like Chemical y* of their _investigation on this chief point established by their paper is the general principle that “ ‘that reduc agent begins to act cat the lowest of ¢ experiments are given on — reduction of ¢ cupric ‘oxide and Chemistry and Physics. 309 ferric oxide by carbonic oxide, by hydrogen and by carbon re- c tion of carbon, hydrogen, and carbonic oxide with sixteen grams of oxygen are taken as 47°78, 57°82 and 68°35 respectively. The effect of the different physical states both of the metallic oxides and of the charcoal used is likewise carefully discussed. nh connection with the above paper, Mr. M. M. Pattison Muir, of Caius College, Cambridge discusses the “influence exerted b time and mass in certain reactions in which insoluble salts are produced.” The author following a previous suggestion of Glad- pipet 4 ally becomes more and more slow.” 2, “that the equation CaCl, +M,CO,=2MCIi+CaCoO, does not furnish a full expression of the action of sodium or po- tassium carbonate upon calcium chloride. en the two salts are mixed in the proportion expressed by their respective formule, 4, w f 9 that elevation of temperature tends to increase and on the other d increase the excursions of the our. Scl.—Turrp Series, Vou. XV, No. 88.—APRIL, 1 21 310 Scientific Intelligence. residual molecules of sodium or potassium carbonate and of calcium chloride, would also increase the chances in favor of collision oc- ¢ the excursions of these residual molecules, or tending to increase the number of molecules which take no part in the production of calcium carbonate, and hence to decrease the chances of the sodium or potassium carbonate and the calcium chloride molecules coming into collision, wenld also tend to diminish = amount of calcium t m solutions would tend to decrease the chances of snme hea the two sets of molecul 13. eS a —In the Journal of the Ciethinal: Society jet err Mintz (Compt. rend., lxxxiv, 301). These experimenters ha sought to establish two points firs t, that rapes vapors prevent nitrification; secondly, that ibisificasion may be induced by seed- ing in many cases sufficient t oad oy all the germ nie chitiek in an organic hey while tina solution kept in darkness developed bacteria fr earing of this observation on the fact that The pase ‘retards or even prevents nitrification is obvious. e oor of light on nitrification was not apparently quite known ; it is twice hinted at in Gmelin’s Chemistry es ‘endish Translation, > 68, vii, =} but it is not mentioned to oT ubjec t. Reczunination re some of Haloid laioniec of An * Cooks, Jr. (Proceedings of the Amert- eda oF. of Aria and Blcies vol. xiii. Boston, 1877).— paper co: Ieal and ci yveadinurrahiegs relbtiuaih of the iodide of antimony in particular, but also of the chloride, bromide, and the oxichlorides, oxibromides, and oxi-iodides. The chloride and the bromide of | Chemistry and Physics. 311 antimony were both obtained by several different methods, in dis- tinct crystals. These were extremely deliquescent, but, notwith- ) tained in three crystalline conditions—hexagonal, orthorhombic and monoclinic. The hexagonal crystals have a deep ruby-re color; their specific gravity is 4-848, and the melting point is 167°. The orthorhombic crystals have a greenish-yellow color; they are formed when the iodide is volatilized at a low temperature—be- low 114°, and when subjected to a higher temperature they on ling the orthorhombic crystals of foliated minerals frequently imi- tions parallel to each they would form crystals having a rhombic d g : 312 Screntific Intelligence. the following manner :—A solution _ the iodide in carbon disul- phide, after jt has been exposed for some hours to the action of the sunlight, undergoes partial ss a ag some iodine being set free, this ‘solution i is then distilled over a water bath, and the pro- ate of 4°768. That ee are true isomers of the other forms it the monoclinic iodide in pure carbon disulphide the hex- onal iodide is obtained, as —— a small quantity of minute rhom- bic plates, whose.ang] e 60° and 120° om these facts it he suggestion is made that possibly the supposed orthorhom- bic — may prove upon more exact determination on better material, to be really monoclinic, so that the difference between the two Yellow varieties that have been = would exist ee | in habit. This would not, however, affect the general result reached as to the sorte of their form to the Pea ae kind and the reason for its existen The “ molecular snieling® which has been ‘explained is quite dis- tinct from the “interlaminar macling,” described by the orale in his paper upon the Vermiculites, and alluded to above. The la involves no essential change in "substance ; the former teeter se a 15. The Telephone, an Instrument of Mbcthetont —The “applica- tions to which the te beat aye may in future be put cannot yet all foreseen ay had its value shown to me ina remarkable ae hi 1 tir a Rieribo-cloctrie: intermittent current by drawing a — end of copper wire alon ng a rasp completing the cirenit. A tel ephone was ae into the circuit, in another room, and every time that the wire was drawn along the rasp a hoarse eae Sine: was heard in the telephone. 2. I used a thermopile n burner shining on it from a distance of six feet. The curr ent was rendered intermittent by the file, and the sound was most distinctly heard. A Thomson’s reflecting galvanometer was introduced into the circuit which showed that the currents. Geology and Mineralogy. 813 still the effects were faintly audible. Here the galvanometer, which was still in circuit, hardly gave any indication. In these experiments only one telephone is used, viz: at the i ith a powerful current and short dashes of the Morse alphabet. _ I ought to mention that I believe the as Prof. Tait. Grorce Forses, Andersonian College, Glasgow, February 13. —From Nature of Feb. 28. Il GroLtogy AND MINERALOGY. l. Origin of the Driftless Region of the Northwest; by np D. Irvinc.—In a notice of vol. ii of the Geology of the explanation I have offered for the existence of the riftless region of Wiscon- Report for 1876. I am informed, also, that ritten for a Chicago journal Page which’ I have not myself seen —has said that my explana- on i i in- worth, they are wholly my own. Possibly they are wo more because analogous to those reached independently by some 314 Scientific Intelligence. one else. The matter has long excited my attention, the entire inadequacy of the older views having forced itself upon me when first engaged in field-work in Wisconsin. However, though cheerfully acknowledging the priority of IPs vi the Green Bay Valley and Lake Superior. The crystalline rock region is no such lofty one as he appears to suppose, is mnie ; but, because of ; size and force, and of their westerly direction, they left the region farther south untouched. ‘ _ Professor Winchell’s view was reached by noticing the relation in position of the driftless region and the area of crystalline Wisconsin. At the time that I wrote, the proofs of a’similar state of affairs for the Lake Superior country were nearly as good, and be seen when the reports on that country come to be published. University of Wisconsin, February 18, 1878. 2. Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania. : (1) Report of Progress in the Fayette and Westmoreland district of the Bituminous Coal Fields of We nsylvania ; by : Western Pen J.J. Srevensoy. Part 1, Eastern Allegheny County and Fayette Geology and Mineralogy. 315 and Westmoreland oo west from Chestnut Ridge. 438 pp. 8vo, with maps and se —Professor Stevenson’s Report gives first an account of he "phytical features and general geology of the district, and then describes with detail the stratification of the bed. The coals and iron ores are described, and many analyses are ie = spe latter. (2.) Report of Pr ogress in the Cambria and Somerset District sale the Fituntaoud Coal Fields of Western Pennsylvania ; by . ews :G, Pra Part II, Somerset. vate , Pa.—The region he scribed lies to the southeast of 1858 to occur i the bottom “of the Barren oe and at the top of the Lower Productive Coal series, has no > and opt it should fer fpr from that report wherever it occurs, an from Lesley’s “ Manual of Coal.” The Report is ‘lustrated by numerous wood-cuts, and six maps and sections. (3.) wy Well trot dens and Levels ; by Joun F. a 348 Pp. 8vo. Harrisburg, Pa.—This Report is a very Vv. e sys- temnatiied statement of facts connected with the oil Broan of Western Pennsylvania. It contains the geological and geograph- ical positions and depths of all the oil openings, and sections of the rocks in each case as far as oe By were obtainable. _ The work 316 Scientific Intelligence. they contain, it takes up in succession the life of the periods in geological history, commencing with the oldest. Its many illus- trations are not as well engraved as they should be. The author is a zoologist as well as geologist, and the student will find his work a very valuable help toward obtaining a comprehensive knowledge - the progress of life on the globe Reports of the United States Exploration ‘of the 40th parallel, Fog ai Kine, Geologist in charge. Submitted to the Chief of Engineers and published by order of the Secretary of War, under authority of Congress. ‘Two volumes of these Reports, on the re- gion in the vicinity of the 40th parallel cae the Sierra Nevada and the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains, have recently been issued. They add greatly to our knowledge of Rocky Mountain geology, and are hastening on the time when we shall ae com- sata map of the great territories. These two volumes are num- red volumes ii and iv. Volume iii, by Mr, King, is one in the press, and will soon be ready for delivery. Volume ii, contains the “ Descriptive Geology” by ARNOLD Haguz and §. F, Em MONS; it is an octavo volume of 890 pages and is lasted ay twenty-six plates. A Soars of it-is deferred to another number of this olume iv, ck sore rs 670 pages, consists of three reports or parts: I, "Paleontology, by Fick mae K, illustrated by seven- teen plates; II, Paleontology, by Jam : Has and R. P. Wurt- FIELD, illustrated by seven plates, and ll, Ornithology by RopeRrt Ripeway. The Report of the late Mr. Meek contains fossils the Tavis District, Nevada; and the west side of Degouly Mountain, White Pine District, Nevada. They include Brachio- pods, of aes gonere spisopines Lingulepis, Kutorgina and a = 3 7 $5 113 is a z 3 = + w belong to the upper portion of the Lower Silurian, the Devonian, Carboniferous, Triassic and Jurassic formations. regions ‘and their faunas i is presented, and lists of the species of each, which we propose to notice in a future number 5. Report on the Clay Deposits of Woodbridg e, South Am- boy, and other places in New Jersey, together swith their uses for brick, po ne etc., by Grorar H. Cook, State Geologist of New Jersey. 2 pp. 8 8vo. phen N. J., 1878.—This valua- ble volume, on a Jersey deposits, is published by 5 as a part of the results of yo Geological Survey. It give ed Geology and Mineralogy. 8317 se southwest to Trenton, on the Delaware. The second is a large colored map, giving special details with regard to the northeast- e ing contains a colored chart, showing the condition of Europe in the fi d se cial range. The chart is interesting as exhibiting the supposed condi- tion of Europe, according to one believing in the iceberg theory of the drift. 7. Cordaites with flowers from the Coal region of Pennsylvania, i f arlin and leaves attached to the stems of Cordaites. “Sternberg in R » . . . to publish last fall his splendid monograph of the Cordattes in his i a, Mr. Mansfield has now obtained a splendid some y illustrating the relation of this remarkable group.”—Amer. Phil. Soe., Feb. 1, 1878. above the sea, and 4000 feet above the town of Huallanea. region was reached after an arduous journey across the Andes 318 Scientific Intelligence. from the port of Casma; in the course of it, it was necessary to cross several parallel ranges, one of them 16,800 feet in altitude, 9. On the new Mineral Homilite—In December, 1876, M. Paijkull published an account of a new mineral, associated with 1 are totally isotropic. M. Damour has analyzed the m eral an his analysis (2) is here quoted together with that of M. Paijkull (1). SiO. BO; Al,0O,; Fe.0; FeO MnO Ce.0,* MgO CaO Na.O K,0 H,O (1) 31-87 pate 150: 2°15 © 16°26) -- 0°62 27-28 1-09 0°41 0°85 =100° (2) 33°00 [15-21 18°18 0-74 2°56 27°00 1°01 -. 2°30 =100° * With La,0s;, Di.O0;. The h : t From the fact that the analyses do not afford any simply atomic ~ fr e . » 1. Flora of Tropical Africa ; by Danret Outver. Vol. Il. Tinhelbifors es pr sand edie s a work Professor Oliver has secured an efficient collaborator in Mr. Hiern, who has not only taken the Ebenacee, of which he has formerly published a classical monograph, but also the Umbel- DERE eS a Te ee ae rts ail Botany and Zoology. 319 lifere, Rubiacee and Dipsacee, and has borne a part in the elabo- ration of the Composite, more genera than would be expected, namely 117, and 17 are Gertn., replaces Webera of Schreber, being three years older ; also Chomelia Linn., is said to be the correct name, but Chomeliu of Jacquin is kept up. Canthivm Lam., is restored in good time for that important genus, much to the relief of the nomenclature, and the original Plectronia of Linneus is said to be Olinia! The Liberian coffee, the seed of Coffea Liberica, “is said to be > Psychotria, with 61 species, is made to include Chasalia, and to one, and another plant named Richardia, in honor of L. C. Richard, and the present state of things having been acquiesced im for more than half a century, this certainly is a case to whic z d posits of the Sierra Nevada; by Leo Lesquerevx. i 10 plates, 4to. 1878. (Vol. vi, No. 2 of the Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College.)—A me- Specimens figured are impressions of is ¢ a fine- ained whitish clay or soapstone,” mainly from a collection made r, Voy, of Oakland, California, which was sec red and resented to the California University by the liberality of Mr. D. O. Mills, remains are of special interest from the 320 Scientific Intelligence. may pt i : ge ch University will receive and forward any American collections des- tined for it. S number of years ago, he had been led to an observation on the none. He @ first soppoese the ants had all been destroyed, but in the attic he observed a few feasting on some dead house flies, which led him ai a : sweet cake. He accordingly distributed through the house pieces of bacon, which were afterw: rds found swarming with a astra a ith the same result for several days, when, in like manner with the cake, the ants finally ceased to visit the bacon. leces of cheese Were next tried, with the same results; but yin an undoubted thinning in the multitude of ants. When the ee SNE Se ee EN PET Gt Miscellaneous Intelligence. 821 cheese proved no longer cpt recollecting the feast on dead flies in the attic, dead grasshoppers were su pplie ed from the gar- much for ced ag appear to have been thoroughly oe nor has the e since been —_— with them.— Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci Philodelphia 1877, p. 3 8. ‘arboniferous pooiee’s tes of Illinois.—At the Baten, 4 the Boston Society of ren History for December 5, 1877, S. H. Scudder showe rawings of interesting Argoeietes from the pad sae ‘eke of Illinois. The first represented a Species of white ani, showing a wing without reticulation; the second, the terminal scinneiis of a eriiacent belonging to a genus allied to Dithyrocaris, but which he had at first taken for some extraordinary form of insect. A Manual of the Anatomy of Invertebrated Animals, by Tuomas H. Huxtey , F.R.S. 596 pp. 8vo. (New York: Apple- ton & Co.)—The best and latest students’ manual of the inverte- brates in the English language. 0. Nomenclature in Zoology and AR by W. H. Dat, U. 5. Coast Survey.—Mr. Dall, as chairman of the committee of the American Association on Zoological Nomendlaturs has been doing € > principles of cislogioa! and botanical nomenclature into one sym- metrical system. Mr. Dall’s statement of this og is a great twenty-four days, but gra adually regained its usual powers an - habits of flight, and its ability to feed itself and drink. Only one such case is on record. He argued for the propriety an hess of such operations from the acknowledged gee ey waieteabie ties of the science—Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., Feb. 1, 18 V. MisceELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Hist Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S. the Canadian epheat te yol. ¥ first. series will be found firs on the earthquake of October 17, 322 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 1860, with a summary of facts relating to the previous shocks recorded in Canada, a local peculiarities and probable causes. subject was con- tinued in vol. i, of the new series, in connection with the earth- a wide-spread disturbances of the earth’s crust in the present autumn, On January 4, 1871, a shock was experienced at Hawkesbury, Ontario, but was not reported from any other place. A more ve been noticed from time to time, but did not attract much attention, and I have preserved no details in relation to them. at of the present month was probably the most considerable since 1871. It occurred at Montreal, at ten minutes before two on the morning of Sunday, November 4. At Montreal there was only one distinct shock, preceded by the usual rumbling noise, and sufficiently severe to be distinctly felt, and to shake window- > southern side, about 300 miles on the eastern side, and 175 on the western.” So far as can be learned from the reports, the shock seems to have been most severely felt on the north side of the valley of the St. Lawrence and abo i i nd some general remarks on their periods, - b The j Miscelianeous Intelligence. 323 If we add to the table of earthquakes in Eastern America, given in vol. v of the Naturalist, the more recent earthquakes observed in Canada, the proportion for the several months will stand as follows :— Ma u 8; November, 15; December, 8. Total, 78. Thus of seventy-eight recorded Canadian and New England earthquakes, fifteen, or nearly one-fifth, occurred in November; forty, or more than half of the total number, in the third of the rel extending from October to January inclusive. The pub- ished catalogues show that similar ratios have been observed elsewhere, at least in the Northern hemisphere. nh some earthquakes a low state of the barometer has been observed, as if a diminution of atmospheric pressure was con- rust causing vibration. In the present case no very decided suc high for the season, and this rapid fluctuation was accompanied with much atmospheric disturbance in the region of the lakes and the St. Lawrence Valley. e weather map issued by the War Dep shows a low barometer in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and a high barometer in the Middle States—the area of the earthquake being about half way between the extremes. n sre nit f with previous earthquakes it has been observed that the greatest intensity of the shocks appeared near the june- tion of the Laurentian with the Silurian formations. This would Wave propagated through the S : , sipabinik ee aetiakltn and eastern sides of the Laurentian region, 324 Miscellaneous Intelligence. or a shock Sa ase under the Laurentian of these regions had extended itself from them into the Silurian rocks to the south and east. If the ptovaiting'i impression stated in the eet that the vib a passed from W. to E. or N.W. to S.E,, is — the latter would be the more probable supposition. Tt i is, however, very difficult to attain to any certainty as to the actual direction of the disturbance, and some observers give it as precisely the opposite of that above stat On the 14th of Moeahens a slight shock was felt at Cornwall, Ontario, and on the 15th of November earthquake shocks oc curred over a wide area in Kansas, Iowa, Dakota and Nebraska. OBITUARY, CHARLES ce ee Harrr.—Professor Hartt, according to a telegram from Rio Pak died of yellow fever soon after the ee i o Sxccui, the Astronomer and Director of the Observa- tory at the Collegio gf at_ Rome, Italy, died on the 26th of February last. Father Secchi, in the years 1848 and 1849, was connected with the Observatory of Georgetown none. near Washington. In 1850 he returned to Eur ope and entered on hi labors at Rome. His papers on astronomical and physical subjects are very numerous and of great value. ig eases ieee aires Stine a RR AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [THIRD SERIES.] * Art. XLVII.—Research on the Absolute Unit of Electrical Resist- ance; by Henry A. RowLAND, Professor of Physics in the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. [Continued from page 291.] Theory of the Method. WHEN a current is induced in a circuit by magnetic action of any kind, Faraday has shown that the induced current is proportional to the number of lines of force cut by the circuit and inversely as the resistance of the circuit. If we have two Circuits near each other, the first of which carries a current, and the second is then removed to an infinite distance, there will be a current in it proportional to the number of lines of force cut. Let now a unit current be sent through the second cir- cuit and one of strength E through the first; then, on removing the second circuit, work will be performed which we easily see is also proportional to the number of lines of force cut. Hence, if EM is the work done, Q is the induced current, and R is the resistance of the second circuit, g=cr™ where C is a constant whose value is unity on the absolute System. When the current in the first circuit is broken, the lines of force contract on themselves, and the induced current is the same as if the second circuit had been removed to an infinite distance. If the current is reversed the induced current is twice as great; hence in this case E M E =—2E— or R=2M—. pees Q Am. Jour. Sc1.—Turp Serres, VoL. XV, No. 89.—Mar, 1878, 22 326 H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. Hence, to measure the absolute resistance of a circuit on this method, we must calculate M and measure the ratio of Q to E. M is known as the mutual potential of the two circuits with unit currents, and mathematical methods are known for its calculation. The simplest and best form in which the wire can be wound for the calculation of M is in parallel circular coils of equal size and of as small sectional area as possible. For measuring E a tangent galvanometer is needed, and we shall then have B= tan 6, where H is the horizontal intensity of the earth’s magnetism at the place of the tangent galvanometer, and G@ the constant of the galvanometer. or measuring Q we must use the ballistic method, and we ve A cid Biot Ei ge tT! Ig. avaer hse aad EES 2 sin $0 Qa = che ‘2 sin $0, which for very small values of A becomes be ee Ne eg GO antand 1 Te G Tsin$@1+4A—4A2’ where H’ is the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetism at the place of the small galvanometer, G’ its constant, T the time of vibration of the needle, and A the logarithmic decrement. ' The ratio of H’ to H can be determined by allowing a needle to vibrate in the two positions. But this introduces error, and by the following method we can eliminate both this and the distance of the mirror from the scale by which we find 6 and eter, before and after each experiment. Let a and a’ be the deflections of the tangent galvanometer and the other galva- be — tan a= ae tana’, and we have finally \>7 G tana’ tané R=Mz TG’ tana sing# 1445-42? Hf, A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance, 327 which does not contain H or H’, and the distance of the mirror from the scale does not enter except as a correction in the ratio of sin $6’ and tan a’; and, as a and 6 can be made nearly equal, the correction of the tangent galvanometer for the length of needle is almost eliminated. When the method of 1 recoil is used, we must substitute 1+4 A\° for the term in- 7 volving A, and sin $A’+sin $B’ in the place of sin 46, A’ and B’ being the greater and smaller arcs in that method. This is on the supposition that A is small. The ratio of G’” to G must be so large, say 12,000, that it is difficult to determine it by direct experiment, but it is found readily by measurement or indirect comparison. — It is seen that in this equation the quantities only enter as the first powers, and that the only constants to be determined which enter the equation are M, G and @”, which all vary in simple proportion to the linear measurement. It is to noted also that the only quantities which require to be reduced to standard measure are M and T, and that the others may all be made on any arbitrary scale. No correction is needed for temperature except to M. Indeed, I believe that this method exceeds all others in simplicity and probable accuracy and its freedom from constant errors, seeing that every quantity was varied except G’” and G, whose ratio was determined within probably one in three thousand by two methods. Having obtained the resistance of the circuit by this method, we have next to measure it in ohms. For this purpose the resistance of the circuit was always adjusted until 1t was equal to a certain German silver standard, which was afterward care- fully compared with the ohm. This standard was about thirty- five ohms. By this method, the following data are needed. 1. Ratio of constants of galvanometer and circle. 2. Ratio of the tangents of the two deflections of tangent galvanometer. : 8. Ratio of the deflection to the swing of the other gal- vanometer, : 4. Mutual potential of induction coils on each other. 5. Time of vibration of the n 6. Resistance of standard in ohms. For correction we need the following: 1. The logarithmi 4. Rate of chronometer. 5. Correction to reduce to standard meter. . 828 H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 6. aN of the resistance of German silver with the emaperse 7.» Perhporabare of standard resistance. Arc of swing when the time of vibration is determined. 9. Length of needle in ee and other galvanometer ary! compensated by the me Onin variation of saaietsada of circuit during the experi- Be The i i errors are compensated by the method of experim 1. The Teal and daily variation of the earth’s magnetism. 2. The variation of the magnetism of the nee 3. The magnetic and inductive action of the parts of the apparatus on each other 4. The rea for length of needle in the tangent gal- vanometer (nearly). The axial displacement of the wires in the coils for induction 6. The error due to not having the coils of the galvanom- eter and the. circle parallel to the needle. 7. Scale error (partly). 8. The zero error ot pe Caleulation of Constants. Circle.—For obtaining the ratio of G to G”, it is best to cal- culate them separately and then take their ratio, though it might be found by Maxwell’s method (“Electricity,” Article 753). But as the ratio is great, the heating of the resistances would produce error in this latter method. For the simple cir 4 I EE (13(5) + &e.) (A? 4+B2)2 A where A is its radius aan ~ the distance of the plane of the circle to the needle on its Galvanometer for Jue 7. the more sensitive its sensitiveness. If we make the galyanometer of two cir- cular coils of rectangular section whose depth is to its width as to 100, and whose centers of sections are at a radius apart from each other, we shall have Maxwell’s modification of Helmholtz’s arrangement. The oon He can then be found by calculation or comparison with another coi axwell’s formule are only adapted to coils ‘of small section. Hence we must investigate a new formula.* * A formula involving the first two We peci ame ot ead the cente: wo tems of my sores, but ep erie siete tion, 18 — Elektrodynamische Maasbestimmungen inbesondere H. A, Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 829 Let N be the total number of windings in the galvanometer. Let R and r be the outer and inner radii of the coils. Let X and = be the distances of tl:e planes of the edges of the coils from the center. t a be the angle subtended by the radius of any winding at the center. Let 5 be the length of the radius vector drawn from the center to the point where we measure the force. Let 6 be the angle between this line and the axis. Let ¢ be the distance from the center to any winding. Let w be the potential of the coil at the given point. Then (Maxwell's “ Electricity,” Art. 695), for one winding, te=—2n{1—c08 a-+-sinta( 20, (a) Q,(0)-+3(5) 2(a)Q()4+-&e.) | t and for two coils symmetrically placed on each side of the origin, ‘ 1/b\" 5 1/d\*, w=47 cos a—sin’a() 3) Q, (2)0+4(3) Q, (2) Q(0)-+&e.) where Q, (9), , &c., denote zonal spherical harmonics, and Q,’(@), Ss a oO denote the differential coefficients of spheri- cal harmonics with respect to cos a. ; As the needle never makes a large angle with the plane of the coils, it will be sufficient to compute only the axial com- nent of the force, which we shall call F. Let us make the rst computation without substitution of the limits of integra- tion, and then afterward substitute these: Fates sa MI ae N F=3R—opy (X—=) Jt war, and we ean write oe 22N 2 6 H lik & ° F=——yx=a | H,+H,27Q,(4)+H,0Q.+ & where H,==2 loge (r+a/z?+r") He 13:5. (2é—1) sin? 1 ee ee na ltisen € &e. | 2 SPIN aA eae ge 2i—1 2—3 A st 2i-4 i(¢-1)(i—2 B=A oe ( )(¢—2) ‘M—1 = (241) 2 2i—6 , i(i—1)(i—2) .. (@—-4) C=B ast (2i—1)(2¢—3)2.4 pac 428 i= 8) =“ 37—5 (2i—i) (2i—3) (27-5) 2.4.6 E= &e., &. 330 H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. Substituting the limits for z, 7 and a, we find R+V7X?2+R?2 r+V7X2472 one r+ a2 + 7? H,=xX log, R? r 1 R* - =—1} Me a cake | 1 Rs H,=— =a z (20X*+4-7X?R?+ 2R*) — X!(X'-R)}? — (20X'4 7X4 ant) —_B’_ (n+ 1a? R*+ 2B") X*(X? +r’)? : se* (a? +R?) r 4 yd or The needle consisted of two parallel lamina of steel of length, l, and a distance, W, from each other. As the correction for length is small, we may assume that the magnetism of each lamina is concentrated in two points at a distance n / from each other, where n is a quantity to be determined. ence where cos # Ta tana wat seeing that the needle hangs par- nt)” A allel to the coils. In short thick magnets, the polar distance is about 3 J and the value of n will be about 4 For all other magnets it will be between this and unity. In the present case n= nearly. ‘ As all the terms after the first are very minute, this approx!- mation is sufficient, and will at least give us an idea of the amount of this source of error. Induction Coils. The induction coils were in the shape of two parallel coils of nearly equal size and of nearly square section. Let A and a be the mean radii of the coils. Let 5 be the Was distance apart of the coils. t 2n/ Aa young V(A+a)?403° Supposing the coils concentrated at their center of section we know that M,=42V Ka} (S—e) F(e)—2K(6) } where F(c) and E(c) are elliptic integrals. Seem eae CE is ed) de H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance, 331 Ift¢ and 7 are the depth and width of each coil, the total value of M will be, when A=a nearly, 1 | d?M d?M M=Moti | Gantt geet f ete and we find d? a ri 4 E(c) 4b7c* pm ie dat =~ 34 aati OA Ro" hp s ) F(c) (c+ @M, _—- xe : db? ~ A(1—c’) 6? c? ; F(o)(2U—-e8)— gare ))— 1—c?-c4 B(o)(2—e8 eto mety t Corrections. Calling # and 6 the scale deflections corresponding to tan a’ and sin 40’, we may write our equation for the value of the resistance p) +4(5) 1-(£) "445 ; K tand 6 (5 D =Ttan a 6 d\? G\:U+A+ ete.) 1—35(5) +'22(5 where R’ is the resistance of the circuit at a given temperature 17-0° C., and K=20ME 14 a+b-+ete.) i ahah hy BD, ole. and a, b, ete. are the variable and constant corrections respec- tively. a. Correction for damping, a=—sA+4,A°. R b. Torsion of fiber. ne The needle of the tangent galvanometer was sustained on a point and so required no correction. e co torsion in the other galvanometer 1s the same for # and 6 and hence only affects ‘T. Therefore, if ¢ is the coefficient of ie b= —Ht. ce. Rate of chronometer. : Let p be the number of seconds gained in a day above the normal time e=—+_. 86400 : d. Reduction to normal meter. The portion of this Sai tion which depends on temperature must be treated under ih variable corrections. Let m the excess of the meter u above the normal meter, expressed in meters; then | d=+m. 332 H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. e. Correction of T for the are of vibration. This are was always the same, starting atc, and being reduced by damping to aboute,, —_— Tue = c= + iyenn Ca” —%")s where c, and ¢, are the total ares of oscillation. f. Correction for length of needles. For the tangent gal- vanometer, the correction is variable. For the circle it is q S= +1( : where 7 is half the distance between the poles of the needle and A radius of circle. For the other galyanometer it 1s included in the formula for G. uction to normal meter. As the dimension of R is a velocity and the induction coils were wound on brass, the cor- rection is =-+-y('—?’) where y is the coefficient of expansion of brass or copper, ¢ the actual and ¢” the normal temperature. orrection of standard resistance for temperature. Let M be the variation of the resistance for 1° C., ¢’” be the actual and ¢v the normal temperature 17°°0 C.; then B>=— p(t" —#"), C. Correction for length of needle in tangent galvanometer, x 15. ' e\ ! Vas += sin (a+ a)(r) (a’—a) where 7’ is half the distance between the poles of the needle No. 3. By the introduction of commutators at various points all ge isturbance of instruments could be compensated. io. a . . No. 6. The circle was always adjusted parallel to the coils of the galvanometer. Should ‘hes not be parallel to the needle, G and G” will be altered in exactly the same ratios and will thus not affect the result. The same may be said of the deflection of the magnet from the magnetic meridian due to torsion. H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Hlectrical Resistance. 333 No. 7. 8 and é both ranged over the same portion of the scale and so scale error is partly compensated. o. 8. The zero-point of all galvanometers was eliminated by equal deflections on opposite sides of the zero-point. Instruments, Wire and coils.—The wire used in all instruments was quite small silk-covered copper wire, and was always ound accurately turned* brass grooves in which a single layer of Wire just fitted. The separate layers always had the same number of windings, and the wire was wound so carefully that the coils preserved their proper shape throughout. r was used between the layers. As the wire was small, very little distortion was produced at the point where one layer had to rise over the tops of the wires below. Corrections were made for the thickness of the steel tape used to measure the circumference of each layer; also for the sinking of each layer into the spaces between the wires below, seeing that the tape measures the circumference of the tops of the wires. The steel The advantages of small wire over large are many ; we know exactly where the current ; it adapts itself readily to the cm. long and its position was read on a circle 20° cm. diam- eter, graduated to 15’. The graduated circle was raised so that the aluminium pointer was on a level with it, thus avoid- ing parallax. The needle and pe only weighed a gram or two, and rested on a point at the center which was so nicely made that it would make several oscillations within 1° and ometer, which was made to order in ; before 1 , and much time was lost before finding out the source of the difficulty. 334 H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. ment of weak currents. It was entirely of brass, except the wooden base, and was large and heavy, weighing twenty or twenty-five pounds. It could be used with a mirror and scale or as a sine galvanometer. It will be necessary to describe here only those portions which affect the accuracy of the present experimen The coils were of the form described above in the theoretical porien, and were wound on a brass cylinder about 82 cm ong and 11-6 cm. diameter in two deep grooves about 3° em. deep and 25 cm. wide. The opening in the center for the ale. The coils contained about five pounds of No. 22 silk-covered copper wire in 1790: turns. wo needles were used in this galvanometer, each con- structed so that its magnetic axis should be invariable; this was accomplished by affixing two thin laminw of glass-hard steel, to the two sides of a square piece of wood, with their planes vertical. This made a sort of compound magnet very strong for its length, and with a constant magnetic axis. The first needle had a near] rectangular mirror 2°4 by 1°8 cm. on the sides and -22 em. thick. The other needle had a circular mirror 2-05 cm. diameter and about 1 mm. thick. The nee- dle of the first was 1-27 em. and of the second 1-20 cm. long, and the pieces of wood were about -45 cm. and °6 cm. uare length of 49 cm. and 42 em. respectively.- The total weights were 5-1 and 5-6 grams and the times of vibration about 7° sp ipeimenneninaaeaaiinee hed Toa teen meee H. A. Rowland— Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 3385 and 11:5 seconds. They were suspended by three single fibers of silk about 48 em. long. In front of the needle was a piece of plane-parallel glass. This and the mirrors were made by Steinheil of Munich, and were most perfect in every way. In the winding of the coils every care was taken, seeing that a small error in so small a coil would produce great relative error. And for this reason the constant was also found by com- parison with another coil. The following were the dimensions: Mean radius 4°3212 c. m. 212 r= 30212 X=3°475565 w= “935565 R-r=2°6000 X—wr=2°54000 N=1790° whence F=1832-25—1-70 52Q, (0) —4°50 b4Q, (A)+ 90 5°Q, (0) — &e. Taking the mean dimensions of the two needles, we have 1=1°23, w='52, n=}, cosi’=748. Q,(4)=+'339, Q,()=—354, Q,(W)=— 275. .. G@=1832°25—"083-+- 071 — 002 + &c.=1832°24. The coil with which this galvanometer was compared was the large coil of an elec ynamometer similar to that de- scribed in Maxwell’s “ Electricity,” Art. 725, but smaller. The coil was on Helmholtz’s principle with a diameter of 27° cm., and was very accurately wound on the brass cylinder. There was a total of 240 windings in the coil. The constant of this coil was 78-371 by calculation. T’o eliminate the difference of intensity of the earth’s mag- netism, an observation was first made and then the positions of the instruments were changed so that each occupied exactly the position of the other: the square root of the product of the coils together and the other with them separate. The results were for the ratio of the constants 23'3931 and 23°4008, which give G=1833°37 and 1833°98. The mean result is 1833-67 - °09, and this includes seven determinations with two reversals of instruments. This result is one part in thirteen hundred greater than found by direct calculation, which accounted for by the small size of the galvanometer ¢ is to be oils and 336 H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. the consequent difficulty of their accurate measurement. A comparison with the electro-dynamometer has such a small probable error, and as it is a much larger coil, it seems best to give this number twice the weight of that found by calcula- tion: we thus obtain G = 1833-19 as the final result. It does not seem probable that this can be in error more than one part in two or three thousand. lescope, scale, &c.—The telescope, mirrors and plane-par- nations was the mean distance. In using the coils they were always used in all four positions. The probable error of each set of twelve readings was +001 mm. The data are as fol- lows, naming the coils A, B and C: Mean radius of A=13°710, of B=13°690, of C=13°720. Mean distance apart of A and B=6°534, of A and C=9°574, of B and C=11°471. N=154 for each coil, E=-90, n=-84. For A and B we have M=3774860°+ 3, (74250°—665 10°)=3775500° The remaining terms of the series are practically zero, as was found by dividing one of the coils into parts and calculating the parts separately and adding them. or A and C M=25614 10°-+-1,(34000- —27230°)=2561974° For B and C M=2050600-+-1,(27500°— 19800°)—=2051320° The calculation of the elliptic integrals was made by aid of the tables of the Jacobi function, g, given in Bertrand’s “Traité de Calcul Integrale” as well as by the expansions in terms of the modulus after transforming them by the Landen substitution. [To be continued.] : : J. W. Mallet on Meteoric Iron from Virginia. 337 Art. XLVIII.—On a fourth mass of Meteorie Iron from Augusta County, Virginia; by J. W. MALLET. In 1871 I described * three masses of meteoric iron found a few miles from Staunton in this State; still another has lately been brought to light under the following circumstances. About the year 1858 or 1859 a negro man, named Alf, belong- it, but no one considered it curious or valuable enough to pay the price asked, a dollar. This man is dead, and it cannot now be ascertained where he found the specimen, but probably on r. Van Lear’s land, and undoubtedly in his immediate neigh- borhood. Failing to sell the mass, Alf threw it away in a vacant plot of ground behind a blacksmith’s shop. Here it lay for several years, until it was used, with some other loose material, to build a stone fence. On account of its irregular shape and great weight it soon fell out of the fence, and was then thrown aside in the rear of a dentist’s house. He used it for some time as an anvil on which to hammer metals and orite before it was sent to Rochester, and have furnished me weight was 152 pounds, or 68.950 grams. The crust was not as thick as that upon the masses from the same locality previ- ously examined, and at a number of points the metallic luster * This Journal, III, ii, 10. : : *The above account of the history of the meteorite was furnished by Mr. Miller. 338 J. W. Mallet on Meteoric Iron from Virginia. i . t i n Lil hii rho ct Litt | sti bits ig 20 30 40 50,.C.m. n analysis made by Mr. J. R. Santos of Guayaquil, Ecua- dor, now working in this laboratory, gave the following results. he a 91:490 Sulphur ........-43 -n-+ 018 Nickel ...:........... .7:659 Ohlorine nit ee RNG ict. a ED ORIDOR 0 on 5 pnd an 20 } Copper...-....-.----- ‘021 Silicon (counted as silica) 108 a ee os ee a so trace Pnosonoras 6005'S. 06 99°963 The chlorine occurs as ferrous chloride, soluble in water. 87°5 grams of iron was used for the analysis, so as to render ar’ tial examination of another specimen, however, showed that, n such masses, and probably of the nickel in the alloy, is not altogether unt- form. The average amount of nickel is somewhat less than in University of Virginia, March 6, 1878. W. J. McGee—Drift Formations in Northeastern Iowa. 389 Arr. XLIX.—On the Relative Positions of the Forest Bed and associated Drift Formations in Northeastern Iowa; by W. J. McGEE. ti and within ‘it are ada remains of the mammoth, the masto- don, of Castoroides ohioensis, Bison lafrons, and their contem- poraries. In most of the localities just mentioned the Forest Bed is overlaid by a partially stratified deposit, regarding the origin and age of which there is some doubt.. e condition of the superficial deposits in the ribaghiborliood of the residence of the writer is such as to throw much light on the question o the true geological position of this formation. A few sections nded. are appen I. A well in Farley, Towa. Stirface ‘poll 7st a eS Se 2 feet. Clean ay ‘wath occasional grainte mon feck ei ck . Olay with bowlders, gravel and flint... -.------------ Thin-bedded, black, pci not als clay, with fag ments of wood - Sans oe owe : Thiek-bedded do., with "‘much-alecomposed fragments a ood. Undisturbed by glacier -_----..----------- ‘ . Hard yellow clay, sometimes with bowlders. .- Posctan i e D ravel and small bowlders-..----:---------- 2 : oe fiaeed ne. e of the wood found in this well—probably Willow ) though not we i determined—was so well pre- 2 PN oe an 1. Surface soil... 3 feet. 2. pe ay with occasional ua nite “bowld Aste bea Otek 10 ; Same as in I OE ee oS ee oa acne < wae aoe np 7, | Yellow clay with sand, gravel and small bowlders --. 4 re é Niagara oe hio Geol. Rep., 1874, pt. I, vol. ii, p. 3. 340 W. J. McGee—Drift Formations in Northeastern Iowa. Pieces of the soft shaly substance from the lower part of No. 4 were found to be slowly combustible, but contained too much earthy matter to burn readily. Charred wood and sticks burned off at one end were found in this well. IIL A well two miles northwest from last. Stratification not personally observed. At about twenty feet a large stump of a tree identified as Red Cedar (Juniperus vir- gintana) was struck in one side of the well. Below it a stra- tum of the older glacial Drift several feet in thickness was penetrated. The stump retained so much of its organic char- acter as to render the water unfit for use when it rose to its level. IV. A well half a mile northeast from last. 1. Surface soil. --- - Ae Ceo es et. 4 feet. 2. Clay witha granite bowlder weighing 500 pounds ----- fat 8. Clay with gravel ._....- nou wid Jeli 8.1% 3 oe ee ee ee ee ee ad V. A well two miles northeast from last. Stratification not observed personally. At about fifty feet fragments of wood, one partially burned, were found inter- mixed throughout a hard, blackish, laminated clay. Below is the usual yellow clay, with gravel, sand and small bowl- ders was found resting on Niagara limestone. VI. A well quarter of a mile southeast of last. 1. Surface accumulation 2. (Absent, owing to denudation). 3. Clay with gravel, sand and bowlders..--.--- .------- 16e* 4, pe denice shaly clay, with fragments of wood, one isturbe 5.§ identified doubtfully as Sumac. Disturbed by glacial and alluvial action .............---------- 6 “ : t Yellow Clay, With Bravel, etn. : 5... i. 25.5 ------ 47 8. Niagara limestone. topography beneath the Forest far as it has been determined, is not greatly different from that of the present surface. The wells given are but ples of all excavated orest Bed or both it and the older Drift have been remov or modified. The interesting fact is, that the uppermost de- posit is in all cases the same, and is beyond the shadow of @ SO ee eo ere W. J. McGee—Drift Formations in Northeastern Iowa. 341 metamorphic rocks from far to the northward. ‘These, hov ever, are quite abundant. In some fields it has been necessary however. Perhaps one in a thousand shows plainly grooves and deep scorings; but many others are less distinctly marked. Still not more than one-tenth exhibit any other marks of glacial action than a rounded form. The Forest Bed is found at many other localities in Iowa, and within it the bones of the mastodon and beds of peat have been discovered.+ The writer has also seen crania of Bison iatifrons from the same horizon. It has generally been considered to be—in other places as well as in Iowa—a post- must be of interglacial age; and from a recent examination the writer is convinced that the overlying deposits in Illinois the slow retreat of the glacier. In Nebraska this carbonaceous stratum has been found resting on glacial Drift and overlaid WM both the Drift of the later glacier and the Loess of the Missouri Valley.t The similarity of the organic remains found in this stratum wherever exposed indicates a like age for its deposits over the whole territory in which it 1s found. * Dr. 0. A. White’s Geol. Rep. (of Iowa), 1870, vol. i, p. 87. en c., pp. L17, 118, 119, and 339. : “Superficial Deposits of Nebraska;” from Hayden's Report for 1874, p. 5. Farley, Iowa, March 12th, 1878. M, JOUR, vomnedsones Series, Vou. XV, No. 89,—May, 1878. B42 J.W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. Art. L.— Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky _ Mountain Region under the direction of Professor J. W. Powell. _ Account of work performed during the year 1877. AxsouT the middle of last May, the surveying corps again took the field. This year the rendezvous camp was at Mount Pleasant, a little town in Utah about 125 miles south of Salt Lake City. Three parties were organized under the direction of Professor A. H. Thompson, one to extend the triangulation and two for topographic purposes, the latter being under charge of Mr. W. Graves and Mr. J. H. Renshawe respectively, and the former under the immediate direction of Professor Thomp- son, assisted by Mr. O. D. Wheeler. The area designated for the season’s work lies between 38° and 40° 30’ north latitude, and between 109° 30’ and 112° west longitude, Greenwich, and is embraced in atlas sheets 86 and 75. angulation.—The triangulation party left Mount Pleasant in June. The work of this year being a continuation of the expansion from the Gunnison Base Line measured in 1874, it was desirable to first visit some of the geodetic points established in previous years but the unprecedented amount of snow yet remaining in the high plateaus and mountains rendered this im- practicable, and the first part of the season was spent in establish- - ing stations on the T’a-va-puts Plateau west of the Green River. In midsummer the party was able to visit the high plateaus and connect the work of past years with that of this season. ter the triangulation was extended to the east joining the work of the United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories under charge of Dr. F. V. Hayden and to the north to join the work of the United States Geological Exploration of the 40th Parallel, Clarence King, United States Geologist in charge. The whole area of the season’s work embraces some- thing more than 13,000 square miles. The instrument used was the theodolite hereafter described. The points sighted to on ‘the geodetic stations were either artificial monuments or well defined natural points, and all stations were marked by stone cairns, : sininihdia di le bie di ee J.W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, $48 a narrow valley through which passes the only practicable route of travel between Central Utah and Western Colorado. sands and deep tortuous cafions giving to the landscape an appearance strange and weird. he Book Cliffs rise to an average altitude above their base of 3,000 feet, and about 8,500 feet above the sea-level, and the country from the southern crest inclines gently northward to the valleys of the White and Uinta Rivers. This gigantic ter- race, called the Ta-va-puts Plateau, is cut in twain from north to south by profound gorges through which the Green River runs, known as the cafion of Desolation and Gray Cafion. The drainage of the plateau is northward from the brink of the cliffs through deep narrow cafions for many miles, but at last all these enter the Cafion of Desolation a few miles from its head. North of the Ta-v4-puts Plateau are the valleys of the White and Uinta Rivers. Nearly all the latter and a large portion of the lower course of the former are within the boundaries of Mr. Graves’ work. considerable bodies of irrigable lands are found along the Grand, Green, San Rafael and Price Rivers; and in the valleys of the Uinta and White Rivers, are other large tracts, on which the waters of the streams named can be conveyed at slight cost. Mr. Graves determined the extent, character and location of these lands, and the amount of water carried by the streams throughout the area embraced in his work. On the Ta-va-puts Plateau are small forests of pine and fir, but generally Mr. Graves’ district possesses no more timber than sufficient to meet the future local requirements of actual settlers. Topographic Work by Mr. Renshawe—The district assigned 344 oJ. W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. and drained from its very western edge toward the east by the Fremont, San Rafael, Price and Uinta Rivers. The western portion includes broad valleys, abrupt ranges of mountains, and one plateau of considerable extent. The principal valleys in this part are the San Pete, Juab and Utah, all having a general northern and southern trend, an average elevation of about 5,000 feet, and all are drained by the San Pete River and the streams flowing into Utah Lake. The mountain ranges standing between the valleys are the Wasatch, rising in its highest peaks to 12,000 feet, the Lake Mountains and the Tintic Hills each reaching an altitude of nearly 7,500 feet. The lofty table land called Gunnison Plateau has an area of about 750 square miles, and an average elevation of 8,000 feet. It is bounded on three sides by almost vertical walls, and is extremely rugged and difficult to traverse. There is but little irrigable land in the eastern portion of Mr. Renshawe’s district, but the broad valleys of the western contain large areas of excellent lands, and the numerous streams furnish a good supply of water. Mr. Renshawe determined the volume of water in every con- siderable stream as well as the extent and localities of the irri- gable lands throughout his district. On the plateaus and mountain ranges are large quantities of excellent timber. “ * On the head waters of the Price River and on Huntington Creek are extensive beds of coal, and on that portion of the Wasatch Range included in Mr. Renshawe’s district are deposits of silver and galena. . Renshawe extended the secondary triangulation over the whole district assigned him, making stations at an average dis- tance of about eight miles, and measuring all the angles of nearly every triangle in the extension. He also made a con nected plane-table map of the whole area, and complemented his work with a complete set of orographic sketches. etry—The hypsometric work of this season rests on a primary base established at the general supply and rendezvous camp at Mount Pleasant, and connected by a long series of observations with the station of the United States Signal Service at Salt Lake City. At the base station observations were made with mercurial barometers four times each da: , and for eight ercu- ri barometers were carried y each field party, and observa- tions made to connect every camp with the base station. All the geodetic points and topographic stations were connected by observations with mercurial barometers either with the camps or directly with the base stations or both. All the topographic stations were also connected with each other by angulation, and \ SESE te eee J.W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 345 from these stations the altitudes of all located points were de- termined by the latter method. Instruments. Base-measuring Apparatus. — The apparatus used in measuring the base lines from which the primary trian- gulation is developed consists essentially of wooden rods aligned and leveled on movable trestles or tripods, the contact being The line of coincidence is marked upon both plates and contact is determined by a magnifier. A delicate spirit-level is attached to each case to adjust it horizontally and a thermometer inserted to determine the temperature of the rod. Two steel pins by which the rods are aligned are fixed on the cases directly over the center of the ends of the rods. which a sliding cross-piece is clam by thumb screws. Above this cross-piece parallel to and carried with it, is a sec- atheodolite. The line is first ranged out and stakes set 500 feet apart along its length, then with six men to work the appa- ratus, 3,000 feet per day can be measured with all the accuracy d. Theodolite.—The theodolite used in the triangulation is of a new pattern, embracing a number of improvements demanded by the character of the work. So far as possible the number 346 JW. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. a inches in diameter, and reads by double verniers to five sec- the scale adopted by the é ry for Interior Department for the hysical atlas of the Rocky Moun- - eo region, that is, a scale of four miles to the inch. ments of its optical axis are recorded. The telescope rotates about a vertical and about a horizontal axis similarly to the telescope of a theodolite, and is connected by simple mechan- ism with a pencil which rests on a sheet of paper attached to the platen. When the topographer moves the telescope so as to carry its optical axis over the profiles of the landscape, the pencil traces a sketch of the same. This sketch being mechan- ically produced, is susceptible of measurement, and is a definite and authoritative record of the angular relations of the objects presses Co loeeh cetre ae gee eaeea J.W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 347. sketched. The instrument is also furnished with a graduated circle on which horizontal angles may be read to the nearest half minute, and this circle is used for the secondary triangula- tion. The orograph and plane-table are used conjointly, and their results furnish data for the production of contour maps. It is believed that by their introduction the quality of topo- graphic work has been much improved, without addition to its cost. hen a topographer takes the field with these two instruments and plane-table sheets on which the primary trian- gulation has been previously plotted, he returns with a map on which all of the geographic features to be delineated have been determined by their angular relations and the scenic character: istics necessary to give proper effect to the maps, have been outlined by instrumental means. In this manner the subse- quent construction of maps at the office ready for the engraver is reduced to a minimum of labor, while for the proper accuracy the topographer is not necessitated to resort to his memory for the appearance of the landscape, but only to the definite record. rometers.—T he instruments used in the hypsometric work yehrom- ’ are Green’s mercurial mountain barometers, Green’s ps Classification of Lands by Mr. Gilbert—The Survey under the se. of ee Powell has been extended over the 348 J. W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. to which it is practicable to convey them by canals, and these lands were measured in order to determine the agricultural eanals. Five million dollars is probably a moderate estimate of the cost of redeeming the 500,000 acres that are susceptible of reclamation, and the requisite capital will have to be con- centrated upon a small number of large canals. Since the first settlement of the territory in the year 1847 PRA OE ies sce 0 J. W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 849 the water supply has increased. It is reported by the citizens that each stream is now capable of irrigating a greater area of land than when it was first used. Creeks that once scan- tily watered a few acres of ground now afford an ample supply or double, treble, and even fifty times the original area. This increase has been accompanied by a rise of Great Salt Lake, which having no escape for its water except by evaporation has stored up the surplus from the streams. or the purpose of investigating the extent and the cause of the increase of the streams, Mr. Gilbert made a study of the fluctuations of the lake. It was a matter of common report that the surface of the water had been subject to considerable changes and that on the whole it bad greatly risen since its shores were first settled; but previous to the year 1875 no sys- tematic record of its movements had been kept. In that year a series of observations was inaugurated by Dr. John R. Park of Salt Lake City, at the suggestion and request of the Secre- tary of the Smithsonian Institution. A small pillar of granite, graduated to feet and inches, was erected at the water's edge near a rocky islet known as Black Rock. The locality was then a popular pleasure resort, and the record was undertaken by r. J. T. Mitchell. Observations were made at frequent inter- vals for more than a year, but were then interrupted by reason of the disuse of the locality as a place of resort, and they have not since been resumed in a systematic way. To obviate a similar difficulty in the future, Mr. Gilbert caused a new record post to be established near the town of Farmington, where the work of observation has been undertaken by Mr. Jacob Miller, and it is anticipated that in the future there will be no break in the continuity of the record. ; 3 In the interval from 1847 to 1875, during which no direct observations were made, there was nevertheless a considerable amount of indirect observation incidental to the pursuits of the citizens. The islands of the lake were used for pasturage, testimony of the boatmen was compiled by Mr. Jacob Miller and a history of the oscillations was deduced. A similar and corroborative history has been derived by Mr. Gilbert from an independent investigation. Two of the islands used for pasturage are joined to the main Jand by broad, flat bars, and during the lower stages of the lake these bars being 350 J. W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. either dry or covered by a moderate depth of water, have afforded means of communication. It happens that the Ante- lope Island bar was in use until 1865, when it became so deeply covered that fording on horseback was impracticable ; and that the Stansbury Island bar was first covered with water in 1866, and has been used as a ford, with slight exception, ever since. By the compilation of the testimony of those who have made use of these crossings, a continuous record was derived, which cannot deviate very widely from the truth, and the work was checked by making careful soundings to ascertain the present depth of water on the Antelope Island bar. From 1847 to 1850 there was little change beside the annual tide variation dependent upon the spring floods, and which akes the summer stage in each year from one to two feet higher than the winter. Then the water began to rise and so continued until in 1855 and 1856 its mean stage was four feet higher than in 1850. This progressive rise was followed by a pro- gressive fall of equal amount, and in 1860 the lake had returned to its first observed level. In 1862 there began a second rise which continued for eight years and carried the water ten feet above the original level. Since 1869 there has been no great . change, bnt the mean height has fluctuated through a range of about two feet. the water surface increased from 1,750 to 2,166 square miles, or nearly twenty-four per cent. By this expansion the surface for evaporation was increased so that the lake could return to the atmosphere the surplus thrown into it by the augmented streams. Whatever land is at any time flooded by the lake becomes saturated with salt, and if the water afterward retires, remains barren of vegetation for many years. The highest level reached the last great rise of the lake, the storm line was six feet lower than at present, and the intervening belt of land still retains the stumps and roots of bushes that have been killed by the Piet * J. W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 351 sage brush. The whole period is as likely to have been meas- ured by centuries as by decades. Thus it appears that the last twelve years have witnessed an extension of the lake, which is not only without precedent in the experience of the citizens of Utah but is clearly an anomaly in the history of the lake. To explain it and to explain at the same time the increase of the streams, there are two general theories worthy of consideration. he first is that there has been a change of climate in Utah whereby the atmosphere is moister, so that the fall of rain and snow has become greater and the rate of evaporation has be- come slower. The second is that the industries of the white man, which have been steadily growing in importance for the last thirty years, have so modified the surface of the land that a larger share of the snow and rain finds its way into the water-courses and a smaller share is returned to the air by thus check the evaporation from their surfaces, and the streams which he thereby rescues from dissipation are used In irriga- tion for a few months only, while for the remainder of the year they pay their tribute to the lake. The destruction of grasses he B a © 3 © 4 cr © S = J @ is 2] s 5.5 Ss. Q g ee i x) tA z = 4 a. yg oy < fe) a increase. : - Geological work by Mr. Gilbert—During the preceding sum- mer Mr. Gilbert had discovered a peculiar series of phenomena 852 J. W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. roduced by recent orographic displacements, and he has this year found opportunity to study them in numerous new local- ities. It appears that the system of faults and flexures—the system of upward and downward movements— by which the mountain ranges and the valleys of Utah and Nevada were produced have continued down to the present time. Evidence: of recent movement has been discovered on the lines of many Idaho and Nevada, and demonstrating that the ancient outlet he had discovered the preceding summer at Red Rock Pass was the only one by which the lake had ever discharged its water to the Snake River. ‘e Henry Mountains constitute a small grovp in South- eastern Utah and stand quite by themselves. They are of the earth, in the usual way, failed to penetrate the upper tc of the crust and formed subterranean lakes or chambers. he strata ying above the lava lakes were upbent in the form les, and from these bubbles of sandstone and shale with their cores of trap, the erosive agents of the air have ‘ J. W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 853 district in plaster, exhibiting the forms due to upheaval as they would appear if unmodified by degradation. He prepared also a topographic model, exhibiting the same forms as actually modified; and the two models will be reproduced by photo- graphy to illustrate the report.. The treatment of the second element of structure is of a thorough character and includes a discussion of the general principles which control the sculpture of the land surfaces of the earth by rains and rivers. The vol- ume is ready for the binder. Geological work by Captain Dution—Captain Dutton resumed his exploration of the same field which he has been studying for three years, having recognized in it a certain unity which renders it eminently adapted to an important monograph. The region explored by him is centrally situated in the territory of Utah, extending from Nebo in the Wasatch nearly southward a distance of about 180 miles and having a maximum breadth of about 60 miles. It possesses certain features which serve to distinguish it both topographically and geologically, and he roposes to call it the District of the High Plateaus of Utah. It consists of a group of uplifts now standing at altitudes be- tween 9,000 and 11,500 feet above sea-level, while the general platform of the country is from 5,000 to 7,000 feet high. The plateaus have been carved out of this platform by great faults, and the general structure corresponds closely to that escribed by Professor Powell under the name of the Kaibab structure and illustrated by*him in his section of the region travers the Grand Caiion of the Colorado. The relations of this belt of high plateaus to the regions adjoining are of special interest. At the close of the Cretaceous, the country lying to the east- ward of it by gradation from an oceanic to a lacustrine condition, the intermediate stage presenting doubtless a strict analogy to the condition of the Baltic. This Kocene lake area Colorado River. During Cretaceous and Eocene time the area now occupied by the Great Basin was dry land, and its dennda- tion must have furnished a large part of the sediments which were spread over the bottom of the great lake. The movements, which took place during the Eocene, at last resulted in the desiccation of the lake, and though a strict chronological correla- tion to European and other divisions of time cannot be made with certainty, it may be provisionally inferred that this desicca- tion was completed before the commencement of the Miocene. It was brought about by the more rapid uplifting of the lake area than that of the Great Basin until at last the former area became the loftier of the two, thus reversing their relative alti- tudes. The lake area is now a portion of the so-called Plateau Country and since the commencement of the Miocene (para-Mio- 354 JW. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. cene) has been subject to a great and continuous erosion. The district of the High Plateaus occupies a portion of a narrow belt separating the Plateau Country from the Basin Province and therefore stands upon the locus of the ancient shore line which in the lacustrine stage bounded the two areas. To that shore line they stand in an intimate and remarkable relation. To its trend the great displacements maintain not merely gen- eral parallelism but an approximation to strict parallelism both in totality and in detail which would not have oie anticipated and which cannot be purely accidental, and seems to point to some definite determinative association between the littoral from the arched, flexed and tilted types prevailing in other disturbed localities. There is an abrupt transition from this preserved. But of all the features displayed by the High Plateaus the most remarkable are the manifestations of former volcanic activity. Both in area and thickness the volcanic emanations ve. They cover more than 5,000 square miles, ‘SS & ter pa lace after the lake basin had been ned or had shrunken to imits outside of the district, for sedimentary beds have not been found intercalated between the various flows but always under- he them. It is therefore impossible to fix with great precision the commencement of the outbreaks, but the general indications Neericey, i) Syren aa J. W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 355 are, that they began very soon after the close of the lacustrine period, and they may have commenced still earlier. The erup- ive epoch was undoubtedly a long one. The individual flows are very numerous and represent all the great groups of eruptive rocks. In many cases the quantity of material extravasated is so great that the eruptions may we called massive, not however of such marvellous extent as asserted to have been ave ema- nated during recent or modern times from any existing volcanic and precision. so vast are the accumulations and so expansive are the sheets, and at the same time so numerous that whereso- ever they were emitted the earlier vents must have been buried by later deluges of lava, and even the more recent vents, except in the case of the latest basalts, have been swept away by slow . erosions in the long period which has elapsed since their activity was extinguished. There are, however, still remaining, distinct a certain sense uneonformity of the various eruptions, and greater irregularities in their bedding as compared with the ¥. y ency took place after the close or during the decadence of the tean Province occurred. During its progre I must have taken place, and their later age 18 readily identifia- 356 J. W. Poweli’s Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. long enough after the close of the Eocene to allow for the accu- mulation of these vast bodies of voleanic beds. This may carry the period of faulting far into the Miocene period, or pos- sibly as far as the commencement of the Pliocene. But while One point which during the study of this region has engaged the careful attention of Captain Dutton, has been to ascertain whether it presents any such sequence in the lithological char- acter of the eruptions as is asserted by Baron Richthofen to prevail in the voleanic districts of Europe, South America, Asia Minor, and the Sierra Nevada. This asserted sequence has engaged the profound attention of most vulcanologists and is of great importance in relation to all questions bearing upon that the high plateaus of Utah exhibit in a deci anner essentially the e sequence which Richthofen claims for ther volcanic he earliest eruptions consist of roc the great displacements and partly through the agency of ero- sion, and wherever found it is seen to occupy the lowest posi- J.W. Powell’s Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 3857 tinued to have its seat through a long cycle in and about the same locality. The propylite is succeed a rock answering to Richthofen’s description of hornblende andesite, which is usually overlaid by a rock rich in augite with triclinic feldspar, which may be termed augitic andesite. Still higher in the series are found immense masses of trachyte which, however, is frequently intercalated with dolerite. The variety of the trachytes is very great—so great indeed that were it not for the persistence of certain mineralogical as well as textural characteristics, which are universally accepted as being dis- tinctive of that group of rocks, one might feel strongly tempted to make numerous subdivisions of them. ex- tremes of the varieties of the trachytes might be represented ing of well-developed orthoclase feldspar imbedded in a fine paste highly charged with peroxide of iron, Between these Tn the lithological scale, propylite and hornblendic andesite are very nearly intermediate between the extremes of acid roc pe " toward the acid end of the scale, and on the other toward the Sense independently of each other, so. that they intercalate ; the acid becoming at one end more acid with the progress of the volcanic cycle, and the basic rocks becoming more basic. , series seems to pursue its own order and to be subject to its own law, so that being originally divergent, they become more and more widely separated in their lithological charac- Am. Jour. oe ae Vou. XV, No. 89.—May, 1878. 858 J. W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. ters, as the cycle proceeds. Thus at the commencement of the activity we have propylite and hornblendic andesite, which are closely assimilated to each other in their physical characteris- tics; at the middle stage we have trachytes and moderately basic dolerites, which are moderately separated, and at the close we have rhyolites and basalts, which stand at the opposite ends of the scal and to correspond with each relief map a stereogram in plaster 18 constructed on the same scale, designed to exhibit such sur- [To be continued. ] ‘ H. Ward Poole on Just Intonation in Musie. 359 © Art. LI.—Just Intonation in Music. Its Notation and Instru- ments; by HENRY WaRD Pootg, M.A., of South Danvers, Massachusetts; and Professor in the National College of Mexico. Ir is evident that there is a general want of intelligence con- cerning the fundamental laws of Musical Intonation, the consti- comma, etc., can be recognized and sung. Without reference to previous times, I can declare from abundant personal knowl- edge, and actual demonstration, that the chord of the seventh is most agreeable and easy to give with the just ratio of 4:7, and that there is no practical difficulty in singing in just in- tervals. There appears to be a general desire expressed for such perfect intonation, and in consequence the following obser- vations may be interesting. . : However complicated this subject may appear when studied in books which do not have any primary definitions or canons, it can be made as clear and orderly as naturally it would be supposed, in view of the fact that music is based upon the mathematics. : Classification of Musical Tones into three Principal Orders.— Admitting into music only the prime numbers 2, 3, 5, 7, and considering the 2 as auxiliary, forming octaves, and inversions, Harmonic), 4:7. A series (each a fifth from the next,) is ormed of each of these kinds, and we have three Prime Series. A-due mixture of the notes of each is necessary for harmony. Using the letters, C, D, E, etc., we may express: the series to which each belongs in various ways. In common notation it 360 H. Ward Poole on Just Intonation in Music. the First series with Red: giving to the e, and all of the Second series, the Yellow, which, to show well by artificial light will e well done by gold. In like manner, the Third series, that of the Sevenths, indicated pie a gothic ugha will be colored Blue.* Nothing remains but to call the tones by distinctive names. The syllables of Guido answered 1 this purpose when there was no “modulation within the key,” and no account made of Perfect sevenths. T'o the modern syllables re two, which were not in the original i in the “Ut queant laxis ;” to wit, the “Do,” and the “Si.” Keeping the Do as it is, and changing the initial Tether of the si, so as not to confuse it hereafter with that of sol, we may find a common ending to all the notes of the first series, or that of the Fifths. These are the Ist, 2d, 4th and 5th. Preserving the lst and 5th as they are, but rejecting be final letter of the sol, and making the rest conform, we shall h Do, Ro, Fo and So. Their class is known by the abiding ; the place of each in the scale by the initial consonant. For the second class, that of the Thirds, mi, la, si, we preserve also the present termination of the majority, and have mi, li, and Zi. -For the Perfect sevenths or Third series, which are generally sounded by the termination of e (Italian), we preserve the same, and zi flat is Ze. And the dominant seventh, lower than Fa, will be Fe. There are two different Diatonic Scales oreuel as the Seventh 4:7, is introduced or not; they will be ex in reference to their syllables for singing, their letters. Fol, relative vibrations and intervals, as follows: TRIPLE Dratonic SCALE. a aiaae Chords als C, G and F. Fo : : - In key of C, Ci 5 F G Colo Red Red Yellow Red Red Yellow Yellow Red Relative Vibrations, 48 54 —s«GO 64 72 90 «96 Intervals, 8:9 9:10 15:16 8:9 9:10 8:9 15:16 Dovuste Diatonic Scae. Common Chord ay C; Chord of Seventh ap arg on G. Fo » So i Ze Bs Fo a of C (Tonic ¥), -@ B’ ri lors, Yellow Hue Red Red Yellow Red Beletirs Vibrations, se chciag 6 ye gs a eS 48 Shoo: 60 6312 81 0: 1% Intervals, | | 8:9 9:10 20:21 7:8, 8:9, 9:10 .16:16 * Thad selected for the three Prime Chords, the colors generally considered 38 eainel as nearly as could mination, with the Prime Chord of Third. ow, Green, and Blue being as Do, Ro, mi and Fe (the t 7th), or as + the num! the le «semen Seale 32 40, 42, the Violet approxi 6 Sn 8 a joe Selle tabl ‘in ¢ 7 Pr ‘ diraaia” AO saat den in the ‘ 2 PRR iB H. Ward Poole on Just Intonation in. Music. 361 The Double Diatonic Scale has two notes differing from two of the triple scale on the same tonic—which is F; although its tones are all in the key or scale of C, being identical with the Triple Diatonic of C, with the exception of the change of b into B’. But its ending and tonic is F. Having thus provided for the notation and distinction of these different series of Primary st effective ring. Especially in duets is this observed; the two voices are constantly giving pairs.of different colors. The duplicates or notes of the remaining series—there being three— monious, 6:7, and d n ¥, “grave second ” of the old theorists, and is the sixth of the: e of F, and “modulations within the key. Scale of C, harmonized, ~ ODeFGabc ChaGFeDC unison b Cae F Ge eG FedC b unison The instruments of just intonation are those of free tones, as the voice, the violin class, and the trombones, etc., and those of fixed tones, as the organ and other instruments to be described. . . ey The Enharmonic Key-board for organs, etc., described in this Journal in July, 1867, while preserving its essential principles, is capable of being varied to embrace more or less series of 362 H.. Ward Poole on Just Intonation in Music. sounds, and to give to each the prominence desired. I shall describe one which embraces the three series of Prime chords, and, in addition, a Fourth, of the leading notes to the Thirds of eries IT, which are used in ornamental passages and the digitals will fall upon these lines, and will be understood by reference to the diagram, the mutual relation being the same in -Dragram.—Simply to show the relative position of the Digitals of the four Series ; their exact si ing as follows: @ = 6°5 inches + 24 (= 0-27). b= 0°9. : th. Wid Length. L. (C, D) 4a (and 3a) 4 IL. tg d, e) 2a 3b IT. (C', E57) 2a 1d IV.( cH, a 26 all parts of the boards. The digitals of each signature are ele- vated one-tenth of an inch as they go backward. The base of the digital C, with its 3d, e, and d#, (leading note to e,) and its seventh B are ,'; of an inch higher than F, a, g# and EB’, and the same distance lower than G, b, a and F. The white keys ae ee a H. Ward Poole on Just Intonation in Music. 363 of Series I being at this level, the black keys rise 0°45; the orange keys, (Series IV,) are 0°75; and the blue keys of Series III are 0-90, All the elevated keys are reduced in width, down to the base, so as to allow the finger to enter freely between them. The number of digitals being 48, each lever is taken at the half of these primary 24 divisions, and all lie in one level at the rear of the key-board. In construction, the number of pipes (or vibrators, in the cabinet organs) is reduced by using the same for those which being at the distance of 8 Fifths an 1 Third are practically identical. (§ 29, 30 this Journal, July, 186 Justly-Intoned Pianofortes.—It is desirable to obtain a loud and full tone by a single wire, large and at full tension. Then with an enharmonic key-board and the triple sets of wires, the whole will be easily kept in tune, and will sound louder than if they were tempered. i ; Wind Instruments of the class of the horn, cornet, etc., depend, for the fundamental tone, on the length of the tube, and for the harmonies, on the tension of the lips. The funda- mental length may be varied by the common cornet valves or “pistons” and corresponding supplementary tubes to give the tones of series I. These valves are arra in the order of the fifths, or thus: F,C, G, D, A, E, B, ete. To play the triple diatonic scale of C will be used the valve of C (or the simple tube of the whole instrument, if so constructed) and those of F and G, on its right and left; the order of these dom- inants, etc., is the same in every key. For the sake of economy ? 364 S. W. Ford—Forms of Brachiopoda. Art. LIL—On certain Forms of Brachiopoda oceurring in the Swedish Primordial; by S. W. Forp. ; ing to M. Linnarsson’s description, in the absence of the longitudinal *slit of Discina, the perforation of the apex of the ventral valve, and in its inte- rior markings so far as these have been made out. The shell substance is corneous. . Linnarsson considers the most nearly related genera to be Obolella and Acrotreta, but at the acea the presence of an umbonal orifice is always readily recog- nizable. The interior of this valve, so far as known, shows 00 trace whatever of muscular scars or imprints. In that subdivision of the American Primdedial known as the Lower Potsdam, and which is considered to lie above the Para- dowides-bearing strata of this continent, we have at Troy, N. Y.,a species of Lingulella (L. coelata), very closely resembling in the interior markings of its dorsal valve the dorsal valve of Linnars- son's A. coriacea, and in the same formation, both in New York and Canada, another form bearing an equally strong resemblance to his A. granulata. This latter American form is the operculum gy a Pt i. Its true character was first ascertained by Mr. illings, who described it, together with the shell to which it belongs, in the Canadian Naturalist for December, 1871, under the name of Hyolithellus micans.+° It is usually circular in 31, Om faunan ilagren med Paradomides dlandicus;” af G. Linnarsson. pines ‘oreni -i Stockholm Farh Als. o. . ¥ Boo alao this Journel for May,1872. CR penne S. W. Ford—Forms of Brachivpoda. 365 form, rarely broad+ovate longitudinally, and has an excentric apex or nucleus. Around this point the surface lines are arranged concentrically. Some of the specimens show also the existence of fine radiating lines in the nucleal region. The oramen does not appear to be a constant feature. The inte- rior of A, granulata has not been observed and the dorsal valve 1s in doubt. The form is nearly cireular, the deviation from and H. impar,* permit us to observe the interior of this piece. In neither do we find any trace of muscular scars. In this - fe preg rnal for June, 1872. ; ae Pingel sg adi oari~ pred poda of Bohemian Basin, an a ition; Lut such a compositic 0 eer tively stated to characterize any of them (Systéme Silurienne, &e., iii, 1867, p. 66). t Bull. Soe. Geol. Fr., t. xvii, p. 532, pl. vim, fig. 2. 866 S. W. Wallace—“Geodes” of the Keokuk Formation. Ido not intend by the foregoing observations to assert that the dorsal valve of M. Linnarsson’s A. coriacea is the dorsal valve of a Lingulella, or that what he sets down as ventral valves of A. coriacea and A. grunulata are both, or either of and Swedish forms compared, and which appear to me to be sufficiently pronounced to at least. suggest the question whether the Swedish species noticed. may not, as a whole or in part, be susceptible of a more rigorous determination. New York, January 22, 1878. | Arr. LIIL—On the.“‘Geodes” of the Keokuk Formation, and the _ Genus Biopalla, with some Species; by SaMUEL J. WALLACE, of Keokuk, Iowa. THE large hollow stone balls, set inside with myriads of brilliant crystals, which are found in the upper beds of the Keokuk Formation (Subcarboniferous), are well known for their beauty and as curiosities, under the names of Geodes, Niggerheads, etc. They are very plentiful, of various sizes, from a few lines to over two feet, where that part of the forma- tion is exposed in the Mississippi Valley, and in the lower Drift and the Alluvium derived from it. nessee. ‘Tio the we , sibly reappears in the geodes found by Professor Comstock in the Wind River region, Government Survey. z _ ‘Phe matrix bed is generally shale, varying sometimes to lime- stone and to porous rotten stone. The lower layers are lime- stone but not so pure as the next layer below, which here is the S. W. Wallace—“ Geodes” of the Keokuk Formation. 367 best quarry rock of the Keokuk Formation. Stratification marks often show over and around the es similar to those around bodies in mud banks formed by currents. The shale seems to be but the remains of original deposits several times thicker, which have evidently béen dissolved out, leaving the insoluble portion to be compressed to the present shale. e limestone portions have not been compressed so much. The geodes themselves are merely crystalline shells formed from percolating water around the walls of vacant cavities. The outer shell is silica, generally chalcedony, with crystals of various minerals, principally silica and calcite, pointed inward in great variety and beauty. The external forms are sharply t. . __ The Indiana Geological Report, 1873, 278, gives the idea that they owe their origin to animal remains. This is evident by the peculiar family likeness through a great variety of sizes and forms; and by the lack of any other cause for them in such remarkable numbers, shapes and sizes. - An extended study of thousands of specimens and exposures, by the writer, confirms this by the recognition of peculiarities of growth and nature. It seems that the cavities were formed by the rotting out of sponges which had become covered by de- Sponges of trade, but without stems or apparent means of attachment. They may have of ‘ drifting along on the soft bottom, and often became covered in 368 SW. Wallace—Geodes” of the Keokuk Formation. the soft deposits. They also often grew in fixed positions, as they are found crowded and fitting together in beds, wit angular forms. It is evident that only those which became covered by deposits would leave any remains in the strata. There is a great variety of forms and markings, but they are mainly of a few general and related types. The principal type is that of a massive peculiar cushion-like figure, with in- are similar, but the top is usually distinct from the lateral sides. They are frequently nearly round, sometimes higher than wide, but usually have three different diameters, the shortest of which is vertical, and so form a flattened oval. _ There are indications that the structure was fibrous; the fibers mainly running conformable to the surface and to the a large crinoid stem. It has split the column in five parts, bend- ing them apart to fit its form, into which they are imbedded up the sides. This is well preserved and curious. ; lany fine as well as large specimens. exist in collections here, and enough for many car-loads have been ship away. The largest, showing the outside markings finely, is owned by R. F. Bower. It is twenty-six inches across. A larger one, | generally arises mineral sponges, or from their having been silicified before ppea Wseiaie EELS Nea ee eee ee S. W. Wallace— Geodes” of the Keokuk Formation. 369 non-mineral substance, and many parts formed of lime, have first entirely disappeared, so as to leave vacant cavities. me of these are still vacant. But most have been afterward filled by crystals from water containing bicarbonate of lime and silica, which show no internal structure of the original body. i includes not only these grades, but a large proportion of the crinoids, skells and corals, that originally arias lind: so that this is not so strange for the non-mineral sponges as for those. The following is the principal distinct type: BIOPALLA (new genus). inches, varying from one line to over two feet; no foot-stalk marked peculiar cushion-like figure. Named from the Greek, féo¢, life, and zadda, a ball. There is uncertainty as to the distinction of species, but I venture to name the following: “eke very distinct, few to medium, symmetrical and regular. nterspaces large, swelling lobe-like. A few largest indrawn ion. Biopalla’ Wortheni—Size medium to large; form varied ; vertical and lateral faces different. Markings on top more or less sharp and crowded; on lateral sides, less numerous, and ehinngatol vertically ; on bottom not so sharp as on top; other- wise more or less varied, as in B. Keokuk. From Hamilton, Ill.; Drift ; and other places. Biopalla Woodmani.—A peculiar form from the Drift, Keo- kuk, Iowa, supposed to be from the northward. Found as 370 Barreti—Coralline Limestone from Montague, New Jersey. Biopalla Heckeli.—Size medium to ——. Form sometimes flattened. Markings often distinct. Surface with more or less open gash-shaped cup-like cells, differing in size with the body, one-third to one inch in longest diameter, in directions conform- able to those of the furrows. flattened, lateral edges thin and centers more or less projecting. Markings generally not deep; often pit-like marks; sometimes an indrawn furrow runs diagonally from bottom to to around, with centers along it. Often beautifully translucent, with peculiar markings. : From Drift, Keokuk, Iowa, ete. Biopalla palmata.—Size medium to ——. : Form flattened. Markings not deep on top and bottom, but elongated toward the edges; the edge deeply serrated by projecting interspaces, and deeply indrawn vertical furrows. rare and peculiar form. Keokuk, Iowa, Drift. Art. LIV.—The Coraline, or Niagara Limestone of the Appala- chian System as represented at Nearpass’s Chiff, Montague, New Jersey ; by Dr. S. T. Barrert, Port Jervis, N. Y. : Oe ae : | : F . | | : ' Barrett—Coralline Limestone from Montague, New Jersey. 371 former communication,* and the Tentaculite limestone with its two divisions of dark blue and quarry stone occupy the upper twenty feet of this cliff, while below the Tentaculite, and pale- ontologically connected with it, are nearly horizontal. strata, about thirty feet in vertical thickness, apparently referable to Water Lime division of the Lower Helderberg group. Lying below the Water Lime are fifty feet vertical thickness fe which contain species characteristic of the Coralline limestone at Schoharie, with a larger proportion of Niagara species than are reported from that locality, a few Clinton types and some perhaps new or peculiar species, hese species as far as identified are as follows: Coralline limestone species: Cyathophyllum inequale= Colum- naria inequalis, Strophodonta —— = Leptena —— of Plate 74, figs. 8a and 384, Pal. N. Y., vol. ii, Ahynchonella lamellata= Atrypa lamellata, Meristella nucleolata=(Atrypa) nucleolata, Caly- mene camerata; all of which were identified by Mr. Whitfield ; Stromatopora constellata, Tellinomya(?) aequilatera and Avicula securiformis, identified by myself. oo: Niagara species : Halysites agglomeratus, Favosites pyriformis, Cladopora seriata, Cyatho Shumardi, Rhynchonella pisa; identi- fied by Mr. Whitfield; Halysites catenulatus, Syringopora mul- ticaulis, Favosites venustus, F. purasiticus, Stromatopora concen- trica, Trematopora tuberculosa, Aulopora precius, Spirorbis wnor- it Pholodops ovalis and Ambonychia acutirostra, identified y myself. ; Cini species: Caninia bilateralis by Mr. Whitfield, Ten- taculites minutus and Beyrichia lata by myseli A very beautiful Proetus of about the size and general out- line, as far as can be conjectured from the fragments in my possession, of the P. Si (2), Pal. N. Y., vol. ii, Pl. 67, occurs, very rarely, throughout this lower fifty feet. The pygidium is subsemicircular, narrowly rounded behind, margined. bes subequal, mesial lobe elevated, obtuse posteriorly, number of segments thirteen or fourteen, continued backward to the end. Surface of the cheeks and margin of the pygidium vermicu- i i as known, granulate. Inferior marginal portions of the pygidium and cephalic shield incras- ith i lize, appearing much as represen species doubtfully referred by Professor Hall to the Proetus Stokesii of Murchison, but differs very much from the figures and description there given. I have named it, provisionally, Proetus pachydermatus. * This Journal, vol. xiii, pp. 385 and 386. The Stromatopora Limestone is best seen at Mr. Sandford Nearpass’s Quarry, ¢ mile northeast of Nearpass s Cliff. 872 Barrett—Coralline Limestone from Montague, New Jersey. The Strophodonta* (Leptena) of Pl. 74, figs. 3a and 3b, Pal. N. Y., vol. ii, is very abundant in the lower beds of this Coralline or Niagara limestone. Its ventral valve has the surface characters represented enlarged in fig. 30,+ its dorsal valve has the flat radiate strise and the concentric, crowded, thread-like strize represented in fig. 6d of the same plate. Both valves have a denticulated hinge line, the cast of the interior of the ventral valve resembles fig. 4a, the cast of the interior of the dorsal valve is near figs. 6a and 6 of the same plate. The impression of the cast of the interior of the dorsal valve shows widely divergent socket-ridges,t with three subparallel ridges in the bottom of the shell, the mesial longest and extending two- thirds the length of the valve toward the front. Old shells have about the size and form of fig. 4a. Shell flat, undulated, inequale and the Strophodonta (Ne the other species being represented by a very few depauperate N. Y. Pal for the Niagara group. The mural pores show plainly in thin vertical sections, or, better yet, in sections cut obliquely transverse to the axis of growth. * T have labelled it provisionally S. Nearpassii os . more arenate t Cardinal processes not apparent. = eek hapa ga ieccolendatamucliate nee > 2 eh a IRA SE Saar 24 c= : t ne EE nee ee eT nT NRE ie Lee, O. Harger—Isopoda from New England. 373 Art. LV.—Descriptions of new Genera and Species of Isopoda, from New England and Adjacent Regions ; by OSCAR HARGER, Brief Contributions to Zoology from the Museum of Yale College, No. XXXVI THE genera and species described in the present paper are, except the first, marine and were, mostly, collected by the United States Fish Commission, along the New England coast. More complete descriptions with figures of all the new, and most of the old species, are nearly ready for publication in the Report of the Commissioner. As it seems desirable, however, to give a wider publication to the genera and species believed to be new, the following diagnoses are here inserted. Actoniscus, gen. nov.* oO A. ellipticus, n. sp. Body oval. Head with a prominent angular median lobe, and broadly rounded, divergent late lo Eyes oval, longitudinal, prominent, black. Antennulee rudimentary. Antenne nine-jointed ; first segment short; sec- ond strongly clavate; third smaller, clavate ; fourth flattened- cylindrical; fifth longest, slender, bent at the base ; shorter than the fifth segment, composed of four subequal seg- ments, tipped with sete. Terminal segment of maxillipeds elongate triangular, ciliated and slightly lobed near the tip. First thoracic segment excavated in front for the head, shorter above than the following segments except the last, which is short- est. Legs small, scarcely spiny. Pleon continuing the regular oval outline of the thorax, apparently with four pairs of lamel- lar cox, the last pair are, however, the enlarged seg- ments of the uropoda and are notched on their inner margins for the short outer rami, while the more slender inner rami are borne lower down on the under surface. The rami scarcely pro- Ject beyond the general outline. : Wis ties iG been collected by Professor A. E. Verriil, at Savin Rock, near New Haven, and also at Stony Creek, in com- pany with Philoseia vittata Say. * From axr#, the beach, and Oniscus. Am. Jocr. Sc1.—Tamp — Vou. XV, No. 89.—May, 1878. 3874 O. Harger—Isopoda from New England. Chiridotea,* gen. nov. First three pairs of legs terminated by prehensile hands, in each of which the carpus is short and triangular, the propodus is robust and the dactylus capable of complete flexion on the pro Antenne with an articulated flagellum. Head dilated laterally. Operculum vaulted, with two apical plates. is genus is founded on Ch. ceca (Idotea ceca Say), which occurs on this coast from Florida to Halifax, Nova Scotia. It includes Ch. Tujisii (Idotea Tufisit Stimpson), of the New England coast from Long Island Sound to the Bay of Fundy, and, as constituted above, would also include Ch. entomon (/dotea entomon Bosc.), from the Baltic and other European local- ities, and Ch. Sabini (Idothea Sabini Kroyer), from the Arctic. e above mentioned species ought certainly to be separated from Idotea tricuspidata Desm., which may properly be regarded as the type of the genus Jdotea Fabr. Synidotea,t gen. nov. Astacilla Americana, sp. nov. Body nearly uniform in size throughout in the female, with the fourth thoracic segment narrow in the male, tuberculated. Head united with the first thoracic segment, and, together with slightly surpassing the second segment of the antennz in the female, nearly attaining the middle of the third in the male; basal segment swollen, nearly as long as the next two which are much more slender, last or flagellar segment shorter than the peduncle in the female, longer than the peduncle in the male. Antenne about three-fourths as long as the body, fourth segment longest, then the fifth and third; first two seg- ments short; flagellum three-jointed, short. First thoraci¢ * From xép, a hand, and Idotea. + From ctv, with or together, and Idotea. | | O. Harger—Isopoda from New England. 375 females being generally considerably larger than the males, but More specimens are necessary to prove the constancy of this proportion. : The specimens of this species were found adhering to Prim- noa, from St. George’s Bank. : Astacilla Fleming, is synonymous with Leacia (Leachia) John- ston, which is preoccupied. exceeding the propodus; second pair longer than third and fourth increasing slightly in length; carpus and pro- 876 O. Harger—Isopoda from New England. podus subequal in all, armed, in the second pair only, with spines. Swimming legs (last three pairs) robust, carpus sub- circular, dactylus usually about half as long as the propodus. Pleon broader than long. Uropoda short, rami cylindrical, spiny at the tip; the outer more slender but not shorter than the inner. Length of body 45mm. Carpus of first pair 1mm. ; propodus 0°6mm.; of second pair, carpus 1‘5mm., propodus ‘6mm.; of fourth pair, carpus 15mm., propodus 1‘7mm. Color, in alcohol, pale honey-yellow. This species was dredged in 220 fathoms, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, by Mr. J. F. Whiteaves. Aigathoa loliginea, sp. nov. Body elongate oval, not suddenly narrower at the base of the pleon, which is slightly dilated at the last segment. Head passi1 2 nearly alike throughout, first pair a little more robust, last pair slightly the longest, all with strongly curved dactyli. Pleon longer than the thorax, tapering to the fifth segment. First pair of pleopoda with the basal segment large, nearly square; last pair, or uropoda, surpassing the telson; basal segment tri- angular with the inner angle acute but scarcely produced ; ram flat, the outer with slightly divergent sides, chiiansl y rounded at the end; the inner broader, triangular, with the outer side longest ; cilia very short almost rudimentary. Length 13mm., breadth 86mm. Color in alcohol yellowish with minute black specks, most abundant on the pleon. ac The only specimen in the collection was obtained by Mr. S. F. Clark, at Savin Rock, near New Haven, from the mouth of a squid (Leligo Pealit), whence the specific name. Ptilanthura, gen. nov.* Antennul with the flagellum remarkably developed, multi- articulate, second and Slow segments provided with a incomplete, dense whorl of fine slender hairs. This whorl is interrupted in each segment upon its internal or anterior side, * From rriAév a plume, and Anthura. : O, Harger—Isopoda from New England. 377 . . NOV. broadest at the base of the pleon. Head broader but shorter than the first thoracic segment, narrowed to a point in front and less acutely behind. Eyes prominent, black, within the margin of the head. Antennuls, when reflexed, attaining the third thoracic segment; first segment large but not longer than the second ; third shorter than the second, followed by a short first flagellar segment, second and following segments about twenty im number, obconic, fitting into each other, flattened and naked on one side, which is the outer and somewhat inferior side in the reflexed organ, densely elongate-ciliate distally, except on the flattened side ; cilia attaining about the fifth following segment. Antenne hardly surpassing the peduncle of the antennule, eight-jointed. Maxillipeds with a quadrate basal segment, emar- pete externally for the subtriangular external lamella, and earing a single scarcely smaller terminal segment, truncate and ciliate at the tip. Thoracic segments slender, margined, the seventh but little over half as long as the others, First pair of legs moderately enlarged, segments well separated, dactylus Strong, shorter than the inner margin of the propodus; remain- ing pairs of legs slender. Pleon about as long as the last three _ thoracic segments, first five segments consolidated along the median line, each rising into a low broad tubercle on each side of the median line; last segment as long as the preceding five ; telson elongate-ovate obtusely pointed. Uropoda equaling the telson. Length 11mm., breadth 0°9mm., color in life brownish and somewhat mottled above, lighter below. This species has been found on the New England coast from Noank Harbor, Conn., to Casco Bay, Maine. Paraianais algieola, sp. nov. Tanais filum Harger, Rep. U. S. Com. Fish and Fisheries, part 1, p. 578. 1874, non Stimpson. _ Eyes conspicuous, black, plainly articulated, larger in the males, Antennule in the females three-jointed, tapering, Setose at the tip, first segment as long as the last two which are subequal ; elongated and eleven-jointed in the male, the first segment long, curved upward near the base, last eight segments with olfactory sete. Antennw short, five-jointed, deflected, fourth segment longest. First pair of legs robust, hand short and stout in the female, digital process scarcely toothed, bearing three sete near its inner margin; hand in males strongly chelate, digital process elongated, curved, two- toothed; dactylus curved, slender, with about seven setiform Spines on its inner margin ; carpus in the males long and stout. 378 0. Harger—Isopoda from New England. Second pair of legs elongated, basis flattened and curved, dac- tylus slender but shorter than the propodus. Bases of last three pairs of legs swollen. Uropoda bearing sete at the tips of the segments, biramous; outer ramus short, scarcely if at all surpassing the basal segment of the inner ramus which is six- jointed and tapering. Length 2°2mm., breadth 0.83mm. Color nearly white. his species is rather abundant among eelgrass and alge at Noank an oods-Holl, and probably other localities on the southern shore of New England. I formerly considered it as identical with Zanazs filum Stimpson and supposed its range to extend as far as the Bay of Fundy. I now regard that as error, as it is probable that 7. filum is a true Tanais with simple uropoda, though I have as yet seen no specimens from the Bay of Fundy, nor any fully answering to Stimpson’s description. Paratanais limicola, sp. nov. long as the third. The dactylus of the second pair of legs, with its slender, acicular, terminal spine is longer than the propodus. The pleon is not dilated at the sides. The uro- poda have the outer ramus two-jointed, slender, and surpass- ing the basal segment of the inner ramus which is five-jointed, peas the basal segment long and imperfectly divided. Length ‘Smm. This specie was obtained on a soft muddy bottom in forty- eight fathoms, Massachusetts Bay, off Salem, in the summer of 1877, by the United States Fish Commission. the antenns, basal segment subquadrate, hand or propodus less robust than the carpus; digital process of Saobia dactylus short. Second (first free) thoracic segment two-thirds as long as the third, which is equal to the fourth and fifth ; sixth and seventh progressively shorter. Second pair of legs scarcely more slender than the following pairs, basal segment not curv: M. C. Lea—Ammonia-argentic Lodide. 379 ing around the basal segments of the first pair. leon six- jointed; uropoda short, biramous, each ramus two-jointed, the outer more slender than the inner, half its length and bearing a long bristle at the tip. Length 25mm. - | This species was taken along with P. dimicola and unfortu- nately only a single specimen is as yet known, Yale College, April, 1878. Art. LVL.—Ammonio-argentic Iodide ; by M. Cary Lexa. WHEN silver iodide is exposed to ammonia gas it absorbs 3°6 per cent, and forms Bets to Rammelsberg a compound in which an atom of ammonia is united to two of Ag] Liquid ammonia instantly whitens AglI, every trace of the strong lemon- yellow color disappears. The behavior of the ammonia iodide under the influence of light differs singularly from that of the plain iodide, and will be here described. The affinity of AgI for ammonia is very slight. If the white compound be thrown upon a filter and washed with water, the ammonia washes quickly out, the yellow color re- appearing. If simply exposed to the air, the yellow color returns while the powder is yet moist, so that the ammonia is held back with less energy than the water. So long, however, e€ ammonia is present, the properties of the iodide are entirely altered. Agl precipitated with excess of KI does not darken by ex- posure to light even continued for months. But the same iodide exposed under liquid ammonia rapidly darkens to an intensé violet-black, precisely similar to that of A to light, and not at all resembling the greenish-black of Agi exposed in presence of excess of silver nitrate. (This differ- ence no doubt depends upon the yellow of the unchanged AgI mixing with the bluish-black of the changed, whereas in the case of the ammonia iodide the yellow color has been first destroyed.) the exposure is continued for some time, the intense violet-black color gradually lightens again, and finally quite disappears, the iodide recovers its original yellow color with perhaps a little more of a grayish shade. This is a new reac- tion and differs entirely from anything that has been hitherto observed. It has been long known that darkened AglI washed over with solution of KI and exposed to light, bleached. This ast reaction is intelligible enough for KI in solution expo washed well with water (during which operation it passes 380 M. C. Lea—Ammonia-argentic Iodide. from violet-black to dark-brown), and may then be exposed to light either under liquid ammonia or under pure water, in either case the bleaching takes place, though in the latter case more slowly. If the experiment be performed in a test-tube, the bleaching under ammonia requires several hours, under water from one to three days. But if the iodide be formed upon paper, and this paper be exposed to light, washing it constantly with liquid ammonia, the darkening followed by the bleaching requires little more than a minute. In this case, however, the depend hee the escape of ammonia, for if the darkened am- monia iodide washed with water, and this water gave distinct indications of iodine. The iodine present is in so small quantity that it may easily be overlooked, but it is certainly there. The washing given to the AgI was so thorough that it seemed impossible to admit that traces of KI remained attached to the AgI, but in When Ag! is blackened under ammonia in a test-tube, and the uncorked test-tube is set aside in the dark for a day or two, the AgI assumes a singular pinkish shade. It thus appears that AgI under the influence of ammonia and of light gives indications of most of the colors of the spectrum. Startin, ays, seem to give hope of te method of heliochromy- ae J. A. Allen—Fossil Passerine Bird from Colorado. $81 Art. LVI.—Description of a Fossil Passerine Bird from the Insecthearing Shales of Colorado; by J. A. ALLEN.* THE species of fossil bird described in this paper is based on some beautifully preserved remains from the insect-bearing shales of Florissant, Colorado. They consist of the greater part of a skeleton, embracing all of the bones of the anterior and posterior extremities, excepting the femora. Unfortunately, the bill and the anterior portion of the head are wanting, but the outlines of the remainder of the head and of the neck are distinctly traceable. The bones are all in situ, and indicate be- yond question a high ornithic type, probably referable to the Oscine division of the Passeres. The specimen bears also re- markably distinet impressions of the wings and tail, indicating not only the general form of these parts, but even the shafts and barbs of the feathers. Mis n size and in general proportions, the present species differs little from the Scarlet Tanager (Pyranga rubra) or the Cedar- ird (Ampelis cedrorum). The bones of the wings, as well as the wings themselves, indicate a similar alar development, but the tarsi and feet are rather smaller and weaker ; and hence in this point the agreement is better with the short-legged Pewees (genus Contopus). These features indicate arboreal habits and well-developed powers of flight. The absence of the bill ren- ders it impossible to assign the species to any particular family, a the fossil on the whale gives the impression of Fringilline affinities, Paleospiza beila, gen. et sp. nov. Wings rather long, pointed. Tail (apparently) f about two- thirds the length of the wing, rounded or graduated, the outer feathers (as preserved) being much shorter than the inner. ne side shows distinctly six rectrices. Tarsus short, its length a little less than that of the middle toe. Lateral toes subequal, scarcely shorter than the middle one. Hind toe about two-thirds as long as the middle toe. Feet and toes strictly those of a perching bird, and the proportionate length of the bones of the fore and hind limbs is the same as in ordinary arboreal Passeres, especially as represented by the Ta nagride, * From the Bulletin of the Geological and Geographical Survey of the Terri- tories, vol. iv, No. 2, page 443, April, 1578. : coe ee The character of the tail is given with reservation, since it is not Lm te cer tain that the whole of the tail, or that the exact form of the ne Pe ion, 18 shown, especially as the preserved impression is somewhat unsymme . 382 J. A. Allen—Fossil Passerine Bird from Colorado. J. A. Allen—Fossil Passerine Bird from Colorado. 388 One of the specimens affords the following measurements : Inches. Inches. Humerus, length. .-..--.. 0°80} Middle toe and claw-_-..-- 0°6 Forearm, length....--- . 0°95 | Claw alone AG: 020 Manus, length --....----- 1°02 | Hind toe and claw-..---- 0°37 Coracoid, length---- .---- 0°72 | Claw alone Fie IS Clavicle, length_--.--.--- 063; Wing .2css ue cl ol) 80 een, WenOth. 22 sce 1:00 | Tail (approximate) -....... 2 mareus, length. .: ... 2... 0°60 | Total length (approximate) 6°85 The bones still rest in the original matrix, and, being some- what crushed and flattened, do not admit of detailed descrip- tion and comparison with other types. e furculum is well Another specimen from the same locality, and probably representing the same species, consists of the tip of the tail and about the apical third of a half-expanded wing. (Fig.2.) In The larger specimen, first described, is divided into an upper and a lower half, the greater part, however, adhering to 884. J. A. Allen—Fossil Passerine Bird from Colorado. the lower slab. The bones adhere about equally to the two faces. The drawing is made from the lower slab, with some of the details filled in from the upper one. The feather im- pressions are about equally distinct on both, and where in either case the bones are absent, exact molds of them remain, so that the structure can be seen and measurements taken almost equally well from either slab, except that nothing anterior to the breast is shown on the upper slab. The species here described is of special interest as being the first fossil Passerine bird discovered in North America, Professor O. C. Marsh in 1872, from the Lower Tertiary of Wyoming Territory. Probably the insect-bearing shales of Colorado will afford, on further exploration, other types of the higher groups of birds. For the opportunity of describing these interesting specimens I am indebted to Mr. S. H. Scudder, who obtained them during Professor O. C. Marsh in 1870,* who refers to it as “the distal portion of a large feather, with the shaft and vane in excellent preservation.” *This Journ., II, vol. xi, p. 272, 1870. W. L. Broun—Terrestrial Electrical Currents. 885 Art. LVIII.—Experiment for Illustrating the Terrestrial Elec- trical Currents ; by Professor Wu. LERoy Brotn. THE following experiment enables a lecturer to exhibit to a large audience, in a very simple way, the action of the currents of electricity that pass around the earth. The experiment was suggested on reading an article by Professor om in the Philosophical Magazine for November, 1877. section three by two centimeters, whose sides were in length a fraction over a meter, and in breadth three-fourths of a meter. About the perimeter of this rectangular frame were wrapped twenty coils of insulated copper wire: each extremity of the wire was made to terminate near the center of one of the shorter sides, and passing through the wooden frame was fastened and cut off about three centimeters from the frame. This rectangular frame was then so suspended, in a horizontal position, by wires attached to the frame of an ordinary hydro- static balance, that the longer sides were at right angles with the beam. By adjusting weights in the pans the index of the balance was brought to the zero point. Two small orifices bored in a block of wood, a centimeter apart, served as When the current was reversed the deflection was in the oppo- site direction. By breaking and closing the circuit at proper intervals to augment the oscillations, the large frame was readily made to oscillate through an arc of five degrees. When the sides of the rectangle were placed northeast and southwest the current produced no sensible effect. A bichromate of potas of sixteen cells with plates of zinc and carbon, twenty-five by Six centimeters, was used. a With a rectangle containing a larger number of coils of Wire, attached to a very delicate balance, by using a consfant acting battery, the variation in the magnetism of the earth might thus be advantageously observed. 386 Scientific Intelligence. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysics. 1 the naked eye distinctly prismatic, often aggregate in dendritic masses of the color and luster of steel. 0 by sulphur, and burns readily in a current of chlorine formmg the chloride. On analysis, the metal gave of beryllium 87-09 per cent; between 0° and 100° C. As the result of four experiments, the specific heat of pure beryllium was obtained as 0°4107, 0°4144, t =. be if the atomic weight be assumed as 13°8, it follows that beryllium belongs, not to the magnesium group, but to that of aluminum, that its atomic weight is 13-8, its specific heat 0°4079, and that llium oxide is Be,O, as Berzelius claimed.— Ber. hem. 18 Ges., xi, 381, March, 1878, G. F. B. 2. On a new is of nes.—ErEekorr has succeeded in effecting a new synthesis of hydrocarbons of the general ath yy ng together for seven or eight hours molecular > : m which aiatillcd sompletcte between 36° and 85°, consisted to t 70° to 83°. This fraction combined energetically with bromine, yielding a solid compound fusing at 139°-140°, volatile with par- tial decomposition, and having the formula C,H,,Br,. 0 wit uric acid, a liquid and a solid body separating out on dilu- Chemistry and Physics. 387 tion, the latter having a characteristic camphor-like odor, easily volatile in a current of steam, crystallizing from weak alcohol at 75°-76° and ing the formula xi, 412, March, 1878 3. Tr wh | . : : a C=O. On boiling the bromide with water, a crys- 4 . tallized acid was obtained, which was bromacetic acid. Tribro- minated ethylene also absorbs oxygen under similar conditions, and yields dibromacetyl bromide.—Bull. Soe. Ch., Il, xxix, 204, arch, 1878, : G. F. Be 4. Ona Remarkable Reaction of Boric acid and Borax with poses car j above named polyatomic alcohols in solution, be mixed with solution of boric ‘acid, so dilute that it no longer reddens litmus, h . . 388 Scientific Intelligence. his experiments to test the extreme delicacy of the boric acid reaction. If one cubic centimeter of a solution iF ot acid gg percept poe — to test paper) be mixed with 10 c. ¢. of a 5 per cent solu of mannite, a strong acid cg is de- slips turning tients paper onion-red at once. A yyy, solu- tion of borax, which is neutral, when 2 ¢. c. are mixed with 10 ¢ ¢. 7. the mannite solution, ie a bright-red at once. Five c. c. of & typ 000 SOlution added to 5 c. c, of the mannite solution, gave a decided acid reaction at Wire end of a minute. Quantitative ex- periments showed that the alkali required to neutralize the acidity roduced, was the exact quantity needed to form the mono- metaborate.— Bull. Soc. Ch., Il, xxix, 195, 198, March, i . B. 5. On the Products of the Distillation ow, Resins a resin Acids with Zine dust.—Ctamictan has studied the products From 600 grams abietic acid, 250 cubic a ds of distillate were obtained, which on fraction ning, gave toluene, metaethyl methyl-benzene, naphthalene, methyl-naphthalene, and methyl- anthracene. Colophony itself, when iis distilled gave the same products, and in about the same proportion with the exception of toluene, which was present in much smaller quantity. On istill- ing gum-benzoin with zine dust, toluene, xylene, naphthalene, and a ehehaene were obtained.— Ber. Berl. yes te xi, 269, 878. oily body, having the formula C “HO, fo fo . stance with alkalies, and boils at 285°. Treated with acetic oxide, it t yields an acetyl derivative C pH (CH.O0. which = bromine gives a bromo-compound ©,,H,,Br,(C,H,O)O,. Hea to 130° with hydrochloric acid, torrents 8 of. methyl chloride pe evolved, and a crystallized body is obtained hav ving the formula C,H,,0,. This Sancapie regan as a higher homologue of pyro- an ¢ OH gallic acid, thus C,H, one the methyl derivative C,,H,,O, be OCH, OCH, ing C,H, . OCH, and its acetyl compound ©,H,4 OCH, . Since : OH OC,H,0 Chemistry and Physics. 389 propylated trioxybenzene, or dimethyl propyl-pyrogallate. On O, and thie on reduction a hydroquinone C, » § The th wood tar was isolated with difficulty and had the formula affording a crystallized substance of the formula C,H,O,, which was pyrogallic acid (pyrogallol). was the dimethyl ether of pyrogallic acid C,H, OCH,. By the action of oxidizing agents, most conveniently potassium dichro- mate, it is converted into the magnificent steel-blue needles of cedriret. In proof of this as the origin of the cedriret of Reichen- bach, Hofmann prepared this dimethyl ether synthetically and found that it gave identically the same product on oxidation,— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xi, 329, Feb. 1878. G. F. B. . he Constituents of Corallin——ZvuLKowsky has ex- amined the corallin of commerce and finds it to be a mixture of at least six different bodies: 1st, a coarsely crystalline garnet-red body with blue luster, of the composition C,,H,,0, ; 2d, a deriva- this, a deep red amorphous powder, showing metallic luster, re- 8. On Curarine.—Sacus has examined the active substance of curare and finds it to be an alkaloid of the composition C,H, Ww Am, Jour. Sc1.—THIRD ——” Vou. XV, No. 89.—May, 1878. 390 ; Screntifie Intelligence. while the water obtained from the steam is perfectly potable. M. Hétet gives evidence that his method has been thoroughly tried with entire success.— Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. (5), xiii, 29. J. P.O, TR 9. Boracie Acid.—M, Avrrep Drrre (Ann. de Chim. et Phys., (5), xiii, 67) has made some new determinations of the “heat of solution” of boric hydrate, and also of the “heat of hydration” of boric oxide, which have led to remarkable results, It appears € units of heat, and that one equivalent (35 grams) of boric oxide (fused boracic acid) in combining with water absorbs 6254°7 the heat was dissipated, the temperature of the mass would raised t itte finds that for the specific gravity of O1 mined the corresponding values for boric hydrate. At 0° 6=1°5463 Between 12° and 60° &=0°00154 12 12° and 80° &=0°00148 Further, it appears that the mean density of the boric oxide and ice, which may be regarded as united in the hydrate, is siti while that of boric hydrate at 0° is 1:5463, ‘There must, Chemistry and Physics. 391 would be 136° and the amount of heat absorbed 2982-2 units. Evidently then less than one-half of the heat of hydration is due to this cause. M. Ditte has also determined the solubility of e thermometer, but it was found possible to simplify very greatly the details of the process without seriously impairing the accu- ble investigation of the boiling point of s at different emperatures, the observations of temperature are undoubtedly accurate to this extent, but Regnault’s own n of these own more accurately; for even when withim the range of a mercury thermometer an observation of a g point to be accurate to a tenth of a centigrade de attentio The glass thermometer bulb used in our bi sc age is repre- sented in the accompanying figure of one-hal the ‘its linear dimensions. The longer stem was made of fine ther- mometer tube, and a shorter stem was added to the opposite end of the bulb in order to facilitate the cleaning, drying, filling, or emptying of the interior—all of which was easily accomplished by the aid of a Bunsen pump. The shorter stem was of course sealed after the bulb Kad been dried and made ready for use, and before it was immersed in the medium whose temperature was to measured. After an equilibrium had been established at this unknown temperature T°, the protruding end of the longer stem 892 Scientific Intelligence. was sealed, and at the same time the height of the barometer H was noted. The bulb was then taken to a room of uniform tem- perature provided in the laboratory for gas analysis, and after being mounted on a convenient support, the end of the stem was broken off under mercury, and the apparatus left to itself for a time to secure a perfect equilibrium of temperature. This tem- perature (T’°) was then observed by means of a standard ther- mometer hanging near the bulb; also the height (h) to which the mercury had risen in the bulb was measured by a cathetom- eter, and in addition the height H’ of the barometer (hanging in the same room) was again noted. Closing now the open stem with the finger, the bulb was quickly inverted and the pistes | mercury drawn out into a tared vessel and weighed (nipping o the end of the shorter stem in order to admit the air). Thi T?+273°2=(I"°-4-273°2) alr —T')°k}. It will be noted that as the mercury columns, including the heights of the barometer, were all measured at the same constant temperature, and, as we are dealing with relative values only, no reductions are necessary. Moreover, an error of one-tenth of a millimeter in the value of Hy Would make in determining the boiling point of sulphur (448°) a difference of only one-eighth of a degree, so that measurements of these heights are sufficiently close if accurate to one-half a millimeter, and might even be ith a common rule. The most uncertain element in the formula is the expansion of glass, but if the bulbs are made of flint glass (lead glass) tubing, such as is used for ornamental glass 8 to soften. e rate of expansiou of flint glass is not only less than that of crown, but it is also more constant and pared with the results of Regnault reduced to the corresponding pressures : Chemistry and Physics. 393 Boiling Point of Sulphur. Barometer. Height at 0°. Bennett. Regnault. Diff. 758°8 : A verage difference, 05 ing as ‘alee the two ester e or the poo we obtain values for the boiling point of sulphur differing by more than a degree, and hence, as we have already said, there is still an evident, Mr. Bennett’s observations confirm very closely the inter- y ourselves, but since the boilin point of sulphur has become such an important constant we propose to have the observations repeated under the most favorable condita we can comman After the accuracy irae ur method had been thus placed be- yond doubt within the limits require d, Mr. Bennett made three dete: ee herpeeeie i the boiling point of antimonious iodide with the follow resu tise Height at 0°. Boiling Point SbI;. 758-1 millimeters. 400-4 T1584 400°-9 401°-9 159°3 Proba bably only ae sal art of the differences between ee observations depends on the variations of pressure, and 401 the nearest whole eh of degrees to the neenne point of so Monious iodide at the normal pressure of the *This Journal, II, xiv, 484 394 Scientific Intelligence. The method we have here described we can most confidently recommend as a most efficient and accurate means of determining J. C. P., JR. 11. The Influence of the density of a body upon its ‘Light- ries - bing power.—Professor Guan has conducted a se ot ex any change of absorption with change of density that it must be very small. He is inclined to think that his results give evidence varies greatly 85° the effects are very faint; between 75° and 60° they are com- t the analyzer from extinction, and so forward. subject to exceptions.— Phil. Mag., March, 1878, p. 161 he Velocit i A. Micuetson, Ensign U. S. Navy, Instructor in Physics and sak any distance. the figure, S is a division ore scale ruled on ed M, a revolving plane mirror; L, an achromatic lens; 8", 2 xed plane mirror, at any distance from : The point S is so situated that its image §’ reflected in the mir Geology and Mineralogy. 395 ror M, is in one focus of the lens L, while ine image of S' oe cides with the mirror 8”, which is placed at the conjugate foc With this arrangement, when M turns alomty, the light from S” is reflected back through the lens, so that an image is formed — coincides with S. en, however, the mirror rotates rapidly, the position of M will — changed ‘while the light travels from M to 8” and back again, so oes the image is displaced in the eh of rotation of the mirr L s! s Let iy; be the ranma d of light; D, twice the distance M 8”; n, the number urns per second; 7, the distance M S and 6 the 4nrn é deflection ; then V is found by the formula V= In a preliminary experiment the deflection amounted to five millimeters when the mirror revolved 128 times per second. IL GroLtoecy AND MINERALOGY. 1. On the Limestones of the Falls of the Ohio, by Jamzs Hatt. 16 pp. 4to. Advance sheets of vol. ‘v, part 2, of the Paleon- tology of New York.—Professor Hall reviews the facts with ref- erence to the beds at the Falls of the Ohio v4 their fossils, gives the results of personal eS a s at the conclusion that en —_ include—beginnin - (1.) Niagara — Ty _ Upper Silurian, which are the “ Cate- nipora beds” of S$. 8 (2.) Upper Helderbe deni to which bel ong the next follow- ing strata, (a) Coral sh (6) Turbo bed, (c) Nucleocrinus bed, d (d@) Spirifer bed, of Lyon. “@) — 30 feet of Hamilton beds, which are of impure mag- limestone, and comprise a the Hydraulic limestone, and the Encrinital limestone, of Lyon. (4.) The “ Black Slate,” which, after a special discuss sais of the ous intercalations a “ shales at its base, thins ree a —— the 396 Scientific Intelligence. 2. Report on the Fossil Plants of the Auriferous Gravel Deposits of the Sierra Nevada; by L. Lesquerrvx. Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College. Vol. vi, No, 2. 58 pp. 4to, with ten double plates. — Professor Les- quereux here describes fifty species, and gives figures of the leaves on which they are based. He concludes: (1.) The species are related by some identical or closely allied forms to the Miocene, and still more intimately by others to the present flora of the North American continent. (2.) The North American facies is traced by some species to the Miocene, the Eocene, even the Cretaceous of the Western Territo- vies. Hence it is not possible to persist in considering the essen- tial types of the present North American flora as derived by migration from Europe or from Asia, either during the prevalence the Miocene or after it. This flora is connatural and autoch- quent to the Glacial period. is remarkable fact, so clearly dem- onstrated by nature, may serve as an exemplification of the causes os the disconnection of some of the other groups of our geological oras. _3. Memorandum of a fossil wood from the Keokuk formation Keokuk, Iowa ; by Samuxt J. Watuace, of that place.—A por- i kuk tion, Subcarboniferous, at Keokuk, Iowa, March 6th, 1878. age a section nearly three feet long; one end disappearing in external or bark markings, but rather those of woody fiber, possi- from the best quarry layers of the Keokuk Formation, five feet i d,” and from the center of a solid 18-inch > layer, on a horizon of numerous shells, fish teeth, etc. Is not this among the first distinct land plants from this forma- tors. tion ?—From a letter to the Edi _4, Atlas accompanying the Report of the Geological Explora- tion of the Fortieth Parallel ; by ga ont Kiva, U.S. Geologist Geology and Mineralogy. . in charge. Made by authority of the Hon. Secretary of War, under the direction of Brig. and Brevt. Major-General A. A. Humphreys, Chief of Engineers, U.S. A. 1876.—One of the maps of this Atlas has already been noticed in this Journal in volume xi (page 161). The completed atlas has recently been issued. It is top region nearly fifty miles wide either side of the fortieth parallel from western Nevada to eastern Colorado. e atlas is a grand con- tribution to the Geology of the continent, and bears testimony to the very great care and thoroughness of the surveys under Mr. King. The five colored geological maps present not only the distribution of the several areas of igneous, granitic, and stratified trac the study of which in the field, by Mr. King, has been supple- mented by the exceedingly valuable volume of descriptions by Professor Zirkel, forming part of the Reports of the Survey. The plates are from the establishment of J. Bien, New York, sage land, coal land, gold districts and silver districts; a general geological map; six sectional geological maps, and as many topo- graphical, on a scale of four miles to the inch; two maps of geo- logical sections and one of panoramic views. e areas of the memoirs, representing the following species: ©. pune Wariolars, é. ‘illatedleis, C. obtusus, C. levis, C. vigilans, C. sex- costatus, C. nereus, and C. verrucosus. The limits of the genus are those accepted by Eichwald in 1840. It includes Enerinurus, and Cybele and Atractopyge are made subgenera under it. $98 (tix Scientific Intelligence. ra garteutfanes and Upper Silurian fossils of Illinois and Indiana,—Dr. C. A. Waite has published descriptions of some invertebrate ore in the Proceedings * oe Academy of Natu- ral Sciences of Philadelphia for it p. 2 ate naib - Ostrauer und Walden burger Schichten von D. 366 4to.—An ok Arne memoir on the fossil gow es the: Lower Carboni iferous formation of Moravia, illustrated a large and beautiful plates, a map, and two plates ot secti The lower Culm includes av oe rboniferous lime- stone with Productus giganteus Sow. rring in Altwasser, Neudorf near Silberberg, Hausdorf, ete., natn which ihe 4 Culm- Dachschiefer,” containing Posidonomya Becheri Br. is equiva- lent; and the upper Culm, the Ostrau and Racvncaes shales, Ome of the specimens of plants figured are of remarkable size and os pa of the Musk Ox (Ovibos moschatus) have been found in she. less of the Rhine near Unkel, according to F. mer.—Zts. geol. Ges., xxix, 592. 10. Notice of three new Phosphates ease py co Connecticut ;* by Groren J. Brusu and Ep (1). Eosruorrre, Usually observed in pileipatis a am obtuse angle measures 1044°, and which probably belong to the orthorhombic system. The crystals are uniform rmly terminated by two pyramids in different vertical zones. —- maacesling nee nearly seers Also commonly — mass Hardness ated Al,O,: RO: 10 = 1 1:2 saa Th corresponds to the ¢ empirical formula 0.) 40,0: ee oe The compact v eae tain quartz an and other is of a whitish compact specimen by Horace me | Wells som 14°41 of insoluble ee and the remainder = oT atomic ratio of eosphorite. 2.) TRrrprorprre, Occurs in erystalline a tes whose struc ture is parallel-fibrous to arm also di onda and again con- fusedly fibrous to nearly co mpact massive. Isolated prismatic erystals are occasionall ahead imbedded in quartz. Inv - cases these crystals have been detached with their termina- ons preserved; the crystallogra hie data thus obtained show that the mineral is ere related in form to wagnerite. Hard- * Communicated by the A: Geology and Mineralogy. 399 ness=4'5-5,. Specific gravity=3°697. Luster vitreous to greasy- adamantine. Color yellowish to reddish brown, the crystals - occasionally topaz- to wine-yellow. Transparent to translucent. Fuses in the naked lamp-fiame, and B. B. in the forceps colors the flame pale green. Completely soluble in the fluxes, giving reac- tions for iron and manganese. uble in nitric and hydrochloric acid. Analyses by 8. L. Penfield have proved it to be a hydrous eee of manganese and iron, giving the atomic ratio of ?,0,: RO: H,O of 1: 4:1. This corresponds to the formula R,P,0,, H,O=R,P,0,+H,RO,. The mineral in external charac- ter has a marked resemblance to triplite, and this fact is expressed in the name which has been given it NSONITE curs foliated massive; often lamellar radiate, the laminw being sometimes straigh t more often rv ne instance observed in tabular crystals with stri- Before the blowpipe in the forceps fuses at 1 to a black magnetic globule, and colors the flame pale-green with an occasional faint tinge of red ith the fluxes gives reactions for iro an- ¥ the nese, Soluble in acids. The chemical i now in progress y S. L. Penfield indicates it to be a hydrous phosphate of iron and manganese with alkalies, the spectroscope showing the presence of both soda and lithia. ‘ 5 The above species are from a deposit of manganese minerals in avein of coarse albitic granite which has been quarried for mica. Associated with them is a considerable amount of a ferriferous ganese; all these apparently are products of the oxidation of the her minerals. e have also determined the presence of vivi- anite, hebronite, apatite, and some other phosphates whose com- position needs further investigation before a final conclusion in the ne sles, y iade. wi Wi d all the facts in regard to made, with sone still in progress, an i a ttake alle 11. Mineralogy: Vol. 1, The General Principles of Mineralogy : by J. H. Gece F.G.S. 206 pp. 8vo. New York, 1878. (G. P. 400 Scientific Intelligence. properties of minera system of Miller, is principally Art. LX.— On the Transmission of Sensation and Volition through the Nerves.* Contribution from the Physical Labora- tory of the Cornell University; by M. M. Garver, B.S., Pro- fessor of Natural Science in Mercersburg College, Pa. _ During the winter of 1875-6 some experiments were made in the Physical Laboratory of the Cornell University, under the direction of Professor Wm. A. Anthony, to determine the rate of transmission through the nerves. The experiments were continued for a period of several months, during which some interesting and, as far as the writer’s knowledge goes, new results were obtained. screw and worked in a fixed nut; consequently when the handle was turned the cylinder gradually advanced in the direction of its axis. The tuning-fork, which was kept in vibration and regulated by one of Kénig’s automatic break- Pieces, bore upon one of its prongs a flexible style of brass which was placed in contact with the blackened paper. Then when the tuning-fork was set to vibrating and the cylinder *This arti inci of extracts from a presented by the author for eheatunc bt ctisk dacleanh commencement of the Cornell Univer- 414 M. M. Garver—Sensation and Volition through the Nerves. turned, an undulating line was traced spirally round the cylin- der; each one of the undulations corresponding to a known interval of time. The base of the tuning-fork was connected with one wire from the induction coil and the cylinder with the other, so that when the primary circuit was broken a spark would pass from the end of the style through the paper to the cylinder, displacing the lampblack in its passage and leaving a small dot in the undulating line or trace. The method of using the apparatus was as follows: the wire of the secondary circuit connected with the tuning-fork was conducted to one side and used to give the signals by placing a short break in the wire in contact with the part of the body desired, the flesh of the body completing the circuit. The resistance in the primary circuit was so regulated that th dots,—the fractions of vibrations being estimated in tenths by M. M. Garver—Sensation and Volition through the Nerves. 415 In experimenting upon myself the time required to answera signal given on the left hand, as deduced from one hundred and nine single observations, was found to be 0°1572’--0009” ; when the signal was given upon the shoulder, the time e as obtained from sixty observations, was 0°1482”+--0010". The difference is 0-009" and the distance, as measured, twenty-three inches, hence the velocity from the data, was in this case 213° le 28°6 feet per seco The results can abst best be shown in a table (see table I.) All the series from which these results were obtained are not given because they would swell the proportions of this. article to an undue extent; and also because the establishment of the reliability of the numerical results obta _ it is expected, can be shown to be of minor importance. TABLE I. Pe Vee mired | Diff Velocity in posiaenS2 | 5% | anna ot | "me Eooure® | Pimanee) Vege) Vane Zes signal. answer. time. nerve. Fowler (1),| 30 | Left foot, |0-1707” ae 0412 33°7 46 | Leté check, ee ee ee 9-1296 Garver (2),) 109 | Left hand, (0°1572"+ 0009") ).o» ‘ : “i '| 60 |Left shoulder,|0-1482" x-0010"| 0? | 28 1% s13 5356 (3),| 53 | Left hand, |01686"+-0017"| . c,ar| 9; oe ae - 51 |Left shoulder, 1632" £0017! 01546",; 2] in. | A1sat1T-4 Left foot, |0°1866"+-0014"| | 141. 105 | Left hip, |017557+-0012"| 111 | 36 im 3T0°T + 45 Ol ated oimeumtlt tea 108 0008 | 0130" | 164 in. | 105° +101 cs = mo S ve Back, ; wee po isa" +0010 0098" | 36 in. | 30744476 -1542 By ety : (| 356 lLattsheulder(o-1saaa¢ 7 | 00003" | 28.tm. |. 6000-7 t will be noticed that the time in (4) and (6) differs con- sidtersb iy in the two sets of observations, although taken from the same person. The difference can hardly be owing to errors in “eee erage for the sum of the — errors is less than 003”, while the differences refe ‘0061’ and 0074”. There seg evidently a change in the pinch power of the nerve, or in the mental status of the individual during the interval of time which elapsed before the last series were taken. Number (4) was taken Jan. 8th ; number (6) a week later. Number (7) | gives an extraordina nary result. It is so very large that it can hardly be regarded otherwise than as erroneous. Doubtless there was a change in condition while taking the observations, for all the observations from the hand were taken’ before any were taken from the shoulder, and the fatigue inci- dent upon taking so large a number of observations is con- siderable, so pi at can hardly be claimed that the experiments 416 M. M. Garver—Sensation and Volition through the Nerves. were made under exactly the same conditions. If, however, the observations had been taken alternately from hand and shoulder, any change in condition would have affected both alike, and although the mean time might have increased or diminished, the differences would not have =a h mber num shee ap- Fowler, : IL 16= 2 22=1 Si 93==8: 18= 4 4—2 fh cer 25-1 20=10 26=2 vb fei There were tenths in many instances, but for the sake of mitted. brevity they have been o Y wate ca 22 23 2% 25 x ee Oe Oe 3 49 20 a Pi mall Re come under the second e case. (See figs. 2 rand 13) by * 418 M. M. Garver—Sensation and Volition through the Nerves. about ;; of a second. And here is another peculiarity to which attention is particularly called, for it may serve to 3. AN 2 ¢ \7 Ol 7 Wy 18 la, Meche tT ESE, Ae SOR OR AN oF ES 9b Bg xX explain the anomalous results obtained in some particular ca he maxima in I (fig. 2) occur at 21 and 24, while in Il (fig. 3) they appear at 20 and 23, showing an evident change in the condition of the nerve. The observations in I were taken the day after those in I, otherwise the conditions were apparently the same. It is impossible to tell when the change took place or to tell the cause, but if such a change should occur during the time occupied in taking the observations, it is manifest that the results would be materially affected an the peculiar periodicity of the results more or less destroyed. more examples showing a periodicity will be given, but instead of plotting out in curves, it will be sufficient to indicate the groups by braces. The numbers at the right indi- approximately the difference between the means of the groups; 23 vibrations being equivalent to a little less than 3s of a second.* ae ee Is “Sightto “Sight to s rt «Bene to s Hoe to “Shoulder to . se hand.” hand.”* hand.” hand.” We-2: 19= “1t= 6 v= 16= 12 1 20= 4 se ins Viz 21=10 2I=1| 24° 19=11 19= 0 i8= 16=2 =16 = 5 f vib 4 20= 0 19=10 w= 23=12 tae. = 9 Sis 2 mal 18 24 a= 4472-1 99-61 3 o9— a— 6) 7 19=5 + vip 25=10) 25= 0 23— 7) Vo. 1 2 oo—140 = 1° 96st 24— = 6) YP o3— 5 21=6 27= 1 27> 2 2=— 0 = 24—- 4 22=% 28= 1 =1 =0 26= 1 25= =3 27= 2 =. ako 24=1 pad © 28= 0 30— 1 25=0 _* The exact rate of the fork during these experiments was 128-1 vibrations pe? 6, the fork underwent WM. M. Garver—Sensation and Volition through the Nerves. 419 — The difference between VII and VIII is very marked, and by simple inspection, noticing the position of the maxima, we can determine pretty closely the difference in time between hand and shoulder. It appears to be two vibrations, corre- sponding very closely to the difference between the means, which was found to be 1-98 vibrations. In the same way let us examine the experiments which gave the anomalous results before mentioned. ies Hand ‘wo a ys Shoulder to hand.” 14> 0 23=10 14> 19=32 Lise 6 94=— 6 os 20=25 16=10 = Meat 21-31) 36 17=28 36— 2 li=78 22a, 1 | Vib. 18=—40 =f 18=34 BEA? i pond | 1954; $81 ti P| 20==22 7 24 2i=i4 aaa 1 77 1 vib 23=19 which he esti- mated the “norm” or mean. The periodicity is evidently the wee Die physiologische Diagnostik der Nervenkrankheiten, Leipzig, 420 M. M. Garver—Sensation and Volition through the Nerves. same as that obtained in our experiments, and must have its foundation in the same cause. XI. XIL XIII. XIV. aN; Right foot. Left foot. Right hand. Ear. XII dors. vert. 5=1 9=1 10=4 16=1 10=3 9=2 10=5 1i=3 M3 10=3 11=4 12=9 18=4 Penta 1= 12=5 13=10 19=7 is=35 13==6 13=8 14= 4 14=3 o = 14 tas 1638 bee QS 3 18:5 *° =3 tas =10 16=2 9=2 (25 16=4 6=10 5°" *> 16— tats 17=8 93=—4 Li=3 = 17=8 [°° 18=—3 =1 18=3 1%=7 18=0 19=2 19=0 ]8=4 19= i9—3 From the many examples of the occurrence of these periods, it would appear that they have their origin in the physical or mental action of the individual, but their physiological or psy- chological significance is not known, and the complete elucida- tion can be hoped for only through the aid of more extended investigations, I some principally, perhaps, on account of the imperfect working wregular intervals so as to avoid anything like rhythm, thus requiring an act of perception and an act of volition for eac observation; and from what has been shown, it appears that these two acts cannot be performed with any great deg regularity. In order then, if possible, to obviate this difficulty, the pendulum of a clock was made to give the signals at inter- vals of a , each beat of the clock giving a signal which was red upon the smoked surface. The other coil in registe. connection with the answering key was used to register the answers. ‘T'wo coils are necessary because when but one 18 M. M. Garver—Sensation and Volition through the Nerves. 421 and, if the rate of niet is uniform, will be proportional to the length of then The first nic was made. by simply trying to beat time with the index finger of the right band to signals given on the back of the left hand. Great care was taken to prevent any idea of the time belle received except through the nerves expert- mented upon. On examining the register after the first set of observations was oh it was found that the answers some- times followed and sometimes preceded the signals and did not have the regularity expected. Upon noticing that the signal had been frequently Shusieeiad I made a_ new effort, taking _ great pains tobe sure that the signal was elt each time before answering. A few observations were then taken, and after stopping a short time to examine the effect, a few more were taken. The following was the result, the tuning-fork making 127-8 vibrations per secon XVI. XVII. 33 46 45-2 38°5 28°4 43 44 32-4 31-2 427 30 oor 40 42°5 35 35°5 . Al 43°5 38°8 33°5 36°5 42 33°5 43 Mean=34°8 49 425 Here then, we have two sets of observations salah within a few minutes of each other, the external conditions to all in- &S the mean of the first (XVI) by nearly 25 per cent. The differ- ence is probably due, at least in part, to an error in judgment or pe she to recognize the exact instant at which the signal was give a 32 42 31-7 35 445 32°4 29° 44-2 27-3 33-7 40°5 23% 34 38 25 35-4 31-3 26 35-6 37-5 Pe more sets (X VIII and aie taken two days afterwards, der early as possible the same external conditions, ex- hibit another phase. Here it is seen that "XIX, taken a few utes after XVIII, commenced as on the previous day, with a marked increase over the preceding values, but gradually decreased nearly one-half in oe few observations. 422 M. M. Garver—Sensation and Volition through the Nerves. obtained; the coil would simply cease working. It gave ‘accurate results or none at all.” ere are too few observations in any one of the last series, to give any marked indication of the periodicity noticed in the results obtained by the first method; but nevertheless, series , on analysis, shows a tendency to break into three groups, differing by six and a half vibrations. Thus: XVI. Garver “ Hand to hand.” 3)—4 ° 43=3 36=2 } 1 apa 46=1 64 vib. 40=1 +64 vib. 47=1 41=1 48=0 oe 49=3 It is very improbable, to say the least, that certain values should be selected and certain others be rejected in this way without some cause beyond that of mere accident. The period, it will be noticed, differs somewhat in different individuals but is almost constant in the same individual. The doubling may be caused by the obliteration of one of the nor- mal groups, or as it appears sometimes, by the rejection of the intermediate values. ; It may not be amiss to suggest an explanation of the “ per!- odicity * however liable it may be to be overthrown by further investigation. , It seems that when an individual is experimented upon as 1n most attention upon the point of application of the signal, I was sometimes aware that the signal was not answered as soon as It going too far to assume that the variation is entirely cereb Could not such a periodicity have its origin in is to resemble an “ increment to the judgment. urg, March, 1878. conceivable that such might be the case and be of such a nature bl af Mins J. J. Stevenson—Upper Devonian Rocks of Pennsylvania. 428 Art. LXI.—TZhe Upper Devonian Rocks of Southwest Pennsyl- vania ; by JoHN J. SrEVENSON, Professor of Geology in the University of New York. TuE Vespertine or Pocono sandstone of the Pennsylvania Survey is a massive sandstone from 350 to 450 feet thick in stones, interstratified with red to gray and olive shales. representing the Upper Devonian. During the hasty examina- tion of 1876, I was unable to make any close study of the sec- tion, and so provisionally regarded the lower rocks as belonging to the same series with the upper. i in my report to Professor Lesley for 1876. But the examina- tions made in the several gaps during 1877 showed the previous conclusion to be erroneous, and that the lower portion of the section from the very base of the Pocono sandstone is Devonian and not Lower Carboniferous. : A general section of the Devonian rocks, as observed in the gaps mentioned above, is as follows :— 1. Shales and thin sandstones--.. --- ---------- 2. White to BRET aot sandstones with some shale--. 70 “ we ewer eee aes san: wc in i i a ae ee i a EO - 424 J. J. Stevenson— Upper Devonian Rocks of Pennsylvania. Lithologically, the top portion, No. 1 of the section, is a transition mass, more closely related to the overlying than to the underlying rocks. But its relations are clearly shown by the fossils which occur in it. This part of the section is well exposed in the several gaps referred to,-as well as on the National Road as it winds up the western side of Chestnut Ridge in Fayette County. At all localities examined it shows the same character, the sandstones are light-gray to brown and in thin beds, while the shales vary from brown to dull blue. but in both gaps of the Youghiogheny there are compact gray sandstones, good enough to be used for building purposes. On the National Road, ten or twelve miles south from the Youghio- gheny River, the shale and micaceous sandstones re-appear as on the Conemaugh. These micaceous sandstones are reddish- arder layers have their upper surfaces covered by a close mat of fucoids. : A curious conglomerate, from ten to twenty feet thick, sistent, having been seen under Chestnut Ridge on the Cone- maugh and Youghiogheny rivers as well as on the National are much larger than those seen in any other conglomerate exposed within southwest Pennsylvania. They are oval, thor- oughly rounded and polished as by long rolling in water. Most of the larger pebbles are quartz, but with them are others of felsite-porphyry, quite soft, which had been blackened exte- riorly before they were embedded in the material cementing mass, Relations of these Rocks. In the final report of the First Geological Survey of Penn- sylvania, Formation IX, the red Catskill of New York, is mentioned as occurring in the district under consideration. Following that report, I intimated in my second annual report to Professor Lesley that the rocks described in this article might be referred to that formation; on the maps accompany- ing my third annual report, now assing through the press, the areas are colored as Catskill. This which was done to pre- J. J. Stevenson— Upper Devonian Rocks of Pennsylvania, 425 serve unity in the maps of the survey, is not in full accord with the facts. To determine the relations of rocks one may be guided by lithological characters and relative position, or if possible he may trace the rocks to some typical locality, or should fossils be present he may make his determinations by means of those. For the most part, geologists are satisfied to abide by the last test, as itis of universal application and saves a great expendi- ture of time and labor. But some geologists are disposed to think the simpler method inaccurate, and seem inclined to rebel against an imagined assumption on the part of paleontologists. It is desirable then to ascertain whether or not the relations of these rocks can be determined by tracing or by lithological characters. The bold anticlinal axes of southwest Pennsylvania are the Alleghany Mountains, Negro Mountain, the Viaduct axis, Laurel Ridge and Chestnut Ridge, all mountainous for the greater portion of their extent within the State of Pennsyl- vania. Under these axes alone may one look for exposures of the lower strata, for away from them the surface rocks belong to the Coal Measures. An exposure under the Alleghanies in Maryland reaches below the Pocono or Vespertine sandstone, but northward there is no described exposure anywhere on the west side of those mountains in Somerset County of Pennsylvania;.and, as be ascertained from the report of Mr. Platt’s close survey, the deepest gorge on that side is cut down only to the rocks of Formation XI, the Umbral. But in Cambria County, which is immediately north from Somerset, the exposures The Viaduct axis separates itself from the Negro Mountain in northern Maryland and continues as a strong axis through Somerset, Cambria and Clearfield Counties of Pennsylvania. But it nowhere shows anything below the upper portion of Formation X, as appears from the reports made by Messrs. F. and W. G. Platt. Laurel Ridge, at the line between Pennsylvania and West Virginia, niente only the upper portion of the Umbral, XI, but at the Youghiogheny River, the upper part of the Devonian is reached, its section being ex by the railroad cuts. Here and there, northward from the Youghiogheny, a deep 426 J. J. Stevenson—Upper Devonian Rocks of Pennsylvania. gorge is cut down to the Devonian, but owing to the thick coat of debris, no exposures oceur and no section can be obtained south from the Conemaugh River. The fold declines north from that river, so that the gaps made within Cambria County by Chest and Black Lick Creeks reach barely to Formation X, and no gap in Clearfield County, south from that of the west branch of the Susquehanna, seems to expose any lower rock. These facts are gathered from the reports of Messrs. F. and W. G. Platt on Cambria, Somerset and Clearfield Counties, and from my own careful observations in Fayette and Westmoreland. Chestnut Ridge first shows the Devonian rocks near the National Road in Fayette County, but thence northward the axis diminishes in strength, a given stratum being fully 1,000 feet lower at the Conemaugh than at the National Road. Between that road and the Youghiogheny River, several gorges are cut down to the Devonian, but no section can be obtained until the Youghiogheny River is reached. North from the river, owing to the decline of the axis in that direc- tion, the deepest gorges soon fail to reach the Devonian and no exposure exists between the Youghiogheny and the Cone- maugh. North from the Conemaugh the fold still decreases in strength, as is well shown by the fact that the Lower Coals creep constantly higher up its sides, so that the gaps made by Black Lick and other streams cannot do more than barely to reach Formation X, especially since the great Conglomerate of XII thickens very materially in that direction, as abundantly age from the report on Clearfield County by Mr. Franklin latt. There is no exposure whatever for more than fifty miles along the west slope of the Alleghany Mountain; no exposure ceurs in Negro Mountain or the Viaduct axis, so that no e thirty-five miles. . Surely under such circumstances one may hesitate before accepting any conclusion based on mere strati- graphy. 3 But is lithology any better? At all exposures to which reference has been made, except those in Clearfield County, respecting which I have no knowled e, rocks more or less similar in appearance are found Ssaibilinacy below Formation X, which is believed to represent the gray Catskill of New York. As they are at the top of the Devonian, they are likely to be J. J. Stevenson— Upper Devonian Rocks of Pennsylvania. 427 Catskill or Chemung, or to represent both groups, unless indeed those have thinned out. Professor H. D. Rogers thus describes the Chemung and Catskill of Pennsylvania :— ‘““VERGENT SERIES. “Vercent Fiacs (Portage flags of New York).—A rather fine-grained gray sandstone in thin layers, parted by thin alternating bands of shale. It abounds in marine vegetation. Thickness in Huntingdon 1,700 feet. “VERGENT SHALES (Chemung group of New York),.—A thick mass of gray, blue and olive-colored shales, and gray and brown sandstones. The sandstones predominate in the upper part, where the shales contain many fossils. Thickness in Huntingdon 3,200 feet. ‘‘ PONENT SERIES. “Ponent Rev SANDSTONE (Catskill group of New York).— In its fullest development this is a mass of very thick alternat- ing red shales with red and gray argillaceous sandstones. It has very few organic remains. Among them is oloptychius, and one or two other remarkable fossil fishes, of genera dis- tinetive of Old Red Sandstone. This formation has its maxi- mum thickness in its southeastern outcrops, where it measures more than 5,000 feet.”—Final Rep. First Geol. Surv. Penn., vol. 1, p. 108. On pages 140, 141 and 142 of the same volume, Professor Rogers gives some further details respecting the lithological characters of the rocks. In the northwest belt, the Vergent or Portage flags consist of dark gray flaggy sandstones parted by thin layers of blue shale, with large marine plants and a Nucula as the chief fossils, while in the next belt toward the west they are made up of thin-bedded, fine-grained, siliceous gray sandstones, intimately alternating with blue and greenish shales, In the middle belt, the Vergent Shales or the Chemung con- sists of gray, red to olive sandy shales, with gray and red argillaceous sandstones, but no details are given respecting this “aie in the belts west or northwest from the Alleghany ountains. : In the northwest belt, the Ponent or Catskill consists of fine and argillaceous sandstones, with an increase of red and green shale and with some calcareous layers. On page 798 of vol. ii of the same report, Professor Rogers points out the similarity between the deposits of the Ponent and Vergent, and states that the sediments of the former are quite as impalpable as are those of the latter. all these descriptions ~be compared with those already given of the rocks occurring in the gaps of the Youghiogheny * 428 J. J. Stevenson—Upper Devonian Rocks of Pennsylvania. and Conemaugh through Laurel and Chestnut Ridges, it will be seen that, as far as lithological characters are concerned, those rocks may be either Catskill or Chemung, though indeed the evidence seems to be rather in favor of their being Che- mung, for if one wished to describe them briefly and compre- hensively, he could do no better than to combine Professor Rogers’ descriptions of the Portage and Chemung, thus :— “A rather fine-grained gray and brown sandstone in thin layers parted by alternating bands of gray, blue, olive and red shales. It abounds in marine vegetation, and in the upper part the shales contain many fossils.” Since it would be excessively difficult to determine the rela- tions of these rocks by mere stratigraphy, and since the litho- logical characters fail to throw any distinct light upon the matter, the third test must be employed. What are the fossils? In the Summer of 1877, while making examinations in the Conemaugh Gap through Chestnut Ridge, I found, almost mid- way in the section given on another page, numerous specimens of Spirifer Verneuilir, Rhynchonella Stephani and Streptorhynchus Chemungensis, associated with many lamellibranchs and poorly preserved brachiopods, which could not be determined at the time. Further examination showed that these species occur up to within — inches of the undoubted Pocono sandstone, or The In order that no doubt might remain respecting these species, I sent some specimens to Professor Hall, who has made out the Langula, sp. ; 2. Discina grandis or D. Alleghaniensis ; 3. Streptorhynchus Chemungensis; 4. Rhynchonella Stephani ; 5. pirifera. Verneuilii; 6. Paicwoneilo maxima ; 7. Sanguinolites rigida ; 8. S. clavulus; 9. S. ventricosa? 10. Mytilarca Che- mungensis ; 11. Pteronites, sp.;.12. Pteronites, sp. ; 13. Actino- a recta ; 14. New form, undt.; 15. Orthoceras crotalum 2. These were collected at one locality and in haste, the only object aig Ba obtain a few specimens of the more common forms. Of the list, Nos. 6 and 18 are found in New York only in the Hamilton rocks, while No. 15 is ve closely allied to a Hamilton species and may be identical wit it; but reaping, the other forms there is no doubt—they are Chemung... Allo these forms occur also in the layers interstratified with those containing the fucoids, They are not stray specimens, such as might have been washed from the older into the newer rocks, : ; J. J. Stevenson— Upper Devonian Rocks of Pennsylvania. 429 for they are found in great abundance throughout the section and they are as well preserved as Chemung fossils usually are in New York. With these are immense quantities of fucoids, such as are characteristic of the Portage or lower Chemung in New York. But in the whole section there is not an Anodonta, not a fish-plate, not any fossil of any sort which can in any way be identified as belonging to the red Catskill of New York. It is more than probable that the section represents only the lower portion of the Chemung and that not only the red Cats- kill, but also the upper portion of the Chemung is wanting in this part of Pennsylvania.* What then has become of the great Catskill group? € upper or gray Catskill is represented, no doubt, by the Pocono or Vespertine sandstone, but the lower or red Catskill has dis- 34716 “ medium Bas Sis 6s oe so 84-715 ie. lt. ee mes Ree Sek eee 34-727 which are almost perfectly accordant. Taking the results from the method of recoil and the ordinary method, we find For ordinary method....... Sue acne 34726010 “ method of recoil.......---++++-> 84:705 + 006 438 H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. If the probable error is subtracted from the first and added to the second they will very nearly equal each other. Hence the difference is probably accidental. Indeed, by the combination of the results it does not seem possible to find any constant source of error, and therefore the errors should be eliminated by the combination of the results. In the final result R=34°7192+-°0070 the probable error, +*0070, includes all errors except the ratio of é to G’. Wemay estimate the probable error of G at s3,'55 and of G” at +5555. Hence the final probable error of R, including all variables, iS +5355, Or +°04 per cent, or R=34°719+--015. The probable error of the British Association determination was + ‘08 per cent, not including the probable error of the con- stants; and of Kohlrausch’s determination +°33 per cent, in- cluding constant errors. Comparison with the Ohm. The difficulty in obtaining proper standards for comparison has been explained above and I shall have to wait until the arrival of the new standard before making the exact comparison. At present I give the following results, which seem to warrant the rejection of Messrs. Elliott Bros’. 10-ohm standard and to make that of Messrs. Warden, Muirhead and Clark correct. I shall designate the coils by the letter of the firm and by the number of ohms. Experiment gave the following results : W (10)=1-00171 X E (10), experiment of June 8, 1877. Ww (10)=1°00166 xX E (10 i eo ee Ben, 28, 1875. W (1,000) : W (100) :: W (10): -999876 E (1), experiment of February 23, 1878, ' Now the greatest source of error in making coils is in passing from the unit to the higher numbers. As the reproduction of single units is a very simple process the single ohm is without much doubt correct, anid as the above proportion is correct within one part in 8,000 of what it should be, it seems to point to the great exactness of the standards then used, seeing that the exactness of the proportion could hardly have been acci- dental. It is also to be noted that Messrs. Warden, Muirhead & Clark’s 10-ohm standard agreed more exactly with a set of coils by Messrs. Elliott Bros. than their own unit E (10). The resistance of my coil as derived from the different stand- ards is as follows: 3 From Elliott Bros. resistance coils.......... 34-979 ohms. ue 7, RO AUR BOOS: 35083 “* a WM & C's...“ 2 85-0 “ W., M. & C.’s 100-ohm “ 35°0385 =“ ee es sees A. C. Peale—Ancient Outlet of Great Salt Lake. 439 Te give for my determination the values of the ohm as ollow From Elliott Bros. resistance coils, °99257 i * 10- ohm standard, "98963 . ea Ws M& 07s 99129 Se WM) rad ¢100-ohm . ‘99098 For the reasons given above I accept the mean of the last two results as the value of the ohm. To preserve my standard I have made two extra copies of it, the one in German silver and the other in platinum silver alloy. The comparisons are given below. No. 1 is in German silver, and the other in platinum silveralloy. The temperature LEG: earth quad. sec, Ne Devore, 20S 1. Pees June, 1877. Noe Dy ct vie. ed 100029 Feb., 1878 No: Hh eos es Ses 99630 June, 1877. Ov Hicueesihs Seb 99932 Feb., 1878 These are the mer of the copies in terms of the original earth quad. standard whose resistance is 34°719 From these results it would seem that the German silver of several years and seems to have reached its constant state. he final result of the experiment is earth quad. 1 ohm = 9911 sep ae Arr. LXTIL—The Ancient Outlet of Great Salt Lake; by A.C. PEALE. In this Journal for April, 1878, pp. 256-259, is an article entitled “The Ancient Outlet of Great Salt Lake; a letter to the editors by G. K. Gilbert.” In this article Mr. states that “‘ previous to 1876 the outlet was not discover ed, or if Mosbeeted: its position was not announced,” and that “in the summer of that year” he “had the great pleasure re of find- ing it in Idaho, at the north end of Cache Valley, the locality being known as Red Rock Pass.” He says also that the announcement was made by him “without reservation in a communication to the Philosophical Society of Washington,’* * At the 116th meeting of the Society, January 13, 1877, “Mr. G. K. Gilbe ¢ fossil lake of Utah. tle described an ancl oudet of the Tako at” Hed Hock Pass near the town of 440 A. C. Peale—Ancient Outlet of Great Salt Lake. and — the ee was also made for him “in the same unequivocal manner” “in the Smithsonian Report for 1876” ( (p. 61), ni ‘in Baird’s Annual of Scientific Discovery for 1876’* (p. 206), and that “ there seemed to be no occasion for further publication ame the matter should receive its full discussion in the Reports of the Survey of which Professor Powell has charge,” but owing to a statement + in this Journal for January, 1878, p. 65, ‘it seems proper” to him “to defend” his “ positive assertions by setting forth the facts which appear” to him “ to place the existence and position of the ancient out- let beyond question. As Red Rock Pass, the point of Mr. Gilbert’s discovery (?), is within the area assigned during the season of 1877 to Mr. Gannett’s division of the United States Geological Survey of the Territories, with which I was connected as geologist, it seems proper that I should call attention to several errors in Mr. sea statements. In the fi lace, his so-called discovery is not a discovery on his part. The fi fact that Red Rock Pass was an outlet for the lake that once filled the Salt Lake Basin and adjoining valleys § Oxford, Idaho, by which its waters were discharged into Snake River. During and since the desiccation of on lake, the land which it covered has been — a the north aes common with the region of the Laurentian lakes and the eas and w seaboard.” (Bulletin of the Philosophical Soci ‘ety of Weshington for. 1817, P. 18) equivocal” announcement referred to by Mr. Gilbert, is stated in peti hy ‘same. » words in both pallioateon, pl is eng in re followin g rather vague manner. “Before commencing the main work of the season, M r. Gilbert ng excursion in search of the outlet of tate Bon neville, the creat f ey lake of Utah.” * * * “The search for the point of outlet wa was ook at the north end of Cache Valley, a cag soiies es beyond te Bondar of in the Territory of Idaho. —— Report rd of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for 1876. Washington, at tee and (Annual Record of —— and Industry for 1876, edited by Spencer F. vpaird. New York, 1877, p. 260 The statement referred as is the pierre: # Toad is believed that the explora- tions of the survey under the direction of Dr. Hayden, the past season, et determined the probable icin a. of the great lake that once filled the Lake Basin.” dager Journal, yi Spite 1878, italics in p The i$ paragra) The following extracts pag the Report of the Survey for 1870, written by Dr. sapere show that as early as that time the extent of the great i t inland basin and its phony ey itions were y spprocsited by him. a moment a a bint bare view of the great inland basin of which Columbia on the north, and that of the Colorado e region has no visible ow composed of # multi- tude of smaller basins or h of which has its little lakes, ce of the vallevd ‘sed fol that Goan oF the m are much above the waters of Great Salt Lake.” (p. 172.) fresh-water lake ounce occupied all this immense basin ranges ins were scattered over it as isolated mands, A. C. Peale—Ancient Outlet of Great Salt Lake. 441 was not only recognized, but well known five years prior to Mr. Gilbert’s supposed discovery. On page 202 of the Annual Report of the Survey for 1872 * is the following statement by Professor F. H. Bradley: ‘The level of the divide between the head of Marsh Creek and the Bear River drainage, at Red Rock Pass, as ascertained by the party of 1871, indicates that this was probably another point of outflow ;” and on the fol- lowing page (203) the following sentence in relation to the ter- races in Marsh Creek Valley, which extend northward from Red Rock Pass: ‘They are on too large a scale, and the valley is too wide, to have resulted from merely the drainage of the small area of mountains about the head of the stream; and I am strongly of the opinion that this must have been at one time the channel for a large outflow from the Great Basin.” It seems to me that this places the discovery where it belongs beyond question. It appears also that Mr. Gilbert ignores some of his own statements. In his report to Lieutenant Wheeler,t he says that Professor O. C. Marsh informed him that he had discov- ered on the northern shore of the lake an outlet leading to Snake River, and in a foot note on the same page says, “ Pro- fessor Frank H. Bradley mentions four points of possible out- flow from the northeast margins.—(United States Geological Survey of the Territories, 1872, p. 202.) In the second place, Red Rock Pass was not the outlet of Lake Bonneviille. Lake Bonneville extended over the whole of Marsh Creek Valley and its outlet was more than forty miles farther north than Mr. Gilbert ever went. Red Rock Pass was only a point ancient lake outflowed.” This sentence implies that he went into Marsh Creek Valley. Had he done so or had he even ascended one of the numerous points that command the view . Vi lake. (Report United States Geological Survey for 1871, p. 19.) ie ee Sixth 5 gedee Report of the United States Geological Survey of the Territories 1872, Washington, 1873. Report upon Geographical and Geological Explorations west of the 100th inte in nee of ee Lieutenant Geo. M. Wheeler. Vol. iii, Geology. Washington, 1875, p. 91. 442 A. C. Peale—Ancient Outlet of Great Salt Lake. of both valleys (Cache, and Marsh Creek) the relation of the two must have been apparen The ‘gentle alluvial slopes” mentioned by Mr. Gilbert (on page 257) as being “divided for several miles by a steep-sided, flat-bottomed, trench-like passage a thousand feet broad, and descending northward from the divide” are white sandstones similar to those in the bottoms of Cache and other valleys of the Salt Lake Basin. The following elevations on the terraces in Marsh Creek Valley were obtained by barometrical observa- tions. Two miles — of Red Rock Pass on the east side of the valley, 5,187 fee ix miles = a Red Rock Pass on the edge of Marsh Val- ley, 5 pe - wenty-six miles ogee Red Rock Pass on the west side of the owen: ‘5, 117 fe The elevation of ie Bonneville beach is 5,185°7 feet + and it is evident that the Red Rock Gap (the walls of which do not exceed the elevation of 5,000 feet) could not have been a bar- rier to Lake Bonneville. The conclusion is therefore irresisti- ble that the result of Mr. Gilbert’s four or five years’ search is a mistake. In the third place Red Rock Pass was an outlet, but it was the outlet probably when the lake was at the level indicated by the rove Beach, When the barrier at the northern end of the Bonneville Lake was removed, that portion of the lake occupy- ing Marsh Creek Valley was completely drained, and Red Rock Gap became the barrier of the lake that remained. Then it was that the course of Marsh Creek began to be outlined, and the lowering of the lake was doubtless comparatively rapid until the level of the Provo Lake was reached. The line of the Provo Beach indicates a period of comparative permanence, but when the pass became lower than the lake, of course the lake was dramed. The elevation of the pass as obtained by rane level i ws 4,7 - feet, and the Provo Beach, according to 65 feet below the Bonneville Beach,t which would an an eden of 4,820°7 feet for the former. In the fourth place I wish to call attention to two more of Mr. Gilbert's statements. On page 258 he says, ‘In Dr. Hay- den’s Preliminary Report of the field work of his survey for *I am indebted to Mr. Henry Gannett for all the elevations I use and for other sedosbie icdoraon har ‘while in the feld. t This slexatiots | is obtained athe adding 967-7 feet (the height of the one given r. Gilbert i se) on oe Ss mest of the ct oe vol. pg Ty 1218 fet, Union Pacifie Railroad. _} This Journal, vol. xv, April, 1878, p. 258. Le oe we be tae A. C. Peale—Ancient Outlet of Great Salt Lake. 443 the season of 1877, noticed on page 56 of the current volume of this Journal, there is no mention of the observations at Red Rock Pass, but the omission appears to have been accidental, &c.” The portion of this statement that I have italicised is a gratui- tons assumption. The omission was not accidental. I did not believe that the outlet was at Red Rock Gap, and in the Pre- liminary Report (page 7), I made the following statement: “The lower valley of the Portneuf is interesting from the fact that it is the probable ancient outlet of the great lake that once filled the Salt Lake Basin.”™ Mr. Gilbert also hopes that I “will not advocate in” my “report the idea that the divide between the Malade and Marsh Creek was one of the old outlets of the ancient Salt Lake when its waters were at the highest level.” Had I been writing a final report on the subject I would perhaps have used the word overflow instead of outlet. It summit, although” he “bad undertaken last summer to examine every divide between the Columbia and Salt Lake Basins, that might have afforded passage to the water.” In all his investigations he seems never to have noted any evidences of a lake having a higher level than his Lake Bonne- ville. Such evidences, however, do exist. On both sides of the Portneuf where it comes into Marsh Creek Valley an upper terrace is seen, and in 1872 Professor F. H. Bradley also readily identified an upper terrace in Marsh Creek Valley at the lev bo n Report no warrant for the statement that he made the “ astonishing * Preliminary Report of the field work of the United States Geological and perce Sea i of the Territories for the season of 1877. Washington, 1877, p. 7. ; { +This Journal, vol. xv, April. 1878, p. 258. Mr. Gilbert appears to take it for granted that the point of outlet must necessarily be found at one of the exist- ing divides between the Great Basin and the Columbia. The railroad profile from the bluffs on Bear River in Cache Valley to Red Rock Pass (a distance of fifteen miles) shows a difference of elevation of only eleven f the descent of Marsh Creek from Red Rock Pass to a point twenty-six ly 1°07 feet per draining of Lake Bonneville — easily have present the divide for several miles is a swamp. 2 ¢ Sixth Annual of the United States Geological Survey, for 1872. Washington, 1873, p. 203. 444 EF. H. Storer—Ferment-theory of Nitrification. suggestion that four outflowing streams might have coexisted.” The italics are my own. In conclusion I wish to state that this paper is based on the special reference to finding an outlet of the ancient Salt Lake. Mr. Gilbert has spent portions of at least two seasons in the study of this special subject in the northern portion of the basin, and it is evident that his investigations are still unsatis- factory. Art. LXIV.—WNote on the Ferment-theory of Nitrification; by F. H. Storer, Harvard University. THE results of the following experiments bear so immedi- ately upon the recent observations of Schliésing* and Waring- ton,t noticed in the April number of this Journal, that I am led to publish them by themselves, out of their legitimate con- nection with other experiments upon which I have been for some time engaged. My experiments were made for the pur- - ; No. 6 ammonium chloride, black oxide of manganese nd a peat and pure water; No, 8 leached peat and ammonium chlo- * Comptes Rendus, ixxxiv, 301. Journal of London Chem Soc., 1878, i, 44. + In the manner described in the note on page 182 of vol. xii of this Journal. F. H. Storer—Ferment-theory of Nitrification. 445 chemicals, and the absence of nitrates and nitrites was proved by testing each of the solutions and mixtures with iodo-stareh, at the beginning of the experiment. The bottles were about half filled with liquid, i. e., each of them contained about 250 ce. of the solution or mixture allot- ted to it. The “leached peat” was prepared from some bog-meadow mud from the Bussey farm, which had been kept in barrels in a dry store-room for three or four years. This thoroughly air- dried substance was percolated with pure water until the fil- trate gave no reaction for nitrites or nitrates. ic and ferrous hydrates were used in the recentl precipitated condition; they were made from the correspond- ing chlorides by precipitating with ammonia-water, in the cold. e bottles were connected with one another, in the order indicated, with short pieces of caoutchouc tubing in such man- ner that by aspirating at No. 1 air could be made to bubble through the water in each member of the series. The corks of the bottles and the caoutchoue connectors were covered with ilar bulbs hited with potash-lye to remove nitrates and nitrites; through a dry bottle, to catch liquid drawn forward from the potash bulbs; and through a large drying tube charged for two-thirds its length with calcium chloride and one- third with soda-lime. and 10 namely gave immediate and strong reactions for the nitrogen oxides, while the contents of Nos. 1, 2, 3. 4, 5, 6, and 1 gave no reaction whatsoever. No. 7 gave a reaction, but not a very strong one. The reaction seemed to be strongest In Am. Jour. Sci.—TsimD — Vou. XV, No. 90,—Junz, 1878. 446 F. H. Storer—Ferment-theory of Nitrification. the contents of No. 10. It appeared from these results that there had been formation either of a nitrate or nitrite in each of the bottles which contained humus, and no such formation in either of the other bottles; but the thought suggested itself, that the small amount of nitrogen oxides found in No. 7 may perhaps have been dragged over mechanically from No. 8 by the current of air. A second series of tests was made upon Nos. 8, 9 and 10, to see which of them gave the weakest reaction, 25 ce. of liquid being taken from each bottle and diluted with pure water to the volume of 100 cc. before applying the test. It appeared again that No. 10 gave the strongest reaction and that No. 8 gave the weakest. Roughly estimated, the strength of the reactions from jars Nos. 10, 9 and 8 were to one another as It may here be said that humus was employed in these exper- iments for the sake of testing the old observation of Millon,* who noticed that ammonium salts are changed to nitrates when in contact with oxidizing humus, and who argued that the chemical action originated by the coming together of humus and oxygen, was communicated to the ammonium compound. In his own words: “The oxidation of the humic acid is the cause of the oxidation of the ammonia.” e chloride; No. 14 pure water; No. 15 pure water, the same warming the laboratory. The current of air passed this time in the direction from No. 1 to No. 15; it was maintained constantly * Kopp and Will’s Jahresbericht der Chemie, 1860, xiii, 101 and 1864, xvii, 158. wl F. H. Storer—Ferment-theory of Nitrification. 447 during ten days, and the contents of the bottles were then tested as before for nitrites and nitrates. But no reaction was obtained in either instance, with the exception of No. 12 (cot- ton rags, etc.), which gave a faint coloration of a not very sat- isfactory character. After the application of the test those of the bottles which still contained a sufficiency of liquid were re-attached to the aspirator and air was drawn through them continually during another week, when the test for nitrites and nitrates was again applied. But in no case was there any reac- tion, with the exception of bottle No. 8 whose contents gave a faint coloration. tents of the bottles were then tested for nitrites and nitrates, but no reaction was obtained in either case. To make sure that the absence of the reaction was not due to any interference caused by the presence of the peat or the chemicals, a fresh portion of liquid was taken from each of the bottles, enough nitrate of potash to amount to 0-001 gram of N,O, was added, and the test for nitrites and nitrates was applied in the usual way: reactions were now obtained immediately in every instance. : : In the light of the facts observed by Schldsing, the natural inference from the results of these experiments is that the for- mation of nitrates or nitrites in bottles Nos. 7 to 10 of the first series of experiments was due to the presence of living organ- isms which the peat had harbored, and that the absence of nitrification in the other series of experiments is to be attrib- uted to the destruction of the ferment-germs by the hot acid with which the peat employed in these gh one had been treated. It is to be observed, moreover, that the formation of nitrogen oxides in the bottles Nos. 7 to 10 is in nowise out 0 448 F. H. Storer—Ferment-theory of Nitrification. accord with the important fact observed by Warington, that darkness* is essential to the action of the nitrifying germs, for although my bottles were not shielded from cise’ Gay hans the mixtures of peat and water which the tained were practically dark-colored muds, not ill-fitted to Moles the germs from the light. It is possible of course that the colder weather which pre- vailed during the later trials may have had an influence upon their results; but if this be so, the fact must be counted as an additional argument in favor of the ferment-theory. More- that is needed to induce nitrification, the heating of the liquids by day in the third series of experiments would have been suf- he ie though both the strong heat and the cooling of the nies would have tended to prevent the growth of ee organism the Coca of the ferment-theory, it would have been well to control the meen: ew above given by trials with mixtures of the purified peat and carbonate of lime, for peat ich has been treated ah muriatic acid has always a slight wed reaction, due I suppose to free humic acid, no matter how thoroughly it may have been washed with water, and it is to be supposed that this acid peat, devoid withal of phosphatic and other saline matters, is not favorable for the growth of the ferment. But as was said before, my experiments were made to test the oxidizing action of certain chemicals, not to culti- vate living organisms. It may be added that I have not as yet found any evidence * The following statement has a certain interest for analysts as bearing U the stability of dilute solutions of — pps chloride. In February, 187 sy 7a it was noticed by my assistant, Mr. Lewis, solution of ammonium chloride which had been prepared ten or twelve ase previously for use in connection with Nessler’s test, by dissolving the salt at the rate of 3°15 grams to the liter, now gave a strong reaction for nitrites, although f a solutions, made in the same way from like ma gave no reaction. e old solution was con- tained in a glass-stoppered bottle which was about cae filled by it, and it had n kept most of the time in a as cupboard. Acting on the supposition that the change of the ammonium salt to a had been caused by the growth of some fungus in the liquid and that sale fun- gus might pickers be Le at in other bottles in the neighborhood, I a as many different specimens of moulds as could be found growing in the various saline soltions apt kept in in th the laboratory, and, after sliding with pure water, "placed them in a series of half-gallon bottles, into which had been poured from half to ee , i eo Pixie J.W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 449 that solutions of ammonium compounds can be oxidized to nitrites or nitrates by means either of ferric oxide, of black oxide of manganese or of gypsum. I can say with Millon,* that, in spite of all that has been written in favor of the oxida- tion of ammonium by ferric oxide, “I owe it to truth to state that though the most varied attempts have been made to oxi- ize ammonia in the cold (i. e. in the wet way), by peroxide of iron, they have all proved unavailing.” I am indebted to my assistant, Mr. D. S. Lewis, for his care- ful attention to the details of these experiments. Bussey Institution, Jamaica Plain, Mass., April, 1878. Art. LXV.—Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region under the direction of Professor J. W. Powell. Account of work performed during the year 1877. [Concluded from page 358.] was secured. : ) vey, prepared a paper on the tribes of Alaska, and edited other papers on certain tribes of Oregon and Washington Territory. map to accompany his paper, including on it the latest geo- 1 ination from all available sources. His long residence and extended scientific labors in that region pecu- liarly fitted him for the task, and he has made a valuable con- t f The volume also contains a Niskwalli vocabulary with extended rammatic notes, the last great work of the lamented author. n addition to the map above mentioned and prepared by Mr. Dall, a second was made, embracing the western portion of Washington Territory and the northern part of Oregon. The map includes the latest geographic information, and is colored sonian, and turned over to Professor Powell, to be consolidated with materials collected by members of bis corps. - * Chemical News, 1860, ii, 337, from Comptes Rendus. 450 oJ. W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. These papers form a quarto volume of 861 pages, entitled Contributions to North American Ethnology, volume I, the first of a series to be published on this subject. Volume II, relating to the tribes of the eastern portion of Washington Territory and the State of Oregon, was partially prepared for the printer, but it was thought best to withhold its publication until further materials were collected from that region. The third volume of the series has been published. This relates to the Indians of California. Mr. Stephen Powers, of small chieftaincies, speaking diverse languages, and belonging to radically different stocks, and the whole subject was one of Smithsonian Collection are published with those of Mr. Pow- ers. The linguistic portion of the volume was edited by Pro- fessor Powell. sonable progress towards civilization, together with which in _ Many instances their numbers have increased. No final publi- J.W. Powell’s Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 451 cation on the subject has yet been issued, but he has read papers before the Philosophical Society of Washington and other scientific bodies, to invite the attention of ethnologists to the subject. He has also been engaged in preparing the his- tory and bibliography of the Klamath, Chinook, Wayiletpu, Sahaptin, and other families of Oregon, and his papers on this subject will appear in the second volume of Contributions to North American Ethnology. In March last, Mr. Albert S. Gatschet was employed to assist in the study of Indian languages, and during the spring months his time was occupied as an assistant in compiling the bibliog- raphy of the North American languages. During the summer and autumn months he visited a number of tribes in Oregon, for the purpose of collecting vocabularies and grammatic notes. On his way to the field he stopped at Ogden, where he found a tribe of Shoshone Indians, from whom he procured a vocabu- lary of about five hundred words. In Chico, Butte County, California, he stopped one week, to visit the Michépdo Indians, a branch of the Maidu stock, where he collected linguistic material of value. From Chico he pro- ceeded directly to the Klamath Agency, in Southern Oregon, words from Modok Indians visiting Washington and New York, and his work at the Klamath Agency was a continua- tion of such study. Altogether he has collected a vocabulary of about five thousand words, also many sentences and texts on historic and mythologic subjects arranged with interlinear translations. ‘ ; The numerical system of this language 1s quinary,. and the numerals above eleven have incorporat particles giving them a gender or classifying significance, apparently based upon form. The subject and object pronouns are not incorporated in the verb; the personal pronouns differ from the possessive ; and a true relative pronoun exists. An im} rtant character- istic of the language is the use of prefix-particles in nouns and verbs indicating form, and the reduplication of the first sylla- ble, which is usually the radical syllable, for the purpose of showing distribution. It is often equivalent to our plural. It occurs in the singular of adjectives indicating shape and color, in augmentative and diminutive nouns and verbs, 1n iterative and frequentative verbs; and forms the distributive plural of many substantives, adjectives, numerals, verbs and adverbs. From the Klamath Agency, Mr. Gatschet proceeded to the Grande Ronde Agency, in the northwestern part of Oregon. On his way he stopped at Dayton, and made collections of 452 J. W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, Shasta and Umpqua words, from reliable Indians. On the Grande Ronde Agency are found a large number of tribes and remnants of tribes which were collected there after the Oregon war of 1855-6; and with the exception of the Klikatats they are all from Western Oregon. The following is a classification of the linguistic stocks now on this reservation: Tinnéh, Silets, Wayiletpu, Shasta, T’sinuk, Sahaptin, Selish, Modok and Kal- apuya. The Kalapuya once occupied almost the whole extent of the beautiful and fertile Willamette valley, and one branch of this stock, the Yonkalla, even extended into the Umpqua Mr. Gatschet also collected vocabularies and sentences of the spilowing lepguazen. Shoshoni, Achomawi, Shasta, Wintun, W: éssisi, Waska, Klakamas, Mélele, Nestucca, Yamhill, ayuk and Ahantchuyuk. In the collection of all these vocabularies, the “Introduction to the Study of Indian Lan- Ne: prepared for the Smithsonian Institution by Prof. J. W. Powell was us Dr. H. C. Yarrow, U.S. A., now on duty at the Army Medi- cal Museum in Washington, has been engaged during the past year in the collection of material for a monograph on the cus- _ toms and rites practised in the disposal of the dead among the J.W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 453 North American Indians. To aid him in this work, circulars of inquiry have been widely distributed among ethnologists and other scholars throughout North America, and much material has been obtained which will greatly supplement his own ex- tended observations and researches. During the summer some interesting work was done in the examination of the stone graves of Tennessee, and valuable col- - lections were made. Professor Powell has codperated with the Institution in providing for a more thorough examination of the archwology of the islands off the shore of southern Cali- fornia. This exploration was made by Rey. Stephen Bowers, of Indianapolis, Indiana, and his report will be published with the papers of the survey. A small volume, entitled “Introduction to the Study of Indian Languages,” has been prepared. This book is intended for distribution among collectors. In its preparation, Prof. Powell was assisted by Prof. W. D. Whitney, the distinguished philologist of Yale College, in that part relating to the repre- sentation of the sounds of Indian languages. ew prelimi- nary copies have been printed and distributed among gentlemen interested in the study of Indian languages for such addition and emendations as may be suggested preparatory to final pub- lication. A tentative classification of the linguistic families of the Indians of the United States has been prepared. This will It is believed that the labors in this direction will not be void of useful results. was made of the Black Hills of Dakota, by Mr. Walter P. Jenny, with ; honorable Secretary of the Interior. On the return of the the spread of civilization over a region inhabited by savages. geographical and geological report was unfinished at that time. This fi work a left in the hands of Mr. Henry A. New- ton, his geological assistant, to be completed. On May 28th, 1877, at the request of Mr. Newton, the completion of the 454 J.W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. should visit the field again for the purpose of determining certain doubtful points in the geological structure, and to in- sert on the maps the position of the several towns and roads established in that region since the discovery of gold, and Mr. ewton was employed for this purpose. He had been in the field but a short time when he was prostrated by the sick- ness which resulted in his death. Previous to his departure he completed his report on the geology of that country, and the po A been placed in the hands of the engraver; the whole embodying all the facts discovered up to that time. Thus, happily, his work will not be lost. It is expected that his report will be published during the present winter, in the shape in which it was left by him. The death of Mr. Newton makes a serious break in the ranks of the younger and more active geologists of America. € possessed rare abilities, had much experience in field opera- ‘ions, and had received thorough and wise training, and his work in other fields had exhibited his ability. But the great work of his short life will doubtless be his report on the geol- ogy of the Black Hills of Dakota. During the past six years one branch of the work of the survey has been considered of paramount importance, namely, the classification of lands and the subjects connected therewith. The object has been to determine the extent of irrigable lands, timber lands, pasturage lands, coal lands and mineral lands. In general the lands that are cultivable only through irrigation are limited by the supply of water. There are some excep- - tions to this. Where streams are found in narrow valleys or run in deep cafions, the limit of agricultural land is determined by the extent of the areas to which the water can be conducted with proper engineering skill. In the study of this subject interesting and important problems have arisen, an many valuable facts have been collected. From the survey of the timber lands one very important fact appears, that the area where standing timber is actually found is very much smaller than the areas where the condi- tions of physical geography are such that timber should be found as a spontaneous growth—that is, the area of timber is but a small fraction of the timber region. The destruction of timber in such regions now found naked, is due to the great fires that so frequently devastate these lands: and the amount of timber taken for economic purposes bears but an exceed- ingly small ratio to the amount so destroyed. Hence the Important problem to be solved is the best method by which these fires can be prevented. J. Rodgers— Observations on the Transit of Mercury. 455 Another subject which has received much attention is the utilization of the pasturage lands; and still another, the best methods of surveying the mineral lands for the purpose of description and identification, that the owners of mines may be relieved of the great burden of litigation to which they are subjected by reason of the inaccurate and expensive methods now in vogue. Arr. LXVL— Observations on the Transit of Mercury. Letter to the Editors from JoHn Rop@ers, Rear Admiral U.5.N., Superintendent of the United States Naval Observatory, dated May 11, 1878. Ir may interest your readers to learn that the transit of Mer- cury, occurring on May 5-6, was very successfully observed at the Naval Observatory, and throughout the country gen- erally. Satisfactory observations of all the contacts were made here, and good observations of the contacts have been reporte from the observers of the United States Coast Survey in Washington, and in different parts of the country. Reports of observations of the contacts have been received from observatories at Cambridge and at Ann Arbor, Professors Pickering and Watson, kindly undertook the work of making i ies: and a set of the instru- photographs was the same as that followed in the case of the transit of Venus. The dry-plate process Was, however, adopted in the present case, in place of the wet-plate process used in the transit of Venus. The great advantage of the dry-plate process, if it can be used successfully, 1s evident. The plates were all prepared here by Mr Joseph A. Rogers ; and seventy-two plates were sent to each of the observatories, where they were exposed and then returned here for develop- ment. The same number of plates were exposed here by Mr. accurately ; and we think they will furnish data for a very exact determination of the latitude and longitude of the planet photographing the transit. These gentlemen report a snow storm during the early part of the day, but clear weather in the’ afternoon, during whvol a good number of photographs was ured. Our experience in photographing transits of planets, and in measuring the photographs, indicates that while the American method is correct in theory, the apparatus needs some change. In order to obtain good measures, the picture should be sharp, and the exposure short. It is probable, therefore, that the reflectors, which now lose about nineteen-twentieths of the light, will have to be changed. _ A comparison of the observations of contact with the eee of the American and English Nautical Almanacs shows that the English Almanac is much nearer the truth. Since the ephemeris of the American Almanac is based on Leverrier’s old theory, and that of the English Almanac on his recent one, the result of the present observations appears to be a confirmation of Leverrier’s theory with respect to an intra- mercurial planet. United States Naval Observatory, Washington. S. P. Langley—Transit of Mercury of May 6th, 1878. 457 4 Art. LXV1L—Transit of Mercury of May 6th, 1878; by S. P. LANGLEY. in their natural colors and relative brightness. I had the fortune, at ingress, of an unusually blue and trans- parent sky, and aided by this, saw with the polarizing eye-piece the entire disc of Mercury outside the sun about one-half a minute before first external contact. Presumably it might have been seen even earlier, had not time been lost in searching for it, through lack of means to designate the precise position- angle, the position filar-micrometer not being adaptable to this eye-piece. After a pause to verify the reality of the phenome- non by revolving the eye-lens, etc., the chronograph key was struck at 21 52m 398-45 Allegheny mean time, to record the observation. As this was really made earlier, and the disc was seen throughout its circumference, it seems clear that the coronal back-ground is bright enough to produce this effect at least fifteen seconds of arc from the solar limb, and in spite of the atmospheric glare. . As a partial substitute for the filar micrometer, there was in the field a glass reticule, ruled (by Prof. Rogers, of hapa in squares whose sides represented here 15°’8, and this enable —not a measurement—but a fair comparison to be made of the apparent size of the planet before and after it entered on the sun. The contrast was striking, as on a back-ground very little brighter than itself its diameter was, if anything, greater than one of the sides of these squares, while as soon as It entered on the sun it seemed to shrink by more than one-fifth of this. First external contact was noted on the chronograph at 21» 52™ 505-48. First internal contact was noted when the sunlight could be seen unmistakably between the disc and limb at 21° 55m 478-95, These entries, 1 believe to have been made in both cases nearly two seconds late. The limb just at second contact, was steady. I saw no “black drop” or “ ligament” As the dise advanced on tbe sun it was closely scrutinized, Without at any time any “bright point” or “annulus” being 458 S. P. Langley—Transit of Mercury of May 6th, 1878. spot nuclei, being gray, slightly inclining toward a blue, like ; t may be that this measurements with a Jamin photometer were unsatisfactory. Subsequently, by another method, a trustworthy value was fixed fora minimum. It was thus found that the light actually received on the paper apparently from the so-called “ black” body of the planet, at any rate exceeded eight per cent of that from direct sunlight, and measures taken by the thermopile and pcpbbveeasn showed that heat was coming from the same irection. * Monthly Notices R. A. S., vol. xxix, p. 26, + I presume that even in absolutely perfect definition there would be theo- - al, ae prety Seen 0. C. Marsh—Notice of a new Fossil Mammal. 459 It is evident, for instance, that from the facts here stated we can estimate, photometrically, the intrinsic brightness of the corona, since it was undoubtedly this, acting as a back-ground, which enabled the planet, though itself involved to a calculable extent in atmospheric glare, to be seen before it reached the solar limb. The observations were interrupted by haze in the afternoon and egress was so nearly invisible that the apparent times of contact are not worth giving. Allegheny Observatory, May 7, 1878. Arr. LXVIIL—Fossil Mammal from the Jurassic of the Rocky Mountains ; by Professor O. C. MaRsH. ONE of the most interesting discoveries made in the Rocky Mountain region is the right lower jaw ot a small mammal recently received at the Yale College Museum. The specime was found in the Atlantosaurus beds of the Upper Jurassic, and the associated fossils are mainly Dinosaurs. This specimen is in fair preservation, althou sh most of the teeth have been broken off in removing it from the rock. The as the corresponding molar of Chironecies variegatus Illiger. The angle of the jaw is imperfect, but there are indications that The principal dimensions of this specimen are as follows: Space occupied by seven posterior tebth cc occl. ico Depth of jaw below last molar -------- -------- “4 Transverse diameter ..------- ---- -------+---- 1°8 Height of crown of penultimate molar... 45+ i Transverse diameter ------------- ---------"-- 15 The present specimen indicates an animal about as large as a weasel. It is of special interest, as hitherto no Jurassic mammals have been found in this country. Yale College, New Haven, May 13, 1878, 460 S. Calvin—Shale at Independence, Towa. Art. LXIX.—On some dark Shale recently discovered below the Devonian Liimestones at Independence, Iowa; with notice of the Fossils at present known to be in it; by S. Canvin, Professor of Geology, State University of Iowa. THE Devonian deposits of Iowa, as now known, may be roughly represented by the annexed diagram, in which 1 indi- cates the position of a member of the 3 | group recently discovered at Independence, consisting of dark argillaceous shales wit 2| some thin beds of impure, concretionary limestone. It has been explored to a depth 1| of twenty or twenty-five feet. No. 2 represents all of what is usually included under the head of the Devonian limestones of Iowa, and is made up largely of limestone with some associated beds of light-colored shales ; estimated thickness, 150 feet. No. 3 isa od of argillaceous shales exposed at and near Rockford, Iowa, and is referred to frequently as the Rockford Shales. It abounds in fossils, and weathers, on exposure, into a stiff clay that has been utilized in the manufacture of brick; observed thickness, seventy feet. Until recently, Nos. 2 and 3 of the above section were sup- pest to make up the entire thickness of Devonian rocks in owa. No. 2 not only varies, as already indicated, in lithologi- cal characters, but the grouping of fossils differs widely in equivalent of the New York Chemung. On the other hand, Dr. C. A. White, Geology of Iowa, 1870, vol. i, p. 187, is of opinion S. Calvin—Shale at Independence, Iowa. 461 x ese, two are not determined and five others are new to science, but the chief interest attaches to certain species that have hitherto been known only from the shales of bed No. 3, near Rockford, Iowa. For the purpose of indicating the relationship of the new shale to the other Devonian deposits of lowa, we shall arrange the specimens in three groups, using my manuscript : ’ era subumbona Hall. II. Species ranging through all the Devonian deposits, and so common to beds 1, 2 and 3: Aérypa reticularis Lin. _ IIL. Species common to beds 1 and 3, but not known to oecur in the intervening limestones: Strophodonta vata, D. Sp., S arcuata Hall, 8. Canace Hall and Whitfield, S. reversa Hall, Am. Jour. Sct.—THIrD Serres, Vou. XV, No. 90.—JuNz, 1878. 31 462 . Joseph Henry. Atrypa hystrix Hall,* and Productus (Productella) dissimitlis Hall. It is an interesting fact that of the twelve determined species, six occur only in the shaly deposits at the opening and close of ‘the Devonian, ac eg rd these deposits are separated by 150 feet of limestones. Only one species is known to from the lower shale into she uriadiend above, and even that appears under a form so altered that specimens from the two beds may be distinguished as readily as if they were distinct the Atrypa reticularis of No. 1, also finds its nearest representa- tive, not in ws limestones immediately above, but in the shales at Roe itions more favorable to them a iy the deposition of the Rockford Shales The intimate felation between the two extremes of the group ean but strengthen the conclusion of Dr. White, that all the Devonian strata of Iowa belong to a single epoch. JosepH Henry, LL.D. Proressor HENRY died, on the thirteenth of May, 1878, at his home in the Smithsonian Institution, Washington City. For over half a century Professor Henry has been one of the remost men of science in the United States ; and his name is well known in all countries where science »: cultivated. He was, it is believed, the last of that band of the older men of science in America, dating from the last century, baving been the associate during his ato of Hare, Silliman, Bache, — and others of the sa epoch. His eminent attain- ts and important niisaweczion early gave him a well earn reputation as an original heresy Later his skill as an * The fo as A. hys ffers conspicuously from the form described in the hte gee Towa, 1858, bos i, part 2, p. 515, under the name ie te ale i is last form is very abundant in tl Independence Shale are The specimens cal with | the form presented by this pening in the Rockford s one For eoomondian of nnual Report of Board this specific name to this special form. see Tw: of Regents on New York Stato Cabinet, p Hr gesepere Joseph Henry. 463 administrator of great public trusts in the interests of science, and his rare personal qualities, made him universally respected and beloved. His noble presence and cultivated bearing were always conspicuous, however distinguished the pate about him, and manifested truly the high morale which him a dignity rarely equalled. His genial reo not Jenminghed with a certain reserve, will never be fo n by those who enjoyed his friendship or came into familiar wai with him. Fortunately, a fine portrait painted quite recently, by order of the trustees of the Smithsonian Institution, will eon his well known features and render them familiar to posteri Professor Henry was born December 17, 1797, at AToahy New York, where also much of his early life was “passed, e had at first the advantages of only a commo ool educa- tion; later, after two years of work asa aaiieres he came under the training of the Albany Academy, where he developed ree of mathematical talent which, in 1826, led to his Selection for the duties of instructor in mathematics in that institution. Prior to this, having had some experience in the which A tieaect was ‘saa ted as the radix—a contrivance which is hardly known, even by name, to the present genera- tion of chemists. Thus, while Professor Henry’s original con- tributions. to science were chiefly physical, his first scientific work was in the department of chemistry. His work with Dr. Beck enabled him, after his removal to Princeton—where he became Professor of Natural Philosophy in 1832,—to take up the duties of the chemist, Dr. John Torrey, when that well known teacher was disabled for a time by ill h It was in the interval, between 1828 and 1837, wen the most important work of his life was accomplished in the line of strictly scientific research. These results are chiefly reco in the Transactions of the sen Institute, the volumes of this Journal for the period, and the Transactions of the Ameri- can y Heian a His ci : Gaiaiatigne to Electricity and collected in a separate volume in 1839. The aanlyein of shone important reseitreies; and the >isdustior 464 Joseph Henry. of the questions of priority connected with them, will be the duty of the academician to whom shall be assigned the prepara- tion of a memoir or eulogy of the distinguished author. Without assigning dates we give the following brief enume- ration of his memoirs and discoveries, taken from a communi- Witt, the organization of the meteorological system of the State of New York. . The development, for the first time, of magnetic power, sufficient to sustain tons in weight, in soft iron, by a compara- tively feeble galvanic current. -he first application of electro-magnetism as a power, to produce continued motion in a machine. . An exposition of the method by which electro-magnetism might be employed in transmitting power to a distance, and the demonstration of the practicability of an electro-magnetic tele- graph, which, without these discoveries, was impossible. 6. The discovery of the induction of an electrical current in a long wire upon itself, or the means of increasing the intensity of a current by the use of a spiral conductor. . The method of inducing a current of quantity from one of intensity, and vice versa. 8. The discovery of currents of induction of different orders, and of the neutralization of the induction by the interposition of plates of metal. ; substances. 12. Investigations on molecular attraction, as exhibited in liquids, and in yielding and i _the theory of soap bak bak = called upon to investigate the causes of the bursting of the great gun on the United States Steamer Princeton.] EGE eat ce Nor + 9 ot eer 4 Joseph Henry. A465 13. Original experiments on and exposition of the principles of acoustics, as applied to churches and other public buildings 14. Experiments on various instruments to be used as fog signals. 5. A series of experiments on various illuminating materials for light-house use, and the introduction of lard oil for lighting the coasts of the United States. This and the preceding in his office of Chairman of the Committee on Experiments of the Light-House Board. 16. Experiments on heat, in which the radiation from clouds and animals in distant fields was indicated by the thermo-elec- trical apparatus applied to a reflecting telescope. 17. Observations on the comparative temperature of the sun- spots, and also of different portions of the sun’s disk. thes experiments he was assisted by Professor Alexander. 18. Proof that the radiant heat from a feebly luminous flame is also feeble, and that the increase of radiant light, by the in- troduction of a solid substance into the flame of the compound lowpipe, is accompanied with an equivalent radiation of heat, and also that the increase of light and radiant heat in a flame of hydrogen, by the introduction of a solid substance, is attended with a diminution in the heating power of the flame itse] 19. The reflection of heat from coneave mirrors of ice, and its application to the source of the heat derived from the moon. 0. Observations in connection with Professor Alexander, on the red flames on the border of the sun, as observed in the annular eclipse of 1838. Experiments on the phosphorogenic ray of the sun, from which it is shown that this emanation is polarizable and refran- gible, according to the same laws which govern light. to the philosophical hall in the attic, on which was screwed firmly a rude imitation of a fiddle at the top near the ceili while to the other end negro Sam bad a real fiddle attach 466 Joseph Henry. Ona bell signal from the Professor, Sam would saw away with his bow in the cellar, the Professor calling the attention of the class to the weird music his fiddle discoursed in the lecture- room. On these occasions Professor Henr always remarked To the above enumerated papers should be added an impor- tant series of communications, made chiefly to the National Academy of Sciences during the past four or five years, upon the laws of acoustics as developed in the course of investiga- fog-signals. These investigations have been carried forward close personal attention during many weeks of each season. ? of electricity, as exhibited in the thunder-storm. _ Professor Henry remained at Princeton, in the chair of Nat- ural phectiag sa until his removal to Washington in 1846, to e duties of Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu- Favored by nature with a vigorous constitution, he enjoy ed __ through his long life. almost uninterrupted good health. His cial labor which fell to his share as the head of the Smithson- ian Institution ; of the Light-House Board; of the National oe Fo Bl ee ee eae ot = eel ter, ie et eae |) Ty ts - Chances of investinents, Joseph Henry. 467 Academy of Science; and as the adviser of the Government in matters of science. It was while engaged in discharge of certain experimental work on Staten Island last December, connected with the pho- tometric laboratory of the Light-House Board, that he experi- enced a partial paralysis, which yielded soon to treatment, but was doubtless the precursor of the nephritic attack to which he succumbed, In April he presided at the opening meeting of the session of the National Academy of Sciences held in the rooms of the Secretary of the Smithsonian, and submitted an address to his associates, read by the Home Secretary, recounting with touching simplicity his recent decline of power, and express- ing his desire to be relieved from the cares of the office of Pres- ident. Asa mark of affectionate respect, the Academy unan- imously requested him to retain this post during his life—leay- ing the duties to be discharged by the Vice-President. It was on this occasion that the announcement was made to the Acad- emy, by Professor Henry, and, subsequently, in fuller details, by Professor Fairman Rogers, the Treasurer, of the creation of an endowment to be called “the Joseph Henry fund.” This fand consists of forty thousand dollars, securely invested, the income of which is for the support of Professor Henry and that of his family, during the life of the latest survivor. Afterwards the fund is to be transferred, in trust, to the National Academy of Sciences, the income to be forever devoted to scientific research. No more graceful and well-merited tribute of respect and affec- tion was ever bestowed upon a man of science, by the sponta- neous offerings of personal friends and associates. Alas! that affairs at the seat of government. By force of his earnest determination that the will of the Testator should be carried is large t original fand paid over to the United States. The policy upon 468 Letter from B. A. Gould. reports. That this long period of activity, over thirty years, devoted so largely to work almost purely administrative, was a Severe tax upon a man of Professor Henry’s great productive power and ability in original research can hard] y be questioned. On the other hand, it rarely falls to the lot of any man of science to do so much for the best interests of the entire body of scientific workers, or to succeed so well in securing respect and methods. This is conspicuous in many ways in the his- its guidance. rofessor Henry leaves a wife and three unmarried daughters, who have been assiduous helpers in the scientific work of their father, making good to a degree the loss of an only son, whose death in early manhood, was a sad disappointment of parental va and youthful promise. rofessor Henry was buried May 16th, in the Rock Creek governmental explorations during the past twenty years, under d Cemetery, near Georgetown, D. C. The President of the United States, the cabinet officers, diplomatic corps and mem- of Congress and of the Natioual Academy, were among the mourners. B. 8. Art. LXXI.—Letter to the Editors from Dr. B. A. Gout, of the Cordoba Observatory, dated Cordoba, March 20, 1878. I Ave before me the first part of three different letters to you, which I have begun during the last eighteen months, but the ceaseless pressure of labor in collecting and arranging materials during this interval has left little opportunity for elaborating, and _ tions are ‘Tned. the part which remains is but the computa- Hon and publication of these results, and is going forward _ Fapidly as the nature of the case permits. ‘ Letter from B. A. Gould. 469 Meteorological Office, is already printed—the only one yet pub- ies—and results to which I allude, and which are there discussed in detail. e difficulties which have attended previous be in other places, Bu ires. the wind, and deducting its effects from the mean tem hi of the sun-spot so closely as scarcely to leave a ing more to be d the 470 Letter from B. A. Gould. Thus if we denote by 7 the relative number corresponding to the mean s inpeniarcs as observed, to have been 16°°47 in 1870, and 17°°51 in 1875, while those which result from the formula are 16° shee sae 17°49 memset. The difference 0°°16 for the first and the excessive deflection of the mean direction of the wind in 1870 afford what seems to me a sufficient explanation of the rela- tive largeness of the residual. It is manifest that if the variations of the terrestrial tempera- d ndence observed bet variations of the magnetic declination, all necessity for assuming any direct and transcendental o-eimeti wid gti this latter and It is a source of regret that 1 have oot at disposal here any i nn me t which the investigation may be made, viz: Bahia Blanca, just to the north of the Patagonian coast, and this I intend to investigate as soon as time and gc ascercvee rai or in other in that component of the mean annual direction belonine is spepeodionias to the meridian. Se ag conan without — fon. periods are respectively a quart er saa the third part rt of pee elr existence 2 es Wg and yet more “marked cycle shows itself in ate frequency of the storms, which are so well known and charac teristic of the La Plata. Whether we consider the annual num- ber of winds of force five, or six, or seven and ut wards, or the mean supnal. force, the same result manifests itself, viz: a periodic Letter from B. A. Gould. 471 ears, The form of the corresponding curve is such to that comprised in the series of observations, that we fixed with accuracy. But I am inelined to ~_— it will be found not to differ much from twenty-two years, n which event we have still another case of near commensura- bility with the mean period of the sun-spots. s regards the astronomical work there is little to communicate as yet. The Uranometry is not yet egies and Iam fea that it was a mistake to undertake the printing in this lien. ell ele remedy these difficulties, but it is of course at_ much expense of ergy: Th drawings having been obviated by the skill and assiduity of the hotolithugrapher, Mr. ere Bien of New York. My first assistant, Mr. John M. Thome, to whom more than to any other is ue w at accuracy the iereaniastons of magnitude may possess attended to the proofs. He returned a few weeks since, bringing with him some advanced copies, with which I am quite satisfied. The Atlas consists of thirteen charts, on the scale of a globe of is added a fourteenth as a sort of a Index-Map, to show the limits of the individual charts, the course of the Milky Way, and the general distribution of the stars. _ is sbi a Se course comprises ing as those between the meri dina ns of right ascension increase, The configurations are necessarily distorted, but the degree of aggregation of the stars is correctly given. S- As mentioned in former letters I have ventured upon rather a eo bold reformation of the boundaries of the constellations, whieh I ae earnestly hope may find approval with astronomers gene rally. Wherever possible, meridians and parallels (equinox of ght 2 have been employed as boun lines, and in other circles so far as might well be. Yet the principle has been i lously followed that no important star, and none habitually designated by a Greek letter, should be t ransferred to a different constellation. By aslight sacrifice of this principle the symme | of the adopted boundaries might have been essentially increas = yet I have preferred to err upon what the safe side, : The text will be in English as well as se 05 but the Latin names of the constellations have been n preserv e only basis for international accordance in nomenclature. SOUS aceecpep pare MAU oe eee tars 472 Scientific Intelligence. to have been felt in neither instance by persons in this vicinity. ne of these cases was at the time of the great earthquake which destroyed the town of Iquique, and produced so much destruc- tion along the coast of Peru, Bolivia and Northern Chile. The other was at the time of the severe mene ka ae ndoza. The moments at Cordoba were of course very ot ately given by the clock itself, and accounts caneally obt eae from the points of chief disturbance give the same result as former on occasions, viz: that the interval of time re se the manifesta- tions at these Siri and at Cordoba was less than the snare of the watches. This you may remember was the case sa when the shock was eee y felt in Cordoba, althou zh the tele nly a da two previous, and the time as shown the dial agreed with that Ww WW can be measured without special preparation and sani seren SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. J. CHEMISTRY AND PHysIcs. 1. The sion of the Solid Elements a Function of their ctiong weight. “since all gases, ve similar physical conditions, contain in saat umes the same number of molecules, they must ‘al have the “ists coeificising of expansion, because this eir atomic weights. The quotient of the density of any such postmen referred to water as unity, divided by its atomic vee e gives the space occupied by one atom of that element. If ratio if this value be the Seetoat of expansion be obtained, ing re S appear, as is shown in tabular form for some s§! twenty-six solid Savahita: In the first column the symbols are en, in the second the density, i in the pitt the ig thee So in the fourth the expansion-coefficient expressed in parts im hundred million at 40° C., and i in the fifth ie ratio of this to thé to atomic Vouk Thes se Saouite coefficients often | iw Simple relizotis for seca Be allied elements; thus the value is Chemistry and Physics. 473 the same for iron, cobalt and nickel, the numbers for arsenic, anti-» mony an ismuth areas 1:3: 4, those for zinc and cadmium as 2: 3, ete; If shaob coeflicients be regarded from the stand point of Lothar Meyer’s law of the periodicity of the properties of the ele- ments, and be graphically represented as a function of the atomic weight, they give a curve similar to that of the atomic volume, in which members of natural families have an analogous position. Hence the author concludes that the absolute expansion of the atom is a periodic function of its atomic weight.— Ber gyorg hem. os xi, — April, 1878, . Bs ‘0 ew Metal, Gallium.—In connection wish Jou aaa oc DE BoisBaupRAN, the —— of gallium, has worked up the residues obt ained from 4,300 kilograms of the Bensberg zine blende, to obtain more e of the hew metal. blende was first pulveriaed and varie roasted, the product treated te times, the spectroscope ing — to detect the metal, In this way, the gallium became concentrated in a residue weigh- ing 100 kilograms. ‘This was dissolved in sulphuric acid, purified with hydrogen sulphide, and treated with ammonium acetate, the 25 being continued. ‘The zinc sulphide thus precipitated, carried o . . ram, Purified ae vd of gal aa a cloth, agitating with ee and ak oe tt whe obtained as a hard, a latinum wire havi oe a bit of solid eee on ne Pe pers shag erystals are obtained, their summits modified by the basal planes. Gallium leaves a bluish y mark on paper, is perma- gra nent in the air, remains brilliant even in boiling water, but tarnishes slightly in aerated water. In fusion it is white like tin or silver, but becomes blue-green on solidifying. Chlorine attacks it readily, evolving inion heat and producing a well crystallized, 474 Scientific Intelligence. very fusible and — — 0 a pure and deli- quescent. Bromine acts less pow y, giving rise to a white bromide, and iodine a white ibdide, both of iiich resemble the chloride. The atomic weight the authors determined to be 69° 9. Durr, —— received a portion of the metal, has undertaken : and to be covered with a bluish gray ellicke, At a bright red, this pellicle is thicker, a feeble sublimate being formed. Treat ed with strong nitric acid at 40° or 50° , it dissolves ; and the solution heated to 110°, loses nitric acid. Redissolved in water, evaporated to a 63°8 per cent in weight, thus proving it to be a nitrate of the sesquioxide, At a higher temperature the nitrate melts, decom- ite fri ermangan. nee is ioc baby a rata salt ; a view a euieiet y the fact fe it does not form an ammonium alum as does the sesquioxide sulphate. At a bright red heat, ae nae sre reduces a = n of the oxide to the metallic state—C. F., lxx —_ wi 577, 720, 756, Feb., March, 1878. 3. On Dime eth yl-ethylene, bape | Butylene.—The aa ie of co , as is well known, is a mixture in variable proportions of active or aiiviiecthyEStiiyt alcohol ch | CH—HH, OH and inactive or isopropyl-ethyl alcohol cH Le CH—CH, —CH, OH. Dehydrated by zine chloride in the ordinary way, it furnishes an “cea re consisting of four different bodies: two soluble in peed woid dil uted — = its volume of water, e this tied the ordinary process by placing the zinc oe about 500 grams, in ee spacious metal 4 a — it in a gas furnace to full fusion an d running in a thin stream of amyl alcohol, the “— a ina pind worm. The amylene on ‘product, boiled between 35° and 38°, re com- arias aioe by bromine, and with the exception of 3 or 4 per cent, consisted of isopropyl-ethylene / CH, * | CH- CH=CH,, pro- duced from the corresponding aleohol. The associated ethyl methyl-ethy! alcohol as well as the admixed propyl and butyl aleohols came over sierra Bat small sceminiases of a deg? , diamylene only being isolated. Chemistry and Physics. 475 Wishing to try this method with butyl alcohol, in order to obtain normal butylene, Lx Bet and Greene allowe d this alcohol C mixed with traces of OH Br CBr. 8 No ethyl-vinyl was formed in the reaction. Treated with sodium the reaction was violent, and the products collected in hydriodic acid yielded 25 secondary butyl iodide, CH ,—CHI-~ CH, —CH,, thus prov- two normal butylenes, i. e., those in which the carbon atoms are united to no more than two others; one of these is ethyl- vinyl, CH,~CH, —CH=CH, vee the other dimethyl-ethylene CH, _CH=CH= ~CH ,. Upon e hypothesis. that in es with a hydracid, the hydrogen ov the haloid play the as the hydrogen in the saturated molecule and hence theta all the hydrogen atoms attached to the same carbon atom have the same value, both these bodies should yield the same hydriodate CH, —CH, —CHI—CH, ; while if the hydrogen of the HI hoe a different value, the two hydriodic compounds will be isomeric. Preparing carefully the two bodies the ey were found to be identical in properties, both boiling at 118°-121", and both yielding a buty- lene by the action of ete potash which gave a bromide dis- oo einer ee d 160°.—C. &., Ixxxvi, 488, Feb. ; spas Soe. Ch., Tl, xxix, 306, ‘Apri; 1878. jo Chemie al P-Composistin of Oil of Tansy and Oil of wale —Bruytants has submitted to proximate analysis the oils of cay and of valerian The former is a mobile yellow liquid, of sp. gr. 0°923 at 15°, begins to boil at 192° and distils Panel. between 194° and 207°, the thermometer rising finally to 270°-280 leaving a resinous mass about a tenth of the whole. Treated to which the vapor roti 5°07 corresponds; it is thus an isomer urel cam re y t iw action mt the acu hydride ahead Ss a Ort s20 by abstraction of H,0, it gives eym roHdia, by action of —, chloride, tanacetene dichloride, "tanacetene mniancblotdenad cymene, and with ammo- 476 Scientific Intelligence. nio-silver nitrate it gives the sages characteristic of an aldehyde, Oxidized with chromic acid i t gives acetic and propionic acids, with a it — ca mpborie acid. The eee. of the oil not pght. 7. GHO,, C,H, .C,H,0,; Croll Cs H eGaant (t) ethyl: borneol oxide, C, Hy .O.C, tha — Ber. Be ri. Chem. . 449, March, 1878 Panereatie est N has succeeded by the pion of the pean ine ferment u ve eo blood fibrin, in preparing hyp xanthin an ably also xanthin itself. ormer has easiest: mes as a ee of putrefaction hitherto.— Ber. ek Chom hem. Ges., xi, 574, April, 1878, eB 8. The present Condition of Sa a Meteorology. —Pataiert, the Director of the observatory upon Vesuvius, has published in the Atti della R. Accad. di Napoli, VII, p. 1-20, 1877, a resume of his observations upon the electricity of the air, which he has conducted during the past twenty-seven years e also gives a description of the apparatus which he has found best suited to his purpose. The electrometer resembles, at first sight, that of Dell- man; it differs, however, essentially from the latter. The suspen- sion of the needle is bifilar and the repulsion between the fixed arm and the needle is not due to the repulsion of two bodies charged by conduction to the same amount, but is the result of induced cha by means of a minnaa The chief peculiarity of the conductor consists in this, that it ends in a plate twenty-seven centimeters in diameter, and the connection with the electrometer is broken just : as the conductor reaches the limit of the height to which it is raised, which is about 1°5 meters, : ith feeble electrical condition the first swing of the needle is the double of its final deflection. With large differences of potential the fall ¢ of deflection is less. This diminution of indica- sean electroscope an The ada ‘lieve that Chemistry and Physics. 477 air over the apparatus. Si a ohana upon the observatory of the University and at t odimonte in Naples, also at the observatory upon Vesuvius. ge mse distant observa- tions upon the little St. Bernard and in Moncalieri have impressed the author with the belief that with dry clear air, in which the pe eeten of + electricity is regular, the strength of the influ- nee diminishes with increasing height.—Beibldtter Physik und ‘Chemie, vol. ii, no. 3, i 5. us 10. Floating Magnet —Nature, for May 2, contains a 3 Sir William homens son, in which he observes that Professor a a: iootog: sonata ee Professor A. M. Mayzr. (From a ag er to the Editors, dated South Orange, New Jersey, ay 21, 1878.)—I was much gratified to cate that my experi- interes covered a week or agi apr I sent you the Aes note shuns these experiments, published on page 276. These laws are as follows: the configurations of the floating magnets - divided es prim- ary, secondary, pares quaternary, etc., classes, and the con- figurati ons of one class form the ” nuclei to th following are the primary configurations : Am, Jour. 8c1.—Taimp = ey Vou. XV, No. 90.—Junz, 1878. 478 Scientific Intelligence. The configuration found of 9 magnets begins the secondaries ; and this configuration has 2 for its nucleus. The secondaries have for nuclei the stable primaries, i. e. pachlaesedcts numbered 2, 3, 4, 5a, 6a, 7 and 8a. The tertiaries have the secondaries for nuclei ; the quaternaries, the tertiaries, ete. the configuration be made with the superposed magnet at a constant vertical oe it will be a — _— the same II. Grotocy anp MINERALOGY. 1. Supplement to the Second Edition of Acadian Geology ; by J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S. 102 pp.*—This publication con- tains the new matter added to the third edition of “Acadian Geology,” just issued ; and which is published separately in this form for o~ _— of those who alre ady possess the second edi- tion. It reviews the new facts which have been discovered in the Maritime Peesurs of the Dominion of Canada since 1868. ginning with the later deposits, the author endeavors to vindicate by new facts his former conclusion that the cold of the Glacial eae was not connected with a a glacier, but with ocal glaciers on the higher lands and ice-drif ft by Arctic currents over the plains, then en weee se nee the Post-pliocene deposits as follows, in ascending ord (a.) Peaty sevréetriat surface schcnee = bowlder clay. ‘a Lower stratified gravels and sands. {e. stare elay and neater sands with bowlders. Fauna, present, extremel (d.) kiwis] Austins laclay, witha se Eon number of nthe oe Arctic shells, such as are now found only in perm tly ice-laden (e.) Upper indd clay and sand, or ada: ron Oe holding many ote or boreal shells similar to those of the Labrador few littoral shells, of bore After some notice of the Trias, aksemabety developed in Prince Edward Island, where it has afforded the remains of one Dinosau- rian Reptile. and several land plants, and which in Western Nova Scotia is so remarkable for its great. a beds, a large spac is devoted to the Carboniferous, and more especially to the recog- ‘nition of an Upper “ Permo-carboniferous ” or perhaps truly Per- * New York: Van Nostrand. We are indebted for this notice to Dr. Dawson, the author of the work. tp (f-) demic: sand and gravel, send ee or with a r Acadian types. Geology and Mineralogy. 479 mian member, pent rh Ppa vl of red sandstones, and hold- ing a somewha t p ora akin to that of the Lower Permian of Europe. Deta ‘ls sate illustrations are also given of new s of Batrachians, Fishes, Insects, and Crustaceans, recently discov- ered, and an ana ysis. and comparison with other countries, is made of the remarkable develupment of the Lower Carboniferous series of Nova Scotia and New Brunswic After a short notice of the Devonian, which, in the region re- ferred to, is chiefly remarkable for its rich flora, in the main: dis- tinct from that of the Lower Carborniferous, and now numberin 125 described species, the author proceeds to discuss the diffioul ties attending the study of the Silurian and Cambrian formations, in a region where they are much disturbed and a and asso- ciated with igneous beds of very varied character. On this sub- ject he remarks: “In the Acadian Provinces, as in some other parts of Eastern America, the great igneous outbursts, evidenced by the masses and dykes of granite which cut the Lower Devonian rocks, make a strong line of distinction between the later and older Paleozoic. here of these series are also , often very irregular in tribution, and there is little to distinguish mire from each pare — when their ages ma circum- ANCES 0) many y difficulties to the élshaifieation of all the pre- Decmiae rocks of Nova Scotia a and New Brunswick, difficulties as et very imperfectly overcome.” I 4 tig seemomar and in Eastern Maine, it appears that the me es Upper Silurian rocks are capped by felsites, chloritic schists and agglomerates of great berctagin- me having an aspect not unlike that of the older ioe while in _— Nova Scotia bag rocks appear arg hana the st 4 Siluria all the ai - en the Low eects Silurian pe seems om ego been alncunseaied by tbs of similar a7 ‘ 480 Scientific Intelligence. capic rocks, constituting, with a series of avenge metalliferous slates, the “ Cobequid group” of the author, and resembling much more the Skiddaw and Borrowdale formations of the English geologists, than the contemporaneous Lower Silurian groups o inland America. There are, however, Leng ee points of resem- blance sti these paculinn Silurian rocks o cadia Provinces and those of New England, saat her. constitute a re- uuilcabie’ ius of the difference that may obtain in contem- poraneous deposits belonging to areas of quiet aqueous sedimenta- and of igneous activity. They show very clearly how unsafe it may be, without proper whi ie to apply the geological types of one area to those of anot Below these peculiar Silurian rocks, are thick deposits of Cam- brian age, on the whole less modified by con temporaneous igneous —. and in some places richly poor me In Cape Breton ere have recently been recognized fossils indicating Carebrian horizon, resembling that of the ‘English i hos Below this is the Acadian series, so rich in Conoe and other forms of the Menevian type, é tage © of Barrande. Still lower, , according to the author, are the quartzites on these points, and references to the field geologists who have been working them out, will be found in the publication itself. 2. Recherches expérimentales cassures qui traversent Pécorce terrestre, particulidrement celles ui sont connues pour les noms de joints et et de failles par M. Daverke. (Comptes Rendus, lxxxvi, 1878).—M. Daubrée, whose experiments relative to meteor- ites were re toina recent number of this Journal (vol. xiv, occurrence in rock-mai iomets, ‘gee eraser Se e — hist he was as sions a plate aes bstance 2 form ned an ae “producing facture pitbcansc honk eet as 20°. The Sar wesliy see Goistiok caets pine oree ont 90 cm. a Geology and Mineralogy. 481 fissures w races on the er surfaces of the plate were approximately parallel; there were often two conjugate series of hese fissures, crossing one ano at an angle varying from 90° to 70°, or less, the fissure-surfaces, there were also a small number of other planes represents a pla te which has been subje cted to the torsion. = > i = an, Ss = = = —Se ~N . ‘~ J The above results obtained by the torsion or twisting of a plate of ice are shown by M. Daubrée to be closely analogous to the phenomena of faults and joints observed in rock-masses. There is the same approximate parallelism among them; and this is true been submitted, torsion is one wh a part in connection with the production of faults gg ee P te ! i which has played a prominent 3. Notice of a fourth new Phosphate from onnecti y Gro e mineral is salmon-colored and proved on examination to be a phosphate analogous to triphylite in composition. It occurs 482 Scientific Intellagence. immediately associated with spodumene and albite and a mineral resembling Shepard’s cymatolite. It has _ omnes a bright salmon color and a sub-resinous luster. Hardness =4. Specific gravity —3°424. B.B. fuses at 1 to 1°5 acpi the flame bright lithia red, with streaks of green, and reacts with the fluxes for iron and mangane se. Analysis by Horace L. Wells proves it to be a phosphate of manganese and lithia — about con per cent of iron, giving the formula LiMnPO, or at We propose to name this new mineral Lithidlite. A full description bok analyses will be given in an early number of this Journ 4. Mineralogische Mittheilungen (Neue Folge); von G. ese Ratu. (From the Zeitschrift fir Rayetallogtaphic, i, 6, 1877.)— Prof. vom Rath describes :—a remarkable compou und crystal. of bournonite, consisting of four individuals, but not a true twin; also some new forms upon calcite erystals of Bergen Hill, New Jersey; and stals of a new mineral, Krennerite. This last mineral, a telluride of gold, was first described by Krenner under the name of “ Bunsenin;” as this name has already been used for another species, vom Rat th, who describes the pap Joram —— . s the name Krennerite after the discoverer. 5. Das Rritebon von Herzogenrath am 24 Juni, 1877: > llins seismologische bare von “te A. vo aero 77 pp. 8vo. Bonn, of P in its s phenomena much similarity with the former one, and it has been investigated in the same careful and systematic manner. As the results of the investigation it is concluded that the point from which the shock went forth was at a depth of 16-85 English miles, and that the Meta of propagation was 17-7 miles per minute, the general direction being southwest and northeast. The occur rence of the eaethatinke is regarded as more or less intima ately connected with the great mountain-fissure—the “ Feldbiss,” vice nof crosses the coal formati the region of the Wurm in a bere nearly normal to its strike. 6. Die Mineralogie von Franz von Kovett. sai edition, 252 pp. veer pa ipzig, 1878. (Friedrich Brandstetter.)—The Min eral pore is neti too well known to need commenda- tion he present edition the article upon the chemical constitution is hd aby has been altered to some extent with refer- ence to the now accepted chemical principles. Ill. Botany AND Zoouoey. Botany and Zoology. 483 the great loss and Wete, of the inhabitants of this province; be it therefore enacte reputation. An apparent justification of this ill odor of the Bar- (among the agriculturists we mean) a be found in this Journal, vol. xlix of the second series, 1870, p. 406. Mr. of Salem, the hare sie: ts: old Province Sara who called our attention to this e barberry had poveanin been widely and pean ys prop- in in the older settlements, during the century or century and a quarter of their 2 ig and it is a to suppose that attempts to exterminate the bushes were not limited to the period of this act’s porate When the nlbanetion of wheat particularly, declined, the farmers, probably, relaxed their efforts against the barberry, and hence may we not account for its pres- ent comparative abundance in the sanais of the older towns, which were near the seaboar I remember, when a boy, of i from largely Essex eastern ne and that the bush appeared as thrifty as any - had ever seen in Essex County. The preamble of this act, per- haps, explains the mystery ; for there is no reason to doubt that the ‘experience’ of the farmers therein mentioned was neither recent nor confined to a few, in 1754, when the ei it neces repre- to It has been suggested that the barberry never Malls damaged the grain-crops of New England, at least to any nota table extent ; but that the settlers, bringing with them from England the PoPy lar fear of it, legislated _upon that. But if so, we pee a curio illustration of the precarious nature of testimony. For be incon: this colonial legislation has passed into history as independent evidence that the barberry did damage grain in New England. 2. Ferns of North America ; by Prof. D. C. Eaton. Parts IV and V, issued together, a up the seagenea to p. 113, and the illustrations to plate 15. All but two of these plates carry a couple of species, and the letter-press grows more copious. Aspidium Nevadenee well fills a plate, and is capitally managed ; it isa new species of the Sierra Nevada, the joint discovery of Mrs. Austin and Mrs. Pulsifer Ames, whose names are rig identified with California botany. Pelivea densa, 0 California (which does well in cultivation), and "Pp. pets seers a 484 _ Serentific Intelligence. species which extends from Peru to Western Texas, make a good plate. The supposed raphides of the upper surface of sate — ota be cystoliths. Cheilanthas viseida of Davenport es of Mr. Lemmon’ : a and C. Clevelandit of Eaton for analysis of both i is wretched. - Ge Dictionnaire de Botanique; par M. H. Bax Pax (Hachett & Co.).—This work has tt sar to the eighth facials; to p. 640, and to near the end of Ca. The affluence of sy tra- tion continu ots 5. Vareas considerado como tai see por A. Exxon: Caracas, pees 1877. 4to.—This is a memorial discourse upon Dr. Varga , pronounced before she Meesiinade Society of the Physical pas Natural Sciences, upon the occasion of the transla- tion of his remains to the —— Pantheon. To this is oie Vargas having b heen ‘suppresse ssed by the present writer, a new ee 8, sera of Ternstremi sgn near ea and cateinn dese Dr. s Tuo: oMSON, the school-mate and associate, in aeaeal and pibsioation on Indian Botany, of Sir Joseph Hooker, son of the distinguished chemist and professor at Glasgow half a century 0, died at London, April 18th, after a long illness. Gardener s Chronicle of April of, gives an appreciative — otice. TV. AsTronomy. 1. Transit of Mercury.—The transit of Mercury was observed at New Haven on ee 6th of May by Messrs. J. J. Skinner, W. F. Beebe and H. The following are the results 0 o tions in Washin on mean time; the phases being those described in the Washington instructions. Clouds prevented observations at some of the contacts. Phase Phase Phase |Diam. Loca- I. IL IIL. glass.| Power. Obs.! tion. dom s:)h mos fh om “22 7 1t [22 7 32 laa 7 42- ‘eink oo fe = - | 5 33 58: | 5 33 48: | 5 33 18° (+6 = Hall. . , Athen. 22 7 loaien 7 sealaa 22 at io s-in,| 180 | B, Aste bee A s. 8. S. | 38 67-8! 6 33 49°8| 6 3a 30-82 ™| 210 | H | Obs Miscellaneous Intelligence. 485 V. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. . The International Geological Congress.—The time for the nine of this Congress in Paris is now finally fixed, by the local committee, for the 29th of August, and the Congress will remain in session about a fortnight. Further details as to organization and place of meeting will soon be made public. Meanwhile, it is announced that from the 20th of August to the 15th of September, the library and reading-rooms of the Geological Society of France, o. 7 rue des ea Se AE I mae will be at the service of subscription of twelve francs, required for each member, may sent to Dr. Bioche, treasurer. Ladies are admitted to the Congress. The local committee add to the above announcement as follows : There is reason to believe that the numerous collections of geology and paleontology (minerals, ir fossils, "apn plans, sections, prepare a special ——_ of them for the use of the Congress. Srerry Hunt, Secretary of the i ranermenany 2. Session of a National Academy of Sciences in A List of papers read before the N asain Academy of. Sciences, at the April session, 1878: Formation and structure of Alacrane Lissa on the Yucatan Bank; by A. AGASsIz. The theory of waterspouts M FERREL. Report on the sabite of abe onal ites of Mate by ASAPH Hau On the relation of loess an d drift to secular disintegration; by R. PUMPELLY. On th central zoo-geographical province of the United States; by A. S PACKARD, J! On an optical ocean-salinometer: by J. E. H Pre’ eliminary report on the deep sea dredgings ‘of pag U.S Coast Survey steame “Blake” during the past winter in the Gulf Stream and the Gulf of Mexico; wt ALEXANDER AGASSIZ. Abrasions on the northwest coast of “tig Sg by George DAVIDSON. On the law of Boyle and Marriotte; by Wi Abstract of a gana on the intersection of circles and the intersection of spheres; by All AMIN ALVORD. ics Biographical memoir of Louis — second part. Relating to his life and Tica; by ARNOLD GUY: Biographical memoir of Jeffrie Wyn by A. S. Paokarp, Jr. On the force of effective gree st action; by WrLiam A. Norton. s on the value of the result obtained for | for the solar parallax from the English telescopic sins ; by C. H. On the ye cbobrae fauna of the Permian period of ergs United States ; by E. D. Cop OPE. : Report o: ee “oxygen in the sun;” oh etd ¥ DRAPER. aoe comparisons of the components of close double stars; by E. ©. ‘On the Aiolionlica of geographical names; by F. V. HaYpDEN. 486 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Characteristics of some of the lower spectral lines; by 8. FE LANGLEY. A new element of the cerium group; vy J. Law WRENCE SMI On Oe pie imary zoo-geographical divisions of the globe nad their relations; by aos LL. Wallace and Mr. Allen on geographical distribution, with special reference to tho niger renege g of the Nearctic region; by Euiiorr Ss. n the re and origin of mountains, with specia ay reference to recent Fass to a nee theory age Josep LECoNT Photometric measures of certain nt faint stars zs satllitos by E. C. PicKERING. Contributions et meteo eorology seprry OT eas ents in ; by GK. E Si he laws saneinad the secant of re hoe Mountain locusts; by ©. V. Supplementary notice on the paper, ‘* Whence came ii inner satellite of Mars,” read at the October session, 1877; by StepHen ALEXANDER. 3. Bulletin of the United States National ccc Department of the Interior. No. 10, Contributions to North American Tchthy- ology, by D. 8. Gorpan. No.2. 120 pp. 8vo, with 45 plates. 4. Payen’s Manual of Industrial Chemistry, vodied by B. H. Pavt. 987 p PP. 8vo, with 698 Pacts in wood. New York, 1878. cid processes. t American methods in te shiney is not a sur rise. The work is still indispensable to all ogres in the industrial chemistry. 5. Smithsonian Institu oe office of Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, left vacant by the decease of Professor Henry, bas been filled by syriiksicneies of Professor S. F. Baird, who has for a lon: ‘hie | e ion of Assistant Secretary, and is eminently fitted for the higher place by his long and ac ctive ms agg se in the affairs of the ongrseers American Association.—The American Association for the Advaniebueae of Science will hold its eo meeting in St. commencing with the third Wednesday in August. Professor Marsh is - President of the Association for the meeting and the ; a Mocks for Mey. Mr. Mallet has a wh to : piey i » Abbot’s paper on page 178 of this volume. a oe ee ee ee eee | A Te ae le Sep a RE ey ge PN DEX FOU V VLC aT A Abbot, H. L., transmission of earth waves, Academy, National, titles at April meet- neat » Sch Minnesota, Bull., 407. Acid, benzoic, i in Srgsne of tinds, 146. boracic , Os, boric, eatibins of, 387. ermal conductivi vity of, 1 Allen, J. A., fossil Passerine on: 381. American Joerne of Mathematics, 406. Na Aiijbotto-arsehite "Woaide, Lea, 319. Ammonium nitrite in combustion, 210. Amylidenamine silver nitrate, Antimony, atomic weight of, Cooke, 41, “biting p point of Leena of, 391. mpounds of, 310. potter hg American, bien ing, eae British, notice of meeting, 48 Atomic waa of the elements, ate. B Beri i, Farag of Botany, 483. um rh a " y spe ieal abstracts, 51, 182, 208 30 386, 472. Barrett, S. coralline limestone of Montague, i. J., 370. men te . de, Acetabularia Mediterranea, 9 APE der Physik : nak Penk Beiknap, G. z. ene oceanic tem- sand of meet- Boisbaudran, gallium, 4 a a Aen nope 54. "Acetabularia M ee 155. £ a J Bacteria, oa of light on, 236. Barberry in New England, 482. Botrydium granulatum, 73. Fern a — non-sexual outgrowths aeons, apie of, 67, 221. ids, range nr it 153. irate of if N. America, Watson, 135. Primulacez, morphology of, 400. Transpiration in plants, 73, 156. | 402. Thuret’s t's garden 153. :; insect-fertilization, 224. Plants, 404. ren we Eee baten from Fair- sare normal, wir Cc vias rsicaigie ys of oxygen, i dak 141. quefaction of acetylene, etc, 142. Caistae S., shale ai t Independence, Towa, Carbon apes action of, 306. ra pace ypt re of antimony, 391. Carll, J. F., oil well records, 315. Berthelot, maximum work,” 143. ED ee vig Bed x spir systems emical notation. Par e Cearnid cleaniias hit a Goeree m of the electric spark, _ persulphuric oxide, 20 i Beryllium, specific heat of, ake ual €. botanical works noticed, Boilers, potetio of marine 380. | Chamberlain, T C, geal Fe. Absa 488 INDEX, Chemical dynamics, 308. heat data, 304 211. pats "ouere ae of varis- R. = new acid ammonium noe ek I3 EW, Glyptodendron, 302. resins, 388. Collins, J. H., Minera eer a0 — Coggia’s, roses =i Norton, eak prize for discovery of, 158. Cook, G. th geol. rep. N. J., 216, 316° Cooke dF. i ah atomic ie of anti chem cal phompiys at haloid compounds of ale 310. chemical and physical notes, 53, 214, 389, Cope, E. Dv rtebrate fossils from New Copeland, Schmit eS a oo 76. Corallin, co: Croll, "T, teSaee’ 8 se ore rac 146. age of the sun, 226, tac North American Plants, 402. D Dall, W. H., nomenclature in zoology and botany, 321. Dana, E. S., new Lag es te Fair- rage unt, = 398, tices, 65, oo 319, 482, Dans, J rg D, swat hoofed pigs, 2 driftless interior of N. Ame oii and region of Wisconsin, 2 as Forms of flowers, 67, 221. PI and light-absorbi Dieulafait. DOERCIE acid, 53, boracic acid, 390. ote A. E., ‘he er eatery 160. Downes, A., effect of li ight on Bacteria, Draper, J. ©, ———— ae A. J., Weisbach’ 's Mechanics, 78. Fluoranthrene, Fe wd apes 394, | E Reign wet . Nov. S, oo 238. of Nov. 4, 1877, of Her: ht aa "Fi 24, "TT, seg Barthquakes, recent Amer ., foe Jewood,2 arth wa s, transmission of, Bt , 180. Eaton, D. "C. botanical noti Ferns 0 Amer., 72, 223, 26, 483, Electric convection, magnetic effect nd, rrents, aie yr Broun, 385. rsteoroleey. resistance, unit of, Rowland, 281, 325, 430 Electro - ~ magnetic absolute measure- ments, 3| Eltekoff, oe eynthess of olefines, 386. " emeeds , oo 2 po $9 9 Geology of the 4oth P * ag n. pu nRticatiaae of, 153. Ethers, at et foraation of, 213. Fairchild, H. L., leaf-scars of Sigillariz, 218. — W. G., botanical notices, 73, 153, Feilden, H. W., quaternary beds of Grin- nell Land, 219, Feistmantel. O0., Geol. Surv. India, 239. Fittig, fluoranthrene, 210 Flame sheen eicigens bey 143. » the telephone an instrument Ford, 8. W., new Primordial fossils, 124. note o e Teeuiclia were 127. Olenellus asaphoides, 129. Brachiopoda, 2ieknes Primordial, 364. Fossil, see GEOLOG Frazer, ?.. war. Tables for the determina- bes ‘of mi on ora eo low speeds, Kimball, G — W. M., growth-rings in exogens, 226. Gallium, 47 Garver, Me * sensation and volition through 2 SURVEYS— New Hampshin e, 149. New Jersey. a 316. Rocky (Powell), 218, 342,407,449. Territories (Hayden), 56, 217, 7, 397. r—— 1ooth Meri dian (Wheeler), 55- 40th Parallel, 316, 396. INDEX. GEO Semel Acadian, 478. Bird, fossil Passerine, Allen, 381. Brachiopoda, forms of Swedish, 364 fi ormations — — of North America, at Fa nue Northwest, Jrving, 313. of Le sagen 61, 254, 406. Falls of the piety Faults and join yee plants rj ‘the re se “Nevada, tae ‘from the Keokuk, Wudllace, 396. Geodes of the Keokuk, pea 366. Glacial eras of Euro ge Ohio, ‘ionpble 302. a. ancient outlet of, 65, ry of, 219. fol tet bt bed Ca ee. i=] ass Russell, 8t% Olenailas asaphotdes, Ford, 129. geology of, Ste- venson, 2 "Sloan fossils in limestone of, a Devonian: Z athus, Ford, 124. Reptiles, new fossil, Marsh, 241, 409. e Leda clay, 2 Siberian sheriee 65. Silurian plants, 149, 219, 302. Solenopleura, new, "For d, ancient outlet of Great be 56. — T., new American Chimeera, 2 Glan, density and light-absorbing Ponce 394, Gravitation, ers Aaayak lak , botanical notices, 67, 151, 219, 221, 318, 40 401, 404, 482. 489 H See H., glacial eras of Europe, Hague. A., descriptive geology, 3 Ohi 35 J, Limestones of the Falls = the 4M., Sapotacese, 4 ‘astings, C. S., , optical caveat of glass, 69, Hausema mona Tt pate cengecs properties of me Hawes, G. W. chloritic formation of the New Haven re regio Hayden, F. V., field work of on 56. publications of expeditions under, 217, 219, 3 atlas of hei 397. Heat, and sidereal, Ki Heil, ss of ret ae 306. Hofmann, ‘ens of east tar, 388, Holden, E. ’s zodiacal light, 231. caecens ical no’ index of works on nebulz, 159. Holmes, E. M., phurmaceutical catalogue, 320. Homann, quercite a pentacid aleohol, 307. Huxley, T. H. , anatomy of invertebrata, rt raeatolan, rorie 145 423. Fad a rmal conductivity of, 147. seo bth Tron, chromic, decomp. of, Smith, 198. drving, R. D., driftless region of North- west, 313. Jsaman, I. J., on trichostema, 224. J Jaffe benzoic acid in birds, 146. annetaz, E., Guide to the Determination sy Kayser, specific heat of air, 55. Kerr, refeetion of polarized light from a magnet, 394. 490 —— A. §&., journal friction at low speed 192. King, C. ee Surv. 40th page 316. Atl 0th Paralle 1, 39 : orks on alge, 74, reaction of ‘ces e acid, Kobell, F. v., Mineralogy, oy ed., 482. Kokscharow, N. v., crystallization of micas, 150. Kramers, phenol and chlorbenzene, 53. L Laboratory notes of Johns Hopkins Uni- versity, 216. Laiblin, constitution of nicotine, 211. ti 7 ammonio-argentic iodide, 379. LeBel, normal butylene, 474. LeConte, J., glycogenic function of the ver, 99, Elements of Geology, 218. Leidy, J, cire of ants, vad Lesquereux, L., Cordaites with flowe 317. Siluria Tertiary urian plants, 149, 219. metric com} Phase gi plants of &. Nevada, te 396. Rood, | Mats, photo! m of net 394. saeates of, 394 icht, analysis of nitro-compounds, Linnean aswel f woe of, 224, — glycogenic function of, LeConie, Loomis, E., contrib. to to meteorology, 1. INDEX. eon J. C., Matter and Motion, 407. —_ ane tg rye nts with floating wed ah formation in north- eastern Towa, Meek, F. B., pa leontology (40th parallel), re Men schutkin , formation of ethers, 213. seven transit of, 455, 457, 484. Merri .) ML etho d of least squares, 79. erz, synthe pet ape acid, 211 Metals, photo-electri c properties of, ae M Mall 83 Meteorology, contributions to, Leo Meteors, Cambridge, Nov. 3, 1877, we ovember, 6. Michelson, velocity o ~ 394. ros ¥ Siberian sie 3 Mine pera ser 482. 150. Anthracite of wei Aig 55 6. Dickinsonite, Brush and Dana, 399. Kosphori . Brush se Peet Guanajuatite t, 2 milite, 318. Meaestiacn, Rath, 48 Lithiolite, Brush sa Duna, 482, Meroxene, 150. Micas, erystalization of, 150. Pyrophosphori Samarskite, N orth Caroling 220. Tantalite, bama, Smith, 203. Tetrahedrite, _ bn’ in: Ieclend; 06 Trpbidive, Denk and Dana, 398. Variscite, cyrstallizati of, Chester, 207. Mitchell, M., Jupiter and-its satellites, 38. | Mizter, W. G., am ylidenamine silver ni- —* 205. Moon, zodiacal — of, 88, 231. Morse, E. S., Sapa se Lingula and shell mounds, 156. National, Bulletin. 486. , just intonation in, Poole, 359. Laff A. P., chemical dynamice, 308. N Nawmann, vapor densities, 208. We <6 Nerves, rate of trausmission through, Magnets. Mayer, 216, 477. 413, usenet: in — Nicholson, H. A., Ancient life-history of _. me pangs irginia, 33 the earth, 315. Marignac, C., chemical notation, 89, i. Nicotine, constitution of, 211- “> 0. C., new species of Ce eratodus, | nee a aed endl pra Nitro-compounds, anal , 306. Nitrogen, direct combustion of, 51. F iP 4%: INDEX. Nitroglycerin, nitrogen i Nordstedt, O , botanical pte ie 225... Norton, W. A +» Coggia’s sencadt 161. Norwegian explo ring expedi 8. 3 Ornith. Club, bulletin rat 158. Nys ’ gin- ena OBITUARY— Becquerel, A. C., 239. arlato Pickering, Dr Charo, 408. gg Mi : Fags eo Ruhikorf N, 160. Secchi, A., 3 — Mrs. Pleasance, 225. mae Thomas, 484. Weddell, H » 225. a cmlonad publ. of, 406. Cordoba, | from, 468. bon ae oxi — of liquid ag iquefaction of, 13 Palmieri, pg 476. Parkman, F., hy “ert of gies, 151. Os ag 8 a Tonlauetel Chemistry, not., 486. Peale, A. C., ancient outlet of Great Salt Peters, C. H. F., a new planet, 208 Letterssun, specie heat of bery lium, 3 386. Phenol, distillation of, 53. 491 Platt, F., and W. G., bituminous coal of - tern rm Pennsylvania, 315. eo H. W., just intonation in music, Prime, F., Jv.. Lower alr fossils, 261, Q Quartz, separation of from mie 305. Quereite a pentacid alcohol, 3 R ‘ammelsberg 2 cs samarskite, 22 Rat Palen "sition Reti uorescence Riban. the sulphides of pstinum Ridgway, R., Ornitho 0th par,)16 ,i18 Rockwood, C. G., recent fies erica quakes, 21. earthquake of Nov. 15, 1877, 238. es ea <2 oe leendieg of = us, 195. of Mercu the 2 tinal ox, 398. m of ‘ Rood, “0. N,, pce compariso: light of different ered 81. emistry, Rosenbusch, H., _ieroscopi hears: fe of rocks, 65 mperatures, 143 ockatibaki J., Botrydium granulatum, 3. A., magnetic effect of elec- tric eronreton, 30. of electrical resistance, 281, “| Royal’ Soctety. address of president, 231. medals o: . Russell, I. C., Triage tap sinets of ew Jersey, 277. Sachs, curarine, 389. 4 , ©. pe miei of a tie hydantoins, 145. gar vires new acid ammonium sul- phates, 13 Sewell, H., mineral caves of Huallanca, Pern, 317 rs, see METEORS. properties of se- . | Shepard, dla mace ie 08. | Shooting Sta lenium, 215. 492 Silliman, B., Joseph Henry, 4 Silver chloride and bromide, len 189. ith ecomposition of chromic : be ee Filicum, 223. Smith, J. fos cay from Alabama, 203. Smithsonian Inst., secretary of, 486. Solar, s oo Soe: Solids, Pati Pee of, 472. es f the electric spar 148. tahl, E., pitti of hens, 155. Bhar, , Schmidt's Nova Cygni, 7 on, J. J., surface Soler of Penn- pivakin, 245. U Pper Devonian rocks of Pett as geological survey of P artes 2 H, ferment. Shao of tie Strasborgher, E., Acetabularia Mediter- ranea, Stur, ee ee Carboniferous plants of Moravia, 398. ona, : new oxide of, 2 Sun, age of, Croll, 226; Kirkwood 291. oe oO ye Beas sudden Sek of, Trouvelot, 3 Telephone, an npetaaes test, 312. woh ype Trouvelot. L, undolaton in the. tail of Sopa s comet, 8 don extinction of a solar protu- ’s zodiacal light, 88. oe f: papaieal notices, 54, 147, 215, 308, 394. e ermak, G., die Glimmergruppe, 1 a, J. flasks opened on the rei the moon Universities in Germany, 237. Up av modified drift in N. Hamp- Uranus, ialliins of, Rodgers, 195. . INDEX. WwW Wadsworth, M. E gain gs of and Pe- trography of Bos echter, atomic weights of the elements, 305. Wallace, S. J., ““Geodes” of the Keokuk formation, 366. fossil wood from the Keoknk. 396. Watson, S., poplars of N. America, 136. Tndex to N. America n botany 400. Weather service, volunteer, 2 cond re ss elec pce. a calor- asurements, 215, Weisbach’s Mechani cs, 78. Wheeler, G. M., gecl. report ¢ of, 55. s, 5 5. Carboniferous and Upper Silurian fossils of gate and Indiana, 398. bleraes = P., paleontology (40th par- Wibbe a sent Tange for two orchids, 153. Wi solids, 472. Wisner, J., influence of light and heat on comer eae = ae nts, 73. Wilson, E. B. id v. B., Mesocarpex, 4 Wood tar, triacid eva of, 3 Ba oes C. R. A., chemi ax Fach 308. Wright, E. P., botanical publications of, 156. Wiiliner, spectrum of the electric spark, 148, x Xanthin-like bodies in digestion, 476. Zéller, ammonium nitrite in combustion, 210. ion of, 320. Pyenogonida, new, now, Wilson, 200. See further under GEOLOG Zulkowsky, constitu cross of aoaliin an