THE AMER. ICAN JOURNAL OF SCLENCE. JAMES D. anv E. S. DANA, anv B. SILLIMAN. ASSOCIATE EDITORS Prorrssors ASA GRAY, JOSIAH P. COOKE, anv JOHN TROWBRIDGE, or Camprines, Proressors H. A. NEWTON anp A. E. VERRILL, or New Haven, Proresson GEORGE F. BARKER, or PatLapELputa. THIRD SERIES. VOL. XIX.—[WHOLE NUMBER, CXIX.] Nos. 109—114. JANUARY TO JUNE, 1880. WITH TWENTY-ONE PLATES. NEW HAVEN, CONN.: J. D. & E. 8. DANA. 1880. Miss90UR! BOTANICAL GARDEN LIBRARY ERRATA. P, 427, 24 noe from foot, for Paris, ha Strasburg. P. 428, 16 lines from top, ‘for Ni iougeot, read Mougeot. lee 488, for J. C. Chanberin, read 'T. C. Chamberlin. * i, Tuttle, Morehouse & Taylor, Printers, New Haven Pe CONTENTS OF VOLUME XIX. NUMBER CIX. Arr. I—Inequalities of the Moon’s Motion . aap by the ieee Oblateness of the Earth; by J. N. Srockwmtt,.-.. ..-- 1 II. ia oe for ; aee Liege Currents ; ILL 0 Til. —&, K. Gilbert Report « on the Geology of the Henry Mountai Fabby ee ee us, 7 IV. Direction ‘Function of the Liver: Disposal o ‘of Waste; ; b Oowen) oc) Sue gee ee V. arpa bas Phenomena; by W. G. Lxvison, -.-...--- 29 VI.—New Forms of Fossil Crustaceans from the Upper De- Saini Rocks of Ohio; by . WHITFIELD, - 33 VII.—Optical Method for the Measurement of High “Temper- atures 5 : 6 ae Ge Sats oh so bmn oie 42 VIIT. 5 Explorations i in the Wappinger Valley Limestone of Dutchess Coun cua Y. Calciferous as well as Trenton Fossils in the inger Limestone at Roch le — Deke locality “ Newburgh, N. Y.; by W. B. Dw 50 IX.—First Results from a new Diffraction Ruling Engine! ty . A. Rocrrs, - ee ok es ee am ee a x, Solar Parallax from the Velocity of Light; by D.P. Topp, 59 XI.—New Characters of Mosasauroid Reptiles ; by O. alia Cee sia GAA Were Ue rs So 83 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—Alloys of Gallium with Aluminum, so apaca 03 Vol- atility of P Platinum i in Chlorine, SEELHEIM, 65.—Preparation of the Acetic ethers of Polyatomic Alcohols, FRANCHIMONT: Relation between Molecular ieabractlve Bettas and Chemica] Constitution, BRUHL, 66.—New method for preparing Hydrobromie and driodie acids, BRUYLANTS: Thermo-chemistry, THOMSEN, 68 — New Standard of Light, ScHwENDLER, 69.—Electrie Light, ScHWENDLER, - —Blectro-magnetic rotation of the Plane of Polarization in Gases, Kunpt and ONTGEN, 71. Geoogy i — History.—Hudson River fossil plant from Maryland, J. P. LEsury, 71. nnsylvania Second Geological sigh 72.—Geological Survey of San Salvador: A Manual of Paleontology, for the use of Students, H. A. NICHOLSON, 73.—Dana’s Manual of Geology: Catalogue of Official Reports upon Geological AMIE F. Prime, 74: Classification and Descriptio = the American Species of Characez, B, D. Haustep: Untersuchungen iiber d likerne der Thallophyten, F. ScuMrrz, "75.—Le Charbon de l'Oignon ordinaire, M. Cornu: Bntwickelongezosehichte einiger Rostpilze, T. ScHROETER: Botanical Necrology the year 1879, 76. Miscstise cs Scientific Intelligence.—Geological Survey of the Public Domain, 78. —A Handbook of Double sng 81.—Double Star Observations made in 1877- 78 at Chicago. 8. W. Burn : Solar — and Heat, Z. ALLEN, 82.— : ~—Professor B. F. Mudge: Feba Johnston, 82 1V . CONTENTS. NUMBER CX. P Arr. XII_—Contributions to Meteorology; by Er1as Loomis, ‘89 XIIL. ace A ee of Achromatic ‘Telescopes ; ; by Wm. Har dee cae —Pinite j in Eastern Massachusetts: ‘its ‘Origin and Geo- logical Relations; by W. O. Cross ~-se--- 116 XV.—Lintonite and other fours of Tiniecke: “by SF. cKHAM and C. W. Ha Jc eae: MUL Wiemsanta of the leit, Dido; by C. H. F. Perers,.. 130 XVII. oe of some American Tantalates; by W. J. Com XVI Method of Ses ‘the’ Reflexion of Sound-Waves, 1 y O. N. Ro ; leiadlie kak XIX.—Newton’s use of the term Indigo with reference to a Color of the Spectrum; by O. N. Roop, -....--------- 135 XIXbis.—Notice of recent Additions to the Marine Fauna of the Eastern Coast of North America; i A. E. a 137 XX.—The Electric Light; by F. E. Nr 1 XXI.—The Limbs of Sauranodon; by O. C. ‘Marsa, SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Physics and Chemistry. oe the air Bh hae Equ ay is not hotter in ag Pest ee ee = * ag Aoi i B, PRESCOTT: Redep: on Assaying and penne Schemes, DE P. Ricketts, 147: Chemical Problem, J. C. en Geology and Mineralogy.—A Manual of the Geology of Ii H. a MED 148.—Note on the Trilobite, Atops Trilineatus of Emmons, S. W. Forp, 152 ~ List of Papers on the Tacon oo ich: stem, J. D. Dana, 153 3.—~The Cave of erZ: bergbau in the oe EB. Reyer: Brachi iopodes, Etudes Locales, J. Ba ~: Geological Survey of Japan, B. S. cig Letheea er ues Jahrbuch fii : Ue S Seber i 5 Petotwekie von H. BAUMH Botany We hictogy: —The Botanical Gazette, 157 ~Adaiton to the Botanical meauhey of 1879: Das Microgonidium, A. "Minxs, 15 —Bulletin of the U. S. otter and Geographical Survey of the Tercitoricn, ¥. V. Haypen: Mit- aus der cae aeons Station zu Neapel: Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative apa, ae . G. Binney: Paleozoic Cockroaches, S. H. SCUDDER: sects. ry Beds, A. iy Soupp: DER, 159, Astronomy.—Secular te nges in the elements of the orbit of a Satellite, G. H. Darwin, 159.—Earthquakes and the Planets, 162—The Problem of the Euripus: The American rSseattiem Pores prema remcrr 1882, 163.— Aurore, their oe ce fee re ah J. R, CAPRO: Miscellaneous Scientific In —U. S. Men sities St vie 164.—The A oyages of Nortenakiole. “165 .—Chart of the Magnetic Declination of “the United States, J. E. Hmearp: Temperature of the Primordial Ocean, R LLET: How icroscope. 8 . Microscopical Journal: School of Mines Quarterly: Catalogue of Diatomacex. F. HaBirRsHaw. ele me 3 on Fuel, R. Gatnoway: Petroleum, ©. A. ASHBURNER, 168, — Obituary.— ALEXANDER SADEBECK, 168. CONTENTS. ". NUMBER CXI. Pa Arr. XXII.—Chart of the Magnetic Declination in the United “3 States, constructed by J. E. Hirearp. With Plate V,. 173 XXII.—The Old River-beds of California; by J. LeConrn, 176 XXI AG oe on the Age of the Green Mountains ; 3 by J. XXV. —Nev ‘Action of the “Magnet o on Electric Currents ; ‘by E. H. Hatt, - ODES SOE ISE sven 200 XXVI. anol of the Polar and Equatorial ‘Diameters of ; by OUN Sa IN a ee 206 XXVII.—Use of the Sgt for the Diurnal Variation of Temperature ; ae : 212 XXVIII. “The Chawies Composition of the Uraninite from Branchville, Conn. ; by W. J. Comsrocn, ..--.-.--.--- 220 one Bis an Free Path of a Miasleede:: ; "by N. D. C. a oe ee XXX, — Western Limits of the Taconic System ; by” S. W. Fite SPO ap hs Si ai POT ouses loo ee XXXL. ~Pvitiaipal ‘Characters of American Jurassic 725 saurs; by O. C. Marsn. With Plates VI to XI, -..... 253 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics. Obie learatay! of bears) vaurOR MEYER: Action of Phosgene gas on om nia, FENTON, 226.— car uoran Pigoatcog Frrnie, 227.—Introducti of yates xyl 1 direct Osidation, I Constitution oF Piorodicciviens: DEMOLE —Archil- febens a California, ESS ermination of Sulphur i i: cae ; re and tical Tre: the Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid and Alkali, G. Lunges, 230.—The Chemistry of Common Life, W. JOHNSTON, 231.—“* Why —Report on Magnetic Determinations in Missouri in the Summer of 1879, F. Nipuer, 234.—-Variations in the Magnetic ar ete at Moncalieri (Piedmont): New Action sso Magnets on Electric Currents, KE. H: Hab, 235. Geology and Mineralogy.—Geology of the Rio Sao a. Brazil, 0. A. DERBY Age of the eagle rocks and Geology of Vermont, E. and ©. H. Hrrcxcock, Pipe Raat “a the Silurian Fossils of the Girvan District in Ayrshire, H. phase and R. ErHeripGs, Jr.: Spodumene and its Alterations, A. A. JULIEN, 2: 37.—Crystals of Wollastonite, O. Root, 239. Zoology.—Fresh-water Rhizopods of North America, J. Lerpy, 240.—Zoology ie Students and General Readers, A. S. PAacKARD, Jr., 244.—Das System der Medusen, E. Hacker, 245,—List of Daidging ne Stati tions, B. Pirroe and ©. P. Patrerson: Ophiuride and A rosin T. Lyman: Cotton Worm, ©. V. , 248. Astronomy.—C atalogue of the Eibrety of the U. S. Naval Observatory, E. 8. HOLDEN Sgr gect an ne “% Cincinnati Observatory: Catalogue of the mean declination of 2018 H, Sar FORD, ae Fa Bc of the Astrono: mical Observatory of Harvard G ites E. C. Picks Scientific Intelligence.—The i tabans Institution, W. J. RaEgs: Erasmus Phirwin, E. KRavse, 250.—Blowpipe Analysis, J. LANDAUER: Ameri- can Journal of Mathematics, J. J. Sy.vester: Narrative of the Polaris, 251.— Bernhard von Cotta Fund: The Naturalist’s ekeerty: New Geological Map of the United States: M. Dumas: Erratum, 252. vi CONTENTS. NUMBER CXT. ART. — —Berthelot’s Thermo-Chemistry ; by J. P. XXXUL- —tistory of some Pre-Cambrian Rocks in America and Kur y T. Srerry Hunt, - G 268 XXXIV. ae mopais of the Cephalopoda of the Northeastern Coast of America; by A. E. Verrtiy ea XXXV.—Notices of Recent American Earthquakes ; : “by C. G. Rockwoon, Jr. outs 295 XXXVI.—Observations on the “Height of Land and Sea Page. Breezes, Senge at Coney Island; by O. T. SuHerman, --- 300 XXXVII.—New Method of Spectrum Observation ; by J. i IGN 2 alee awa ue 303 XXXVI. ——Prekongation of Sonorous: sears acd means of a Revolving Lantern; by Henry Car ee XXXIX oe Compasidiea of Childrenite ; ag fod Pen he Oheertetion, on the Planet Lilaea; by C. H. F. Serpe 317 XLI.—Efficiency of Edison’s Electric Light ; H. A. Rowra and @. F> Vane tay hs) i Si er a SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Physics.—Photographs of Star Spectra, W. Huaeins, Eee Ce: rect measure of the work of Electrical —— ction, A. VON W ALTENHOFEN, —Mechanical Equiva- lent of Heat, Row te Dispersion Photometer, Pat and AYRTON, 319. Geology.—The ae me of the Evidence bearing upon the Question of the Ankity of Man, T. McK. HuGues, 319.—Age of the Brazilian Gneiss Series. ery of Ko: from the Hamilton and Genesee-Shale Divisions of the Devonian, in Canada and the A aimee States, G. J. Hype: Report on the Paleontological Field-work ar sar of 1877, C. A. WuiTE: Cretaceous Fossils of the Western States a ‘Terri Bis Werner: Revision of the Paleocrinoidea, C. WacusmMuTH and F. SPRINGER riptions of New Species of Crinoids from the Kaskaskia Group of the Sel oarhonifarona A. C. WETHERBY, 328. Botany sia —Soluble Matter of Soil retained by Vegetation: Seeds endure ee te Cold, C. DECANDOLLE and R. Prorgr: The Genus Ginkgo, 328.—Floral Development. of Helianthus annuus, W. H. Ginprest: Morphology of Vegetable Tissues, ILBREST: Aroidez: Maximilian, J. PeyritscH, 329.—Natural- ized Weeds and other Plants of South Australia, R. SchompurGK, 330.— Can indian Corn, ty L. SturrEevant: Death of General Munro, 331. —Crustacea 0 Mexico and Central America, A. M. Epwa 332.—U. S. Commission of ap Fisheries: American Fisheries: a History of the Menhaden, G. B, Goo The Clinch Bug, C. THoMAs, 333. Miscellaneous Scienti tific Intelligence.—Vesuvius: The Study of Earthquakes in Silcerlénd. 334.—The “ignite of the Earth, . R. OLaRKE: Metallurgy, the py of extracting metals from their ores, J. Percy, 335.—An historical sketch Henry’s contribution to the Elee tro-magnetic Telegraph, W. B. TAYLOR: Bulletins of United States National Museum, 336.— Obituary.— WILLIAM ee = “er 14. W. N. Milli—Electro-Dynamometer for Large Currents. The weight employed exactly balances the magnetic force. The mode of observing the zero point was not quite. satisfac- tory. It was originally intended to use a vertical wire stop, the pointer-rod to be drawn back until it just touched the wire, but it was found that it was difficult to hit this point exactly. Finally, a scale was marked on the cylinder in front of the instrument (fig. 1) and a pointer of aluminum wire fastened to the rod, so that it would traverse the scale. This plan worked well and with more carefal construction will Ted ty be sufficient, but a better method is probably one suggested Captain F. M. Ramsay, U.S. N., which is to use a light ane cal pointer hanging over the scale on the base. When ad- justed, the pointer-rod of the suspended coil Boule just one the vertical pointer when the latter is at z exact return to the same point would be easily Patt as a eal excess of weight would cause a movement of the pointer over the scale, The pans are of the same weight and the threads by which they are hung, are fibers of unspun silk. The friction of the pulleys is very small, and would be trifling if they were made were aimed at. Tt must be vasieisbenes that the actual obser- vation is made when the coil is in the zero aking the weight taken being that required to balance the deflecting force. The movement of the pulleys is then very slight and the weight acts exactly at right angles to the pointer-rod. For the measurement of the large currents derived from dy- namo-electric machines, minuteness is not demanded, since the . due to fluctuations in cage currents, alterations. in measuring currents of ion 20 to 80 webers. It isa good work- ing instrument and gives uniform results. It eg made for seal trial and is defective in certain respects. With so mprovements in construction, it would be a little more sensitive careculaely to comparatively small currents. The W. N. Hill—Electro-Dynamometer for Large Currents. 15 suspension arrangement is supported on the large coils and lacks steadiness. It should be placed upon a distinct standard, A support for the deflecting cecil when not in use, should be added and an arrangement for centering it quic Theory of the Instrument.—The expression for the strength of current is very simple. The weight found is that required to balance the deflective force and is observed at zero, so that the earth’s and local attractions are avoided, nor does the torsion of the suspension enter. Let 5S = strength of current in i os he w» = weight used, in milligram ¢ = length of weight-arm or distance from point where weight acts, to center of syst G = constant of large fe ae g = constant of small coil. C = constant of instrument or length of magnetic arm. By the theory of the electro-dynamometer, the force acting to deflect is represented by the expression ch xgX8, which 2 ee is the constant of the large coils or G, and g the constant of deflecting coil. This force acts with the arm C, and is Palanced by the weight acting with the arm Hence oe B's OGy The coils being large, G and g are readily ascertained from measurement. / is a known distance. O is the constant of the instrument and must be specially determined. With the instru- Ment in question, C was found by running the same currents through it and through Trowbri ge’s SoS aan, the con- stant of which was accurately known. ©, J, G, and g being known, it is evident that from weight found, the current may be obtained with little calculation. Or, a table m may be drawn up from which the values desired can be obtained by inspection. ith this instrument, which has many turns in the fix and movable coils, the deflections are powerful, requiring Weights to balance them large enough to give sufficient sensi- tiveness. The Asap table shows the weights required for currents from 21 to 80 rs, and from 91 to 100 webers, with my Rice ied as —* 21 70 | 91 1092 ~ 1215 = *25 22 06 | 2 9 07 | 92 11°16 24197 12°41 26 7 06/28 103 ‘07 | 93 11°40 24/98 1266 ‘25 16 W. N. Hill—Electro-Dynamometer for Large Currents. This table shows whole webers only, which, for some pur- AEE would be sufficient, but the subdivisions « can be ape ired. Thus, we have between 59 and 60 webers 8 w. 8. w webers webers er 4°590 59°6 4°680 591 4°605 59°7 4-700 59°2 4°620 59°8 4-715 59°3 4°635 59°9 4-730 59°4 4°650 60 4:750 59°5 4-665 s. It is plain that a set of weights could be made which would represent webers current, making any calculation unnecessary. This would be often aca venient if much work was to be done. For technical purposes, when an approximate measure is sufficient, a set which would not be too cumbrous might have brass weights for differences of five webers, and platinum ones for intermediate figures. Thus, between 80 and 40 webers :— Principal weights. Lames weights. 8. grm. 30 webers. 1 vos 2 210 grm. 1615 1 095 35 095 2 *195 2-110 1 40 With this instrument, I have worked with currents as small as 10 webers, but it is not sensitive enough for such use. Above 20 webers, it operates satisfactorily. Greater nicety of construction would sonitet greater sensitiveness to small weights, but it is evident that this form of the dynamometer is particularly suit- able for large currents. We have S: S's: fw: fw, That is, as the currents increase, the pages. peice weights increase more rapidly and greater accuracy and minuteness are attained. Between 21 and 22 webers, se diffrence of weight is ‘06 grm., and between 99 and 100 QT g My best thanks are due to Prof. eile Prowbridde of Har- vard University, for advice and the use of his apparatus. U. S. Torpedo Station, Newport, R. I., October 25, 1879. Gilbert’s Geology of the Henry Mountains. 17 Art. Il.—Gilbert’s Report on the Geology of the Henry Mountains.* Mr. GILBERT presents much that is new to Geology in his account of the Henry Mountains. These mountains—so name y Mr. Powell in honor of Professor Joseph Henry—are situated in Southern Utah, about the meridian of 110° 45’, and the par- allel of 38°. They are an irregular group—not a range—of five mountains, the highest about 5,00 feet above the arid plateau at their base, and 11,000 feet above the sea. It is stated that although much cut up by vallies of erosion, they still show, to some extent, by their forms, but chiefly by the dip of their beds, that they were originally mammi- form bulgings of the strata of the region, or groups of such bulgings. The accompany- Ing figure is a ground-plan of the Henry Mountains: N, Mt.Ellen; P, Mt. Pennell; H, Mt. Hillers; M, Mt. Holmes; KE, Mt. Ellsworth; it rep- resents N (Mt. Ellen), P (ate alone as single, The single bulgings or domes vary in diameter from half a mile to | ~ four miles, and the outline is Scole of nearly circular or somewhat Sa oval, though more or less irregular where they have en- Map of the Henry Mountains. croached on one another. The strata constituting them are those of the Cretaceous formation, which comprisés, beginning above, the “ Maruk,” Blue Gate” and “ Tununk” sandstones, and “ Henry’s Park Group,” and has there a thickness of 3,500 feet; the Jura-Trias, which is divided into the “Flaming Gorge,” “Gray Cliff,” port on the Geology of the Henry Mountains, by G. K. Girpert. U. 8. Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, J. W. PowELL in charge. 160 pp. 4to, with plates, maps, and sections. De artment of the Interior. Washington, 1877. Although this date makes the printing of the Report to have been done in 1877, the volume has i ithi t Am. Jour, —. Serizs, Vou. XIX.—No. 109, Jan., 1880. 18 Gilbert's Geology of the Henry Mountains. “Vermilion Cliff” and “Shinarump” groups, and has a thick- ness of 2,930 feet; and the Upper Carboniferous. These strata in the mountains are intersected by dikes of trachyte rising from a mass of trachyte below. The dip of the strata varies from zero at top and at base to various angles between, being even 80° in some of them just above the base; but the rocks beneath the plain around them are horizontal. e quaquaversal dip in the strata appears to indicate, as Mr. Gilbert states, that the dome-like elevations were produced through force acting directly beneath each; and, from the position of the trachyte, the natural inference is drawn that the force was connected with the eruption of this igneous rock. In the ideal sections given, one of which is here reproduced, a mass of trachyte is represented occu- ing an oven-shaped cavity, with the strata bulged upward above while horizontal below. -| The trachytic mass is called a laccolite, from o¢ cistern, in science of names of kinds of minerals and rocks, the mod- ified form of the term, Jaccolith (analogous to monolith) would be better, and is used below as essentially Mr. Gilbert’s.) The laceoliths are flat, or nearly so, below, as was found to be true at eleven localities, showing that it had taken the form of the surface on which it rested. The thickness or height is sometimes over 8,000 feet; and the breadth is, on an average, seven times the height, but in one case only three times. The trachyte dikes which rise from it are much more numerous than might be inferred from the ideal section ; and they often come up between the beds as well as intersect them. The sand- stone above and below the trachytic mass, or adjoining the dikes, is usually more or less altered by the heat for a thick- ness of a foot or more. The erosion which has reduced the original domes to deeply gorged mountain peaks and ridges has in some of them exposed part of the interior laccolith so as to show its original surface, while in one the whole stands bare, but much eroded through the action of waters. The chamber occupied by the laccolith was in all cases made along a shaly layer in the formation, where the cohesion was least. The trachyte is a compact porphyritic variety, wholly destitute of any trace of cellules. ‘here are faint indications of three or four successive beds in some of the masses In further explanation of these peculiar mountain structures, the following sentences and illustrations are cited from Mr. Gilbert’s Report. Ideal section of a Laccolith. Gilbert's Geology of the Henry Mountains. 19 In Mt. Ellsworth “from all sides the strata rise, slowly at first, but with steadily increasing rate, until the angle of 45° is reached. Then the dip as steadily diminishes to the center, where it is nothing. A model to exhibit the form of the dome would resemble a round- topped hat; only the level rim would join the side by a = rapidly outward. (See fig. 8.) -"— The base of the arch is not Restoration of Mt. Ellsworth. circular, but is slightly oval, the long diameter being one-third greater than the short. The length of the uplift is a little more than four miles; the width a little more than three miles, and the height about 5,000 feet. The curvature fades away so gradually at its outer limit that it is be easy to tell where it ends, 4, and the horizontal dimen- - sions assigned to the dome a are Sy dikes, and the weathering Sea, ee, brings them so conspicuous! mas to the surface, that the softer Ground-plan of trachyte-dykes on the sedimentaries are half con- estern flank of the mountain. of the mountain, where they are less complicated than in the central regions.” “The trachyte masses and the altered rocks in contact with them are so much more durable than the unaltered strata about w 20 Gilbert's Geology of the Henry Mountains. greater depth of strata. From the base of the arch there have been worn 3,500 feet of Cretaceous, and from 500 to 1,500 feet of the Jura-Trias series, which is here about 3,000 feet thick. From the summit of the arch more than 2,500 feet of the Jura- Trias have been removed. “The strata exposed high up on the mountain being older than those at the base, and the dip being everywhere directed away from the center, it is evident that the mountain is sur- rounded by concentric outcrops of beds which lift their escarp- ments toward it.” “The laccolite of Mount Ellsworth is not exposed to view, but I am nevertheless confident of its existence—that the visi- ble arching strata envelop it, that the visible forest of dikes and dike and sheet with laccolites, in other mountains of the same group.” The Hillers laccolith ‘is the largest in the Henry Mountains. Its depth is about 7,000 feet, and its diameters are four miles and three and three-quarter miles. Its volume is about ten cubic miles. The upper half constitutes the mountain, the lower balf the mountain’s deep-laid foundation. Of the portion which is above ground, so to speak, and exposed to atmospheric degradation, less than one half has been stripped of its cover of arching strata. The remainder is still mantled and shielded by sedimentary beds and by many interleaved sheets of trachyte.” ‘* All about the eroded (south) face of the mountain the base is revetted by walls of Vermilion and Gray Cliff sandstone, strengthened by trachyte sheets. At the extreme south, these stand nearly vertical (80°), and their inclination diminishes gradually in each direction, until at the east and west bases of the mountain it is not more than 60°.” “The same beds which form the revet-crags on the southern base constitute also some of the highest peaks. Since these rest directly upon the lacco- lite, it is assumed that the next lower beds of the stratigraphic series form its floor.” ‘It is noteworthy that wherever the sedimentaries appear upon the mountain top they are highly metamorphic, But in the revet-crags [upturned Jura-T'rias sandstone about the south side] there is very little alteration.” _ The Mount Hikn Cluster (map, p. 17), having a diameter from north to south of more than ten miles, contains, if rightly understood, no less than sixteen laccoliths “in the spurs and foot slopes and marginal buttes” about the central crest. A view of the western flank of the mountain is shown in figure 5. In this view, there are recognized, in front of the highest Gilbert's Geology of the Henry Mountains. 21 ortion, the remains of three laccoliths: to the left the ‘“‘Geikie” accolith ; along the middle portion (S) the ‘‘ Shoulder” lacco- lith, overlapping the base of the Geikie; and to the right (N) two miles to the south of the Geikie, is the ‘‘ Newberry arch,” the last making a knob 1700 feet high, standing by itself. In the rear is the pyramidal Ellen Peak; to the left of it, in the > distance, is the “Marvine” laccolith; and, to the right, still Part of Mount Ellen from the west; highest point 11,250 feet. another, named the F laccolith. Lewis’s Creek cuts across a flank of the Newberry arch and ‘exposes a portion of the [trachytic] nucleus,” overlaid by 100 to 200 feet of shale, and this by the Henry’s Fork conglomerate. Erosio a on two sides the interior trachyte of the Geikie lacco- . and the contact face of the trachyte is bare.” The extreme 22 Gilbert's Geology of the Henry Mountains. ig of the ee is 1,200 feet, and its diameters are 6,000 and 4,000 fee In the fc laccolith “the trachyte has a depth of only one thousand feet, but it lies so high with reference to the general degradation that it is a conspicuous feature of the topography. e edges of the laccolite are all eaten away, and only the cen- tral portion survives. All of the faces are precipitous. The cover of shale or sandstone has completely disappeared, and the aoe nts : cue ee eat aE we ei SOSA Jukes Butte, of the Ellen Cluster, as seen from the northwest. upper surface seems uneven and worn; but a distant view (figure 6) shows that its wasting has not rogressed so far as to destroy all trace of an original even surface. The eminences of the present surface combine to give to the eye which is aligned with their plane the impression of a straight line. The hill is loftier than the laccolite, for under the one thousand feet of trachyte are five hundred feet of softer rock which constitute its pedestal, and aon their vege undermine the laccolite and perpetuate its cli The laccoliths me described as occurring at different levels, between beds of the Carboniferous, Jura-Trias, and Cretaceous probably covered originally by at least 7,000 feet of strata exclusive of the Tertiary. But since the Tertiary, according to Mr. Gilbert, probably spread over the region, and owes its bsence only to subsequent denudation, the total thickness, since that of the ela a is 3,500 to 7, 000 feet, may have been much over 10,000 fee The facts brought out appear to sustain Mr. Gilbert’s conclu- sion that the mountains were made such, out of horizontal strata, by the ascending trachyte, which “insinuated itself between the strata, and —— for itself a chamber by lifting all the superior beds.” The steps in the early when of the history are given as follows on page 95 of the Report. Gilbert's Geology of the Henry Mountains. 23 “When lavas, forced upward from lower-lying reservoirs, reach the zone in which there is the least hydrostatic resistance to their accumulation, they cease to rise. If this zone is at the top of the earth’s crust "they build volcanoes; if it is beneath, ney build laccolites. Light lavas are more apt to produce voleanoe ; heavy, laccolites. The porphyritic trachytes of the Plateau pt oe produced laccolites he station of the laccolite being decided, the first step in its formation is the intrusion along a parting of strata, of a thin sheet of lava, which spreads until it has an area adequate, on the prin- ciple of the hydrostatic ston: to the deformation of the covering strata. The spreading sheet always extends itself in the direction of least resistance, and if ihe resistances are equal on-all sides, takes a circular form. So soon as the lava can uparch the strata it does so, and the sheet inlet a laccolite. With the continued addition of lava the laccolite grows in height and width, until nally the supply of material or the propelling force so far dimin- ishes that the lava clogs by congelation in its conduit and the in- flow stops.” “A second pai may take place either before or after the first j is solidified. It may intrude above or it may intrude beneath it; and oheetyatn0 has not yet distinguished the one from the other. In any case it carries dbs the deformation of The lifting force was thus due to the forced upward-flow of the lava; and it became able to overcome the resistance from the weight and cohesion of the rocks above by spreading into an opening beenieie the horizontal strata, and widening the area of press The force eae to the lavas at their source get was hence sufficient, it would appear, to throw a stream, in of friction along the passage and the density of the scaneeias | (at t 2°33 in fusion), for an unknown number of miles, up to the laccolith level; and sufficient at this point, further, to lift, in the case of the lowest of the laccoliths, a superincumbent mass of beds 10,000 feet thick (supposing the Tertiary at top 3,000 feet of it) and 2°25 in average specific gravity (equivalent in pressure to 675 atmospheres) as a apmere of 5,000 feet. The Report offers no views the origin ‘of the propelling force. Whatever the source, it is possible that some accession of energy may have come from vapors derived by the ascend- ing lavas from subterranean moisture or waters encountered on their way up, though slight compared with the vast amount received from action below. 24 Gilbert's Geology of the Henry Mountains. The idea in the commencement of the above citation—that hydrostatic pressure determined the level of the laccolith among the strata—is dwelt upon at length in the preceding pages of the Report. The author argues that the relation as to density between the liquid trachyte and the several associated stratified rocks, and between the latter among themselves (the several densities of which he gives), is the chief cause determining the level among the strata of the laccoliths; saying that the lava, ree to move upward or laterally, will intrude itself among the strata at a point ‘so placed that every combination of superior beds, which includes the lowest, shall have a less average den- sity, and every combination of inferior strata, which includes the highest, shall have a greater density, than that of the lava.” “If the fluid rock is less dense than the solid, it will pass through it to the surface, and build a subaerial mountain,” or “volcano ;” if more dense than the upper portion of the solid rock, the fluid will not rise to the surface, but will pass between the heavy and light solids, and lift or float the latter.” Cohe- sion in the rocks modifies the result; but, he says, neverthe- less, after discussing this point, “we are Jed to conclude that the conditions which determined the results of igneous activity were the relative densities of the intruding lavas and of the invaded strata; and that the fulfillment of the general law of hydrostatics was not materially modified by the rigidity and cohesion of the strata.” We refer to the report for a full explanation of this part of Mr. Gilbert's theory. To the writer, his explanation appears to be complete, without reference to this difference of density. With so powerful a forced movement in the lavas as the facts, if they are rightly interpreted, show to have existed, no other cause could be needed for a flow to the surface in case of an open channel, or for a flow to any level in the strata at which a fissure might terminate; and this is true, whether the lava be light or heavy. In fact heavy lavas, having a specific gravity of 2°85 to 3:1, make the larger part of modern volcanic cones, as well as of non-volecanic igneous outflows, and one of the lighter lavas—trachyte, of the specific gravity 2°61, by Mr. Gilbert's determination—made the laccoliths. These lighter lavas are adapted to the purpose because they are the least fusible of ordinary igneous a ts and they owe their difficult fusibility to the orthoclase feldspar which is the chief constituent, whose fusibility on Von Kobell’s scale is marked 5, while that of albite is marked 4, and of labradorite and volcanic augite, 8. Such lavas are hence easily chill and thicken greatly in the upper part of narrow fissures or of volcanic conduits, and it is for this reason that they have often made steep-sided domes over subaerial vents. J. LeConte—Glycogenic Function of the Liver. 25 Tf the first step in the history of the laccoliths was the mak- ing of intersecting fissures narrowing upward, some reaching to the surface, it may be, and others to different levels in the strata, the trachytic lava passing up would tend to become thickened by cooling, or might even become solidified, in the upper part of such fissures, because of the large extent of the cooling surfaces as compared with the amount of liquid. But aloug their intersections it would be most sure to remain liquid, and here conduits would become localized, from which the upward forced liquid rock might spread laterally, what- ever the height, and produce the laccolith. The ready cool- ing of the trachyte would tend to limit the lateral flow of the lavas in such chambers, and so aid in producing the thick form of the laccolith, besides preventing a waste of energy. With intermissions in the flow, the trachyte of the chamber would be intermittent in its enlargement, and receive that degree of bedded structure which, according to Mr. Gilbert, exists. The facts give some hints as to the source of the great force producing the upflow of lavas in non-voleanic fissure- ejections. They make the vast extent of such outflows, as those over California, Oregon, India and other regions, intelli- gible. Volcanoes are small outlets compared with fissures that extend for miles, and the forces they command are feeble com- pared with the action which makes such fissures. The opening of one or more great fissures is the initial step in the making of a volcano; and the voleano is the open chimney or vent left after the fissure-action had spent its foree—a point illustrated by the writer in his account of the Hawaiian islands and their J. D. Dana. volcanic origin.* . Art. 1V.—Some Thoughts on the Glycogenic Function of the Liver. Il. Disposal of Waste; by JoserpH LeConre. [Read to the National Academy of Sciences, October 30, 1879.] IN my previous paper,t I attempted to show that the well known and remarkable fact that nearly the whole food absorbed from the alimentary canal is distributed through the liver be- fore it reaches the general circulation, is proof that, in a ver: Important way, the liver prepares the food for the uses to whic it is applied in the animal body: and further that the prepara- tion is accomplished by the glycogenic function. According to my view there are three sources of glycogen, viz: 1. The whole of the amyloids: these are arrested in the liver as glyco- * Expl. Exp. Rep. Geology, 1849. ¢ This Journal, xv, 99. 26 J. LeConte—Glycogenic Function of the Laver. gen and re-delivered as liver-sugar, little by little as required, and burned. 2. Albuminotd excess: this is split into a combus- tible portion (glycogen) which is delivered to the blood as liver- sugar and burned, and an incombustible portion which is either urea or rapidly sinks into urea and is eliminated by the kidneys. 3. Waste tessue: this is also split in the liver and disposed of like the last. There are the same three sources of vital force and animal heat, viz: 1. the combustion of the whole of the amy- oids; 2. the combustion of the combustible portion of albumi- noid food excess; and 8, the combustion of the combustible portion of waste tissues. Therefore the function of the liver is to prepare all the fuel of the body, and this fuel is only liver- gar. Now it has been brought to my attention that my account of the disposal of waste is in conflict with the usual view of physi- ologists, which view is supported by many facts. Let us then state sharply the difference. According to the usual view, oxygen taken in at the lungs is carried by the arterial blood to the tissues, there seizes with dark blood, the exchange of oxygen for carbonic acid, and therefore the combustion, takes place principally if not entirely in the capillaries and therefore in contact with the tissues ; an 2, by the additional fact, that increased activity of any organ, e. g., a muscle, is attended with increased heat, increased waste, and therefore presumably of increased combustion of waste. But, on the other hand, my view is sustained by the experiments of Schiff, already alluded to in my previous paper. These experi- ments prove in the most positive manner, that poisonous waste is carried to the liver and there decomposed and made compar- atively innocuous. Here then are two incontestible facts: 1. The combustion of waste takes place principally, if not wholly in the capillaries and therefore in contact with the tissues. 2. The waste is not J. LeConte—Glycogenie Function of the Liver. 27 burned as such, as soon as formed, but must be carried to the liver to be prepared for final combustion. These two facts must be brought together and reconciled. I think this may be done as follows: First, it must be remembered that waste is but a small fraction of the material used as fuel, by far the larger portion of such material being food which never becomes tissue at all, viz: amyloids and albuminoid excess. Now these also, although they, or the fuel made from them, are confessedly carried and burned in the blood, are burned principally in the capillaries and there- fore in contact with the tissues. The reasons then, for burning combustible food principally in the capillaries, would equally apply to burning combustible waste in the same place, and therefore the fact that combustible waste is burned principally in the capillaries is no argument that it is burned as soon as formed. Evidently then the question is not one which concerns the combustion of waste alone, but the combustion of all fuel. The question is, why does combustion of the combustible por- tion both of food and waste, take place, and therefore both ae and other forms of force are generated, in the capillaries and in contact with the tissues? e final cause is, indeed, plain enough; it takes place there, because there the force is wanted ; but what is the physical cause, or the process which determines this result? There are probably several. 1. The blood is much longer time in the capillaries than in any other portion of its course, and therefore even if the rate of combustion be uniform, the amount of combustion would be greater there than in any other place; and moreover, if in- creased activity, increases heat and therefore combustion, it does so because it also increases the blood-supply. 2. But probably the rate of combustion in the course of cir- culation is not uniform. It is probable that the tissues them- selves are an apparatus for causing or accelerating combustion. The termination of nerve-fibers in the tissues, and the control- ling influence of nerves over all functions, suggests that the discharge or the arrest of nerve-current, in some way which we do not yet understand, is the principal cause of combustion and therefore of generation of force there. Farther: it has been Suggested to me by Mr. Christy, an assistant in the chemical laboratory, that the chemical process may possibly be something like this: oxygen is carried by the hemoglobin, the fuel is carried as liver-sugar by the plasma, side by side in the same current; nerve discharge reverses the order of affinity and the In most tissues, such as many glands, etc., which are constantl active; and in all tissues so far as the function of nutrition is concerned, the process is continuous and under the influence of 28 J. LeConte—Glycogenic Function of the Liver. the sympathetic or vaso-moter system. In muscular contrac- tion, on the other hand, the discharge is powerful and periodic, and under the influence of the voluntary or of the reflex system. 8. It is probable also, nay almost certain, that the first de- composition of tissue, short of combustion, i. e. the first forma- tion of waste, being a descensive change, a change from a less stable to a more stable condition, is itself a process by which heat and other forms of 2 are generated. This of course takes place only in the ti My view, therefore, is vovied as follows: The liver-sugar formed from the sources already mentioned, 1st, commences to burn in the capillaries of the lungs, and 2nd, continues to burn in the course of the arterial circulation. ‘The combustion thus far produces only heat. But 8rd, the main combustion takes place in the capillaries, probably under the influence of nerve- discharge, and this part generates not only heat but other jorms of force characteristic of the peculiar tissue. But the fact that the main combustion takes place in contact with the tissues, has misled physiologists to believe that the tissues themselves are burned. It seems to me that Se brat do not even yet sufficiently appreciate the function of t ood as a reservoir. lood must be regarded as a reservoir not only for oxygen and car- bonic acid, but also and still more for jood, for fuel and for waste. It is now well recognized as a reservoir for oxygen and carbonic acid, but not sufficiently for food and waste. The tissue-food of ‘to-day, is not used for building to-day; but the blood is drafted upon for materials for this purpose and re- supplies itself from albuminoid food. The amyloid food of to- day, is not burned to-day; but the blood is drafted upon for fuel and re-supplies itself from the liver, while the liver in its turn, re supplies itself from the amyloid food.* So also waste tissue of to-day is not mainly burned and eliminated to-day ; but the blood is again drafted upon for fuel from this source and re-supplies itself from the liver and the liver from the tissues. Finally, it will be observed that the view which I here present, as to the disposal of waste, is in some respects inter- mediate between the view of the old physiologists under the guidance of Lavoisier, and the usual modern view. According to the old view, waste is dissolved in the blood, carried to the eliminating organs especially the lungs, and there burned with rejection of the products of combustion. The lungs is there- * The mt enh with which the fuel-supply i in the blood is exhausted by activity and restored by food, is far greater in some insects, e.g., bees, than in higher In se es, one hour of riggs ha rape food entirely exhausts, while restores in tive minutes. ae e result of the extraordinary nervous and mus- eular activity of these inse W. G. Levison—Electrolytic Phenomena. 29 fore the furnace of the body. According to the usual modern view, oxygen is taken into the bluod, is carried to the tissues, burns there on the spot the waste, and the products of combus- tion are then carried to be eliminated in the lungs. The old view is right in supposing that waste is carried in the blood, ut wrong in supposing it to be combustible and therefore burned as soon as it meets oxygen in the lungs. The modern view is right in supposing that combustion takes place mainly in the tissues and not in the lungs, but wrong in supposing that it is the unprepared waste which is there burned. Art. V.—On Electrolytic Phenomena; by WALLACE GOOLD LEVISON. [Abstract of a paper read before the New York Academy of Sciences, February 10, 1879. In 1866 I devised a battery in which the usual plate of zine or other electro-positive metal is replaced by a surface of liquid sodium or potassium amalgam. It differs from any such bat- tery to my knowledge previously constructed, in that the amal- gam is perfectly fluid and its surface visible. It may be made in two forms. i. very strong current. When several cells of the latter form are combined, on making or breaking circuit, a motion of the 30 W. G. Levison—Electrotytic Phenomena. amalgam is observed, which seems to arise from its being raised in the center while the current flows and its falling to the normal level when it is interrupted. ile the circuit is broken there is a constant evolution of hydrogen gas in very fine bubbles from the entire surface of the amalgam. When the circuit is closed they no longer escape freely at the point of evolution, but glide over its sur- face from all sides toward the center where they coalesce to form large bubbles, which there escape. These bubbles are abnormally spread or flattened out upon the surface of the amalgam, escape with a peculiar trembling as if with difficulty, and if caught under the porous cup they still exhibit the flat- tened aspect. On breaking the current they become hemis- pherical and again escape readily from all parts of the liquid surface. Some of the phenomena thus observed I have since the end as if it tended to part at that point and the negative W. G. Levison— Electrolytic Phenomena. 31 globule frequently does part throwing off a small globule which runs to the anode; in all cases of repulsion the end tends to spread or enlarge. Fusible metal in hot solution of sodic sulphate, or dilute sulphuric acid in a glass tube, and metallic lead under fused chloride of sodium, in a grooved scorifier, in a muffle at a red heat, exhibit the same phenomena; hence they are not peculiar to mercury or amalgams. If, instead of a long groove as de- scribed, a series of five short grooves be cut (as shown in fig. 8) so as to hold five globules of mercury in a line and the end globules be touched by the terminal wires (as shown in fig. 4), on making connection they become almond-shaped (as shown in fig. 5). The positive globule extends toward the negative pole, the other four all extend toward the positive pole. pale pooping oo 4, >D@ @F Sse a ‘~~ > 8] OS SDS QS _— @\e@ oo If the terminal wires be touched to the second and fourth globules, the second being positive, extends toward the nega- tive pole, the middle and fourth extend toward the positive pole, and the end globules though not included in the circuit extend toward the center. (See fig. 6.) These are fine exper- iments to project before an audience, and they may be greatly varied. In both these cell experiments small globules that lie on the plane surface of the glass move either against the rim of the cell, or in smaller semi-circles concentric with it from the posi- tive to the negative pole, or toward the end at which hydrogen bubbles are escaping. The curves in which these globules move, may be conveniently regarded as lines of voltaic force, and the space between and surrounding the electrodes as the vol- tare field. If the mereury used in these experiments contain the least. trace of zinc or other metal, the phenomena will be con- siderably modified. en sodium amalgam is substituted for pure mercury as the negative globule in the single globule experiment, it is always at first repelled as though it had previously been the hegative terminal, and then the poles had been reve 82 W. G. Levison— Electrolytic Phenomena. When pure mercury is thus employed as the negative glob- ule under sodic sulphate, it becomes sodium amalgam, and th violent agitation which accompanies the repulsion of the globule on reversing the current is probably due to the rapid oxidation of the -_ ed sodium n, however, sulpburic acid is used as the electrolyte, the stobole sei only occlude hydrogen. Since in the latter case it acts in a somewhat similar manner, it is possible that hydro- gen is thus occluded, and from its rapid oxidation arises the agitation of the globule on reversing the current. e question might perhaps be decided by the Sprengel pum Two platinum electrodes ak ipa suspended near together in dilute hydric sulphate, will repeatedly attract each other, and at the moment of cuntact fall apart again, each separation being accompanied by a bright spark. T'wo plates of carbon deli- cately suspended are perceptibly attracted when they form the electrodes in dilute hydric sulphate or other electrolyte of a 20-cell Bunsen battery. The attraction of solid electrodes may be due merely to the escape from them of gas bubbles, but the motion seems to be simultaneous with the closing of the circuit and to precede momentarily the evolution of ‘the gas. he currents in the electrolyte, to which most previous ob- servers have attributed the movements of the globules of mer- cury, may be beautifully shown by projection on a screen i a number of globules between the poles are held in depressions in the rubber bottom of an ordinary upright clamp cell. I have given a great deal of consideration to the phenomena described in this paper and to the views of those who have studied them, and though I am not able to give expression to the law by which they are governed, I can not accept any suggestion as yet advanced. I believe, however, that they offer the way to an important discovery, perhaps the ‘mode of trans- mission of the electric current, when the methods of exhibiting them herein described, the abnormal behavior of gas bubbles in the sodium amalgam battery, the movements of metals and alloys other than mercury itself, the transmission of globules across the voltaic field, the mode of measuring the attraction and repulsion unimpeded by capillary force, and the move- ments of solid electrodes, attract the attention of observers provided with recent facilities for experimentally examining them, and that the results may lead to the complete develop- ment of a series of phenomena that have long awaited inves- tigation. R. P. Whitfield—Fossil Crustaceans from Ohio. 33 Art. VIL.—WNotice of New Forms of Fossil Crustaceans from the Upper Devonian Rocks of Ohio, with descriptions of New Gen era and Species; by R. P. WHITFIELD.* In the 16th Report of the State Cabinet of New York, there is described and figured a peculiar bivalve crustacean from the Hamilton formation of New York, under the name Ceratiocaris punctatus. It is again repeated on Plate 28, fig. 7, _of the Illustrations of Devonian Fossils, Section Crustacea, under the name Ceratiocarts (Aristozoe) punctatus. Among the fossils of the Ohio Geclogical Survey, there are represented three species of similar form, but specifically distinct from the above; and I have seen examples of at least two species from the Hamilton and Chemung groups of New York, which may be distinct these. s in t Leperditia and its allies; while the forms under consideration are provided with a bivalve or, at least, a two-sided carapace, which incloses the thoracic portions; while the abdomen and caudal parts are naked, or not inclosed within this covering; and are more properly classed among the Phyllopods. That this latter character, the naked abdomen and caudal plate, pertains to these organisms, is abundantly proven by the Ohio specimens now under consideration. The fossils are tion; so we may safely conclude, that, where parts or frag- ments of individuals of corresponding size are found in the of the species. All the specimens are from the * These descriptions will be repeated in vol. iii, Paleont. Ohio, with illustrations i cabinet of Dr. J. 8. Newberry. Am. Jour, a Series, VoL, XIX, No. 109.—Jan., 1880, 384. -«R. P. Whitfield—New Forms of Fossil Crustaceans stated in the Illustrations of Devonian Fossils that one specimen resembling C. punctatus bas been found with a body similar to that called C. armatus attached to the carapace, showing their individual relations. he several species above mentioned, while eet a from Ceratiocaris, possess features in common which a characterizes them as a natural group, sitiscewite maken re be vrtech distinguished. I therefore propose to recognize them istinct genus under the eneeie name EcHINOCARIS, pos- eatng the following character: EcuINnocaRIis, new genus. Carapace bivalve, valves subovate in outline; united on the dorsal margin by a straight hinge; the anterior, basal and’ pos- terior margins rounded, and generally more or less produced posteriorly. Surface of the valves marke by a more or less dlistinetly elevated, curved, longitudinal ridge, centrally or subcentrally situated ; also by one or more (usually three) vertical ridges, or ridge-like nodes, extending downward from the hinge-line upon the body of the valve, and usually ana anterior to the middle of the length. Abdomen naked, com- posed of several segments (four known) and a caudal fans which is produced into an elongated spine with a lateral, mov- able spine on each side. Posterior margin of the abdominal segments bearing spines on the now known species. Type Echinocaris sublevis Whi bears to other known genera. 1st section: Carapace more or less elongated, with a straight or slightly arched dorsal line; anterior end sharply rounded or pointed (rostrate); posterior end ih neate; sides convex, smoot! or simply striate, sometimes ma by a simple ocular node near the antero-dorsal margin; no ies or othee nodes. Cera- teocaris McCoy, 1849; Caryocaris Salter, 1862; Hymenocaris Salter, 1852 ; Solenovaris Meek, 1872 ;(?) Colpocuris Meek, 1872. The last somewhat questionable i in character. 2d section: Carapace similar in form to that of section 1, with the postero-basal angles produced into spines, and the sur- con with longitudinal ridges. Dithyrocaris Scouler (=Argas i. ed section: Carapace rounded at both extremities, elongate- from the Upper Devonian Rocks of Ohio. 35 elliptical or elongate-ovate in form, with a straight dorsal mar- gin; surface aaa striate, no nodes or ridges. Lingu- locaris Salter, 1 4th section: Carapace triangular, dorsal margin straight; sur- face punctate or reticulate, and concentrically striated (growth or pastalose. ichinoc arts, new gen. 6th s penteot biel oval or ovate; no straight etal ie sonpeneee no hinge; anterior end rostrated or pease surface destitute of nodes or ‘ridges. Physocaris Salter, 860. 7th section: Carapace composed of three pieces, or apparently of three, two of which are semi-circular, with the anterior end of each obliquely i sang forming, when the two are u nited, an anterior triangular notch into which the third or sais pers. is inserted ; ama se concentrically marked by growth ines; no nodes orridges. Peltocaris Salter, 1866; Discinocaris Woodwar d, 1866; Aptichopsis Barrande, 1872; Prerocaris Bar- rande, 1872 (not Heller, 1862). It will be readily seen, from the above nbyeies that Echino- carts differs materially in the features of the carapace from all the other genera enumerated. The features of the abdomen and caudal parts are not as reliable as those of the carapace, ut are somewhat distinctive, as arg be seen by the following table of comparison. mark of interrogation indicates that the parts are unknown or only caeially known n.) nus. Abdominal segments, Caudal spines Ce ris 5 or 6 smooth 3 DCN POOMPIE (he 1 smooth 3 ymenocaris 8 smooth 6 Dictyocaris 6 smoo 37 hysocaris 5 Echinocaris 4 spiney 3 Discinocaris 4? aT Peltocaris 3 smooth 3 Caryoustis wie cs dae 2 oC 1? 3 SOOORIE oo an eed eck cone ? ? Ha fs ere mae 4 g ? ? paces bi, wad ot et ? Possess in one species Fouitteai segments in the bdadiee; aly six of which are naked 86 ~=—s R. P.. Whitfield—New Forms of Fossil Orustaceans The genus Dithyrocaris McCoy is described as having three longitudinal ridges on the carapace. is feature is seen only when the two valves are pressed open as in McCoy’s example, so as to present the appearance of one large plate; in which case the hinge-line forms the middle ridge. The third or rostral plate in Peltocaris, Caryocaris, Discino- caris and Aptychopsis, would appear to be quite analogous to the small rostral plate seen in Ceratiocaris, and supposed to exist in Dithyrocaris, and perhaps some others, but which is usually absent. It is possible many of the forms may have possessed this rostral plate, at least among those that are deeply notched in front when the valves are spread open. In this case they would as properly be considered as having three plates in the carapace as those grouped under section 7. The forms of this section are usually found with the carapace spread open on the rock, and are then circular and diveoid: but when in their natural position would have been more or less roof- shaped. Colpocaris Meek presents some features which raise a question as to its true affinities. The longitudinal crenulated line and the inflection of the supposed ventral border do not seem to be properly understood ; and I am of the opinion it may belong to a different group of Crustaceans. EcuINocARIS SUBLEVIS, 0. Sp. Carapace obliquely subovate in general outline, the height equal to two-thirds the length, widest and deepest behind the middle, the posterior portion projecting obliquely backward and downward beyond the extremity of the hinge-line; dorsal- line straight, forming a hinge-line two-thirds the length of the valve; outer margin of the valves, except on the dorsum, bor- dered by a narrow, slightly raised and thickened rim; anterior border nearly vertical from the extremity of the dorsal line, for about one-half the width of the valve, except a very slight round- ing backward to the hinge-line above; below it slopes abruptly backward to and along the basal line, and again more abruptly curving around the posterior end of the valve and Pauls to the extremity of the cardinal line; below which it is distinetl excavated. The portion of the valve which projects beyon the hinge is fate or quite equal to one-third the length of the valve. Surface of the valves convex, and marked by ridges and tubercles. The principal ridge commences at about the anterior third of the valve, and just above the middle, as an elevated, rounded and nearly vertical ridge; but soon bends somewhat abruptly, and is directed backward in a broad, sweep- ing curve, at less than one-third of the height of the valve from the lower margin, and gradually decreasing in strength ter- from the Upper Devonian Rocks of Ohio. 37 minates a little within the margin opposite the longest part of the valve. A second and slightly stronger ridge rises from just behind the middle of the length of the hinge, descends with a gentle forward curvature, and terminates near the upper anterior end of the first one. The anterior or principal tubercle creasing in length backward from the first or anterior segment. Telson proportionally large, of a general triangular form, but slightly protruding at the origin of the movable spines, 4 behind into a long, slender, and apparently Fi pada shales (Portage and Chemung), at Leroy, Lake County, io. 38 R. P. Whaitfield—New Forms of Fossil Crustaceans EcHINOCARIS PUSTULOSA, 0. sp Carapace ovate, widest anterior to the middle, the greatest height equal to three-fourths of the length ; hinge- line straight, rather more than half as long as the valve, while nearly one- third the length of the valve projects behind its extremity ; margin of the valve bordered by a narrow, thickened rim; anterior end of the valve slightly excavated below the hinge extremity, and the margin broadly rounded in front; posterior end more pointed, while the basal line is broadly id evenly curved. At the posterior end of the hinge the margin is also slightly constricted as in front. Surface of the valve convex and marked by the characteristic nodes or ridges. The prin- cipal ridge commences in an oval node, which is situated just within the anterior third of the length of the valve; is placed vertically, just above the middle of the height, and the hori- zontal portion, which is sharply elevated and slightly curved, is situated almost in the middle of the width, and terminates a little less than one-fourth of the length from the posterior extremity. The second ridge commences at the hinge-line near the middle of its length, and descends with a slightly forward direction to within a very short distance of the top of the vertical portion of the principal ridge. The anterior ridge, corresponding to the anterior node or tubercle of EF. sublevis, is arrow and nearly vertical; of a slightly sigmoid form, and originates near the anterior extremity of the hinge-line; the lower end reaching more than one-third the depth of the valve. The surface of the ridges and of the valve in the postero-dorsal field, as also of the space below the principal horizontal ridge, is marked b correspondingly large and distinct postules. Abdomen and telson unknown. This species differs from &. sublevis in its slightly Ma form, and in the want of the obliquity of the axis of the va with the hinge; in the narrower posterior extremity, pisttildae surface, and in the form of the surface ridges; most notably in the anterior one being ridge-like and vertically sigmoid instead of round. The individual used in description is half an inch in length and three-eighths of an inch in its greatest height. Formation and locality.—In calcareous concretions in the Erie shales, at Leroy, Lake County, Ohio. EcuINOCARIS MULTINODOSA, ND. Sp. Carapace elongate-subovate, about twice as long as high, rounded in front and somewhat pointed behind; the basal line straightened along the middle portion and parallel to the hinge-line; cardinal line straight and nearly half as long as the length of the valve, and a little nearer the anterior than to the posterior end of the carapace. Margin of the valves From the Upper Devonian rocks of Ohio. 39 slightly elevated areas, with depressed sulci between; an ante- rior, a central and a posterior one. e first is situated in the middle of the anterior end of the shell; the central one unites with the anterior one below, and extends along the basal mar- gin behind, in a narrow curved point below the posterior one, and projects upward near the center of the valve in a triangular form, terminating in an elevated point just above the median line; the posterior and largest area is ovate in form, and occupies a little less than one-half the length of the shell, is narrowed in front and pointed behind, taking the form of the extremity of the shell. The center of the anterior area is slightly tumid. which extends to near the point of the central raised area fore mentioned. These three nodes, together with the oblique, ridge-like one terminating the marginal rim, border the hinge-line on each valve. General surface of the valve finely punctate, but most distinctly so on the posterior field. The elongated form of the carapace readily distinguishes this from any of the other species described, while the number of node-like ridges is a very marked feature. The abdomen and telson of this species have not been observed, although several imperfect carapaces, mostly showing parts of both valves, have been obtained. — : Formation and locality,—In calcareous concretions in the Erie shales, at Leroy, Lake County, Ohio. ssociated with the Entomostraca, above described as from the concretions of the Erie shales of Ohio, are the remains of a Macrouran Decapod, which appears to differ so much from any described genus as to make it undesirable to refer it to any of them. One of its peculiarities consists in the possession of a pair of very strong antennal appendages which project from beneath the anterior end of the thoracic carapace, of such size and strength as to raise considerable doubt as to their true nature. The exist- ence of five thoracic limbs, exclusive of these, projecting from beneath the carapace on one side would seem to place their pedal nature out of the question; while their great development as seen on the specimen would indicate that they had served Some purpose other than simple antennez, and to raise the 40 &. P. Whitfield—New Forms of Fossil Crustaceans question as to the possibility of their having been chelate at their extremities. As only the basal portions of these organs determined. aving had an opportunity of consulting A. S. Packard, Jr., in Biase to them, he gave as his caine that from their position and the representation of the other five pairs of thoracic members without them, they could not be other than antennal in their functions, notwithstanding their great size and anomalous character. Taking this view of their nature, the spoon would conform strictly to the type of Macrouran Deca n its generic ietans as well as in its general expression, the specimen resembles most nearly the genus Pygocephalus of Professor Huxley, first given in the Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, vol. xiii, p. 363, 1857, with figures and descriptions of three specimens, under the name P. Co ooperi. Neither the genus nor species were well Saruaciiens at that time. Itis, how- ever, again referred to in vol. xviii, p. 420, of the same Journal, and a figure given of a specimen supposed to be of the same species, much better preserved, from the Coal shales at Paisley. ere are, however, too Di imbs represented as originating from the thorax for a Decapod; and the antenna, although roprensnted as of large size, are a like those of the Ohio ecimen, while there is a second pair shown. In other parts e fioure i is ingiesad and in the description the parts are no defined sufficiently for. close comparison. The differences, however, are so great that I shall propose for this form the new generic name PALZOPALZMON, with the following diagnosis. PALAOPALZMON, new genus. A Macrouran Decapod crustacean, having a shrimp-like body, with a thoracic carapace narro owed but not rostrate in front, and keeled on the back and sides. Abdomen of six et or, | = ie) val on be | 4°) 2 mod B -S S ~ ou @ jor) yi et | as @ Og a 4?) S + oe mi 3 ae ) caudal flaps, one on each side, composed of five visible ele- pbs the outer four apparently anchylosed to form a single ma. triangular plate on each side of the telson. Thoracic ulatory appendages elongated, smooth and filiform, pad? the upper (second) joint, which is laterally compressed. dominal appendages short, the upper joints flattened or convex anteriorly, as if for the attachment of plates or fimbria. An- tennze with the basal joints strong and well developed, of large size, much exceeding in snes any of the thoracic limbs. Eye-peduncles short. Type P. Newberryi Whitf. from the Upper Devonian Rocks of Ohio. 41 This is, so far as I am aware, the most ancient Decapod crustacean yet recognized, and on that account alone is of great interest. The character of the caudal plates, in having the parts combined to form a solid plate on each side of the telson, is also an interesting feature, if rightly understood. From the impression of the plate as seen on the ventral side, it was at first supposed to be of a single element only, but on obtaining an impression in the fragment of rock, chipped from the top or dorsal surface, the obscure lines of the first and one side; the others being concealed by the rock. The abdominal appendages are inclined backward from their point of origin, ivtiie in most of the allied living forms as Atyovdes, Regulus, Pandalus and others, they are inclined in the opposite direction ; but this is not necessarily of importance. The eye- stalks appear to have been very short, judging from the spherical cavities beneath the anterior extremity of the cara- pace, which are small, close together and shallow. The earliest form of Decapod crustacean previously described, so far as I can ascertain, is given by Mr. Salter in the Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, vol. xvii, p. 581, 1861, as Palwocran- gon socialis, said to be from the Lower Carboniferous limestone of Fiefshire, Scotland. There is another supposed Decapod, Gitocrangon, noticed by Richter (Beitrige Paleont. Thuring.), from the Upper Devonian, which is mentioned by Salter, but of which he says he is doubtful if it be a crustacean at all. I have not seen the work in which the original description occurs, and can only judge of its nature from Mr. Salter’s remarks, PaLZoOPALZMON NEWBERRYI, 0. sp. Body slender, the carapace forming a little more than one- third of the entire length, higher than wide, narrowed ante- riorly and truncate behind; being longer below than above; median line carinate, with a second carina on each side a little below the crest; anterior end not rostrate but obliquely trun- cate, and sloping rapidly backward above the truncation, form- ing, when looked upon in front, a narrow, elongated shield- shaped and slightly depressed area, obtusely pointed above and rapidly widening at the base, the lateral carine rising tom the lower angles; lower posterior angles rounded; basal margins gently curved throughout and bordered by a narrow, thread-like band with a narrow groove within it. Abdomen moderately robust, highly arched along the dorsal line, the 42 E. I. Nichols— Optical Method for the pleura curving inward below, giving a cylindrical form. Pleura broadly rounded at their extremities on the anterior face, but somewhat angular above and marked by a central ridge below, and by a backward curving, transverse ridge across the widest part. Caudal flap large, forming a triangular plate on each side, the first and second joints short sub triangular; marginal plate of the flap thickened, narrow and elongate; central plate the other portions unknown. Thoracic limbs very slender and only of moderate length, the second joint laterally compressed, making the height nearly double the width; other joints apparently cylindrical. Abdominal limbs known only by their second (?) joints, which appear to be triangular in form, widening below, flattened and plate-like in character or slightl convex on the anterior face. (In one case only, a single thread- like appendage can be seen, as if projecting from the outer of the carapace, originating at the lower anterior angle and passing upward and backward, with a bifurcation at the ante- rior third of its length. Surface of the abdomen essentially smooth. Caudal flaps marked by impressed lines increasing in number and fineness from above downward. Art. VIIL—Upon an Optical Method for the Measurement of High Temperatures ; by KE. L. NicHois, Ph.D. (Gottingen). IN a previous paper* a series of experiments upon the nature and intensity of the light emitted by glowing platinum were described. It is proposed in this article to discuss more fully the results then Sutin and to develop from them, so far as 18 at present possible, an optical method for the measurement of * On the Character and Intensity of the Rays emitted by Glowing Platinum, vol. xviii, Dec., 1879. Measurement of High Temperatures. 43 high temperatures. This method depends upon our ability to obtain, from results such as are recorded in Table IX of that paper, a general expression for the radiating power of any given body as a function of the temperature, or, what amounts to the same thing, to find the values of the quantities, A, E and I, in Kirchhoff’s equation WV, e= Zz oh | yo (1) These quantities being given, the temperature of a source of light could be determined by compar ring the intensity of por- tions of its spectrum—as for instance “those lying between & and A+da, X and 4’+d2’, 2”, and 4” +d", &e.—with the corres- ponding wave lengths of the spectrum of a body of known accurate measurements have been hitherto unattain . Crova, in Comptes Rendus, has faba a similar method. He gave, however, no measurements of glowing tem- peratures upon which to base his method, and ignored entirely the very serious difficulties to be overcome before it can be made Sees available. M. Crova proposes the following three modes of procedure : 1. “Au moyen de la longueur d’onde de la radiation qui limite Je reg vers le violet.”+ 2. “Par la Fata du maximum calorifique du spectre qui se fbstcks utant plus du violet que la ee or ek "émis- sion et -jeagg sestiion 8, Spectres. . La mesure vigoureuse des températures pourra étre faite par voie spectrometrique des que l'on connaitra la Joi €xacte de l’émission pour toutes les radiations et des constantes numériques pour chaque longueur d’onde. . . n the first method, the visible spectrum is “falsely assumed to have a clearly defined boundary at its end nearest the violet. * Kirchhoff, 2 elaatecians a iiber das Sonnenspectrum, Anhang, § 2. + Crova, Etude spectrometrique de quelques sources rearioh & Comptes Rendus, Ixxxvii, 322. 44 EF. L. Nichols— Optical Method for the In point of fact the “‘limzt of the spectrum” admits (see vol. xvili, p. 400) of no sharp determination, depending as it does upon the constantly varying condition of the observer's eye. If, as is commonly supposed, the position in the spectrum of the thermal maximum were a function of the temperature, the second method would be at best practically applicable to but a few of the most intense sources of light. Some recent discov- eries of Dr. Jacques in Baltimore,* seem to show that the posi- tion of the thermal maximum depends upon the molecular weight of the glowing body, and that, for a given source of light, its position is in no way affected by a change of tem- perature. This newly discovered fact renders Crova’s second method useless. I shall show presently that aside from Jacques’ experimental evidence there are good reasons for supposing the position of the thermal maximum to depend upon the nature of the glowing body rather than upon its temperature. The third method coincides with that which I have pro- posed. The chief difficulty in the development of it lies in the varying values of the emissive and absorptive capacity of different bodies. In Equation (1) the fraction z is to be sure independent of the nature of the body in question; not so, however, the quan- tities E and A, considered separately. That A, possesses for different substances widely different values we know from for- mer researches. Hitherto, however, these experiments have been confined to ordinary temperatures, and the question of the dependence of this quantity upon the temperature has been for the most part neglected. . 3 or the purposes of general discussion it is convenient to divide all bodies into four classes. odies for which A=Constant, for all wave lengths and for all temperatures. IL. Bodies for which A varies with the temperature, but has the same value for all wave lengths. odies for which A varies with the temperature and possesses different values for different wavelengths, but for which the ratio of these values in any two spectral-regions 4 to A+d2 and 2’ to 1’+d2’ is independent of the temperature. odies for which A varies with the temperature and wave length and for which the above-mentioned ratio is also 4 function of the temperature. Black bodies are, by definition, of the first class. Whether bodies exist for which A=Constant <1, can only be deter- mined by special experiment. ‘Io the second class belong — * Distribution of Heat in the Spectra of various sources of Radiation. Cam- — bridge, 1879. ae Measurement of High Temperatures. 45 bodies which absorb all colors in equal proportion. They - appear colorless when nearly transparent, white or gray when opaque, according to the intensity of the light falling upon them and to their reflecting power. That many transparent bodies belong to this class and not to class I, is evident from the fact that although they remain transparent and colorless at temperatures above that at which metals are red hot, it is possi- ble by heating them still further to cause them to glow brightly. Such a change in the power of emission corresponds to an in- crease in absorptive capacity. That in general the absorptive capacity of other than black bodies cannot be a constant quantity may be inferred from the usual equations for the intensity. of the reflected ray. Let the body in question be opaque. Of all rays falling upon it one portion will be reflected, the remainder absorbed. It has how- ever been proved that such bodies are in general transparent when taken in sufficiently thin layers. The rays must there- fore instead of being converted into heat at the surface, force their way to a certain depth into the interior of the body, and we are justified in assuming that refraction occurs. Let 7 be the angle of refraction, and 7 the angle of incidence of a certain pencil of light falling upon the substance. Let the intensity of the incident ray =1. Whatever the character of its vibra- tions—provided only that in accordance with the accepted theory they be transversal—the ray can be resolved into two components, the one polarized in the plane of incidence, the other perpendicularly to it. Let e, and e, be the amplitudes of these components the intensities of which are denoted by /, and 2 en Fae i ae a es of the reflected portion of the component e, will be _. sin(t—r) : B= sin (ir) (2) and its intensity, sin *(¢—r) Be sin (ihr) x The amplitude of the other part of the reflected ray will be _ tang (¢—r) | B= ang (Fr) “ and its intensity __,- tang *(é—r) R= tang *(i-++-r)" (5) The expressions (8) and (5) approach 0 as a limit when the values of r and 7 are made to approach each other. In other words, when the optically denser medium becomes less dense 46 E. L. Nichols—Optical Method for the the intensity of the reflected ray diminishes, and a larger ortion of the incident ray is absorbe reflexion” occurs, are not included int his argument, since the formule do not apply to them. ‘They would have to be con- sidered in the lack of further knowledge as possible exceptions to the law. _ For such bodies MacCullagh,* making use of the hypothesis of an imaginary angle of refraction, assumed for r the follow- ing expression : : sin z a sin 7= ~~ cos AX+e/ —1 sin x. (6) = (cos *1 + sin’ y) which admits of the common definition of n : ger PR, since even for an imaginary angle, cos’ r+ sin? r= 1, In a similar manner MacCullagh assumes st ae cos r= — (cos x’+a/—1 sin 7’), (7) where m’ and y’ are functions of m and y. Substituting these values in equation (3) we obtain, (m”? —m’*)?+4m” m? sin’ (y¥—-1’) R,=,f 7s ey as (m*+- m"-+ 2m' m cos (y— x’) disappear we must set m=m/’ and y=7- MacCullagh determined experimentally the values of m and ¥, but I know of no researches from which to draw any conclu- sions concerning the influence of temperature upon these quantities. Cauchyt gives for R, the following expression, __ , sin’ (i— r)+ y’ sin’ r R=, sin’? (¢+r)+y7’ sin’? r’ (9) * MacCullagh, Proceedings of the Irish Academy, i, 2, 159; ii, 375. + Cauchy ; Comptes Rendus, ii, 427 ; viii, 553-658 ; ix, 727; xxvi, 86. Measurement of High Temperatures. 47 making use of the hypothesis that the intensity of the grrenen from the surface inward. Here as in the equations or ordinary reflected light, R, depends upon the quantity y.' Imeasured in the following way the transparency of the petroleum flame which I wished to use in the experiments about to be described. Suppose such a flame to be brought into position before the Spectrophotometer so that a certain pencil of rays would fall upon the slit. Were the flame perfectly transparent, a second eascano similar one and equally bright would, if placed be- ‘ind the first flame, double the intensity of the above men- tioned pencil of rays. Were on the other hand the first flame perfectly opaque, all rays reaching it from the second flame would be cut off, and the light arriving at the slit would suffer no increase in brightness. The nearest approach to a second precisely similar flame is the real image of the first one. This image would be, when of the same size, of weaker intensity than the flame itself; but its other properties should, provided the mirror absorb all wave lengths of light in equal proportion, coincide perfectly with those of the flame. T illuminated both halves of the slit of the spectrophotometer with two common petroleum lamps with flat burners. Before the lower flame, was adjusted a system of cross-wires, of which the horizontal ones appeared as dark lines in the polarized Spectrum. By means of these it was easy to tell which portion of the flame came into the field of vision. Behind this lamp I placed a concave mirror, so that a real image of the flame was Cast upon the flame itself. This image was of the same size but weaker than the flame. Since the horizontal wires ap- peared in the spectrum of the image as well as in that of the flame, forming another set of black lines, it was possible to adjust the mirror so that corresponding portions of flame and 48 E. L. Nichols— Optical Method for the image coincided. The spectrum formed by the two combined was much brighter than that of the flame alone, and it was easy, having measured the increase of intensity due to the image, to calculate how much of light reflected by the mirror and falling upon the flame, was absorbed, and how much allowed to pass through it. In making this calculation it was necessary to know: the reflecting power of the mirror, the transmitting power of the lamp chimney, and the relative in- tensity of the spectrum of the flame to that of the flame and image combined. First of all the transmitting power of the lamp-chimney was investigated. The lamp having been provided with an exactly similar chimney, the spectrophotometer adjusted and the spec- trum of this lamp flame having been compared with that of the flame lighting the upper half of the slit, the chimney to be ex- amined was suspended in the path of the rays between the flame and slit, whereupon the spectra were again measured. found that the chimney permitted the passage of 08573 of the light. Then the mirror was taken in hand The lamp being moved a few centimeters to one side and the mirror turned until the image of the flame occupied the former position of the flame itself; the intensity of the resulting spectram was meas- ured. This gave as illuminating power of the image, 0°6509 of the flame’s intensity. The lamp was then restored to its place . before the slit and the mirror readjusted until those portions of the flame and image which appear in the spectral image coin- cided. The spectrum of this double source of light was then measured, and by repeated intervention and withdrawal of a black screen between the lamp and mirror, compared with the spectrum of the flame above. I found the ratio of flame and image combined to the flame alone, to be 1°2075: 1. Had both flame and lamp-chimney been perfectly transparent, this ratio would have been 1°6509:1. The effect of the lamp-cylinder being eliminated the remaining difference is naturally to be attributed to the absorptive capacity of the flame; and we find A = 0°6482. To determine the value of A for platinum at the temperature in question, it only remained to compare the radiation of a glowing platinum wire with that of the flame. The wire hav- ing been given a temperature of 1650° (Pt. thermometer) for which the leucoscope* showed that the quality of the light emitted corresponded precisely with that from the petroleum- flame, the intensity of its spectrum was measured and found as compared with that of the flame to be as 1°198: 1. The value of A for platinum at this temperature is accord- ingly, A = 0°7597. * For the method by which the platinum wire was made to glow, and for a description of the leucoscope, see Paper I. Measurement of High Temperatures. 49 De la Provostaye and Desain* give as the reflecting power of cold platinum for lamp light (unpolarized), 0°677, so that for this metal when cold, A == 0°328. The difference between these values is so large, that making all reasonable allowance for the inaccuracies of both researches it seems certain that platinum at 1650° has a much greater absorp- tive power for the rays of the visible spectrum than at ordinary temperatures, his experiment shows that platinum at least, of those sub- stances affording metallic reflexion, offers no exception to the eneral law deduced for other bodies, viz: that A and E are unctions of the temperature. The nature of this function, and the dependence of A and E upon the wave-lengths of the rays in question must be made the subject of special and extended investigation. It is an unexplored domain. Almost the only researches which give substance for a probable surmise, are those of Jacques already mentioned. The fact that the position in the spectrum of the maximum of thermal intensity is a func- tion of the nature of the glowing substance and independent of its temperature, points to the conclusion that solid bodies belong to the first three classes. = Ri+(a —y)a. Forexample, in hexylene, one pair of carbon atoms is doubly united. Hence we have (C,H,,.)—H,, and the formula is PAS ~)=Ru+a. In diallyl, we have (O.N,,,,)—2H, and the d formula is P a =)=Ra+2a. In benzene, we have (C,H,,,.)— 4H,; but a closed chain exists, with only three double unions; therefore z—y=4—1=3 and the formula becomes P — a R,+3a. Experiment has fully confirmed — P icacen which have been extended to chlorine, bromine and nitrogen which have atomic refractions of 9°53, 14: 75, and 5°35 dedcnctraly. The author thus states it:—The molecular refraction of those bodies from the sum of the atoms, and the excess is proportional to the number of such dual unions, being two units ee for one and 2z units for z double unions. MP we = R,+2z. But this is aa equivalent to saying that the atomic refraction of carbon gher when doubly combined. This con- cedes the variability of mest refraction, which appears to be the Se not only with carbon and oxygen, but also with all poly- tert elements. The atomic refraction of singly united carbon 8 4°86 as above; but that of doubly united carbon is 5°86.— Ber, Berl Chem. Ges., xii, 2135, Nov., 1879. G. ¥. B 63 Scientific Intelligence. . A new method for preparing Hydrobromic and we fr aie —Since both hydriodic and hydrobromic acids are decom- osed by strong sulphuric acid, they cannot be heaved by dis- tilling potassium iodide or bromide with this acid. They are usu- ally prepared by the action of water upon their phosphorus com- pounds, a process which is tedious and inconvenient. BruyLaNnts proposes a new method for preparing these acids, founded on the fact that bromine ae iodine unite at ordinary temperatures with certain organic substances to form compounds which at higher temperatures are decomposed so as to evolve hydrobromic or hydriodic acid. For this purpose he proposes the oil of copaiba, prepared by distilling copaiba balsam with water and drying. The oil boils at 250° to 255°, and can convert three times its weight of iodine or bromine into hydrogen iodide or bromide. It is put in a tubulated retort of 500 cub. cent. capacity furnished with a return condenser, to the end of which is attached a tube leading to a drying cylinder. For 60 grams of the oil, 20 grams of iodine may be used. It is dissolved at a gentle heat, and then the epreene is allowed to rise. A regular evolution of gas soon begins when it ceases, the retort is allowed to cool a little, and hen more iodine is added, until 150 grams has been used. This quantity of iodine gives 145 to 150 grams happen acid. The oil becomes for the most part ate during the reac- tion. Bromine is used in the same way, 0 with more caution. From 60 grams oil and 150 of bromine os grams hydrobromic acid were obtained — Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xii, ee eae a 9. Thermo-chemistry.—Jutius THomsEn has patilisnea. (Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., Nov. 10, 1879), some new and very interesting results from this field of investigation. (1) The heat of formation of the various anhydrous carbonates regarded as formed from metal, oxygen and carbonic oxide, are given as follows : Reaction. . Reaction. Heat Units. Reaction. Heat Units. K, +0,+CO 250,940 Ba+0,+CO 252, 710 Mn+0.+CO 180,690 Nazt+0,+CO 242490 Sr+0.4+CO 261,020 Cd +0,4+C0 161,360 Ags+0.+CO 92,770 Ca+O,+CO 240,660 Pb +0,+CO 139,690 If from these numbers we subtract 66,810 units—that is, the heat produced in the reaction CO+O= CO,—we can obtain in each case the heat of formation of the same salts when formed from metal oxygen and carbonic dioxide; that is, in the general reaction M’+0+CO,. If now from these last values we subtract the heat evolved in the oxidation of each metal the result is the heat of formation of the anhydrous salt when produced from the metal- lic oxide and carbonic dioxide; that is, in the general reaction M"0+C The results thus obtained in a few of the more im- portant —, carbonates are as follows: Heat Ui its. Reaction. Heat Units. Ba +00, 55,580 PbO +CO, 22,580 Sr0O + CO, 63,230 Ag:0 +CO, 20,060 Ca0+CO, 42,490 Chemistry and Physics. 69 Since the molecule _ one wisi tak weighs 100, it follows that 425 units of heat, ound numbers, are abs orbed for every unit of weight of ied ale yr rded as tare calcite) burned in a lime iln, Favre and Assipony found for the same constant the value 308 units which is } too small. A comparison is made in this paper of the heat of iecustion of the anhydrous carbonates and pen ates of the same metal, oreeaed to the general reac- s R’+0,+.C0 and R" +0,+50,, from which it appears tat the alfferbuce i is far from constant. In most cases the heat of formation of the sulphate is Spe than that of the carbonate, the difference varying from 22,620 heat units in the case of the potassium salts to 3430 units in the case of the silver salts; but in the case of the salts of cadmium and manganese she conditions that SO, and CO, stand in different relations to the molecules of the salts, in which these redicads are supposed to exist as actual atomic groups (2) In his previous investigations on the heat of formation of the oxides and acids of nitrogen, Thomsen had left undetermined the heat of Sonatas of NO, which enters as a radical into so many of this class of compounds, The determination of this im- portant vig Rae This the construction of a special aja and for this, as well as for other reasons, has been delayed. The result now r stad “differs greatly from that obtained by Berthelot, pe if aloes, will require a material correction of some of the most import ant thermo-chemical data. peoeeting to Berthelot, N+ 0 = — 43,300 units, while ips o Thomsen this value should be ~36,395 units. Thom t elaton ‘that there is a large error in ha gen. How great a change the correction thus introduced makes in some a partant values calculated from the old data, the follow- ing table shows: Berthelot. Thomsen. N.+0, —48,660 — 33,650 N,+0;+Aq ws 800 +180 For a large number of other thermo-chemical data corrected for the ed fundamental value of N +O, we must refer is loc. cit., page 2 5. Pi; Og FR 7. a New Standard of Light—Mr, Louis Se HWENDLER presents the advantage of using the incandescence of platinum by Means of a constant electric current for a standard of light. In foot-notes he states that this is not a new idea and refers to Dr. 70 Scientific Intelligence. Draper’s sae on oe published in 1844. Mr, Schwendler’s lamp differs in no respect from that proposed by Dr. Draper. From his epaviiionts Mr. Schwendler sohaluiien, that to produce the unit of light equal to the light emitted by a standard candle, from 300 to 725 units of current were necessary according to the size of the platinum strip, while with the use of the carbon electric lamp only 10 units of current were necessary. He thereupon states = conviction that “from an engineering point of view, light by nee can scarcely be expected to compete wi ith light by disintegration” (electric arc). He believes that light by inean- descence is not much cheaper than light by combustion. No reference is made to the late results of Edison on platinum sub- mitted to sikcraicieg currents in a partial vacuum.— Phil. Mag., Nov., 1879, p. 393. KG 8. Re eport on the Electric Light.—Mr. Louis Hepenegtees in a report on the expediency of lighting the railroad stations in India y means of the “eons light, gives the following fefalth of his measurements. A no al candle, six to the pound, and consum- ing 120 grains per pbuh: ieee in —— the unit of light, a work of from 610 to 1365 megerga per second. An electro- dynamic machine with not more than 0-1 Siemew 8 units resistance in the seinen only from 10 to 20 megerga; so that one electric light produce ed ae at one place in the civenity is 50 times cheaper than the candle. Division of the electric light, on the other hand, Mr. Schwendler finds to be uneconomical. A dynamo-electric machine with the greatest pone tide of divisions of the movable coil, ives the most constant current. The strength of the current in- creases at first quickly, then is proportional to the velocity of rotation, then increases more slowly. he electromotive force decreases with a constant velocity of rotation more quickly than the entire resistance increases, and the more quickly the smaller the interior resistance of the machine is. When _the external resistance is zero, tlhe electromotive force reaches its maximum. Oo in volts, J 28°31. 23°87 16°27 Wo 0-81 2572 1ST 3°02 FOL P56 A good dynamo-electric machine should make 700 to 750 turns in @ minute and afford a current in electro-magnetic units expressed by the formula J=0' Ve n an open circuit, and R represents the pregrad ope r the outer resistance. > 20, the loss of work reaches 12 cent.—L. esceare heey of report on Electric light. pee ie , Waterlow Sons. Geology and Natural History. 71 9. Upon the Electro-magnetie rotation of the Plane of Polari- zation in Gases.—Kunpt and Koénteen state as the result of their oS se faa the following: The amount of this rotation under like conditions is different for Ps different gases. They detail the precautions employed in their research, and give the methods at length. It is found that the elec ctro-magnetic ro- tation is the greater the greater the index of refraction of the gas, although the authors have not been able to determine the exact south-direction would experience under the magnetism of the earth a rotation of 1°.— Wiedemann’s Annalen der Physik und —* No. 10, 1879, p. 278. iE. pint AND —— History. E (From a letter to J. D. Dana, dated Philadelphia, Dec 9.)—Professor Lesquerenx has just tags Butho- trephis foliosa on a slab of roofing slate from the rries on the Susq nna River near he aryland line. This i is a most im- portant discovery. Professor Frazer has been studying the roofing slate belt and adjoining chlorites, for several years in connection with his York and Lancaster county work. He never found an traces of organic life, nor could hear of any. But he found hee curious forms in the rocks across the state line in Ma aryland, one of which tacked like a flattened Orthoceras. Bagh saa cree Hall a and Mr, fa hitfield were disposed to con lety’s Prosestings and for the Reports of ‘the Surv: e are the only fossils ever seen in that region to oat knowledge e sl 0 ue is. in our museum an re limestone, ghd in the Hudson hivoe slates, one in the Clinton. he is reported from the Devonian of Russia. Several from i sub-Carboniferous remain Gustadied. B, foliosa is characterist 12 Scientific Intelligence. have our Statington and other roofing slate quarries; and no tra is known in the neighborhood, and no reason can be cast for of Peachbottom. But this belt is a number of miles long, and I can see no wmboriens 2 connection between the trap at one end of it and its metamo Professor aeeap ne els sure that the roofing slates are part and parcel of the chlorite slate formation which makes such a show r satisfactory yet. Mr. C. E. Hall is disposed more and more to m them as re. ill (Hudson River) metam along t the Chester county “South valley” hill, and across "the Schuylkill into Philadelphia and perio Trenton. verything points toward no -conformable basins or me 8 e heart o 2, Pe aaiMauid Second Geological Survey. Harrisburg, 1879 (1) Second Report of Progress in the oe Arne of the Survey arrisburg, by ANDREW S. McCrgatru, MM. 438 pp. 8vo. (2) The Geology of Lawrence & Cownty, and a Special Report on the Condition of the cae asures in Western Pennsylvania and Eastern Ohio, by J.C. W ‘HITE, QQ. 336 pp. 8vo, with a These sidan. ee the series of volumes of Pennsylvania Reports, already numerous, show efficient action in both the head of the Survey and the corps who are at work with him. The first of these Reports, while mostly the work of Mr. McCreath, includes Geology and Natural History. 73 _also the following: Classification of Coals, by P. Frazer, Jr.; Firebrick tests, by F. PLarr; Notes on dolomitic limestones, by . Puatr. The by their number and character indicate a great amount of excel- lent work. They are accompanied by descriptions, and often see- tions, of the beds from which the specimens were taken e of Lawrence County, in which numerous careful sections are given of the coal beds and associated rocks, the results of a spe- cial study on this subject are brought out. The same point, but for a different part of the border region, is illustrated also in the Report of Mr. Chance, who surveyed “the Slippery Rock, She- nango and Beaver River valleys,” in 1875, “for the special pur- ps of connecting the well-known Coal-measures of the Ohio iver valley with the then almost unknown or very ill-understood rocks of Northern Butler and Mercer Counties. The same prob- lem has been studied also by Mr. Ashburner, whose results will appear in a Report now in the press. These different observers, according to Professor Lesley, agree closely in their results, and thus the settlement of this question in inter-State geology is essen- tially accomplished. Geological Survey of California. Mr. Goodyear sailed about the end of September for his new field of labor. 4,.A General Introduction on the Principles of Paleontology ; by H. edition, revised and greatly enlarged. 2 vols. 8vo, 1879. Edin- burgh and London, (Wm. Blackwood & Sons).—This second wood by the author. The author’s acquaintance with general zoology, and his labors among fossil corals and other inverte- 74 Scientific Intelligence. brate fossils, American as well as British, has well prepared him to make a judiciously arranged and convenient manual for stu- dent or instructor; and such is his work. The arrangement is zoological, commencing with the lowest forms, the Protozoans: and in connection with each section the zoological characters and Se and the stratigraphical position or range are stated. resented, but without wandering into speculative discussions. Lhe numerous illustrations are well selected for showing structure and generic and family distinctions. Why the author should write Kainozoic for Canozoie or Cenozoic, when he uses Eocene, Miocene and Pliocene, and not Eokaine, Miokaine, Pliokaine, is not clear. But this is a point in orthography, and does not diminish the value of the work. The mechanical execution of the work is excellent, quite in harmon with the beauty of the illus- trations. All interested in Geology will find Nicholson’s a of Paleontology a sw a valuable companion in their stu Geology. Third edition. 912. pages. 8vo. aaa 1250 figures, with 12 ster ates opt a — of the world. Fat dalled that on Dynamical Geology has been mostly re- written and its pages and illustrations increased in number one- half; and that on Historical Geology, while but rane 8 revised, has received important changes in the pages on the Green Moun- tains, American fossil Mammals, and the Glacier and Champlaii riods of the Quaternary. 7eheod h the kindness of Professor arsh the volume contains also twelve plates: three illustrating the American Jurassic Dinosaurs; two, the two types of toothed birds of the Cretaceous, and giving iar of the complete skele- ton; three, “the Tertiary Mammals of the Rocky Mountain region; and, one, the relations ‘in size of the brains of Tertiary and Mod- mals. In addition, brief lists of works and memoirs are added, bringing out oe history of opinions in connection with the Dynamics " ~ Sei e of Officia I Reports upon — yical Surveys of f British Ni the United ‘Mates and Territories, and o th America ; y age _— Sige Jt., ere ae Geologist . ¢ Minin Hage vol. vii, Tran in ew and much improved catalogue. ives, with the titles, fall details as to size, time and place of publication, names of authors of the ee re _ of a vo cludes, besides overnment report ers of a public chara soba s can be obtained of Profesor, Prime (907 Walnut aes Philadelphia) in exchange for Geological Reports. Geology and Natural History. 75 7. Characee ; . D. Hatstep.—The earliest paper directly re- lating to the American Chare appeared in this Journal in 1843, viz: the “Brief Notice of the Chare of North America, by Prof. Alex. Braun, communicated by Dr. Engelmann.” Two years later a notice of American Chare appeared in a note to Plante local lists and reports of different expeditions, until within the last ew years when the attention of our botanists has been more fre- quently turned to the species of this small but interesting order. The task of determining native species will be much facilitated by two works which have recently appeared. One by Dr. T. F. Allen entitled Characeee Americane, an illustrated work of which two parts have appeared, has already been noticed in this Journal. The other, originally presented as a graduating thesis at Harvard University in May, 1878, by Mr. B. D. Halsted, is now published in part in the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural His- tory. There is a short introduction, giving a general account of t t by Ravenel in the Santee Canal, and the beautiful C. gymnopus, a ? s in Essex County, Robinson; and it is now known in other localities. As a whole the paper shows indications of careful study, and there is only one portion which we would criticize. The group of the Gymnopode including C. gymnopus and C. Robbinsii should be compared with C. polyphylla var. Michaueii Braun, which, as it seems to us, may have been confounded with what Mr. Halsted considers pe be the typical C. gymnopus. It should also be compared with C. sejuncta Braun, a species certainly approaching C. Robdbinsit. The literature of the old C. Michauwii and C. sejuncta is very obscure, and these two species figure unpleasantly in the foot- notes of inaccessible articles. But we hope to have eventually from Mr. Halsted a further elucidation of the Gymnopode. . @ F. 8. Untersuchungen aber die Zellkerne der Thallophyten, by Prof. Fr. Scumrrz.—This paper, an extract from the Proceedings of the Niederrheinische Gesellschaft, is a general review of the mode of occurrence of the nucleus in the different groups of Thal- lophytes. In it the author has embodied his own observations, Which have been made principally in reference to Algw. He shows that the cells of certain genera which were supposed to be without ® nucleus really have not one nucleus but a large number of nuclei, He considers that multinuclear cells occur tolerably 76 Miscellaneous Intelligence. en among the Thallophytes, raise ey in species having 4 siphonous thallus, whether colored (Algz) or colorless (Fungi). In Coeitlarin: Ustilago and some other genera, however, Professor Squamarie, which, it appears, have an arrangement of creeping filaments such as have been described by Thuret and mn in eae fe ett F. arbon de V Oignon or apie by Dr. Max ro In sa pain Rendus of July, Cornu records the appearance in the markets of Paris of - aaa: oe Cepule. The disease which is known to have been n Connecticut and Massachusetts for a Sa of years, ads sist eee hitherto observed in France. Dr. Cornu considers U. U; epulce - = “ oat Sishefokeahsnagepsechiclie einiger Rostpilze, by Dr rf Somme x.—This paper. 5, eng . base per sheeta of an article rthco rs we are more indebted to Dr. Schroeter than to any other otanist. It includes as persis of the Zeto ean species of Pue- cinia which are found on the Umbellifere. In reading the papery one sees at what a complicated condition the study of the Uredi- net has arrived; and that no one but a specialist can hereafter expect to be able to understand what is written on the different transformations of this most perplexing a of plants. w. G. F. 1H; gency Necrology Aes the year 1 Wiuam T. Fray, M.D., died at Sowaadhh. Georgia, on the 22d of Mav; at the age of not far from 76 years. His remains lie in Laurel Grove Cemetery, under the shadow of the noble live oaks whose boughs are funereally draped with long tufts of Til- landsia usneoides, swinging mournfully in the air. This cemetery in the neighborhood of Savannah is associated in the writer's in Dr E with this estimable botanist; for his only visit to = was r, Feay’s company one spring morning. e had known him w 2 saat with this most amiable man. Dr. Feay was one of those botanists who know very much and never publish any- a thing, and who, though living a useful life, poet fail to play the part to which ag are entitled. He was born in South Carolina, studied a while at the University of Georgia, " gv s; then studied medicine at Charleston in his native State, but later turned his mind to scientific studies and to classical scholarship. It is reported that, at a critical period of life, he wasted a ery sid- patie — some excesses; and that when he ca himself and had to live by his own exertions, he chose the Tife of a sre heeckor To this vocation, and to his botanical pursult its as an avocation, he devoted himself entirely for the rest of his life, Geology and Natural History. 77 and for the best part of it in the city of Savannah, in charge of a private school, living alone and with utmost frugality, devoting all his earnings to the purchase of books and all his spare time to the acquisition of knowledge. During the war of the rebellion he took refuge in Florida, teaching when pupils were to be had, studying plants at all seasons, and making some interesting dis- coveries. Several of these commemorate his name, among them a Palafoxia and a pretty little Lobelia. Jacos Biaetow, M.D., far the most aged of American botanists, died at Boston on the 10th of January, 1879, at the age of 92. A brief biography was published in a preceding volume of this Journal (xvii, 263), in April last. AMES Watson Rossins, M.D., died at Uxbridge, Massachu- setts, January 9, 1879, one day before Dr. Bigelow, his only senior among American botanists, as he had reached the age of A biographical notice of him appeared in the Necrology of the preceding year, in February last. Hermann Irziasonn, a cryptogamist of considerable repute, whose name is connected with researches on the spermatozoids of the lower trives of plants, died at Scheneberg, near Berlin, January 4, 1879, at the age of 65. OHAN ANGsTROM, a distinguished bryologist, of Sweden, died January 19th, at the age of 65. . Burx, favorably known for his indexes to DeCandolle’s Prodromus, died at Hamburg, February 10th, at the age of 83. H. G. L. Retcuensacu, the veteran German systematic bot- anist and in his day a voluminous author, a man greatly respected and honored, died at Dresden, March 17, at the age of 86. orchidologist of our time, bearing the same name, is the son, now Professor of Botany at Hamburg. H. R. A. Grisesacu, Professor at Gottingen, and one of the most prominent and voluminous systematic botanists of our day, died May 9, in his 66th year. His earliest considerable work was & Monograph of the Gentianee, in 1839. His most important one, a comprehensive treatise on the Vegetation of the Earth, was published in 1872; his latest, Symbol ad Floram Argentinam, appeared about the time of his unexpected decease. He is well rag West Indies, one of the earlier of the English Colonial as, Tuto Iraiscu, an acute morphologist, author of many valuable Ropers, especially on the subterranean parts of plants, died at ndershausen, aon , April 28, at the age of 64. OUARD Spacu, native of Strasburg, for very many years the keeper of the Herbarium at the Paris Museum, Jardin des Plantes, in the earlier portion of his scientific life a voluminous author, an acute systematic botanist, a worthy representative of the school 78 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Kart Kocn, the prince of horticultural botanists and a most learned dendrologist, born at Weimar in 1809, ae of Asia Minor and the Caucasus in especial reference to the origin or nativity of the long-cultivated plants os — Old World, died at Berlin, May 25, in the 70th year of his a Davip Moorr, Director for ici last forty years of the Glas- nevin Botanic Gardens , Dublin, which he kept in unrivalled per- the a i Fenzt, who forty years ago was the assistant of Endlicher in the Vienna Imperial Herbarium, since Endlicher’s death in 1849 the Professor of Botany and Director of the Botanic Garden at Vienna down to the year 1878, whose earlier studies were directed to the aieucs and their allies, and who published various memoirs 3 critical value, died September 29th, in the 72d year of his a Joun Mrers, the ‘Nestor of age acme died at be resi- dence in London, October i great age He went to South America many years ago as a mining cinidetl there took up with ardor the stady of botany i in which he has so long persevered, made a vast number of drawings and sketches, for which he had a great facility, and in about 1840 he began the long series of his papers in systematic botany, monographical and critical, of which over fifty are enumerated in the Royal Society’s Catalogue of Scientific Papers coming down to the year 1863, ut whose issue continued down nearly to rie last year of his remarkable life. Original in his treatment, and ready to grapple with recondite questions of affinity, in which it is not always easy to control plausible inferences by decisive tests or by intuitive judgment, the value of Mr. Miers’ work must be various, and that of much of it not yet determinable. Some of it is doubtless oo ingenious, and too great trust may have been placed upon draw ings prepared long before their use. But the indomitable spirit of the man, and his guileless amiability were equally and ba! admirable. Ill. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. Geological Survey of ae a Domain.—In the sional oye referred to 1 r former historical notice of the Department for the Dboligiaal Bar’ eys of the National Domain, page 492 “of the preceding volume, the question of an extension of the Survey into ‘“‘all the States” was, as the writer finds, alluded to in its various bearings, though brie riefly. The form of the amend- ment to mA bill, as it was finally passed by the House, is, in full, as follow Rondel That this officer shall oS the direction of the logical Survey, and the classification of the public lands and examination of the geological atest mineral resources, and Miscellaneous Intelligence. 79 products of the National Domain, and he may extend his exam- ination into the States, not to interfere, however, with any Geo- logical Survey now being made by the States.”* The vote for the amendment stood—yeas, 92, nays 53, 141 not voting. It thus appears that the important measure, sprung upon the House in its closing hours, unknown to, and unconsidered by, the country, had only ninety-two votes in its favor. n order that the exact views of those who advocated the bill may be understood, we make a few citations from the remarks in the discussion. Mr. Atkins, its most urgent advocate, said: “Tennessee has a large deposit of coal and iron, and wou Virginia, said: “The vast mineral wealth locked up in our mount- ains should be developed.” Mr. Haskell said “‘Congress does not possess the power to oust the State surveys from their work under the State laws, and this is simply to give free and full power and aeardl to give us what we need—a Geological Survey of the nited States.” On the other hand, Mr. Reagan, of Texas, said “T shall vote against this bill, either with the amendment or without the amendment, because I do not believe the Constitution enables me to pass such a law. , day by day, and step by Step, in advance of them [our predecessors], proceed without the authority of the Constitution in creating new so of the State; and Professor Lesley has given more tim Jac and the following quotations are from the Congressional Record for 80 Miscellaneous Intelligence. than any other person in the country. So other States have their geologists, whose labors have been much among coal and iron deposits, and wa are ready to carry on any further investigations that may bem A special agent at Washington is not wanted, unless it be that the United States Treasury is, through Congress, a more accessible source of funds for surveys than the State Trea- suries. The idea that here is an open door for the supplies needed for new geological cael Aen be pretty sure to give such a scheme favor among geolo The following are points seoortiug ‘ohvéfal consideration before the amendment is passed. Its passage will put an end to all State Geological Sur- veys; for, by it, the General Government appoints a Director for such surveys, and “akee thereby, an implied oes that it will eer the funds requi septal surveys for the whole country, and sur veys of mineral i reference to Agricultural resources, and to all other points on which the value of the Public tas depend. And it might include surveys with reference to water-power along all streams with the same propriety, as these are resources of the highest oe hes (3.) All the weet may go to Congress for Poy) ah ki for Pate various purposes, if they are granted to (4.) Nearly all he: ‘States have had their Geological Surveys and have pabliabed volumes of Reports containing their results with regard to the rocks, fossils, ore beds and all mineral re- sources. More detailed and c complete surveys could, however, in all cases be made. But it would be vastly better, that mensu- ration surveys should first have been carefully made, as the writer has already urged. And with respect to the ore-deposits, these are now so well known through the surveys that have been made, that what remains, even in Tennessee, may well be left to private enterprise. There is no real need for help from the General Gov- ernment. (5.) The development of the resources of the States being as- sumed at Washington, State rights and State duties would thereby be absorbed by the Central Government; and this centralization is opposed aa the spirit if not the letter of the Constitution of the United State (6.) The nepeii of carrying out the deen of the amended bill would be enormous. For the re o be covered by the detailed surveys is the whole country, and a ahi its eho ne ment would demand would reach far into the indefinite future. — As the history of the Department of Geological Surveys is of Poe national interest, we publish here a copy of the estimates which Mr. King has submitted to Congress for the work of the Geologieai Su Surv. ey Department, during the next fiscal year ending une 30 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 81 Geological survey of iron and coal resources of ote a ‘e peo 00 Extending observations on coal and iron into old § Pe 000.00 ge he of agricultural fier on public lands of Missisaigi Bie rans as 25,000.00 Geological survey of gold and silver in Division of Rock Mountains 35,000.00 Geological survey of gold and silver in Division of Great Basin 35,000.00 wel of geological structure of public lands in Mississippi oS, ree 25,000.00 A caty a a nests and classification of public lands of Rocky Mountains..........-...-.-...----.--- 30,000.00 Survey % pecs wide and classification of public lands in Colorado Basin 40,000.00 Survey of oie structure and classification of public lands in Great Bas 30,000.00 Survey of geological structure and classification of public lands in Pacific ..____. 25,000.00 $330,000.00 Thus Mr. ang assumes that the proposed amendment i ood as passed , and makes his call for 330,000 dollars for his rst year’s expenses. The proportion for “ the States” is not very 2 ey it is a beginning. J. D. DANA. 2. andbook of Double patra NES a Catalogue of Twelve Hundred Doak Stars, and extensive Lists of Measures. With additional Notes, bringing the eases up to 1879. For the use of Amateurs. By Epw Dy BOREL Es F.R.A.S., Josepu GLEpHILL, -R.A.S., and Jamzs M. es x, M. A., F.R.A.S. London, 1879. ( Macmillan & Co.)—No Be on this ‘subject has of late years appeared ae will prove of such general acceptance to all classes of observ s this excellent handbook. Only those who have experienced delag aaa vexation from inability to procure the pub- lished measures of stars can fully appreciate the patient labor which the compilers have bestowed upon this volume; and though it is modestly dedicated to the use of amateurs, it is one of those books which the ne, astronomer will find convenient for he wo siping oh in the o ‘aptions to suggest any omissions : yet it is very n erican to ask, why is “‘ Chauvenet’s Aateonons nh 80 Cate ignored by English equatorial observers? The mentio certainly, but his elegant methods of reducing dike er Vations are not given ; nor is there any reference to "his cxhinenvs discussion of the errors to h the equatorial i . an ie invention, is not m nissestioate though it is of great Mh Lespuil Am. ek Sor.—Tairp sense V Vou. XIX.—No. 109, Jan., 1880, 82 Miscellaneous Intelligence. wishes to use but one micrometer-screw. Gauss’s modification of Bessel’s method for determining the focal eS of the object- glass should have been given, because it is one of the very best methods of determining the value of the bassin of the micro- meter-screw; and most observers would have liked to have some- thing about the different eye- es achromatic and otherwise, made by Steinheil, Clark and others. The working out of orbits iy both the graphical and analytical methods is an excellent feature, and it would be difficult to im- a on the arrangement of the catalogue and measures. Double Star Observations made in 1877-8 at Chieago with the 183- inch Refractor of the Dearborn Observatory, comprising, I, @ Catalogue of 251 new abe stars with measures, an . Miorombvical measures of 500 double stars ; by 8S. W. Burynam, M.A. From the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xliv.—Mr. Burnham’s Memoir was received too late for a notice. It bears testimony to his eed. Lbcepaah au energy as an astronomical observer. His observations make an important part of the Handbook of Double Stars, a notic eae 4. Solar Light and Heat, the Source and the Su upply: Gravita- tion: with py eae te of Planetary and Molecular Forces; by Zacwarian Aten, LL.D, 241 PP. 8vo. New York, 1879. (Ap- pleton & Co.)—T his is a sequel to the work published by the motion the moving force which comes Pe us as light and heat. ah is brivis to be expected that his views will be accepted by physici fe OBITUARY. Professor B. F. Mupex.—Professor Mudge died at his resi- dence, in Manhattan, ansed, suddenly, on the 21st of November, of apoplexy. Professor Mudge was the State Geologist of Kansas. Only a few months since—last September—his Report on the Geol- oBy of Kansas was noticed in this Journal. Professor Mudge was man of great industry in his favorite science, and made large col- ipbtionis ot fossils, which were, however, sent to others to describe. as Emeritus Protea: died at the re ee of his son at pen Staten Island, Dec ember Ist , 1879, in his 74th year. He w conscientious and successful teacher of science, and papers by bist on mineralogical and physical subjects will be found in the earlier volumes of this Journal. APPENDIX. Art. XI.—New Characters of Mosasauroid Reptiles; by Professor O. C. MarsH. With Plate L THE Mosasauroid reptiles are so rare in Europe that the type specimen described by Cuvier still remains the most perfect yet discovered there, and the only one from which important char- acters have been made out. In this country, however, this group attained a marvelous development, and was represented by several families, and numerous genera and species. The abundance of specimens is perhaps best illustrated by the fact that the Museum of Yale College contains remains of not less than 1,400 distinct individuals. In not a few of these, the skeleton is nearly if not quite complete, so that every part of its structure can be determined with almost absolute certainty. From this store of material, I have already made out various characters of these reptiles,* and in the present communica- tion several others are recorded, which have escaped the atten- tion of previous observers. The subject is by no means exhausted. THE STERNUM. gate in form, and nearly or quite symmetrical, as shown in Plate I, figure 1. It is thin, slightly concave above, and con- vex below. Its antero-lateral margins are short and rounded, ce and have distinct grooves for the coracoids. The costal mar- gins are much longer, and converge posteriorly. Each has facets for five sternal ribs, and, behind these, false ribs were supported by a partially ossified pedicle, which joined the end of the Sternum. The ossification of the sternum was by endostosis. * This Journal, vol. i, p. 447, 1871, vol. iii, p. 448, 1872. hee © t Vertebrata of the Sretaceous, p. 114, 1875, Also, Bulletin of Survey of — Territories, p. 309, 1878. me 84 O. C Marsh— New Characters of Mosasauroid Reptiles. In the other anes of Mosasauroid reptiles, the sternum has not yet been found so well preserved as in Hdestosaurus, but there can be no mere Wh doubt of its presence. In Holosaurus there appears to have been a partially ossified mesosternum. Toe FoRE-LIMBS. In Plate I, figure 1, the entire pectoral = and paddles of Edestosaurus are represented, essentially as found in the matrix. Hitherto, the limbs of this genus have ane only partially known. ‘The general structure of the paddle is Cetacean in type. The humerus is very short, and the radius is larger than the ulna. There are seven distinct carpal bones, The outer agi The after thas x reds determined aa figured the THE ae Since the writer discovered the posterior limbs in several aie of the Mosasauroids, and figured the pelvic arches, little as been added to the subject. In Plate I, figure 3, the com- plete pelvic arch and hind paddles of Lestosaurus are repre- sented, the latter nearly in the position in which they were found. They are considerably smaller than the ierepalidies but very similar in general form an yi aad has The femur is more slender than the humerus, and there are but three tarsal bones, all on the outer or fibular side. There are five well developed digits, fae number and position of the phalanges are shown in the fi In Tylosaurus i. ene paddles are smaller than those in front, but their structure is very similar. All the genera of the Mosasauroid — have a well developed pelvic areh, an functional posterior limbs. Tur Hyow Bonss. No hyoid bones have hitherto been observed in this grouy but they exist in Tylosawrus and Lestosaurus, and doubtle all the genera. A pair of these bones was found betel! ‘ * This Journal, vol. iii, Plate X. O. C. Marsh—New Characters of Mosasauroid Reptiles. 85 skullof Zylosaurus micromus Marsh, and one of the specimens is represented i in the figures below, which give its main characters. e upper end is obliquely truncated, and occupied by a rugose, concave face (a) resembling an imperfect suture. The shaft is slender, and somewhat curved. The lower end is expanded, and has two distinct facets on the outer and inner angles (b and e), where it was attached to other bones. In Lestosaurus there are byoid bones very similar in form to those here described. Figure ae ry views of a hyoid bone of Tylosawrus micromus, Marsh; one-half na bier. and Tylosaurus, there is 28 arently — pair of hyped bones, more slender than the one here figured Tar Screrotic Priares. In the genera Lestosaurus and Tylosaurus, va orbit was pro- tect by. a ring of osseous plates, somewhat like those in Ichthyosaurus, said a few recent birds. This oe was composed of only a single row of plates, which in position overlapped than eit and their general features are shown in re figures , leening when united a regular imbricated ring. Besides this. Variety, however, two other kinds are found in Momsente These three kinds oceur in the same orbit. All of these ens are somewhat curved, with the concavity external. The outer — margins are thickened, and the inner thin and sharp. The 86 0. C. Marsh—New Characters of Mosasauroid Reptiles. subrectangular shape of all the plates shows that when in position, the outer and inner diameters of the sclerotic ring were not widely different. nusensit Figures 2, 3, and 4.—Sclerotic plates of Lestosaurus simus, Marsh; natural size, external view. The sclerotic plates of the Mosasauroids may be distinguished from the dermal scutes on the head and body by their peculiar — shape, and much larger size. The latter, so far as known, are more rhombic in form, but their variations on different parts _ of the body, and in different species, remain to be determined. Tue TRANSVERSE Bone. ears ee, transverse bone, and Owen, the ectopterygoid, has not been observed hitherto in the Mosasauroids, but it is present 10 both points he was in error. true palatines are small a edentulous bones, in front and outside of the pterygoids. They * Vertebrata of the Cretaceous, p. 118. a 0. C. Marsh—New Characters of Mosasauroid Reptiles. 87 separate the latter from the slender, distinct vomers. In the genus Tylosaurus, the posterior ends of the pterygoids form a distinct head. In Lestosaurus and Holosaurus, this extremity is broad and thin. In none of these genera were the pterygoids united by suture on the median line, but were more or less widely separated. The new characters above presented are all Lacertilian, rather than Ophidian. The important characters of the Mosasauroids now known indicate that they form a suborder of the Lacertilia, which should be called Mosasauria. Holosaurus abruptus, gen. et sp. nov. The type specimen on which the present genus is based is one of the most complete skeletons of the Mosasauroid reptiles yet discovered. This genus is most nearly related to Leséo- saurus, and agrees with it in the form and general characters of the skull. It may be readily distinguished by the coracoid, which is entirely without emarginations, as well as by other points of difference. From Tylosaurus it is separated widely by the premaxillaries, mandibles, and the palatines. _ The present species was one of the shortest in proportion to its bulk hitherto described, the skull and tail being both abruptly terminated. The entire length was about twenty feet. There are 98 vertebre preserved between the skull and a point in the tail where the caudals have a diameter of one inch. Many of these vertebre are in position. The caudals preserved all had articulated chevrons. me of the dimensions of the present specimen are as follows : Length of entire lower jaw (two feet) .....-..-.-- 610°™™ Length of dentary bone, on lower border..-...--- 342° Length of twelfth vertebin 2. ea Transverse diameter of ball......--..--.-------- 50° Length of twentieth vertebra ..........-.------- 85° Beboth Of humwiene 2200000 a oe ay Mie OC Gintal oh. ooo ae MeO Of fadtud. oo Oe sadn Of WA. a 88° Length of femu Slugs ee uo ae Width of distal end.2.0.00 2 oe mebigth of Gbule: eos ee ede: 117° Width of distal end... 0 See eeclaaes 100° Length OF UD a, ee Wrath of diatal and: soc. 2. ee 76° This specimen was found in the yellow Cretaceous chalk of Kansas, y Mr. S. W. Williston, of the Yale Museum. Yale College, New Haven, Dec. 20th, 1879. AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XIX, 1880. oe Plate |. cag 1 ean arch, sternum, and fore gomse: of Edestosawrus dispar, Marsh; ae from Aer, erste ae os size ; capula; c¢. coracoid; sé. staraum ; ie h. ; me. metacarpal; L ee Poot V. fifth digit. t Figure 2 —Seapular os pee Ae limbs osaurus arsh ; from | below. “sixteenth natural size. pot as in figure 1. "Outline of sternum a ie iia a] : Figure 3 3 —Peivi ists ¢ arch and hind limbs of Lestosaurus simus; seen fro shan wiicial size ; il. ilium; pb. pubis; @. coc f femur; ¢. tibia; ord pi Beet / mt. metatarsa The eee 8 are represented as horizontal, and the bones of the arches are somewhat ce | __ displaced to bring them into the same plane Sr ea alesat Saree AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. [THIRD SERIES.] [Read before the National Academy of Sciences, New York, Oct. 28, 1879.] Mean pressure of the Atmosphere over the United States at differ- ent seasons of the year. With serious difficulties, a part of which have resulted from the mode in which the barometric observations at the mountain stations of the United States Signal Service are reduced to the evel of the sea. The method of reduction consists in addin 4 constant quantity to the observations at each station; an the same constant is adhered to throughout the entire year. That this mode of reduction is erroneous appears from a com- Parison of the observations on Mt. Washington with the obser- vations at neighboring stations near the level of the sea. In the following table, column 2d shows the mean height of the barometer on Mt. ashington (reduced to sea-level by the Signal Service method) for each month of the year according to the observations of six years (1871-7). Column 3d shows the mean of the observations at Burlington, Vt., and Portland, Me. (also reduced to sea-level) for the same period; and column 4th Am, Jour. Sct.—Turrp a Vou. XIX.—No. 110, Fes., 1880. a af 90 &. Loomis—Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. shows the differences between the numbers in the two preceding columns. Mt. W. |Bur. & Port Diff. | Mt. W, |Bur. & Port Diff. January 29°724| 30°054 |—0°330)|July 30°225| 29°929 |+0°296 February 693) 29°984 |— -291||August 282} 30°008 |+ -274 March “115 ‘927 |— -212||September 16 003 162 April 873 "930 |— °057 r 015) 29°996 |+ ‘019 May 30°039 935 |+ °104!|November | 29°836 ‘979 |— 143 June 153 926 |+ °227\|December 695; 30°004 |— °309 We thus find that by employing a constant reduction to sea- level for all months of the year, the pressure for Mt. Washing- ton in January is made 0°33 inch too small; and the pressure in July is made 0-296 inch too great. - A similar error must exist in the reduction of the observa- tions at the Rocky Mountain stations, but it is more difficult to determine its exact amount, because the nearest stations of comparison which are situated less than 1,000 feet above the level of the sea, are distant over 500 miles. Under these cir- cumstances I have endeavored to reduce the observations at each of the mountain stations to the level of the sea, for each month of the year, independently. The chief difficulty in making this reduction arises from the uncertainty as to what should be regarded as the temperature of the point situated at the level of the sea and directly under a given mountain station. The following is the method which I attempted to employ. determined for each month the mean temperature of a point on the Pacific coast, and also the temperature of a point in the Mississippi Valley, each having the same latitude as the given station. Between the two temperatures thus determined, I interpolated a value corresponding to the differences of longl- tude between the given station and the two points above named. The following table shows the required data for the month of January and the results of the computation for each of the stations (except Mt. Washington and Pike’s Peak) for which the reduction to sea-level by the Signal Service is made by the addition of a constant quantity. ee eee Temperature. | Reduc. tos, levy.} Mean barom. iy a ee : Eley., : Stations. Lat. | Long. fe0t. | station | Rane. Big.s. Comp. Big. 8 ‘ or ce halal Santa Fé | 35 41|10610| 6862 | 29°76! 46°32| 6-54 | 6-81 | 29°733| 30°00 39451105 4| 5162 | 26-14| 36-23| 5-22 | 5-37 | 29-944] 30° Cheyenne | 4112|10442| 6057 | 23-26 31-80] 5-94 | 6-26 | 29°850| 30°17 0/112 0| 4362 | 29° : ; 4°6 Sood Corinne 41 30/112 18| 4249 | 28-30/ 37-29| 4:25 | 4-63 | 30-116] 30°39 Virginia ©. | 45 20/112 3| 5480 | 16°82| 27-21] 548 | 5 93 Benton | 4752'11040! 2674! 8-28| 19°20! 2-90 | 3-04 | 30-008] 30°15 E£. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 91 Columns 2 and 3 show the latitude and longitude of the stations named in column 1; column 4th shows the elevation of the stations above sea-level as assumed by the Signal Service ; column 5th shows the mean temperature of each station for the month of January according to the observations of five years; column 6th shows the temperature at the level of the sea directly under each station, estimated in the manner already described ; column 7th shows the reduction to sea-level adopted by the Signal Service; column 8th shows the reduction to sea- level computed by Dunwoody’s Tables contained in the Annual Report of the Signal Service for 1876, pp. 854-360; column 9th shows the mean pressure for each station as deduced from the Signal Service observations, and column 10th shows the mean pressures corrected by the reductions given in column 8th. If now we attempt to represent by isobaric lines all the observations at the Signal Service stations for the month of January (employing for the Mountain stations the values given in column 10 of the preceding table), we find that nearly all the observations can be well represented by curve lines which have a tolerably symmetrical form. There are only four cases in which the discrepancies amount to as much as 0:05 inch, viz: Virginia City, Santa Fé, North Platte and Dodge City. he result above found for Virginia City indicates a probable error in the assumed elevation of that station. According to Hayden, the height of Virginia City is 5,824 feet ; according to DeLacy it is 5,778 feet: and according to the Signal Service it Is 5,480 feet. The mean of these three determinations is 5,694 feet. Assuming this to be the true elevation, the corrected pressure becomes 30°15, which accords pretty well with the observations at the other stations. According to Wheeler the height of Santa Fé is 7,047 feet, and according to the Signal Service 6,862 feet. Assuming the true elevation to be 7,000 feet, the corrected pressure becomes 30°14, which accords tolerably well with the observations at the other stations. The results at North Platte and Dodge City appear to be about 0-25 inch too small. These discrepancies cannot reason- ably be ascribed to error in the assumed elevations, but they are apparently due to an erroneous mode of reducing the obser- vations to sea-level. If the observations at these stations as pe aished in the International Bulletin are reduced to sea-level ¥ Dunwoody’s Tables, the results will be found to agree pretty well with those at the neighboring stations. I then drew the isobars which best represent all the Signal Service observations for the month of January, including the four stations above famed, with the corrections which have been indicated. These curves exhibit an area of high pressure for the central part of 92 K. Loomis—Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. the American Continent somewhat similar to that which prevails in winter over nearly the whole of Asia, but much inferior in amount. This area is however apparently divided into three subordinate areas of maximum pressure, one having its center near Salt Lake City; another near Yankton, and a third near Atlanta in Georgia. I next made a similar comparison of the barometric observa- tions for the month of July, and the results for the mountain stations are exhibited in the following table. Temperature. | Reduc. tos.lev.| Mean barom. Stations. : " , ig.S. i ations. | station| ase. | $46 | Gamp-| Sigs: | Gop Santa Fé 69°13 | 70°31| 654 | 6-35 | 29-898] 29-71 ver 73-00 | 70°24| 5°22 | 4-92 | 30-105] 29°80 Cheyenne 69°45 | 70°34| 5°94 | 5-71 | 30°098| 29°87 Salt Lake City | 76°60| 67:24] 4°33 | 4°22 | 29°978) 29°87 Corinne 76°20 | 67°19| 4°25 | 4°13 | 30°028| 29°91 Virginia City 65°33 | 69°67| 5°48 | 5°20 | 29-822) 29°54 Fort Benton 7347 | 65°33! 2°90 | 2°66 | 29-965| 29°72 Column 2d shows the mean temperature of each station for the month of July according to the observations of five years; column 3d shows the temperature at the level of the sea directly under each station, estimated in the manner before indicated ; column 4th shows the reduction to sea-level adopted by the Signal Service; column 5th shows the reduction to sea-level computed by Dunwoody’s Tables; column 6th shows the mean pressure for each station according to the Signal Service obser- vations; and column 7th shows the mean pressure corrected by the reduction given in column 5th, It will be noticed that in four of the seven cases in the pre- ceding table the temperatures in column 2d are greater than in column 3d, and the average of the temperatures in column 2 aod. Thi the same as that actually observed at Salt Lake City, the reduction of the barometer to sea-level will be 0-04 inch less E. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 98 than that given in the above table, which change would not materially affect the conclusions which I have drawn from the observations. now we attempt to represent by isobaric lines all the observations at the Signal Service stations for the month of July (employing for the mountain stations the values given in the last column of the preceding table), we find that all the observations are pretty well represented except those at the four stations above named, viz: Virginia City, Santa Fé, North Platte and Dodge City. If we assume the height of Virginia City above sea-level to be 5,694 feet, the corrected pressure becomes 29°74, which accords very well with the observations at the other stations. If we assume the height of Santa Fé above sea-level to be 7,000 feet, the corrected pressure becomes 29°84, which also accords very well with the other observations. The results at North Platte and Dodge City appear to be about 0°30 inch too small, which is apparently due to an erroneous mode of reducing the observations to sea-level, as intimated on page 91. then drew the isobars which best represent all the Signal Service observations for the month of July, including the four Stations above named with the corrections which have been indicated. These curves exhibit an area of low pressure for the central part of the American continent similar to that which prevails in summer over nearly the whole of Asia, but far infe- rior in amount. was adopted for January for stations whose altitude is less than 1,200 feet. For stations whose altitude is greater than 1,200 feet, the temperature at sea-level was determined in the manner described on page 90. The reduction to sea-level was then computed from the data thus furnished by using Dun- 94 E. Loomis—Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. whose altitude exceeds 1,200 feet, the reduction was also determined by my tables contained in Guyot’s collection of Hypsometrical Tables as published by the Smithsonian Institu- tion, pp. 52-8. The observations at Mt. Washington and Pike's eak, have not been employed in these comparisons. The following table shows the data for the month of January. Column 5th shows the mean height of the barometer as deter- mined at each of the stations; column 6th shows the mean temperature of each station and differs slightly from the num- bers given on page 90, as it includes the observations of an additional year; column 7th shows the estimated temperature at the level of the:sea directly under each station, and differs woody’s Tables (Report 1876, pp. 354-860), and for stations Is January observations. Temperature. Reduc. barom. ‘Stations. | Lat. | Long. | Altt | Mean Diff. = tude. | barom. Station.| gea lev Big Looms. Santa Fé 35°7 | 106-2} 7000 | 23-196] 28-4 | 462 | -189 | -198 | —009 Dodge City | 37°6 | 100°1| 2486 | 27-454] 26-1 | 39°3 | -176 | *181 {| —"005 Denver 39°7 | 105°1| 5269 | 24°721| 26°1 | 36°5 | -211 | -234 | —°023 N. Platte 41'1 | 100°9| 2838 | 27-093] 18°3 | 30°0 | -249 | -255 | —°006 Cheyenne 41°2 | 104°7| 6057 | 23°922| 23°6 | 32°3 | -185 | -193 | —*008 Salt Lake C.| 41-2 | 112°0| 4362 | 25-660] 29-1 | 38:1 | -271 | ‘288 | —"017 Yankton 42-7 | 97°5| 1275 | 28809] 11°8 | 24:3 | -288 | -290 | —-002 Virginia C. | 45-3 | 112-0] 5694 | 24:168/ 17-9 | 29-1 | -135 | -159 | —°024 Bismark 8 | 100°6| 1706 | 28-228} 5:7 | 180 | -214 1 -216 | —002 somewhat from the numbers given on page 90 for the reason E. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 95 found, but the general features of the curves are but little changed. e breaking up of the area of high pressure into three subordinate areas is distinctly indicated, and it is scarcely to be expected that this feature will be made to disappear b a longer continuance of the observations. It appears probable that there is a permanent cause for this peculiarity, and it may perhaps be ascribed to the usual course pursued by barometric minima. The centers of great storms, particularly in winter, generally follow the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains until they reach latitude 40° or a little further south, after which they turn eastward and soon incline somewhat to the north of east. This low barometer is partly compensated by the high pressure which succeeds it, but this compensation 1s apparently not quite complete. The following table shows the data for the month of July for the same stations named in the table on page 94, and the arrangement of the table is the same. July observations. Reduc, barom. Stations Alti- | Mean | Ther- 3 tude. | barom.| mom. | Dun- Diff. woody. Loomis. ° Santa Fé 7000 | 23°353; 69°02 | 29°863) 29°884' —-021 Dodge City 2486 | 27-403! 77°53 *859 "869 —‘010 Denver 5269 | 24°873) 73°16 884 902) —’018 North Platte 2838 | 27°065' 74°77 872 879 007 Cheyenne 6057 | 24°143; 69°60 *854| -883 —°029 Salt Lake City | 4362 | 25°628, 76°84 “798 “816; —"018 Yankton -979| —005 Virginia City | 5694 | 24339 64:54| -788| -809| —-021 Bismark 1706 | 28-143! 70°17) -880! 884 —-004 It will be noticed that the differences between the results by Dunwoody’s Tables and my own are quite small, showing that Dun woodv’s Tables give very good results for altitudes as great as 7,000 feet, for summer as well as winter. . : Plate III shows the isobars drawn to represent the preceding observations as well as those at other stations of the Signal Ser- ‘ice. ese curves bear a close resemblance to those de- nved from my first collection of observations. The area of minimum pressure extends from Salt Lake City northward, and the pressure increases on each side of this area, but most rap- idly on the west side. These curves generally represent the — observations very well; but there are some exceptions, particu- larly at the stations between the Rocky Mountains and Lake Michigan. The greatest discrepancy is at Yankton, where the observed height exceeds that shown on the chart by 0-07 inch; While at Chicago the observed height is less than the chart by 96 E. Loomis—Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 0°05 inch. The observations make the pressure at Dodge City 0°08 inch less than at Denver, while the chart makes the former 0.025 inch greater than the latter. A part of these discrepan- cies may be ascribed to the fact that the observations at the different stations were not all made on the same years. Ac- cording to the Dakota Southern Railroad Survey the elevation of Yankton is 1,202 feet. If we adopt this value, both the Jan- uary and July observations at Yankton accord pretty well with the observations at neighboring stations. The observations at Chicago seem to indicate a small zero error in the barometer. The pressure at Salt Lake City reduced to sea level appears to be 0-472 inch greater in winter than in summer; while in Central Asia the difference between winter and summer amounts to an entire inch. It is evident that the same cause operates in North America as in Asia, but with diminished energy. Comparison of barometric minima in Hurope and America. The monthly Review of the weather for 1877 published by Dr. Neumayer of Hamburg, contains a summary of the results derived from the observations of 1876 and 1877. I propose to Pee gi some of these results with those obtained in the United tates Rate of progress of barometric minima.—Dr. Neumayer has given for each month of the years 1876 and 1877 the average — daily progress of barometric minima in Europe expressed in myriameters. I have reduced these values to English miles oh hour, and the results are shown in column 4th of the fol- owing table. For the purpose of comparison, I have placed in column 2nd the velocities deduced from three years observa- tions in the United States as published in this Journal, vol. x, pel ave also reduced to a tabular form the velocities given in the monthly Reports of the Signal Service since Nov. 1875, T.oomis.!Sigc. Ser Europe 1 Loomis (sie Ser. Europe January | 267 | 33-3 | 16-8 (July 249 | 27-6 | 14° February 32-70 | 28°5 | 14-0 ||August 184 | 22:8 | 145 March 30°5 | 30°2 | 18-2 ||September | 22°9 | 21°5 | 15-0 pril 97°5 24°] 14°9 ||October 25°8 21°4 197° May 23°5 | 23°6 | 12-7 ||November | 29°0 | 25°5 | 15°8 June 21°6 | 23°6 | 14°5 ||\December | 29-3 34:0 | 15°8 | Year 26-0 | 26°3 | 15°5 and have determined the averages for each month. These results are shown in column 3d of the table. They are derived from forty-four months of observation, and refer to the region between the Atlantic Ocean and the meridian of 100° from Greenwich. E.. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 97 The average velocity of storm centers as shown by the monthly Reports of the Signal Service is almost identical with that which I had previously deduced. As these two results are based on the observations of six and two-thirds years, it is probable that they will not be greatly changed by a longer con- tinuance of the observations. Dr. Neumayer’s result is deduced from observations of two years, extending over every part of Europe, and is probably a close approximation to the average velocity of storm centers in that country. The average velocity of storm centers in the United States 1s seen to be 69 per cent greater than it is in Europe. In my tenth paper (this Journ., vol. xvii, p. 3) I determined the average velocity of storm cen- ters on the Atlantic Ocean to be 14 miles per hour, which is a less than the value above found for the continent of urope. : It appears then to be an established fact that storms travel od hour, and the average velocity at Vienna is 11°5 miles per 4 sate 98 E. Loomis—Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. question by a comparison of observations. The most satisfac- tory course would probably be to determine the position of the rain-center with reference to the point of least pressure, for a large number of cases in Kurope and America; but unless we take all the storms of a year indiscriminately, we might be charged with having selected cases for the purpose of establish- ing a preconceived hypothesis. I have therefore adopted a different method, and have taken all those stations both in Europe and in the United States for which I could obtain a record of the rain-fall, as well as of the barometer, more than three times a day. I then divided the rain of each month into 1840 to 1845. For three years the observations were made hourly and for the other year once in two hours. 2. Hourly observations at Valencia, Armagh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, Fal- mouth, Stonyhurst and Kew for 1874. 3. Observations eight times a day at Paris for 1877. 4. Observations once in two hours at Brussels for six months of 1879. 5. Hourly observa- tions at Prague for 1865, ’66 and ’69. 6. Hourly observations at Vienna for 1854, 55 and 56. These are all the stations 10 Europe and America for which I have been able to obtain observations of the rain-fall and barometer more frequently than three timesa day. The results are shown in the following table, and are all expressed in English inches. When the observations at any station were continued more than one year, the average fall for all the years has been taken. The first column under each station shows the monthly fall of rain while the barometer was descending, and the second column shows the fall of rain while the barometer was rising. At the bottom of the table 1s shown the total fall for the year, and the last line shows thé ratio of the total numbers in the two columns. EF. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 99 We see that at Philadelphia the amount of rain which falls while the barometer is descending, is nearly three times as great as that which falls while the barometer is rising, and during the six colder months of the year the rain-fall in the former Relation of rain-fall to barometric pressure. Philadelphia! Valencia Armagh Falmouth Glasgow | Stonyhurst four years. | one year. one year. one year. one year. one year. z 5 Fall.) Ris’g, Fall, Fall.| Ris’g| Fall.) Ris’g| Fall.| Ris’g| Fall.| Ris’g Jan. | 2°36 | 0°42 | 2°90 | 2°04 | 1:46 | 0°49 | 3°52 | 2°92 | 2°13 | 1°18 | 3°38 | 1°54 Feb. | 1°20 | 0°29 | 3°62 | 1-46/ 1°64] °31| 2°95} °85| °53] -28)1°11| °63 March | 2°06 | 0:33 | 1°65 | 1°01/1°08| °49| °89| °76/ 2°24) °70/5°26| -95 Apri 34| 0°97 | 2°64] 1°31 | -88| °70| 1°83} °83]1°02} -72)115| -49 May 95/058] 60! -44|) -91! °18/1:°05| °21/1°99! -50| -65! 98 June | 2°22|0 93] 53] -46| °37) 1°85 63 5/1] July | 2°03 | 2°63 | 3°31] 1°65 | -22| 70/115) 56/269) -99/1:97| 1°07 Aug. | 3°98 | 1°39 | 4:03 | 1-27 | 2°05} 1°75 | 2°93 | -67 | 3-14 | 1°24 | 3°95 | 3-07 Sept. | 1°67 | 0°50 | 4°14 | 2-23 | 1°96 | 1°20 | 4-04 | 1-96 | 2°50 | 1°50 | 3-38 | 2-09 Oct. 1:43 | 0°52 | 5°28 | 1°96 | 2°60 | 1:04 | 5-01 | 1°60 | 5-67 | 1°62 | 3°69 | 2°95 Nov. | 2°60 | 0-48 | 3°45 | 1°08 | 2°12] °76|3°84| -76 | 2°61 | 1°15 | 3°19 | 1-40 Dee 3°19 | 0°68 | 5°17 | 2°06 | 1°91] °91 | 6°44} 2°66] 1°66} 41) 2°81) °85 Year |27-03! 9°37 |37-72117-04|17-29' 8-90 |35°50!14°65|26°71!10°44/31-70116°37 i : 2°42 2°56 1:94 Aberdeen Kew Paris Brussels Prague Vienna one year. one year. one year. (six months.|three years, ‘three years, Fall.| Ris’g| Fall.| Ris’g| Fall.| Ris’g) Fall.| Ris’g) Fall.) Ris’g) Fall.) Ris'’g Jan. | 1:04 | 0°27 | 0°53 | 0°43 | 1°55 | 0°56 0°30 0°27 [0°88 |0°42 Feb. |1:25| 43] -82| -29] °55| °37|1°6911°56| °78| 46| °57)} °68 March] °65/1°97| -22| -21| *61| °15| -30] -50| 80] ‘86! 12] -22 April | °55| °53/1°04| -22| -83| 1-45 1:52] -90] °31| 55] 08} -32 May *64| -331 -27 0| 0O| -76| 53] 47! -76|1°13 11°02 June | 1:00) -12!1:55| -99| 2°58 | 1-94 }1-02 {2°79 |1°00 |1°34 |1°04 |1-09 July /|1:18|}1°16| -88| °39| 1°68 | 1°07 |1°93 |2°82| 63 |1°41| -42 |2°26 Aug. | 3°99 | 2-69 | 1:04 60 {1°16 |1°10 |1°45 Sept. [1-23] -96/2-07| -73|161| °47 -10| 52} -47 |1-02 23| 1-06} 2°00] 1°72} “T1| -87 10} -48| -49| -42 Nov. | 2°35/1-°36/1:°52| -62| -28| 09 46| 53/130] 52 03/1712! -42 9| 15 57 | 41] 73] 35 Year |16°12!13-22|13°12) 6°53 |11°53! 7°76 | 7°12! 9°10/6°42 | 8°75) 8-33! 9-67 Ratio 1°22 2°01 1-49 0-78 0-73 0°86 case is nearly five times as great as in the latter case. In sum- mer there frequently occurs a thunder shower with an excessive of rain accompanied by a slight rise of the barometer, and this affords the explanation of the fact that in July more rain nd, the amount of rain with a falling barometer is more than twice that with a rising barometer; but this ratio rapidly dimin- 100 E. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. ishes as we advance eastward. At Paris this ratio is reduced to one and a half; and in Central Hurope more rain falls while the barometer is ascending than while it is descending. From these observations we must conclude that storms may travel eastward even though the center of the rain-area is some- (this Journ., vol. xvii, p. 12) I have shown that the change of stations, indicating that the west wind in the rear of the storm pushes under the east wind, lifting it from the surface of the earth, so that a change of wind and an increase of barometric pressure is observed at the surface before there is any change of wind at the elevation of 2,000 or 3,000 feet. This move- ment of the winds does not prevent the storm center from ad- vancing eastward, but the storm advances less rapidly than when the center of the rain-fall is considerably east of the cen- ter of low pressure, as is generally the case in the United States. Barometric minima advancing with unusual velocity. Dr. Neumayer finds in Europe occasional examples of baro- metric minima which remain nearly stationary for a few days; and there are other examples of minima which advance with extreme rapidity. ee On the 9th of September, 1876, there was a barometric mint- mum (29°06 inches) not far from Ké6nigsberg in Prussia. Thence it made a circuit through the southern part of Sweden and Norway, and at the end of six days it was in Holland about 720 miles west of the first named position. On the 19th of December, 1876, there was a barometric minimum (28°70 inches) near the southern extremity of Ireland. Thence i made a circuit through England and back into Ireland, and at the end of six days was near Cherburg in France, less than 500 miles distant from the point first mentioned. ce The following table shows all the cases in 1876 and 1877 10 which storm centers advanced over 1000 miles in twenty-four ours. Column 8d shows the progress of the barometric minimum — in twenty-four hours expressed in English miles; columo — 4th shows the height of the barometer (in English inches) é at the center of the storm at the beginning of the day in ques tion; column 5th shows the latitude of the center at the be. : ginning of the given day; column 6th shows the height of the barometer at the center of the storm at the end of the wind reported at any station for that day. The scale is noe ; E.. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 101 stated but is supposed to be 1 to 12. Column 9th shows the different directions of the winds whose force is given in the preceding column. [a5 mowa-s Date. | Profs lhe: fach.| 1% |ong "ach, 8+) Wind. Direction. 1876, Aug. 25-26} 1000 29°37 |43°8| 29°29 [57 8 IN.; W.; 8.W.; S.E. Oct. 10-11; 1330 | 29°13 |57-0| 29°21 |56°0} 10 |W.S.W.; S.W. Oct, 3} 1094 | 28°66 (62-2) 28°74 |68°0| 10 |W.N.W.; S.W.; S.S.W. AP in & se = mn ts sy Dec. 2-3! 1031 | 29°13 |54°0| 29°13 [54-0/ 10 |S 5 canna 6| 1174 | 28°35 |51°8} 28°35 |57°2; 10 |E .E. 7. Jan. 1-2] 1243 | 28°66 |51°8} 28°70-|59°7/ 10 [S.W.; E. Jan. 9-10} 1019 | 29°29 |60-2| 29-13 |63°5| 9 |S.W. Jan. 19-20} 1190 | 29°06 |53-0| 29:13 (660) 8 |S.W.;S.S.W.;S.; S.S.E.; S.E. Feb. 10-11] 1155 | _... |55°5| 29°13 [55°0| 9 |W.; W.S.W.;S.W. Oct. 14-15] 1007 | 28-82 |66-0| 29-13 \66°0| 10 |W.N.W.;S.S.W.; 8. It will be seen that the number of European cases in which storms advance 1000 miles in a day, amounts to 11 in two years, being an average of 54 cases annually; the greatest rate of progress observed is 1330 miles in a day; these storms generally advanced toward a point north of east, and in no case was there a considerable movement toward the south of and car sometimes attain a velocity greater than has been served in Europe, but the amount of the barometric depres- sion is much less. In my first paper (this Journ., vol. viii, p. 4 T alluded to these examples of high velocity, and showed that in these cases the rain-area extended eastward of the storm’s center to an unusual distance. The same subject was further considered in my third paper (this Journ., vol. x, p. 6). i now present a summary of the cases in heh barometric minima advanced at least 1000 miles in a day, during the period for which the observations of the Signal Service have been published entire, viz: Sept, 1872, to Jan., 1875, and January to March, 1877. In the following table, column Ist gives the number of reference; column 2d gives the date of com- 102 #. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. the given day; column 5th shows the station at which the height mentioned in the preceding column was observed ; col- umn 6th (increased by 28 inches) shows the height of the barometer at the center of the low area at the end of the given day; column 7th shows the station at which the height men tioned in the preceding column was observed; column 8th shows the direction and velocity (in miles per hour) of the highest wind at any of the stations near the low center during the given day; column 9th shows the direction and velocity of the highest wind on Mt. Washington. observed during the progress of the storm or immediately after the storm had passed eastward; column 10th shows the total rain- fall at the Signal Service stations within the low area (barometer below thirty inches) during the day in question ; column 11th shows the distance that the rain area extended eastward of the center of least pressure ; column 12th shows the distance east- ward from the storm-center that abnormal winds extended (that is, winds from S., S.E., E. or N.E.); column 18th shows the direction of an area of high barometer, with reference to the low center; and column 14th (increased by thirty inches) shows the greatest height of the barometer within the high area mentioned in the preceding column. : Besides the cases here enumerated there are a few others in which storms may have advanced with equal rapidity, but there is so much uncertainty with regard to the exact position of the center of least pressure that I have preferred to leave them out of the account. The number of cases in the table 1s 9, occurring within a period of 82 months which gives an average of 14 per year, being 24 times as many as occur In Europe. The greatest observed velocity of these low areas was 1872 miles per day, which is 40 per cent greater than the highest velocity observed in Europe. The average height of the barometer at the beginning of the days enumerated was 29°62 inches, and the average height at the end of the days was 29°42 inches, which is only half of the average depression observed in the storms of Europe. In 2 of these cases the depression at the center of the storm I creased during the day, in 11 cases it decreased, and in one case it remained stationary. In each of these last 12 cases except Nos. 31, 37 and 38, the center of low barometer pas north of the United States, and it is doubtful whether the lowest barometer was observed. Thus we see that in the American cases, the storms generally increased in intensity, while in the European cases there was a slight diminution of intensity. : The highest wind recorded at any station during the days 2 question (excluding Mt. Washington and Pike’s Peak) ranged E. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 108 Barometric minima advancing at least 1000 miles in 24 hours. Rain. ‘ High Bar Soke 5. i : 25 | 38 38 Bei +./ F8!] & lee S| Date. | Be 83 | station. S2| station. Highest | Windoo | 32 | 8816881 & isa Al éa7 a7 . ag i:wela 2 iss a 1a a SS |mAle | 5 i 1872. 1INoy. 6.2/1376|1-45|Pembina |1°12|Portland |N. 41\N.W. 65|15°08/1357/1357 S.B. | “19 2 24.2/1214)1-62/Keokuk |1°39|Quebee |W. 36,W. 85| 0°44! 429/1056S.K. | “30 3/Dec. 14.1/1132|1-67\Omaha _—‘{1°51|/Montreal |N.W. 32\N. 68] 0°18) 134| 541S.B, | 45 4 aie -1)1295)1°70|Indianola |1°43/Buffalo {|N.E. 33/N.E. 55/11°59| 650/1220|N.K,| 52 5\Jan. 4,.3/1215/1-74!) Memphis |1°33'Portland |N.E. 42|8. 64|30°66| 462} 983,N.K,| °35 6 .3/1404)1°80|Lake O’y 1°17 a . 40/W. 54] 9°71] 944/1118/N.B| “21 ‘Feb. 15.3/1055|1-59|Memphis |1-53/N. London|N.E. 36|N.E. 60|20°19| 948,1042\N.E| 48 8\May 12.2/1145/1-44|St, Paul 135 Porta 30|N.W. 72] 3°22) 318] 543) §. | 08 9Nov. 3.3/1100|1-49/Duluth —_‘/1-60/F. Poi . 80/N.W. 65] 0°00] 000} 727/S.E. | 36 10 23.1/1270|1-73) Indianola |1°48 Pittsburgh LE. 47/N.W. 72/11°57/1058)1270|N.E.| 48 11 a 1002/1-48/Pittsbu’gh! 0-82) Halifax .E. 59/N.W. 72/2839] 640} 917/N.E.| °34 - Jan. 3.3/1000/1°31 . 1°55|F. Point IN. 40/S.W. 80] 4-92} 00/1270/S.E. | -33 hey 6.2/1212)1 —— 1°70 Sydney 36|N.W. 108|11°94) 780) 728)N.E,| °36 : 19.1)1123}1-52 1°70\F, Poi WwW. 67/8. 72) 154) 846 103 S.E. | “44 . 22.1/1374|1-89 due 1°58)/Rochester |E. 65/W. 92} 3°44/1226/1700| K. | °27 ile 23.1)1058|1°58/Roches’r |1°47/F. Poi . 65/W. 92] 9°76] 783] 947/S.E.| 23 a arch 3,1/1114|1-29 rae 1°34|Ottaw . 851S.W. 96/12°30} 676/1424'S.K. | 13 191A 18,2/1187 ar okuk 1°19 Quebee V. 35|N.W. 110/15°83}1011,1607| K, | -24 pril 5.1/1065|1-71|St. Louis |1-63 Ottawa W. 40\N.W. 60| 8-45 663) EB. | “51 i No 2.1/1175 1 “89 st Paul (1°72'F. Point |N.W. 18\N.W. 82| 0-96 464.S.B. | 22 OV. 28.1/1466|2°15|Mobile —_|1°54 Quebec LE 50/N.W.100; 1-04/1025/1080 N.E,| °48 - 2.2 4d ’e |1°64'C. Rozier |N.W. 41/N.W. 76| 0°33] 596) 744/S.K. | ‘38 94, 13-2|1092|1-83|Cleve’nd [1-42/Halifax [N. 52\N.W. 98) 6°17) 668, 835/S.E, | -25 16.1/106 a: 159 Ottaw LW. 40|\N.W. 85) 5°65] 572/1170/S.K. | 56 96 23.2/1165/1:49|Marqu’e |1°37' Halifax vy. 39|/N.W. 80] 1°63 640 S.E. | 16 27.2 hei ped Bismark |1°59|Quebec |S.W. 30)N.W. 100) 8°91) 663) 956/S.E. | °21 27 ag -3/1170/1°94|Marqu’e 0°89|Halifax |W. 44/N.W. 90/15-59| 668) 671/S.E. | -43 : Jan. — 1,1/1126/1-62/St. Marks |1-35|Boston 1. ~5O|N.W. 100)21°25| 643] 93 36\N.E. ‘21 : 6.1|1048/1°84| Mobile os aye sam [.W. 68|N.W. 96/12°72| 577/1223'N.E,| “33 . 7.3|1872/1 84/ Indianola v. 52iN.W. 96) 4°08|1080 922 S.E. 09 : 15.1/1270)1-45|F. Gi ef ariel I. 48|N.W. 84/20°68/1158/1275 N.E.) 35 33/M 1080/1°63| Bismark Parry § v.W. 36)N.W. 96) 1° . 840'8.E. | 35 arch 1,2/1003|1°56| Memphis arry S 42'N.W. 84|23°21| 905] 991/ E. | °23 3.2/1178)1-61/Indian’lis |1°52/F. Point |S. 31{N.W. 10% ma 758] 958) S. | 19 : 6.2/1055/1-59|Escanaba |1°71/Chatham |W. 32\N.W. 72 270| 705) S. | 33 8.2}1061|1-16/Cincin’ T4IF, Point |S. 50IN.W. 72 ses 1080/1080/N.E.) -43 15.3/1050/1-56\Dodge C. |1°64|/Knoxville [N.W. 44|N.W. 60| 3°57| 839 839'S.E. | “18 pe 5i!20 ah *66|Leaven’th He Henry |N.W. 40|N.W. 60) 1°11 siF See we. "32 —__*02/1047)1°55)St. Louis 1:57/Malone |N. _36|N.W. 60/11-89) 593)1037) E. | 30 {Means | lieal aa 42-1] 80-4| 9-97! 667| 993) 104. #. Loomis— Observations of the U. 8S. Signal Service. from 18 to 68 miles per hour. In the case of No. 20, winds higher than 18 miles per hour prevailed in other parts of the United States, but it is doubtful whether they ought to be regarded as belonging to the storm here investigated. The average of the numbers in this column of the table is 42 miles per hour. The number of cases for the different points of the compass is shown in column 2d of the following table. Cases. | Mt, W. ] Cases, | Mt. W. North 9 i South 4 | 2 North West 8 28 |\South Hast 0 0 est 5 4 |\Kast 3 0 South West 4 2 North East 6 Z Thus we see that in 28 of the cases, the highest wind came from the quarters N.E., N., N.W. a .; and in only 11 of the cases did they come from the quarters S.W., S., S.E. and E. The average direction of these violent winds was about N.N.W. while in Kurope it was but a little west of south. On Mt. Washington the highest winds range from 54 to 110 miles per hour, the average being 80 miles. The number of eases for the different points of the compass is shown in col- umn 8d of the preceding table, and we see that in 35 of the cases the highest wind came from the points N.E., N.W. and W.; while in only 4 of the cases did they come from the points -. , 9H. and E. e average rainfall in 24 hours within these low areas was 9:97 inches, which is considerably in excess of the usual rain- fall at the same stations) The amount of the rain was how- ever very variable, ranging from 0 to 36 inches; and there were ten cases in which the total rain-fall within the low area was less than two inches in 24 hours. In 6 of these 10 eases the storm center passed beyond the northern boundary of the United States or very near to it, and it may be claimed that probably there was rain on the north side of these low areas; but in Nos. 2, 3 and 38, the center of the low area was 500 miles south of our northern boundary. No. 21 was 4 eculiar case. On the morning of Nov. 28, 1874, the lowest arometer at any of the signal service stations was 30°15 inches, ‘ so that the barometer at Mobile was only relatively low, the — pressure being unusually high from the Atlantic to the Pacific cean. In preparing column 8th of the table, it was necessary to have a uniform rule which could be applied without bias, and I have regarded the term low as acadiaa all stations sur- rounding the storm center, where the barometer was below 30 inches. This rale indicated no rain for the morning and after- noon observations of Noy. 28th, although in fact there was # great fall of rain and snow within the system of winds which — : E. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 105 circulated about Mobile. If all this precipitation is regarded onging to the storm No. 21, it makes a total of 17:60 inches for that day. No. 15 presents another case in which the rain-fall in column 8th is made to appear very small in consequence of the rule above stated, but if all the rain in- cluded within the system of circulating winds for that day were counted, the total would be 12:19 inches. We see then that these cases of fast moving barometric minima were generally accompanied by a large rain-fall; but there are apparently some cases in which the rain-fall which can be associated with these low areas was very slight. Such were Nos. 2, 3 and 38. The area of rain generally extended a great distance in ad- vance of the storm center, the average distance being 667 miles, but there were several cases in which the rain extended but ed tw Systems of circulating winds, and was apparently levelled before the morning of September 3d. hat now is the cause of these rapid movements of storm centers? Several of them apparently resulted from the mutual influence of two low areas. In my 10th paper (this Journ., vol. Xvul, p. 5) I showed that on the Atlantic Ocean two low areas quently become merged in one. In such cases the eastern low area is generally retarded in its progress, and is sometimes turned backward toward the west. At the same time the Progress of the western low area must be accelerated. Such near our borders, although the geographical extent of the weather maps is too small to exhibit the full development of Jour, waren “asa: Vou, XIX, No. 110,—Fxs., 1880, 106 =. Loomis—Observations of the U. S, Signal Service. these changes. Nos. 3, 6, 8, 9, 13, 15, 18, 19, 20, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 33, 34, 35, 37 and 38 were apparently of this kind. e maps accompanying the Hamburgh Review for January, - 1877, clearly show that No. 7 of the cases on page 101 belongs to this class. I have no information which enables me to judge of the other European cases on page 101. The cases of barometric minima enumerated in the table on page 103 were all accompanied with high winds and some of them with violent winds; they were generally accompanied with a great fall of rain or snow, and the rain-area generally extended to a great distance in front of the storm’s center; but the most noticeable circumstance which characterizes all the cases is the great extent of abnormal winds in front of the storm’s center. ese abnormal winds were apparently due to an area of high barometer situated on the south, southeast, east or northeast side of the low center. These winds (in consequence of the rotation of the earth) tend to produce a depression of the bar- ometer on their left side. They were generally accompanied with a considerable rain-fall, which tends to increase the velocity of the winds and thus produce a greater depression of the barometer. In order to illustrate more clearly the operation of these dif- ferent causes, I have prepared Plate IV, which shows the isobars and winds for January 15, 1877, at 4.385 p. mM. (case No. 31 of the table on page 103). We see that the center of the low area ment due to these causes would soon cease if there were no recruiting force. This force is supplied by the precipitation of the vapor which is present in the air. When this vapor is con- ak the neighboring air rushes in with great force to de an the place of the condensed vapor, and the air is expanded by the latent heat which is set free. This cause is sufficient to maintain high winds as long as there is a great precipitation of vapor. On Plate IV the direction of the wind is indicated by arrows; and the force of the wind is indicated by the number of feathers attached to the end of the arrows. One feather indicates 4 EF, Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 107 velocity not exceeding five miles per hour; two feathers indi- . cate a velocity from six to ten miles; three feathers from eleven to fifteen miles; four feathers from sixteen to twenty miles, and so on for higher velocities. The center of low pressure advanced eastward along the dot- ted line represented on Plate IV. Some have claimed that this advance of storms is simple drzft, the entire mass of air within the low area being carried bodily eastward, that being the average direction in which the atmosphere moves in the middle lati- tudes. This explanation will pot stand examination. If while the winds are circulating around a low center, the entire atmos- phere within the low area is carried bodily eastward, the effect of this movement should be different upon the northern and southern portions of the storm. In my former papers I have shown that on the north side of low areas in the United States the average direction of the wind is nearly northeast, an the south side it is from the southwest, and the average velocity of the winds on both sides is nearly the same, viz: eight miles per hour, while the average progress of the low center is twen- ty-six miles per hour. Suppose now the velocity of progress to be increased to fifty miles per hour, if the entire mass of air within the low area is carried bodily eastward, the velocity of the wind relative to the earth’s surface should be greatly in- creased on the south side of the low area, while that on the Storm, the average velocity of the winds is 14°9 miles per hour, and on the south side it is 85 miles; that is, on the north side the average velocity of the winds is seventy-five per cent greater than it is on the south side. The air within this low area did 'g bodily from place to place at the rate of twenty-five miles per hour, the wind at the center should blow at the rate of 108 EE. Loomis— Observations of the U. 8. Signal Service. twenty-five miles per hour. We must then conclude that the progressive movement of areas of high barometer is like that wave, and its apparent motion results from a subtraction of air from one side and an addition of air to the opposite side. The progress of areas of low barometer must be due to sim- ilar causes. e pressure is diminished on the east side of the low area and increased on the west side, in consequence of which the iow center suffers a displacement with reference to the earth’s surface, and the rate of progress of the low center will depend upon the rate at which the pressure is reduced on the east side, and restored on the west side. The advance of storm centers across the United States may be affected by atmospheric conditions prevailing much beyond the limits of the signal service maps, so that we cannot be sure that we know all the circumstances which influence the case we are considering, but from Plate IV we can see a reason why the pressure on the west side of the low area should be rapidly restored. The air from the north and northwest rushed in with great velocity. This air had a very low temperature, the ther- mometer at 4.35 pP. M. (Washington time) being below zero of Boston on the east. The moist and warmer air on the east side of the low center rises from the earth’s surface and is supplan by the cold air which presses in upon the west side. The great extension of the rain area on the east side causes an unusually rapid fall of the barometer on that side, and a corresponding advance of the storm’s center. e have seen from the table on page 99 that in the middle latitades, storms generally travel eastward, even though the age rain-fall should be on the west side of the low center; but when the principal rain-fall is on the east side of the low center, this causes a diversion of the winds in that direction, and the low center travels eastward with increased rapidity. W. Harkness—Color Correction of Achromatic Telescopes. 109 During the entire progress of the storm of January 14-17, 1877, the winds on Mt. Washington blew uninterruptedly from the northwest, and the least velocity reported was thirty-six miles per hour, showing that the movements represented on Plate IV were confined to the lower stratum of the atmosphere and did not reach to the height of 6,000 feet. Most of the cases enumerated in the table on page 103 agree with No. 81 in several of the particulars here stated. eir rapid movement eastward appears to have been due to an un- usual extension of easterly winds which seem to have owed their origin to the accidental proximity of areas of high barom- eter, and the influence of this high barometer was sustained by the precipitation of vapor which extended to an unusual dis- tance on the east side of the low center. Art. XIT1.—On the Color Correction of Achromatic Telescopes ; A reply to Prof. Cuas. S. Hasrrnes; by WM. Harkness. In the December number of this Journal, pages 434 , en distinguished Associate Professor of Physics of the Johns p : ‘ he i +A,, but that asserts nothing as to likeness of the latter Symbols in sign. (II) Thus in equation (16) may be negative 110 W. Harkness—Color Correction of Achromatic Telescopes. and consequently his subsequent reasoning is fallacious, for in that case 7 does not have to be infinite to cause equation (27) to vanish. (III) I may oe that the origin of the confusion is in making the ratio D ~ n equation (9) constant ; it may be, and of course should be cue BRC = (LY) Professor ‘Harkness has made another merge founded Mathematics. (V) His eo eer however (p. Sot direotly contravenes this principle, for he finds that the focal plane does not aie to the minimum focal distance, but to something greater. (VI) The source of error is the introducti ion of a varia- itself differently in observing the star and its spectrum. Had the writer used eye-pieces of successively higher power, thus lessening seaciacechs the power of accommodation of the system, with his pri u i serve to control the eye. “(VII) Finally, cae re conclusion (p. yh is strictly true, though we are not to conclude, as would seem from the text, that the detriment due to the secondary spectrum aupunie either solely upon the aperture or varies inversely as the focal length ; Let us examine this criticism in detail; referring- to its clauses, and to wes equations of my original paper, by their respective num Clause [ wnaally asserts that three quantities can be arranged in two classes otherwise than by putting one in one class an two in the other. To prove this we remark that equation (12) may be written 0 = A,(d, + 2¢,y,2) + A,(b, + 2¢,7,”) + A,(b, + 2¢,7,") (36) For all glasses of which I have any knowledge, é is positive, and very much larger than c. The latter quantity is some- times negative ; but when this happens, it is exceedingly small. 7 cannot be otherwise than positive. From these conditions it results that the quantities (b+ 2cyo’) are invariably positive, and therefore the sign of each term in (36) depends solely upon the sign of its A. But in order that (36) may be true, one of its terms must have a different sign from the other two; and just because the properties of a system of infinitely thin lenses W. Harkness—Color Correction of Achromatic Telescopes. 111 in contact are independent of the order of the lenses; the choice of this term is arbitrary. Taking advantage of this circumstance to follow the usual practice of opticians, I made the middle lens different from the other two, and wrote es a A, (4, rs 2¢,y,) — A,(4, +: 2c,y,') oe A,(6, - 2¢,y,') (37) But Clause I declares, ‘True A, should have an opposite sign to A; + As, but that asserts nothing as to likeness of the latter symbols in sign.”—A statement which is manifestly untrue, unless it can be shown that three quantities can be arrang in two classes otherwise than by putting one in one class an two in the other. Clause IT asserts that n, in equation (16), may be negative. This is absurd, because n = A,~ A,, and it has j een shown that the signs of A, and A, are always similar. Clause III declares that D ~ E should be indeterminate ; and that all my alleged errors arise from making it constant. Referring to equations (6), we see that - = wee + Ab, + A,d, (6) = Ave, + A,c, + A,ec so far arbitrary that any glasses, and any curves, may chosen; but when the objective is completed I certainly do hold that its curves, and the physical properties of the pieces of glass composing it, are constant. If I am right in this, it follows that both D and E, and also their ratio are constant; Clause III to the contrary notwithstanding, Clause IV admits the accuracy of my statement that an objective is pro erly corrected for any given purpose when its minimum focal distance corresponds to rays of the wave-length which is most efficient for that purpose; but says the statement Tequires proof, and is not self-evident. With the law of dis- persion assumed in equation (2), the focal curve can have but One tangent parallel to the axis of abscissas; and I did not Suppose it necessary to tell the readers of this Journal that the parts of such a curve nearest the tangent line are those adja- Cent to the point of tangency. That consideration proves m Proposition, and it is so elementary that I thought it. self- evident. If more than two lenses, and a dispersion formula Involving more than two powers of the wave-length, are assumed ; I venture to say that the condition for color corree- ton stated above cannot be proved. It may be true in special Cases; but in general, the focal curve will have such a form as ‘0 give more than one minimum focal distance. 112 W. Harkness—Color Correction of Achromatic Telescopes. Clause V involves the assumption that the focal plane must be tangent to the focal curve at the point where the latter makes it nearest approach to the objective. No reason is assigned for this, and I do not believe any exists. Clause VI virtually asserts that the focal distance of an objective is a function of the power of its ocular. For all astronomical instruments carrying filar micrometers, the first business of the observer is to place the wires accurately in the focus of the objective. This once done, they are not again dis- turbed, unless to make some radical change in the instrument. A dozen eye-pieces may be used in the course of a single evening; but no matter what their power, when they are with the wires. But the plane of the wires is fixed; and the focal curve, as I have defined it, is also fixed. Consequently, the points of intersection of the focal plane with the focal curve are fixed, and the universal experience of astronomers demon- strates that the positions of the points 7, and y, do not vary with the power of the ocular. As Clause VII affirms the correctness of my fourth conclu- sion, it is only necessary to express my thanks for such an indorsement; but I cannot refrain from adding that, since this clause rests upon equations condemned by my critic, there may be people wicked enough to inquire how these erroneous equa- tions finally led to a correct result. In this connection it is desirable to state that some months ago I investigated the relations existing in achromatic objec- tives between aperture, focal length and secondary spectrum. As the admissible limit of the latter of these elements is arbi- trary, it is not possible to fix absolutely the relations between the other two; but I believe the focal distance should rarely be less than that given by the formula F = (9:04a° + 1296)? — 36 (38) in which F is the focal distance, in feet; and a the clear aper- ture in inches. For small apertures, the foci given by this expression are inconvenienutly short; while for large apertures, they considerably exceed those in general use. Now consider a system of infinitely thin lenses in contact ; and let us inquire how many lenses are needed in the system, to bring the greatest possible number of light-rays of different degrees of refrangibility to a common focus, with any give? law of dispersion. For this purpose we revert to equation (5), which may be written f= (#, = DAA, — A, + (4, — A, + be. (69) W. Harkness—Oolor Correction of Achromatic Telescopes. 118 the number of terms being unlimited. For the dispersion formula, we write = P(A) (40) The form of g(A) is regarded as unknown; but there will be no loss of generality if it is developed in a series arranged accord- ing to the powers of 24. We therefore have Maat ba"+ cA"+ el? + Ke. (41) in which a, 0, c, ete., are constants, and the number of terms may be taken as great as is desired. Also, let us put O=A(a,— 1) + A(a,—1) +A,(a—1) + he. D=Ab,—Ab,4 A+ &e. E= Av.e,+ A,c, + A,c, + &e. (42) F>=Ae, + A,e, + A,e, + &e. &. &. kk. & right hand member of each of them, being the same as the number of terms in the right hand member of (41). Then, by @ simple transformation (39) becomes f= C+ DA" 4 EA* +4 Fa + &e. (43) This is the equation of the focal curve; A being the abscissa, and f the ordinate. Its first derivative is =~ f'(mDIA™ + nEN 4 pF 4 fe.) (44) the number of these equations, and the number of terms in the which, as is well known, expresses for every point of the curve the tangent of the angle made by the tangent line with the axis of abscissas. The number of rays of different degrees of refrangibility, which can be brought to a common focus, will evidently be the same as the number of times the focal plane intersects the focal curve. But the focal plane is necessarily parallel to the axis of abscissas; and therefore the greatest possible number of intersections of the curve with the plane can only exceed by one, the number of tangents which can be drawn parallel to the axis of abscissas. To find these tangents, we equate (44) to zero, and obtain 0=mD + nEA*™ + pFAP + &e. (45) As 1 can never be either zero, imaginary, or negative, we have to consider only the real positive roots of this equation; _ each of which corresponds to a tangent. To make the number OF roots as great as possible, the quantities D, E, F, etc., must be ‘Independent of each other; which will be the case when the right hand members of the equations (42) contain as many Sas there are powers of 4 in (41). Hence it is evident that the number of real positive roots in (45) will be one less than the number of powers of 4 in (41), and we conclude that— 114 Wz Harkness—Color Correction of Achromatic Telescopes. In any system of infinitely thin lenses in contact, the number The color week of an ‘objective depends only upon the form of its focal curve; which form is as much under control as the nature of the case admits when the es D, By 8, etc., of equation (43), are independent of each other. This, taken in connection with what precedes, Ben kataies that— siehce n objective consisting of a system of infinitely thin nses in contact, the color correction cannot be improved by reer t the number of lenses beyond the number of different powers of 4 involved in the dispersion formula employed. This result confirms the conclusion of my former paper, in which [ used a dispersion formula involving but two powers of the wave-length, and consequently found but two lenses neces- sary in an achromatic objective. It also throws a curious light upon the general ered of aa be cas If the law of dis- spective of any irrationality which may exist in the pid With rational spectra, and a law of dispersion involving at least two different powers of the wave-lengths, a pair of len would suffice for the construction of a perfectly sch eoneele objective. In strictness, these statements apply only to objec- tives consisting of infinitely thin lenses in contact. Possibly they may require modification when the thicknesses and dis- tances apart of the lenses are considered. The text books teach that the condition of achromatism for two thin lenses in contact is O=pF,+DS, td in which f, and f are the foci, and p, and p, the di rl ea powers, of the ApS They further teach that it is sufficiently accurate to put W. Harkness—Color Correction of Achromatic Telescopes. 115 fp Bits (47) in which dy is the difference, and yz the mean, of the refractive indices for the rays D-and F. For a law of dispersion involvy- ing at least two different powers of the wave-length, these equations will hold; but for a law involving only a single power of the wave-length, they may be satisfied, and yet the system of lenses will not be achromatic. Instead of embodying, these equations are actually independent of, the essential con- dition of achromatism; which is that at least two rays of pee different wave-length must be brought to a common ocus. I have not had leisure to examine my critic’s figures ; nor does it seem worth while to do so. My equation (2) represents Written in equation (2), has hitherto been most used ; but when compared with the best observations, the residuals, although small, show some constancy of sign. It has recently been | claimed* that Briot’s formula, which is ' fab? +4 cl + kM (48) represents the best observations, throughout the whole space om the extreme ultra-red to the extreme ultra-violet, within the limits of accidental error. If such is the case, a triple objective may possibly be better than a double one; but my critic's figures certainly do not suffice to prove this. They are pendent variable other than the wave-length, is likely to pro- uce erroneous results, and certainly does not tend to elucidate the subject. * By M. Mouton, in the Comptes Rendus, 1879, vol. xxviii, p. 1190. 116 W. O. Crosby—Pinite in Eastern Massachusetts. objective to not more than three; we are now in a position to appreciate the absurdity of my critic’s assertion, page 429, when, enquiring if it is possible to eradicate the secondary spectrum by increasing the number of lenses in an objective, he says, ‘Theoretically, since a new disposable constant for color change is introduced with each lens in the system, the answer is evidently affirmative; * * *” For an objective consisting of more than two lenses, and a law of dispersion involving more than two powers of the wave- length, the condition given in my former paper, page 196, for the best color correction, is no longer applicable. The problem then becomes very complex, but I am inclined to think that it is satisfactorily solved by attributing to each element of the focal curve a mass proportional to its efficiency for the purpose for which the correction is required, and varying the curve until its moment of inertia about its intersection with the focal plane becomes a minimum. It is also probable that this condition will suffice to determine the relative merits of double and triple Washington, Dec. 29, 1879. Art. XIV.—Pinite in Hastern Massachusetts: its Origin and Geological Relations ; by W. O. CRossy. ONE of the most interesting constituents of the conglomerate so extensively developed in the vicinity of Boston is a 80 greenish and somewhat unctuous, amorphous mineral, which many observers have mistaken for serpentine, but which 18 shown by its ready fusibility not to be magnesian ; while analy- sis proves that it is essentially a hydrous alkaline silicate of aluminum. In fact, it presents in its chemical, as well as 1ts physical, characters a close agreement with the species pinite. (See analyses below). The hardness is ordinarily near, or 4 little above, 8; the purer varieties, however, usually refuse to scratch calcite. The specific gravity, so far as determined, 18 between 2°7 and 2°75. Luster none, or waxy and feebly shin- ing. The predominant color is a whitish-green; but the varia tion is from nearly white through whitish, grayish and dirty W. O. Crosby—Pinite in Eastern Massachusetts. 117 greens to a dull grass or olive green. The deeper color seems usually to belong to the purer varieties. t some points, the paste or cement of the conglomerate appears to include much pinite; yet in its purest state this sub- stance occurs mainly in the form of pebbles. In either case, however, it is always clearly an imported constituent of the rock. Although not properly a principal ingredient of the con- glomerate, the pinite detritus is scarcely ever entirely wanting ; while in several limited localities the rock is mainly composed of it; forming a distinct pinite conglomerate. The following are the principal localities in the Boston basin where the con- glomerate is notably rich in pinite: the north shore of Squan- tam; Milton, on and near Central Avenue; several points in Newton, especially in the vicinity of Newton Corner and New. ton Upper Falls; and along the line of the Sudbury River Aqueduct in South Natick. The pinite pebbles, probably on account of their inferior hardness, being permanently plastic, as it were, are usually oping pebbles of harder materials. The distinctly stratified rocks of the Boston basin include two principal varieties—the conglomerate, or “Roxbury pud- ding stone,” and the slate. The volume of each of these varies from four hundred or five hundred to perhaps one thousand feet; and the former constitutes the lower half and the latter the upper half of one continuous and conformable series. ‘pper or argillaceous member of the formation includes the Paradoxides slate in Braintree; and this determines the Pri- Mordial age of the entire series. The slate, and more espe- cially the sandstone which marks the passage from the slate to the conglomerate, is sometimes greenish and evidently com- ed in part of the débris of pinite. The sediments in the ‘asin of the River Parker, some thirty miles northeast of Bos- ‘on, are also probably of Primordial age; and the conglomerate portions are largely, sometimes almost entirely, composed o Pinite. Traces of this mineral have been frequently observed ' the conglomerate of uncertain age skirting the soathern base ne. Blue Hills, and extending thence southwesterly to Rhode an ia”) 118 W. O. Crosby—Pinite in Hastern Massachusetts. The pinite is also found in other fragmental formations of this region. Underlying the Primordial beds of the Boston and River Parker basins, and having its best development in the towns of Marblehead, Saugus, Melrose, Malden, Medford, Dedham, and Hyde Park, is an extensive a somewhat pecu- liar conglomerate rock known locally as the “ breccia’ or “ petrosilex breccia,” being principally, usually almost wholly, composed of fragments of petrosilex cemented by a paste of the same rock more finely comminated. The breccia is often of a greenish color, and in not a few localities includes in both fragments and cement large amounts of what appears to be more or less perfect pinite, i.e, material of a light green or greenish-white color, which yields readily to the knife, affords water in the closed tube, and is somewhat unctuous, resembling serpentine in many of its piste: characters, and yet easily . west from Newton pee West Dedha am; many points in Hyde Park and the adjacent part of Dorchester Tintsonnit and Milton, between the Neponset River and Pine Tree Brook. The basins mentioned as holding the Primordial strata and the underlying breccia have been excavated from the ancient Huronian formation, which, in Eastern Massachusetts, consists mainly of the following lithological members: granite, binary and hornblendic; petrosilex, stratified and unstratified ; strati- fied and unstratified diorite; and quartzite. In these old erys- talline rocks we have the sources of all the materials observed in the conglomerate and breccia, pet excepting the pinite. In this connection, the most interestin uronian terrane is the petrosilex. For the sake of convenience, I here include under an true felsite. The physical iaueton between the true petro- silex and felsite, in Eastern Massachusetts, are not conspicuous. They both include exotic and indigenous varieties; and both present the same general range in textures, including, besides the ordinary compact and porphyritic forms, many different kinds of banded structure. Elvanite or quartz porphyry is 4 common rock; but this belongs, of course, entirely to the acidic As a result of numerous chemical analyses, I fin that the petrosilex predominates, and is usually of red, brown or purplish tints; while the characteristic colors of the felsite are greenish, whitish and sometimes black. W. O. Crosby—Pinite in Eastern Massachusetts. 119 appearance, yields to the knife, and affords water abundantly. Su stantially the same statement may be repeated concerning all these cases the rock is reen, at least superficially. In Mar- pavers I have observed the brown, that, with few exceptions, those portions of the conglomerate (and the same is true of the reccia), marked by a predomi- remains to be adduced. : "he locality affording at once the clearest proof that the Pinite is indigenous in the petrosilex, that it makes its appear- ance in this association as a decomposition product, and that Pinite so originating is essentially identical with, and the source of, that in the more recent, detrital formations of Eastern Mas- 120 W. O. Crosby—Pinite in Eastern Massachusetts. sachusetts, is in Miiton, on Central Avenue, about one-fourth rates of the Boston basin. The contact just noticed almost cer- tainly marks a fault, and both it and the cleavage are at right angles to the strike of the beds. The stratification, however, 18 much obscured by the cleavage, though it can still be made out by careful observation. he color of the unaltered petrosilex in this case is dark pur ple, and the pea-green pinite occurs in it in the form of irregu- lar and ill-defined masses which seem to have their major axes normal to the surface of the ledge. Closer observation shows that they follow the jointing of the petrosilex ; each joint being bordered on either side by pinite which exhibits a gradual pas- sage into normal petrosilex at a distance of a few inches. ‘The rather limited exposure is best in the vertical direction; and Q o 5 a S @ se mn = Q Ss © © ee 5 ® 3 © _ et So fa) po =) me mgs > er @ = ed i) = 2. W. O. Crosby—Pinite in Eastern Massachusetts. 121 1 Ll. SiO, 57924 59520 Al,O, 23°739 21-628 FeO 2°826 5°840 K,O 4°560 6-900 Na,O 5°283 804 H,O 3°142 3-490 MnQ 1°443 not det. Cr and Mg traces not det. 98°917 98°182 tially identical physically and Spiibae The pinite pebbles by the hydration, of feldspathic rocks and minerals, which has been denied by some authorities, must apparently be conceded in some cases. Of course where derived from a rock holding a only as a product of superficial decomposition. The acts gs s Both of these analyses were made in the Woman’s Laboratory of the Massa- chusetts Institute of Technology. - Jour. Scr.—Tump Szrizs, = No. 110,—Fxs., 1880, 122 Peckham and Hall—Thomsonite from Minnesota. clusion that, in pre-Primordial times, the petro-siliceous rocks, to a considerable depth, were changed by the action of atmos- pheric agents, not to kaolin, as generally at the present time, but to or toward pinite ; and that subsequently this decompo- sition-product was, for the most part, swept away by the sea in which were deposited the teroetha and the Primordial conglom- erate. h the northwest shore of the Nook. visible only at low tide, is a hard, oo compact, feldspathic sandstone or slate, the age of which is unknown. It rests unconforma- bly Vee the banded petiocilés forming the shore at this point; and the layer of pebbles at its base shows very clearly that the sandstone is chiefly composed of the débris of the petrosilex. This origin explains the highly feldspathic nature of the sand- stone. Scattered through the sandstone are clear, almost trans- parent, rhombic crystals of orthoclase, 3 to 6™ long, which are very clearly indigenous in their present positions. Occasion- ally they are sufficiently numerous to give a porphyritic aspect to the rock. LErratics of this sandstone are scattered all over the Neck; and in some of these which are very thoroughly icant the orthoclase crystals are changed to a soft, unctu- ous, waxy, green mineral,—in other words, to pinite. Where the southern has been less thorough, the characters of the pinite are less strongly marked. stiabiniienhaeoeint Art. XV.—On Lintonite and other forms of Thomsonite: A pre- liminary notice of the Zeolites es the vicinity of Grand Marais, County, Minnesota; by S. F. Prcknam and C. W. Hatt. GRAND Marais is situated on the northwest coast of Lake Superior, one hundred and eight miles northeast of Duluth. It is the site of an early French trading or mission station, and was inter a station of the Hudson Bay Company. Its beauti- ful land-locked bay furnishes the only good harbor between Duluth and Pigeon Point. The rocks, for several miles east and west, as well as at the Marais, are classed in general as igneous, and have often a basal- tic structure. They present, however, great diversities of charac ter both to the chemist and lithologist ; and while the mineral He are perhaps altogether old, the forms are in some cases was our original intention to confine this research to a or two peculiar forms that first attracted our attention, but in the progress of our examination the subject has outgrown its Peckham and Hali—Thomsonite from Minnesota. 123 viriditic mineral. The lower layers are firm and compact, while the upper are extensively jointed and fractured, and filled with amygdaloidal cavities. These cavities, in whatever manner they were originally formed, have become filled with zeolitic minerals. Some of the cavities are now empty, but evidently as a result of the removal of their contents by solv- ents percolating through the enclosing rock. Occasionally the cavities are only partially filled, and the substance within Shows on its surface unmistakable traces of the action of solv- ents. In some cavities one mineral is nearly all washed away, leaving the surface of the remaining one or several, as the case may be, rough or uneven, as originally formed. This occurs only where water has had access. The prevailing mineral, thomsonite, is only sparsely distribu- ted in the lower and compacter beds of the forinsteon. The general occurrence of the several other minerals, so abundant here, would seem to indicate that this mineral was formed first the narrow beaches of this vicinity in the form of pebbles of various sizes frequently unbroken and beautifully polished. 124 Peckham and Hall—Thomsonite from Minnesota. sii numerous, and in other cases few in number, even in the same bed of rock. The size varies from a microscopic point 1s a diameter of two or three inches. In one piece of the University of Minnesota, the number of amygdules distinctly visible to the unaided eye on a surface two inches square is sufli- cient to give more than 10,000,000 to the cubic foot. The largest in this area was about half an inch in diameter. The amygdules are generally much larger and more scattered than this specimen would indicate. Since they abound in the rock throughout many feet of its thickness and many miles of its ex- tent along the seated the supply appears to be inexhaustible; but practically the number of beach-pebbles, valuable as speci- mens, is quite Himnited: All the different varieties of thomsonite are so hard that they take a fine polish; and on account of this property and their often unique banded structure, they are much sought after by tourists and teeta as objects of rare beauty, and also for buttons, studs, et n our first visit to the beach oes the greater number of these pebbles occur, we at once recognized fragments of the large amygdules as thomsonite. Intermingled with these were — and oval pebbles, often more or less flattened, and 0. 1 sizes from that of a pin’s head to that of a hickory nut, but for the most part of the size and form of beans and peas. Some of these were also recognized as thomsonite. The larger portion presented a great diversity of color and physical struct- ure; some being white and opaque, almost conchoidal in fract- ure, with but slight indications of a fibrous structure; others auies green mineral. In given portions of the rock formation, the amygdules were, for the most part, of the same genera character; in one place, being green and opaque; in another, without green bands; while in another, for the most part, beautifully variegated. Similar local peculiarities were 0 served in reference to texture, some portions of the rock con- taining only those that were eid and fine a while others those that were uniformly coarser in texture. Peckham and Hall—Thomsonite from Minnesota. 125 agate mortar easily, but were scratched by quartz crystal; yet the percentage of silica was found to be no higher in the harder than the other specimens. The grain of such specimens, however, is exceedingly fine. Most frequently the hardness is between 5 and 6. The specific gravity varics from 2°33 to 2°35; the water-worn and somewhat weathered pebbles have it a little lower, one or two as low as 2:2. The fracture of Numbers I and IT is fibrous; of Number III very uneven, and takes place in all directions with almost equal facility. They all gelatinize in hydrochloric acid to a thick jelly. Before the blowpipe they fuse easily and intumesce to a porous white enamel. In the closed tube, water to the amount of 11 to 12 per cent of the whole weight was given off at the heat of an ordinary spirit amp. Grains of native copper are frequently found in them, particularly in those of Number II, which, if the pebbles are transparent, exhibit under a low magnifying power arborescent groups of crystals, thrusting out their branches in every direc- tion through the enclosing mineral. In one instance an amyg- dule, about as large as a cranberry, contained at its center a mass of copper of this kind, one-third of its diameter. In this char- acteristic Number III resembles the prehnite of French River. umber —The amygdules of this type are perhaps of less common occurrence than other forms. Externally they look like porcelain with a slight creamy tint. Under the micro- Scope they appear for the most part translucent. Countless fine dark lines extend longitudinally through the thin section, rapidly disappearing to be replaced by others, like the cells in a longitudinal section of wood, which are probably caused in part by refraction of the light from the edges of minute densely packed crystals, from cavities, and from microlites. One notice- able result of these lines is to weaken the effect of the mineral ©n polarized light. Not infrequently this opaque modification Of the mineral is banded with alternating zones, either trans- parent or yellow, or even with both; the transparency here Seems to be owing to an absence of the lines and microlites just hoticed ; while the yellow zones owe their color to globules of ferric oxide distributed through the mass. In the worn amyg- les the mineral often has a beautiful pearly luster. In minute quantities the ferric oxide gives the mineral a flesh- colored tint. 4 126 Peckham and Hall—Thomsonite from Minnesota. A mean of three analyses showed the composition of this mineral to be: AUIS Fintona ney onl: 40°45 REO Hos Paes ert wt 29°50 Cab neues. wwe 2. ltses 10 KO ..8ide. nani aus 0-887 PAO oe oe ee e706 BOrid.aa ad eplaumatcaew cal OR 99-985 Even opaque white amygdules afforded a trace of ferric oxide, which increased to a few hundredths of one per cent when the tint was perceptibly flesh-red. Number I —Under this type nearly every specimen is fibrous and radiated. The masses are spherical or elliptical, with the point from which the crystalline fibers radiate on one side of the mass, or, as is perhaps more common, having several cen- mineral fills seams, or occupies cavities that run together; here, there are centers of radiation at frequent intervals and by a system of suture-like joints, the whole is made into a com- pact mass. Yet, solid as the mass may appear to be, a thin plate cut from it invariably separates into pieces along the line of these joints, giving the mineral an appearance of fragility while it is really as hard as agate. The fibers often interlock along the line of these joints. needles are broken up into short pieces by transverse fractures. They all taper out and disappear, the longest of them reaching no further than the middle of the mass. They act strongly on polarized light and contain some inclusions. These lines do not occur as developed crystals. Around the borders of many amygdules there are numerous small spherolites. They have probably formed around gran- ules of various foreign substances as nuclei. Their size is small ; to the naked eye they look like mere spots, but they are so numerous as to form an envelop almost entirely around the radiated concretions. A mean of three analyses gave— Peckham and Hall—Thomsonite from Minnesota. 127 SiO oe i wierd Sees 46°020 BIN simon cwreula Hemataebeian 26°717 Beds ins tarinsaoaninniadk deel OAD lt iu os lw clea 6 uke ae 9°400 BD) oS nisentc cua ke ala 0°390 De eines a Sa meee cet Saar ene 8°75 fe) 12-800 99°896 Number III.—As before stated these pebbles, when first seen, were supposed by us to be worn fragments of reniform prehnite, so common in several localities along this shore. Wesoon found evidence that they were amygdules; still the fact that they were not prehnite was not suspected until their specific gravity had been determined and found to be that of thomsonite, 2°32 to 2:37. Analysis showed them to contain— BROS scr danke soni acting. eka mek meen 40°605 5 aad BRED tse OMS 30-215 OP os Sea eel ate “40 CO eee i Ue RR ESS Ra gs Oe ae 4055 HO fe ees S 13°75 99°885 _ This composition allies the mineral very closely to thomson- ite, so closely that, considered alone, there appears little reason Why the mineral should not be considered as a variety; but there are several notable reasons why a specific name may See be applied to this, as we believe, hitherto undescribed ineral. These pebbles are wholly destitute of the radiated and erys- talline character of other forms of thomsonite. der the ’ frequently some foreign material, as a bit of copper, is a nu- cleus. The spherolites often occur in groups; fae numbers are crowded and heaped together, growing into and overlap- oe another, like the tridymite scales in the rhyolites of €xico and the trachytes of the Siebengebirge. These group- igs are not always spherical; sometimes they extend in long curving lines through the mass, following perhaps a fracture or . 128 Peckham and Hall—Thomsonite from Minnesota. a seam, instead of being collected around a nucleus as a spheero- lite. They show parallel green fibers meeting along a median suture and correspond in their manner of occurrence to Zirkel’s description of axiolites in the rhyolites of the 40th parallel.* The amygdules of the green variety rarely exceed in size a small hickory nut. As before stated, they are not generally found intermingled in the rock with the other forms, but have special localities—they filling nearly all the amygdaloidal cavi- ties within a given limit, whose boundary at the same time is not sharply defined, F requently the forms of Number I or IL are enveloped in a green covering of considerable thickness. 8 o © os is) e. fe) © fae Sg Ge mn et a o oS o foie | chy >a o = a) Lar} ° Ss wn D pe] S fe as altered forms of Number III, as the condition of the iron might indicate. No amygdule has come under our observation which exhibited a nucleus of plaeed o surrounded by Num- ber I or II. On the contrary, e quite a number in which, through a thin translucent shell of Number III, the pink interior can be discerned. And we also have fragments, and amygdules have been cut, which show the external crust of Number III passing toward the center into the radiated form of Number I In determining ne oxygen ratio for Number II, the silica appeared to be too high. We had previously suspected the presence of free hea from the exceptional hardness of all of these varieties. As the microscope showed the ferric oxide in every case to be free, we concluded to compute the percentages for Number II to 40°45 per cent of silica, the amount found in Number I, and exclude the iron oxides. We were much sur- prised at the results, which are given below: I. Il. II SiO 40°45 40°45 40°605 Al,O, 29°50 29°37 30215 a 10°75 10°43 10°37 K,O 0-36 0°42 0°49 Na,O 4°76 4-28 4-05 H,O 13-93 13-93 13°75 99°75 98:88 99°48 Fe,0, 0°23 088 FeO -40 99°98 pr.ct. 99°76 pr.ct. 99°88 pr. ct. * U. 8. Geol. Explor. 40th Parallel, vol. vi, p. 166 et seq. Peckham and Hall—Thomsonite from Minnesota. 129 These figures prove conclusively that we were dealing with varieties of the same mineral. On comparing these percentages with those given in Dana,* the water and silica were found to be high igh. Computing the oxygen ratios and formula for Number III, we a Per cent. Metal. Oxygen. Atoms. FeV 0°40 03111 0-0889 0064 K,O 0-49 0°4068 0:0832 “0052 Na.O 4-055 3°0118 1:0432 0654 CaO 10°37 7:4070 2°9630 1852 4:1783R. 2622 Al,O, —30°215 16°1343 14-0807 2933 Sid, _-40°605 18949 21 656 676 H,O 13°75 1528 12°222 165 Dividing the oxygen percentages by 5, we have RO:R,0,:8i0,: H,O=1: 3:4: 24, which is the ratio for thomsonite, given in Dana’s Mineralogy, with the bases low and the silica and water high. Dividing the atoms by ‘005 we have the formula (2(FeO+K,0+Na,O) +2Ca0)Al,0,, (SiO,),(H,0),, with the protoxide bases low, and the silica and water high.t+ Computing the ratios after Rammelsberg, we have: (Na+K) : (Ca+Fe) ::1: 1°35 Ca nre. :Adl::1:1°54 Ca+Fe+K+Na)=R: Al: Si:: 1°13: 1: 2°03 Si: H ::.1 22°26 Rammelsberg deduces from these ratios a formula which he calls a half silicate (Halbsilicat), according to the expression m(2Ca AlSi,O,+-5aq) ) f n(2Na,AlSi,O,+-5aq in which m indicates a certain proportion of a hydrous silicate of aluminum and a dyad protoxide, and n a certain proportion of a hydrous silicate of aluminum and an alkaline or monad protoxide. The ratio between m and 2 varies in different Specimens. Number I and Number II, without the excess of silica, approach more nearly the thomsonite of Elbogen in com- tae (in which the ratio of m ton=2:1) than any mentioned y Rammelsberg. While the ratio of Si to H is about the same as given by Rammelsberg, the percentage of both in these Specimens is higher than in the analyses quoted by him. * System of Mineralogy, fifth edition, p. 425. + 5th ed., p. 425. Rammelsberg Min. Chem., Ed. 1875, p. 637. 130 OC. H. F. Peters—Elements of the Planet Dido. We conclude, therefore, soe this mineral contains a small per- centage of free silica , and also that a part of the water is basic. This latter opinion is Stncrigthiil by the fact that about 12 per cent of the water escaped at a dull red heat, and that only prolonged heating in a platinum crucible for several hours would expel the last 1°75 per cent. At least six determinations of the water were made in this variety, with the same result. The percentages of Numbers I and II are so near that of Number III that no material difference can exist in their form- ule. While recognizing this fact as respects the chemical con- stitution of these minerals, the great rei ar in their phys- ical structure leads us to regard Number III as a distinct and well marked variety of thomsonite, if not a distinet species. We have therefore given it the name Jinionite, in honor o Miss Laura A. Linton, a recent student and graduate of this University, to whose patient effort and skill we are indebted for the analyses given in this paper. University of Minnesota, Nov. 20, 1879. ART. 2 the Planet Dido ; by Professor C. H. F. PE ERs. rom a communication to the Editors, dated Litchfield heavens of Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y., January 4, 1880.) For the planet Dido (209), I have derived from observations of October 25, November 15 and December 7, the following elements: Epoch: 1880, January 0°0, Berlin m. t. M = 201° 56’ 40°°3 7 190° 41 136 a= 41°3 = rr 9°0 ¢= 38°3 = a 629" 122 log a = 0°500848, which represent an observation obtained on January 1, when it was still very near. The small eccentricity of the orbit is remarkable. In consequence of this, there remains consider- able uncertainty as to the longitude of perihelion and the mean anomaly, but not as to theirsum M+z=L, the mean longitude in orbit. W. J. Comstock— = 15320°8. Physics and Chemistry. 145 The formula gives T = 20653°7, and consequently t = 20380°7. There are still two causes which can modify these results; but small, it is nevertheless certain that we receive the rays from sev- consider the absorption of the terrestrial nie oe nor much e into consider- . The Pseudophone.—For investigating the laws of Binaural Audition,* Professor 8. P. Tuomp U ment which he calls the psexdophone, and which, as he states, is acoustic perception of space. It consists of a Fg of ear-pieces furnis ed with adjustable metallic flaps or reflectors of sound, which can be fitted to the ears by straps and can be set at any desired angle with respect to the axis of the ears, and can also be turned upon a revolving collar about that axis so as to reflect Sounds into the ears from any desired direction. In regard to its use the author says: The estimate we are able to make of the position of a source of Sound, judging solely by the relative intensities of the sensation in the two ears, depends upon our previous perceptions and upon our possession of a constant amount of effective auditory surface, and a constant angle subtended between the ears and the line of Vision In the pseudophone these angles are variable, and the amount of effective sneak can also be varied, and this without any * See this Journal, vol. xvii, 64, 322. 146 Scientific Intelligence. e e greater or less than forty degrees, fewer rays of sound are reflected into the ear on that side than on the other, and the hearer imagines the source of sound to be situated on that side on which the sen- sation is more intense. Accordingly, to verify the perception, the ~ hearer turns his head until both ears hear the sound equally loudly, and imagines then that he is looking in the direction of the sound, whereas he is looking at a point situated nearer to that side on which the larger effective surface exists. This observation agrees with Steinhauser’s theory. The illusion is very easily obtained by means of a loud-ticking clock, but with some persons does not succeed unless their eyes are blindfolded ; for when there is a conflict between the evidence of the eyes and the evidence of the ears, “pans appears to be to believe the former rather than the lat A more striking illusion occurs when the flaps of the pseudo- phone are reversed and adjusted so as to reflect into the ears stiunds which come from immediately behind the observer. In this case also, if a source of sound, situated anywhere behind the head, be observed, if the observer does not know how the fla aps are adjusted, he will estimate it to be somewhere in front; and, on turning his head about until the sounds are equally intense, he judges himself to be looking straight at the source of soun whereas it is in reality exactly in an opposite direction. This sound of a foataidkiig ok and with the human voice with shrill sounds it succeeds best, notably with the aae tick of a metronome, and even wi ell. Another experiment with the pseudophone, which gives rise to acoustical illusions, consists in setting one flap to catch ge from the front, while the other catches sakes from behind o above the observer. Under these circumstances the sounds seeidi as the observer moves his head, to come sometimes from the right, sometimes from the left, or sometimes from the groun Lastly, most of these experiments with the pseudophone can be repeated simply by holding the hands in front of the ears as flaps; but here the illusion does not always succeed, as the ebaier is conscious that his hands are reflecting to the ear sounds from a Physics and Chemistry. 147 certain direction, sa so the judgment is sophisticated.— Phil. ae A November, 4. Kaplosion ie Can ‘bonic Acid in a coal mine.—M. teen has given in the Comptes Rendus a short state ment in an explosion in the coal mine of Rochebelle “Gard), wheal caused the death of three miners. is explosion is explained as having been produced, not b fire-damp, for the detonation was not accom- of i iron pyrites, tT his pyrite is stron ie oxidized and in a pe beeaise state of decomposition; this w give a continual source of sul- phurie acid, which, dissolving ‘little by little in the ni dsee waters, would meet the limestone below. In co nsequence a large amount of carbonic acid would be disengaged, penetrating the fissured beds of coal and: finally, as the author ro St accumulat- ' Ing under so great a pressure as to lead to an explosio 5. On the Heat of Formation of Cyanogen. raf vce cyanogen is the only electro-negative compound radical thus far isolated, BrrtHetor has thought it desirable to determine the heat of its formation. For this ] purpose he burned it by means of oxygen, and found for the heat of its combustion CN=26 grams =+132°3 calories. Now the heat of combustion of the 12 grams of carbon it contains, referred to the condition of the diamond, is 94 ca lories. firm dioxide N,O,, cyanogen snot heat in its synthesis. This, Ber- thelot thinks, may be the reason why this body manifests in com- . Soe. One an energy sien to ee of the elements.—. Ch., I, xxxii, 385, Nov., 1879. 6. First Book in Qualitative Ciinthies, by ALF ES- o. New York, (D. Van Nostrand) —This little work has a character of its own in that it is designed not otes on Assaying pe Assay Schemes; by P. DE ae TER Ricketts Second edition, revised and e larged. 2 vo, New York, 1879. (J. Wile Son Neck We noticed this useful volume on its first appearance. The second ‘sora oe important additions and corrections hand- ers happy con eo = = Assay Ton a8 Pap vy which the ton of 2000 Ibs. stands A. T. as one ounce ae to one ore! 148 Screntific Intelligence. ? “‘ Notes” are the daily guide of the students of that institution. It is a particularly practical book and ‘ap adapted to its objects. l Problems, by James C. Fors. 43 pp. 8vo. Appleton’ s Mise., 1879. .—Many Goantints may find their work facil- itated by havin ng a series of artes ms on the fundamental princi- ples of chemistry prepared for them II. Geotoegy AND MINERALOGY. a e Observations of the Geological ey by H. B. Mxpuicorr, aw. T ey; a the work may therefore be received as a faithful presentation of the latest results obtained. The fac cts and view s are ably set forth, are ae is ‘divided into Part I sgyng pases e i), eal i e li), 0 the Extra-peninsular area; and both the see ii aN and othe k of these areas are ey ted of. 1.) The the broad vate of the Indus and Ganges, at the foot of the inte- rior mountain region; “the "hens cutout area is geologically ay The "he sence of marine ae beds older than Ter- ing some Jurassic ing of limeston nes aa shales in many alte rnations ; and, renee y> the gr a oe or plant-bearing and coal-bearing series, of wide extent, the lower portion of which (the Talchir and Damuda de 7 ee are referred to the Permian and Triassic, and the upper {the Mahadeva and Rajmahal) to the Jurassic.* * The only animal fossils of the Damuda series are an Estheria, some Laby- rinthodont and true Reptiles (a Dicynodon (also a Karoo form), and the Dinosaur, Ancestrodon Indicus). Geology and Mineralogy. 149 The occurrence of marine fossiliferous beds of Silurian, Devon- ian, Carboniferous, Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous wae Tertiar y age in oy mountain n regions of the e Extra-per ninsular (3.) The Coal-period of the country pido its comme nencement in re thirty tons in weight, some of them with scratched and smoothed surfaces; and of similar bowlder beds in the lower of the South Africa depocita in the Karoo region. (7.) The existence in the Lower Vindhyan series, in Southern India, of a diamond-bearing conglomerate or grit, ten to twenty feet thick (of dark gray, red and brown colors), which is explored for diamonds by means of shallow pits and short galleries—the di Renton supposed to be probably “of detrital origin,” like the pebbles and other material of the enclosing rock; also ‘of another Similar diamond-bearing conglomerate in the Upper r Vindhyans, re — borders of the Bundelkand gneiss; besides alluvial dig- The upper part of the A ondwana, in the nama can and elsewhere, con- a numerous species of Cycads as well as Ferns and Conifers, which pant a —— age, and a relation also to the flora of beds cruivtie e Karoo series of uth Af; n er of fossil fishes, and so tile remains ae . an e Re 8, and near Ellore and Ongole, and ve ape ee in — upper beds, t et i eae ‘ns ee — Pholadomya, Lima, Exogyra, Belemnites, various ia ventricosa occurs ae in the uppermost Furassic rocks of South yee as well as in the upper beds of the Geadeevas — — retaceous beds with fossils oecur in Cutch, a Pondicherry Trichonopoly in Southern India, and between Mandlesir and 'B n the ; arbada valley. The marine Tertiary beds of the Peninsular area are nateda © @ narrow fringe along or near the coast. 150 Scientific Intelligence. jab, to the north, along the Suleman Range to Peshawar; in the “Salt Range ;” in Northern Punjab, through the Hazara and the Murree Hills, and other hills west of the Indus; and along a region 200 miles or more long and 25 wide in Tibet, in the upper Indus valley, 15,000 feet above the sea level.* (The statement, by Dr. Thomson, as to the occurrence of Nummulitic beds on the Singhi Pass, at a height of 16,600 feet, is said to need confirma- tion, because of the importance of the fact, if true. 9.) A thickness of Tertiary in the Sub-Himalayas (a range of mountain ridges, fifty miles in width, 5,000 to 8, 000 and rarely in ja of 25, 000 feet thick, 15,000 feet being of the Siwa alik formation or Upper Tertiary; in Sind, in the Mountains of Khirthar, 8,000 to 10,000 feet for the Pliocene (Manchhar Brown) wots "the beds much folded, (related to the Pliocene of ce Siwalik Hills). (10.) In the Pu njab, beyond the parallel of oo between the Indus and Jhelun, the “Salt Range,” including str ata ranging from the Silurian (?) to the Pliocene, many containing marine fos- sils, the Sub-Carboniferous limestone being well dapleves and extending into Kashmir. (11.) Salt-bearing beds (Silurian ?) at the base of the series of the “Salt Range,” the salt layers often 100 feet thick, and at the Mayo Mines of Khewa, containing 550 feet of pure e and i impure salt, in a thickness of 1,000 feet; also, in the Kohat region, in the 12.) Trap rocks, cite and ‘beasle aoe “Deccan trap”—of great geog raphieal ¢ a ars Ee) with even pepe Ares fro the sea-coast at N 82° E.), a from n ca pane 5° 35’ N.) to cas of Goona 5° N.), a a, covering about 16 degrees of longitude and et Bombay to Nagpur, 519 miles long, never leaving the vo as rocks until it is close to the Nagpur station); and all subaerial in origin; probably erupted at or near the close of the Cretaceous or intervals during a long period; the thickness near Bombay, 6,000 feet ; in pmol, about 2,500; in Sind, only 200 in two bands ; in Belgaum, at the southern limit, 2 000 to 2,500 feet; to the south- east, soak nares 100 to 200 ote and these Eocene beds extend, according to Stoliczka, from Kargil, on the west, eastward for more than 200 miles, to beyond the eastern limit of his explorations. The Zanskar contains also 8,000 to 9 ,000 feet of fossiliferous Cretaceous, Jurassic, i i Zanskar ran ge contains several peaks 20,000 feet in height, and “has a right to be o— the principal continuation of the Himalayan chain.” Its gneiss is “to so extent, at least, a rock formed of cavilel Paleozoic strata.” — Geology and Mineralogy. 151 (13.) Other extensive trappean outflows in the Rajmahal region, west of the delta of the Ganges, 2,000 feet thick, ene from Jurassic to Upper Cretaceous in age, but suppos y some to ave been cotemporaneous with the Deccan onttows peciae “es Tittle petrological distinction between the traps” of t © regions ; and still others in the Sylhet region, east of the Fe ap overlaid by oe rocks, A line of eruptive rocks on the Upper Indus, from Kargil Se rpeed, “ait Ss nying the Eocene strata “from end to end.” ve indicate some of the bsg oints which the reader will find Sere in full in the volum With regard to the movements producing the Himalayas, the work makes the following remarks in the brief geological sum- cote ~~ which the work commences (pages lvi, lvii). ,in closing this notice, the following general remarks (from Sad lvi, lvii) on the Origin of the Himalayas.—During the interval that has elapsed since Eocene times, whilst no il gigantic forces, to which the contortion and folding of the Himalayas and other Extra-peninsular mountains are due, must have been eee he Sub-Himalayan KHocene beds were area is but rarely affected by Ba le may indicate that the forces, to which the elevation and contortion of the Him malayas of Peat tion. In Sind and the Suleman ranges, there is oe probability that some movement took place during Miocene and Pliocene times. Some slight unconformity between aa elsewhere con- formable, and the absence of different groups in parts of the coun- 152 Screntific Intelligence. ing forces were more severe to the eastward in middle Tertiary times, and that the main action to the westward was of later date: g , but that these forces have acted contemporaneously, at all events in the post-Pliocene period.” 2. Note on the Trilobite, Atops trilineatus of Emmons; by W. Forpv.—In his paper on “ Fossils of the Utica Slate and Metamorphoses of Triarthrus Beckii,’ noticed on page 152 of Dw A: i, p. 64. The figures are the same in the two publications cited. The species represented Emmons 1s not the rus Beckii, and of the Utica Slate, nor is it that species an the Hudson River group, as maintained by Hall, beyond the State of New York, nor at any point west of the Hudson River. ; Dale’s discovery of an old locality given by Mather,” and the writer’s “ verification of the presence of a lower t Champlain division by paleontological evidence,” as serving simply to confirm Mather’s views. ; Whatever may be thought of Mr. Dale’s discoveries ~ Geology and Mineralogy. 153 The ing the horizon of these beds is aie paleon- loge and this, as it at present stands, shows that their fauna, subject, it seems to me an obvious over-reaching of facts to refer the beds in question unqualifiedly to the Champlain division of ork System. New York, December 12th, 1879. 3. List of Papers on the Taconie System ; by James D, Dana. —As a ee to my last ed oe n the Taconic et he pub- 2 i aa ghee OF ITS ase geen POSITION AND UNCOMFORMABILITY TO THE NEW ORK 1 Emmons for a while lived) and other slates to the north, and west to udson, also th and semicrystalline limestones and quartzyte.— M: Re ri Ww , Part v, 4to, 1846, pp. 12; describes the sys- Michigan.—Ipem: America n Geologist, 8vo, volume i, 1855, Part ii, pp. 1-124; extends the a gs from Maine to o Georgia, divides it ‘hate Upper and Lower, the heir slates, limestones, and magnesian cmp of the original Taconic, with sed equivalents, being made the r, and some added fossiliferous rocks [Primordial and later], with their su Hhecer Sat relns the Upper.—Ipem: Re on the North Caroli na Fal Survey, es 185 9-72. E.& & C. H. Hrrcucook:; Report on Pee ogy oy Vermont, 2 vols., 4to, 1861; Sustains the system, but half Lehi tt by the Cg enchgaes Sess facts it reports.— COU, Comptes Rendus, Noy. 4, 1861, an oc. Boston . Nat. Hist., ARi 1862 ; adds the Potsdam sandstone and the pie of the Green Mountains to the aconic system. the o of brown hematite ore” "for lt crest ma oy aa magnesian limes en fc : DEM: Part i, 1878; uses pty e Taconian fs 207), with the sa mn, but Makes the Upper Tactile ee. include th the Quebee pees anat op, _ 1 208) °rganic remains of the European Cambrian at least as low as the Am. Jour: Scr.—Turep Suures, Vou, XIX, No. heater 1880 1 154 Scientific Intelligence. IL. IN FAVOR OF THE IDENTITY OF THE TACONIC SYSTEM WITH PART OR ALL OF HE New York Lower Siturian. (The Lower Silurian is called Champlain Division by Mather). H, D oie . B. Rogers: Proe Amer. Phil. Soc., Jan. 1, 1841; make the slates of the nic Mountains wat the sh east and west to be Lower Silurian, and refer ine tol to the Hudson River group.—W. W. pone ag Report Geol. N. , 1843; gives many sections and announces the same conclusions, argu- ing agai inst the Taconic system.—H. D. Roaurs: Address, etc., Rep. Amer. Assoc. Geol. & Nat., for 1844, p. 67, and range J. Sei., xlvii, 137, 1844; urges the same views essentially. —Jamus HALL bid., T. S. Hunt, “of the Cheotoigisad Coietinos of Canada:” On the Taconic Sys- tem, Report pogo eiate aga 1850 hee Haven meeting) says, “The results of the [C anada] surv hown, as I had the honor ~ _ at the last annual meeting at Cambridge [ia 1849} that the Green Mountain rocks are nothing else than the rocks of the Hudson River group with the eewaneat nk or Ue ore in a metamorphic condition. i“ iy 6g ALL: N. Y. Paleontology, vi p. 1859.—T. 8. Hunt: Amer. J. “, xxxi, 402, 1861 (after jee 8 ‘defining ot the rhein group) ; says, a oe eee group with its bomen shales is no other than the Taconic system of Emmons.”—Inrm: ibid., xxxii, 427, 1861; makes the Tasers exclusive of the slates, equivalent of the Duties: addi ng that “it remains to be seen whether Dr. Emmons can retain from the wreck of his system, otsdam.”— W. : eg part at least, of = strata of the Potsdam and Quebec Group.” —J. Dana: Manual of Geol y, 18055 pee ee adopts the wont just mentioned.— James HALL and E fein : Am Sei Mee 96, 1865; refer the Hudson River roar south of Albany - the “Onahen grou —T.S. Hunt: Address, etc, Rep. Amer. Assoc., for 1871; rs the Stockbridge or Green Mountain limestone to the Quebec group, an Sole that the conclusion of Rogers and a : ia = oe Rocks of the vicinity of Great Barrington, r J. Sci., III, iv, vi, 1872, 1873; gives sections showing the confor mail of "the Taconic slates, . > agi schi sts” (slates and schists making the conic Moun- tains), 8 f Emmons), and malkos the Hmostone (on the basis of Billings’s 8 report of tap 8 _Aiscoveris) wo and Chazy, and the aa ee and slates of Hudson age.— : Discoveries fay Verm , ibid., 1877 1; Shows, by their fos sil, that is limes tone’ ORT the T: in Verm ont, are Lower Sifurian, “from Potsdam to bors inclusive, and that Taconic slates overlie the limestones—J. D. Dana: On the Re ire — of ie Geology of Vermont to that of Berkshire, sot aie: 1877; give sec proving the conformablity before ann ounced, a sustains the comehison | rg the ni age, and the sored Lower Silurian, and shows also that mica schist, gneiss i mtg ae DERICK oe Ps RIME, JR. sils i sto with \ Hydromia Slates in ote psa Shyer ibid., xv, "61, 1878; shows the r Trenton age of the rocks, w ve par t of the so-called Taconic, — ire like thitian of Berkshire. a N euson Dat P Discovery of a proving ti ‘udson River age of the supposed Taco eepsie slates. At he Hudson River Age of the Taconic sorindy ia. , Xvil, 375, 1879; announces liscovery of Trenton fossils in the Barnegat or Wa pinger alley “jimestone Z ay ps i oe FIELD : @ occurrence of rea of the Lazy erg ' the Barnegat Limestone near Newburgh, New York ibid., xviii, 227, 1879.—W. B. Dwieut: On Calciferous as well as Trenton fossils in the Barnegat lime- Geology and Mineralogy. 155 stone at Rochdale and in Trenton in the same near Newburgh, N. Y., ibid., xix, 71, 1880.—J. P. Lestey: On the discovery by P. Frazer, of Hudson River or Trenton Buthotrephis in slates on the Susquehanna, near the borders of Penn- sylvania and Maryland, ibid., xix, 71, 1880.—Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., xviii, 365. The Cave Bear of California , D. Corz.—In explor- ing a cavern in the Carboniferous limestone of Shasta county, Cal es D. Richardson discovered the skull of a bear beneath several inches of cave earth and stalagmite. The specimen is in a good state of preservation, and demonstrates that the cave bear of that region was a species distinct alike from the cave bear of the East ( Ursus pristinus), and from any of the existing species. In dimensions the skull equals that of the grizzly bear, but it is very differently proportioned. The muzzle is much shorter, and is wide, and descends obliquely downward from the very convex frontal region. It wants the large postorbital processes of the grizzly, but has the tuberosities of the polar bear (U. maritémus), which it also resembles in the convexity of the front. Sagittal crest well developed. Three (one median and posterior) incisive foramina: three external infraorbital foramina. The teeth are pe > vertically above the posterior extremit of the last molar, 141; width between inner border of posterior molars, 076. The spe- cles may be called Arctotherium simum.—American Naturalist, December, 1879. n the Miocene Fauna of Oregon; by E. D. Copz.—This te con Seven species of mammals, discovered in the Truckee beds of the White River formation of Oregon. Since the date of the latter paper Professor Cope has been engaged in exploring the region; the expeditions being mostly under the direction of Jacob L, Wortman.” This aper contains the descriptions of some of the Rew species obtained, namely: Hesperomys nematodon, Sciurus ortmant, Paciculus insolitus, Canis lemur, Amphi entop tychi, Archelurus debilis, Hoplophoneus platycopis, Chenohyus ecedens, Thinohyus trichenus, Puleocheerus subequans, Meryco- pater Guiotianus, Coloreodon ferox, Coloreodon macrocephalus, Professor Cope states that Mr. Wortman, to whom he is indebted 156 Scientific Intelligence. for several of the above, has sent remains also of Lacertilia ne Ophidia, orders previously unknown from the Miocene of Oreg but made known by him as occurring in the White River Pa tion of Colorado in 1873: 6. Ueber die erafihrenden Tieferuptionen von ae eee berg und tber den Zinnbergbau in diesem Gebie EpWwarD Reyer. Tecktonik der Granitergiisse von ‘Noudeok tag Kavtbud und Geschichte des Zinnbergbaues im Erzgebirge; by the same. und Bilitong ; by the same.—The earlier ‘studies of Dr. é Dy 5 bution verticale des hg et oops de Beaoblopslia ‘dans "ig bassin éilurien dela Bohéme. III. Connexions spécifiques établies Lethea palreozoica von Frep. Rommer. 1%'¢ Lieferung. 324 ne, 8vo. Stuttgart, 1880 (KE. Seliciaeebnrt’achs Verlagshandlung— Koch). An Atlas to this work was published in 1876; it con- tains sixty-two ier: ee oreaate the fossil plants and animals of the successive Paleozoic formations, from the Cambrian to the ive. 10. Neues Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, Geologie, PA ieite s —A new decade of the “Jahrbuch” begins with 1 and with it it is announced several changes will rai amd which are cal- culated to increase its usefulness. There to be in future six numbers yearly, in two volumes, which eo ppethex eer ee one- half more matter than the annual volumes hitherto ari ous other changes in the selection and arrangement of ‘the matter some of them of considerable importance), are also proposed. he editors, Pivbiadors Benecke, Klein and Rosenbusch are doing a great service to science in perfecting and making more complete the journal which has been intrusted to their care 11. map pothersiing Notizen von von Lasavtx .—Profes: Botany and Zoology. 157 nomorphite. It occurs as an alteration product, forming a white coating about a nucleus consisting of rutile or menaccanite, or both. This wr Rare has in tin’ a radiated fibrous structure, but close relation between the mineral and titanite. An anal ysis by corresponds to the formula Ca 1 ‘0, Found in the amp shibolyte of the “Hohe Eule,” Silesia. It is “regarded by Lasaulx as probably — with the white a product from cisaseheans rutile often observed in microscopic sections of rocks but Gicherto of uncertain composition. Professor Lasaulx also describes a manganese vesuvianite (3°23 p. ¢. MnO) from the neighborhood of J ordansmiihl, in Silesia, and gismondite from the basalt of Schlauroth, near Gérlitz, The crystals of gismondite are shown to be Dare ally twins, belong- ing to m3 triclinic system. —Zeitsch, Kryst., i 2. - ineralogische Notizen, von V. VON p baa’ ROVICH.— cataneien from sheminn the former with the Sacasbohatitn R$; pyrites. 13. Ueber die be pi Geisaaieting der Plagioklase von Max Scuusrrr.—The results reached by De shee ae his optical examination of the triclinic feldspars were re him as gated “i Se result, he states:—that the lime-soda feldspars form in their ear cal relations a series annlogons to that which connects them other feldspar Species in the position of the plane of the S tic axes, and in the Arte of the positive bisectrix.— Ber. Ak. Wien, Ixxx, July, 1 14. Ueber i. Perowskit von H. Baumuauer.—The true crys- talline form of the rare species perofskite has long been in ques- tion, and has been discussed b frag ain peiroeey Kokscharow, Hes- senberg and others. Baumhauer has applied the method 133 etch- Ing to crystals from several jocalities, and has confirmed an opin- lon previously expressed by others, that they belong in fact to the orthorhombic system. III. Borany AND ZOOLOGY. The Botanical Gazette, a Paper of Botanical Notes, edited by Prof. J. M. Coulter and M.S. C Coulter, has completed its vos year, and its existence is now assured. The principal edito how a professor in Wabash University, at Crawfordsville, Tndi- 158 Scientific Intelligence. ana, where the Gazette is now atts a in monthly numbers, at the low price of a dollar per year. It is an organ for communica- ow every accura oat merae may do his pe in, but which must be collected in mans o be preserved and u ilized. = species are published or mieeeaiaad in it, but it is ahem n organ for new observations and botanical news. It is well conducted; it is very useful; we learn that it is in a condition which ensures ‘its contin- uance, and that every increase in the subscription will go toward increasing its value, Our botanists should now see that it is worth- out supported. Indeed they can hardly do without it. : dditions to the Botanical Necrology of 1879.—Our obit- on list was drawn up earlier than usual, so that it might appear in the J aoagel number of the Journal. Two additions are alr eady to be ma Furpinanp Lrypuerver died, at New Braunfels, Texas, in the early part of December, at the age of about 78. The Texan news- paper which announces his decease states that he was a volunteer in the Texas revolution under Gen. Houston. He was for man the notes upon his specimens are full and discriminating, and added nota little to the value of the collections which were dis- t covered b dary genus of Composite, discovered by him. pees eS Texana is avery pretty Texan annual, which has remained in scention for nearly forty _— at — in botanical gardens ; a a Mexican species has recently bee e known, from the col- lections of Dr. Parry and Dr. Pa inact wilde rdly any name is aes identified with the botany of his adopted State than that ~ the worthy payee er. .G. Cuarires Henry Gover, of Neufchatel, author of the lees du Jura, died Domeate 16, in the 88d year of his age. This vener- able botanist and most estimable man was a very critical student tion of the genus ( nothera) eee which it was originally taken. But it has been restored by Sereno Watson, and it may be ex- pected to hold its ground. it gece morates the services to any of a keen and sound botanist and a charming man. A. G. as Microgonidium : ein ag zur Kenntniss der wahren Wenens der Flechter: von Dr. Arraur Mrixxs, Mittgl. mehr. Astronomy. 159 gelehrter Gesellschaften. Mit 6 colorirten Tafeln. 249 pp. Basel, Genf. Lyon, (St. George’s Verlag). 1879.—This can noticed already by the present writer in this J eat has happily at length made its appearance in very handsome form, and com- mends itself to all, at least to cryptogamic botanists. It is impos- sible to question ’either the care or the sincerity of the author ; and if any views on the topic of this memoir demand attention from those cere to consider them, certainly his do. grr sod notice must be postpone 4, Bulletin of the United States Geological and Gaogrambnnt “pe of the Territories ; F. V. HayprEn, ripen cage ge. Vol. v, No. 8, 331-520 pp. Washington, '1879.—This number contains the following papers: on the species of the Hib! Bas- saris, by J. A. AtneN: the American Bembicide; Tribe Stizini, by W. H. Patron; list of a collection of aculeate Hymenoptera made by S. W. Williston in northwestern Kansa as, by. .W. E. Parron ; further notes on the Ornithology of the Lower Rio Grande of Texas from observations made in the Spring of 1878 by G. B. SENNETT, = by Dr. Ex1iorr i dittowg additional lists of elevations, by Henry GANN NETT3; generic arrangement of bees allied to Melissodes pr Anthophora, by W. H. Patron; anno- tated list of the birds of Michigan, by Dr. Morris Gipps; the Coleoptera of the rete Rocky Mountain Region,. part I, by oo LreConrre itthe eilungen aus der Zoologischen Station zu Neapel, u- gcc a Alen gasoter fir Mittelmeerkunde. Vol. i, in 4 num- p- 8vo, with 18 plates. Leipzig, 1879. Wilhelm ckieannt 6. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, Cambridge. Vol. v, number 16. On the Jaw and Lingual Dentition of certain terrestrial er pea? by W. G. Binney. et pp., with 2 plates. Cam e; 1879. 7. Paleozoic Cockroaches: A. — revision of the Species AMUE cUDDER. 134 . 4to, with 6 plates. Boston, 1879. (Memoirs o of the Boston Society of Natural History, vol. iii, part num 8. Faowke From the Tertiary Beds of the Nicola and erwd ameen Rivers, British Columbia; by 8. H. Scuppur. (Geol Survey of Ganiela; 1877-78.) IV. AsTRoONOMY. On the Secular Changes in the elements of the orbit ye a Satelite revolving about a planet distorted by Tides;* by G. H. Darwin.—The investigation which forms the subject of this paper is entirely mathematical, cat : therefore not of a kind to be easily condensed into a short acco is paper is the fifth ae a pr (of which notices have from time to time appeared in Nature) in which I have endeavored to * Abstract of a paper read before the Royal Society, on December 18, 1879, } 160 Scientific Intelligence. There is, however, another side of the subject, which must, I think, attract notice, or at least criticism, and this is the applica- bility of the results of analysis to the history of the earth and of the other planets. We know that no solids are either perfectly rigid or perfectly elastic, and that no fluids are devoid of internal friction, and there- fore the tides raised in any planet, whether consisting of oceanic tides or of a bodily distortion of the planet, must be subject to 2 ae From this it follows that the dynamic cal ioe cate tae and satellite, ah becutioiors earth and moon are use The effect of tidal friction upon the pave pete and inclination of the lunar orbit here affords the principal topic. The obliquity efo solety on December 19, 1878, and 5 ae tikas will appear in the Phil- osophical senecsar he for 1879. Pp t paper completes (as far as I now see) the main in- aa a for the case of the earth and moon, — therefore it is now possible to bring the various results to a focu appears then, that when we trace backwa rd in time the the moon always opposite the same face of the earth, or moving very slowly relatively to the earth’s surface ; the whole system rotating in from two to four hours, about an ‘axis inclined to the normal to the ecliptic at an angle of 11° 45’, or somewhat less; and the moon moving in a circular — the plane of which is est period of ber Station of a fluid mass of the same mean density as the earth, which is consistent with an ellipsoidal form of equi- librium, is two hours twenty-four minutes; and that if the eon were to revolve about the éarth with this periodic time, the s faces of the two bodies would be almost in contact with one ee Astronomy. 161 The rupture of the primeval planet into two parts is a matter of speculation, but if a planet and satellite be given in the initial configuration above described, then a system bearing a close resemblance to our own, would necessarily be evolved under the influence of tidal friction. theory postulates that there is not sufficient diffused matter to materially resist the motions of the moon and earth through pace. Sufficient lapse of time is also required. In a previous paper I showed that the minimum time in which the system could have degraded from one initial state, just after the rapture into two bodies, down to the present state, if fifty-four millions years. The time actually occupied by the changes would certainly be It was stated that the periodic times of revolution and rotation back to a common period of from two to four hours. In a previous paper the common : . P ; period was found to be a little over five hours in length; but that > The period of from two to four s mechanically impossible for the moon to revolve about the earth in less than two hours, an it 1s uncertain how the rupture of the primeval planet took place. But if tidal friction has heen the agent by which the earth and moon have been brought into their present configuration, then similar changes must have been going on in the other ies hich make up the solar system. I will therefore make a few the configuration of a pl and satellite is a destruction of energy (or rather its partial conversion into heat within the planet, and partial redistribution), and a transference of an m mentum from that of lanetary rotation to that of orbital revolu- ion of the two bodies about their common center of inertia, - 162 Screntifie Intelligence. Now a large planet has both more energy of rotation and mo angular momentum; hence it is to be expected that large shail should proceed in their changes more slowly than small ones. ars is the smallest of the planets, which are attended by sat- ellites, and it is here alone that we find a satellite revolving faster than the planet rotates. This will also be the ultimate fate of our moon, because after the joint lunar and solar tidal friction has reduced the earth’s rotation to an identity with the moon’s orbital motion, the solar tidal friction will continue to reduce it still fur- ther, so that the earth will rotate faster than the moon revolves. Befo ore, however, this can take place with us, the moon must recede to an en ormo ous distance from the earth, and the earth must rotate in forty or fifty days instead of in twenty-four hours. But the satellites of Mars are so small, that they would only recede a very short way from the planet, before the solar tidal friction reduced the planet’s rotation below the satellite’s revolu- tion. The rapid revolution of the inner satellite of Mars may then, in a sense, be considered as a memorial of the primitive rotation of the planet round its axis. The planets Jupiter and Saturn are very much larger than the earth, and here we find the planets rotating with thee speed, and the satellites revolving with short periodic tim The inclina- tions of the orbits of Jupiter’s satellites to their ey proper planes are very interesting from the point of view of the present theory. The Saturnian system is much more complex than that of upiter, and it seems partially in an early stage of development an partially far advanced. he details of the motions of the satellites are scarcely well enough hitiwn to afford strong arguments either for or against the theory. I have not as yet investigated the case of a planet or star attended by several satellites, but perhaps future investigations may throw further light both on the case of Saturn, and on the whole solar system itse The celebrated nebular hypothesis of ae and Kant oses that a revolving nebula detached a ring, which ultiasnieely fedanie consolidated into a planet or satellite, and that the centr “ portion of the nebula continued to ¢ ontract, nucleus of the sun or planet. The theory now proposed is a con- ro modification of this view, for it supposes that the rup- re of the central body did not take place until it was partially eomeatidated: and had attained nearly its present dime ensions. 2. 7 Jan and the Planets.—Mr. J. Delauney has pre sented to the Paris Academy of Sciences some new re esults -Astrenomy. 163 obtained from a study of Perrey’s tables of earthquakes from 1750 to 1842. He finds two groups of Maxima, commencing in 1759 and 1756 oh ec each with a period of about twelve y years ; and two other groups, commencing in 1756 and 1773 respectively, with a hod of about twenty-eight years. He remarks that those of the first two groups coincide with the times when Jupiter reaches the mean longitude of 265° and 135°; while those of the last two coincide with the times when Saturn reaches the same longitudes ; whence he infers that terrestrial earthquakes have a maximum when these planets are in the mean longitudes men- tioned. Delauney attributes the increased number of earthquakes in winter which Perrey has found to reach a maximum in Novem- pit and Saturn to be due to their passing through meteor streams situated in mean longitudes 135° and 265°. As a consequence of this he ventures to predict an oe number of sat ert or a in the years 1886, 1891, 1898, 1900, . ee, The Problem of the Se epiie —The tides in this narrow strait between Eubcea and the mainland of Greece, have from Classic times been a scientific puzzle, for which a solution has the Aigean Sea, which would be wap at the syzygies. The gs This formula, ta in which 7=length and A= depth of the lake), when ioannd to the channel of Talauda, whose length is 115 kilometers and maximum depth 200 fathoms, gives for the time of vibration 122, 100, and 86 minutes, nines as the mean depth is taken at 100, 150 or 200 fathoms. These results agree well with the observation of eleven to fourt n tides per day, (which would give from 135 to 106 minutes for a — yen, and would seem to confirm M. Forel’s idea. . 6. American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanae A pes he tha 1882, Washington, 1879.—In this volume of the National Ephemeris, Professor Newcomb has introduced several important changes, which were suggested by him approved by a com- Mittee of the National Academy of Science 164 Miscellaneous Intelligence. observed, with data for their computation. The principal addi- tions consist of the mean places of about 180 stars, making 383 in all, for the convenience of field astronomers, more lete data 3 for eclipses, data about the transit of Venus, and largely increased information about the satellites of the planets. 5. Aurore: their Characters and Spectra; by J. Ranp Capron. F.R.A.S. 207 pp. 4to. London, 1879. (E. & F. N. Spo spectrum of the aurora, and the various magneto-electric experi- ments that have been made which tend to throw light upon its cause. The various theories that have been advanced to account and more apparent the more closely the subject is studied. At the present time nearly all the States have their Geological Sur- veys so far advanced that-nothing further can be done until these States are completely mapped by triangulation and topography on a sufficiently large scale. Such a survey is of great import- rv plete survey of his farm, with all undulations of surface ne j ands an e work over a given area, with the certainty that every separate area so surveyed would ultimately join as a pa th with the accuracy attainable only by scientific processes of pre- cision. : It is quite certain that large areas of the public domain, rer for purely agricultural purposes, could be more economically an accurately surveyed, for purposes of sale, by triangulation than Miscellaneous Intelligence. 165 by the present system (so admirably adapted to agricultural lands), with the additional advantage of obtaining an accurate map without additional cost. The triangulation part of the Geodetic Survey, with the recon- — for progressive work, executed the Coast Geodetic work with that first mentioned, there will be formed a complete basis for the extension of the triangulation over every State and Territory except Alaska. It thus appears that no new organiza- tion is required, but simply the extension of one already in exist- ence, familiar with the work, and conducted by experienced and skilled persons. early as ence, would not, except in cases of the large towns, exceed seven triangulation and that part of the topography required to deline- ate the characteristic forms of the country, including the streams ; the State to execute the remainder of the topographical detail Tequired for its own purposes. In such case the cost to the State would not exceed three cents per acre. To this an exception must be made in cases of large towns, where the surveys might be required on large scales; the cost would then be determined by the scale of the work. It is to be hoped, in consideration of the vast importance to the country of a comprehensive survey of its area, that this session of Congress will not close without the passage of a law carrying fully into effect the plan recommended by the National Academy the p departure and a new hope of increased people. EDS. Arctic Voyages of Adolf Erik Nordenskibld, 1858- - The 1879, with illustrations and maps. 447 pp. 8vo. London, 1879. (Macmillan & Co.)—The general interest that has recently been 166 Miscellaneous Intelligence. excited by the Arege mete = voyage of Professor Nor- denskidld, around the north coast of Asia, cannot fail to have awakened a desire re further iromnuiee in regard to his eli Arctic explorations. This desire will te oh oe by the present volume, prepared by Mr. Alex. Lesli Aberdeen. It opens with an autobiographical sketch of Profimior Nordenskidéld; then follow accounts of the Swedish ie Expeditions of 1858, 1861, 1864, 1868, 1873, also of the voyage to Greenland in 1870, in o the Yenissej in 1875, and again in 1876, and finally a partial Gack of the N ethene’ Passage expedition of 1878-1879, in the ega. The accounts are intended to be opular, only occasional brief references to the scientific results of the expedition being introduced, but they are well written and fully illustrated. The ook is a valuable addition to the many come stories of Arc- tic exploration, and still more is a worthy tribute to one of the ablest — who has entered that perilous fie 3 t of the Magnetic Declination of the United States ; j by J. i so LeaRD. Washington, 1879. (U. 8. Coast and Geo- detic Survey, Carlile P. Patterson, Superintendent.—A endi 0. 21, Report of 1876.)—This chart of the magnetic dectination a. the "Duited States for 1875, by Professor J. E. Hilgard, is and under the direction of the General Land Office: The reduc- tion of the observations ars a common date has been based on the — a Mr. _C, A. ott on ce mgmt variation of the e; by Rox ERT Matuet, F.R.S., F.G.S.—Ace ording to the latest hypotheses as to the uantity of water on ‘the globe, its pressure, if evenly eae would be equal to a barometri¢ ean e of 204-74 atmospheres. Accordingly water, when first it gan to condense on the ssane of the globe, would condense at amuch higher temperature than the — pee 32m ce ordinary cireumstan nces. e first rops 0 f water cooling surface of the globe may not impossibly have been at ihe temperature of molten iron. As the water was precipitated, con- densation of the remaining vapor took place at a lower tempera tu pencree® by solar heat than the present, and the difference of temperature between polar and equatorial regions would be greater; so that, in the later geological times, ice may have formed in the one, while the pier was too hot for animal or vegetable life. — Phil. Me ag., Jan., 18 How to Work with he Microscope. 5th edition, enlarged and revised. 518 pp. 8vo. Philadelphia, 1880 (Presley Blak- Miscellaneous Intelligence. 167 iston, formerly Lindsay & Blakiston).—This work by Lionet 8. Brats, F.R.S., President of the Royal Microscopical Society, is an Evaleckie contribution to the Z nglish literature on the micro- scope. The well known 4th edition has been completely remod- eled ; over 100 pages of new matter and 150 engravings have been added. The present edition is not only a text book but an encyclopedia of the microscope. Of the new material published we notice: (1) by Prof. Gulliver, F.R.S., 41 figures of plant erys- tals with original notes; (2) by Mr. Wenham, F.R.M.S., practical suggestions connected with the construction of object glasses; (3) by Mr. H. C. Sorb rocks, minerals and fossils, illustrated by 39 figures. That potion of the last — on photography by Dr. Maddox, has en revised by Dr. Clifford Mercer, who mentions a number of recent improvements se adds a completa list. of memoirs on the application of photography to the microscope. The entire work ears evidence of much laborious care on the part of Dr. Beale in its revision. It is eminently practical in its methods; a self-help to the beginner and instructive to the more advanced — of the microscope. 6. Lhe American Monthly Microscopical Tome * editor and Publisher, Romyn Hrroncock, F.R.M.S. Vol. i, No. 1, Janu- ary, 1880, New York.—The new monthly i is in fact a continuation . the uatenty, which was Por oy carried on under the same editor e first number of twenty pages contains articles on new species of Ophrydium ; on the Amplifiers of Zeiss; on fresh- water Algw; on a method of making sections of insects and their appendages; on the aaron ae of Rhizopods; with also editorial notes, correspondence, 7 School of Mints Quarterly; Vol. i, No. 1, New York, 1880, —This new Journal is issued quarterly under ie auspices of the Chemical and Engineering Societies of Columbia College. promises to riba th a creditable position among under wb omg periodicals. The fi t number contains the following articles: The pedometer as a aie eying instrument, by Prof. H. 5. Munroe ; Coffee and its gage ie by F. Weic peared Fire-brick and Terra cotta, by A. M’L. Parker; Chloral, by "A. P. Hallock; Building Stones, I, by J. L. Greenle 2af ; with also notes on Miner- alogy by C. A. Colton; E.M. and on Physics by M. C. Ihlsing, Ph.D. 8. Catalogue of Diatomacee, by Freperick HasirsHaw, F.R.MS. (New ; : designed to be a complete index to all the published literature g the Diatomacex. It is stated that the spe- 'S to appear in four parts in large octavo, and its unquestioned value will Seshilen be appreciated by all workers in this field. 168 Miscellaneous Intelligence. . Treatise os Fuel, ee and practical; “if Rosert Gat- nee, M.R.LA., E.CS. pp. 8vo. London, 1880. (Triibner & Co. )—This tittle book ene a compact pe , the more important facts in regard to the siemipeitien of the different kinds of fuels, their heating power and the calorimetric methods by eee to the silaceiond: sedate . Petroleum. Mr. Ox he hanes in a lecture in the . ? aggregate 133,262,63 9 barrels of crude oil, from the sale of which the State has ealteed $340,709,672. The t theory that the Penn- sylvania oils are derived entirely from the decomposition of the — and animal life of the Devonian age, and that the oil ands are but reservoirs holding the oil, Mr, Ashburner thinks etubliihed beyond a doubt by facts gathered from the oil miner. OBITUARY. ALEXANDER SADEBECK, Professor of Mineralogy at the Univer- sity of Kiel, and author of many papers upon mineralogical sub- jects, died on the 9th of December, 1879, at the = of thirty-six. Report of the Entomologist, Charles V. Riley, M.A., Ph.D. APP. ae with 7 plates. Balmer, abe foes rt of Department of Rpridanies fe for Journ: ti Society of Natural History, vo ‘an ii, no. ‘, Jal 1879. Contents : Amul Address, by V. ‘e Chambers mee n some new or little known North American neei . G. Wetherby ; ehearvaiains He a ds, by Charles Dury ae L. R. Freeman ; pp boas ote oF saat new fossil species and remarks upon others, by 8. A. Miller. Unser Sonnenkérper nach seiner physikalischen, sprachlichen und mytholo- gischen Seite betrachtet von Dr. Schmidt, Rector in Gevelsberg. 60 pp. 4t0. ie agp ee orksh Companion: a collection of useful and reliable recipes, rules, ses =, naan Mf fasags ras practical hints for the household and the shop. 164 pp. New Yor The Palenque Tablet in ‘aia United States — — Washington, D. C.; by Charles 81 pp. Ato. ~~ ew City, A Sesto of the Germ d in ‘Medix cine; By George R. Cutter, M.D. 304 pp. 8vo. r deel ‘York 79 (G "p. Putnam’s Son Report on the — logy. ot Tndis, for tei by Jota Elliott, Third year. Caleutta, 1879. Quarto, ans ; appendix pp. 1 Report of the ‘yobs ee : the Meteorological Department of India. Thin Report on the Madras Cyclone of May, 1877, by J. Elliot, M.A. Meteorological Reporter to the Government of Bengal. Quarto, Calcutta, pb Zoo ni pag for ated and General ceva 3, by A , M.D., Ph.D. 719 vis 8vo, with numerous illustrations. New York, “1886, f ae Holt & Com- pany, APPENDS. Arr. XX1.—The Limbs of Sauranodon, with Notice of a new Species; by O. C. MARSH. are very similar to those in that sels auranodon presents some fea- These represent the carpals. There are six metacarpals, and also six well developed digits, each composed of numerous phalanges, which are all free, and nearly circular in form. In the posterior limb, the structure is essentially the same. The distal end of the femur has three distinct facets, and of these the middle one is the largest. Next below the femur, and articulating with it, are three bones which apparently rep- resent the tibia, intermedi and fibula, although the first alone can be determined from its shape and position. The next row contains four rounded bones; and the succeeding one, * This Journal, vol. xvii, p. 85, Jan., 1879. Au. Jour. Sot.—Tuirp Series, Von. XIX.—No. 110, Fes., 1880. 12 170 O. C. Marsh—Limbs of Sauranodon. five, as shown in the cut below. These correspond to the tar- sals, and in the next series are the six metatarsals. There are six digits represented in this specimen. The distal phalanges are small and circular, and are left unshaded, as their exact position has not been determined. - Left hind paddle of Sawranodon discus, Marsh; seen from below, one-eighth natural size; f, femur; ¢, tibia; 7, intermedium; /’, fibula; J first digit; V, fifth digit. The above figure agrees essentially with the other paddles reserved, and thus may be taken to represent the typical limb in this group of reptiles. The most striking features in this Sauranodon limb are, the three bones articulating with the femur, and the six complete digits. These characters mark a stage of development below that seen in any other air-breathing vertebrate, and only approached by the limb of Jchthyosaurus. he transverse segmentation is distinct in the first five series, regarding the humerus and femur as the first segment, or propodial bones.* If the three bones of the second series (epi- dials) are rightly interpreted, the middle one is the interme- ium. Its position in the paddles of Sawranodon of both the known species indicates that its true place is in the segment where it is found. If so, it follows that in the process of differentiation this bone has been gradually crowded out of its original position between the marginal bones of the second, or ie ah series into the third, or mesopodial, where we now nd it. * The need of general designations to apply to the corresponding segments alike of the anterior and posterior limbs of the air-breathing vertebrates is evident. While we have the convenient terms “ Phalanges” and “‘ Metapodials” for the dis- tal pa the extremities, there are no names in use for the portions above. Hence, the following are suggested : Anterior. Posterior. Propodial bones = Humerus, Femur. Epipodial “ “ Radius and Ulna, Tibia and{Fibula. Mesopodial ‘“ 0 Tarsals. Me 7 4“ ~ arpals. ta “ Metacarpals, ” §Metatarsals. Phalangial ,“* ‘“ Finger bones, * Toe bones. O. C. Marsh—Limbs of Sauranodon. 171 In Ichthyosaurus, the intermedium is not entirely excluded from the epipodial row; in Plesiosaurus and all other reptiles the process is essentially completed. In some Amphibians, this bone still separates the lower ends of the two specialized bones above it. Sawranodon marks an earlier and most inter- esting stage in the differentiation, and, taken in connection with the examples here cited, indicates clearly how the trans- ition was accomplished. he six complete digits in the limbs of Sawranodon is a character not before observed in any air-breathing vertebrate. Some of the Amphibians retain remnants of a sixth digit, an Ichthyosaurus often has, outside of the phalanges, one or more rows of marginal ossicles that probably represent lost digits. With these exceptions, the normal number of five digits is not exceeded. Sauranodon discus, sp. nov. te of the skull much elongated, and the snout slender. emargination. the species here described, which is based upon the greater portion of a skeleton, the coracoid is more deeply emarginate, and the head of the humerus rounded, nearly as much as that of the femur. The paddles, also, are broader Mm proportion to their size, than in the type species, and other Yale College, New Haven, Jan. 24th, 1880. 3 eG . fe . A : He FA \ soe iA \ a en 4% LY § ss ss vita ae Be ois eb ci oe of on, sEaiia: : — EET ee tr mee rt nace TL WALLY id ONVC GOs AYAHISOWLY FHL AO HUYUNSSHYd NVAW Oz S a “a al 0 ge apa of I Lv or d = & meen oes eae aio : Sut ee AINC YOd AYRHASOVLLY AHI TO FHNSSmMud NVOW STORM OF JANUARY 15,187'7-435.PM. PLATED Pye ve : EA EA ioe a = A \ AY - See atc \ \ cme \ Le \ \ La \ \ \ pon ee \ \ \ \ ee \ \ 4 \ aA \ | — \ \ \ ae \ \ be at \ ue Si area = \ Pies f S \ Ne ee \ yi So yo ae \ \ iy \ \ \ mat A ; \ \ \ Mi /§ \ ae SF EER he \" & e r | \ ” c i) wi A 3 hal 4 ‘. ‘ Ey Mg mS | 4 Lo i) \ \ a iL 5 ta fire em ’ \ . u RY 5 : : | ae ~ NN rs j H Ns S \ : \ ‘ 4 oe ‘S ~ 5 i ® ik 4 A \ 2 a 2 ; 3 2 a ~ 4 sie a iv 2 ai : _ 2 \ y ‘ U ‘ : SY . =, , 3 ‘ \ \ SS : iN ie i ” j \ . ‘ Us : y 4 / Ne “ / 2" Z ra i = > ~ ‘Ae a . Z ba} At, 3 H < o —_ oe P ° £ o. be a ot A * Ss a 2 z : a 8 2 5 Fa . o 5 / a: Bivens tiie: C FSF esa Pale a) | per te nant | ne 2 ¥ EA & paisa a Punderson & Cresand NowrHavrer. Ce 4 | a INES EQUAL MAGNETIC DECLINATION IN STATES FOR THE RAC Ct Coast Survey Report § ae 1876. eo THE UNITED, Z hay U 4 ‘ “li, ii Y os nvr om SY RT , = “ya ) A Hi (eile A i tif VAIS ‘ WW witerng rails ; My a fe x Sys This chart of the declination of the magnetic needle for variation of the compass) has been constricted princtpally from the observations made by the United States Coast Survey up to 1877, and those made at the charge ah by TE: of the Bache Fund ef the National Academy of Sctences, ¢ Hilgard, between 1872 and 1877. In addition to these, th e U.S.Engineers in connection with the Surveys of Northwestern and Narthern Boundaries have been used; also thase made direction of the U.S. Land Officein tracing aeverae boundaries of = 3% ‘ * a SMie00y, Res < RS Sa _ Se AS 3 7 peat % zs" “aoe m3 us fins sug nu ™ SC SiS y aye Frans oT a5, 4 it pt [ee ister {ih LW \ 4 COM Gt" hich nye » Lt ve U2 Ry , \ M Rie A Taw’ jo 1s Air, a ay 4, R fay & ftiy ON \) AS ‘N) a i \ \ Ny WY pyvetit i ie bap yin GaWittiy ¢ al Mp , Hee. “fer a , iN Wis) YA, oe 95° supplied by various private observers territories, and ! l L us° Drawn and engraved by A and H. Luudenkohl 4 “pir j) aaoeit Asnebopger) > C AL As Law ie Me svi ‘ j ~ ame, Offa amy'4 ; cant ie eT eo | rees Ae i 3\ rayne oN MO Gnit } ‘be Pine | % corte | gars ry oun tLOT Fie RalX, 4 eG Suet De 5 \ B a ase-chart of the ited Stat oe Scale 7 Pig 000 1879 Seals of Miles. y —- ——_——-- __~-4 'o eet 100 69.0 miles to one degree. ne ee YG AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. [THIRD SERIES.] Art. XXII.—On a Chart of the Magnetic Declination in_the United States, constructed, by J. E. H1~earp, Assistant U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey. With Plate V. [From the United States Coast Survey Report for 1876.] Sir: I submit to you herewith, for publication in the Coast Survey Report for 1876, a chart of the magnetic variation in the United States. This chart, which shows the lines of equal magnetic declination (so-called Isogonie lines) for the year 1875, is mainly based upon the observations made during the progress of the coast survey up to 1877, together with those made under my personal direction during the period 1872-77, at the charge of the fund bequeathed for scientific research by the late Professor Alexander Dallas Bache, held in trust by the National Academy of Sciences. f : When the income of this fund became available for its investigation of terrestrial magnetism in the United States, that subject being one in which Professor Bache had taken much its prosecution on the part of the government. The board of direction having approved of my proposition, an allotment was made for several years in succession, and the observations were prosecuted under my immediate direction by observers whom . Am. Jour, So1.—Tarep Senrts, Vor. XIX, No. 111.—Maxcs, 1880. 174 J. EL. Hilgard—Magnetic Declination in the United States. I personally instructed in the work. In this way observations of the magnetic declination were made at about 200 stations, distributed over a large area of the interior country, at 150 of which stations the dip and horizontal intensity were also observed. These observations will be published in detail under the auspices of the National Academy of Sciences. Subsequently, when on the extension of the scope of the Coast Survey so as to embrace the interior country, you pro- posed to undertake the requisite magnetic observations, the board of direction of the Bache fund deemed it best to close the work that I had been carrying on, and to publish the results obtained in the most available form, beside printing the observations themselves as a matter of record. Such publica- tion can best be effected by combining them with all similar data available, and giving a graphic representation of the gen- eral result. In the accompanying map this has been done for the declina- tion (or variation of the compass) which is the element of the most practical utility. Since the data obtained by the Coast Survey form a very large part of the material used, an early publication in the Coast Survey Report is thought to be the most advantageous mode of giving the results to the country. The incessant demands made upon the office of the Coast and Geodetic Survey for information relative to the variation of the compass in different parts of the United States bear evi- dence of the appreciation in which is held the similar map given in the Coast Survey Report for 1865 and published in 1867. The present map cannot fail to meet acceptably the constantly-increasing demand, as it is not only brought up to amore recent date, but is based upon a very much greater number of exact observations in the interior. Northern and of the Northwestern Boundaries by the United States Engineers, and those made under the direction of the General Land Office in tracing some of the principal meridians and base-lines for the surveys of the public lands and the boundaries of some of the Territories. Moreover, some very valuable observations have been furnished by private observe!s, which will be specified in another place. : I am indebted to Mr. A. Lindenkohl, chief draughtsman 1? the Coast and Geodetic Survey Office, for his valuable aid ™ the graphic construction of the [sogonic lines. 4 It was fortunate that, for the construction of this chart, the - researches of my colleague, Assistant Charles A. Schott, on the J. E. Hilgard—Magnetic Declination in the United States. 175 secular variation of the magnetic declination in the United States were available, without which it would have been diffi- cult to reduce the observations to a common date, with some approach to accuracy. His latest paper on this subject, printed recently, will be found very useful for reference. For a separate publication, it will probably be convenient to print Mr. Schott’s map, illustrating the annual change, on the obverse side of the chart of magnetic declination, in order to make the sheet available for use without the aid of an explana- t. tory tex J. KE. HILGARD, Assistant Coast and Geodetic Survey. To Carine P. Parrerson, Superintendent. U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Office, Washington, D. C., July 1, 1879. tion in the United States, etc., by C. A. Schott. Appendix 0. 8 to Coast Survey Report for 1874, third edition, 1879. pee local peculiarities that have not been ascertained. or the interior States the information is very scanty, or . >. € annual change is expressed in minutes of arc, a + sign indicating increase of westerly or decrease of easterly declination. Locality. Annual change. Locality. Annual change. ae coast of Saree Took S. FS ag West Virginia....--..------ + ting at te ene ee po +3 N. Carolina, §.Carolina,Georgia +34 Sad Hampshire _.__...__- +34 Florida, northern part - ---- -- +3} Nisei Se eempgtage hak 54 Florida, southern part ---.--- + 7 sachusetts, eastern -. +24 Alabama, Mississ., Gulf coast of +34 Rhod stern part._. +3 to 4| Louisiana, eastern part -----. tae Island and Connecticut. +3} iana, western coast .-.-- +2 ee York, Long sland, ..___ +24 Tetas, cast OF oS 5 ke +2 Rou. borthern and west’n part +4} as, southwestern part .... 0 P oh Jersey WoNeu woo Seue cyae +3 ColaetGiucoren se bes +2f Ohie ytvania ate cere +38 Tale es ee +4 Ty, je oe ES Sn cae +24 New Mexico and Arizona.... 0 7 unessee, eastern part 2: +24 California, coast of...------- —lt Samira » Western part______ +2 Oregon, coast of _.....-.---- —2to2d sr adag nN Sone ee Songs a9 Washington Territory, coast of —2}to3 Ware,Maryl’d, and Virginia +3 176 J. LeConte—Old River-beds of California. Art. XXIIL—The Old River-beds of California ; by JosEPH LEConrE. [Read before the National Academy of Sciences, Oct. 29, 1879.] OLD river-beds are found in nearly all countries which have been affected by drift-agencies. In nearly all such countries, too, these old beds are filled to great depths with river deposit. ut the old river-beds of California are in several respects en- tirely unique. In most other countries, as for example, in Hu- rope and Kastern United States, the new or present river-beds occupy the same position as the old; while in middle Califor- nia the rivers have been displaced, by lava flows, from their former position and compelled to cut entirely new channels. gain: in certain portions of Europe and in Eastern United States, the old river-beds are broad, deep troughs, filled some- times several hundred feet deep with detritus, into the upper parts of which the present mnch shrunken streams are cutting their narrower channels on a Azgher level; while in California the displaced rivers have cut their new channels 2000 to 3000 feet deep in solid slate, leaving the old detritus-filled channels far up on the dividing ridges. In northeastern United States the drainage system has remained substantially unchanged since early Tertiary, or even still earlier times ; while in middle California the Tertiary drainage system seems to have been obliterated and the streams have been compelled to carve out to a much deeper level an entirely new and independent drain- age system, having the same general direction but often cutting across the former. In the one case the old beds wnderlie the beds of California, consisting as it does largely of sears and bowlders, compared with the fine silts which fill t : channels of the Eastern coast, and we will see how marked 18 the contrast in many respec : For all that is known concerning the old river-beds of Cali- fornia, we are up to the present time almost wholly indebted to Professor Whitney. His valuable investigations on this sub- ject were published in the first volume of the Geological Sur vey of California in 1865. He has also recently published a fuller description and a complete map of them. His views have therefore been before the scientific public for many yea! and are so well known that a bare enumeration of their mai? J. LeConte—Old River-beds of California. 177 features is all that is required here. Whitney shows: 1. that there is in California an old river-system entirely different from the present river-system; 2. that the old channels were filled by detritus, and the detritus covered by lava-streams; 3. that the lava flows, completing the filling of the channels, diverted the streams and forced them to cut for themselves new chan- and the section is across both; while in figure 2 the new have cut across the old, and the section is along the old and across the new. This peculiar relation of the old to the new river-beds does not characterize the whole Pacific slope, but only the aurifer- ous slate belt of middle California. It is not found in the oast Range, nor in the region of the granite axis of the I) ii} if WH) Fig. 1—Section across Table mountain: L, lava; SS, sandstone ;* G, old gravel ; river-bed ; SS, slate bed rock; r, present river; g, present grave Thinnimnin” Alii Fig. 2—Lava stream cut through by modern rivers: aa, basalt; bd, volcanic ashes; ¢c, Tertiary ; dd, Cretaceous; RR, direction of old river-bed; rr, of new river-bed Southern California. It seems to be confin Slate belt of the western slope of the Sierra from Plumas * The material here called sandstone is @ cemented river sand. It is usually ‘overed with tufa or tufaceous conglomerate and this latter with lava. 178 J, LeConte—Old River-beds of Calrfornia. county on the north to Tuolumne county on the south inelu- sive, a distance of about 250 miles, and from the San Joaquin and Sacramento plains on the west to about 4000 feet elevation on the Sierra slope on the east, a breadth of about 35 miles. There is no problem in California geology more important, and ae none more difficult—none more enticing and yet none more affling—than the mode of filling of the old river-beds and the cause of the displacement of the streams. The opportunities of study are abundant, for in many places the old beds have been bared, and complete sections of their fillings made by the operations of hydraulic mining; but the phenomena are so ex- tremely complex and difficult of interpretation that we are not yet prepared for a final theory. I have on several occasions utilized my vacations by the study of these old channels and their fillings. In 1877 I examined those about Forest Hill; in telligent guidance and kind assistance of Mr. Hughes, the super- intendent of the Blue Tent mines, I have made a more ex- tended and thorough examination than ever before. Exten- sive gravel deposits exist on both sides of the South Yuba River for many miles. This is in fact the finest mining region in the State. I went up one side and down the other and examined these in succession. I wish now to very briefly resent the conclusions to which I have provisionally come y much reflection on the observations made on this and on previous occasions. I present them with some misgivings, well knowing that much more complete and detailed observa- tions are necessary before an entirely satisfactory theory can be reached. General Description. It is well known that in hydraulic mining the whole thick- ness of the old river-channel-fillings is worked down and cat- ried away by the prodigious force of the hydraulic jets. 42 such a mine, therefore, we always have the old bed bared over the whole area cleared, and the fillings exposed from bottom t0 top, on the face of an ever-receding vertical cliff 200 to 400 feet: high. The Bed.—The old stream-bed thus exposed has a shallow, trough-like form, i. e. is lowest in the middle and rises gently on both sides. These higher sides of the trough are called the “rims.” The bed-rock, which is usually slate with nearly ver tical cleavage, retains usually its original soundness and hard ness, but in some places is more or less decomposed, and some times, while retaining its form, is completely changed into plastic clay. In all cases it is worn into irregular and fantasl@ hollows and channels, and often into deep pot-holes. As there is no apparent relation between the hardness or softness of the J. LeConte—Old River-beds of California. 179 bed-rock and the amount of wear, it is certain that the softening has taken place since the filling. The surface-forms of the bed- rents carrying coarse materials—precisely such as are now pro- Sailor’s flat, beneath the volcanic cap, to be presently described, logs of Redwood (Sequoia) or of cedar (Libocedrus) probabl the latter, in which the bark was still tough and fibrous althoug the wood was soft and could be cut like cheese. In the finely stratified sands and clays are found beautiful impressions of leaves of many kinds. ‘According to Lesquereux these leaves Indicate a Pliocene age for the deposits. More rarely mamma- lan bones have been found. Among these are allies of the thinoceros, hippopotamus and camel, indicating, like the leaves a Pliocene age, but also in many undoubted cases the mam- * Iti igi idity of this erosion. In the North rat achy ee = petharsl he ban toe Be eight months per year, has cut in four years a channel three feet wide and fifty feet deep in solid slate. 180 J. LeConte—Old River-beds of California. moth, the great mastodon and a tapir, undistinguishable from the living species, indicating a Quaternary rather than a Plio- cene age. These Quaternary remains have been in several instances found under the volcanic caps in the lowest blue- gravel, next to the bed-rock. Several examples of this kind are now in the museum of the University. Some human re- mains and implements are also supposed to have been found in this detritus, but the authenticity of these is disputed by many. n several cases I observed in the vertical cliff of detritus distinct curved lines of discontinuity, concave upward, indicat- ing sub-channels cut in the main mass of detritus. Undoubt- edly the main channel had been first filled, then partly swept out by erosion, and then re-filled. This observation is impor- tant, as it seems demonstrative of a true river agenc e lower portion of the detritus, the so-called blue gravel, differs from the upper portion partly in structure, but chiefly in color. In structure it is almost if not quite devoid of lamination ; and when the rock fragments are sub-angular it is almost undistinguishable from true é// or ground-moraine. In most cases, however, its pebbles and bowlders are perfectly rounded. Its blue color is undoubtedly due to the fact that its iron is in the form of ferrous instead of ferric oxide. There is no such line of demarkation between the blue and the red gravel as would indicate a different origin. On the contrary the irregularity of the plane of contact and the shading of the color shows a downward progressive oxidation of iron, greater in some places than in others. e capping.—Above the detritus which constitutes the main portion of the filling of most of the old river-beds, we nearly always find a capping of volcanic matter 50 to 150 feet thi This is sometimes aa basalt underlaid by tufaceous conglomerate, but more usually tufaceous conglomerate only. 3. ll Fig. 3,—SS, slate bed rock; RR, old river bed; r, present river bed; GG, old river gravel; VV, volcanic conglomerate. In this latter case, however, the presence of scattered blocks of basalt on the surface often indicates the former existence bi a usual form. When the consists of tufaceous conglomer- ate above, the whole thic J. LeConte—Old River-beds of California. 181 some cases, however, are found alternate layers of gravel and tufa. Where the basaltic lava occurs it always nearly overlies the tufa. Nearly all the higher parts of the country are covered both With the gravel and with the tufa. The lava is also very widely spread. The indications are that these materials formed at one time an almost universal covering, but subsequent ero- sion has left them in ridges and patches. Lixplanation of the phenomena above described. There are many difficult and important questions suggested . by the phenomena above described which press u soluti “How were the old river beds filled with detritus Ze How were the streams displaced from their old beds? Why the new channels been cut so much deeper than these four points in the order mentioned. 1, Lhe mode of filling of the old river-beds.—There are three Possible modes in which we may conceive these beds to have * In silicification of wood there is little doubt that the percolating alkaline Waters charged with silica are neutralized by the acids of organic decom) and the silica thus rendered insoluble is deposited then and there (see author's ho yt ae Il the Dardanelle mines near n many of the hydraulic mines, especially in the Dardanelle Forest Hill, I found in certain parts all the slate and volcanic pebbles while still Tetaining their form perfectly, reduced to a soft soapy bluish clay. gone are er stones. It is evident their silica has been extracted by alkaline 182 J. LeConte—Old River-beds of California. been filled with detritus. 1st. They may have been filled by glaciers slowly and steadily retreating up the valleys, dropping their debris on their way, the debris perhaps afterwards modi- ed by currents from the melting glacier. 2d. They may have been filled successively from mountain foot toward mountain crest with detritus brought down by the rivers into a bay or fiord which steadily moved up the valley by subsidence of the land until the sea stood 4,000 feet above its present level. 3d, they may have been filled in all parts nearly simultaneously by true river action in the same way as river-channels elsewhere have been or under certain conditions are now I shall not discuss the first and second. I mention them because each, but especially the second, has been held by some ersons. I have kept them constantly in mind during all my observations but have been compelled to abandon them as untenable. I am quite sure that no one can examine these energy is usually divided between the work of transportation , and the work of erosion. If the load of transported matter be moderate, a large amount of energy is left over for erosion ; but if the load of transported matter be very great, the whole energy may be expended in transportation and none is left for ion—the limit is reached at which erosion ceases an a certain amount of detritus which produces the maximum It is evident therefore that all that is necessary to cause any stream to deposit is to increase its load beyond the * Gilbert, this Journ., vol. xii, pp. 16 and 85, 1876. J. LeConte—Old River-beds of California. 183 limits of its energy. This principle is well understood by hydraulic miners. The amount of water gathered in the sluices from the hydraulic jets must be duly related to the amount of earth removed. If the water is in excess, the precious water is wasted and the erosion of the sluices is very great; if the earth is in excess the sluice is choked, even though the velocity under proper conditions is sufficient to carry bowlders of severa cubic feet.. The water must be well-loaded but not over-loaded. The same important principle is well illustrated by the pheno- mena of the floods of the tributaries of the Sacramento River. As I learn from my nephew, Julian LeConte, who has been engaged in the hydrographical survey of this river, at the time of flood, the rushing waters first come down Feather River bringing only fine silt and clay; the water rises and increases proportionally in depth. Next comes the great mass of coarse sediment, sand, gravel and pebbles creeping slowly along the bottom and filling up the bed twenty feet deep; the water though in full flood is but little deeper (though much wider) than before the flood.* Lastly, as the water falls and has less sediment to carry, it again takes up the sediment previously deposited and scours out the channel even though its general velocity is now far less than when the same was deposited. In this case the filling is not permanent; but cases are not want- Ing of steady building up by rivers of very high velocity. According to the authority already mentioned the Yuba River at Marysville has permanently filled up its beds 30 feet deep, and 15 miles above Marysville 115 feet deep, in the last years. This is wholly due to the large increase of transported matter produced by the operations of hydraulic mining. Again, according to Captain Dutton,+ the Colorado River through its cafion and the Platte River over the plains have about the same slope, viz: eight feet per mile; but while the Colorado has cut its wonderful cation and is still cutting, the Platte has water varies at so high a rate that a very slight change in con- ditions affects enormously the amount of deposit. While they build, therefore, they build rapidly but are liable under even * The rise of the surface is about 23 feet ; the filling of the bed 20 feet. t Nature, vol. xix, p. 274, 1879 | 184 J. LeConte—Old River-beds of California. the dheioeun of the old river-gravels, as I have dekaribed them, are precisely those of deposits made by the turbulent action of very swift, shifting, overloaded currents; only in this case the currents must have been far swifter and more heavily loaded than any existing currents. The detritus fore finally the process of filling was probably exceptionally rapid. It might have occupied years, or even centuries, but was geologically a very rapid process. Now I cannot conceive how all these conditions could have been fulfilled, except by the rapid melting of extensive fields of ice or snow. But why —it will be asked—was the detritus not carried away again? I answer: Because immediately after the filling was completed the detritus was protected and the rivers rear by the lava- flood. This brings me to the next question, 2. The cause of the displacement of the rivers. ater alre ady shown, the mere filling up of the river channels with detritus alone would never have displaced the streams. On the contrary, as soon as the conditions determining the filling were changed, the rivers would immediately have commenced cutting into the detritus as they have done on the Eastern coast ; and, on account of the high slope of their channels, would ere this ae completely swept it all out, as they have done in Southern California. The protection of the detritus and the ciienibinceal of the streams is due wholly to the lava flood. Middle California lies on the southern skirt of the great lava- flood of the Northwest.* The center of the great outflow was the Cascade and Blue Mountains. In Oregon the lava is 3,000 feet thick and therefore IRAN conceals the previous sur- face configuration of the country. In extreme northern Cali- fornia it is still a cenivatran’ mantle several hundred feet thick, and therefore the old river beds with few ema es are hope- lessly concealed. In Middle California we find it reduced to ridges and patches by erosion, but originally it probably was even here a nearly universal mantle, covering the whole sur- — except some highest points, and substantially obliterating e drainage system. But yet this lava mantle was not s0 a by the writer on this subject in this Journal, vol. vii, p. 167, and P. 9, 1874. J. LeConte—Old River-beds of California. 185 thick but that subsequent erosion has cut through the thinner arts, i. @., on the previous higher ground. Immediately after the obliteration of the previous drainage system, the rivers, of course, commenced cutting a new system, having the same general trend (for this. is determined by the general mountain slope), but wholly independent of, and therefore often cutting across, the older system. Furthermore the streams in forming their new beds seem to avoid the places of the old beds, for there the lava would be thickest, and cut their channels on the old divides for there the lava was thinnest and therefore soonest removed by general erosion, or perhaps was absent altogether. Again: we have already seen that the rush of overloaded With detritus. Before the melting was completed the ash-erup- tons had already commenced, and mud-streams, foliowed by lava-streams, completed the work of obliteration. We see pre- cisely the same phenomena on a smaill scale, in the destructive fi s and mud-streams which precede and accompany the fruptions of volcanos like Cotopaxi, whose summits are cap- ped with perpetual snow. In the case we are discussing, how- ever, instead of a volcanic peak, a great mountain range covered with snow, eru of all geographical features, river courses in elevated regions most permanent. Uinta Mountains commenced to rise directly athwart its path- °wnward in the same proportion. When once a river, as It Were, bites in and gets a grip upon the rocky bones of the * Powe lorati iver, p. 152; Dutton, Nature, vol. xix, p. 247 and Ay “35 on of Colorado river, p. ; ; $ 186 J. LeConte—Old River-beds of California. country it does not easily loose its hold. Rivers with deep channels like those of California will not change. eir chan- nels must be obliterated, and then they make new channels. Such obliteration can only take place by submergence and prolonged sedimentation or else by a lava-flood. We have seen that tufaceous conglomerate usually underlies the basaltic lava and covers the detritus even where the lava is wanting. It is evident therefore ash eruptions preceded the basaltic flow. The washing down of these ashes as mud streams completed the filling and then the lava flood covering stream beds, and once commenced would continue to cut in these places. ing* has drawn attention to the fact that in the same locality ifornia and especially in Oregon the lava flood is so thick that the buried old river system is not revealed by erosion—the present rivers are running far above the old rivers. In South- ern California on the contrary the rivers have never been dis- placed by lava, for the lava flood did not reach so far. If these channels were ever filled with detritus, this has not only been swept out again, but the rivers have continued to deepen their channels even to the present time. The double river system of Middle California is the result of the fact that this part lay in the extreme skirts of the great lava flood. In British Oo lumbia beyond the limits of the lava flood, the relation of the new to the old river beds, as I learn from Mr. Amos Bowman, is again like those of the Eastern States. The rivers are noW cutting into the detritus which fills the broader and deeper channels of the old rivers. * Exploration of 40th Parallel, vol. i, Systematic Geology, p. 715. J, LeConte—Old River-beds of California. 187 Why the modern rivers have cut to a lower level.—I have already in a previous article* given reason to believe that the great lava flood of the Northwest came not from craters but from great fissures, and that the force of eruption was not the pressure of elastic gases merely, but also the lateral squeezing y which mountain ranges are elevated. It is almost certain, then, that coincident with the outflow of lava in California there was an increase in the elevation of the Sierra range. The inevitable effect of this would be the cutting of the new chan- nels below the level of the old, and thus finally the singular relation between the old and the new channels which now exists. There is a certain definite relation between the slope and the amount of detritus which determines the depth of the cafions. sion of the whole Cretaceous and Tertiary times, if the general Sierra slope were as high then as it is now, viz: 100 to 200 feet Proper relation was again established. The elevation which I suppose took — in the Sierra range of the continent was probably along the valley of Mississippi River; the axis on this side was the crest of the Sierra, where it gave rise to fracture and outflow. : ie places where the lava emerged have not been found with Certainty. It was probably along or near the crest, where the * This Journal, vol. vii, p. 177, 1874. 188 J, LeConte—Old River-beds of California. subsequent erosion has been so great that the evidences are mostly obliterated. In Alpine County, about Silver Mountain — and about Markleeville, the Sierra crest is formed largely of voleanic rocks. From this region probably a large number of streams radiated. But over the larger portion of the high Sierra erosion has bitten so deep that the lava streams have been entirely removed. I have however observed many dio- ritic, doleritic and felsitic dikes in all the granite region above the lava flow. These I have thought are probably the exposed roots of the flow. rary. As as seen, the mammalian remains are a mixture of the characteristic Pliocene species still lingering and of charac- teristic Quaternary species just coming in. They undoubtedly therefore indicate a transition from Pliocene to Quaternary, and whether on these evidences we refer the gravels to late Plio- often compelled to linger beyond the epoch to which they | J. LeConte—Old River-beds of California. 189 hus it seems to me that the four questions suggested by the phenomena of the old river beds and their fillings, have been hot only each answered, but they have been all connected together in a satisfactory manner. Sequence of Events. _It may be well to briefly recapitulate the main points of my view, by narrating rapidly the events in the order of their uence Immediately after the birth of the Sierra Nevada, at the nning of the Cretaceous period, a drainage system com- menced to be formed. This system we may be assured S10n slowly progressed. Then commenced the glacial cold at the end of the Pliocene, a rising of the Sierra region, and the oi some Ancient Glaciers of the Sierra. This Journal, vol. v, p. 325, 1873, and Vol. x, p. 126, 1875, ‘ Am. Jour. Sc1.—Turrp sie Vou. XIX.—No. 111, Marcu, 1880, 190 J. LeConte—Old River-beds of California. high Sierra was mantled with snow and ice and glaciers proba- bly occupied the higher portions of the river troughs, and thus g a new system wholly independent of the previous one, though having the same gen- eral direction. In cutting these new channels the rivers seem was the high Sierra ice mantled and all its cafions filled wit glaciers, but even the much lower Coast Range was snow-cap- ped, and glaciers probably ran down its valleys nearly or quite into the Bay of San Francisco.* As another result of the increased elevation of the Sierra and the prodigious consequent erosion by ice and water of this time, and of water alone 12 subsequent times, the erupted lava was swept clean away from the greater portion of the high Sierra, leaving only the roots visible in the form of dikes, and the river channels lower dow? the slope were cut far below the detritus-filled and lava-capped old river channels, which are thus left high up on the present divides. Meanwhile meteoric waters percolating downward through the decomposing lava caps, and therefore charged with carbonates of soda and lime, and therefore also dissolving silica, cemented the gravels and petrified the drift wood, or else tak- ing more silica, changed in places volcanic and slate pebbles and bed rock into clay. Berkeley, Cal., Oct. 15, 1879. i * I have found what I regard as good evidence of glacial action about the sil of the University, 300 feet above the Bay of San Francisco. J. D, Dana—Age of the Green Mountains. 191 Art, XXTV.—WNote on the Age of the Green Mountains; by JAMES D, Dawa. HavinG in the new edition of my Geology, as in the pre- ceding, referred the epoch of the formation of the Green Mountains, that is, of the folding, upturning and crystalliza- tion of its rocks, to the close of the Lower Silurian, I here pre- sent a fuller statement of my reasons for this conclusion. A further study of the stratigraphy of the eastern part of the region is required to establish its correctness beyond question ; but I believe that the following facts and considerations will be found to be strongly in its favor. _ By the term Green Mountains, I mean the swell of land with its ridges, about N. 16° EB. in trend, which lies between the Connecticut River on one side, and Lake Champlain and Hud- son River on the other, and reaching in the south to New York Island. All the rocks of the area thus bounded are not refer- able genetically to the range; for it is well known that the “Highland ” region of Archean rocks extends over the most of Putnam County, New York, and the southern border of Dutchess County ; and that rocks of the same age constitute areas to the east of north of this Highland region, in Connec- “cut, and also farther north in Massachusetts and Vermont. ese Archean areas introduce difficulties into the geology of Western New England. But the Taconic range and the asso- staphy ; and by working from it, the difficulties will quite surely be ultimately surmounted. For the sake of the present dis- cussion, the Green Mountain region may be regarded as con- sisting of (1) a Western section, which includes the Taconic Tange or belt, and the associated bands of limestone, together with conformable formations of slate and schists; (2) a Central mountain section, separately distinguishable only in Vermont ; and (3) an Eastern section. The mountain section in Vermont Contains the highest summits of the Green Mountains, and is the part to which the name was given. In Massachusetts, the highest peaks are in the more western Taconic range ; but still the greatest mean height lies south by west of the mountain t of Vermont. ' In the following pages, the evidence reviewed is arranged under the followin bende e extent to which the Western belt is a Anown region a8 regards geological age. ) The relations in rocks and stratification between the Western belt and those east of it. 192 J. D. Dana— Age of the Green Mountains, (3) The occurrence of unconformable i ai Silurian rocks within the limits of the region or on its bor (4) The spr tuto of an individual among > saree ins 1. The extent to which the tigen belt 1s a known region as re- gards geological age.—The fac on this point are presented in the writer's former papers,* and need not be here repeated. They establish (1) by means fs ate the discoveries of Wing and others in Vermont, and of Dale, Dwight and the writer in Dutchess County, N. Y., and (2) By the conformability of the strata, the Lower Silurian age ‘of the Taconic schists and of the asso- ciated limestones and schists, eastward to the easternmost of the limestone bands, and westward through Dutchess County, ew York, to (and somewhat beyond) the Hudson River. Through their conformability, these strata show that all are one in system of dislocation and one in epoch of mountain-making ; that the several Lower Silurian formations, from the Hudson River group to the Primordial, are involved in one system of Vermont, 15 to 20 miles, or two-fifths of the width of the State; in Massachusetts, 15 to 20 foiled! in Connecticut, 12 to 15 miles; in Dutchess County, N. Y., west of Connecticut, 23 to 25 miles, reckoning to the Hudson River. The width for Western Connecticut and Dutchess County Dutchess County, in Columbia and Rensselaer Counties, N. Y., the rocks are a continuation of the slates of Dutchess County, and are conformable to the Taconic, according to Mather and Emmons, and hence they belong to the same : system. Conse- chusetts is 40 miles, or, again, half the distance from the Hud- son to the Connecticut. e rocks are also Lower Silurian in Washington County, up to ” Whitehall, as represented in the a oslton maps of Hall and Logan; and in the northern balf ermont, to its northern boundary t thus appears, that, of the mass “Or land which topograph- sla belongs to the Green Mountain range, that part ‘which is already proved to be Lower Silurian in age, and of one geo * This Journal, IIT, v, vi, 1873, xiii (Wing’s discoveries), xiv, 1877, xvii, 1879. The conformability Pi tooeg the Taconic schists and the ‘sao rg limestone I have observed at various localities in Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut and New York of the localities on the west side of the range and rest on the eas d the same limestone and the schists (including mica schists and gneiss) and quartzyte to ward also at several localities in Vermont, Massachusetts and Connecticut, so that the fact cannot nghtly be question ned. The discoveries “of fossils near Newburgh, west of the Budeon, by Whitfield and Dwight, are additional evidence as to the relation of the J. D. Dana—Age of the Green Mountains. 193 logical and orological system constitutes nearly one-half of the whole range. The part of the Western belt which is not in- cluded in the above, is (exclusive of the Archzean area) the southern, or Westchester County, whose connection with the system has not yet been clearly made out. I. Western Section or THE Green Mountain Region. 2. Rocks ; Stratification.—In mentioning the kinds of rocks we pass from north to south, and from west to east; the former direction follows the strike of the rocks and of the ridges, and the latter, transverse lines. Tt is important to note, in reading the following, that hydro- mica schist and mica schist are essentially the same in compo- sition, the former differing chemically from the latter only in the presence of a few per cent of water (not usually over 5). Physically the difference is wider; the hydromica schist being a fine-grained glossy slate (shading often into a variety that is called argillyte from its clay-slate aspect, and which is used as a roofing slate), and feeling more or Jess unctuous or talc-like.* This roofing slate from Fair Haven, near Castleton, Vermont, One of its most noted localities, is only a more finely grained hydromica schist ; for in recent determinations of the alkalies made for the writer by Prof. O. D. Allen of the Sheffield Sci- entific School of Yale College, and by Mr. O. E. Atwater of tioned ; but it becomes, to the southward, a belt of well char- acterized hydromica schist, yet with small beds of quartzyte MM some places, Next east of the main band of crystalline limestone (east of the meridian of lutland), exists a second band of hydromica schist, which, in the southern half of the State, is formed largely of quartzyte; thick strata of quartzyte and hydromica schist alter- hate, and the former often craduates vertically and in the direc- tion of the bedding into the latter by insensible shadings. Owing *It is the so-called taleose schist and taleoid schist of the Vermont Report, Which is shown in that Report (pp. 503-508, 522) to be non-magnesian. In this Paper the terms of the Report are changed in all cases to hydromica schist. 194 J. D. Dana—Age of the Green Mountains. to its greater hardness, high peaks consist of the quartzyte, and observations. The eats romica schist passes ‘into chloritie, mag: -netitic and feldspathic varieties, and into a hydromica gneiss.* (2) South of Vermont In New York, west of Massachusetts, occur slates like argyl- lite in aspect, but, largely, glossy slates which are hydromica schist; and the latter is the enw rock "of Dutchess County, except toward its eastern borde e rocks of the Taconic belt in Mauschuseue are, besides ordinary hydromica schist, chloritic and garnetiferous varieties of it, and then in Connecticut, mica schist and staurolitic and garnetiferous schists ; and farther south in Eastern New Yo rk, toward and below Pawling, 200 miles and more from the com- rieties, but pass into coarser and well charnstetiied kinds in Southern Massachusetts and in Connecticu hese different kinds of rocks in this weatérti section are throughout in conformable strata, as already stated. II. Eastern SectTion oF THE GreEN Mountain REGION. The following remarks are confined almost wholly to se mont. Since the highest of the Green Mountain summi in this State, we might here look for the strongest contrasts ‘in the rocks on going eastward to the mountain section and be- #0. H cock describes well these gradations in the Vieus Report (pP- 507-509). He says ‘ ever e from soft nacreous schist to sandstone may be found.” In Cambridge, he says (p-524), there peas besides hydromica schist, hydromica varieties of gneiss, sandstones and a and plum eg and akg hg varieties of hydromica schist; also, all along the western part ' ‘Vermont (p. 529), and on ae Connecticut River, i it passes insensibly into clay slate, The writer observed similar facts in his study of the region, J. D. Dana—Age of the Green Mountains. 195 dromica schist extends through the State on the east side of the mountain section, much like that on the west side; more- over, near the northern boundary of the State the two join and are one, showing thereby the closest relation between them. The eastern belt contains to the south some small beds of ) metamorphic as we proceed southward from the Canada line. Kast of this eastern band of hydromica schist there is a band called clay slate, having parallel relations to that which exists in the western section (Taconic belt). Farther east, there are in the northern two-thirds of the State (besides some local granite areas), a north-and-south belt of mica schist (“Calciferous mica schist”), with some gneiss, and, beyond this, another of argillyte, with a small band of true hydromica schist in some parts near the Connecticut. ; Ill. Taz Centrrat Mountain Bett. t f schist,+ and specimens of the latter gathered by the writer from the summit are not distinguishable from those of the 600) of the Green Mountain gneiss ‘in Massachusetts, it was called mica schist because of the scarcity of feldspar in it. So here and in many parts he Green Mountains, it might be appropriately called feldspathic mica schist. + Vermont Report, 507-509. Vermont Report, p. 523; Adams’s Report, 1845. 0. H. Hitchcock says 196 J. D. Dana—Age of the Green Mountains. to be gneissoid rock, meaning apparently gneissoid mica schist.* It appears then, that even the mountain belt of Vermont in its northern half consists of rocks much like those of the re- gion either side; and they are essentially the same for the rest of the belt, with this difference, that to the south the mica schist is replaced to a large extent by gneiss. Again, according to the sections in the Vermont Geological Report and the text describing them, the schists of the mountain belt are conformable with the hydromica schist on the east and west. an Massachusetts, the schists east of the limestone belt are mica schist (as in the Hoosac Mountain) and micaceous gneiss, and they are conformable, according to Hitchcock and my own imperfect observations, with the beds of the limestone belt. But an Archean area extends northward from Connecticut, Mountain belt of gneiss, and that a diminution in the amount of feldspar makes the difference. In Connecticut the rocks need more study before general conclusions can be positively stated, owing in part to the Arch- ean areas which give complexity to the subject in the northern half of the State.+ Connection between differences in the rocks and geographical distribution—As has been shown, marked differences exist be- tween the rocks of the north and south, and between those of the west and east; but the differences are so systematically dis- tributed along the range that they are testimony to its essen unity. The differences are in the main just those that would have come for the most part, from differences in the grade 0 metamorphism. Intenser metamorphism should be naturally looked for along or about the axis of the range than to the west of it; and so, also (as shown by the facts connected wit the Appalachians), on the eastern side of the axis than on the western; and thus it is in reality. In view of such facts we may safely hold that if to the south, as in Westchester county, the rocks are mainly gneiss, this alone would not be sufficient evidence of difference of system or age hfield. : + One fact may have much importance when the investigations are completed, namely: that on the west of New Haven, and therefore the west side of the Connecticut Valley depression, the rocks are, first, hydromica schist, which is 12 di guishable from ous mica schist; next, coarse gneiss and mica schist ; and all are strictly conformable. The chloritic hydromica schist west of New Haven includes so ibe labradorite-dioryte, a rock I have not found in the Taconic region of Berkshire. J. D. Dana—Age of the Green Mountains. 197 IV. UnconrorMasinity oF Uprrer SInurIAN BEDS. The three ranges of facts bearing on this point are the following: (1) The absence of Upper Silurian strata from among the con- formable formations of the Green Mountains. (2) The existence, near the western border of the moun- tain range, of fossiliferous Lower Helderberg limestone (upper divison of the Upper Silurian) resting wxconformably on the upturned Hudson River slates. (3) The existence of fossiliferous Lower Helderberg beets order of the mountains occur in the Hudson River Valley, not far from the river, and are described and illustrated in Mather’s New York Report (1848). The following figures are from his plates; they represent two cases east of the Hudson River SSS. , Columbia Co. Becraft’s Mt., Columbia Co. and four just west of it. Fig. 1. Becraft’s Mountain, east of the city of Hudson (from Mather, plate 24), in which fossilifer- ous Lower Helderberg beds are nearly horizontal; fig. 2. Mt Bob (from plate 88) a few miles south of Becraft’s; fig. 3 3. ~ Mount Bo Between Glasco and the Great Falls of the Esopus, Ulster Co. (from plate 7), in Ulster county, west of the river, between Glasco and ae Great Falls of Esopus Creek ; fig. 4 (from plate 26), in Ulster county, on the right bank of the Rondout ; fig. 6. — : miles west of Cocksackie Two miles —— ot Le tet Two or a wees : 5 (from plate 8), in Greene county, two miles prone Cocksackie ; fig. 6 (from plate 8), the same, two or three mi 198 J. D. Dana—Age of the Green Mountains. west of Cocksackie. Mather describes another section on Pine Mountain, between Rondout and Kingston Point, where a high cliff of limestone overlies unconformably the gray grits of the Hudson slate series, the slates dipping 40° to 60° to the east- southeast, and the limestone 80° to the west-northwest. Other sections, from near Rondout, are given in the paper by Mr. T. Nelson Dale, in vol. xviii of this Journal (1879), p. 293. Special descriptions of the localities are not here necessary. From the observed facts it was inferred by Logan that a very extensive formation of Lower Helderberg limestone once ernine or mountain-making preceded the Niagara period, Ww * Third Series, vi, 339, 1873; and xiv, 379, 1877. J. D, Dana—Age of the Green Mountains. 199 sion as to the probability in the case. The Crinoidal limestone at Bernardston is overlaid by quartzyte and fine grained mica schist which, since they cover a Lower Helderberg limestone stratum,may be metamorphic strata of the Oriskany group, or the lower beds of the Upper Helderberg. The similar beds of quartzyte and mica schist, with conformable beds of am- phibolyte, staurolitic mica schist, and quartzytic gneiss and syenyte, representing the same formation, exten Connecticut valley. At Littleton, 120 miles to the north, east of the Connecticut River, occur beds of limestone containing fossil corals and Brachiopods of the Upper Helderberg; and on the northern borders of Vermont occur corals of the same age at Owl’s Head,’on the borders of Lake Memphrema- gog. These Lower and Upper Helderberg beds were made, as their positions and limits show, in an arm of the sea, which reached from the St. Lawrence region down what is now the Connecticut valley, and they seem to indicate, in connection with other facts, that the valley was defined at an epoch not long preceding the Lower Helderberg, or at that of the making of the Green Mountains. V. Tue Maenirupe oF An InpivinvaL amMone Mounrarns. A ual of folded rocks. It is hence natural, in the case o Mountain-individual along western New England, to look for a breadth at least equal to that of the region which the Green Mountains topographically cover. The Green Mountain region isa northern portion of the Appalachian system and these views make it simply a portion in which the mountain- making occurred at an earlier epoch, having been hastened, as 200 FE. H. Hall on a New Action of the the writer long since suggested, by the existence on the west, near by, of the stable Archean area of the Adirondacks. In conciusion, I repeat the considerations that have been presented : 1. The western half of the region between the Connecticut River valley and the Hudson River, that is, the western half of the Green Mountain area, is proved to consist of rocks that are (1) of Lower Silurian age; and (2) of one orological system. 2. The schistose rocks of the eastern half in Vermont are to a large extent similar to those of the western. 8. The rocks of the central mountain section in Ver- mont are, in its northern part, identical schists (hydromica, etc.), with those on the east and west sides of it. of great magnitude. In view of these various considerations, the evidence, al- though not yet beyond question, is manifestly strong for em- bracing the whole region between the Connecticut and the Hudson (and to an unascertained distance beyond) within the limits of the Green Mountain synclinorium. Art. XX V.—Ona New Action of the Magnet on Electric Currents;* by E. H. Hatt, Fellow of the Johns Hopkins University. SomETIME during the last University year, while I was read- ing Maxwell's Electricity and Magnetism in connection with Professor Rowland’s lectures, my attention was particularly at tracted by the following passage in vol. ii, p. 144: “Tt must be carefully remembered, that the mechanical foree which urges a conductor carrying a current across the lines of magnetic force, acts, not on the electric current, but on the con ductor which carries it. If the conductor be a rotating disk or * From the American Journal of Mathematics, vol. ii., 1879. Magnet on Electric Currents. 201 a fluid it will move in obedience to this force, and this motion may or may not be accompanied with a change of position of the electric current which it carries. But if the current itself be free to choose any path through a fixed solid conductor or a network of wires, then, when a constant magnetic force is made to act on the system, the path of the current through the con- ductors is not permanently altered, but after certain transient phenomena, called induction currents, have subsided, the dis- tribution of the current will be found to be the same as if no magnetic force were in action. The only force which acts on electric currents is electromotive force, which must be distin- guished from the mechanical force, which is the subject of this chapter.” This statement seemed to me to be contrary to the most natu- ral supposition in the case considered, taking into account the fact that a wire not bearing a current is in general not affected Y 4 magnet and that a wire bearing a current is affected ex- actly in proportion to the strength of the current, while the size and, in general, the material of the wire are matters of indiffer- ence. Moreover in explaining the phenomena of statical elec- tricity it is customary to say that charged bodies are attracted toward each other or the contrary solely by the attraction or re- pulsion of the charges for each other. Soon after reading the above statement in Maxwell I read an article by Prof. Edlund, entitled “ Unipolar Induction ” i Mag., Jet., 1878, or Annales de Chemie et de Physique, Jan., 1879), in which the author evidently assumes that a magnet acts —_ kg ee Ee inher - of the =e and therefore the resistance experienced should be ease . 202 EF. H. Hali on a New Action of the To test this theory, a flat spiral of German silver wire was inclosed between two thin disks of hard rubber and the whole placed between the poles of an electromagnet in such a posi- tion that the lines of magnetic force would pass through the spiral at right angles to the current of electricity. ‘he wire of the spiral was about $ mm. in diameter, and the resistance of the spiral was about two ohms. The magnet was worked by a battery of twenty Bunsen cells joined four in series and five abreast. The strength of the justed as to betray a change of about one part in a million in the resistance of the spiral, I made from October 7th to October 11th inclusive, thirteen series of observations, each of forty readings. reading was made with the magnet active in a certain direction, then a reading with the magnet inactive, then one with the magnet active in the direction opposite to the first, then with the magnet inactive, and so on till the series of forty readings was completed. crease of about one part in five millions. : Apparently, then, the magnet’s action caused no change 10 il But though conclusive, apparently, in respect to any change of resistance, the above experiments are not sufficient to prove that a magnet cannot affect an electric current. If electricity is assumed to be an incompressible fluid, as some suspect 1t e, we may conceive that the current of electricity flowing 1na wire cannot be forced into one side of the wire or made to flow side of the wire. Reasoning thus, I thought it necessary, 19 order to make a thorough investigation of the matter, to test for a difference of potential between points on opposite sides of the conductor. This could be done by repeating the experiment formerly made by Prof. Rowland, and which was the following: ——, - A disk or strip of metal, forming part of an electric circult, Magnet on Electric Currents. 2038 was placed between the poles of an electro-magnet, the disk cutting across the lines of force. The two poles of a sensitive e effect was reversed when the magnet was reversed. It was not reversed by transferring the poles of the: galvanometer from one end of the strip to the other. In short, the phenom- ena observed were just such as we should expect to see if the electric current were pressed, but not moved, toward one side of the conductor. In regard to the direction of this pressure or tendency as de- pendent on the direction of the current in the gold leaf and the direction of the lines of magnetic force, the following state- ment may be made: If we regard an electric current asa single stream flowing from the positive to the negative pole, i. e, from the carbon pole of the battery through the circuit to the zinc pole, in this case the phenomena observed indicate that two currents paral- lel, and in the same direction, tend to repel each other. t is of course perfectly well known that two conductors, bearing currents parallel and in the same direction, are drawn toward each other. Whether this fact, taken in connection With what has been said above, has any bearing upon the question of the absolute direction of the electric current, it is Perhaps too early to decide. In order to make some rough quantitative experiments, a pew plate was prepared consisting of a strip of gold leaf about cm. wide and 9 em. long mounted on plate glass. Good con- 204 E.. H. Hall on a New Action of the tact was insured by pressing firmly down on each end of the strip of gold leaf a thick piece of brass polished on the under- side. ‘To these pieces of brass the wires froma single Bunsen cell were soldered. The portion of the gold leaf strip not cov- ered by the pieces of brass was about 54 cm. in length-and had a resistance of about 2 ohms. The poles of a high resistance Thomson galvanometer were placed in connection with points opposite each other on the edges of the strip of gold leaf mid- way between the pieces of brass. The glass plate bearing the gold leaf was fastened, as the first one had been, by a so cement to the flat end of one pole of the magnet, the other pole of the magnet being brought to within about 6mm. of the strip of gold leaf. The apparatus being arranged as above described, on the 12th of November a series of observations was made for the purpose of determining the variations of the observed effect with known variations of the magnetic force and the strength of current through the gold leaf. eriments were hastily and roughly made, but are sufficiently accurate, it is thought, to determine the law of va- riation above mentioned, as well as the order of magnitude of the current through the Thomson galvanometer compared with the current through the gold leaf and the intensity of the mag- netic field. The results obtained are as follows: =i dan ee kas! vw. MM. 0616 11420 H 00000000232 303000000000" "0249 Li240 “00000000085 829000000000" ‘0389 11060 “ °00000000135 319600000000" 0598 7670::* 00000000147 312000000000" 0595 B00 :** 00000000104 326000000000" Magnet on Electric Currents. 205 current at the moment of making or breaking the magnet circuit. It has been stated above that in the experiments thus far tried the current apparently tends to move, without actually moving, toward the side of the conductor. I have in mind a form of apparatus which will, I think, allow the current to fol- low this tendency and move across the lines of magnetic force. If this experiment succeeds, one or two others immediately suggest themselves. make a more complete and accurate study of the phe- nomenon described in the preceding pages, availing myself o the advice and assistance of Prof. Rowland, will probably occupy me for some months to come. Baltimore, Noy. 19th, 1879. It is perhaps allowable to speak of the action of the magnet as setting up in the gold leaf strip a new electromotive force at right angles to the primary electromotive force. _ this new electromotive force cannot, under ordinary condi- tions, manifest itself, the circuit in which it might work being Incomplete. When the circuit is completed by means of the homson galyanometer, a current flows. The actual current through this galvanometer depends of course upon the resistance of the galvanometer and its connec- tions, as well as upon the distance between the two points of the gold leaf at which the ends of the wires from the galvano- meter are applied. We cannot therefore take the ratio of OC and ¢ above as the ratio of the primary and transverse electro- Motive forces just mentioned. If we represent by EH’ the difference of potential of two points a centimeter apart on the transverse diameter of the Strip of gold leaf, and by E the difference of potential of two polnts a centimeter apart on the longitudinal diameter of the Same, a rough and hasty calculation for the experiments already pression 5 Where C is the primary current through a strip of the gold leaf 1 cm. wide, and sis the area of section of the Same, we have H’ « ee November 22d, 1879, Am. Jour. Sct.—Tuirp Serres, Vor, XIX, No. 111.—Marcu, 1880. 15 206 Q. A. Young—Diameters of Mars. ArT. XX VI.—Measures of the Polar and Equatorial Diameters ‘of Mars, made at Princeton, New Jersey, U. 8. ; by Professor C. A. Youne. THE polar compression of Mars has never yet been satis- factorily determined, the results of different observers ranging from that of Sir W. Herschel, who made it ;,, to that of Bessel, who found it insensible. The value j,, deduced by Main at Oxford, from his measures in 1862-8, has probably been of late more generally accepted than any other, though by no means without reserve. Hartwig, in his recently published investigation upon the diameters of Venus and Mars, gives +, as the result obtained by combining all the double-image measurements made at admit the presence of water upon its surface, as the polar “snow caps” seem to indicate, except upon the almost absurd assumption of a density rapidly increasing from the center toward the surface. It has seemed to the writer quite possible that the difference of illumination of the limbs of the planet, caused by phase, may lie at the bottom of the difficulty. Except on rare occa- sions there is phase enough, even at the moment of opposition, to produce a notable difference of appearance between the fully illuminated edge of the planet’s dise and that opposite, 4 difference which can hardly fail to be felt in micrometric measurements. Unexceptionable observations for determining the polar compression can therefore be made only when the planet reaches opposition and its node together. ‘This was so nearly the case last season, that on the night of November 12th, an observer on the planet would have witnessed a Transit of the Earth. At this time, and for a few days before and after, the phase was extremely small, and an opportunity was presented for determining the planet’s ellipticity such as will not be available again for nearly half a century. : e measures detailed below were made by myself with 4 filar position micrometer attached to the nine and one-half inch Equatorial of the School of Science Observatory. The object glass of this instrument (by Clark) is constructed substantially upon the Gaussian curves, and is of the highest excellence. During the past year it has shown repeatedly both of the satel lites of Mars, the two outer satellites of Uranus, and the Satur- nian satellite Mimas, the last, for my eye, which is not extremely sensitive, being just at the limit of visibility. The teles- C. A. Young—Diameters of Mars. 207 cope doubles distinctly, and on fine nights easily, the little com- panion of a’ Capriconi, nor has it yet failed upon any of the objects usually considered tests for twelve-inch instruments. hile perfectly aware that measures by a filar micrometer are subject to a considerable constant error, the measure of an illuminated disc being always excessive, I have thought they might safely be used in determining a difference of diameter in different directions. The wires were dark upon an illumina- ted field. The magnifying power throughout the observations was 398. The value of one revolution of the micrometer screw at 50° F., as determined by about a hundred star tran- sits, is 17’’-860+-0-003. The screw appears to be a very per- fect one without sensible errors of periodicity or run. Marth’s ephemeris, in the Monthly Notices for June, 1879, Was used in setting the position circle and in computing the minute phase-corrections. Each measure of a double diame- ter consisted of twenty settings of the micrometer wire, five with the movable wire on one side of the fixed wire, ten with it upon the other side, and finally five more in the first posi- ion. The correction for thickness of the wires was deter- mined by a full set of readings at each of the three different fixed wires, once at least in each evening’s work. fter each measurement of either diameter, the wires were turned 90° by the position circle, and the other diameter was measured. In some cases, however, after finishing a set of measure of the polar diameter being matched with an equato- Lal immediately preceding or following. The only exceptions micrometer readings, exclusive of those for determining the thickness of wires, was 1140. ; : Had not cloudy weather prevented, the series would have been much more extensive. The nights of November 11th and 18th were entirely overcast; on November 12th only a 208 ~ ©, A. Young—Diameters of Mars. Equatorial Diameter of Mars, November, 1879. Angle | Meas- Hour | with | ured p+) @ Z D Angle |Vertic.| Diam. Py abot = e oO 2 =] =) i] om or i om] . m a 1|—3 58|+74°5 |20°824 4°6| 814 1 11 +133 42) 477 165 24) 15|)—3 14 740 10) + 219 39} -930 613 29} 15}—0 26 4. 301 10; +215 Tl) 455 256 31} 15)+0 03;—50°6 289 12}+215} 107) -409 225 32) 15)+1 20;—18°5 535 16/4217) 159 6 34; 16)+1 55|/—10°6 960 17/ +223} 165] 1°035 641 36] 161—3 52) + 75-2 063 17/4304! 43) *341 257 38} 16)/—3 15/+76°8 324 17| +309 38] °612 a 41; 16)—0 1T- 660 16)+315 36} °955 824 51) 16/42 18/— 6°8| -426 j +310 167) *594 62; 16)/+2 29/— 5:3 615 25/+313) 167} -786 162 55} 17)/—3 38)4+ 75:7} -051 66) 17|—3 23)4+76:3| +159 —2 62/+78°6 |20-066 Equatorial Diameter, 20"°63440-035. a=Io=0":168+0"-050. 9 9 6 8 8 5 6 6 3 6 7 +:16°F 7 26} 15)—2 32/+80°4| ‘683) 5 9) + 219 28) °883 310 —64'9| - 8 : 8 9 4 3 8 8 4 € § $ 7 4 h € C. A. Young—Diameters of Mars. 209 Polar Diameter of Mars, November, 1879. “ Angle | Meas- our}] with | ured p+ A) I m6.) Date Angle |Vertic.! Diam. |? Fag a — oo EL spe Nov. hm } : | a 1} /—4 08/—16-0 /20°801 | 9| + 24/—200|—161|20°464 | 0-0070 3} 7/-2 20/— 8-8| -6s4| 9| 15|—199|—166} 497 5} 10/—4 08/—15-4| 1-066] 4| 19/— 83] 162] -840] 332 "| 10|—3 24/—14-0] -906] 6| 14/— 84! 165] -671 9} 10/—1 12/+ 66] -793] 8) 8|— 84} 167] ‘550 0 11} 10/—0 23/4263] -810| 8| 6/— 82] 151] 583 8 14} 10/41 11/+68°3; -805| 8| 2i|— 83 662 97 16] 10/+1 53/+78°9| -585| 7] 1/— 82] 32) -472 45 *1g! 12} 0 00/+37°7| 1:041| 3] 0 133} -908| 380 20} 14‘—0 56|4+12°4 9| 7] 714133] 164] -335] 330 14/—0 10/+32°6; 351} 7| 5/4133) 142] 347] 294 #23] 14/41 33147456] -459| 7} 1/413 45| 548 0 25} 16/—2 51/-1 932| 4| 11/+222) 166] -999| 799 27) 16|\—2 14/— 7 19| 4| 10}/+220|) 167] °882| 436 28} 15|—0 42/4+18°0| -247] 7| ‘%|+214| 160] 308] 416 30] 15/—0 10|4+32°8| -272/ 7] 7/4215] 141| 353] 277 33] 15141 39/4+75°9| -680: 7] 2)4+21 1} °860| 664 351 16/+2 11148271] -286/ 5} © 1/4215} 23] 479 37) 16;—3 32|—14°1| -497| 5} 17\/+312] 163] °663 62 39] 16\—2 57|/—12°0| -452! 9} 15/+312| 164! -615 40| 16/—1 06|+ 620| 5] 11/+313} 166) -778| 255 42} 16/—0 41/+18°6! -702| 4| 11/+314] 159} “868| 400 45} 16/40 29/+61°8| -417| 9} 7/+310} 104] 630 55 47/ 16/+0 54/+62°2| -336| § +309} 78] 673 48! 16/41 40/+76°2| -058| 6] 5)/+306} 40) °329) 298 50} 16/+2 06/4+81°3| -181| 7} 4/+30%| 25) 467 50 53} 16,42 47/+86°6| 172] 7| 4/4+307| 10) 473 43 54; 17;\—3 54/—14°9| -268| 8| 22 +400) 162) 528 5 57| 17'—3 12/—13-0 '20°100| 7} 18 +398!—164| -352| 280 Polar Diameter, 20"-552+0"-043. O=—0"082+40°035. Polar compression=z}5- Units of the third decimal ; the eighth column (@) gives the re- Action to opposition, or the correction necessary to reduce the _ If we apply the corrections for refraction, phase, and reduc- tion to opposition, and group the results according to the angle made by the observed diameter with the vertical, it at once be- comes evident that a further correction is needed, horizontal lines being systematically measured smaller than the same when Vertical. Thus, if we take the twenty measures of the equato- rial diameter made when its inclination to the vertical was more 210 C. A. Young—Diameters of Mars. than 45°, we get for the mean (by weights) 20’°687=-0’-028 at a mean angle of 72°-4. The nine nearly vertical measures, give 20’780-+0’-044 at a mean angle of 19°°3. Similarly the ten nearly horizontal measures of the Polar diameter give 20’°608+-0’'031 at a mean angle of 73°°8, while the nineteen nearly vertical measures give 20'°706+0°926, at a mean angle of 16°9. No sensible difference appears between results ob- tained when the measured diameter inclines to the right, and those obtained when the inclination is toward the left. It is not certain what causes produce this difference between horizontal and vertical measures, but it is probably due in part to atmospheric dispersion, and partly to a known vertical astig- matism of the observer’s eye. In either case the effect would be proportional to the cosine of the inclination, and we may therefore assume with sufficient approximation, that the correc- tion required to an observation is I=axXcosf; f being the angle with the vertical, and a a constant to be determined from the observations themselves. strongly attests the reality of the correction. t is not, however, strictly correct to treat these groups as sp observations. ‘The more legitimate course is to regard each observation, (corrected for refraction and phase and re- duced to opposition) as furnishing an equation of condition of the form measured diameter = true diameter+a cos f. This has been done, and from the equations of condition, using the weights given, normals have been formed, in several different ways. us we may take as the unknown quantities z, e, (the polar and equatorial diameters) and a. Or calling c=e—z, we may take as the unknowns a, z and c, or a, € and c. Or finally, ‘ etna : putting mat", we may form our normals with m, ¢ and @ Whichever of the four sets of normals we use, we get for the unknown quantities involved, the following values, weights and probable errors, viz: é (Equatorial Diam., Nov. 12, 1879) =20"-6342.0'-034 ; wt. 8°92 x (Polar Di m., oo “« Jo 20°552-+ 07043; wt, 5°85 eta y mat — 20°593-+ 0°035; wt. 8°85 e, = (e-7) = 0°0818+0°0348 ; wt. a a coefficient of inclination correction = 0°168 -+ 0°050; wt. 41 C. A. Young—Diameters of Mars. 211 The introduction of the correction I reduces the sum of pv’ from 13994 to 1:2612. The values of the diameters are of course not very reliable, being subject to the considerable constant error which a ways affects filar micrometer measures. If we accept Hartwig’s determination, 9’’:352,* for the diameter at distance unity, a value which depends upon the whole body of heliometer and double-image micrometer measures up to 1877, we get for the Opposition diameter of 1879, 19/128. Comparing this with my mean, we find 1-46 as the constant error o y filar micrometer measures, a value rather unexpectedly large, but not unprecedented. ; This constant error can however have but very slight, if any, influence upon the measured difference of diameters, and we find for the ellipticity of the visible periphery of the planet, 00818 1 the = value 19-128 934° 1 —2é sin’ p+ é sin’ — 1 — é*sin"@ p=a ? A gb ot ; satigot and putting ‘—= 534 We easily find e, the eccentricity of a a . planetary meridian, and from it O,, the lar compression. Performing the solution we get C,=gty, which may be taken as the final result of the work here detailed. The limits of probable error extend from yf tO tz, and so far as can be judged from the observations themselves, the chances are more than two to one that the ellipticity lies be- tween +1 : The work of reduction was nearly finished before the writer had seen Professor Adams's recent paper upon the orbits of the satellites of Mars, in which he gives $y as the ellipticity which the planet ought to have if it follows the same law of centra density as the earth. The closeness of the accordance is prob- ably in considerable degree accidental, but it is quite satis- factory. Princeton, New Jersey, Jan., 1880. * The mean diameter 20"-593 resulting from my observations, when reduced to distance unity, gives 10°-068; a value sensibly identical with that obtained by " 212 B. A. Gould— Use of the Sine-formula for the ArT. XX VII.—On the Use of the Sine-formula oe the diurnal Variation of Temperature ; by B. A. GOULD In the “ Jahresbericht des epee Wid tie Centralobservato- riums fiir 1877 und 1878,” Dr. H. Wild, the eminent director of that institution, has "recently published some deservedly severe remarks upon the large amount of time and labor which is unprofitably spent in making observations with inaccurate instruments, and calculations with inaccurate or insufficient data. Probably there is no physicist who has occupied himself with meteorological studies to any extent without finding his attention forcibly attracted to the same considerations; and it would be needless to add any testimony in support ‘of the general tendency of Dr. Wild’s remarks. But to my surprise I find a foot-note appended to them, which I transcribe in the original, lest I do it injustice in the en to transiate : “Tech kannte damals noch nicht den eben erst erschienenen Band mit den physikalischen Beobachtungen der amerikani- schen Expedition der “ Polaris,” wo Herr E. Bessels das Ab- schreckendste in ganz unniitzen Berechnungen aller meteorolo- gischen Elemente nach der Bessel’schen Formel geleistet hat. Schade um die Zeit, die so fiir eine bessere ee der schonen Beobachtungen verloren ging. Die Palme der Leis- tungen in dieser Richtung, gebiihrt freilich ent Gould, der es in dem erst erschienenen, im iibrigen sehr werthvollen ersten Bande der ‘ Anales de la Oficina Meteordlogica Argentina’ zu Stande geome hat, fiir Buenos Aires, aus bloss 8 Beobacht- to one or two considerations which he has overlooked in in t sarcastic intimation that I had undertaken to determine four unknown quantities from three equations. As answer, I might, it is true, cite the Supple since the series: of observations made for many years at 8 A. M., 2p. Mm. and 8 ¥. a part of which is printed on pages ‘gid to 859 of the volume referred to,—were incorporated i a the comp as well as the series rent at Tas M2 ©. mM. One hour being common to both systems, it ree easy 6 “determine the small constant Aetieetee needed for making the two sys Diurnal Variation of Temperature. 213 tems congruous. And it will be seen that in determining the diurnal variation of the temperature (pp. 412-414) and its ex- pression by the goniometric formula, five daily observations D Mid really employed instead of three only as stated by Dr. i It is, however, not this circumstance which leads me to make a public rejoinder; but the general principle involved. For as regards the diurnal barometric variation, the constants of the sine-formula have in truth been deduced from the results of as — which serve the purpose of additional equations. hot very long before sunrise, furnish the requisites for deducing four constants from observations made at proper intervals three appears to me that any just criticism of the investigation must rather be directed against the propriety of these hypotheses, than against the legitimateness of the method. There is yet another consideration which, although not fully set forth in the printed volume, has guided me in the course which [ have pursued, and in which I purpose to continue, in the Investigation of the climatic constants for other points in South Ameri and not very remote places accord in confirming the general resented by the sine-formula with only three variable terms. The object of the investigations is to attain a knowledge of the true laws. If there really are laws, they must be capable of xpression by some algebraic formula; and numerous tests 214 B. A. Gould— Use of the Sine-formula, ete. have shown that the sine-formula affords such expression more conveniently than any other known to me; so that the well- established general form of the diurnal curves in these regions hese regions at least, both of these objections would be untenable it would be extremely easy to prove. In his treatise upon the Temperatures of the Russian Empire, published in the Supplementary volume of the “ Repertorium fiir Meteorologie,” Dr. Wild has taken the positions—l1st, that the sine-formula represents no law whatever in the diurnal variation, but is solely a means of interpolation ; and 2d, that the mean daily changes of temperature cannot be expressed by any simple curve. And he gives practical expression to these opinions by totally abandoning the employment of all general formulas, even for those places where the observations are made hourly. It is apparently in advocacy of this. singular ' doctrine that he has made the scarcely courteous commen which prompt the present remarks. Even were the formula in question solely one of interpola- tion, I cannot see how in this respect the eye and free hand of a draughtsman could be more correct. Yet it would seem that Dr. Wild intends to assert this, and that he believes that the moments of mean daily maximum and minimum can be better determined by graphical approximation than by numerical detertnination. he clock even was always sharply determined, the observers unfailingly punctual, and at least the observed tenths of degrees reasonably trustworthy. (See “Supplement Band,” p. 36.) In such cases we cannot even suppose a compensation in the errors of obser- * G-01 GEL ) ZL | LOT CFL | 86 | ESL) 6 | GL | VOT | 9-01 | 8-01 | dary eF-0 2Z-0 |S1-0 |81-0 26-0 |0%-0 ee 196.0 joo (06-0 ‘910 (6-0 | ex 5-0 & ae oes ee [- ; 4 + \9T-0— 08-C -0 ia .0—|9%-0—|10.0 + |F -( +| 0-0 Il CP-0 ¥( 10- | Laas . ).0 9 -0— iZT.¢ 0-¢ 0 tIlL.g— 0-4 -0+ |10- .— 0 a 68.0 + 10-0 + 91-0 + |60-0 + 6¢ orot 0+ {90.0 04 4004 th r 7 * ry 61-0 — 4 pad pti nee 0 9 + 160-0 Z G-0 + |1€-0 + |€0-0 + |F1-0+|81-04+ 00-0 00-0 8 oF-0 4 ; :0—|01-0—|60-0 BC +|€0-0 + |O1-0 + | II. -0 + 166-0 + |81-0 + 08-0 + |F8-0 + (60. 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Gould— Use of the Sine-formula for the vation, inasmuch as the effect of a given error in the time dif- fers at different seasons. Yet, in spite of all this, these insig- nificant minutiz seem to be thought worthy of application to data obtained by the free hand of a draughtsman, rounding o errors in the observations, while the representation and generali- zation of the results by a formula accompanied by an exact exhibit of its discordances from the several observations, is deemed inadmissible. If the epochs of daily minimum, as deduced from monthly means of hourly observations by the two methods, differ (as at Katharinenburg, for example) by amounts varying between +57 and —71 minutes, I cannot agree with the distinguished author in attributing a large share of such discordances to errors occasioned by the use of Bessel’s formula; nor even in preferring the results of the graphical method. It seems much more probable that the phenomenon ought to be attributed toa very different class of influences. It is at least certain that what the draughtsman obtains without gauge or measure in equating out a series of data, the formulas will afford together with accurate indications of the probable errors. Yet if in the accurate interpolation is needed, any number of observations may be represented with absolute precision by the formula. Yet recourse to a computation in which twelve variable terms are used to represent twenty-four hourly observations is very nearly equivalent to a declaration that the computer believes no periodic law to exist. That entirely similar discordances present themselves be- tween the times of maxima and minima, as obtained by the two methods, for other stations than the one cited can cause no surprise. The only surprising fact in the case is that the inference should have been drawn that the employment of a cy- clical formula is inadmissible even when it represents the entire series of observations within the limits of reasonable error. _ Still retaining the hypothesis already mentioned regarding the character of the service rendered by the sine-formula, @ Diurnal Variation of Temperature. 217 great advantage must certainly be derivable from a general expression which absolutely represents such observations as exist, even though it might not be demonstrably correct for | intermediate moments. Objections may be urged against the abuse or improper application of such a formula, but there is certainly a legitimate use for it. An empirical periodic fune- tion can be made to represent any number of observations of any periodic fluctuation, provided the number of constants be equal to that of the independent data. Whether it does or does not, at the same time represent the true law throughout its extent 1S a separate question. But surely the attainment of a general expression which represents the available observations is most important, since the higher terms serve to make manifest the degree of confidence to which the lower ones are entitled. , however, with an inferior number of constants, a satisfac- tory representation can be obtained, we have an argument toa corresponding extent, that the periodic variation does in fact follow the law expressed by the formula. This ceases to be 18 the only basis for a legitimate application of Bessel’s formula © the diurnal variation of temperature. If it represents the true law, it ought to be used, since it affords the most general and convenient expression. The monthly means of the hourly observations of tempera- e have thus the evidence that the formula represents” the true law of nature with close approximation; and the de- Stee of approximation is furthermore attested by the character of the residuals, irrespective of their magnitude. If the mental 218 B. A. Gould—Use of the Sine-formula for the fully justifiable to employ a similar formula for discussing a small number of daily observations made at places not too remote and in which the topographical conditions are not too different. The results so cutened thus far fully confirm this view, and especially those relative to the variations of tempera- ture. In his treatise on the temperature of the Russian Empire, Dr. Wild arrives at a conclusion which he expresses as follows p. 95): “For interpolating omitted hours, especially those of the night, the formula of Lambert and Bessel can,—according to Theorem 11 regarding the form of the curve of the diurnal period in the temperature,—only be applied, at most, for en- tirely maritime climates. For all places of which the situation is in any degree continental, it must be totally rejected, on account of the sudden bend in the curve at the time of sun- rise, which it is only capable of. representing by the employ- ment of very many terms (10 or more), even for complete series of hourly observations.” That this conclusion does not hold good for Cordoba will, I think, be manifest to any one upon inspection of the preceding table, which exhibits the residuals between the monthly means of hourly observations and the corresponding values afforded by the monthly sine-formulas with four variable terms. Cor- doba is situated about 400 miles from the La Plata in a straight line, and about 620 from the Atlantic, its position being pre éminently continental. Buenos Aires, however, for which See my use of the sine-formula is so sharply censured by Dr. ild, is a seaport. The residuals which result from the use of only three varia- ble terms are by no means important, though of course some- what larger than those given in the table. There is a certain tendency to grouping of their signs by triplets which shows that the fourth term may be added with advantage ; yet neither their order of magnitude nor the fluctuation of their signs gives token, even in this case, of any such discordance between the formula and the true law of variation as Dr. Wild thinks he has discovered for the Russian stations, Here at least it may be said of the daily curve, “Natura non facit saltum.” As regards the magnitude of the residuals, no one can be more conversant than Dr. Wild with the numberless influences which, in spite of every care, affect the accuracy of observa tions, nor yet with those analogous ones in the varying an intricate combinations of transient atmospheric conditions, which by their perturbations throw a veil over the true funda- mental law. And I think he cannot fail to acknowledge that the true law is here expressed by the sine-formula closely Diurnal Variation of Temperature. 219 enough to justify its employment for places in this region where the number of daily observations is very much smaller, In order to show the relative as well as the absolute amount of residuals, I have appended the mean amplitude of the observed daily variation for each month. Finally I am quite ready to concede that, although the mean daily variation in Cordoba follows with much regularity the law expressed by a few terms dependent upon sines of angles proportional to the time of day, it is by no means improbable that in higher latitudes and different circumstances this may not be the case ; inasmuch as the simplicity of the law and its corresponding formula may there be essentially affected b perturbations which are not manifest here. et even in suc case it would be difficult to justify, either from a scientific or from any other point of view, such remarks as those cited at the beginning of this article. If the efforts of meteorologists to raise their study to the rank of an exact science are to attain that success for which the progress during recent years justifies a hope, this can only be accomplished through the aid of algebraic generalization. The requent misuse of a method affords no argument against its legitimate employment. the science from the descriptive to the exact stage. Yet even though this hope should prove unfounded, I cannot but think that he will perceive the very great injustice which he has done & needless waste of time and labor in deducing illusory results, I Shall not allow myself to be drawn into any personal consid- erations, t in any case, I must express the earnest hope that the comparatively modern usage of generalizing meteorological results to the utmost by means of algebraic formulas may Stimulated and encouraged in every way. Cordoba, Argentine Republic, November 9, 1879. 220 W. J. Comstock—Chemical Composition of Uraninite. Art. XXVIII.—On the Chemical Composition of the Uraninite from Branchville, Conn.; by W. J. Comstock. (Contribu- tions from the Laboratory of the Sheffield Scientific School. No. LVIIL) nothing with which they could be confounded, and hence the purest material was available for analysis. A few crystals had a thin yellow coating, probably of uranium phosphate. The erystals were all octahedral in habit, in most the planes of the dodecahedron appeared, and ina few cases, those of the cube. The mineral is readily soluble in nitric acid, yielding a yellow solution, but it is not acted upon by hydrochloric acid. It de- crepitates on heating and gives off traces of moisture. When heated strongly in an open tube it has a very slight acid reac- tion on litmus paper. An analysis showed the mineral to have the following composition : . L Ai. Mean. U. = 81°67 81°33 81°50 Pb = 4°01 3°94 3°97 Fe = “41 89 -40 i se 1337 13°47 13°47* H,O = “88 *88 Total 100°22 * For the oxygen, the determination in No. II is used, as it was made with greater care. The uranium, lead and iron were separated and weighed according to the ordinary methods. The water was driven bs by ignition and determined by absorption in a calcium chloride ube. The oxygen was determined by decomposing the min * This Journal, II, xvi, 35, July, 1878. W. J. Comstock— Chemical Composition of Uraninite. 221 eral with sulphuric acid in-a sealed tube and titrating with a solution of potassium permanganate, thus affording with the uranium, lead and iron determined, all necessary data for caleu- lation. That this method can be employed with accuracy in presence of both UO, and UO, was first proved by experiment- ing upon pure U,O,. The best results were obtained by boil- ing the sulphuric acid used to expel the air, and displacing the air in the tube by CO, before sealing. The following are the results obtained. Taken. Found. 1. +5160 U,O, containing - --.-1655 UO, 1647 UO, . 06 UO" "60s U0, ‘1599 UO, Assuming the state of oxidation in which the lead and iron exist in the mineral, the percentages of UO, and UO, can be cal- culated from the data furnished by the permanganate titration. he most probable assumption is that they exist as PbO and FeO, replacing the UO, by equivalent amounts of (PbO), and (FeO), The analysis then becomes: Ratios UO, = 40°08 "1892 "1392 UO, = 54°51 2004 PbO = 4°27 (PbO), 0095 2133 FeO: = ‘i 0084 “49 (FeO 88 Total 100°23 We shall then obtain the ratio— Iv RO,: RO,=-2133 :°1892=153 :1=3-06:2 and the composition of the mineral will be represented by the formula— 3RO,+2R0, in which the R represents tetrad uranium replaceable by two atoms of lead or iron, and R, hexad uranium. _tt is also possible that the iron exists as Fe,O,, which, like pitchblende, crystallizes in the isometric system. But under that Supposition, the ratio of 8:2 would not be essentially changed. When the mineral is heated in air, it is to be expected that the uranium would be oxidized to the state of U,O,, and the ton to Fe,O,. Calculated from the analysis, the gain in weight by this oxidation would amount to 1°48 per cent its weight. In determining the water, the mineral was found to weigh °67 per cent more after ignition; this, added to the water expelled, Sives 1°45 per cent. Am. Jour. 8c1,—Tuep —_ Vou, XIX, No. 111.—Maron, 1880. 222 N. D. C. Hodges—Mean Free Path of a Molecule. The mineral may then be considered as a basic uranous uran- ate, in which the basic uranium is replaceable by lead (and iron). That the uranium exists in pitchblende as U,O,, has been assumed without proof; the only related crystallized mineral heretofore analyzed is the questionable uranoniobite of ot laa who gives 15°6 p. c.=PbO,Nb,0, and SiO,, and 2°7= loss The acid reaction shown in the tube is unexplained. It was first attributed to sulphur, but by careful examination none could be detected. ArT. XXIX.—On the Mean Free Path of a Molecule; by N. D. C. Hopes. THE free path of a molecule is dependent on the amount of obstruction it meets with, on the density of the medium. Meyer gives for the mean free path on page 308 of his Kinetische Theorie der Gase, Pe ONE” Here N is the number o molecules in the unit volume. consider the length of path in a medium of variable den- sity. At the surface of a liquid, if there is no sharp transition from the liquid to the gaseous state, we shall have a succession of less and less dense vapors from where there is liquid to the surrounding atmosphere. The layers V (fig. 1) are what I refer to. The depth of these vapors, is of course, much magnified. I propose to find the pressure upon the particle, p, when the surface of the liquid is plain and when it is spherical. Taking molecules moving with any definite velocity, they will reach ? and give it an impulse, when they are at a distance from p than their mean free path. Now, the particles from below come from denser layers than those from above. A greater number will come from below than from above; there will be a tend- ency to drive p upward. To find this tendency, we must find N. D. C. Hodges—Mean Free Path of a Molecule. 223 how much denser the lower layers, from which molecules im- pinging on p come, are than those above, from which particles come to p. If dp is the obstruction met by a molecule in pass- cos met in the direction at an angle g with the vertical. The 1 1 ; . =" ps dp gives the obstruction met by the mole- po ing vertically upward through a single layer, fe will be that integral ss cos cule from one end to the other of its path. This integral must be constant, for the length of path is independent of the direction, As the differential of the obstruction is the same as the differential of the densit ’ | . met COS Pel, ~~ COS @ when p, is the density at the point p and p,, that at the other end f se SO a of the be As cos 7 the numerator p,—p, must be beth to cos g. The pressure on p is proportional to this lifference, and the resultant component in the upward direc- tion to cos? ¢, When the surface is spherical (fig. 2), each element of the path offers an obstruction expressed by for the parts be- p cos (p — $4) low p, and by eet) for those above p, ais the angle between the radius of curvature at the point p and that to the 2. g other end of the path. —ta is the mean value of the angle between the direction of the path and the normals to the surfa- ces of equal density for the parts below p, and g+4a the corre- Sponding angle for those above p. en ee This shows that. cos(p—fa)_———cos(p+4a)’ Whereas the difference in density above and below was the Same for a plane surface, in the case of curved surfaces the Pressure from below is greater, and that upward less. Or the ioe from below is greater, and that from above greater. his must cause a greater density at p. Integrating, 224 N. D.C. Hodges—Mean Free Path of a Molecule. The tendency for a particle to move from the liquid into the surrounding atmosphere is due to the difference in density of its liquid and of its vapor. For small changes in the density, the change in this tendency may be assumed as proportional to the change of density. It must be found what diag in density takes place at p. As the change in density is due to an increase of pressure on p, this increase must be equal in all directions. So it is only necessary to consider one direction. Take the direction tangent to the curved surface at p. The in- crease in pressure is, therefore, proportional to the difference in density of the layer through f and that through A, or to the length fh. It is evident that aa of curvature, and L the length of the mean free path. he change of tension ae the tension of the vapor at plane surface” 7 Sir William Thomson has shown that the change in tension at a curved surface is equal to the pressure of a column of the bs a of the height to which the liquid would rise in a capillary tube of a diameter of twice the radius of curvature of the sur- when r is the radius Hence we have ace. In a tube of diameter 1-294™ water rises to a height of 23°379™™. The data for the calculation are: Weight of a liter of water vapor (at 100° C.) °80357 grams as “4 mere 1EDi9 7 Tension of water vapor at 20° C, 18°495™™ The height of a column of mercury equivalent to the column of water vapor of height 23°379™ is "80357 100 18°495 23°379 Mt CMD” C1 The first factor is the fraction of a liter of mercury which a liter of water equals. The second reduces the height of this The third gives the result at 20° C., supposing the vapors to follow Boyle’s law. The fourth is the fraction of a liter there was to be considered. The expression for the mean free path in these surface vapors is then 4L= °647 80357 5), 18495 1 23°879 ,, _ g4r, 13,579’ ° 760 7 18°495 100 This gives L = -0000024™". If the law according to which the density of the vapors vary with the depths was known, the free path of a molecule in 4 gas at the ordinary pressure could be found. 3 Physical Laboratory, Harvard College, Cambridge, U. S. A., January 27, 1880. SW. Ford— Western Limit of the Taconic System. 225 Art. XXX.— On the Western Limits of the Taconic System ; by S. W. Forp. The Taconic System, asa system distinct from the Silurian, has appeared to me from my earliest knowledge of it, of ques- onable standing ; but the chances in favor of its~general ac- ceptance seemed to me quite as good so longas it rested within the limits originally assigned to it. In extending his system Westward, in 1846, from Petersburg, N. Y., to the Hu River, Dr. Emmons certainly had the remarkable uniformity of dip and conformability of the rocks over the region studied in his favor; but when he found himself under the necessity of assuming an inversion of the whole system in order to get the black slates of Bald Mountain (in which Trilobites had then Steater portion is still in doubt. How far the Primordial beds Which come up at Troy and Bald Mountain are continued east- ward as surface rocks, it is impossible at present to say. To 226 Scientific Intelligence. my mind, one of Dr. Emmons’s greatest services to the cause of science was his recognition of the great stratigraphical break running east of the Hudson River by which the Primor- dial rocks were made to stand above those at the top of the Lower Silurian, and his advocacy of it in spite of the adverse paleontological determinations of Professor Hall, who referred the whole at first to the Hudson River group, and subsequently, at least in part, to the Quebec. Dr. Emmons’s pronounce antagonism to the Hudson River doctrine grew, in this case at any rate, out of his appreciation of fundamental differences; and _ for this signally good work, notwithstanding the failure of his favorite system, he should ever receive, it seems to me, the grateful recognition of all workers in the department. New York, February 5, 1880. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PuHysiIcs. pera- tion, this boat contained a rod of solid coherent platinum sponge, having the form of the vessel. Removed with care, its weight was almost precisely that calculated from the PtCl,, No trace of sublimed or crystallized platinum could be detected. As to ee Be 2. On the Action of Phosgene gas on Ammonia.—¥EnTON has examined the white amorphous substance which is produced when phosgene gas (COCI,) acts upon ammonia, with a view t0 ascertain whether the urea contained in it is the ordinary form of this body or an isomer of it. For the preparation, the two thor oughly dried gases were brought together in large flasks, the phosgene being prepared by passing carbonous oxide through * This Journal, III, xix, 65, Jan,, 1880. Chemistry and Physies. 227 boiling antimonic chloride. A portion of the white solid was ex- ed by Bouchardat’s method, and crystals of guanidine sul- phate were Proce from it. Another portion was evaporated to dryness with excess of barium hydrate in vacuo over sulphuric acid, the residue was extracted with absolute alcohol, the solution appearance of urea. Treated with sodium hypobomit and hy- ch owe aie the nitrogen evolved was nearly twice as much with ¢ hypobromite. Ev vaporated with silver nitrate, silver cyanate odin pee out. eated in a tube, ammonia was evolved and the residue gave a strong reaction for biuret. Heated to 40° sey urea ferment, its solution became alkaline and gave off am- nia. Nitric acid and mercuric nitrate gave their characteristic dedaciics Hence the substance obtained is identical with ae nary urea, Direct tests showed that this urea existed as su the original white powder, and hence rendered it erebie that its isomer, the symmetrical carbamide CO} Nar is not formed * 2 in the reaction.— J. Chem. Soc., xxxv, 798, Dec. 1879. G. F. B. 3. On the Hydrocarbon Fluoranthene.—Frrria has published, of coal tar, aed has bee formula C,,H,,, intermediate phenanthrene 3 pyr CH” Separation from pyrene the fractional sryatallization of the picrates — te — to wit y fr, fractional cpemepeay’, in a partial vacuum was resorte success. ‘The vapor density of the pure fluoranthene was 6-638, theory requiring 6574 for C,,H,,. On oxidation with chromic acid, diphenyleneketone- carbonic “acid is the principal product, mix ixed, however, with a quinone. By conducting the operation with care, a mixture is obtained on the filter, of the acid, the quinone, and the unattacked hydrocarbon. Removi ing the ‘acid with sodium carbonate ee dissolving the residue in La alcohol, diphenic acid, C,H, : eo or ; Ono which on oxida- tion gives isophthalic acid, C,H, | COOH. Suspended in water, and treated with sodium amalgam, diphenyleneketone-carbonic 228 Scientific Intelligence. acid yields a carboxy] derivative of diphenylenemethane (fluorene), which the authors call fluorenic acid, 4H, ion oom This acid, dis- tilled with lime gives the hydrocarbon fluorene re i "SCH, Ox- idation by chromic acid destroys fluorenic acid, but with perman- ganate in an alkaline solution, diphenylene-ketone-carboni¢ acid is formed. Ke these data the authors assign to fluoranthene H ; the ee 1, and to diphenyleneketone-carbonic CH acid | é a le co isodiphenic acid being as above ei — Lie- A Ann., cc, 1, Dec. 1879 On the Introduction of Hydroxyl by Direct Oxidation. “RB. Myris sid A. Baur have paired the possibility of converting cumene-sulphonic acid into an oxyacid by direct oxidation while its isomer, pr ae. td ene- sulphone acid resists this action. Nor- ma ropyl- -benzene was converted into the sulpho-acid, and this, first into the barium and then into the potassium salt. The lat- unchanged. Cumene from cuminic acid as converted into cumene-sulphonic acid, and the potassium salt was submitted to oxidation as in the previous case. A product resulted which was snnekaally more soluble in alcohol than the salt used, and which af forded on analysis the formula C,H 4 SOK ° Consequently the oxidation had resulted in the substitution of an atom of hydroxyl for one of the hydrogen atoms in the lateral eer OH chain, pro- ducing oxypropylbenzene-sulphonic acid C,H, so.H These results are a new confirmation of the view that only hydrogen atoms which occupy teas positions can be changed into hy- rar xii, 2238, oe F. the Gonwiiain of Dibromethylene.—There are two odie s of the formula C,H,Br,; one acetylene dibromide, and the other “aibeomethyléne: One of these bodies must be symmetrical ‘CHBr and have the constitution |] ; the other must be unsymmetri- CHBr’ CH, : cal, and be {| . Anschtitz has demonstrated that it 1s the acetylene Silvassa which is symmetrical, and hence, by infer- ence, the dibromacetylene must be uns symmetrical. To establish this question experimentally, Demoxe has made use of the fertile Chemastry and Physics. 229 the reaction. proceeding quietly. On fractioning the hydrocar- bons obtained two products were collected, one boiling from 270° to 290°, and the other above 350°. The was an oil, color- less, highly refractive, of an agreeable odor, having the formula C,,H,,, or that of stilbene or diphenyl-ethylene. Its boiling point, and its state as a liquid show it to be the dissymetrical stilbene of Hepp. To prove this dissymetry still further, it was oxidized with chromic acid, saturated with sodium carbonate, and the crystallized sodium salt distilled. The substance obtained boiled at 295°-300°, crystallized on cooling in large white rhombic prisms, fusing about 48°, and was therefore pure benzophenone, ical examination. He gives the Neue Freie Presse of Vienna credit for the statement in 1871 that 300 persons had gone from ‘ew York to Lower California to collect these lichens then lately discovered. They were found on hard, rocky soils near the coast, and a single person could collect a ton, valued at 300 dollars, in four days. Inthe year 1870 the archil sold in the United States from this source was valued at $14,900, and the extract prepared from it at $4,700. The lichens found their way to the London down by carbon dioxide gas, and the chromogen was purifie 230 Scientific Intelligence. atmospheric oxidation in a manner hardly to have been expected. To one part of coal in very fine powder take three or four parts of the mixed alkali-carbonates. Mix intimately in a platinum dish and heat at first gently, using alcohol in place of gas to avoid the sulphur of the latt Raise the heat very slowly, not reach- ing a visible red nil: the surface of the mass becomes faintly combustion proc edn t om the bottom toward the top. Direct experiment shows no loss of sulphur; and comparative tests prove the enlee to be accurate. The complete roasting process pa pies about an hour and a half.—/. Chem. Soc., xxxv, ge: — . A Theoretical and Practical Treatise on the Mae of Sulphuric Acidand eens with the Collateral Branches ; orGE LuNGE, hae S., Professor of Technieal Chemis- oe at the Federal Polytechnic School, Zurich soba renee of the Tyne Alkali Works, South Shields), London, 1879. Vol. I, pp. 658, 8vo. (John Van Voorst).—Dr. Lunge, in his volume on Sulphuric Acid, — in full detail, not Sig the ee steps of the man ufacttu e, but discusses, as onl ood chem can, the theoretical questions involved in the ae oan The work is illustrated with plans arin to scale, of every part of all the apparatus required, and such clear directions as to cor- struction, and such minute instructions as to operating are given that the Sick § is a nautptcts guide to the manufacturer. Since the first decade of this century, when sulphurous acid ingenuity of man setioverees has found am a scope In “iseover g other sources of sulphur than crude brimst end and devising suit- able furnaces for burning them in, and in merivicig means for reducing to the utmost the loss of sulpher and nitrogen. Iron yrites, and, to a Henited extent, other sulphuretted minerals and Siber dsitaturgicat products, have displaced brimstone in most European works. This change was begun in 1838, when the Si- cilian Government, by unwisely raising the price of brimstone, drove acid makers to seek a substitute ; and it has Sie? pron n mat- athe contents. Of this important mineral not hi than 600, 000 tons are imported annually into Great Britain alone, prima- Chemistry und Physics. 231 rily for the manufacture of acid; but 20,000 tons of metallic copper are extracted from it by leaching—a not inconsiderable lye product. Dr. Lunge expresses surprise that similar mineral, which he supposes to abound in many localities on this side the Atlantic, has not here also taken the place of brimstone. The reason is that no mineral, as suitable, does exist within avail- the modifications in plant which the change involves. Another topic to which Dr. Lunge devotes several chapters, and full value of the Glover tower, when placed between the burner and the first chamber. There is an opinion prevalent that if the sulphurous acid from the burner be used in the tower to decom- unge, tst_ manufacturers to adopt the invention which Glover reely offered to the public, shows conclusively that these objec- e ull descriptions are given of Faur & Kessler composite plati- hum and lead stills,and of the modifications in shape, with conse- quent reduction in weight, which this innovation has driven the old platinum-still makers to adopt. All the volume needs is an index, which, strange to say, is al- together wanting. J. DOUGLASS. Chemistry of Common Life; by the late James F. W. time by A. H. Cuurcu, M.A. 592 pp., 8vo. New York, 1880. (D, Appleton and Co).—A great advance has been made since the Publication of the first edition of this work, by Pro essor Johns- res in them is probably greater. This clear exposition, by Pro- *ssor Johnston, of the many points in which Chemistry touches 232 Scientific Intelligence. every-day life, has been and will still be, the means of doing much good. The edi tor, Professor Church, has brought the book down to the present time, but throughout, as he states, with the davign to pene both the method and s style of the original work, ty the Air sa the Equator is not Hotter in January than in July? by A. WorrKor (St. bgp oe —In Nature, vol. xxi, p- 129,* "Mr. Croll ings his reasons why the equator is not much warmer in January than in July, notwithstanding the greater femacting effects of sapautenien fhe pe Athens s There i is another case which must also tend to lower the January and raise the July d start be reaches to a equ uator and somewhat beyond in Jan- uary but not that this tends to air the equator a lower tempera- rag winds Sonne ecu the south. If the equator is not every where warmer in January than in July, this is caused by the rainy season, which on the equator, and even a few degrees north of it, generally coincides with the a summer. Where the rains are not very heavy, as, for example, on - i . St. Thomas, West Africa, we have: January, 78°°3; July, 7 3 at Padang, Sumatra, where the rains are exceeding] y lio all ‘the * This Journal, February, 1880, p. 142, Chemistry and Physics. 233 year, there is scarcely any difference at all between the months. Somewhat to the south of the equator, where to the difference in the nearness of the sun is added a much greater height above the horizon in January, we have—- January. July. Rainy Season. Amboina, Molucca Islands, 4° S. 80°-9 77-4 May to August. Batavia, Java, 6° S. T7°-4 78°°8 December to February. Pernambuco, Brazil, 8° S. 80°°6 75°°0 il to July. 80, by the first-rate observations of Batavia, it is established that, so far as 6°S., January is 1°*1 colder than J uly, because the former 18 very rainy, while the latter has little rain. Even to 9° lat. N., July is colder than January, if the former has much more rain, so for example—— rnando Po, W. Africa, 4° N. 79°-9 76°-5 March to November. Gondokoro, Upper Nile, 5° N. S108 75°-7 April to August. eetown, W. Africa, 84° N. 80°°4 77°-0 June to October. Thu find differences amounting to 5°-6, while in the southern greater differences than 1°*1 are not known, which may, to a certain and a few degrees north and south from it, far more influenced , di sive to the higher strata a superior temperature than that they had in the dry season; in other words, the decrease of tempera- rains than in the nford is is temperature of the equator. The extent of the tropical zone is so rth Canton, 55°-6, Victoria, Hong-Kong, 59°°2. t Saigon, in chin China, but 11° to the south of Hong-Kong, and subjecte 234 Scientific Intelligence. to the full force of the northeast monsoon from the China seas, has a January temperature above 77°. Clearly the thermal effect even of the cold winter monsoon is scarcely perceptible farther south. I consider water = be the only direct cause of the ie ness and uniformity of e rial temperatures, and this in three ways— (1) by the great heat~eapacity of water; (2) by the alin which interpose a screem between the sun ete the surface seo ih the Atlantic, where the winds are generally w oa the ‘winds, I admit of their effect in this case; but (1) in g ocean currents, and thus removing the heated water from he aie (2) in spreading the cold air from over the cold cur- rents over a greater distance. The latter is the cause of the low temperature in the equatorial regions of the Eastern Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. Where the sky is clear and humidity and rains dehonh very high temperatures of the air are attained, reat dis tance from the equator (10°-30°) and this notwithstanding winds coming from the cooler Mediterranean, are certainly stronger than the trades of the ocean and yet do not prevent the desert from attaining a higher ai} aaa than known in any equatorial — —Nature, Jan 11. Report on “Magnetic hagas in — in the Summer of 1879; by Francis E. Nipuer.—The magnetic sur vey of Missouri, comm menced in 1878, SF continued during the summer of 1879. Observations of the declination and inclination of the needle, and of the horizontal intensity, were made at a con- siderable number of new stations. The report ee may methods employed and the results of the Sard erie in map is added giving the isogonic lines for can eee hd those of the latter State bein ng ba on ge surve Assuming sonckal direction of which is from east to west, they peer according to well-known laws, ads in greatest quantity i en dency of the needle is to set at right angles to a current of elec Chenustry and Physics. 235 tricity. In such a valley (as, for instance, in the Missouri valle between Jefferson City and the mouth of the river), the direction of the needle should be normal, the direction in which the water flows being without (appreciable) effect. here the river runs at right angles to the earth currents, the disturbing cause would be practically removed, as there would be no deflected component of the earth current along the river valley. The maximum effect is produced in the case of rivers making and Missouri, or where we have an immense drainage system consisting of long rivers and creeks running parallel and in the proper direction, as is the case on the eastern slope of Iowa. hether the explanation above suggested be the true one or 11° an g. vations made at Moncalieri (Piedmont) from 1871-78.—The con- clusions deduced by R. ) f the maynetic declination in Piedmont are as follows: he mean monthly variation of the declination attains a minimum in December. {it increases at first slowly, from December to Febru- since the article on pp. 200-205 was printed, he states that the values of M, the strength of the magnetic field, given in the ae should be multiplied by a constant factor which is nearly exact numerical results in regard to the new action as observ ™m several different metals. 236 Scientific Intelligence. Il. GroLtoegy AND MINERALOGY. 1. Geology of the Rio Sao Francisco, Brazil—Mr. QO. A. Dersy, of the Brazilian National Museum, has recently been making, in company with a party of government engineers, a geo- logical examination of the Rio Sio Francisco, from the falls of Paulo Affonso, to Januaria. From the latter place Mr. Derby was to proceed to Rio de Janeiro overland, by way of the rich mineral districts of Minas Geraes. The latest news from Mr. Derby i contained in a letter, dated near the city of Barra, on the Sio Francisco, November 9, 1879, which gives us a few general state- ments of interest, as to the result of his observations up to that time. From Paulo Affonso, the ascent of the river for eighty leagues was made in canoes, and then a small steamer was pro- closing, . peat ing is certain, we have got to give up the great Tertiary depression and greatly extend the area of the Cretaceous. I that many of the beds, which have ing to Professor C. H. Hitcheock.—Professors EpwakpD and C. . Hir 8 led note published on page 153 of this volume (and also in the neW Report with those works that make the Taconic beds pre-Silurian, on Vermont geology. In a letter from Professor C. H. Hitchcock, dated February 10th, he states that the “ Presumptions” were introduced “as a brief exposé of the Taconic System, couched in such Geology and Mineralogy. 237 language as Emmons himself would have used.” It is with great satisfaction that I am able to make the correction and cite, from the same letter, the fact that “there i is nothing in the Repo ort any- where favorable to Taconism,” although, as he also writes, it does not refer the system distinctl to the Lower Silurian, except in view. Qn the earlier pages, 251 to 257, Professor Edwa rd and ee tacd to Professor James Hall, just before mpl tion of the Report, it was Mr. Hall’s opinion that the quartzyte was the Medina sandstone and that the Taconic group was t of the fossils—none of them very distinct specimens—to the Upper Silurian. Professor Hitchcock also says, in Bc recent vig to me, after remarking on his disbelief in “Taconism :” “ Within the past two years I have gone over most of the Vermont sections, and have felt that they demonstrated the essential equivalence of the Taconic gangs with the Potsdam and ha! ink os lime He ones This important correction was Pho received until after my article on the age of the Green Mountains (p. 191) was printed, i . DANA, or else this note would have been attache i J pein ie of the Silurian Fossils of the Girvan Dis- ; with special reference to those contained in the “ Gry Collection,” by H. Atteynz Nicaorson and Roperr Erurrip E, Jr. Fasciculus II. oe Sua Phyllopoda, Cirripedia, and Ostracoda, pp. 137-233, with pes x-xv. Edinburgh and eed Win. Blackwood & (at and its Alterations a, from the granite veins palate County, Massachuse A. A, Jutren has rack recently (Annals N, Y. Regt o aoa bet kWh alua- ext ape | memoir on spodumene and the results of its alterations The two localities which are particularly described are those of Goshen and Chesterfield, Massachusetts. Analyses of pure and unaltered spodumene from these localities yielded the results gies below. No. 1 was from the Levi Barrus farm in SiO, Al,0; Fe,0; MnO MgO CaO Li,O Na,O K,0 H,0 I 63°27 93-73 117 0-64 2°02 O11 6°89 0°99 145 0°36 = 100°63 8 6186 23-43 104 1°55 O79 699 0°50 1°33 0°46 = 100°68 These sepa agreeing analyses correspond very nearly to the for- Mula Li, Al i,0,,, for which the quantivalent (= ye ygen) ratio Am. Jour. Scr. Cpeses Srrres, Vor. XIX, No. 111.—Marcu, 17 288 Scientific Intelligence. } WE Ty for R:R:Si=1:3:8, This is the same bag sey recently de- differing from the one before accepted, agrees with seh obtained b Brush in an early analysis of the Norwich he called Higa uller color and an inferior luster, translucency, Ae ness ind specific gravit Much of the spodumene from the two localities mentioned, is altered into cymatolite. This name was given to a similar mineral from Goshen by Shepard, but the imperfect pipe aigts inches long, not as a coating over the em. e prs? is micaceous, the lamination flat, rarely undulating, and always 10 the plane of the orthodiagona] cleavage of the or iginal spodumene. The lamin are brittle but the hiines scales are flexible, some- silvery $o eset color white; feel soft; hardness = 1°5; spe ecific gravit The Chesterfield variety is much more abundant. It occurs forming the whole, or with the ney eore mineral a part, of crystals of enormous size; one is mentioned w ich was 35 inches in length apie still lying in the vein and with a iamete of 10 to 11 inches. structure , intermediate between micaceous and fibrous, d; but in the r ones, within a thin radiating crust 0 this kind oo folia generally glen to the central plane of cleav- age o mene an el foliation often results g spod a parall Somietiince a core of blackish-green pinite (killinite) is found in the smaller crystals; while in the larger crystals the core consists spodumene often with killinite as a thin layer next to me white 2 from the Barrus farm, both in Goshen ; 3 from sterfield Hollow. SiO, Al,O; Fe,0; MnO MgO CaO Li,O Na.O K,0 H:0 CoO 21°80 0°85 0:29 1-44 084 0-19 688 6°68 2°40! ir=99'88 nitrogenous organic matter 0-44. * do Geology and Mineralogy. | 239 Two other analyses are also given; they agree closely with those here quoted, varying only as do these in the amounts of soda and otash. The calculated formula is H,(H, Na, K), Al,Si,,O,,, which requires SiO, 58°46, Al,O, 24:99, Na,O 15°09, H,O 1:46 = 100 It is shown that the formula is the same as that of spodumene ex- reas planes, Color greenish-gray to olive-green, also greenish-black ; feel greasy. An analysis of the mineral from Chesterfield Hollow (G. = 2-623) yielded Si0. ALO; FeO MnO (oO MgO CaO Li,O Na,O K.0 H,0 46°80 3252 233 004 0:04 0-48 O77 032 O78 T24 166 Organic matter 1°14 = 100°12. aq. corresponds closely with the Chesterfield mineral. In addition to the above pseudomorphs, others after spodumene mixed with muscovite and quartz: (4) of quartz; these pseudo- morphs are rare, and while retaining the form of the original mineral contain more or less mica. The last two forms are men- toned as varieties of (1) above. r. Julien closes his very interesting paper with some remarks on the paragenesis of spodumene and the character of the altera- tion which has resatted in the formation of the pseudomorphs trina Two figures illustrate the relations of the several es, erals, in the process of alteration: (3) of albite, generally inter- inches across the rism, both terminations being complete. ; © has also obtained unusually large and perfect crystals of mica rom the locality on the west bank of Vrooman Lake, N.S é 240 _ Sctentific jIntelligence. Ill. Zoouoey. Fresh-water Rhizopods of North America; by Josmru Lerpy, M.D., Prof. Anat. Univ. Pennsylvania. 324 pp. 4to., with 48 colored plates. Washington, 1879. Vol. xii of the Reports of the U. 8. Geological Survey of the Territories, F, V. Hayden, Geologist-in-Charge: Department of the Interior.—This new work, by Dr. Leidy, is a very important addition to the quarto series of reports connected with the Geological Survey of the Territories under Dr. Hayden. It is the result of a vast amount of careful microscopic research with regard to the structure, development and habits of these lowest forms of animal life over the North American Continent; and the numerous plates with crowded ored figures are attractive for their beauty, as well as for the instruction they impart. Dr. Leidy shows in his descriptions and faithful delineations i e it saved much detention and explanation; and, now, behold, offer them the results of that fishing. No fish for the stomach, Joblet, observed, ‘some of d food As Leidy states (p. 5): : “The soft mass of protoplasm, or sarcode, forming the essential part of all Rhizopods, has no internal cavity like the body-cavity of higher animals, neither has it a mouth like the higher Protozoa, nor has it stomach or intestine. Without trace of nerve elements, and without definite, fixed organs of any kind, internal or exter nal, the Rhizopod—simplest of all animals, a mere jelly speck— moves about with the apparent purposes of more complex crea: tures. It selects and swallows its appropriate food, digests It and rejects the insoluble remains. It grows and reproduces its kind. It evolves a wonderful variety of distinctive forms, often of the utmost beauty; and indeed, it altogether exhibits such marvelous attributes, that one is led to ask the question in what consists the superiority of animals usually regarded as much higher the scale of life.” Zoology. 241 D IL. Heliozoa, III. Radiolaria, IV. agreeing in this with the views of Professo of these two groups, excepting one Foraminifer, named by Leid a Foraminifera in that it is represented by several species inhabiting both salt and fresh water. The Protoplasta include the genera meeba, Difflugia, Nebela, Arcella, and others ; and the Heliozoa, Actinophrys, Heterophrys and others allied, With regard to onera he says, “though Professor Heckel has indicated and de- scribed a number of fresh-water species, I am not sure that I have had the opportunity of finding any of them, excepting per- haps the genus Vampyrella of Cienkowski, which he ascribes to the same order.” f bjects : f “Fresh-water Rhizopods are to be found almost everywhere in i not too m positions kept continuous! or wet, an uch haded. They afe especially frequent and abundant in compara- tively quiet waters ; clear, neither too cold, nor too much | heated by the sun, such as lakes, ponds, ditches, and pools. They be Ww al depressions and fissures of rocks, in the mouths of caves, among ate almost universally devoid of life of any kind. ; aR izopods also occur in the flocculent materials and slimy matter adherent to most submerged objects, such as rocks, the dead boughs of trees, and the stems and leaves of aquatic plants. 242 Scientific Intelligence. A frequent position is the under side of floating leaves, such as those of the Pond-lily, Nymphwea odorata; the Spaltceis Nuphar advena ; and the Nelumbo, Nelumbium luteum. Cer tain kinds of Rhizopods, especially the Heliozoa, or Sun-animal cules, are most frequent among floating plants, such as pines emna ; Hornwort, Ceratophyllum ; ~Bladde trwort, Utricularia ; and the various Confervas, as Zygnema, Spirogyra, Occillatedis and the Water-purse, Hydrodictyon. “In no other position have I found Rhizopods of the kind pe consideration in such profusion, number, and beau 3 of form as i sphagnous bogs, living in the moist or wet Bog-moss, or Sphagnum. Sometimes I have found this particular moss acindlly to swarm soe multitudes of these creatures of the most extraordinary kinds in the most highly developed condition. A drop of water acibaass from a little pinch of Bog-moss has often yielded scores of half a dozen genera and a greater number of species. Fre quently, however, the Sphagnum of many localities contains com- paratively few Rhizopods, though I have rarely found them entirely absent from this moss. Other mosses and liverworts I have not observed to be specially favorite habitations of - Rhizopods, not even such aquatic kinds as the Fontinalis. In water squeezed into a watch crystal soo a inal sag of Sphagnum Dr, Leidy obtained thirty-e' ght species. “The mode I have habitually adopted for collecting Rhizopods, which is also equally well adapted for collecting many © other microscopic organisms, plants, and animals, is as follows : n og ditches, or other waters, I use a small tin ladle, or the water and transferred t a glass jar. A small hole in the bottom of the ladle favors chee retention of the collected material, but care should be taken that it is not so large as to permit the material to stream through. After the Aleotagdee is full, ° poe from the ooze near the shores of lake and ponds than I have in deeper water; but this I suspect was alals due os the circum- stance that nea ar the shore I could see the ooze at the bottom of the — and could much better manage to collect the desired mate “ Aquatic plants, if rooted in — — should be carefully cut ee and gently lifted from the wate ‘as to disturb as little possible the adherent —— a a sufficient quantity we placed in a tinp or other vessel, water from other por tions of the plants may 5 se ene upon that which is retained. Zoology. 243 in of recent Foraminifera, though in very variable proportions, ey are generally most abundant in the sands of warmer lati- tudes, and especially on shores profusely furnished with sea- weed . g. “Plancus,* who, according to D’Orbigny, was the first to describe and figure the shells of Foraminifera, counted 6000 indi- viduals in an ounce of sand from the Adriatic. D’Orbigny esti- mated that there were 160,000 in a gram of selected sand from the Antilles. Schultze gives 1,500,000 as the number he found in fifteen grams of sand from Gaeta on the coast of Sicily. _ “Even on the comparatively barren shores of New Jersey, con- sisting of quartz sand, foraminiferous shells occur in notable In a portion scraped from the surface between tides, at Atlantic City, I estimated that there were 18,700 shells to the ounce avoirdupois, all of a single species of Nonionina. In another sample, from Cape May, I obtained 38,400 shells to the ounce, likewise of the one species. “In sand collected by scraping up the long white lines on the bathing beach at Newport, Rhode Island, occupying an indenture were found to be much more numerous, but, excepting in the case oF some examples of Miliola, of smaller size. In an ounce of the sand, I estimated that there were about 280,000 shells, of several genera and species.” ‘ One of the most remarkable forms described in the book is the inameeba mirabilis, from the Cedar swamps of New Jersey, rep- resented by many figures on plates 6 and 7. It is ——- cream-white or greenish-white in color, but spotted often wit green, brown, and yellow, all the colors, excepting the white, being due to the food-balls, which are chiefly the Desmids, Didymoprium and Bambusi is a gluttonous feeder, and is commonly so Nig with this vegetable food as to be more or less opaque. * Ariminensis de conchis minus notis. Venice, 1739, 244 Scientifie Intelligence. minute rods, standing perpendicularly, which make the animal look as if surrounded by a nimbus of Bacteria, “In the move- ments of Dinameba, its jelly-like cloak appears to be no obstacle, and the subulate pseudopods shoot through and beyond it as if it _ _ exist other species of poonlien interest is Hyalosphenia papilio, a buf aloe ed, or straw-colored s Sete perfectly transparent, and remarkably ‘constant in its for The species of Nebela, particalarly N. collaris, N. hippoerepis and JV. ansata, are of special beauty; but we must refer to the work with its plates, for the facts respecting these and the various other kinds. The book is adapted to the uninitiated as well as - adepts in the science. Dr. Leidy says, ‘‘In the course of its paration, I*-have always had my pupilsin mind, and I shall be se it serves as an additional aid to their studies ; Al — we a that it is — adapted to this and its higher purpos closes “aes a Bi I br appendix, comsnadiei the names of aie of works and memoirs on living Rhizopods and lists of all the species ron Tenth erica Pet with the synonymy so oe as giving the names of the same adopte Zoology for Students ~_ Géndead Readers ; by A. S. Pack- ARD, Jr. 8vo, 719 pp. 544 cuts. New Yo rk: 1879. (Henry apted for use in the class-room and lab tory than most of vical terms as in several other manuals of structural Zoolo og now in he present work is largely devoted to structural or mor- phological Loahons with pretty full accounts of the pyar the various groups. Somewhat detailed accounts of the ana ures illustrating them, are by Dr. C. S, Minot. The illustrations are throughout copious, and —- good and well-selected, though mostly borrowed from other w e classification adopted is, for the cies part, — in ancien ance with the more recent European writers, and not very different from that of Huxley’s a. works. One feature, that of dividing » = “Crustacea” into two great groups, Veocarida and Paleo arida, is of ve doubtfal utility. If such a division be neces- P Z00u0gy- 245 can be maintained, with our present knowledge of the former, as a natural group, while it has been fully shown by the anatomical researches of A. Milne Edwards and others that Zimulus is not a Crustacean, in any proper sense. The Pycnogonida have also been badly treated, for this group, remarkable for so many anatomical and morphological peculiarities is dismissed in three lines (p. 360), as a family of mites! But the Pycnogonida would t this peculiarity in a marked degree and have long ago been so described in the works of L. Agassiz, A. Agassiz, and others Hybocodon prolifer Ag., and Dysmorphosa rans are notable ence to the breeding of the “dogfish,” for on the former pase it 18 said that they lay eggs, while on the latter page “ the dog-f (Squalus A mericanus)” is mentioned. The latter produces living young, as well as the Mustelus canis. A. . : System der Medusen (Erste Halfte des ersten Theils : System der Craspedoten); von Dr. Ernst HACKEL, 1x and 360 pp., with 20 plates. Jena, 1879.—Since the publication of Eschscholtz’s System der Akalephen, an — number of addi- 246 Scientific Intelligence. have crept into the classification of the group. To reéstablish under these circumstances a certain amount of order in the classifi- all this material. ith his extensive knowledge of Acalephs obtained during frequent visits to different points of the seashore, e proposes to revise the whole group, adding to the species R don development of Acalephs, which have given Heckel so prominent a place i ; It seems unfortunate that Heckel’s facility for coining new names should lead him to reject so frequently the established confusion. This extreme method is not limited with Heckel a the higher groups, but extends systematically to families, 80 families and even genera, so that it will hereafter often be ex- confusion which is so frequently his theme is indeed only increase by his own equally arbitrary proceedings. Zoology. 247 panularians as Leptomeduse, Yet in the primary sub-divisions of the Craspedota the classification adopted by Heckel is an advance The position of the Trachynemide and Cu- It seems to us that Heckel has needlessly increased the number b-g by another: and what is among Craspedota, a family, a sub- mily, 4 genus or a sub-genus It is incredible that Hackel with his great knowledge of Medu- Narcomeduse, Among the Cladonemide the new genus Ctenaria is held by Hecke] to be the most closely allied of all Craspedota to the Ctenopherm. At first sight this appears quite true, but if we 248 Scientific Intelligence. analyze more closely the combination of characters of the genus, none of which are new, as Heckel himself states, we cannot help being convinced that "Heckel has = ed ‘peyond measure the external resemblance, and that there is not in Ctena single feature characteristic of the rs while on the contrary every structural detail is met with in som e u Tubularians (Anthomeduse). The _ ribs of lasso where, however, the branching is not symmetrical. Nor is there anything in the genital organs, the stomach, or proboscis, which we do not find in other Tubularian genera, while we — nothi es whatever like the above structures in any Ctenophor finally, if we imagine the pedunculated knobs of lasso coll ‘of Gemmaria and Pteronema to be — along the peduncles Ctenaria differed in any way from those of the other Cladonemide. That the material = remaining for investigation is very grea is nah known to all w ave had occasion to sail on tropical seas and to see the immense wealth of pelagic life weit Fie me Heckel’s work shows how much progress could be made knowledge of Acalephs by selecting a few properly ‘alah sation where Meduse could be studied advantageously. 4, _— of npr ad parva ss ee by the United States Coast Survey Steamers “ Corw “ Bibb,” “ Hassler,” and % Blake,” JSrom 1867 to 1879 ; ie ’ Bunsamin Prerce and ee tion ; ea THEroporE Lyman. Part I. (Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at “acd College, Cambridge, Mass., “ vi, No. 2). December, 1879. The Cotton Worm ; Summary of its Natural History, with an oun of its enemies and the best means of contr olling it; es a aor a progress of the work of the Commission ; by M. h.D. Washington. 1880. (United States itomclogiesl Commission. Bulletin No. 3.) Astronomy. 249 IV. Astronomy. 1. Catalogue of the Library of the U. 8. Naval Observatory. Part L Astronomical Bibliography ; by Prof. E. 8. Howey, 4to, 10 pp. Washington, 1879.—This is part of a proposed Cata- logue of the very valuable library of the Naval Observatory. Professor Holden has, we understand, done excellent service in securing the completion and in arranging this library. e pres- ent bibliography is not strictly confined to the books now in the ibrary, nor to the literature of observational Astronomy. It will be a very valuable help to those who have not, as well as to those who have, access thereto. us Todhunter’s History of the Theory of Attraction and the Figure of the Earth, Glaisher’s Report to the British Association on Tables, DeHaan’s memoirs on Logarithmic Tables, Scudder’s Catalogue of Scientific Serials, Dove’s Literatur der Optik, The Fortschritte der Physik, The Fortschritte der Mathematik, are leading works in Geodesy, Optics and Mathematics, and yet a1 all left out. Though the work ought to have been better, it will be very useful as it is. Bh Mee 2. Publications of the Cincinnati Observatory. No. 5 * 2 2 180 Pp. 8vo. Cincinnati, 1879.—This number contains the results of early adopted the stars measured have been principall i Southern hemisphere. The exceptions were mainly well known y- ; oa Catalogue of the mean declination of 2018 stars between on fo 2" and 12 to.24" R. A., and 10° to 70° 1875; by T. Sarrorp. 4°, Washington, 1879.—This Cata- 1 logue was prepared under direction of Lieut. Wheeler of the Lee. 250 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Engineer Department primarily for use in the geographical sur- veys west of the 100th meridian. The area in the heavens covere is nearly one-fourth of the celestial sphere, ene that part that i is of use in field work. The aim has been to determine with the utmost accuracy attainable the pay Alera ar and the annual pre- cessions and proper motions in declination, of these stars, and in- cidentally = corresponding elements in R. A. The logs. of a’ 8’ e' and d@' are given for each star. For the region covered, this must for iene time to come be a standard catalogue for the prin- cipal stars. 4. Annals of the Astronomical Observatory Be Harvard Cot- lege. Vol. xi, part Il. Cambridge, 1879. By E Oe Director.—This part is a continuation of Photometric Observ tions made in sh 7-9 sieiaietpadlye with the plaaeet equatorial. ‘The ing arrives at the following diameters of some of the smaller mem- bers of the solar system in English miles, a result of general interest. Phobos sits Dione 542™ Titania 586™ Vesta 319" Deimos 5 Rhea 745 Oberon 544 Antiope 51 292 Titan 1406 Sat. Nept. 2260 Brunhild 20 — 370 Hyperion 193 Pallas 167 Eva 14 570 Japetus 8 94 Menippe 12 cane varies with his position in his orbit, which naturally leads to the conclusion that his time of rotation on his axis equals the time of revolution in his orbit, as is true for our moon, The diameters computed from the m oe mean and minimum bril- liancy are 574, 486, and 307 miles ‘ Vy MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. | Runrs. 844 ave. Washin gton, D. Os 1879 (Smith- ‘eictan ‘Miscellaneous Collections, 329).- ~'This volume has been tape in accordance with the instructions of the Board of Re gents to the Secretary, to have prepared and to publish a history of the origin and progress of the Smithsonian Institution. It contains the Journal of Proceedings of the Board of Regents from its first meeting, September 13, 1846, to January 26, 1876, the Board, and distinguished collaborators of the Institution so, an account of the Bache Fund, the — — the Cor- coran Gallery of Art, and various other similar ma 2, Erasmus Darwin; by Ernst Krause; schogt from the German by W.S. Dallas, with a reliminary notice by CHARLES Darwin. 216 pp. 8vo. New York, 1880. (D. Appleton and Miscellaneous Intelligence. 251 ala have descended to the grandson who has given his : ; o * ege, Manchester. 161 pp. A 1 AS p- 12mo. London, 1879. (Macm and Co.)—The original German work, of which this is an Englis translation, was written some four years since b r. J. Landauer. i : American Journal of Mathe itor-in-chief, J. J. Sytvester; As TLiaM KE, Srory; with the cocperanen of H. A H. A. Rowianp. On the Geographical Problem of the Four Co t ing B.A., (of London); Note on the Precedin terni ; _ Formule for Quantification of Curves, Surfaces and So. ies of a “ Curve h Stone; Note on Determinants and Duadie matics, pure and applied. sociate Editor-in-charge, Siuon NEwcom B, of the PEON BE tle ublished under the auspices 7 e Johns [Hopkins University, Baltimore—The following is € table of contents of the last number of this Journal :—. lors, (Plate IT), by A. B. Kempe, Paper, by William E. Story; The Qua- cs Synthemes, by ? lids, and for Bary- d Ball,” by Ormond J. J. Sylvester; Tables Quantics of the First & 2. * Teng, Generating Functions and Groundforms for the Binary th om, by J. lvester, assis F. Franklin; Note on the Projection of Thomas ~ Locus of 8 of four dimensions into space of three dimensions, by Certain T aig; On the Motion of an oid in a Flui omas Craig; be ernary Cubic-Form Equations, chap , On the Resolution of Num- nto the sums iffer of Two New Acti Mila tutielosda . ion of the Magnet on Electric Currents, by E. H. Hall. (This article is cited on pp. 200-205 of this Journal). That a Journal of this character sho uld be so well supported is honorable alike to American science and to the University under ative of the Polaris Polaris, at + ; ’ wo dollars y: with the order. This is the beauti The mone ful edition, of which extra copies t 252 Miscellaneous Intelligence. have been sold by authority « of Congress at ten per cent above the cost of oe work and paper ard von Cotta Fund. —A request has been made to all the ieoiala’ and friends of Bernhard von Cotta, who died at Frei- berg on September 14, 1879, to join in erecting a monument to his erected at a suitable spot in Freiberg ; ; the fund is intended for the assistance of indigent students at Freiberg, either to enable them to take part in geological excursions, or in more extended tours, or to facilitate their studies in other ways. The advantages arising from this fund are sie e ee ar to all worthy students, in responding to this 4 amet The American members of the ommittee are: Prof. Brush, New Haven, Ot.; Prof. Prime, Philadelphia ; Prof. Raphael Pumpelly, Newport, R.1; st R. W. Raymond, New si The Naturalist’s Quarterly, Vol. i, No. 1, January, 1880, Belew Mass. (Naturalist ee —A idles magazine devoted to Natur al History in all its branches. Geological Atlas of the 7 States and Canada.—lt is paipened by Professor C. H. Hitchcock, as the completion of @ lan made some years since, to rt are a geological map of the Jnited States. The support of those fuiverested is called for in number of ecbedctil "be obtained to cover the expen se is the United Sion Centennial Map, re neiaed and com- pleted by order of Congress. It is to be 8x13 feet, and will be furnished with the geological ne mounted on rollers, at $50, or in sixteen sheets at $45 per copy. An explanatory text wi ey the map. 9. M. Dumas. “Nature” has published (Feb. 6) an extra number devoted entirely to an account of the life and work of M. Dumas, the eminent French chemist. The paper is prep by Dr, Hofmann, of Berlin 1 atum.—-In the notice of ni A pasos Cope’s memotr', © page 155 of this volume, the number of species ee in the vith “ine should be thirty-seven sustond of seven Brain Work and cana eonted by Dr. H. C, Woop, Clinical Professor of a vous Disease in in the University of PutinayWailia ete. 126 pp., 12mo. Philad phia, 1880. (Presley Blakiston. fe The Pathology of Mind; being the third edition of the second part of ye , tla and pee ogs. of Mind,” recast, enlarged and rewritten; by HEN MAUDSLEY, p., 8vo. New York: 1880. (D. Appleton & Ca.) APPENDIX. ART. XXXL — Principal Characters of American Jurassic Dinosaurs ; by Professor O. ©. Marsu. Part IIL With six plates. In the previous articles of this series, the writer has recorded the more important characters of several groups of Dinosaurs from the Jurassic deposits of the Rocky Mountain region.* In the present communication, some of the peculiar features in the structure of the Stegosauria are made known. This sub- order proves to be one of the most specialized of the known Dinosaurs, and differs widely from the other groups. Stegosaurus, Marsh, 1877. The type genus of this group (Stegosaurus) may be taken as the representative of the suborder. Among the characters which at present distinguish this genus from the other known toups of Dinosaurs are the following: (1) All the bones of the skeleton are solid. (2) The femur is without a third trochanter. (8) The crest on the outer condyle of the femur, which in Birds separates the heads of the tibia and fibula, is rudimentary or wanting. (4) The tibia is firmly codssified with the proximal tarsals. (5) The fibula has its larger extremity below. Various other important characters of the present group, Which are shared in part by some aberrant Dinosaurs, will be given below. : Tuer Skvuty anp Brain. The skull in the Stegosauria, so far as known, was remarka- bly small. In its main features it agreed more nearly with that of the genus Hatteria, from New Zealand, than with any other living reptile. The quadrates were fixed, and there was a quadrato-jugal arch, The jaws were short and massive. *This Journal, xiv, 613; xv, 241; xvi, 411; xvii, 86; and xviii, 501. Am. Jour. earn aad Serres, Vor, XIX, No. 111.—Manrcu, 1880. 254 O. C. Marsh—American Jurassic Dinosaurs. Little has been known hitherto of the brain of Dinosaurs, of the entire bodies, estimated from corresponding pe ot each skeleton, was as 1 to 1000. It follows that t Stegosaurus was only +4, that of the Alligator, if the weight of the entire animal is brought into the comparison. If the contrast would be still more striking. This comparison, gives, of course, only approximate results, and some allowance should be made for the proportionally larger brain in small animals. Outline of posterior part of skull and brain-cast of Morosaurus grandis, Marsh ; uperior view, one-fourth natural size; ol. olfactory lobes; ¢. cereb: ge pheres; op. optic lobes; on. optic nerve; cb. cerebellum; m. medulla ; occipital condyle. The brain of Stegosaurus ungulatus is clearly of a lower type than that of Morosawrus, which, as the writer has shown, me several times smaller in diameter than the neural canal in 18 O. C. Marsh—American Jurassic Dinosaurs. 255 Tue TeEeeErn. The teeth of Stegosaurus are very numerous, and mostly cylin- drical in form. Those from the maxillary figured on plate VI may be regarded as typical. The series represented in figure 4 consists of functional teeth in position, although separated from the jaw. The crowns are more or less compressed trans- versely, and are covered with thin enamel. e fangs are long and slender, and the pulp cavity is continued nearly or quite to the crown. The jaws contain but a single row of teeth in actual use. These are rapidly replaced as they wear out by a series of successional teeth, more numerous than hitherto observed in these reptiles. Figure 5, on Plate VI, represents a transverse section through the maxillary, immedi- ately behind the fourth tooth. The latter is shown in place (1), and below it is a series of five immature teeth (2 to 6), in ‘Warlous stages of development, preparing to take its place. These successional teeth are lodged in a large cavity (c), which extends through the whole dental portion of the maxillary. The teeth in use were loosel implanted in separate sockets, and were readily displaced. The entire dental series evidently formed a very weak dentition, adapted to a herbivorous life. Tar VERTEBRA. The vertebree of Stegosaurus preserved all have the articular faces of their centra concave, although in some the depression Is slight. They are all, moreover, without pneumatic or medullary cavities. On Plate VII, a selection from the vertebral series of one skeleton is given, which shows the principal forms. Figures and 2 represent a median cervical. The other neck vertebree cervicals have a small tubercle in the center of each end of the centra, a feature seen also in some of the caudals. All the cer- Vicals supported short ribs. * This Journal, vol. xvii, p. 87. 256 O. C. Marsh—American Jurassic Dinosaurs. The dorsal vertebree have their centra rather longer, and more or less compressed. The neural arch is especially ele- vated. The neural canal is much higher than wide. The head of the rib fits into a pit on the side of the neural arch. Figures 3 and 4, Plate VII, represent a posterior dorsal, with character- istic features. The ribs are massive, and strengthened by their form, which is T shaped in transverse section. he sacral vertebree are codssified, but their exact number in the present genus has not yet been fully determined. The caudal vertebre offer the greatest diversity, both in size and form. e anterior caudals are the largest in the whole vertebral series, and highly modified to support a portion of the massive dermal armour. The articular faces of their cen- r tebre have no distinct faces for chevrons. The transverse processes are expanded vertically, and their extremities curve urther back, the same general characters are re- tained, but the centra are more deeply cupped, and the spmes less massive. Figures 5 and 6, Plate VII, show a caudal ver- tebra from this region. The chevrons here have their articular euds separate, and rest upon two vertebra. In the median caudals, the spine has greatly diminished in height, and the faces for chevrons are placed on prominent tubercles on the postero- inferior surface. The lower margin of the front articular face is sharp, and the chevrons do not meet it. In the more dis caudals (figures 7 and 8), the neural spine and zygapophyses are reduced to mere remnants, but the chevron facets remain distinct. These vertebrz, as well as those further back, have their centra much compressed. The caudal vertebra are remarkably unl- form in length throughout most of the series. Tse Fore Limes. he humerus (figure 2) is short and massive. It has a dis- tinct head, and a strong radial crest. The shaft is constricted medially, and is without any medullary cavity. The ulna (figure 3) is also massive, and has a very large olecranal process. 0. C. Marsh—American Jurassic Dinosaurs. 257 distal end is comparatively small. The radius is smaller than the ulna. The fore limb, as a whole, was very powerful, and adapted to varied movements. Tae Hinp Limes. constricted medially, leaving a wide space between it and the fibula. The distal end of the tibia is blended entirely with the convex astragalus, so as to strongly resemble the corresponding part in Birds. The fibula (figure 8) is slender, and has its smaller end above. This extremity is applied closely to the head of the tibia by a rugose suture, so as readily to unite with it. Its upper articular surface is nearly or quite on a level with that of the tibia. The distal end of the fibula is expanded, and in the specimen figured is firmly codssified with the caleaneum. The two coalesce with the tibia and astragalus, and form a smooth con- vex articulation for the distal tarsals. The latter are distinct. a posterior limbs were more than twice as long as those in ront. % The bones of the feet of Stegosaurus have not yet been fully identified, although a number have been found. In figure 4, ate IX, a metapodial bone is shown, and in figure 4, Plate VIX, are views of a very characteristic terminal phalanx. 258 O. G. Marsh—American Jurassic Dinosaurs. DerRMAL SPINES AND PLATES. _ Figure 8 represents a different kind of spine. This also is obliquely truncated at the base, and thus is unsymmetrical, but its fellow has not been discovered. Its sides are flat and covered with vascular markings. There is a distinct ridge spines were especially adapted to support them. * Palzeontographical Society, 1875, 0. C. Marsh—American Jurassic Dinosaurs. 259 recovered. With such protection as the plates and spines together afforded, Stegosaurus was doubtless more than a match for his larger brained cotemporaries. _ The two known species of Stegosaurus were about thirty feet in length. They were herbivorous, and probably more or less aquatic in habit. It is possible that the difference between Dinosaurs yet discovered. he remains of the animals here described are all from the Atlantosaurus beds of the Upper Jurassic, in Colorado and yoming. In bringing them to light, Messrs. Arthur Lakes, W. H. Reed, and §. W. Williston have rendered an important Service to science. Yale College, New Haven, Feb. 18, 1880. AM. JOURN. SCI., Vol. XIX, 1880. Plate VI. eee TRO Re eerewesemannene” Figure 1 Pages Ne skull and brain-cast of Stegosaurus ungulatus, es see from e-half natural size; ol, olfactory lobes; c¢, ce ig Pees ; optic nerve; cd, cerebellum; m, cone W & Figure 2.—Same brain-cast; side view, one-half natural si 7 data 3.—Brain-cast of youn Aiea gg oe pee natural size. waar 4, eae xillary teeth of Stegosaurus armatus, Marsh; side view, one-half size; e, enamel; Figure 5-—Secti n of maxillary of Stegosaurus armatus; showing functional n. position, and five ney wet Basige in ‘dental cavity; a, outer valk b, inner wall; c, cavity; f, fo AM. JOURN. SCI., Vol. XIX, 1880. Plate VII. Figure 1.—Cervical vertebra of Stegosawrus ungulatus, Marsh; side vie diapophysis ; a Rssie pophysis; s, neural spine; 2, sacvige ergo 2, ponenor ngewe > neural canal. Figure 2 tame ears: front view Figure 3 BE-sohcy vertebra of came series ; side view; letters as above. Figure 4.Same vertebra; front v Figure 5.— Anterior caudal vertebra of same series; side view; ¢, face for chevron. Figure 6.—Same vertebra: front v Figure : — Distal caudal of mene series side view. Figure 8.--Same vertebra; fro All the oma are ‘one-eighth natural size. Fe ee AM. JOURN. SCI., Vol. XIX, 1880. Plate VIII. Figure 1, —Left scapula and coracoid of Stegosaurus ungulatus, Marsh ; st view, one-twelfth natural size; a, $ cige arated r face of tr cavity ; a’, cora _ coidean part of same; 0, surface for union with c Figure 2 agg iar . Stegosaurus ung datas: front vee, one-twelfth natural size: “ited ial ¢ gecctdin = . JOURN. SCI., Vol. XIX, 1880. Plate X Fi igure 1.—Dermal spine of Stegosaurus ei Marsh; a. side view; 4, front Fi view; c, section; d, inferior view of b agen 2. — ash dermal spine of same in individual; b, posterior view; other Fi igure 3 o Fiat epee al spine of same ; letters as in figure igure 4. —Tubercular spine of same species; 4. superior view ; 6, inferior view : ¢, fore and aft view All il the figures are one-twelfth natural size. ‘ AM. JOURN. SCI., Vol. XIX, 1880. Plate XI e 1.—Dermal plate of Stegosaurus wngulatus, Marsh; a, superior view; b, ni side view ; c¢, inferior view. gure 2.—Dermal plate of same animal; * “ers view; }, end view of base; ¢, sia of opposite side; d, thin margin; e, rugose e base; f, and /’, surface Fi arked by vascular grooves. igure spe plate of same animal; a, superior surface; 0, thick basal Margin ; ¢, weer surface; oth letters as in last figure. oO the figures are one-twelfth natural size. Ie aera OTS ara ne Ea MU gE MRR PR ate THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. [THIRD SERIES.] Abr. XXXII Notice of Berthelot's Thermo-Chemistry ; by J. P. Cooks, JR. _ THE new work of M. Berthelot, entitled ‘“‘ Essai de Mécan- \que Chimique fondée sur la Thermo-chemie,” presents for the first time in a systematic form the results accumulated during the past ten years from one of the most fruitful fields of investi- Sation ever opened to the chemist. The book supplies a most ™portant want, for the details of the work—published in humerous separate papers rapidly following each other in the chemical journals—have been almost unintelligible, ex- arte Berthelot, of Paris, and Thomsen, of Copenhagen. uided by different theoretical views, these skillful experiment: ets have gone over very nearly the same ground, and their united testimony, concurrent as it is in most cases, gives a Certainty to the results obtained which is as fortunate as it is "nusual when the field explored is so extensive as the one we are Considering. These two men alone could write authoritatively On the subject, and it is, perhaps, fortunate that the first pre- Sentation should come from M. Berthelot, who has the usual skill of his nation in exposition and generalization. ‘n his introduction, Berthelot enunciates the fundamental Principles of thermo-chemistry under the three following heads : - Jour. Sor.—Tarrp — Vor, XIX, No. 112,—Aprit, 1880, 262 J P. Cooke, Jr.— Berthelot’s Thermo- Chemistry. Principle of Molecular Work. I. The quantity of heat evolved is the measure of the sum of the chemical and physical work accomplished in any reaction. Principle of Conservation of Energy. II. When a system of bedies—simple or compound—starting from a given condition undergoes either physical or chemical changes, which bring it into a new condition without producing any mechanical effect on external bodies, the amount of heat evolved or absorbed—as the total result of these changes— depends solely on the initial and final states of the system, and is the same, whatever may be the nature or order of the inter- mediate states. Principle of Maximum Work. Til. In any chemical reaction between a system of bodies not acted on by external forces, the tendency is toward that condition and those products which will result in the greatest evolution o measure of chemical affinities.” When, however, we com his discussion of this general principle, we are disappene to find that the whole subject is summarily dismissed without giving the reader any clear conception of the distinction be- tween the two modes of change whose results are so inextricably blended in all chemical processes. ; Were we able to distinguish between chemical and physical change, the first principle would undoubtedly give us a meast of what we might then clearly define as chemical affinity °F . J. P. Cooke, Jr.—Berthelot's Thermo- Chemistry. 263 chemism. Not only, however, is it, at present, impossible to eliminate from our results the effects of physical changes ; but, moreover, when we study the details of the chemical processes the water becomes saturated with zinc sulphate, although a large excess, both of sulphuric acid and of zinc, may be present. But, after making all allowances for the potency of physical conditions, it would undoubtedly appear from the present standpoint of Chemistry that there must be certain differences of qualities inherent in the atoms, which correspond to differ- ences of chemical affinity and which are important factors in determining chemical changes, and it is certainly legitimate to seek to measure what we may call the relative potential of the atoms when in a state of indefinite expansion. It is obvious, however, from Berthelot’s discussion of the subject, that we to the theory which is accepted by the great majority of chem- . Substances when in the state of gas, and uses throughout his 264 J. P. Cooke, Jr.—Berthelot's Thermo-Chemistry. problems which have been successfully solved in organic sy? thesis, and it is in this direction, as it seems to us, that we can indeed, be found that the problem cannot be solved and attempts to solve it may lead to results which will modify ot supplant our present theories. It may appear that the differ- ence between a chemical and a physical process is one of degree and not of kind; but, whatever the result may be, there can be no doubt that the investigation will lead to larger knowledge and clearer conceptions. J. P. Cooke, Jr.—Berthelot's Thermo-Chemistry. , 265 As it seems to us the principle of molecular work should be supplemented by the principle of atomic work, and it is certain that neither clearness of conception nor definiteness of statement has been gained by the obvious attempt to avoid the recognition of the modern theory of chemistry. ¢ readily accept Berthelot’s second fundamental principle of thermo-chemistry when enunciated as above, because it so eoeny falls under the general law of conservation of energ ange : é assu than Sal principle of the conservation of mass, prior to the experiments of Lavoisier, and as Lavoisier worked out this last great principle with the balance, so Berthelot and Thomsen ave demonstrated with the calorimeter the corresponding fun- a8 a generalization from the results of their work. oreover, although in cases of simple direct combination the principle under discussion is almost self-evident, and een lon remembered that very few processes of direct chemical combi- nation fulfill the conditions which an accurate measure of the 266. oJ. P. Cooke, Jr.—Berthelot’s Thermo-Chemistry. gram units. Two series of reactions may now be arranged so as to fulfill the conditions we have assumed— First Series. K,+ Br, (gas) + Aq=(6KBr-+ Aq) 570,000 units. Al,+Cl,=AlLCl, 321,800 units. Al,Cl, dissolved in (6K Br+ Aq) 152,000 units. 1,043,800 units. Second Series. K,+Cl,+ Aq= (6KCl+ Aq) 604,800 units. Al,+Br,=Al,Br, x units. A1,Br, dissolved in (6KCl+Aq) 173,800 units. 778,600 units. a+ 778,600 =1,043,800. «= 265,200. In studying these two series of reactions it will be evident that we begin in each case with the same amounts of the sam elementary substances, namely: K,, Al,, Br,, Cl,, and that we end with aqueous solutions in the same condition. Hence, the total amount of heat evolved in each of the two series must be the same, and we can at once deduce the value of the tes, although it would be very difficult if not impossible to form these substances with a definite composition in the calorimeter. Thus, to determine the heat evolved in the reaction SO, + H,O = H,SO,, we have only to dissolve in one experiment SO, and in another H,SO, in a comparatively large amount of theorem enables us to determine very sup the y ra J. P. Cooke, Jr.—Berthelot's Thermo-Chemastry. 267 water when the difference in the heat evolved in the two cases will be the quantity required. So, also, the heat of forma- in thermo-chemistry are said to be endothermous, while by far the larger class of compounds whose formation is attended with an evolution of heat are said to be exothermous. TuErorEM VI.— When a compound gives up one of its elements to another body, the heat evolved in the reaction is the difference between the heat of formation of the first compound and that of the resulting product. Thus, when an aqueous solution of chlorine is used as an oxidizing agent, for every eighteen grams of water decomposed 9,600 units of heat are evolved, and this amount Is the differ- ence between the heat of formation of H,O and 2HCl. As can easily be seen, the same theroem applies to the problem pre- sented by explosive agents of various kinds and simplifies the solution to a remarkable extent. hese few illustrations will serve to give a general idea of the mode of investigation in this new field of thermo-chemuistry, but they are wholly inadequate to show either the extent o the field or the great skill with which it has been cultivated. em interesting relations which, under his third fundamental prin- sl Berthelot discusses in the second volume of his great wor [To be continued.] 268 T. S. Hunt—Ristory of Pre-Cambrian Rocks Art. XXXIII.—The History of some Pre-Cambrian Rocks in America and Europe ; by T. Sterry Hunt, LL.D., F.R.S. {Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science at Saratoga, September 1, 1879.] I. Inrropucrion OnE of the earliest distinctions in modern geology was that h them, and being in part made up of sediments derived from the disintegration of these, were designated Transition and nd- ary rocks. While the past forty years have seen great pro- cneee gg h the conditions of their deposition, and their geo- istribution and variations have been carefully in- rocks are portions of the first-formed crust of the planet, ae - | ; a more recent dates ; in either case, however, more or less modal fied by supposed metasomatic processes. By the term metas omatosis are conveniently designated those changes which are not simply internal (diagenesis), but are effected from without, as a result of which the chemical elements of the original rock are supposed to be either wholly or in part replaced by others from external sources (epigenesis). The other school, to which allusion has been made, and which, not less than the preceding, has helped to discourage, 1? nm America and Hurope. 269 remains, and transforming them into crystalline strata C- of its distribution, consist of uncrystalline siliceous, calcareous, and argillaceous fossiliferous sediments, and in another locality, d, effected in these strata, transformed into gneiss, hornblende- Schist or mica-schist, by what is vaguely designated as meta- morphism formations of stratiform crystalline feldspathic, hornblendic and micaceous rocks, which, in various parts of the world, have been alternately described as plutonic masses, and as metamorphosed rocks, pre-Cambrian or pre-Silurian in age, and that we know of no uncrystalline sediments which are their stratigraphical equivalents, Secondary origin of a great, and, by them, undefined portion of the crystalline stratiform rocks, while assigning to certain older (pre-Cambrian) erystalline rocks (of which they admit the ex- istence), either a neptunean or a plutonic origin.. Lhe « or plutonist school, while asserting the plutonic derivation of the greater part of the crystalline formations, accepts, to some Cover the ground held by the hitherto prevailing neptunean 270 T. 8. Hunt—RHistory of Pre-Cambrian Rocks and plutonist schools, neither of which, it is maintained, ex- presses correctly the present state of our knowledge. In oppo- sition to both of these are the views taught for the last twenty years by the writer, and now accepted by many geologists, which may be thus defined :— 1st. All gneisses, petrosilexes, hornblendic and micaceous schists, olivines, serpentines, and in short, all silicated crystal- line stratified rocks, are of neptunean origin, and are not prima- rily due to metamorphosis or to metasomatosis either of ordi- nary aqueous sediments or of volcanic materials. 9d. The chemical and mechanical conditions under which these rocks were deposited and crystallized, whether in shallow waters, or in abyssal depths (where pressure greatly influences chemical affinities) have not been reproduced to any great ex- tent since the beginning of paleozoic time. - . The eruptive rocks, or at least a large part of them, are softened and displaced portions of these ancient neptunean rocks, of which they retain many of the mineralogical and lith- ological characters. IL. Tae History or Pre-Camprian Rocks 1x AMERICA. Coming now to the history of our knowledge of American erystalline rocks, we find that the lithological characters of the Primary gneissic formation of northern New York were known to Maclure in 1817, and were clearly defined in 1832, by Eaton, who, under the name of the Macomb Mountains, described what have since been called the Adirondacks, and moreover distinguished them from the Primary rocks of New England mmons, in 1842, added much to our lithological knowledge of the crystalline rocks of northern New York, but regarded the gneisses, with their associated limestones, serpentines and iron-ores, as all of plutonic origin. Nuttall, who had previously studied the similar rocks in the Highlands of southern New York and New Jersey, had, however, maintained, as early a8 1822, that these had resulted from an alteration of the adjacent and ended by doubting whether a great part of what be haa escribed as Primary was not to be included in his Metamor- phic class. The subsequent labors of Kitchell and of Cooke in America and Europe. 271 have however clearly established the views of Vanuxem and Keating as to the Primary age alike of the gneisses and the rather than Primary. It was described by Logan in 1847, as consisting of a lower group of hornblendic gneisses, without Superior, and by him distinguished from the Primary and classed with Transition rocks. bradoritic and hypersthenie rocks like those previously described by Emmons in the Primary region of northern New York, were, in 1853 and 1854, discovered and carefully studied ‘n the Laurentide hills to the north of Montreal, when they Were described as being gneissoid in structure, and as inter- Stratified with true gneisses and with crystalline limestones. In 1854, the writer, in concert with Logan, proposed for the ancient crystalline rocks of the Laurentide Mountains, includ- ing the lower and upper gneissic groups already mentioned, and the succeeding labradoritic rocks (but excluding the chlo- Nitic and greenstone series), the name of Laurentian, In an h greenstone series, which had been shown to overlie unconform- ably the Laurentian in Canada. Studies of Credner, of Brooks and Pumpelly, and of Irving, have, however, all confirmed the views of the Canadian survey 272 T. S. Huni— History of Pre-Cambrian Rocks as to the relations of the Laurentian and Huronian in this re- gion. The Primary age of the Highlands of southern New York, and their extension in what is called the South Mountain, as far as the Schuylkill, was now unquestioned, but the crystalline rocks to the east of this range, while regarded by Haton and by Emmons, as also forming a part of the Primary, were, by Mather, as we have already seen, supposed to be altered paleo- zoic strata. These rocks in New England, with the exception of the quartzites and limestones of the Taconic range, were by him assigned to a horizon above the Trenton limestone of the New York system, and portions of them were conjectured by other geologists, who adopted and extended the views of Mather, to be of Devonian age. The characteristic crystalline schists of New England and southeastern New York, passing beneath the Mesozoic of New Jersey, re-appear in southeastern Pennsylvania, where they were studied and finally described by H. D. Rogers in 1858. Ac cording to him these crystalline schists, while resting uncon- formably upon an ancient (Hypozoic) gneissic system, were themselves more ancient than the Scolithus-sandstone, which consider in detail in a future paper. In it are included the iron-ores of Reading, Cornwall and Dillsburg, in Pennsylvan'@ The views of H. D. Rogers with regard to the crystalline schists of the Atlantic belt were thus, in effect, if not in terms a return to those held by Eaton and by Emmons, but were 1? direct opposition to that maintained by Mather, which had bee2 wn America and Europe. 278 adopted by Logan, and by the present writer. The belt of mi- caceous, chloritic, taleose and epidotic schists, with greenstones and serpentines, the extension of a part of the Azoic of Rogers, which, through western New England, is traced into Canada (where it has been known as the Green Mountain range), was previous to 1862, called by the geological survey of Canada, Altered Hudson-River group. It was subsequently referred to the Upper Taconic of Emmons, to which Logan, at that date, gave the name of the Quebec group, assigning it, as had long before been done by Emmons (in i846) to a horizon between the Potsdam and the Trenton of the New York system. In 1862 and 1863 appeared, independently, two important papers bearing on the question before us as to the age of these s Canada, with portions of the Urschiefer or Primitive schists which, in Norway, intervene between the ancient gneisses and the oldest Paleozoic (Lower Cambrian) strata. The second views of Keilhau on these rocks of N orway in “The Geology of Canada” in 1868, with farther Somparieet between the New pielend crystalline schists and the line schists was being made known in southern New Brunswick, Where they were described by G. F. Matthews in 1863, under the name of the Coldbrook group, which included a lower and an upper division. In a joint report of Matthews and Bailey in 1865, these rocks were declared to be overlaid unconforma- bly by the slates in which Hartt had made known a Lower Cambrian (Menevian) fauna, and were compared with the Hu- roman of Canada. The lower division of the Coldbrook was then described as including a large amount of pink i, quartzite and of bluish and reddish porphyritic slates. In the Same report was described, under the name of the Bloomsbury 8roup, a series lithologically similar to the Coldbrook, but ap- rt, resting on the Menevian, and overlaid by fossiliferous Pper Devonian beds, into which it was supposed to grad- uate. The Bloomsbury group was therefore regarded as altered Upper Devonian, and its similarity to the pre-Cambrian Cold- 274 T. S. Hunt—History of Pre-Cambrian Rocks brook was explained by supposing both groups to consist in large part of volcanic rocks. In 1869 and 1870, however, the writer, in company with the gentlemen just named, devoted many weeks to a careful study of these rocks in southern New Brunswick, when it was made apparent that the Bloomsbury groap was but a repetition of the Coldbrook on the opposite side of a closely folded synclinal holding Menevian sediments. These two areas of pre-Cambrian rocks were accordingly described by Messrs. Matthews and Bailey in their report to the geological survey of Canada in 1871, as Huronian, in which were also included the similar erystalline rocks belonging to two other areas, which had been previously described by the same observers under the names of the Kingston and Coastal groups, and by them regarded as n close association with these Huronian strata in eastern Massachusetts is found a great development of petrosilex rocks, ignated by Matthews and Bailey, feldspathic quartzites < siliceous and porphyritic slates, which form the chief part 0 in New Brunswick. The petrosilexes of dome hile im 1870, and in 1871, as indigenous stratified rocks forming a part of the Huronian series. He subsequently, in 1871, studied the similar rocks in southeastern Missouri, and, in 1872, 02 the north shore of Lake Superior, but was unable to find them ™ the Green Mountain belt, or in its southward continuation, until, in 1875, he detected them occupying a considerable are in America and Europe. 275 in the South Mountain range in southern Pennsylvania. The stratified petrosilex rocks of all these regions were described in a communication to this Association, in 1876, as apparently corresponding to the Adilleflinta rocks of Sweden, and, having n view their stratigraphical position both in that country and in New Brunswick, they were then “provisionally referred ” “toa position near the base of the Huronian series.” Their absence in the Huronian belt in western New England, and in the province of Quebec, as well as at several observed points of contact between the Laurentian and the well-defined Huro- of described, it includes, as already said, a basal granitoid gneiss Without limestones, which the writer has elsewhere designated the Ottawa neiss, and of which the thickness 1s necessarily Weertain. apes i this is the Grenville series of Logan, 276 T. S. Hunt—History of Pre-Cambrian Rocks having for its base a great mass of crystalline limestone, and consisting in addition to this of gneisses, generally hornblendic, and quartzites, interstratified with similar limestones. To thi series, as displayed north of the Ottawa, Logan assigned an ag- gregate thickness of over 17,000 feet, though the later meas- urements of Vennor, in the region south of the Ottawa, give to it a much greater volume. The geographical distribution of this limestone-bearing Grenville series gives probability to the suggestion of Vennor that it rests unconformably upon the basal Ottawa gneiss. These two divisions constitute what was designated by Logan, in his Geological Atlas, in 1865, the Lower Laurentian, the name of Upper Laurentian or Labradorian being then, for the first time given by him to aseries supposed to overlie unconformably the former, of which it had hitherto been regarded as constituting a part. This third division has already been referred to as characterized by the predominance of great bodies of gneissoid or granitoid rocks, composed chiefly of labradorite or relat anorthic feldspars, and apparently identical with the norites of Scandinavia. With these basic rocks are interstratified crystal- line limestones, quartzites and gneisses, all of which resemble those of the Grenville series. This upper group, for which the writer in 1871 proposed the name of Norian, was supposed by ig a to be not less than 10,000 feet thick. or farther details of the history of these various groups of pre-Cambrian rocks, and their distribution in North America, the reader is referred to a volume published in 1878 by the Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, being Part I of the writer's report on Azoic Rocks, intended as an historical intro- duction to the subject. Ill._—Tux History or Pre-Camprian Rocks 1n Great BRITAIN. In an address before this Association in 1871, in which the writer maintained the Huronian age of a portion of the ery® talline schists of New England and Quebec, he further e& pieted the opinion, based in part upon his examinations at olyhead in 1867, and in part upon the study of collections ™ London, that certain crystalline schists in North Wales would be found to belong to the Huronian series. The rocks 12 question were by Sedgwick, in 1838, separated from the base of the Cambrian, as belonging to an older series, but wert subsequently, by Delabeche, Murchison and Ramsay, descr! and mapped oe sibeneh Cambrian strata, with associated intra sive syenites and feldspar-porphyries. In South Wales, at gt David's in Pembrokeshire, is another area of crystalline rocks, which the geological survey of Great in America and Europe. 277 Britain had mapped as intrusive syenite, granite and felstone (petrosilex-porphyry) having Cambrian strata converted into crystalline schists on one side, and unaltered fossiliferous Cam- rian beds on the other. So long ago as 1864, Messrs. Hicks and Salter were led to regard these granitoid and porphyritic rocks as pre-Cambrian, and in 1866 concluded that they were not eruptive but stratified crystalline or metamorphic rocks. After farther study, Hicks, in connection with Harkness, pub- lished in 1867, additional proofs of the bedded character of these ancient crystalline rocks, and in 1877 the first named observer announced the conclusion that they belong to two distinct and unconformable series. Of these, the older consisted of the granitoid and porphyritic felstone rocks, and the younger of greenish crystalline schists, the so-called Altered Cambrian of the official geologists; both of these being overlaid by the region, which holds their ruins in its conglomerates. To the lower of these pre-Cambrian groups, Hicks gave the name of and also a reddish feldspar-porphyry which forms two great ridges in Carnarvonshire. ‘his latter was by Professor Sed Wick regarded as intrusive, and is moreover mapped as suc with the Dimetian and Pebidian of South Wales. r. Hicks continued his studies in both of these regions in 1878,—being at times accompanied by Dr. Torell of Sweden, Professor Hughes and Mr. Tawney of Cambridge, and the schists and greenstones (diorites) of the Pebidian, and the older granitoid and gneissic rocks, there exists, both in North and South Wales, a third independent and intermediate series, Am. Jour. 8c1.—Turrp — Vox. XIX, No. 112.—Aprit, 1880, 278 T. S. Hunt—History of Pre-Cambrian Rocks to which belong the stratified petrosilex or quartziferous por- phyries already noticed. ese are sometimes wanting at the bas the Pebidian, and at other times form masses some thousands of feet in thickness. At one locality, near St. David’s, a great body of breccia or conglomerate, consisting of fragments of the petrosilex united by a crystalline dioritic cement, forms the base of the Pebidian. For this intermediate series, which constitutes the great quartziferous-porphyry ridges of Carnarvonshire, Dr. Hicks and his friends proposed the name of Arvonian, from Arvonia, the Roman name of the region. This important conclusion was announced by Dr. Hicks at the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science at. Dublin, in August, 1878. The writer, previous to attending this meeting, had the good fortune to examine these various pre-Cambrian rocks in parts of Carnarvonshire and Anglesey with Messrs. Hicks, Torell and Tawney. He subse- uently, in company with Dr. Hicks, visited the region in South ales where these older rocks had been studied, and was ales. Of the many areas of these various pre-Cambrian rocks In South Wales, the similar rocks were examined by him at St. David’s, where three small bands of an impure coarsely crystalline limestone are included in the Dimetian granitoid rock, which is here often exceedingly quartzose. b remarked that the Dimetian, as etatoal J i first recognized locality, included a great mass of Aryonian in America and Europe. 279 with the other series. At Clegyr bridge was seen the base of the Pebidian, already mentioned as consisting of a conglom- erate of Arvonian fragments. Another belt of the same crys- talline rocks was also visited, a few miles to the eastward of the last, and not far from Haverfordwest, forming, according to Hicks, a ridge.several miles in length and about a mile wide. Where seen, at Roch Castle, it was found to consist of Arvo- nian petrosilex, with some granitoid rock near by. The ridge is flanked on the northwest side by Pebidian and Cambrian, and on the southeast by Silurian strata, let down by a fault. n the shore of Llyn Padarn, near the foot of Snowdon in North Wales, the porphyritic petrosilex of the Arvonian is ‘ while in contact with it, and at the base agrees with Messrs. Hicks, Hughes and Bonney that there is no ground for such an opinion, but that the conglomerate marks biieh, which here reposes on Arvonian rocks, and is chiefly made up of their ruins. In like manner, according to Prof. Hughes, the Cambrian in other parts of this padag includes beds made of the débris of adjacent granitoid rocks. These petrosilex conglomerates of Llyn Padarn are indistin- guishable from those found at Marblehead and other localities near Boston, Massachusetts, which have been in like manner Interpreted as evidences of the secondary origin of the adjacent petrosilex beds, into which they have been supposed to grad- uate The writer has, however, always held, in opposition to this view, that these conglomerates are really newer rocks made up of the ruins of the ancient petrosilex. He has found sim- 280 T. S. Hunt—History of the Pre-Cambrian Rocks To the eastward of the localities already mentioned in Wales are some other small areas of crystalline rocks, including those of the Malverns, and the Wrekin and other hills in Shropshire, all of which appear as islands among Cambrian strata; also those of Charnwood Forest, in Leicestershire, which rise in like manner among ‘Triassic rocks. e Wrekin, regarded by Mur- chison as a post-Cambrian intrusion, has been shown by Cal- laway to be unconformably overlaid by Lower Cambrian strata, and consists in part of bedded greenstones, and in part of banded reddish petrosilex-porphyries, ciosely resembling the Arvonian of North Wales and the corresponding rocks of North America. The geology of Charnwood has within the _ ney schists (embracing, in the opinion of Dr. Hicks and of the writer—who have seen collections of them—representatives both of the Pebidian and the Arvonian of Wales) and in part eruptive masses, including the granitic rocks of Mount Sorrel. .« There is not, so far as known, in the British localities already . mentioned, any representative either of the Taconic or Itacol- umite group, or of the white micaceous gneisses, with mica- ceous and hornblendie schists, which I have designated the — Montalban series. I have, however, found the latter well dis- played in Ireland, in the Dublin and Wicklow Hills. The prob- northwest of Ireland was pointed out by me in 1871. 1 have there lately seen the Huronian on Lough Foyle, and also in Scotland in various parts of Argyleshire and Perthshire, a8 aloug the Crinan Canal and in the vicinity of Loch Etive and Loch Awe. From collections sent me by Mr. James Thom- son, of Glasgow, it appears that both Huronian and Lauren- tian rocks occur in the island of Islay. The crystalline schists of Charnwood offer, as was pointed out by Messrs. Hill and Bonney, many resemblances with parts of the Ardennian series of Dumont in France and Belgium. These, which have been in turn regarded as altered Devonian, Silurian and Lower Cambrian, were, as shown by Gosselet, islands of crystalline rock in the Devonian sea, and in one part include argillites with impressions of Oldhamia and an une determined graptolite. These rocks have lately been described in detail in the admirable memoir of dela Vallée Poussin and Renard. The writer had the good fortune, in 1878, to visit this region, and in company with Gosselet and Renard to examine the section along the valley of the Meuse. ‘The crys talline rocks here displayed greatly resemble those of the American Huronian, in which may be found most of the types described by the authors of the memoir just mentioned. It in America and Europe. 281 would be easy to extend further this review of late advances made in the study of the ancient crystalline rocks, but the writer has preferred to confine himself to those regions which he has lately examined. CoNCLUSIONS. 1. The Pebidian of Hicks has both the lithological charac- ters and the stratigraphical position of the Huronian of North America, to which he has already referred it. 2. The Arvonian is, in like manner, identical with the Hailleflinta group of Sweden ‘and with the Petrosilex group of orth America, which I had provisionally included in the lower part of the Huronian, and which Hitchcock subsequently called Lower Huronian. The fact that there is in Wales a Sstratigraphical break between it and the overlying Huronian, will help to explain the frequent absence of the Arvonian at the base of Huronian in many of its American localities. The Dimetian, including the granitoid and gneissic rocks with limestone ‘bands, so far as can beseen in the limited North t was from a misconception that Dr. Hicks in 1878 provisionally ieheedd the Dimetian to the Upper Lau- rentian, a name ne time use by the geological survey of Rosine fs from and older than the Dimetian. These two appar- ently correspond to the Ottawa and Grenville divisions of the Neca aeseeitine 3 in Canada, and perhaps to the Bojian and ercynian gneisses of Giimbel, in Bavaria. [The © following is I partial list of publications relating to the rocks noticed in aid re of this © Quar. Jour. ‘Geol. Soe. of London are the following papers on these in Wales: Hicks, May, 1877. p. 230; Hicks & Davies, Feb., 1878, p. 147, ae May 1878, p. 153; Hughes & Bonney, Feb., 1878, p. 137; s & Davies, May, 1879, p. 285: Hicks & Bonney, ibid., p. 295; Bonney, ibid 309 nese Houghton, ibid., p Hughes, Nov., 1879, p : Maw, Aug., 1878, p. 764; icks, rock -shire, , 1878, - 811 ppse _ Rocks of St. Vi roc. Bristol Naturalists’ Society, v a 2, 1. ii, On these rocks in Shropshire, in the same | Sauna! : ‘Aloe 2 877, rely fa sie 1877, p. 653, and Aug., 1878, p. 754; Callaway te jv Pay een n Charnwood Forest, in the same journal, Hill and Bonney, ee 1877, p. 753, et May, 1878, p. 199. farther Hunt, Chemical and Geological Essays, pp. 34, 269, 270, 272, 278, pond also his Azoic Rocks, part i (Second Geol. Survey of Penn., 1878), pp. 187, For the rocks of the Ardennes see Memoire sur les Roches dites Plutoniques, ete. (4to, pp. 264), by de la Vallée Poussin and Renard, from Memoires de la 282 T. S. Hunt—History of the Pre-Cambrian Rocks VAcad. Royale de Ja Belgique for 1876; and Memoire sur la Comp. Minéralo- gique du Coticule, by Renard, from the same for 1877. Also Gosselet and Malaise, Terrain Silurian des Ardennes, Bull. Acad. Roy. de la Belgique (2) No. 7, 1868; Dewalque, Terrain Cambrien des Ardennes, Ann. Soc. Géol. de la Belgique, tom. i, p. 63; and farther, Hunt, Chem. and Geol. Essays, p. 270.] APPENDIX. Since the above paper was read the author has received (No- vember, 1879) a private communication from Prof. L. W. brook, consisting chiefly of petrosilex rocks, and an upper division, the typical Huronian, called by him the Coastal group. Britain, where it has a prevailing strike of N.N.E. and S.S.W., or from this to N.E. and SW.” In addition to the localities which we have already mentioned in Great Britain, e notes its occurrence in Shropshire and in Charnwood Forest, and also in the northwest of Scotland, where, as else- an and with the Petrosilex series which the writer has made known in America. In addition to the localities already men- tioned of it in the British Isles, Hicks notes its occurrence 17 in America and Europe. 283 the Harlech Mountains and the Orkneys, and probably also in the Western Islands, and in the Grampians of Scotland. Its eas in the regions examined by him is generally about N. and 8. Highlands of Scotland. From this series of light-colored gneisses, often very quartzose, with limestone bands, he sepa- ' Yates, as we have seen, under the name of Lewisian, proposed by Murchison for the ancient gneisses of Lewis and others of the Hebrides Isles, these, and similar reddish and dark- colored hornblendice gneisses which are found in parts of the Malvern chain, in the northwest of Ireland, and possibly also in Anglesey. This series, according to Hicks, is unconform- ably overlaid by the Dimetian, brecciated beds which hoid fragments of the older Lewisian oneiss. The strike in these older gneisses “ig usually E. and W., or some point between that and N.W. and S. BE.” Dr. Hicks concludes the above paper by remarking that the chief part of these ancient rocks in Great Britain “were until recently supposed to be either intrusive masses, or altered sedi- ments belonging to tolerably recent times,” and adds, “it is becoming more and more an acknowledged fact that the meta- morphism of great groups of rocks does not take place so readily as was formerly supposed, but that some special condi- tions, such as do not ‘appear to have prevailed over this area a pre-Cambrian times, were necessary to produce so great a result. of the Crystalline Rocks of North America, which will found in ‘the Geological Magazine for that year (page 466), as ili 443. well as in Nature, vol. xviii, page Montreal, February, 1880. 284 A, E. Verrili— Cephalopoda of North America. Art. XXXIV. — Synopsis of the Cephalopoda of the North- eastern Coast of America; by A. EK. Verriut. Brief Con- tributions to Zoology from the Museum of Yale College. Neo. XLVI. With Plates XII to XVL THE recent increase in the number of Cephalopods known to belong to this fauna is remarkable. Up to the year 1871, only three species were recorded. In 1872, an undetermined from this coast. Four of these have been first discovered by the dredgings carried on by the U. S. Fish Commission, in charge of the writer. Six have been brought in by the Glou- cester fishermen, from the Bank fisheries, among their valuable contributions to the collections of the U. S. Fish Commission and National Museum. ARCHITEUTHIS. In several former articles in this Journal,* the writer has re- corded the occurrence of fourteent American examples of the gigantic squids belonging to this genus, and apparently repre- senting two species. Since the last of these notices, eight additional specimens have been found on the coasts of New- foundland and Nova Scotia. In a somewhat extended article on the large cephalopods, recently published,t the author has given all the available facts in relation to the later discoveries, and has redescribed, in much greater detail than before, and No. 15.—Hammer Cove specimen, 1876. In a letter from Rev. M. Harvey, dated Aug. 25, 1877, he states that a big squid was cast ashore Noy. 20, 1876, at Ham- * This Journal, vol. vii, p. 158, Feb., 1874; vol. ix, pp. 123, 177, Plates II-V, 1875; vol. x, p. 213, Sept., 1875; vol. xii, p. 236, 1876; vol. xiv, p. 425, Nov. 1877. Also, American Naturalist, vol. viii, p. 167, 1874; vol. ix, pp. 21, 78, Jam and Feb., 1875. { Of these, No. 6 proved to be the same as No. 3, and should be cancelled. | Transac. Connecticut Acad., vol. v. pp. 177-258, Dec., 1879, to Feb., 1880, Plates XIII to XXV. A. E. Verrill— Cephalopoda of North America. 285 mer Cove, on the southwest arm of Green Bay, in Notre Dame Bay, Newfoundland. When first discovered by his informant it had already been partially devoured by foxes and sea-birds. Of the body, a portion 5 feet long remained, with about 2 feet of the basal part of the arms. The head was 18 inches broad ; tail, 18 inches broad; eye-sockets, 7 by 9 inches; stump of one of the arms, 3°5 inches in diameter. Yo. 16.—Lance Cove specimen, 1877 (Architeuthis princeps ?). In a letter dated Noy. 27, 1877, Mr. Harvey gives an ac- count of another specimen, which was stranded on the shore at Lance Cove, Smith's Sound, Trinity Bay, about twenty miles far- ther up the bay than the locality of the Catalina Bay specimen (No. 14). He received his information from Mr. John Duffet, a resident of the locality, who was one of the persons who found and measured it. “His account is as follows: “On Nov. 21, 1877, early in the morning, a ‘big squid’ was seen on the beach, at Lance Cove, still alive and struggling desperately to escape. It had been borne in bya ‘spring tide’ and a high in- shore wind. In its struggles to get off it ploughed upa trench or furrow about thirty feet long and of considerable depth by the stream of water that it ejected with great force from its siphon. When the tide receded it died. Mr. Duffet measured it carefully, and found that the body was nearly 11 feet long (probably including the head); the tentacular arms, 33 feet long. He did not measure the short arms, but estimated them at 13 feet, and that they were much thicker than a man’s thigh at their bases. The people cut the body open and it was left on the beach. It is an out-of-the-way place, and no one knew that it was of any value, Otherwise it could easily have been brought to St. John’s, with only the eyes destroyed and the body opened.” It was subsequently carried off by the tide, and no portion was secured. No, 17.—Trinity Bay specimen, 1877. tr. Harvey also states that he had been informed by Mr. Duffet that another very large ‘big squid’ was cast ashore in October, 1877, about five miles farther up Trinity Bay than the last. It was cut up and used for manure. No portions are known to be preserved, and no measurements were given. No. 18.—Thimble Tickle specimen, 1878. Architeuthis princeps (?). The capture of this specimen bas been described by Mr. Harvey, in a letter to the Boston Traveller, Jan. 80, 1879: “On the 2d day of November last, Stephen Sherring, a fish- erman residing in Thimble Tickle [near Little Bay Copper Mine, Notre Dame Bay], not far from the locality where the 286 A. EF. Verrilli— Cephalopoda of North America, other devil-fish [No. 19] was cast ashore, was out in a boat with two other men; not far from shore they observed some bulky object, and, supposing it might be part of a wreck, they rowed toward it, and, to their horror, found themselves close to a huge fish, having large glassy eyes, which was making des- perate efforts to escape, and churning the water into foam by the motion of its immense arms and tail. It was aground and the tide was ebbing. From the funnel at the back of its head it was ejecting large volumes of water, this being its method of moving backward, the force of the stream, by the reaction of the surrounding medium, driving it in the required direc- tion. At times the water from the siphon was black as ink. ‘Finding the monster partially disabled, the fishermen plucked up courage and ventured near enough to throw the grapnel of their boat, the sharp flukes of which, having barbed points, sunk into the soft body. To the grapnel they had at- tached a stout rope, which they had carried ashore and tied to ' a tree, so as to prevent the fish from going out with the tide. It was a happy thought, for the devil-fish found himself effect- ually moored to the shore. His struggles were terrific as he flung his ten arms about in dying agony. The fishermen took care to keep a respectful distance from the long tentacles, which ever and anon darted out like great tongues from the central mass. At length it became exhausted, and as the water re- ceded it expired.” e body measured 20 feet from the beak to the extremity of the tail. The circumference of the body is not stated, but one of the tentacular arms measured 35 feet in length. : According to these measurements, this was the largest specl- men yet found, it being nearly twice as large as No. measured some portions with his own hand. He found that the body measured 15 feet from the beak to the end of the can ees ota e circumference of the body at its thickest part was 12 feet. He found only one of the short arms perfect, which was 16 feet in length, being five feet longer A. EK. Verrill— Cephalopoda of North America. 287 than a similar arm of the New York specimen [No. 14], and he describes it as thicker than a man’s thigh.” fo. 20.—Banquereau specimen, 1879. This consists of the terminal part of a tentacular arm, which t. J. peeretion in strong alcohol, now measures 1 inches in ength. It includes all the terminal club, and a small portion of the naked arm below it. No. 22.— Brigus specimen, 1879. Mr. Harvey states that portions of another large squid were cast ashore near Brigus, Conception Bay, in October, 1879. Two of the short arms, each measuring eight feet in length, were found, with other mutilated parts, after a storm. No. 28.— James's Cove specimen, 1879. From Mr. Harvey I have also recently received an account of another specimen, which was captured entire about the first of November last, at James’s Cove, Bonavista Bay, N. F. ; “Mr. Thomas Moores and several others saw something \nto a punt, they went alongside, when they were surprised to see a monster squid. One of the men struck at it with an oar, and it immediately struck for the shore, and went quite upon the beach. The men then succeeded in getting a rope around Hk and hauled it quite ashore. It measured 38 feet altogether. eb the fishermen, as usual, immediately destroyed it, and probably Archileuthis Harveyi Verrill. (Harvey's giant squid). Trans. Conn. Acad., v, p. 197, Plates xiii to xvia, Dec., : M tb haven Konk B, . London, 1874, p. 178. : —— harveyi Kent, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, : ha Tt, Pl. i, if, iv, 1875; vol. xii, p. 236, 1876; American Naturalist, vol. ix, pp. 22, 78, figs. 1-6, 10, 1875 (? non Steenstrup). Omehaslegher havc Kent, sii Zool. Soc. London, 1874, p. 492. 288 A. E. Verrill— Cephalopoda of North America. Prate XIII. The principal diagnostic characters of this species, so far as determined, are as follows: Sessile arms unequal in size, nearly equal in length, decidedly shorter than the head and body to- gether, and scarcely as long as the body alone. Tentacular arms, in extension, about four times as long as the short arms: about three times as long as the head and body together. Caudal fin small, less than one-third the length of the mantle, sagittate in form, with the lateral lobes extending forward much eyond their insertions; the posterior end tapering to a long acute tip. Jaws with a smaller notch and lobe than in A. princeps. Suckers of the sessile arms (so far as seen) mostly with numerous acute teeth all around the circumference, all similar in shape, but those on the inner margin smaller than those on the outer, and sometimes obsolete in certain suckers. Sexual characters are not yet determined. Architeu errill, this Journal, vol. ix, pp. 124, 181, Plate v, 1875; American Naturalist, vol. ix, pp. 22, 79, figs. 25-27, 1875; Trans. Conn. Acad. Vv, pp. 21 Plates xvii to xx, Jan. and Feb., 1 80. teuthis) princeps Tryon, Manual of Conchology, P. ~ PL the inner edge slightly or imperfectly denticulated ; the others having less oblique rings, with the acuminate denticles sim- iar in form all around, though smaller on the inner margin; by the stronger jaws, which have a deeper notch and a more elevated tooth on the anterior edge; and by the caudal fin, which is short-sagittate in form, with the posterior end less elongated than in the preceding species. Sthenoteuthis megaptera Verrill. (Broad-finned large squid). Trans. Conn. Acad., v, p. 223, Pl. xxi, figs. 1-9, Feb., 1880. Architeuthis megaptera Verrill, this Journal, vol. xvi, p. 207, 1878. aa Manual of Conchology, vol. i, p. 187 (description copied from preceding paper, The original specimen was found thrown ashore near Ca Sable, N.S. To this species is doubtfully referred a ae taken on Sable I. Bank, in 280-300 fathoms, by Capt. Geo. Johnson and crew, of the schooner “ A. H. Johnson. A, E. Verrili—Cephalopoda of North America. 289 The genus Sthenoteuthis, established to receive this species, differs from Ommastrephes, to which it is closely allied, in hav- ing, like Architeuthis, numerous small, smooth-rimmed’ suckers alternating with tubercles, on the proximal part of the ‘club,’ for the mutual adhesion of the long tentacular arms. The lat- arms are provided with very broad, thin marginal mem- branes. The caudal fin is very broad. Besides the type it Ommastrephes ‘illecebrosa Verrill. (Short-finned squid). Loligo illecebrosa Lesueur, Journ. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., ii, p. 95, Plate x, figs. d, Invert. Mass., ed. I, p. 318, 4 Ommastrephes sagittatus (pars) D’Orbig., Céph. Acétab., p. 345, Plate 7, fig. 1, Lesueur). Binney, in Gould’s Invert. Mass., ed. II, p. 510, 1870 (excl. syn.). Plate xxvi, fig 341-4 [341 is imperfect], not Plate xxv, fig. 339. Tryon (pars) Man. Conch., I, p. 177, PL. 78, fig. 342 (very bad, after Lesueur), Pl. 79, fig. 343, 1879 (not Plate 78, figs. 341, 345). mastrephes illecebrosa Verrill, this Journal, vol. iii, p, 281, 1872; Report on Invert. Viney. Sd., ete., 1873, pp. 441, 634. _ — Go to “t i — =] 2 ° is oO Q oe ch og =] — e Mediterranean form, usually identified with the var. 6, of Loligo sagittata Lamare , 1799,¢ is closely related to our Species, but if the published figures and descriptions can be re- led upon, it can hardly be identical. The American form has &more elongated body, with a differently shaped caudal fin, which is relatively shorter than O. sagittatus, as given by Huro- pean authors. The figure given by Verany is, however, an ex- ception in this respect, for in that the body is represented about as long as in some of our larger specimens. : Of our species, I have measured large numbers of specimens, Preserved in different ways, and also fresh, and have found no great variation in the form and relative length of the caudal nh, among specimens of similar size, nor do the sexes differ * A specimen from Bermuda is described in detail in Trans. Conn. Acad., vol. v, P. 228, but it lacked the ‘ clubs.’ ate Tt seems more probable, however, that Lamarck’s description applied, in part, e Bar: (Les. sp.) of the Gulf Stream region. Blainville thus applied it. } It should be remarked, however, that Lesueur’s figure of O a shows the body too small and short in proportion to the fin, in shape, and occupying more than half the length of the mantle; the propor- tions of the arms are al erroneous. But ur explains these defects b statement that the figures were hasty sketches made for th _ ved a specimen whic be ription, but the specimen saved turned out to be BE pavo, 80 that the original sketches were published without correction figure 34 290 A. E. Verriii—Cephalopoda of North America. in this respect. The two sexes are probably equally numer- ous, but in our collections the males usually predominate, and the largest mereene are usually sans though equally large females do occu n 81 measured specimens, in alcohol, from various Bs and of both sexes, the average length from tip of tail to dorsal edge of the mantle was 696 inches; from tip of tail to insertion of fin, 2°59 ; average pro- portion of fin to mantle-length, 1: 2°68. Among these the aig varied from as low as 1: 2:50, in some of the arger ones, (with mantle above 8 inches), up to 1: 2°85, in the smaller ones, (with the mantle about 4 inches long). The cau- dal fin is about one-third broader than long, and its breadth is usually rather less than half the length “of the mantle. fresh specimens the tentacles can extend back beyond the base of the caudal fin. The portion of the tentacles bearing suck- ers is always less than half the whole tig sar relative bas pavo Bie (Peacock squid). Loligo pavo Lesueur, Journal Acad. Nat. Science Phila., s P. 96, er 1821. Loligopsis erussac and D’Orb., Oéph. Acét., p. 321, Pl. 4, figs. | Roger) Lesueur). Binney, in Gould, Invert. Mass., ed. Il, p es (but not the figure, Pl. xxvi). Tryon, Man. Conch., i, p. desk eke 68, Me 252, Pl. 69, fig. 253, San re Bay, Mass. (Lesueur). Newfoundland (sn No instance of the occurrence of this oceanic species n the New England coast has been recorded since the papa spect men was described by Lesueur, in 1821. Taonius hyperboreus ee (Goggle-eyed squid). Leachia hyperboreus Steenstrup, Kongelige Danske Vidensk. Selsk. Skrifter. bte Rekke, od p. 200, 1856, eae copies, p. 16). Taonius hyperboreus ‘Steenst., Oversigt Kel Danske Vidensk. Selsk., Forhandlin- ger, 1361, p. 83. Verrill, ‘this Jou rnal, xvii, p. 243, 1879. a a “sensi a Tryon, op. cit. p. 162, ‘cchuaate translation, teenstru’ Near the northern edge of the Gulf Stream, W. long. 55°, Jan., 1879 (Thomas Lee). Greenland (Steenstrap). Fistroteuthis Collinsit Verrill. (Webbed squid). This Journal, xvii, p. 241, March, i879. Tryon, op. cit., i, p. 166, 1879, cone ig preceding). Verrill, Trans. Conn . Acad., Vv, p. 234, 4, Plates xxii @ ‘eb., 1879, A. kb. Verrill— Cephalopoda of North America. 291 Prate XIV. The only specimen known was obtained from the stomach of a large fish (Alepidosaurus ferox), taken by Capt. J. W. Collins and crew of the schooner “Marion,” in deep water off Nova Scotia, N. lat. 42° 49’; W. long. 62° 57’. Rossia Hyatti Verrill. (Hyatt’s bob-tailed squid). This Journal, vol. xvi, p. 208, Sept., 1878. Tryon, Man. Conch., i, p. 166, 1879, (description compiled from preceding). Priate XV, figures 1 and 2. This species has been taken in numerous localities, by the dredging parties of the U. S. Fish Commission, in 1877, 1878 and 1879, off Cape Cod; in Mass. Bay; off Cape Ann, in the Gulf of Maine ; off Cape Sable, N.S; and off Halifax, N.S. It occurs in 40 to 150 fathoms. Its relatively large eggs are laid in small clusters in the large oscules or cavities of several Species of sponges. It has also been received through the Gloucester halibut fishermen, from the Banks, off Nova Scotia. This species has a strong general resemblance to R. glaucopis Lovén, as figured in the admirable work of G. O. Sars, but the latter has shorter lateral arms, and the suckers of the sessile arms are in two rows, while they are four-rowed in our species. Rossia sublevis Verrill. (Smooth bob-tailed squid). Rossia sublevis Verrill, this Journal, xvi, p. 209, 1878. Tryon, Man. Conch., 1, p. 160, 1879, (description compiled from preceding). Pirate XV, figure 3. _ Taken by the dredging parties of the U. S. Fish Commis- sion in the trawl-net, at numerous localities, in 1877, 1878 and 1879, in 50 to 140 fathoms, off Mass. Bay; in Mass. Bay; off Cape Cod; off Cape Sable, N. S.; and off Halifax. Also recently brought in by the Bank fishermen, of Gloucester. Sepiola leucoptera Verrill. (Butterfly squid). Sepiola leucoptera Verrill, this Journal, vol. xvi, p. 378, 1878. Tryon, Man. Conch., 1, p. 158, 1879, (description copied from preceding, with remarks.) Piatr XV, figures 4 and 5. Three specimens were taken by the U. S. Fish Com., in the trawl-net, 80 miles east from Cape Ann, Mass., 110 fathoms, August, 1878. One specimen was taken off Cape Cod, 128 fathoms, with the bottom temperature 41° F., August, 1879. e last named specimen, (Plate xv, fig. 5) when fresh was about 81mm long, peas ses of the arms. In this the head, above, in front of the eyes, was white; back and the base of the fins thickly Spotted with brown; posterior part of the back with an emer- ald-green iridescence. Sides of the body, below the fins, and ~ Posterior end of the body, silvery white. A large shield-shaped _ 292 A. E. Verrill—Cephalopoda of North America. ventral area of brown, with a bright blue iridescence, and bordered with a band of brilliant blue, occupies most of the lower surface. Fins transparent, whitish, except at. base. Lower side of head, siphon and outer bases of arms, light brown. Eyes blue above, green below. The fins are large, nearly as long as the body. Loligo Pealei Lesueur. (Long-finned squid.) Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., vol. ii, p, 92, Plate 8, 1821. Férussac and D’Orbigny, Céph. Acét., p. 311, Pl. xi, figs. 1-5, Pl. xx, figs. 17-21. inney in Gould’s Invert. Mass., ed. 2, p. 514, Pl. 25, fig. 340, (figure errone- ously referred to 0. Bartramii). Verrill, Report on Invert. Vineyard 5d., pp. 440, 635 (sep. copies, p. 341), Pl. xx, figs. 102-105, 1877. Tryon, Man. Conch., I, p. 142, Pl. 51, figs. 134-140, (figs. from Fér. and D’Orb. Loligo punctata Dekay, Nat. Hist. N. Y., Mollusca, p. 3, Pl. 1, fig. 1, 1843, (young) specimens were taken in the pounds at Provincetown, Mass.. tion is independent of sex, and is due mostly to the ordinary changes by growth. The ratio of the breadth of the caudal mode of preservation. The suckers in the two central rows of the tentacular club, are large and remarkably high; the mm 1s closely and sharply denticulated, one or three minute denticles alternating with the larger ones. Var. borealis Verrill. Four specimens, taken in 1878, a i ass. on the north side of Cape Ann, and sent to me by Professor A. Hyatt, differ so decidedly from the typical ones that it seems desirable to give the form a distinctive name, as a variety or geographical race. Two are females, fil with eggs. When a larger series can be examined it may even prove to be a distinct species. They have the general form and appearance of the pale-colored ZL. Peualei, with the caudal fin broader than usual. Ratio of fin-length to mantle, 1:1°62; of fin- ‘width to mantle-length, 1:1-82. Length of mantle, above, 10 one female, 7°30 inches; of caudal fin, 4:5; to end of longest sessile A. E. Verrill— Cephalopoda of North America. 293 arms, 10°7. ‘The anterior dorsal lobe of the mantle-edge is larger and longer than usual, and the ‘pen,’ while having the general form of that of Z. Peale’, tapers more gradually anteriorly, and has a narrower, more tapered, more acute and stiffer ante- rior tip. But the most obvious peculiarity is the unusual smallness of the suckers, both of the tentacles and short arms, which are little more than half as large as those of typical LZ. Pealei of the same size. The largest of the median suckers of the tentacular club are only 2™" in diameter of aperture; the largest of those on the 8d pair of arms, 15™. The rims of the suckers are white, and their denticulation is similar to’ that of the typical form, but finer. [341], Pl. xx, figs. 101, 101a, 1873. Tryon, op. cit. p. 143, Pl. 52, figs. 141, This is closely allied to Z. Pealei, and may finally prove to be only a geographical variety of it, but among the very numerous Specimens, of both forms, that I have already examined, I have hot found intermediate ones. The principal differences are the larger and flatter median suckers of the tentacular clubs, which also have darker colored and more strongly denticulate rims; the larger suckers of the sessile arms; a stouter body in both sexes ; a larger and broader caudal fin, the ratio of the breadth of the fin to the mantle-length, in the larger specimens (with mantle 7 to 9 inches long), being from 1: 1°80 to 1:1-95, while in L. Pealei, of corresponding size, the ratio is 1 : 2°15 to 1: 2°80. This form has been received, hitherto, only from the western part of Long Island Sound, where it is abundant, with the schools of menhaden. Parasira catenulata Steenstrup. Octopus tuberculatus Risso(?), Hist. nat. de I’Eur. merid., iv, p. 3, 1826 (t. D’Orbig.) Octopus catenulatus Férussac, Poulpes, Pl. vi, bis, ter., 1828 (t. D’Orbig.) Philonexis tuberculatus Fér. and D’Orbig., Céph. Acét., p. 87, Pl. vi, bis, ter. “This is the same specimen that was referred to under Octopus granulatus, in this Journal, xvi, p. 210, 1878. The specimen had been mislaid, and at that time - Was not tobe found. It was recorded from memory, and only an impe ‘nation of it had h ived Am. Jour, Sor.--Tarrp Series, VoL. XIX, No. 112.—ApriL, 1880, 21 294 A. E. Verrill—Cephalopoda of North America. able tubercles of the ventral surface, mostly have five ridges Targioni-Tozz zetti, P. catenulata is distinct from P. tuberculata. If so, our species should bear the former name. Octopus Bairdii Verrill. (Baird’s Octopus.) ; 39, Pl 1 to 10, (¢) PL. xvii, figs. 8* to 84 (dentition and jaws), 1878, Tryon, Man. ng he “ ee 116, Pl. '32, figs. 37, 38 (description and figures from the papers if In addition to the localities previously given, this species has been taken in numerous localities off the coasts of Massachu- setts and Nova Scotia, by the dredging parties of the U. 8. Fish Commission, in 1877, 78 and ‘79. It is common in 50 to 150 fathoms, both on muddy ind on hard bottom. Both sexes occur, the females less frequently. The sexes show but little difference, except the hectocotylized third right arm of the male. The Gloucester fishermen have brought in several specimens from the banks, off Nova Scotia and Newfoundlan Professor G. O, Sars has taken it, off the Norwegian coast, in 60 to 300 fathoms. Octopus piscatorum Verrill. (Fishermen’s Octopus.) is Journal, vol. xviii, p. 470, Dec., 1879. Two specimens of this species, both females, have been ob- tained. The first was ot LeHave Bank, off Nova Scotia, schooner ““M. H. Perkins,’ Seu, 1879; the second was taken by Capt. David Campbell and crew, of the schooner “Admiral, near the Grand Bank, in 200 fathoms, Dee., 1879. his species resembles O. Grénlandicus, ‘of which the males alone have been described, and may prove identical. ? Octopus obesus Verrill. (Stout Pe ca This Journal, vol. xix, p. 137, Feb., 1880. One male, taken in 160 to 800 Pine east of ane bas pi N.§., by Chas. Ruckly, of the schooner ““H. A. Dun Octopus lentus Verrill. (Soft oe This Journal, vol. xix, p. 138, Feb., One specimen only, a female, presented by Capt. Samuel Peeples and crew, of the schooner “H. M. Perkins.” It was taken near LeHave Bank, N.S., in 120 fathoms. Stauroteuthis syrtensis Verrill. (Webbed devil-fish.) This Journal, vol. xviii, p. 468, Dec., 1879. C. G. Rockwood, Jr.—Recent American Earthquakes. 295 PLATE XVI, figs. 1 to 5. The only known specimen of this curious species was taken in N. lat. 48° 54’; W. long. 58° 44’, about 30 miles E. of Sable Island, N. S., in 250 fathoms, by Capt. Melvin Gilpatrick and crew, of the schooner “ Polar Wave,” Sept., 1879. rage Gs OF THE PLATES. Te XII. Architeuthis siete V. (No. 14). oe neral figure; from t ntly preserv Specimen; restored, in part, in accordance with the measurement of the freshly caught specimen ; +y natural size. Drawn by the aut Puate XIII. Figure 1.—Architeuthis Peake (No. 5). Head and arms, $ fro sh i of the specimen when freshly caught. The pack of of ts ed rlite n an oar so as pate e bea protrude, while the arms hang down in a eeieed position. The diameter of the bathing tub was inches: a, left, and a’, right ventral arms; 8, le ’, righ s of the third pair; c, left, the oar: 7 to iv, the ‘club’; 7 to ti, bead ‘wrist’; 7 to a7, the part bearing large Suckers ; ii . dv, the terminal o, the be Figure Shae f the body me ‘anda ‘in vat the same specimen, } natural ms photograph. made me time with the preceding; u, mantle cu from Open ; Ee tip of tail; 8, ates be L, “vet eral lobes of caudal fin. Pirate XIV. Histioteuthis Collinsii Verrill. Side-view of ~ pene and arms ; from the preserved Specimen, + natural size. Drawn by Figure 1.—Rossia Hyatti. Dorsal vi w, enlarged 1}. ~Figure 2.—The same. A young Peel enlarged 14 ‘gure 3.—Rossia sublevis. Ventral view, enlarged 14. Figure RE Anon leucoptera. Young, ventral view, enlarged 3 diameters. ‘gure 5.—The same. A larger specimen, taken in 1879, enlarged 1}. Puate XVI. Figure 1.— Stawroteuthis és eyrienais, Dorsal view, 33; natural size. HS re : ta e same. Lower of head ; s, siphon; e, eye; a, the pore. : same. The pede “5 turned back. Pewee: “— and 5-_-The upper and under jaws of the same, enlarged 23 diameters. — Art. XXXV.— Notices of Recent American Earthquakes. No. 9; by Professor C. G. Rocxwoop, Jr., Princeton, N. J. Ly these notices, as heretofore, sen based upon single news- paper items, and which could not be otherwise verified, are dct in snialier type, and the kes of the information is Indi ed. 296 ©. G. Rockwood, Jr.—Recent American Earthquakes. 1878, June 9. A shock at Granada, Nicaragua, at 4.30 P direction N.W. to S. E., duration seventeen seconds. This is “evi- dently the same nice ‘alr eady reported at San José, Costa Rica. —III, xvii, p. 16 June 16. ni severe shocks at Cerro de Pasco, Peru. une 17. A slight shock at Granada, dae at 11.15 a.M., direction N.W. to $.E., duration eleven seconds. June 19. A severe srock at Cerro de Pasco, Peru at 1.30 A. M. Oct. 31. At San José, Costa Rica, a very feeble shock at 9.30 A. M. Nov. 3. At the same place, a feeble shock at 5.30 Pp. M. Noy. 8. At the same place, a feeble shock at 8.15 p. M. Noy. 23. At the same place, a quite strong shock. Nov. 12. At Unalaska Island, Alaska, a slight shock at 2.304. m—JU. S. Weather Review. Nov. 18. For additional notices of the earthquake on this day se Missouri, (already reported, III, xvii, p. 162), see vol. xvii, p. Nov. 26. A brief shock at Alajuela, Costa Rica, at 1.40 A. M. Dec. 9. A severe shock at Red Bluff, Cal., at 3.20 p. m., lasting fifteen or twenty seconds. Dec. 17. A slight shock at Yuma, Arizona, at 4 Pp. M., lasting eight seconds ; felt also at Campo, Cal., where two shocks were tomatoe lasting about two seconds, direction from S. W.., with sae Dec. — A A sie shock at 9 P. = at Flushing, N. Y., from N. to 8., with rum- bling no . Weather Revi Dec. 28. A slight noes at Schoharie, N. Y., at 9.32 P. a felt also in other towns north of there, to a distance of 15 m 1879, : an. 9, A severe shock at Arequipa, Peru, at , ve Pp. M. Jan. 12, At Iquique, Peru, a long and violent shock about mid- night, oc subterranean Jan. 12. Apparently simultaneous with the above, a severe —| + mnie. -mnlepc lor, 0-99 z-99 ¥-99 8-99 0-19 g-L9 0-89 g-89 2-69 8-69 €-0h 0-1L Bh O-G1 “-AANN!2-TL “——|6- 1 10.61 0-41 ——|9.91 ——19-91 ——|9-81 ——lo-1I —l0.6 ——|9.. ——le-¢ ——le. “MNlore ol « 8-99 6-49 9-49 0-89 0-89 0-89 8-89 9.69 8-02 8-1h GEL L-3h &-€L LeG “MNNIG-S “MNNIO-E ——/¢-4 ——|0.9 ——/0.g8 hs Se ri "NiV-S ——|¥-2 ——|0-9 ——|0-2 ‘ANNIGT I j0T ” LOY 0-29 €-99 9-99 0-99 2-99 ¥-99 0-29 0-19 6-19 9-19 z 89 8-0) | GF ‘MSIS-% ——/0-9 “MSS ——|-F 'Si0-G 8} ASBIO-G “HESieg Tic 0-18 &-98 0-98 9-98 &-98 9-¥8 &-F8 0-48 | $9 “M89 “MOL ‘AM'E9 ——| € ‘MSO 62», 0-94 8-9), BOL 0-9) 8-92, 9-9 “MSS|9-9 ——|0-9 ——|9-9 “MSS} § ——| S‘MSSIPG OT! PPL 8h) 6S), 0-91, ca? 0-88 4 “MS! L “MS9-S “MS| F “MS| € ——!| E“MSSI9F G6 I ‘Bny FL GPL &-FL GG) 9-94 O-LL 6S “HSS8-3 ——/0-8 ——0-8 ‘Bie ——|8-c“MSSIO8 4 Is, 0-94 GFL 0-FL G81, PEL 0-FL *« MN we) it ——8l ‘80-2 ‘BO Ses “MSF ZS Ic. 2-8) Wehh BL) O-bL B-Lk 0-64 € MNP-G ———~ 8-6 ‘AMT ——| 2 ‘Nie’ ——| € “HNIcT ollte Ame | g-€ €-84 9-84, 0-FL 8-FL 92, G8h i= 3) Biel | 0081 OOLl | 0001 | 006 008 002 009 009 00% 008 00% 00T 0 jammoQ) “feq ‘SUOTOOIIp Suuoqysieu omy ey} WeEeMjJeq TOMIeIIp B JoyjBI IO ‘UOTOOIIp JO p100e1 OU SojvoIpul —— “pula 9y1 Jo AyIOOTEA pue WOMOOIIp OY} JOMO] OU, ‘sooZop yloyuouyeyy Ur emngeredu1e} oy} oF¥orpUT SJoquunu seddn oy, “yooy ut punoid oy} edoqe s2y31ey oy} soa1d ofqe} OT} UT OUT 81g OULL "ylOq nary ‘Spunpsy hauog yw Yneg 247 Bn0QD Joaf OOZI 07 0 wo“f sqybray 3D asngouadwuag ay) pun pura Jo a040f pun uo2200.LUp 09 Burmoys agnT 802 =O. T. Sherman—Height of Land and Sea Breezes. land breeze. The sea breeze blows perpendicular to the coast, or about southeast. To obtain the storm wind, I examined the 7°35 A. M. maps of the Signal Service, but since the obser- vations were taken almost directly under areas o pressure, the examination gave no useful results. I therefore adopted a method based upon the following considerations. Of all those directions and velocities which combined with the direction of the sea breeze can produce the resultant, the storm breeze is that which remains when the sea breeze vanishes; the fact that the sea breeze vanishes is shown by the other component remaining undisturbed. For example, on August 13, the observed wind was S.S.E., velocity 7:5 miles. This might be produced either by S. 45, SH.; SSW.4,SE, S.W. 3, S.E., etc., but of these, S.W. 8 most nearly satisfies the condition that it shall be observed by itself. The surface breeze therefore ends at about 650 feet from the surface of the sea, while above 700 feet a current from the land evidently de- flects the breeze toward the northwest. Proceeding with each of the other cases in the same way a mean may be taken. In this manner we have drawn up the following table. The values, though necessarily approximate, gain much from our inability to launch the balloon save on calm days. The sign << implies that the given value is probably too high. Day. Honk Surface breeze _ Return breeze ends, begins. ends. 1879. h oe July 31)10 15 am <175 feet. <400 feet. 2 46 p.m! <500 feet. About 750 7 26 P.M.) <875 feet. <400 feet August 1; 9 46 a.m 200? feet. <300? feet. 10. 54 am bove the highest | point reached. 2; 9 0 aA.M.| <200 feet. <250 feet. 1 65 P.M! <2200 feet. <600 feet. 10} 1 19 P.M.| <400 feet. <500 feet. < 900 feet. 3 10 P.M.| <(500 feet. 500 feet. <1100 feet. 5 42 PM one. Ta oe IO Bet <825 feet. <900 feet. 12; 10 50 a.m.) <600 feet. <800 feet. 13} 11 60 a.m) <650 feet. | 700 feet. | 1050 feet? 14, 1 42 pm| <300 feet, most all there when they are looked for with proper precautions, but those in all probability present inthe sun are brightened on passing the spark, showing apparently that the flame vola- cine with some difficulty the molecule which gives the line ™ the red. The flame spectrum of magnesium perhaps presents us best * The way in which the lines in the flame are unaffected by the spark strikingly reminds me of the following remarks of Angstrém and Thalén: “ The Fraunhofer D er by no marked either as to form or color. These two different kinds of lines are, a3 ea iron; and those which remain, after the iron-lines are abstracted, other metals; calcium, ese, chromium, ete.”—(‘ Angstrom and Thalén 08 the Fraunhofer Lines, together with a Diagram of the Violet Part o Spectrum.” Upsala, 1866, p. 6.) J. N. Doekijer.New Method of Spectrum Observation. 307 with the beantiful effects produced by the passage from the lower to the higher heat-level, and shows the important bear- ing on solar physics of the results obtained by this new method of work _ In the flame the two least refrangible of the components of 6 are seen associated with a line less refrangible, so as to form atriplet. A series of flutings and a line in the blue are also On passing the spark, all these but the two components of 6} are abolished. We get the wide triplet replaced by a narrow one of the same form, the two lines of 6 being common to both, thus— Flame Spectrum | End of flutings Spark Spectrum When the line in the blue disappears on passing the spark, two new lines are seen. The spark lines are in the sun, but the less refrangible member of the wide triplet and the blue line seen in the flame are absent. ; : The following are the details of some of the experiments which have been made on the above points:— Experiment No. 1.—Two pieces of platinum wire were sup- ported in a Bunsen flame at a distance from one another of about three millimeters. They were then connected with a “es machine, in order that the spark might be passed inside € Name. : An image of the platinums was then thrown on the slit of the Spectroscope by means of a lens. The spectroscope used had two dense flint prisms of 60°. piece of charcoal soaked in solution of sodium chloride was put into the base of the flame first, and then just below the Platinum, and the spectrum observed ; it consisted simply of the yellow line D. The spark was passed and the spectrum again observed ; it now consisted of D plus the lines of hydro- gen and some air lines, the red and green Na lines and the Steen flutings being still absent : ‘periment No. II.—Same arrangements, except that a large Induction coil was substituted for the Holtz machine. The Same results were obtained with the sodic chloride. periment No. [1I.—Metallic sodium was next tried. It was found that when the metal was put into the flame just 808 J. N. Lockyer—New Method of Spectrum Observation. below the platinums the green line and the flutings were seen without the spark, that is, at the ordinary temperature of the flame. On introducing the sodium into the lower part of the flame, the green double (A5687°2 and 5681-4) and the flutings were not seen, either with or without the spark. Eeperiment No. IV.—Same arrangements as No. I, with metallic sodium, and with a small blowpipe instead of Bunsen. In this experiment the flame spectrum showed, besides the yellow line (D), the green double (456872 and 568174), and also the flutings in the green, those in the red being absent. s soon as the spark was passed, the green double (A 56872 and 5681-4) became brighter, while the flutings vanished. In these observations the sodium was put into the flame just below the platinums. When put into the bottom of the flame, the D line was seen alone. Haperiment No. V.—A. glass tube $ inch in diameter was prepared, about six inches in length, having two platinums sealed into it at a distance of four inches from each other. A bulb was blown at each end, so that the spectrum might be examined with the tube end-on. A piece of sodium was put into the tube, and the latter exhausted with a Sprengel pump. An Argand burner was placed at one end of the tube, in order that the absorption of the vapor, as well as its radiation, might be observed. The metal was then very gradually heated by @ Bunsen flame. After the heating had gone on for about twenty minutes the absorption line of D appeared; this gradually increased In intensity. On passing the spark along the tube, the bright lines. of sodium appeared, the green double (456872 and 5681°4), being distinguishable after D had been seen for a little time alone. The temperature was now increased and the absorption spec trum again examined. The flutings in the green gradually made their appearance, D increasing in intensity, the gree? line being invisible. Afterwards the flutings in the red came in. ; ym peeing the spark the absorption spectrum, consisting of the red and green flutings disappeared instantaneously, and the green double was seen very bright; after the passage of the spark D dark was much increased in breadth. » The quantity of hydrogen given off during the change pT vented the passage of the spark, and the observations had to be discontinued. As soon as some of this had been pumped out the same observations were repeated with the same results. | Experiment No. VI—An experiment was made with lithiam chloride in Bunsen flame, with the same arrangement as 1? Experiment No. 1, J. N. Lockyer—New Method of Spectrum Observation. 809 The flame spectrum with the dispersion employed showed no Li line except the red one (A 67052). On passing the spark from the Holtz machine, the yellow line (A 6102-0) and the blue line (4 4602-7) appeared as bright as the red line. The same results were obtained on repeating the experiment with the large induction-coil. Kaperiment No. V1l.—Potassium nitrate was tried by the method previously described in Experiment No. 1. e flame spectrum consisted as usual of the red lines (A 7697 and 7663) and the blue line (A 4045), very faint. The effect of the spark was to bring out the yellow lines (A about 5800), those in the green (A about 5840), and the red double (A 6946 and 6918) out of the flutings visible in the red, the double at 7697 and 7663 not being affected. The experi- ment was repeated with the induction-coil, and the same obser- vations made, with the additional one that the spark also slightly intensified the blue line. Experiment No. VIII.—On repeating the experiment with metallic potassium, the same phenomena were more markedly observed, the lines about 4 5800, and other lines more refrangi- le, were visible as very faint objects in the flame; they were much strengthened, however, by the passage of the spark. Experiment No. 1X.—Some potassium was volatilized by the spark in front of the slit of the sun-spectroscope and compari- Son of the positions of the lines with the Fraunhofer lines made. It is believed that 45829-0, 58020, 5782% are all reversed in the solar spectrum. The less refrangible member of the red double (4 6946) was next compared, and was un- doubtedly absent from the sun. These observations, however, are rendered extremely difficult on account of the fluted appear - ance of the yellow lines, and must be repeated with a stronger sun and the electric arc. The spectroscope employed had three prisms, one of 60° and two of 45°. ; Experiment No. X.—The flame spectrum of magnesium was examined, a green triplet was observed which was at first sight taken for 6. Measurements of the lines. however, showed that the less refrangible member was less refrangible than 6, and had a wave-length 5209°8, and that the other two members were b' and 8 respectively. A fresh charge of magnesium was put into the flame and the spark passed; the original triplet Was now no longer visible, the line at 5209°8 having vanished, but 5* was now seen forming with 6’ and 2 a triplet of similar form on a smaller scale. : _ According to Thalén, there are three blue lines of magne- Slum at w.l. 4481°0, 45865, and 47035. These lines were looked for in the flame with and without the spark. Without the spark only one line was visible in this region; its position Am. Jour. Sct.—TairD — Vou. XIX, No. 112.—Aprir, 1880. 810 J. N. Lockyer—New Method of Spectrum Observation. was found by comparison with the solar spectrum, to be at w.]. 4570 3, and coincident with no Fraunhofer line. The passage of the spark abolished this line, at the same time bringing in the two lines given by Thalén at w.l, 4481°0 and 47035, both of which are reversed in the solar spectrum. o line was seen at Thalén’s w.1. 4586 5, the nearest approach to which was the line seen at the temperature of the Bunsen flame at w.|. 4570°3, a difference of.more than sixteen divisions . of the scale. I am now preparing maps showing the phenomena observed at various heat-levels. I think it is not too much to hope that a careful study of such maps, showing the results already obtained or to be obtained, at varying temperatures, controlled by observation of the condition under which changes are brought about, will, if we accept the idea that various dissocia- tions of the molecules present in the solid are brought about by different stages of heat, and then reverse the process, enable us to determine the mode of evolution by which the molecules vibrating in the atmospheres of the hottest stars associate into those of which the solid metal is composed. I put this sugges- tion forward with the greater confidence, because I see that help can be got from various converging lines of work. To some of these I may briefly allude here :— 1. We have the lines present in the solar spectrum and absent from it. : Example.—The red potassium line present in the flame 1s absent from the sun; some of the other lines are present. ave the varying thicknesses of the lines of any one element in the sun to compare with the thicknesses produced at different temperatures in the laboratory. Ezxample.—The various lines of magnesium, notably b, the most refrangible line given by Thalén and the other blue line. 8. We have the remarkable behavior of metals vaporized 10 a vacuum at the lowest temperatures. : tzample.—Sodium gives us D, potassium gives us the triplet in the green-yellow; calcium gives us the line in the blue; thus separating those lines from all the others of those metals. e have the remarkable behavior of the same vapors UD der like circumstances, the temperature alone being changed ; when this is increased lines visible under ordinary conditions are brought in, and are seen in different parts of the tube, 8° that each line in turn (and therefore, I presume, each molecule which produces it) is separated from those with which it '§ generally seen in company. ample.—By increasing the temperature we get the green line of sodium without D, and some of the magnesium lines have been seen separated from the others. J. N. Lockyer—New Method of Spectrum Observation. 311 5. We have the power of determining the lower states by means of absorption phenomena and then of observing the ra- diation of the vapors produced by the passage of a feeble cur- rent of electricity. Ezxample.—The fluted spectrum of sodium described by Roscoe and Schuster is instantly abolished by this means and a brightening of the green and a considerable thickening of . the dark yellow lines is seen. . we consider the existence of these molecular states as forming a true basis for Dalton’s law of multiple proportions ? if so, then the metals in different chemical combinations will exist in different molecular groupings, and we shall be able by spectrum observations to determine the particular heat-level to which the molecular complexity of the solid metal induced by chemical affinity corresponds. xamples.—None of the lines of magnesium special to the flame spectrum are visible in the spectrum of the chloride either when a flame ora spark is employed. e facts re- corded in my papers, printed in the Philosophical Transactions some years ago, on the spectra of salts and mixtures, seem all explained in this way. I think then that the method of mapping, to be complete, should not only show the metallic lines as produced at various temperatures compared with the Fraunhofer ones, but that for each metal investigations should be made and recorded for as many heat-levels as possible, and for various chemical group- ings such as Cr O Fe,Cl, Cr O, Fe Cl, Cr,O, Fe Cr, to give examples, with a view of investigating the facts, to see whether we can trace a molecular evolution in each case. 812 H. Carmichael—Presentation of Sonorous Vibrations Art. XXXVIII.—The Presentation of Sonorous Vibrations by means of a Revolving Lantern; by HENRY CARMICHAEL, Ph.D. (Gottingen). At the meeting of the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science at Hartford in 1874, a paper was read by the author on “ A new method for the presentation of sound waves,” in which was described the arrangement represented The principal novelty of this consists in a small lantern con- taining a coal-gas flame connected with a Kénig’s manometric capsule, the upright lantern being so placed at the end of a horizontal arm that it could be rapidly revolved in the hor- zontal plane. 1. ae oe ee - me _— = . --— - he lantern arm T is bent in to the vertical axis of revolu- tion, and by an enlargement at this place it is made to slip over and form a gas-tight joint with the right-angled tube N, which is firmly fastened in the base block E. The rotation of the lantern is conveniently maintained by a small water-wheel attached to the vertical shaft. The water enters the case at 5 and escapes at B. That the lantern may ran smoothly the moment of the lantern O is counteracted by the adjustable weight P. : Flexible tubing connects N with Kénig’s manometric yes" sule. hen no sound enters the capsule a smooth bam of light appears, which, on the introduction of sound, 8 broken into a series of teeth, large or small, simple or COM pound, according to the nature of the sound. The peculiar ties of this flame-band can be seen from the most distant parts of an audience room. by means of a Revolving Lantern. 3138 Although the performance of this instrument was highly satisfactory, it was exceeded in the following modification, (fig. 2), which, though hitherto unpublished, has been publicly used by me during the last three years. The advantages of a sensitive flame, which is made to re- volve in the vertical plane, must be obvious. Not only are all the teeth representing the soun 2. waves brought within the field of vision, and the foreshortening of the teeth upon either side avoided, but by the introduction of oxygen into the lantern the brilliancy of the flame is greatly increased. It is important that the lantern and other moving parts be made as light as possible. The thin mica cover of the lantern is conveniently d removed. The thin metal is folded 4.0 over the edges of the mica which >= are to be brought into contact, and they are then held in place by a harrow strip bent traversely upon itself until it has the section of the 314 H. Carmichael— Presentation of Sonorous Vibrations, ete. The lantern is revolved by a multiplying wheel, or by a powerful clock-work, when a uniform motion is required. Fig. 4 shows the general arrangements of parts. When the oxygen is diluted with two measures of air it is more easily regulated as a supporter of combustion. The bril- liancy of the flame is considerably increased by conducting the coal gas through a sponge saturated with “ gasoline.” By regulating the flow of gases and giving the flamea rapid rotation, a continuous brilliant ring is produced, which is broken up into saw-like teeth, characteristic of the pitch, in- eg 4 ee ee ~ ~ - oo - J f pa tensity and quality of the entering sounds. A shrill whistle produces teeth so fine that they are barely visible at a distance of thirty feet. A loud low sound of the human voice affords teeth of the height of the lantern, three or more inches long; with one or two harmonic teeth surmounting the fundamentals. A rough roar yields large jagged teeth, exceedingly compli- cated and curious. On turning down the flame the teeth are reduced to brilliant dots, with smaller dots between them if the harmonics be pee It is curious to observe that no trace of flame cap seen between these dots, which may be three inches or more apart. It is not to be presumed, however, that the flame 18 6* tinguished, as it is possible to arrange the flow of gases so that the flame is invisible during a complete rotation, and yet be restored by simply altering the proportion of the inflammable gases. For investigating the motions of sonorous bodies an attach- ment is substituted for the manometric capsule, which may ‘ S. L. Penfield—Chemical Composition of Childrenite. 315 tion flow, as the force of rotation would impel them. A lan- Art, XXXIX.— On the Chemical Composition of Childrenite ; by 8. L. PENFIELD. AFTER the publication by Messrs. Brush and Dana* of their paper in which the new species, eosphorite, was described and shown to be closely related both physically and chemically to childrenite, they proposed to me to make a new or tion of the composition of the latter species with a view to de- ciding the uncertainty in regard to its true formula. Professor Brush very kindly placed at my disposal a suitable specimen tom Tavistock out of his collection. From this the ma- terial for the following analysis was taken. The crystals were small, of a yellow-brown color, and were very carefully picked * This Journal, July, 1878, 316 SS. L. Penfield—Chemical Composition of Childrenite. from the — and oxide of iron with which they were asso- ciated. lustrous crystals were accepted, and any doubt- ful carte was discarded. Between eight and nine tenths of a gram were thus obtained. Analysis I is a complete analysis made on a little over half a gram; it was conducted with the greatest care and a special test was made for alkalies, so = they might be determined quantitatively if present. As in his analysis found iron sesquioxide present, the veceniad three tenths of a gram of the mineral were tested quantitatively with potassium permanganate; the result indicated 26°08 per tion was secacs and a ALO, and FeO determined in it gravimetrically (analysis TD) as a control on the other analysis. Ratio calculated : I. from analysis I. FO 80°19 29°98 "212 1. AiO, 21°17 21°44 208 98 FeO 26°54 26°20 368 MnO 4°87 069 } *458 2°16 CaO P21 “021 H,O 15°87 “882 4°16 Quartz 10 99°95 The anaes ratio corresponds a footing. ry, mma calendulacea, called Cape Dandelion, “ has taken possesion of the land for the last twenty-five years, and red, much Slips by wie. and sheep, so ‘that it is not so much 0 nuisa The ext are mostly common weeds of ee papi but many of them came in by way of Tasm e worst are Composite, and are main] Co ckspur or Ce ntaured Meltensis Acanthium, and Trail sonnet called Stink-Aster, “the most noxious and dangerous plant ever introduced.” An equa ally bad character is given to the Black Oat, Avena sativa, var. me elano- sper iid, mnie 3 is singular, considering that its near relative, the Avena sterilis, is a great blessing to California, over which it has been icky diffused. Dr. Schomburgk says: “T commun sige Thou oe ie acres of arable land, especially such as have been in culkin ti tion for some years, are totally ruipe for the purpose of wheat-growing by the black oats.” Botany and Zoology. 381 and the same is or the oO ; grasses and four or five Dicotyledons are coroliferous, and most of them insect-visited. sata ee 8. Canadian Timber-trees, their Distribution and Preservation ; xy A, T. Drummonp.—An instructive pamphlet, published at 0 t which in Canada, as elsewhere, are the crying evil. The fact that the forest, may also be considered. A. G. 9 Indian Corn; by E. Lewis Sturtevant, M.D, A paper presented to the Annual meeting of the New York State Agri- cultural Society, January 1879, and reprinted from its 38th ort.—T d . there seems to be no proof that the plant had reached Turkey before the time of Columbus. The principal varieties of Indian variety in directly altering the grain of another ; and this influ- ence is said to affect not only the coats of the grain but the nature and appearance of the kernel. AG. 10. Death of General Munro.—W ith sadness we hear that Gen. Wm. Munro, of the British army, the most accomplished Agrostol- Ogist of our day, died at his residence near Taunton, on the 29th day of J anuary. He had reached the age of about 64 years, and 332 Scientific Intelligence. of late his health had deteriorated to an extent that gave his Graminum. Although until recently his studies in botany were pursued in the precarious intervals of an active professional life, necessitating frequent changes of abode under widely different climates, he had mastered his favorite department, so that no one living kne ass well, or wa competent to treat the whole order systematically. Of independent publication he had done little, except to bring out a monograph e bamboo tri ‘from active service, with honors well earned by arduous an splendid service, he devoted the remainder of his life to a revision i Ca Gen. Munr i very distinct genus which commemorates his botanical services, unroa squarrosa of Torrey, is one of the Buffalo grasses of our western plains.* A. G. 11. Crustacea of Mexico and Central America.—Mission Scien- tifique au Mexique et dans l Amérique Centrale, publié par orare du Ministre de l’Instruction Publique. tudes sur les Xy et les Crustacés de la Région Mexicaine, par M. ALpHonse MIN Epwarps. 4to, Paris: 4° livraison, pp. 121-184, 9 plates, 1878; 5° et 6¢ livraisons, pp. 185-264, 19 plates, 1879.—The earlier parts of this magnificent work were noticed in vol. xi of this Jour part contains the last of the Mithracinw, the Micippine, Libinine, . . : . hra) and ecord. It deserves a more extended notice than the space a my disposal in these pages permits. The nine families of Oxyrhynques (Maioidea) include 58 gener and 150 species; 11 of the genera and 30 of the species are NeW, and over 80 of the species are figured. The Portuniens In¢ - g and 28 speci i 7 half the species are figured. The generic grouping of the Portu * Published in the fourth volume of the U. 8. Pacific Railway Expedition eek ports; erroneously printed Monroa. There is also a mistake in saying that er Munro was in the East India Company’s service, though he served long bravely in India, Botany and Zoology. 333 nide is considerably modified from that adopted by the same au- thor in his monograph of the group published in 1861, so that the nera are nearly the same as used by Stimpson Callinectes is admitted but all the forms described by Ordway are reduced to varieties of a single species and a number of new varieties are describe e old name diacanthus is restored for the polymor- _ species thus painaieaked: but the varietal names are printe the same way as the specific, so that nder the species ‘ Cal- linetes ni” ahiah ” we have the variety “ Callinectes diacanthus (Ord ;” which is certainly confusing. Cronius is adopted but esha is still retained under Neptunus. The Canceriens as far as treated include 13 genera and 29 species; 2 genera and I species are new, and 19 species are figure The plates are admirable and are crowded with pee ‘excellent figures, of which several are usually given for each species. Some of the plates on which the larger of the species are higrennied are lithographic and two of these in the sixth part are colored, but the great majority of the plates are engraved in the ies manner on metal. . I. SMITH. Az: Commission of Fish and Fisheries. Report of the Commission for 1877. Part V. Washington, 1879. 8vo. 981 pp., numerous plates. —This volume includes i in the general report of Professor S. F. Baird, the Commissioner, a statement of the results accomplished both in the way of e exploration and in the propagation and introduction of food-fishes, and the participation of the Commission in the Fishery Convention at Halifax. Several hundred pages are occupied by a thorough history of the men- haden and the fisheries and manufactories dependent upon it, by r. G. Brown oode, | mong the other papers is one by Karl fisheries of Norway, by G. O. Sars; several reports on the arti- ficial propagation of various fishes; on the Miller Cassella ther- mometer, by Commander L. A. Beardslee ; on artificial mgt 2, ad John Gamgee 3. American Fisheries. A History of the Menhaden, be G. “soe Goong, with an account of the ee Ba rea Uses of Fish; by WW. 0. Arwarnr. 8vo. 529 pp., 30 plates. New York: Orange Jud dd Company, 1880.—This is a separate edition of Mr. Goode’s report, included in the preceding, with additions bringing the aie down to date. . The Chinch Bug ose asoee’ ap waceriny Tits history, chara injuries; by Cyrus Tuomas, Ph.D. Wit a map show tbe distribution. 44 pp. Washington, 1879 (U. S$. ietcoseol yhoo Commission, Bulletin No. 5). 334 Miscellaneous Intelligence. TV. MiIsceELLANEOUS Screntiric INTELLIGENCE. Vesuvius.—In Nature (xxi, p. 351), Mr. G, F. Rodwell sum- marizes the history of the volcanic action of Vesuvius in the last year. During 1879, small streams of lava appeared at intervals on the sides of the great cone, and on December 17, a stream reached to the Atrio del Cavallo. On January 13, 1880, he as- cended the cone, although with difficulty on account of the violent and cold wind which prevailed. The small inner cone had in- morning had reached the same extent as on December 17. activity, with occasional phases of violence, and short intervals of . And the greatest eruptions have generally indicated the last phase of long periods of moderate activity.” Been . The 8 and the third, essentially the row of graduated cylinders phe jn means of observing them without instruments. This pampblets which will be translated into French, is to be widely distribute’ Miscellaneous Intelligence. 335 Further, the whole country is divided into seven regions, one being assigned to each member of the Commission, who, on the occurrence of an earthquake in his section, will at once send prin- ted lists of questions in regard to it to all persons likely to give information. The replies will of course become matter of record. a= 20926629 feet. b=20925105 feet. c= 20854477 feet. Here a@ and } are the equatorial radii, and ¢ the polar radius. _ The ellipticities of the two principal meridians of the earth (i.e. the ratio of the difference of the semi-axes to half their sum) 4 30577 Col. Clarke adds :—“ The longitude of the greater axis of the equator is 8° 15’ west of Greenwich, a meridian passing through Ireland and Portugal, and cutting off a portion of the northwest in the 1 are :— PORN TREE Lr 289-54 2" corner of Africa; i opposite hemisphere this meridian cuts northeastern corner of Asia, and passes through the southern island of New Zealand. The meridian containing the maller diameter of the equator passes through Ceylon, on the one side of the earth and bisects North America on the other. This position of the axis, brought out by a very lengthened cal- culation, certainly agrees very remarkably with the distribution of land and water on its surface.” The values of Listing corresponding to the above, quoted from the Astronomische Nachrichten in this Journal, vol. xvii, p. 74, =n. 1879) (employed by Todd, 1. ¢. xix, 62, Jan., 1880), are not Silver and lead smelting (52 pages); concluding with amalgama- 'n, or the extraction of silver from its ores by means of mercury 336 Miscellaneous Intelligence. (104 pages). This last section covers only the Mexican or sie" process as — in Mexico and South America. The second re ta of silver and ie. will be remembered that Dr. Pe s volume on Lead contained much relating to the metallurgy of silver. h; with an Haye Professor Morse’s invention, by Wiii1am B, Tayuor. 1 03 pp. 8vo. Washington, 1879.—This pamphlet is reprinted from the Smithsonian Report for 1878. It contains a well-digest sted account of the successive steps in the development of the alectrio telegraph, from the middle of the eighteenth century, down has special reference, however, to the very important contributions of Professor Henry ‘toward its practical sateblichiasit and fina success. 6. Bulletins of the United States National Museum. The fol lowing are the contents of numbers recently issued : Contributions to North American Ichthyology, No. 3 is , with description of new or little wn specie rdan on; B synopsis of the ‘ta mily Catostomide, by D Jordan. 237 pp. Washington, 1878 e Flora of St. Croix and the Virgin Islands, by F. A. Eggers. 133 pp., 1879 14: Cale: logue Collection illustrating the animal ween and the fisheries f th tes, prepared under the pote ti ° Co ee pp. ee BA 15. Contributions to the Natural History of Arctic made in connection with the Howgate Polar Ppeition, 187 oa, by ‘Latiwig Kumlion, ‘Natatalint of the Expedition, 179 pp., 7. Transactions of the Connertiot ae of Arts and ee Bd so V, Patt "1367 8vo, with 24 plates. New The contents of the ‘volume are as follows :— ce Ratios e the Pycnogonida of New Efigland, by Edmund B. Wilson, W! plates 1 to 7; The Stalk-eyed Crustaceans of the Atlantic Coast of North America i : A lis :} : t. Smi i inoderms, with notes on their distribution, etc., by Richard Rathbun; ge Comet of 117 1: investigation of its orbit, by William Beebe; The Cepha alopods e Northeastern coast of America, by A. E. Verrill, with plates 1 13 to 25. Reports on the Results of ee under the supervision of pore pt ake,” in the Gulf of México, 1877-78, by the U. 8. Coast Survey Ste Lieut.-Commander C. D. Si gsbee, v. *s. N. comman hom V.— Gene 7a “Son th from a preliminary examin: i ‘of the mollusea, by W. H. Dall. (Bulletin ol. vi, aa of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, Cambridge. Mass., V° ‘ss APPENDIX. Arr. XLI. — On the Efficiency of Edison's Electric Light; by Professor H. A. RowLAND of the Johns Hopkins University, and Professor GkorGE F. Barker of the Univ. Pennsylvania. mic last, can undoubtedly be put into practical shape. Three methods of testing the efficiency presented themselves’ tous. The first was by means of measuring the horse power ber of ro and so this method was abandoned for the third one. This method consisted in putting the lamp under water and observ- ing the total amount of heat generated in the water per minute. For this purpose, a calorimeter, holding about 14 kil. of water, was made out of very thin copper: the lamp was held firmly Mm the center, so that a stirrer could work around it. e tem- col1c noted on a delicate Baudin thermometer graduated O . s the experiment was only meant to give a rough idea of the efficiency within two or three per cent, no correction was made for radiation, but the error was avoided as much as pos- sible by having the mean temperature of the calorimeter as hear that of the air as possible, and the rise of temperature small. The error would then be much less than one per cent. 838 Biclend and Barker Efficiency of Edison’s Electric Light. than in the plane of the edge. Two observations were taken of the photometric power, one in a direction perpendicular to the paper, and the other in the direction of the edge, and we are required to obtain the average light from these. If Lis the photometric power perpendicular to the paper, and / that of the edge, then the average A will evidently be very nearly A=Lf cos a sin a da +f sin’a da $7 47 A=} L421 In the paper lamps we found /=4L nearly ; hence A= nearly. he lamps used were as follows: Approximate No. Kind of carbon. Size of carbon. resistance when cold. 580 paper large 147 ohms. 901 “se 6é 14 6G 850 ne small 170°... 7% 809 ~< de 15s" 817 fiber large 4 eee tometer; capacity of calorimeter = 1153+ -009+ 007=1'169 kil. The temperature rose from 18°-28 C. to 23°11 C. in five pounds per minute. The photometric power of No. 580 was 175 candles maximum, or 13°1 mean, / Rowland and Barker— Efficiency of Edison's Electric Light. 339 When the lamps were reversed, the result was 38540 foot pounds for No. 580, and a power of 13°5 or 1071 candles mean. The mean of these two gives, therefore, a power of 3513 foot ounds per minute for 11°6 candles, or 109°0 candles to the orse power. To test the change of efficiency when the temperature varied, we tried another experiment with the same pair of lamps, and also used some others where the radiating area was smaller, and, consequently, the temperature had to be higher to give out an equal light. We combine the results in the following table, having calcu- lated the number of candles per indicated horse power by taking 70 per cent of the calculated value, thus allowing about 30 per cent for the friction of the engine, and the loss of energy in the magneto-electric machine, heating of wires, ete. As Mr. Edison’s machine is undoubtedly one of the most efficient now made, it is believed that this estimate will be found prac- tically correct. The experiment on No. 817 was made by observing the photometric power before and after the calori- meter experiment, as two equal lamps could not be found. As the fiber was round, it gave a nearly equal light in all direc- tions as was found by experiment. Smee bee | MOS he Lampsused in| Photometric power | SS | #40: | bed | 3S 232 12°" Qub] Sago nae peo | Sot | Boa | Bats |GSSkok! Base 388/458 | 85 | BEES |[eaeSSe| 2588 measured z= S25 wes, agoo |a&Boes Amo & Calor. Photo- perpen- ‘vied 25 2 of P) sae gs z2 acho8) a8 sera) aris | Ara | eee | des | ate | Eee EagP*| SOF 201 | 580 | 175 13:1 | 2-57 | 1°75 | 3486 s80 |) 201) 135°) 101 a apart OP A . 01 | 385 28-9 | ana | 2 5181 ; aoa | 880) 446 | 335 6 | 2°29 | aggs-| 7043 | 128 a 09 | 19-0 143 | 281 | 1°14 | 2483 : : 809 | 850 | 12-2 92 | 2-79 | 1°54] 3330° t eis tua abe Bal 17-2 | 9-73 | 1°28] 2708} 209°6 | 18-1 92 made either cheap enough or durable enough, there is no reasonable doubt of the practical success of the light, but this point will evidently require much further experiment before the light can be pronounced practicable. n conclusion, we must thank Mr. Edison for placing his entire establishment at our disposal in order that we might form a just and unbiased estimate of the economy of his light 340 Obituary. OBITUARY. Professor Witt1am T. Rapper of Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, died on the eleventh of March at the age of seventy. Pro- fessor Repper was born in the village of Peilau, near the oravian settlement of Gnadenfrei, in Lower Silesia, Germany, March 7th, 1810. In early life he qualified himself for service im the authorities, to engage in the financial work of the Moravian Church, and was employed in this until 1869, residing most of the time at Bethlehem. At the opening of the Lehigh University in 1866, Mr. Reepper was appointed Professor of Mineralogy and Geology, and curator of the museum. He retained the professor's chair only three years, discharging his duties with marked success uring that time, but he remained curator of the museum until 1871. The latter years of his life were spent in the scientific and pee “hen in which he was so much interested and in this branch of science he ied h position. The mathematical relations of the forms of crystals was a subje to which he gave . He was not less diligent in the chemical investigation of minerals, and his thorough knowledge of the practical side of mineralogy caused his opinion as an expert to be frequently sought by those enga in the mining and smelting of ore he discovery by him of deposits of zine ore from Stirling Hill, N. J., is now called Rapperite after him Those who knew him well will appreciate that, as the result 6 his patient work, his contributions to scientific literature might have been much more numerous but for the delicate modesty and lack of desire for outside reputation which characterized him. | Professor Repper was a man of most genial and _attractive personal character, who will be long remembered by all who had the privilege of his intimate acquaintance. ’ PLATE XP. i ‘ f SS Rates a St Ree So ea gee eae >, ee ee ee eee BT Se: < E> 2, ma > Pk 2 ~© « a ( Seo. Se +4 DER Looe So +e tee ARCHITBUTHIS PRINCEPS. VERRILG eee Zz a ky , ; F Photo Lith Puriderson &Orisand New Haven.,Ct. Wry, SIT irom nature. PLATE XL £ s c s, “et o% } tr ar) — a. tSa Sapte iate ARCHITEUTHIS } OLXx® Le 0<0f ¢ ZO HARVE YI Paaeanene 2 Photo Lith Puriderson &Gresand New Havent. VERRILG PLATE > iS = eee te oe eu at Ce Sey wes 2 vere? Fe eee = nyt ant ages es - : Eas Xl \ ’ Peg tied Sane ) : ; : as ieee ringed URN a SEES eh oot Co | PLATE Xiu. ¢ * —= — SS ere gi mar —— pro ee — i a So - ‘ Photo Lith Purderson&Crisand New Havent. STAUROTEHUTHIS SYRTENSIS: VERRILG AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. [THIRD SERIES] Arr. XLII.—The Outlet of Lake Bonneville ; by G. K. GILBERT. Some of the readers of the Journal will remember that the name “ Lake Bonneville” has been applied to a great body of water which formerly covered the desert basins of Utah. Its Most Conspicuous vestiges are its shore lines, and from them it is known that the ancient water surface was more than ten times as great as that of Great Salt Lake, and the ancient water level was about one thousand feet above the modern. Tt was early surmised that the ancient lake was freshened by overflow, but the point of discharge was for a long time undis- Covered, and it may be said to be still in controversy. The present paper takes up the subject of the outlet where it was left nearly two years ago. In this Journal for April, 1878, the writer maintained that the point of outflow was Red Rock Pass, Idaho, at the north end of Cache Valley; that the discharging stream descended through Marsh Valley and thence continuously to the Pacific Ocean ; and that, flowing over soft material at first, it gradually €xcavated at the Pass a channel more than three hundred feet deep, and lowered the lake level by the same amount. In the June number of the Journal, Dr. A. C. Peale controverted m Conclusion, declaring, first, that the original altitude of Red Rock 28s was considerably below the highest level of Lake Bonne- ville ; second, that the ancient show ine exists in Marsh Valley at the north of the pass, just as in Cache Valley at the south; and finally, that the real point of discharge, when. the water Stood at the Bonneville level, was about forty-five miles north of Red Rock Pass, Am. Jour, oneiscateer “ame VoL. XTX, No. 113,—May, 1880, 342 G. K. Gilbert— Outlet of Lake Bonneville. Dr. Peale treats, in the same article, a question of priority and other matters of purely personal interest, and his re- marks thereon invite reply, but I have a strong distaste for personal controversy, and I am confident that the readers o the Journal—not even excepting Dr. Peale—will cheerfully excuse me if I refrain. I shall therefore confine myself to the The term terrace is applied in topography to a level surface, or one of very gentle slope, limited on one side by a suriace which descends at a greater angle, and usually limited on the other by a surface which ascends at a greater angle. here the limiting slope is steep it is called a scarp. A scarp ma stand above a terrace, rising from its inner edge and in toward it, or it may lie below it, falling from its outer edge an facing from it. Most terraces are margined by scarps on one edge or the other, and some on both. | Terraces are produced in at least five different ways, namely : by differential erosion, by streams, by waves, by differential deposition, and by displacement. : Terraces by Differential Erosion arise wherever a series of dissimilar strata lying nearly horizontal are subjected to rapid erosion. T t strata are destroyed more rapidly than the hard, and the latter, where they overlie soft beds, are under- mined so as to break off by vertical fracture. A stair-like system of terraces and scarps is thus formed, in which each terrace marks the outcrop of a soft rock and each scarp the outcrop of a hard one. These terraces are distinguished from all others by the con stant relation of form to stratigraphic structure. . tream terrace is produced whenever a stream, which has flowing at the upper level the water forms a broad flood plain. By the subsequent excavation this plain is in part destroyed, and what remains becomes a terrace. A scarp of even height separates the terrace from the new channel of the stream oF from a new flood plain. G. K. Gilbert— Outlet of Lake Bonneville. 343 It is characteristic of stream terraces that they slope in the direction of the stream that carved them. ave terraces are found on the shores of all bodies of water. The action of waves, combined with that of currents, carves away the land on all salients. The direct action is con- fined to a few feet above and below the water-level, but what- ever is undermined by the waves is thrown down by gravit and brought within their reach. The results of the erosion are, first, a broad terrace lying under shallow water and sloping gently from the shore; and, second, a sea-cliff or scarp spring- ing from the water’s edge. It is one of the chief characteristics of a wave terrace that of the detritus it transports is deposited at its mouth, he effect of this is to extend its bed on the side toward the deep water. As the mouth protrudes a deposition takes place along the bed, so as to maintain a constant declivity of chan- nel, and soon the bed is so raised that the water finds a lower way at one side and leaves it. By a repetition of this process the mouth of the stream is shifted from point to point, and the delta is made to encroach on the lake along its whole face. he form eventually produced is that of a terrace sloping gently down to the shore and there limited by a submerged ot The declivity of the scarp depends on the coarseness of the material deposited. The declivity of the terrace is identical with that of the stream which formed it. The con- tour separating the terrace from the scarp is a curve convex toward the lake. A chief characteristic of a delta terrace is that its lower edge, where it joins the scarp, follows a water line and is hori- zontal. In the delta terraces of Lake Bonneville the horizon- tality remains though the water has disappeared. erraces displacement are usually produced by faulting. rates the two by a scarp. The scarp is the only feature added to the Pa a ig ari its addition the raised portion of the slope becomes a terrace. hatever is characteristic of the terrace by displacement ertains to the scarp. A fault scarp usually holds an even eight for long distances. It maintains an even, often a 344 G. K. Gilbert— Outlet of Lake Bonneviile. straight, course across the country, ascending and descending slopes without change of direction. It is only by accident that it is ever horizontal. Wave terraces and delta terraces are associated phenomena of shore lines. They agree in the essential character of hori- zontality, and by that are distinguished from all other terraces. ey have no such relation to rock structure as have terraces by differential erosion. Their scarps are not of even height like those of stream terraces. Their course across the country has the sinuosity of a contour, and not the directness of a line of orographic displacement. valleys adjoin, the trough is restricted by spurs from the two ranges, and a few protruding crags show that there is a low cross ridge of limestone buried by more recent deposits. UR the west side of Cache Valley there is a low interval in the bounding range—so low that the Bonneville flood overtopped it and made Cache Valley a bay of the great lake. At th point Bear River has cut a narrow gorge, through which the draipage of the entire valley finds its way to the basin of Great Salt Lake. Bear River and several other streams enter Vache Marsh Valleys to the same level. Red Rock Pass was only 2 See of stricture of the lake, and the outlet was at. the north. e mentions terraces in Marsh Valley and gives their altitudes, own observations, Cache Valley was occupied by Lake Bons’ ville, and Marsh Valley was not so occupied, but was traverse G. K. Gilbert— Outlet of Lake Bonneville. 345 ue lake phenomena of the Bonneville epoch in Marsh alley. ta terrace. If Marsh Valley had really been filled by the lake, as Cache Valley was, there could be no difficulty in finding evidence of the fact. The water would have been eight or ten miles broad and 400 feet deep, and the waves raised by the wind on a bay of such dimensions would leave most conspicuous monuments of their force. Arms of Lake Bonneville two or three miles in Width and less than 100 feet in depth have elsewhere been traced out by means of their distinct’ and well-characterized Shore lines, and this under conditions of slope, etc., similar to . those existing in Marsh Valley. Butif Marsh Valley contained no lake, of what nature are the terraces adduced by Dr. Peale in support of his concla- sions? The question is easier proposed than answered, but I think a partial explanation can be given. The first locality he mentions is “two miles north of Red Rock Pass, on the east side of the valley.” At this place there 18 @ conspicuous stream terrace at about the right altitude to personate a delta terrace of the Bonneville series. Its surface Is part of an alluvial cone formed by Marsh Creek before the Bonneville epoch, and its searp is one wall of the channel worn by the outflowing river during that epoch. The river pared away the margin of the sloping plain spread by the creek and left the remainder as a terrace. The edge of this terrace jis, at its highest point, 50 feet higher than the nearest trace of the Bonneville beach, two miles away ; and it descends northward * 846 G. K. Gilbert— Outlet of Lake Bonneville. until it passes below the level. On top of the terrace and about half a mile back (east) from its edge, there is a secon scarp from 10 to 20 feet in height, and due to displacement. This fades out to the northward and at the same time descends with the general slope. Dr. Peale’s observation probably refers to one or the other of these scarps, and in either case fails to take account of the lack of horizontality. AN a \\, si cs C= “ae Marslv valley oe % 2 4 “e's f= +t 3 = “oo Gg tos = Se in ea pee ae ANS Cera cs SS WALA Ses i Seg Sh NY RS Se Src \ PsSs s ieee, et coe SS are “ily ° Soenage —_s a. a F— Keté we EZ 3 ee eS \}) — ; pee s WE- IS 2 a en er + Z o = <=} Ah A = the solar corona, an y Winlock in that of the aurora borealis. With regard to these lines, Mr. Dougl therefore belong to some unknown eleme like the hypothetical ether, fills space?” tricity both “in the auroral light of our own heavens, and the co tay render this hypothetical gas luminous.” New Series, part 7, p. 82. * A Century's Progress, etc., cited above; also Chem. and Geol. Essays, pre- face to 2d Kd., p. xix. 864 A. Geikie—Archean Rocks of the Wahsatch Mts, extent influenced the observations of some of the able geologists whom.we owe our acquaintance with these western ranges. n a recent visit to the Wahsatch Mountains I was strongly inclined to doubt the correctness of the interpretation of the central and so-called Archean portion of the chain given in the Reports of the Geological Exploration of the 40th Parallel. And I am disposed to offer the results of my visit for the con- sideration of those who are much more familiar than myself once more been revealed by denudation. - Now the fact of the existence of a cliff more than 54 miles high would require to be established by very carefully collected and convincing evidence. It was with very considerable curl- osity therefore that I paid a visit to the Cottonwood district, where the evidence was said to be most complete. I must frankly own that I failed to observe any grounds on which the assertion appeared to me to be warranted. One would natu- rally expect that if a mass of strata 30,000 feet thick had been laid down against a steep slope of land, its component beds * Geol. Exploration of 40th Parallel, vol. i, p. 124. A. Geikie—Archeean Rocks of the Wahsatch Mts. 365 these facts, one might suppose, would be that the granite is later in date than the rocks overlying it. Mr. King admits that the granite had been undoubtedly the center of local met- amorphism, but this change he regards as “ strictly mechanical and not to be mistaken for the caustic phenomena of a chemi- cally energetic intrusion.” (p. 45). How he would discriminate between a mechanical and chemical cause producing precisely the same ultimate effect he does not explain. Had he not been firmly convinced that all the granite must be Archean he would hardly, I venture to think, have penned that sentence. wo pages farther on he admits that round the granite mass the Carboniferous limestones have been invaded by igneous dikes, and these rocks (named granite-porphyry by Zirkel), he asserts to be “middle-age porphyries, not to be confounded they be “middle age,” or rather on what grounds are we to Separate them from the neighboring granite? Not a single reason is given save the obvious one that when a geologist has made up his mind that a granite is Archean he cannot of course admit that it sends out ramifications into overlying Pale- ozoic rocks. Yet the natural tendency of any unbiased ob- server must, I should think, be to connect these surrounding ne argument given by Mr. King for the antiquity of the granite is that it does not send out dikes into the overlying Tocks, (p. 48). But, as he himself is no doubt well aware, the veins or dikes which penetrate the rocks around a granite boss are not always themselves granite. They very commonly take the form of his “ granite-porphyry.”’ 366 A. Geikie—Archean Rocks of the Wahsatch Mts. I submit, therefore, that the facts taken by themselves and without reference to any preconceived opinion or theory, are these: Ist. A large mass of granite* on the Wahsatch Moun- tains ascends with an oblique or transgressive boundary line from certain schists and quartzites across the Paleozoic series up into the Upper Carboniferous horizons. 2d. The rocks as they approach the granite manifest increasing metamorphism ; the limestones pass into white granular marble, and other rocks have assumed the character of schist. 8d. Among the Car- boniferous limestones and other rocks around the main mass of granite, there occur, in different places, dikes or veins of granite- porphyry, like those usually met with in a similar position. he conclusion which I would draw from these facts is that the granite is intrusive, and is later in date than the Upper Carboniferous rocks which have been metamorphosed in con- tact with it. Mr. King speaks of there being possibly two granites, one metamorphic and one intrusive, but both of rchzean date. I could observe no reason for making any subdivision in the granite mass. e somewhat foliated arrangement in certain portions of the granite is not uncommon toward the periphery and even within the central portions of intrusive bosses, The section across the Wahsatch range, placed below rie No. III (east half) of the Geological Exploration of the 40t Parallel, seems to me to bear the strongest evidence against Mr. King’s own reading of the structure of the mountains. If t h twelve miles high! that being the horizontal length of the plat- form of granite into which the rocks dip. In the next place It structure of the ground. That the latter is the natural interpretation of * There can be little doubt that though partially interrupted at the surface by overlying formations it is really all one granite mass. S. L. Penfield—Apatites containing Manganese. 867 the section will, I feel sure, he admitted by any impartial geol- ogist in whose hands the map is ed. I venture to put forward these views with diffidence, and because it appears to me to be a matter of great importance not merely in regard to the geological structure of the West, but to questions in dynamical and physiographical geology, that the true structure of the Archzan nucleus of the Wahsatch Mountains should be correctly interpreted. Mr, King, in his great memoir, has treated that area as a kind of type, and has based upon it much of his speculation regarding the form of the Archean land, and the nature and effects of subsequent fractures of the rocky crust. I confess that it was with con- siderable incredulity that I read in his interesting chapters reiterated assertions that the Archzan land was so stupend- ously mountainous, that some of its peaks rose more than 5$ miles into the air, and remained above water during the whole of Paleozoic and Mesozoic time. I asked myself how much loftier and broader these mountains must really have denudation. For the dimensions assigne r. King must on his own showing be a minimum, reckoned after all these ages of ceaseless waste. But if I am correct in regarding the am inclined to adopt regarding the structure of this range differs from that proposed by Mr. King; and perhaps I may be permitted to communicate it on another occasion in the pages of this Journal. — ART. XLV.—Analyses of some Apatites containing Manganese ; by Samurn L. Penrrenp. (Contributions from the Sheffield Laboratory of Yale College, No. LIX.) In their description of the mineral locality at Branchville, Conn, (this Journal, July, 1878), Messrs. Brush and Dai mention the occurrence of a green manganiferous apatite accompanying the other manganese minerals. Apatite occurs there of many shades of color, from those which are white and “ar gan to those which are dark green, and still others of a bluish shade. The green varieties occur in flat crystalline 368 S. L. Penfield—A patites containing Manganese. masses imbedded in feldspar; occasionally the form of the short prism is distinct. The white variety is usually in erys- tals; these crystals are short prisms combined with the pyra- midal and rough pinacoid planes. The prismatic planes have a fibrous appearances although they are polished and very following analyses will show. was led by the discovery of manganese in the apatite from Branchville, to examine the same mineral occurring at Franklin Furnace, New Jersey ; manganese was also found to be present in it. This apatite occurs in crystals of a light apple-green color imbedded in calcite, from which they are readily separated The material employed in the four analyses, given below, was as follows :—Analysis 1 was made of a dark green variety from Branchville, the darkest that was found. It has a vitreous luster, appearing black by reflected light, but a beautiful dark green by aaa light. Only clear transparent fragments te No. 1. Specifie gravity, 3°39. an, L II. e: P.O 41°60 41°66 41°63 2°93 1 pe “17 “TT 40°31 40°31 720). 2-97 MnO 10°59 10°59 149 t 869 Ca 3°29 -082 28 F 3°20 3°04 3°12 “164 “56 Ch 03 03 “000 S. L. Penfield—A patites containing Manganese. 369 No, 2, by Mr. F. P. Dewey. n. Zz I. ea Ratio P.O; 40°94 40°99 40°96 288 1 Al,O; 52 “AY ‘50 Pods a 08 08 a AT9 AT-95 AT-87 855). ; MnO 250 2-47 2-48 035 t Pe San Ca 4 101 "35 3°84 3°84 3°84 “202 “10 Insoluble 06 “05 06 "000 99°83 No. 3. Specific gravity, 3144. IL I. ean. Ratio. P.O; 41°47 AL‘4T 41-47 292 1 Na +29 ai s a 49°10 49°13 49°12 B77), 3 MnO 1-98 1-94 1:96 t ge We schsas Mg 2-88 072 25 2°68 2°68 141), : Cl 10 10 4 144 49 Insoluble 1°50 1°50 pene it: * 99°93 No, 4. Specifie gravity, 3°22 hy IL. Mean. Ratio. P.O, 39°58 39°59 39°59 279 1 Al,O; 56 56 56 ae! en “17 wes a 46°52 46-76 46°64 833). . 0 1°38 1.31 1°35 eet oh ae ZnO “03 03 03 Ca 3°57 089 "32 3°40 3°34 3°37 177 “04 “178 “64 CaCO, 2°82 2°82 001 52 99:26 The above ratios coincide very nearly with that required by the accepted formula of the species, viz: 1:3: 0°33 : 0°67. These analyses are the first that show the presence of notable quantities of manganese replacing calcium in apatites. It is also to be noted that these apatites are essentially fluor-apatites containing only a trace of chlorine. n closing, I wish to express my thanks to Professor George J. Brush, who has kindly provided me with the material for Carrying on this investigation, and to Mr. Frederick P. Dewey, whose analysis I have quoted. 370 W. #. Hidden—Meteorite from Cleberne Co., Alabama. Art. XLVI.—An account of the eat = if a ce —— in Cleberne County, Alabama; by W WHEN in eastern Alabama, during last autumn, carrying forward some mineralogical investigations in the interest of Mr. Thomas A. Edison, I learned from Ex-Governor Smith of Wedowee, of the existence of a supposed mass of native iron, which he believed 5 ae perhaps be a meteorite. The account which he gave me of it, in his own words, is as follows: ‘Sometime in 1873, while the Rev. John F. Watson was plowing on a newly cleared piece of land, near Chulafin- nee, in Cleberne county, Ala. he turned up a heavy mass of metal. He supposed it to be a rich specimen of bog iron ore, which exists in considerable quantity in the vicinity, and took the mass home. Some days later he carried it to the village blacksmith to have it tested. After heating one corner in the 1 forge, a piece of bon 8h Ste was cut off and wrought into horseshoe nails and a point for a plow. The fact of its mallea- bility tended to set at rest the various local theories about the origin of the mass, and it was there agreed to be a specimen of native iron. The mass was then deposited in the office of the itege Brothers’ Iron Works at Anniston, Alabama, and re- mains there now unsuspected of being a meteorite, and will in all arobabihiiy 4 get into the furnace sooner or lat rough t the kindness of Governor Smith, ike specimen was secured and forwarded tome. On January 21st, 1880, it was i T. S. Hunt— Quartz and Silicification in California. 871. received at Menlo Park, N. J., and was at once recognized as an iron meteorite. A letter from Mr. Watson informs me, further, that the mass was originally thickly encrusted with scales of rust of a red-brown color, and which fell off while being heated in the forge. It now weighs $24 Ibs. (= 14:75 kg.), is somewhat per lar in shape (see cut) ; its three diameters being about 25™ its average thickness gm An an ode by J. B. Mackintosh, K. M., shows it to be of copper, phosphorus and ecarbon.* ’ The ee oe fig- ures are well developed on this iron. They are shown in figure , Which is of exact natural size. This mictannite is one of three discovered by the writer in the Southern States last year. Descriptions of the others will be given later. January 29th, 1880. Art. XLVII.—On the recent formation gf Quartz vee on Silt- jen in California ; oe T. Sterry Hun in California. It consisted of a mass of m ‘ky vitreous quartz in which a recent fracture at Lee an imbedded frag ment, — half an in ch in diam r, of the characteristic so-called opinion epee “* Professor a that the quar artz had made part of a vein formed in the auriferous gravel subsequent to the solidification of the latter. * The ana alysis is ey ities made in duplicate, and when ata & will be vt tis com in this Jou w. his 23 BS Ee FE sPE o fu overlying volcanic rock. to eicplain the solution of silica. ry! oie out by the writer (page 350 of the present bry the removal of the silica ina inp form from the silicates which make up a large part of the eure ey $ not require the intervention of alkalie 3872, 7. S. Hunt— Quartz and Silcification in Calfornia. Dr. Hunt, in commenting upon this occurrence, remarked that it is in accordance with what we already know of the re- cency of some of the quartz of this region, and cited the micro- scopic studies of John Arthur Phillips, who has shown that a great part of the siliceous deposit from certain thermal waters of Lake County, California, and from the Steamboat Springs of asbestus. The various specimens from this locality illustrate perfectly the theory of silicification of vegetable structures, set forth by the speaker in 1864,* based on his own microscoplé studies conjoined with those of Géppert and of Dawson. The silica by which the tissues are thus successively filled and replaced is, according to the speaker, that which is set free in a soluble form in the decay of the silicates in the gravel. The lignite in the undecomposed and unoxidized portions of this which lie below drainage-level is, as yet, unsilicified. Dr. Hunt acknowledged his obligations to Mr. D. T. Hughes, a member of the Institute of Mining Engineers, in charge of the mine 1D question, and a skilled and careful observer, who had called his attention to the facts just set forth. Professor W. C. Kerr stated that his recent and as yet UD- published observations on the fossil woods found in ancient gravels in North Carolina were in accordance with those ¢¢ scribed by Dr. Hunt. * See Can. Naturalist, New Series, vol. i, p. 46; also Hunt’s Chem. and Geol. Suga tes, ralist, 8, i, p. AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XIX, 1880. Plate XVII 10 2 “ a 4 it an eat Wit 1 int tite tn wii yO ii tf RE Pil a | win ri Ty Lj ree i iv mh if | f by A t nvT tir Wrvenndits if 5 use ATES) ant t us PUTED vi L ‘nia nie Ma | i | | l 0 Mn) ini MT mY GiAR SRAUS he ee ie LR RIelS? See (01 2 Se ee ae 5 Ee TI I t au th uh I ee Photographic Spectrum of a Lyre, : Photographic Spectra of Stars. 373 Art. XLVIIL— On the Photographic Spectra of Stars.* THE author presented, in December, 1876, a preliminary note on the subject of this paper, together with a diagram o the spectrum of Vega coined with that of the sun. he author refers to a paper by Dr. William Allen Miller and himself in 1864, in which they describe an early attempt to oe the spectra of stars. ther investigations prevented the author from resuming this line of research until 1875, when a more perfect driving clock, by Grubb, enabled him to take up this work with greater prospect of success. The author describes the special apparatus and the methods of working which have been em ed. In consequence of the very limited amount of light received from the stars, it was of great importance not to spread out the Spectrum to a greater extent than was necessary for a sufficient Separation of the principal lines of the spectrum. The spec- ultra-violet. The definition is so good that in photographs of the solar spectrum at least seven lines can be counted between and K, * Abstract of paper by W. Huggins, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., read before the Royal Society, eee 18, 1879, with additions by the author.—Naiure, Jan. 22. Am. Jour. Sct.—Tuinp Serres, Vou. XIX, No. 113.—May, 1880. 26 874 Photographic Spectra of Stars. small areas of the moon. e spectra of Sirius, Vega, a Cygni, a Virginis, 7 Urse Majoris, a Aquile and Arcturus are laid down in the map on the scale of M. Cornu’s map of the ultra-violet part of the solar spectrum, : so stellar spectra extend from about G to O in the ultra- violet. white stars coincident with these lines. A glance at the oe will show how remarkable is the arrangement in position © these twelve typical lines. They forma great group in which that such modifications would confirm his views on the dissociation of this ne nee, erence is also,made to Proceedings R. S. December, 1878, fig: 2“ where Mr. Lockyer gives a fuller statement of his views on this and other po! in connection with different classes of spectra of the stars. Photographic Spectra of Stars. 375 of the Greek alphabet in the order of refrangibility, beginning with the first line beyond K of the solar spectrum. The wave- lengths of these lines are as follows :— Hydrogen near Hydrogen near 1G. 4340 | 7. 6 3767°5 Ee 4101 8. & 3745 ou 3 Been 3968 aL ess 3730 A as 38875} 10. 7 3717'S be Be a1; 37075 Gey. 3795 |10. 2 3699 he spectra of the planets were taken on the plan suggested by the author in 1864, in which the planet’s spectrum is observed or photographed together with a daylight spectrum. These photographs show no sensible planetary modification of the violet and ultra-violet parts of the spectrum of the planets enus, Mars, and Jupiter. Numerous spectra of small areas of the lunar surface have been taken under different conditions of illumination, and dur- Ing eclipses of that body. The results are wholly negative as any absorptive action of a lunar saps he author is preparing to attempt to obtain by photography any lines which may exist in the violet and ultra-violet spectra of the gaseous nebulew. He also points out the suitability of the photographic metliod of stellar spectroscopy, first inaugu- tated by his researches, to some other investigations, such as— differences which may present themselves in the photographic Tegion in the case of the variable stars, the difference of rela- tive motion of two stars in the line of sight, the sun’s rotation from photographic spectra of opposite limbs, and the spectra of the different parts of a sun-spot. 8 still pursuing this inquiry, he reserves an account of this Part of his work, = Messrs, Dewar and Liveing have found in their experiments similar relative Oise of intensity of the lines of calcium corresponding to H an in the *ssion spectrum of calcium. 376 The Uranometria Argentina. ArT. XLIX.—The Uranometria Argentina. egin regular observations with it. This interval was not allowed to run to waste, and Dr. Gould began a series of obser- vations with the purpose of doing for the southern stars what Argelander had done so, well thirty years before, in the Urano- metria Nova, for the stars of the northern sky. Th results of this undertaking are now published in a quarto volume of 385 pages, and an atlas of 14 large maps of stars. he Uranometria Argentina will probably always be the standard of reference for the southern stars visible to the naked themselves should coincide as nearly as possible with those 0. Argelander in his Uranometria Nova. A zone of stars 10° in Harvard Observatory. : : The third chapter is devoted to the constellations and their The Uranometria Argentina. 377 nomenclature. It opens with a history of what was done by Bayer, who first broke away from the traditional catalogue and figures of Ptolemy, by Lacaille, Bode, Sir John Herschel, Baily and others in their attempts to arrange the stars of the southern sky in constellations, and give the stars distinctive names in them. The principles which Dr. Gould has finally acted upon are expressed in six rules. The first of these is that the constellations of Ptolemy and - Hevelius, together with those adopted or introduced by Lacaille, are to be retained, and no others. Argo disappears nominally, being replaced by Carina, Puppis and Vela. e other rules refer principally to the names of the stars and the constellations, except the third, which is perhaps the most important. ‘The boundaries must be so arranged that the constellations shall include all stars denoted by Greek letters which were This fixing of the boundaries of the constellations, in the southern sky, is a subject of great importance. ould it not The fifth chapter contains the catalogue of the stars arranged by constellations, Only those stars are included that are 378 The Uranometria Argentina. brighter than 7:1 magnitude, and are within 100° of the south pole, in all 7730 in number. e stars bear current numbers, in order of R. A., and the synonym in other catalogues, and the magnitude, together with the R. A. and declination are given for each star. f the number mentioned, 6733 belong to the southern heavens, and 997 to the belt of 10° in width, north of the equator. They belong to 66 different constellations. About 100 pages are occupied with the sixth chapter, which contains notes to the catalogue. Most of these are devoted to the magnitudes of stars, with special reference to their bein possibly variable. This property of variability Dr. Goul ' believes to be much more frequent than has been hitherto sup- posed. Chapter VII describes the atlas, which “consists of thirteen special charts, together with a fourteenth or general one, which presents at a single view the whole region included in our work, and serves as an index map both for the others and for the constellations.” These in a compact form in those positions least likely to distract - attention of the observer” in order to have the real aspect 0 labor expended on the mapping of this part, goes on to Say, ‘To astronomers dwelling near the level of the sea, or 1n the neighborhood of large cities, or where, for any other reason, meteorological conditions are not especially favorable to trans — in the atmosphere, the brilliancy of the Milky Way 3 ere depicted may seem excessive. But this is not so in any of those impressions which I have personally examined ; none of them exaggerating in general its brightness as seen at Cor- doba under favorable circumstances.” : The Uranometria Argentina. 879 Chapter VIII, which is a dissertation on the distribution of the stars (occupying 85 pages), opens with a table showing “ the number of stars, of each grade of brilliancy from 7™-0 upward, which are to be found south of the parallel of ten degrees north declination.” The results of this table are:— Magnitude. No. Stars South Declination. No. Stars North Declination. 0°0 to 2°0 19 3 2'1 to 3-0 66 6 3°] to 4°0 166 29 41 to 5-0 321 5'1 to 6-0 1238 174 61 to 7-0 4884 124 _ Putting 2, to represent the total number of stars contained in the catalogue to the mth magnitude inclusive, he finds >,,==0°54896 (3°9111)™ to be a near approximation to the number of stars of each mag- nitude contained within the limits. Then follows a careful and somewhat elaborate comparison between the numbers of stars assigned to the several magnitudes in the Durchmusterung, the Uranometria Nova and the Atlas Coelestis of Heis. . G sums up the result of his extremely interesting investigation (p. 368) as follows: _ “1. There is in the sky a girdle of bright stars, the medial line of which differs but little from a circle, inclined to the galactic circle by a little less than 20°. 2. The grouping of the fixed stars brighter than 4-1 is more systematic, relatively to that medial line, than to the galactic circle; and the abundance of bright stars in any region of the sky is greater as its distance therefrom is less. v the preceding paragraph, and supposing the several magni- _ tudes of the stars in the cesta to follow the law of Probabili- Hes, we obtain for each class of magnitudes a number, which 880 The Uranometria Argentina. being subtracted from the observed number in the sky, leaves a system of distribution which may be represented by the ex- pression 2,,=ab” within the limits of the errors of observation. . The accordance thus obtained holds good for the stars of both hemispheres down to the lowest limits of magnitude for which trustworthy enumerations exist; and this whether we employ the numbers of the Durchmusterung, of Argelander's and Heis’s Uranometries, or of this present work. 7. The form of the expression 3,,=ab” is that which corres- ponds to the hypothesis that in general the stars are distributed at approximately equal distances from one another, and are 0 approximately equal intrinsic brilliancy. It is, however, not requisite for its applicability that their distribution be equable in all directions, but only that their number be proportional to the volume of the spherical shell within which they are con- tained. corresponds to the light ratio 0:4028 for descending, or 2°4827 for ascending, magnitudes. ‘Then follows a description of the parts of the Milky Way, with its rifts and ramifications, and the gradations and contrasts of light. With this is a careful determination of the medial points and the breadth of the stream, the position of the galactic circle, and the numbers of stars on the two sides of the circle. : “ Inferences of some cosmological importance are deducible from the tables just given. It cannot escape notice that the part of the Milky Way which lies between 160° and 225° of galactic longitude, or from 6" to 8" of right-ascension, is much the broadest of all; this corresponding to the region of widest separation of the branch-circles in the undivided portion of the stream. Moreover the narrowest parts are from 3" to 5$” and from 104" to 12" of right-ascension, or, roughly, in the galactic 55° t longitudes 105° to 150° and 270°. These regions, C. U. Shepard—Ivanpah Meteorite Iron. 381 Art. L.—On the Ivanpah, California, Meteoric Iron ; by CHAS. ig Upnam Sueparp, Emeritus Professor of Natural History in Amherst College. _ For my knowledge of the discovery of this meteorite, I am indebted to Mr. C. C. Parry, of the Academy of Science of Davenport, Iowa, and to Mr. W. G. Wright, Naturalist at San Bernardino, California, from each of whom I received a few weeks ago, communications upon the subject, accompanied by small fragments from the mass, for my examination and analysis. Before proceeding to the description of these, I may state the circumstances connected with this interesting se totes The locality is situated in a region known as the Colora Basin, within eight miles of Ivanpah, which place is about two ait miles northeast of San Bernardino in Southern Cali- ornia. The mass was discovered very recently by Mr. Stephen Goddard, who in returning one evening to his camp after a prospecting excursion, as he was crossing what is there called a wash, had his attention arrested by a singular looking bowlder. On striking it with his pick, he was still more surprised at the ringing sound produced by the blow. These observations led him to return the day following with a wagon, and to remove it to Ivanpah. From thence it was taken by Mr. Heber Hunt- ington to San Bernardino, where it was placed for some time on exhibition at the store of Mr. Craig. From thence again, it has lately been transported to San Francisco, and deposited with Mr. Henry G. Hanks, the State Geologist ; and will, in all probability, be preserved in the future geological collection of California. Description of the Meteorite. It is oval in shape, having one of its sides somewhat flattened. Its surface is entirely covered with depressions or dents, “‘ as. it had been patted all over with pebbles” or clam shells, while * From this account, it would appear that the mass resembles the Orange River (South Africa) iron of 170 pounds weight in the Amherst College cabinet, which Singularly enough has one of the finger-holes above noticed, which though not so deep, is as perfectly turned at sides and bottom, as if artificially formed. * 382 J. P. Cooke—Atomie Weight of Antimony. ent; one in flat leaves, the other in wavy, semi-cylinders or irregular prisms. The latter may be the rhabdite of Reichenbach. Both kinds, however, are equally taken into solution by long digestion in aqua regia. Specific gravity = 7°65. ~ Composition. SO eS ie cee 94°98 PCRE: ooe wee ees EES 4°52 se ig he. Rete sao aet ee Seen ae 0°07 Grapniie Soe Ree oes sk 0°10 99°67 No sulphur was present. For want of material, no examina- tion was made for the metals, often detected in small quantities in meteoric irons. Charleston, S. C., March 12, 1880. Art. LI.—The Atomic Weight of Antimony, Preliminary Notice of Additional Experiments ; by JoStAH P. COOKE. [From the Proceedings of the American Acad. of Arts and Sei., Mar. 10, 1880.] f fifteen analyses of five different preparations of the brom! * This Journal, III, xv, 41, 107, 1878. J. P. Cooke—Atomic Weight of Antimony. 383 and 120°3 for the six determinations in which we placed most confidence. The antimonious bromide used in these determi- nations was purified first by fractional distillation, and secondly by crystallization from a solution in sulphide of carbon. In the crystallized product thus obtained, the bromine was deter- mined gravimetrically as bromide of silver in the usual way. Although it seemed at the time that the results were as accord- knowledge of the relations involved as will enable us to obtain at once more sharp and decisive results than are now possible.” Unfortunately this investigation has been delayed by causes beyond our control. n which we deyised for subliming iodide of antimony; and in a the preparation. The fine acicular crystals are ear color- the small differences between the results previously obtained arose wholly from the analytical process, and not from any want of constancy in the material analyzed; and further that these sources of error are to a very great extent under control. Moreover, we have found that the volumetric determination of Tomine by silver was not materially affected, if at all, by the 584 J. P. Cooke—Atomic Weight of Antimony. same causes. We have thus been led to devise a mode of test- ing the atomic weight of antimony, which, while it has all the advantages of the gravimetric method previously employed, is free from its sources of error. t additional amount of a normal silver solution required to pro- duce complete precipitation was run in from a burette, and measured with the usual precautions. We used no extraneous indicator, because it was important not to introduce any poss ly new disturbing element into the experiment, and in the titration of bromine with silver the normal and familiar phe nomena, which mark the close of the process, furnish a very — sharp indication. The details of one of the determinations were as follows :— The weight of the bromide of antimony used amounted to 2°5032 grams. To precipitate the bromine from the solution of this material 22404 grams of silver would be require Sb = 122-00 and 22529 if Sb = 120-00. We weighed out, with of this silver solution to the liter flask containing the solution. of bromide of antimony, in the manner described above. It was then found that 12,4, cubic centimeters of -a normal silver solution (one gram of silver to the liter) were required pr complete the precipitation. It will be seen that the weights © the bromide of antimony and silver used could be thus deter- mined with the most absolute precision, and we have the J. P. Cooke—Atomic Weight of Antimony. 385 greatest confidence in these values to the #1, of a milligram. Moreover, it will be noticed that the volumetric method is only used to estimate the difference in the atomic weight which has been in question, and that if the method were only accurate to the =, of the quantity to be measured it would give us the value of the atomic weight within ;2, of a unit; while if, as we had reason to believe, the process was accurate within one per cent, it would fix the atomic weight within +2, of a unit. the method just described, the following results were ob- tained: The letters a and 6 indicate different preparations. Wt. of SbBrs Total wt. of Ag Per cent of Br Corresponding taken. used. Ag=108 Br=80. value of Sb. a1, 2°5032 2°2528 66°6643 120°01 @ 2. 2°0567 . 1°8509 66°6620 120°02 a@ 3. 2°6512 2°3860 66°6644 120°01 b 4, 3°3053 2°9749 66°6696 119°98 6 5. 2°7495 2°4745 66°6653 120°01 Mean value, 66°6651 120°01 Mean value of fifteen gravimetric de- terminations previously published, t piotiniciut heory Sb. 120 requires 66°6666 oe lee 66°2983 In order still further to control the work, we collected the bromide of silver formed in the last two determinations, wash- ing the precipitate with the precautions which experience had shown to be necessary, and determining its weight, first, after drying at 150° C., and, secondly, after heating to incipient fusion. In 6 6 there was a loss of fy of a milligram; in 6 7 a loss of 32, of a milligram only at the second weighing. This is an absolute proof that there could be no sensible ocelu- Sion of any tartaric acid or any tartrate by these precipitates, and, as stated in our original paper, the same test was fre- quently applied, although not always, in our previous determi- nations. It is also evident that these last experiments give us two essentially distinct determinations of the atomic weight, although the materials employed were identical with those of b4 sel bd. Wt. of SbBr; Wt. of Ag Br Per cent af Br Corresponding taken. determined. Ag=108 Br=80. value of Sb. b 6. 3°3052 5°1782 66°665 120°01 b 7. 2°7495 4°3076 66667 120-00 Mean value, 66°666 120°00 Lastly, it is obvious that these gravimetric determinations, taken in connection with the corresponding vo umetric results, give us the most conclusive evidence of the purity, both of the 386 J. L. Smith—Daubrée’s Experimental Geology. ‘ metallic silver used, and also of the bromide of antimony, which is the basis of this atomic weight investigation. By comparing 6 6 and b 7 with 4 4 and 6 5 respectively, we obtain the following data :— 1. 2°9749 gram of silver gave 5°1782 gram bromide of silver. 9. 2°4745 ““ 6c “6 4°3076 “c “ “ Hence it follows that, as shown by these experiments, the proportions of the silver to the bromine were respectively :— 1. 108°00 Silver to 79°99 Bromine. %. ape0o:. .“.. ©. 8O01 sae Mean value, 108700 “ “ 80°00 ai This is the ratio of the atomic weight of silver to that of bromine, and corresponds to the second decimal place with the determinations of Stas as well as with those of Dumas. n conclusion it gives us pleasure to express our obligations to Mr. G. De N. Hough and Mr. G. M. Hyams, two students of this laboratory, who have greatly aided us in the experimental work of this investigation. Cosmical Art, LIL—Daubrée’s Experimental Geology: Part I, Expert- 7 mental Study of Meteorites with reference to certain Phenomena; noticed by J. LawRENCE SMITH. Etudes Synthétiques de Geologie Expérimentale; par A. Daubrée, Deuxiéme partie—application de la methode expérimentale a l’étude de divers phénoménes cosmologigues THE first part of Professor Daubrée’s valuable work on experimental geology appeared several months, since.* The second part, embracing about 850 pages, is exclusively devoted to an experimental study of the structure and genesis of meteoric minerals, and to the bearing of the facts on the constl- tution of the universe. The first chapter of the part before us is devoted to the study of the phenomena attending the fall of Aerolites and to onths, August and November, remarkable for showers of is important that this fact should be clearly stated and reiter- ated, since many scientists are disposed to connect these two classes of phenomena; until shooting stars and meteoric stones are treated of wholly independently, no approach will be made to a correct theory in regard to the origin of the latter. * This Journal, August, 1879, p. 150. i Bien J. L. Smith—Daubrée’s Experimental Geology. 387 The composition of meteorites is reviewed, and the well- established fact that but few minerals enter into the constitu- tion of these bodies, however different they may be in physical characters. The metallic iron, forming either the entire mass or dissemin- ated in small particles through the stones, is invariably a nickel- iferous iron, containing a little cobalt and a trace of copper. The € most interesting part of Professor Daubrée’s labors relates to the fusion of meteorites and their artificial imita- ton. In the first class of experiments the results show that he fusion of the eukritic meteorites present some remark- able features; “they yield a product wholly different from the other magnesian meteorites, namely : a vitreous mass sometimes striped by a commencement of devitrification, but without crystals of olivine or enstatite.” ‘(In the same experiments, a Ow red heat. The oxide of iron was reduced to metallic iron, and the phosphates to phosphides, the products having a close * The enstatite, also called bronzite, in its chemical character is a magnesian Pyroxene, 388 J. L. Smith—Daubrée's Raperimental Geology, hygrogen acting on the rocks at a more or less elevated temper- ature; how high the temperature was it is impossible to decide. e says: “It was without doubt an elevated temperature, because the anhydrous silicates, as olivine and pyroxene, are the products; yet at the moment of solidification and crystal lization, the temperature appears to have been inferior to that small confused crystals, notwithstanding the extreme tendency of the minerals to crystallize. Beside this production of small confused crystals, there is a manifest tendency for them to assume a globular form.” The author compares meteorites with the rocks of our globe and brings out the contrast in a striking manner, aes = - and in these that are to be various lights by the author. : J. L. Smith—Daubrée’s Experimental Geology. 389 He observes: ‘‘ Whatever their origin and orbits, the meteorites that fall on our planet show us one of the great methods of change carried on in the universe, consisting in the distribution of the fragments, derived from the destruction of certain stars, planets or asteroids, among other suns and planets. Such occurrences are not accidental or exceptional phenomena, but facts under a law of the universe. In establishing a close relation between meteorites and the deep-seated rocks of our globe, we not only unravel remote phases in the history of our own globe, but establish the intimate relation that exists be- tween the different parts of the universe.” “It is thus that e, has an intimate relation to physical astronomy, for if it receives light, it also con- tributes light.” The second section of this part of Professor Daubrée’s work treats of the mechanical phenomena connected with meteorites. Under this head are included the globular structure which In the application of this part of the subject, Professor Dau- brée says: “Those meteorites, which have a fragmentary struc- ture and are very often polyhedral in form, exhibit on their surface the effects of the action of compressed and heated gases, the indentations affording evidence of a wearing action by air in a cyclonic movement.” When meteoric masses have been isolated from each other after entering the atmosphere their Incandescence ceases rack of a meteorite while thus Incandescent is often over one hundred and twenty-five miles, and takes several seconds. During this time, it certainly can- air may be supposed to reach 1000 atmospheres, and the bolides peiatod in every direction in the midst of this Am. Jour. Sor1.—Tuirp x mame Vou. XIX, No. 113,—May, 1880, 390 Allen and Comstock—Bastndsite and Tysonite. marbled structure of the coating of some of them, and also the pulverulent variety of meteorites, or, as it is sometimes called, meteoric dust, ete. I have thus given a statement of some of the prominent fea- tures of this most admirable work on the mineral and geologi- cal study of meteorites, embracing not merely descriptions, but also the results of well directed experiments, and comprehen- sive philosophical conclusions. We have nothing like it in our scientific literature; and being the result of the labors of so distinguished a geologist as Professor Daubrée, one who has devoted much thought and labor to the subjects of which he treats, it deserves the closest study. The first part of the work I have not referred to, for it has been made known to us briefly in a former notice in this Journal, and quite fully in Professor Dana’s recent edition of his Manual of Geology, which work cites many of the facts and conclusions, and some of its excellent illustrations. : In the preparation of both parts of this volume, the publisher has done his part most thoroughly, the paper and typography being such as are rarely equalled in scientific publications, and the illustrations in the text, which are very numerous, being © unusual beauty. The work is one that should find its way to the library of every geologist. Art. LIIL—Bastniisite and Tysonite from Colorado ; b y O. D. ALLEN and W. J..Comstock. ‘(Contributions from the Laboratory of the Sheffield Scientific School. No. LX.) THE material for the investigation, the results of which are here given, was received from Messrs. S. T’. Tyson and H. KE. ood, to whom our thanks are due. so hy The first mineral examined was found by careful qualitative analysis to contain only the metals of the cerium group, uo and carbonic acid, with a trace of iron. Its characters are a Ss 18, : to resinous. Color reddish brown. Streak light Bhi gray. Infusible. Is very slightly attacked by hy rochlori¢ acid, without perceptible evolution of carbonic acid. * oA “ha ini acid dissolves it with evolution of carbonic an hydrofluoric acids. Strongly heated in a closed tube shows scarcely a trace of moisture. The direct results obtained by analysis are : ish bastnasite I. I. Mean. ns ‘Nordenskidld. Ce.05 40°88 41°21 41°04 } ap .29 28°49 {14-26 (La, Di)sO; 34°95 34°56 34-76 ; 45°77 OO, 20°09 20°20 20°15 19°50 Allen.and Comstock—Bastniisite and Tysonite. 391 By converting a known weight of the mixed oxides of the mineral into anhydrous normal sulphates, the joint atomic weight of the metals was found to be 140°2. If from the car- bonic acid obtained, an amount of the bases is calculated sufii- cient to form normal carbonate, the remainder of the bases calculated as metals and the fluorine estimated by difference, the mean becomes : Ratio. (Ce, La, Di)2O3 == 60:13 “153 Ge,La, Di =21 155 = 20°15 “458 e900 “416 100-00 RO,: BR: CO.* Fl=1: 1911 322°72; corresponding to the formula R,Fl, + 2 R,(CO,), in which R=Ce, La and Di. If the atomic weight of R=140-2, as found in the present case, the formula requires :— (Ce, La, Di),0, = 49°94 be La, Di comet 9 as This mineral corresponds to that from Sweden described by Hisinger* under the name of Basiskfluorcerium. It was later re-investigated by A. E. Nordenskiéld,+ who first ascertained Its correct composition and called it hamartite. Huot had, how- ever, previowal y-oalted the mineral basindsite, after the locality. Nordenskiéld’s analysis is given above for comparison. Associated with bastndsite occurs a mineral which proved to be an anhydrous normal fluoride of cerium, lanthanum and didymium, which we have examined with the following results : = 4°5-5. Specific gravity = 6°14, 6°12. Luster vitreous to resinous. Color pale wax yellow. Streak nearly white. B.B. blackens but does not fuse. In closed tube decrepitates, the color changes to a light pink, and shows slight traces of moisture. Insoluble in hydrochloric and nitric acids, but dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid with evolu- tion of hydrofluoric acid. Qualitative examination showed only the presence of fluorine and the metals of the cerium group. Quantitative analysis gave the following results : M ‘8 Eh ean. 0. Ce = 40°16 40°22 40°19 +284 50 La, Di = 30°29 30°45 30°37 “220 Fl (diff.) = 29°55 29°33 29°44 L547 100-00 100-00 100-00 * Cf. Ak. Stockh., 1838, p. 187. }+ (Ef. Ak. Stockh., 1868, p. 399. Birich’s atomic weight (141-2) for cerium was use for calculations. A known weight of the mixed oxides was converted into anhydrous normal sulphates, care being taken that the cerium should exist wholly as cerous sul- 392 Allen and Comstock—Bastniisite and Tysonite. From which is obtained the ratio Bee, a £2 5°07, The formula (Ce, La, Di),Fl, appears therefore to express the composition of the mineral. As this mineral differs essen- tially in chemical composition and physical properties from any mineral hitherto described, it should be regarded as a new species. We propose for it the name Zysonite. The process of analysis used for both minerals was as follows: a solution was effected by strong sulphuric acid. After remov- ing the excess of sulphuric acid the sulphates were dissolved in water. The bases were precipitated with ammonium oxalate, the oxalates ignited in air and finally in hydrogen in order to remove the slight amount of oxygen which Di,O, takes upon ignition in air. The cerium in the mixed oxides was deter- some cases attached to feldspar. The crystals are hexagonal in form, the only planes observed being O, I and 7-2. On a single crystal can be seen the remains of pyramidal planes, but so rounded by abrasion that any measurements would be useless. The crystals are prismatic 1D habit, the smaller ones slender and somewhat elongated, the ese specimens show an interesting relation between i fluoride and the fluo-carbonate. The smaller crystals const wholly of fluo-carbonate ; in the larger crystals, howevel ant from m the ) The weight of cerium in the oxides used being known (and its state of oxidation), the joint atomic weight of the lanthanum and didymi 7 De ae i ined. 0 such experiments gave the 0 J. P. Cooke—Argento-Antimonious Tartrate. 393 of the crystals from a few lines to half an inch. The line of demarkation between it and the fluo-carbonate is quite distinct. This mode of occurrence of the two compounds, being such as is often seen in crystals which have undoubtedly undergone partial changes of composition, leads to the conclu- sion that the bastnisite of Colorado was formed by a change of a fluoride into a fluo-carbonate. In the fluoride a distinct but not strongly marked cleavage exists parallel to the basal planes of the enclosing fluo-carbonate. In the latter we could detect no evidence of cleavage. Art, LIV.—On Argento-antimonious 7 artrate (Silver Emetic) ; by Jostan P. Cooke. (Contributions from the Chemical Laboratory of Harvard College). As stated by us in our paper on the atomic weight of anti- mony,* this compound was originally obtained by Wallquist by precipitating nitrate of silver with tartar emetic, and was - analyzed both by him and by Dumas and Piria. These chem- ists obtained respectively 27°31 and 28°05 per cent of oxide of silver. They appear however to have prepared the substance only in an amorphous form. As stated in the paper just cited, we first noticed the formation of crystals of the compound in a concentrated solution of antimonious chloride and tartaric acid, ad been added an excess of argentic nitrate, an from the circumstances of their formation we were led to form a somewhat erroneous inference in regard to their relation to water. We find that the substance is far more soluble in this product in the precipitation of chlorine, bromine or iodine from Solutions of the antimony compounds of these elements in tartaric acid, unless the ‘excess of silver nitrate is larger and the solutions concentrated ; and although we have most care- fully looked for it in the precipitate we have never discovered it, except under the peculiar conditions described in our former paper, and our fear that it might be occluded by these precip- itates was wholly unfounded : i It is evident from the above experiments that the solubility * This Journal, p. 382, 394 J. P. Cooke—Argento-Antimonious Tartrate. of silver emetic in water like that of cream of tartar and other salts of tartaric acid is very greatly increased by heat, and we were easily able to obtain good crystals of the compound in arge quantities by dissolving the precipitate, obtained as Wallquist describes, in boiling water, and allowing the solution to cool. The crystals are colorless and have a very brilliant, almost an adamantine, luster. rom the reaction by which silver emetic is formed we should infer that the composition of the salt would be ex- pressed by the symbol Ag, SbO, H, =0,=(C,H,0,) . H,0. This compound would theoretically contain 26°34 p. ¢. of silver, and, as a mean of three analyses, we obtained for the amount of silver in the crystals 26:30 per cent, as previously stated. The crystals of silver emetic rapidly blacken in the light and are very easily decomposed by heat. This decomposition takes place at about 200° C. with a slight explosion. A very fine carbon dust is blown out of the crucible and a residue is left ind, which under the microscope 1s seen to consist of spangles of metallic silver mixed with an amorphous powder. Almost the whole of the powder dissolved easily in a solution of tartaric acid, and 100 110 it evidently consisted of Sb,0,. In one experiment we weighed the silver emetic and the product, and found that 0-8460 gram. of the salt left 0°5304 gram. of rest- due. If the residue consisted solely of / silver and Sb,O,, theory would require 05200 grams, and it can be seen from this how perfect the decomposition was. 1t is obvious therefore that were this compound occluded as we at first feared, it would have made itself evident on drying the precipitates. Mr. W. H. Melville, assistant in this laboratory, has made the following crystallographic measurements of the erystals whose formation and reactions we have described. Angles between normals. (111) A, (100) = 70-194’ Qi) A: Qh): Fear O20 es) 1960 +0571 IL. Measured. 100: 136 54° 192’ 54° 10’ 111 /A\ 110 54° 51' 54° «254 The pinacoid planes were irregular and the angles can only be regarded as approximate. Ca fei a i O. C. Marsh—Sternum tn Dinosaurian Reptiles. 395 System Trimetric with hemihedral habit. Observed planes + % | 111 | | 100] | 110] | 011]? In the following table the crystallographic ratios are com- pared with those of the acid tartrates of rubidium, cesium and potassium, formerly measured by us, and which have the same general form and hemihedral habit. Vertical. Macro. Brachy. 61 1 0°694 Acid tartrate of czesium 0°6 Acid tartrate of rubidium 0°695 1 0°726 Acid tartrate of potassium 0°737 1 0-711 Silver emetic 0°412 1 0°721 Art. LV.—The Sternum in Dinosaurian Reptiles ; by Professor O. C. Marse. (With plate XVIII). e. e Yale Museum has recently received a nearly com- plete skeleton of Brontosaurus excelsus, one 0 the largest known Dinosaurs. This huge skeleton lay nearly in the posi- In adult anim anterior end of each bone is considerably thickened, and there 18 a distinet facet for union with the coracoid. The posterior end is thin, and irregular. These bones are shown in position * Geology of Oxford, p. 268, 1871. + Palzontographical Society, p. 31, 1875, 396 ~=6B. A. Gould—Southern Comet of February, 1880. on Plate XVIII, figure 1, and one of them is more fully illus- trated in figure 2. The inner anterior margin of each bone is Yale College, New Haven, April 11, 1880. Art. LVI.—On the Southern Comet of February, 1880 ; by B. A, Goup. On the evening of February 2nd, before the twilight was fully past, my attention was drawn to a remarkable streak of light in the southwest, which extended through about 18°, at an angle not much inclined to the vertical. Its lower ex tremity was perhaps 20° above the horizon, and the brightness was in no part much, if indeed any, greater than that of a star of the 54 magnitude. It seemed to taper in both directions, fading away at each extremity, and to be between 1° and 2 wide in the middle. A moment's reflection assured me that what I saw must be part of the tail of a comet, the lower por tion being obscured by haze and its nucleus being below the horizon, which was concealed by a bank of clouds. No time was lost in preparing for an accurate drawing of its position, but the mist and clouds obscured it completely within a very few minutes, before any delineation could be made. Messrs. W. G. Davis and ©. W. Stevens did, however, plot from memory upon the index-map of the Uranometry a sketch of its position and form, which seemed correct to both. B. A. Gould—Southern Comet of February, 1880. 397 Inquiries the next morning showed that the same phenom- enon had been observed on the evening of February 1st, by sev- eral persons, and one assured me that he had noticed it on the more than one occasion during the first year of my residence in this country. _ In the evening the ray or streak was about 380° long, and a little brighter than on the previous night, and it had moved laterally northward. Still, a careful search, beginning immedi- ately after sunset, failed to discover the head, or indeed any increase of brightness in the vicinity of the horizon, although the direction of the tail seemed toward the position of the sun. Careful drawings were independently made, on this and each subsequent evening during its visibility, by Mrs. Gould and Mr. C. W. Stevens; the maps Nos. 2 and 8 of the Uranometry affording an excellent means for very minute delineation. On the 4th I saw the head for a few moments in the twilight. It scarcely seemed brighter than Encke’s comet appeared under similar circumstances at its last perihelion; but it was much larger and had a coarse and undefined aspect. No nucleus was visible. There was no opportunity to discover any com- parison-star, before it was lost in the mists of the horizon ; but a rough position was obtained by means of the setting-circles of the equatorial. This gave, for 5" 27™ 55% of Cordoba sidereal time, R.A. 22" 24" 108, Decl. —31° 29-1. The altitude of the comet having been less than 2° 42’, no great reliance can be placed on this determination, which was moreover crude in other respects. On February 5th, I obtained tolerably good comparisons with an undetermined star, the approximate position of which is 22" 41™ 40%, —39° 27’ for the mean equinox of 1880-0; and from that date to February 19th, there were but two evenings on which observations were not secured, the sky having been especially propitious during that period. The tail, which I think was brightest February 6th or 7th, although then not more brilliant than the Milky Way in Taurus, maintained its inordinate length of from 35° to 40° until it faded from view, Which took place only five days before the head became invisible in the 114 inch equatorial. Indeed it was with the greatest difficulty that I was able to observe it on the 19th, when it was only to be recognized as a slight whiteness in the field, unnoticeable without special attention. No nucleus was visible at any time during the whole duration of its visibility, nor was there any definite form or even perceptible outline to 398 B.A, Gould—Southern Comet of February, 1880. the head, excepting on one or two nights at the beginning of the series of observations. It then exhibited an elongated orm, somewhat rounded at its anterior margin, and shading away to form the tail, which was but little inferior in bright- the telescope, although my ephemeris was so accurate as to leave no doubt concerning its position in the field. The positions of the comparison-stars employed on the 7th, 8th and 11th cannot be sharply determined for several months. The observations on other days give the following results which are uncorrected for parallax, or aberration. Cordoba M. T. R.A. Decl. hm 8 hm 8 5G “a 1880, Feb. 6, $ 37.56°3 22 68 32°99 —32 56 55°0 9, 8 47 37:8 93 50 51°4 33 45 41°7 12, 8 23 40°8 0 39 51:0 33° 6 163 14, 8 24 49°3 Lee D 248 32 2 48°0 15, 8 27 38:9 1.22 58:1 $1.23 *19¢) Li. & 37 51°8 1 47 439 29 54 32°5 18, 8 34 45 1 58 55°2 29 44 18, 9 0 26°38 2 9 344 —28° 1T 44:8 _ The excessive length of the narrow tail, its lack of gradation in brilliancy, and the relative faintness of the head, formed . leaves no doubt whatever in my mind as to the identity of the T 1880, Jan. 274-40479 2 6° 10" 29"6 @ 86° 18 19"0 a < log g 177393644 This result leads, however, to a yet more remarkable infer- ence. At the time of apparition of the Comet of 1848, its identity with that of 1668 was very generally di : a credited. Only the circumstance that Hubbard found the tot B. A. Gould—Southern Comet of February, 1880. 399 series of observations to be more satisfactorily represented by an ellipse of much longer period served to weaken this belief to any extent. Nevertheless Hubbard showed that the corres- ponding diminution of the major axis was compatible with a probable error of only +11/"32 for a single observation, in place of 8/44 to which this value would be reduced by the adoption of his final elements. The similarity of the comet's appearance to that of 1702 also attracted attention. The orbit calculated for that comet by Struyck in Amsterdam bears no similarity to the well-determined one of the comet of 1668; ut Cassini, who observed the former, believed the two to be identical. The same opinion was maintained by Cooper in 18 The tail in 1702 was 40° long, and its path was chiefly in the southern hemisphere, both which facts favor the sup- position of identity. Nevertheless, while a computation by Petersen, using for 1702 the orbit of the Comet of 1848, showed that the roughly given geocentric path might thus be somewhat roughly represented, Schumacher considered that the resultant places were compatible neither with the position of the tail March 2, 1702, as described by Maraldi, nor with the observation of the ship-captain Brouwer, cited by Struyck. 1702 Feb. 23. 1771 June 6. 1843 Feb. 27. 1736 July 12. 1806 Dee. 12. 1880 Jan. 27. The second Comet of 1806 appears to have passed its peri- helion on December 28th of that year. The latest determina- tion of its orbit is that by Hensel in 1862, the resulting inclination being essentially the same as that of the present comet. His other elements, however, are completely discor- _ dant, the form of the orbit being hyperbolic and the perihelion- distance large. It remains to be seen whether the observations could be represented by an orbit of different form and dimen- sions. There are other recorded apparitions which seem likely to have been returns of the same comet, such as those of the years 1533, 1468, and perhaps 1264; but I have not here the means of forming any careful opinion. 400 B.A. Gould—Southern Comet of February, 1880. It might perhaps be supposed that no appearance of so impressive an object during the last two or three centuries could have failed to be recorded; but it does not seem so to me in the case of a comet whose orbit lies almost exclusively to the south of the ecliptic, so that it would in all probability be noticed in our northern hemisphere only in the northern w resistance and the lateral friction must during their continuance be causing a diminution of the radius-vector, it would appear that they have not diminished, but, on the contrary, increased, the major axis. This is a delicate and in some respects a difficult question; and since I have at present neither the requisite time nor books of reference at my disposal, I will not here enter into any of its details, but will confine myself to the statement that so far as I am able to form an opinion, the observed facts do not appear to conflict with theory. A most interesting question arises regarding the densest portion of the tail. There is no reason to doubt that this pointed southward before the perihelion, as it did afterward. Now the comet’s center of gravity passed from one side to the other of the sun, describing an are of 180° in true anomaly 10 about 2 8"; and indeed described 141° 42’ in a single hour. If the tail in general consisted of the same particles before as after the hour of perihelion, it must have been actually sever by the body of the sun, surrendering of course a considerable amount of its material. Argentina, without any reference to the ephemeris; but thé ephemeris from the elements already given accompanies them. =, oS Sees eer he shh ee eitoee B. A. Gould—Southern Comet of February, 1880. 401 The observed length of the tail depended, to a considerable degree, upon the clearness of the night. Lphemeris for Washington mean Noon and mean Equinox 1880°0. 1880. R.A; Decl. S. log A. log r. hm 8 ° 4 ‘a Feb. 2 21 47 33 28 57 27 9868303 9°533186 4 22: 19°:9 31 10 55 9°847750 9°622916 6 22 52 59 32 45 2 9°835007 9°691392 8 23 2% 52 33 36 1 9°829783 9746770 10 2 18 33 43 58 9°831555 9°793264 12 35 (0 33 13 55 9°839451 9°833330 14 1 4 59 32 14 12 9°852389 9°868533 16 1 31 48 30 54 1 9°869191 9°899922 18 1 55 27 29 22 31 9888754 9°928246 20 2 16 27 45 4 9°910133 9°954049 22 234 8 26 8 41 9°932570 9977744 24 2 49 53 24 34 13 9°955492 9°999648 26 3°38 42 9°978483 0°020014 28 315 56 21 39 14 0001251 0°039043 Positions as measured from the drawings. Date 1880. Feb. 2. Feb, 3. Feb. 4. Feb. 5. Feb. 6. Feb. 7. Cordoba M.T. 820™ ghgom ghg5m = ghgom ghg5m ghg5m Head R. A. 22h94m 29h40m 99h59m Q3h] 7m 8. Decl. ' 31°20". 32° 0% 32°60’ 33 End R. A. - 23536™ 0h40™ 116m 1550™ = 2h20m™ = ghZQm Decl. 57° 0’ 60° 0’ 57°40’ 55°40’ 52°40’ 49°30’ Length seen 18° a ae Ae Aer At 22540™ =. Decl, 43°45” Width 1°40’ At 23hom S. Decl: $9°30’ . 42°40" 88°45" 36°43": 38°20" Wi 1°45” ge fs 38°20’ 36° 0% 32°45" oe Ore 5 dth ja 1°50". OAS’ At 23520 =, Decl. 54°10’ 46°50’ 41°48’ 38°45% 36°40’ 34°20’ Width 1*d0" °° 140"? 2° 28 OE OP 10" At 23540™ =. Decl. 50°60’ 45°50’ 41°45’ 39°17’ 36°25 Width yan? St Oe a ey Othe At 0hom S. Decl. 54°25’ 49°10" 44°35’ 41°15’ 38°50’ Width 40 2G ‘an. 1°88? At 020m = §. Deel. 56°BB’ 51°55’ 46°6B’ «43°35. 40°52” Width A eR Ne GY ee At0'40™" = &_ Decl. 60° 0’ 54°20’ 49°30’ 45° 3’ 42°30’ Width oy ee Se Yee” oe At 110m S. Decl. 56°36’ 51°35’ 46°55’ 44°10’ Width 7 Te Te. Le Atlh20™ ~=—s &_ Decl. 53°20’ 48°45’ 46°38” Width ig? 20. 10" Atl*40™ ~—s§. Deel. 65° 0° 50° 3’ 46°65’ Width "7 3.910" Fe At 2hom S. Decl. 51°50’ =48° 5’ Width PIS Fe At 2:20" ~—s §,_ Decl. 52°40’ 49°10’ Width 9° 0 — 1°60" 402 Scientific Intelligence. Date 1880. Feb. 8. Jr 9. te ey Feb. 12. Feb. 14. Cordoba M. T. 8540™ h5om gbg5m = Bh5Q™ Head R. A. 23h39m 23h43m ohg3m 0b40™ jh 7m Bo Deels.i° 337417. 33°50" 32° 457 a Sal ee ge End R. A. 2h45™ 2h53m 3h] gm 3h3Qm 3h50™ S.. Decl. .47° 26". 45°07 .40°50" 38°35’ 36° 0’ Length seen go4°.. 394° oho... aes 34° At 23'40™ §. Decl. 34°40’ Width 0°15” At 0>0™ 8. Decl. 36°50’ 35° 2” At 0520™ S. Decl. 38°45’ 36°42’ At 0b40™ a. Dec aoe one" 0 86". 9" 88" 8 4 0 , ° 0” At 150" 8. Decl. 42° 0’ 39°40” 36°55’ 34°25’ i 5" pO". OF 107 0 Width 0 °10 P10" At 1520™ S. Decl. 43°20’ 40°30’ 37°40 35°25’ 32°35’ Width E5807 SO 1 Be 20" 01s Oe At 1540" S. Decl. 44°35’ 41°35’ 38°35’. 86°20’ 33°20’ Width D604) 4527207. 0°30" O19 20 8, At 2hom S. Decl. 45°25’ 42°30% 39°15’ 37°25’ 34°10’ Width 200). 140" <0 40" 0°30" Oe At 2h20m S. Decl. 46°10’ 43°50% 40°10% 37°50’ 34°35’ °40 0°507 0°15 At 240™ S. Decl. 47° 0’ 44°15” 40°25’ = 88°10” 36° 0” Width PRO ee 82966 50°40" 6°16) = Cie At 320" 8. Decl. 40°30 38°25” 35°20" Width 0°307 OC10* 0°. 6) At 3520 S. Decl. 38°45’ 35°40’ Width 0°10? — At 3540™ 8. Decl. 36°10’ Width — Cordoba, March 3, 1880. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. J. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 1. On the Formation of Oz the Slow owidation of Phosphorus.—Some doubts havieg been expressed as to the actual production of ozone by the slow oxidation of phosphor cLrop has made a series of qualitative experiments to ascer: xygen ozonized by the spark in a Siemens tube was passed through a U tube containing solutions of sodium carbon- ate, of potassium dichromate and sulphuric acid, and of potas cially at 100° usfo into " volves pe Chemstry und Physies. 403 tion became blue in all cases, when the U tube was cold as when it was heated to 100°. The addition of a second tube containing umice saturated with sodium carbonate did not alter the result. © test the effect of heat, an apparatus was used consisting of a large U tube containing pumice and sulphuric acid, a narrow U tube, which could be placed in a test tube, a weighed tube con- taining pumice and sulphuric acid and a flask with potassium i d. From one to five liters of ‘ e second U tube was weighed after each experiment, and the starch solution was decolorized by a deci-normal solution of sodium thiosulphate. The maximum increase in weight in twenty-four experiments was ‘0035 gram, in an experiment at ordi- nary temperatures, the decolorization requiring 3°65 c.c. of the thio- sulphate. At 200° the sulphuric acid increased in weight °0006 gram, the decolorizing solution used being 1°8 ¢.c. Since one ¢.c. of this solution corresponds to *017 gram hydroxyl, whic gram instead of -0006 ee might have been expected had "3 ap 2. Hxplosion of a Platinum Alembic used for concentrating Sulphuric acid.—Kuutmann (fils) has communicated to the Chemical Society of Paris the particulars of the explosion of a platinum still used in his factory at Lille, for concentrating sul- phuric acid. The still was 90 centimeters in diameter, and could concentrate 6 to 7000 kilograms of acid in twenty-four hours. e explosion scattered the fragments of it to a distance of The acid had nearly all been withdrawn from the still, a layer five centimeters deep, thirty or forty kilograms, being left in the t ee 3 o . avre and Silbermann and others, one kilogram of acid added to a suitable 404 Scientific Intelligence. quantity of water, evolves 148 calories. Consequently the forty kilograms of acid would have evolved heat enough to give rise to an instantaneous production of eighteen or twenty cubic meters of e made, however, at 18°, and the author is examining the production of heat when the mixture takes place at higher temperatures.— Bull. Soe. Ch., Ul, xxxiii, 50, Jan. 1880. FB n the Equivalence of Boron.—In an investigation of the phenyl derivatives of the nitrogen series, Michaelis had shown oride appears distinctly if a enyl group replaces chlorine. Thus phosphorous chloride, 4. On the Direct Union of Cyanogen and Hydrogen.—BEr- THELOT has succeeded in causing cyanogen to unite directly with hydrogen under the influence of heat; The pure and dry gases, mixed in equal volumes and passed slowly through a narrow tube heated to 500°—550°, combined to an extent of two or three per cent, But if the action be prolonged, the mixture being con tained in a sealed tube and heated to the above temperature for fe) transformed into paracyanogen. The phenomenon differs from g P the synthesis of hydrogen chloride only in its greater slownes® the more elevated temperature required, which is th Chemistry and Physics. 405 form cyanides of these metals. Zinc is attacked even in the cold after several days ; at 100° in three or four hours. Copper and seer § do not combine directly with cyanogen ‘at any temperature ; probably because the temperature ‘of the reaction is also the tem- sag of decomposition.— Budi. Soe. Ch., I, xxxili, 2, oe ng Dh Cellulose fod its Nitro derivatives—EprER has hae. an extended examinatio of the nitro- menue of settle with a ee to dete rmine wrlict er they ar bia! gah ethers of nitric rT derivatives act in the same way as "nitrates ; qk ig eating them with sulphuric ace over mercury, they act a # gai ns in a cooled mixture of three volumes ‘ee concentrated su acid (1°845) and one volume nitric acid (1°5) for ewenty-four hours, and after washing and drying, is treated with a mixture of three parts of ether and one part of alcohol until ae Soluble is removed, there is left a a compound having t mpo- sition _ cellulose _hexanitrate, and yielding about 14 mee sane of nitro By using less concentrated acids, definite compounds were hicaitiot sonpiiniiig less nitryl; the peneeni ete giving 12°57 per cent nitrogen, the tetranitrate with 11-41, the trinitrate with 10°12 per cent (evidently containing tetranitrate) and the dinitrate with 6°89 per cent. All ve ese are soluble in a mixture of ether and alcohol except the first given, the hexanitrate. The mononitrate was not obtained.--Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xiii, a 18 G. F. n anew kind of Ammonium Bases.—Grixss has dbsceibae @ new series of ammonium bases obtained by acting on the Isomeric amidophenols with excess of methyl iodide. When toa cold solution of one part of nicthyl todde 3 faded Mit the in t ole is allowed to a an acid reaction appears after some git Jour. nee Vou, XIX, No. 118,—May, 1880, 406 Scientific Intelligence. time. This is made alkaline again, and the operation is repeated ‘as long as the solution becomes acid. On distilling off the methyl alcohol, the liquid solidifies to a mass of yellowish colored erystals of orthotrimethylphenolammonium hydriodate. e base is obtained from this by treatment with silver oxide, in well formed prisms, having the formula C,H,,NO, or CH (CH) Several salts of this new ammonium are described, beside the plati- num double salt. By treating paraamidophenol in the same way, Che ap Geissler tube at a pressure m when single induction sparks are discharged through it, Vogel concludes that their existence i due alone to very high temperatures, as according to Lockyer, longest lines disappears, while many weaker and less refrangible lines remain. i r : lines increase in brightness, but many disappear. The assertion of Lockyer, that with diminishing pressure the shortest lines dis- appear first, is therefore not true in general.—Ber. d. Berl. Ak., 1879, p. 586. J.T. 8. Lhe limits of the Ultra Violet in the Solar Spectrum at dif- Serent heights.—Cornu has made some spectroscopic tests on the slightly increased with the altitude of observation. The, change of wave-length is about a millionth of a millimeter for 700 ee The limit at the Riffel was reached at a wave-length of 293°2, 20 consisted essentially of a Savart polariscope mounted upon 4 div Ree eS Chemistry and Physies. 407 which is also oo of turning about a vertical axis. Two other divided circles measure the motion in azimuth and in declination, and allow the polariscope to be directed in any direction, and give also the codrdinates of the point of observation. The method of observation was to obtain upon the same divided circle the sigs of the ae of polarization of the sun and the trace of t of the An ingenious method of accomplishing this is detailed in the pies s memoir. The conclusions reached are as follow and minimum during the day. This phenomenon appears to a connected with the variable conditions of illumination of the a mosphere due to the height of the sun. (3) The manifestation of the magnetic influence of the earth upon the atmosphere, to which influence can be attributed a me deviation of the plane of ee of the light. Bicinarsn de oe aes et de Physique, Jan., 1880, p. 90. J. Measurements and law in iar oe Optics.—Dr. Kurr eae oo his experi riments upon the effect of electric tension on the a Aare in i canker of electrostatic force, and the state of molecular constraint that is associated with and is essential to that action, are very strongly confirmed by the new facts of elec- tro-optics. “The dioptric action of an mgesignie charged medium is closely related to the care stress of the medium, the axis of double refraction coinciding in eve case with the line of electric tension, and the double tolraction varying, certainly in CS, and probably i in all other pe a directly and simply as the inten ai of the tension.”— Phil. Mag., March, 1880, p. 11. Connection between the laws of diffusion and Pioreiinds namics,—BoutzMaNnn, in a valuable paper, discusses the phenom- e cua tiatatontiation of @ork dite to aifunio n, and the maximum work which can be produced me ithe diffusion of gases at constant temperature.— Wien. Ber., 78, 408 Scientific Intelligence. 12. Density of the Halogens at very high temperatures.——Profes- sor Crarts has repeated the experiments of the Messrs. Meyer, with certain modifications, and finds with them that the density of iodine vapor at the temperature obtained with the gas furnace of Perrot is two-thirds of the normal density, although he thinks their estimates of the temperature too high. In experimenting, however, with free chlorine he obtained values corresponding to the normal density of Cl.,. More recently Victor Meyer has published additional experi ments on the same subject, which indicate that while chlorine does not assume the abnormal condition corresponding to 3Cl, be- low 1200 degrees, iodine vapor passes into a similar state at 1000 degrees. He confirms also the results of Crafts in regard to the density of chlorine gas, which had been previously prepared and i i finding that under these circumstances the density corresponded approximately to Cl, at the same temperature at which the chlorine formed in the flask two states of density corresponds to the difference between oxy- gen gas and ozone at the ordinary temperature of the air. Vic ously only preliminary notices of an investigation still in pros ress. The idea that a chemical decomposition or dissociation has . pee S60 tained, and the anomalous densities observed, so far as bie fe nown. Me 13. Use of the Heliotrope for telegraphic purposes in triangula- tion. Letter to J. D. Dana, from Capt. C. P. Parriaso®, Super intendent of the Coast Survey, dated Washington, Mar. 26, 1 —Having noticed in Nature several references to the use 0 sun for telegraphic purposes, I beg to say that the heliotrope—* Chemisiry and Physics. 409 mirror with directive mounting—has been one of our regular field instruments in triangulation for seks years, and has been used on lines from 20 to 192 miles 1 in lengt the annual report of ‘ASaotaind George rive redtie in charge of the The stations named are along the western crest of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, along the crest of the immediate Coast Range, and Mt. Shasta, at ‘the head of the Sacramento Valle cess Was per rele de |—Heliotrope Spectra. My former experience of the decomposition of the rie cs image of the sun after passing through many miles of the atmos- phere was fully verified. The heliotrope images were midon decomposed on the lines under seventy miles in length, but they were, as a rule, decomposed on all — vee and ranged Blue Gre Gre through the formule sheng Yellow Yellow Orange the last R Red ‘Red. being the less frequently seen. The peculiar sparkling character- istic of the b bright heliotrope image does not announce itself in the spectrum image; the colors give a steady, soft t image, which is generally slightly higher than broad; frequently twice as high as broad; and upon some “gig it reaches a height of 60 sec- ‘nae with a breadth of 10” to 15’. Tn nearly all cases the se is the most marked and is certainly the most persistent ; the blue will fade away, the yellow or orange is not in sufficient contrast with the white field to be observed bie The color of the red is that of the spectrum at the B line. ‘requently the red will exist with a sharply defined nucleus of t orange, or even white; but it is doubtful if this exists when the spectrum i d. e column of spectrum light sometimes undergoes the most unceasing apparent interchange of the colors, as if the rapid chan nges in vertical refraction suddenly shortened and lengthened the column; and yet tests failed to show that any part of the col- umn was not in oti vertical. 410 Scientific Intelligence. Green ally very brilliant in Orange, and then it was possible to predict R its ‘Srnurewns to the unassisted e ount Lola we have Pies equently seen the heliotrope images ath the naked eye over the longest lines; and at Round Top Mountain, with lines reaching 160 “mile es, we saw zs Snow Mount heliotrope very plainly with the nake de eye upon several occasions. I am satisfied that the Mount Helena heliotrope would have been seen with the naked eye from Mount Shasta, 192 miles, in fa pine weather. Although the spectrum on such occasions is very vivid, the naked eye did not detect the color ormer paper I have woferrod to this phenomen on as a nor- eS) ore. ary amalgam-backed mirrors become whitish and opaque in a few days’ exposure, but the fine silver deposit on the glass retains its brilliancy unimpaired. I have established the iellowing: sizes for heliotropes, and have practienlly tested them up to 192 miles. I feel certain that the proportions may be carried to any pravionbid line on the earth’s ele 9, %, all mies? cSt anh. AGeeal™” |) Rise) sSmrtage,| tae, | “usea” ——— 10 021 | O46) — 130 | 35°5 60 13 0:36 | 0°60 | 0-4 138 63 | 5°6 too weak. 20 084 | O92; — 141 | 42 65 6° weak. 30 180.4 Pav 148 | 46 es 1 40 3:36 | 1831 1 6° v. weak 5n 525 | 2:3 | 3-Otoobright.|| 160 73 | 8 e 155 | 28 3.0 169 | 60 1.7 - 0 | 1028 | 3-2 3-0 ; : 80 | 13-4 3°7 pie 192) 173 8°8 } 12° Small 90 | 17 4°] re 200 | 84: 2 telescope. 100 | 21: 46 aS: 250 | 131° 115 107 | 24 49 5-0 300 | 189° 13°8 ‘ 5°0 weak. 120 | 30 55 ‘ pb eeonr. 5 Sey Pe ay Se Chemistry and Physics. 411 required pacts ope in square inches, d the given distance in miles. In the smaller heliotropes the amount of light cut off by the favorable circumstances the image appears too bright, the area of the mirror may be readily reduced upon a preconcerted signal, by affixing an open — of tin or even of paper upon the outer edges of the mir 14. On the Artificial Formation of the Diamond.—The last number of the Proceedings of the Royal Society (No. 201), pane a pees notice by Mr. J. B. Hannay of the process by which he seem ave succeeded in eee pp aera carbon identical wits ‘the diamond. The following is an extrac When the carbon is set free from the hydrocarbon in presence of a stable compound containing nitrogen, the whole being near a red heat and under a very high pressure, the carbon is so acted open in nine cases out of ten. “The carbon obtained in the successful experiments is as doesn as natural diamond, ounce all other'crystals, and it not affect polarized light. have obtained crystals with pean faces belonging to the ‘octahedral sand ne Huson is the only sub- stance ape ng in this man d ecific gravity is as hi The crystals burn anil on thin platinum-foil over & goo ble owpipe, and leave no residue, and after tw im- mersion in hydrofluoric acid the w n of di g, ey sho ; : even when boiled. On heating a splinter in the electric are, it diamond. n ignited by an electric current, and the combustion conducted in pure oxygen, The result obtained was that the sample (14 mgrms.) co ntained 97°85 per cent of carbon, a very close approx- Imation, spushdaviag the small quantity at my disposal.” 412 Scientific Intelligence. Il. GeoLocy AND MINERALOGY. 1. Sketches of the Physical Geography and Geology of Nebras- ka; by Samuet Aveuey, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Nat. Sci. in the Univ. of Nebraska. 326 pp. 8vo. Omaha, Nebraska, 1880.— These “sketches” contain a well-arranged and carefully prepared description of the region of Nebraska, as regards its topography, climatology, drainage and geology, and a general account of its ora and fauna. We cite the following facts from it: The State has a length (maximum) from east to west, of 413 miles. The average elevation of the eastern half is 1,700 feet, of the western 2,612 feet. The mean elevation of the State is 2,312 feet. The ascent for 100 miles west from Omaha is 5} feet a mile; for the second 100, 7 feet; the third 100, 74 feet; the fourth, 104 feet. up of t on an average, nine-fold (by his experiments) more absorptive of the water from rains. The water that falls on the hard original no 8 thickness of the soil—of all depths to 200 feet in the less regions giv IS Sponge its great magnitude a Professor Aughey discusses well the facts relating to the and it e s that Richthofen’s wind-drift theory their respective plains in the same way. He mentions the occur rence of stratification, and in some parts of thin lamination; of transitions into or alternations with sandy beds; in its lower part, the occurrence of fresh-water as well as land shells, and various Other facts bearing on the question of origin. : of examining the silt after a flood on the Missouri four miles below Dakota City, and of obtaining, in 1871, of existing kinds brought down by the river, 35 species of land shells and 20 of fresh-water species. The lass of eastern Nebraska is over 3,000 feet below its highest point on the west line of the State. But this height, so far as not due to a small eastward pitch in the waters, is accounted for by a change of level. ‘ The remains of life found in the less are, in addition to the molluscan, those of the rabbit, gopher, otter, beaver, squirrel, deer, elk and buffalo. Bones of the mastodon and elephant are fa>) ad =e i 3] ee ee et Geology and Mineralogy. 418 also often found, especially in Lancaster county. In Lincoln, situated “near the western shore of the Missouri lake of the period,” “ dey have been found in at least twenty wells. Pro- face, underneath the second bed of black soil. “It appears then that some old races lived around the shores of this lake, paddled thei canoes over its waters, and accidentally dropped their arrows in its waters or let them fly at a passing water fowl.’ e rising of the land “closing the less period first clearly outlined the present rivers of Nebraska.” At the present time the rivers have very wide river-bottoms, ranging from one to ten miles or more. Above these there are one or more terraces: a — usually 3 to 6 feet abers the river- 2 to 5 feet ; and a third, of varying eleva- tion. The bottom-lands are ie i overflowed in any part at the highest floods. 2. Silurian age of the Crystalline rocks of Eastern Pennsyl- vania and Hudson River age se the A Ady tc Schists.—Mr. om a 6 [wal a 5 5 TM $} TR 2 oO co) 5 = Ru Charles E. Hall has an important paper on this subject in the Proceedings of the American Philosophical Fare oe es January, 1880, together with a map illustrating it. He first mentions the second, from the vicinity of the last shes ae cawand across ‘thie ‘Schuylkill, and covering much of northern Delaware unty. (2) Pot sdam sandstone and conglomerate, with some schistose beds resting unconformably on the preceding ; over these, dolo- hydromica schists, the upper part of which group has — Trenton fossils at Sonkegeo Bucks County; and a beds of quartzite and serpentine, sere the Hudson River Sroup, and flank the Chester Valley on outle. saint from some point not far east of the Schuylkill River throughout the entire length of the valley; and micaceous garnetiferous schists with limestone, in the sd A central portion of pe County, resting Fea the last-mentioned hydromica schis These Hudson River schists are those that have been elisa Poeakie Details are given 414 Scientific Intelligence. ey: the conformability of all these schists and limestones. To er they occupy the region between the Archean and the Triassic area, (3) Mica schists, hornblendic, garnetiferous and talcose schists of Philadelphia, with soapstone and serpentine, which are scribed as resting aaeitommably on the preceding. A large part of this area is on the southeast side of the Archean between it and Delaware River. The nonconformity “may be mee to faulting, but they [the rocks] are nevertheless more rece The serpentines of Radnor township in Telaeelen County, and those of Easttown, Willistown, East and West Goshen are spoken of as “ undoubtedly altered beds of the South Valley Hill slates or Hudson River slates.” The serpentines of Lancaster County are referred to the same age, and also probably those of Chester a On the ~aagesrhe arn Volcanic Rocks of the Basin of the Firth of Forth: structure in the field and under the micro- scope ; by Arc one Gerk1x, Director H. M. Geol. Survey of Scotland. _ 82 pp. 4to, with three annie ser ahecagon a ecole Olivine augite-serpentine rocks, seen only at two localities ; Feldspar-magnetite rocks, or — or hyrites, which played an important part among the earlier eruptions of the Carboniferous period; and (4) Felsitic sab constituting a few dikes; and besides these there are fragment tal rocks or tufas. 4. Contributions to the Geology of Eastern Massachusetts ; by Wm. O. Crossy. Occasional Papers of the Boston Society © Natural History, Vol. III. 288 pp, 8vo, with five plates and a col- ored geological map.—Mr. Crosby’s papers are very important contributions to the geology of Eastern New England. The rocks are described in detail, both as to their kinds “and distribution, and facts are given bearing on the question of age and illustrat- ing many points in geological science. Among the interesting questions discussed is that of the age of the conglome erate, asso (and in lines still fatbiecy and six to geven miles a o He remarks that the ieee contains — 0 go feet, and that of the slate nearly the same. Both are stated to be unconformable with the crystalline rocks adjoining, which are referred to the Archean. oars PEE SSS SSE Se is Be Bae eee oe a See es ee nein Soe Geology and Mineralogy. 415 Eleventh Annual Report of the U. 8. Geological and Geo- peophioat Survey of the Territories, embracing ee and Wyo- —o. being a senor of progress for the year 1877; by F. V. Hay . 8. Geologist. 720 pp. 8vo, with numerous plates, seventy of xin illustrating rock sections, topography, scenery, tufa for- mations, and ten of fossils, besides six of m maps. Department of the Interior. Washington, 1879.—This thick volume, just out of press, bears evidence of the great activity and success in the explorations carried forward under Dr. Hayden. It is made up of a general report by Dr. Hayden, added _ work of the year; special iano reports by F. M. Enpricn, O. Sr. Jonny, nd Dr. A ALE; paleontological, ed C. x Whiter; and topographical, by ‘- D. Witson and Henry Gannerr. With more space at command, large sieatscies would here be made from the volume. 6. Karthquuke of ve Salvador, of December 21-30, 1879.— A recent 0 from Mr. W. A. Goodyear, now Director of a Goy- ernmental Mining mis Geological Survey of San Salvador, states that more than 600 earthquake shocks were felt there within the last ten days of 1879. They were heaviest about Lake ee 5 where he was on the 23d and until the 27th, when a shock ¢ as he writes, “ that broke the telegraph wire, and made the sine on which we stood a perfect network of cracks, opened new springs of ae increased the rivulets in the vicinity to ten times their volume, muddied the waters of the lake in many places, and rolled hundreds of thousands of tons of rocks and debris down the steep hills in the shape of land slides.” “As a sequel to the earthquakes, on the night of January 20th and 21st a new vol- cano appeared in the center of the Lake of Llopango. meio vol- inp holes, while i _ the Ven nango district, durin the same year, 475 wells were drilled = the Counties of Warren, Venango, Clarion and Butler), and 122 were dry holes, or 25°7 per cent. 416 Scientific Intelligence. The largest individual wells have been opened in the Venango district, but the average yield has been greatest in the Brad- ord; some of the former having produced 2,000 to 3,000 barrels of oil per: day, while the largest of the latter have not exceeded as many hundred. 8. Giesecke’s Mineralogiske Rejse i Grinland, ved F. Jonn- strup; med et Tilleg om de Grénlandske stednavnes Retskriv- ning og Etymologi af Dr. H. Rink. 372 pp. 8vo, with 3 plates. Copenhagen, 1878.—This work gives the diary of Carl Ludvig Giesecke during his travels in Western Greenland from 1806 through 1813, or about eight years. Giesecke was the first to a ethnography of Greenland. Among the new minerals discovered by him are eudialyte, arfvedsonite, allanite, gieseckite, fergusonite, sapphirine; he also described the method of occurrence of cryo- lite. During his life he published but little, and it is only now Ww ent . the following facts are extracted, The continental ice of Southern Greenlan s been hitherto an almost absolutely unknown region, ly ex- the expedition since at the farthest point of the journey inland, he reached a series of isolated rocky summits, emerging like islands above the continental ice (they are called Jensen’s * ‘Nuna- takker). From these peaks, 5000 feet above the sea level, and Geology and Mineralogy. 417 surrounded now, as they must have been for a vast period, by the elds of continental ice, a large collection of plants (fifty-four species) was obtained, and some few animals were also found. The ice on the east side of the ‘“ Nunatakker” has an altitude of of Belgium measures twenty-four inches ", twenty. It is a beau- i reas of nearly fifty y colors and etching, ranging from the Pliocene through the whole geological series to its bot- In part even, are addicted to the eating of earth. The following analysis shows the composition of an earth eaten to a considerable extent by the Ainos. The clay, occurring in a bed several feet in : : a valley) on the north coast of Yesso. It is of a light gray color and very fine in structure. S10, Al,O, Fe,O,; MnO, CaO MgO K.O NasO SO, P.0; H,0* 6719 13°61 1-11 0-07 3:89 199 0-23 O75 O19 é&. 11°02 = 100-05 * With volatile matter. 418 Scientific Intelligence. - The “volatile matter,” which was very small in amount, consists of the fragments of the leaf of some plant which the people inten- tionally mix with the clay for the aromatic principle it par. oily matter of an agreeable odor, but too small in amount to enable me to determine its nature, The ines think the earth contains cause it is a necessity with them. They have meat and an abun} dance of vegetable food. The clay is eaten in ane form of a soup. Several pounds are boiled with lily roots in a small quantity of water and afterwards strained. The Ainos slides that the soup thus prepared is very palatable. 12. On Conodonts, ete.—The author of the monograph on Conodonts, quoted from in the last (April) number, p. 327, is Mr. George Jennings Hinde, not Hyde as there printed. Il. Borany anp Zoonoey. 1. Genera Plantarum ad ees Phe imprimis in Pa eh: Br Kewensibus servata definita; auct. G. NTHAM OOKE ol. iii, part I, pp. thi (including pac tit mare London, Reev e & Co ., &¢., 1880.—The first of the volume was facie in the alae of 1862. In Tabi of Be e should be understood, however, that no order and no group 0 tor or monographer. The work has all been done from nature, at first hand by the authors themselves,—a thing that has never been done before in a Genera Plantarum, since that of Jussieu, and hardly then This notice may be confined to indication of changes, such as may concern North American botany. The monochlamydeous (otherwise called apetalous) series of orders begins with the Nyctagineew. The leading genus Mirabilis, being still allowed to embrace Quamoclidion, their great pr was in keeping it clear of Oxybaphus. In this country we had regarded the anthocarp as most dierinetive: but the present work prefers the form of the perianth and the texture of the involucre, but with hardly an improved result. Oe hoes ¥ Tinantia on ty we had reduced to suet haavia, is well r the Amarantacew, and Achyronychia, a second species, one of the new things in the recent lection of Parry and Palmer. fie" ire ae a ce a Botany and Zoology. 419 In the succeeding order, Amarantus is restored to its old limits, including not only Euxol lus and Mengia, but mt Amblo- gyne. Aen subtribe. The old difficulty of limiting Chenopodium and Blitum is effectually ap Saar rida by reducing the latter to one of the five sections of the former. TZeloays is of course a Chenopodium, and Obione is not cistinigaisliel even sectionally from Atriplex. The important distinction between the plane-appressed fruactiferous bracts of Atriplex and its allies, and the conduplication and union of these bracts in Swckleya and the three pase associated with it upon the establishment of the latter genus, is not as prominently exhibited as it would have been by the adoption: of the subtribe Eurotiee. Batis, with a single species, stands for an order Batidec. Polygonacee are marked by the introdnction, between the Eriogonee and the Hupolygonee, of a tribe Kenigice, which besides the typical genus and its evident relative Pterostegia, is made to include Lastarriwa, ape ea nee and ollisteria, whose affinities are more Eriogoneous. eren atson’s natural arrange- ment of er gon is adopted ; but Vaarcasiis is kept distinct from Choriza e Piperaces include the Saururee, and Anemopsis is reduced to Houttynia The great ‘order Laurinee - peorene ty come: Pas all Ni concerns us is, that our Californian Laurel i oved Tetranthera or rather Litsea yas ., and one of ‘the re wo Bape names which Nuttall applied to it is used for this at length well ute erized genus, viz: Umbellularia,—not a good name, but It serve In Santalacee, the still piggy abr! known genus Darbya is well removed from Comandra, to which DeCandolle referred it: whether it is here rightly joined to Pucldaes can be known only when female ae or fruit are discovered. These are special desiderata. The plant (a low shrub) is oe be sought between Lincolnton, North Carolina, and Macon in Georgia! e immense order Lup horbiacecee has been studied anew, the great labors of Baillon and of J. Miller duly weighed, and the result is that six tribes are pic under simple characters, and the ample sixth tribe, Crotonea, is divided into eight subtribes. The views adopted have been pone by Mr, Bentham in a memoir, some notice of which has appeared in this Journal. The genera nearly reach 200, and there are over 3000 described Species, We have soon to add a North American representative ea the Stenoldiew, and of the biovulate division, umes with ja 420 Scientific Intelligence. cent Arkansas. The male flowers of it are still wanting. Nut- tall’s Alphera is a section of the genus which is here given as “Argithamnia Swartz, Prodr.,” but which near og Argy- thamnia of Patrick Browne, a contemporary of Linneeus.* order oes is adopted in the older and exendan form, including jhe Ulmew, Celtidee, Cannabinee, Moree, Artocarper, etc., as tribes. A main ojection i this ice is surmounted by re- garding the pistil in all of them as monocarpellary, and the two stigmas of Ulmus and the like as “divisi sions ay one or half-stigmas, after the analogy of many Kuphorbiacee. Ficus is restored to its original sg Seiad ons. The ambiguous or anomalous genus Leitneria of Chapman, * which eee | is said to be a second species in Texas, s apy as a order Leitneriece, which we crave leave to write Leitneria he Oupuliferce are made to include a only th see but the Betulacew also—which seems to be going too Limpetracee and Ceratophyllew are pis! the supplementary orders which clos a series. The com mpound pollen-grains of the former, after the, Eric caceous type, have not been n and some points need to be pondered, before pronouncing an v of this name and of its changes is curious and raises a nice point in a spatication of the rules of nomencl Patrick Browne founded it in n ared Rafinesque’s Nemopanthes, razeed from Nemopodanthes, which no botanist has _ opan attempted to restore to its full proportions. Adanson adopted the genus under wne’s name in 1763. So did Swartz in his Prodromus in + Argithamnia, however, is the form adopted by Swartz in s Flora, in 1797, remarking that Browne derived the first part of the name vetikoe from apybs, white, or from apyupeoc, silvery. But if from sl latter, Swartz should have written Argyreothamnia, if from the former Argothamnia. Acting doubtless on the prin ciple that if the ribo aon phy of a ipa might be changed to make it correct, it might be pene ned es to render it quite corre’ Sprengel in his turn wrote it Argothamnia, and Mueller of Argan, 47; pyrotiorni changes from first to lat “violate the rul aekige rash withou ceptions) that botanical names should be retained in their orginal form. At improvement is no warrant for alteration. Mistakes may, In A not a mistake. Bentham and Hooker have acted upon the —— of preserving : gina with Sw rea i OW: i ca not u aa ree though that could not — the worth of his AL eric If they ina ado fro a or from Adan Swartz’s Pro: ho re or peli oa ussieu in in 1789, eight years ocese Sw in his Flora wrote Argi — we cannot doubt that they woul original form, pnd Seth Botany and Zoology. 421 opinion. Suftice it to remark that the three classical suborders s ] botany through the old herbalists, adopted by Tournefort and Linneus. It is made to include not only Zheyopsis and Biota, but even Chamecyparis (Retinospora, ete.), which the arboricul- turists will hardly like. must wonder it was not extended to Libocedrus also, at least to the species of the northern hemi- sphere. Taxod: also gratifying that Seguoia goes into the same tribe, on the Sequoia. It should not be surprising that a type so early devel- oped and widely diffused of old should have representatives in the southern hemisphere. In the Abdietinece, the received genera are Pinus in the restricted sense, Cedrus, Picea (for the Firs, i. e. m Firs), Zsuga (Hemlock Spruces and 7% Williamsonii), Pseudotsuga (the Douglas Spruce), Abies (the true Spruces), Larix, the Larches. To the latter, rather than to Cedrus, Pseudolarix is appended, awaiting a knowledge of its male flowers. Many and profound are the thanks due from all systematic botanists to the authors of this Genera Plantarum. A. G. . 1e Popular Names of British Plants, being » planation of the Ori and Meaning of ndigenous and ost commonly cultivated Species. * , ult., in the 83d year of his age. He came from Lon- don to the United States, in the spring of 1830, accompanied by three young and motherless children and by his brother, Samuel Am. Jour, chip: em: Vor. XIX, No. 118,—May, 1880. 422 Scientific Intelligence. T. Carey, who was also addicted to Botany. Both, we believe, were Fellows of the Linnean Society, and were near friends of Thomas Bell, afterwards the president of that society, who also lived to a good old age, dying only a few weeks earlier than the subject of this notice. Sa ‘arey remained in the city of York, in active business, and so was only an amateur bota- nist. His brother John, went into the country, first to Towanda, in the northern part of Pennsylvania, then to Bellows Falls, Ver- mont, where, giving much of his leisure to botanical pursuits, he resided until the year 1836, when he removed to New York, upon the entrance of his sons into Columbia College. He did not enter into business, but his administrative talents and great worth were a ent writer was generously and greatly assisted b m many critical studies. The proofs of the writer’s first botanical ook were revised b and to the first edition of the Manual b ocean also, Mr. Carey’s first herbarium was destroyed by a calam- itous fire in New York, at the time of the death of his youngest son. American botanists vied with each other in the endeavor t0 this honored name, among them a Saxifrage, which was disco upon the excursion to the mountains of North Carolina, where the survivor of the party re-collected it last summer. The almost sole survivor of a botanical circle, of which Torrey was the center, Botany and Zoology. 423 sadly but serenely pays the tribute of this Line note to the mem- ory of a near and faithful friend, an accomplished botanist, a genial and warm-hearted and truly good man. A. G. ‘oH F,. Austin died at his home in Closter, New Jersey, on the 18th of March, ult., in the 49th year of his age. He was one of the original members of the Torrey Botanical Club, in which he will be much missed, and he was for some years, during its arium. He w. founder’s lifetime, the curator of the Torrey herb 8 a very zealous and sharp-sighted botanist, and he followed his bent and pursued his investigations under many difficulties and Botany of Califo ornia, now in press. dave ats eats we e pub- lished ane. a of the Mosses of the Atlantic United States, and later sets of our Hepatice, embodying an immense amo ount of labor in es collection—in travel, mostly on foot, through the Southern, Eastern and Middle States—no less than in sal anyes D. secured by them to their advanta age, an nd to the benefit of the family of the deceased. No botanist ever had a quicker eye for the detection of differences —S Mr. Austin, or a more unreserved devotion to a favori te * List the Decapod Crustacea of the Atlantic coast, whos range includes na Macon” (op. cit., 1878, pp. 316- Pac and i a marked improvement upon it. Attention shou calle i, however, to a few of the mistakes noticed in a hie evannke tion. In extendin ng the range of Leptopodia sagittaria to Chili on the authority of A. Milne Edwards’ identification of L. dedilis 424 Seventific Intellagence. Cheraphilus, which has recently been adopted by G, O. Sars and persistently in nearly all of Mr. Kingsley’s papers. s. I. SMITH. — 5. The Crayfish: an Introduction to the Study of Zoology by T. H. Huxtey. 371 pp. 8vo. New York, 1880 (D. Appleton & Co.)—This last volume of the International Scientific Series 1s far more interesting than ordinary text-books of zoology and well: deserving of careful study. Though it treats specially of the natural history, physiology, morphology, comparative morphology, @& tribution, and origin of crayfishes, it admirably fulfills the authors desire, as expressed in the preface, “to show how the careful study of one of the commonest and most insignificant of animals, leads us, step by step, from every-day knowledge to the widest general- izations and the most difficult problems of zoology.” > 3} 21196 | Cancri 50 | 5°7} 0-7 |Flavee b> 4; 31216 75 | 8-2) O°7 |Albes = 5} 23121 75 | 7:8) 0-3 |Albasubflavee S 6} 2133 70 | 7-2] 0°2 |Albee p> 7| 21348 |Lyncis 157 | 75 | 7-6] 0-1 | Albee >» 8| 21356 |Hydre 116 | 6:2) 7:0| 0°8 |Flave = 9} 02208 |w Leonis 5-0 | 5°5 | 0°5 |[No colors in O2.] 10} A. Clark|@ Ursee Maj.| 5°56 | 5-7 | 0°2 |[No colo 11} 31423 |8 Sextantis| 8°6| 9-3} 0°7 bfi >> 12| 31457 | 4-4] 8-4} 1-0 z 13} 02224 73 8-0} 0-7 |[No colors noted. ] 14) 31476 T2120 *8 | Albze = 15} 21500 76 | 82) 0-6 Sones >» 16) ZI517 73/73) 0-018 = 17} 02234 T0| 14) 0-4 [No eoiote in O2.] 18} 21643 84} 87) OZ IA z 19} 31647 |Virginis191|} 75 | 7-8) 0°3 a z 20/ 1670 ly Virginis | 3°0| 3-0| 0°0 |Subflaves = : 21; 31728 |42 Come 6:0} 6:0} 0-0 > 22) OD261 6°3 | 6°7| 0°4 |Blanches De 23) 51734 72) 7-9] O-% [Albee = |B called blue by Secchi. 4) 2% 266 7-5 | 8°0| 05 |Blanches De 5| 21757 8] 99) 111A = 21781 78] 8-2| 0-4|Albasubflavee x 21785 7-2] 7:5 | 0-3 [Albee z Z1788 6-7 | 7-9] 1:2 |Albee z 21808 8:0} 9:0} 1-0 | Albee ~ 02298 7-5 | 7°5| 0-0 |Blanches De 21820 8:2 | 8-5] 0°3 |Subflavee z 21863 _ 7-1] 7:4] 0°3 |Albasubflavee = 21865 |C Bootis 3°5| 3:9} 0-4 Al = 1876 8-1 | 8°6| 0-5 |Subflavee z 21883 7-0} 7:0} 0:0 |\Subflavee z 05288 6:3 | 7-2) 0-9 |Blanches De =3091 TT) 7°71 0°0 |Flavee z 1934 8:5 | 85} 0-0 |Albee z 21932 |Corone 1 | 5°6| 6°1| 0°5 |Eg. alb z 21937 5°2| 5°7| 0°6 |Flavee z 21938 |u? Bootis 6°7 | 7°3| 0°6 |Albasubvir. = . 2 Cephei 316| 6:3| 6°6| 0°3 |Flave >» 13 rg spar 318] 6:6] T:1)| 0°5 ae tee i OX 12 !A Cassiopae| 6:0! 6:1} 0°1 ches OE 20 66 Piscium| 62| 7-2| 1-0 (Blanches Le = 73 |36Androm.| 9°2| 6°8| 0°6 |Aur. = = 113 }42 Ceti 2} 7:2} 1:0 |Albee z H2036 |Ceti 187 7-0 | 7:2] 0°2 |Blanches De = 186 -2| 47:2] 0°0 | Albee = OZ 38 |y Androm. | 5.0} 6-2 |[1'2]}Cacr. = |See note * below. * Color of = given of BC as a single star. O2 noted no difference in compo- ne! Some observers have called them yellow: blue. 470 E.. §. Holden— Components of Binary Stars. TABLE JI.—Continued. ; Au- res Name. Sao Re > ad Color. rid Remarks. 51} = 228 |Andro. 259! 6-7! 7°6| 0°9 | Albee > 52| = 234 78) 8°71 0-9 |Albze >» 631 2 257 72) 7°72) 0°5 |Albsubflavee = 54| 5 305 73| 821 0-9 |Flavee ns 55| = 333 |e Arietis 5°7| 6°0; 0-3 | Albee = 56| = 367 . 8:0 | 8:0 | 0-0 | Albsubflavee = 57} OF 52 |PIL1 6-2} 6-7 | 0°5 |Blanches De |OX, Albee. 58} = 412 |7 Tauri 6°6 | 6°T| 0-1 |Subflavee z 69| 2 511 ‘5 | 8:0 0°5 [Albee z 60| = 572 |Aurige 4 | 6-5} 6°5| 0-0 |Subflave z 6l| = 577 7-7 | TT | 0-0 | Albee > 62| = 589 8:0} 8:0] 0°0 | Albsubflavze Dy 63| = 619 8-7 | 8°7 | 0-0 | Albee b> 64| OF 98 {14 Orionis | 5-3} 6-8} 1°5 |Blanches De 65| = 676 75 | 8:5 | 1:0 | Albee z 66| 2 677 7-7 | 8°0| 0°3 |Eg. albez Dy 67; 2% 728 |32 Orionis | 5:2] 6°7| 1-5 |Subflavee z 68| = 749 T1}) 7-2} 01 | Eg. alb, x 69} = 910 |P VI. 105 | 8-3] 9-0| 0-7 |Subflavee = m9} 29 8°2| 8-3] 0-1/Al = 71; & 948 /15 Lyncis | 5-2] 6-1| 0-9|Albv >» 72| OS15 65 | 6-6} 0-1 |Blanches De 73| 21037 71) 71] 0-0 |Subflavee z 74) OZ170 71] 7:3] 0-2 |Blanches ? De |Flave, 02. 75| S1074 78} 8:2] 0:4 | White z 76} 21081 78) 85} 0-7 |Eg. albe = "7| 21093 8-2) 8-21 0-0 |Albee z 7g} 21104 6-7} 8:3} 1:6/Alb 2 5) 79| 21110 |Castor 2-7) 3°7| 1-0 |Subvir = " go] 21126 7'2| 7-5 | 0°3 (Subflavee z o 81} 21944 751 8-1] 0-6 | Albee z tbs 82| 02296 7-0 | 8-6/ 1-6 |[No colors in De.] | 02 83) 05298 7-0| 7-4| 0:4 |Blanches De A 84| 21989 |r?Urs.Min.| 7-1} 8-1| 1-0 |Eg. albe s . 85| 21998 | Scorpii | 4:9] 5:2] 0-3 |Albsubflavee z 86| 22021 |49 Serpen. | 6°7| 6-9] 0-2 | Alba z 87} 22026 8°6| 9-1 | 0-5 |Flave ~ 88} 22106 67 | 8-4) 1-7 |Albee * 89} 22118 |20 Draconis} 6-4] 6-9| 0-5 | Albee z 90/ 211 6°2| 7-4| 1:2 | Albee z 91] 22130 |u Draconis | 5-0] 5-1} 0-1 |Albe = #7 92| 22173 |Ophiu. 221 | 5-8] 6-1] 0:3 Eg. flav. seu Aurea| = 93| 22199 7-2} 7-8] 0-6 |Subflavee z "94| 05333 6°5| 7-7 | 1:3 |\Jaunes De 95} 22262 |r Ophiuchi | 5-0} 5-7| 0-7 |Subtlave ~ 96} 2226 80} 8-0} 0-0 |Albee = 97| 22281 Lacy 57) 7-2} 1-5 | Alb “ 98] 22315 |Hercul. 452) 7-0! 8-0| 1:0 |Albxe z 99} 22384 8-0} 85} 0°5 |Flave x 100) 22383 |e? Lyre 4°9| 52] 0°3 |Eg. albee é 101} 2422 76) 7-7) 0-1 | Albee = 102} £2438 70| 76) 0°6 | Albee z 103; 22509 7-0} 81! 1:1 |Subflave 2 104; 22525 |Cygni 22 | 7-4| 7°6| 0-2 |Subflave x 105} 32556 731 7-8| 0-5 |Albee = E.. &. Holden— Components of Binary Stars. 471 ‘TABLE I.—Concluded. Doubl aah ouble A. | B. |B- thor- Star. Name. Imag. mag.|/mag.| Color. ity. Remarks. 106} £8 151 |B Delphini | 4:2} 6-0} 1-8 se 107} 42729 |4 Aquarii oe Ned 4 Gs | z 108} 22737 |e Equulei | 5-7| 6°2| 0°5 |Subflavee z 109) 2744 6:3} 7:0} 0-7 |Albee z 110) 22758 Cy: 5°3| 5°9| 06 |Flav. seu Aurea = 111} 02535 |d Equulei | 4°5| 5°0| 0°5 |Eq. flavee z 112} 22799 /Pegasi 20 | 66! 6°6/ 0-0 Subflave z 113} 22804 |Pegasi 29 | 7°3| 8°0| 0-7 | Albee = 114] 228 76 | 8:0! 0-4 |\Subfiavee z 115; 22909 |¢ Aquarii {| 4°0| 4:1/ 0-1 /Albasubvir D> 116) 22912 |37 Pegasi | 5°8| 7:2} 1°4|Albee z= 337) 2392 8:0 | 8:0) 0°0 | Albee z 118} 23006 85 | 9°0} 0°5 |Albe = 119} 02495 74| 74 | 0°0 |Blanches De 120) + %3046 8°0 |} 8'5| 0°5 | Albasubflavee = 121; 23050 |Androm. 37| 6°0| 6°0| 0-0 Subflavee 2 122) 23056 7-4| 7-4} 0°0 |Subflavee z + 123| 23062 6°91! 8-0! 171 |Flava = |No. 50 omitted. * S called the large star, single to him, green. Certainly binary. None of the observers note any difference in color. t Binaries, same color: = (B-A)= 64™-2; mean (B-A) = 0™°53. TABLE II (by 8. W. BurnHam). Binary Stars (with components of different color). Au- ag Name. ree ip na Color A. Color B. bral 1} = 60 |7 Cassiop. | 2°0| 7°6| 5-6 |Flava -urpurea = 2| 2% 208 |10 Arietis | 6°2| 8°4| 2-2 |Flava tinere = 3; 2 262 |c Cassiop. | 4:2; 7:1| 2°9 |Flava Yeerul: = , 4| = 295 |84 Ceti 60} 9°2| 3°2 |Flava Jinerea = 5| 2% 422 |P IIL 98 6:0 | 8°2| 2°2 | Aurea eerulea = 6} = 460 |\Cephei49 | 5:2| 61] 09 Flava subczerulea = 7} = 535 |Tauri 230 | 6-7] 82] 1°5 |Subflava ubcerulea x 8| = 566 |2 Camelop. | 5:1| 7:4] 2°3|Flava ubcerule = 9| 8 86 |B Leporis | 3°5 /10°0; 6°5 |Light gold ight blue De 10! & 742 |Tauri 380 | 7-2} 78) 0°6 ‘Subflava ba z ll} 3% 963 j14 Lyncis | 5-9; 7:1} 1:2 |Aurea rpurea by 12) 02159 |15 Lyncis | 4°7| 7-2| 2°5 |Jaune Clair Azur Cendri De 13 982 |38 Gemino | 5°4| 7-7} 2°3 |\Subflava ubezerulea = 14) 21066 |6 Gemino | 3:2} 8°2| 5°0 Subflava Subpurpurea = 15} 21273 |e Hyd 3:8; 78| 4:0 Flava rulea x 16] 21356 |o Leonis | 6:2} 7-0 [0°8] Flava Cert. flava = 17| 21374 |Leo. Min.30) 7:0} 8°3| 1°3 Subflava Eq. cexrul > 18) O21 X. 23 6°5 | 7:3 |[0°8] Blanche Blanc cendri De 19} 341424 ly Leonis 20} 3:5] 1°5 |Aurea rovir. = 20/ 21536 |c Leonis 3°9| 7:1 | 3:2 Subflava lea Dy 21; 21639 |Come 68 67 | 7-9) 1:2 | Alba Albasubcin z 22} 21768 |25Can.Ven.| 5°7/| 7°6| 1:9 |Alba zerule = 23) 21877 |e Bootis 3:0 | 6°3| 3°3 |Eq. cerulea Eq. cerulea D> 24) 21888 'F Bootis 4°71 6°6| 1°9 Flava |Rubropurpurea D2 472 RB. P. Whitfield—Lingula in the Trenton Limestones. TABLE II.—Concluded. ; Au Double A. | B. |B-A. thor- Star. Name. mag. |mag.|mag Color A. Color B. ity 25| 21967 |y Coronz | 4°0| 7°0| 3°0 |Albasubvir. Purpurea 2 26} 22032 |o Coronze | 5°0} 6°1| 1°] |Subflava Subczerulea x 27| £2055 | Ophiuchi | 4°0| 6°1 | 271 |Flava Subceerulea z 28) 22084 !¢ Herculi ‘0| 6°5 | 3°5 |Subflava Subrubra z 29| 22107 |Hercul. 167| 6-5 | 8-0| 1°5 |Subflava Subceerulea p 30| 2272 |70Ophiuchi| 4°1/| 6-1 | 2-0 |Flava Purpurea z 31} 22289 |Hercul. 417) 6°0| 7:1} 1:1 |Flava Subceerulea z 32| 22382 |e’ Lyre 4:6} 6°3| 1-7 | Albasubvir. | Albasabezerulea z 33| 2579 |6 Cygni 3:0| 7-9 4:9 |Subviridis Cinerea x 34| 2603 je Draconis | 4-0| 7°6| 3°6|Flava Cverulea z 35) 02413 |A Cygni 5°5| 7°6| 21 |Blanche Cendri Clair De 36) A. G. Clark. |r Cygni 4:9} 74) 2°5 |Light yellow Light blue De q| 22822 |u Cygni 0} 5:0} 1:0 |Alba | Albasubceerulea z 38| 22934 8°2| 9°2| 1°0|Albasubflava Alba z 39| 02483 [52 Pegasi | 6:°0| 8-0| 2:0 |Blanche Cendri De 40} 02489 |r Cephei | 4-4! 7°5| 3-1 |Jaune Clair Olivatre De 41| %3001 jo Cephei 5°2| 7-8| 2°6 |Kq. flava q. ceerulea »» 421 OX507 'B.A.C. 8277! 6°31 7°7! 1:4 ‘Blanche Cendri Olivatre De Binaries different colors: = (B-A) = 97-4; mean (B-A) = 2-44. (Nos. 16 and 18 omitted). Art. LXIV.—On the occurrence of true Lingula in the Trenton Limestones ; by R. P. WHITFIELD. Ir has been supposed by many that the Brachiopodous genus, Lingula, as represented by Lingula anatina Lamarck, & living species, was not represented among the fossil Lingulid of the older Paleozoic rock formations, if anywhere in rocks of Paleozoic age; and there has been a growing tendency to class all the Linguloid shells of these formations under other generic names. There is no question but that many of the forms represented in the Paleozoic rocks are really generically distinct from the living types; but I think we have proof in 4 species from the Trenton limestones of Wisconsin and Minne- sota, that the true Lingulz were represented by at least one gi cies at that period. Several years ago I received from Aaron Elder, formerly of New York city, who had been spend- ing a summer near Rochester, Minn., some internal casts of an undescribed Lingula. On examining them and finding the markings of the muscular scars and vascular lines very strong, I urged Dr. Elder to obtain more of the casts, at his next visit to that place, calling his attention particularly to these mark- ings. During the following autumn I received other specimens, from some of which the accompanying figures and description of parts are taken. The species I propose to name Lan . . R. P. Whitfield—Lingula in the Trenton Limestones. 473 Elderi, after the discoverer, and a full description will be given, with figures, in the forthcoming Paleontological Report of the Geological Survey of Wisconsin. e casts represent a species of moderate size, the average being about seven-eighths of an inch in length; the general outline is somewhat quadrate, the lateral margins being sub- othe and a little convex, the upper end very obtusely angu- ar or pointed, and the base rounded; the valves are convex, but the dorsal the most strongly so. The shell, when preserved, is smooth with very fine concentric lines, but presenting a pol- ished appearance. The peculiar features are found in the pres- ervation of the imprints left by the muscular and vascular scars on the shell, as copied on these internal casts, thus afford- ing means of comparison with the corresponding organs of the living forms of the genus. These markings correspond more nearly to those of Z. anatina Lam. than do those of any other been able to trace all the elements of the muscular system, nor to detect the divisions between those forming the larger scars; Some of which, in the recent forms, are seen to be composed of three or four elements; but where they are impressed so lightly on the shell and yet leave the trace of their advance over its 474. BR. P. Whitfield—Lingqula in the Trenton Limestones. surface by the growth of the animal to interfere with their dis- tinctness, this would scarcely be looked for in a fossil species. On the cast of the dorsal valve (fig. 1) the impressions of the pallial sinuses (ys) are deeply marked and are widely sepa- rated, leaving the area within them very considerable; the central or inner ramifications (1) are very distinct, and the outer ones also for a short distance from the main branches; while the posterior branches (2) show the lateral ramifications only on the outer side. The divaricator muscular scar of the dorsal valve (d) is very large and curved forward at the sides, being situated well back near the apex of the valve. It has not been satisfactorily observed on the ventral side, as every specimen yet obtained has been more or less imperfect at this point, but it-should be situated directly opposite that of the dorsal. The anterior adductor scars (aa) are small and situa- ted near the center of the valve, while the posterior adductors (pa) are large and situated outside of, and’ posterior to them ; so as to inclose their posterior ends. The scars of the adjustor muscles are distant from each other, and placed just within the posterior third of the length of the shell. Two elements can 1 scar on some individuals, but they are dle and on the aap ited half occupy nearly the same relative e dorsal side. Near the center of the valve Brackett and Young—Edison’s Dynamometer, ete. 475 instead of both external and internal, as in Z. anatina. Art. LXV.— Notes of Haperiments upon Mr. Edison's Dyna- mometer, Dynamo-machine and Lamp; by Professors C. F. Brackett and C. A. Youne, of Princeton, N. J. and he was requested by Mr. Edison to make an independent po accuracy is claimed for our results—though we beiieve them to be substantially correct—that is to say, within one or two per cent. We first made a comparison of Mr. Edison’s dynamometer with the well known Prony, the latter being driven migties the former precisely as the dynamo-machine was, during the 476 Brackett and Young—Edison’s Dynamometer, trials made to determine its efficiency. We found that the Prony registered 93°2 per cent of the power transmitted by the Edison. This result we consider quite reliable, the 6°8 loss being reasonably accounted for by friction of counter-shaft journals and the slip of the belt intervening between the instruments. To determine the efficiency of the dynamo-machine, we made three different tests. In all of them the power expended+in driving the revolving armature was measured directly by the Edison dynamometer. The small additional amount spent in maintaining the field of force was calculated from the measured resistance of the magnet coils (1-47 ohms) and the difference of electric potential between the terminals of the coils, measured by a high resistance galvanometer (Thomson). It was assumed in this calculation that the machine which furnishes this current was of about the same efficiency as the one experimented on, It being of similar construction. The formula is 1:25 & 44°25 ft. lbs. x te x t, where ¢ is the duration of the experiment in minutes. V is the difference of potential in volts; r is the resistance or the coil ‘47 ohms ‘25 is the number of foot lbs. of work done in one minute by an electromotive force of one volt driving 4 current through one ohm; and finally 1:25 is a factor embody- ing the assumption that the efficiency of the machine, produc- ing the magnetizing current, is 80 per cent. The amount of this expenditure is trifling, not exceeding three per cent of the work used in driving the armature but its neglect might lead to misapprehension. On March 19th the current produced was measured by the electrolytic method. We employed copper electrodes present: ing opposed surfaces of about one square foot each, an ge about one inch apart in a solution of cupric sulphate. e also measured the resistance of the circuit by the bridge method both at the beginning and end of the experiment so as to take account of heating. For a check, we also measured the differ- ence of potential between the terminals of the machine. On April 8d we had recourse to the calorimeter, employing a resistance coil immersed in about 175 lbs. of water, the resist ance of the coil being such that the work done elsewhere in the circuit could be calculated and allowed for as a small fraction of that directly measured. The difference of potential between the terminals was also measured for a check, as on March 19th. The resistance of the armature was 0-14 of an ohm; that of the rest of the circuit was made to vary in the different exper ments, from 1°9 to 3°2 ohms. We shall use the expression available energy to denote the energy developed in that part of the cireuit which is outside of Dynamo-machine and Lamp. 477 the machine. The total energy of course includes that which is uselessly spent in heating the coils of the armature itself, a very small portion in this form of machine. Our results are as follows On March 19th the experiment lasted five minutes. We ound: Energy expended in driving armature -_ - “i 1,500 ft. ibs. Energy expended on field of force _ .. .--- 16,400 Bote ciw da wiet el O87, 000.4 The current calculated from the amount of copper deposited was 34335 webers: the mean resistance of the circuit was 3°12 ohms, or, exciuding the armature, 2°98 ohms. The electromo- tive force, indicated by the galvanometer, was 102°36 volts. From these data we calculate: Total energy realized in the current ..... 814 an ft. Ibs. Available energy (excluding sania) ey 4 7,2 “i Hence the total oe is 82°3 per cent, and re available efficiency 78-7 per cent. On April 8rd the first test lasted 18" 50%, and we found— Energy expended in driving armature _. 2,844,600 ft. Ibs. Energy expended on field ....--...-.-. 1 2 rection. The resistance of the coil in the calorimeter was 1°72 ohms; that of the leading wires was only about 0-006, or gs}, of the preceding. Hence assuming 772 ft. lbs. as the mechanical equivalent of heat we have— Energy developed in calorimeter------. - 2,227,500 ft. Ibs. Energy developed in seo wires ..---- 7,425 “ Energy developed in armature......-.-- 183,670 “ That is to say : Total energy reali 2,418,600 Available energy ae es dips veo 2,234,925 “ which makes the total —— 84°6 per cent and the avail- able efficiency 78°2 per Am. Jour. Sc1.—THIRD Sexi Hox: XIX, No. 114.—Jung, 1880, 478 Brackett and Young—Edison’s Dynamometer, During the experiment the electromotive force of the current by which the field magnets were maintained was only 6-26 volts, consequently the machine was not giving nearly its max- imum current—the energy expended being about 6:25 horse- power and the current about 46 webers. During the next test, which continued nine minutes, the elec- tromotive force of the field coils was maintained at 14°9 volts, and the current produced was 57°5 webers—consuming 9° horse The calorimeter was refilled with fresh water; and proceed- ing as before we found— Energy measured by dynamometer -... 2,827,550 ft. lbs. Energy expended on field.._...-.----- 72,180 7% Total tienda} nko 2sBORe0-- 7 Energy realized in calorimeter. --. --. - 2,259,700 ft. Ibs. . Energy realized in leading wires - ----- | BR oT? Energy realized in armature........-. 183,930 “ TOMES. ei eet Ras E es eS Avyeuaie 5405222. 2,267,238 “ meee GOIONOY 2 er 84°5 per cent. Available efficiency -._-...........-- mere Lt es These results were confirmed by the reading of the high re- sistance galvanometer. Tabulating our results they stand thus: Total efficiency. Available efficiency. Ist 82°3 per ct. 78°7 per ct. 2d 84°6 “cc 78-2 “cc 8d 84°6 “ 78-9 “ Mean , 83°8 “ 8-4 “c If we assume that the indications of the Prony dynamometer are reliable and that the loss in transmitting power between the idison dynamometer and the arbor of the armature was only the same as the loss between the two dynamometers, the above numbers will have to be increased inthe ratio of 100 to 932, and we shall have— Total effictenty = 25.2 2725 AA 89°9 per cent. Available efficiency . 2.22.22) 2/2:2-- ig ie These figures we believe fairly represent the performance of the machine in its present conditi As points of excellence in the construction of this machine, .we may mention the employment of large masses of iron 10F the field magnets; the breaking up of the armature core into thin plates, thus avoiding the expenditure of much useless Dynamo-machine and Lamp. 479 work ; and finally, the almost entire absence of sparks at the commutator brushes, even when the machine is doing its maxi- mum of duty. Test of the Lamp. The photometric tests were made by the well known method . of Bunsen. The lamp, which was furnished us, was No. 858, one of the old pattern with carbon of charred paper, which had been used by Professors Rowland and Barker. An arrangement was adopted by which the current employed, the difference of potential of the lamp wires and the resistance of the lamp could be measured, continuously, during the pho- tometric observations, The current was measured by the de- position of copper in an electrolytic cell. The resistance was ound by making the lamp one arm of a Wheatstone’s bridge, suitably proportioned. The difference of potential was meas- ured by a Thomson’s high resistance galvanometer connected with the Jamp terminals. During the first test, which lasted twenty minutes, the mean photometric intensity “ broad-side on” was 13°8 candles. Cal- culation shows the mean illumination to be about 73 per cent of the maximum, hence, the mean illumination was about 10° candles. The resistance of the lamp, while shining, was found to be 99°6 ohms; and the difference of potentials at its terminals was 74°33 volts. (producing a current of 0-75 weber); hence the lamp was consuming 0°075 of a horse power. Or, adopting our previous result for the available efficiency of the dynamo- machine, we find that one horse-power measured at the Edison dynamometer would maintain a number of lamps represented by 78° . . the formula 0-075x<100 10°5, nearly. During the second test, which lasted thirty minutes, the mean candle power of the lamp was 10-7 candles, calculated as be- fore. The resistance was- eee enn eeene cee 99°7 ohms. The difference of potential - ..-------- 76°5 volts. Tne Carmen 6 ee 0°76 weber. Accordingly the lamp was consuming 0-077 of a horse-power —or one horse-power applied as before, would maintain 10-2 lamps at this candle power. Taking the mean of these results we find that one horse- power applied at the dynamometer would produce in a lamp of this pattern and dimensions a light of 107 candles; or about 187 candles if we estimate the energy actually developed in the lamp in terms of horse-power. Mr. Edison kindly put everything we required at our dis- posal, and himself, as well as Mr. Upton and his other assist- ants, aided us in every possible way. 480 M. C. Lea—Development of the Latent Photographic Image. ArT. LXVIL—On Substances possessing the Power of Developing the Latent Photographic Image; by M. Carry Lea, Phila- del phia. Axout three years since, I communicated to this Journal the results of a long series of studies on development. At the time when these were undertaken there were but four substances known to possess the power of development: ferrous sulphate, gallic acid, and pyrogallol, which had been long known to have this property, and heematoxyline, which [ had some years before added to the number The studies made three years ago prove that the power of development, so far from being possessed by this small number of substances only, extends to a large number of chemical compounds, and is exhibited by many cuprous salts, by several vegetable acids, glucosides, etc. But the most curious result obtained was with ferrous salts. It was known that ferrous sulphate, though a powerful developer in the so-called “ wet devaldnmeat,” i. e., development in presence of a soluble ’ silver salt, had no power whatever for those developments in which no soluble silver salt was present, and where the develop- ment was to be made at the expense of the film itself. I was able to show that ferrous oxide combined with almost any organic acid, possessed this power of forming a visible image at the expense of the film. So that a solution of ferrous sul- hate by mixing with one of an alkaline oxalate, succinate, salicylate, etc., immediately acquires the power of development. Ferrous oxalate exhibits the power of development to a degree so remarkable that it seems likely to displace the older methods. The study of the subject was resumed during the past winter, and with the result of ascertaining that this power of develop- ing was not limited to the organic salts of ferrous oxide, but was possessed by many of its inorganic compounds. It. cer- tainly has never been suspected that such compounds as ferrous phosphate, ferrous borate, ferrous sulphite, ferrous hypophosphite, etc., possessed the power of development, but this they un- doubtedly do, and not in any uncertain way. On the contrary, — some of these compounds are among the most powerful of all known developing agents, equalling, or possibly even exceed ing, ferrous oxalate in this respect, so that it is far from 1m- possible that some of them may pass into technical use 1 preference to those now employed. ome of these ferrous salts, especially the phosphate, sul- phite and borate, are, like the oxalate, insoluble in water, and therefore need to be got into solution. As these salts are not, like the oxalate, soluble in the corresponding alkaline salt, at M. C. Lea— Development of the Latent Photographic Image. 481 least not to any useful extent, it becomes necessary to find an appropriate solvent. The most available solvents are solu- tions of ammonium and potassium oxalate, and of ammonium and sodium tartrate. Of these, the first have the material advantage that the ferrous salts remain permanently in solution, whereas with ammonium and sodium tartrate they are apt gradually to be precipitated. errous oxalate is a powerful Spas pal the question immediately presented itself whether the developing Dome exhibited, for instance by ferrous oe dissolved in monium oxalate might not be due to the formation of ferrous chi But several reactions contradict this supposition. cooling, and this aie net is not ferrous oxalate but ferrous So as I find that ferrous tarthate has itself aereneie 8 properties. But as ferrous phosphate is to some extent soluble in a solu- tion of ferrous sulphate, and as ferrous sulphate (in the form of development here under consideration, namely: in the absence of soluble silver salt) is wholly without develop- And it proved that a solution obtained by adding one of disodic aot al to one of ferrous sulphate until a permanent precipitate began to form, undoubtedly possessed developing powers, though in a less degree. The number of ferrous salts capable of developing the latent image is very considerable. Singular anomalies are often compounds n nearly allied do not exhibit ve in this respect. For example: ferrous phosphate and ferrous meta- ue el are active developers, while ferrous pyrophosphate as no similar power. Among other tavous salts possessing more or less develop- ing power, may be mentioned ferrous hyposulphite (hydrosul- phate), ammonio- eu a acetate, antimonio-tartrate, etc. Fer- rous formiate, which might naturally be expected to be a powerful develo er, is ie though not entirely, destitute a the property. he most active agents found were ferrous rate, phosphate, fatphite and oxalate, respectively dissolved, the phosphate in neutral ammonium oxalate, the others in neutral potassium oxalate, May, 1880. 482 Scientific Intelligence. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. oxygen in the sample is easily calculated. By multiplying the number representing the oxygen in a gram of the dioxide by 15287, the percentage of BaO, is obtained. For commercial Bull. Soc. Ch., 1, xxxiii, 148, Feb., 1880. G, F. Be 2. On the action of Dry Sulphurous Oxide upon the Alkalt- earths.—The behavior of calcium oxide toward carbon dioxide at moderately high temperatures, has led BrrnpauM and Lat to study the action of sulphurous oxide upon all of the alkalt earths. The gas was evolved by gently heating a Robie aqueous solution, and was thoroughly dried by passing 1t eaten sulphuric acid and through tubes ‘filled with glass fragments Chemistry and Physics. 483 oes lateral tubulures, the necks Sain closed at top, an thence through a final drying apparatus into the ub. The flasks definite temperatures in a water bath, a a paraffin bath, a bath of melted tin (230° C.), of an alloy of tin and lead (290° C. ), of pure lead (326°2° C.) and of zine (415°3°C.). The heating in the gas current was continued until the weight became constant, the ex- periment iene interrupted from time to time, the a yparatus allowed to cool, the dioxide displaced by dry air and the flask analyzed The results wer ws Barium oxide thou beginning to absorb culphurous panei at 200° C., absorbed it more rapidly in the tin bath, becoming completely saturated in le about four weeks. The res ulting product was completely soluble in hydrochloric acid, contamed no sulphate or sulphide afforded 29°36 per cent SO,, the formula BaSO, requiring 29°49. Strontium oxide was less active, the first evidences of absorp- tion eee at 230° C., and ee at 290°, a constant formula Ca,S,0,,. At higher tempera e gas ab- sorbed, but ‘the product split into sachets pane ‘sulphide. her ybove sium oxide absorbed the gas at the temperature of melted lead, but the operation was so slow that three months passed before the weight became constant. Then the product consisted entirely of neutral sulphate, the temperature of absorption lying very near the temperature of a of the sulphite, ee e Rtg Chem. Ges., xiii, 651, April, n the Constitution of Soborchue Acid.—The constitution of HSO.OH, acid has been regarded as i 8 pane by t sepia y with potassium ico gives cae 1 ome chloride, bitter almond oil and some benzoic ne “To test the qication further, advantage was taken of the fact that catpkusend acid forms two isomeric ethers so | ne oh and C,H,.S0,0C,H,, the former by the action of thionyl chloride on sodium alcoholate, the latter by 484 Scientific Intelligence. the action of ethyl iodide on silver sulphite. The corresponding selenium compounds, treated in this way, afforded completely iden- tical ethers both having the constitution SeO Me) and both affording selenous acid on decomposition with water. Selenous acid then is a true dihydroxy] acid SeO i ar and different from efflorescences formed on the side of the vessel. After tie gr w on LiepMann, simultaneously but independently, has also iso- sugar. Two kilograms of the sugar obtained to examine. The residue was dissolved in as little ether as possible, and agitated with concentrated hydro-sodium sulphite solu ion. olution thus obtained was treated with dilute sul- evaporation, but soon solidified. After purification, the sub- stance was obtained as small pure white star shaped groups of pos odor and taste of vanilla. It was easily xiii, 335, 662, March, April, 1880. iG EB - On onversion of Hyoscyamine into Atropine.—lt 18, : well-known fact that hyoscyamine splits up into hyoscinic ac} Chemistry ana Physics. 485 and hyoscine on boiling with -nlapbepaatics acid; and also that atropine, thus treated, breaks up i tropic ac id and tropine. ome time ago, LADENBURG sailed. attention to the very close similarity between hyoscinic and tropic acids. He now shows that there is the same relation between "hiyosoine and tropine, these two bodies being identical. Their platinum chlorides have numbers on analysis. The curious fact now appeared that two isomeric alkaloids gave identical decomposition products. To test the matter synthetically three experiments were made: (1) Tro ine from atropine and hyoscinic acid from daturine were treated with Lar acid on the water bath ; (2) Hyoscine from hyoseyamine and tropic acid from atropine ‘were thus min - due, after neutralization and extraction with alcohol, was dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and precipitated with, “ene o ape: In conversion of hyo it ia into atropine.——Ber. e8., xiii, 607, April, 18 : * 6. On the pw of the Oxidation of Albumin by gr ah gangte.—The question whether by the direct oxidation of aibaaen, urea is produced, has been an open one. LossEN has now repeated with care the experiments of Béchamp and others, 500 grams of purified egg-albumin being diffused in 400 c.c, of water containing when they are modified to embrace ‘he new ¢ condition of a motion of the medium through which the light passes. Suppose that the dielectric moves with a velocity wu in the direction of the propaga- tion of the light. Let V be the velocity of awe Ee light in the dielectric when it is at rest ; the author finds © =-=— oo V approximately. In which 4 is the dled of PANE of light | in the medium. The conclusion is, therefore, drawn that the velocity of the light is increased by pre half the velocity of the dielectric. — Phil. Mag., April, 1880, iS, 8. Suggestions in regard to Cry coktaabin. —Mr. 8. Totver Preston discusses crystallization under the following assumptions: 486 Scientific Intelligence. 1. Molecules are elastic. 2. Molecules possess an open structure. 3. The ether is a gas whose atoms are so small that their mean length of path is greater than any planetary distance. motion of these atoms produces the phenomena of gravitation on Le Sage’s principle. » Various crystalline forms are regarded as due to the yielding of the ultimate particles of matter under different conditions of stress and strain; and the conception of elastic molecules is con- trasted with that of infinitely hard molecules.— Phil. Mag., April, 1880, p. 267. J.T. 9. Solubility of Gases in Solids.—Messrs. HANNay and Hogartu have experimented upon this subject with the following modifica- tions of Andrews’ apparatus: “a T-tube of wrought iron, one- half inch iriternal and one inch external diameter, was furnished . . arsenic in bisulphide of carbon, in 0 manner. The authors conclude that the critical point of a gas 18 still further evidence of the continuity of the liquid and gaseous 80. B pes 10. Chemical Affinity in terms of Electromotive Force.—Ur. Wricut reviews the work of Joule and others upon the Mechant- and for the value of the ohm; and states that he is about to com- municate results of measurement of the mechanical equivalent of heat which are based upon an electrical method.—PAil. May., April, 1880, p. 237. 2 . . fs i - ry) discusses the new discovery in magnetism made b r, E. It is also shown that the general equations of Kirchhoff, e° Helmholtz, Maxwell and Stefan for the motion of electricity. mf expresses the bres action discovered by Hall. kad. der Wiss. in Wien, Jan. 15, 1880, p. 11. Geology and Mineralogy. 487 12. Measurements of Gravity at Initial Stations in Americ a and ant 145 PP 4to. Shenae a Se, 1879. (U. S. Coast Sur- gather of gravity at initial stations in America and Europe. It includes the discussion of the observations made with a Bessel Frervible pendulum and of the large number of corrections re- quired in obtaining the true result. The observations were obtained with the same pendulum, swung at the following sta- wa ih Geneva, Paris, Berlin, Kew and Hoboken. By this means the observations in America are connected immediately with. elise of the most important prakve abroad, where the chief absolute determinations have be = cyaee and from which pendu- lum expeditions have been sen The station at Hoboken thus becomes the initial station for aes continent. Similar action already swu m Berlin; this is in compliance with the plan adopted at the meet- ing of the International Geodetic Congress in Paris in 1875. IL. GEoLoGy AND MINERALOGY. 1. Geological Survey of Pennsylvania. The Permian Upper Carboniferous Flora of West Vir. Mond gn Southbod Pennsylvania ; by Wu. A, FonTarne, Prof. I. Univ. of Vir- ginia, and LC. Wurrn, Professor Nat. His “Univ, West Vir- ginia and Assistant Geologist on the Genlogiea Survey of Penn- sylvania, 144 pp. 8vo, with 38 plates——The authors derive, from the study. of the plants of the “ Upper area" ‘Coal Measures of Pennsylvania and Virginia, that this part of the sty a Carbon- iferous formation, is ah ecipuas in its relations. ae ecies deter- ee re Mees Caltipteridiam, rte is, oniopteri Cynon: glossa, Alethopteris, Taniopteris, Rhac cont Cauli eris, Sigillaria (two apeueth Cordaites, ep tear , Carpolithes, Permian uae which the edhe present. Out of 107 sie found in the Upper Barrens of West Virginia, 22 occur in the Coal Measures proper, while 28 Gr 16 of the pre- ceding 22) are pales ge Permian ae a 12 have two, Caltipteris ei 8 a and Aletho, opteris gigas, are exclusively Permian. Again, 0 ne obtusiloba is a characteristic Per- mian pipers The genus Baiera, which first appears abroad in the Permian, has a s sete B. Vir rginiana, differing chiefly in greater size and robustness from the Permian B. digitata. There are no Lepidodendra, Alethopterids and etl ape gece are rare (two of the former and four of the latter); nearly a all the Peeop- terids have the arborescent character which sherabevises Permian 488 _ Scientific Intelligence. species; and the Newropterids and Sphenopterids show Permian features. Further, the occurrence of Conifers of the genus Sapor- which made its appearance in the Permian, has great prominence in the Jurassic. The evidence from the animal fossils is feeble, as there is little _ of it, but none opposes the idea of a Permian age. ove the hr ite a vont its associate coals, the Redstone and Bowiskley ther two marked stratigraphical horizons. One is that of the eg dctaies bkween the Sewickley and Waynes- burg coal-beds ; in the shales accompanying the latter there occur nearly all the characteristic Car sda ee plants of the Upper Barrens, but mixed with many new forms. The other is that of the overlying Waynesburg ieoait nis much of it very pebbly. investigatio ns of Weiss, Grand bas and others.” The first of the above horizons marks the transitions from the Carboniferous to the Permian. e conclusion of the authors appears to be well sustained ; and, as they state, it places the “ great Appalachian Revolution” “ at the close of the Permian Period” and explains “ the absence of Permian beds from the Mesozoic areas of the eastern portion i neg Continent and the Triassic age of the oldest beds there oun 2. Geology of Wisconsin: Survey of 1873 to 1879. Vol. IU, daohacanren by an Atlas of Maps. “Published under the direction of the Chief Geologist, J. C. Cuamperiin, by the Commissioners of Public vrmeng. 764 pp., 8vo, with many plates, maps 4 sections. 1880.— This volume of the final report on the Geol- ogy of Wisc sconsin treats of the generat Eon of the Lake on the general geology, and geology of the Eastern Lake rior district; R. Pumprtry, on the lithology of the Keweenaw stem ; ~ A. JULIEN, on some rocks of Ashland County; ©. #. the Huronian series of Penokee Gap, eee SWEET, on the Western Lake Superior district; T. C. LIN, on the Upper St. Croix district, from the notes of the late OSES ene T. B. Brooks, on the enominee regi 10N ; Wichmann, on the sient character of the Huronian rocks of the Iron. Salen The volume contains many maps, sections Geology and Mineralogy. 489 and plates on microscopic lithology, distributed through the sb and is accompanied by an atlas of large, colored, geological maps. It bears evidence throughout of careful study. It is especially important for its iilustrations of Archzan formations ; its detailed lithological descriptions of the various i dewsns rocks, based largely on ng gah an urespaeuos 8; and, economi- cally, for its — on the iron ore regio s and their ores Sigal mines, and on the Renew: ‘Gouget region. It also contains various observation on Quar eats deposits, terraces and erosion. 3. Paleontology io New York. Vol..V. Part 2, ma ep by J AMES Hat, State Geoloxis Text, 492 PP. ee ne a 4to ume in 1877, and notice of the same was given in volume xiv of this J ournal (p. 4 is second se “Of volume V, now published, will soon be fol- lowed by Part I, which treats of Sr Lamellibranchiata ; 80 ZOANS, coor ods and Crustaceans of the Upper Helderberg printed. Further, over 800 other drawings of cora 7a Meee been made for the final illustration of this class of fossils. These state- ments show that great perwt — been made toward the comple- my of the New York Paleo 4. Report on td: Geological pi of New Jersey for the tc 187 9; by the State Geologist, Professor G. H. Coox.—This re contains new facts relative to some of the aes Yotahationa has afforded Sasha. (the “ decorticated trunk”) of a fossil plant which, according to Professor Lesquer reux, resemble much the Lepidodendron cick inka a speci he Devonian and Subcarboniferous ery itive evidence will = required to make it certain that it is this old species, or any species of idodendron. Professor Cook states that the sandstone of the “southeastern margin of the formation contains mostly grains of feldspar instead of quartz,” as if made from a very feldspathic gneiss or granite, such as is found in great quantities on that side 490 Scientific Intelligence. of the formation; “ while the rock of the northwestern side contains fragments of magnesian limestone,” a rock occurring in the older formations near by on that side. The exposure of Silurian mag- nesian limestone within the area of the sandstone, and other facts are stated to favor the view of a comparatively small thickness for the formation. The report is accompanied by a handsome colored geological map of the State. 5. Note on the occurrence of fossils in the Triassic and Juras- sic beds near San Miguel in Colorado ; by R. C. Hir1s.—The fossiliferous portion of the Triassico-Jurassic beds of the Upper San Miguel is situated in lat. 37° 58’ N., long. 107° 50’ W., near the town of San Miguel city, and extends east from that point along the flank of San Miguel park about two and a half miles. The fossils occur in the upper portion of the red sandstone beds thickness. r stratum, in which the Pterophyllum was found, is a fine-grained micaceous red sandstone with a schistose cleavage. ten ud-cracks and raindrop pits, also impression fossil will probably be restricted to places where small depres twenty feet to forty feet of bituminiferous limestone at the ag followed by a few feet of hornstone and several hundred feet 0 gray sandstone. I have not observed any fossils in “e series, be one. The rock of the lower portion of the red sandstone earn a often shaly and readily separable into fragments of conchoida ss of these beds, but it is not less than 1,000 feet. Bee g section of these rocks is showed upon the pernis where they extend for six miles along the river between Hermo and Animas City, upon the Dolores near Rico, on the peer pahgre below Ouray and less extensively on nearly every strea tributary to the Animas and San Juan. Botany and Zoology. 491 6. Note on Sauranodon; by O. C. Marsu.—The name Sauran- odon, given by the writer toa genus of Jurassic reptiles, appears to have been previously used in the same class thus preoccupied, it may be replaced by the name Baptanodon, for the extinct generic form, with Baptanodontide for the family, and Baptanodonta, for the Sibardes represented. May 20, 1880. III. Borany anp Zoouoey. 1. Revision of the mirage Pigeon and Description of P. Eliottii, by Dr. Grorer Encetma St. Lo uis, 1880. Separately fasied from the Transactions of. the Academy of Science of St. Lonis, vol. iv, no. 1, pp. 161-190 (1-30), but printed in folio, to match the plates, 1-3.—The plates, illustrating Pinus sonata Engelm., are very fine, having been excellently drawn from nature on stone by Paul Roetter, and they give the whole port, saraabts and germination of this the Linihanonabet species of our Atlantic States. In appearance it is as it were intermediate between P. Tada and P. australis. 'The characters of the Pines and a sketch of former arrangements are surveyed in detail; the anatomy of the leaves is particularly attended to, and the character of the resin-ducts is turned to account as a very important eer 2 mark of affinity. The primary sections of the genus are re to two, founded mainly on obvious differences in the scales of a cones, viz: Strobus, with marginal unarmed umbo Se into Eustrobi and Cembre), and Pinaster, with dorsal and mostly armed umbo. Then the subdivisions are duaningtishad by the position of the duets within the leaf, “ whether sm wesw parenchymatous, or internal;” then the position of the female ament and cone, whether subterminal or lateral; and finally the number of rraeasey in the fascicle is taken into consideration in the second section; the first consisting wholly of five-leaved species. Although only such species and subspecies are enumerated as the author has himself examined, yet the list is almost complete. aad iibioatilia: ‘of California is reduced to a subspecies of P. Jlexilis, a marked one certainly, as to the cones; and P. Balfour- : Banksiana, being a year earlier than the name P. rupestris is of ines is retained for the 2 ees A second ae species is 492 Scientific Intelligence, a rain-storm from the south, in March, when no pines north of Louisiana were in bloom and which must have come from the Sone of our sara Methodik der Speciesbeschreibung, und Rubus: ‘Monsyratie der emfachblittrigen und krautigen Brombeeren, ee on nTzE. Leipzig, Felix, 1879. 160 pp. 4 0, with a & lebseraphic plat e and seven statistic- phytouraphteal table / —A most elaborate discussion, first of the diversity of value and indefiniteness of botanical species, followed by a plan for’ a better ogeeirhoag toe of botanical relationship ; next an application a “speciesbeschreibung” to the simple-leaved Audi, The au cata out with the proposition—in one sense true—that Daten on one hand and Jordan on the other have shattered to the founda- tion the rpricten conception of species; but that this conception still fetters systematic botany; that the plan of describing only typical forms, or what we choose to consider such, is a deliberate negation of existing facts; and that to follow the rules of arrang- ing related forms under the successive stages of species, subspe- cies, varieties, subvarieties, etc., has become incompatible with a strict and faithful following of nature. He ipicioe Le ee rather than pees them. Of course the idea of apo : value of such a treatment as he has etter en af a part of t Botany and Zoology 493 rst a general = into Finiformes and Gregiformes ; the former being those which appear to have no very near surviving relatives, i. e. they are very well marked and moderately varying species. Those with numerous variations within a common type are Gregiformes ; and these again may be distinguished as Loco- Sormes, Typiformes, Versiformes, Ramiformes, Avoformes, Medio- Sormes, Eyre caahinets Singulifor mes, and a few more,—terms ich we have not space to define, which indeed are not to be really defined, and nenay all of whieh involve hypotheses. An OV of Gedaes in hotatitcal denaeratiata which give to botanical most repulsive. In the preface botanists are “requested, in case they do not approve these aeons to turn their endeavors ering But t they are hardly shee up to the alternative. Slight eteomaants of the old paths from time to time, as need appears, may be more serviceable than os labor upon new and untrodden roads. 3. CHARLES CHRISTOPHER Frost, the oldest ergptoganist in n this country, died at pada atta: Vermont, arch 16, 1880. He was born in the same town Nov. 11, 1805, and .lived a throughout his long life. His father was a pot cue which trade his son to country about him exhaustively, . saliesting plo os ng in the domain of natural science; but he was best wn to the world e communicated A site papers to the bin Be of his day but his most important seatapit as to ers is a List of the patie Liverworts, Charas, and Fungi, in the “Catalogue of Rants growing within thirty pie of Kees ” published by rofessor Edward Tuckerman and himself in 1875. Or.5,Be Am. Jour. Sor.—Tuirp oo VoL, XIX, No, 114.—June, 1880. Mend 494 . Astronomy: 7 Ill. Astronomy. 1. Elements of the Comet discovered by J. M.. Scheberle at the Ann Arbor Observatory on the 6th of April. Letter to the editors from Mr. Sco 2BERLE, dated Ann Arbor, Mich., May 18, 1880.—As there is no ephemeris published of the comet which T discovered on April 6, and as it is quite Bones that observa- tions can still be made with large instruments, as soon as the moon gets out of the way, I send you the sohediolts below for publication in the American Journal of Science An approximate orbit was first cored from Ann Arbor observations of April 6th, 12th and 20th. The large Pao distance as shown by the resulting elements induced me to lengthen the interval of time between the extreme dates. An orbit was then computed from the following data; the times of observation and the places of the comet being corrected for ocean and parallax respectively : oe miveks Time. App. @ i App. 3. . April 6, 1880, m 308 7h 12m 3040 g4° 24’ 2°1 April 20, 1880, iL. 52 1] 6 16 37°65 73 51 59°3 May 4, 1880, 914.11 6 15 47°66 64 55 273 The ee elements I find to be = June 30° 1964 Washington mean Time. Sess AYO OLS _ = a 485 | Ecliptic and mean Equinox 1880°0. 29°8 ey Pi ae ag 259736 The residuals for the middle place are AA ond wae hi*9 Ephemeris for ce Mean eae : 880, App. a. Avp.6. log. y. __—ilog. A. _Iutens'y of light May 24.5 6h 25m 95 = §4° 5174 = 027404 =: 03 9795 079 28.5 2%. 2 104 0:27122 0°40503 O77 June 1.5 6 29 39 bl 34-5 0-26869 0°41154 0°76 5.5 6 31 56 0 32 0°26645 0-417 0°75 9.5 6 34 12 48 3671 026452 0°42276 0-14 13.5 6 36 24 47 12-7 0-26291 0°42740 0°73 17.5 6 38 39 45 526 0-26162 043138 rae The corrections to the times, for aberration, are st till t wife applied. The intensity of the li shi df comet for “April 6, is taken as the unit of measure. The HAs will probably not more than a second or two in error. The declinations may correction of two or three minutes of arc, toward t ephemeris. The declinations deduced from the elements “tit ge in the Circular of the K. K. Ak. in Wien, are On May 12 the ephemeris was nearly half in Taliebiahen: so that I felt warranted in sending you the ep eris given above, Miscellaneous Intelligence. 495 IV. MIscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. National Academy of Sciences.—The following is a list of papers registered and read at the meeting of the National Acad- Sciences, at Washington, April 20-28, Ren of et LeConte. sang Vision; Laws of Ocular M W. gee —l, 1, Hollow W. ter-Spo uts and aes ry a 0: rm) Metaceclogy. ; LS Packard.—On the Structure of the Brain of Limulus polyphemus. — - ngley.—1. on an Instrument for Measuring Radiant Heat.—-2. On the Composition of Colo: eragrnes ap Agassiz. 7._—The Sea Urchins ~ ‘ay? ne Expedition. O. C. Marsh.—Size of the Brain in Extin W. pibts —On New alt ie Inorganic Acids T. Sterry Hunt.—On the nic System n Geolo, ogy. F. M. Green, U.S. N.—On the Recon Determinations of Longitude by the i pees Hydrographic Office hd Todd.—On the ‘Announcement of the Discoveries of Intra-Mercurial ph. Cini by Tele Wm. Harkness.—On the Solar Coron E. s. Holden.—On the Nebula of Oni ion. Theo. N. Gill.—-On the Distribution of the Zenopsis ieee Josiah P. Cooke.—Revision of the Atomic wou of Ant a —On = effect of rein trains vs sanemiting ri through the ground ia regards ect on observations ed observ Albert A. Michelson. or the saci dential? suffered by Tight ‘on passing through a very narrow slit. J. Lawrence Smith—-Some remarks on the rr ia nature of the Sun’s Corona; and, also, oh 1 a supposed new Meteoric silica Stephen Alexander.—On some modern aevekiplacaty bearing upon the pene Hypothesis and other shelton connected therewith, as well as on some previ changes, and miscellaneous notices. 2. Emmet County Meteorite: Supplement to the article on page 459, by the author, J. ee cE Smira.—When my paper was sent to press, the fo ilo wing new facts in connection with this meteoritic fall had not been discovered. I am indebted for them meteor yeaa’ over them, a ieee shower of what ees : them hailstones fell, and that the, surface of the water was aliv with the falling bodies. Three weeks ago (April 15th) the people of that neighborhood began to find, on the freshly burnt prairies, small pieces of meteorites from the size of a pea to one pound in weight ; 300 to 500 were thus found ; and ten days ago (May Ist) thousands of men, women and children were on the ground daily, and from the meteoric field probably five thousand pieces have already been gathered, making in all a weight of not less than from 60 to 75 pounds. 496 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 83. Statistics on Earthquakes ; by Professor C, G. Rock woop, Jr. (Communicated. )—Professor Dr. C, W. Fuchs, formerly of Heidel- berg, but now in Meran, Tirol, Austria, has for the last fifteen. years published annual statistics of earthquakes and volcanic phenomena, and has noticed that in his lists America is remarka- ble for the paucity of shocks reported. This he attributes, and we think rightly, to the lack of information on the subject, rather than'to any real scarcity of such events. As he is now proposing to revise his lists, he has presented to the Smithsonian Institution a request for information in regard to American earthquakes, especially for the whole or any part of the period since 1865. H would be thankful for any information on the subject which may be in the possession of American observers, and which may be sent to his address as above. j The undersigned, who has for the past eight years been occupied in a similar work in America, would take this opportunity to say to the readers of the Journal, that he also would be very glad to come into communication with other workers in the field of Seismology, either American or foreign. He is especially desirous to obtain correspondents upon the Pacific Coast, who would aid in collect- ing information in regard to earthquake shocks in that region, where they are so much more frequent than on the Atlantic sea- board. Princeton, N. J., May 12, 1880. 4. Tables of the Uommon Logarithms and Trigonometrical Funetions to Six Places of Decimals. With special regard to their Use in Schools, Edited by Dr. C. Bremiker. 517 pp. 8V0- New York, 1880, (B. Westermann & Co.).—This reprint of them were commonly foun e work, both on account of Its high reputation for accuracy and_ its ct convenience, eserves a wider use than it has yet obtained among the very CoD- OBITUARY. Professor Wrrt1am H. Miturr, the eminent Crystallographet and Mineralogist of Cambridge, England, has recently died, at the age of seventy-nine. INDEX TO VOLUME XIxX.* cademy, Nationa Acetic ethers i polyatomic alcohols, 66. Acid. Alouat oxidation 0 len. O. D., bas of gallium with alum anit 65. ‘Almanac. sa bras for 1882, 163. , 405 eig ht of, Cooke, 382. Botany— Ginkgo, recent and extinct, 328. Helianthus annuus, Gilbrest, 329. In i Onion-smut in France, 75, Pinus, catia of, 491. Rubus, 492, Seeds, effect of ig bi 328. Species, botanical, Thallophytes, pee imett of, 75. Vegetable tissues, morphology of, 329. See further under GEOLOG sitecerar Yo , Edison’s Synbtstileetet, , 415 nnd lend and sea, Sherman, Bre: oxidatio aa te 8 of, Cooke, 464, ‘ Ashburner, ., petrole remiker, C., Tables of leaudtinna4 6 oil- of Pennsylvania, 416. Br es pie Pio ote power and Atmos rorey chase: and logical | _ chemical cons on, 66, striae of, Hunt, 3 oy ne Brush, G. J., r rh between children- S, ogy of Nebraska, 412. | _ ite and eosphori ughey, Ayrton, a dispersion photometer, 319. B ae age abstracts, 65, 147, 926, 402, 482. idison’s electric light, 337. Barrande, J., Brachiopods, 156. Bawmhaer, 'H, © n perofs ite 157. fatrodnoth on of rien by ack oxidation, 228. Beale, L. S., w to Work with the Microscope, 46 6 equivalence 0 of boron, nao Bentham, G., Genera Plantaru 8. Berthelot, the heat of formation te Sia ogen, 147 direct union of cyanogen and hy- Berthelot’s thermo-chem istry, ee 261. Bertr th Boisbaudran, Meat of gallium nn, laws of diffusion and ies dynamics, 4 ocity of electricity, 486. ot ‘equivalence of, 404. Botan penktar ee of wa 229. Australia, plants o _—— of plants, ethos and Hooker, a ea. contains the Bruy sage edvlicnalo and hydriodic Burnham, 8. W., Double Star Observa- tions, 82. Capron, J. R. ess their Characters and Spectra, 16 te it, mesallg OS of sonorous vibrations, 312. Cellulose and its nitro derivatives, 405. Chamberlin, T. C., geology of Wisconsin, 488, Chemical ogo in terms of electromo- tive force, Chlorine, va soa A of, 226. larke, A. R., of the earth, 335. Col or-correction of object - glasses, 109, Comet of April, 1 494, bruary, 1860, eee) 396. fa American eae tantalates, 131. composition of nator a. 220 bastnasite and tyso te, 390. Cooke, J. P., atomic wolghiel ii antimony, 3 argento-entimonious tartrate, 393. aerate nag Berthelo 5 hertio- che emistry, re density or “iy halogens at high tem peratures, 40 neral heads BoTany, GEOLOGY, oie Gunttase, ZooL- o@yY, and under each the titles o Articles referring thereto are mentioned. 498 ke, J. P., oxidation st — acid solutions of antim Cook, G. or = ological siecle i New ‘Jerse One, E. D, “ eave bear of California, ati iocene fauna of Oregon, 155, 2 iy ultra-violet in the solar spectrum, has u, M, onion-smut in France, 76. Acie, x, M., Botanical Gazette, 157. aie density of me Rens at very mperature crete vi actestion of air at the equa- tor, Crosby, W. O., pinite in eastern Massa- chusetts, 117. Geo logy 0 of Eastern Mass., Crossley, E., Handbook of Double ic Crys stall ization Cyanogen, heat = yore of, 147. union of with hydrogen, 404, na, E. S., re ery His children- ewe and eosphorit Dana, J. D., Gi bots OE of the Henry Mountai ains, _ geologi a survey of the publie do- main, 78, ett of sein on the Taconic sys- eyo a Green he soreness 19E. Manual of Geology, noticed, 73. nm, G. H., on tes orbit of a ‘satellite y 8, 159. razil, 326. ood ) Se heii: endure extreme wre, 4 earthquakes and the plan- pack eiyloeki of carbonic acid in a coal mine, 1 . dibrometh hylene, 2 tem ; magnetic + eh he in Piedmont, 023 , geology of the Rio Sado in Brazil, 236 age of the Brazilian Bb ray series and discovery of Eozoon, 324. Dew. wea A:, Geotapient “Chart of Bel- Diamona artificial formation of, oe ruling engine, Rogers Diffusion laws of, 407. Eran or ee manufacture of sulphuric aci INDEX. aie “a pn eer Valley lime- sto: et Facade 6m Edison’ s, 475. E Earth, figure of, Clarke, 52. Earthquake of San Salvador 415. pares oe the planets, 162. witzerla recent Amerian , Rockwood, 295. statis me ckwood, 496. Eider, oellul dison’s Ape ight, 337, 475. bus ustacea of Mexico and SES & Central Am , 332 lectrical fcttichion. work of, 318. Electric light, 70, 141. tric light, 70, Edison’s, 337, 475 telegraph, 336. Electricity, velocity of, 4 ae Py bi amometer for Tatas naeide bleetrlyt D agecrsionm Levison, ae tro-optics, measurements and biel in, Bigelann, at revision of the genus Pi Euripus, tides of, 163. Explosion ve a platinum alembic, 403. of carbonic acid in a coal mine, 147. F Farlow, W. G., botanical notes, 75. Fenton, action of phosgene gas on am- mo: 226. Fish Com mission, ae of, 333. Fittig, fluoranthene, 2 ontaine, W. A., Pies flora of Penn- sylvania 487. Ford W, note on the ask Atops trilineatus of cm mmons, es eg ot he Taconic Sys- Forel, probiem of of the Euripus, 163. anc. va ae tic ethers of polyatomic alcohols, G R., Treatise on Fuel, 168. Gone: van bility of i SS 486. Ga ubility o: a soli Geikie, < Archie of the Wah- satch Mounta Firth of Forth, voleanic racks Fe se 41 4, Geological Atlas of the United States and Canad EOLOGICAL REPORTS OR SURVEYS— Alabama, Drummond. A. T., Canadian Timber- trees, 3 Brazil, 236. India, 148. Japan, 156. INDEX. GEOLOGICAL REPORTS OR SURVEYS— New Jersey, 489. EL dartiegs a (ard s), 159, 415. Verm Archean fon of the Wahsatch Mountains Atmosphere penlbetial relations of, un. Atops trilineatus, note on, Ford, 152. Brazil, geology of, Derby, 236, 324. tee rnia, old river-beds of, Le Conte, 176 Catsk il Mts., structure of Ah i 429, Cave bear of California, Colorado, ieee in Trinbeteo-t urassic | of, Hills Conodonts, inde. 327, 4 Crinoids, new pe Heb ea 328. Dinosaurs, American Jurassic, Marsh, m in, Mars iain edible, from Japan, au. Eozoon from Bra Firth of Forth, valtuuiie ae of, Gei- kie, 414, Gi inkgo, recent and ie 328. Glaciers, oe ts 426. Great ke, andlons outlet of, Gilbert ‘SAI, ae Mo ountains, age of, Dana, 191. nry Mountains, Takes Bonneville, Sia of, Gilbert, 341. Lingula in the grr Whitheld 472. ical eg ogy of, Aughey, 4 —— Boars ps8 ‘fi: Whit- fold, 3 oilsands of a ae 415. epee e faun 252. Pennsylvania arentoe rocks of rm, Hal pole ea Petroleum. sili and Field of, 168 Pre-Cambrian rocks in Europe and 8 son Rive si Sauranodon, Marsh, 169, 491. Taconic rocks, age of, Hitchcock, 236. fom Baer 2 a <7 list of papers on , Dana, western limit of, Ford, 225. dyea es pont 1879, 4 Gould, Hall, C. "BS Silurian Heliotrope a of, Cope, 155, | Hesse, aeobiblichaiit of C Hidden, Hill, W. N., 499 GEOL Wappinger Valley limestone, Dwight, sin, rocks of, W 488. Giesecke’s travels in Greenla nd, 416, Gilbert, G. K., the outlet of Lake Bonne- ir, W. A, ‘hgectpsoins e at San Sal- ., Sine- formals ng oy diurnal variation of one southern comet of Te, a 396. of, 487. Gravity, measurements y of the Catskill Mts., 429. H Habirshaw, F., Catalogue of Diatomacee, Heeckel. E., Meduse, 2 45. Hall, A. , companion “a Sirius, 457. e of the crystal- line rocks of Pennsylvania, 413. Hall, C. W., thomsonite from Minnesota, ape z = feoh a eg the magnet rrents, 2 Hall, y "Paleontology of Now Tork, 489. Hal B. D., Ameri Cha: 75. Hannay, the artificial formation of the mee ai ility tf gases in solids, 486. ees rns, W., color ba of achro- lesco copes, 1 Hayle, F. es Sarvey of Territories, He ites \ schidonl equivalent of, 319. use of for telegraphing, 408. alifornia, 229. . £., meteorite from a Oebeld Co., ‘Alabama, 370. Hilgard. d, J. E., magnetic declination in | the United States, 266, 113, f electro - dynamometer for tse currents, 1 Hills, R. C., fossils from near San Miguel, Colorado, 490. Beever. G. J., on tg Ipaong. 327, 418. the Hitchcock, C. Ha nd £., age of Taconic rocks and geo cology of Vermont, 236. n free path of a bina 222. S., components of binary gored 467. Holden, Be S., Fever oe of the Library aval rvatory, -_ Hughes, T. Mc of m Huggins, W. secures of star Te 317, Hunt, r sy, Ralegpben rocks in Europe and America, 268. the chemical ak 998 rela- ae uxley, T. i. we epee sh, 424. Hydreeyl by direct oxidation, 228. J Jensen, grt in temo met , 416. Johnsto' F. W., The Chemistry of “Conmin Life, 231 ., spodumene and its altera- rst ise Kerr, electro-optics, 407. Kingsley , J. §8., Crustacea from Virginia, ., Er rasmus Darwin, 2 semen of a eine alembic, 40 Kundt, eso magnatic ieetion of the plane of polarization in gas ety ‘monograph of the aati leaved i, 4 L rg, conversion of hyoscyamine into atropine, Landauer, J., Blow Lea, pe Analysis, 251. M,C, dev weloniheat of the latent pho phic image, “hee i -+ glycogenic function of the iver, 25, old river-beds of California, 176. Leidy. J., Fresh-water Rhizopods of North America, Lesley, J. P., Hua on River ea in roof- ing slate of Pennsylvania Levison, W. G., elec ebtrokrtie pee, Light, tea Prot 70, 141, 337, 475. Liver, wlyoogeni function of, Le Conte, er, J. N., new method of spectrum observation, 303. , contributions to meteorology, a oxidation of albumin, 485. Low + Sed G., edible earth from Japan, 4] Lunge, G., Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, 230. INDEX. Lyman, B. §8., Geological Survey of J ge 156. n, T, , Ophiuridee and Astrophytide of ‘the Challenger Expedition, 248. scacortee declination in Piedmont, 235. n U. S.,, Hilgard, 166, 1'73. Magnet, i rents, Hall, 200, 235. Mallet, R,, probable bat bas of the prim ordial ocean ‘ok Mars, diaihetors of, You ,M onto oscil 83. 3, paicipereenr ng rn. 395. Meteorite from Cleberne Co., Hi Emmet Co. a, Smith, 459, 495. ape Bissdbsiibece studies of, ' Dau- brée. Meteorology contributions to, Loomis, pee R., introduction of hydroxyl by direct tatdation Meyer, V., vapor-density of feng 226. Michaelis, bala Reger: ts) selen Microphone as a pu ae} ometer, 427. Microscopea Journal, American, 167. MIN Albite, 23 239. Aglaite, 238. Apa atite Scieiline manganese, Pen- field, Bastnisite, “Allen and i aaa 390. oe es gaat Cym tolite Plagioo in eastern Mass., Crosby, 1 ager optical ‘properties of, Bt. quar 2 @ Jul 237. Spodum ien, 2 et American, Comstock, 131 Uraninite, Com ‘ock, 2 Wollastonite, crystals of " Root, 239. Minks, A., Das Microgonidium, 158. Missouri, Facer ic pervey of, 234. INDEX. Molecule, free path of, Hodges, 2 Mo e 8 motion, inequalities of, Stockwell, Nakamura, sulphur in oid 229. ola po os ly, Hoden's ‘Astronomical "Bibliography, 2 Uranoietia Argentina, of 6. Nichole Ei. optical method f Saco of high temperatures, 42. Nichols, H. A. A., volcanic action in Dominica, 426. Nicholson, H. A., Paleontology, 7 Monograph of the Silurian Foasile i e, 237, et er of 1879, 234. Ni ordsnk aie. Arctic Ses ste of, 165. OBITUARY— Sadebeck, A., 168. ees mper, W. P., 427. E., Paisano) Cincinnati, publications of, Harvard College, Annals of, 2 Ocean, peangt agate ten of pene dia. L oa Oxybarym Ozone, a a oe A402. y Packard, A. S., Zoology, 2 Patterson, use of the Taltrope for tele- graphic © 8. 501 m, S. FF, hee rig om Peo 8 i; ‘childrenite te containin md manganese, 367. Bebe i, Metallurgy, 3 Perry, a dispersion photom 319. Peters, C. the gee Dido, 130. the Ae eet Lilaea, Oe Petroleum, yield of, Peyritsch, J., panes Maximilian, SSE. hosgenégas, action of on ammoni P 226. « Phosphorus, formation of ozone by slow oxi xidation of, 402. Photographic image, developers of, Lea, Photometer, new pemage 319. Pickering, ; ls of on Observa- ry of Harvard Coleg ; tet, R., seeds en rs ere Planet neg rane of of, Peters, 130. Plane toids, pamien a Pickering, 250. nen volatility of in — 65. e of the, Polavition, uinsachedl elec ro-magnetic aired ‘of plane ol, Prescott, A. B., Qualitative Chemistry, Pres ton, bot Prime, R, Jr., crystallization, 485. Catalogue of Geological rina Pri es Plant: sone riceadie int 145. RC. Ay is io names of Brit- R Rathbun, R., age of Peed emp Gneiss, 324. Eozoon fro’ 25. mariong'? 4 power oe chemical constitu- Ricketts, Notes on Assaying, 147. po Sg Cotton har 248. ‘ockwo G., notes on earthquakes, , 334. Rodwell, G. F, Vesuvius, 334. Roe oemer, Ff; Lethza Geognostica, 156. 3, W. we new diffraction ruling en- Ai an , O4. en O. N., reflexion of sound-waves, i madi igo in afr est: Root, O., das te) Wollastonite, 239. stp F, temperature of the sun, 144. nd, a es mechanical equivalent ak heat, aieon’s 8 blasts light, 331. 502 $ Safford, T. H., Catalogue of Stars, 249 Schmitz, PR, he cell-nucleus of Thallo- phytes, 7 Saouborgk oo naturalized weeds and other plants of ‘cape tien 330. ° Schoo! of Mines Quarte Schuster, M., optical sccctigtet plagi- oclase, Schwendler, new standard of ight, 69. report on the electric light sor ak 8. H., Paleozoic Melaasee rainy Insects, 1 entra volatility of settedia in chlo- Shepard 0. U., Ivanpah meteoric iron, Sherman, height of land and sea Sirina oo companion of, Hall, 4 Smith, E on ol. Surv. seme 326. z, aubrée’s Experimental Geology Menase Dein meteorite, 459, 495. Smith, S. I, zoological notices, 332, wi Soil, i, soluble matter of, retained by vi vase Sun. Sound waves, presentation of, Carmi- chael, 3 ni ie of, Rood, 133. Spectra, heliotrope, 409. an phic of stars, Huggins, 311, photographs of, 406. Spectrum, indigo in, Rood, 135 observation, new method of, Lock- y 30S. solar, ai t different heights, 406. ee R. Revision of the Palzocrin- oidea Stars, pee ine of binary, Holden, 467. otographic spectra of, Huggins, $17, 378: sensi oo Poly inequalities of the oon’s moti Sturtey ant, EK. v. Indian Corn, 331. Sulphur in coal, 2 Sun, parallax of, Todd, & spectrum of at cierent heights, 406. temperature of, 1 Cer = odeyaae, diurnal variation of, Gould, 212 of a r at the equator, 142, 232. alla measurement of high, Nichols, 42. INDEX. Thermo-Chemistry, 68, 261. hinch Bug, 333. Thomsen, J. ee as affecting the orbit of a ‘satellite, Tod: solar Pies oy from the relat oft light, Trow Zonya notes, 69, 317, 406, - 35. Tuckerman, £., Minks’ Das Microgoni- dium, 158. Uranometria Argentina, Gould, Stu. Vanillin i in beet sugar, 484 Verri #., marine fauna of North Adsilte i, BT; cephalopods o North —— 284. of logical notices, 244, 333 Voucviud, 334. Vogel, H. W., photographs of signa Volcano in Dominica, Nichols, 4 Wachsmuth, on Revision of the Palzo- So omre dig tenhofen, A. “von, direct. measure of ews work of electrical induction, 318. beat A. C., new species of crinoids, White U; ribo age i of the Western fie 321. Palooatolepical riba werk “for i874, 1 White, J. C, Permian flora of paar a, 487. Whi R. P., fossil crustaceans from "Tagua in Trenton limestone, 472. gion, Ty , temperature of air at the equa’ : Wri rae the ical affinity in terms of electromotive force, 486. ¥ C. A., diameters of Mars or correction of planet me ioe glasses, : Edison’s ppacscahelle etc., 475. Z ZOOLOG Cephalopod of North America, Ver- page orate of Mexico and Central ca, Edwards, 332. or} Virginia, etc., "423. ‘ Marine fauna of No rth America, Ver Rhizopods of North — 240. See further under GEOLOG@ AM. JOUR. SCL., Vol. XIX, +880. Plate XIX. 30° Longitude 20° West from 10° Greenwich 74° 50° AUS ay Tye Vye = pea fe) E P i 3 it. Pegi ie eee LI dl dhaim = 3534 Normans Kili i 74 SECTION OF PLATEAUS A 5 Schoharie HELDERBERG : Albany E.Feetif, a CTION ACROSS THE MOUNTAIN REGION a er oe — — k Dome Kill Windham fig zh Peak B Peak Slide Mt. Toma | sine Big kill Cr. wy ve , AM, JOUR. SCI., Vol. XIX, 1880. Plate XX. i Ke Lhe eB ORM Ff AR TO AMER. JOUR. SGI VOL. XIX.1880., ie: PLATE XXT oO ane Punderson & Crisand New Haver: ORBICULOIDEA CONICA.