THE A = AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. BG. B. SILLIMAN. JAMES D. ann E. 8. DANA, anpv B. ASSOCIATE EDITO Prorrssors ASA GRAY, pea P. COOKE, anp JOHN TROWBRIDGE, or Camsriper, Prorrssors H. A. NEWTON anp A. E. VERRILL, or New Haven, Proressor GEORGE F. BARKER, or PHILADELPHIA f THIRD SERIES, VOL. XXI.—[WHOLE NUMBER, CXX11] Nos. 121—126. ANUARY TO JUNE, 1881. WITH PLATES I TO X AND XII TO XIX NEW HAVEN, CONN.: J. D. & E. S. DANA. 1881. Miss30uUR! BOTANICAL DEN LIBRARY heohpeaiiar pectin CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXI. —__— +++ —__ NUMBER CXXI. Plates LI IL SRI 2a saith cernisdy elie ans ee Albany Granite, New Hampshire, and its Pacahet omena; by Grorex W. AWES, iia ties hE st 21 11 —Theors of the Constitution of the Sun; ; ‘by Cains 8. ASTINGS, IV.—Review of Professor Hall’s recently published kena on the Devonian fossils of New York; by Cu. Barrots, 44 V.—Karthquake at the Philippine Islands, of July, 1880, CGE NA 660 Lee iach we'd: 4-4-5 g 52 1. ore ers on Thermometry from the Winchester Observa- tory of Yaie College; by Leonarp Watupo,..--------- 57 IL—James Crate Watson Mie KE cAepisibn spietts 280 SRE ae OM SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—Existeuce of Ozone in the Atmosphere, SCHONE: ature 0 maa Luy@e and STeINKAULER, 68.— Biyer’s Synthesis of Indigotin, RosEN- HL, 69.—Isopropylene-neurine, MoRLEY: Investigation of Dr. BR RUHL onthe ieee Structure of Organic Compounds, 70, -Ghemivel pry. 8 and motive force of different galvanic slemndeit THOMSEN : Spectra of the compounds of Carbon with Hydrogen bi Nitrogen , Liverne aot a —_ 1, —Behavior of gases under the influence of electrical disch arges. Theoretical is practical treatise on the rch tae of Sulphuric hofie-raren and @ Alkali, Lounge, 75. Geology and Natural History. shale on alleged changes in wi sergennk bagi . < in the = of Land and Sea, H. MircHetn, 77.—Further discove of f Wanner Valley or Ba bench t limestone, W. B. Dear. The Vokaule deste i NeEw- BERRY: Descartes Yun des Créateurs de la Cosmologie et de la Géologie. M. Gen Minerals, H. C. Bouton, 80.— Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences _ of ss Crenophors C. aly, 81.—The Spiral Character of Coelenterate _ Develo: i d.¥ : Ameri n Ornithological Bibliography, E, Cours, 83. Miscellaneous em acco ee incidental results from a series of analyses of air, E. W. Mor —National Academy of se ences: Annual | Report of the Chief of _tnincers to to the Secretary of War, 84.— Report on Meteorology of Tokio, T. C. MeNDENHALL: Report of the Gates States ‘Com missioner of Fish and ‘Fisheries, S. F. Barrp, 85.— Sutgen’s iples mi . DuBors: The American Naturalist Monk Konet City ee Review of Science Industry, T. 8. Case: Medals of. aie ned ys Physical Treatise on S Wconions and Magnetism, J. E. H. Gorpo, 36. Obituary. —Benjamin ©. Brodie: J. Charles Almeida: Michel Chasles, 86, iv CONTENTS. NUMBER CXXIL. Page ART. ir —Julius Thomsen’s Thermochemical roe boa the Molecular Structure of the Hydrocarbon Com paraiae® OO 0. PO 0GGm ek one = 87 IX.—Determination of the Force a Gravity _ the Summit of Fujiyama, Japan; by T. ENDENHALL,...- ..---- 9 ears on Alaska and the Sy of Porae Strait; by W. H. Dati; with Plate V (a map, not num mber ed),---- 104 XI—Relation of Devonian Insects to later and existing types; by 8S. H. ScuppER 111 XIL —Meteoric Iron of Lexington Co., ,8.C.; - byC. U. Suepa ARD, 117 XII.—Date of the Glacial era in Eastern North America ; vO. DW Reet, 09 ooo ie i ee ced 1 XTV.—A Remarkable nugget of Platinum; by P. Cotiier, 123 XV.—A New genus and species of: Air-breathing Mollus k from eke Coal-measures of Ohio; by R. P. WHITFIELD,- 125 XVI.—Hiddenite, a variety of Spodumene; by J. L. a 128 X VIL.—Remarks on the Genus Obolella ; by 8. W. Forp,.- 131 XVITL—The ce chy Grit in England and Ti von ty ee CO et is cee 13 XIX.—Principal Characters of American Jurassic Dinosaurs ; by O. C. Marsn; Part IV; with Plates VI, VII, Vill, 167 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics. oy ww da Process pag preparing potassium iodide from Seaweed, ALLARY and PeLiieux: Volumes of certain Elements at their Boiling Points, RAMSAY and Ma 136 AS one Sulphides, Kay ocarbons 0. Petroleum, Bers and KurBATOW, 137 in, Krtant, 138 —Sace Saccharinie Acid, ScuErBLER: Synthesis of Tropic Acid, LADEN- BURG and ER: Experimental Researches upon the magnetic rotatory olarization s, BECQUEREL, —In of G nd Steam upon the Optical properties of — 8 Treatise on Electricity and a. Gorpon, 140.—Space protec a Lightning Conductor. W. H. Preece, 141. Ee ouseal and p Lina eee on the Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid and Alkali, G. Lunes, 44. Geology and Natural History.—Lava-fields of Northwestern Europe, A. GEIKIE, 145.—Volumes of solid and liquid Cast Iron, J. B. Hannay, 147.—Climate of iberia i aL Siberia in the E e , H. H. Howorts, 148 ce Chan of later Geologi EY, 149 —Six ures 0 ical Geog- raphy, 8. Havueuron, 150.—Address by H. C. Sorby, President of the Geolog- ical Society of London, 152.—Geological Survey of Pen pe i vania, 153.—Qua- ternary after the Era of a cavenanials in Europe, M. Tarpy: River Channels filled with basalt, J. J. STEVENSON, 155.—Occurrence of "Provius longicaudus oo h ‘ é = WILLIAMS, 186. irom ae Sahara, RoLLAND: Arctic Coal: Clai- oup and its pierces pecan Paleontology of Austria-Hungary: A yeclined Mineral made from bricks, J. E. ReEyNoLps, 157,—Fossil Sponge- spicules from a clay bed near Sig, ap tones H. J. Carter: Glaciation of the sland : discoveries in Alexander Co, N. Care lina, W. E. Hippen, 159.—Jarosite from Arizona, 8. E. Paxeinin: Jarosite from Colora do, G. A. Kénta@: Octahedrite from Burke Co., N. Carolina, W. E. sts 160.—Urano-thorite, P. CoLLIER: Min- eralojia por I. DomeyKo: Las Especies Minerales de la oder — oe D. L. BRACKEBUSCH, 161.—Zoology for Colleges, _ Astronomy.—Figure of the Planet Mars, HENNESSY, 162. _ Miscellaneous Scientific In ce,—Ocean tem mperatures in the Arctic, 0. T. SHE cvgoe 163 walernrestcorbriom Tepoaitide of Electricity, 164.—History of the Jetties the Mouth of the Mississippi, CoRTHELL, 165.— Obituary.—-M. Chasles, 169. L é CONTENTS. 7 NUMBER CXXIII. Page Art, XX.—Phosphorograph of a Solar Spectrum; by J. W. DRAPGH, | A es ee ee eee ee 171 XXI. a Bivuirare and “gto of Huphoberia of Meek aaa Worthen; by S. H. Scu ee phe XXII. The Actinic Biglaner by Sy P LANOGLET 6 ro 18 XXIII.—Recent American Earthquakes; by C. G. Rock woop, 198 XXIV ao Carbon dioxide in Smoky Quartz; by G. W cee ose : 2 XXV. SeGaioins ‘Substances contained in the ‘Smoky Quartz b of Branchville, Conn.; by A. W. Wriear,....-.------- 209 VI.— Origin of new points in the topography of North Carolina; by W. C. Kiwi ee 216 XXVII.—Oceurrence of Realgar and Orpiment in Utah Ter- Witory; by W. PY Brake,’ .- oo Teco coe eee 219 XXVIII. —On ae solubility of Chloride of Silver in Water; Bose See Vo oes Oe ee a a ee ee 220 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. piper and Physics. aprons. see Todine bike eis a and MEIER, 222.—Re- and CHA calc a 3.—Chlor-hyponitric acid of ( Gay Lussace, Goupsenatryt Mer reuric | Dales and its Dee on, BERTHELOT and VIET bp, 24M t production er Chiorofetan nd d Bromo- form, DAMOISEAU: Tdentity of eatin with Lactose aebage: 4 Absorption of dark Heat rays by Gases and Vapors, LECHER and PERN R, 236.—Dust, Fogs, and Clouds, ArrKEn, 237.—Re eg between the Diagnal: Ranks of the Magnetic Declination and Horizontal fore LLIS, . 8. Coast and Geodetic inhi, 240.—Magnetic Teclnaktin ‘in Missouri, 241, and Miner ogy.—Penns lvania Gactonieal Survey, C. A. As tee hag wee ae of pie e ea ng Surv rie of Canada, for 1878-79, a RC C. grap logy. —Power of Movement in Plants, C. Darwin, 245. eng Zool —Eucalypto- — praphis, Ieee Atlas of the oe of Australia ‘i08 the adjoining 8 —Flc ands, F. vy. MULLE ora 0 an fe OBINSON: of California, 8. Watson: Giant Sania tarchitent is), a, E VERRILL, 251. Scientific Ppa crot 2B ary te fur Instrumentenkunde: Organ Miscellaneous Mitthellonces aus dem gesammten Gebiete der demas aad mt pe Cechni Academy 0: ny Paris, mL JOULD: Bib re ie Géné rated stron- omie, a ©. Houzeau and A, LAN NCASTER, 253.—Washburn Obse tees sity of Wisconsin: A Text Book of ocsioconn Milochanice for ws yo of Col. leges and Schools, E. 8. Dana: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 254. > vi CONTENTS. NUMBER CXXIV. P Arr. XXXI.—Monograph by Professor va ncaa on the Odont- ornithes, or Toothed Birds of North America, - ---. --.- 255 XXXIIL—Elements in Orographic Diapisecieut by W. J. cGER, oe ae ho ee ok XXXII. —Indices of Refraction of certain Compound Ethers; Ge Re SOM a ew he oy a ea SE eae wpe =o XXXIV.—W hited County, Georgia, Meteoric Iron; by W. E. Hip Se aes he AEE a eee 2 XXV.—The Basin, of the Gulf of Mexico. With a map (Plate IX); by J. E. Hirearp, - Aven : cae ene XXXVI.—The Geology of Florida, ‘with a » map; ; by Ez A. SMIT wn309 ROR XXXVIL_1 ‘he “Magnetic Survey of “Missouri; by ee OR RROMTO MR a ga ee re ke aia Cans 310 careee —American Sulpho-selenides of Mercury ; re G. J. BM ats a vara XXXIX —Hifect of Great Cold upon "Magnetism; “by 2. TORR ists ee ca ee oF XL. —Channel tugs in Upper Devonian Shales; by H. S. SAAAMES 5 ary pee ca tees oe en 318 XLL—New "Orit of Extinct Jurassic Reptiles (Coeluria). Oe Wn See me ee, GO Dee ae eee 339 XLH.—Discovery of a A ace Bird in the Jurassic of Wyo- b 3 ming ; by ra XLIIL.—American Poductsla; by 0.6. “Marsu, pate Oe SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. — Chemistry and Physics.—Atomic Weight of Aluminum, Matet, 321.—Light which appears on Metallic Electrodes ta are "placed in hydrogen gas at pay t pressures, ©. Louse: The 6 line in the Solar Be aeapottoet Youne: n intermittent beam of a is liane upon n Gase NDALL, 323. 3. ones which arise in a gas as the effect of intermittent Pratl, ROntT- GEN. Geology.—I 1 for Satigaphica Subsivisions, 326. —Metamorphie rocks eee peasant Pa os the U.S. . omnes! and Ge hical Survey of the Terri ——Desi sesibted nm of the Coal Flora of the none lgg Forma- tion in ro and pai lh the United States, LesQuEREUX, 329. spc and Zoology.—British epee edie’ BRAITHWAITE, 329.—Or bist of starch grains, Scuimper: Botany of California, Watson, 330.—Gymnosporangia of -Cedar-apples of the United States, Fa ARLOW, 332.--Regeneration ‘of lost parts in the Squid, Loligo Pealei, Virnitn, 3 Astronomy. —Total Solar Eclipses of July. 29th, 1878, and January 11th, - Polariza wt 1 of the Corona during the Solar Eclipse of os 7 a Wiese S14 Mentone of the Royal Astronomic:l Society of Londo Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence. king Pg! by compression, aot 336.— > anata ‘Chane: Memorial volume of Benjamin Peirce: Atomic Theory, Wurtz: Third International Ge epic ee Congress, 337 Pikes ‘State La Lab- oratory of Natural History: Reports on dredging under A. Agassiz in the steamer “‘ Blake,” 338.— oo wary—Jobn J. Bigsby: E. Boricky: James Ten- nant: Joseph A. Clay ee Te a ss Bo i A a A aa dtd Bi Paes ny ns ae eh , per Se Gy I, Eee nN I CEN oP, Se a CONTENTS. ' vil NUMBER. CXXV. | P: | Art. XLIV.—Action of Frost in the arrangement of super- | ficial earthy material; by W. C. Kerr, . 345 XLV.—Dall’s Observations on Arctic Ice, and the bearing of the facts on Glacial phenomena in Minnesota; by a 5 XLVI. -—Projection of lines of equal pressure in the fps States, west of the Mississippi River; by H. A. Hazmn, 361 XLVIL.—Neumann’s Method of calibrating Thermometers, with ver of getting columns for calibration; by T. USSEL sO ee ge paesgper co ce ee S52 XLVI. William ‘Hallowes Miller ; by ‘J. P. Coo wena Bae XLIX.—Existence of Ice and o ee "podies in the cok state at high Temperatures; by T. CaRNELLEY, -_..-.-.---- 385 B.-Geology of Peace River Region ; by G. M. Da AWSON,.-- 391 _ LL—Shadows ops —— the Glow discharge; by H. : Fine and W. F. M ie fa "394 LII.—New form of Galvanonieer: for powerful Currents ; ; Phd er ORAOR RES Ucscay st oes oe ele ae 95 LIL. CAeenas Jurassic Dinosaurs; by O. C. Marsu. With seven plates (XII to bare!) ee piece ome epere mer a 8 i: SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—Chlorhyd aor of metallic gr bisca de ough eget 396.— Characteristic color-reaction of the Sulph- hydrates, © : Composition of Sodium Hyposulphite, BERNTHSEN, 397. —Igni ition of, Combustibles by Nitric Acid, Kraut: Pernitric aioe BERTHELOT: Atomic i. of Platinum, Sru- meh sabia eleare agg formed by Camphor with Alcohol, Bato: Naturally- g Mydriatic Alkaloids, LADENBURG: Synthesis of Tropic acid, SPIEGEL, 400. —Photograp hs of Nebule, M. J. JANSSEN: hon form of Mercury-pump, K. AGEN: Absorption of the Sun by th i the Atmosphere, fe LECHER, isn Conversion of Radiant Ene sit vibrations, W. H. Preece: Tidal friction of a Planet “agents rie eral BateRitos. sak on a BvewGas of the Solar System, G. H. 402 Sing J. LECONTE Geolo: ‘ineralogy. mfiricise and underlying strata in the Section the Alps sing the St. Gothard sree 405.—The great fault in the Alps after the Carboniferous era, M. Lory, 406.—Radiolarians Shae tenet, paaniew:, oe the NT : Fos We State af Colorado, oF A. Suir, 408.—Grundlinien der Geologie von Bosnien- _ Hercegovina: Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History : Geo Mineral ; ports recently issued, 409.—Lazulite from Canada: Minerals and Minera Localities of North Carolina: Durability of Building Stones 410.—Brief notices of some recently described minerals, 411 gaye of : 12. Botany and Zoology.—N otes on n Orchidese and on Cyperacese, G. BENTHAM: Germ- roma ee Histology of the seedling of beberle tse - O. Bow. tn “412. America, re G. — 414, Scient: Intelligence. —Distribution of Time = 414.—Changes | in water-level of tein on the op of Oregon and California, B. F, DoweLu: __ Bibliographie Astronomique, 415.—Report of the Superinte feet of the United — States Coast Surve ey, 416. Obituary.—-M. Achille Delesse, 416. Vili CONTENTS. NUMBER CXXVI. Page Art. LIV.—Geological relations of the Limestone Belts of Westchester County, New York: Southern Westchester County and Northern New York Island; by J. D. Dana. WY URN tT ate A ee os ees Lk 2s 425 LV.—Papers on Thermometry from the Winchester Observ- atory of Yale College; by L. Watpo,- wana SOS LVI.—Reduction of Air-pressure to Sea-level, , and the Deter- yan n of Elevations by the Barometer ; by H. A. “eh go ig (GP gh ic SEI NEL ON as eae SRT SU aoa ed ah ges 5: LVIL. men of Chromite in the interior ee a ose Mete- oric Iron from Cohahuila; by J. L. eens ca. S08 LVI. Sg eis fe of Sound by Radiant aster: by A. G. LIX. ote ‘Solar Parallax as s deri ved from ‘the American. Pho- tographs of Ao Transit of Venus, 1874, December 8-9; by D. P. LX. poate Fishes from the Devonian Rocka of ‘Soaumense Bay, in the Province of Quebec; by J. F. Wurrnaves,_ 494 HG SE ain-fal in Wallingford, Connecticut, between 1856 ; 49 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistr Physics,—Direct Synthesis of Ammonia, JOHNSON, 498.— Ceyitain Beg their Coloring Matter, Srruve, 499.—Absorption Spectra of Color- 9c Liquids, me SSELL and LaprarK, 500. —Supposed i Polarization of Sound, Geology and Natural History.—Zine-ore Deposits of Wiesloch in Baden, A Sst, 502.—Geological Map of the United States, , C. H. HrrcHcock, 505.— Repo BAILEY, ie MATTHEW and R. W. Exits: Text Book of Pa iestontha Mineralogy, Bi: BAUER- MANN, $06.-Genioulated Zircons, from Renfrew, Can K. HIDDEN: G. A begs 507.—Notes Algologiques, deuxiéme fascicule, E. Borner and G. THURET: Zoological affinities of Halysites, A. E. VERRILL, 5 Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence. —Elementa of Comet (a), 1881, Swift: National et of sat. 509.—Popular Lectures on Scientific Subjects, H. HELM The Constants of Nature, Part IV; ‘Atos weight determinations: @ H digest of the fi smc el published since 1814, G. F. BECKER, 510 INDEX TO VoLUME XXI, stk ———————— AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. [THIRD SERIES.] Art. L.—Contributions to Meteorology: being results derived from an examination of the observations of the United States Signal Service, and from other sources; by EL1As Loomis, Professor of Natural Philosophy in Yale College. Fourteenth paper, with Plates I, I, TL. [Read before the National Academy of Sciences, New York, Nov. 18, 1880.] THE object of this paper is to investigate the course and velocity of storm centers in Tropical regions and also in the middle latitudes, and hence to deduce the causes which control their movemen Course and isle of storm centers in Tropical regions, In my fifth paper (this Journal, vol. xii, p. 15,) I gave a table Mowing the course of those hurricanes which have originated near the West India Islands. That table was pre- pared in pursuance of a plan to determine the course of storms under the greatest variety of cireumstances; and since the table exhibited but a small part of the information which I desired to obtain, I did not attempt to develop the conclusions which it naturally suggested. Soon after the publication of that paper, I prepared another table showing the course of hurricanes in the India and China Seas; but as this did not furnish all- the information that I desired, I have hitherto withheld it from publication in expectation of more complete information. The system of International Meteorological observations has in part supplied the desired ‘information, so that I propose now to consider the results already at ttained. oe Am. Jour. Scr. i aencigre tes Vou. XXI, No. 121.—Jan., 1881. 2 EF. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. I have compared all the storm tracks delineated on the maps of the Monthly Weather Review, and also po delineated on the International charts. I first examined the storms whic have prevailed in the neighborhood of the Aisorica continent, confining myself to those cases in which the storm center (dur- ing at ape a part of its course) was south of the parallel of 30° latitu ave divided these storms into three classes; I, those “hoes course was for some days towards the west: Ti. those whose course was towards some point between the south and east; III, those ying course was towards some point between the north and ea The following table Senet the leading particulars respecting the first of these classes. Column Ist shows the number of reference; column 2d shows the dates of beginning and end of the observed movement as lon g as the course continued westerly ; column 3d shows the latitude at the beginning and end of this portion of the path; column 4th shows the longitude at the beginning and end of this portion of the path; column course of each storm. On plate I these tracks are papenecile and are designated by the same numbers as in the ta American storms advancing Westerly. No. Date. Seay | apes | Couns. Sey] Sstecanent 1|1873. June 1.1-— 2.3} 24-32 80- 86 | N.N.W. | 12°5 |Became extinct. 2 2 —4.2| 22-24 | 82- 86| N.W. foved N.E. 3/1874. Fe 8.1 | 24-27 82- 83 | N.N.W. | 15°4 |Moved N.E 4 uly 2.3- 4.2| 27-29 8i— 98 | W.N.W. | 13 ecame extinct. 5 pt. 4.3- 5.3) 25-32 65- 70 | N.N.W. | 22°5 |Moved N.E. 6|1875. Sept. 8.3-17.1| 14-29 | 59- 96 | W.N.W. | 13°2 |Moved N.E. 7\1876. Sept. 15 -18.1 1-43 69- 80 | N.N.W. | 2 ed KE 8/1877. Sept. 22.2-30.3 | 12-26 65- 88 | W.N.W. | 11°1l |Moved N.E 9 \187 2 -18 4-21 75— 97 | W.N.W. | 14° ty) 10 p - 11-28 59- 81) W.N.W. | 9 oved N 11 Sept. 12 -18 14-29 7- 60 | N.W. 9°6 |Moved N.E 2 Sept. 24 -30 14-28 70- 73 | N.N.W. | 5:3 |Moved N.K. 3 Sept. 29 -34 22-30 58-— 70 N.W. 9°1 |Moved N.E. 4 9 -13 15-26 40— 52 N.W. 72 Moved N.E 5 8 17-30 B6-— 55 N.W. 13°2 |Moved N. 6 Nov. 25 -30 15-17 52— 73 | West. | 11-7 |/Unknown. 7/1879. Aug. 13 -17 18-30 60-77 | NW. 8°2 ved N.E. 18 Aug. 15 -16 14-14 43— 51 West. ? nknown. 19 23 16-29 87- 94 N.W. 8-2 |Moved E. 20 - 15-31 78— 90 N.W 8'1 |Became extinct. 21 Oct. 10 -17 14-43 70- 90 N.W. 11*1 |Moved 221880. Aug. 6 -14.2| 12-32 T7-103 | W.N.W. | 12°9 |Disappeared 23 Aug. 15 ~19 13-2 62— 78 | W.N.W. | 12°0 |Moved N.E. 24 Aug. 24 -31 26-33 W.N.W. | 10:0 | Disappeared. E. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 3 The general results - this eee correspond very closely with those deduced from the table in my 5th paper. The lowest latitude of any storm pee sais in this table is 10°°6 The lowest latitude shown in my 5th paper was 10°3 N. The average velocity of these storms while moving westerly was i: glish statute miles per hour; the average velocity of the odin mentioned in my 5th paper while moving westerly was 17-4 miles per hour. In nine of these cases the course of the storm became due north before reaching the parallel of 30°. Storm No. 18 apparently moved directly west; and storms Nos. 9 and 16 apparently moved for a day or two a little south of west. The table in my 5th paper shows 31 cases in which .the course of storms was towards the north of west, and only - two cases in which the course was south of west, viz: one case in which the course was two degrees south of west, and the other eleven degrees south of west. From the two tables we perceive that the cases in which tropical storms move in a direction north of west are fifteen times as frequent as the cases in which they move in a direction south of west, and in none of the cases here reported was the southerly motion very decided. Since in the middle latitudes the average progress of storm centers corre- sponds pretty nearly with the average direction of the wind, it might have been inferred that within the region of the northeast trade winds the average progress of storms should be towards the southwest. n order to determine whether, during the period here con- sidered, there may not possibly have been other storms which moved in a direction south of west, I have made a careful com- parison of the International Observations. Five-sixths of all the storms enumerated in the table on page 2, occurred in the months of August, September and Octo ber. I therefore selected these three months for special comparison. For the years 1876, 7, 8 and 9 the barometric curves were drawn for these months for all the stations reported in the International Bulletin between the equator an 26° N. An examination of these curves shows that at all of these sta- tions the fluctuations of the barometer are very small, : PeHeUt larly for the stations nearest to the equator. At Paramaribo, lat. 5° 45’ N. the entire range of the barometer for ‘hese twelve months was only 0°20 inch, and there was no oscillation which can be identified with an oscillation at either of the other sta- tions. At Bridgetown, lat. 13° 4’ N., the entire range of the ba- rometer for these twelve months was 0-23 inch, Two or three of the barometric oscillations at this station can probably be iden- tified with oscillations at some of the other stations. The track of storm No. 9 can apparently be traced back to Bridgetown on the 10th of Aug., 1878. At Fort de France, lat. 14° 40’ N., Zs E. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. the entire range of the barometer for these twelve months was 0-42 inch, and six or seven of the barometric oscillations at this station can probably be identified with oscillations at some o the other stations. Besides the areas of low barometer enumerated in the table on page 2, there are but few others during this period which can be traced with confidence from one station to another. In 1876, the number of stations of observation in the tropical regions was small, and the storm of Sept. 15-18 is the only one which can be satisfactorily traced from these observations. In 1877, the center of storm No. 8 passed at a considerable distance from all of the reporting stations, and is only obscurely indicated by the published observations. On the 26th o August, a small but well-marked barometric depression occur- red almost simultaneously at all of the stations from Fort de France to Havana. On the 17th and L8th of October, there was a noticeable fall of the barometer, which apparently ad- vanced from San Juan de Porto Rico to Havana. In 1878, from Sept. 15th'to 16th, a small barometric depres- sion traveled from Bridgetown to Santiago de Cuba. From the 2d to the 3d of October, a small barometric depression trav- eled from Fort de France to Nassau. On the 21st of October, there was a decided barometric depression at Vera Cruz and Havana, which advanced northerly along the coast of the Uni- ted States, and was marke great violence. In 1879, from the 16th to the 18th of August, a small baro- metric depression traveled from Bridgetown to San Juan de Porto Rico. This was perhaps a continuation of No. 18, of the table on page 2, and if so, it shows that this storm veered a little to the north of west, like most of the storms of this region. On the 28th of August, a small barometric depression appeared almost simultaneously at all the stations from Navassa to Tlacotalpam, on the coast of Mexico. This depression appa- rently advanced northward, but the published observations are not sufficient to enable us to trace its course satisfactorily. This examination has disclosed a few barometric depressions in addition to those enumerated in the table on page 2, but their courses were generally towards the north of west. We therefore seem authorized to conclude that nearly all the areas of low barometer which occur within the tropics and advance westward, in the neighborhood of the West India Islands, in- stead of following the ordinary course of the Trade Winds, advance in a direction somewhat north of west. American storms advancing in a Southeasterly direction. During the colder months of the year, storms while crossing the United States frequently advance, during a portion of their E. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 5 course, in a direction from northwest to southeast. This direc- tion is not confined to any particular section of the country, but occurs most frequently in the region between the Rocky Mountains and the Mississippi River. This course is seldom maintained as far south as the parallel of 30°, and after reach- ing its most southerly point, the storm frequently changes its course towards the northeast. e following table shows those cases in which storms have advanced towards the southeast as far as the parallel of 28°. The arrangement is similar to that of the preceding table. The first six columns describe each storm as long as its course continued southeasterly ; the last column gives some indication of the subsequent course of each storm. ‘The tracks of these storms are all delineated on Plate II, and are st ordi by the same numbers as in the table. American storms advancing Southeasterly. Xo Date. _—attade, | Lonettude.| course, |.Vgl;| Subsequent 1/1874, Feb. 17.2-18.2| 33-27 | 86-79 | SE. | 21-8 |Unknown. 2 April 15.3-16.3 | 41-26 | 101- 89 S.E. 21-1 |Unknown. 3/1875. Jans 15.1-16.2| 44-27 | 106- 91 S.E. 27°1 |Unknown. 4/1876. Feb. 3 — 4.1] 33-28 98- 80 S.E. 28°4 |Unknown. 5 March 6.2-12.1 | 47-27 | 127%— 89 S.E. 15-7 |Unknown. 6 May 6.3— 7.3| 33-27 100-— 93 8... 25:0 own. 7j|1877. Jan. 4.2— 5.3] 46-28 | 100-— 90 S.S.E. | 40° 8 Mar. 21.2—24.1 |} 42-28 | 100- 95 §.8.E. | 22°6 E 9 ec. 19 —20 44-28 | 102-— 98 S.E. 10°0 1 Dec. 22 -—27.2| 47-27 | 102-— 95 S.E. 29°7 IN.E 11 |1878. Feb. 1.1— 2.3] 83-26 96— 84 §.E. 18° .E. 12 Aug. 20,2-24.2 | 38-22 83— 81 | 8.S.B. | 15:1 |Became extinct. 13 Nov. 16.2-17.2 | 28-24 | 102-— 93 8.8. EB. 24°0 |N.E. 14|1879, Jan. 6.3— 7.3} 38-27 | 110- 98 S.E. 39°2 |N.E. 15 an. §8.3-11.1| 49-27 119-— 98 S.F. 30-4 |N.E. 16 May 4.1-— 6.1! 34-24 | 101- 96 S.S.E. | 16-1 [Became extinct. We see from this table that the average velocity of these storms while pursuing their course towards the southeast, was twenty-four miles per hour, which differs but little from the average velocity of storms in other parts of the United States. he lowest latitude attained by any of these storms was 224 rees; and in only three cases did the low center reach the jarallel of 25 degrees. In eight cases the storm center, after completing its course towards the southeast, changed its course and proceeded towards the north or northeast. In two of the remaining cases the berths of the storm declined in advanc- ing southward, and they apparently became extinct soon after the dates given in the table. The same was probably true in the six remaining cases, but the observations are not sufficient to establish this with certaint y- 6 E.. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. Storm No. 12 was quite peculiar, having aaa a path almost directly opposite to that of ordinary storms. During the afternoon of Aug. 20th, 1878, there was an area of low pressure (29°75) over West Virginia, being part of a greater depression whose center was over New cardiac and there was a slight sides to the formation of an in dependent sys- tem of circulating winds. Owing to a slight increase of pres- sure on the north side, this low area was crowded southward, and in the afternoon of Aug. 21st assumed the character of an independent low area ae ff 8) with a feeble system of circulat- ing winds. At 7.35 A. M. Aug. 22d, this low center had been crowded south to lat. 30°, ‘the greatest observed depression appears to illustrate the general character of areas of low pres- sure, and shows that their progressive movement is not due to a simple drifting of the atmosphere, but rather to a diminution of pressure on one side of the low area and an increase of pres- sure on the other side. In the present case, there was scarcely any appreciable diminution of pressure on the south side, and only a slight increase of pressure on the north side. oe American storms advancing Northerly and Easterly. The storms which cross the United States north of the par- allel of 88 degrees, generally pursue a course a little to the north of east; while those which come from the region south of lat. 38 degrees generally pursue a course nearly northeast, especially in the neighborhood of the Atlantic coast. During the summer months few storm-centers travel south of the par- allel of 88°, and davies this period the average course of storms is almost exactly towards the east. The following table shows those cases in which storms have traveled northward and eastward, and came from a point as far south as lat. 26°. The arrangement of the table is similar to that of the preceding. Columns 3 and 4 show the position of the storm-center at the beginning and end of the northeasterly motion, as far as is indicated by the observations; column 7t shows the lowest pressure reported, and column 8th gives a brief indication of the previous course of the storm. On Plate II these tracks are oo and are designated by the same numbers as in the ta We see from this table that storms of this class occur most frequently in the autumn, and least frequently in summer. One of these storms began near lat. 15°; two began near lat. 20°; and seventeen of them began south of lat. 24°, E. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 7 American storms advancing Northerly and Easterly. No. Date. Latit’e.| Long. | course. | “42 | Lowest | previous course. 1/1872. Nov. 6.1- 7.3 | 26-47 | 95-65) EL.N.E. | 60-4] 29°71 |Unknown. 2 Nov. 7.3- 9.3 | 25-30| 95-78) E.N.E. | 21°1 | 29°74 |Unknown. be Dec. 9.2-13.3 | 26-47 |101-57) N.E. | 28°6| 29°86 |}Unknown. 4 Dec. 23.2—27.2 | 25-44) 95-58) N.E. 29°8| 29°17 |Unknown. 511873. Feb. 19.1-22.1 | 21-45} 98-64) N.E 35°1| 29-17 |Unknown. 6 May 4.1-10.1 | 24-43) 98-81! N.E. | 15°8| 29°57 |Unknown 7 Sept. 18.1-20.1 | 24-34| 92-74) N.E. | 24°3| 29°57 Unknown 8 Sept. 22.3-24.1 | 25-36 —72| N.E 28°5 | 29°78 known g Oct. 5.1- 8 —43| 87-62| N.E 32°9 | 29°02 |Towards N.W 10 Dec. 24.2—27.1 | 24-431; 88-62} N.E 30°4| 29°37 kno 11 1874. Jan: 5.2— 9.1 —49; 87-68] N.N.E. | 18°0| 29°42 |Unkno 12 Feb. 7.2-11.1| 25-46| 82-58] N.N.E. | 25:0} 28°95 |Towards N.W. is April 17.3-24,1 2 6 9\N.&N.E.| 29°7 | 29°36 |Unkn 14 Sept. 2.3-10.2 22-50 | 99-89} North. | 21°5| 29°47 |Unknown. 15 Sept. 27.1-30.2 | 25-50 | 87-66) N.N.E. | 26°0| 28°94 nknown ec. 18.2-21.1 | 25-39} 96-62) N.E. | 34°6| 29°33 no 1711875. Nov. 6.1— 7.3| 25-31 | 98-78] E.N.E. | 32°9| 29°82 |Unknown. 1811876. Oct. 19.1-21.1 | 21-32! 82-72) N.N.E. | 19°5| 29°51 |Not traceable. 19/1877. Sept. 16.1-21.3 25-31 | 96-76, E.N.E. | 10°7, 29°40 no 2011878. Jan. 6.1-12.2 | 24-46 100-56] N.E. 26°4| 28:85 |Not tra le 21 Feb. 26.2-28.1 | 24-30| 92-71) E.N.E 1| 29-71 |\Camefrom N. W. 22 Mar. 17.1-17.2 | 23-25 | 85-78) E.N.E 9-79 Not traceable 23 Mar. f9.3-22.3 | 25-27 | 95-78) Hast. | 15°0| 29:71 |Came from W. 24 July 2.1- 2.3 | 25-27| 85-78| E.N.K. | 22-9) 29°77 |Not traceable. 25 Sept. 24 -33 | 15-32| 76-61/N.&N.E./ 10-1 | 29°70 |Not traceable. 26 Oct. 21.1-24.2 | 20-38 | 81-57) N.& E. | 27°5| 28°83 |Not traceable. 27 Nov. 13.3-20.1 | 22-44) 97-57/E.& N.H.| 24°5 | 29°83 |Not traceable. 28 Nov. 17.2-21.1 | 24-47 | 93-57| N.E. |40°3| 29°47 |\CamefromN.W. 2911879. Nov. 19.1-20.3 | 23-49 | 74-60) N.N.E. | 48-8 | 29°00 |Not traceable. 3011880, Jan. 24 -—28.1 | 21-36} 86-75 N. 14:3 | 29°68 Not traceable. 31 March 17.3-— 9.2 | 26-32} 99-74! E.N.E. | 38-0 | 29°8 Tot traceable. 32 May 3.1- 6.2 | 26-47| 93-59) N.E. | 23°8| 29°79 |Unknown. 33 Aug. 19 -20 90-27 | 78—T4| N.N.E. | 12° 29°86 |Towards N.W. Three of these storms had been traveling towards the north- west, previous to the dates given in the table, and two of them came from the northwest; but in the other cases the baromet- ric depression was too small to allow us to trace their course ne to the dates here given. For most of the cases in the ast half of the table this is clearly shown by the International Observations, and we may therefore infer it to be true in the other cases. As long as these storms continued south of lat. 30°, the barometric depression was generally small, but it in- creased as the storm advanced northward. In fifteen cases the barometer fell below 29°5 inches, and in four cases it fell below 29-0 inches. The average velocity of progress of these storm- centers while advancing northward and eastward was 269 miles per hour. From a comparison of these three tables we perceive that the American storms which originate between the equator and lat. 20° N. generally travel towards a point 8 FE. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. between north and west, but occasionally they advance almost exactly northward. Course of hurricanes originating near the Bay of Bengal, China Sea, ete. The following table contains various particulars respecting those hurricanes in Southern Asia and its vicinity, whose paths have been best determined. It includes all those which were most carefully investigated by Henry Piddington, together with those which have been since investigated by Blanford, El- liott and others. Column Ist gives the number of reference ; column 2d shows the date of commencement, so far as indicated by the published observations; column 8d shows the latitude of the storm’s center when it first became violent; column 4th shows the average course of the storm while advancing west- ward; column 5th shows the velocity of progress in English statute miles per hour while moving westward; column 6th shows the latitude at which the course of the storm became due north; column 7th shows the velocity while moving north ; column 8th shows the average course of the storm after turning eastward; column 9th shows the hourly velocity of progress while moving eastward; column 10th shows whether . rain was mentioned as accompanying the storm, and whether the rain-fall was violent or not; column 11th indicates the J. A. S. stands for Journal of the Asiatic Society of Benyal; J.S. for the American Journal of Science; S. D. for Maury’s Sailing Directions; the other references are to special reports made by the investigators to the Government of Bengal. It will be seen that 52 per cent of these cases occurred in the months of September, October and November, and 48 per cent oceurred in the mouths of April, May and June, leaving only 5 per cent of the cases for the six remaining months of the year. Of the West India hurricanes reported in my fifth paper, 88 per cent occurred in the months of August, September and October, leaving only 12 per cent for the remaining nine months of the year: that is, the Asiatic hurricanes occur 1n the spring almost as frequently as in the autumn; but the _ American hurricanes are almost exclusively confined to the period near the autumnal equinox. HK. Loomis— Observations of the U. 8. Signal Service. 9 Course of Hurricanes originating near the China Sea, Bay of Bengal, ete. 3 a3 ak ss #| 3 € tH i ae Swe “ S | BS Bo gs = 2 4 26.) bag | | oe (ee | Fae | RE} @ 8 e Galereeenest, ae eke Sa gy Sw gke ae = | Mabie A S joe eohee ae Pe ea Se | ee ° Satie ar ° Ps = ; 1 1803. Sept. 21|160)/W.15N.) 9-1 Heavy | P. |J. A.8., v.11 2/1810. Sept. 28 | 181 |W.1258.| 73 Heavy | P. |J. A.S., v. 11 i 1 Aug. 20°5 |W. 18 N.| 17-0 Heavy | R. |J.S., v. 35 ) 4/1838. April 8 | 22-6 §. 37 E.| 5-0 |Hail Padded Bay Veo 5 (1839. June 3 | 20°0/W.138.| 3°9 Violent} P. |J.A.S.,v. 8 Sept. 20 | 22°01W.52N.) 9°5 Violent] P. |J.A.S.,v. 9 Noy. 12 | 13°3 |W. 23 N.| 6:2 eavy (cP. [io ALS., we 9 1840. April27 | 11°6|W.54N.| 9°8 VidlontiiP. |JoAcs., vi 9 Sept. 15°6 |W. 83 N.} 10°0 Violent} P. |J. A.S., v. 10 May 15 | 10-0 |W. 25 N.| 14-7 He P, |J, A.S., v. 11 ‘11:(1842. en : 20°5 |W. 69 N.| 4:8 Violent] P. |J..A.S., v. 11 TT IW.31 N.i 7°51 243] 46 Violent) P. |J. A. S., v. 12 om - 12:0| West. | 12-1 Violent) P. |J. A.8., v. 12 1843. May 20| 8°8 |W. 38N.) 1271 He P. JA 8 V8 Nov. 28} 6°1|/W.40N:) 46 Rain P. |J. A.S., v. 14 .2 . Noy. 9] 111 }Wl16N.) 3:4 Heavy | P. |J. A. S., v.14 7 17/1845. Oct. 7)171)W.19 N.| 13°5 Rain P. |J. A.S., v. 18 % Nov. 67|/W.12N.) 60 Violent) P. |J. A. S., v. 14 19 |1847. Aprill6| 79/W.86N.) 9:4 Violent} P. |J. A. S., v.17 Nov. 18/17°0|W.49N.| 62/18°5| 5°8|N.53 BE) 5-0 |Rain oT Bs By eee 1848. Oct. 12} 17°8/W.50N.) 48 Rain Pt og: Vek Be 1850. April23 | 8°'7|/W.50N.| 81/180} 91 Violent A. S.. v. 20 23 Nov. 17 |12°2|W. 70 N.| 6:0 Heav , ASB, Voss 24 1851. May 2/10°6|W.54N.) 36 Violent pe. Si eas ae” 2 | f "a ae ek 176 pe N. 42 E.| 5°7 |Rain Ney Bey Va oe: 6/1852. May 12|15°7 20°0 Rain ALS. Vv. 24 [|1854. April 22 | 13°2 N. 39 E.| 9°8 |Heavy | bc Sey Vea 8 1856. # 10°0 |W. 24 N.] 11°7 Violent} M. |S. D., v. 1858. April 9 | 14°2 N. 39 E.| 12°1 | Violent A.S., v.27 1864. 31160 |W. 56N.) 9-2 | 21°3| 12-0 |N. 29 E.| 15-0 @iolent) G. |Report. |1869. May 13] 160 |W.44N.| 7-6 | 205) 14-0 /N. 25 E.|17-0|Rain | B. |Report. June 5|164|W.83N.| 4:0| 24:0] 9°5|N. 39 E.| 11-0 Violent) B. |Report. 3 t. 7 | 20° |W. 34N,} 12°5 Violent! B.’ eport. 4/1870. Noy. 4| 16°5|W.11N.| 12-0 Violent} B, |Report. 1872. April28 | 7°5|W.50N.| 5-0 Heavy | B. |Report. June 28 | 20°5 |W. 21 N.| 7-1 Violent) B. |Report. Sept. 19 | 21-0] | 23 0| 12°7|N. 43 E.| 13°7 | Violent} B. |Report. 1874, May 3! 9°0/W.39N.| 7-0 iolent| B. |Report. Oct. 16°6 |W. 60N.| 6°9| 22:1] 8-3|N.40 E.| 9-4 /Violent|/W. |Report. 1876. Oct. - 14:4/W.25N.) 75/176] 6°0|N. 16 E.| 80 |Heavy | E. |Report. Oct. 110 14:0 | 10°0|N. 17 E.| 20-0 |Violent| E. |Report. 1877. May i 93 |W. 63N.) 5°0|15°0| 7-9|N. 45 E.| 10-4 | Violent] E. |Report. The lowest latitude of any storm- -path here recorded is 671°, | 5 and there are fourteen cases as low as 12°. The lowest lati- “ tude of any of the West ee hurricanes is 10°°3, and there are . only three cases as low as 12°. Hard gales and sideak squalls of wind do, however, some- times occur directly under the equator. This is shown by vari- ous “her eater in Diddingran’s Weniotes The following is an 10 £. Loomis—Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. example from the log-book of the Winifred, quoted in Pid- dington’s 11th Memoir, .pages 30 to 40:° 1843, Nov. 26, lat. 9° 40’ N. Dark and threatening—strong, heavy squalls, Nov. 27, “ 7 4 N. Sudden and dangerous gusts and violent squalls. Nov. 28, “ 4 27 N. Heavy rain and most terrific squalls. Noy. 29, ‘* 1 20 N. Succession of dangerous squalls. Nov. 30, “ 1 18. Dismal weather and violent squalls. Dec. 1, “ 3 15 8S. Dark, gloomy weather and violent squalls. The following is from the log-book of the Fyzul Curreem, for the same period : 1843, Nov. 27, lat.5° 117 N. Heavy squalls, N.N.W. Nov. 28, ‘“ 2 6 N. Fresh gale, west. Noy. 29, “ 0 54 S. Gale from west, increasing steadily to midnight. Noy. 30, “ 3 50 S. . Steady at west. ec. 1, “ 5 39.8. Strong sea from W.S.W. Dec. 2, ‘“ 6 41 8. Heavy head sea. The courses of these storms while moving westward, range from 13 degrees south of west to 86 degrees north of west. In two cases the course was reported to be south of west, and in one case it was exactly west, which result accords very closely with that before found for West India hurricanes. The ave rage velocity of progress of these storms while advancing west: ward was 8°1 English statute miles per hour, which is less than half the average velocity of West India hurricanes. e average latitude of the storm-centers when the course became due north was 19°8, and the latitudes range from 1g to 24°°3, which is ten degrees more southerly than the latitude before found for the West India hurricanes. The average velocity of progress of these storms when advancing northward was 9°38 miles per hour. he average course of these storms after turning eastward, was 35° east of north, and their velocity of progress was 9° miles, which is scarcely half of the velocity found for West India hurricanes. Column 10th shows that rain accompanied every one of terms were no exaggeration. The following table shows the amount of rain-fall in twenty-four hours at certain stations: SS he ee ee Se a a ee ee aT eer ot ee ee a ee ere aE ark aaa UR teu a eee I be RSS al RE eR SN es a eee er ae ee ee Se ee EE am ee ee oe ee a i i ae a Ne a a ik i a i a en a a od E. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 11 Rain-fall in Tropical Cyclones. Date. Place. Lat. | Long. Poca Authérity. 1839. June 4] Dacca 23-7 | 90°) | 6-00 Piddington, 1st Memoir, p. 37 1842. June 3 | Calcutta 5 | 88°3 | 5°17 Tth Memoir, p. 35 June 3 | Kissenuggur | 23:4 88°4| 9°00 7th Memoir, p. 42 Oct. 3) Pooree 9°8 | 85°9 | 5°10 9th Memoir, p. 27 1843. May 23} Cannanore /| 11-9 | 93 10th Memoir, p. 32 ay 23 adras 13-1 | 80°3 {10°50 10th Memoir, p. 20 ay 23 Hyderabad | 25-3} 68 10th Memoir, p. 29 1851. May 5] Madras 13-1 | 80°3 }11 21st Memoir, p. 1 1864. Oct. 6 | Contai 21°8 | 87-8 |10-00 Rep. of Gastrell & Blanford, p. 82 Ocbs. 6 rah 24°8| 89-4] 7°10 p. 82 Oct. 6} Goalparah | 26°2 | 90-7 |60°00 p. 82 Oct. 6 isgu 23°4 | 88°5 | 7-50 p. 82 1874. May 4 13°1 | 80°3 | 7-10) Willson’s Report, p. 127 Oct. 15 False Point | 20°3 | 86°8| 6:30 p. 9 Oct. 15 | J 21°5 | 86-9 p.9 Oct. 15 | Midnapore | 22-4 | 87-2 |10-27 p. 8 Oct. 16 an 23°2 | 87 p. 8 Oct. 16 | Lalgolla 24°5 | 88°3 |16°30 p. 8 Oct. 16 | Jungipore 24°5 | 87°8| 8-0 p. 8 Oct 16 | Bood Bood 3° | 88 40 p. 8 17 | Rungpore 5-9 | 89:3 | 6 p. 9 1876. Oct. 17 | Vizagapatam | 17-7 | 83-4| 5-60/Elliott’s Report, p. 48 Oct. -8 | Vizagapatam | 17-7 | 83-4 |12-6 p. 48 N oakholly | 22°8/| 91°0| 5-1 0. 153 Nov. 1) Putuakhally | 22°3/ 90-4} 5-8 D. 153 1877 May 1 adras 13°1 | 80°3 |13-01 p. 42 y ya 24°6 | 85°1 | 5-0 ». TB May 20 | Nowada 23°9 | 88°4; 8°00 ». 15 May 20| Aurungabad | 19-9 | 75:3) 8°68 9. 16 May 20 | Rajmahal 25°0 | 87-7 | 5°20 ». TH May 20 | Raigunge 25° | 88: | 6°71 0. 75 May 20 | Jawai 20° Poh? Oe ». 15 May 2 rrh 25°5 | 85°7 | 6°43 ‘ae gd May 21 | Chanchal 25-0 | 88°2| 6°14 0. 17 May 21 | Rungpore 25°9 | 89-3 |11-1¢ ey: May 21 /| Kurigram 25° | 89° | 5-7 ». TT May 21 | Bogdogra 25° | 89° |12-1S wee a | May 21| Julpigoree | 26°5/ 88-7) 5-5: 17 May 21 | Boda 26° | 89° | 8°5% ». TT May 21 | Cooch Behar | 26-3 | 89-5 | 9°77 eb May 21 | Dhubri 26°0 | 90-0 | 5°66 9. 17 May 21 | Jawai 26° 1 91- 114°2¢ tt _From this table we see that these hurricanes were accom pa- _ nied by an amount of rain such as seldom occurs, even within ey 5 el BS < 9 7 be] cr we a ra) re) re] 2) 8 ig 3 & ae g ot a @ B ie) m ct 3s ° os ® {sj ct st as Ss q if) Fo 2 ’ conclusion accords with that deduced from the investigation of . the West India hurricanes _ Tnext examined all the maps of the International Observa- a tions for additional materials, showing the course of storms in uthern Asia and the adjacent oceans. The following are the _ Most important cases which I have found: 12. &E. Loomis—Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. Asiatic storms moving Westerly. No. Date. geatiinge:| Lonetae-| course. | autec.| "course. 1 | 1878. Sept. 15-19 | 16-29 | 134-124 | N.W. | 10°8 |Moved N.E. 2 Oct. 7-9 | 19-19 | 122-112 West | 14:3 |Unknown. 3 Nov. 17-21 | 12-i5 | 95- 82 West 6°6 |Disappeared. a Nov. 29-38 | 10-18 | 97- 83 |W.&N.W.| 5:8 |Disappeared. 5 | 1879. May 17-26 | 14-35 | 85- 75 | S.&W.&N.| 12:4 |Disappeared. 6 May 30-32 | 20-2: 88- 90 West 7-2 |Disappeared Asiatic storms moving Southeasterly. 1877. Dec. 27-30 | 27-20 65~ 80 E.S.E. | 18:1 1878. Feb. 6-12 | 39-22 60- 92 E.S. E. May 3-8] 33-17 T7- 79 So June 2-71! 66-26 | 110-112 South | 15-4 |Moved N.E. _ cocoons Asiatic storms moving Northeasterly. 6-34 | 118-152 N.E. lis Unknown. 11! 1879. Mar. 12 10-40 | 113-157 N.E. 15-4 |Unknown. 2- 6 Mar. 15-22 In several of these cases the depression of the barometer, 80 : ot great, and the storms do not results here found accord reasonably well with those before | found, except that the velocities while the storms were moving a easterly, are greater than the average of those shown in the table on page 9. d On comparing all these tables it is remarkable that but few cases have been found in which a storm-center has advanced the small number of stations, and because t j reported only once a day. The following tables show the @r rection and force of the wind in the case of five of the low area? BE E. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 18 enumerated on page 2, for the stations nearest the center of low pressure. The numbers without brackets show the velocity of the wind in miles per hour; the numbers in brackets show the force of the wind estimated in units of Beaufort’s scale (1 to 10). In each line the direction and force for one day are printed in large type, to indicate the day when the barometer at that station was lowest. . 1876, September. 1th. | 15th. | 16th. | 1ith. | 18th. | 19th. Kingston | Calm | 8.E.5 | 8.E.8 | S.E.8 | Calm | Calm Nassau N.E.(3) | N.E.(8) | S.1E.(6)| 8.(3) | N.E.O | N.E.(5) 1878, August. 10th. 11th. 12th. 18th. 14th. 15th. San Juan E. 8.8.4 | S.E.8 | SEO | 8E2 avassa S.B.12 | N.B.10! NID | S.E.29 | E17 17 Kingston al Calm Calm | 8.E.910) S.B.20 | Cal Nassau 8.E.(1) | N.E.(2) | N.E.(2) | S.E.(1) | $.E.2 | S.E(2) Havanna E.4 | ES. E.S.E.3 | E.N.E.4;| E.9 £.16 1878, September. | 8d. | 4th. | 5th. 6th. Tth. 8th. Navassa $.19 | N.20 | $22 | S.B.20| E14 | E15 : Santiago de Cuba’ N.E.7 N.6 |8.E.(6)| S.E4 | S.E.6 | Calm Kingston | Calm | Cam ! BB ! $13 | 818! Calm f | 1878, September. ‘ | 24th. 25th. | 26th. | 27th. | 28th. | 29th. é San Juan N.E.6 |S.E.48|) SE.1 | S86 | SE4 | SE4 2 Navassa N.W.i2|N.N.E18| E.8 |N.W.12| S25 | S15 Santiago de Cuba’ N.(1) |! N.N.E.S'N.NE(1) N.1) 'NW(B)' S.W (1) 1879, October. 10th. 11th. 12th. 18th. 14th, 15th. San Juan S.E4 | SE.7 |S.E.0; SE0 | SEO} SE Navassa N.E5 | B10 | S.6.16| B20 | SB.15 | SE18 Santiago de Cuba} N.7 N.2 |8.6.10) SE6 |) SE S.E.6 cingston Calm | Calm | §.E.4/|S.E.18 | SE.6 | Calm Nassau NB. | NE. | NE. | OE. Sm. | 8 Havanna ——s|E.N.B10' 6 /EN.ES! B12 | B20 |SSE.18 It will be seen that in every case the passage of the low cen- ter was followed by a southerly wind, and in two-thirds of the cases this had been immediately preceded by a northerly wind ; and in nearly every case the southerly wind which followed gee a 14. EF. Loomis— Observations of the U. 8. Signal Service. the low area was stronger than the huge wind which pre- ceded it. This result, a believe, accords with what has gener- ally been observed in ‘tropical cyclones, and appears to suggest the explanation of the origin of the cyclone, and the direction of its progressive movement. The prevalent direction of the wind in the neighborhood of the West India Islands, is from the northeast. Occasionally a strong wind sets in from a south: erly quarter. The interference of these winds gives rise to a gyration, and sometimes rain-fall is the result. hen rain commences, the latent heat which is liberated, causes the wind to flow in from all quarters, by which the rain-fall is increased ; and since the winds are deflected by the rotation of the earth, an area of low pressure is produced, and the force of the winds is maintained as long as the rain-fall continues. The effect of © this strong wind from the south is to transport the low center — in a northerly direction; and by the combined action of this south wind and the normal wind from the northeast, the center of low eigen: is usually carried in a direction between the , north and west. The following roimat presents some of the results derived from this investigatio . The lowest auteds in which, a cyclone has been found | near the “West India Islands is ten degrees, and the lowest lat: itude in the neighborhood of Southern Asia is six degrees. Violent squalls and fresh gales of wind have however been encountered directly under the equator. 2. The ordinary course of tropical hurricanes is towards the west-northwest. Ina few cases they seem to have advanced towards a ace a little south of west, and in a few cases their : course has been almost exactly towards the north. at On See We ee 3. Tropical hurricanes are invariably accompanied by a vio- lent fall of rain. This rain-fall is never less than five inches io — twenty-four hours for a portion of the track, and frequently it exceeds ten inches in twenty-four hours. 4, Tropical storms are. generally preceded by a northerly | wind, and after the passage of the low center the wind gener ally veers to the southeast at stations near the center ; and the — southerly wind which follows the low center is generally stronger than the northerly wind which preceded it. This fact appears to suggest the explanation of the origin of the cyclone © and the direction of its progressive movement. 5. None of the storms which have pursued a southeast cours? across the United States and its vicinity, have been tra further south than latitude 224 degrees, and only three havé been traced as far south as latitude 25 degrees. These storms during their progress southward generally decline in intensity: Somie of them decline to such an extent that their course cat : : | q | EF. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 15 no longer be traced, while others change their course and turn towards the northeast. In my eleventh paper I have shown that storms which advance from north to south across the Uni- ted States, are generally attended by a very slight fall of rain; and this seems to explain the fact that they generally decline in intensity as they advance southward. Storms in the Middle latitudes advancing in a Westerly direction. The infrequency of the cases in which tropical storms have advanced towards the southwest, has led me to search for cor- responding cases in the middle latitudes of America and Eu- rope. For this purpose I have examined all the cases in which the charts of the U. S. Signal Service indicate the movement of a storm center towards any westerly point. I have also exam- ined Hoffmeyer’s daily charts from Dec., 1873, to Oct., 1876; the charts of the Deutsche Seewarte from Jan., 1876, to March, 1879, and from Jan., 1880, to April, 1880; also the charts of the International Observations from Nov., 1877, to Dec., 1879. any of the cases of this description which are shown on the charts of the U. S. Signal Service are cases in which the depres- sion of the barometer was small, when there was no single well- efined storm center, but there were two or three centers of slight depression within a few hundred miles of each other, so that a slight change in the force of the winds would cause one of the centers to predominate a little, and thus the center of greatest depression might be carried in an unusual direction. The following table shows the most decided cases in which storm-centers in the United States have advanced in a westerly direction : Storms in the United States advancing Westerly. Raye ite Beg: end pew. ena] Course. |miies barom.| "eouee. 1/1873. Oct. 20.1-21.3 | 39-46 | 75-86} N.W. | 20-7 | 29°35 |Unknown 2}1874. May 9.1- 9.3| 49-42 |97-104| S.W. |37°3| ‘29 \N.E. 3/1876. Jan. 8.3— 9.1 |443-43| 84-87] S.W. |22°2| +14 |E.NLE. 4 Feb. 25.3-26.3 |41-384) 95-97| S.S.W. | 85] -40 |Eastward 5 June 17.3-18.2 | 44 Worst): 734 esi 6 pt. 16.1-17,3 | 25-41 |77-794| N.N.W. | 28°8| “47 |Eastwa 7/1877. Feb. 21.2-22.1 |48-41}| 89-93] SS.W. |33°9| 35 |Eastward 8 Ov. 22.3-24.3 | 32-42 |794-84| N.N.W.|15°7| 63 |Disappeared 9/1878. Feb. 19.2-20.1| 43-34 | 95-98 | S.S.W. | 43°0 3 |N.E. Mar. 10.1-11.1 | 43 6-104] W.S.W. |18°0| -47 |Eastward 1 Mar. 23.1-24.1 | 50-42 |574-72) S.W. |36°7| ‘22 |E.N.E. 12 April 28,2-29.1 | 37-41 |77-794] N.N.W. | 18°5| 58 |Disappeared 13|___ June 22.2-23.1 | 42-44 | 76-79 | N.N.W.| 15-7 “60 |E.N.E. The number of these cases is 13; and 4 of these pursued a course about N.N.W.; 2 advanced towards the N.W.; towards the W.S.W.; 3 towards the S.W.; and 8 towards the S.S.W. Case No. 1 was particularly noticed in my sevent 16 &. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. and eleventh papers. It was there shown that this storm was accompanied by an excessive fall of rain; also that the winds on the east side were uncommonly strong, and observations of unusual height above the earth’s surfac os, 5, 6, 8, 12 and 13 were also dcconipantied by a pies fall of rain, espe- cially No. 6, and in all of the cases the winds from the south and east were remarkably strong. This will appear more dis- tinctly from the following table, in which column second shows the highest wind reported for cases 1, 5, 6, 8, 12 and 13 at the given dates from any quarter between N. and W.; and column third shows the highest wind from any quarter between S. and E. Highest winds reported. Date. N.and W. | S.andE, Date. N.and W. | S.andE. 1873. Oct. 20.1| N. 28 | S.E. 32 |1877. Nov. 22.2| N.W.25 |-S.E. 20 20-2 | Ns 7 36 dew, 22.31 N.W.16 | S.B. 22 20:3 | NN: 28: 8.8, 32 33.1 7 WN: 1 S.E. 32 Pile Ne 8221-8: 24 23.2! N.W.16 | S.E. 30 21.24 N,=7 20) 28. 28 23.3 | W. K. 32 Dat NG Oe fe 32 24.1 | N.W.12 | E. 44 1876. June 17.3} N. 241] 8.B. 29 > No 0!) Be 42 18.1:) N.W. 30 |} S8.B: 382 24. N.W. 8 | BE. 28 18.2 | N.W.38 | S.E. 24 ||1878. April oe 5 N. 20] &. 18 Sept. 16.2 N.W. 24 | E. 24 TN; 15 | E. 14 16.3 | N.W.10 | EB. 32 be 1] N.W.12 | E. 30 171|-W. 18) EB. . 24 June ose : N. 20] BE. 48 17.2 | N.W. 10 | BE. 16 N.W.12 | E. 40 IST; Nov. 22.1 N.W. 13 | S8.E. 32 23, ; W. 5 AE ee ue 17 The average of the greatest velocities for the northwest quarter is 19 miles per hour, and for the southeast quarter In the following table, column second shows the highest wind reported for cases 2, 3, 4, 7, 9, 10 and 11 at the given — daies for any quarter between S. and W.; and column third — shows the highest wind reported from any quarter between the a north and east. Highest winds reported. Date. S.and W. | N.and £. Date. S.andW,. | N.and E. 1874, May 9.1| S.W. 30| N.E. 12 |]1977. Feb. 221/S. 21|N. 25 9.21 8. N.E. 12 |/1878. Feb. 19.2|S 2%7| NE 8 C8). 40) He 6) 6,93) B38 1876, Jan, 8.3}.8. «26 | NB 26 20.1 | SW. 32|N. 18 11 S.W. 18 | NEB: 29 Mar. 10.1/ 8. 20] N.E. 40 Feb. 25.3; S. 22 | N.E. 44 10.2| W. 30} N.E. 55 26.1| 8S 14] N.E. 60 10.3|S. 11] NE. 36 9621S 94: WE ae ii Sw ete. 1S 96.318 0 381 Wa 24.1| S.W. 22|N. 40 3874. Feb. 31318 > Sb Ne 90: SE eS ee ee ee a eS) ae eee Tee Se ea ry E. Loomis— Observations of the U. 8. Sighal Service. 17 The average of the greatest velocities for the southwest quar- ter is 23 miles per hour, and for the northeast quarter it is 29 miles per hour. There are several instances in which the mode of comparison here adopted does not fairly indicate the relative force of the winds on the opposite sides of a low center, espe- cially when the low center happens to be situated near the margin of the Signal Service map, but the average of the results when the storms were advancing towards the northwest, and also when they were advancing towards the southwest, appears very decided, and seems to indicate distinctly that the centers of least pressure advanced in that Hosoda towards which the winds pressed in with the greatest fo n my first paper I gave the result a ‘two years’ observations, which showed that the ae velocity of the wind on the west side of a low center (within the isobar 29°90) was 10-1 miles, and on the east side 8°38 miles; being 22 per.cent greater on the west side than on the east side. We have now found that when a low center advances westward, the velocity of the wind is generally - Nahe on the east side of the low center. The progressive movement of storms probably depends upon - meteorological ie es which prevail at a considerable dis- tance from the low center. oe charts and the Inter- national maps sometimes inform us w these conditions are. The following summary shows certain poi etins which pre- vailed at each of the cases contained in the table on Lanes 15, as far as is shown by the maps which I have receiv No. 3. High on the north and east (765) with low (735) near South Greenland. No. 4. High on = northeast (775 to 785) with low (735) near Newfoundland. No. 5. High on the east (770) with low (740) near Iceland. r High on the northeast (775) with low (7 nih ied the Atla: No. 9. High on the east (30°20) with low (29°20) near a ewes No. 10. High on the northeast (30°60) with low (29°40) over ox ae tlanti id Pes High on the north and northeast (30°20) with low (29°00) over “N orth- No. 12. High on the north and northeast (30°20) with low (29°40) near South Greenland. No. 13. High on the north and east (30°20 to 30°40) with low (29°60) near Iceland. Thus we see that in the preceding cases there generally pre- vailed a considerable area of low pressure over the Atlantic cean, while on its western or northwestern side a cold wind from the north, with high pressure, was forcing its way south- ward, and this. may be presumed to have crowded westward e low areas prevailing at the same time over the United tat ollowing summary presents some of the conditions prevailing at these dates on the id eneice side of these low reas. Am. Jour, oe Series, VoL. XXI, No. nee 1881. 18 E. Loomis+-Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. No. Low center (29°70) on the Northwest side which gradually approached “ she ia aR ith No. bars protruded very vane towards S.W. eben protruded very m L e 29°50) on the Northwes i protruded to a great stance towards 8.W. Low er (29-80) in the Gulf o ‘ caihens: protrided to a great Susie owaea 8.W. Low N.W. SSSSSSH SS et pet CO Soe SP was ws No. 13. watcetiaete low center on the N.W. Thus we see that while on the East side of these low areas there were causes which tended to increase the pressure on that side, there were different conditions on the Western side which tended to divert the winds Westward, and this is apparently the most important reason why, in these cases, the centers of least pressure advanced Westward. Storms advancing Westerly over Europe and the Atluntic Ocean. The following table shows the most decided cases in which storm centers advanced in a Westerly direction over Kurope and the Atlantic Ocean. European storms advancing Westerly. Mos} 2 Daten: << ARR Ont, | Gomme. | Vel komt] Suneaiacet 1|1875. Mar. 14-16/50 -46 |37W.-434W.| 8S. 8:3 | 730 | Absorbed 2 ec. 17-19\64 -64 | 29W.-43W. | West 8°8| 720 megs 31876. April 19-20|52 -66 | 3W.-5W. |N.N.W.| 12°2| 735 |N.E 4 June 19-20/574-604| 234W.-27W.| N.W. | 10-1} 730 Subdivided 5 June 22-23!573-59 | 26W--334W.| N.W. | 12°1| 740 | Disappeared 6 Sept. 9-12/55 -60 | 21K.-7E. | N.W. | 8-0| 735 |Subdivided 7 Sept. 22-23/544-56 | 264W.-30W.| N.W. | 6-7] 740 |Subdivided 8 Oct. 20-21| 563-64 | 34}W.-49W.| N.W. | 28°7| 720 | Eastwa 9 Noy. 12-14|50 -52 | 7W.-16W. | W.N.W.| 8°8| 730 |Northward 10 . 21-23/53 -56 | 1W.-8W. | W.N.W.| 3°8| 729 |Southerly 11/1877. April 4- 8156 -50 | 9W.-13W. | SS.W.| 4:8| 733|N-.E. 12 May 3- 6/52 -64] 44K.-18E .W. |17-2| 744 disappeared 13 July 15-16/54 -54 | 2W.-5W West | 3°4| 737 14 Aug. 54-57 -4W. N.W. | 19°2| 745 sapere 15|1878. Mar. 31-32)59 -59 10E.-0 West | 14°3| 729 16 May 30-32)60 -60 | 27E.-17 West | 71] 741 ig 17 N 4— 654 -59 | 25K.-19E. |N.N.W.| 8-6] 737/N.E. 18 Nov. 11-13|59 -49 | 7E-3K. | SS.W.|14-4| 733 |S.E. 19 Nov. 14-16/47 -54 0E.-4E .N.W.| 11°5 | 734 |South 20 Dee. 10-11/52 -56}| 25K.-23E. | N.N.W.| 14-9] 739 |N.E. 211880. Feb. 164-17/54 -56 | 74W.-10W. | N.W. | 17-2} 720 |Unknown The first eight cases are derived from an examination of Hoffmeyer’s charts. Six of — cases occurred near the mid- dle of the Atlantic ocean; one on the western borders ° Kurope, and the other in ee eastern part of Europe. They are cases in which the depression of the barometer was cael ; : : E.. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 19 erable; in which the low center was pretty sharply defined; in which no neighboring low center is represented on Hoffmeyer’s maps. Cases 9 to 21 have been derived from the charts of the Deutsche Seewarte, and all have been carefully compared with the International Observations, excepting No. 21, for which the International Observations have not yet been received. Of these 21 cases, 14 advanced towards some point etween north and west, 8 advanced towards some point between south and west, and 4 advanced almost exactly west. I have endeavored to compare the force of the wind on that side of each low area towards which the storm was advancing, with the force on the opposite side according to the observa- tions delineated on Hoffmeyer’s charts. The number of the following shows the comparison of the observations within the isobar 750 for cases 3 and 6, the force of the winds being rep- resented by the numbers of Beaufort’s scale (0 to 6). a Rear. Front. Rear. 1876. April 19 1-76 £24 1876, Sept. 10 2°20 8°33 Sept. 9 150 Sept. 11 1°83 2°87 Thus we see that on the rear of these low areas the average force of the wind was 88 per cent greater than on the front side. ‘The following summary shows the state of the barometer on the east side and also on the west side of storms Nos. 1-8 an Nos, 15-20. On the East side of the low area.| On the West side of the low area. 775 on the north and east increas- | 29-4 to 29-0 in the United States. Iso- i ing to 780 on the northeast. bars protruded westward. 2 | 735 on the east. 29°6 to 29°2 near Newfoundland. 3 | 770 on the east, 755 to 740 near Newfoundland. 4/765 to 770 on the east. 29°6 in the United States. Isobars pro- uded westwar' 5 | 770 on the northeast side. 755 to 745 near Hudson’s Bay. 6|770 on the east and 750 on the| 765 to 770 on the west, with 755 to 735 rth-northeast. near Newfoundland. 7 | 765 on the east and southeast. 755 to 750 on the north 8 | 770 to 775 on the east. west. Subordinate low (735) near South Green- land. Also 745 in the United States. 15 | 30-4 to 30°6 on the east. 29-7 to 29°4 near Newfoundland. 16| Barometer slightly below normal 29°T7near Greenland. throughout nearly all of Asia. 17 | 30°6 on the east. 30°2 falling to 30°0 on the west. Also 29°6 near Newfoundland. 18 | 30-4 on the southeast. 30°4 on the sou 19 | 30-4 on the east, 20 | 30°8 to 31-0 on the east. 29°8 to 30°0 ‘on the west and northwest. Tn all but two of these cases there was an area of high pres- sure on the east side of the storm center, and in several of the cases this pressure was above 30°5 inches. Such a pressure is 20 E. Loomis—Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. ~T several days distinct from each other. Such were Nos. 8, 4 and 15. In N e storm was apparently diverted North- ward by the low area on the north-northeast. In No. 16 the on the southeast and another on the southwest, and the low area pushed in between them. In the United States it is fre- quently observed that when two areas of high pressure approach within a few hundred miles of each other, a low center is devel- oped between them. A similar case occurred in No. 6 between Sept. 11th and 12th. In No. 20 the observations do not indi- cate any decided low center on the north or west, yet the pressure was every where either below or but little above the normal over the North Atlantic Ocean and North America. hus we see that in Europe and over the Atlantic Ocean as well as in the United States, the influence of one area of low pressure upon another is a very common cause of abnormal movements of storm centers. In preparing the materials for this article I have been as- sisted by Mr. Henry A. Hazen, a graduate of Dartmouth Col- lege of the class of 1871. Norg.—Since the preceding was in type, I have received Hoffmeyer’s charts for November, 1876, from which it oid porte that on the 12th of November, 1876, there was an area of low pressure (730 to 725) west of Ireland; and the apparent west- wa ovement of No. 9 on page 18 was plainly due to the influence of this low center. I have also received the Inter- national Bulletin for October, 1880, from which it appears that on February 16th there was a low center (28°40) west of Ire- land, and the apparent westward movement of No. 21 on page 18 was plainly due to the influence of this low center. . G. W. Hawes—Albany, N. H., Granite, ete. 21 Art. Il.—The Albany Granite, New Hampshire, and its Con- tact Phenomena ; by GEORGE W. Hawes, New Haven. In the studies that have been directed to the end of discov- ering the nature and origin of our great granitic masses, the contact phenomena have received but little attention. The application elsewhere of the modern methods of lithological research to the rocks upon the limits of granitic masses has, owever, been fruitful in developing facts of geological inter- est. ‘The study which I present indicates that no more striking phenomena have been observed anywhere than those which are found upon the boundaries of one of the New Hampshire granitic masses. ese phenomena have additional interest since they occur in a region of highly crystalline schists, which usually are not susceptible to influences of this nature. In the Vosges, for example, the granites, which have produced the most marked and wide-reaching effects upon clay slates, have had no influence upon the crystalline schists which they have intersected.* As the New Hampshire granite here considered exhibits very striking modifications in character, dependent upon the neighborhood of the contact, and as a spot was found where the arrangement of the rocks is favor- able for a careful consideration of the effects of the contact both upon the schists and the granite, I have investigated these rocks with a view of presenting this study as a contribu- tion to White Mountain Geology. The line of contact between the Albany granite and an area of argillitic mica schist crosses Mt. Willard in the Crawford notch. The normal rocks with their contact modifications are familiar to many of our geologists. The beauty of the natural scenery, combined with the geological interest, has attracted many to this spot, and these rocks have accordingly had fre- quent mention. For the opinions in regard to the nature and origin of the granites at this point, and the interpretation of the effects that are due to the contact, I refer to the second * H. Rosenbusch, Abhandlungen zur geologischen Special Karte von Elsass- Lothringen, Bd. I, Heft II, p. 89. 22 G. W. Hawes—Albany Granit., shown in fig. 1.* Although but a small mountain several of the most characteristic New Hampshire granites take part in attention to the Albany gran- ite,t which forms an immense of a dike about three hundred feet wide. The Conway gran- ite, a coarse-grained biotite granite, forms the hanging wall, and argillitic mica schists form the foot wall of this dike. Mt. Nt nl = \ inh ) nenly — : hae ho | near a thousan eet hig Map of the Mt. Willard region. Seale tc ce of tees three rocks 24 miles to one inch. narrow dike that connects the Ramberg and Brocken, two granite mountains in the Harz, the phenomena connected with which have been described by Lossen The wpm Gee cece is a very distinctly <2 npaponnd char- acterized c the spotted or trachytic ee fr all its areas it as the same Sandiar * This map is essentially a reproduction from the large geological map of New Hampshire, prepared by Professor C. H. Hitchcock, and forming hy part of the atlas accompanying his geological report. Under his direction area marked “ breccia Last has b ed. This is a distinc ite mass hibit includes in certa Sar a blocks of gneiss. Such inclusions granite ae iare in New Hampshire, and are also known abr The figur on page 225 in vol. i of Naumann’s Geognosie, drawn from a cliff on It is to the granite which includes these fragments t pk Professor Hitchcock has given the title of breccia granite. Upon his geological map he has considered the Albany and the Conway gran nites as eruptive, and the Concord as metamorphic. In this paper I deal simply with the Albany granite, and introduce this map to show the relationship in which the rag and this granite stand with reference to one gprs be and especially the form of the area “Gaapiel by the Albany nite. If contact phenomena take ence over details of internal stru : the origin of all the other granites including the Concord granite and the gneiss are open questio + So named a Palo Hitchcock on account of its extensive development in Albany, ee H. Zeitschr. d, d. Geol. Ges., 1874, p. 856. Fog poke ea of this granite see Hitchcock’s Geol. New Hampshire, vol. ii, and its Contact Phenomena. 28 appearance due to the development of Carlsbad twins of ortho- clase with rounded contours, in a gray fine-granular aggregate of granitic minerals, which are said to form a mixture resemb- or in teristic. Its twin crystals of feldspar in polarized light are seen to have the peculiar structure of perthite, and consist of interlaminated orthoclase and albite.* Individual grains of a green, yellow, dichroic, in thin sections, and peculiarly impure from the enclosure of quartz grains. Biotite, magnetite and apatite are constant, augite and fluor spar are frequent, con- stituents, _ Bat what gives to this rock a very marked microscopic individuality is the uniform presence in it of well-crystallized Square prisms of zircon. Of the many sections that have been cut, not one has been found free from these pretty crystals. They are large enough to be examined optically under the microscope, and are easily recognized by their tetragonal crystallization, their high index of refraction. Their uniaxial and positive character can be easily determined in convergent ig! t. Out of twenty-five grams of the roc om Mt. illard, I separated several hundred of these crystals, by means of hydrofluoric acid. They are white, clear and glassy, but are sometimes tinged with yellow. They are often _mm. in diameter and mm. long. Their surfaces are bright, but cavities often penetrate far into their interiors. They are doubly terminated, and in addition to the planes of the prism and pyramid of the first order, they frequently have the planes of a ditetragonal pyramid which is probably the form 3-8. They contain many inclusions. Some of these are the inverted forms of zircon crystals, some are zircons with different terminal faces, and some are empty cavities with very regular forms. n the middle of the arm of Albany granite which extends across the summit of Mt. Willard, the rock is of this normal character, but both to the right and the left differences are evi- *g Sections parallel to the base hardly show these interlaminations owing to the a in the elasticity planes of the two cies. Sections parallel to the a - Pinacoid possess an elasticity plane making an angle of” ° with the asal th. ge, and in the interlaminations an elasticity plane makes an angle of 17° in © same direction, with the basal cleavage. 24 G. W. Hawes—Albany Granite, crystals that form the granite have become smaller with the ex- ception of the large feldspar crystals, which are in consequence more conspicuous. Ata distance of sixty feet a tendency in the quartz to assume crystalline forms is noticed, and the rock begins to appear porphyritic. At fifteen feet from the contact with the schists, the quartz is found in well-defined dihex- agonal pyramids, as large as peas, and these with the Carlsbad twins of orthoclase are imbedded in a ground mass no longer resolvable by the unaided eye or lens. Upon the contact the ground mass is nearly black in color, flinty in texture, and apparently homogeneous. The Albany granite has become a with two exceptions. The Carlsbad orthoclase twin crystals and the zircon crystals have the same shape and size in all * The Bodegang previously referred to is filled with quartz porphyry which however has a coarser ground mass in the center. , In the Vosges the granites which have altered the slates are upon their side usually unaffected. At one spot however in the Weibermattenthal the granite became porphyritic upon the contact. Rosenbusch, Die Steiger Schiefer und ihre Contact den Granititen von Barr-audlan und Hohwald, p. 156. In the Pyrenees near Case de Brousette a contact occurs between clay slate and a porphyry which farther south gradually changes into granite. Zirkel, Zeitscbr- d. d. Geol. Ges., 1867, p. 106. ne Sees 3 : BE a ae ee am a eed ae ee Oe el eT SRT Oe et eee and its Contact Phenomena. 25 one and the anhydrous nature of the other being factors modi- fying the extent of the effect. ny chemical changes that may be connected with these modifications are represented in the following table of analyses. Bae! sonck etre ph temeomee Sin tegen eons, Sid, 72°26 Al,O3 13°59 12-76 12°34 Fe.0; 1:16 1°07 2-25 eO 2°18 4:28 4:92 MnO tr. “08 tr. CaO 113 30 55 MgO 06 K,O 5°58 5-10 5°53 Na,O 3°85 3-16 2-84 TiO. “45 40 27 H,O “AT 73 72 100°73 101°06 100°68 Sp. Gr. 2°65 2°66 2-68 Quartz. Orthoclase. Albite. Anorthite. Hornblende. Biotite. Magnetite. Titanic Iron. 2 32°95 32°61 4°83 1°68 *85 Or, 26°79 30°76 31°01 5°65 Hclaes 5°44 ree! . The biotite has the composition (K,Na),(Fe,Mg),AlSi, «(= one molecule K and one M of Tschermak) and the hornblende will be 11(R SiO,)+Al1,0,. This calculation can not claim to be accurate since there are uo data for dividing the lime between the anorthite (which is supposed to be com- bined with some of the albite to make a triclinic feldspar) and the hornblende. It is introduced to show that the results o the chemical investigation do not at all contradict the micro- Scopic results, since a recrystallization and a rearrangement in the proportions between the feldspars, furnishes all the material necessary to convert the hornblende into biotite. The schists that occupy the area indicated upon the map, form portions of Mts. Tom, Field, Willey and Willard, elevations: In the vicinity of the White Mountain Notch. Their age is un- known. Their reference to the Silurian on account of a sup- posed fossiliferous character being based upon an error, it is only certain that they are older than both the Albany and the Conway granites, both of which intersect them. In composition they ® 26 G. W. Hawes—Albany Granite, are not at all constant, but the prevailing variety is a dark compact argillitic mica schist with andalusite crystals scattered through parts of it. Upon the summit of Mt. Willard they appear to be very uniform over a large area, and for this reason the specimens for chemical study were taken from this spot. he schists at the summit have a strike very nearly north and south, and they dip 60° to the west.* The line of con- tact with the granite runs in an irregular northwest direction. t a distance of 100 feet from this contact, with the exception of the rather rare andalusite crystals, no minerals are visible in this schist to the unaided eye, unless the glistening surface be considered as an indication of mica. Under the microscope it is seen to consist of quartz, muscovite (probably the variety containing combined water), and chlorite. Titanic iron par- tially decomposed into leucoxene, some magnetic iron which can be drawn from the powder with a magnet, and particles resembling coal or graphite, constitute opaque black ingre- dients. A little biotite and a very few crystals of tourmaline, recognized by form and the direction of strong absorption, are accessory constituents. No marked change is visible in the rock at a distance of fifty feet from the contact, but nearer than this point the effect of the contact becomes very soon evident. As the specimens described and analyzed were all, with the excep- tion of the normal schist at 100 feet, taken from the same stratum, I think that all the differences noted may be with certainty regarded as due to the effect of contact. wenty-five feet from the contact the schists are much changed in microscopic structure. They are more definitely and coarsely crystalline ; biotite becomes a more prominent con- stituent, and tourmaline crystals, blue within and brown with- * Strike of slate 12-22 W., strike of contact N. 77 W. Hitchcock’s Geology of New Hampshire, vol. ii, p. 177. ‘ + I can not regard the conclusion of Prof. v. Lasaulx that this substance 18 titanite of lime, titanomorphite, as certainly correct in all cases, for in rocks like this that are nearly free from lime the same decomposition takes place. In this case there is not enough lime in the whole rock to make titanomorphite with the titanic acid. ST ON tO Re ke Ue gt We ene ROSE ae Ens ee Ree ate ee Se ee eee eee ee ee and its Contact Phenomena. 27 aggregate of quartz, biotite, tourmaline, and iron oxide. But between this horn- stone and the granite another well defined zone exists. This is a dark- gray mass which is filled with reticulated black veins. Scarcely notice- SS Sees SS SSD — S 2. H is a HA oe ae lL wae vide and subdivide, giv- ing to the whole a fused, slaggy appearance. Un- der the microscope, how- ever, this mass is resolved he into a nearly pure mix- Section of tourmaline veinstone. ture of tourmaline and x 100 diameters. 8 quar ile in the hornstone zone last described, the tourmalines are in extremely minute formless grains, here they are in more or less well defined crystals, and possess a concentrically banded structure. White, blue, light brown and dark brown layers follow one another in the order named. Fig. 2 (x 100) represents a section possess- Ing these zones. These crystals are bounded by the planes ! ik. —-$tR—- > 22. This mass I characterize as the zone of the tourmaline veinstone to distinguish it from the last, or the zone of the tourmaline hornstone. There is reason for this in the circumstance that the impregnating material has wholly altered the character of the schist. The chemical changes that have taken place, both in ulti- Mate composition and mineral constituents, are indicated in the following table of analyses : 28 G. W. Hawes—Albany Granite, Tourmaline Schist Schist Schist Hornstone _Tourmaline 100ft.from 50ft. from 15 ft. from 1footfrom Veinstone on contact. contact. contact. contact. contact. SiO, 61°57 63°35 30 6 Al,Os 20°55 19°69 16°35 14°67 16°84 Fe,03 2°02 “12, “95 2 ] Fe 4:28 5°48 517 3°95 5°50 MnO 10 16 tr. 12 CaO 24 wr. "24 30 Be MgO 12% ii 1°63 1°29 1°71 Ky acl 3°47 3°40 4-08 Na,O 1°12 bial 3°64 1:76 TiO, 1:10 1°00 1°28 ‘93 1°02 B,O3 Suey was tr “OF 2°96 Fl Sasa en . tr. H,0. 4:09 a13 3°02 01 Loh 100°61 100°49 100-05 101°20 100°78 Sp. Gr 2°85 2°84 2°82 2°14 py ei ar 36°87 39°17 45°15 50°82 50°03 Muscovite 49°30 44°53 : Biotite os ah t 43:89 {29-67 al. Chlorite 8°62 13°70 6°65 ae Titanic iron 2°09 1°90 2-43 Lit 1°94 100-61 100-49 = 10005 = 101-20 -=——:100°78 In these analyses a systematic and progressive series of obtained by others from contact schists lead to the same resu The kind of changes indicated by my analyses, if of less de- gree, are of the same kind as those that have been observed in the contact of granites with limestones, as for example 10 the Harz where the limestones about the Ramberg+ have their CO, replaced by SiO,, forming a broad zone of lime silicates about the contact ; and on the contact of limestone with Mon- zonitt at Predazzo, where a similar lime-silicate hornstone zone is found to be rich in alkali directly upon the contact. * Die Steiger Schiefer und ihre Contactzone. Strassburg, 1877, p. 257. + Lossen, Zeitschr. d. d. Geol. Gesellschaft, xxiv, p. 777. ¢ J. Lemberg, Zeitschr. d. d. Geol. Gesellschaft, xxiv, p. 234. and its Contact Phenomena. 29 The effect of the contact becomes much more striking when the percentages of the constituent minerals are calculated from the analyses. This was done in the first two analyses as fol- lows. The titanium dioxide was first reckoned into titanic iron, and the iron sesquioxide calculated into magnetite, since the magnet attracts black particles from the powder. The remaining iron protoxide, with the manganese oxide, and the magnesia were then calculated into a chlorite of the formula of ripidolite (Mg, Al,Si,0,,+4H,O). Then if the remainder of the alumina is calculated into muscovite (K,H), Al,Si,O,), in and quartz, as shown by the microscope, hence in the last analysis, after calculating the amount of titanic iron and mag- netite, the remaining bases were calculated as forming a tour- m R,SiO; i f n R,Si0s. In accordance with this the ap Si 5 composition of the tourmaline is as follows: SiO. Al,O; FeO MnO CaO MgO K.O Na.O H.O BO; Fl 35°65 36°66 8:03 26 “79 3°72 1:22 3833 285 645 ‘64 = 100 maline of the formula toot or two wide, plays elsewhere. This zone I call the mixed zone. At a short distance below the summit it becomes a very sharply defined band three feet wide, and consists of fragments of various kinds of schist, and angular fragments of 30 se G. W. Hawes—Albany Granite, a foreign variety of quartz porphyry, and all are cemented together with the granitic material. The feldspar crystals in this granite are all broken to fragments,* and the whole mass is impregnated with tourmaline, but the constituent minerals iy), Te Wy yy, Yi Y y pausaeres, Y° _ aoe cpeares, Junction of Argillitic mica schist and Albany Granite. are all easily recognized. Fig. 3 — the appearance of the contact, as seen upon the ‘cliff at n easily accessible point, about 150 feet below the summit. The different zones that I have described are here all sharply defined. To recapitulate, here zones are as follows: 4 a of the argillitic nin ah nee (chloritic). . Zone of the mica a schist itic). TD OV & bo NW ° =] @ 2 = tt 5 28 ia Q aS 3 Qa ag 3 = = It will thus be seen that the succession of zones is different from those that have been described about other granitic masses, but ek the effects hla aa are of the same nature and referable to the same ca Following the line of last (down the cliff, the phenomena of the contact ever become more extensive and remarkable. At a point just above the spot figured, a long arm of the porphyritic granite, from two to three feet wide and eighty feet long, extends into the schist at nearly a right angle to its * The crystals of orthoclase found in the small branches of granitic masses where they woul be subjected to friction have been often found broken. In the eo pire: d Elba for example. Credner Geologie, p. 285. + The zones in the Jee as described by Rosenbusch are Clay s 2 Knotty clay slate. 3. saa Bee schist, rnstone e,usually rai ie hornstone. The knotty character i is have entirely abse : and its Contact Phenomena. - 381 stratification. This arm is shown in fig.4. The impregnation : of the schists with tourmaline has been much more effectual below than upon the summit. Two hundred feet below the summit the schists distant 100 feet from the contact contain as many tourmalines as at fifteen feet from the contact upon the top. The mixed zone steadily ven biggest in iia. ge _ width as it descends, and at nstion of schist and Albany grant he base of the huge cliff it the schist. Scale 75 feet to one inch. is more than twenty feet wide These are the main features of this remarkablecontact. I think schists, and that the main portion of its mass had not erystal- lized at the time of eruption. The inclusion of such varied products in the mixed zone indicates that it moved no incon- siderable distance through fissures in very diverse rocks. The kind of impregnation indicates that it was accomplished by vapors and solutions that emanated from the fissures filled by the granite; but the impregnation of schists embedded in the granite, and the impregnation of the schists attendant with a dehydration of the same, indicates the action of very hot vapors which accompanied the eruption; not the action of vapors subsequently emanated through the cleft.* The line of division forming the contact is microscopically fine. Over this line the minerals of schist or granite do no pass except in the form of inclusions. There is therefore no other areas of Albany granite as far as observed, the effects of the contact are found upon the edges of the granite. At Ft cavities in the quartz of the granite contain most variable amounts of fluid. are full and some are empty. The calculation of temperatures and pres- ei measured size of bubble and cavity can be of little value when, as 1s Plain, other unknown quantities beside those commonly considered are 382 G. W. Hawes—Albany Granite and its Contact Phenomena. spot adjoins the schist has the granophyre* structure. This structure may therefore be induced as a contact phenomenon. Ascending Mt. Kearsarge by the bridle path from the Intervale station, the base of the mountain is seen to be composed of Conway granite.t At a height of 500 feet one e as one o porphyry, Ha gradually changes and finally becomes typical Albany gra ere again we see that the Conway granite was a gen body influencing the crystallization of a later eruption. After climbing for a short while over the Albany granite, the zone of porphyry again appears ; then follows in proper sequence the mixed zone, but this zone which upon Mt. Willard attains to a width of twenty feet, here forms the whole grand mass of Kearsarge, Bartlett and ‘Moat Mountains. These mountains from base to summit consist of angular pieces of schists intermingled with and cemented by granite porphyry. The schists have been modified by the 0) bh cemented by a small amount of the granite, which has been accordingly much modified by the effect of the schist, and has a ground mass very fine in texture, and homogeneous and flinty in appearance. Above, where there is a smaller propor- tion of schist in the porphyry, this ground-mass becomes more coarsely crystalline, and approaches granite in texture. The micrascopic peculiarities however remain constant and the large zircon crystals never fail. I have endeavored to show that the contact phenomena con- nected with the Albany granite are very beautifully developed upon a small scale, affording thus exceptional facilities for study and observation ; but that on the other hand they reach an unequalled grandeur of proportion. The evidence previ- ously offered by others has not been decisive in determining the eruptive or mokamonghis oacih of this rock, and I point to the fact that many other important granitic masses have been referred to the one or the other of these groups upon the same insufficient evidences of structure and internal stratification. rom observations incidental to this work I am, however, quite certain that the stu 20 of the contact phenomena of the other great granitic ma n New Hampshire would develop as many interesting “Hithological facts, rite furnish the proper evidence for a determination of their orig * Used in the sense of cpg That is, the quartz and congad of the ground mass are arranged-with reference to one another, as in graphic granite. Wiss alas huis ty ths purl ou Ne w Hampshire Geology, Hitchcock. C. S. Hastings— Constitution of the Sun. 33 Art. IIl—A Theory of the Constitution of the Sun, founded upon Spectroscopic Observations, original and other; by CHARLES S. Hasrines. FRAUNHOFER discovered the lines in the solar spectrum, known by his name, in 1814. Many efforts to determine their origin followed. One of the most ingenious and carefully considered was that of Professor Forbes in 1836.* He con- cluded that, if their origin is in the solar atmosphere, the light from the limb must exhibit stronger lines than that from the center. His method was to examine the spectrum before and during an annular eclipse; as he found no recognizable change, his deduction was, “that the sun’s atmosphere has nothing to do with the production of this singular phenomenon.” The point was again touched upon by Sir David Brewster and Dr. Gladstone in a joint study of the spectral lines, pub- lished in 1860.+ Here “each of the authors came independ- ently to the conclusion that there is no perceptible difference in this respect between the light from the edge and that from the center of the solar disk.” In 1867 Angstrémt repeated the experiment with negative results. Lockyer’s| efforts also, in 1869, were attended with no better results. In 1873, four years later, I devised and made an apparatus by which a perfect juxtaposition of the spectra of the center and limb was secured. his apparatus and certain of the re- Sults gained by its use were described in a note “ On a com- parison of the Spectra of the limb and the center of the Sun,” published in this Journal, vol. v (1878), pp. 869-371. I was then a student at Yale College and soon after left New Haven, when the research was necessarily interrupted. I hoped, how- ihe that the novelty and interest of the observations might othe the same as that described in the article cited ; instead, how- ever, of the equatorial of the Sheffield Scientific School, I used a Clark equatorial of 9-4 in. aperture and 120 in. focal * Notes relative to the supposed Origin of the Deficient Rays in the Solar Spec- trum. Phil. Trans., 1836, pp. 453-456. On the Lines of the Solar Spectrum. Phil. Trans., 1860, pp. 149-161. Phil. Mag., 1867, p. 76. Proc. R. &., vol. xvii, p. 350. Am. Jour. gato Serizs, Vou. XXI, No, 121.—Jan., 1881. ’ d+ OC. S. Hastings—Constitution of the Sun. length, which was kindly placed at my disposal by the gentle- men in Hartford, to whom it belongs.* e New Have spectroscope too, of 12 effective prisms, was replaced by one of which the dispersing member was a Rutherfurd grating on Sie metal, either of 8648 or 17296 lines to the inch at will. These gratings were of the i se size, having a ruled surface of about 12 inches square. The immediate results I give in order of refrangibility of the lines observed, as no observed variations in them can be attributed to anything other than the temporary modifications of transparency in our atmosphere. ‘he numbers are the places on Angstrém’s maps as nearly as could be ascertained without micrometer. Line (C) 6561°8 is cleaner and wider at limb, i. e. ree hhaze on either side of the line as ordinarily seen is much re 6431 is slightly stronger at center than at limb. 6371 is visible at center but not at limb. (D,) 5894°8 slightly less hazy at limb. “i (D,) 5889-0 decidedly cleaner at lim hy A fine line very close to its more refrangible side is either want- b. - ing or much fainter in spectrum of lim 5577°5 is much stronger at lim 5440 + (not on Angstrém’s chart) i is a little stronger at limb. The Mg lines 5183-0, 5172°0, 5166°5 (5, 6,5,) are cleaner at limb. The oe b, belonging to a different element does not show such a peculia ree ts faint line not in A.) is stronger at limb. 9 +, a faint line slightly stronger at lim (F) 4860°6 is much cleaner, more free from haze at limb. 4702°3 seems ree at limb. 4340°0 cleaner at li 4226°4 shows less hate at limb. 41012 is a very hazy line, so Le Sangha by Angstrém ; but at limb it is practically free from haze—a striking difference. 4045 is slightly less hazy at limb. Other ts Raa have been recorded, but only these have been observed more than once eac Any theory of the sun, worthy of attention, must not only explain the above described phenomena, but also others better known, and as yet not accounted for satisfactorily. Of these the most noteworthy is the spectroscopic appearance of a spot and its penumbra. As is well known, such a spectrum eX- hibits a very strong general absorption, with a very slightly modified elective absorption. A few faint lines appear in the spot spectrum which are not otherwise seen; and a few faint * My acknowledgments for this courtesy are gratefully accorded to Mr. ae comb its former owner, and to Mr. Howard and Mr. Chapin its present owners C. S. Hastings—Constitution of the Sun. 35 lines of the ordinary spectrum are strengthened. A careful examination has persuaded me that the spectrum of a spot differs from that of the unbroken photosphere, just as the spectrum of the limb differs from that of the center of the disk, save that the variations are more pronounced. Indeed, I could have considerably extended the list of lines strengthened at limb by an examination of the spot spectrum, where the variations appeal to the eye more clearly. The accepted theory of the spots attributes the phenomenon to the absorption of the solar light by cooler, denser gases of the same nature as those producing the Fraunhofer lines. Familiar experiments teach, however, that as the density of a gas increases, the change in the character of its radiation is ,Shown in its spectrum by the broadening of its distinctive fc lines, which at the same time grow more ill defined. herefore it follows that, according to the law connecting radiation and absorption, dark lines produced by such a gas must also, under similar conditions, show increased breadt and diminished sharpness. That no such changes are to be recognized is a fatal objection to the theory. Another class of unexplained phenomena is the duplicity of certain lines of the solar spectrum, lines which are single in the spectra of terrestrial sources. Of these Prof. Young has discovered E,, b, and 6, with others. own observations can be arranged very simply in classes, and will then better lend themselves to theoretical discussion. . The most important fact of all is that the differences in the two spectra of center and limb are extremely minute, escaping all but the most perfect instruments, and all methods which do not place them in close juxtaposition. I. Certain lines, the thickest and darkest in the spectrum, notably those of hydrogen, magnesium and sodium, whic appear with haze on either side, in the spectrum of the center of the solar disk, are deprived of this accompaniment in that of the limb. ns Certain very fine lines (four observed) are stronger at imb. IV. Other very fine lines (two or three observed) are stronger at center. atmosphere, then the absorption must be greater at the limb 36 C. S. Hastings— Constitution of the Sun. This evident consequence, pointe out e first plac is but one way of maintaining the theory and escaping Forbes’s conclusion already’ quoted, and that the course pursued by Kirchhoff in the original statement of his theory of the solar constitution,* namely, by assuming that the depth of tne re- versing atmosphere is not small compared to the radius of the sun. But innumerable observations during the score of years which have lapsed since that time prove that such a reversing atmosphere must be very thin. The famous observation of hoff’s views as to the locus of the origin of the dark lines. But this very a restricts the effective atmosphere (save for hydrogen and one or two other substances) to a depth not more than 2”. hus, singularly enough, the very observation, which led to the firmest beliéf among spectroscop- ists in the correctness of Kirchhoff’s view, exposed at the same time its most vulnerable point. nother theory of the solar constitution, that of Faye, assigns a different seat to the stratum producing the Fraunho- fer lines, namely, the photosphere itself. Regarding the prin- cipal radiation of the sun as com ming from solid or liquid particles floating in a gaseous medium, the cloud-like stratum thus formed is necessarily somewhat transparent. According to his views, these particles are the sources of the continuous spectrum, and the medium in which they float is the locus of the selective absorption.t Thus he attempts to reconcile the ialagy theory of Kirchhoff with the annette and deduc- tio Forbes, which, as we have were a constant prembling block in the way of arent Kirchhoff” s explana- tion. ockyer seems to have accepted this theory, and to have defended it in the earlier portion of his work ;{ but in _ after Young’s important observation of 1870 and its confirm tion in 1871, he changed his views and regarded the layer just outside the photosphere as the true seat of the selective absorp- tion producing the Fraunhofer lines.§ I supposed in 1873 that my observations then published could be explained on Faye’s hy pothesis. * Untersuchungen vee das bot ong magica Berlin, 1862, pp. 14-15. + Comptes Rendus, vol. See “ A lecture dauwnres the Royal Institution,” May 28th, 1869. Quoted in Lockyer’s Solar Physics, pp. 220-221; — ‘The Rede Lecture, ” May 24th, 1871. Quoted in Solar Physics, pp. 317-3 § See revised report of two anne pee at Neweastle-upon-Tyne in October, 1879, Solar Physics, p. 4 . C. S. Hastings— Constitution of the Sun. 37 There is, however, a fatal objection to the explanation as given by this theory. If the luminous particles are precipitated from the vapors of the photosphere, they cannot be at a higher temperature than the cireumambient gases; on the contrary, on account of their greater radiating power they must be slightly cooler. But the fundamental theory of absorption demands a lower temperature for the vapor producing dar lines than that of the principal source of light behind it; con- sequently this view of Faye cannot be accepted without great modifications. Before advancing any theory of my own, it may be well to » emphasize two principles taught by the theory of absorption, to which all hypotheses must be conformable. That Faye’s fails in this is sufficient cause for its rejection. 1st. To produce dark lines in a spectrum by absorption, the source of absorbed light must be at a higher temperature than that of the absorbing medium. . There is an inferior limit of brightness below which the course of absorbed light cannot go without the spectral lines becoming bright. Of these, the first is familiar and requires here neither proof nor comment; the second, though not less evident, is less familiar because less important. As we shall make use of it, however, it may be well to enforce it by reference to common experience. Were it not true it would be impossible to see bright lines in the spectrum of any flame to which daylight had access, for in this case the conditions demanded by the first principle are fully met, the sun being the origin of the daylight. That we do not see absorption lines is due then alone to the lack of necessary brilliancy in the daylight. _ ‘hus much premised we can frame a theory which explains all the observed phenomena exhibited by the spectroscope, and 1s also rendered highly probable by the revelations of the telesco As is well known, the solar surface when examined with a powerful telescope of large aperture presents a granulated ap- pearance, the granules in general subtending an angle of a frac- tion of a second only. Probably this appearance is better known to the majority of astromoners by means of Professor Langley’s admirable drawings* rather than by personal observation. These granules I regard as marking the locus of currents directed generally from the center of the sun. About these currents are necessarily currents in an opposite direction which serve to maintain a general equilibrium in the distribution of mass. Let us consider the action of such an ascending current. Start- ing from a low level at a temperature which we may regard as * This Jour., vol. vii, 1874, and vol. ix, 1875. Plates. 38 0. 8. Hastings-— Constitution of the Sun. above the vaporizing point of all elements contained in it, as it rises to higher levels, it cools, partly by radiation, more by expansion, until finally the temperature falls to the boiling oint of one or more of the substances present. Here such substances are precipitated in the form of a cloud of fine particles which are carried on suspended in the current. The change of state marked by the precipitation is accompanied by a sudden increase in radiating power; hence these particles rapidly lose a portion of their heat and become relatively dark, to remain so until they are returned to lower levels by the currents in a reverse direction. elements only. I shall attempt to define these elements farther on. In our theory, then, the granules are those portions of up: ward currents where precipitation is most active, while the darker portions, between these bodies, are where the cooler products of this change with accompanying vapors are sinking to lower levels. Having stated the theory we will now apply it to the four classes of phenomena defined above. rom the nature of the condensation, the granules or cloudy masses must be very transparent, because the condensation 1s confined to elements which have very high boiling points, an because such elements can be but a portion, perhaps but small portion, of the whole matter contained in the upward currents. It is not @ priori improbable that we receive light from many hundreds of miles below the general outer surface of the Thus the fundamental and most important class of phenom- ena above classified finds a simple and logical explanation. With regard to the phenomena of class II, we have but te define the problem in order to find the solution at hand. All the lines of class II belong to vapors which lie high in the C. 8S. Hastings—Constitution of the Sun. 39 solar atmosphere, as is evident from their frequent reversal in the chromosphere. On the center of the disk these lines are azy or “winged,” but not so at the limb. To the spectro- scopist this aspect is characteristic of greater pressure, that is, of more frequent molecular impact. The observation then proves that the dark lines of hydrogen, magnesium, sodium, etc., as seen at the center of the solar disk are produced by the elements in question-at a higher pressure than the correspond- ing lines at the limb. Accepting our theory this must be so; for, supposing the transparency of the photosphere is such that we can see into it a distance of 2000 miles, than at the center of the disk, we have light modified by selective absorption all the way from the extreme outer chromosphere down to 2000 miles below the upper level of the photosphere; while 10” from the limb the light, though coming from the same depth of vapor measured along the line of vision has its lowest origin more then 1700 miles farther from the sun’s center than in the previous case. Of course the tiumbers here used have n *This supposition is not opposed to probability, for though we must regard the temperatur : © ge _ not follow that this decrease is continuous. A similar general law may be phenomenon is familiar in the theory of dew and hoar frost. alogous causes for irregularity in the distribution of temperature in the solar atmosphere must _€ven more efficacious, since the layer A is probably a more vigorous radiator than the ronta and the gases above it are certainly far more diathermous than osphere, . 40 C. S. Hastings— Constitution of the Sun. IV belong to substances which are not found in the lower photosphere. We know, however, that all gases must increase in density in passing from their outer limit toward the center of the sun; and we have seen a proof of this in the case 0 hydrogen and certain other vapors in the discussion of out observations, which showed that the characteristic lines indi- cated greater density when they originated at greater depths. The only escape from the contradiction is in the assumption that the lines of the last two cases (III, IV) are due to com pound yapors having a dissociation temperature below that of aii - 0. 8. Hastings— Constitution of the Sun. 41 . The molecular weight is probably not great, for, though precipitated below the upper natural limit of its vapor, there are few elements found in abundance above it, and those in general of low vapor density. 3d. The element is not a rare one. Of these guides the last is of the least value. and the analogous but less common element boron may add a minor effect, In the explanations which I shall give of the remaining phenomena, it may serve to fix the ideas, to think of the gran- ules which characterize the sun’s photosphere as clouds of a substance like precipitated silicon. At any rate we are sure 42 C. S. Hastings— Constitution of the Sun. that the substance in question, so far as we know it, has prop- erties similar to those of the carbon group. 1ave given plausible explanations of all the phenomena in- cluded specially in my own observations. It remains to dis- cuss the others, briefly mentioned above. e substance precipitated cools very rapidly, as it is an excellent radiator, separated from space only by extremely dia- thermous media. It forms then a smoke-like envelop, which ought to exert just such a general absorption as that observed at the limb of the sun. Itis thin because of the relatively great density of the substance in the liquid or solid state; thus the apparent brilliancy of the facule is readily understood. there is any disturbing cause which would tend to direct currents of gas, over a considerable area of the solar surface, toward a point, this smoke, instead of quietly settling down to lower levels between the granules, would concentrate about this point, there exercising a marked general absorption which would betray itself as a spot. At this place the suspended par- ticles would sink to lower levels with constantly increasing temperature, until finally, heated to intense incandescence, they would revolatilize. Thus the floor or substratum of every spot must be a portion, depressed it is true, of the photosphere. All the spectroscopic phenomena of spots, which have proved so perplexing, are thus naturally and easily explained. . In the immediate neighborhood of a spot, the centripetal currents bend down the ordinary convection or granule-produc- ing currents, so that they are approximately level. Before, the latter cooled suddenly by rarefaction in their upward course, now they cool mainly by the much slower process of radiation ; thus, while before the locus of precipitation was restricted, It is now greatly extended. This is the cause of the great elon- gation of the granules in the penumbra, a real elongation, I imagine, and not merely an apparent one. inally, concerning the close duplicity of certain lines, we may reason thus:—If we could surround the sun by a stratum of gas hotter’ than the photosphere and much rarer than that producing the corresponding Fraunhofer lines, we should, as 18 shown by a course of reasoning which I have given in another place,* see each dark line divided by a sharp bright line in Its center, that is, doubled. But as a consequence of the theory, this supposed condition must be practically met in the case certain vapors in the sun. The gases just over the granules, in the vertical currents, are at a very high temperature, essed" tially that of the condensing material itself, consequently much hotter and rarer than the relatively low-lying vapors which, a we have seen, produce the Fraunhofer lines * On Lockyer’s Hypothesis, Am. Jour. Chem., vol. i, p. 15. . C. 8. Hastings— Constitution of the Sun. 43 There are, however, certain evident limitations to these con- ditions; in other words, we cannot expect to see all the dark lines doubled by any increase of dispersive power. For in- stance, a line must have a marked tendency to broaden with increased pressure, otherwise the duplication cannot be pro- nounced. Again, the layer of rare vapor must be thin, or its temperature cannot be relatively high throughout, as demanded y the theory. This evident condition doubtless gives the rea- son why the hydrogen lines, though the broadest in the solar spectrum, are not sensibly double. he theory of the constitution of the sun above proposed, may be briefly recapitulated thus: Convection currents, directed generally from the center of the sun, start from a lower level where the temperature is prob- ably above the vaporizing temperature of every substance. As these currents move upward they are cooled, mainly by expansion, until a certain element (probably of the carbon group), is precipitated. This precipitation, restricted from the nature of the action, forms the well-known granules. There is nothing which has come under my observation which would indicate a columnar form in these granules under ordinary cir- cumstances. The precipitated material rapidly cools, on account of its great radiating power, and forms a fog or smoke, which settles slowly through the spaces between the granules till revolatilized below. It is this smoke which produces the general absorp- tion at the limb and the “rice grain” structure of the photo- sphere, _ When any disturbance tends to increase a downward convee- tion current, there is a rush of vapors at the outer surface o the photosphere toward this point. These horizontal currents, or winds, carry with them the cooled products of precipitation which, accumulating above, dissolve slowly below in sinking. is body of ‘smoke’ forms the solar spot. The upward convection currents in the region of the spots are bent horizontally by the centripetal winds. Yielding their heat now by the relatively slow process of radiation, the loci of precipitation are much elongated, thus giving the region immediately surrounding a spot the characteristic radial struc- ture of the penumbra. : This conception of the nature of the penumbra implies a ready interpretation of a remarkable phenomenon, amply at- tested by the most skillful observers, and, as far as my i edge goes, wholly unexplained; namely, the brightening of the inner edge of the penumbra in every well-developed spot.* * Relating to this phenomenon, see important observations by Professor Lang- ley, this Journal, vol. ix (1875), p. 194; also Le Soleil, par Le P. A. Secchi, Paris, 1875, chap. rv, p. 80, and particularly fig. 46, p. 90, with explanatory text. 44. ©. Barrois— Review of Professor Halls recent volume This interpretation is perhaps most readily imparted by a comparison of the hot convection currents in the two cases. When the convection current is rising vertically, the medium is cooled by expansion until the precipitation temperature is reached, when all the condensible material appears suddenly, save as it is somewhat retarded by the heat liberated in the act. Immediately afterward the particles become relatively dark by radiation. In the horizontal current a very different condition of things obtains. Here the medium does not cool dynamically by expansion, but only by radiation ; hence, since the radiation of the solid particles i is enormously greater than that of bie supporting gas, pane by that of = particles f b themselve us after the first particle appears, it must remain at its brightest incandescence until all ihe: Ree of which it is composed is precipitated. From this we see that such a horizontal current must increase gradually in Dabinse to its maximum, and then suddenly diminish, an exact accor ance with the facts as observe Johns Hopkins Univ., Baltimore, Sopitnbin. 1880. Art. IV.— Review of Professor aed recently published volume on, the Devonian fossils of New York (constituting Part Pie vol. v, of his hoes series on the Palesotalosy of the State) ; by Dr. Cu. BARROI TuE State of New York has recently published the second part of vol. v, of the elie 2) of New York, by Professor Before presenting to the readers of the Revue the scientific results acquired in this important work, it is proper to refer to the volumes which preceded it, and to speak of the immense charge which the State has confided to Professor Hall, a charge which has given to science the geology, and then the Paleon- tology, of New The first eacarelies of Professor Hall were made in the State of New York in 1837. He was appointed by the Gov- ernment, with Mather, Vanuxem and Emmons, to collect - materials for a geological desaviption of that region. Durin, tie ged which followed, the annual reports of these cei * This w appeared in the number of the Revue piego rms (Paris) for September, 1880. and has been translated from the French for this Journal. € ars the date December 15, 1879, Albany, New York. eee Benthuysen & Sons.) ee ee ee SP a nh) en wae ee POE, bare (reg oleate MMPs ee eae a ee a eee Rape Ce CE RSeteph ry rere ae oS ie on Devonian fossils of New York. 45 made known their progress and their discoveries; and in 1848, appeared in four quarto volumes the final reports on the Geol- ogy of the State. These geologists had divided the State into four districts; and in seven years they had succeeded in mak- ing a map of a hitherto unknown region as large as Ireland since become the foundation of stratigraphical Geology in America. The part described by Professor Hall was the western por- tion of the State, that is to say, the portion where the non- metamorphic beds were filled with fossils; thus he found himself prepared to undertake the publication of the Paleon- tology of the State of New York with which he was officially charged in 18438, This work has become the great work to which Mr, Hall has devoted ail his talents and all his energy. Under this modest title, it is not only the description of the fossils found in the formations of the State of New York, their interruptions, and to collect the fossils for future descrip- ions. These long and toilsome journeys, many of them in York, a volume of 340 pages and 90 plates. With this com- menced the series of Mr. Hall’s paleontological publications; # series which has been going on uninterruptedly to the include also many memoirs in the octavo Annual Reports of the State Museum of Natural History. Volume i of the Pale- &ppeared, constitute part 2 of volume v. The first part, de- — Voted to the Devonian Lamellibranchs will next appear. 46 (©. Barrois—Review of Professor Hall’s recent volume In this work, the Devonian fauna of the State of New York is divided as below, in the descending order. Catskill Group. Chemung ‘ Portage : Genesee slates. Hamilton “ Hamilton beds. Marcellus shales. § Upper Helderberg limestone. Upper Helderberg Group. 4 Schoharie Grit—{Calcareous sandstone). ( Cauda-galli grit. This group of formations is mostly limestone at the base, while slates and sandstones prevail in the upper part. the Cauda-galli grit and the Catskill group we shall not have occasion to refer, as these divisions do not contain representa- tives of the forms treated of in this volume. The Schoharie same epoch that they appear in the greatest abundance. In Germany the Platyceras and the Platyostoma characterize the sandst n the west of France they abound in the “ Her- nien” limestones of Erbray and also in the Devonian lime- sto of Courtoisiéres, ete., while they are wanting in the teristic of the Hercynien epoch; one cannot distinguish the living Capulus from the Devonian Platyceras, and many * The French of Dr. Barrois is here literally followed in making the name of 4 genus a noun of multitude. 3 : | | on Devonian fossils of New York. 47 authors unite these genera. The Platyceras pyramidatum (Hall) resembles the P. hercynicus (Kayser), the P. symmetricus (Hall) the P. uncinatus (A. Roemer), and the P. carinatum (Hall);the P. zinkeni (A. Roemer). It does not appear that there are identical forms common to the Devonian strata of America and Europe; but if it be impossible to assimilate the species of the two sides of the Atlantic, we should nevertheless have a false idea of these faunas by neglecting all comparison. The American De- vonian species have representatives in the same formation in Europe; they are analogous forms, and perhaps geographical varieties. This important fact is observed: that the change in genera and families has been in a great degree the same in the Devonian series of the two continents. Thus the Macro- cheilus (Phill.), represented by four species in the Devonian of New York, are Devonian forms common in Europe. It is the same with the Loxonema (nineteen Devonian species in America); the Euomphalus (nine American species); the Pleu- rotomaria (twenty-four species) ; the Murchisonia (six species) ; the Bellerophon (twenty-four species); and the Turbo (one species)» ) B. acutilira (Hall) B. Murchisonia (d’Orb.); B. brevilineatus Hall) B. Vernewili (d’Orb.); B natator (Hall) Bo expansus (Sow.) ; B. leda (Hall) B. decussatus (Flem.); B. Helena (Hall) B. hiuleus (Mart.); B. rotadinia (Hall) B. trilobatus (Sow.); B. mera (Hall) B. tuberculatus (d’Orb.) ; Porcellia Herizeri (Hall) Porcellia puzo of Europe. There are therefore relations between the Devonian faunas of the two continents. It is to be noticed also that the genus Kuomphalus is divided, in the Paleontology of New York, into two sections, having for types the Kuropean Straparollus of Montfort and the Phanerotinus of Sowerby ; Professor Hall takes from this family the Huomphalus Decewi (analogous to our £. Wahlenbergii (Goldf.) to make the type of his new genus Pleuronotus, The Bellerophons are as abundant in the De- yonlan in America as in Europe; there are five species in the Upper Helderberg, fourteen in the Hamilton, and five in the 48 °C Barrois—Review of Professor Hall's recent volume Chemung. It is interesting to note the complete absence of the allied genus Bucania, which, on the contrary, is so widely distributed in the Silurian of this region. There are, however, certain genera of Gasteropoda, which appear peculiar to the Devonian formation of America. Suc are the Cyrtolites of Conrad (two species), and the C (six species)—a new genus of Mr. Hall analogous to Pleuroto- maria. The Callonema, another new genus (three species) in which Mr. Hall places certain Isonema, Pleurotomaria, Loxo- nema had perhaps an analogue in Europe in the Natica sub- piligera (Le flon) of the Devonian of Belgium. The same may be said of his new group Paleotrochus (one species), the casts of which resemble the Pleurotomaria Griffithii of MacCoy. Preropops.—Little has hitherto been known of the Paleo- zoic Pteropods of America; they had however acquired a great development in the Devonian era, for Mr. Hall has described thirty-two new forms, distributed in seven different genera. The Tentaculites which are represented in the Silurian Clinton Group of New York, and in the more ancient Trenton group in a neighboring State, have considerable diffgrences from the forms which are found in the Upper Silurian and i ences as generic ; and he limits the genus Tentaculites to forms which are conical, straight, elongated and covered with rings ; this genus thus defined first appeared in the Upper Silurian, and is represented by six speciesin the Devonian. The species of Tentaculites cited from the Lower Silurian appertain to the genus Cornulites, which attained its greatest development at this ancient period, and became extinct at the epoch 0 the Niagara. The Tentaculites of the American Devonian have relations with the European forms of the same epoch ; thus we may compare 7. allenuatus (Hall) of America with the 7 tenuis (Sow.) of England; 7. scalariformis (Hall) with T. sca- laris (Schit.). The genus Styliola is represented in America by two species, one of which presents four varieties; this species, Styliola Sis: surella, is very analogous to S. clavulus (Barr.); it has a wide geographical extent in the United States, where itis recognized enus Coleoprion of Sandberger is represented by 2 The g doubtful form from the Hamilton group. Professor Hall has designated the genus Coleolus for six forms, of which the type C. tenuicinctum had been hitherto connected with the Cole oprion; these are tubular, conical forms, elongated, usually on Devonian fossils of New York. 49 straight, and with thick shell; they are ornamented with strize or with oblique rings. This genus is limited to the Devonian formation. The Hyoliths are distinguished from all the other genera of American Pteropods by their geological extent; they appear in the Cambrian (Potsdam) and are found above the De- vonian and in the Carboniferous limestone. It is remarkable to see this genus diminish in the Middle Silurian and even dis- appear in the Upper Silurian, which is so rich in fossils and in other Pteropods, then reappear with six new forms in the Devonian. On the contrary, it is in the second and third Si- lurian faunas that this genus attains its full development in Kurope. There are nevertheless resemblances between the forms of the two continents: the Hyolithes aclis (Hall) of the Hamilton, resembles the Hyolithes discors of Barrande; the H. erica. Among the curved forms there are more relations he genus Orthoceras appeared in America in the Cambrian (Calciferous sandstone); the sub-genus Endoceras did not pass beyond the second fauna; the Orthoceras proper are found as far as the Permian. There are two principal horizons of Orthoceras in the Devonian formation; the Schoharie grit, reduc 100 meters in the western part. The Schoharie grit passes 'nsensibly into the Upper Helderberg limestone, and it is Am. Jour, oe Serizs, Vou. XXI, No. 121.—Jan,, 1881. 50 8 C. Barrois— Review of Professor Hall's recent volume - portion as the rock becomes more calcareous. The Ortho- curious to see the fauna of the Cephalopods diminish in pro- E he O ceras are distributed in the Devonian formation as follows: Upper Helderberg group, including the Schoharie grit ._....--- 30 Hamilton group 29 “ 4 Ciemwoe 8 See 19S Waverly “ 7 e numerous and varied forms of the Schoharie grit are 1 i and a Th usually imperfect; they occur in a coarse sediment openings are near together and become a single one of trilo- The Schoharie grit has furnished six species of cannot be determined. ‘ ; he existence of Cyrtoceras in America was first recognized by Conrad in 1888, but it is difficult to define its limits, and 1t on Devonian fossils of New York. 51 comprises at present, according to Mr. Hall, many species which should be removed from the genus. The Gyroceras, which are Cyrtoceras with volutions more enrolled and sepa- rated, present so many relations, in the position of the siphon and the ornamentation, with the American Cyrtoceras, that one cannot really consider them as distinct generic types: but that they may be reunited. us the series of Cyrtoceras alternatum, eugenium, citum, is parallel with the series Gyroceras Nereus, trivolve, laciniosum, Matheri, paucinodum, undulatum ; we fol- low all the changes in the two series from a like initial form to a shell several times enrolled. A second group, comprising more massive forms, shows the same relations between the series of the Cyrtoceras Jason and the Gyroceras cyclops. The generic distinction of all these forms, based upon the degree of curva- ture of the shells, is entirely artificial, and neglects the essen- tial characters which unite all these shells in the same group. If it is easy to recognize a Cyrtoceras in the Silurian period, it becomes more and more difficult to do it with precision in the Devonian, in proportion as the Gyroceras become developed. The general law is nevertheless that the Gyroceras succeed the vyrtoceras in time. These forms are represented by six species in the Schoharie grit, twelve in the Upper Helderberg, six in the Hamilton and one in the Chemung. The genus Trochoceras, established by MM. Hall and Bar- rande for the Gyroceras enrolled in helix form, is essentiall Silurian in America as in Europe. It has attained its greatest development in America at the epoch of the Niagara. M. Barrande has described forty-five species in the Silurian of ohemia. In the Devonian of America, this genus is limited In the Devonian, the Nautilus are abundant, in place of the Orthoceras which we have seen so predominant in the Silu- Perhaps in the Upper Helderberg of Ohio, first appeared in 52 Earthquake at the Philippine Islands. the beds of the Hamilton. They occur there. in abundance; they present a remarkable variety of form (seven species), and the type attains its greatest dimensions in the Hamilton. Their appearance characterizes an epoch which differs much in all its fauna from the preceding. They continue quite abund- ant during the following periods. There are seven species in the Portage, five in the Chemung. All the forms which we have passed in review are figured in a style which does great credit to the draughtsmen of Mr. Hail, Messrs. G. B. Simpson and H. M. Martin. The fifth volume of the Paleontology of New York, of which we have endeavored to give some idea to the readers of the Revue, is then essentially a work of paleontological specification. But it contains besides important geological observations: such are the examinations made by Mr. Hall in the vicinity of Louis- ville, Kentucky, to determine the age of some fossils found near the Falls of the Obio, This volume is destined, like the greater part of those preced- ing it by the same author, to make an epoch in science; for notwithstanding the labors of Roemer, Sandberger, Kayser and Gessler, upon the Devonian formation, we have not such com- plete descriptions of the fauna of this period as have now been given in America by Professor Hall. Thus the Paleontology of New York will always occupy an honorable place among the publications of official geological surveys. Art. V.—Earthquake at the. Philippine Islands, of July, 1880. (Plate IV.) ipinas en Julio de 1880."* From this volume we translate the following account of the seismometrical observations made—as _ * Published at Manila. in a duodecimo of 152 pages. (Establecimiento Tipograph- ico de Ramirez y Giraudier a . de ©. Miralles, Magallanes, 3.) For the _use of the copy of this volume which has supplied the facts here given, this ata & indebted to Professor E. C. Pickering, Director of the Harvard College rvalory. Pte) Earthquake at the Philippine Isiands. 53 the Preface says—by ‘los illustrados PP. Jesuitas del Obser- vatorio Municipal, 4 quienes nunca se agradeceran bastante los servicios prestados al pais en situacion tan angustiosa.” The provinces of Manila, Cavite, Bulacan, La Laguna, Pampanga, and Nueva Ecija, were the chief victims from the terrible con- vulsions ; and, in many parts, their “solid edifices were converted into shapeless heaps of ruins, and the materials of their pros- perity buried beneath the rubbish.” Seismometric observations made at Manila, at the Observatory of he “Ateneo Municipal,” from the 14th to the 25th of July, 1880. The figures which accompany this Report (see Plate IV) are. the records of the seismometer during the principal shocks of the earthquake. They were traced by a pendulum six meters long, suspended from a point at the termination of four metallic rods, and placed within a glass case. The pendulum could oscillate freely in all directions, not only under the impulse of violent shocks, but also of the slow and gentle undulations caused by movements in the walls of the building—to which it was rigidly attached. It oscillated over a spherical concavity made in a thick piece of wood, whose radius of curvature was equal to the length of the pendulum. he concave surface was sprinkled lightly with lycopodium powder, to re- ceive the tracings made by the pendulum in its various move- ments. At the center of the concavity there was a small ring which was dragged by the pendulum in its first impulse, and which was left at a spot opposite to that from which the first . Seismic wave came. ‘This apparatus is that called the horzzon- tal seismometer, : | of maximum vertical oscillation. The object of these instruments is, first, ‘to determine the direction of the first horizontal undulation, and this is done by means of the ring at the end of the pendulum, which is pushed before It on the first impulse; secondly, to find out the general direction of the horizontal undulations, and their amplitude, by means of the lines traced by the same pendulum in the lycopo- dium powder ; thirdly, to ascertain the greatest amplitude of. the maximum vertical undulation by means of the index of the vertical seismometer ; fourthly, to obtain, by the combination of 54 Earthquake at the Philippine Islands, these two elements, the magnitude and direction of the oblique undulations. From the indications of these two instruments the following results were obtained, during the successive days of the great earthquake. We do not attach to them an absolute value, since the seismometers cannot make perfectly correct observa- tions, when such movements are of great violence and compli- cation. Yet we believe that they afford quite a good registra- tion of the phenomena, and will be useful for comparison with those of other earthquakes. The facts obtained are as follows. The vibrations began during the months of April and May, in the northern provinces of Luzon. The center of oscillation, between Lepanto and Abra, in the central Cordillera of Luzon, in latitude 16° 22’ N., and longitude 127° E. from the Spanish Observatory of San Fernando. At first the move want of care in the method of taking the observations, exact- the purpose. Early in July some vibrations were felt; yet from the 5th to the 14th none were recorded at Manila for any point on the islan On the 14th, at 12" 53’ p. w., when a storm from the north- east of Luzon was threatened, as indicated by an extraordinary fall of the barometer, the first shock occurred in which it was observed that there were two centers of oscillation (see figure 1); one in the second quadrant from the point where the oscillation of the pendulum of the horizontal seismometer commenced, an the other in the third, in which the oscillation of this first move ment—mainly horizontal in direction—ended. The total am- plitude of the oscillation reached 5° 25’. The horizontal pen- ulum left inscribed a cross whose arms intersected at a right angle, the first set, from 8. 55° E. to N. 55° W., and the other, m 8. 40° W. i. The first impulse was in the direction from S.E. to N.W., and the amplitude of the oscillation in this direction covered a0 are of 5° 25’, all apparently a result of the first shock ; then the pendulum was violently oscillated in a direction perpendic- ular to this, and with an amplitude a little less than in the former case. The index of the vertical seismometer WS moved 4™™ from its position. Earthquake at the Philippine Islands. 55 After this first movement there were two more shocks at the end of an hour and a half. On the 15th and 16th no percep- - tible shocks occurred ; and on the 17th, only two small shocks. On the 18th, at 12" 40’ Pp. M., occurred the great shock—one of oscillation and also of “trepidation,” and spoken of com- monly at the time as one of rotation. Its duration was 70 sec- onds. The movements of the pendulum were so many and various that it is not possible to indicate them all, and we limit our descriptions to the principal directions and the ampli- tudes of the same. For the rest the reader may refer to fig. 2. It may however be stated that, in our opinion, only the great oscillation from E. to W., which was the most regular and without violent shocks, corresponds to the actual inclinations of the disturbed buildings toward the west. 1. Maximum oscillation, from S. 85° E. to N. 85° W. (68’, the direction of most intense oscillation); amplitude of the greatest oscillation in this direction 22°—or 11°, E. and 11°, W. 2. Maximum oscillation, from S.W. to N.E. true; amplitude 19°, but 10° 10’ to the S.W., and 8° 50’ to the N.E. . Maximum oscillation, from N. 4° W. to S. 4° E.; ampli- tude 16°, but 9° N. and only 7° S., whence it appears that the impulse was from the north to the south. The index of the vertical seismometer was moved 34™™ from its position. rom this time there was an uninterrupted series of small shocks, until the 20th at 8" 40’ p. M., and then occurred a repetition of extraordinary violence, though only movements of oscillation and trembling (“trepidation)” occurred. Its dura- tion was 45 seconds. The direction of oscillation was from S. received a new impulse which not only destroyed the velocity that it had acquired in its descent, but forced it to go a second ae Impulse. The vertical pendulum was moved 'rection SS (see figure) was one of intense oscillation. ina N.E. and S.W. direction. At 10" 40’ p. M., occurred a second violent repetition, which lasted 55 seconds; and this shock had its peculiarities. In the preceding, the focus of most Intense seismic radiation was in the second quadrant; in this, it began in the E. true, yet with much less intensity than before ; and the focus before observed in the first quadrant continued Operate but with greater violence. In figure 4, we observe 56 Earthquake at the Philippine Islands. that the oscillation from E. to W., true, had an amplitude of 10°—5° to the E. and 5° to the W., but that in the direction from N.E. to 8. W. the aapitade was 17° , 9° to the S.W. and 8° tothe N.E. aa’,bb’, cc’ are directions of the first, second and third — Robe eae In the vertical seismomenter the index moved 2 Vibrations sued yet there was a marked diminution in frequency and intensity. The pendulum, which had not been quiet since the 18th until 3 Pp. M. of the 21st, ewe motionless for long intervals in the three following days. On the 25th, at 4 2’ a. M., another shock was felt; it was of feeble ed yet of interest since the record bears evidence as to the gradual change in the center of seismic radiation which had been in ee The direction of the undulation (fig. 5) was N. 64° E. oS. 64° W.; the amplitude of the oscillation was only 8° 54’. No vertical movement was appreciable, the vertical seismometer indicating a change of only 0-7™™ from the normal position. After this exposition of the results, we will recapitulate briefly the points established by the tracings on the lycopo- ium powder as shown in the figures (1.) In the registration of the 14th (as represented in fig. 1), two radial centers are shown ; the first in the second quadrant, from the point at which the movement began, and the second in the first quadrant where it ended.—(2.) In that of the 18th, also, we find the same two centers, but, besides these, other new ones, the pendulum moving in all imaginable directions. (See fig. 2.)\—(3.) In that of 3 P. M. of the 20th (fig. 3), the focus of the second quadrant worked with wonderful violence, and the others had disappeared.—(4.) In that of 10" 40’ p. m. of the 20th (see fig. 4), a very great variation in the seismic foci is shown: the oscillations from E. to W., which correspond to the foci that before operated with so great violence, were gradual and of much less intensity, while, on the contrary, those from N.E. to 8. W. indicate powerful undulations between these points. —(6.) Finally, in that representing the last oscillation on the morning of the 25th (see fig. 5), there is manifested only the one seismic focus of the first quadrant, and this of slight in- tensity, the others having wholly disappeared. In each of the figures the small circular dot one side of the center shows the position of the ring given by the first impulse. We will not now offer any deductions from the facts ob- served, desiring only to place them before those versed in these subjects that they may themselves study them without preju- dice from our opinions. ore 1.—It should be understood that when we speak of the moyement of the pendulum from one side to the other of the LL. Waldo— Papers on Thermometry. 57 center of reference, we do not intend to say that the buildings swayed equally with the pendulum, for, as is clear, the motion in one of the semi-undulations is not a ‘ect of the impulse or inclination of the edifice, but of the weldbity acquired in the first semi-oscillation. The divergences of the pendulum on d points more or less detent from the place of observation. Nore 2.—The figures have many lines that do not combine regularly with the rest. This has resulted from the shocks ent way and forcing it sometimes to abandon one curve in order to follow another started by the new impu In conclusion, we assure our readers that A or curves as pre- sented in the figures were transferred from the lycopodium powder with the greatest possible fidelity. These figures have been copied for this Journal by photogra- phy, in mend that they might be a correct transfer from the original plate. he ah 1 and 5 are of the same size as on the original Linen 2, 3, 4, have been eeacead one-half.— Eps — Art. VI.—Papers on Thermometry from the Winchester Observa- tory of Yale College; by LEONARD WALDO. 1— On the Errors of the Kew Standards, 578, 584 and 585. order to avoid, as far as possible, any uncertainty as to what constitutes the mercurial standard thermometer to which the instruments sent here are referred, the following definition of this standard has been adopted and is printed upon the cer- tificates of examination issued with standard thermometers sent here to be verified.* “The theoretical mercurial stindard thermometer to _ this instrument has been referred, is graduated by equal Meee pi upon a glass stem of the sam n sions and chemica 1 constitution as etic wal w standards 578 fete 584. The permanent freezi is determined by an a not less than 48 hours to melting’ ice, supposing the temperature of page standard has not been greater than 25° C, = 77° F. during os @ prece <1 air fe months. a boiling point is determined from the temperature 0 f the ste ofp re water at a barometric pressure of 760™™ = 29°9216 in. (reduced to 0° °C. ) at ‘the level "of the sea and in the latitude of 45°.” * Th w thermometers are supposed to have their boiling points as nearly as Practicable wh 212° F. = 100° ©. at the temperature of steam under Laplace’s Standard atmospheric or or the atmospheric pressure weir Sopot’ to the following number of inches in the barometric reading, reduced to 32° F., 29° ots + 0°0766 cos 26 + 0°00000179 H, Where ¢ = the Reo and H is ' the ay in feet above the sea gees 2 Br. Ass. Ady. Sei. 1854, p. xxii 58 L. Waldo— Papers on Thermometry. We have not yet received from the Kew Observatory any further statement as to what the chemical constitution of the glass used in ‘“‘ Kew 578” and “ Kew 584” is, than that they are blown from ‘“ Powell’s best flint glass.” This does not enter into the subject of our present paper and will be discussed in a subsequent one in connection with the comparison of the Kew standards with the standard thermometers of the Kaiser- liche Normal-Hichungs-Kommission. he thermometers, Kew 578 and Kew 584, are almost exactly alike with the exception of their graduations. Kew 585 is so much longer and of so much larger tubing, that it was not thought wise to include it in the standard to be established between 0° and 100° C. The following is the description of these instru- ments. Designation. How Graduated. Length of 1°. sy came aN ban igigentetns Kew 578 — 9° to + 105° C, 3°46 mm 0°°5 455™™ 60™ Kew 584 + 14° to + 220° F. By es 1 455 ig Ore Kew 585 | — 34° to + 275°C. | 1°73 “ 1 618 T4 Cylindrical Bulb. Designation. Length. Thsibes, Remarks. : Graduated at the Kew Observatory, Pew Oe ee ee { 1880. Filled in July, 1874 “ ren Graduated at the Kew Observatory, mee SEG Ve ae sh { May, 1880. Filled in July, 1874. “ ‘i ade Graduated at the Kew Observatory, ache hea! WR “7 ; May, 1880, Filled in July, 1874. They are each provided with a chamber at the upper end for the purpose of calibration. The measured bulbs of similar thermometers broken at Kew, give, approximately, a thickness of the walls of the bulb of 0025 inch. With similar thermom- eters the has maximum depression of the freezing point observed after the boiling point, is found to be 0°17 C. The following pieces of apparatus were used in the investi- gation, and they will be referred to by the Roman numeral. I. The Crouch microscope comparator, elsewhere described,* provided with an eye-piece micrometer by Powell & Leland, and an objective of 1 inch equivalent focus. I air of microscopes provided with eye-piece microme- ters and objectives of 4 inches equivalent foci, by Beck. These microscopes can be adjusted so that their stages are in the same * Proc. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., Bost., vol. xiii, 1877-78, p. 352. LL. Waldo— Papers on Thermometry. 59 plane, and can be placed at varying distances from each other in order to bring the two ends of the column of mereury used in calibration into view at the same time. III. A small vertical cathetometer by Wm. Grunow, grad- uated upon its vertical triangular bar to single millimeters and read by a vernier direct 0-2™; 0:05" can be readily estimated. The graduation extends over 220™. The telescope is provided with an objective of 4 inches focal length by Beck and an eye-piece micrometer by Rogers. The smallest division of the eye-piece micrometer subtends an apparent angle of 39 minutes, and the telescope magnifies 20 diameters at the dis- tance at which it is commonly used.’ The vertical motion of the telescope is by means of a rack and pinion. IV. The standard barometer, “Jas. Green, N. Y., 957.” base is 1:60 inches. The vernier reads by estimation to 0-001 inches, and the scale is set about 0°01 inches lower than the meas- ured height above the ivory point which is adjusted on Fortin’s principal at the base, in order to correct for capillarity of the tube. The length of the brass tube is expressed in terms of the standard United States Coast Survey yard, to within any errors appreciable in its readings. It read within 0-001 inc of the standard barometer kept by Mr. Green as representing the standard of the Kew Observatory, in October of this year After comparison it was carefully transferred to New Haven by hand, and since that date has been hung at the level of the boiling-point apparatus to be described. The attached ther- mometer has a correction of —0°-2 at the freezing-point, and of —0°-7 at 80° F. The barometer from the cistern upward is wrapped in cotton-wool to keep the temperature as constant as possible and to insure an accurate determination of it by means of the attached thermometer. _ V. The freezing point apparatus, which consists of a tinned Iron vessel within another, the space between them filled with cotton wool. The inner vessel holds two liters of melting snow or ice. There is provision for the escape of the water into a ‘ ace at the bottom of the inner vessel, protected from -radia- ion. mo VI. A boiling-point apparatus constructed of brass after Regnault’s plan. The diameter of the inner steam chamber is 13™, and the apparatus is provided with a water manometer to keep the pressure constant. VIL. A boiling-point apparatus, constructed entirely of glass, with a single steam chamber extending to a height of 71™ above the surface of the boiling water. A water manometer 60 LL. Waldo—Papers on Thermometry. has its connection at the level of the thermometer bulbs, and a small thermometer is inserted at the top of the steam chamber to assure the observer that the temperature at the top is at 100° C. The escape of the steam is t roug a small vent at .the top of the tube, and the amount of its opening is controlled by a small brass plate. The details of the calibration of the Kew thermometers have ratus IJ, and special care was taken to changes of temperature. he reduced resul uar ts are as follows, where each line is the mean of three observations :— Computed maher | Date, |Extreme readings. tength Fh. guapouoe bron: Remarks. ~ | 1880 e z . ‘ Kew 578/Oct. 15} —1°l +383°6} 32°487 |At32°C. = +0°007| The observations were all +31°0 +6571) 32°507 65°C. = —0-014|made by daylight and at one +63°T +98°6| 32°487 99°C. = + 0°007|sitting for each thermometer. The extreme variations of Kew 584/Oct. 15} +32°2 +82°3| 49°040 9°F. = +0°021/|the temperature of the roo +761 +1273) 49°068 | 123°F, = —0-006/during the observations, a8 +119°1 +170°1| 49°078 | 166°F. — —0-016|measured by two thermom- 41622 +2132) 49:060 | 212°F. = +0-001\eters, one at each end of the tube being measured, was 4 Kew 585/Oct. 15 49813 0°C. = +0°015/follows: +49°0 +100°9) 49°843 100°C. == + 0:0 sail +99°1 +151°7| 49°820 | 150°C. = +0-008| Kew 578 = iy 4 +148°9 +201°0| 49-807 150°C. = +0°029 585 ERE 01 4+199°2 +250°8| 49-747 250°C. = +0°110 we The length of the column by which the thermometers were graduated, was 5 Kew 578, 10°-405 for 584, and 10°-673 for Kew 585. may, therefore, conclude that between 0° and 100° C. used for the Kew calibration, and 026 C. for ° e errors of the three Kew standards, depending on the calibra- tion, are practically insensible; for the errors shown above are too small to be certainly detected, owing to the width and irregularity of the thermometer scales lines which make up the graduation of the Accidental errors of graduation could not be guarded against except by the direct examination of every degree, and that accordingly has been done. The tedious examination of each degree was accomplished with the aid of P rofessor J. E. . ershner, now of the Franklin and Marshall College, but who was until recently connected with the observatory. We used the apparatus I, and each degree L. Waldo—Papers on Thermometry. 61 was measured twice. The resulting means were expressed in terms of hundredths of one division of the eye-piece microm- eter, and gave a subdivision of about agigy an : in the cases of Kew 578, 584 and 585 respectively. There were about 2300 separate micrometer readings made, and the result of the reductions shows that no sensible accidental errors have been introduced into the graduations of these standards. The meter readings, and with the exception of the freezing point determinations succeeding the boiling point determinations in the same day, the freezing points were observed after a long exposure (48 hours or more) to a temperature of freezing. Correction at Correction at Thermometer. Date. 1880. freezing point. boiling point. Remarks. Kew 578 Nov. 25 0°-00 (ie em Dee. 1 0-00 Gass wine. Ueek +0°°01 Apparatus VII. aes +0°18 tga 5" sed +0°04 de ha “2.6 Seay +0°03 “¢ VII. Kew 584 Nov. 25 +0°10 F. Sako : a OG AU les +019 F me VI. 36 +0°38 et prem ge dt eee +0°19 r VI. ~~ ae Beran + 0°20 f VI. hs Bro -88 + 0°22 és VI. Dec. 1 ges +0°21 te VIL. i +0°32 proces Kew 585 Oct. 16 0°00 Eee Nov. 2 Sut +015 3 VI : +0:10* oo ee Peis + 0°15 “ V #30 i +015 iy Vi Dee. 1 4+ 0:22 +0°11 & Vil ar +0°22 [To be continued.] 62 James Craig Watson. Art. VII.—JAMES CRAIG WATSON. the early age of nine, determined the father to secure him a liberal education ; and the family accordingly removed to Ann Arbor, in 1850. Here James displayed equal aptitude for mathematical and linguistic studies, and being prepared for college, almost without the evidences of effort, he entered the University of Michigan in the autumn of 1858. He attained equal scholarly distinction as a student of ancient and modern languages, and of mathematics. It is said that before the close of his Junior year, he had performed the phenomenal feat o reading from beginning to end the Mécanique Céleste of Laplace. During his Senior year, he was the solitary pupil of Dr. Briin- now, and graduated in 1857. His mechanical tact was such that in the absence of a mathematical bent he would have become an eminent mechanician and inventor. While in col- lege, some of his spare hours were spent in grinding lenses and the construction of a telescope. Other portions of his time he was compelled to devote to the earning of means to defray collegiate expenses. During the two years succeeding his graduation, he was employed as assistant in the Observatory, and in the prosecu- tion of studies for his second degree. In this work he displayed such remarkable aptitude as an observer, and such marvelous rapidity in his computations that, on the retirement of Dr. Briinnow, in June, 1859, young Watson succeeded him in the chair of Astronomy. He was already known as a frequent contributor to the American Journal of Science, Briinnow’s Astronomical Notices, Gould’s Astronomical Journal, and the Astronomische Nachrichten of Altona. Not less than twelve SOURS RY An ee ee = he ok aaa aR aa ch aie ta oe MAD, James Graig Watson. 63 discovery of a planet on the 20th of October, 1857, which, however, proved to have been observed by Luther a few days before, and has been named Aglaia. His observations of Donati’s comet, in 1858, possess a standard value, and his com- putation of the orbit is recognized as authoritative. The interest awakened by this comet prompted to the preparation of “A Popular Treatise on Comets,” published early in 1860. In 1860, Dr. Briinnow resumed the directorship of the obser- vatory, and young Watson was assigned to the chair of Physics in the University, which he retained for three years, when, on the final retirement of Dr. Briinnow, Watson was made Professor of Astronomy and Director of the observatory—a position which he held and honored for sixteen years. Scarcely had he been clothed with full control of the instraments when he resumed his remarkable career of discovery. There seemed almost a magic in his powers. Unrecognized celestial objects seemed to crowd spontaneously upon his notice. On September 14, 1863, he made his first independent planetary discovery. This was Hurynome. On January 9, 1864, he discovered the comet since known as 1868, VI, which Respighi, as it proved, had already noted. On the 9th of October, 1865, he discovered a planet which also proved to have been announced by Peters, and has since been named Jo. He discovered Minerva, August 24, and Aurora, September 6, 1867. During 1868, he added no less than six minor plants to the solar system, furnishing the only instance in which the list of planetary discoverers pre- sents the same name four times in immediate succession. Meantime he was engaged upon a work which might well have engrossed all. his powers, and must have quite exceeded the abilities of any but a gifted mathematical genius. It was no less than a complete digest of the results and methods of all the great writers on theoretical astronomy, and an independent _ development of the great principles of the science. ‘ Havin carefully read the works of the great masters,” he says in his preface, “my plan was to prepare a complete work on the subject, commencing with the fundamental principles of dynamics, and systematically treating, from one point of view, all the problems presented.” is broad plan, conceived y @ young man of twenty-eight, and completed when twenty- nine, was executed with ability so commanding, that the work, on its appearance, in 1869, was immediately accepted as an authoritative exposition of the higher principles and processes of dynamical astronomy, and was made a text-book at Leipzig, at Paris and at Greenwich. The same year he was sent by the eneral Government on an expedition to observe the solar eclipse at Mt. Pleasant, Iowa; and in 1870, to Carlentini, Sicily, for a similar purpose. In 1874 he was appointed to the 64 James Craig Watson. charge of an expedition to Peking, China, to observe the transit of Venus. His observations were favored by the weather and conducted with consummate skill. The results, added Juewa, the eighteenth. In 1876, he was one of the Judges of Awards at the Centennial Exposition, and wrote the celebrated ‘Report on Horological Instruments.” In 1878 also appeared his Tables for the Calculation of Simple and Compound Interest—a work which, in spite of the subject, is marked by great originality, and demanded a vast amount of wearisome labor. e same year he was: sent by the General Government in charge of an expedition to Wyoming, to observe the total solar eclipse. Professor Watson, having long enter- tained a belief in the existence of an intra-mercurial planet, as well as of an extra-neptunian one, gave special attention, at this time, to a search for the former, and was the first astronomer to note certainly (July 29, 1878) the existence and position of the planet Vulcan. He also satisfied himself of the existence of a second intra-mercurial planet. This brought the number of his original planetary discoveries to twenty-six (including one lost July 29, 1873, and two anticipated). He was now anl- mated by an intense desire to control instruments of suitable power and adjustment to confirm his last observations, an enable him to detect the outlying planet beyond Neptune. Coincidently came the invitation to assume the charge of the as inadequate appreciation of the honor shed upon the State by such a name as Watson’s. Reluctantly, but sustained by @ high and noble aspiration, he removed, in the summer of 1879 to Madison, and immediately devoted himself with intens¢ energy to remodeling the observatory structure, and introduc ing some original provisions thought to be suited to the special researches on which he was bent. A cellar twenty feet deep James Craig Watson. 65 summoned. His remains, accompanied by an escort from the University of Wisconsin, were removed to Ann Arbor, where they lay in state, in the university, during the 25th of Novem- ber, and on the following day, with due honors and imposing ceremonies conducted by his late colleagues, were reverently laid beneath the shade of Oakwood Cemetery. Professor Watson possessed extraordinary intellectual endow- ments. His quickness of perception nothing escaped. is mathematical intuitions scorned the ordinary processes of cal- culation, and gave him a masterly command of mathematical logic and formule, which made so many portions of his work on Theoretical Astronomy strictly original, and all parts vir- tually hisown. Yet he never mentions any claim to origin- ality, but pursues his majestic intellectual march with the dignity almost of an inspiration. His memory served him equally well. It was both circumstantial and philosophical. Every new observation was immediately illuminated by all which he had previously observed or known, and he saw Instantly the proper conclusions. His mechanical gifts gave him perfect command of instruments and their construction, and the Washburne Observatory would have been equipped with several of his inventions. His versatility extended to matters of business. He was for years the Actuary of the He used to say it is impossible for a mathematician to be an atheist; and his works offer frequent recognition of the being of the supreme Creator and Governor of the Universe. he world was not slow to recognize his worth. He was elected a member of the National Academy of Science, in 1867, and of the Royal Academy of Sciences in Italy, in 1870. He ; C itl ape degree of Doctor of Philosophy, in 1871. In 1875, Order of Medjidich of Turkey and Egypt. He was elected member of the American Philosophical Society in 1877, and received, the same year, the degree of Doctor of Laws from Columbia College. A. WINCHELL, Am. Jour, Sor—Tamep Srrtes, Vor, XXI, No, 121.—Jan., 1881. 66 Scien tific Intelligence. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 1. On the existence of Ozone in the Atmosphere.—In an elab- orate paper upon the reactions hitherto relied on to prove the presence of ozone in the atmosphere, Scnéne has discussed the value of the chemical evidence, and concludes that we have at present no test by which the existence of ozone, in the small quan- tity likely to be present in the air, can be established. Since the author has previously shown that hydrogen peroxide is a normal constituent of atmospheric air, the question now raised is whether ozone is also present. The tests used therefore must discriminate between these two substances. Schdnbein proposed three 0 these tests; the production of free iodine and potassium hydrate from potassium iodide; the oxidation of thallous to thallic oxide ; and the oxidation of manganous to manganic oxide. The author has proved that the first two reactions take place readily with hydrogen peroxide; and that the latter requires a trace of am- monium carbonate; the paper then turning brown not only by the peroxide but even by oxygen alone. Houzeau’s test, red lit- mus paper, dipped in potassium iodide solution, also reacts with H,O, as with ozone. The proofs offered by Andrews, that air which acted on potassium iodide, lost this property on heating to 260° or by contact with manganese dioxide, are as well, if not better explained by the existence of H,O, in the air. The onl author by no means denies the existence of ozone in the atmos phere, even coéxistent with hydrogen peroxide, the two reacting n each other very slowly. But he maintains that there is no experimental evidence of its presence— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges. xiil, 1503, Sept., 1880. G. F. B 2. On the Meteorological use of Thallium-papers.—ScHoEN® has given in a subsequent paper, the results of an extended series f experiments on the use of thallium-paper for estimating 4P- proximately the oxidizing material in the atmosphere, whether Chemistry and Physics. 67 it be hydrogen peroxide alone, or mixed with ozone, or perhaps also with other constituents hitherto unknown. ‘The objection to ozone does not act on these papers, they must be moistened; and then the amount of moisture varies the result quite as much as the amount of ozone. Indeed, attention has been called to the B'S the thallium-paper, the oxidation to brown oxide by either ozone or hydrogen peroxide, not requiring the presence of moisture, and the color therefore being independent of the hygromeiric state o the air. Moreover, when well cared for the papers undergo no ~ e . tains 10 grams TI(OH). For use the strips are hung in the free ometer, the relative humidity, cloudiness, rain, and velocity of wind.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xiii, 1508, Sept., 1880. G. F. B. 3. On the nature of the Petroleum from the Caucasus,—Brt- STEIN and Kursatow have examined the more volatile portions of the petroleum obtained at Baku in the Caucasus, in order to compare this material with American petroleum. It had been observed that the Caucasus fractions had a greater specific grav- ity than American fractions of the same boiling point; and this fact led to a distrust of the illuminating oils prepared from the 68 Scientific Intelligence. ormer. But Wilm and Biel showed that these Russian oils had an illuminating power ten per cent higher than the American oils and Biel observed that these oils of higher gravity rose more eas- ily through the wicks. This removed the public “page isa it importation of American petroleum has almost ceas S now examined by the authors were prepared “ae irik aide tillation from the natural oil. After nine fractionings, usin American petroleum gives hexane of avy 0669. Pion 80° to 85°, the gravity was 0°733; 85° to 90°, 0°741; 90° to 95°, 0°745; 95° to 100°, 0°748; 100° to 105°, 0-752. American petroleum _ heptane between 95° ~ 100°, of gravity 0°699. Thinking are not omologues of ethylene, since : bromine does not act on them in the co hen warmed, demdedaation ensues but with evolution of HBr, proving substitution. Further study proved indifferent to chemical reagents. From the fraction 115° to 120 containing hexahydroisoxylene, trinitroisoxylene was prepared identical with that from metaxylene. Heated on the water bath with fuming sulphuric acid, the hydrocarbon is sence and de- stroyed, yielding no eran acid. When the maine 90° to 95° is dissolve a a mixture one part nitric esi o parts ars phurie acid, CO, is seedily evolved and n hing “separates dilution ke ater. One part of the nat 95° to 100° boiled with four parts nitric acid of 1:38 until red vapors cease, gave aD acid Higa containing acetic acid, considerable succinic "acid and a large quantity of oily nonvolatile acids. e su pernatant oily layer gave on fractioning, a distillate between 101° to 103°, e& sentially hexahydrotoluene; and a second, 210° to 215°, having the formula C,H,,NO, either a nitro-product ve a nitrous other. a Ber, Berl. mire m. Ges., , 1818, October, 1880. G. pre sae rom Sequoia gigantea. * Lunes and Pt pt have published a preliminary note on certain products obtained from Sequoia gigantea Torr. Stems about three meters long, furnished by Frébel & Co., gardeners im ¢ Chemistry and Physics. 69 Ziirich, were used for the preparation of these products. The needles, in which the peculiar odor seemed to be most abundant, were stripped from the twigs and distilled with water in a large copper retort in a current of steam from a boiler. The distillate was agitated with ether and the ether distilled off. The early portions of the distillate gave only a solid residue, the next gave a mixture of solid and liquid, and the last portions only an oil. The solid substance was with some difficulty obtained crystallized. It is very soluble in alcohol, ether, benzene and chloroform, In ligroin (petroleum naphtha) it is less so. In glacial acetic acid, it is soluble only on heating. By covering its solution in this acid with a layer of: water, the gradual solution of the acid caused a deposition of this body in small crystal plates, fusing at 105°. concentrated, it recalls the odor of peppermint. Its boiling oint was between 290° and 300°, and it gave on analysis C 93°55, 6°09, corresponding to the formula C,,H,,. Its vapor density liquid distillates gave: (1) a colorless oil boiling at 155°; Phe il fus- 1 given a summary of the processes discovered and patented by Bayer for the synthesis of indigotin. The point of departure in th of i i subseq ansform it into orthonitrophenylpropiolic acid, the orthonitrocinnamic acid is brominated, Aso (NO,)(C,H,Br,0;). By the action of alkali in boiling alcoholic hol, gives orthonitrophenylacrylic acid ©,H,(NO,)(C,H,O,). the action of heat alone orthonitrophenylacrylic acid is converted C,H,NO.=C,H,NO+CO,+H,0+0. The reaction takes place at 110° C. The mass swells, its color gradually darkens, and, treated with alcohol, it leaves a residue 70 Scientific Intelligence. of indigotin. The yield is small, however, owing to the forma- tion of secondary products. With orthonitrophenylpropiolie acid however, the united action of an alkali and of a deoxidizing body is required, the reaction proceeding regularly : H,.NO,+H,=C,H,.NO+CO,+H,0. Bayer recommends the use of a mixture of glucose and an alkali carbonate. The transformation takes place at 110° C. and the indigotin separates in the crystalline form. Hence Bayer prefers the second process, But it has a still greater advantage, since the above reaction may be effected directly upon the cloth. The fiber is printed with a mixture of the orthonitro- phenylpropiolic acid, glucose and the alkali carbonate and is then exposed to superhe eated steam. The in igo blue is developed directly upon the fiber Aigoennine. This fact will give a arti- ficial indigo a great advantage r the natural stabi The spake: of producing other inaigothie es by effecting sieaaives tions in the phenyl group which it contains, "absence ce rests —Ann. Chim. Phys., V, xxi, 286, Oct.; n Isopropylene- newrine.—MoRtEy has os repos in the tiovaioes of . urtz, a neurine containing oxyisopropyl 1n place of the oxethyl in normal neurine. B action op 20 neutral liquid resulted which gave a platinum salt of the compo- sition ©,,H,,N,O,PtCl, The propylene-neurine chloride crystal- lizes in colorless transparent crystals, very deliquescent, an which turn brown in the air.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xiii toy, ; G. 7. Notice of the investigation of Dr. J. W. Bevin on the Relations between the Molecular Structure of Organic Compounds and their ne i ower, (Liebig’s Annalen, excix, 139 and ecili, 1.)—The study of the relations between the physical proper- ties of chemical compounds and their molecular “dase has opened a new field to the science = sooyonan istry. A remarkable the results of the two investigations ne ite wholly harmonize wit one another; yet in both ¢ the new method of investigation is the chief point of tuneaiaii orn eters every reason to that by carefully comparing ‘the different aeeicas of solving the same problem the truth may ultimately be reac If we denote by the index of refraction of a body the excess of this index over unity or (“—1) represents what has been called the refracting power of a body, and since the refracting power increases in general with the density (6) we obtain by dividing the refracting power by the density a quantity i which is, essentially, independent of mere changes of physical condition, and depends on Chemistry und Physics. 71 the chemical relations of the substances. This quantity has been called the specific refracting power, and if we now multiply by the molecular weight of the substance we have in M (4S) the spe- cific refracting power of the molecule, or as it has also been called the refractive equivalent of the subs tance. In 1864 (Pogg. Ann., exxili, 595) Landolt mepidsligg that a difference of one atom of car- bon, hydrogen or oxygen, between two organic compounds cor- responded to a constant difference for each elementary substance the =r + > Vq = 15,033° + @ =r + &. It seems highly ibe yi that the numerical term is the same in all these values; an e fact that the same constant fre- quently appears as a peth t in the data of thermo-chemistry renders this conclusion still more probable. Thus we find that the heat of formation of HCl, NO and H,0 (in the condi- tion ey all as aeriform products under constant pressure 1s as follow H.+Ol,= 44,000: —3 x 14,667 No + Og = — 43,150° = 8 x 14,383° H.+0 = 57,610°= 4 x 14,402° The constant we have represented by 7 has evidently then an important significance, and its most probable value is that deduced by the method of least squares from all the observa- tions on the series of hydrocarbons containing two atoms 0 carbon, as shown by table III. If we take then r=14,573 as the true value and g=r+3, we can easily deduce a second value of d from the data Even in the table on page 92. Since 39,100°=—2d+8q, we have by substituting the value of 4, d=38,742°+a. From the oxides of carbon we have d=39,200" +a, The mean of these Nigh omitting the last two figures as insignificant, is d=38,900°+ The following are, now, the most probable values of the chief constants used in this investigation : TABLE a d = 38,900°+ = = 14,570¢ GS r+ to ¥ = 67,880¢ . Fo r+ 4% Vq = T+ = + 3a MW = —%& + 2% With these values we can calculate the heat of formation, under constant volume, of a hydrocarbon cis eee us carbon and yeaa gas, by means of the equa (C,, H,,) = — nd + 2mq + Se (17) in which the 2v is the sum of the calorific effects resulting from the union of the carbon atoms with each other. The results are inde ol acre of the unknown quantity # which is eliminated in reducing the equation. Since, as just stated the, unknown quantity # is always eliminated on solving the last of the Molecular Structure of the Hydrocarbon Compounds. 95 equation we can put r=q=v,=v,=14,570 and v,=0. If also we put 2v=a, Vv, +X, V+, V5, (H,, X,, ©, representing respect- ively the number of single, double and treble carbon bonds which occur in the molecule of the hydrocarbon in question), we can write equation (17) in the following more convenient form : (C,, H,,)=—2X 38,900°+- (2m-+a,--e,) 14,570° (18) This formula may be readily adapted to the various types of hydrocarbons (the paraffines, the olefines, the acetylenes, benzol, ete.), and by its aid we can calculate the heat of formation of different isomers according to their assumed structure, and then on comparing the calculated values with the direct results of experiment we may hope to obtain a new test of our theories of molecular structure. n the series of paraffines the carbon atoms are all linked by single bonds, and no isomerism resulting from different rela- tions of the carbon bonds is possible. Of course isomerism can result from differences in the grouping of the carbon atoms, but of this our thermo-chemical theory takes, as yet, no account. The general formula of a paraffine is C, H,,,, and 2m=2n+2; z,=n—1; x,=0. Making these substitutions in (C,, Hyp 4.) =X 4810°+414570° (19) and the caleulated values of the heat of formation under con- stant volume for the first three members of the series is as follows. The observed values in the parallel column shows as close accordance as could be expected. TaBLE VII. Calculated. Observed. , 19,380° 19,570¢ O.Hs 24,190° 24,510° C;Hs 29,000° 39,950°¢ In the olefines, however, isomerism resulting from different relations of the carbon bonds is possible; thus in the case of C,H, we may have c CaF a, ae eee Pee aoe The general formula of an olefine being C,H,,, we have in the first case n single carbon bonds, and in the second case n—2 single bonds together with one double bond. Making the obvious substitutions in equation (18), we have for the heat of formation under constant volume (1) (Ca, Hoa) = n x 4810° (2) (Cu, Hog) = m x 4810° — 14,570¢ 96 J. Thomsen’s Thermochemical Investigation For propylene n =8, and the calculated values are +14,480° or —150°. According to Thomsen’s experiments the heat of formation of propylene prepared from isopropyliodide is —400°, which would indicate that the generally received opinion in regard to the structure of this molecule is correct. With the acetylenes we may have three distinct types of structure depending on the distribution of the carbon bonds. Thus for C,H, either ee or =C=—0= or —C=0—C— met eens eee | The general symbol for an acetylene being C, ee we have in isomers of the first type n—1 single with one double bond ; in isomers of second type n—8 single with two double bonds, and in isomers of the third type n—2 single with one treble bond. Making the substitutions as before, we obtain the following equations : (1) (Ca, Hon — 2) = n. 4810° — 29140° (2) (Ca, Hon — 2) =. 4810° — 43710° (3) (Ca, Hon —- 2) = m. 4810° — 58280° and for allylene the three values are —14710° —292838° ~43856° A determination of the heat of combustion of allylene was with the generally received opinion. The discrepancy between theory and observation, however, is quite large, and Thomsen intends to make further experiments on this substance. One feature of this investigation of Thomsen, which might be overlooked unless attention was called to it, may be appro- priately noticed in this connection. Omitting the unknown quantity x, which indeed is probably zero, we have for the values of the carbon bonds, =f t= Fr 0 0 0=—2r ee eee ee eee Se ir vee ee Ne ne Sa of the Molecular Structure of the Hydrocarbon Compounds. 97 energy to break one of the bonds if the other is left unimpaired, although it requires an energy measured by 14,770° to break the last. While if the atoms are united by three bonds there is as strong a tendency to break away at the’first bond as there is to hold together at the last bond. property of these substances. stly, in the acetylenes the same tendency is still more strongly marked ; for in the molecules of these bodies two of the carbon atoms are united by a treble bond, and the parting of either one or of two of these bonds is attended with a development of energy which is added to that resulting from the normal attraction of the carbon atoms for other radicals ut the molecular structure of none of the more complex tion to this fg) a In the last number of the Berichte der esellschaft (Oct. 25, 1880), the expected results i to the three types of isomeric derivatives of benzol. These 98 J. Thomsen’s Thermochemical Investigation, ete. & 2 Cc C ere ae Sets c Cc c—|—ec | oe | I a Cc c—/|—c Sqr Sage” In the first scheme there are three single and three double bonds; in the second scheme nine single bonds. Making now the obvious substitutions in equation (18), we obtain for the heat of formation under constant volumes either —60,360° or —16,650°, and for the heat of formation under constant pressure —59,200° or —15,490°, We can now easily calculate, by the method already described, the heat of combustion of benzol vapor and we shall obtain 846,040° or 802,330°. Finally, Thomsen has re-determined with great care the same value and finds as the mean of five experiments that the heat of combustion of the molecular weight of benzol (72 gr.) is 805,800". Hence he concludes : “The six carbon atoms of benzol are united to each other by nine single bonds, and the previous assumption of a structure of benzol with three single and three double bonds is not sup- ported by experiment.” : homsen endeavors to prepare the way for the reception of this conclusion by emphasizing the statement that: “ The great resisting power of benzol militates against the presence of multiple bonds.” But although it is true that chlorine or bro- mine act on benzol far more feebly than on ethylene or ges lene, nevertheless, under no great stress, benzol does yield addi- tion products, and there can be no question that the original scheme of Kékulé harmonizes more chemical facts than the modification of this scheme proposed by Ladenburg. The new evidence is very important, but until its bearing has been more fully investigated it can not be regarded as conclusive. Indeed the interest of this investigation depends not so muc on its results as on its method. It is a bold push beyond the beaten tracks of science, and although the first results of the venture must be accepted with caution, the skill displayed ealls forth our admiration and the importance of ‘the methods employed justifies this extended notice. Tn Sa oa ee Gans ee T. C. Mendenhall— Force of Gravity, etc. 99 Art. IX.—On a Determination of the Force of Gravity at the Summit of Fujiyama, Japan; by T. C. MENDENHALL. AN excursion to the summit of Fujiyama was made during the first ten days in August of the present year (1880), for the purpose of making a determination of the force of gravity at that point. In addition to four special students in physics from the Imperial University, the writer was accompanied by W. S. Chaplin, Esq., Professor of Civil Engineering, who de- termined the rate of the chronometer, and rendered much other valuable assistance. The preliminary experiments at the Uni- versity in Tokio, as well as those upon the mountain, were mainly carried out, under the direction of the writer, by Messrs. Tanakadate and Tanaka, who had already gained much val- uable experience in the determination of the force of gravity at Tokio. As stated in the previous paper, it was decided to make use of some form of the so-called “invariable” pendulum, and to compare a series of vibrations made at Tokio and at the top of the mountain. Owing to the difficulty of getting anything in the way of knife-edges made with sufficient accuracy in this country, nothing better could be done than to make use of a Kater’s pendulum by Negretti and Zambra, after removing one of the knife-edges, the “ tail-pieces” and all of the unnecessary parts. In the condition in which it was used, it consisted of a flat bar of brass 184 cm. long, 88 mm. wide and 4 mm. thick, with a knife-edge at a distance of about 15 em. from one ex- tremity, At nearly the lowest point was fixed the flat cylin- drical "weight, 10 cm. in diameter and 19 mm. thick, which was so of brass. On the short piece projecting above the knife- edge was an adjusting slide-piece which, as well as the cylin- drical weight, was fixed in such a way that accidental move- ment was rendered impossible. In order to prevent an possibility of entire loss of results by means of the accidental injury of this pendulum, while being carried to and from the mountain, another of nearly the same vibrating period was prepared, the flat bar in this case being of well-seasoned wood, and the cylindrical weight being of somewhat different form. The knife-edge used was that which had been removed from the Kater’s pendulum. During the month of July, both pen- dulums were vibrated in the Physical Laboratory of the Univer- sity at Tokio in the same room and from the same pier re- ferred to in the previous paper. Besides these two pen ulums, the appliances consisted, in the main, of a Negus break-circuit chronometer, a chronograph and a portable transit instrument *This Journal for August, 1880. 100 T. C. Mendenhall—Force of Gravity e vibrations at Tokio were all made under nearly the same conditions, and for convenience they were reduced to the com- mon temperature of 23°°5 and barometer 30 inches. The time of vibration of the pendulum at Tokio, under these conditions, the mean of all the results, was: t,='999834 seconds. On the summit of the mountain the barometric pressure was tolerably constant at 19°5 inches and the temperature 8°'5, an at the Summit of Fujiyama, Japan. 101 to these conditions they were all reduced after being corrected for arc, chronometer rate, &c. Finally the mean of all is re- duced to the Tokio conditions as to temperature and pressure. The coefficient of expansion of the bar has not been deter- mined, but it has been assumed to be ‘00000187 for 1° C. This is a commonly accepted coefficient for brass, and a comparison of the vibration periods of the pendulum, under different tem- peratures, indicates that it cannot be far from correct. The correction for difference of barometric height is the most diffi- cult to determine. Were it possible to vibrate the pendulum at the same place under pressures wide iffering, it might be determined experimentally. Lacking this, I was, fortunately, able to refer to a recent elaborate and exhaustive discussion of the whole subject, from an experimental as well as from a theoretical standpoint, by C. S. Peirce, Esq., of the U. S. Coast Survey.* In this valuable memoir Mr. Peirce gives a graphical representation of the periods of vibration of his pen- dulum, under various pressures, from 80 inches of mercury down to what is practically a vacuum. By interpolation the period for any pressure between these limits can be very closely ascertained, as also the correction in going from one pressure to another. There are important differences between the pendu- lum used by Mr. Peirce and that in use here, the principal one being the difference in shape of the cylindrical weights, and the fact that in our pendulum only one cylinder was carried. Nevertheless, a fair approximation to the correction may be taken from his curve showing the results with “heavy end lums are such as to make the correction for our pendulums considerably less than that of the Coast Survey. In this way, y considering these differences the correction used in the re- duction was determined. After it had been established, I was fortunate in getting possession of the complete memoir of Mr. form and dimensions, resembles ours quite closely, and the re- sults of his experiments with it confirm the accuracy of the to a vacuum. It is thought, therefore, that the correction ap- ee 18 not far wrong. The corrected time, then, appears to as follows: ; pee Measurements of Gravity at Initial Stations in America and Europe. Appen- No. 15, U. 8. Coast Survey. - Report for 1876. 102 T. C. Mendenhall—Force of Gravity Time on Summit—temperature, 8°°5 ; barometer, 19°5 inches ; Z,—=1°000146 Correction for temperature to reduce to 23°95 . . . °000140 Ait GoMrection Oo Ps 000050 ‘ime reduced to Tokio conditions. Assuming the value of the force of gravity at Tokio to be as previously determined, 9 ,=9°7984 it follows that on the summit of Fujiyama, 9,=9°7886 Mr. Peirce has introduced an important correction to the time of vibration of a pendulum which depends upon the flexure of amount of flexure was possible. . The question at once suggests itself, whether it is possible to make use of this result in a determination of the density of the earth. While many of the circumstances are extremely tavor- able to this end, many of the data are, unfortunately, quite uncer- tain. It was originally planned to undertake at the same time @ complete trigonometrical survey of the mountain, in order to ob- tain the necessary data as accurately as possible. This, however, we were obliged to defer, but it is hoped that it may be made at some future time. The following is offered as, perhaps, the nearest solution of the problem possible under the circum: stances. Fujiyama is an extinct voleano, whose height is known to be 2:35 miles very closely. It is renowned for its almost perfect sym- metry of form, and for the fact that it rises solitary and alone out of a plain of considerable extent. Thus there is not much to consider except the attraction of the mountain itself. To determine this is, of course, a matter of considerable difficulty. but it is believed that a result not far out of the way is reac by making the following assumptions. Without any great error the mountain may be assumed to be a cone. The summit angle of this cone has been obtained by making careful measurements upon a large number of photographs of the mountain, taken from many different points of view. The mean of many measurements, which do not differ greatly among themselves, gives for this angle 138°. Another point of vital importance is the mean density of’ the mountain. The rock, as far as cat een ee eee oF ee nT eee at Ree Re aS aN ee Cty Pe ere ee at the Summit of Fujiyama, Japan. 103 be discovered, is quite uniform in its composition throughout. It is a part of Japanese tradition, for it can hardly be called history, that the mountain was produced in a single night in the year B. C. 286. Many geologists are of opinion that it is mainly the result of a single eruption. A number of speci- mens from the surface have been examined, and it isfound that when the air is retained in the pores the density is about 1°75, but when it is ground to a powder and the air excluded, it is 25. These facts were communicated to five geologists, at pres- for the difference of latitude between Tokio and Fujiyama, which is about 19’, by means of the well known formula. When this is done it becomes 7 t,=='999847 From these times of vibration the part of the attraction on the summit, which is due to the mountain itself, is easily com- puted, and then the attraction of the mountain in terms of the density of the earth. The mountain is assumed to be a cone, whose semi-vertical angle is 69° and density 2°12, and its at- traction on a particle at its vertex is computed. Hquating these results the density of the earth results as follows: DesT7 This result is somewhat greater than the generally accepted density, but when the uncertainty of some of the data is con- sidered it must be regarded as remarkably _ lose. It is believed that the density of the mountain is the most uncertain of all the factors, and it will be of interest to reverse the problem and, assuming the density of the earth to be 5°67, as determined by Baily, find, by combining this with the pen- dulum experiments, the density of the mountain. When this is done the result is: ad=2°08 It seems to me that these experiments establish, with consid- erable certainty, the fact that the mountain is, for some reason, deficient in attraction, which leads to many questions of great interest concerning the possible or probable structure of the mountain. It is possible, therefore, that these results may be of some value to geologists who are interested in the structure of volcanoes. Am. Jour. Sc1.—Tuirp — Vou. XXI, No. 122.—Fes., 1881. 104 W. H. Dall—Notes on Alaska and Art. X.—Extract from a Report to C. P. Parrerson, Supt. Coast and Geodetic Survey; by W. H. Dat, Assistant in charge of schooner “Yukon,” employed on the coast of Alaska. On the 11th of August, after a stormy and tedious passage, we arrived at Plover Bay, in Eastern Siberia, near Bering trait. The longitude of this place has been independently determined from San Francisco and St. Petersburg, so that it afforded a convenient place for rating our chronometers before beginning work on our coast in the Arctic. We obtained good observations for time and a full series of magnetics g 4 em. However, much to their disgust, they were finally convinced netics. The land hereabouts is high for the most part, and contains beds of good coal, belonging to the true Carboniferous period, with limestones containing many fossil corals and other Paleo- zoic remains. The revenue cutter “Corwin” coaled sever the vicinity of Bering Strait. 105 times from these beds, which are near the beach, and reported the coal of good quality. It will prove of importance if steam whaleships come into general use in this region. e sailed for Icey Cape the next day, but the wind being light, did not reach it until the 25th of August. That evening we proceeded, seeing several whaleships, and the following afternoon spoke the cutter, who reported ice near at hand, an that she did not think we could proceed much further with safety. We soon made the ice, which was about eleven miles off shore and nearly parallel with it, consisting of floating fragments, much soiled with mud and rising seldom more than ten feet above the water, forming a fringe around of solid fields of rather rough pack ice, extending beyond the range of vision from the masthead. We spoke several of the whalers as we proceeded. All repre- sented the ice as moving in toward the land. The night before it had moved in eighteen miles, there being a strong northerly wind. After passing Point Belcher and finding that off the Sea Horse Islands there was only a quarter of a mile of open water, we decided to anchor and await further developments. The weather was cloudy with heavy wet fog. That night the ice moved in three miles toward shore; the wind also strength- ened; the weather showed no signs of improvement, and, rather than risk being grounded by the ice with only two months’ provisions on board, I decided to take advantage of the favorable wind and return to the southward, where there was still much work to do. We reached nearly the latitude of Point Barrow, and were about fifty miles westward from it. The country in this vicinity was almost perfectly flat, and nothing like a hill or rise was visible anywhere. € vegetation was quite dense on the land, but less profuse than at Cape Lisburne and with fewer flowers. Large lumps of coal lay on the beach, which had been pushed up by the ice from the bottom of the sea, but no bed rock could be seen, and the soil seemed to be chiefly a sort of red gravel. At adepth of two feet is a stratum of pure ice (not frozen soil) of unknown depth. This formation extends, with occasional gaps, north to Point Barrow and east to Return Reef, where the ice layer is about six feet above the level of the sea. It goes south at least as far as Icy Cape without any decided break, and is found in different localities as far south as Kotze- bue Sound. We sailed on the 28th of August from Point Belcher and entered Kotzebue Sound on the 30th. The next morning, August 31st, we anchored in Chamisso Harbor, Eschscholtz Bay, in which vicinity we remained four days. We were beset With natives from all quarters, eager to trade and much disap- . 106 W. H. Dali—Notes on Alaska and pointed that we had nothing to sell., It was fortunate that no rumsellers had been in the vicinity, for the number of the na- tives was so great that they might easily have taken charge if they had been so disposed. We obtained a first rate series of observations of all kinds on Chamisso Island. On the 2d of September, the weather being unsuitable for observations, I took the large boat and crew and crossed the bay toward Klephant Point, the site of the extraordinary ice formation, first observed by Kotzebue. and afterward reported on by Beechey and Seemann. e landed on a small, low point near some old huts, and w in the character of the banks. They became lower and the rise inland was less. From reddish volcanic rock they changed to a grayish clay, containing much vegetable matter, which, 1n some places, was in strata in the clay, and in others indiscriml- nately mixed with it. Near the beginning of these clay banks, where they were quite low, not rising over twenty feet above the shore, we noticed one layer of sphagnum (bog-moss) con- taining marl of fresh water shells, belonging to the genera Pisidium, Valvata, ete. This layer was about six inches thick. The clay was of a very tough consistency, and, though wet, did not stick to or yield much under the feet. The sea breaks against the foot of these banks and undermines them, causing them to fall down, and the rough irregular talus that results 1s mingled with turf and bushes from the surface above. A little farther on a perpendicular surface of ice was noticed in the face of the bank. It appeared to be solid and free from mixture 0 soil, except on the outside. The banks continued to increase slowly but regularly in height as we passed eastward. A little we followed it no farther. The point itself is boggy and low, and is continued from the foot of the high land, perhaps half a mile to the eastward, forming the northwest headland to a shal- low bay of considerable extent. To return to the “cliffs”: these for a considerable distance were double; that is, there was an ice-face exposed near the beach with a small talus in front of it, and covered with @ coating of soil two or three feet thick, on which luxuriant vegetation was growing. All this might be thirty feet in height the vicinity of Bering Strait. 107 On climbing to the brow of this bank, the rise from that brow proved to be broken, hummocky and full of crevices and holes; in fact, a second talus on a larger scale, ascending to the foot of a second ice-face, above which was a layer of soil one to three feet thick covered with herbage. he brow of this second bluff we estimated at eighty feet or more above the sea. Thence the land rose slowly and gradu- ally to a rounded ridge, reaching the height of three or four hundred feet only, at a distance of several miles from the sea, with its axis in a north-and-south direction, a low valley west from it, the shallow bay at Elephant Point east from it, and its northern end abutting in the cliffs above described on the southern shore of Eschscholtz Bay. There were no mountains or other high land about this ridge in any direction, all the sur- face around was lower than the ridge itself. _ About half a mile from the sea, on the highest part of the ridge perhaps two hundred and fifty feet above high water mark, at a depth of a foot, we came toa solidly frozen stratum, consisting chiefly of bog moss and vegetable mould, but con- taining good-sized lumps of clear ice. There seemed no reason to doubt that an extension of the digging would have brought us to solid, clear ice, such as was visible at the face of the bluff below. That is to say, it appeared that the ridge itself, two miles wide and two hundred and fifty feet high, was chiefly composed of solid ice overlaid with clay and vegetable mould. It was noticeable that there was much less clay over the top of the upper ice-face than was visible over the lower one, or over the single face when there was but one and the land and bluff were low near the beach. There also seemed to be less vegetable matter. Near the beach six or eight feet of clay The ice-face near the beach was not uniform. In many places it was covered with clay to the water's edge. In others, where the bank was less than ten feet high, the turf had bent without breaking after being undermined, and presented a mossy and herbaceous front, curving over quite to high water mark. e outer inch or two of the ice seemed granular, like 108 W. H. Dall—Notes on Alaska and mould in the clay quite perfect. In other places the ice was penetrated with deep holes, into which the clay and vegetable matter had been deposited in lay- ers, and which (the ice melting away from around them) appeared as clay and muck cylinders on the ice-face. Large rounded holes or excavations of irregular form had evidently existed on the top of the ice before the clay, etc., had been de- posited. These were usually filled with a finer-grained deposit of clay with less vegetable matter, and the layers were waved, as if the deposit had been affected by current action while going on. In these places was noticed, especially, the most unexpected fact connected with the whole formation, namely, a strong, peculiar smell, as of rotting animal matter, burnt leather and stable manure combined. is odor was not confined to the spots above mentioned, and was not quite the same at all places, but had the same general character wherever it was noticed. A large part of the clay had no particular smell. At the places where the odor was strongest, it was observed to emanate par- ticularly from darker, pasty spots in the clay (though permate- - ing elsewhere), leading to the supposition that these might be remains of the soft parts of the mammoth and other animals, whose bones are daily washed out by the sea from the clay us. feet long and six inches in diameter, which I shall forward to the office. Dwarf birches, alders, seven or eight feet high, with stems three inches in diameter, and a luxuriant growth of herbage, including numerous very toothsome berries, grew with the roots less than a foot from perpetual solid ice. The formation of the surrounding country shows no high land or rocky hills, from which a glacier might have been de- rived and then covered with debris from their sides. The con- tinuity of the mossy surface showed that the ice must be quite destitute of motion, and the circumstances appeared to point to the vicinity of Bering Strait. 109 one conclusion, that there is here a ridge of solid ice, rising several hundred feet above the sea, and higher than any of the land about it, and older than the mammoth and fossil horse: this ice taking upon itself the functions of a regular stratified rock. The formation, though visited before, has not hitherto been intelligibly described from a geological standpoint. Though many facts may remain to be investigated, and what- ever be the conclusions as to its origin and mode of preserva- tion, it certainly remains one of the most wonderful and puzzling geological phenomena in existence. n the 8d of September we sailed from Chamisso Harbor for Bering Strait, arriving off East Cape of Asia about 6 a. M. of the 5th. roken ice intervened between us and the shore, and the bight southward from the cape was packed full of ice. We could not approach nearer to the shore than four miles. he wind was fresh but the opportunity seemed tolerably favorable, and I concluded to attempt making the hydrother- mal section across Bering Strait at once, rather than risk the chance of a more favorable opportunity with its possible long work, so heavy was the sea produced by the wind against the tide. Finally, we were ver ad to run for shelter to Port American side, and cools gradually toward the Asiatic side. The highest temperature is 48° F. and the lowest about 36° F. * The diagram of hydrothermal section, showing surface temperatures and depth, is the only one that could be engraved in time for this issue, 110 W. H. Dall—WNotes on Alaska, ete. The uniformity of the temperatures from top to bottom, does away with the idea of a sub-surface current from the Arctic Ocean, carrying cold water southward, a result I had expected, and confirmatory of my suspicions expressed in the Appendix to the Coast Pilot of Alaska, and of Onatzevich’s observations on the Kamchatka coast. Our current observations showed another conclusion to be greater than any of the Bering Sea water south of St. Law- rence Island. This would agree with the observations of ex- plorers along the Siberian coasts and elsewhere, where large bodies of comparatively warm water, derived from large rivers, are poured out over shallow areas of a cold sea basin. e direction of the current in the strait, when we were lying near the Diomedes, was reversed by the tide, and the vessel tailed in opposite directions during flood and ebb. The rate varied with the strength of the tide, and during our stay did not exceed three knots. The directions agreed with the trend able to go over the top of the island to the village on te other side. ad Som ate (Geropheupars, ch Mots poss na ep eho “he ae we jont oy wh a 3 f | | Surface Jrenperbbe so / Ang. & Sept. TM [BeNLDeN Aon, VB.ce&. Survey In apt of Schr. Yukon Fst :¢ S. H. Scudder—Devonian Insects. 111 Millions of birds afford a large item of subsistence, and seal, and later in the season some walrus, are taken by these natives, who act as middle-men in trading between Asia and America. A short but satisfactory set, each, of time, latitude, dip, inten- sity and azimuth was obtained, wit angles determining the position of the adjncsités island and the prominent features of the apart on either side. e of the most important results of the occupation of this sition was the determination of the fact that the boundar line, as defined by the treaty, does pass between the two islands without touching either, as was assumed in that document, but which had been ‘putin doubt by certain erroneous charts of the vas I may say that the aes: easterly variation which w pointed out in 1878, extremely marked in the ihe stations occupied, some oot the results showing five or six de- grees less variation than is indicated on the latest charts. A thorough explication of the results must, of course, await the final revision of the computations. Art. XI.—Relation of Devonian Insects to later and existing types ; by SAMUEL H. ScUDDER eee It only remains to sum up the results of this reéxamination of the Devonian insects, and nage cid to discuss their relation to later or now existing ty This may pea be done by a separate consideration of the "plowing points :— ere is nothing in the structure of these earliest known insects to interfere with a former conclusiont that the general type of wing structure has remained unaltered from the earliest times. Three of these six insects seas Homothetus and Xenoneura) have been shown to possess a very peculiar neuration, dissimilar from both Carboniferous and modern types. As will also be shown under the tenth head, the dis- similarity of structure of all the Devonian insects is much greater than would be anticipated ; yet all the features of neu- ration can be brought into perfect harmony with the system laid down b ae earliest insects were hexapods, and as far as the record goes preceded in time both arachnids and myriapods. This is shown only by the wings, which in all known insects belong only to hexapods, and in ‘the nature of things prove the earlier * This summary of results is the conclusion of . memoir by Mr. Scudder on the Devonian Insects of New Brunswick, published in the Anniversary Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural oy istory, 1880. t The Early types of Insects. Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., iii, 21. 112 S. H. Scudder—Devonian Insects. apparition of that group. This, however, is so improbable on any hypothesis, that we must conclude the record to be defec- ive. Pseudoneuroptera, and also show no special affinity to true Neuroptera other than is found in Paleodictyoptera. A fifth (Homothetus), which has comparatively little in common with the Paleodictyoptera, is perhaps more nearly related to the true Neuroptera than to the Pseudoneuroptera, although its pseudoneuropterous characters are of a striking nature. Of the sixth (Dyscritus) the remains are far too imperfect to judge clearly, but the choice lies rather with the Pseudoneuroptera or with Homothetus. e Devonian insects are then about equally divided in structural features between Neuroptera proper and Pseudoneuroptera, and none exhibit any special orthopterous, hemipterous or coleopterous characteristics. 4. Nearly all are synthetic types of a comparatively narrow range. This has been stated in substance in the prece na u 5. Nearly ali bear marks of affinity to the Carboniferous Palwo- dictyoptera, either in the reticulated surface of the wing, 1% longitudinal neuration, or But some, such as Gerephemera and Xenoneura, in which the r ance is marked. Most of the species, however, even including the two mentioned, show paleeodictyopterous charac ters only on what might be called the neuropterous side ; and their divergence from the Carboniferous Paleodictyoptera 18 so great that they can scarcely be placed directly with the mass S. H. Scudder— Devonian Insects. 113 of Palseozoic insects, where we find a very common type of wing structure, into which the neuration of Devonian insects only partially fits. For: 6. neura, but these three Devonian insects apparently surpass them, as well as very nearly all other Carboniferous insects. Futhermore : id 7. With the exception of the general statement under the age of the deposit. Yet we find in this Devonian locality not a single one of Paleoblattarise or anything resembling them ; r. H. B. Geinitz has kindly reéxamined Hphemerites Riickerti at my request, and states that the reticulation is in general tetragonal, but that at the extreme outer margin the cells appear in a few places to be ellipti ve- or six-si The Dictyoneure and their allies, as may be inferred, are considered as be- ae ae the Palxodictyoptera, although their ephemeridan affinities are not 114 S. H. Scudder— Devonian Insects. the Termitina, is altogether absent from the Devonian. Half a dozen wings, therefore, from rocks known to be either De- vonian or Carboniferous, would probably establish their age. 8. The Devonian insects were of great size, had membranous wings, and were probably aquatic in early life. The last state- _ ment is simply late from the fact that all the modern types most nearly allied to them are now a As to the first, some statements ae already been made;, their expanse of hg pats eae from 40 to 175 mm. ae averaged 107 oneura was much smaller than any of the others, its acrianie 6 aheoediic four centimeters, while the probable we gt of all the rest was generally more than a decimeter, only Homothetus falling below this te ure. Indeed if Xeno- neura be omitted, the average expanse of wing was 121 mm., is no trace of coriaceous structure in any of the wings, nor in any are there thickened and ea nervules—one stage of the approach to a coriaceous textu 9. Some of the Devonian insects are plainly precursors be existing ee while others seem to have left no trace examples of the former are Platephemera, an aberrant form “a an aximing family ; and Homothetus, which, while totally dif ferent in the combination of its characters from anything possess ; pr Ranoenite: where the fethoseretal of the inter- nomedian branches to each other and to the rest of the wing is altogether abnormal. If too, the concentric Tidges, formerly repented even in any modified form ey show a remarkable variely of structure, vase an coc of insect life at that epoch. This is s the more notice- able from their belonging to a single type of wis, a stated under the seventh head, where we “have seen that their neura- tion does not accord with the commoner type of wing structure found in Paleozoic insects.* These six wings exhibit a diver: sity of neuration quite as great as is found among the hundred or more species of the Garhontteicus epoch; in some, such as * Cf. Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., iii, 19, note 1. ee a Ne em See Le ee ee i. S. H. Scudder—Devonian Insects. 115 lated; the others possess only transverse cross veins more or order, and in other ancient types the ancestors of living repre- sentatives of another order; were we unfamiliar with the divergence of these orders in modern times, we should not think of separating ordinarily their ancestors of the Carbonif- Pp known types, ancient or modern; and some of them appear to be even more complicated than their nearest living allies, With the xception of Platephemera, not one of them can be referred to any family of insects previously known, living or fossil; and even Platephemera, as shown above, differs strikingly from all other members of the family in which it is placed, both in gh neuration and in reticulation ; to a greater degree even 116 S. H. Scudder— Devonian Insects. i ternomedian and scapular veins for a long distance from the base, and in the peculiar structure and lateral attachments of the internomedian veins: in the minuter and feebler cross venation, however, it has an opposite character. e appear, therefore, to be no nearer the beginning of things in the Devonian epoch, than in the Carboniferous, so far as either greater unity or simplicity of structure is concerned ; and these earlier forms cannot be used to any better advantage than the Carboniferous types in support of any special theory of the origin of insects. All such theories have required some Zoza, Leptus, ampodea,or other simple wingless form as the foundation point; and this ancestral form, according to Heckel at least, must be looked for above the Silurian rocks. Yet we have in the De- degraded of the sub-order to which they belong, itself one of the very lowest sub-orders. Dyscritus too may be o similar character differing from theirs. It is quite as if we were 7 n and e Carboniferous insects; they have little in common, 0. U. Shepard—Meteoric Iron of South Carolina. 117 presumed. But I should hesitate to close this sammary with- out expressing the conviction that some such earlier unknown comprehensive types as are indicated above did exist and should be sought. Art. XII.—On the Meteoric Iron of Lexington County, South Carolina ; by CHARLES UpHaM SHEPARD, Emeritus Professor of Natural History in Amherst College. THE mass here described was sent in May last by the farmer On whose land it had been found (through the hands of the Hon. N. A. Meelze) to the State Commissioner of Agriculture, Col. A. P. Butler, for examination, and by the latter it was forwarded to Prof. G. U. Shepard, jr., professor of chemistry in the Medical College at Charleston. It was immediately’ re- ported upon as meteoric iron. The finder had supposed it to 118 C. U. Shepard—Meteoric Iron of South Carolina. be a valuable ore, and that it indicated a mine upon his prop- erty. On learning its true character he relinquished the idea approaching most nearly to the shape of a very transverse fresh-water bivalve. Unlike many of the iron masses foun in the soil, the surface of the present iron is nearly free from yellow hydrated peroxide of iron, being mostly enveloped with a black and brittle coating, which, though containing some ing force. This circumstance seems worthy of notice here, as one of the causes of the disintegration and detonation of meteorites while traversing our atmosphere. _ The most interesting feature by far, of the Lexington 1ron, is that of its remarkable analogy in structure and composition with the Bohumilitz iron, found in 1829, and now preserved 1n the Bohemian National Museum of Prague, of which a descrip tion is given by Dr. Otto Buchner in his catalogue of meteorl¢ collections, page 158,* and still further in the memoir oD meteorites, of Prof. Gustave Rose, in the transactions of the Royal Academy of Berlin, 1863.+ ; The resemblance of the etched surfaces of these irons 18 5° strong that they might very easily be confounded together. ey are the only two irons which strikingly give the move * Die Meteoriten in Sammlungen, ihre Geschichte, mineralogische und chem- ische Beschaffenheit, von Dr. Otto Buchner. Leipsic, 1863. : Beschreibung und Kintheilung der Meteoriten auf grund der Sammlung mineralogischen Museum zu Berlin, von Gustave Rose, aus den Abhandlungen der Kénigl. Akadamie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1863, mit vier Kupfertafeln. Berlin, 1864. 0. U. Shepard—Meteorie Iron of South Carolina.. 119 métallique luster. The chief difference between the two con- sists in the thickness of the crystalline bars, which in the Lexington iron is nearly double that in the Bohumilitz. In both, their walls, or bounding sides, are alike broadly undula- tory or wavy; and the included spaces are filled with closely crowded points of rhabdite (Rose) and extremely minute lines of teenite (Reichenbach), crossing each other at all angles from to 150°, for the distinct observation of which, however, a lens is requisite. Instead of the usually bright edges of the tenite layers, as they occur within the bars, one sees only bright furrows or channels,—the rhabdite constituting the ele- vated portions of the surface, evincing its greater passivity under the action of the acid in the process of etching. Indeed, the tznite lamina, including the bars, have, from the same cause, been similarly depressed below the general surface, though not to such a degree as to conceal their glittering edges. Whether the degree of corrosion in these different constituents of the iron is referable to a difference in their wrappers around the amygdules of troilite; also in short veins and gashes that may be detected here and there on broad pol- ished surfaces of the iron. The ori ie iron shows no signs of chemical alteration by exposure to the air, in which respect, also, it agrees with that from Bohumilitz. The specific gravity of the entire mass was 7, that of a fragments, 7°405. Specific gravity of troilite, The analysis was made by Prof. C. U. Shepard Jr., from cuttings obtained in the division of the iron in such a way as not to include portions of the pyritic nodules. The following result was found: Tron (with traces of manganese)... --.---------- 92°416 Nickel ___. 6°077 ee eee 0°927 kesolubia wiatiave 8 ee Oe ee 0°264 99°684 With traces of tin and phosphorus. New Haven, Nov. 17, 1880. Am. Jour. Beene Series, Vou. XXI, No. 122.—Fss., 1881. 120 G. EF. Wright—Glacial Era in Eastern North America, Art. XIII.—An attempt to calculate approximately the date of the Glacial era in Eastern North America, from the depth of sediment in one of the bowl-shaped depressions abounding in the Moraines and Kames of New England; by G. FREDERICK W RIGHT. [Read at the meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, in Boston, Aug., 1880.] FoLLowIneé the suggestions of Mr. Clarence King, made to the writer four years since, r. Warren Upham traced a terminal moraine of the Continental ice sheet, through Cape od from east to west, connecting by the Elizabeth Islands with the back bone of Long Island at Montauk Point, an continuing to Brooklyn, N. Y. From this point across Staten have since been industriously marking their extent as they occur in the so-called Kettle Range in Wisconsin. The most satis- factory explanation of these “holes,” in my view, is that they *See Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, vol. xix, pp. 60-63. +See Annual Reports of the Geological Survey of New Jersey for 1877 and 1878. ¢ For the observations upon which these statements are based, see Index of Geol. Report of N. H., vol. iii es,” communications of the author 10 Proceedings of Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. xix, pp. 47-63, and xx, pp. 210-220, also a paper read by Professor Stone at the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science in 1880. See Transactions of Am. Assoc. of Geol. and Nat. for 1841 and 1842, p. 191. See the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge for 1866. G. F. Wright—G@lacial Era in Eastern North America. 121 be no question that they were formed about the close of the Glacial period. ' It occurred to the writer, some years ago, that these holes might be made to do service in estimating the date of the Glacial era. The results are not so definite as could be wished ” t which appear in the kames I Srenend facts concerning one near Pomp’s Pond in Andover, Mass. Pomp’s Pond is one of the moraine basins to which we have referred, and is about a quarter of a mile in diameter and but slightly above the level of the Shawshin River into which it empties. Upon its north side is an accumulation of gravel and sand with pebbles intermingled, in which there are several of the smaller characteristic bowl-shaped depressions of which we have spoken. Their appearance is much like that of vol- canic craters. You mca a sharp declivity from every side to a rim of gravel and then descend as rapidly into the bowl- a or crater-like, depression. A section carried across will present the idea. . escend from its top to the valley, repeating almost exactly the first ascent and descent from the pond. The distance from rim to rim, or the diameter, is 380 feet. hus it is evident that since the first formation of this crater-like depression no material can have reached the bottom 122 GF. Wright—Glacial Era in Eastern North America, except from three sources: 1st, the wash from the sides; 2d, the decay of vegetation which grew within the circumference of the rim; 3d, the dust brought by the winds. It is equally evident that what is once in cannot get out. Now, from the angle of the declivity the original depth of the depression can be approximately estimated. If the angle be still the same as at first, the first three terms of the propor- tion would be 128 : 505 ::48:17%, making the original depth elow the present surface of the peat a trifle over 17 5 feet. If, however, we suppose the original slant to have been steeper and the rim higher we can still see that there must have been a limit to the depth. Suppose the rim to have been one-third higher and the slant one-third steeper we then would have in round numbers the proportion 188 : 68: : 48: 2348, making the original depth of the depression nearly 24 feet below the pres- ent surface of the peat. From the nature of the material it 18 impossible that the depression should originally have much exceeded that amount. ; Accepting this conclusion, the problem is to determine the time it would require the agencies mentioned above to fill the bottom of this bowl to a depth of twenty-four feet—a cone ninety-six feet in diameter at the base and twenty-four feet to the apex—which would be equal to a depth of only ezght feet over the present surface. ; . Let us apply some of the estimates of the date of this period. Mr. J. Geikie, following the lead of Mr. Croll and others who look to astronomical data alone, supposes that the so-called bog only at the rate of one inch in 1,000 years. hile, if we * See Geology of New Hampshire, vol. iii, p. 327. P. Collier—Remarkable Nugget of Platinum. 128 at the last semi-revolution of the earth’s equinoxes about 10,000 years ago. If we are to look for marks of glaciation in the earlier and more extreme period of the eccentricity of the earth's orbit we should go farther south. The glacial detritus in California, where Prof. Whitney has found human remains, may belong to that earlier period. But it is evident that the glacial phenomena of New England are comparatively recent in their origin. Art. XIV.—A Remarkable Nugget of Platinum; by PETER CoLuigER, of Washington, D. C. SEVERAL years ago I came into possession of a nugget of platinum, said to have been found upon land adjacent to the village of Plattsburgh, New York. Upon examination, the hugget was found to be composed entirely of native platinum and chromite disseminated through it. is chromite was black and of a somewhat resinous luster. The dimensions of of only ‘74 per cent. The chromite was decomposed by fusion with bisulphate of potassium. Its composition is given as follows: 124 P. Collier—Remarkable Nugget of Platinum. Cr203 SE ies a ee ee 54:'944 eO 31°567 Al,Os 5°69 mOgce - S131 CaO 3°405 1 ee 941 8 There appeared in the interstices of the mass a little earth which probably accounts for the above results of analysis. By deducting these impurities the above analysis would be: Cr,03 63°511 FeO wail Pe Pee ORES ee ose 36'489 100°000 An analysis of the platinum gave as follows: atinu fee 83-814 TO a de a we 11°040 Palladium __-_-_. 3°105 PGi 25s 627 Rhodium 286 Copper 397 I ie ee cae ey 1°953 e “069 Magnesia 030 100°321 Owing to the small quantity of the mineral taken for analy- sis, 1°45 grams, and the difficulty in separation, the above anal- ysis is perhaps not rigidly exact, and in fact the presence of osmium was unmistakable, although its amount was undeter- mined. The above analysis, however, shows conclusively that the specimen is a genuine nugget of native platinum, and upon an investigation of the person who found the same, It seems established beyond question that his statement is correct, since the mode of its occurrence and the locality is such as t render the statement quite credible. | Several other specimens were said to have been found at the time when this was discovered, but owing to, their real value being unknown they were mislaid or lost. A personal exam ination of the locality shows it to be in a drift deposit which Is of considerable extent. Adjacent rocks exposed upon the w constituting this deposit are age from rock not present in he established, but so far as I can learn this nugget appears to ‘ remarkable not only for its size, but also as an indication © R. P. Whitfield—Carboniferous air-breathing Mollusk. 125 Art. XV.—Notice of a new Genus and Species of Air-breath- ing Mollusk from the Coal-measures of Ohio, and Observations on DAWSONELLA; by R. P. WHITFIELD. possessed up to that time of the shells of this group of mollusks occurring in these formations. The recognition and descrip- oO what is supposed to be a similar form from the Devonian formations of New Brunswick adds a feature of great already so admirably done for me. The form from Ohio is so entirely distinct from any and all of those previously described, although, like them, of minute size, that I have concluded to call immediate attention to it. pore-like notch occurring near the upper angle of the aperture ma Vi 1 lus least not in the same degree nor with the same apparent pur- considered it entitled to rank as the type of a distinct genus, 126 R. P. Whitfield— Carboniferous air-breathing Mollusk. and propose the name Anthracopupa, with the following char- acters, ‘ ANTHRACOPUPA, new genus. Shell minute, pupaform, with few volutions, the last one unsymmetrical ; axis imperforate ; aperture large, nearly verti- eal; peristome thickened, united above by a thin callus on which may occur one or more palatal teeth; other tooth-like projections occur on the inner margin of the lip, and a small, nearly circular notch, resembling that in Pugna, deeply indents the inner edge of the outer limb near its junction with the body whorl. Surface of the shell marked by fine, nearly vertical lines. Type A. Ohzoensis. ANTHRACOPUPA OHIOENSIS, nD. Sp. Shell small and robust, having a length of about three and one-third mm. with a transverse diameter of about two mm. and consisting of about four volutions, the last one extremely ventricose except on the outer half, where it is obliquely flattened and contracted, and, with the aperture, forms about three-fourths of the entire length of the shell. Aperture large, longer than wide, and broadly rounded at the base; hi | / Anthracopupa Ohioensis Whitf. _ Fig. 1, view of the aperture ; 2, lateral view to show the thickened lip; 3, back bind showing lip and strie; 4, aperture more enlarged. Figs. 1-3 enlarged es, thickened, rounded within and forming a flattened, thickened rim on the outside, particularly on the lower part. Labial notch situated very near the upper extremity of the lip, regu lar in shape, and forming nearly two-thirds of a circle. single tooth-like ridge of moderate size extends inward from the lip at about the middle of the columellar side, and another of greater size projects nearly vertically from the middle of the Formation and locality—In the higher beds of the Coal- measures, near Marietta, Ohio. R. P. Whitfield— Carboniferous air-breathing Mollusk. 127 In making the studies of the afore-mentioned shell, [ obtained from John Collette, Esq., State Geologist of Indiana, specimens of Pupa Vermilionensis and Dawsonella Meeki Bradley. I find that the latter shell has the aperture much contracted by the thickening of the lip on the inside, and against the body volu- tion by a thickened callus coating the volution and almost concealing the umbilicus, while it straightens that margin of the aperture. These features contract the aperture to a very small part of what it must have been before the callosity was formed, while the surface of the callus is slightly concave from side to side, over the distance between the umbilicus and the margin of the aperture. The form of this callus, especially when taken in connection with the thickening of the inside of the lip, has so much resemblance to the corresponding parts of Helicina, that I cannot but come to the conclusion that Daw- sonella was an operculated shell, although in the rock in which they are found I have sought in vain for anything resembling an operculum. In the article quoted above, the author shows the extent of this callus in his figure 18 on page 412, and it is well shown in the accompanying outlines. 5. 6. Sir ce Dawsonella Meeki Bradley. Figs. 5 and 6, profile and basal view of Dawsonella Meeki Brad., to show the form of aperture and callus resembling that of Helicina. ‘ some foreign body ; and they have, I presume, been attached 128 J. L. Smith—Emerald-green Spodumene. to marine plants from which they have fallen, as they were decomposed, and have thus been amassed on the mud bottom. This species I propose to designate by the following name ; and illustrations of it will be given in the Paleontology of Ohio, vol. ii, SPIRORBIS ANTHRACOSIA, 0. sp. ; Shell minute, planorbiform, composed of from one to two and a half volutions, tube slender, and very gradually increas- ing in diameter, marked by very fine, irregular, encircling strie, which are often gathered into little knots or points near the border of the open umbilicus. Lower side of the shell more or less flattened as if for attachment to some ae substance. Diameter seldom exceeding one line, general] ormation and locality.—In the higher x ba = the Coal- measures, near Marietta, Ohio; associated with Anthracopupa Ohioensis. Art. XVI.—Hiddenite, an Emerald-green variety of Spodumene ; by J. LAWRENCE Smita, of Louisville, Ky. THE new variety of spodumene described in this paper was ieaseued about five years since on the Mr. within a few years so many ee minerals, including the samarskite. Shortly after its discovery some crystals came which he sent to Mr. N. Spang of Pittsburgh. einge he showed others of them to Mr. W. E. Hidden, a very enter- tion in regard to their mode of occurrence. The ¢ ee were first found very sparingly, and loose in the soil, but Mr. Hidden, having leased the locality and carried on a systematic exploration, has discovered the mineral im situ, and obtain many fine crystals. to the time when my attention was called to the mineral it was considered diopside, a reasonable conclusion considering the imperfect character of the crystals that had been found. A blowpipe test, and a determination of its specific gravity showed me that it was not diopside, but an unusual variety of spodumene. Mode of oceurrence.—In the absence of any drift formation in this region it is evident that all the minerals found here detached and loose in the soil—as most of them are—were J. L. Smith—Emerald-green Spodumene. 129 furnished by the rocks beneath. The soil has been formed by the decomposition of these rocks, and surface washings have caused only small displacement of the mineral from its original locality. The rocks are metamorphic and are mostly gneiss and mica schist. The vein bearing the spodumene crystals runs almost due east-and-west across the bedding, and dips at an angle of 70°. It is only a few inches wide and two feet in lateral exten- sion, being in fact a kind of chimney. There are other similar veins in the vicinity, but it is only in this one that the crystals have yet been found. The walls of this contracted vein contain crystals of quartz, mica, rutile, beryl and ortho- clase. e beryls are very fine, and may yet be found suffi- ciently colored to be valuable as gems. The vein does not come to the surface but commences about eight feet below it, urements cannot be made. Sometimes single crystals are terminated by the planes 2-2 only, but the planes 2, 2-2 and are common. The prisms 7-7, J and 7-2 are common and terminal planes are uniformly rough and uneven, so much so that no satisfactory determination of their symbols can be mace ; they often form an edge, as the continuation of the front prismatic edge and this is rounded over the whole top of the 130 J. L. Smith—Emerald-green Spodumene. 3152 to 3°189. Its behavior before the blowpipe is the same as that of other forms of spodumene. When heated to redness in the flame well to chromium as to vanadium. : Composition.—A careful analysis yielded me the following results : DOR iis pt ud eo ey Fo aa, OS OO AMIS. .4 6 ae Ge ae ee | BRED Ferric oxide -.- Ce ee Bat Oe Bet ee. Pe ee OS PME ee Gs ae ray ee PO mee Ty Neate oe ee Se O16 100°40 The specimen analyzed was of the paler variety. There 1s 4 trace of potash in the soda. ; he crystals when cut and polished resemble the emerald in luster, though the color is not so intense as in the finest variety of the latter gem. There is reason to hope that further explora- tions may bring to light crystals of a size and beauty that will make them valuable as gems, and for this reason T have thought it proper to give this variety of spodumene a distinct name. I therefore propose the name of Hiddenite, after the indefatigable mineral explorer who has directed our attention to it. S Wo Pord=The' Genus Obdtella: 131 Art. XVII.— Remarks on the Genus Obolella ; by S. W. Forp. THE genus Obolella was founded by Mr. Billings, in 1861, upon three smal! Linguloid species, namely O. chromatica from the north shore of the Straits of Belle Isle, O. crassa from Troy, ., and O. polita from the Potsdam sandstone of Wisconsin, cm ig. 1.—Diagram of the interior of the ventral valve of O. crassa, enlarged two diameters. Fig. 2.Diagram of the interior of the dorsal valve,”enlarged to the NY degree, The specimens are from the original locality of the species, Troy, As a rule, the beak of the dorsal valve is curved downward so as to almost touch the short, indistinct hinge-line, while that of the ventral valve is less depressed and slightly more projecting ; and these are the only features by which the two valves ma be externally distinguished. The majority of the specimens of the ventral valve have an extremely shallow depression run- ning from the beak to the anterior margin along the median line; but I have found that even this is not distinctive, inas- much as some of the dorsal valves exhibit it. The specimens * This Journal for March, 1876. ° 182 S. W. Ford—The Genus Oboleila. in my possession vary in length and breadth from one and one- half to six lines, the two diameters being generally nearly equal. The surface of both valves, when perfect, is both radi ately and concentrically striated. The shell is thick and solid, showing no tendency to break up into successive lamin on weathering. I have had portions of it ground and polished for microscopic examination, but am unable tu make out any defi- nite structure. much thickened, the several scars bounding the elevation. The interior surface of the forward portion of the valve is marked by fine radiating strize. The dorsal valve possesses a small though distinct area, which is divided into two equal portions by a feeble longitu- dinal ridge. The slender sardtial Hire is delicately notched in the middle, and has immediately in advance of it a deep trans- verse groove (fig. 2,4). On either side of the longitudinal ridge referred to, there is a small, ovate, cardinal muscular sear. These scars have their apices directed downward and outward, their upper portions cutting across the extremities of and limiting the cardinal line. Directly in front of the cardinals there are two larger impressions of similar shape and direction, the laterals, which extend forward to the mid-length of the shell. These two pairs of impressions are frequently connected with each other, by the cardinals passing down into the laterals; but, as will be seen, they are not so connected in the specimen figured, which has been selected in order to illustrate more clearly their essential independence. In the central portion of the valve there is a pair of still larger impressions le c), having their up- per portions parallel, and their lower, falcate parts, widely diverging. Between their parallel portions there is a !oW mesial ridge, which dies out before reaching the hinge-line. The falciform portions of these scars are, in general, very faintly impressed, and might readily escape observation. The interior surface is usually smooth. S. W. Ford—The Genus Obolelia. 133 If we compare the interior of O. crassa with that of O. chro- matica, illustrations of which are herewith introduced (figs. 3 and 4), we shall find that, while there are some notable differ- ences, the plan in each is the same. The principal differences Fig. 3.—Plan of the interior of the ventral valve of 0. chromatica as made out by Mr. Billings; Fig. 4.—Ditto of the dorsal. Fig. 5.—Plan of the interior of the ventral valve of 0. gemma Billings. The notation is the same for all of the gures: aa, cardinal, cc, central and dd, lateral impressions; g, the groove in the area; 7, pit in which the groove terminates are (1) that the cardinals of the ventral valve of O. crassa have their apices directed inward instead of outward as in 0. chro- matica ; (2) that the central scars are not here connected with the laterals; and (8) that the central impressions of the dorsal 19) same, n referred to, Mr. Billings includes in his genus, O. chromatica, 134 Hl. M. Chance—The Millstone Grit. December 10th, 1880. Art. XVIIL—The Millstone Grit in England and Pennsylvania ; by H. Martyn CHANCE. Pennsylvania and. Ohio. , A survey of the Conglomerate, No. XII (Millstone grit), made in 1875 along the Beaver and Shenango valleys, led me to conclude that that rock in Western Pennsylvania is a com posite series of sandstones and conglomerates separated by shales and slates with interbedded coals, limestones, 1ron oF and fire clays, with a total thickness of 250-325 feet (Report ', * Monograph of British Silurian Brachiopoda, p. 339, pl. 50, figs. 1-14, (eh) {On the Brachiopoda of the Paradoxides beds of Sweden, p. 19, pl. iii, figs. 3° 41, (1876). Idem, “Om Faunan i kalken med Conocoryphe Exsulans,” p- 27, Pl iii, figs. 45-49, (1879). ¢ Bull. Soc. Geol. Fr., vol. xviii, p. 536, pl. VIII, figs. 5a-e. Fea Ree PO IER ea Te cig ga wed Pec, tinecne NOG f Sake Oy aoe ene ae a Praeger ge ae is i ? : Z eae H. M. Chance—The Millstone Grit. 185 Geol. Survey of Pa,, 1879). The same conclusion was simul- taneously reached by Mr. Carll in the oil regions (Reports I and ill) and afterwards by Professor White in his reports on the Ohio line counties (Q, QQ, QQQ); and it now appears that Professor Green and his colleagues were at the same time working out a strikingly similar structure in this rock in the Yorkshire district. The nomenclature first adopted by these geologists is compared in the following table with that adopted by Professor White and myself: YORKSHIRE. PENNSYLVANIA. “ Rough Rock.” Homewood Sandstone. Shales (sporadic coals). Mercer coal group. “Second Grit.” Connoquenessing Upper Sandstone. Shales (coal). Quakertown coal. “Thi it.” Connoquenessing Lower Sandstone. Shales (coal). Sharon coal. “Kinder Scout Grit.” Sharon (or ‘‘ Ohio’) Conglomerate. Over large areas this nomenclature is easily and naturally applicable to all vertical sections in both Yorkshire and West- was therefore found necessary to generalize the Yorkshire scheme by including these in one subdivision under the name “ Middle Grits,” thus: (Geol. of Yorkshire, p- 82). “Roueu Rook or Topmost Grrr. SHALES. MippLE Grits.—A group of sandstones and shales, variable in number, thickness and character. ; Millstone Grit HALES, Kinper Scout or Lowest Grits.” In Western Pennsylvania a precisely similar generalization has been resorted to (Report V, pp. 188 and 223), thus: — ( Homewoop SAnpsTONE. 1 MERCER GROUP,—coals, etc. CONNOQUENESSING GROUP,—sandstones. [ SHARON GROUP. “OHIO” OR SHARON CONGLOMERATE. i Conglomer- e, No. XI os The Homewood Sandstone is a hard, massive conglomeritic rock ; the Rough Rock is also of this type and is used as key-rock just as the former has been used in Pennsylvania. The Kinder Scout Grit is hard, massive, coarse and often con- glomeritic, and is also used as a key-rock ; while in Pennsyl- vania the Sharon Conglomerate (or Olean, Garland or Mead- ville rock) has likewise been a most valuable guide. It is usually hard and massive and often a true conglomerate. When capping the hilltops it forms prominent ‘rock cities.” Am. Jour. Sco1.—Turrp igen Vou. XXI, No. 122.—Frs., 1881. 136 Scientific Intelligence. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. an Improved Process for preparing Potassium Iodide from pee —A.tary and Prriievx have devised an im- proved process for extracting potassium fella from the ashes of seaweed. e mother liquors, obtained in the preparation of a chloride and sulphate from disse ation. are evaporated to dryness in a special air furnace and then ca refully roasted in a current of air, to complete Pe eRe The residue is ex- tracted with cold water and the solution is again evaporated to dr A white saline esatas'; is obtained containing 50 per cent of iodides. This is pulverized, introduced into a “digestor and treated with bot alcohol whereby the iodides are extracted and accumulate in the aqueous lower layers. The alcohol is then thirds sodium and one-third potassium iodide. To this is added the nieamiet A Stem of potassium carbonate, in saturated solu- tion, and a nt of carbon dioxide gas is passed through the vanes sodium carbonate crystallizes out and potassium iodide remains in so fter exact neutralization of the the potassium iodide is crystallized out. For special oer it is extracted by alcohol and recrystallized.— Bull. at I, XXxiv, pe Dec., 1880 On the Volumes of certain Elements at their Boiling Pointe oa as determined the volumes of sodium and bro at se boiling sb and in connection with Masson, of tik 1 of substance that it contained was evidently that required to fi the bulb at the boiling point; i. e. to occupy a known volume. Hence the ebullition-volume could be easily calculated. Four determinations made in this manner gave for the specific. weight of bromine 2°9503, 2°9474, 2°9483 and 2-9471; for its specific vol- ume 0°3390, 0°3393, 0°3392 and 0°3393 ; and for _ atomic volume 27°12, 27°14, 27°13 and 27°15. Or as a mean, wt, 2°9483, Sp- vol. 0°3392, and at. vol. 27°135. The pho aphor was fused ip a tu * J. Chem. ag xxxv, 463, July, 1879. Chemistry and Physics. 137 ble error of +-0°3987, For sodium, ae shee 8 oes was made of iron, though essentially similar in After the bulb was filled with liquid sodium it was nee nan iron pot itr agg 20 grams of this metal, a tight cover having a small opening wa fastened on and the whole was heated on a charcoal fire. weighed sp. wt. thus obtained was 0°7414; sp. vol. 1°3490; at. vol. 31:0. Ramsay calls attention to the fact — —— and all the ily probably have but vi ato volum either when free or in combination. (For free bias this i is 27°135 and for aoushitied bromine 28°1.) Sulphur, like oxygen, has two atomic volumes in combination, 22°6 and 28° ‘6, 1 its atomic volume when free being 21°6. As to phosphor us, since eal has three atomic volumes, one in amines, one in cyanides and ni- triles and one in the nitryl group, it is probable that this ‘element has more than one when in combination. Hitherto its atomic vol- oO phide.—J. Ch, yeaah 728, Dee. 1380. . the Eh drocarbons of ‘American Petrol ee Bona and Kunsa ATOW, in their research upon the petroleum of the Cau- casus,* regarded the facility with which this petroleum was attacked by nitric acid as a proof of the absence of the hydro- carbons To test this conclusion further, and to ascer- tain exactly the resistance to the action of nitric ee offered by * This Journal, III, xxi, 67, Jan., 1881. 138 Scientific Intelligence. gr. 0°7192 at 15°5°, was prepared from American ligroin. It gave on analysis C 84°3, H 15:4; C,H,, requiring C 84, H 16 per cent. addition-products of the benzene series, as in the Caucasian petro- an examination; and from s ;H,,NO,. Hence the nitro-product of the American petroleum belongs to the marsh gas series, while that of Caucasian is de- rived from the ethylene series C,H, NO,.— Ber. Berl. Chem. @es., xlii, 2028, Nov. 1880. G. F. Be 5. nulin.—Kiiant has published a research upon inulin i e tions which require a long warming with water or need the pres ence of dilute acids, the inulin is replaced by levulose. BY r, compoun cal atoms, saccharic (perhaps gluconic) acid ; while levulose similarly treated affords bodies with a less content of carbon; glycolic and Chemistry and Physics. 139 6. On Saccharin and Saccharinie Acid.—ScuEtsiER has ex- mined carefully the new glucose derivative discovered by Peli ot and called saccharin, to which he assigned the formula or its preparation dextrose or levulose or a mixture of both’ may be used. The best material is the solid starch- sugar of commerce, A kilogram was dissolved in 7 or 8 liters of boiled with freshly wheres calcium carbonate the latter is dissolved with evolu and calci e saccharin and water. To this body saccharin, therefore, ‘Scheibler assigns the structural formula CH, (OH) —CH(OH)—CH(OH)—CH~—CH,—co wo The s tallieable, except those of potassium and ammonium, Optically, saccharin is dextrorotatory, [a]p>= +93°8. But the saccharinates are levorotatory, the calcium salt giving [a]>=—5°7 and the sodium salt aan Further pg eae are in sa es i er. Berl. Chem. Ges., xiii, trons lhe 18 a 7. On the Synthesis of Tr Acid. _Latensiie Paty Rie HEIMER have succeeded in effecting the synthesis of tropic acid. By the action of phosphoric chloride Soha ne dichlor- ethylbenzene was prepared by the re C,H oe +PCl, EM 3 | co, CH ,+ POCI,. acid.— B, Ges., xiii, 2041, 8, perimental Tank upon the nagebers rotutory "Pol ization pe Gases—M. Henri Becqueret carefully a his apparatus and the means taken to eliminate all causes of erro his difficult determinations. A copper tube 0°122™ in Aameier and 3-27" in length enclosed the gases and this was made the 140 Scientific Intelligence. core of an electro-magnet. By means of mirrors at each end of the tube a ray from a lime light was made to traverse many times by successive reflections the column of air or gas. The principal magnitude as those of the magnetic rotations of the same bodies in the solid, liquid or gaseous states. The following conclusions are drawn from the investigation. (1) Bodies in the gaseous state, as well as solid substances and liquids, have the property of deviating the plane of polarization when submitted to magnetic influence, The magnetic rotations of the plane of polarization of rays of different wave lengths traversing the same gas (oxygen ex- cepted) are generally inversely as the squares of the length of i d xygen presents an anomaly which is apparently connected gas.— Annales T q Fe ° ° The influence of Gases and Steam upon the Optical proper 5 . m are not condensed in a quantity apparent to the eye, no change of phase takes place in reflection.— Ann. der Physik und Chemie, Nov. 11, 1880. =f Shia 10. A Physical Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism; by J. E. H. Gorpon, B.A., Cambridge. 8vo. (D. Appleton & Co.,N. Y.) gram would have answered i ny cases better than the finely finished perspective views, and there would have been more for solid informati A full page, for instance, is given to on catalogues, Chemistry und Physics. 141 will be ge prides its perusal. The treatise also contains a fu account 0. author evidently desired to do for the physical side of electricity and magnetism what Maxwell has done for the mathematical even if he is not a mathematician, will gain a very good knowl- * From the Philosophical Magazine for December, 1880, 142 Scientific Intelligence. present. Thus an electric field can be mapped or po out so that its ens can be indicated graphically. n an electric field is in a state of tension or strain; an nd the stress which leads to pg discharge. Hence we can represent this limit by a length. We can produce disruptive dis- charge either by approaching the electrified surfaces producing the electric field near Ags each other, or by i poicgeet the ana of electricity present upon them ; for in —° we shoul increase the Seip aneoTA force and close up, as 3 B Leer the air, fons an electrified system. There would be an n elec- c field; and if we take a small portion of this system, it woul be ‘uniform. The —— ba'b’. would = — of force; a0 nd cd,c' d',c’ ad’ . uld be + equipolniial plan If the cloud gradually approached ~ carts surface (fig. 2 the field would become more intense e equipotential surfaces would evidond ly close up, the tension of the air would increase until at last the limit of resistance of the air e f would be reached ; disruptive discharge would take place, with its attendant thunder Chemistry and Physics. 143 and lightning. We can let the line ef represent the limit of resistance of the air if the field be drawn to scale; and we can thus trace the conditions that determine disruptive discharge. a a ee = = crn en ae ‘oe ~——__- . at If the earth-surface be not flat but have a hill or a building, as H or L, upon it, then the lines of force and the equipotential lanes will be distorted, as shown in fig. 3. the hill or building so high as to make the distance H A or L / equal to e f (fig. 2), then we shall again have disruptive discharge. If instead of a hill or building we erect a solid rod of metal, GH, then the field will be distorted as shown in fig. 4. Now it is quite evident that whatever be the relative distance of the cloud = a eee, Z a “gat iG LASS BAM BaP se oat I Fe ag G eee and earth, or whatever be the motion of the cloud, there must be ‘along which the lines of force must be longer than ; and h Let us assume that a thunder-cloud is approaching the rod A B (fig. 5) from above, and that it has reached a point D’ where the distance D’ B is equal to the perpendicular height D’ C’. It is evident that, if the potential at D be increased until the striking- distance be attained, the line of discharge will be along D'‘C or 144 Scientific Intelligence. D’ B, and that the length AC’ is under protection. Now the nearer the point D’ is to D the shorter will be the length A C’ under _____ protection ;_ but the _ === = minimum length will =| “ig Fig. 5- lower than the perpen- circumference of the portion of the circle ~ B . A G : DB) would be at a less distance from D than either the point B or the point C. ; Hence «a lightning-rod protects a conie space whose height 1 the length of the rod, whose base is a circle having its radius equal to the height of the rod, and whose side is the quadrant of 4 circle whose radius is equal to the height of the rod. have carefully examined every record of accident that was available, and I have not yet found one case where damage was inflicted inside this cone when the building was properly protected. ere are many cases where the pinnacles of the same turret o! 4 church have been struck where one has had a rod attached to 1; but it is clear that the other pinnacles were outside the cone; 20 therefore, for protection, each pinnacle should have had its ow? rod. It is evident also that every prominent point of a building should have its rod, and that the higher the rod the greater 18 the space protected. Grorce Luna, Ph.D., F.C.S. Vol. III, 422 pp. 8vo. London, 1880 (J. Van Voorst).—The preceding volumes of this very valu- able work have been noticed in full in this Journal (vol. xix, 239 and xxi, 70). The early part of the third and concluding volume contains the closing chapters on the soda industry, including ® tic he two hundred pages following are devoted to bleaching- and chlorate of potash; the manufacture of chlorine by different method ot bleaching-powders, with her related works, and a second in which much valuable matter supplement: ary to the body of the work is included. A ee ee he Oe ae ¥ iia SO fins ask Geology and Natural History. 145 Il. GEOLOGY AND NATURAL HIsTory. to show that the lava-fields of northwestern Europe are examples to a large extent of such non-volcanic ejections. Professor Geikie first observes that the volcanoes of the Medi- vents, like those of Etna, the Aolian Islands, the Phlegrzan fields, or the Greek Archipelago ;” and now, the statement that “the origin of whose horizontal or nearly horizontal interstratified tufas he says he attempted again and again to e author next recounts the facts which he had himself observed in Western America, and states that these first enabled him to understand Richthofen’s descriptions and the basalt-sheets of his own country. From his paragraphs we take the following: “Never shall I forget an afternoon in the autumn of last year region of the Yellowstone and Madison. We had been riding for 146 Scientific Intelligence. valleys, and on the morning of the last day, after an interview with an armed party of Indians (it was only a few days before the disastrous expedition of Major Thornburgh, and the surround- ing tribes were said to be already in a ferment), we emerged from the mountains upon the great sea of black lava which seems to _more stupendous series of voleanic phenomena has yet been discovered in any part of the globe than those of north- pe the Faroe Islands and Iceland, was rent by innumerable fissures in a prevalent east-and-west or southeast-and-northwest direction. These fissures, whether due to sudden shocks or slow disruption, The paper gives further details respecting these British ejections, and alludes also to the great basaltic plateaux of Ab ssinia and ra Geology and Natural History. 147 2. Volumes of solid and liquid Cast Iron, with reference to the theories of Volcanic action.—Under the above title Mr. J. B. Hannay presents, in the Proceedings of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow for January, 1880, the results of experiments on cast iron. He first refers to the view of Messrs. Nasmyth and Car- penter, in their work on the Moon, that fusible substances, with few exceptions, are specifically heavier in their molten state than in the solid, and that, consequently, they expand on becoming solid, which view they sustain by referring to a fact recognized by iron founders, that a mass of solid cast iron dropped into molten iron of the same precise kind will float on it; and whence they draw the conclusions that solidification benéath the earth’s and depressions, over the surface. Mr. Hannay states that in his experiments, spheres of iron three to six inches in diameter were dropped into a bath of the same metal four feet wide and two ma course, as the sphere melted away. Another trial gave the same results, and the value was found to be constant. In other experi- ments the balls were fishe t wh eir maxi tempera- ture; and they showed, by the “tide-mark” left, the exact depth ubmergence, and also the relation between the volumes ensi- and *000065, giving a mean of -000060 per degree Centigrade. an account of experiments on the same point by Mr. Joseph Whitby and Mr. T. Wrightson. Mr. Wrightson’s earliest ex- periments are published in the British Association Report for 1879, p. 506, ero results, from a much larger number of ex- periments on metals, are given in a paper in the “ Journal of the 148 Scientific Intelligence. concludes that the results are not favorable to Sir Wm. Thomson’s (or Hopkins’s) hypothesis, that while the earth was passing from a liquid to a solid state, cooled fragments of the earth’s crust would have descended deeply toward the earth’s interior, and built up a sort of irregular interior framework to support the at last successfully forming crust.* Mr. Hannay observes that slags and even molten granite show the same phenomenon—the solid floating on the liquid; that from experiments he has made at blast furnaces on the Clyde, he has invariably found this to be the result, though he has not yet had quantity being stated to be so great in the Bear Islands and the islands of New Siberia that “the ground is largely composed of the bones of Mammoths and the associated animals,” In the last paper plants associated with the bones in the beds containing them, 48 a by investigators, that the flora of this same N orthern in a places shown species of Helix, Planorbis, Valvata, Limnea, Cy nodonta. of trunks and branches of large trees (little altered) are very extensive, especially in the no herp 7 regions where the bones most abound, far beyond the reach of Siberian climate in the era of the Mammoth was far more tempe? ate than now; that thé vegetation was much like that of Souther? Siberia, the larch, willow and Alnaster being the prevailing trees; that probably Lithuania “ where the Bison now survives, an here so many of the other contemporaries of the Mammoth still live, P?™® * Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1876, Part II, p. 8. ~~ 9 SP Cee eee F > Ye Pee sit Geology and Natural History. 149 sents to us a not unfaithful picture of what Northern Siberia must have been like from the Urals to Bebring’s Straits.” 4, imatic Changes of later Geological times: a dis- cussion based on observations made in the Cordilleras of North erica; by J. D. Wurrney. Memoirs of the Museum of Com- parative Zoology at Harvard College. Vol. VI, No. 2. Part I. 120 pp. 4to. Cambridge, 1880.—This volume commences with a chapter on the glacial and surface geology of the Pacific Coast. It discusses the action of glaciers, argues that they cannot make lake basins, except through the inclosures its moraines may have formed, and attributes the erosion of glacier valleys chiefly to the latitude 36°; but owing to declining height northward, they are less extensive north of the Tuolumne (37° 30’) than to the south. : ting’ : as never entered that valley. Its walls bear no glacier-made mark- ings. The glacial appearances of localities farther north are also treated of with many interesting details. In no part of the Sierra Nevada are they met with below a level of 2,000 feet above the sea, * closing chapter of the work. The facts are mentioned with regard the former wide limits of existing lakes between the Sierra k 150 Scientific Intelligence. western part of the continent ; and the conclusion is reached that the cause of the great desiccation was climatological, and not a ee es of change vel, a Lectures on Physical ceoge aphy; by the Rev. Sciay! eee F.R.S., M.D. Dubl. and D.C.L. Oxon.; Fellow of Trinity College, and Professor of ‘Geslegs in the Diivcaies of ublin. . 386 pp. 8vo. Dublin, 1880. (Longmans, Green & Co., London. ST geod Haughton’s poi aa ag studies connected with certain points in physical geography have been of much service to geology. The lectures here Published with cheat be pended notes bring out some of these points, as well as many generally accepted views, and discuss a few others of like zoolge sa interest. Even if the results are in some cases unsatisfying, wing to the use of insufficient data, the work is an important santetietion to the science of terrestrial physics. The first lecture presents some recent views as to “the past ced and future prospects of the earth,” involved in the assumed the nebular hypothesis, and the recent inference of as- eal that fe earth’s day is » awiy shortening. sec reats of “continents and oceans, volcanoes and mountains.” The heights of cy antes and depths of oceans are briefly reviewed, and a few general deductions brought out as to axes (following the Agri remand of elevation, corresponding one to each as pr d of ivy dante one to each ocean, which axes ere 8,000 to 12,000 feet durin the eis Ai of the "Tertiary peal the Miocene and Plio sone), i a oe height. The vast extent of these movements we the earth’s oie interi Lantien III considers ‘‘ - laws of climate ‘a atmospheric and oceanic hel ” Heat from the earth’s interior, and that from a ces sun are ore made the prominent sources of the earth’s early climates. But the author returns to the subject a note to the sixth Scape many pages in length, in which he applies to the case of the earth’s surface Rossetti’s law of cooling: on the supposition that the _— of heat is ‘ ie sun-heat alone; second, earth-heat alone; and, third, variations in the ther mal conditions of the earth’s PN ihe other ie Cae in each Geology and Natural story. 151 of these cases being supposed to be as they now are. The final “probable” conclusions thence reached are: that “ the chief factor in changes of geological climate appears to have been the slow secular cooling of the sun;” that since life began on the globe, e earth’s interior heat can not be regarded as “the sole and immediate cause of change of climate;” that the carbonic acid and moisture of the atmosphere have added to the warmth of past climates, the former chiefly during Paleozoic and earlier times. e adds that the cold and precipitation of the Glacial era “ was robably due to atmospheric changes caused by a temporarily a rate of heat-radiation from the sun.” a note he introduces his calculations with regard to the total annual heat received at each point of the earth’s surface, and on the amount of the loss of that heat caused by radiation into space ; in which he finds that the whole amount of the sun’s heat received Is equivalent to that required to melt a layer of ice over the whole globe 80°5 feet thick, and that the part lost by radiation is equiv- alent to 28-5 feet of ice in thickness, leaving 51°5 feet, or more than 5-8ths of the whole, to be accounted for not as heat but as work, a lengths of the geological ages as measured by the maximum thickness of sedimentary deposits, and by the rate of progress in its cooling climate. But, in the calculation, the Cambrian or Primordial era (in which Trilobites, Brachiopods an orms were already in the seas) is united to the Azoic (Archzan), and thus it 1s made to antedate the epoch (of which he makes special use) when a mean Arctic temperature of 122° F. (that of the coagula- tion of albumen) was reached by the earth. Moreover the calculations make the time between the era of the uniformitarian Professor Haughton rightly opposes, since it appears to have no sufficient support in geological facts. But that of regu- lar —- in declining temperature is in equal disagreement ve been, and probably were, many maxima and minima in the course of the progress Am. Jour, penhcrea _—— Vou. XXI, No, 122.—Fxs., 1881. 152 Scientific Intelligence. It is probable, from recent discoveries, that the Arctic flora, referred to the Miocene by Heer, was actually Eocene ; and if so, Professor Haughton’s conclusion as to the length of after time would be more reasonable, But so many doubts invest the sub- of a number of large rivers is estimated, an m deduced; and Lecture VI, on the Geographical Distribution of Animals and Plants, which treats also of the relations of species to climates with reference to geological questions, and assumes the existence of a once large and flourishing Antarctic Continent to help in explaining the origin of the resemblances which exist Sout 1¢ Tail Many other topics, besides these here mentioned come under consideration in Professor Haughton’s volume, making it a work of wide interest. Address by H. C. Sorpy, F.R.S., President of the Ge0- logical Society of London, at the Anniversary meeting in Febrt- ary, 1880. 60 pp. 8vo.—Mr. Sorby’s presidential address 1s one of the most important of recent contributions to geologica scopic investigation into the condition and_ structure of the grains of non-calcareous stratified rocks, carried on in order to study out the true history or mode of origin of the rocks ; and the rocks which are considered embrace tragmental rocks, from loose rocks, and slates as the passage way b en the metamorph and the preceding. The methods of distinguishing microscopl™” ally som th ommon minerals in slices and in sane, the aid of polarized light, are also considered and elucidated by ew rese s. The lopment also of lamination, slaty structure and foliation, is among the subjects of investigatio” and receives new light. the various topics are brought out 1 rock, whether friable or not, consisting of an aggregation, Geology and Natural History. 153 depolarizes like a uniaxial erystal having the principal axis per- pendicular to the cleavage. When the mica scales conform thus In position to the plane of bedding in a slate, the author holds that they are probably of fragmental origin; since he has found In other slates in which the mica was “formed in situ, that the crystals of mica are not stratified but lie at all possible azimuths, and moreover are collected about special centers.” As an inference from the study of slates and other rocks, he j of ¢ true mica schist,” the only essential difference being in the differ- ence in size of the crystals. Some fine-grained mica schists are land were originally slates” is worked out microscopically with great care, and the very probable conclusion is reached that taking into consideration the character of both the feldspathic and quartzose grains,” the material was to a considerable extent derived from a granite of a type very unlike that of Cornwall, but in some respects analogous to that of Aberdeen, though differing om it in being more like a quartz felsite. These are a few of the deductions, in the Address, arrived at from the study of the least promising of all rock-formations— sand-beds and ‘slates, 7. Geological Survey of Pennsylvania.—Great progress has been made toward the completion of the geological survey of 154 Scientific Intelligence. > ot eg = Q. e a] ° bee | cr ° 1] o > @ ° es box 9°) 3B. S mM o Q = pe oe nm et oS ® “3 @® m =] fe, ae ° s - 1 ~ gf fan] engineers. About twenty square miles, including the Wyoming \ uo since by Professor Lesley. Such investigations, besides aiding the miner, give a closely approximate idea of the amount of ca" In a scientific way, also, the reports have great value. e “ Keystone State” is eminently such geologically ; and its survey is solving several problems for the country, besides giving us 0% best knowledge of its Coal-era vegetation. Geology and Natural History. 155 The report of the Commissioner states that only three years more of work are needed to complete the survey ; and it has been said rightly, that if continued and finished as proposed, it will be one of the most complete works of the kind ever accomplished, and will be worth to the State and its citizens many times its comparatively trifling cost. é report of Mr. Ashburner on McKean County, including the Bradford oil-region, has been recently issued, and will be noticed in another number of this Journal. 8. The Quaternary after the Era of the cave-animals in Europe. —M. Tarpy, in a paper in the Bulletin of the Geological Society of France for April 7, 1879, states that a bed of gravel, sands and clays, called red diluvium (“ diluviums rouges”), occurs over a large part of France and the adjoining countries, covering the less and other deposits containing remains o ve-animals, Mammoth and in many places human remains or relics near Paris and from there extends south. bert describes it about Bordeaux; and Casiano de Prado states that it overlies the stratified diluvium which contains bones of the Elephas primigenius and rolled pebbles, near Madrid, extending over the plateau of New Castille. Near Madrid it has an elevation of 660 1 ‘ are for the most part angular, and the beds show little stratifica- tion. The age to which this “red alluvium” is referred by Tardy is between the era of the mammoth and cave-animals (the equiva- lent of the Champlain period) and that of the neolithic beds or domesticated animals of Europe (or that of ‘the early part of the modern period anew and deepened.—Professor Joun J. STEVENSON has described (Proc. Am. Phil. oc., Aug., 1880) cases of re-eroded channel- ways on the Canadian and Mora Rivers, near Fort Union, in New Mexico. The original cafions of these rivers were cuts a thousand that of the top of the basalt. Mr. Stevenson’s paper contains a Section of the two streams two miles above their junction, show- ing similar features in the two as to the depth of the basalt and th he new narrow channel cut through it into the subjacent sandstone, In other parts of the streams, the new channel follows the margin of the basalt. The basalt is that of a volcano seven miles east of Fort Union in the southern extremity of the Turkey Mountains, Entering the Mora cafion, the liquid rock flowed 156 Screntific. Intelligence. onward to its mouth and, then, nearly three miles wp the Canadian cation. How far down this river was not ascertained. The enormous extent of the erosion over the plains which pre- ceded the time of the eruption of this basalt, the author attributes to an era of unusual precipitation that had then n passed by. 10. On the occurrence of “oa nak gi el Hall ; b Wiu.iams. (Communicated.)—Th specimen of this Trilo- bite of which aes ieae notice tas “tat taken is, so far as I can and 9 Plate 10. The same otis so, is figured in the “ Tineeatios of Devonian Fossils,” 1876, Plate xx, figs. 32-34, and the same notice is given of the specimen, so that we take for granted that in 1876 Professor Hall had seen only this specimen. The original specimen is said to have come from “far northeast of Des Moines, and is regarded as from Hamilton rocks by Hall. have recently examined two more specimens of the same species, one a pygidium about the size of Hall’s specimen, and the other a complete and nearly perfect specimen, but only about a third as large, folded up, and the pygidium protruding beyond the anterior margin of the glabella, asin the original s specimen. They agree well with Hall’s s description and figure. The “nine” dorsal segments, the “ twenty annulations on the axis of the pygidium,” and the other details of the description are well carried out. Only about twenty of the annulations on the axis could be counted in the larger specimen, but there was still room for two or three 1 to count beyond fifteen or sixteen, but the proportion 0 of those seen and their relations to the length of the axis leave little doubt of the perfect identity of these with the original form as The specimens were sent for examination by Edwin Walters, Principal of the Madiesn Public Schools, Madison, Kansas. He writes that they were found in a blue limestone near Madison, found northeast of DesMoines, Iowa, where Carboniferous strata crop out, if one does not go too ar into the corner of the State. Still, from what we know of the two localities, the Kansas rocks are more noe than those of northeastern Iowa Mr. ers promises to make further examination, and a few ens oa Pit will fix with greater accuracy the horizon of this species. It certainly is one of the later ee of its race, and may prove to be the last one know Cornell University, Ithaca, December, 1880. Geology and Natural History. 157 11. The Northern Sahara.—Mr. G. Rotuanp has a paper on the Geology and Hydrology of the Northern Sahara (south of Algiers and Tunis between Biskra and El Goleah, 350 miles) in country as rocky, and states that Cretaceous strata, consisting of constitute, in nearly horizontal beds, high plateaus, and are overlaid by the Quaternary. The Cretaceous formations recognized by the fossils, as near El Goleah and Mechgarden, are the Cenomanian and Turonian. The Quater- nary deposits are coarse, but regularly stratified, and are of fresh- a her : : : has shown, for the occurrence of Cardium edule as a common shel along with fresh-water species. 12. Aretie Coal.—The mineral coal of Grinnell Land, near the ° 43’ N. an o 0°52, ash 6°49, water 2°01=100. e composition is like that of much Carboniferous bituminous coal, which it resembles closely in luster. Sp. gr.= 1°3. he coal cakes when heated and affords 61 per cent of a coherent coke. 13. The Claiborne Group and its remarkable fossils; by Pro- fessor P. H. Mer, Jr., Auburn, Alabama. 10 pp. 8vo, 1880. (Trans. Amer. Inst. of Mining Engineers.)—The author of this alae can not be a geologist. In a section on page 5, stated to h 6“ r fi 29 . Drift t ry.—A new p 4to, bearing the title “ Beitrige zur Palaeontologie von Oester- re 158 Scientific Intelligence. actually passed through the flooring leaving sharply cut outlines of their angles in the siliceous bricks. The refractory basic brick were made from an aluminous magnesian limestone. The result- ing fused mass was partly in semi-transparent crystals of long prismatic form, either colorless or greenish, with sp. gr. = 2°934; and they afforded on analysis the formula of a lime-and-magnesia pyroxene—the results obtained being Silica 55°35, lime 23°24, magnesia 16°20, alumina and iron-sesquioxide 4:20, water, loss, etc. 1:01 = 100, corresponding, if the alumina and iron are set aside as impurity, to ({Mg+4Ca)SiO.. : 16. Fossil Sponge-spicules from a clay bed in the Carboniferous strata near Sligo, Scotland; by Professor H. J. Carrer (Ant. ag ist., V, xxxiii, 209).—Of the spicules here described, the most common is a sexradiate stellate kind, with 6 to 24 rays, according to the subdivisions of the arms, and having each ray spiriform—named by Carter Holasterella Wrightii ; the other kinds are the hexactinellid, lithistid, and a sausage-shaped ind, like that of some of the Reniere of the present day. Holasterella conferta has been found in a similar clay near Glasgow. Mr. Car- and, thirdly, that the rhomboidal excavations on the surface of the spicules and the partial absorption of the spicules themselves, leaving nothing but their moulds, arises from the changes which the siliceous element itself is now undergoing—that is, becoming decomposed and removed, or passing from an amorphous state into clear quartz prisms.” : 17. Glaciation of the Shetland Isles and the Orkneys.— Ths subject has been well studied by Messrs. B. N. Peach and 4. orne. A paper by them on the Shetland Isles, published 10 the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society for 1879, is referred to on page 72 of the last volume of this Journal; and another, 0” ~ Geology and Natural History. 159 the Orkney Islands, has since appeared in the ny J — for 1880 (pp. 648- 66 3). In the former it was he striated surfaces and other evidence, that the region of the ’ Shet- land Isles had been glaciated by Scandinavian ice; and in the latter also the agency of the Scandinavian ice-movement is recog- nized; and the course of movement in both regions was mostly between W.N.W. and N.N.W. But while the Scandinavian glacier- mass was concerned in the great movement over both regions, in the case of the Orkneys, which are near Northern Scotland, the ice glaciating them came mainly, if not wholly, from Northeastern Scotland. This is apparent from the fragments of Scottish rocks, so moving northwestward, in the direction of least resistance. The authors state that there is no evidence of marine drift deposits on the islands; and the absence of marine shells from the bowlder- clay is thought to “ probably indicate that a portion of the present sea-floor round Shetland formed dry land during the climax of alacial cold.” The facts are stated to confirm the views advo- eated by Dr. Croll more than ten years since. Two maps illus- trate the recent article, one showing the striations of the Orkneys, and the other, the “probable path of the ice,” from Scandinavia and Scotland over the islands named, and beyond to the margin of the saben trough of the ocean Queensland Geology. Repo ort on the Geology and Mineral Selvattes of the district beet Charters Towers Goldfields and the Coast ; by R. L. Jack, F.G.8., Geological Surveyor Northern Queensland. Brisbane, s 9. 19. Mineral discoveries in Alewander Co ounty, North Carolina. —Mr. W. E. Hippen, who has been engaged for some time past colorless crystals. The crystals are well terminated and often highly modified, resembling those from Siberia; they are gener- ally implanted in cavities. A few fine crystals of a light chrome- green have been found loose in the soil on the Warren plantation. SpopumeNe is found on the Warren and Lyon plantations in small transparent crystals of a beat a color, associated with rutile, beryl, orthoclase an pyrit a narrow vein. This variety of ’spodumene has been caliea: Hiddenite by Dr. Smith (see p. nals eames is found in brilliant se often genicu- ent and of a beautiful deep red ¢ The best from Milholland’s mill and ohnson’s. Mosueai in anal islendent crystals occurs with rutile at Milholland’s mill, QwvuARTz occurs 160 Scientific Intelligence. rutile, tourmaline, spodumene, and siderite. Other crystals con- tain flu id cavities. OrTHocLASE occurs in large well-formed crystals (one weighed 40 lbs.) on the Price and Keever lands in a coarse gran nitic vein, associated with beryl, ritcsdewesee colum- bite, autunite, mica. Tourmatine in fine brown-black crystals are found in the Price mine, also brilliant back crystals at B. Lyon’s. In addition to the minerals already named, graphite, 2 Soon magnetite also occur in the count 0. Analysis of boners Jrom the Vulture mine, Arizona; by S.F-Prs NFIBLD, (Communicated).—The occurrence of jarosite with gold in the Vulture mine, ee rizona, has been mentioned by Prof. B. Silliman (this Journal, xviii, 73, 1879). The variety analyzed is found in minute transparent crystals of a brownish-yellow color. It forms a frosted coating on cellular quartz, giving to the speci- men a somewhat rusty look ; under the microscope, however, the coating is resolved into distinct individual crystals, delicately grouped together. The crystals are tabular in habit, being a com- bination of the basal and rhombohedral planes; the angle of OA was measured approximately and the result agreed with that siti accepted (1243°). The mineral is slightly eee in water, the solution giving 4 reaction feos sulphuric acid but not for iron, An analysis on ma terial free from acy Aeaaie a little quartz, gave :— Fe.0; K,0 Na,.O 4.0 Qua Sp. gravity=3-09. 30-42 48°27 8°53 0°28 12°91 Be ote =101° 49 The calculated ratio for SO; : FesO;: K,0(Na.0): H,O=4: 3°18: 0°99: 7°55. The water determination is probably ere in error; if the amount be determined by difference (=11°42), the result differs DH Ke, from the ratio required by the formula K,SO,+Fe,5,0,, 21. Jarosite from Colorado.—Dr. G. A. Kinte has recently de- scribed jarosite from the Iron Arrow Mine, Chaffee Co., Colorado. It occurs in seams and cavities in a siliceous tur gite and hematite. It is found in minute brilliant crystals (2 with 0) isolated, also in groups and in crystalline crusts. The crystals are transparent, a li cific gravity =3°144, An 86a, a afforded Os Fe.0, K,0 Na,O H SiO. 28°57 6110 713 0°34 10°56 240 =100°80 Rejecting the silica as an impurity, also 8-7 p. c. turgite (Fe, H,0,), the remainder is found to correspond to 89°6 c. of jarosite ia trees oa Ave | +Fe,S,0.,+2H,Fe,0,) with “4 As ce. water in excess, —F¥06 cad. N at Sci. co 1880, p. 3 gravels of Brindletown in the summer of 1879. Subseque ah search in the vicinity bie proved its distribution through all the ae Si eo ish hin =| Geology and Natural History. 161 gold placers of the surrounding count Its best locality is on the northern slope of the Pilot Mountain, especially at the mine of Capt. J. C. Mills. The crystals are commonly tabular in form, consisting of the a planes 1 and (0, though bei sien me also been observed of the Som od common octahedral habit. few were highly modified. The dull ~s striated pare to 1 and 1-7. The prismatic (/) cleav- age can often be seen. The crystals are well preserved and unu- average a line in thickness. Color from greenish-yellow to black. Some few are quite colorless and transparent and would admit of polariscopic examination. In only one capes were they found im- planted and that was on quartz. They occur loose in the gravel, having hae derived from the didatearntion of the local schists. The acc mpanying minerals are monazite, xenotime, fergusonite, samarskite, zircon, Brodkite and. thirty-five other distinct minera species. n Urano-thorite.-—-Professor PETER CoLiieER has described a Eivorst from the Champlain iron region (exact locality un- known), which is closely related to pot Ri pe but differs in containing considerably more uraniu It has a dark red- brown co or, a resinous or sub-vitreous " luster, yellow-brown streak and sub-conchoidal fracture. Hardness about 5; specific gravity =4°126. It is infusible before the blowpipe. An analy- sis yielded :— SiO. ThO, 020s — Al,0s AY CaO MgO Na,O H,O 1938 52°07 996 4-0 03 0-4 234 004 O11. 11°31=99°95 € name given to er ier has reference to the large amount ‘of uranium presen Bese contains 1°6 p. ¢., according to Berzelius.— Journal ae ve 2. Soe., vol. ii. 24. Mineralojia por Ianac ee Yko, Profesor de Quimica i Mineralojia en la Uuiversdake da Santiago de Chile. Third edi- tion. 762 pp. with 6 plates. Santiago, 1879.—The preceding edi- in 1860. Since that time he has published five Appendixes to this work, in addition to numerous articles printed in different scientific journals. It is consequently a great convenience to oe to have this new edition, in which the large num- r of new facts, due mostly to labors of the author himself, are incorporated, The minerals of Chili and the neighboring repub- lics are in many cases of peculiar interest, and for our knowledge of them we are indebted almost entirely to Professor Dome ko, whose unwearying and most successful activity in investigation, far removed as he i is — the scientific centers of the world, is gota of high pra Las Pavieies U. stones de la Republica rar oe Fe el Dr. D. uis BrRackEBuscH. 117 8vo. Buenos Aires, 1879. —Dr. Brackebusch has rendered a n important a ts Me to science in publishing in compact form a description of the minerals of the 162 Scientific Intelligence. eine at each. The fact that much of the matter has either not been published before, or, if at all, in periodicals not generally accessible, makes the book a valuable one to all interested in min- meaty and gives it more than a local interest 6. Zoology for High Schools and wpe the ‘by A.S, PackarD, ne Second edition, revised. New Yo Henry Holt & Co. 1880.—In this edition, many improvements have been intro- duced, and some errors contained in the first edition have been corrected. e pete asap figures of the brains of fishes On ss upotiests i the former fluidity of the aa, BY Professor Hennessy, (C. Rend., June, 1880).—Professor Hennessy here gives a calculation of the polar depression in Mars, supposing it to have been a result of rotation during a condition of fluidity. As- suming that the mass is distributed in spheroids of equal density, the density increasing from the surface to the center, and that the ellipticity depends on this law and the period of rotation of the planet, he arrives at the value : ee. 227°61 which he says’ is very near the peste oo in the careful observations of Professor C. A. Young,* namely, 1 ea 9 Professor Pir iecope also calculates the polar depression sUp- posing it t a result of erosion by a liquid moving over t the surface of the plaicet, ca obtains piu 1 ~ 179°24" which he observes is — larger than the results of the best measurements, e states, therefore, that Young’s result much better accords with the hypothesis of the former fluidity of the planet than with that of a shaping by erosion; and that this corre sponds with the parallel fact as regards the eart * This Journal, xviii, 206, March, 1880. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 163 IV. MIsceELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. Ocean temperatures in the Arctic— Observations taken on the S. 8. Gulnare, by O. T. Suzrman.—The following observations were taken on the Arctic 8. 8. Gulnare, during the summer of 1880. A Miller-Cassella thermometer was employed; its scale P steamer, at the time of making the observations, lay becalmed. If we refer to the older maps we see that on some the c . branch of the Gulf Stream. On the newer German maps the currents are shown overlapping in about latitude 61° N. The following table serves to give confirmation to this latter repre- sentation, and also indicates the limits and depth. TABLE I.—Deep Sea Temperatures. Depth in Lat. 60° 6’ N. Lat. 57° 33’ N, fathoms, Long. 56° 36’ W. Long. 55° 15’ W. 0 41°99 F 45°°0 F. 10 41°8 Nee ee ° 20 40°0 ere 30 ee a 45°0 60 39°0 40°0 ec 39°0 110 38°8 aps pe 150 38°2 40°0 270 40°8 iigute 300 40°8 a sa three times. These observations may also in part explain the bend in the curve representing the limit of ice. ‘enomena of some rarity in the surface temperatures and densities were also observed by us. When passing in front of a stacier outlet, or across the track of the ice pack, we suddenly the surface. On one oceasion we had to sink a thermometer ten fathoms before obtaining indications of a rise in temperature. _It is true that the outcropping of the Arctic current would give Similar phenomena, but to one on the spot the change was always 8een to be connected with the melting of the ice. 164 Miscellaneous Intelligence. TABLE IJ.—August 4, 1880. Density Position. Hour. T cmgunatars: JHyarometer, Remarks 5 44°°0 4°-0=1°02731 6 0 4°0=1°027383 7 46:0 4:0=1°'027383 8 35°5 -5=1:016492 ) A deep-sea ther- 9 36°0 ZO) U1 mometer s a POR = SE NEY erat See te eee hs ee athoms, Cape Desolation 10 39°5 3°0=1°020064 read 40° sighted abeam, Le 36°0 2°8=1°018644 12 36:0 $-2=——1] 0215631 1 37°0 2°8—1:018527 2 42°0 2°8=1°018652 S 42°0 3°0=1-020091 4 43°0 3-0=1°020107 August 5, 1880. 4 2 3°0=1°020122 Latitude 61° 27’, 3 3°0=1°020122 ; 4 36° 2°5—=1°016486 Opposite glacier, 5 BY 3-°0—1-020068 about 30 miles fi 37°83 2°8=1°018508 off shore. Lat. 63° N., long. 51°, Aug. 6, 1880. 4 38° 4-0=1°027246 5 3T-b 4-0=1°027240 6 38°0 4-0==1°027246 2. International Exposition of Electricity, under the patron age of the French Government at Paris, in 1881.—An Interna tional Exposition for the conference of electricians me the exhibi- tion of all kinds of electrical apparatus, practical and theoretical, us the 15th of November. The exposition is put under the depart ment of the Minister of the Post Oftice and Telegr aphy, M. AD. hoe and under the special superintendence of M. GEORGES Bere s Commissary General. The Palais des Champs Elysees is je for co exhibition. Announcements as to the appara tus and materials to be put on exhibition by individuals, and as to the space ie should be made to the Commissary, "General by the 31st of arch, who will send forms for their admission on being applied to, and special labels for packages, and will notify contributors by the 15th of May with respect to the space alloteee des Champs aan on and after July Ist. They should be addressed Com genial oe I de P Ber position internationale @ Electricité, au Pala s Champs Elysées, porte No. TV. No charge will be made We ve space given. Motive power will be furnished at a low price to such as desire it, but without chargé for all necessary experiments. The articles for exhibition will comprise ne Apparatus for the ab costes and transmission of electricity. Native and artificial wc a s and magnetic needles. Apparatus for the study of electricity. a Apparatus for its various applications ; for telegraphy and the Miscellaneous Intelligence. 165 reagan. ae vt sound ; for the predeane of heat; for illumina- and uses in light- houses and s signals ; for mines, , railro ads and and surgery; in astronomy, "meteorology ai. bac In agri- culture ; for registering purposes ; for working various adh of industrial machines, and for Sinicetie uses. Lightning rods. Collections of apparatus illustrating the his- tory of the subject and its applications from the earliest: times. Collections of books and memoirs pertaining to the science and to electrical industry. connection with the exposition, an International Congress of Electricians will be opened se the ae of September, under the aap of Minister Ap. HER . story %. the Jutties. at the Mouth of the Mississippi River ; ‘s E. L. Cortuets, C.E., Chief yaya sea resident Engineer ate ‘their construction. 383 pp. 8 numerous plates and ma ups. New York: 1880. (John “Wiley + Sons).— This volume gives a detailed history of the construction of the eee) jetties by Mr. James B. Eads, from the time when as first proposed until its final completion. The account is wetteen ¢ in popular style, and will be read with interest even by those who have no knowledge of the scientific pone sey ee in the work. The excellence of the scheme as a w s been proved by the success finally attained, and the a ee and enterprise with which it was carried forward in the face of dis- Mr. Eads, to whom the success of the esi is most of all due, orms a froutinpiees to the volume. s OBITUARY. An announcement of the death of M. CHasiEs appeared in the January number of this Journal. It occurred on the 18th of December last, in his 88th year, he having been born x gh 15th of November, 1793. It is nearly seventy years since the first Correspondence ; and his scientific activity has continued into the last year of his long life. The larger works of M. Chasles are five in number: Apergy orique sur I Origine et le Développement des Méthodes en Geomitre, Traité de Géométrie Supérieure, Traité des Sections Coniques, Les trois livres des Porismes @ Euclid, aA Rapport sur 166 Miscellaneous Intelligence. le Progrés de = Géométrie en France. Besides these, however, there are between two and three hundred of his memoirs in the Academic publications and scientific journals. is demonstrations were imi le for their neatness and per- fection of form. In geometry this quality is all important. Shortly after his appointment as era! of Higher Geometry i in the Faculty of Sciences at Paris, he published his TZraité de Géométrie Supérieure. This wa s some years later followed by his Traité des Sections Coniques. In these volumes,.as well as in his memoirs, M, Chasles uses in his demonstration s, three conceptions in addition to those of Euclid, the anhar monte Junction of four these conceptions he introduces many of the advantages of ana- lytic geometry into what will probably still be regarded as syn- thetic geometry. If asked what is the real addition thus made to Euclid we might answer: 1st, the conception of plus and minus segments of lines, and, 2d, the use implicitly of the relations of the roots and coefficients of the equation of the second degree. t is, he added to synthetic geometry the resources of the algebra of simple and quadratic equations. With the skill of a master he wrought into formal and logical connection the theorems that have enriched geometry in these later years, adding eae new propositions and new chapters of his own to the science. Rarely has there lived a man more steadfast in his qevnde to one object through life, more simple in character and aims, more charming in social intercourse, more honored and baees bg all who had the good fortune to know him First agar ngs of the Department of Statistics and Geology of the State of Indiana 4 pp. ie ee 1879. Devoted to State Statistics, Agri rane "Sil, Vital, et Ann of kering. James Smithson and his Bequest, by William J. Rhees. 159 pp. 8vo , Wash- ington, 1880. {Boiithaontan Miscellaneous magni Pgs This vo olume con- tains a sketch of the life of James Smithso list of his writings, notices of his death and tributes to his memory; it en a statement in regard to ntroduction to the Study of Indian Languages with words, phrases and sen- tences, to be collected by J. W. Powell. 4to, with several charts. Washington, 1880. This volume is intended to aid those engaged in collecting linguistic and ethnographic facts from the Indian tribes. After a chapter on the alphabet, and another of “hints and explan sagging Ragas 1 dean together about 76 pages, there are 150 pages of schedules, for n taking notes, containing, in a mar nal column, lists of objects and se 8, with broad blank columns for the corre spon ding Indian terms and additional remarks, gle Gl) og ty cn eli le Sal ac Pia Seat Siac 60 a, Ae Feel ae APPENDIX. Arr. XTX.—Principal Characters of American Jurassic Dino- saurs; by O.C. MarsH. Part IV. Spinal Cord, Pelvis, and Limbs of Stegosaurus. With three Plates. _ Iva previous article,* the writer brought together the more Important facts then known in regard to the Stegosauria, one of the most singular groups of extinct reptiles hitherto discovered. n the present communication some additional characters of these animals are recorded, even more remarkable than those previously brought to light. Tue Brain anp Sprnat Corp. The general form and comparative size of the brain in this reptile is represented in Plate VI, figures 1 and 2. During a subsequent investigation of another individual of the same genus, the writer found a very large chamber in the sacrum, formed by an enlargement of the spinal canal. This chamber was ovate in form, and strongly resembled the brain case In the skull, although very much larger, being at least ten times the size of the cavity which contained the brain. This remarkable feature led to the examination of the sacra of sev- eral other individuals of Stegosaurus, and it was found that all 5 a similar large chamber in the same position. The form * This Journal, vol. xix, p. 253, March, 1880. lla 168 O. C. Marsh— American Jurassic Dinosaurs. The remarkable feature about this posterior brain-case, if so it may be called, is its size, in comparison with that of the true brain of the animal, and in this respect it is entirely without a not one-fourth as great as in Stegosaurus, It is an interesting fact then in young individuals of Stego- saurus the sacral cavity is proportionately larger than in adults, which corresponds to a well known law of brain growth. e physiological effects of a posterior nervous center, so many times larger than the brain itself is a suggestive subject, which need not here be discussed. It is evident, however, ihe in an animal so endowed, the posterior part was dominant. Tue Peretvic Arca. The true sacrum of Stegosaurus is composed of four well coéssitied vertebra. In fully adult animals the pelvic arch may be strengthened by the addition of one or more lumbar vertebra, as in the specimen figured in Plate VII, where two are firmly consolidated with the sacrum. The centra of the sacral vertebre are solid, like the others in the column. Their neural arches are especially massive, and the spines have high and expanded summits. e transverse processes of the sacral vertebrae are stout vertical plates, which curve downward below, and unite to meet the ilia. Each vertebra supports 1ts own process, although there is a tendency to overlap in_ front. There is a gradual increase in size from the first to the last sacral vertebra, and the first caudal is larger than the last sacra The ilium in Stegosaurus is a very peculiar bone, unlike any hitherto known in the Reptiles. Its most prominent feature is its great anterior extension in front of the acetabulum. Another striking character is seen in its superior crest, which curves inward, and firmly unites with the neural arches of the sacrum, thus roofing over the cavities between the transverse processes. The acetabular portion of the ilium is large and * The main facts here presented were communicated to the National Academy of Sciences, in a paper read at the New York meeting in November last. 0. C. Marsh—American Jurassic Dinosaurs. 169 shallow (Plate VII, figure 1, ac.) The face for union with the ischium is large and rugose, but that for the pubis is much less distinct. The post-acetabular part of the ilium is very short, scarcely one-third as long as the anterior projection. e ischium of Stegosaurus ungulatus was figured and de- scribed in the communication already cited. It is short and robust, and has a prominent elevation on the upper margin of the shaft (Plate VIII, figure 2). Its larger articular face meets a post-acetabular process of the ilium, and a smaller articula- tion joins the pubis. The shaft of the ischium is twisted so that it resembles somewhat the corresponding bone of Moro- saurus, _ The pubic element of the pelvis of Stegosaurus ungulatus is in general form somewhat like that of Camptonotus. The true pubis consists of a strong spatulate process, projecting forward nearly horizontally. (Plate VIII, figure 2, p.) Its proximal end articulates with the pre-acetabular process of the ilium. The post-pubie branch extends backward and downward, nearly to the end of the ischium. The two bones fit closely together in this region. The usual pubic foramen is in this species replaced by a notch, opening into the acetabular cavity. In a smaller undescribed species, which may be called Stegosaurus afjinis, the post-pubic bone is slender and more rod-like, not flattened, as in the specimen here figured. Tue Hinp Limp. The large bones of the leg of Stegosaurus ungulatus have already been figured, and their main characters described. The emur is remarkably long, and without a third trochanter. The tibia, on the other hand, is very short. When the animal stood at rest, these two bones of the leg were nearly in the same line, as shown in Plate VIII, figure 2. The fibula is slender, and has its larger end below. he astragalus is firmly codssified with the tibia, and the caleaneum is also united, but less securely. ere are three bones in the distal row of tarsals. (Plate VIII, figure 2.) The one on the inner side is massive, and semi-circular in transverse outline. The median tarsal is still larger, while the outer one 'S quite small. There are five well developed metatarsais, which are of moderate length, and robust proportions. The first digit is terminated by a strong, broad, ungual phalanx, the largest of the series. The second, third and fourth digits also have similar phalanges of smaller size. The outer digit has “ee a tubercle at itsextremity. The number of phalanges In the fourth and fifth digits has not been exactly determined, but they were less than the usual number. 170 O. C. Marsh—American Jurassic Dinosaurs. Tue Fore Limes. The principal bones in the scapular arch and fore leg of Stegosaurus were described and figured in the article already cited. In Plate VIII, figure 1, these are brought together, and the fore foot added in its natural position. The humerus an bones of the fore arm show clearly that this limb, although very small in proportion to the hind leg, was very powerful, and as it admitted of considerable rotation, it was doubtless used mainly for other purposes than locomotion. The foot here represented was found by the writer, with the bones nearly in the position indicated. There are only three carpal bones in the proximal series, and in this foot the distal segment of the carpus remained unossified. There are five digits, the fifth being the smallest. The great disproportion in size between the fore and hind limbs, as well as the structure of the principal joints in each, show plainly that Stegosaurus walked mainly as a biped. The massive posterior limbs, and the huge tail doubtless formed a tripod on which the animal rested at times, while the fore limbs were used for prehension, or defense. The heavy der- mal plates and powerful spines probably rendered the latter an easy task. Yale College, New Haven, Jan. 24th, 1881. SO re > M. JOURN. SCI., Vol. XXI, 1881. Plate VI. Figure 1—Brain-cast of Stegosaurus ungulatus, Marsh, side view ; ol, olfac- to Foss Sek ¢, fosmid oe op, optic ¢ lobes; on, opt ic nerve ; eb, cerebellum , me Figure 2. mney rain- aa oie from above. Figure 3.—Cast of borate cavity in bea of Stegosaurus ungulatus side Piel fe anteri ; f, foramen betwee sein oss st wr Prone ee Bac sce aed and third vertebre ; 7", tween third ap a Ta st vertebre ; iP soni - neural canal i os last Bees carta: Figure 4. cag to ast, seen fro Ov Figure 5.—0 Outlines representing transverse sections through same brain, and sacral cavi ,»b ra All the efgures are one ‘at aicae ‘la AM. JOURN. SCI., Vol. XXI, 1881. Plate VII. Figure 1.—Sacrum and ilia of Stegosaurus ungulatus, Marsh, seen from below. One-twelfth ra size. a, first sacral vertebra; 0, phepioes erse process acral vertebra ; e, transverse process of same; /, second of sam lumbar vérebra on sacrum; /’, lumbar vertebra eet to sacrum; 7, pulum — Anterior Fan vertebra of Stegosaurus ungulatus, side view ; one- eighth mitim —Sam fron eural spine; 2, anterior zyga- oksee. Zz, sfasreised zpeapophysie; . transverse process; », neural canal ; ¢, face for chevron. AM. JOURN. SCI., Vol. XXI, 1881. Plate VIII. Figure 1.—Bones of left fore leg of raw apices a Marsh ; 8, scapula ; , € coracoid; h, humerus; 7, radius; 4%, uln rapes . Pat V, fift h digit. Figure 2.—Bones of left hind leg of Ste cari atus ; il, age is, ischium; p, pubis; p’, postpubis; f, femur; ¢, 1p Fa fibula ; as- h di igit. tragalus; ‘, ealeaneum ; J, first digit; ¥ fift natural siz Both figures a are one-sixteenth AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. [THIRD SERIES.] Art. XX.—On the Phosphorograph of a Solar Spectrum, and on the Lines of tts Infra-red Region;* by JOHN WILLIAM Draper, M.D., Professor of Chemistry in the University of New York. I Propose in this communication to consider: 1. The pecu- liarities of a phosphorograph of the solar spectrum as compared with a photograph of the same object; 2. The antagonization of effect of rays of higher by those of lower refrangibility. There is a striking resemblance between a photograph of that spectrum taken on iodide of silver and a phosphorograph taken on luminous paint, and other phosphorescent prepara- tions. There are also differences. I. Description oF THE PHOTOGRAPHIC SPECTRUM. In 1842, I obtained some very fine impressions of the first kind (on iodide of silver), and described them in the “ Philo. sophical Magazine” (November, 1842), and again in February, ne of these was made the subject of an elaborate three regions, 1. A middle one extending from the boundary of the blue and green to a little beyond the violet; in this Tegion the argentic iodide is blackened. 2. Below this, and *From the Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Am. Jour. —— apr Vou, XXI, No, 123.—Marou, 1881, 172 J. W. Draper—Phosphorograph of a Solar Spectrum. extending from the boundary of the blue and green to the inferior theoretical limit of the prismatic spectrum, 1s a region strongly marked in which the action of the daylight has been altogether arrested or removed, the daylight and the sunlight having apparently counterbalanced and checked each other. 3. A similar protected region occurs beyond the violet. This, however, is very much shorter than the preceding. The sketch annexed to Herschel’s paper represents these facts as well as they can be represented by an uncolored drawing. II. DescrirTION oF THE PHOSPHOROGRAPHIC SPECTRUM. In a phosphorograph on luminous paint the same general effects appear. If the impression of the spectrum be taken 10 the absence of extraneous light, there is a shining region oS sponding to the blackened region of the photograph. But 1, reviously or simultaneously, extraneous light be permitted to 2 resent, new effects appear. The shining region of the phosphorograph has annexed to it, in the direction of the less refrangible spaces and extending toward the theoretical limit 84 t may be separated into its constituent bands, oto are very discernible when registered on gelatine as presen y descri And since this is not so easily done with the uppe the thermopile than those lines. The blackness is then Te sumed. It extends to a short distance, and there the phospho- rographic impression comes to an end. £ This shining rectangle has long been known to students 0 hosphorescence, but its interesting origin has not until now en explained. But more, just beyond the region of the violet, the same kind of action oceurs,—a dark space, which, however, is of very much less extent than that beyond the red. The photograph and the phosphorograph thus present athe points of similarity. But though there are these striking p0!? of resemblance, there are also striking differences. h n a spectrum four or five centimeters long, though the pho e spectrum must be dispersed much more before they can be discerned. J. W. Draper—Phosphorograph of a Solar Spectrum. 178 Ill. Or roe PrRopaGaTIon oF PHOSPHORESCENCE FROM PartTicLE To PARTICLE, manner that it does. The test plate referred to in the next paragraph was thus words were written on 1t. Some photographic varnish was poured on it and drained. This, drying quickly, gave a black surface which could be handled without injury. A phosphorographic tablet was made to shine by exposure tothe sky. It was then carried into a dark room, and the test plate laid upon it. On the test plate another non-shining phos- phorographic tablet was laid, and kept in that position a few minutes; then, on lifting this from the test plate, the letters were plainly visible, especially if it were laid on a piece of hot metal. So the light radiating from the first tablet through the letters of the test could produce phosphorescence in- the second tablet, through glass more than a millimeter thick. _ This Jateral illumination is therefore sufficient to destroy the impression that is left by the fixed lines, unless indeed their breadth be sufficiently exaggerated, and as short an interval as possible permitted between the moment of insolation and that of observation. t has been remarked that a photograph taken from a phos- phorograph is never sharp. It looks as if it were taken out of focus, and this even though it may be a copy by contact. The light has spread from particle to particle. Under such circum- stances, sharpness is impossible, because the phosphorograph itself is not sharp. ‘or this reason, also, the bright rectangle in a phosphoro- graph of the solar spectrum, arising from the coalescence of the | infra-red lines a, , 7, is never sharp on its edges. It seems as if it were fading away on either side. It is also broader than would correspond to the actual position and width of those lines, and, particularly, it is somewhat rounded at its corners. If we could obtain a thermograph of the solar spectrum, it would correspond very closely to the phosphorograpb. The particles heated would radiate their heat to adjacent ones, 174. J. W. Draper—Phosphorograph of a Solar Spectrum. Nothing like sharpness of definition could be obtained except in very brief exposures before the effect had had time to spread. ay, EXaMINATION or PuospnorEscent TABLETS BY GELATINE PHOTOGRAPHY. The examination of a phosphorescent surface can be made now in a much more satisfactory manner than formerly. The light we have to deal with, being variable, declines from the moment of excitation to the moment of observation. And, though the phosphori now prepared are much more sensitive looked upon as ephemeral. To examine them properly, the eye must have been a long time in darkness to acquire full sensitiveness. was recommended by Dufay to place a bandage over one eye that its sensitiveness might not be disturbed, whilst the other being left naked could be used in making the necessary preparations. But this on trial will be found, though occasion- ally useful, on the whole an uncomfortable and unsatisfactory hod. The exceedingly sensitive gelatine plates now obtainable remove these difficulties. The light emitted by blue phosphor!, such as luminous paint, consists largely of rays between and J. W. Draper—Phosphorograph of a Solar Spectrum. 175 plates receives a full effect by an exposure of less than one minute. But all kinds of phosphori will not thus affect a photographic tablet: there must be a sympathy between the phosphorescent and the photographic surfaces. Thus a phosphorus emitting a yellow light will not affect a photographic preparation which requires blue or indigo rays. This principle I detected many years ago. In my memoir on phosphorescence (Phil. Mag to make that interval between the two moments as short as possible. 176 J. W. Draper—Phosphorograph of a Solar Spectrum. V. Or tue Extincrion oF PuaosPpHoRESCENCE BY Rep LIGHT. I turn now to an examination of those parts of the phospho- rographic spectrum from which the light has been removed. They are from the line F to the end of the infra-red space, .and again for a short distance above the violet. The effect resembles the protecting action in the same region of a photo- raph. q Now if similar effects are to be attributed to similar causes, we should expect to find in the photograph and phosphoro- graph the manifestation of a common action. Several different explanations of the facts have been offered. Herschel suggested that the photograph might be interpreted on the optical principle of the colors of thin films. Very re- cently Captain Abney has attributed the appearance of the lower space to oxidation. But this can scarcely be the case in all instances. Mr. Claudet showed, in a very interesting paper on the action of red light, that a daguerreotype plate can be used again and again by the aid of a red glass, and that the sensitive film undergoes no chemical change. (Phil. Mag., February, 1848.) ; It was known to the earliest experimenters on the subject that if the temperature of a phosphorescent surface be raised, — the liberation of its light is hastened, and it more quickly relapses into the dark condition. he memoir to which I I speak of this as ‘the old view,” because, as I have en where shown, the curves supposed to represent heat, cago surface on which the ray falls. (Phil. Mag., August, 1872, December, 1872. But this heat explanation of the phosphorescent facts can not be applied to the photographic. Nothing in the a hastened or secondary radiation seems to take place in thé case. In phosphorescence the facts observed in the production . this blackness are these. If a shining phosphorescent surfac J. W. Draper—Phosphorograph of a Solar Spectrum. 177 be caused suddenly to receive a solar spectrum, it will instantly become brighter in the region of the less refrangible rays, as will plainly appear on the spectrum being for a moment extin- guished by shutting off the light that comes into the dark room to form it. If the light be re-admitted again and again, the like increase of brilliancy may again and again be observed, but in a declining way. Presently, however, the region that has thus emitted its light begins to turn darker than the sur- rounding luminous parts. If now we no longer admit,’‘any spectrum light, but watch the phosphorescent surface as its luminosity slowly declines, the region that has thus shot forth its radiation becomes darker and darker, and at a certain time quite black. The surrounding parts in the course of some hours slowly overtake it, emitting the same quantity of light that had previously been expelled from it, and eventually all becomes dark. ow, apparently, all this is in accordance with the hypothesis of the expulsion of the light by heat. There are, however, cer- tain other facts which throw doubt on the correctness of that explanation. On that hypothesis, the darkening ought to begin at the place of maximum heat, that is, when flint glass apparatus is used, below the red ray, and from this it should become less and less Intense in the more refrangible direction, But, in many experi- ments carefully made, I have found that the maximum of black- ness has its place of origin above the line D, and indeed where the orange and green rays touch each other. Not infrequently, in certain experiments the exact conditions of which I do not know and cannot always reproduce, the darkening begins at the upper confines of the green, and slowly passes down to beyond the red extremity; that is to say, its propagation is in the oppo- site direction to that which it ought to show on the heat hypothesis. Still more, as has been stated, there is a dark space above the violet. Now it is commonly held that in this region there is little or no heat. If so, what is it that has expelled or destroyed the light ? _ The experiments above referred to I made with the recently troduced luminous paint. It presented the facts under their simplest form. But I have also tried many other samples, for which I am indebted to the courtesy of Professor Barker of Philadelphia, Among them I may mention as being very well hown the specimens made by Dubosc, enclosed in flat glass tubes, contained in a mahogany case, and designed for illustra- ting the different colored phosphorescent lights emitted. They are to be found in most physical cabinets. These, however, do not show the facts in so clear a manner. On receiving the 178 J. W. Praper—Phosphorograph of a Solar Spectrum. impress of a solar spectrum they present patches of light and shade irregularly distributed. Though in a general way they confirm the statements made above, they do not do it sharply or satisfactorily. the yellow,—I found that this rectangle is not given by 1 and 2. In 8 it is doubtful. In 4 it is quite visible, and in 5 and 6 strikingly so. Is the blackening then due to heat? That it occurs beyond the violet, that is, beyond the lines H, seems to render such an opinion doubtful, for it is commonly thought that the effect of heat is not recognizable there. And in the phosphorographic spectroscope I have used, the optical train, prism, lenses, etc., 18 of glass, which must of course exercise a special selective heat- absorption ; but the traces of this in the phosphorograph Tcould never detect. In the diffraction spectrum, I had attempted nearly forty years ago to ascertain the distribution of heat (Phil. Mag., March, 1857), but could not succeed with the experiment in a completely satisfactory manner, so small is the effect. I ec Now, considering the exceedingly small amount of heat available in this case, and considering the intensity of the effect, is there not herein an indication that we must attribute this result to some other than a calorific cause ? T endeavored to obtain better information on this point by using the rays of the moon, which, as is well known, are very deficient in heating power. Many years ago I had obtained some phosphorographs of that object. With the more sensitive preparations now accessible, and with a telescope 11 inches 1? aperture and 150 inches focus, there was no difficulty in pro curing specimens about 1:4 inch in diameter. These repre sented the lunar surface satisfactorily. At half-moon an expos- ure of three or four seconds was sufficient to give a fair prool. But, on insolating a phosphorescent tablet, and causing abe converging moon rays to pass through the red glass which I * J. W. Draper—Phosphorograph of a Solar Spectrum. 179 commonly use as an extinguisher, no effect was produced by o rays must be adjusted in intensity to each other.” It requires a powerful yellow ray to antagonize a feeble daylight. t is owing to the difference in amplitude of vibration that the heat of radiation seems so much more effective than the heat of conduction. A temperature answering to that of the boiling point of mercury must be applied to a phosphorescent tablet for quite a considerable time before all the light is extin- guished. But the red end of the spectrum and that even of the diffraction spectrum, in which the heat can with difficulty be detected by the most sensitive thermometer, accomplishes it very quickly. VI. Or tue Inrra-rep Lines on BANDS IN THE Sun’s SpEc- At a distance about as far below the red as the red is below the yellow in the solar spectrum, I found in 1842, in photo- graphs taken on iodide of silver (Daguerre’s preparation), three great lines or bands, with doubtful indications of a fourth still further off. I designated them as a, f, 7, and published an ee of them in the Philosophical Magazine for May, In 1846, MM. Foucault and Fizeau having repeated the €xperiment, thus originally made by me, presented a communi- cation to the French Academy of Sciences. They had observed the antagonizing action above referred to, and had seen the infra-spectral lines a, 8,7. They had taken the precaution to €posit with the Academy a sealed envelope, containing an 180 J. W. Draper—Phosphorograph of a Solar Spectrum. account of their discovery, not knowing that it had been made and published long previously in America Sir J. Herschel had made some investigations on the distri- bution of heat in the spectrum, using paper blackened on one side and moistened with alcohol on the other. He obtained a series of spots or patches, commencing above the yellow and extending beyond the red. Some writers on this subject have considered that these observations imply a discovery of the lines a, 8, 7. They forget, however, that Herschel did not use a slit, but the image of the Sun,—an image which was more than a quarter of an inch in diameter. Under such circum- stances, it was impossible that these or any other of the fixed lines could be seen. I have many times repeated this experiment, but could not obtain the same result, and therefore attributed my want 0 success to unskillfulness. More recently Lord Rayleigh (P hil. Mag., November, 1877), having experimented in the same direction, seems to be disposed to attribute these images to a mIs- leading action of the prism employed. Whatever their cause may be, it is clear that they have nothing to do with the fixed lines a, 8, 7, now under consideration. In these experiments, and also in others made about the same time on the distribution of heat in the spectrum, I attempted to form a diffraction spectram without the use of any dioptric media, endeavoring to get rid of all the disturbances which arise through the absorptive action of glass by using as the grat- ing a polished surface of steel on which lines had been ruled with a diamond, and employing a concave mirror instead of an ference of heat, no one as yet has made reference to these .” Nearly thirty years before the date of his memoir I had published an engraving of them. (Phil. Mag., May, 1843.) After I had discovered these three lines, I intended to use the grating for the exploration of that region, since it extends 1f, ar more than the prism can do; but, on making the attempt, was discouraged by the difficulty of getting rid of the more refrangible lines belonging to the second spectrum. I had hoped to eliminate these by passing the ray on its approach to the slit through a solution of the bichromate of potash. But J. W. Draper—Phosphorograph of a Solar Spectrum. 181 the bichromate in long exposures permits a sufficiency of the more refrangible rays to pass, to produce a marked photo- graphic effect; and hence I feared that any experiments sup- posed to prove the existence of lines in the infra-red would be open to the criticism that they, in reality, belonged to the more refrangible regions of the spectrum of the second order, and that a satisfactory examination of the case would exclude the use of the grating and compel that of the prism. With the prism I could not obtain clear evidence of the existence of more than three lines, or perbaps groups, and doubtful indications of a fourth. If in these examinations we go as far as wave length 10,750, the limit of Captain Abney’s map, we nearly reach the line H’ of the third spectrum. This would include all the innumerable lines of spectrum 2, and even many of those of spectrum 3. In such a vast multitude of lines, how would it be possible to identify those that properly belonged to the first, and exclude those of the second and third spectra ? Besides, do we not encounter the objection that this is alto- gether beyond the theoretical limit of the prismatic spectrum ? is brings us to Captain Abney’s recent researches, which, by the aid of the grating, carry the investigation referred to the prismatic spectrum as far below the red as the red is below the yellow. They are not to be regarded as an extension of exploration in the infra-red region,—for they really do not carry us beyond my own observations in 1842,—but as securing the resolution of these lines or bands into their constituent ele- ments. J had never regarded them as really single lines. The breadth or massiveness of their photographs, too, plainly sug- gests that they are composed of many associated ones. The principle of decreasing refrangibility with increasing wave length incapacitates the prism from separating them, but the grating which spreads them out according to their wave length reveals at once their composite character. In Captain Abney’s map, after leaving the red line A, we find three groups: (1) ranging from about 8150 to 8350; (2) from 8930 to 9300; (8) from 9350 to 9800. These, admitting that the lines of the subsequent grating spectra have been excluded, are then the resolution of a, f, 7. _I suppose that care has been taken to make sure of that, either by absorbent media or by a subsidiary prism. If the grating had been ruled in such a manner as to extinguish the spectrum, inconveniences would arise from the char- acteristics thereby impressed on the firs ; n the phosphorographic spectrum on luminous paint, this vast multitude of lines is blended into a mass which probably can never be completely resolved into its elements, on account of the propagation of phosphorescence from particle to particle, T have resolved it into two or three constituent groups, and fre- 182 S. H. Scudder—Structure and affinities of quently have seen indications of its capability of resolution into lines, in the serrated aspect of its lateral edges. I believe that luminous paint enables us to approach very nearly, if not completely, to the theoretical limit of the pris- matic spectrum. The history of these interesting infra-red lines is briefly this. y were discovered by me in 2, and an engraving and description of them given in the “ Philosophical Magazine.” They were next seen by Foucault and Fizeau in 1846, and a description of them presented to the French Academy of Sciences. They were again detected by Lamanski with the thermopile in 1871. Their resolution into a great number of finer lines was accomplished b ney, who gave a Bakerian lecture describing them before the Royal Society in 1830. Finally, they have been re-detected by me in the shining rect- angle, just above the theoretical limit of the prismatic spec- trum, given by many phosphorescent substances. University of New York, Dec. 1, 1880. Art. XXI.—The structure and affinities of Kuphoberia Meek and Worthen, a genus of Oarboniferous Myriapoda; by SAMUEL H. ScuppEr. THE genus Huphoberia was established in 1868, for some remarkable spiny Myriapoda found in the ironstone nodules 0 Mazon Creek in Illinois, and which were first fully described and figured in the third volume of the Geological Report of the Illinois Survey. The only characteristics then noted, in which ‘they differ from modern types, were the tapering form of the body, and the presence of branching spines on all the segments in longitudinal rows. An opportunity of examining a series of these animals from the same locality, due to the kindness of view of the ventral plates, proves that the differences between these ancient types and modern forms are so numerous and the Diplopoda on the contrary, there are two such ventral plates, each bearing a pair of legs, for every dorsal plate (with the exception of a few segments at the extremities of the body ). Carboniferous Myriapods of the genus Huphoberia. 1838 The Diplopoda are universally considered the lower of the two in their organization, and it is therefore not surprising to find that no Chilopoda have been found in rocks older than the Tertiary series ;* while Myriapods with two pair of legs corres- ponding to each dorsal plate may be found as far back as the Coal-measures. In such comparisons as are here instituted, the Chilopoda may therefore be left out of account. In modern Diplopoda, each segment of the body is almost entirely composed of the dorsal plate, forming a nearly com- plete ring, for it encircles, as a general rule, nine-tenths of the body, leaving small room for the pair of ventral plates. On the side of the body it is perforated by a minute foramen, the opening of an odoriferous gland. Usually the ring is nearl circular, but occasionally the body is considerably flattened, and the sides are sometimes expanded into flattened laminz with a smooth or serrate margin; a few species are provided with minute hairs, sometimes perched on little papillae; and the surface of the body, ordinarily smooth or at best wrinkled, Is occasionally beset with roughened tubercles, which may even form jagged projections. So far as I am aware, no nearer ap- proach to spines occurs on this dorsal plate than the serrate edges of the lateral laminw, the roughened tubercles or the papilla-mounted hairs spines are sometimes forked at the tip, and they are (probably) always provided to a greater or less extent with Sspinules, springing from the base or the stem; sometimes these are so numerous as to form a whorl of little spines around the main stem; usually the main spines are at least half as long as the diameter of the body: often they are as long as the diame- ter, and one may readily picture the different appearance be- tween one of these creatures, perhaps a foot or more in length, PP gm proavus Germ., from the Jura, is certainly a nereid worm, as stated + This is what would be expected from the presence of spines, for two such means of defence should not be looked for in the same animal; offensive glands are present only in slow-moving or otherwise defenceless creatures, as in Phas- midz among Orthoptera for example. 184 S. 1. Scudder—Structure and affinities of bristling all over with a coarse tangle of thorny spines, and the smooth galley-worm of the present da: f we pass to the ventral plates we shall find differences of even greater significance. In modern Diplopoda these plates are minute; the anterior forms the anterior edge of the seg- ment, continuous with that of the dorsal plate; together, how- ever, they are not so long as the dorsal plate at their side, and the latter appears partly to encircle the posterior of the ventral plates by extending inward toward the coxal cavities. The legs are attached to the posterior edge of each ventral plate, and those of opposite sides are so closely crowded together that they absolutely touch. The stigmata, of which there is a pair to each ventral plate, are placed at the outer edge, rather toward the front margin, and their openings are longitudinal, i. e., they lie athwart the segment; the cox of the legs of the anterior plate are therefore opposite the stigmata of the poste rior plate. No other organs are found upon the ventral plates; one might indeed say there was not room for them. The legs themselves are composed of six simple, cylindrical joints, sub- equal in length, the apical armed with a single terminal claw ; the whole leg is short, generally not more than half as long as the diameter of the body. the diameter of the body, and sometimes nearly twice as long moreover they are not cylindrical but compressed and slightly Carboniferous Myriapods of the genus Euphoberia. 185 te QP gS oe) © fe) a bax j Sy SS fas) S ®d ba | S SS DH 6 3: g i & pork nm 2) 8 a>) oy 4 3 0g © =f N oO - fe eee =) wm oD o A ct a 2 ) 3 oO So © = oO S S S fon) ) 3 =) mM ct ia”) 2) B a 9°) R LF ° 5 ° Fa o OQ B 9 Q. $9 sc cr © fon) . different from g 4 life, capable of moving and breathing both on land and in water. C Oreover the assemblage of forms discovered in the Mazon poe beds lends force to this proposition; for the prevalence Of aquatic Crustacea, of fishes and ferns, indicates that the fauna deri: they were segmental organs, they may still have been connected with J . Dae es yi net a gee rey rl a 186 S& H. Seudder—Myriapods of the genus Euphoberia. and flora was that of a region abounding in low and boggy land and pools; and the presence of marsh-frequenting flying insects does not contradict such a belief. owever, are not the only points in which the ancient forms differed from the recent. We have so far examined only a typical segment; lét us now look at the body as a whole and at special segments. The modern Diplopoda are of uniform size throughout, tapering only at the extreme tips; while these ancient forms, at least when seen from above, diminish noticeably in size toward either end, and especially toward the tail, giving the body a fusiform appearance, its largest part being in the neighborhood of the seventh to the tenth body seg. ments, which were often two, or even three, times broader thao the hinder extremity, and considerably broader than the head or the first segment behind it. A single segment seems to have carried all the appendages related to the mouth parts, while im modern Diplopoda two segments are required for this purpose; this peculiarity of the fossil is inferred solely but sufficiently from the fact, perhaps even more remarkable, that every Se" ment of the body (as represented by the dorsal plates), even those immediately following the single head-segment, 18 Tul nished with éwo ventral plates and bears éwo pair of legs; &% is well known, each of the segments immediately following the head-segments in existing Diplopoda bears only one ventra plate, and only a single pair of legs,—a fact correlated with e embryonic growth of these creatures, since these legs and thése only are first developed in the young diplopod The mature forms of recent Diplopoda, therefore, resemble their more than do these Carboniferous myriapogs, ® fact which is certainly at variance with the general accord be- tween ancient types and the embryonic condition of thelt modern representatives, and one for which we offer no exp!an™ atory suggestion worth consideration. Unfortunately the preservation of the appendages of the head in these Carboniferous forms is not sufficiently good 10 any that have yet been found to allow any comparison with modern types. This is the more to be regretted since these parts are those on which we depend largely for our judgment of the relationship of the Myriapoda to other Insecta and to Crustacea. If they were present and sufficiently well defined, we may well suppose that they would afford some clue to the them in a group apart from either of the sub-orders of modern Myriapoda and of an equivalent taxonomic value. Cambridge, January 7, 1881. ‘ + co PS an SL Pope Sh ON RE rn eS 8 dle de on | Me ee MR ALE, oe # cea sn Rie oe Paar? 5 OV WO ee eee Ore Pe are YS seabed Si S. P. Langley—The Actinic Balance. 187 Art. XXII.—The Actinic Balance; by S. P. LANGLEY. THE writer has been, during some time, making experi- ments on the device and construction of an instrument more delicate and more prompt than the thermopile; an advance which his recent researches into the distribution of radiant energy in the spectrum have proved to be. indispensable. These researches have involved expenses for special apparatus which have been in part met by a grant from the American principal results obtained was made to that society in the early part of December, and will appear with illustrations of the apparatus in a forthcoming volume of their Proceedings, to which the reader who desires fuller details is referred. The following independent description of the newly devised apparatus is rendered necessary here, as an introduction to a future account of researches in the true distribution of radiant with the minimum of error which the vicious method of the prism admits. Even the use of the prism, however, deman most delicate means of measurement. Tyndall, employing every instrumental aid science commanded in his experiments on the electric light, was obliged to operate on a spectrum only an inch and a half in length, and it is from this that the well- nown heat curves of our text-books are derived. When we form a much longer spectrum, we must either make the face of our thermopile larger, or expect to find the radiation so weakened that we cannot measure it. Its results, has been almost completely neglected. It concerns Am. Jour. ape ay Series, Vou. XXI, No. 123.—Marozn, 1881. 188 S. P. Langley—The Actinie Balance. of the thermopile, as employed by Melloni and by Tyndall may almost be assimilated to a kind of handicraft, requiring long familiarity and the almost instinctive and unconscious adoption at every moment of precautions which would cer- tainly never suggest themselves to the untried observer. The this craft, had flattered himself that he might turn his famil- iarity with the thermopile to some useful account here, and might perhaps succeed from this cause, where others hat failed. He was obliged, however, to admit to himself that his success was so partial as to be very like failure. He succ with the thermopile in obtaining feeble indications of beat oP comparatively homogeneous rays in the diffraction reflectio? spectrum but these indications were all too feeble, and 0b tained at too great a cost of time and labor to make it possible to carry on our knowledge of the distribution of heat in the spectrum by means of the thermopile to any great extent be- yond the point where others had left it. S. P. Langley—The Actinic Balance. 189 degree of accuracy, and although something was gained it was too small the autumn of 1880, when he found himself in possession of an instrument, not only greatly more sensitive than any ther- mopile, but also far more prompt, and as he believes more accurate, hen (to use a common illustration), the finger is applied to the trigger of a gun, the little force liberates an indefinitely greater one, which has no certain relation to the energy of the original impulse. But what we here need is a rigorous propor- tonality between the feeble but momentarily varying energy f the original ray, and the amount of power it releases from a attery or other source of energy. It is only on these condi- hons that the indications of our instrument will be accordant and that it will be truly a meter. If we are in search only for xtreme sensitiveness, and are satisfied to have a delicate ther- 190 S. P. Langley—The Actinic Balance. technical language have a small probable error. I com: menced, guided by these considerations, and with the aid of Mr. F. W. Very, in December, 1879, to experiment in the following direction. The principle has been employed by Jamin, by Siemens and by others, before. The following appli- cation is, I believe, new. Let us suppose that from a battery two wires of equal length and equal section pass to a differen- tial galvanometer so that one current tends to move the ne le to the right, the other and equal current, tends to move it to the left, and the needle solicited in opposite ways by equal forces, remains motionless at zero. Suppose now a ray from the sun, from a vessel of hot water, from a candle, or from any source, of radiant energy of higher temperature than the wires themselves, to fall on one of them; this wire becomes heated and therefore a worse conductor than before, and as its resist- ance increases in nearly the ratio of its increased temperature, there is less current through the heated wire, and the needle 1s deflected by a force which is strictly proportional in theory t0 the energy in the original ray, to the energy of the battery, and to certain constants of the galvanometer and the rest of the clr- cuit. In what has just been said, it is temporarily assume that all the energy of the original ray is represented by heat 1» the wire, and that none of it has been lost by conduction, conve®” tion, or by re-radiation. It is also supposed that no large change of temperature has taken place in the wire, but that the heating energy of the original ray is small. The last con- dition is only too easily met in practice. The consideration of the first will be resumed in another place. : We have just indicated merely the fundamental conceptlo which is to guide our search for an actual instrument. ¥& tween this conception and the partial realization a great many months of assiduous and often disheartening labor have been expended, and complete success is far from having been reached even now, but as I believe it certain that the instrument 10} actual stage of progress has been already successful in doing important work quite out of the thermopile’s reach, I shall de- scribe briefly the considerations which have led to its exec” tion in its present form. Some of these are obvious. The S. P. Langley—The Actinic Balance. 191 any given centimeter of its length will not exceed one ten- thousandth of an ohm, and accordingly, if from any source of radiant heat we let fall on the wire a ray which we will sup- pose to be one square centimeter in section, if it altered the resistance of the wire by so much as one one-hundredth part where it fell, we should have but one one-millionth of an ohm to produce the requisite change in the recording instrument. Evidently we must form the particular minute portion of the circuit on which the ray is to fall of some conductor which has a very high resistance indeed, as compared with the average resistance of the wires. If for instance we introduce a bit of gold-foil having a resistance of one ohm to the single centi- meter so that it shall form a virtual portion of one of the wires, and if we let the ray fall on this, we now produce a change equal to the one one-hundredth part of one ohm, whic is ten thousand times the effect produced before by the same cause. Similar considerations show us that the cylindrical form of the wire is a bad one, and that the metal used for the a exposed to radiant heat should be laminated, when it may € made to present a much greater surface to the source of radi- ant heat, with precisely the same conductibility. It is clear then that the following conditions should unite; great electric resistance ; considerable change in resistance for a given change in heat, and a form which enables it to take up and part with heat very rapidly. ro this we may add among the minor conditions that it is desirable that the exposed portion should be of a metal readily reduced to thin lamine, that it should be non-oxidizable, since It 18 to be in an excessively thin strip, and that it should also have sufficient rigidity to preserve its form. The whole of these conditions can rarely or never be found in the same sub- stance. We must select our metal with a view to those con- ditions which are of most importance. Experiments were ona greet variety of metals. They finally conducted me to the Iron (or steel), platinum and palladium as the most avail- able ones. Gold in the form of foil is unsuitable on account of minute rents made by the blows of the hammer. Metals on glass do not work as well on account of the heat taken up by the glass; but to attempt to narrate all the trials made would be useless. To comprehend the apparatus used, not in its ordi- 192 S. P. Langley—The Actinic Balance. nary form, but in its most elementary type, let us suppose that we have succeeded in rolling steel until its thickness is xf, to mm In this state 8,000 to 12,000 sheets laid one on the other will make but about one English inch. It may be easily supposed that it is no light task to procure such a sheet of steel = nb first instance. This, however, has been done success- ully. In order to fix our ideas let us now suppose two such pieces of steel, each rather less than } inch long and ¥, inch wide, to be stretched side by side and almost in juxtaposition, within a small cylinder open at one end, which can be directed to the source of radiant heat, while the two strips are made to form each a portion of a circuit leading from the battery to the differ- ential galvanometer. Since the change of resistance in iron 1s about 4; of one per cent for each degree Centigrade, as minute a change of temperature as is represented by a single degree will cause a difference of resistance in the strips of x45: us supposing the resistance of the exposed part to be $ that of the whole circuit, there will be a differential effect upon the galvan- ometer equal to nearly z;4;5 of the entire power of the battery, an enormous amount of force as compared with that represented In reality it is not so. The current received from the battery d eo S. P. Langley—The Actinic Balance. 193 this is particularly noticeable in the strips which offer large resistance in small compass. There is then a practical limit beyond which we cannot go without the battery heating of the strips becoming prejudicial, but the paradox we have alluded to is so near to fact, that it is found to be the case in actual ance, and a relatively strong current. The latter construction is far easier, but particular considerations have determined the actual trial of the former plan (of higher resistance and feeble currents) in the instruments employed. ing cylinder is warmed or cooled, each system is warmed or cooled in an equal degree, and the galvanometer needle remains unmoved. It is found in practice often more convenient not to use the In the prolongation of its axis enters it, the galvanometer Strument will instantly respond, while it remains unmoved all accidental surrounding radiations. A still further im- provement in the disposition of the strips is made by leading one of them in the center of the cylinder and by dividing the other into two equal parts, which are left one either side of the 194 S. P. Langley—The Actinie Balance. central one, so as to be in identical circumstances of environ- extent of range which it is not probable that any chemist’s balance can approach. Under any circumstances, in view of the measurements we expect to make, a very delicate galvanometer of moderate (though not the lowest) resistance, will be a suitable instrument. e one used is of the most recent form of the Thomson gal- vanometer pattern. This instrument, just made by Elliott Bros., is more sensitive than any the writer has before used, and to its excellence he is no doubt in part indebted for the dd results attained. enough to warm the strips, at the most, as much as 5° C. above the temperature of the environment, a with the strips actually used by an absolute current of less than 7 Webers. Even with 4, Webers we have a greater force at isposal than the excitant radiation here dealt with could ever develop in a thermopile. It will be understood that experiments are ages iat (he pore to give the preceding description, without waiting for urther improvement. It may be observed that the three sufficiently to pronounce on with confidence, though it seems to promise well. - S. P. Langley—The Actinic Balance. 195 The instrument in its present condition has been used with- out any lamp-black upon the steel strips, for fear that its well- wanting in North Carolina, even in the higher plateaus 0 ed western mountainous region, as ascertained and announce is totally different from the commonly recognized marks a” results of glacial action. CRT Re Oe a ee a W. ©. Kerr—New points in North Carolina Topography. 217 I have elsewhere described briefly one of these classes of _ phenomena, and shall discuss them more at length very soon; of the other I give here some outlines, sufficient to indicate the character of the evidence and to direct the attention of observ- ers to similar phenomena elsewhere. The accompanying diagram represents the facts better than any description can do. It is an ideal cross section of the ydrographic basin of the Catawba River, which takes its rise in numerous tributaries along the flanks of the Blue Ridge, and after gathering up a multitude of these, traverses the Piedmont, or cismontane plateau (of an elevation of 1,000 to 1,500 feet), WY YY) We Ideal section of the Catawba River basin, between S., South Mountains, and W., Warrior Mountains. in a wide basin or trough, flanked by two ranges of mountains, which rise on either hand to an additional elevation of a thou- sand feet and upward. The direction of the axis of this trough and of the bordering ranges is 60° to 70° east of north, which is about coincident with the strike of the rocks These rocks are Archean — hornblendic and feldspathic luents have dug their channels along the softer and more yielding strata, and have left the tougher and more resisting 218 W. OC. Kerr—WNew points in North Carolina Topography. view which introduces the Triassic period with an epoch of extensive glaciation, and the phenomena in question may be yeaa W. P. Blake—Realgar and Orpiment in Utah. 219 connected with the rapid accumulation of the basal deposits of that formation. Or it may hereafter be ascertained, by a more minute study of the Appalachian regions of the middle latitudes, that glaciers established themselves at the higher levels in the earlier times of the Glacial period, but did not recur during the second accession of cold, while the more extensive and long-continued Diluvial denudations and erosions may have sufficed to remove the debris, striz and other indications of earlier glacial action. Raleigh, N. C., Dec. 24, 1880. Art. XXVII.—Occurrence of Realgar and Orpiment in Utah Territory; by Wiuu1AM P. BLAKE. Orizo spherical aggregations, made up of fine radial crystals, and also, In bright yellow amorphous crusts in and around the mass o ar. bank and form hard crusts. The appearance and the 48sociation of the arsenical sulphides indicate that these sul- ped have been f y aqueous infiltration since he position of the beds. This, I have no doubt, is the fact; 220 J. P. Cooke—Solubility of Chloride of Silver in Water. Art. XX VIIL— On the Solubility of Chloride of Silver in Water; by Jostan P. Cooke. (Contributions from the Chemical Laboratory of Harvard College.) Ts subject has already been studied by Stas, whose obser- vations are summed up by Dr. John Percy* in his recent vol- ume on the Metallurgy of Silver in the following words: “The solubility of the chloride is greatest when in the flaky state, as precipitated in the cold from a sufficiently dilate solu- tion of silver; the solubility diminishes as the flakes shrin when left to themselves, or as they are rendered pulverulent by long agitation with water. Flaky or pulverulent chloride of silver, dissolved in water pure or acidified by nitric acid, 18 precipitated by the addition of a salt of silver or of h ydrochlori¢ id or of an alkaline chloride.” . . . “The solution of the ride in proportion to the quantity of acid present. The precip! tation of the dissolved chloride is the exclusive result of its insolubility in the solution formed by adding an excess either of the silver salt or of the alkaline chloride.” : So also in Liebig and Kopp, Jahresbericht, 1871, 339: “ According to Stas, the granular scaly and crystalline chlo- ride is wholly insoluble in cold water: in boiling water the solu- bility is comparatively great, but decreases rapidly with the temperature.” In our investigation on the atomic weight of antimony yer have had oceasion to confirm and extend these observations ° Stas, and our results may be of interest as showing that 1 the very familiar method of determining chlorine by precipitation with nitrate of silver, which is generally supposed to extremely accurate, a sensible error may arise from the so! bility of the chloride of silver in the hot distilled water used 10 washing the precipitate. It would be well for every analyst t make the following very striking experiment, which will ena- ble him to appreciate the extent of the action in question. Take from five to ten cubic centimeters of pure hydrochlorie acid and precipitate the chlorine in the usual way with nitrate of silver, avoudin a large excess. After pouring off the melee natant liquid and washing the precipitate once or twice be cold distilled water, pour upon the white flaky chloride of st” ver a comparatively large volume of boiling water. As 800? * Metallurgy of Silver and Gold. Part I, page 60. ee eg ek re ep he Pee as ag Pt Raat! See J. P. Cooke—Solubility of Chloride of Silver in Water. 221 as the precipitate settles, pour off the clear hot water, dividing the solution between two precipitating jars. To one of these add a few drops of a solution of nitrate of silver, and to the other a few drops of hydrochloric acid. In both cases a pre- cipitate of chloride of silver will fall, and most chemists, cer- tainly, will be surprised at the effect; for it is not a mere turbid- ; _ hess that results, but a well-defined precipitate, whose amount is easily estimated. Successive portions of boiling water poured upon the precipitate give the same reaction. In one experiment the reaction was still perceptible in the fourteenth wash-water. But under the action of the boiling water, the precipitate becomes crystalline or granular and the action lessens, until at _ last the water does not dissolve sufficient chloride of silver to cause even a cloudiness on the addition of nitrate of silver, as Just described. Mr. G. M. Hyams, a student in this labora- tory, washed two different portions of chloride of silver with boiling water until the action ceased, and then weighed and examined the residue. In the first experiment, 14561 grams of chloride of silver were washed with 66 liters of water. e chloride of silver was then collected and found to weigh 12320 grams. Hence, 02241 grams, corresponding to 15°39 per cent had passed into solution. In the second experiment, 60 liters of water were used, and 16-03 per cent of the chloride of Silver originally precipitated were dissolved. ‘These numbers, Owever, are only approximately accurate, for as the precipitate omes granular, it settles with less readiness, and there was hecessarily some loss in filtering off so large a volume of liquid. In the experiments above described the boiling water pro- duced only a very slight decomposition of the chloride of sil- ver. The precipitate, granulated by the washing, readily dis- solved in aqua ammonia, leaving less than a milligram of a black powder, which was proved to be metallic silver. _ The solvent power of water on freshly precipitated chloride of silver did not appear to be influenced by the presence of free nitric acid even in large quantities. We tried the effect both of dropping the nitric acid on the eer before pour- 'ng on hot water, and also of previously adding nitric acid to the boiling wash-water. We used amounts of nitric aci (0 = 1:355) varying from five to two hundred cubie centime- ters to the liter of water, but without finding any marked dif- rence in the result The presence of a small amount of nitrate of silver in the Water entirely prevented its solvent action, so far as we could discover. In order to determine the limit of the action, we added different quantities of nitrate of silver to the boiling Water before pouring it on to the precipitated chloride of sil- er. With one centigram of nitrate of silver to the liter of 9922 J. P. Cooke—Solubility of Chloride of Silver in Water. A few drops of hydrochloric acid added to the wash-water — greatly diminishes its solvent action on flaky chloride of silver, but does not wholly prevent it, as is evident from the fact shown in the table below, that hydrochloric acid does not precipitate — chloride of silver from its solution in water nearly as effectually as nitrate of silver; and, as is well known, hydrochloric acid if in any considerable excess exerts a strong solvent action on the solvent. That the action is an example of simple solution is shown by the fact that a considerable portion of the chloride of silver dissolved in boiling water is deposited when the sol- vent cools. his phenomenon is a striking one and can easily of silver. It is evident, therefore, that the granular condition of chloride of silver is a crystalline condition, and this exper ment may elucidate the manner in which the native crystals are produced. ; e have thus far only spoken of the solubility of chloride of silver in boiling water. As is evident from the erystalliza- tion just described, the solubility rapidly diminishes as the temperature falls; but even at the ordinary temperature the Besos ates see en ae a Fe Ne Coe Ll IME oat Ree en seler 2 ie. oa J. P. Cooke—Solubility of Chloride of Silver in Water. 228 1 and 3 are results after one hour’s boiling of 1st quantity. 38and4 * c 6c“ wo hours’ 6 “SG “e hye See “ onehour’s “ 2d quantity, etc. Tands “ ‘“ “ two hours’ “ “6 “ “ 9 and 10 after simply pouring on boiling water. l0and12 «“ 6 6s “ “ “ No. Wght. of Water. Wght. of AgCl. Wght. of AgCl Precipitant. per liter. 1 523°6 gram. 0-0011 0°0021 Nitrate of silver. 2 469°5 0°0004 0-0009 Hydrochloric acid. 3 115-0 00002 00017 Nitrate of silver. 4 402°1 00004 0-0010 Hydrochloric acid. 5 225°0 00004 00018 Nitrate of silver. 6 462-0 00004 =—-00009 Hydrochloric acid. 7 696°4 0-0014 00020 Nitrate of silver. 8 825°4 6°0007 00008 Hydrochloric acid. : 700-4 0-0014 0-0020 Nitrate of silver. 10 747°2 00007 00009 Hydrochloric acid i 520°9 0°0011 0-0021 Nitrate of silver. 2 287°5 0°0003 0:0010 Hydrochloric acid. If we assume that the amount of chloride of silver precipitated by nitrate of silver under the conditions described above is a forrect measure of the solubility of the chloride, it appears Prompt settling of the chloride of silver or to wash away any occluded material, and it was the chief object of this investi- ion chloride in distilled water might effect the result. For this Purpose - 224 J. P. Cooke—Solubility of Chloride of Silver in Water. the zyv'o0y according to Bunsen’s scheme ; in the second series although hot water was also used in washing, one may be secured while its solvent action is prevented. The results are given in the following table. First SERIES. No. Weight of SbCl; Weight of Ag(l Per cent of Cl taken. obtained. calculated. 1 2°3856 gram 4°4784 gram 46°441 2 371300 5°8712 46°407 3 3°4207 6°4243 46°462 4 60031 9°3790 46°31T Mean value, 46°422 Max. diff, from mean, 0°047 SECOND SERIES. No. Weight of SbCl, Weight of AgCl Per cent of Cl taken. taken. calculated. 1 3°4059 gram. 64188 gram. 46°624 2 3°6603 69014 46°643 3 24762 4°6658 46°617 4 2°5567 4°8212 46°651 Mean value, 46°634 Max diff. from mean, 0017 Difference between means of two series, 0°212 It is evident from these results that when great accuracy !8 required the solubility of chloride of silver may become @ very serious source of error in determinations of chlorine, and in ran investigation * of the atomic weight of antimony this was * This Journal, III, xv, 41, + This Journal, III, xv, 118. J. P. Cooke—Solubility of Chloride of Silver in Water. 225 results which we actually obtained from seventeen analyses of chloride of antimony was 46°620, and when to this we add 0-212 and 0:116 the sum is 46-948, which differs from 47:020— the theoretical value when Sb =120, and =85-5—by only 0-072. In this estimate we leave out of the account the known solvent action on chloride of silver of the tartaric acid used same method a similar degree of accuracy.t ae In conclusion we would again express our obligations to Mr. G. M. yams, who has assisted us in the work of this Mvestigation. : * This Journal, [II, xix, 385. + Philosophical Transactions, Part III, 1880, 1022, 226 L. Waldo—Papers on Thermometry. Art. XXIX.—Papers on Thermometry from the Winchester Observatory of Yale College; by LEONARD WALDO. | Continued from page 61.] THE observation of the freezing point of “ Kew 585” for Nov. 2d, is not entitled to the weight of the ones made Dee. 1st because it was made by the eye alone, while the readings for Dec. 1st depend on the cathetometer. . We may assume therefore that the constants of these stan- dards for the present are as follows: . Kew 578. Kew 584. Kew 585. oe Correction at the permanent freezing 0°-00 40°10 F. 0°-00 ag ites tng Rie SER aga lea Se Correction at the boiling point......-. | +0°-03 0. | +0°20F. | +0°14 C. Depression of the freezing point after an 0°°18 C. 0°°25 F. 0°22 0. exposure to the boiling point _.-~- shone ee These are the constants which have been inserted in the — formule for computing the corrections to the Kew thermometer readings. I shall now investigate the constants of the ther mometers similar to the standards of the ‘ Kaiserliche Normal- Hichungs-Kommission” and which have been carefully com pared with these standards through the kindness of Dr. Foerster in Berlin. These thermometers were made by R. Fuess, and I cannot better describe them than by giving their dimensions In es following table and then adding a free translation Irom the * Bericht tber die wissenschaftlichen Instrumente auf der Berlin Gewerbeausstellung im Jahre, 1879,” pages 218 and 214. — Designation. R. Fuess, Berlin, 89. | R. Fuess, Berlin. 50. eos lL ree How graduated — 6° to +105°C.|— 2° to + 105°C. ngth of 1° . 4°05 ™™ Smallest graduation 0°: ie ngth of tube. 650 ™m 513 =" tside diameter of tube ._..___. __ 12. mm 12 ™m™ Shape of bulb ----| Cylindrical. Cylindrical 12 Diameter SUR SSRN AR Ran mem pce | 5-5 mm 55 mm ad * % = * * * ‘“* Fuess has succeeded in devising a construction for ther- mometers which is free from all those imperfections, and com- L. Waldo— Papers on Thermometry. 227 bines great stiffness with elegance of form. Any displacement of the scale and all slipping or bending of the capillary tube is prevented, and it is possible for the outside tube, the capillary tube and the scale, each to expand independently of either of the others. The normal ther- , mometers made by Fuess which Professor @]/ Wild of St. Petersburg describes* ‘as the | best’ which he has ‘up to this time become ff acquainted with,’ were made according toy this construction, which is protected by | patent (D. R.—P. No. 389).” edge of the cup is deeply indented in two | diametrically opposite places, so that the | two indentations offer a sure bed for the specimens of the glass-blower’s skill, and os credit upon the artist who made them. They possess € great conveniences of this form of mounting, in being Bericht tiber Art. 10 des Programmes der zweiten internationalen Meteorolo- 8,8. 8, The remark there made that 3, ? to Mr. Pernet’s designs wry of the following st ent derived from his own recollection. the — nd of the year 1876 there had a rivalry arisen between the members of — Kommission an mechanics who made the last thermom- connection with the studies in thermometry which the had made in the autumn of 1876 at the South Kensington exhibition and 228 L. Waldo—Papers on Thermometry. easily read and in the certainty with which the eye may so placed that the readings have no sensible parallax. Th seem to leave little to be desired unless it be calibrati these standards. These results are reduced to latitude 46°, barometric pressure of 760mm. and to the level of the sea. Correction atthe | Correction at Preexing Point Date. Thermometer. after expos —. the, Boiling ee ‘ r exposure oc eee 1880. June 4; Fness 50 — 0°':163 Bu So ---- 8 ne — 0170 8 “ oes — 0°-035 + 0°°145 1% a Pies 0-012 + 0°135 17 " ‘ — 0011 + 07135 Sept. 17 os — 018 pace eorc June 4; Fuess 89 — 0°334 ioe —- o 0°347 ‘ aaa f ° — 0°027 0-000 1 “ ae a — 0°023 — 07005 ] “ = : — 0047 — 0°023 Sept. 1 : — 0°37 Bate i ee And Dr. Feerster further finds that the depression of the freed: ing point after an exposure to the boiling point is for ha 50 = 0°°35 C. 3 89 = 0°32 C. Dr. Foerster made a on sine werent of the cornea to be applied to the Fuess thermometers owing to the errors © calibration for each consecutive aie These tabular correc- tions are computed for a freezing point of +0°°37 in the case Fuess 89 and of +0°18 in the case of Fuess 50. report of which Professor nein Sig eS ear Ae an ana Sa sping of 1877 a thermometer was injured, in the calibration and compa of which much trouble had been taken, and Dr. Pare, ores was then ace 7 the Commission, became quite interested in this question. He attempted to 0 ted, ing i ce idea, not to fasten the — directly, but only to place it immovably in & firm poem lace. Later h ee = idea without th ment, by & sonetisselicn made entirely of g The use of platinum th st — for the capillary tube on the other = is an invention of Dr. Pi race” LL, Loewenherz. L. Waldo—Papers on Thermometry. 229 After we had received these thermometers we made the following determinations of the freezing point corrections: Date. Fuess 50. Fuess 89. 1880. Sept. 21 — 0°20 — 0°:40 28 — 0°40 Oct. 16 — 0°20 — 0°40 28 — 0°45 Nov. 25 — 0°20 — 0°43 from which it will be seen that the thermometers are slowly Increasing their freezing point readings with time. We may assume the following as the corrections at the dates given. a Date. Fuess 50. Fuess 89. Kew 578. 1880. June aa Wf — 0°35 0°-00 Sept. — 0°18 — 0°37 0°00 Nov. — 0°20 hoe AT 0:00 The thermometer Fuess 50 had a part of its upper scale support (the front lip of m in the figure) broken in coming from Germany. This does not affect the accuracy of its read- ings, I think, but in order to obtain a comparison up to 40° C. between a Kew and a Fuess standard I have chosen the ther- mometer Fuess 89, which reads to 0°°1 and is in excellent con- dition, and the Kew standard 57 8, of which the errors are extremely small. In the following comparison the readings have been freed m the zero and 100° point errors, as well as those arising Date. Fuess 89. Kew 578. F. 89 — K. 578. ee 1880. Sept. 28 10°67 C. 10° -62 C. + 0°05 C. 21 10°81 10°75 + 0°06 28 16°24 16°09 + O15 21 21714 21:00 + 014 28 21°36 21°20 + 0°16 Oct, 28 21°80 21°64 + 016 21°81 21°66 + O15 Sept. 21 24:21 24°03 + 018 28 26°60 26°45 + O15 21 31°66 31°50 + 0°16 8 32°17 32°00 + O1T Oct. 28 32°67 32°50 + O17 8 33°31 33°15 + 0°16 Nov. 26 34:08 33°90 + 018 26 34°21 34:00 + 0°21? Sept. 28 37°31 3715 + 0°16 28 42°40 42°25 + 0°15 230 1. C. Mendenhall— Coefficient of Expansion from imperfect calibration. Both standards had been kept for three months previously hanging in a room whose temperature never exceeded 80° C. e comparison therefore represents the thermometers had been exposed to 1: 0° C. I shall recur to this point in the continuation of the paper. [To be continued. } Art. XXX.—On the Determination of the Ovefficient of Ex- pansion of a Diffraction grating by means of the Spectrum; by T. C. MENDENHALL, of Tokio, Japan. In all precise measurements of wave-lengths, a correction for variations in the temperature of the grating is very essen — tial. If the ruling be upon glass the coefficient of expansion be ma concerning a ruling upon metal. Many of the beautiful grat — ings produced within a few years upon Mr. L. M. Rutherfurd’s rom the well-known equation A=s sin } in which 4 represents the wave-length, s, the distance Lepore: the centers of two adjacent lines upon the grating and 6 the angle of deviation, we easily obtain the following: se ‘Tellier aces tien be Cake: one ga 8 from which it appears that, in order to determine the ¢0 =-—cot bd5b of a Diffraction grating. 231 efficient of expansion, it is not necessary to know either the wave-length of the line upon which the measurements are made or the value of the grating space. Unfortunately there are considerable difficulties in the way of the direct application of this formula. It is not easy to contrive any plan by means of which the temperature of the grating can be varied by any considerable and known amount, and, at the same time, to insure that these changes in tempera- ture shall not be accompanied by even a slight shifting of the position of its plane in relation to the collimating telescope. To accomplish the first of these results, a box, measuring about 8 cm. long, 5 cm. wide, and 8 cm. deep, was cut out o a solid block of wood, and of this box the grating was made to serve as one of the longer sides. The box was made water- proof, and a thin layer of paint along the edges to which the metal, with the grating sealed in as one side, was first used, but it was promptly rejected on account of a tendency to shift changes in tem erature were much more likely to be accom- Panied by a shifting of the plane of the grating. 232 Scientific Intelligence. Twenty measurements, in all, were made, the range of tem- perature varying from 5° C. to 16° C. From these the follow- ing result was obtained : 6b = 5'°66 + 013, The probable error is larger than would be desirable, and a good deal of irregularity in the results is to be attributed to the fact that we cannot be quite sure that the thermometer gave the true temperature of the grating, and also to slight shiftings in the plane of the grating, which doubtless sometimes occurred. Indeed, it is hoped and expected to secure a more accurate value by making a very exact determination of the position of the line in the winter, and then again in the summer when the difference in temperature may amount to as much as 15° C., and in this we shall be almost entirely free from both of the principal sources of error. — Ps From the above value the coefficient of expansion is— € = 0000202, with a probable error of a little more than two per cent of the whole. As spectrum observations are generally made within a small range of temperature, this value is, perhaps, sufficiently accurate for their correction. Iam unable to refer at present to any determinations of the coefficient of expansion of alloys similar to this which contains eight parts of tin to seventeen parts of copper. Most authorities agree fairly as to the co- efficient for copper, but as to tin there is a considerable range— from ° 17 to 0000248, It is difficult, therefore, to deter- mine what the coefficient for this alloy ought to be, but I ven ture the opinion that the above result is more likely to be too high than too low. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND Paysics. density two-thirds of its normal value, Crarrs and MEIER density decreased regu one-half of the normal density. The numbers obtained in th two investigations differed considerably, however, caper = 1050°, at which point Meyer found 5°83 and Crafts and er ‘1. More recently Troost obtained 5-7 at 1250°; from whic Meyer concluded that Dumas’ method shuld give the same re Chemistry and Physics. 233 and pressure as unity. These plottings show (1) that up to 355° all t urves are contained in a single line parallel to the axis of abscissas, and the density is normal; with rising rature, so that under low tensions the density becomes constant peratures atomically as I;.and that the variations of density with temperature and pressure correspond to a progressive dis- sociation.— C. R., xcii, 39, Jan., 1881. G. F. B. . Researches upon Ozone.—HAvTEFEUILLE and CHAPPUIS have presented to the Chemical Society of Paris a valuable me- moir upon ozone. They first studied the effect of temperature lot. at 20°, 0°149 at 0° and 0-214 at —23°. Under 180 mm. pressure, the quantity was 0°089 at 20°, 0°137 at 0° and 07181 at —23°. Next the effect of mixture with other gases was investigated, and it was found that while at 0° no effect was observed, at —23° the amount of ozone was increased to 0°216 when the oxygen was mixed with four times its volume of nitrogen, and to 0°240 when twice as much nitrogen was present. Hydrogen and sili- i tetrafluoride increase still more the quantity of ozone. e blue color in the tube, which de as the compression in- creased till under a pressure of several atmospheres, it becam Indigo-blue, ing the tube to —88° by immersion in liquid C th ; hyponitrous oxide, the color became three or four times darker, 234 Scientific Intelligence. ratus, not only was a colored gas obtained, but the undecompo ee. liquefied and became blue.— Bull, Soc. Ch., U1, xxxv, 2, Jad 881. F, B found to vary from 60-77 to 68-23 per cent, the formula NOI, a requiring 70°30 per cent. On fractioning this distillate, three portions were obtained containing respectively 58°89, 56°91, 56°89 er cent Cl, the formula NOC! requiring 54-2. The first distil V om the aqua regia contained nitrosyl chloride and chlorine, or nitrosyl chloride and chlorhyponitri¢ acid, or all three, their vapor density was determined and foun Chemistry and Physics. 235 ‘to be 2°358, 2°385 and 2°350 in three SiO Ty the total chlo- rine present being 80°5, 81°6 and 78°9, per cent. Hence it can- ot be a mixture of NOCI and NOCI.. If : a docile of NOCI, ea Cl, then from the above data there would be 3 molecules free Cl to 4 molecules NOCI, which would give a vapor density of 3°049. If a mixture of NOC and Cl, it - would contain 5 mole- d. he iiinsity. of 2°315, aca taken in ssgneeus on with its content of chlorine, 05 per cent, shows it to be a mixture of NOCI and Hence Gay Lussac’s chlor-hyponitric acid is a mixture of nitrosyl chloride with a varying Laer: of absorbed Breage gas.— Liebig’s Ann., cev, 372, Nov., eS 4. On Mercurie Fulminate and os Dieegiailane ica HE- Lor and Viritie have studied the properties and conditions of decomposition of mercuric fulminate. Their material was that onan in the service and it ae on analysis numbers agreeing pee wn pressure an te pag tt ature. As ameano five e experiments, one gram gave 234-2 c. c. of gas, theory codaitie 235°8. In 100 volumes this gas Pela iene HCy and CO, 0°15, CO 65°70, N 32°28 Has ranean ts am gave 403°5 seauienteus a quantity of heat which spied a the products of the detonation would heat them to nearly 4200°. From these data the heat of formation may be th “eda C (diamond) +N,+0,+Hg (liquid) =C,N,Hg0O, ab- Sorbs 51 4°5 = —62°9, whi i ea the tbe resulting from its ene, “acer has two sources: carbon and oxygen to form ie in contact with air, more heat is evolved because the CO bur o CO,; but the fore ce of the explosion i is not increased sheet ce this combustion follows _e effect is less than before. The pressures sara ee by the explo- h i were measured in a special eprouvette ca led a “ crusher,” ea grams fulmin the pressure developed was 477 Wi, 8 per oo centimeter. ith 4°86 grams, 1730 kilos ith 7 h Ta9 le 2697 kilos. And with 9°72 ater 4272 kilo- 236 Scientific Intelligence. explosion is not very great; that produc cotton bein nearly twice as great, and that produced by dynamite, containing 75 per cent of nitroglycerin, being about the same. T ective- great density, 4°4 ture employed. Chloroform is produced h g ° uniformity in this way. Bromine acts similarly, producing from CH,Br, CH,Br,, CHBr, and CBr, Acetic acid treated with 2, 4, 6 atoms of bromine in this way, gives carbon dioxide and bromr nated derivatives of formene. Chlorine and acetic acid gives ate g alcohol, decanted, the alcohol distilled off, and the syrup allowed to crystallize over sulphuric acid. n analysis, it gave the formula C,H,,0,; it rotates the polarized ray [a], =79°, reduce 2304, Jan. 1881, G, F. Vi 7. On the absorption of dark Heat rays by Gases and Va ise and Chemistry and Phystes. 237 inside the experimental space. The experimental vessel consisted ver was surrounded by water which was i atap. The radiating surface at the mouth of the bell jar was heated by a jet of steam, and the details of the as to avoid the production of to aqueous va- eneral discussion of the meteorological bearing of amount of absorption is known for the different parts of the spectrum.— . der K. Akad. der Wissensch. in Wien, July, 1880; Phil. 81 Pa SR eee es 8. Dust, Frogs, and Clouds.—Mr. Joun AITKEN, in a pa Sented to the i that dust is essential for the formation of fogs and clouds. Steam was mixed with air in two arge glass receivers; one of these ;celvers was filled with common air, the other with air which sé s Cy 5 ay CO 238 Setentific Intelligence. was impossible to see through a thickness of 5 cm. of it. }t 38 calculated that more than 200 tons of sulphur are burned with the coal every winter’s day in London, and this quantity is sufficient, in the writer’s opinion, to account for London ogs.— Nature, iT : M netic Deelination and Horizontal force, as observed from 1841 to at the Roy w Solar Spot frequency ; by Witt1aM ELL Is, F.R.A.S.—Observa tions of the magnetic elements have been carried on at Green- wich since 1841. Until 1847 actual readings of the various instru: ments were taken at two-hour intervals, but since the beginning of 1848, in addition to the absolute determinations of declina- tion, intensity and dip, a continuous record of the variations of the declination and the horizontal and vertical components of registration, devi by Mr. Charles Brooke. e fact that during long period the observations of the declination and h 1 force, discussed in this n the ial value to em mean diurnal range of declination in each month 18 taken the month; and similarly “for the horizontal force. his mean diurnal range for each month is obtained by taking the differ- ence between the greatest and least of the mean indications for each separate hour through the month, days of great magne ef disturbance being rejected. A table is thus formed givin series of numbers: the variation in declination is expresse®’ minutes of arc; for the variation of the horizontal force the unit is 0001 of thé whole horizontal force. The numbers thus ob- tained show a marked increase for the summer months. | d annual inequality having been, by special calculation, eliminate, a second table is formed giving the annual mean of the monthly . Chemistry and Physics. 239 mean diurnal range of the declination and horizontal force. From this table the curves D D, H H in the figure are plotted (the original plate,oneofthree = & ¢ 3392 ¢¢ Sun Spots. 7] « ! F ( r the curves of declination ig )- = e g. = ° a) ° {=| - pN] eed oe ber | fer) oO $9 o au 2 =) v | or 1 7 may 4 Sun-spot number, comparison of the three 1d d « sp onding to the Ll-year sun- |-TTT} ‘ wh Z ot period. =< Other conclusions deduced 5 = by Mr. Ellis are as follows : 3 : (1.) That the epochs of mini- mum and maximum magnetic : BY 4 Ww tion in different periods appear | [[[TTT! be similar for both phe- mena, ae The occasional more [4 TTT den outbursts of magnetic CTSe ap tt 51 wae a ee ange, are sub- Ti — ee ‘ © periodical varia- “Declination. — & a a Hor. Force. 240 Scientific Intelligence. when the diurnal range is increased, and diminished at the time of a sun-spot minimum, when the mean diurnal range is dimin- ished ed. The evidence in favor of this final conclusion is considered as not entirely decisive; the other conclusions are regarded as sufti- ciently certain. 10. U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Caruice P, PatTErson, Superintendent in charge. ethods and Results: American Standards of Length (Appendix, No. 12—Report for 1877). 36 np. 4to. Washington, 1880.—This memoir contains the report by Professor J. E. Hilgard on the details of observations made to establish the relation between the American and British stand- ards of length. The general results reached (published in Pais T r dix 22, Report for 1876), show—(1) That there is no difference d, No. 57. 1814), is a bronze bar, 86 inches long, 24 inches wide, and 4 inch thick, it has an inlaid silver scale; it was made for the survey of the coast of the United States. The yard of 36 inches, between the 27th and 63d inch was adopted as the standard yard of the United States by the Treasury Department, in 1832. The two other standards were presented by the British Government 10 1856. _A detailed discussion is given, in the report, of the coefti- cients of expansion of the three standards, and of the a fe have been subjected to great variations of temperature, varying fully 75° F. Asa result great rigidity, of Baily’s metal consisting of 16 parts copper 2 / parts tin, and 1-part zine, and it is suggested that the molecules © yield under changes of temperature, and perhaps in less degree ‘ the simple effect of continuance, The wrought-iron bar, No. 57, inane ia ces aa a Aaa) Geology and Mineralogy. 241 Low Moor iron, on the other hand, which has been subjected to the same vicissitudes as the bronze bar before mentioned, has long in the possession of the U. 8. Coast’ Survey, was compar 11. Magnetic Declination in Missouri.—A chart has been KE, Ni ter of the State there is a correspondingly sharp bend to the east- ward. (See this Journal, xix, 234, 1880). II. GkoLogy AND MINERALOGY. |. Pennsylvania Geological Survey: The Geology of McKean County, and its connection with that of Cameron, Elk and vrest ; by Cuartes A. AsnpurNER. Report of Progress, No. R. 372 pp. 8vo. With 33 plates and 2 maps. Harrisburg: 1880.—McKean, one of the northern counties of Western Penn- ylvania, adjoins Cattaraugus County and a part of Allegany ounty of N art IT, he gives the detailed geology of the county, under Which are ettngh out many se Wie illustrating the Bradford oil district. e oy a is part of the elevated plateau that stretches west t - . Table land to the south, the northwestern flank of the mountain rnge. The surface has “a mean height of nearly 2000 feet above the ocean,” but many elevations over it reach to 2200 feet, and One to 2500. : The rocks at the outcrops—which are not numerous or good— ate SO nearly horizontal that what there are of anticlinals and Synclinals consist mostly of slightly curving “domes and dim- 242 Scientifie Intelligence. ples,” the latter only occasionally taking the form of a tro The strata are a continuation of those of the Appalachian region to the southeast, but all the formations are greatly reduc ed in Welow: They belong to the following groups, commencing belo NtAN.—(1) The ae’, sandstones and_ shales (vit) nck include the productive “ oil-sands” of the Brad- ford district ;* (2) the Catskill adieu (IX), 250 feet thick at Bradford (while 2560 feet in Blair County, just southeast of the center of Pennsylvania, and 5000 to 6000 ih at the extreme eastern outcrops on the Lehigh and Susqueha Rivers). B ARBONIFEROUS.—(3) The Pocono sandstone Aba 250 thi ou f=) the Sharon sppptorierats of We stern 1 Pennsylvania and the con- glomerate of the Ohio geologists), and, above this, of two sand- stone strata with the Alton Coal-bed between. N ext (6) bebe coal-bed of Western Pennsylvania, and the Dagus, situated rah the “Clermont ferriferous limestone (4 to 8 8 sare an of the ruthie area is about sixteen miles (the northern wo to three miles of it in the State of New York), and the greatest breadth is nearly eight miles. In its line, six miles to the south- west, lies the small Kinzua oil district, and half way betwee? the two the “ Big Shanty” er and toward the southern ss ary of the county there are a few wells near orgie? an _* The “oil-sands” (or casita of Western Lecce be a, vn a oil-district—are beds in the Catskill sandstone (IX) an cee 8 uve a highe position “ea sage than those o: ord oil-di Ashburner states dae a 000 feet, sive” in view of the fact that a poate from the the ay Productive of rag to And e base (?) of the Trenton, carefully measured po him, anieed a thickness Geology and Mineralogy. 243 January, 1880, only 3°77 per cent. The special peculiarities of the oil-bearing sand-rock of the Bradford district have already been mentioned in this Journal, Report of Progress of the Geological Survey of Canada, for 1878-79. AtrrEp R.C.S Director. : 1880. (Dawson Brothers).—This volume contains the following Teports: Introduction, by Mr. Setwyn (6 pp.); on the Queen ogy of Southern New Brunswick, by Messrs. Barry and Exts; and Chemical contributions, by C. Horrmann. Mr. Dawson’s € map (for which only approximate correctness is claimed), makes the southern half of the islands, between the parallels 52° and 53°, Triassic (Alpine Trias, it containing Monotis subcireula- ris Gabb and Halobia Lommeli Wiss., etc.) ; a middle portion, about Skidegat Inlet, crossing the island obliquely, and a north- em angle (north of the parallel of 54°), of Graham Island, Creta- Ceous; and the rest of Graham Island, Tertiary and “ probably” 3000 feet, ey are generally much flexed, and toward the head of Skidegat Inlet there is a very sharp and steep flexure bend- Pi double a coal-bed; and the coal is anthracite. Cretaceous fossils (including Ammonites, Belemnites, etc.) are numerous, and Some of them have been described by Mr. Whiteaves in Mesozoic Fossils, Vol. I, Part 1. The Cretaceous and Triassic rocks are ‘nconformable, and so also the Cretaceous and Tertiary. pe - e lection ;” by Dr. H. AtLEyNE Nicnorson and R. Ernzrrpes, Jr. 244 Scientific Intelligence. Journal of the Geological Society for August, 1880 (p. 368). 6. Xenotime, from Burke County, N. C.; by W. E. Hippey. (Communicated.)—Symmetrically compounded crystals of xeno- time and zircon, much like those first noticed by E. Zschau (this Journal,. II, xx, 273) have been lately ge discovered by the writer in the auriferous ZN gravels of Brindletown, Burke county, N. C. The accompanying figure shows the form to be somewhat different from Va those of Zschau, from Hitterde, Sa 3 y, but the occurrin lanes are the same. v BP unds The B of a light-brown zircon, with a yellowish-gray xenotime. from this locality are thus compounded. ‘ 7. Geological Charts of the Yellowstone Park, and of “= region adjoint j itories of Wyoming, Idaho and Utah.—Three large and beautifully colored geological charts have recently been issued as part of the results of the oe by contour lines. One chart (the most northern) is 0 the part, to the south, of Wyoming and Idaho and part of North eastern Utah, The area comprised by the three is nearly all “ nd 45, & Botany and Zoology. 245 Ill. Botany anp Zooroey. 1. The Power of Movement in Plants ; by Cuartes Darwin LL.D., F.R.S., assisted by Francis Darwin.’ With illustrations. (London: John Murray. 1880, pleton & Co ing Plants,” and of “Insectivorous Plants,” of which it is the proper continuation and supplement. The organs of plants take certain determinate positions and triking strange, most—but not quite all of them—evidently advanta- t Successively to all points of the compass, and this wholly irre- ‘spective of external influences; and the twining around a su bike 1s a direct consequence of the circumnutation. Most tendrils rely circumnutate, and thereby are enabled to reach the object _ Which they gra i “deepen to which they respond by movement change of ae a us they grasp or do other advantageous acts. So ve . : ; small leaflets of Desmodium gyrans, proceed irrespective of night and day, he specification need not extended. The general facts in all t ; ing P . ‘ g —s TR co go i | ° ® fe) S fe 5 3 Ps are i) — -_ ~ g < c nm ~ is mh fa) cet ° - cI = _— =] gg ~ = poy ri ‘r a more developed manifestation of a general faculty. And © Same is to be said of the movements of tendrils and leaves, dete nda i uttation or stimulus. All this is what the experimental re- Searches detailed in this volume undertake to ascertain and have rily made out, 246 Scientific Intelligence. ing to circumnutate will [successively] press against the earth on - all sides, and this can hardly fail to be of the highest importance to the plant” (being supplemented by another faculty, that of sensitiveness at the tip presently to be mentioned) ; for “ when the tip encounters a stone or other obstacle in the ground, or form so narrow an ellipse that they move up and down in nearly the same vertical plane, a movement describing a circle beimg converted into one up and down. e circumnutatory movements are of the most fundamental and therefore mysterious character. Although most commonly connected with growth, they are at bottom independent of It. This—contrary to some German physiologists—we must conclude from both DeVries’ and Darwin’s investigations, They are pro TRE eae re Nt ee RET Me eT tT. OR LEN Oe el emeemeaet En Ty Botany and Zoology. 247 duced by the changing turgescence of the cells on different sides of a stem or footstalk, which may or may not be fixed by conse- quent growth or solidification. This Mr. Darwin, we presume rightly, concludes to be the faculty or susceptibility upon which heliotropism, geotropism and the like (not to speak of aphelio- other words, upon which the solar rays and some occult influence of the earth—act, modifying the sweeps or converting them into forth and back or other special movements. Among these, that fly im most mature plants. This should needs be, since, as Mr. g i medium in which it is developed, one would not look there for the endowments which Mr, Darwin finds in it. But this root-tip that va root exhibits three kinds of movement ; first that of circum- 0 : " : the harder and softer adjoining surfaces, . . . and to bend from the harder soil and follow the lines of least resistance,” so modi- 248 Scientific Intelligence. influence must be transmitted, bends and carries the point away impinges upon the stone or other body, it will bend at that part toward instead of away from it, and so follow along its surface. gravitation. Well may Mr. Darwin affirm that there is no strue- ture in plants more wonderful, as far as its functions are concerned, of plants and many of the actions performed unconsciously by the lower animals.” “But the most striking resemblance 1s the localization of their sensitiveness and the transmission of an Ie uence to an excited part which consequently moves. Yet plants do not of course possess nerves or a central nervous system; an t it more perfect transmission of impressions and for the more com- plete intercommunication of the several parts.” The closing sem tence of the book may be appended to this. “It is hardly an Pat to say that the tip of the radicle, th th has ceased whenever pulvini are p » as in several classes of leaves. s respects the relation of external agents te the movements, note Mr. Darwin’s rem en we speak 0 of light and darkness, gravitation, slight pressure or other ITF tants and certain innate or constitutional states of the plant, do not directly cause the movement; they merely lead to a tem rary increase or diminution of those spontaneous changes 1? the turgescence of the cells which are already in progress. : i _ Certai s of plants turn or grow earthward. When this is attributed to gravitation, as it commonly is, the physicis® have opportunity to complain of a misuse of the term. Althoug Mr. Darwin, like other writers, speaks of the influence of light and of gravitation in the same breath, without consiergag se i ; who he earth as the direct result of gravitation,” and note especially the concluding dictum. ‘Gravity does not appear to act in a more direct man- . ” which moves away when it feels some weight or = Botany and Zoology. 249 Why, we would ask, need the word gravity or gravitation be used at all in this connection ? The introduction to this volume contains a short article upon the terminology which is adopted in it, chiefly as regards such _ words as epinasty and hyponasty, geotropism and related terms, which it is most convenient to employ, and also the names of the several parts of the embryo and seedling. This is, we believe, almost the first English book in which the axial part of the dico- tyledonous embryo below the cotyledons (the radicle of the syste- matic botanists even of the present day) is distinctly recognized as hypocotyledonous or initial stem, although on the continent a. grows from the lower end of the caulicle (or “ hypocot ae Have all along applied to the caulicle. Although initial stem an initial root are most clearly discriminated in the present volume, ermi dons, it appears to be implied or stated, either that it 1s the root- part which first rojects from the seed-coats and that the stem- part begins its development later, or that the axial part of the bryo conspicuously preéxisting in the seed is root and not Stem. We take it to be quite otherwise, namely, that this axial part in the seed is cauline, and that ordinarily it protrudes or makes some growth in length before root-formation begins. A few misprints of names of plants will in nowise mislead or trouble any botanist, except possibly in the case of Apium gage which on p. 422 and 424, and in the index, is printed P08, : 2. Eucalyptographia: A Descriptive Atlas of the Hucalypts of Australia and the adjoining islands ; by Baron Frrp. von ie R, K.C.M.G. London and Melbourne: 1880.—This is the ‘Sixth decade of the Atlas, and contains descriptions of the follow- ri. Species: Hucalyptus buprestium, globulus, megacarpa, min- g : eas Gum-tree,” contains many facts of interest,which may Mere briefly noticed. 250 Scientific Intelligence. (1.) Degree of resistance to frost. This depends on the age of the plant (older trees standing best), on the amount of moisture — in its surroundings (dry places most favorable), and on the degree — of shelter from the wind. Grown-up trees did not suffer at all | during the cold winter of 1879-80 at Antibes, although the tem- perature fell as low as 15° F., and the monks of Tre Fontane, ., and this appears to be in accord with expe even strong limbs, but the stem and main branches remained unhurt, pushing forth new shoots and foliage in the spring. Pro- great extent and provided also, that the new wood was W matured and the spot of growth a dry one.” : 2. e drainage of swamps by Eucalyptus. According to Baron von Miiller, it was through the Archbishop of Melbourne, that plantations of this tree were first established for diminishing the miasmatic exhalations of the Pontine marshes. The 1olow of your kind and thoughtful presentation in the vigorous growth ir of _ But at Gaéta, trees oa planted by Royal order in 1854, and in 1878 one of them measured eleven feet in girth, and was 100 feet high. It may be remembered that another species of en genus, E. amygdalina, surpasses this one both in rapidity growth, and in the height which it ultimately attains. be e author deals to some extent with the medicinal properties of the products of the tree, and has also some remarks upo? the No. 4, seasoned 8 months, broke with a total weight of..- 819 Ibs. * 6, ¥ S y ars, “6 té “ce 51039 + No. 15, 66 20 years, “a “ “ 5.1830 a In some experiments with wood of the same dimensions, Mr. ei : kett found that when the weight was suspended in the middle, — both ends free, the average was 712 Ibs., being very much less Botany and Zoology. 251 than that recorded by Mr. Mitchell. Experiments by Baron von Miiller and J. H. Liihmann, upon wood two feet long and two inches square, gave the following results:—Weight required to break a truncheon of Eucalyptus globulus, - _2252 to 3752 Ibs. Eucalyptus Leucoxylon, Victorian Iron Bark Tree, ...----. 3144 * essmate,” ucalyptus obliqua, “ Messmate,”__.__- .- 1776 Quercus alba, American White Oak,... . -- 2086 * “ “ it 1644.“ Pinus silvestris, Baltic Deal,____. i eaNen es 1358 The vertical or crushing strain on cubes of two inches was from ten to twelve tons. So much for the strength of this wonderful wood. Now one word regarding the yield of wood by a single tree. At South- Port, Mr. James Dickinson noticed a tree of EZ. lobulus, which, Royal Oak of England has such an extensive literature been devoted at any particular period as to our Blue-Gum tree within might perhaps be inferred from the title, but it is far more than a mere catalogue. It comprises a list of the flowering plants and a large part of the Cryptogams, with copious notes upon the locali- tes, where such information seemed necessary. Mr. Robinson’s Valuable annotations deal with a wide range of subjects, but ever wander out of sight of the plant. A short and dixcriminat- Ing sketch of the early Botanists of Essex County adds greatly to the interest of the volume. G. L, Ge. 4. Botany of California, Vol. 2; by SerENo Watson. Uni- versity Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1880.—This volume completes the Flora of the State of California. The first volume has been re-issued with typographical corrections ; the second volume con- taining all the important additions to the earlier orders. A notice this very attractive and most useful work will be given in a ume, (postage 45 cts. additional). . . ba Squid (Architeuthis) abundant in 1875, at the Grand ; by A. E. Verrmu.—From Capt. J. W. Collins, now of Aw. Jour. Scr.—Tamp Series, Vor. XXI, No. 123—Mancx, 1881 ve 16a 252 Scientific Intelligence. ted by birds and fishes. In very few cases they were not quite dead, but cares disabled. These oye seen chietly between N. lat. 44° and 44° 30’; and between W. long. 49° 30’ and 49° 50’ He believes that between twenty-five and thirty aston were secured by the fleet from Gloucester, Mass., and that as many more were probably obtained by. the vessels from ae places. They were cut up and used as bait for cod-fish. For this use they are of considerable Valic to the fishermen. Capt. Collins was at that time in command of the schooner ‘ Howard,’ which secured five of these giant squids. ese were mostly from ten to fifteen feet long, not ae the arms, and averaged about eighteen inches in diameter. The arms were almost always muti- lated. The portion that was left was usually three to four feet long and, at the base, about as large as a man’s thigh. ne specimen, when cut up, was packed into a large hogshead tub, having a capacity of about seventy-five allons, which it filled. This tub was known to hold 700 pounds of cod- fish. The gravity of the Architeuthis is probably about the same as that of e fish. This would indicate more nearly the actual weight of one of Nee creatures than any of the mere estimates that have been made, which are usually much too great. Allowing for the nates of the arms that had been destroyed, this specimen would, sine oe st weighed nearly 1,000 pounds. n merous other vessels that were sper ie zanda, ” Capt. Mallory. 2 secured three in one afternoon. These were eight to twelve feet long, not including the arms. These state- i : the “big squids” were also common, during the same ‘season, ® the “ Flemish eg ” a bank situated some Fiance > northeast from the Grand Ban The cause - so great a mortality among these great Cephalor pods can only be conjectured. It may have been due to some disease epidemic amon them, or to an unusual prevalence of deadly parasites or other enemies. It is worth while, howevel to recall the fact that these were observed at about the same time, found cast Miscellaneous In telligence. 253 IV. MIscELLANEOUS ScIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. Zeitschrift fiir Instrumentenkunde: Organ fir Mittheilung- en aus dem gesammten Gebiete der wissenschaftlichen Technik. 0 1, anuary, 1881. 40 pp. small 4to. Berlin (Julius Springer— n i (ork. he prospectus of this new Journal states that it will be devoted to the discussion of all subjects immediately connected with the design and con- struction of scientific instruments and apparatus. These will be treated both from the standpoint of the investigator and also that of the mechanician, in order that the scientitic learning of the former ‘and the technical knowledge and experience of the latter may be combined to produce the best results. The list of editors comprises twenty names, including many of those who have the n ES a best reputation in the manufacture of scientific Ig This the new Journal promises to do, and the names of those who appear in the editorial staff, and of those from whom articles are chem in early numbers, are a guarantee that its standard will ea high one, The January number contains the following articles :—Normal barometer and manometer, y R. Fuess; on the illumination of W const igation of micrometer screws, by C. Reichel; on spec- pparatus, by H. C. Vogel; a rotating spectrum apparatus, 8 ysiology and on a tel- Dr. B as been for many years Director of the Observatory at published within the past year the Uranometria : first part of the results of his telescopic study of the Southern heavens, has been elected a member of the Section Astronomy of the French Academy of Sciences, in place of the ate Professor C. A. F. eters, of Kiel. : * es Bibliographie Générale de (_Astronomie. Tome II Meé- «Metres et Notices insérés dans les Collections académiques et les B “es. Ist fasciculus; by J. C. Houzeau and A. ANCASTER, ‘ Tussells, Dec, 1880, Large 8vo, pp. 86, and 336 columns.—This «WS the first part of the second volume of a general Bibliography ill 254 Miscellaneous Intelligence. of Astronomy, the first volume not yet having appeared. The first eighty-six pages are devoted to lists of the Academic collec- tions and journals, giving the leading bibliographic details of the several series, The rest of this number contains two sections, History and ‘Study of Astronomy and Biographies of Astrono- 4. Washburn Observatory, University of Wisconsin.—Pro- fessor Henry S. Holden, of the Naval Observatory, Washington, has received the appointment of Director of the Washburn Observatory, in place of Professor Watson, deceased. 5. A Text Book of Elementary Mechanics for the use of Col- leges und Schools ; by Evwarp 8. Dana. 291 pp. 12mo, with 190 wood cuts. New York, 1881. (John Wiley & Sons).—The the portions ot the subject, which necessarily invoive some diffi- culty, more intelligible to beginners, and also to increase the and a supplementary list of examples involving the metric units ume, 6. Massachusetts Institute of Technology—Abstract of the eedings of the Society of Arts for the 18th-year, 1819-80; meetings 242-255 inclusive. 108 pp. 8vo. Boston: 1880,—This alizarine, by Professor J. M. Ordway; battery and copper pe amalgamation, by Professor R. H. Richards; American inter oceanic ship transit, by Dr. S. Kneeland, etc. a j Hep tee: eh Pr ere ee ee he ee eee ee AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. [THIRD SERIES.] ae oe Arr. XXXI.— Monograph by Professor MARSH on the Odont- ornithes, or Toothed Birds of North America.* should rest, as Professor Marsh’s work sh : t complete range of evidence and perfection of material ever at the disposal of the author of a m r paleon- 1S Concerned, representations of recent bones, and, we might almost say, of recent skeletons. In fact, in the case of one dozen of the small bones are missin : in Lcehthyornis and Apatornis, also, the remains are remarkably perfect, con- sidering the fragile character of birds’ bones. ‘The success of characteristic, As a reward for his energy, Professor Marsh as the satisfaction of having obtained, so far as known, all the bird remains that have ever been collected from the Kansas Odo mtornithes : A Monograph on the Extinct Toothed Birds of North America ; Men thirty-four plates and forty woodcuts. By OTHNieL CHARLES Marsu, ihe fessor of Paleontology in Yale College. 4to, pp. i-xv. 201. Exploration of 40th Parallel, Vol. Vil. Washington, D.C. 1880. Am. Jour. $c1.—Tuirp Series, Vou. XXI, No, 124.—ApriL, 1881. wee 17 . 256 Marsh’s Monograph on the Odontornithes beds, and of having published all the original matter that has yet.been brought out on the American Odontornithes. The present work, which appears as volume VII of the Sur- vey of the 40th Parallel, is also the first of the Memoirs of the Peabody Museum of Yale College. It contains, in its Preface, an outline of the plan of the series to be issued, of which this is the initial volume; and as this subject is one of general interest to paleontological science, we cite the following para- graphs. “The present volume is the first of a series of monographs designed to make known to science the Extinct Vertebrate Life of North America. In the investigation of this subject, the writer has spent the past ten years; much of it in the field, collecting, with no little hardship and danger, the material for study, and the rest in working out the characters and affinities of the ancient forms of life thus discovered. “During this decade, the field work, extending from the Missouri River to the Pacific Coast, has so predominated, as the subject unfolded, that a plan of gradual publication be- came a necessity. The more important discoveries were briefly announced soon after they were made, but only where the specimens on which they were based could be accurately de- results already attained are full of promise for the future. A somewhat careful estimate makes the number of new species of extinct vertebrates, collected since 1868, and now in the Yale College Museum, about 1,000. Nearly 300 of these have already been described by the writer, and some have been noticed or described by other authors, but at least one-third remain to be investigated. ‘Among the new groups brought to light by these re searches, and already made known by descriptions of their principal characters, are the following, which will be fully de- scribed in subsequent volumes of the preseut series. : ‘The first Pterodactyles, or flying reptiles, discovered in this country, were found by the writer in the same geological hor zon with the Odontornithes, described in the present volume. or Toothed Birds of North America. 257 £ : hundred individuals are now in the Yale College Museum; ample material to illustrate every important point in their osteology. “With these fossils, were found also great numbers of Mosa- sauroid reptiles, a group which, although rare in Europe, attained an enormous development in this country, both as to numbers and variety of forms. Remains of more than fourteen hundred individuals, belonging to this order, were secured during the explorations of the last ten years, and are now in the Museum of, Yale College. : “The most interesting discoveries made in the Jurassic for- Sa were the gigantic reptiles belonging to the sub-order 2 discovered. Another remarkable group of large reptiles found in the same formation were the Stegosauria. Other Dinosaurs from the same horizon, the “ Atlantosaurus beds,” show that this was the dominant form of vertebrate life in that age, and many hundred specimens of these reptiles are now in the Yale Museum. In a lower horizon of the same formation, trom North America, as well as the first Chiroptera, and Mar- ‘Supialia. Abundant material also was found in the same re- ion to illustrate the genealogy of the horse, and a memoir on this subject is in course of preparation.” 258 Marsh's Monograph on the Odontornithes preservation of the fragile bones here described is due. strata containing them correspond to what has been called Marsh the “ Pteranodon beds,” a part of Meek and Hay- den’s Cretaceous Number 3. This horizon is extremely rich in vertebrate fossils, and contains many fishes, Mosasauroid rep- tiles, Plesiosaurs and Pterodactyles. The first specimen of Odontornithes found was the distal end of a tibia collected by Professor Marsh in 1870. Other por- tions of the skeleton were soon afterward brought to light, and among which are several almost complete skeletons of Hesper- ornis and rich material of Zchthyornis. “A study of this extensive series of Bird remains brings to nithes. One of these groups includes very large ; birds, without wings, and with the teeth in grooves (Odontolce); represented by the genus Hesperornis contain class, now a closed the d them. Hesperornis, the type of the order Odontolewe, was an aquatie bird of great size, measuring almost six feet from the tip of the bill to the end of the toes. Owing to the completeness of the remains, its affinities and probable habits have been very fully and clearly made out. th The teeth had conical pointed crowns covered with smooth — enamel and somewhat directed backward, and their fangs Wet? — ; ype; ce they are well worth of etailed description and full illustration here devot to or Toothed Birds of North America. 259 very stout. In form they closely resemble the teeth of some Mosasauroid reptiles. There were fourteen functional teeth in the maxillary bone of Hesperornis regalis, the premaxillary being edentulous, while The brain of Hesperornis (figure 1) was very small and a 2. Ss 5 a Compared with the brain of Colymbus (figure 2) the brain esperornis presents some interesting features. It was less = &, Ss . gt feeble, and there were no functional wings; the only bone © the arm represented being the humerus, which had no artie- ular surface at its distal end. The sternum was broad and 260 - Marsh's Monograph on the Odontornithes — 1—Ontline of skull and brain-cavity of Hesperornis regalis, Marsh; nee om ; three-fifths nat size. Figure 2.—-Outline of skull and sant of the Loon, (Colymbus torquatiss mse wee same view; natural s x ene = "e coreal tic lobes; ¢ bellum; ff 3 < cue emispheres ; op. optic 5 or Toothed Birds of North America. 261 long, but was wholly without a keel. The pelvis was greatly elongated and somewhat resembles that of the Grebes. The acetabulum, instead of being a mere ring of bone, as in most birds, is wholly closed internally, with the exception of a fora- nfen perforating the inner wall. The posterior extremities of the illum, ischium and pubis are free, as in some Ratite and in Tinamus. The tail is long, being composed of twelve verte- ree, a greater number than is found in any recent bird, except possibly thé great Auk (Alca impennis). The middle and dis- as restricted, so that the principal motion of the tail must have been vertical, and it was no doubt a powerful aid in diving. The so-called plowshare bone of modern birds is represented Y the codssification of the last three or four vertebrae, w ich, resistance presented to the water. The remaining digits fol- lowed behind the fourth, and the foot was not expanded until _ pi&sent species. Hesperornis, as we have seen, was an " tle diver, while ai i neck with its capabilities of rapid 262 Marsh's Monograph on the Odontornithes flexure, and the long slender jaws armed with sharp recurved teeth formed together a perfect instrument for the capture and retention of the most agile fish, As the lower jaws were united in front only by cartilage, as in Serpents, and had on each side a joint which admitted of some motion, the power of swallowing was doubtless equal to any emergency. ‘Having thus shown what the skeleton of Hesperornis is, and what its mode of life must have been, it remains to con- sider the more important question of how the peculiar combi- nation of general and specialized characters manifested im its — structure originated. The two most striking features of Hespe- rornis are the teeth, and the limbs, and an inquiry in regard to them first suggests itself. Figure 3.—Tooth of Hesperornis regalis (No. 1206); enlarged eight diameters. Figure 4.—Tooth of Mosasaurus princeps, Marsh; half natural size. a a. enamel of crown; b. dentine; b’. root of tooth; c’. absorbed cavity root; d. young tooth. _ “The teeth of Hesperornis may be regarded as a character inherited from a reptilian ancestry. Their strong resemblance to the teeth of reptiles, in form, structure, and succession, A have in one well known group of reptiles exemplified, by. Ichthyosaurus. This method of insertion in the jaw 18 & ge” tive dental character, quite different from what we shoulé Ten sae ta 8) or Toothed Birds of North America. 263 Wings Slowly diminished in size, first came the loss of flight, while the Wings retained, doubtless for a long time, their power aken place in ocean navigation, in the gradual change of the Side-wheel steamer into the modern propeller. ‘ Another explanation seems on the whole more reasonable, 4nd more in accordance with the known facts. The Struthious characters, seen in Hesperornis, should probably be regarded as given similar characters to the Ratite, and subsequently have T- cae long neck and peculiar jaws and teeth would be nt Bae * 264 Marsh’s Monograph on the Odontornithes ous cotemporaries would. doubtless have been easy victims. This would be precisely analogous to what we have among the corresponding groups in the Dinosaurs. “There is to-day no evidence that any of the Struthious birds, or their ancestors, ever possessed the power of flight, although this is generally assumed. The case is even stronger with Hesperornis, as this genus stands much nearer the ances- tral type, both in structure and in time. The absence from the sternum of any trace of a keel is alone strong proof against flight ; the peculiar Dinosauroid union of the scapula and cora- coid, unlike that of any volant bird or reptile, confirms this; and other testimeny bearing in the same direction is not wantin Onemiornis and Notornis are well known examples; but these and this alone seems to furnish a crucial test. When such “In this great swimming bird, as thus nodined, we have presreus to us an interesting problem in animal mechanics. ‘he wings may be regarded as wanting, since the remnant 0} a Se Te a a FT eee Ral a i em eR nee eT fe ee Eee Sige a ee ere a 5) or Toothed Birds of North America. 265 posterior limbs, a specialization here seen for the first time in aquatic birds, recent or fossil. Those who have observed a Penguin or a Loon swimming beneath the water know what a useless these members may appear to be on land. Not only do the wings, in such a case, assist in the forward movement through the water, but they are of much service in steering. A Penguin, when in swift sub-aqueous flight, can turn around, by the aid of its wings, while moving twice its length. Hespe- rornis had no such aid, but the legs and feet were far superior, for swimming and diving, to those of the Penguins, not merely in power, but in the more perfect adaptive mechanism. This was doubtless the main reason why the posterior limbs of Hesperornis became so predominant. “The tail of Hesperornis was clearly of great service in its aquatic life. In the number of vertebre and length, it ex- ceeds nearly all known birds, and it is unique in its widely expanded transverse processes, and in its depressed, horizontal, Plough-share bone. his broad horizontal tail reminds one of that of the beaver, and was undoubtedly of great assistance in steering and in diving. Whether it was, like the beaver's tail, destitute of feathers, or, like the tail of Plotus, was furnished With long stiff feathers, so as to act as a rudder, cannot at present be determined with certainty, although the latter view seems more probable. That Hesperornis was provided with d feathers of some kind, we can hardly doubt.” Figure 5.—Caudal vertebrae of Hesperornis regalis, Marsh; seen from above, in Position ; two-thirds natural size. Pre powers of Struthious birds. The latter, from his studies e . Myolog: : ee these birds could never have possessed the power of flight. The 266 Marsh's Monograph on the Odontornithes gradual atrophy of the arm resulting from disuse, the extreme of which is'seen among living birds in Apieryx, had proceeded so far in Hesperornis that it was no better provided with fore limbs than are the Cetaceans with hind limbs. The enormous development of the legs and feet, supposed by some writers to point to an affinity with the Pygopodes, Figure 6.—Restoration of Hesperornis regalis, Marsh. One-eighth natural size. does not really suggest any such relationship. That “ legs are much alike in both groups is true; but to pA a that Hesperornis is merely a loon or grebe with teeth, 1S take a very superficial view of the structural characteristics ie ae ee ey oie see ht, eee CE ein” deans fares ta 0 Se ey Nake te ee he he en eee fet aE I te ae Set ae eee A eT ae eh or Toothed Birds of North America. 267 Apatornis. These birds were small and wholly unlike Hesper- ornis In structure, being, perhaps, as different from that type as from that of any modern birds. ey were about the size of a pigeon and were provided with very large strong wings, but had small legs and feet. The sternum is strongly keeled, and the bones are extensively pneumatic. ey present some resemblances in structure to the existing Terns, and are thought to have somewhat resembled those birds in their mode of life. The teeth of Jchthyornis and Apatornis were implanted in ia sockets, instead of in a groove, as in Hesperornis. An examination of the brain cavity of Zchthyornis presents re- sults similar to those arrived at from the comparison of the Same part in Hesperornis. If wecompare the skull of Ichthyor- ms with that of Sterna—the two being reduced to the same ab- Solute size-—we find the brain of the former to have been less than one-third the size of the latter. The differences between se two smaller birds are the same in kind as those between Hesperornis and Ovlymbus (figures 1 and 2), but the cerebral hemispheres in Ichthyornis are relatively less elongated than in its Cretaceous contemporary. _ The similarity in the results of these comparisons is espe- cially interesting, since in no other cases have the brain cavi- Sion of teeth, is their biconcave vertebra. The presence of - reptilian character in vertebrates so highly organized as irds, was wholly unexpected, and is only another illustration _ OF the fact, so constantly obtruded upon the attention of the 268 Marsh's Monograph on the Odontornithes anatomist, that some low character may persist while specializa- tion in certain directions is reaching a high degree of perfection. we leave out of account the skull and presacral vertebrae of this group, its structure is essentially that of a modern bird, but the combination of such specialized and primitive characters renders it not less remarkable than its larger toothed ally. 4 x Figure 7.—Outline of the skull and brain-cavity of Jchthyornis victor, Marsh _.__ Seen from above ; five-sixths natural size. 5. eae Figure 8.—Outline of the skull and brain-cavity of Sterna cantiaca, Gmelin; : view ; natural size. ol. olfactory lobes; ¢. cerebral hemispheres ; op. optic lobes ; cb. cerebellum. a then be found with the wings and feet, yery strong evidence | or Toothed Birds of North America. 269 would be required to convince him that they were parts of one and the same bird. ‘The jaws and teeth present reptilian characters wholly unknown in modern birds, while the base eo — oO Les 2 ix) 4 re) ce th = ° 5 te) — peed “an = ° 4 5 = ee, Qu Se “ ia) © oO 5 or i) =) jon @ m4 = pe aQ st Hs) 5S a oS] found alone with the jaws and teeth, would force any anato- os the conclusion that he had before him the remains of a reptile. _ “The skeleton of ichthyornis, as we know it to-day, can be interpreted only, in the light of modern science, by supposing that certain parts have become highly specialized in the direc- tion of recent birds, while others have been derived, with but lit- _ tlechange, from a reptilian, or even a more lowly, ancestry. In 4 the Wings, the most characteristic modern feature is the codssi- teeth are evidently a strong reptilian feature, and, before the Many reptiles, and is seen in Hesperornis, but is unknown in all other birds. The form of the skull and the obliteration of _— the cranial sutures are points of resemblance to many: otal birds. * * * at * * mo 2 great abundance mingled with those of Jehthyornis. These fossils occur in the bed of the old Cretaceous ocean in 270 Marsh's Monograph on the Odontornithes which Hesperornis swam. Both of these birds were clearly — aquatic in habit, as shown by various points in their structure, — already described, and the conditions under which their remains — were deposited. In many respects, /chthyornis probably resem- bled the modern Terns in its mode of life. The powerful — wings and small feet suggest similar habits in flight, and rest. Figure 9.—Restoration of Ichthyornis victor, Marsh. One-half natural size, That Ichthyornis was provided with feathers is proved bey ee question by the tubercles for the attachment of quills on t orearm. “ Besides Ichthyornis and its allies, the only other denizen of the air at present known to have then inhabited the same a : : J 4 ; 3 . ; : i j or Toothed Birds of North America. 271 region were the toothless Pterodactyles. Ichthyornis doubtless competed with these huge dragons for the fishes in the tropical d 7 an examination of the skull in either form, the remainder of the skeleton being unknown, might well lead the student as far from the truth in the other direction. So untrustworthy, in the light of modern science, has Cuvier’s law of correlation ‘Proved to be. : he conclusions drawn by Professor Marsh from his study ‘of all the known remains of Odontornithes are as follows: ® Having now described the more important characters in » ‘the structure, so far as known, of the two groups of Cretaceous pected, Broove, a low, generalized character; with, however, the Strongly differentiated saddle-shaped vertebrae. Ichthyornis, on the other hand, had the primitive biconcave vertebra, and yet Am. Jour, es gee Vou. XXI, No. 124.—AprIL, 1881. 272 Marsh’s Monograph on the Odontornithes : ip the highly specialized feature of teeth in distinct sockets, Better examples than these could hardly be found to illustrate one fact brought out by modern science, that an animal may attain great development in one set of characters, and at the same time retain other low features of the ancestral type. This is a fundamental principle of evolution. “The more superficial characters of the absence of wings and the strong swimming legs and feet of J/esperornis are in striking contrast, also, with the powerful wings and diminutive legs and feet of Jchthyornis. These and other characters, already mentioned, separate the two birds so widely that a more detailed comparison seems here unnecessary. “Tt would be highly desirable to carefully compare both Ichthyornis and Hesperornis with Archwopteryx, the still older Mesozoic bird. This unfortunately cannot be done at present, as the two skeletons of Archeopteryx, now known, have not yet been fully described, nor even prepared for examination by bs The other Mesozoic birds now known from the deposits of this country, and the few discovered in Europe, may, some or all of them, have had teeth, but their remains are too fragmen- tary to determine this point, or even their near affinities. “Tt is an interesting fact that the Cretaceous birds at present known, some twenty species or more, were all apparently a A tic forms, which of course are most likely to be preserved 1? marine deposits, while the Jurassic Archaeopteryx, the only one from that formation, was a true land bird. “The birds found in more recent formations all belong app rently to modern types, and hence present few points for pro- fitable comparison with the Odontornithes. The existing birds with reptilian characters are nearly all confined to the Rat, or Toothed Birds of North America. 273 ee Odontornithes as a sub-class, and to separate them into three each other. The free metacarpals and long tail of Archeopteryx are significant characters. Gegenbaur and Morse, however, have shown that young birds of existing species have the metacarpals separate, and this is true for all these birds up to 4 certain age. Hence this character is of less importance than the presence of true teeth, since in no recent birds, young or old, have these been found. The length of tail is perhaps a character of more value, but this is a variable feature in modern birds. Sub-class ODONTORNITHES (or Aves Dentata), Marsh. Order, OpoyroLom, Marsh, |ODONTOTORM#, Marsh. |SauRUR&, Heckel. Genus, Hesperornis, Marsh. Ichthyornis, Marsh. Archeopteryx, von Meyer, : . Teeth in sockets Teeth i ? r Wer jaws separate. Lower jaws separate. |Lower jaws ? katie saddle-shaped. Vertebree biconcave. ertebrz ? Met rudimentary. Wings large. Win - etaca s wanting. Metacarpals ankylosed.|Metacarpals separate. Sternum without keel. Sternum with keel. | /Sternum ? ail short. Tail short. Tail longer than body. : “That the three oldest known birds should differ so widely x Ng — other points unmistakably to a great antiquity for € class, E reptilian features. For the primal forms of the bird-type, we Must evidently look to the Paleozoic; and in the rich land una of our American Permian we may yet hope to find the remains of both Birds and Mammals. ‘The genera Archeopteryx, Hesperornis and. Ichthyornis, each Possessed certain generalized characters not shared by the others. These characters were undoubtedly united in some 74 Marsh's Monograph on the Odontornithes earlier form, and this fact gives us a hint as to what the more primitive forms must have been, and suggest the more promi- nent features of the ancestral type. “In the generalized form to which we must look back for the ancestral type of the class of birds, we should therefore expect to find the following characters: (1.) Teeth, in grooves. (2.) Vertebree biconcave, (3.) Metacarpal and carpal bones free. (4.) Sternum without a keel. (5.) Sacrum composed of two vertebre. (6.) Bones of the pelvis separate. 7.) Tail longer than the bod tS Metatarsal and tarsal bones free. 4 or more toes, directed forward. (10.) Feathers rudimentary or imperfect. ancestral line of either Dinosaurs or Pterodactyles, as feathers were not a character of these groups. With this exception, all of the characters named belong to the generalized Sauropsid, from which both birds and the known Dinosaurs may we ‘have descended. An essential character in this ancestral type would be a free quadrate bone, since this isa universal feature n birds, and only partially retained in the Dinosaurs now known. “The Birds would appear to have branched off by a single stem, which gradually lost its reptilian characters as it assume the ornithic type, and in the existing -Ratitee we have the survivors of this direct line. The lineal descendants of would come increased power of flight, as we see in young birds of to-day. A greater activity would result in a more or Toothed Birds of North America. 275 perfect circulation. A true bird would doubtless require arm blood, but would not necessarily be hot-blooded, like the birds now living. shoot. It is probable that Hesperornis came off from the main Struthious stem, and has left no descendants. “These three ancient birds, so widely different from each other, and from all modern birds, prove beyond question the marvelous diversity of the avian type in Mesozoic time; an also give promise of a rich reward to the explorer who success- fully works out the life-history of allied forms, recorded in ages more remote.” tigations upon this and kindred points, we may fairly hope that future discoveries will add much to our knowledge of this Professor Geikie’s remark in regard to them. He says:— They are strictly and rigidly scientific diagrams, wherein ®very bone and part of a bone is made to stand out so clearly that it would not be difficult to mold a good model of the skel- 276 W. J. MeGee—E lements in Orographic Displacement. eton from the plates alone. And yet with this faithfulness to the chief aim of the illustrations there is combined an artistic finish which has made each plate a kind of finished picture.” Professor Marsh’s volume on the Odontornithes stands almost if not quite alone among works on fossils, as regards the com- pleteness of the material described and figured, the paleonto- logical interest attaching to this material, and the importance of the biological conclusions drawn from it. As the first volume of the Memoirs of the Yale Museum, it gives a rich ise of what we may hope to see when the extensive collections at New Haven shall have been fully investigated. . BrRD GRINNELL. Art. XXXIL—On some Elements in Orographic Displacement ; by W. J. McGEr. essentially identical results would follow the most rigid analysis. The solid crust of the earth may be assumed to consist of three layers of equal thickness (which may be designated as ”, o, and p), but of density varying as 2d, 3d, and 4d respectively, resting upon a mobile substratum.* Tangential strain due to * The “critical shell” of Mr. King might be equivalent to such a mobile ‘substratum. a W. J. MeGee—Elements in Orographic Displacement. 277 contraction of the globe might give rise to a fault, which, as indicated not only by physical considerations but also by the testimony of existing faults, would form an angle with the vertical,” At the same time the region (A) on the side of the fault forming an acute angle with the surface would be u heaved, and the region (B) on the opposite side depressed. Such a displacement might altogether relieve the tangential strain. The elevation and depression on opposite sides of the fault may each be assumed to equal ». Suppose now the upheaved portion of region A to be removed by denudation and deposited within the depressed region B. The thickness of the crust at A and B will then be o+p and n+n+o+p 8 > 4 od o ° < @ to et 4 ° oe jon) oe oO bo Q + bo Q 4. vo Q, ++ oe Qy lao j=) + os i@) go a further depression, while the lighter area would be corre- : 2d+2d+3d+4d . 99 while that of region B is only — 1 obvious that the former region will be depressed and the latter elevated; and the relative elevation of the two regions will t is peroxystmal in its nature and occurring at the close of a perio ay operative repose and quiet sedimentation. >ince the secular refrigeration of the globe would eventually 278 W. J. McGee—Elements in Orographice Displacement. In any given case. Farley, Iowa, Sept. 8th, 1880, * Geol. Mag., II, vii, 169. the temperatures given may be looked upon as exact to 0° J, H, Long—Indices of Refraction of Compound Ethers. 279 Art. XXXIIL.—On the Indices of Refraction of certain Com- pound Ethers ; by Joun H. Lone. ABOUT two years ago, while at work in the laboratory of the stances were being used by Herrn Emil Elsiisser for the deter- mination of specific gravity and coefficient of expansion, an his results I have made use of in the calculation of the tables ound below. _ Other duties prevented the publication of my results at the time, but the elegant work of Briihl,* which has since appeared, having added a new interest to the subject of refraction, I deem 't not too late to make them known now. The method em-_ ployed was essentially that of Landolt.t A large Meyerstein pee mets, kindly loaned me by Professor v. Reusch of the tibingen physical laboratory, permitted results exact to four decimal places of n (as scp latisaek below) to be readily obtained. The fifth decimal place is in most cases uncertain. ° . +48 Source of light I used the sodium flame and the refrac- tive indices for the D line were determined for several differ- ent temperatures. This was accomplished as follows: The hollow glass prism containing the liquid to be examined, together with its metallic support, was placed on a hot iron Plate and left there until the temperature of the liquid had risen (in most cases) to about 30° C., as shown by the small thermometer firmly secured by a cork in the orifice of the prism. e room. The thermometer used had been previously carefully f “pared with a normal thermometer in the possession of Pro- t Meyer and a table of corrections thus obtained, oy cea d The indices were determined by the method of minimum eviation, according to the formula ln W. Brihl: Die chemische Constitution organischer Kérper in Beziebung zu ren Dichte u, Vermégen d. Licht fortzupflanzen. Liebig’s Annalen, cc, 139; oe 255 and 363. See also this Journal, Jan., 1881, page 70. 8. Ann., Bd. exvii, 353. 280 WJ. H. Long—Indices of Refraction of Compound Ethers. A+d 2 sin r~a= A sin a: where d is the observed angle of minimum deviation and A the refractive angle of the prism. This latter was determined before each observation (as the sides of the prism were formed of glass plates fastened by rubber bands) and varied between 60° 2’ 30” and 60° 3’ 30”. In every case at least two complete sets of observations were made for each substance and the mean of the results, which was determined under diminished pressure, this latter element is given. In other cases the usual barometric height in Tibin- gen—about 735™"—is to be understood. METHYL FORMATE, PROPYL ACETATE. Bp = 32° = 87°-8-88°°2 P, 470™™ T A nabs aif. Fe a fi . "aiff. 20 1°343 22 1383 19 1°34430 00044 21 1°38404 00052 18 13447: 43 20 1°38456 17 1°34516 43 19 1°38507 51 16 1°34559 43 18 1°38558 51 15 1°34601 42 17 1°38608 50 PROPYL FORMATE, METHYL PROPIONATE. r Md o_a@re. mm een 3, ° ABP = 61 67°°3 P, 43108 . os Bp = 19 5-80 os 23 137604 20 1:37763 22 137656 00052 19 1°37822 “00059 21 1°37706 50 18 1°37875 53 20 1°37756 50 17 1.37927 52 19 137806 50 16 1°37980 53 18 1°37855 49 15 1°38032 52 17 137904 49 IsoBuTyL FORMATE, ETHYL PROPIONATE. Bp = 99°-99°- = 8]°-4-82° P, 402™™ T. she Stel 5 ae 22 13 20 1:384 21 1°38693 00052 19 1°38471 "00050 20 1°38745 52 P 18 1°385 19 1°38796 51 17 1°38568 48 18 5 49. 16 1:38616 4 17 1°38893 48 15 1°38663 47 16 1°38941 48 J. H. Long—Indices of Refraction of Compound Ethers. 281 Pri ROPYL PROPIONATE, ETHYL ISOBUTYRATE. Bp = 101°5-102° P, 384mm ‘ Bp = 107°-107°°3 Nl. 23 1391 25 1:38 2 1°39253 00054 24 1°38589 00052 21 1°393 23 1°38 20 1:39356 51 22 138693 52 19 1°39405 49 21 1°38745 52 18 139452 44 20 1°38797 52 17 1°39497 45 ISOBUTYL PROPIONATE. PROPYL ISOBUTYRATE. Bp = 135°°2-135°°5 Bp = 130°°5-131° T. n. n. 20 1°397 25 13 19 1:397938 00045 24 1°39414 00045 18 1°398 45 23 13 17 1:39882 44 22 139504 45 16 1°39925 43 21 1°39549 45 20 1°39593 44 19 1°39637 44 MYL PROPIONATE. ISOBUTYL ISOBUTYRATE Bp = 159°*5-160° Bp = 144°-145 T. n diff, T. 23 1:405 25 1397 22 1:40567 00044 24 139819 00044 21 1:406 23 1°3986 44 20 1:40653 43 22 1°39906 43 19 1:40696 43 21 139949 43 18 140738 42 20 2 43 17 1:40780 42 19 140034 42 ISOBUTYL BUTYRATE, AMYL ISOBUTYRATE # Bp = 154°5-155° Bp = 166° “166°5 n, diff, po 20 1:40443 25 1:4054 19 1°40485 00042 24 0591 00043 18 140527 2 23 1°4063 7 140570 43 22 42 16 1:40612 42 21 140718 4 15 1:40654 42 20 1:40759 41 . 19 1:40800 41 18 1:40841 ya. 4 AMYL BUTYRATE. PROPYL VALERATE. : Bp = 178°-178°5 Bp = 155°°5-156° y: 22 n diff. y 1:41010 24 14018 21 1°41052 00042 23 1°40229 00047 20 1°410 22 14 19 141135 1 21 1°40321 46 18 141176 41 20 1°40366 45 MW 141217 41 19 ~—«2140411 45 18 1°40455 44 Merny. ISOBUTYRATE. ISOBUTYL VALERATE. . Bp = 89°-8-90° Bp = 169°-169°°4 , 1 26 1°38082 a 35 14 25 138136 00054 24 1°40441 -00048 - 138190 23 1 : 1°38243 53 22 6 7 2 1°38296 53 21 1:40583 47 21138348 52 2 1°4063 47 1:38399 51 282 J. H. Long—Indices of Refraction of Compound Ethers. From the above table it is seen, as has already been shown by Landolt and others, that the increase in n for one degree C. is in the mean about ‘00045. Asarule this difference is not constant, but increases with the temperature; in a few cases, however, as for instance ethyl isobutyrate and isobutyl buty- rate there are no second differences. Although the differences vary from ‘00041 to 00059, they seem quite irregular, and it is not easy to connect them with any chemical property of the bodies in question, and still more difficult is it to account for the appearance of the second differences in some cases and in others not. But I shall not attempt a further explanation of these points here. Of the above-named ethers the refractive indices of propyl acetate alone have been determined, as far as I am aware. Briihl gives for this for a sample boiling between 99°-101° the index np=1'38488 at 20°, and for another portion boiling from 97°-99°ny=1'33360. It will be noticed that the first of these values corresponds very closely with that obtained by me. Indeed the agreement is better than one might expect, when the great liability of the ether to dissociation is taken into con- sideration. Briihl mentions this fact, and I have reason to believe that the sample used by me had likewise been slightly decomposed by the fractional distillation. In order to show the results obtained above, in their most general aspect, as well as for the purpose of better comparison with the work of others, I have arranged them in a more com- plete form below. In the columns headed d are contained the densities of the substances for each degree of temperature, cal- culated as explained at the outset. Under n are given the refractive indices to four places, the somewhat uncertain fifth % is given the “ specific refrac- tive energy,” and under M “: the “molecular refractive energy” for each compound at the various temperatures. M represents the molecular weight of the ether in question. 4 Use these terms in the sense in which they have been employ ed by Dale & Gladstone and Landolt, and ‘they need no further eX- planation. Propyl acetate I here omit, as I do not know the variations in its density with the temperature. The quotients — q 2re on the whole quite satisfactory, place being omitted. Under 8 been already noticed by Landolt and Wiillner,* yet it still remains to be explained. In the above ethers it will be noticed | : 4 q J. H. Long—Indices of Refraction of Compound Ethers. 288 r| ane i n QR n—1 n—1 “a: «(F) METHYL FORMATE, =60 d,)='99840 15 | ‘9767 | 1°3460 | -3543 | 21°26 16 16 | ‘9753 | 1:3456 | +3644 | 21°26 17 17 | "9738 | 1:3452 | -3545 | 21°27 18 18 | 9723 | 1:3448 | -3546 | 21°28 19 19 | ‘9708 | 1°3443 | *3547 | 21°28 20 20 | "9694 | 1:3438 | -3547 | 21°28 PROPYL FORMATE, a dy = °918 17 | +8996 | 1:3790 | -4213 | 37°07 17 18 | -8985 | 1:3785 | -4213 | 37°07 18 19 | -8974 | 1:3780 | -4212 | 37-07 19 20 | 8962 | 1°3775 | -4212 | 37-07 20 21 | -8951 | 1:3770 | -4212 | 37°07 21 22 | 8940 | 1:3765 | -4211 | 37-06 22 23 | -8928 | 13760 | -4212 | 37-07 23 ISOBUTYL FORMATE, 2 dy = °8854 16 | *8697 | 1/3894 477 | 45°67 15 17 | 8687 | 1:3889 | -4477 | 45°67 16 18 | “8677 3884 76 | 45°66 17 bd 8667 | 1°3879 | -4476 | 45°66 18 ad “8657 | 1:3874 | -4475 | 45°64 19 1 | -8647 | 1:3869 | -4474 | 45°64 20 22 | 8637 | 13864 | 4474 | 45°64 METHYL PROPIONATE. v7 = 88. dy _ 9277 | 1°3803 | -4099 | 36-07 17 . ‘9271 13798 | -4097 | 36°05 18 i — 13793 | -4094 | 36°03 19 * “a 13788 | +4091 | 36°00 20 ets 252 | 1:3782 | -4088 | 35°97 21 9246 | 1:3776 | -4084 | 35°94 22 ETHYL PROPIONATE. M=102 “91238 - a 13866 | -4315 | 44°01 20 oh oes 13862 | -4316 02 21 ie 937 | 13857 | -4316 | 44°02 22 ie 8926 | 1-38 4316 0 23 ian | "8915 1:3847 | -4315 “01 24 “0 | 8904 | 1-3842 | -4315 | 44°01 25 26 PROPYL PROPIONATE. M=116 d,—-9019 i. bg 1°3950 | -4460 | 61°73 20 +s ae 1:3945 | +4459 | 51°72 21 oe 838 | 1°3940 | -4458 | 51°72 22 + ‘8828 1°3935 | -4457 | 61°71 23 ae 8818 | 1-3930 | -4457 | 51-70 24 a "8809 | 1-3925 | -4456 | 51°69 25 “87 "3920 | 4455 | 51°68 ISOBUTYL PROPIONATE. = 130 d)='*8875 *8732 | 1:3992 | 4572 *8722 | 1°3988 | *4572 "8713 | 1°3984 | °4572 "8704 | 1°3979 | *4571 *8694 |! 1°3975 | *4572 AMYL PROPIONATE. M = 144 do — “8876 "8729 | 1°4078 | -4672 "8721 ‘4074 | -4671 8712 | 1°4070 | °4672 *8703 | 1°4065 | -4671 8694 | 1°4061 | °4671 8685 | 1:405 4671 *8676 | 1°4052 | -4671 ISOBUTYL BUTYRATE. M=144 dy) = °88178 "8674 | 1°4065 | -4686 *8665 | 1°4061 | *4687 "8655 | 1'4057 | -4688 ‘8645 | 1°4053 | 4688 "8636 | 1°4049 | 4689 ‘8627 | 1°4045 | -4689 AMYL BUTYRATE. M 58 d) = °8823 8673 | 1°4122 | *4753 8664 | 1°4118 | -4753 8655 4114 | °4753 8646 | 14110 | “4754 "8637 | 1°4105 | -4753 +8628 | 1°4101 | *4753 METHYL ISOBUTYRATE M 2 d= 91ll *8893 | 1°3840 | *4318 *8882 | 1°3835 | *4318 *8871 | 1:°3830 | °4317 “8860 | 1°3824 | 4316 *8849 | 1°3819 | *4316 *8838 | 1°3814 | *4315 “8827 | 1°3808 | *4314 ETHYL ISOBUTYRATE, M=116 d, = ‘8903 *8697 | 1°3880 | *4461 "8686 | 1°3875 | *4461 “8676 | 1°3869 | -4460 ‘8665 | 1°3864 | -4459 "8655 | 1°3859 4459 "8644 | 1°385 4459 59°42 59°43 67°27 67:27 67°27 67°27 67°27 67°27 67°27 a 10 51°72 284 J. H. Long—Indices of Refraction of Compound Ethers. n—1 n—L n—1 SEB ne ali [ ria S eCay eps | +. |e Ge PROPYL ISOBUTYRATE. PROPYL VALERATE. 130 d) = °89299 M= 144 d, =°8809 iY = 2 19 | ‘8748 | 1°3964 | *4531 | 58°90 18 | "8652 | 1°4046 | °4676 | 67°34 20 | *8738 | 1°3959 | *4531 | 58°90 19 | -8643 | 1°4041 | °4676 | 67°33 21 | -8728 | 1°3955 | -4531 | 58°90 20 | *8634 | 1°4036 | °4675 | 67°32 22 | *8719 | 1°3950 | °4530 | 58°89 21 | -8626 | 1:4032 | 4674 | 67°31 23 | °8709 | 1°3946 | °4531 | 58°90 22 | :8617 | 1°4028 | -4674 | 67°31 24 | °8699 | 1°3941 | °4530 | 58°89 23 | -8608 | 1°4023 | 4674 | 67°30 25 | °8690 | 1°3937 | -4531 | 58°90 24 | -8599 | 1°4018 | °4673 | 67°29 ISOBUTYL ISOBUTYRATE. - ISOBUTYRATE. : M=144 d,)=°87496 =158° de. ee 19 | *8584 | 1°40 4663 | 67°15 18 sca 408 4 75°05. 20 | *8575 | 13999 | -4664 | 67-16 19 | -8589 | 1:4080 bb 75°05 21 | -8566 | 1°3995 | -4664 | 67°16 20 | -8580 | 1:4076 | -4751 | 75°06 22 | 8557 | 1°3991 | -4664 | 67°16 21 | -8571 | 1:4072 | -4751 | 75°07 23 | 8548 | 1°3986 | -4663 | 67°15 22 | -8562 | 1:4068 | 4751 | 75°07 24 | -8539 | 13982 | -4663 | 67°15 23 | -8553 | 1:4063 | -4750 | 75°06 25 | 8530 | 1:3978 | -4663 | 67°15 24 | -8544 | 1:4059 | -4751 | 75°06 25 | -8535 | 1-4055 | 4751 ! 75°07 ISOBUTYL VALERATE. ‘ Ad "8513 14039 ‘4745 | 74:98 -1. : Shia ee that the constancy of on is attained in eight cases, while in an equally great denber itis not. An attempt to connect this Lede with others of the same bodies has not been suc- essful. An opportunity is afforded by the above experiments of com- in which A is the coefficient of an and B that of dis- persion. For the wave length of the line D, I have used the mean value given by Wiillnes,t expressed in ten- thousandths of a millimeter, 4p) =5-893 From Landolt I take Methyl beh A = 1°37879 B= 0°35077 Kthyl but A = 138580 B=0 sete d. rhage eemten saves, vol. ii, p. 150. where i values for A and B are given. + Sakebich, chee hy ii, p. 136, ee Si on ig aE ea a J. H, Long—Indices of Refraction of Compound Ethers. 285 Making the necessary calculations I find the values as in the following table: Bp dao Nao § Methyl butyrate ....-_. 103-104° ‘8976 13889 Methyl isobutyrate _..- - 90° *8893 1:3840 § Ethyl butyrate._....... 114° 8906 13960 Ethyl isobutyrate ...... 107° “8697 1°3880 § Isobuty] butyrate ...__- 155° 8627 1°4045 Isobutyl isobutyrate .... 144-145° "8575 1:3999 utyrate 178° "8646 1:4110 | Amyl isobutyrate -....- 166° "8580 1:4076 As might be expected, the constants in the case of the iso compounds are in every instance lower than in those of the corresponding normals. Here as in several compounds exam- ined by Briihl, the characteristic differences of ethers of nor- mal and iso acids are seen to extend to their action on light. It will not be without interest to find what values for the m—1 diff. for u("7) d CH, Methyl formate.....- O,H4O. 21-28 Propyl formate .._. Neh ae us 7°65 Methyl propionate Dol hs Ethyl propionate __ 799 Isobutyl fo 6.2 Os 44°56 es iso u a 7-16 ropyl propionate __ Fe a: Mebane t CoHi202 1A RR Sobutyl propionate Propyl isobutyrate_ t OrH140s — es propionate fae 8-16 uty! butyrate__ 5 Isobutyl isobutyrate CeHi60a ae Propyl valer. tec: Amyl butyrate ___. T14 Amyl isobutyrate._ | ©,H,.02 75-06 Isobutyl valerate __ a Mean diff. for CH, = 7°69. Tt thus appears that the differences for CH, from group to Oup are not quite constant, but the variations are not greater | 09, &” S.09 or Ww . 5°90, 5°81, 6-11, 5-58, 5°38, 5°80 and 5°85. Of course it is not intended that these numbers represent the atomic refraction in 286 W. E. Hidden— Whitfield County Meteoric Iron. any particular groups. They are simply mean values obtained Se n— by combining the numbers M ( ——) of the last table in a cer: d tain way. From other combinations it is plain that slightly refractive equivalents as given by Landolt—i. e., 7°60 for CH, and 3:00 for O, which it must be remembered were calculated from numbers differing as widely perhaps as the above. Whether these variations depend for their explanation on the possible impurity of the liquids examined, or whether they are to a greater extent due to peculiarities of each individual compound, is as yet not quite plain. It seems probable, how- ever, in view of all that has been thus far done on the subject, that the latter is the more plausible supposition. But 1t 1s only by refined and extended investigations of various physi- cal properties and correlation of the results thus obtained, that the complete solution of the problem may be expected. Hor this purpose, I had wished to make use of some of the results obtained by Pribram and Hand] on the transpiration of liquids (Wien. Sitzungsbr. 80), but unfortunately I was unable to obtain this journal. There are many other interesting peculiarities of these ethers which might be mentioned, but their discussion belongs more operly to an investigation soon to be expected (or perhaps recently published), from Herrn Emil Elsisser, to whom, was mentioned, I am indebted for the data from which I calcu- lated the densities of the liquids corresponding to the different temperatures. To Professor Meyer I would also express ae sincere thanks for assistance, without which the completion ° the above experiments would not have been possible. Wesleyan University, February, 1881. ‘Arr. XXXIV.—On the Whitfield County, Georgia, Meteor Iron; by W. Earu Hippen. THIS iron was discovered in 1877 on a farm about udaioe! miles northeast of Dalton, Georgia, near the Tennessee a0 North Carolina State lines, a region which it will be agi bered is remarkable for the number of meteorites 1t has “it forded. As has happened in similar cases the specimen ee locally considered to be native iron and was preserved as sue until Dr. Geo. B. Little, then State Geologist of Georgia, ie ? the region in 1878, and recognizing its real nature procur Werner a en NN PR er a ee nae a ee isa ie nol) as Se NG la a ala cate eas de Ri ak adie ie ae ee ia athe oe Ne td W. EB. Hidden— Whitfield County Meteoric Iron. 287 for the State Museum at Atlanta. The writer saw it there in August, 1879, and with the consent of Dr. Little had a small piece planed off, an engraving of which is here given (exact natural size). : In its complete condition this meteorite is said to have weighed 13 lbs. Its present weight is 9% lbs. Dr. Little in- forms me that one end of it became detached on its journey to Atlanta, which piece he presented to the college at Athens, Ga. Dr. Little informed me that this iron had not ‘been, as yet, described, and accorded me the privilege of making public stowed away in the cellar of the Department of Agriculture building in Atlanta, and it is reasonable to suppose that this interesting mass of meteoric iron will sooner or later disappear through decomposition and oxidation; it seems right therefore that some record should be made in this Journal of its history vt ne location. learn that he received a small piece of this meteorite in Nov., 1879, and that he published a notice about it in the “ Anzeiger der K. K. Akad, der Wiss., Wien.” I have not seen his note. The data of this article were personally obtained by the writer im August, 1879 AM, Jour. Sor.—Tump Serres, Vou. XXI, No, 124.—APrit, 1881, 19 288 J. FE. Hilgard— Basin of the Gulf of Mexico. Art. XXXV.—The Basin of the Gulf of Mexico. A communi- cation to the National Academy of Sciences made Nov. 18, 1880, by authority of C. P. Parrerson, Supt. U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, by J. E. Hitgarp, M.N.A.S. With a Map of the Gulf (Plate TX). Ar the meeting of the National Academy of Sciences in New York, Nov. 18, 1880, Mr. J. E. Hilgard presented, on the part of Hon. C. P. Patterson, Superintendent of the U.S. Coast and Geodétic Survey, a model of the Gulf of Mexico, con- structed from the numerous soundings taken in the progress of that work. The accompanying plate (IX) is a reduced plan of the model, the full size of which is 24x82 inches, being on a horizontal scale of 1: 2,400,000, and on vertical scale of 1 inch: 1000 fathoms; making the proportion of horizontal to vertical scale 1:33. The plan shows the horizontal curves for every 500 fathoms of depth, as well as the curveg of 100 and 10 fathoms. The same curves are delineated on the model, the forms of which are shaped in conformity with all the detail obtained from the soundings. The number of soundings taken within the depth of 100 fathoms is very large, varying according to the configuration and importance of the locality. Beyond 100 fathoms, where the work pertains rather to physical exploration than to navi- gation, 1,055 soundings have been obtained, which is an average of ten to a rectangle comprised within a degree of | latitude and longitude ; of these, 355 are in depths greater than 1000 fathoms. The object of this communication being merely to give 4 general description of the orographic features of the basin of this great inland sea—the American Mediterranean—it is only necessary to mention here that in connection with the sound- ings, temperatures were observed at various depths and the organic life was explored by means of dredges. of these physical and biological explorations are in the ablest hands for discussion and interpretation but are not yet ready for publication. It is therefore only necessary to state here, as a general fact, that below the depth of about 800 fathoms the temperature is everywhere found to be between 39° and 40° Before reviewing the structural features of the Gulf-basin- which the model reveals in a most striking manner, it is proper to recite here briefly the history of the exploration of the Gulf by the United States Coast Survey. The surveys of the shores and soundings of the approaches were begun as long ago as 1846 under the superintendency of Professor A. D. Bache and were continued until the outbreak of the Civil War 25 ort, as sia Se J. E. Hilgard—Basin of the Gulf of Mexico. 289 Tn 1855, a cross section from Cape Florida to the Bahama Banks, observed by Lieutenant Craven, U.S. N., developed the fact that the Strait is a comparatively shallow channel, a greatest hen after the close of the Civil War the Coast Survey resumed its former activity, under the administration of Pro- fessor Benjamin Peirce, soundings across the Florida and Yucatan Channels were obtained by Master R. Platt, U.S. N., accompanied by a dredging party under the direction of the late L. F. Pouriales, It was not, however, until the present Superintendent of the Coast Survey, C. P. Patterson, LL.D., organized a systematic mander Howell; U. S. N., on the west coast of Florida in com- paratively shallow water and was continued and brought to a Successful conclusion by Commander Sigsbee, U.S. N. (1875- 78) in the Coast Survey Steamer Blake, accompanied by Pro essor A. Agassiz, who had charge of the biological explorations. The methods of sounding and obtaining temperatures at great depths as well as those of dredging have been described in the urvey Reports for several years, and more especially in 4 work recently written by Commander Sigsbee, published by the U. S. Coast Survey. It will suffice to men- __ hon here that the method of sounding employed was that of ing a fine steel wire, indicated by Sir Wm. Thomson, with the mechanical appliances perfected by Commanders Belknap and Sigshee, of the U avy. j urning now to our model or map we perceive that the basin of the Gulf of Mexico is an oval connected with the general cean circulation by two outlets, the Yucatan Channel and the Florida Straits.’ nt area of the entire Gulf, cutting it off by a line from Cape — florida to Havana, is 595,000 square miles. Supposing the ‘ + 290) J. EB. Hilgard—Basin of the Gulf of Mexico. depth of the Gulf to be reduced by 100 fathoms, a surface would be laid bare amounting to 208,000 square miles, or rather more than one-third of the whole area. The distance of the 100 fathom line from the coast is about six miles near Cape Florida; 120 miles along the west coast of Florida; at the South Pass of the Mississippi it is only 10 miles; opposite the Louisiana and Texas boundary it increases to 130 miles; at Vera Cruz it is 15 miles, and the Yucatan Banks have about the same width as the Florida Banks. The following table shows the areas covered by the trough of the Gulf to the depths stated : : Area. Differences. 2,000 fathoms 55,000 square miles 1,500 fathoms 187,000 square miles 132,000 1,000 fathoms 260,000 square miles 73.000 500 fathoms 326,000 square miles 66,000 100 fathoms 387,000 square miles 61,000 Coast line 595,000 square miles 208,000 depths of 100 and 1,500 fathoms. The maximum depth reached is at the foot of the Yucatan Banks—2,119 fathoms. From the 1,500 fathom line on the northern side of the Gulf to the deep- est water close to Yucatan Banks, say to the depth of 2,000 fathoms, is a distance of 200 miles, which gives a slope of five- ninths to 200, and may be considered practically as a plane surface. The large submarine plateau below the depth of 12,000 feet has received the name of the “ Sigsbee Deep,” in honor of 1ts discoverer. The Yucatan channel with a greatest depth of 1,164 fathoms has a cross section of 110 square miles, while the strait of Florida in its shallowest part opposite Jupiter Inlet, with a de th of 344 fathoms, has a cross section of only 11 square iles. A view of the model reveals at once some important facts which a study of the plan only conveys imperfectly to the mind, and which were unsuspected before this great explora- tion wascompleted: Thus the distance between the visible coast lines of the northeastern point of Yucatan and the west coast of the Florida Peninsula is 460 miles, while the distance be- tween the submerged contours of 500 fathoms is only 190 miles; between the contours of 1,000 fathoms only 90 miles. These facts at once characterize the Gulf of Mexico asa Med- iterranean Sea. The most striking features displayed by the model are the following : . The great distance to which the general slope of the continent extends below the present sea level before steepe? - J. EF. Hilgard—Basin of the Gulf of Mexico. 291 slopes are reached. The 100 fathom curve represents very closely the general continental line; the massifs of the peninsu- as of Florida and Yucatan have more than twice their present apparent width. As previously stated, one-third of the whole area of the Gulf has a depth of less than 100 fathoms. 2. Very steep slopes lead from this submerged plateau to an area of 55,000 square miles, as great as that of the State of Georgia, at the great depth of over 12,000 feet. There are three ranges on the Florida and Yucatan slopes extending in the aggregate to more than to 600 miles, along which the descent between 500 to 1,500 fathoms, or 6,000 feet, is within a breadth of from six to fifteen miles. No such steep slopes and corre- with the same feature, the strong indentation to the westward of the present mouths of the Mississippi, indicating the prob- able site of the original fracture between the two slopes of the Mississippi Valley deserves attention. 4. In regard to the problem of general ocean circulation in *ennection with the Gulf Stream, the most important feature is 4 greatest depth of 344 fathoms. From observations reported elsewhere in the Coast Survey Reports, the average north- Stream is largely reinforced by a general northerly current = the outside of the West Indian Islands. 292 E. A. Smith— Geology of Florida. Art. XXXVI.—On the Geology of Florida ;. by EUGENE A. Smit, of the University of Alabama. With a Map. DURING an excursion into Florida, made last summer for the purpose of collecting data for the Cotton Culture Report of the Tenth Census, I made incidentally some notes on the geologi- eal formations of that State, which, with the kind consent of the Superintendent, are now made public. The literature of this subject is extremely meagre, and I propose first to give a concise account of the published observ- ations of my predecessors in this field, so far as I have been able to consult them. limestone, which elicit sparks, and are sometimes used by the Indians for flints.” ...... “The coast, as far as Cape Florida, and abraded. From Cape Florida, the formation is mostly coralline, the Keys being of that character.” ......- “ As high as Indian River Inlet, the beach is still formed of shells, .. -- - mingled with some sand; while about Cape Canaveral the sand predominates, until shelly fragments almost disappear to the naked eye. Still it seems probable that the whole beach The author then describes the “coquina” rock quarries of St. Augustine, adding some conjectures as to the mode of operating to produce it. This conjecture, while apparently plausible, wants, in his opinion, the support of deeper invest gation into the character and force of these causes. He speaks of the shell formations of the Upper St. Johns, which are made up chiefly of a species of Helix—the soil ‘at Volusia and Fort Mellon consists half of shells, generally per fect in shape but occasionally slightly broken or abraded. “On Black Creek, west of the St. Johns, a porous, rotten limestone appears, and this is said to be characteristic of the rock formations throughout the western part of the peninsula. Hence the many ‘surth-holes’...... which appear in these eee ey ee ss eee eee Oe Se ca) Paes ee Se ny, ee ee ’ ae E. A. Smith— Geology of Florida. 293 regions, and the disappearance of streams for many miles beneath the surface of the earth, while others come forth in all their fullness at once.” e also speaks of the large limestone springs, frequently impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen. n volume i of the 2d series of this Journal, page 38, we - at the head of Tampa Bay, as hard, white, with an earthy texture, and apparently formed of decomposed and commin- uted shells; in some places it is soft and friable, very much resembling chalk. He states further, that he has noticed this rock at points more than one hundred and fifty miles distant from each other, and presenting the same lithological charac- valves, bivalves and echini; and he ascribes the great fertility of some of the sandy soils of the territory to the loose mar disseminated through it. _According to the author, there is another rock probably dip- ping beneath the limestone—a dark bluish, siliceous rock, of a compact texture, somewhat vesicular, the vesicles containing fossils petrified with wine-colored chaleedony. Other beds of marl, apparently of much more recent origin, extend along the shore at Fort Brooke aborigines of the country. In this paper the author makes a 294 Ei. A. Smith— Geology of Florida. clear distinction between the marl beds near the shore and the more ancient marls, and limestones occurring farther inland, although he does not undertake to decide upon the geological age of either. His remarks upon the distribution of the more ancient lime- stone in the interior, where it forms ‘the bottoms of the many ponds and lakes,” are particularly interesting, in the light of my recent observations. We come next to an important paper by T. A. C “ Observations on the Geology of a part of East Florida In this, the author describes certain Post-Pliocene deposits on the St. Johns River and at Tampa Bay, occurring ten or fifteen feet above high tide; proving a considerable elevation of the whole Florida peninsula in the Post-Pliocene period, a move- ment which clearly raised all the Florida Keys above water. The greater part of the paper is devoted to a description of the Keys, with notices of the shells occurring on them and in the neighboring waters. At Tampa Bay and southward along the shore, he notices the Post-Pliocene deposits, but calls attention also to an underlying limestone occurring at Fort Brooke and as far inland as the Falls of Hillsboro River. This limestone onrad : NX , &e. ry probably the prevalent limestone of Florida will be included in this division.”+ This rock, he states, extends throughout the peninsula, as far south as Tampa Bay; and both the eastern and western shores are covered with a Pleistocene formation 0 recent species of shells, and remains of mammalia. The eleva- tion of East Florida above the sea level is so inconsiderable that all or nearly all of it must have been submerged at the time the Post Pliocene species were existing, and therefore 1ts elevation was contemporaneous with that of the Keys, which line its eastern, western and southern shores.” ; We have here the first definite attempt at the determination of the age of the Florida limestone. js n volume ii of this Journal, 2d series, p. 399, Conrad gives “Descriptions of new species of Organic remains from the Upper Eocene Limestone of Tampa Bay.” In this article he * This Journal, IT, ii, 36 et seq. + In more recent papers by Conrad these views are slightly modified. + In this connection, see table of altitudes appended to the present article, and Dr. Burnett’s letter below. E. A. Smith— Geology of Florida. 295 Southern Coast of Florida.” The author describes the lime- stone of the Keys—in whicb the fossils are all identical with the shells living in the surrounding waters—and points out the agency of the Mangrove tree in the formation of islands be- tween the mainland and the Keys. At Tampa Bay he con- firms the observation of Conrad respecting the Tertiary age of Saag there, which he says extends doubtless to Charlotte arbor. The limestone which underlies the Everglades he states to be similar in every respect to that at the mouth of the Miami River, whieh, in turn, is of the same age as the rocks examined at Key West and elsewhere inside the reef. He calls attention to the fact that an elevation of the Keys, of about ten to twenty feet, would form a ridge similar to that surrounding the ters of flint, as occurring in the white Orbitulite limestone Which is common throughout the portion of Florida between Tampa and Pilatka. The flint was collected about forty miles West of Pilatka, and upon examination of thin sections by the Microscope, Orbitulina, Nummulina, Rotalia, Teaxtilaria, etc., Were recognized in numerous specimens. Tn a letter to Professor Dana, Dr. W. I. Burnett (this Jour- hal, II, vol. xvii, p. 407) calls attention to the circumstance that the peninsula of Florida is by no means so flat as is gen- rally supposed, for surveys made by Gen. Barnard establish the fact that there is an elevated ridge in places 2374 feet 296 E. A. Smith—Geology of Florida. above low tide in the Atlantic, extending slopingly from north to south, and terminating at a line drawn from Cape Canaveral to Tampa Bay. At points only fifteen or twenty miles west of the St. Johns River, there are elevations at least of 100 to 150 feet. The author believes that all Florida is of comparatively recent age, except the elevated ridge spoken of above, but he does not express any opinion as to the age of this ridge. He endorses Professor Agassiz’s conclusion respecting the recent J. W. Bailev publishes his microscopical observations made 1 South Carolina, Georgia and Florida. is I hav able to consult. The monograph of Professor Agassiz, also, I have not been able to see. The last Geological Map of the United States, by Professors Hitchcock and Blake, accompanying the publication of the Ninth Census, represents the whole of Florida as alluvial. From the preceding notes, it will be seen that while many ER OEE Ae San aa eee EF. A. Smith—Geology of Florida. 297 valuable observations on Florida geology have been recorded, yet the subject is still enveloped in obscurity, partly because of the isolated character of the earlier observations, and partly because of the failure of the later observers to give due weight to the statements of those preceding them. I give now some notes of my own recent observations : _in the lower part of Geneva County, Ala., the Orbitoides limestone of Vicksburg age, is exposed in many places, and passing thence southward into Jackson County, Fla., the sam rock is found underlying the whole county from Campbellton to Marianna, and thence eastward to Chattahoochee, and north- eastward through Greenwood to the river. The Vicksburg which in Alabama and Florida may be roughly drawn as fol- SS 5 a B re) tm et =] 3 S S 3 au @ = fe ——s = 5 ct ma fa) ne 5 ® 2 S o S £r; 4 ° Laer) et = ia?) n S “ s © fa) * From Clinch and Chariton Counties in Georgia, through Baker, Bradford and bY Counties in Florida and thence southward, runs the Trail idge, which is abo r 210 feet ab e sea level, where crossed by the Fernandina and Ceda A er west there is a range of sand 120 feet above sea level, etween t and Bronson stations; but in both cases the local inequalities 298 E. A. Smith—Geology of Florida. feature are characteristic of the Florida landscape. hese being all due to the same cause, viz., the formation of subterranean caverns and the sinking in of superincumbent strata, the same depression may at one time be a mere lime- i ”'as the larger sunken areas—destitute of water in the depression. A good example in poimt 18 Payne’s prairie near Gainesville, which for many years was 4 widely-known pasture ground, to which thousands of cattle were driven from long distances. A small creek flowed through this basin, disappearing near its northern edge into an underground channel. During the great storm of 1871 this outlet was closed, and the “prairie” has become a lake several miles wide and from fifteen to twenty feet deep. As a matter of course, these phenomena are not confined to any particular limestone, and the occurrence of a Miocene limestone forming the basin of Rock Spring in Orange County, is noted below ; still, from specimens collected by me at points widely distant from each other, from the observations of others as quoted above, and from evidence derived from other sources, 1 am brought to the conclusion that almost the whole State © Florida, from the Perdido River on the west, eastward and peninsula, certainly as far south as the latitude of — Bay, pr ] or, has a 3 E E.. A. Smith—Geology of Florida. 299 stone between the St. Johns River and the elevated table lands westward. The following notes present proofs more or less conclusive made: _ of the statement above 1. West Florida. The occurrence of Vicksburg limestone in Jackson Count: has already been noticed, and specimens of Orbitoides Mantelli, Pecten Poulsoni, and other characteristic fossils were collected in situ at several localities, e. g., a few miles southeast of Campbellton, at the Big Spring east of Marianna, etc., while the use of blocks of this stone in the construction of chimneys, through the eastern and northern portion of the county, attest Its occurrence everywhere in those parts. In the region referred to, the limestone lies very near the surface, often out- cropping over considerable areas, and to this circumstance is probably due the exceptional fertility of much of the soil of Jackson County. Holmes Valley on the creek of same name in Washington County, another widely-known fertile tract of land, presents the same geological features as the portion of Jackson County Just mentioned, “boiling” springs, sink-holes, ponds and lakes, taken in con- hection with the distribution of the Orbitoides limestone in the adjacent counties of Alabama, make it almost certain that this rock underlies most of West Florida, down at least to the near Vicinity of the Gulf coast. 2. Middle and South Florida, — In these portions of the State my observations have covered a larger extent of country and are correspondingly more con- elusive as to their geological structure. ;. ear the village of Chattahoochee, the bluff of the Appa- lachicola River is formed in part by the Vicksburg limestone, Which has here a tolerably thick covering of Stratified Drift, ronsisting of reddish and yellow sands with some small peb- bles. The greater part of Gadsden County, as far east at least at Mount Pleasant, I feel very well convinced that the Vicks- burg limestone makes its appearance along the river as far South as Rock Bluff, 300 E. A. Smith—Geology of Florida. Heilprin, and by him pronounced to be of Vicksburg age, Orbitoides Mantelli being prominent among the fossils. In many places near the coast in Wakulla County, a very finely pulverized white marl is mingled with the sand, impart- ng to it a great degree of fertility ; this is the “Gulf Ham- mock” land of which much has been written. From enquiries, rom the observations of Conrad and others, I learn that these “ Hammocks” exist all along the coast from Wakulla, ampa Bay. This marl is also of Vicksburg age where have examined it, and from descriptions which I have had from various sources, it seems almost certain that the marls of the Gulf Hammocks in the other counties named, are of the same geological age. In Jefferson, Madison and Hamilton Counties, the Vicksburg limestone underlies the Stratified Drift everywhere, as may be seen in its outcrops along the banks of is still the underlying rock, the surface covering being here light colored sands chiefly—the yellow and reddish sands and loans of the adjoining counties westward, being usually ab: sent. Specimens of the limestone with characteristic fossils have been collected in the vicinity of Live Oak, and an earthy limestone, the counterpart of some of the Vicksburg limestone, in which, however, no fossils were observed, was noticed by .me near Lake City and thence out near to the Suwannee shoals on the river of same name. I am informed that the rock at the shoals is highly fossiliferous. At the time of my visit! was hidden by high water. : The Suwannee River, which has its head waters partly 1m Okefinokee Swamp in Georgia flows through most of its cours® in Florida, between banks of Vicksburg limestone, and sev- eral large sulphur and limestone springs break out through crevices in the rock along the river. A bed of what I suppose is Zignite has been found lower down the river; the exact locality I could not learn; ut @ large quantity was raised some years ago, and experiments, with unfavorable results, made with it in Tallahassee, to test its fitness as a material for the manufacture of illuminating 8% ae eee i. ie a Ne ogee ON ie cae) a em arey ied Oram Te skePiw tort geen ae =n K. A. Smith— Geology of Florida. 301 so other) is continued, according to my own observations and those of others, nearly’to the Everglades. Although observa- ions are as yet wanting, to prove that the Okefinokee swamp Feposes upon a bed of Vicksburg limestone, yet the occurrence of that rock along its southwestern and southern edges in Florida, as above mentioned, makes it very probable that such will be found to be the case, especially when we consider the fact that farther south along this ridge and particularly along its western slope in Alachua, Marion and Sumter Counties, the Orbitoides limestone is everywhere the underlying formation, Sometimes hidden by overlying sands, but often outcropping over extensive areas. . The enumeration of a few localities from which character- 'stic fossils have been collected, will make more definite this seneral assertion. Orbitoides limestone is the prevailing, and I might say the only, rock in the vicinity of Gainesville, jany of the chimneys and pillars of the houses there are . i ces O. Manielli, forms it to the almost total exclusion of every other species. ayne’s Prairie, south of Gainesville, already mentioned above, occupies a depression or sink in this li @. he observations of Professor J. W. Bailey quoted above, show that the same formation extends at least to within forty miles of Pilatka. Between Gainesville and Ocala in Marion County, the chimneys of the farm-houses reveal the character “ the underlying rock. At Ocala, it outcrops in numerous localities, Orbitoides Mantell’, here as at Gainesville, often form- ng the entire rock. Silver Spring, six miles east of Ocala, oe a basin in the same limestone. This is one of the “gest of the very numerous sulphur springs of the peninsula. Steamers from the Ocklawaha come up into the spring where mipy ar easily turn. The waters of the spring as well as of tally clear, the jagged edges of the limestone banks, the numer- ra * lish, and even objects lying upon the bottom, being dis- Xetly visible from the deck of a steamer. M Pecimens of limestone from Silver Spring were found b '. Heilprin, to be composed of O. Mantelli Morton and 0. Pera Con., to the exclusion of other forms except polyzoa. About Ocala, southward and southwestward, is a belt of the facts. 302 E. A. Smith— Geology of F lorida. “hammock” land, where an earthy, partly disintegrated lime- stone mingles with the surface soil. Reference to tables of elevations appended below, will show that this hammock land, is sixty feet higher than the sandy plain of Ocala. My own observations in the interior confirm the statement of Conrad with reference to the Gulf Coast near Tampa that the Tertiary limestone is certain to be the substratum of all the ‘“ ham- mock”’ land.* From Sumter County I have no specimens of the limestone, but from statements made by the inhabitants, there seems to be little if any doubt that the rock which outcrops in the western and southern parts of the county toward Tampa, 18 Vicksburg limestone. It is described to me as being in parta mass of shells, in part earthy and disintegrated, in part flinty, all well known characters of this formation in Florida, and its use in the construction of chimneys in that part of the county, is at least suggestive of its age. We have thus traced the Vicksburg limestone, by its actual outcrops, from Jackson County in West Florida, through Middle Florida, into South Florida below Ocala in Marion Co. The observations of Conrad, Tuomey and others, prove its occur- rence at Tampa and probably at Charlotte Harbor. That 1t underlies also the other counties of West Florida, and part of those south of Sumter nearly to the Everglades + is open to very little doubt, still we must draw a sharp line of dis- tinction between what has actually been proven by personal observation, and what is only an inference from the facts observed, however strongly the inference may be supported by In Orange County between Sanford and Lake Apopka, there are several large sulphur springs of the kind already men- — affording streams navigable by small steamers. _ Three 0 i k ever, there is a bluff of limestone some ten feet in height, and from this I was able to collect a number of fossils. They the following species: Pecten Madisonius, Venus a dita granulata, ¢ Carditamera arata, Mytiloconcha incurva ; doubt- * This Journal, IT, vol. ii, p. 43. : + From the distribution of the Vicksburg limestone in the lower part of the peninsula, I am strongly inclined to believe that it will be found on further exam- ination, to underlie a part, at least of the Everglades. ¢ Also Pliocene. EL. A. Smith— Geology of Florida. 8038 ful were also Cardium sublineatum and Oliva litterata. This would make the limestone of Miocene age, as Mr. Heilprin states his belief that no Vicksburg species are associated with the shells enumerated. I do not know that Miocene limestone has been observed elsewhere in the state, but it seems probable that it will, upon examination, be found either in isolated patches, or forming a continuous belt between the Post Pliocene deposits toward the east, and the elevated country westward, which has as a sub- stratum the Vicksburg limestone. My observations along the St. Johns River from Sanford to Jacksonville have added nothing to what has already been recorded, although corroborating the statements quoted above in the introduction. Summary of Observations. pa ; Up to this time it appears, as LeConte states, that it was the general opinion that the Florida peninsula was substantially a prominently into view the recent character of the coasts and eys, and of the extreme southern end of the peninsula, together with the extension of the theory of the latter author, regarding the successive additions to the end of the peninsula, by coral formations, threw a shade of doubt, to say the least, ver the observations of Conrad and others, which we now know to have been correct. The result has been, that since 1856 or 1857, a general impression has prevailed, that with the €xception of the problematical Tertiary limestone at Tampa, the Whole of Florida was of comparatively recent origin, and So it is laid down in the latest geological map. In what precedes, I believe that I have established, beyond © eo of Tampa and its vicinity. Am. Jour, Scr.—Tarnp Seniss, Vou, XXI, No. 124,—Arrit, 1881. 304 E. A. Smith—Geology of Florida. So far as I know, this article contains also the first published record of observations upon the geology of any part of Middle or Western Florida, and the first account of the discovery of Miocene strata in the State. For these reasons it has seemed - worth while to publish the foregoing notes. Leaving out of consideration, for the present, the beds of stratified drift, it appears further, that along the Gulf coasts of Alabama, of West Florida and of the Peninsula, the Post- Pliocene strata are directly superimposed upon the Vicksburg limestone; the intervening beds, representing the Miocene and Pliocene, being, so far as we now know, absent from those ocalities On the other hand, we know that in one locality certainly, and presumbly elsewhere along the Atlantic slope o the peninsula, a Miocene limestone overlies the Vicksburg. While rocks of Pliocene age have not yet been recognized, it is reasonable to suppose that future explorations will reveal their existence along the eastern coast in a position similar to that occupied by beds of the same age in Georgia and South Carolina. The facts with regard to the distribution of the rocks of Florida are presented in the following map. Those points where the existence of the Vicksburg limestone has been determined beyond doubt, by fossils collected and fk will probably be found. : Professor Tuomey states that the Vicksburg limestone probably the country rock as far south as Charlotte Harbor. Below that latitude, however, to the Hverglades, the forma- tion is a matter of conjecture, though laid down as probably of Vicksburg age. . In how far the construction of the map is justified b the facts observed, the reader has thus the opportunity of Ju ging for himself. EK. A. Smith— Geology of Florida. 805 CONCLUSIONS From the observations of others as quoted above, and from my own, I have been brought to the following conclusions re- garding the past geological “history r of Florida. Ist. Since no rocks have been found in FI lorida, older than the Vicksburg limestone, it follows that until the ae of the Hocene period, this part of our country had not yet been added to the firm land of the continent, but was still sub- merged, by ay cacbinen 2 wee JRENSONVILLE soo fath PES caancorte ed wAnsont LIMEST : aR ee OSSILS MIOCENE £. POST PLIOCENE __| UNDETERMINED GEOLOGICAL Map or FiortpA. By EvuG@ene A. SMITH. . ions, commencing to the westward: Mn., Milton; H. V., Holmes Valley ; Mi Pee M., Mariana; Ch., ( thattahoochee : Q., Quincey; St. M., St. vk 8; oe vag Live Oak: C., Lake City; Ok., | P., Pilatka; Oc., Rock Spring, adjoining g idos ne locality, near middle of eastern part 4 t Flori da, ~The bathymetric lines are from Mr. Hilgard’s Map of the G — ~ Pa 94 a a. During the period of disturbance which followed th Ceposition of the Vic :ksburg limestone (Upper Eocene), Mlorida Was elevated nearly to its present height above sea level, 306 EK. A. Smith—Geology of Florida. which elevation was maintained without material interruption until the Champlain period. Proofs of this statement may found in the universal occurrence of the Vicksburg limestone as the country rock throughout the entire State, except per- haps in the southern part of the peninsula. 3d. In this upward movement, the axis of elevation did not coincide in position with the present main dividing ridge (north and south) of the peninsula, but lay considerably to the westward, probably occupying approximately the position of the present western coast.* In other words, during the Middle and Upper Tertiary’ periods the Florida peninsula was much broader than it 1s now, toward the west; and while the eastern coast had_nearly its present position, the western lay probably one hundred, in places perhaps one hundred and fifty miles beyond its present place. West Florida was also affected by this movement, and remained above sea level during the same periods. Reasons for this conclusion are found in the total absence along the Gulf shores of West Florida and the peninsula, of all strata between the Vicksburg limestone and the Post Plio- cene; while the peculiar beds of the Grand aoe group of G western coast is apparent and not real; that they have simply escaped notice: but it seems hardly probable that two such *This assumes approximate uniformity of slope on each side of the main line of elevation. Under any other supposition, the facts would apparently —, an elevation of the peninsula after the Vicksburg period, much above its preseD height, arid a depression during the Miocene period at least thirty feet below present level. wearers so oS we E. A. Smith— Geology of Florida. 307 close observers as Conrad and Tuomey should have overlooked them if they occur at least from Tampa southward. 4th. After the Miocene (or possibly after the. Pliocene) period, there was again an elevation* of Florida, as is shown by the presence of a Miocene limestone on the eastern slope of the peninsula, some distance (not less than thirty feet) above present sea level. K The absence along the Gulf coasts, of Miocene and later Tertiary deposits, either of marine (limestone), or of brackish or fresh-water (Grand Gulf) origin, has already been accounted or above. 5th. We have evidence in the distribution of the beds of the Champlain period (Stratified Drift or Orange Sand), that Florida and parts of adjacent States were during this time sub- merged sufficiently to allow the deposition over them of a mass of pebbles, sand and clay, varying in thickness from a few feet to two hundred. The conditions under which these beds Were deposited have been ably discussed by Hilgard in this Journal, and in his Mississippi and Louisiana Reports. structure as well as of fossils, and were probably deposited from slowly running or nearly stagnant waters. : The direct superposition of the Loam upon the Stratified Drift throughout Florida ce of the Mississippi, where, as Hilgard has shown, the ex- Temes of oscillation were experienced, this gradual change, * On this point, compare foot-note on page 306, above. ~ 308 E. A. Smith—G@eology of Florida. from swiftly flowing to nearly stagnant waters, might have been interrupted by such subordinated and local oscillations as would have caused the formation of deposits like the Port Hudson and the Leess. 6th. Following the submergence during the Champlain period, was a re-elevation, which brought up the peninsula with La ianiee ed its present configuration. Evidences on this point are to be found in the Post-Pliocene deposits described by Conrad, Tuomey and others, as border- ing more or less uniformly, the eastern, southern and western eae which has been advanced in connection with the geo- ogical history of the Gulf region. ; In view of the absence of marine formations of Middle and Upper Tertiary age along the Gulf coasts of Mississippi, Louisi- ana and Texas, and to account for the formation of the beds of the Grand Gulf group, without remains of marine life, which overlie the Eocene of those coasts, Professor Hilgard has been brought to the conclusion that during a part or the whole of the interval between the Vicksburg and Champlain periods, the Gulf was by some means isolated from the Atlantic, and thus converted into a fresh- or brackish-water basin, and he also further suggested that this was brought about by a land con- nection between Florida and Yucatan. is hypothesis has been freely discussed in this Journal and elsewhere, and a further discussion of it would be to some ex- tent foreign to this article, since the facts observed by me and recorded above, beyond proving that Florida during the Mid- dle and later Tertiary periods, was part of the firm land of the continent, and was probably then nearly twice its present * We can only speculate as to when and how the change from the broad penin- sula of the Middle and later Tertiary periods, to the present narrow form took : o possibilities suggest themselves, viz: 1. At the beginning of the Champlain period, a more profound depression of the western as compared with eastern half of the broad Tertiary peninsula; or 2. At the end of the period of submergence, the shifting of the main axis of elevation eastward, would have brought about this result, ba | Topographical Sante F EF. A. Smith— Geology of Florida. 809 width, have no direct bearing upon the hypothesis, and offer no solution of the main difficult ty in the way of its acceptance, viz: the depth (7000 feet) of the straits between Yucatan and Cuba, and between Cuba a Florida (8000 feet). And besides, so far as yet known, the Grand Gulf beds form no part of the present land surface of Florida, being how, as suggested in one of the conclusions above, proba sonia if they ever formed a part of its Gulf coast de- posit Appendix. Lists of altitudes obtained from Maj. P. W. O. Koerner, Engineer. I, chro Railroad. Names, Distances eg Fernandi Altitude above low Mile , tide in Atlantic. Fernandina, 0 ) 27 ft. highest elevation Boggy lver, 20 1 between these points, Back tide water. Callahan, q 30 ft. Dutton, 36 45 Baldwin, 47 47 Maxville, as 57 footof Trail Ridge. Summit of Tra Ridge, 210 Western foot of Toh Ridge, 624 180 Laughty y, 140 Starke ve 150 le hag (Lake Outlet), 79 137 8 150 a (about 100) Caner fecisi House), os 128 100 (?) 70 oe 107 70 Sand Hills (Summit), ibd 120 Bronson, 127 BT Otter C Creek, 134 19 (Gulf Hammock) Rosewood, 144 10 Cedar Key, 154 0 Il. Peninsular Railroad. Elevation above low tide in Atlantic. 137 ft. @ Lake, , Pithlachook 86 Features RN S20 Lake, 68 Rim of Prairie about hear line ayne’s Prairie, Pigs Road. Lochloosa Lake and Orange Lake, 52 Silver Spring, 39 Hawt wthorne, 150 Stations, Lochloosa, 0 Ocala (C. H. square), ps Ridge 1 m. s. of Ocala (Hammock), 1 The average elevation of the country between Ocala a Orange Lake is 80 ft. University of Alabama, Dec. 15, 1880. 310 F. E.. Nipher—Magnetic Survey of Missourr. Art. XXXVII.—The Magnetic Survey of Missouri ; by FRANCIS EK. NIPHER. Ix the summer of 1878, the writer began a magnetic survey of the State of Missouri. The work of the first summer was confined to the northeastern part of the State, and no points of interest were brought out. During the summer of 1879 the work was extended over the western half of the State, and it was made apparent that diversity of surface exerted a much more important influence than had been suspected. The lines of equal declination were found to bend very sharply upon en- tering the large valleys, and the needle showed a tendency to set at right angles to the valleys. This tendency seemed to be greatest when the general direction of the valley made an angle of 45° with the normal position of the needle, or roughly, when the valley runs northeast and southwest or northwest and southeast. This tendency seemed to be inappreciable, when the valleys ran north and south or east and west. In the report of 1878,* it was suggested that this might result from the bending of the stream lines of the earth-current sheet, due to the greater conducting power of the moist valleys. In order to settle this point, further examination is necessary, and it is proposed to make determinations of earth currents ata number of properly selected stations. During the summer of 1880 the work extended over the stations. In order to bring out the effect of contour, a relief map of the State was constructed in wax, and was finally reproduced in plaster. In this work use was made of the pro- files of all the railroads in the State, together with a list of over 300 elevations in the State collected by Henry Gannett. The isogonic lines which were first drawn upon an ordinary map in the usual manner to represent the observations thus far made, were then copied upon the relief map. ‘ In doing this, it became apparent at once, that the 45 sta- tions were wholly inadequate, and that the isogonic lines thus drawn are probably deserving of about the same weight that a topographical map would deserve if constructed from eleva- tions at these stations. e wood-cut is made after an artotype which will accom: pany the third annual report in vol. iv, no. 2, of the Transac- * Transactions of the St. Louis Academy of Science, vol. iv, No. 1, P- 143. F. E. Nipher—Magnetic Survey of Missouri. dll tions of the St. Louis Academy of Science. In the original map, the horizontal scale is 20 miles to the inch, the elevations being exaggerated 200 times. This exaggeration was neces- sary in order to bring out the form in the photograph, since on 4 relief map 150 feet square, the greatest difference in elevation In the State drawn-to the same scale would be Bs eaoaione by 4 vertical height of one inch. The horizontal scale of the cut 18 62 miles to the inch. Three stations in the Missouri valley 312 G. J. Brush—American Sulpho-Selenides of Mercury. have been inadvertently omitted in the cut. One of these (Carrollton) lies on the 8° 80’ line, a few miles north of the i nother (Glasgow) lies on the ‘river, a little south of east from Carrollton. The third (Columbia) lies just east of the 8° line, and southeast from Carrollton. A fourth station omitted is nearly due east of the southern terminus of the line, and just outside the 7° 30’ loop. The other stations, rep- resented by the small circles are shown on the cut, and an in- spection of the map will show the weight to be given to differ- ent parts of the lines. At stations situated at points of abrupt curvature of the lines, the observations have been repeated at various localities in the region, until it was clear that no min- ute local effects existed. he value in the Iron Mountain region is the mean of many hundred determinations made with a solar compass by Pumpelly and Moore, in 1872. This region is in the east part of the 7° 30’ loop. In the western iron field, which is nearly coincident with the 7° oval, our observations were repeated at various points (our aim being to avoid iron deposits), without finding any local action. In conducting this survey, a mag- netometer belonging to Washington University was used, but the dip circle and declinometer were kindly furnished by Pro- fessor J. E. Hilgard, of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Thus far the survey has been conducted wholly on private means, in which we have been aided by the railroad compa- nies, and by citizens of St. Louis. A bill providing for the i ea of the survey is now before the legislature of the te. ArT. XXXVUL—On American Sulpho-Selenides of Mercury ; by Gxo. J. BrusH— With analyses of Onofrite from Utah ; y W. J. Comstock. Contributions from the Sheffield Laboratory, No. LXI. AT a meeting of the National Academy of Sciences, held in New York in November last, Professor J. S. Newberry com- municated to the Academy two papers, on the occurrence of various ores in Southern Utah, mentioning, among others, the discovery of a mercuric selenide at Marysvale, a mining camp two hundred miles south of Salt Lake City. A specimen of this mineral was given me by Dr. Newberry, and desiring to ascertain more definitely its specific relations; I made a pyrognostic examination of it, and found it to be essen- tially a sulpho-selenide of mercury with traces of zinc an manganese, and that the mineral was probably identical with Rose’s Onofrite. On communicating my results to Dr. New" : = : : a : ; ; : G. J. Brush—American Sulpho-Selenides of Mercury. 318 berry, he very kindly requested me to make a further investi- gation of the mineral, and placed in my hands an abundance of material for a quantitative examination. He stated that it occurs in what seems to be a fissure vein in a limestone, which he regards as paleozoic, and that the selenide was found at the toga of a thirty-foot shaft, forming a seam about four inches ide Physical properties.—The specimens received from Dr. New- berry were, with a single exception, small irregular fragments, free from rock. The larger specimen was in a gangue of com- pact gray limestone, but the greater part of the specimen, 3 by 8 inches square and an inch in thickness, consisted of the sulpho- selenide. Even the limestone was found impregnated with the same, sometimes in visible specks, while in other portions of the rock it was not to be seen until acted upon by acid, or vola- tilized by heat in the closed tube. A small amount of associ- ated crystalline calcite also included minute particles of the metallic mineral. The most careful scrutiny of the gangue failed to discover any native metallic mercury, or other associ- ated metallic mineral, and there was no difficulty in selecting an abundance of the pure mineral for analysis entirely free from the gangue, _The mineral has a blackish gray color and streak. It has no distinct cleavage, but breaks with a conchoidal fracture and shows a brilliant metallic luster on freshly broken surfaces. The irregular natural surfaces of the specimens in my posses- Sion are somewhat spongy or cavernous in aspect, but afford no clue to the crystalline form of the mineral. The hardness is adout 2°5 and the specific gravity of the mineral, boiled in water to free from air, gave the figures 7°61 and 7°63, in two determinations. ‘ ‘Yrognostics,—In the closed tube the mineral decrepitates at first, then volatilizes for the most part, gives reactions for sul- phur and mercury, coats the tube with a grayish black subli- cury and sulpho-selenide of mercury, and leaves, as before, a slight residue of a yellow color. On charcoal in R. F., the 314 G. J. Brush—American Sulpho-Selenides of Mercury. ye eae bead; with soda on platinum uh at imparts to the e pale green color characteristic of sodium manganate. Chemical composition.—The quantitative sratuihation of the mineral was made by Mr. W. J. Comstock, assistant in the Sheffield Laboratory. He followed he ethod of H. Rose, precipitated a havi aionde This precipitate was care- fully tested aud found to be entirely free from selenium. An examination was also made to ascertain if anything besides - T: IL. Ill. IV. Mean. Ratio. Seloninm .2. 0)... ce 4°69 4:47 4-58 “058 3 423 COL SCPE SPEER ES Son coe et Oa bee EPs ees oa Ce ee 81°73 82°12 81:93 PIO eS 0°61 =: 0°48 0°54 eid 429 Manganese _______. 0-68 0-70 ; 0-69 © 012 r 99°42 These figures prove the mineral to be gj Hg(S, Se), or a mercuric sulpho-selenide, in which the ratio of the sulphur to the selenium is about 6:1. This Pengbee it under the mineral species gs am which H. Rose found to be a mercuric sulpho-selenide, with the ratio of S to Se of 4:1, a relation which Rose tives considered unimportant, for he remarks that mercurie selenide a complete correspondence in physical characters, and Dr. berry’s discovery of a considerable quantity of this rare species at a new locality is an interesting fact for mineralogical science. ° In this connection it may not be amiss to review the occur- * Poggendorff’s Ann., xlvi, 318. ‘ 2 : 2 ; ; a ai : t a G. J. Brush—American Sulpho-Selenides of Mereury. 315 rence of native mercuric sulpho-selenides, which, thus far, I believe, have only been found on the North American conti- nent. The first mention of a native sulpho-selenide of mercury is by Del Rio.* He found at Culebras, in Mexico, in a lime- stone which overlaid red sandstone, two ores, one red and the other gray ; the former he described as ‘‘biseleniuret of zine and bisulphuret of mercury,” and the latter a “ biseleniuret of zine and sulphuret of mercury.” The English mineralogist, Brooke, named the red mineral culebrite, after the locality, and the gray mineral riolite,t in honor of its discoverer. e gray mineral had a density of 5°56, and, according to Del Rio, con- tained Se 49, Zn 24, Hg 19, S 1: ongjrite.| This mineral was found in compact granular masses, associated with calcite and barite, and, according to Mr. C. Ehrenberg, one of the officials of the Real del Monte Com- pany, the mineral occurred in such quantity that it was ge og to use it as an ore of mercury, although Rose had so ittle of the mineral for examination that he was unable to detach a sufficient amount of it from adhering barite to enable him to ascertain its specific gravity. : n 1865, Professor A. del Costillo, of Mexico, described** a sulpho-selenide of zine and mercury from the quicksilver mines of Guadaleazar; this mineral was subsequently independently examined and analyzed by Petersen¢t+ and named guadal- cazarite. A more recent analysis of the same mineral is given by Rammelsberg in his Mineralchemie, p. 79. These minerals bear a close resemblance to one another in physical characters, 48 well as in chemical composition, as will be seen by the table of * Phil. Mag. and Ann. Phil, vol. iv, (1828) p. 113. ; t Rionite is another name given by some authors for the same mineral. ¢ L. and K. Phil. Mag., vol. viii, (1836) p. 262. arn Archiy., xiv, 27. __| In Dana’s Mineralogy, 5th ed., p. 56, line 10 from bottom of page. the density Siven by Del Rio for his gray mineral is erroneously attributed to onofrite. Dana Min., 5th ed., p. 109, and Burkhardt, Jahrb. Min., 1866, p. 414. tt Tschermak, Min. Mittheil., 1872, p. 69 and p. 243. 316 J. Trowbridge—Hffect of Great Cold upon Magnetism. m ‘ metacinnabarite is 7°70-7°74; of the Utah onofrite, 7°61—7°63 : of guadalcazarite, 7:15; of tiemannite, 7:15-7-274. Se Hg Zn Mn Fe uartz. Metacinnabarite.13°82 ... 85°79 ... -_. 0°39 0°25 =100°25 Moore Guadaleazarite_.14°01 tr. 83°90 2°09 _.. _.. -..=100- Rammelsberg. 0. 14 POSiIO%1S 4:998° oo. tr. ... = 99°62 Petersen Onofrite, Utah_.11°68 Gar mete Onorenla el (640) Ol os. ee ee Ba 98 Tiemannite__._. O10 23°61) 1402 ek 98°83 Se a) with trace of cadmium. H. Rose. hultz. barite or tiemannit New Haven, January 12, 1881. —_ Art. XXXIX.—The Effect of Great Cold upon Magnetism ; by JOHN TROWBRIDGE. condition than has been noticed by previous obser * Jour. f. prakt. Chem., II, ii, 319, (1870) and this Journal, III, iii, p. 36. _ + Daguin, Traité de Physique, nouv. ed. Influence de la temperature d’aiman- tation. ; J. Trowbridge—Effect of Great Cold upon Magnetism. 3817 490. This represents a loss of less than four per cent. In my experiments the magnetic bar magnetized at 20° C. when subjected to a temperature of about —60° C. loses a far greater percentage of its magnetism. In one case a bar magnetized to saturation lost sixty-six per cent of its magnetism he low temperature was produced by solid carbonic acid and ether; and the magnetic moments of the bar were measured by placing it east and west of a suspended magnet, which was pro- vided with a mirror. In this case we have the magnetic moment M=—r'T tan Pp When subjected to freezing mixture. Before min, Afterintervalof 1min. 2min. 5 min. freezing. Obsery. 814m. 16m.obs. obser. obser. obser. 6390 “6050 *6860 “5820 ‘5790 3) "6395 “6020 “5850 *B815 5740 “65156 “6390 6000 584 5825 5700 5480 5980 *5840 “6815 5650 5480 5965 *683 5600 5950 “5820 5940 5930 “5920 “5910 5900 5890 The zero of the scale was ‘5000 and the observations are expressed in fractions of a meter. It will be seen that this bar lost in forty-seven minutes nearly two-thirds of its original magnetic condition. After twenty-four hours’ exposure to the temperature at which it had been magnetized, its magnetic con- dition was fifty per cent of its original state. A ring of soft iron was next experimented upon according to the method of Professor Rowland, and it was found that its Magnetic permeability on being subjected to very low temper- ature differed greatly from the results obtained for soft iron at ordinary temperatures. It is well stated by Dr. V. Strouhal and Dr. ©. Barus, in a paper on the physical condition of steel, Ann. der Physik und Chemie, 1880, No. 18, that we must regard each bar of steel, 1D regard to its magnetic condition, as an individual of special Cbaracteristies—and a long investigation will be necessary to determine the limits of the effect of great cold upon magnetism. 318 H. S. Williams—Channel-fillings in Art. XL.—Channel-fillings in Upper Devonian Shales; by H. Ss. WILLIAMS. In the midst of the fine shales marking the passage from the Portage to the Chemung groups, as they appear in the neigh- borhood of Ithaca, New York, are found narrow beds of sand- stone presenting several points of interest to the geologist. The first example studied -is seen at the mouth of the ravine opening where Junction, Elm and Hector streets meet at the foot of West Hill. n the faces of the cliff on the north of the ravine are seen what appear to be wedge-shaped beds of sandstone of a few feet extent in the shales which form the main mass of the rocks. Upon a close examination these wedge-shaped masses are seen to be sections, formed at different angles (by the joint-structure of the rocks) of a continuous narrow bed of sandstone, convex on the bottom and nearly flat and horizontal on the top, run- ning out to thin wedges at the sides, its longitudinal axis lying diagonally across both systems of joints. a reduction of the oblique sections as seen at several points of its exposure I determined the shape, size and direc- tion of these sandstone masses, which I have called channel- fillings. The first one studied is about six feet in width and nine inches thick at the center; the top nearly plane, while the prong surface curves quite regularly from the center to each side. The shales, in which the channel-fillings lie, are fine, evenly bedded, thin, fragile shales, the lines of stratification of which recognized in any cleavage of the rock. At the upper surface a wavy lamination is seen in the coloration, and also in the (to the south side of the ravine where the section was discov- ered in the bank by following out the determined direction Upper Devonian Shales. 319 across the ravine). 'The mass has its longitudinal axis in a W. of S. _ in other cases I could not determine this point, and am still My doubt as to the cause of the inequalities on this lower sur- ace. ) _ The shale is well characterized by its fauna. Its termination 18 distinctly marked above by: coarse arenaceous shales an sandstone, well known in the Chemung group, but these pecu- liar sandstone channel-fillings are not known to occur above or low this particular horizon. henever, in the neighborhood the outcrop of the shales, racteristic fauna was discovered, careful search or nine feet. The thicker beds were somewhat swollen in the center on top, and. wrinkles, looking very much like the shrinkage Wrinkles on the surface of a firkin of lard after it has cooled, Were seen on the upper surface of these thicker masses. The swollen center of these thick masses suggested the ex- Planation, i. e., that subsequent to the original deposition of the rocks a certain amount of shrinkage took place in shales which was not shared by the arenaceous sbannelifilbings and thus the margins of the mass were borne. down the shrinking shales while the center of the mass, resisting the Tesembling impressions of glacier scratches, and the trend of 320 H. S. Williams—Channel-fillings in Upper Devonian Shales. channel across the bottom and up the other; some of the lines are fine and thread-like and appear entirely uninfluenced by the depth of the channel down and across which they swept. These lines puzzle me much for explanation, and the only suggestion which appears to me worth offering is that of a swiftly moving tide or current trailing seaweeds or particles rapidly with it over the bottom. To explain the channel-fillings there occurs to me only one series of events which begins to cover the facts. The uniform- ity; structure, directness and great number of the channels seems to preclude the idea of a rapidly flowing stream across a beach, and the continuity of the imbedding strata seems consist- ent only with under-water work. he suggestion I have to offer is, that these channels were caused by the scratching of icebergs on the shoals represented by the imbedding shales; that the channels were then scooped cleanly out of the mud of the bottom; that the flow or runnel marks were caused by the same ocean current which bore along the icebergs, and perhaps increased in the wake of the berg. e deposit of sand in the channels was due to the catching of the heavier sand (in the cavity thus formed) more rapidly than on the general surface represented by the thin arenaceous layers above; and I suppose it therefore to have been filled ts. Before closing, it may be interesting to mention that the richest locality known of the commoner of the beautiful and large fish pee closely resembling the plate © of the ventral ewberry’s Dinichthys Terrell from the Huron shale of Ohio (see Pal. Ohio, vol. ii, chart No. vi, and p. 8 : specimen found at Ithaca is about half the size of the Ohio specimen figured. The shales in which the channel-fillings are seen is characterized by the presence of a Lingula whic believe to be new, at least as a variety and probably aa 8 species, and which I propose to describe at another time. were ys kee Sra Oe ee tenth a as Ee tre mb == re, ee Speco os has 2 igs a a Ra apt oa SEN a a ta a hen Pee AR Re Re eC ee Chemistry and Physics. 321 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PuHysIcs. methods were: “ 1st, that each process used should be as simple as possible, and should involve as little as possible of known liability to error; 2d, that different and independent processes should be resorted to as the means of checking each other’s re- sults, even though it may fairly be assumed that one is more advantageous than another; 3d, that each process should be carried out with quantities of material differing considerably from each other in successive experiments; and 4th, that only such of the Coast Survey, the relation of which to the kilogram of the Archives is known. The density of each weight used was deter- mined, as also that of all vessels and materials which had to be weighed. e barometer and thermometer being noted at the Produced by its oxidation. The ammonia alum carefully purified from iron, and repeated! recrystallized, was used in the first process, The aluminum hydrate was precipitated ffected in a platinum crucible, to the cover of which was attached & Wire carrying two perforated diaphragms to prevent the loss of 322 Scientific Intelligence. solid particles. After ignition at a bright yellow heat for an hour, inside of a second crucible, it was cooled and moistened with a strong solution of ammonium carbonate, and re-ignited. The crucible containing now pure Al,O,, i specially Rage dan glass bottle and weighed. For the second method, aluminum bromide was prepared directly by the action of ectine upon aluminum and carefully purified by repeated fractional distillations until a was perfectly white and boiled steadily at 263°3° under 74 . pressure, the last distillation being Jrected | in a current of sitet ogen. Pure silver was prepared and dissolved in Bue nitric acid, the solution being used to pre- si Lebiehe the me um bromide e. The amount of silver used was tion of sodium hydrate prepare from metallic sodium. The calcium-chloride ees a sulphuric ac cid and pumice tube and one containing phosphoric oxide, used successively. For the details supe arine ge ponte the minute precautions used we must 1; for S, 31°996; and for N, 14°010. As to bromine and silver, correction was made for the oxygen occluded by the silver in Stas’s research, and thus the atomic weight of silver became 107°649 and of bromine 79°754. The results as cal- culated were as follows: 1st method, series A gave 27°040+-'0073 as a mean of five experiments; series B, 27°096--" 0054, also a m mean "bees experiments. Series A of the third method the warhied thinks entitled to most weight and series B, first method, Ma the least. The mean of all thirty experiments gives Al= 703240045. If 1, B be excluded, Al=27:019-4-0030. Hence ine atomic weight of aluminum is 27:02, or when integers are used for O, a, etc., 27. The paper closes by calling attention hie ‘the fact that of the eighteen elements whose atomic weig un saeretioa —Phil. Trans., 1003, 1880. ¥y aa Chemstry and Physics. 323 2. On the light which appears on Rotoreen Electrodes which are placed in hydrogen gas at different pressure . Louse describes the spectroscopic appearance of glowing sneha electrodes sara in an atmosphere of hydrogen “and of magnesium vapor. apparatus consisted merely “of suitable vacuum tubes jiddletion coils and a spectroscope. It a appears from etre observations that the Aepeadenss of the formation of metallic vapor upon the den- sity of the gas surrounding the metallic electrodes can be studied quantitatively by the use of a constant current of electricity. It also perceived that with increasing rarefaction of the hydrogen the light intensity of the metallic vapor increases in the more eon pl portion of the speectrum.—Ann. der ie se Chemie Lh . The : 0. % line in the Solar spectrum.—Professor C. A. Vou UNG, be means of a Rutherfurd grating of 17280 lines to the inch, and by means of the spectrum of the third order, has discovered that unit of Angstrém’s scale; also, that the line 5207-4 is double. These observations possess gr eat interest, because it is claimed by Lockyer that these oe are basic—d, belonging to Fe and Mg, b, to Fe and Ni, 5207-4 Cr and Fe.— Observ tory, 1880, . 271- 272 « Beiblitter Jes ie Physik und Ohain ty 1881, No. Ss 4. Action of an intermittent beam of radiant heat upon Gase ous matter.—Protessor TYNDALL in a paper read sete the Royal ociety, Jan. 3, 1881, reviews the criticisms of various experi- menters upon his investigations in radiant heat, mid believes their interpretations to be due to a failure on the part of the critics to recognize the strength of his position as a whole. He has taken up the subject anew mei peg og pee to submit the results in due i erimente neete with a dyna si binollas Gackuak by a gas seni e. A glass lens was used to sinioiek ate the rays, and afterwards two lenses: A circle of sheet zinc provi ided at first with radial slits and after- wards with teeth and interspaces was caused to rotate rapidly across the beam near the focus. A flask containing the gas or through the vapor. These are the most highly absorbent vapors 324 Scientific Intelligence. faint sounds were o rom chloroform and bisulphide of carbon which are diathermanous. It was found that it was the vapor and not the hich is effective in produc 8 In ge th ower of vapors to produce musical ounds. : sounds can be accurately expressed by their ability to absorb powerful musical sound. The method is then enlarged upon as a very delicate one to test the athermancy or diathermancy of gases and vapors. In a subsequent communication to the Royal Society, Professor Tyndall renews his enquiry into the effect of an inter- mittent beam upon aqueous vapor and confirms the results ob- tained by him nineteen years ago, and believes these results to be in entire disaccord with those obtained by experimenters who have ascribed a high absorption to air and none to aqueous va- concludes that the vapor of all compound liquids will be found sonorous in the intermittent beam, and since he questions whether there is in nature an absolutely diathermanous substance he believes even the vapor of elementary bodies will be found to be capable of producing sounds.—Proc. Royal Society, Jan. 3 and Jan. 10, ; Poe On the tones which arise in a gus as the effect of intermit- t radiation.—Professor W. C. RénreEn has also recently of experiments by the announcément of Professor Bell’s results with the photophone. As the source of heat a Drummond calcium disk was rotated the heat rays alternately fell upon the absorp- tion tube and were cut off from it, producing thus an intermittent effect. The tube was filled at first with air, but no effect coul be heard. When, however, coal gas was introduced in the tube a very distinct tone was heard resembling the whistling sound pro- duc ong q : i 5 7 4 j : 4 4 A Geology. 325 but the tones veased immediately when the rays were cut off b , Pp of gases which have a strong absorptive power. The author closes by expressing the intention of determining the behavior of water vapor in this respect, with the view of deciding the question as to whether or not it exerts a strong absorptive power on the heat rays (see preceding notice, and p, 236, March, 1881).—Ann. der Phys, u. Chem., Jan. 1881. II. GEOLOGY. 1. International Geological Congress at Bologna.—The second meeting of this Congress will be opened on the 26th of September mm tees, to make reports at Bologna: one on the unification of of s of nomenclature of species in mineralogy and paleontol- ° t ese Committees consists of Canada, President; M. Renevier, of Lausanne, Secretary ; and of Messrs. Ramsa iversidge, von er, von n, Giimbel, von Méller, Torell, Dupont, De ‘Chancourtois, Giordano, Ribeiro L members of the second are, 8, President ; M. Dewalque, of Liége, Secretary; and Mess ughes, Liversidge, Capellini, A. Favre, Remer, Szabo, Ste- e 326 Scientifie Intelligence. geological maps received by him from several of its members. In these reports the recommendation from the Swiss Committee clear yellow for Piinodne and ver ite" gr en for otiatarbar! For i iluri i h i have osed but one ae Py that the countries contain little Bf either of these fo 2. Geological terms Per "Stratigraphicel Subdivisions.—Lookin at the earth’s strata as a histor gh series, it becomes natural to iia geological time into ages eras, eriods and: ¢ ochs. formation or system. The word terrane, from the French terrain and eae’ terreno, has been employed, but without defined restrictio cation of the terms use rench and Belgian works on hn namely, formation, serves , systeme, étage, assise, zone, couche. Le cites D’Archiac’s protest in 1847, against the confusion as to their use at that time in France, and shows that the confusion is hardly ence is to be made to rocks o nd as caleareous formations, granitic formations; and bite as the best terms and their best — order, commencing with that of broadest signification, Rite 8) ystem, » wage, substage, the last, made synonymous with “ assise,” and group; adding that the terms series rp zone (the tbat when characterized by particular fossils), may times be used w convenience, though not made to iitin gaia any partioulkt gra of subdivision. jolite)’ ane each of these systems contains e to four stages, e. g., for the Portlandian system the three stayes, Purbeckian, Portlandian and Kimmeri ridigian ; and so on | ! Geology. 327 The scheme sets aside English usage altogether—which would write (1) Jurassic system or formation ; under this, Portlan- ae group or series ; and, under this, Purbeckian Sm Purbeck) es the term nian if ede abidate be given to the a prand@e subdivis-. Switzerland ‘and fealye and for pial second Trade the tell par which has the widest usage i its The scheme, thus m ge would be—putting in for he een grade re (1) ato 50 Gri (3) Stage ; ae ty or Substage. The desirableness of agreement on so mmon Sige ih crystalline rocks based on pe mineral constitution. Facts of this kind are here cited from two papers published in the Atti oc. Toscana di Scienza Nataral (Pisa) of Nov. The first, tr G. Meneghini of Pisa, ves an account aan Alps (ate to the northwest t of Lucea, parallel with the . he Shwe of lie. groups, ‘in tek mica ni stint, about twenty feet below its top occur lenticular masses of limestone (making it a calciferous mica schist) ; a and this limestone has afforded Meneghini a num- ber of Specimens of three species of Orthocerata. wo of them have a circular section, and a central siphuncle, and minctiess: Triassic Species ; but the third is elliptical m section, has an eccen- tric siphon, very short chambers, and is nearest to Paledeois kinds, swith which also the other two have near relations. At Mosceta, other s specimens were found in calcareous beds in the Upper ailete of the series, part of which may be the same with 328 Serentific Intelligence. no. 2, and others that are like no. 3, and have some affinity in interior structure to Ormoceras tenuifilum of Hall, and O. crebri- septum of Hall. The ore. of the papers referred to, by C. Dr Srerant, reviews the facts as to the Equivalency of the Sormaiions o * the Apuan rn) Alps about af ta Serchio, Fiume di Gragnana, pugs i icine with the name of the author who determined the true equivalen The Patnozorc beds in nelude mica schist, damourite. schist, cecandagia, and ties ; also, at top (c),. arenaceous beds, slates gray and other lime- stones, with traces of fossils, and among them Enerinus lilit- formis, species of Cidaris, Pentacrin NUS, 9 Po IR ete. ext follow the subdivisions of the Lias, the Tithonian or eas and Wealden, the Neocomian and Gault of the Creta- ries and the ertiary. Bulletin of the U. BS. eonngtat and Geographical Survey of he Territories, F. V. Haypen U.S. Geologist-in-Charge. Vol. VI, No. 1.—The first tr oi in this number of t e Bulletin is on the a. of the Rocky Mountain Region, by Asa Gray and JoserH D. Hoo oKER. Then follow—by E. D. Core, on New : in Central Oregon,” Fila those of Florissant ; they are Up Botany and Zoology. : 329 _5. Description of the Coal Flora of the Carboniferous Forma- tion in Pennsylvania and throughout the Unite ates ; by Leo Lesquerrux. Vol. II. 1, Lycopodiacee ; 2, Sigillarie ; 3, Gymnosperms, Report P of the Second Geological Survey o Pennsylvania. Harrisburg, Pa., 1881.—The text of the coal flora of L. Lesquereux’s report is nearly ready for distribution; the atlas containing illustrations of the many species has been out for nearly two years. The following statement of the contents of the volume has been received from the author _ This brings the work to the 684th page, after which follow the literature, containing an enumeration, with titles, of the works quoted in the flora, an index of localities, and another index of the tin names, III Borany anp ZooLoey. 1. The British Moss-Flora; by R. Brarrawarre, M.D., F.L.S. Dr. Braithwaite, having by his Sphagnacee or Peat-Mosses of m parts complete four famili f the Acrocarpous Moss ro Andrewacew to Polytrichiacew inclusive, the order and classifica- tion followed being that of Lindber The fourt a : € q anything of the kind in England. One thing only we should on ur part desire, and may hope the author will in future supply; 330 Scientific Intelligence. and that is the geographical range of the species, at least as re- spects the northern hemisphere. For the British species being so satisfactory and of comparatively small cost and withal so ndso it i payable at Clapham Common office. The first section of twelve plates will be completed by the monograph of Fissidens, with three plates, now on the eve of publication, ... & & . On the Origin of starch grains ; by A. F. W. ScuiMPer. (Botan. Zeit., 1880, and now published separately.) —The relations of the shape of the chlorophyll-grain to the form of the starch granules produced therein, are explained at some length, and the differences in the form are shown to be dependent upon the direc- tion of the supply of nutritive material. Since the location and the course of the material from which the starch of the chloro- metrical in form. ’ But this lack of symmetry is more than simple (sometimes spindle-shaped). Under the influence of light these bodies may be converted into chlorophyll granules. ‘hey are presumably identical with the bodies termed by Negeli “ Brut- blaschen,’ and which were also noticed by Trécul.. The different forms of these starch-producing bodies and the characteristic shapes which the deposits assume, are conveniently classified. The author holds a view which must steadily gain ground ; namely, that the starch which occurs in chlorophyll granules is ; sithadt e Te- one of the most impurtant as well as most difficult ficlds of re search. This valuable paper is copiously illustrated. 5 . 3. Botany of California, Vol. I ; Sereno WATSON. Cambridge, Mass., John Wilson & Son, University Press, 1880. —The first volume of this flora appeared in 1876, and bore on the title-page the names of W. H. Brewer and Sereno Watson as Botany and Zoology. 331 authors of the Polypetalew, and Asa Gray of the Gamopetalew. That the work is now finished is due mai inly to the indefatigable industry of the botanist in whose name it is issued; that it. is published, as we learn from a preparatory note, is owing ¢ iefly to the zeal and liberality of Hon. 8. C. Hastings, who solicited and obtained the necessary pecuniary means Poh this perpese His fellow-contributors for the present volume e D, O. Mills, Henry Pierce, Leland Stanford, J. C. Flood and eevee Crocker, all of San Francisco, T ume contains the Apetalous orders, the Gymnosperms, phe Monoeatyledonous orders, and the higher orders of Cryptog- 8 plants. As is usual in works of this character, some por- tions are comin nen by special collaborators, Dr. Engelmann ay that Dr. Watson’s work bears evidence of being very carefully done, that his classification is mainly conformed to the approved modern popes ia € bs ene hataniet ts, that his tech- nical characters, of ordet and species, are concise yet exact and wiles full, that (ea at aes of habitat and range are well studied, and that his remarks appended to the generic and specitic descriptions are judicious,—is too feeble praise. The work is more than good; it is admirable; it is in advance of any- thing of the kind which has ever been seen, and will long serve asa model for a flora, and as an exalted standard, he author’s great ability as a writer of A anaus magn’ is especially prfent in his treatment of the Mosses of the Pacific States. “He has not been hitherto classed among Perec Bry- ologists, and has certainly not devoted year after year to the ucroscopic study of these little plants; but he has had before im the writings of Sullivant, Schimper, Lesquereux, Mitten James, Austin, Mueller and others, as well as the rich collection in the panne Fenpenan: and he has collated and reduced to fe) 23 =} if A . te pak -_ rx} ra $0 | tq = << = ws D As; ® CG — x) ree 4] ct ° ° 5 4 oy ) re) } =| RD 23 & '‘ volume was papisy ied, together in few | eas ns to the second volume, are given in the latter part of this volume, making he whole feeding aan up to the summer of 1880. Then fo an index ie the whole work, a concise glossary of technical terms, and a very interesting “list of persons who have made botanical ' collections i in California.” This is more than a list of names, for it ree some brief account of all known collectors of Californian peut s from Thaddeus Henke, in 1791, to 8S. F. Peckham, in 1866, he principal more recent collectors are also mentioned, 332 , Scientific Intelligence. a blossom of some prickly cactus, or Cereus, with the legend “2 sPINIS FLOS,” alluding doubtless to the blossoming out of the work from the midst of thorny difficulties. The second volume bears in like manner a branch and cone of the “ big tree,” Sequoia gigantea, with the motto, at once triumphant and prophetic, “RES TEMPORE MAGNA.” D. ©. E. 4. The Gymnosporangia or Cedar-apples of the United States ; by Professor W. G. Farrow. From the Anniversary Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History. 4to. pp. 38, pl. 2. Bos- ish teen years ago, being > genetic connection, any consideration of the one naturally includes recognizes the following species of Gymnosporangium, including Podisoma: G@. Eillisii (Berk.), G. clavarieforme DC., G. ma cropus » G. fuscum ay ee tg G. biseptatum Ellis, G. clavipes, C and P., and @. conicum ve. The latter, however, is represented by so few specimens that its identity is not above suspicion. What has heretofore appeared in American catalogues as G. fuseum is found to differ strikingly from the European fusewm, and in the present paper is place Vv Coming to the question of the genetic connection of the species of the two genera, it appears that Oersted has connected G. clava- wit cultures were made during the springs of 1876, 1877, 1878 and 1880, the sporidia of the various Gymnosporangia being sow? 0? young plants or freshly gathered leaves of the Pome which are attacked b stelize, ay 3 4 E ; M * Botany and Zoology. 333 ‘and a like result was experienced in six experiments when the sporidia of G. fuscum var. globosum were used, and once when rieforme is not common, yet its so-called ecidium, R. lacerata, is very abundant, occurring at points where the teleutosporic form has never been found; and G@. conicum, if this species be accepted, is a southern form, while R. cornuta is distinctly northern in its rang d tions of the several species cannot be accepted as demonstrated ; and there is no little probability that the spermogonia produced tract from Trans. Connecticut Academy, vol. v, p. 318, wt . E. Verritt.—* observed in this species, as well as in Ommastrephes illecebrosus, numerous instances in whic Some of the suckers have been torn off and afterwards reproduced. In such examples new suckers of various sizes, from those that are Same individual. It seems to me possible that some of the speci- mens having the suckers on the tentacular arms unusually small, may have reproduced all those suckers, or still more likely, the entire arm. oe more duced the lost parts. In such cases the restored portion is often and Where the old part joins the new there is often an abrupt change In size. Probably this difference would wholly disappear, after a r time “An unquestionable and most remarkable example of the re- production of several entire arms occurs in a small specimen taken ewport, R. L, Aug., 1880, This has the mantle 70" long, dorsal arms 22™ 3d pair of arms 30". The three upper es of arms are perfectly normal, but both the tentacular and both the ventral arms have evidently been entirely lost and then repro- * 334 Scientific Intelligence. duced, from the very base. These four arms are now nearly per~ fect in form, but are scarcely half their normal size on the left side, and still smaller on the right side. The left tentacular arm is only 24™™ long, and very s slender, but it has the normal proportion of club, and the suckers, tho oug well formed, are diminutive, and those of the two median rows are scarcely larger than the lateral and delicately denticulated. The right tentacular arm is eee ti half as long (12™™), being of about the same length as the restored ventral one of the same side; it is also very slender and its suckers very minute and soft, in ‘four equal rows. The right ventral arm is only 14" long ; the left one 15™ jong $ both are i Dasa with very small but otherwise normal sucker nother specimen from Vineyard Sound, a female, with the eatin ae 150™™ long, one of the tentacular arms had. lost its club, but the wound had healed and a new club was in process of formation. This new club is represented by a small tapering acute process, starting out obliquely from the stump, and having a sigmoid curvature; its inner sur face i Is covered with very minute suckers. The other arms are normal. It seems probable that some of the nominal European species of Loligo that have been based on the smaller size of the tentacular arms or of the suckers are due to similar instances of regeneration of these parts. IV. AstTronomy. Reports on che a Solar Eclipses of vey ihe BULA ng January \1th, Washington, 1880. > Pp and 416, with avert tp sent —This volume is catanel 2 ‘the Naval Obse tory, the arrangement and printing being under the care of "Profess or Harkness. mae several reports are in the words of the observers, and the aim has been to ae as form or ee been pean given to AX ublic. But the m t, Eastman, and Messrs. Trouvelot, Hill, and Rogers. Perhaps it is the aber non upon the corona that will be 0 es rs gave their panies to it. Report on the Polarization of the Corona Oring the total Sola i of Tuy 29, ida Bes A... W.. Wri RIGH , Ph.D., Yale hi | gabon! (see Heke e). Professor ‘righ first gives an account of some preliminary experiments with artificial coronas, which served to make clear the special Ses Ae ES ae A eS a g - too faint to Astronomy. 335 difficulties to be encountered in the actual observations made and d things, a polarimeter of novel construction, and which proved most efficient in the actual work. The observations made during the eclipse are then given in detail. The results of the various observations made are summarized as follows: (1) With respect to the character of the polarization, the observations made by three independent methods agree in show- nere, (2) The polarization decreases from the moon’s limb outward, as shown both by the photographs and the polarimetric measure- ments. The latter show that for a space vertically beneath the approximately uniform, except for a region about the poles, extending 20° each way, where it is somewhat ous spectrum, inasmuch as the expected bright line spectrum was bserved. conclusion seems to be warranted that the passage diffuse light of the sky may have had a slight share in diminish- ing the apparent polarization at the extreme outer border of the Corona by dilution, but it is doubtful whether it was sufficient to make it necessary to take it into consideration. 3. Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society of London, Vol. XLI, 1879, with eighteen plates.—This thick volume is exclusively devoted to the solar eclipses, and is prepared by Mr. anyard at the suggestion of the Astronomer Royal. The plan of the work is to bring systematically together in separate chap- ters all the observations of solar eclipses, classifying them accord- i e a very large amount of new matter, especially of details of the A. Jour So1.—Tuirp a Vou. XXI, No. 124.—APRIL, 1881. 836 Miscellaneous Intelligence. structure of the corona as derived from the photographs of the eclipse of 1871. The plates show that this appendage of the sun is much more complicated in form than has been hitherto supposed. V. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. . Soldering by Compression.—M. W. Sprrve, after describing shes apparatus he used, gives the following results in an elaborate research published in the Bulletin of the He esasts Academy of Sciences for 1880 (xlix, 323); Powdered lead became perfectly oh like a block obtained from fusion, under a pressure of 2, atmospheres, and with a pressure of. 5,000, run like a liquid; bismuth became. perfectly solid under a pressure of 6,000; tin, 3,000; zinc, 5,000; aluminum, 6,000; copper, like aluminum ; antimon y with more diff culty than minum, the compacted mass obtained under 5,000 atmospheres aoe more or less pulverulent at center; platinum, not consoli- at Powdered transparent monoclinic sulphur became perfectly solid under a pressure of 5,000 atmospher es, but was changed to had a bluish reflection, but without great hardness; at 5,000, it run like a liquid so that it could not be nabhected. in the apparatus Silica, in powder (using fine sand, and also Hag decoele genes gave only a commencement of union under an ary cha became harder than chalk, but not halts firm. recinttated lead carbonate gave no result ; glee, no satisfactory result, under & pressure of 6,000 atmospheres Bituminous coal in powder Te perfectly solid under pressure of 6,000 atmospheres, and may be moulded at t this se sure with the greatest facility, being Dass. . which explains how the flexing of ancient coal-beds became possible.” Peat, under 4 re of 6,000 atmospheres, became a brilliant black solid, hard an ike coal, with its organic texture completely obliter- ated ; it wa also plastic, “jllustrating thereby the origin of coa se showing t eat was not ne to produce it ; moreover, maenes ‘obedined by panne g ee) underwent no change; and ee same was true of animal b The author gives results from trials with various other substan- ae in all, and ends his paper with some general conclusions. EET ER Sr aE E NI AMER TTY Peer ane HO OMe REDO AT aN ee eee fee Onn eRe ea Miscellaneous Intelligence. 337 2, ta by Col. A. R. Crarxn, R.E., F.R.S., etc. Oxfor 1880. 8°, 356 pp.—This w supplies a want long seriously felt in the English literature of Its late date gives it the great advantage of comprising the ost recent improved methods in observation and theoretical sieaaon The treatment of the subject is simple, pertinent and condensed, while illustrations are gathered with rare discrimination from the governmental reports of all ser now prosecuting geodesic operations. Col. Clarke, who has long been connected with the Trigonometrical Survey of Great ‘Beivatn, and of late years has had “charge of its Geodesy, adds to the general didactic treatment of the su ject a brief discussion of the figure of the earth as determined from weodesic not differ sensibly, so far as can be ascertained from pcp data. By both methods the ratio of the polar and equatorial diameters is now found to be about 292: 293. This nite pps be in ae eer of every pcr lh of geodes oo S = .8 oN 4 S = & AS) a, > ae ~ ~ °s >, I ~ Fz ~, = S S So er or. tae) is] or ° Ler | ° a ‘oa oF fq") Mr. wan King, has lished | iy tasteful i rot irce. It contains, after the introductory note by the rei the notice of Professor Peirce published in the Register in May, 1880, a brief statement of his final illness and of the services at the funeral, with the address of the Rev. J. F. Clarke, delivered at that time; it also contains obituary ee ay reprinted from other publications, several memorial sermons, an poem by Dr. Holmes. e.t In same geological horizon with the gigantic form Preranodon beds), the remains of a single small Fiala! have been found. This animal was more diminutive than the Jurassic aie, having a spread of wings not more than three or four feet. The jaws were proportionally more rile than in the larger Cretaceous species, and no teeth have been found with them. The humerus had a small head, and an pets 28 wee humerus see ey ea eet ee te eee Greatest diameter of he ad, sei elec Maer te ere 12 Transverse diameter across radial Orem, G5. 30 Greatest diameter of distal e nd, eee «| Vertical diameter of humeral glenoid cavity, eee 3 Transverse diamet GOP, Se a oid ee wae ees 6 This species may be called Pteranodon nanus. Its known remains were found by Mr. S. W. Williston, in the Middle Cretaceous of Western Kansas. Yale College, New Haven, Conn., March 21st, 1881. * This peculiar wire spine with its o sot 2 articular facets seems to be Present also in som of tho Khaliah Cretaceous Pterodactyls. hehe figured and described it as a «frontal ~ ° (ty rise Sty 1351, Sup. I, p. 12, Plate IV, figs. ley re; e name Nyctosau urus, applied by the writer to this group, Fo Sapte to have preocen pied, and ioe note a be replaced by Nyctodactylus. only species Known is Nyctoductyl Plate IX eee TOTS ater PPPOE reser rise hae Aor J i i i oo a = = Vz 2 - acetate nip" : SASL SEILER ATIRS SLE AS RAE EENTTERTT a KARR TC eos Seaman: 7) SASTRERTT CROMER | SATS 5 APE ST . SSoneasia ~~ A toms 2000 Fath c aoe n Rs h ay ’ ith : : . his ae i? aN if , REIS ET I x D ok RO” seer | FF PORTANT 2, ts? s s 1500 ratho® oo etaeisenascebenancanl SSN, fathoms mw no o Fe rit ~~... 2, 2200 a c. ov 24 ae AER Oe i = 100 fathoms le te eT ha ae — — —_ ‘saan NOLES CABS ASI OI 2 ae a 10. Fathome m — = oi —_— lee a Mo, Me ro ‘yJAlacran Reef S.- 10. Fathom” bo \ \ | ans ial cc ne} faa ee ee Q00 000 Nautical Miles _ Carlile P. Patterson, Supt. Scale to §tatute Miles The Heliotype Printing Co.2Il Treruont StBostun, ~ . GULF OF MEXICO U.S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY i @ tf os Alacran Reef 1 IL up True Section from Alacran Reef to the Mississippi Delta AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. [THIRD SERIES.] Arr. XLIV.—On the Action of Frost in the arrangement of superficial earthy material ; by Professor W. C. KERR. The banded structure of the ori ginal rocks, above referred to as characteristic, being marked by difference in color and com- Pencar” esene Vou. XXI, No. 125.—May, 1881. 346 W. ©. Kerr—Action of Frost in the face, but fails at the depth of four or five to eight or ten feet or more, the materials above this being quite homogeneous. This thin top layer is well nigh universal, and always recog- nizable. A little attention suffices to show that it owes its dif- ference in structure and appearance to the penetration and the mechanical and chemical action of the roots of forest trees. he mechanical action of these roots has broken up and oblit- erated the lines of bedding and commingled the different mate- rials, and their chemical action, living and in decay, has changed their composition and color, sometimes bleaching the whole mass in a degree which decreases with the depth, and not unfrequently in a very irregular manner, so that a section presents a pied surface,—red, of various shades, mingled with splotches of a gray, or pipe-clay color. A second division of the superficial beds in question under- lies (or replaces) the preceding, but is much less extensive, being found chiefly on the hill slopes and occasionally arching, in thinner mass, over the tops of flattish ridges and swells. It is found throughout the hill country and the mountain section of the State, being most conspicuous in the Piedmont, and pass- ing, eastward, insensibly into the Quaternary deposits. The thickness varies from a few inches to twenty, thirty and even fifty feet, and the beds are very irregular in form. These depos- its are best developed and may be most successfully studied in the gold gravels or placer beds of the State ; but their struc- tural features may be seen in the railroad cuts almost every- where. This and other features of these beds be best under- stood from a few diagrams. Figure 1 represents a section seen 1. : 2. in a railroad cut near Henrv Station, not far from the eastern base of the Blue Ridge in McDowell County. We have here arrangement of superficial earthy material. 347 a mass of earth with fragments of rock, mostly quartz, of vari- ous sizes, in a nearly homogeneous accumulation, with scarcely a discernible arrangement. Figure 2 represents a similar de- posit of much less depth, in a railroad cut at Cary, near Ra- leigh; and figure 8, one near Rockingham, in Richmond County, the last two near the margin of the Quaternary depos- its, In figure 4, from the same locality as figure 1, we have an accumulation of coarser and more heterogeneous materials. In the three former cases, there was simply earth with small fragments of quartz; in the latter, besides quartz fragments and bowlders a yard in diameter, fragments, large and small, tion here shown is found near Old Fort, in the upper Catawba Valley. In this and in figure 6, two points are lustrated, viz: the partial arrangement of the materials, the accumulation of the larger fragments and pebbles toward the 6. 348 W. C. Kerr—Action of Frost in the larger and wider accumulations which once filled up the val- leys and mantled over the hills and obliterated the features of a former topography. This conclusion is abundantly attested by numerous observations. igure 7 brings out another common feature,—the occur- rence of periods. in the deposits, or of several deposits one upon another. This section is taken from a gold placer in Brindletown, Burke County, near Morganton, at the foot of a 1. little mountain, called the Pilot, the lower up to fifty feet. The same thing is shown in another placer mine on the same side of section of which is e —a coarse half-compacted conglomerate, which gives place, upward, to a bed of gray, or ash-colored earthy clay (2), six or eight feet thick, above which lies twenty-five to thirty feet of red gravelly earth (3), with a few small scattered quartz fragments. Figure 9 represents another similar deposit half a mile dis- tant from the last, the section being taken, as were the last two, in the gold mines of Col. J. ©. Mills, the last at the eastern base of the Pilot, and at a somewhat lower level. The two lower division lines, in this case also, are a little too sharp, the only distinct breach of continuity being found between the ruptly, and so binto ¢. In this section a and ¢ correspond to land 2 of figure 8, b being an interpolation, and furnishing arrangement of superficial earthy materval. 349 the explanation of the bed 2. This interpolated bed is a peaty, black, gravelly soil, with blackened stems and bark of trees and fragments of wood and grass blades, roots and stems. The bleaching of bed 2, figure 8, and of ¢, figure 9, is evi- dently due to the solvent action of the humous acids from the old soils of the slopes from which this deposit came. igure 10 is a section in a railroad cut near Statesville in Iredell County, which shows two muck beds a, a, in contigu- quent and conspicuous of these phenomena are seen, as stat above, in the Piedmont. The railroads of necessity follow the course of the river valleys, and the sections are conse- quently those of the lower ends of the jutting hills and spurs = ae slope down into the margins of the plains: that is, these deposits, the settling of the heavier elements, can only have occurred in consequence of some sort and degree of movement of the mass. It is equally evident that such move- 350 W. @. Kerr—Action of Frost in the elevations along the line of movement that a clew to their origin could be had. The gold mines, at different elevations near the base of the Pilot, furnished the opportunity for such comparison. It was thus seen that the distribution of the materials of these deposits at their upper portions is represented y figures 1, 2 and 4; at a lower point by figures 3, 6,7; and still lower by 8, 9. That is to say, a longitudinal section, down the slope, would be expressed by figure1l. Above, toward the left of the figure, the angular fragments of rock are distributed 11. movements of loose earth and stones do occur, but only on steep slopes of 40° and upward; and such accumulations are not uncommon at the foot of steep declivities; but these are distinguishable at a glance from the deposits in question. And further, instances are not unfrequent of the movement of these deposits on a dead level, and even up hill, over local ob- structions or irregularities of surface. arrangement of superficial earthy material. Bian ’ ————— ¥ \ SS rw " SS i: \\ Ae SEN source of the jointed, rhom- boidal quartz fragments which are scattered along the floor of the deposit toward the right hand end of the diagram, a dis- tance of one to several rods. = —————— ee ———— —— county, near the Peedee river. In this case a large quartz vein in a chloritic argillaceous slate has been broken down by the denudation which the ed = ————. Fig. 16 represents the first Stages of movement across a ‘ small vein. This is a quartz vein seen in section in a gold mine on the slopes of the South Mountains, near Brindletown. The thin-bedded, soft, decomposed mica schists are pmgieaenes <4 numerous small veins and seams of a granular (saccharoidal) quartz, varying from a usual thickness of one to three inches (occasionally four to six) down to a mere line. These thin 352 W. C. Kerr—Action of Frost in the veins and seams are so numerous in places, and contain so much free and loose gold in the crevices and on the walls that through the mass is due, was produced by frost, and that these depth of eight or ten feet; and as in Labrador and other sub- arctic regions the frost of the present winters penetrates to a much greater depth, so, it is evident, that during the preva- lence of the great ice sheet over the northern end of the conti- were earth glaciers, and these deposits may be denominated Jrost drift, as distinguished from proper glacial drift. : a ‘4 3 ES ; ’ arrangement of superficial earthy material, — 358 I do not see how these conclusions can be avoided. It seems . Philadelphia and vicinity, phenomena which plainly come under this class. During the Centennial Exhibition, Market SS LD Gs ze = mn =i SS WSS SS ae —— MUTT } ck is gneiss and mica schist with hornblendic and chloritic strata, inclined at a high angle, and decomposed, for the most HANG B04 W. ©. Kerr—Action of Frost in the Among the inferences from the above conclusion, in the way of a corollary, is this important one, that the deep decomposition , 18. e the rocks of these latitudes has been effected entirely in post-glacial course excludes any theory like that sometimes broached, which undertakes to account for this phenomenon, by invoking a of a palesval atmosphere surcharged with carbonic acid. As already stated incidentally, the gold gravels, or placers, of this State, of which there are several hundred square miles, belong to this class of frost drifts. The miners in these de- sits usually wash only the lower stratum of “gravel,” or peb- les, which lies against the bed rock, or slate, together with an inch or two of the surface of this slate on which the coarser which penetrate the more thin-bedded mica schists. As these are disintegrated and broken down and moved, in the manner VE Ss = = Ss SS ES = = = - = f if Hy f CEE Mme enc ee a arrangement of superficial earthy material. 355 these veins are shown in fig. 19, which represents a common em in section, in the mines previously alluded to, in which the veins themselves and the including mass of decomposed rock are sluiced down and washed just like a placer. In fig. 20 a vertical section of 20 feet of a single vein of this descrip- tion which is a thin sheet of quartz, of an inch and less in thickness, yet rich enough to have been followed to a depth of 20 and 80 feet for many rods. Fig. 21 represents the floor of another mine at the same locality, in which several such thin sheet-veins are wrought in one cut, the vein-matter being reduced to nothing at se points, leaving a mere joint or fissure ane, In fig. 22 the relation of the placers to the topography, and of both to the governing geo- logical conditions, are exhibited. This diagram represents an ideal section southeast and northwest, transversely to the strike, across two of the richest and most noted gold valleys, separated by the Pilot, already familiar to us; these are the valleys of Silver Creek and Muddy Creek, nown as Brindletown and Bracket- town. The Pilot and the ridge of _ jwiilfiiAlllithh the South Mountains (the left in WWW (ae AN SSS Slopes are the long ones, while those opposite are steep and Short; and much the larger part of the abraded vein-bearing 356 W. C. Kerr— Action of Frost in the masses have been removed from the space above these long slopes. It has already been stated that, as shown by the most obvi- ous features of these deposits, they have been much more ex- tensive than at present. In some cases, over considerable spaces, the deposit has been entirely removed by denudation, leaving only the floor covered with a layer of quartz pebbles and angular fragments, and the gold in the present soil within SECTION AA, ENLARGED, “NO/LIIP WNIONLISNOT to ) Psa’ ‘A ; z 4 su vr ey ea ay Abe : ~ Us Seupe, . ne ree ‘yy aye Ae NOS 1s gi fie af, ‘e 1LVER CREEK, this state have been of this description, and farms, gardens, yards and the sites of houses have been sluiced away, and ae ee ae Ta Oe ae ee lai Sor pl ae er arrangement of superficial earthy material. 357 cultivated for generations, in ignorance of their mineral riches. arge tracts of this character, hundreds of acres in extent, are found in the locality already so often cited, the foot-slopes in the Pilot. The annexed diagram, figure 23, of a placer lying on a swell of land between those represented in figures 8 and 9, illustrates this point. The whole surface of this flat swell, Which is nearly half a mile in width, is covered with the quartz fragments of the old bed gravel of an enveloping placer, which has been entirely abraded, leaving its quartz and gold In the soil, with the exception of the fantastic bifurcated strip seen in the figure, which evidently was preserved from abra- sion by the furrow which the moving mass had plowed a little deeper along this line. The thickness of this strip increases rom a few inches at the top to more than ten feet below the singular golden cascades represented on the two arms. Hap- pening to be present while the last of this curious placer was worked out, I was able to catch and sketch its peculiar features. This small remnant of an extensive deposit preserves, as shown In the sections, at A—A for example, all the characteristics of such drifts,—a dense bed of coarse “gravel,” of angular quartz ragments, at bottom, carrying most of the gold, and a thinner and more scattered layer in the middle, with visible gold par- ticles, and the finer gold diffused through the whole ten feet of depth in sufficient richness to justify the excavation and washing of the entire mass. he diagram (ideal as to its lower portion, and contracted longitudinally , also exhibits the character and origin of the gold deposits in the creek bottoms of the region, which were extremely rich when first wrought, thirty-five to forty years ago, demi: ten dollars a day to the hand, with the rudest appa- Tatus is, that the fine and diffused and scale gold which escapes in these rough washings and sluicings, evidently undergoes a pro- 858 N. H. Winchell—Dall’s Observations on Arctic Ice. and second, that these drifts are largely the debris of half- decomposed feldspathic gneisses and schists, of which the feld- spathic particles are undergoing kaolinization, liberating the alkaline salts, while the silica attacks such fragments of organic matter as happen to be present, subjecting whole trunks of trees of more than a foot in diameter, to complete silicification even while lying within a few feet of the surface, and facing the drusy rifts of the wood with perfectly terminated quartz crystals, Raleigh, N. C., March 15, 1881. Art. XLV.—Dall’s Observations on Arctic Ice, and the bearing of the facts on Glacial phenomena in Minnesota; by N. H. WINCHELL. * This Journal, xx, p. 335 and xxi, p. 104. BS “ N Hi. Winchell—Dall’s Observations on Arctic Ice. 359 In numerous places it seems that the ice is so far attenuated that the drift which it brings forward is the barrier against the ocean, and in other places the ice itself, underlying the drift, is brought into contact with the water of the Arctic Ocean. Without a just conception of the action of the vast continental glacier of glacial times, it is difficult to conceive of this ice in motion, and Mr. Dall believes it has no motion, adducing, how- ever, only the unbroken condition of the mosses and peats on its surface to prove it. It is to be hoped that inland explora- tion may be made of the glacier at Elephant’s Point, in order to ascertain. if it is derived from some mountain source. It is almost certain, if our ideas of glacier ice be correct, to have such a source, though its connection unbroken from the coast to the mountains, may be hid from sight for miles, in the same manner as its east and west flanks are hid by the accumula- tions on its surface. It is also highly probable that it will be found to come in various ways into contact with running water, some of which will bring upon it the fine tough clay described by Mr. Dall, and in other places will precipitate upon it, in stronger current, the gravel and sand, and even some of the stones which he mentions as covering it near Point Barrow. The facts reported by Mr. Dall throw great light on the manner of formation and deposit of the till, which has been the Source of much difference of opinion among glacialists. Some have imagined a moraine profonde, pushed out from the front margin of the ice-sheet in its retreat, left as a continuous terminal moraine from north to south after the ice bad entirely dis- moraine (to employ a new term) resulting from the same causes, whatever they may be, which bring the drift on to the surface of the ice in northern Alaska and which so frequently hide the surface of the small glaciers that have been described in the ocky Mountains. These observations also throw light on the cause and man- ner of formation of kames. Kames are gravel-ridges, lying in till-covered countries, and occupying the lower portions. e are generally coincident in direction with the direction of the Present surface drainage, and often on either side of a kame, which may be several miles in length, there is a swamp or low Spot, parallel with the kame, while on the right and left, out- side of this valley, the unbroken till spreads out indefinitely. 860 N. H. Winchell—Dall’s Observations on Arctic Ice. University of Minnesota, Feb. 5, 1881. H. A. Hazen—Projection of Lines of Equal Pressure. 361 Art. XLVI.—On the Projection of Lines of Equal Pressure in the United States, west of the Mississippi River;* by Henry A. Hazen. over more than half the country. The late Chief Signal Officer in his annual reports for 1877, ’78 and 79, has stated in substance, that the reduction of pressures, at elevations west, of the Missis- sippi River is greatly to be desired. he’ solution of this problem is an exceedingly complicated one for the following reasons: Ist. The elevations of stations are not accurately known. In order to eliminate this error, the method of “isabnormals” or “departures” has been proposed. This system may be briefly described as follows : e a ot cr 3 sy oO ps) ct om Q: oa Me 7 = ig @ oS er 3 ia) me = fa) _ ar) a = fa) 3 @ a oO o i) a JQ > wD, (2) mS lows,” the pressure would remain constant. The algebraic difference between the mean pressure for’a month or year‘and of describing a “ high” or “low.” This method is open to serious objections and in fact may give results directly contrary to the truth. If all stations Were at sea-level the results would be approximately accurate, but it will be seen that this would not be the case at elevations. ‘or example, in winter the atmosphere condensed by the cold sinks and the pressure at a high station diminishes, whereas at the same time at sea-level the pressure increases. Since the tem- perature is constantly rising and falling it would be impossible to compare “departures” at different altitudes with each other or With those at sea-level. n Table I are found “departures” as computed from the actual observations and also from the same reduced to sea-level. * The term pressure is used to denote atmospheric pressure. Nearly every daily te in the country is publishing “Indications” in each i in which the ex should be uniformity. Why may not “pressure” and “ temperature” be t Am. Jour. Sor.—Tairp — Vou. XXI, No. 125.—May, 1881. 362 H. A. Hazen—Projection of Lines of Equal Pressure. TABLE I. Departures at North Platte, Neb., elevation 2838 feet, for the observation at 4.35 A.M. Washington time, during January, 1879. Pressure. Departure. . Date.| Temp. Actual. | $'8-Srv-| taPiace.| Hazen. | Actual.| 8.8. | L. H. 1 °| 94"-22| 307-08} 307-55| 307-42 9 18 21 15 2| —13 |. 27°27 | 30°26 | 30°74 | 30-55 14 35 40) 28 3/—8]| 27-44] 3043 | 30°90] 30°71 31 53 5 4} —9]| 27-31 | 30°27 | 30°71 | 30°57 18 37 37 30 5 4| 27°41 | 30:31 | 30°65] 30°60 28 4] 31 33 6 1| 27-01 | 29°85 | 30°30 | 30°23 19°) — —4 7 25 | 27°03 | 29°70 | 30°35] 30°12 | —10 | —20 | —21 | —15 8 1{| 27°26 | 30°14] 3054 | 30°45 13 24 20 9 0!| 2698} 29°81 | 30°30] 30°19 5}|—9|—4)— 6 10 12 | 26°97 | 29°72 | 30°18] 3012 ' —16 | —18 | —16} —J5 11 3 | 27°15 | 29-99 | 30°49 | 30°35 : 9 15, 8 12 6 | 27°04] 29°84] 30°32] 3023} — 4 13 14 | 26°98 | 29°72 | 30716] 30712 | —15 | —18 | —18 | —15 i 6} 27°05 | 29°86 | 30°31 30°2 — — 4} 48 [io < 15 10 | 26°99 | 29°75 | 30°23 | 30715 14 | —15 | —11 | —12 16 57-08 | 29°91 | 30°41 | 30°98 | — 5 1 17 9} 2706 |29'85 | 30°30. 30°2 W his 6 yes — 5 18 3 | 27-23 | 30:10 | 30°57 | 30°43 10 20 23 16 19 8 27°32 30°18 30°56 30°49 19 28 22 22 20 23 | 27°24 | 29°97 | 30°42 | 30°33 1 8 6 21 16 | 26°97 | 29°70 | 30°15 | 3010 | —16 | —20 | —19 | —17 22 37 | 26°91 | 29°50 | 29°93 | 29°95 | —22 40 | —41 | —32 23 27 | 27°13 | 29°82 | 30°22 | 30-2 — §} —12] — 24 36 | 26°92 | 29°51 | 29°94 | 29°96 | —21 | —39 | —40| —31 25 37 | 27°31 | 29°98 | 30°33 | 30°34 1 - 26 35 | 26°65 9°20 | 29°59 | 29°69 | —48 | —70 | —75 | —58 a7 30 | 26°91 | 29°54] 30:00 | 29:97 | —22 | —36 | —34 | —30 28 26 | 27°08 977 | 30°20] 30 ae 13 | —14] —Il 29 15 | 27°36 | 30°18 | 30°58 | 30°50 23 28 24 23 30 26 | 27°34 | 30°08 | 30°44 | 30°42 21 18 10 15 31 27 | 27:27 | 29:98 | 30°37 | 30°34 1 3 7 Mean 27°13 | 29°90 | 30°34 | 30°27 A comparison of the “departures” shows a difference of +010 between columns 7 and 10, and a still greater differ- ence between 7 and 8 or 9. This discrepancy would be muc increased at greater altitudes. No satisfactory projections then can be made with this system. : Having given pressures and temperatures, we may obtain an approximate difference of elevation, of neighboring stations, by i he formula of LaPlace. In order to obtain som idea of the accuracy of leveling with the barometer the differ- ence of height of the following stations has been computed, see Table I. H. A. Hazen—Projection of Lines of Equal Pressure. 3868 TABLE II, Difference of Elevation. Month. Mt. Wash’g’n,| Pike’s Peak, |Dodge C., Ka.,| Pioche, Nev., |Boise C., Ida., N.H., & Port-|Col., & Dodge| & Leayenw’h,| & Visalia, & Umatilla, land, Me., 6 ys’|City, Ka ,4 ys’|} Ka.,4 years’ | Cal., 1 years’ |Oregon, 1 yrs’ observations. | observations. | observations. | observations. | observations. January 6264’ 11331’ 1665’ 5648’ 2301’ February 6268 11414 1670 5758 2302 March 6284 11452 1725 5797 2398 April 6242 11485 1718 5821 2485 6232 11525 1734 5852 2495 June 6233 11545 1734 5819 2540 July 6225 11567 1752 5867 2522 6215 11565 1752 5792 2530 September 6236 11535 1756 5800 43 6249 11426 1722 5722 2381 November 6275 11382 1670 5702 2343 6259 11326 1667 5637 2342 Year 6256 11470 1716 5172 2424 Mean of 12 mo’s 6248 11463 1714 5768 2424 Mean 6252 11466 1715 5770 2424 True diff. level 6240 In column 2, Mt. Washington is in latitude 45° north, near the Atlantic coast and sixty miles west of Portland, which is 46! above the sea. In column 3, Pike’s Peak is in the interior In latitude 39° north and 300 miles west of Dodge City, lel hear the Pacific coast and 870’ high. In column 6, Boise City 'S In latitude 44° north and about 200 miles southeast from _ The most noticeable fact is that while the computed eleva- tions on the Atlantic coast gradually diminish from January Portland is within 12’ of the truth. In the west many of the elevations are in doubt. _ Table IIT gives approximate elevations of most of the sta- tions west of the Mississippi River. itis 58°-5. These temperatures reduced to sea level at the rate of 1° for each 300’ elevation are, 66°°7, 61°-9 and 66°°3 respec- tively, Again, we frequently find the temperatures ten to fif- 364 H. A. Hazen—Projection of Lines of Equal Pressure. teen degrees lower at Dodge City than at Denver. At Salt Lake City, on the elevated plateau west of the Rocky Mountains, there is a still greater difficulty, as the temperature seems to run too high. TABLE ITI. Elevation. Elevation. cera Signal Barome- = Signal Barome- Service. tric. Service. tric. Bismarck 1704’ 1740’ ||Leavenworth 813 840 J 1333? 1400 ||Los Angeles 320 Boise City 2877 2799 fason 1800? 1610 Brackettville 1026? 1140 North Platte 2838 2838 Camp Grant 4823? 4900 ‘|| Phoenix 1800? 1150 Ca 2500? 2500 i 5779 6148 Cheyenne 6057 6093‘ ||Pike’s Peak 14151 14021 Co 1750? 1900 Prescott 5700? 5230 Deadwood 4600 Red Blu 33 410 Denver 5269 5265 Sa 76 100 Dodge City 2486 2555 ~—‘||Salt Lake City 4362? 4365 ort Buford 1970 St. Paul 796 825 ort Craig 4622 4570 Santa Fé 6851 7020 rt Davis 5203 4900 Silver City 6896 5920 Fort Gibson 511 541 tockton 2000? 3100 Fort Keogh 2536? 2480 U , 461 o Fort McKavitt 2050? 2230 ‘|| Virginia City 5480? 5830 Fort Sill 1100? 1198 || Visalia 348 378 j son 1760 Winnemucca 4335 4390 Fredericksburg 1614? 1720 |/Yankton 1275 1210 wa Mesilla 4050 |'Yuma 155? 240 3d. Even if elevations were known, there seems to be no formula of reduction which can be applied to the varying con- ditions of the temperature and movements of the atmosphere. In order to obtain a satisfactory method of reduction, the following plan has been adopted, based upon the theory that the fluctuations of pressure are in part dependent upon the temperature at the base and summit of a mountain. rrange in a table a column for temperatures running from —30° to 80° in a vertical line, and a horizontal row of pressures, limited by the minimum and maximum pressures at the eleva- ted station under consideration. ar, we can construct a table which shall represent the proper reduction of all observations at the upper station. H. A. Hazen—Projection of Lines of Equal Pressure. 365 Tables have been prepared on this system for Mt. Wash- ington, N. H., reducing to sea-level by comparison with Port- land, Me., also for nearly all the stations of the Signal Service, above 1000’ in hight, west of the Mississippi River; column 6, Table I, is taken from such a table. For elevations under 3000’ the U. 8. Signal Service have adopted a formula of reduc- tion which always gives results too small. n referring to Table I, we see that during the month of January, 1879, in one instance the reduction in column 4 was 0-49 less than in column 6, and in two eases the reductions in column 4 were 0/50 less than in column 5. In the Annual Report of the Chief Signal Officer for 1876, are published tables computed by Lieut. Dunwoody, for reduc- Ing pressures at an elevation not exceeding 7000’ to sea-level. Table IV gives a comparison of reductions by these tables with those by Guyot’s tables and also Baily’s. TABLE LY. Reduction of Mt. Washington to sea-level. hb rcereae ee Ce | BS 5m Baily. Guyot. Dunwoody. Hazen. ibet. W.& P. Mean annual pressure Mt. W., 23-626 Mean annual temp’ature s Mt. 36°93 6-356 6"316 6-342 6-314 6"°356 Pressure Mt. W., 23"-00 W. & Portland, 20° eG Oe Mean temperature Mt. W. & Portland, — 20° wade YUM fe ae Pressure Mt. W., 24”-00 ean temperature Mt. W. & Portland, 60° 6-060 hey aoe ce Mean temperature Mt. W. & Portland, 20° 6685 OG! | Oe ee In column 1 are given pressures on Mt. Washington and the mean temperature between Mt. Washington and Portland. In _ the remaining columns are found the reductions to sea-level, as computed from various formule and tables Baily’s formula in column 3 has been Carpmael, Superintendent of the Meteorological Service of Canada, who regards the tables of Dunwoody as unsatisfactory. Tt would secm that all the results are nearly correct when the formule in different portions of its range giving the i results. On the whole the reductions by Guyot seem the bes 366 HH. A. Hazen— Projection of Lines of Equal Pressure. and those by Dunwoody are next. These discrepancies are still greater in the case of reductions of pressures at such an altitude as Pike’s Peak. This is shown clearly in Table V. TABLE V. Reduction of Pike’s Peak to sea-level. Guyot. Hazen. Tempera- ture. a “raga By is by lar ay". 176: FY Gisbes 17''8. 60° TE'6) 11"°67 i ey 11°94 11"-93 117-92 50 11°92 LE 39 12°06 12:11 12°10 12:09 40 12°26 E2733 12°40 12°27 12°26 12°25 30 12°62 12°69 12°76 12°43 12°42 12°41 20 13°00 13°07 13°i4 12°59 12°58 12°57 10 13°38 13°46 13°54 12°76 12°45 12°74 0 13°81 13°89 13°97 12°93 12°92 12°91 There seems to be a variation by these two methods of re- duction of nearly one inch at 0° temperature. it be objected that no account is taken of pressures at the lower station, an that comparisons made between stations 300 miles apart would differ from those near each other, also that the altitude of Pike’s Peak is uncertain. It may be said that the extreme e most marked peculiarity in the two tables, however, 1s that while the reduction by Guyot increases with an tncrease © pressure, the actual reduction diminishes. This fact has been verified by reductions at a large number of stations. : The method proposed then consists in this. All reductions of pressures at altitudes not exceeding 1000’ be made by the use of Guyot’s formula. (Table VI, for facilitating this redue- tion is appended to this paper.) For all other stations reductions be made from tables specially prepared, from a comparison of observations at an elevated and at a lower neighboring station. Plates are given, showing a projection of isobars over the whole of the United States, for the observation at 7.85 A. M. Washington time, from the 2d to the 7th of February, 1880. In making these reductions, the actual temperature at the station has been used for all except Pike’s Peak, at the latter station the mean temperature between Pike’s Peak and Dodge City has been employed. ‘The isobars have been projected from the re- ductions at ai/ the stations except Pike’s Peak, Salt Lake City, Deadwood, Fort Buford and Fort Stevenson. Observations have not been published to a sufficient extent to give satisfactory tables for reduction in the last three cases ; at Salt Lake City the temperatures are troublesome, and Pike’s Peak is very high. ISOBARS U.S. A. Feb. 2, 1880. 7.35 A.M., Wash. m. t. 1SOBAKS U.8. A. Bee M., _ Wash, ti t. ISOBARS U.S. A. eb. 4, 1880. 7.35 a.M., Wash. m. t. ISOBARS U.S. A. eb. 5, 1889. 7.35 a.M., Wash, m. t. ISOBARS U.S. A. Feb. 6, 1880 7.35 A. M., Wash, m. t. BARS U.8. A. Feb. 7, 1880. 7.35 a.u., Wash. m. t. 3870 =H. A. Hazen—Prvjection of Lines of Equal Pressure. Only an approximate solution of the problem is claimed ; at the same time it is quite satisfactory and if used will open a wide field for meteorological research, especially if there be a few additional stations established along the 50th and 55th parallels. An exact determination of elevation of pros is tions in the west would be of very great importa series of observations, conducted at elevated and fewer preci! in the west, for a whole year, as acess by Lieut. Dunwoody in the preparation of his tables, would be of great assistance in determining a proper formula of Srcduatios to sea-level. TABLE VI. For reducing pressures, at elevations not exceeding 1000 feet, to sea-level. h ot — 64 = in 60158°6 x (1+ 0) * ae + : a De oe this 8’ and ¢ refer to the pressure and temperature at the u ve grants h= altitude of station. Argument, h, 8 and ¢, 8 = #’ + correction from table. Formula: log 8 = log B’ + 100’. 200’. Press’e 29''-4.| Press’e 29''-9.' Press’e 30''-4, Press’e 29''-8./Press’e 29''°8. Press’e 30''*3. 4a T. Cc. | Diff. C Diff. | ¢ Diff. Cc i. Cc Diff.| ¢ | pir. . 100’. r 100’. = | aO0'. 80°|""102 | *102 | ‘103 | -104| -105 | -105 || 0°) -203 | -102 | -206 | -104 | -210 [ °105 75 | °103 | °103 | 104 | -105 | -106 | -106 75 | -205 | °103 | -208 | -105 | -212 | “106 70 05 | 106) -107 | -108 70 | 207 | -104 | -211 | *106 | -214 | “108 65 | °105 | -105 | -107 | -107 | -108 | -309 5 | -209 | -105 | -213 | “107 | -216 | 109 06 | 106 | -108 | -108 | -109 | +110 “211 | °106 | -215 | °108 | -219 | “110 120 | -120 | -122 | -122 | -124 | -124 5 | 239 | -120 | -243 | -122 | -247 | 124 O | 7121 | +122 | -123 | -1241-125 | -126 0 | 242 | -122 | -246 | -124 | -2 126 = 123 | 123 | +125 | +125] -127 | -127 5| +2 25 | -253 | °127 : "132: *13: —40 | "134 1-134 | -136 | °137 | -138 | -139 ||— : *269 | *1é 2 *268 | 135 | °272 137 | 277 | 138 H.. A. Hazen—Projection of Lines of Equal Pressure. 371 800". 400". Press’e 29'''2.| Press’e 29''-7.|Press’e 30''-2 Press’e 29''°0.|Press’e 29''*5.| Press’e 30''*0. ey rere ss eis soars © || © [RR] © [BEI] | |e PRE] © | RO | © | BE 80°; 304 | °102 | -309 | 104 | -314]-105 || 80°! -403 | 102 | 410 | 103 | -417 | 105 75 | 307 | °103 | -312 | 105 | -317 | -106 || 75 | -407 | 103 | -414 | °105 | -421 | 107 70 | 310 | "104 | -315 | 106 | -321|-108|| 70) -411 | °104 | -418 | °106 | -425 | 108 65 | 313 | "105 | -319 | °107 | -324/°109]| 65] -416 | °105 | -423 | °107 | -430 | *109 60 | *317 | °106 | -322 | °108 | -327/|°110 || 60] -420 | °106 | -427 | °108 | -434 | °110 55 | °320 | 107 | -325 | 109 | -331/°111|| 55 | -424|°107 | -432 | -109 | -439 | “111 50 | °323 | °109 | -329 | -110 | -334/-112 1] 50 | -429 | 108 | -436 | “110 112 45 | °327 | “110 | -332 | 111 |-338|°113 || 45 | -434 | ‘109 | -441 | *111 | -449 | 113 40 | 330 | °111 | -336 | °113 | -342|-115|| 40] -4388 | ‘111 | -446 | “113 | -454 | “115 35 | 334 | °112 | -340 | °114]-346/°116]} 35 | -443 | °112 | -451 | 114} -459 | “116 30 | °338 | *113 | +344] °115|-349|°117 || 30 | -448 | *113 | 456 | “115 | -464 | 117 25 | 342 | -114| .348 | °116 | -353|°118|| 25-453] ‘114 | -461 | °116 | 469 | “118 20 | -346 | -116 | -352 | -118|-357|-120 || 20) -459]| 116 | 467 | 7118 | -475 | -120 15 | 350 | -1i7 | +356 | -119 | -362|-121/| 15 | +464 | °117 | -472 | “119 | -480 | *121 10 | *354 | -119 | -360| -121 | 366] +123 |} 10 | -470 | *119 | -478 | “121 | -486 | 123 5 | 358 | °120 | -364 | -122 | -270| -124 5 |-475 | 120 | -483 | -122 | -491 | -i24 0 | -362 | -122 | -368 | -124 | -375 | 126 0 | -481 |°121 | -489 | 124 | -497 | 126 — 5| 367 | 123 | -373 | -126 | -379 | 127 ||— 5 | -487 | 222 | -495 | °125 | -503 | 127 —10} 871 | -125 | -377 | -127 | -384 | 129 || —10 | -493 | °124 | ‘501 | °127 | °510 | 129 —15 | *376 | 126 | +382 | -128 | +389 | -130 || —15 | -499 | -126 | -507 | -128 | °516 | 130 —20 | *381 | -128 | -387 | -130 | -394 | -132 ||—20 | -505 | 128 | °514 | -130 | 523 | *132 —25 | 385 | -129 | -392 | 132 | -399 | -134 || —25 | -512 | -129 | °520 | “131 | -529 | “133 —30 | 390 | -131 | -397 | 134 | -404 | -136 ||—30 | ‘518 | °131 | 527 | “133 | °536 | °135 —365 | -396 | -133 | -402 | -135 | -409 | -137 ||—35 | -525 | °133 | °534 | °135 | 543 | 137 —40 | -401 | -135 | -408 | -137 | -415 | 139 || —40 | -532 | -135 | °541 | -137 | 550 | 139 eae 500’. 600". Press’e 23''-9. Press’e 29'':4.|Press’e 299 Press’e 28''*8.|Press’e 29'''3.|Press’e 29''*8. -.; T. GC. | To, Dig. | o, | Dif. c. | East c, Ber | Ota 80°| 503 | 102 | -511 | 103 | 520 | *105|/ g0°| -602 | 102 | -612 | “103 | -623 | “105 75 | 508 | -103 | -517| 104] -526|°106|| 75 | 609 | °103 | -619 | “104 | -630 | “106 70 | °513 | 104; -522/-106|-531|°107/|| 70 | 615 | 104 | -625 | “106 | -636 | "107 65 | °519 | -105 | -528 | -107|°537|-108|| 65 | 621 | "105 | -632 | “107 | -643 | "108 60 | 524 | -106 | -533|-108|-542|°110|| 60 | 628 | "106 | -639 | “108 | -650 | "110 55 | 530-107 | -539|-109|-548|-11L|| 55 | 634 | 107 | -646 | *109 | -657 | “111 50 | 535 |-108 | -545|-110| 554) °112|| 50 | 641 | 108 | -653 | *110 | -664 | 112 45 | 541 | -109 | -551|-111 | -560| 113 || 45 | -648 | 109 | 660 | “111 | 671 | “113 40 | 547 | +111 | +557 | -112| 566 | 7114 || 40 | 656 | ‘111 | 667 | “113 | 678 | “114 35 | 553 | -112 | -563 | -113|-572|°115 || 35 | 663 | 112 | 674 | “114 | 686 | “115 30 | *559 | -113| -569 | -115|-679|-117|| 30 | °670 | 113 | 682 | *115 | “694 | 117 25 | 566 | -114| +576} -116| 585 |-118 || 25 | -678 | “114 | -690 | 116 | "702 | "118 20 | “572 | +116 | -582/|-118|-592|-120|| 20 | -686 | 116) “698 | “118 | “710 | “120 15 | 579 | -117| -589|-119| 599 | -121 || 15 | 694 | 117 | "706 | *119 | -718 | 121 10 | 586 | -119 | -596 | -121| -606|°123 || 10) °702|°119)°714) 121) 77 123 5 | 593 | 120 | -603 | -122 | -613 | 124° 6 | 710 | ‘120 | -723 | “122 | °735 | “124 0 | *600 | -122 | -610 | 124 | -621 | 126 0| 719 | 122 | °732 | 124 | “744 | 126 — 5/607 | °123 | -618 | -125.| -628 | :127 5, 728 | 123 | 741 | °125 | -763 | 127 —10 | -615 | +125 | -625 | 127 | -636 | -129 ||—10 | °737 | °125 | °750 | *127 | 763 | 129 ~15 | -623 | -126 | -633 | -128 | -644 | -130 ||—15 | °746 | °126 | "759 | “128 | “772 | "130 ~20 | -631 | -128 | -641 | -130 | -652 | -132 ||—20 | 756 | (128 | -769 | 130 | -782 | 132 —25 | -639 | -129 | -650 | -131| -661 | -134 || —25 | °765 | -129 | -779 | *132 | "792 | “134 —30 | -647 | -131 | -658 | -133 | -669 | -136 ||—30 | °775 | “131 | “789 | “133 | -802 | 136 —35 | -656 | -133 | -667 | -135 | 678 | -137 || —35 | -78€ | 133 | -799 | 135 | 813 | “137 —40 | -664 | -135 | -676 | -137 | -687 | -139 || —40 | -796 | “135 | -810 ! “137 | “824 | "139 372 H. A. Hazen—Projection of Lines of Equal Pressure. 700’. 800". Press’e 28’'°7.| Press’e 29’'2.|Press’e 29''*7. Press’e 28'''6.| Press’e 29''1./ Press’e 29'''6. r. ©. | RHE) © [ROE] © RE |e [RE] © [RUE] | Ra 80°! “702 | -102 | -714 | "103 | -726 | 105 || .20°| -800| 102] -814/ -103]| 828] °105 45 | °709 1-193 1-721 | 104|°733|°106 |} 75 | -809) 103} -823/ -104] -837) °106 70 | 716 | °104 | -729 | 106} -741 | -107 |} 70] °817|-104| -831/-105| -845/°107 65 | 724 | 105 | -736 | 107 |-749|-108 |] 65 | -826) 105] 840) °107| °854| 108 60 | ‘731 | 108 | -744 | -108|-757|°110]) 60| *834)°106] -849| °108] -863) °110 55 | °739 | 107 | -752 | 109 | -765 | -111 55 | °843/°107] -858|°109] -873)°111 50 | -747 | -108 | -760 | °110|°773 '°112 || 50} °852!-108] -867|-110] -882)°112 45 | “755 | °110 | -768 | 111 | °782|°113|| 45] -862/°109| -877}-111]| -892/°113 40 |°%64} 111) -777 | -113|}°790|°115 || 40) -871]-111} -887/°113] -902] "115 35 | 772 | 112 |-786|-114|-799|°11G6]| 35 | -881|°112} -896| 114] -912] "116 30 | °781 | 113 | -795 | -115 | -808/-117 || 30] *891/°113| -907| 115) °922| °117 25 | °790 | -115 | -804|°117|-817}°119]} 25} -901}-115 | -917| 117] °933) "119 20 | 799 | -116 | -813 | 118 | 827 | 120 || 20] -912/-116] -928/-118]| -944| °120 15 | °808 | 117 | 822 | -119| 836) -121]| 15] -922}-117| -939!-119]| °955) °121 10 | °818 | 119 | -832 | -121 | °846 | +12 10 | -934| -119} -950| °121| -966] °123 5 | 828 | -120 | -842 | -122|-857|-124/] © 5 | -945]-120] -961/ -122] -978) 124 0 | -838 | -122 | -852 | -124 | -867 | -126 0| -956] 122 | -973] -124] -990) "126 —- 5 | 848 | -123 | -863 | -125 | -878 | 127 |/— 5| -968| -123| -985/ -125 |1-002| "127 —10 | °859 | -125 | -874 | -127 | 889 | 129 |I—10] -980| -125| -997| -127 /1°014/ ‘129 —15 | 870 | -126 | -885 | 128 | -900 | 130 ||—15 92} 126 |1°010; 7129 |1°027)| 7131 —20 | -881 | -128 | -896 | 130 | -911 | °132 ;;—20 |1-005} -128 |1-023) -130 |1-040) °132 —25 | -892 | -130| -907 | -132 | 923 | 134 || —25 11-018] +130 |1°036) °132 |1°053| “134 —30 | -904 | +131 | -919 | -134 | -935 | -136 ||—30 |1-031| -131 |1°049) -134 |1°067| 136 —35 | 915 | 133 | -931 | -135 | -947 | -138 || —35 |1-045] -133 |1-063) -136 |1-081| “138 —40 | -928 | -135 | -944 | -137 | -960 | -140 || —40 |1-059] -135 |1°0781 -138 |1:096/ °140 900’. 1000’. Press’e 28''°5.| Press’e 29’'°0.| Press’e 29'''5. Press'e 28''*4.|Press’e 28''-9.|Press’e 29''"4. sis a Diff. 6. |e) | ME) o. | pe c. | Bit] o. | pit. o. | Rie 80°} -899| 102) -915| 103 | -930|-105 || 80°] -997| -102 1 ra “103 |1°032/ 105 75 | -908/°103 | -924|-104/ -940|-106 || 75 |1-007| 103 |1-025) -104 |1°043) “106 70 7| 104 | -934/°105| -950|-107 || 70 |1-018| -104 |1-036 -105 |1-053/ “107 65 | *927| 105 | -943|°107) -960| 108 || 65 |1-028| 105 |1-046 °107 |1°065) "109 60 | -937| -106| -953| 108] -970/ +110 || 60 /1-039] ‘106 |1-058 -108 |1-076) "110 55 | -947/-107| -964|-109| -980|-111|| 55 |1-050| -107 |1-069 -109 |1-087| ‘111 50 | -957!°108 | -974/ 110} -991! -112 |) 50 |1-062! “108 |1-081) -110 |1-099 112 45 968] ° 10 | -985/°111 |1-002|-113 || 45 [1-074 -110 |1-093) “111 |1-111) “113 40} ‘979 "111 “113 /1-013| °115 | 40 |1°086| “111 |1-105, -113 |17124) ‘115 35 990° 12 11-007] 114} !-024| 116 |) 35 [1-098] “112 |1-127| -114 |1°136) “116 30 |1-001| 113 |1-018) “115 |1-036| 117 || 30 |1-110| 113 |1-130) -115 |1:149) "117 25 | 1-012) 115 |1-030| “117 |1-048| 119 || 25 |1°123| “115 |1-143. “117 |1°163) “119 20 |1°024| ‘116 |1-042) °118 0} -120|} 20 {1:136| -116 |1-156 °118 |1-176) “120 15 |1°036) 117 |1-054) °119 9) “12 15 |1'149} °117 |1-170) «120 |1°190| “122 10 [1-048 119 |1-067) "121 |1-085| *123 || 10 1-163] 119 |t-184) -121 |1-204) "128 5 |1°061, 120 |1-080) “122 |1-098! -124 5 {1-177| -220 (1-198 122 {1-219} "125 0 |1°074) °122 |1-093) °124 |1°112} 12 O [1-192| 122 |1-213) 124 |1-233) °126 — 5 |1°087| 123 |1-106) “125 |1-125) -127 5 |1°206| *123 |1-228) +125 249) "128 —10;]1-101) °125 |1°120) 127 |1-140) 129 || —10 |1-221) 126 |1-243) +127 1-264) 129 —15,|1-115) +126 |1-134) +129 /1-154/ 131 ||—15 |1-237) 126 |1-259) +129 -980 °131 —20,|1°129) *128 |1°149) °130 |1°169) °132 || —20 |1-253) “128 |1-275| -131 1-297 +133 “26 17144) “130 1°164) “132 4| -134 ||— 25 |1°269 a 1°291| -132 |1°314| +135 17159) °131 /1-179| °134 {1-199} -136 || —30 |1-286) -132 11-308 fies At 136 I its 133 |1°195| °136 {1-215} +138 ||—35 |1°303 das 1°326| -136 "138 1-190} °135 |1°211/ -138 |1°232! -140 |}|— 40 |1°321| -135 |1°344| -138 an 140 4 : a _ a ‘ : : ‘ T. Russell—Calibration of Thermometers. 373 Art. XLVIL—Neumann’s Method of calibrating Thermometers, with ways of getting columns for calibration; by T. RussELL, U. S, Lake Survey. _ NeumANn’s method of calibrating thermometers has very con- siderable advantages over those of Bessel and of Hallstrém,which are the onesincommon use, In the computations of the corree- tions by this method the numbers used are always small, and there is entire freedom from arbitrary assumptions. ithout at all increasing the work of reduction, the calibrating columns can be used to the greatest advantage, and even when’fall the regular observations required by the method are not obtained, the corrections can nevertheless be derived in a definite man- ner. The method combines, in short, the greatest simplicity, elegance and exactness. An essential feature of the method is that the columns used must be as nearly as possible equal in length to a whole num- ber of intervals between the points for which the corrections are required ; if, for instance, for every ten degrees, the lengths @ ble columns of this kind, yet the greater the number obtained the simpler becomes the reduction. Calling the points for which the corrections are required principal points, the col- umns obtained are to be measured with the lower ends near all of the principal points, as far as the lengths of the columns will permit. The lengths of the columns being as stated above, the upper ends will also be in the vicinity of principal points For a knowledge of this method the writer is indebted to an article by M. Thiesen, in the November number for 1879, of the Zeitschrift der dsterreichischen Gesellschaft. fiir Meteorologie. The notation given there is followed here. Denote the calibra- tion corrections at the principal points of a thermometer by 4, 4, 4,....4,, and the corrections to the intervals between successive principal points by 3, 6, 4,, ete., then we have in general: 0; — Ain -J4; Let the general designation of principal points near the upper ends of columns be &, and that of points near the lower ends be % Denote the volume of any column by /y_,» and its appar- ent length, that is the difference of the readings of the upper end and lower end in a given positiou, by (4, 7). If the cor- rections of the small spaces which lie between the ends of the 374 T. Russell—Calibration of Thermometers. column and the principal points 7, and &, be neglected, the fol- lowing relation holds: Sun (h, ) + 4-4; If the column is moved and placed with the ends near other principal points, other similar equations will be obtained, in which the left side will be the same, but on the right side in place of ¢ and &, there will be in succession 7+1 and &+1, 7+2 and k+2, ete. If each of these equations is subtracted from the equation following it, a new set of equations will result of the form 6;-6,= (k+1,i+ 1) - (4, 4) The further development of the method can best be shown in Thermometer, Green, 4470, is divided to fifths of a degree, Fahrenheit. The apparent lengths of columns given below are from estimated readings of the ends to the nearest tenth of a di- vision, or 0°02, As it is not intended to use this thermometer at temperatures above 122°, no special effort was made to get the corrections above that point. On account of this the calibration falls into two parts, which illustrate both branches of the method; the one where all requisite columns are used, and the other where some of the columns are wanting. Part first con- sists in the derivation of the corrections at 77°, 122° and 167°, with columns of 45°, 90° and 185°. Part second consists in the derivation of the corrections for every tenth degree up to 122°, by the use of columns which are in length multiples of ten degrees. Table I contains the measured lengths of columns for the first part of the work. TABLE I. Apparent lengths of columns. 45° column. 90° column. 185° column. 3217 44°68 32°122 90°07 $2°167 134°61 0: +0 +0°07 RELI: sei TT167 90°09 77-212 134°68 +0° : 122°167 44°72 122°212 90°11 0°02 167-212 44°75 Table II is formed by placing vertically the first horizontal line of differences of table I, and parallel to it the other lines of differences, beginning one line lower each time. This being done the numbers in the vertical lines are copied horizontally, with the signs changed. These two parts of the table are sep- arated by a diagonal line of double zeros. T. Russell—Calbration of Thermometers. 375 TABLE II. Values of 6; — 6; in 0°01 F. cu 122 167 32 00 —03 —02 <7 77 +03 00 —0O1 —02 122 +02 +01 00 —03 167 +07 +02 +03 00 Sums +12 00 00 ae ee first column is composed of the following Mie m is the ohare of the interval 32° to 77°, d,,, Ws 77° to 122° and so fe 7 O32 = 00 bsg — O77, = + 08 b32 — Sigg = + 02 Oso — S167 = + OT by summing, there results: 40,,—(4,..— 4.) = +12. The second column of table II is made up as follows: and by summing, as before; 40,,—(4,,,—4, 2) = 00. In like manner the other columns as similar ‘equations, and since a2 and J, are zero, we have 46/419 by, = + 0°03 407, = 00 67 = 4 Oras — 00 122 = 4 6167 =-—12 | chemo ee 0°-03 by adding these patties of 6, the corrections at 77°, 122° and 167° are found to be alike, and equal to s. 03. 20°36 29°80 39°77 49°55 59°94 69°65 80°55 42. 20°38 29°82 39°78 49°57 59°90 69°65 80°47 52. 20°45 29°91 39°87 49°61 60°02 69°75 ry “98 Table IV is formed in the same way as table IL It will be — that there are two series of blanks rein tad to 10° column of which the observations are wantin 376 T. Russell—Calibration of Thermometers. TABLE IV. Values of 6; — 6, and residuals in 0°°01 F. 52 62 72 82 92 102 112 32 00 —02 —02 —Ol —02 +04 00 +08 42 00 —07 —09 —09 —04 —12 —10 52 +02 00 —02 +03 +06 —OL +04 —1 62 +02 +07 00 +01 00 —03 +02 — 8 1 72 +01 +09 +02 00 +04 —02 +03 0 — 2 82 +02 +09 —03 —Ol 00 —07 +04 = a +1 +41 92 —04 +04 —06 00 —04 00 +05 2 —2 102 00 +12 +01 +03 +02 +07 00 + 2 + — 8 112 —08 +10 —04 —02 —03 —04 —05 00 +8' —8 —~2 ~2 — 2 41 48 Sums —05 +51 —12 —09 —17 —04 +405 -—25 +16 The sum of the numbers in the last horizontal line must be zero. This gives a check on the summing of the columns and the copying with signs changed. Another check on the wiks is this: that the differences of any two quantities in the sa horizontal line should be the same, within the limits of the errors of observation. Analyzing by a process similar to that used for table II, the following equations will be found, in which 9,, is the correc- tion of the interval 32° to 42°; d,,, that of 42° to 52° and Approximations. : L ond Third 8 dgy =Ajgg—Aga—O49 —05 ds. = —*003 —013 —'013 7 O49 =Ajoa—Age—Jdy Ose 1 .6yq = +°077. .+°080:. +7082 7 bs2 =Ajna—Ago—y2 —Jo2 —12 so = — “0 —*024 7 Oga =Aj99—Age—J59 LOye ---09 Ors = -—°009 — 004 — 003 7 bzg =Ajgga—Ago—Jo2 —Osg —17 J7g = —'020 019 —*019 q © Aioa—Asge—O72 One —04 Oso = —'001 —'001 % Goes Ayen—Aaa—-Ooo —Osee £00 Ooo == +011. 4+:°016.. +-OLT 7 Oy99 = Aja Ase O92 waar 6109== —°03] =*037 — "038 8 b:19=Ajo2—Age—di9 Oi1e= +°024 4°031 + 032 The values of 0, are dia dea from these equations by ap- proximation. As seven times be correction of any interval may be reasonably assumed to_be large as compare with the values can be derived from these equations by neglecting the 6 on the right hand side. J4,,, is known from the first part of the work to be +0°-03, and J4,, is zero. When the first ap- proximation is made, the values found can be substituted on the right hand side of the equations and another set of values derived more accurate than the first. A few such processes will give the values of 3 with sufficient accuracy. From these T. Russell— Calibration of Thermometers. 377 final values of 0, the calibration corrections 4, given below are obtained by the formula 4,,,=4,+0, Correction, Ai 32. 0:00 42 = —0°01 52 = +0°07 62 = +004 72 — +0°04 82 = +0°02 92 = +0°02 102 = +0:04 1i2°= 0°60 122 =.+0°03 _To get some idea of the accuracy of the determination, the differences of observed an omputed values of 0;—d, are putation then becomes more tedious. In calibrating, every series of measurements with a column ought to be repeated in ‘ bration correction will not exceed +0°:01. The calibration of a thermometer by this method where any of the observations with a particular column are lacking : offers no special difficulty... When the observations are far from being as nearly complete as the example just pre sented, good results can nevertheless be obtained, but the com Measurements will be free of errors arising from change of temperature of the column, provided its temperature is rising 1 ‘nvert the thermometer quickly and the connection between the mercury in the bulb and that above will be broken. In case the portion detached is not the length of a column re- quired move the mercury until it partially occupies the reser- Am. Jour. peau bess * eewes Vou. XXI, No, 125.—May, 1881. 378 T. Russell—Calibration of Thermometers. _ voir again. Then take the thermometer in the right hand, tap the index finger of the left hand with the reservoir-end, hold- ing the instrument about horizontal. This will detach a greater or less portion of the mercury, depending on the inten- sity of the shock. If what is left is not of the required length bring back the mercury to the entrance of the reservoir ; a few taps on the finger, as before, will cause the mercury to reunite. This process can be done over and over until a column of the it does.get into the reservoir, or there is not enough in the An alcohol lamp is preferable for this purpose. The expan- sion of what little air there is in the reservoir will almost always drive down the mercury, but sometimes it requires the volatilization of the mercury itself. This difficulty of getting the mercury to run down the tube is in the way of obtaining short columns, especially in very capillary tubes. Short columns can best be obtained from the bulb, in case mometer in the right hand and hold it inclined, with the bulb down. A few light shocks by the sudden stopping of a rapid bubble to the entrance of the tube. The expansion of the mer- cury as the temperature rises will drive the short column before it. By this process also the mercury may be perfectly reunited after the calibration is completed, by cooling until all the mer- cury runs into the bulb, when a little jarring of the thermom- eter, as before, will cause the bubble to disappear. ; Another method of getting columns of definite length 1s described in Fischer's Geodésie, credited to Hansteen. The pinciple consists in getting a small bubble of air in the column William Hallowes Miller. 379 detached by a sudden jar. To operate successfully, according to this method, a thermometer of large bore is required. In In selecting a thermometer some idea of the nature of the bore, whether regular or not, can be formed by inspection without the aid of detached columns. If examination with a reveals a straight smooth exterior it generally denotes the same interior qualities. Art. XLVIIL—Notice of William Hallowes Miller ; by J. P. Cooks.* Witrram Hattowrs Miniter, who was elected Foreign Honorary Member of this Academy in the place of C. F. Naumann, May 26th, 1874, died at his residence in Cambridge, England, on the 20th of May, 1880, at the age of 79, having been born at Velindre in Wales, April 6th, 1801. His life Was singularly uneventful even fora scholar. Graduating with mathematical honors at Cambridge in 1826 he became a fellow of his College (St. J ohns) in 1829, and was elected Professor of 'neralogy in the University in 1832. Amidst the calm and gant associations of this ancient English University, Miller passed a long and tranquil life—crowded with useful labors, honored by the respect and love of his associates and blessed by congenial family ties. This quiet student life was exactly suited to his nature, which shunned the bustle and unrest of our modern world. For relaxation even he loved to seek the retired valleys of the Eastern Alps; and the description which € once gave to the writer, of himself sitting at the side of his wife amidst the grand scenery, intent on developing crys- tallographic formule while the accomplished artist traced the magnificent outlines of the Dolomite Mountains, was a beauti- ful idy] of science. Miller's activities, however, were not confined to the Uni- versity. In 1838 he became a Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1856 he was appointed its Foreign Secretary,—a post for Which he was eminently fitted and which he filled for many years. In 1843 he was selected one of a committee to superin- : Read before the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Boston, and to ‘ppear in the Proceedings. : 880 : William Hallowes Miller. tend the construction of the new Parliamentary standards of length and weight to replace those which had been lost in the fire which consumed the Houses of Parliament in 1834, and to Professor Miller was confided the construction of the new standard of weight. His work on this important committee, described in an extended paper published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1856, was a model of conscientious investiga- tion and scientific accuracy. Professor Miller was subse- quently a member of a new Royal Commission for “examining into and reporting on the state of the secondary standards, and for considering every question which could affect the primary, secondary and local standards”; and in 1870 he was appointed a member of the “Commission Internationale du Métre.” His services on this commission were of great value and it has been said that “there was no member whose opinions had greater weight in influencing a decision upon any intricate and delicate questions.” Valuable, however, as were Professor Miller's public services on these various commissions his chief work was at the Uni- versity. His teacher, Dr. William Whewell, afterwards the William Hallowes Miller. 881 and completeness in a work remarkable for the vivacity of its style and the felicity of iis illustration. Moreover, a simple mathematical expression was given to the system, and the notation which Haiiy invented to express the relation of the secondary. to the primary forms, as modified and improved by Lévy, is still used by the French mineralogists. e system of Haiiy, however, was highly artificial and only prepared the way for a simpler and more general expres- sion of the facts. 'The German crystallozgrapher Weiss seems to have been the first to have recognized the truth that the decrements of Haiiy were merely a mechanical mode of repre- senting the fact that all the secondary faces of a crystal make intercepts on the edges of the primitive form which are simple multiples of each other; and this general conception once gained It was soon seen that these ratios could be as simply measured on the axes of symmetry of the crystal as on the edges of the fundamental forms; and, moreover, that when crystal forms are viewed in their relation to these axes a more general law becomes evident, and the artificial distinction between primary Freiberg,” belongs the merit of first developing a complete system of theoretical crystallography based on the laws of sym- 382 William Hallowes Miller. ately disciplined in mathematics. ut, however comprehensive and perfect in its details, the system of Naumann was cumbrous, and lacked elegance o mathematical form. This arose chiefly from the fact that the old methods of analytical geometry were unsuited to the prob- lems of crystallography; but it resulted also from a habit of the German mind to dwell on details and give importance to systems of classification. To Naumann the six crystalline sys- tems were as much realities of nature as were the forms of the integrant molecules to Haiiy, and he failed to grasp the larger thought which includes all partial systems in one comprehen- sive plan. Our late colleague, Professor Miller, on the other hand, had that power of mathematical generalization which enabled him to properly subordinate the parts to the whole, and to develop a system of mathematical crystallography of such simplicity and beauty of form that it leaves little to be desired. This was the great work of his life and a work worthy of the Uni- versity which had produced the “ Principia.” It was published in 1839 under the title “A Treatise on Crystallography,” and in 1863 the substance of the work was reproduced in a more perfect form, still more condensed and generalized, in a thin volume of only eighty-six pages, which the author modestly ealled “ A Tract on Crystallography.” Miller began his study of crystallography with the same materials as Naumann; but in addition he adopted the beauti- ful method of Franz Ernst Neumann of referring the faces William Hallowes Miller. 3883 . e v in the growth of crystallography. This growth has followed the usual order of science, coe here as elsewhere the early gross history, and not attach undue importance to structural formule and similar mechanical devices, which, although useful for aid- ing the memory, are simply hindrances to progress as soon as the necessity of such assistance is passed. And when the life of a great master of science has ended, it is well to look back 384 William Hallowes Miller. over the road he has traveled, and while we take courage in his success consider well the lesson which his experience has to teach; and. as progress in this world’s knowledge has ever been from the gross to the spiritual, may we not rejoice as _ those who have a great hope. Although the exceeding merit of the “ Treatise on Crystal- lography” casts into the shade all that was subordinate, we must not omit to mention that Professor Miller published an early work on Hydrostatics and numerous shorter papers on Mine- ralogy and Physics, which were all valuable, and constantly sg aety important additions to knowledge. Moreover, the te ee should be collated, and especiaily that by a suitable commen- tary his “ Tract on hare pale ot should be made accessible matical terms. The very merits of Professor Miller’s book as tion, to have been the recipient of the courtesies and counsel of three great Englishmen of science, who have always been ‘his own ideal knights,” and these noble knights were Fara- day, Graham and Miller. * Obituary Notices from the Proceedings of the Royal Society, No. 206, 1880, to which the writer has been indebted for several biographical details. T. Carnelley— Existence of Ice at high Temperatures. 385 ART. XL TX: —Preliminary Note on the EF ristence of Ice and other Bodies in the Solid ee at Temperatures far above their ordin- ary Meiting Points; by THoMAS CARNELLEY, D.Sc., Profes- sor of Chemistry in Firth College, Sheftield.* In the present communication I have the honor to lay before the Royal Society a detailed dese sription of experiments, prov- ing that under certain ee it is possible for ice and other bodies to exist in the solid state at temperatures far above their ordinary melting points. On a future occasion I hope to sub- mit to the Socie ty a full account of the investigation of which soe *xperiments form a part, together with the conclusions to be drawn therefrom. The bodies whose behavior I propose to discuss at present are ice and mercuric chloric lee. the case of ice the great difficulty to be overcome is to maintain the pressure in the containing vessel below 4°6™", 1. e., pau the tension of aqueous vapor at the freezing point, for it will be easily understood that if the ice be but slightly heated the quantity of vapor given off would soon be suf fic ient to raise the pressure above that point. After sever ral fruitless attempts the * From the Proceedings of the Royal Society, January 6, 1881. 386 T. Carnelley—Existence of Ice and other following plan, involving the principle of the cryophorus, was adopted. A strong glass bottle, such as is used for freezing water by means of Carré’s pump, was fitted with a cork and glass tube C (fig. 1), and the cork well fastened down by copper wire and paraffin wax. A and C were then filled with mercury, an connected with the end of the tube DE by means of the piece of stout india-rubber pump tubing B, a thermometer having been previously attached by the wire a to the lip of the tube at B. The connection at B was made tight by fine copper wire. The tube DE was about one inch in diameter, and about four feet long from the bend to the end E; after connection with C it was completely filled with mercury, care being taken to expel the air from A, C an as completely as possible; the whole was then inverted over the mercurial trough F, as shown in the figure, when the mercury fell to 0, the ordinary height of the barometer. The mercury was run out of A by tilting up the bottle and inclining the tube DE. By this means a Torricel- lian vacuum was obtained from A too. DE was next brought to the vertical, and the bottle A placed in the trough P. A tin bottle G without a bottom was fitted with a cork, so that it might slide somewhat stiffly along DE. To begin with, the tin bottle was placed in the position G and from the lower portions of the ice column being imprisoned and unable to escape, and hence producing pressure sufficient to cause fusion. When the greater part of the ice had been melted the tube was tightly clasped by the hand, the heat of which was suff- cient to produce a somewhat violent ebullition. The liquid in Bodies in the Solid State at high Temperatures. 387 boiling splashed up the side of the tube and on to the bulb of the thermometer, where it froze into a solid mass, as represented in fig. 2. By this means the ice was obtained in moderately thin layers. The tube at the points indicated by the arrows was then strongly heated by the flame of a Bunsen’s burner, with the following results The ice attached to the sition of the tube at first slightly fused, because the steam evolved from the surface of the ice next the glass being imprisoned between the latter and the overlying strata of ice, could not escape, and hence produced pressure sufficient to cause fusion, but as soon as a vent-hole had been made fusion ceased, and the whole remained in a solid state, and neither the ice on the sides of the tube nor that on the bulb of the thermometer could be melted, however great the heat applied, the ice merely volatilizing without previous melting. The thermometer rose to te m peratures varying between 120° and 180° in different experiments, when the ice ‘had either wholly volatilized or had become detached from the bulb of the eee mometer. ‘The ice attached to the sy ae did not partially fuse at the commencement of the heating because, the heat reaching — 9 =e) } | } | J the outer surface of the ice first. e vaporation could take place from a free surface and the v: apor not become imprisoned, as was the case with the ice attached to the sides of the tube. These experiments were repeated many times and always With the same result. except in one case in which the heat pals 388 T. Carnelley— Existence of Ice and other applied had been very strong indeed and the ice attached to the sides of the tube fused completely. On removing the lamp, however, for a few seconds the water froze again, notwithstand- ing that the portion of the glass in contact with it was so hot that it could not be touched without burning the hand. The chief conditions necessary for success appear to be—(1) That the condenser (A, fig. 1) is sufficiently large to mazniain a good vacuum. In the present case the capacity was about three-quarters of a liter; (2) That the ice is not in too great mass, but arranged in thin layers. Further, in the case where the heat is applied to the under surface of the layers of ice, the latter must be sufficiently thin to allow of a vent-hole being formed for the escape of the steam coming from below, other- wise fusion occurs. When the heat is applied to the free sur- face of the ice, the layers may be much thicker. Mercuric Chloride, ; m. p.=288°, re-solidifies at 270-275°, b. p.=303°. About 40 grs. of pure mercuric chloride were placed in the tube (A, fig. 3), and a thermometer arranged with its bulb im- bedded in the salt. The drawn-out end of the tube was con- nected by a stout india-rubber tubing with one branch of the three-wayed tube B, while the other was attached to the manometer C. B was connected with a Sprengel pump, fitted with an arrangement for regulating the pressure. hen the pressure had been reduced by means of the pump to below 420™", the mercuric chloride was strongly heated by the flame of a Bunsen’s burner, with the following results: Not the slightest fusion occurred, but the salt rapidly sub- limed into the cooler parts of the tube, while the unvolatilized portion of the salt shrank away from the sides of the tube and clung tenaciously in the form of a solid mass to the bulb of the thermometer, which rose considerably above 300° C., the mer- thermometer at once melted and began to boil, cracking the tube at the same time. The experiment was next varied as follows :— About the same quantity of chloride was placed in the tube A, fig. 8, as before, and heated by the full flame of a Bunsen’s burner. The lamp was applied during the whole of this exper!- ment, and the size of the flame kept constant throughout. The mercuric chloride first liquefied and then boiled at 303° under ordinary pressure, and while the salt was still boiling the pres- ure was gradually reduced to 420™, when the boiling point 8 a slowly fell to 275°, at which point the mercuric chloride suddenly Bodies in the Solid State at high Temperatures. 389 began to solidify, and at 270° was completely solid, the pres- sure then being 376™™. When solidification was complete the pump was stopped working, but the heat still continued to the same extent as before. The salt then rose rapidly to"tempera- tures above that at which a thermometer could be used,,but not the least sign of fusion was observed. From the completion of the solidification to the end of the experiment the pressure remained at about 850™. ‘he above experiment, which was repeated three times, shows, therefore, that when the pressure is gradually reduced from the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere to 420™", and*the boiling point simultaneously from 308° to 275°, the salt solidi- fies while it is still boiling and in contact with its‘own ‘hot liquid notwithstanding that it is being strongly heated at the same time; and that, after solidification is complete at 270°, the temperature then rises far above the ordinary boiling point (803°) of the substance without producing any signs of fusion. Under ordinary circumstances, mercuric chloride melts at 288° and re-solidifies at 270°-275°, i. e., at a temperature identical with that at which it solidifies under diminished pressure, as above described. Any final explanation of these phenomena is reserved until further experiments have been made. APPENDIX. of Professor Roscoe, made the following calorimetrical deter- mination, he arrangement of the apparatus was so modified, that the was found by re-weighing the calorimeter. 390 = T. Carnelley—Existence of Ice at high Temperatures. So far, I have only had the opportunity of completing the two following determinations, and in the second of these the weight of the ice could not be found, as a small quantity of water was lost out of the calorimeter, owing to a sudden jerk at the moment the ice entered it :— (1.) Weight of water in calorimeter, including the value of the latter =185 grms. Weight of ice dropped in =1°3 grms. Temperature of calorimeter before=13°4 ey after=13°6 Rise in temperature= 0°2 8 po 6 M(6—¢ ie —6) (185) x 0-2) +(80 x 1°3)=1°3(T—13°6) T=122° C. Where T=temperature of ice. (2.) Weight of water in calorimeter, &c.= 185 grms. Temperature of calorimeter before= 12-7 “ oa after—12°8 Rise in temperature= 0°1 weight of the ice and therefore its temperature could not be ound. But since the calorimeter had slightly risen in temper- ve 80° C. : ature, the ice must have been abo the experiment, so that it might first attain the temperature of the room, while the time which elapsed between the readings of the thermometer before and after the ice was dropped in would not be more than from 10 to 15 seconds. n the course of the next few weeks I intend to make one or two more determinations, and if possible, on a larger scale. [Pee Ault lS, pee Me Gee CPR sages ar TE ata AMM Gar See eee es) we Rg ddA. rare AACR |e 'r. Are” ae Re eee Un na os YS Se eS Ei Pee SAT oR he Tee TN G. UM. Dawson—Geology of the Peace River Region. 391 Arr. L.—WNote on the Geology of the Peace River Region ; by GzorGE Mercer Dawson, Assistant Director Geological Survey of Canada. Tue first definite knowledge of the geological features of the Peace River basin was obtained in 1875. In that year Mr. = . ian government decided to ascertain more completely than extending from the Pacific Coast to Edmonton, on the Sas- katchewan, including the entire Cordillera belt, between the 392 G. M. Dawson— Geology of the Peace River Region. To the east of these beds of the mountains, and resting quite unconformably on them, are the Cretaceous rocks, which, be- tween the mountains and the eastern outcrop of the Devonian rocks on the Lower Peace, occupy a basin with a width of nearly 350 miles, implying a Cretaceous sea of that width. The Rocky Mountains have here formed a shore-line in Cre- taceous times,—though probably not a continuous one—and the Cretaceous rocks along their eastern base are almost en- nying the limestones of the mountains. The mountains are bordered to the east by foot-hills, in which, on the upper part of Pine River, for a distance of about fifteen miles from the older rocks, the Cretaceous sandstones are folded and dis- turbed. The disturbance, however, gradually diminishes on receding from the mountains, and the beds at length become flat, or are affected by very slight and broad undulations only. Slaty materials increase in importance eastward, and the Cre- taceous series eventually resolves itself into the following subdivisions—clearly shown on Smoky River—which in the annexed table are placed opposite their supposed equivalents in Meek and Hayden's and the Southern Rocky Mountain sections. Upper, or Wapiti River Sandstones, Fox Hill (and Laramie ?) Upper, or Smoky River Shales, Pierre. e Lower, or Dunvegan Sandstones, Niobrara. #6 Lower, or Ft. St. John Shales, Benton. 8 Dakota. The correlation, as above shown, is based partly on paleon- tological’ evidence, and partly on lithological resemblance. That the upper Shales represent the Pierre group is quite clear, as a large number of characteristic fossils of this stage have been obtained on Smoky River. No fossils have been ound in the overlying sub-division. .The fossils of the lower Sand- stones are peculiar, consisting chiefly of fresh-water and estua- rine mollusks and land plants. In the lower Shales the- most characteristic form is a large Ammonite resembling Ammonites (Prionvcyclus) Woolgari, but, according to Mr. Whiteaves, spe- cifically distinct. The Peace River country being so remot from the typical region of the Cretaceous sub-divisions, it is not intended to insist on their precise synchronism with the groups here mentioned, but merely to point out a probable general equivalency. No beds so low as the Dakota group . 3 - G. M. Dawson— Geology of the Peace, River Region. 398 have yet been found in this region, though it is probable that they occur on the Peace below the confluence of the Smoky. The lithological resemblance of the shales of the Upper and Lower sub-divisions to those of the Pierre and Benton sub- divisions is exceedingly close. It is probable that these mark periods of general submergence, when sediment-bearing cur- rents passed freely through the interior continental valley. Elevation is known to have been in progress during the Nio- the interior continental region. The fossils of the Lower or Dunvegan sandstones are of overlaid by one thousand feet of strata containing Cretaceous types of fossils, a little group of forms, presenting such modern affinities that, if placed before any paleontologist unacquatn- ted with the facts, they would be at once referred to the Tertiary,” In the Peace River district we find, instead of a merely local intercalation of this kind, a widely-extended series of Cretaceous age, persistently holding fresh-water and estuarine types of mollusks and land plants. _ ‘he chief evidence going to prove the Tertiary age of the Laramie and Fort Union beds, after that afforded by the plants, * U.S. Geol. Survey of Territories, 1872, p. 435. Am, Jour. copay ns eee Vou. XXI, No, 125.—May, 1881, 394. HAT B. Fineand W. F. Magie—Glow Discharge. has been found in the Tertiary aspect of the mollusks, most of which are fresh or brackish-water forms. Hitherto little has been known of the fresh-water fauna of the undoubted Creta- taceous, but if this should prove to have, as now appears proba- ble, a “ Tertiary” aspect throughout, it will tend to break down the molluscan eyidence of the Tertiary age of the Lara- mie, and unite this formation still more closely with the underlying beds. Montreal, March 1, 1881. Art. LIL—On the Shadows obtained during the Glow Dis- charge; by H. B. Fine and W. F. MaGre. It is well known that a body interposed between the poles of a Holtz machine causes a so-called electrical shadow to appear upon the positive glow. We believe, however, that the fact that a similar shadow can be obtained upon the negative glow has not yet been published. These appearances seemed of some importance as offering a further proof of the essential similarity of the positive and negative discharges. The following points with reference to them may be of some interest. e glow was best obtained on either electrode when the simultaneously. The observations of Professor Wright* on the positive a were verified and found to hold for the negative also; and, in fact, all the phenomena obtainable with the one were likewise characteristic of the other. ; ese shadows, in general, whether positive or negative, represent closely the outline of the interposed object. If, however, the lines of electrical action be deflected by the presence of a conductor, the form of the shadow is altered. e could not effect any such alteration by merely blowing across the field. The size of the shadow varies with the tension on the electrode, becoming smaller as this is heightened. This fact 1s * This Journal, II, xlix, 381. Cpe NT TE el ee Pe ey ce OO OE Wi Oy Weetin RP che cy Mabe TgRVOna Beer aaa Me. aa 6 SUE roe aires Dir. oe eee tees Hae glen * z ' : eS ie Ae eae C. F. Brackett—New form of Galvanometer. 395 easily illustrated by touching the electrode upon which the glow appears, and then removing the hand. The shadow, which at first covers almost the whole surface of the ball, rapidly diminishes as the tension rises. The size of the shadow further depends on the distance of the interposed object from the glowing electrode, though the relations of size and distance could not be very definitely determined. When the point and ball were used as terminals, the shadow appeared greatest when the interposed object was near either electrode and least When it was half way between them. When the two balls were used and both glows established at once, and generally when the discharge opposite the glow came from several points, the shadow decreased regularly as the interposed object was further removed. It would not be proper for us to omit mention of the fact that Professor C. A. Young has since informed us that he noticed the existence of the negative shadow several years ago. J. C. Green School of Science, Princeton, N. J. Art. LI. — Note on a New Form of Galvanometer for Pow- hag Currents; by Professor C. F. Brackett, College of rsey. THE very powerful currents produced by large dynamo- machines are not easily estimated by the appliances usually found in the physical laboratory. ; The various forms of the electro-dynamometer, the cosine galvanometer and some other special forms of apparatus may of _ Course be employed with satisfactory results. None of these Instruments being in the collection at Princeton, it was deter- mined to construct a galvanometer which should obey the law of tangents and yet not be so large as to be unwieldy. In order to this, recourse was had to the differential principle. The construction is as follows : ing, with hard solder, between the ends on one side of the cut, 4 piece of metal having the same cross section as that of the hoops, and of suitable length. At several other points are Inserted between the hoops pieces of hard rubber of proper thickness, which serve to keep them truly concentric. The three ends of the system thus arranged and set upright On a proper base board are joined to binding screws. It will be seen that the differential action on a needle placed » D.. @éthe center, or on the axis of the hoops passing through their 396 Scientific Intelligence. center, depends on the different distances of two equal and opposite currents. It is evident also that the instrument may be used as a simple tangent galvanometer. Thus if we call the free ends of the hoops A and B respec- tively, and the point of juncture C, by joining up a circuit through A and B we get the differential action; but by joining up through C and A or B, the action is that of a simple tangent galvanometer. If v7 and r’ represent the radii of the outer and inner hoops respectively, the ordinary formula becomes bre 2a(r—r’) when the instrument is used differentially. An instrument has been constructed at the J. C. Green School of Science for its Physical Laboratory of dimensions as follows: x Htand Diameter of outer hoop..............- UN Blog Siameter Of inher Hoop sn. 6. sie sree o> 9-96 MVM OF CRO NOOD. tou. oe 8 Thickness of each hoop... ........... 0-35™ The theoretical constant of this instrament agrees very closely with that ascertained experimentally by means of the volta- meter. The needle which is usually suspended in the center of the hoops, may, if desired, in order to measure aang! Princeton, March 10, 1881. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHySICcs. 1. On the Chlorhydrates of Metallic Chlorides, —Compounds formed by the union of hydrochloric acid with metallic chlorides have been described, but they have been very imperfectly studied. — Since these bodies appear to perform an important part In certain reactions, Berrur.or has investigated them, both chemically and thermally. By the prolonged action of hydrochloric acid gas upon a solution of cadmium chloride saturated in the cold, a well defined and crystallized body CdCl,(HCl),(H,O), is obtained, which fumes in the air and loses hydrochloric acid; but since cadmium chloride absorbs this gas even when fused the dissocia- tion is not complete at a red heat. Thermally CdCl,+(HCl), gas +(H,O), liquid, evolves +-40-2 calories; with solid water, +30 calories. Bromhydrate of bromide of cadmium and the iodhydrate of iodide ot cadmium were also obtained in beautiful Chemistry and Phystes. 397 lodide, the former PbI,(HI),(H,O), and the latter (AgI,HI), H,0),, were prepared by dissolving the iodides in hydriodie acid. The first of these evolves 23°3 calories, the second 21°6 : Cl, | Now it appears that Hg,Cl,=HgCl, solid +-Hg liquid absorbs e reaction results from the formation of 19 calories. The production of these compounds also plays an important part in the reduction of metallic chlorides by hydrogen. —Bul ., Il, xxxv, 291, March, 1881 2. On a Characteristic color-reaction of CLaxsson has confirmed the reaction observe by Andreasch, i. e., and organic, including the well known sulphocyanate test. Sul- phides and disulphides give no color with ferric chloride. The sulph ydrate of methyl, of ethyl, of amyl, of benzene, of toluene, toluene some Ge Bleek and thiacetic acid give a ed-brown i color appears immediately, but owing to reduction of the iron, it Sappears in a short time.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xiv, 411, March, 1881 F : G. _ 3. On the Composition of Sodium Hyposulphite.*—BERNTHSEN ne The author, following Roscoe, uses the name “h ulphite” for the hydro- ee, of Schiitzenberger, and gives the name “ thiosulphate” to the old hypo- 398 Sezentific Intelligence. iodine atoms to convert it into sulphuric acid. Hence the state of oxidation in me hyposulphite is represented by the formula Oe | 5 oneren salt resulting from the reduction 0 ammoniacal cu is ulphate by which the hyposulphite is con- yard into sulphite, it appears that to every two atoms of sulphur in the hyposulphite one atom of oxygen is ‘necessary : srO= (SO,),. Estimating now the ratio of bases to sulphur in “the solu- tion, there appeared one of base to one of sulphur. The simplest a acter of the sulphur acids this should Y epotianees be doubled Na, 8,0, Its formation is given in the equa as ieee. ), oe ;t+Na,SO Nas i O,+(H, rhe — Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xiv, 438, Mar . F. B. 4. On the Eielon of Co iabseaeibles oy Nitric Acid. “The im- pression is a very general one that nitric acid, even of 1°52 gray- ity, will not inflame ordinary combustibles. Kraut, however, . haying made some experiments on the subject, gives a method by which sawdust, Hel aud hay, tow or hae may e easily ignited bs means of nitrie acid. A wooden box 25% square and 40° high is filled to a height of 15 to 20™ with one of the above men- tioned combustibles. On this a beaker or flask is placed Shih 3 ing 25 to 100° of nitric acid of at least 1°5 sp. gr. and the box i a wooden cover placed on the box. In one or two minutes, vapors are visible. A thick white smoke appears a little later and then mass which sie into flanie on the access of air. aE seks Chem. Ges., xiv, 301, Feb. 1881. puis have pace Berth alot t’s experiment and have porte the 6. On the Atomie Weight of Platinum.—The atomic ine generally assumed for platinum varies between 196 and 198 Andrews (1852). The former decomposed potassium - platinum chloride by igniting it in a stream of hydrogen. From the ratio of Pt to KCl, the at. wt. 196-705 was obtained ; from the amount of Pt in the ‘salt, 196°98; and from the loss of weight by reduc- pe SONS BEC ea OED nS aT Ca Ne pieare as se SR Mee ae a Meeps Sia ante Chemistry and Physics. 399 tion, 197°234, Andrews digested the potassium-platinum chloride with zinc; weighed the platinum precipitated and determined the chlorine in the solution. He obtained 197°88 as a mean. Sxrv- successive operations were used : In the first, the concentrated solu- were in excess. The final yield of double chlorides was analyzed by heating the salt. placed in a boat of porcelain, In a current of ro hyd & mean 19462003. After introducing corrections and reducing to a vacuum the mean value obtained is 194°34050; which the 400 Scientific Intelligence. author regards as ei atomic weight of Platinum.—Liebiy’s Ann., vil, 1, Feb., GF. B, . Ona arian formed by Camphor with Alcohol.—The production of a liquid compound by the union of camphor with h . drochloric, nitric or sulphurous acid, is w known. Batti has saab the same phenomenon with - ohol. When an ex- cess of camphor is heated — alcohol of a ereem concentration, low the solution, according is the gravity of the pischicl With alcohol. re appears to be more than one definite compoun of camphor and alcohol formed, since the fusing point varies from 66° to 71°. After cooling, the camphor which has been thus hase fied is scarcely to be distinguished from ordinary campho Dried between folds of snag! it Seong vole traces of neces = Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., 334, Feb., 8. On the Naturally Bodie iiig Myiriatic Kr ari place ae BURG has given in a complete form the results of his researches upon the naturally ocourring euakorme alkaloids These bodies are three in number: Ist, Atropine C,,H,,.NO tropic acid C,H,,0,, and tropine C,H,,NO. 2d, Hyoscyamine, C,,H,,NO,, oceurring in Atropa belladonna, Datura stramoniun, yocyamus niger, and Duboisia myoporoides, and splitting also into tropic acid ©,H,O, and tropine O,H,,NO. 3d, Hyoscin, C, (A, NO, occurring in Hyo yoscyamus niger, and splitting into tropic acid C,H,,O, and pseudo-tropine C.H,,NO. It appears the that the mydriatic ‘Alkaloids occurring in nature are only three in number and that they os all isomeric with one another. Mewnnd 8 oe , cevi, 274, Feb., 1881. ‘On the Synthesis of Tropie acid.—SrixGe. has effected a new w synthesis of tropic acid by acting on acetophenone with hy- drocyanic acid, producing the cyanhydrin of acetophenone. d's his heated to 130° with strong hydrochloric acid gives ey dratropic acid. By the action of soda on this for a sbort tim atropic acid is produced, and for a longer time tropic acid. oO this the author assigns the formula C,H, colt COOH. — a ect Chem. Ges., xiv, 235, Feb., 1881. Chemistry and Phystes, 401 10. Photographs of Nebula,—M. J. JANssEN calls attention to the effect of short and long pr pris upon the negatives which are obtained. Photographs of the same nebula will not agree “unless the same conditions of rence are narrowly observed. In proof of this the photographs of the solar corona taken at Siam in the eclipse of 1875 are referred to: the nebulosity, so to speak, of the corona gave different impressions upon sensitive plates which were exposed during times expressed by the numbers 1, 2, 4, 8: and it must be inferred ate the changes in the height of the corona are to be attributed to the times of exposure, hers of to actual variations in the extent of the phenomenon. is then indispens- able that the photographs of nebule should accompanied by some evidence ee the conditions under near he they are taken, in Dingle poly. fy ola p. 426, pe ‘| is much Pa than the Gim am pump which was used b sae gs and is not so liable: Po break. It allows the vessel which i e exhausted to be connected to the pump without the denna tion of sto cks or metallic joints. N niga ee: a continuous glass tube Ni ag with the p cury packing is employe mportance of heating the bs hioks is to be exhausted i in spe to drive off the layer of air which adheres to the sides of the vessel is insisted upon en has obtained an exhaustion of 0:000012™", while Crookes has obtained only 0-000 0046™". Besides heating the vacuum tube to expel the air ary: Th avor to detect the passage of aqueous vapor aioe the sides of the vacuum tube by spectrum analysis gave a negative result. gsi Pie der Physik und Chemie, No. 8, 1881. 12. Absorption a the Sun’s rays by the Carbonic Acts of "the Atnoaphers —H. ‘st Lecuer, by means of observations with SE ek Hart atin apparatus in connection with observations with a pyrheliometer, arrives at the conclusion that the amount of car- bonie acid which has been proved to exist in the air is sufficient 402 Scientific Intelligence. to cause the absorption mek has generally meee ogden to layers of the atmosphere than the chemical se hitherto adopted.—Annalen der Physik und Chemie, No. 3, 13. Conversion of Radiant Energy into nc ous Febeatioste —Mr. WititaAm Henry Prexce, in a paper read at the Royal Society, March 10th, gives the details of numerous ee upon the effect of intermittent beams of light in producing sono- rous vibrations. It was found that their vibrations were not pro- duced by the dise varies received the intermittent beam, but were due to the motion of the air contained in the hearing tube, for the moands were louder without the disc than with it. These sounds m tions were due to the motion of the a A microphone was then sc Tan for the interrupter, and a was found that the appara- tus served as a sig — and articulate ca was ie, ee —Nature, March 24, 18 T. ellites’ orbits are all supposed to be in one plane. ude — is formed of homogeneous viscous fluid, but a large part of t ere It is then proved that if # be the whole energy, both kinetic and potential, of the system, and if § be a function of the dis- tance of any one of the satellites from the lan (which function, when the mass of the satellite is small compared with that of the planet, is the } power se ror distance), the equation expressive of the rate of change of where ¢ is the time, A a certain constant, and 6 expresses partial differentiation, A similar equation applies to each satellite, and the whole of Chemistry and Physics. 403 the equations form a s system of simultaneous differential equations which have to win solved in order to trace the changes in the sys- tem of satellit xpressions are also found for the rotation of the planet, and for the energy 4, in terms = the resultant moment of momentum of the system and of the & It is then shown how sibeb equations may be per by series, te by powers of the time. As, however, the series are t rapidly pase ie a dt are not sppemereas is tracing ex- boc changes of configura The case where there are oe two satellites is then considered in detail, and it is shown that, if a surface be constructed, the coordinates (47 being drawn vertically upward and the &’s being horizontal), then the solution of the problem is expressed by the statement that the point, representing on the gene the config- uration of the system, travels down the steepest p The contour-lines on this “ surface of energy” are illustrated by figures, = the graphical solution found therefrom is interpreted and — sed. mao i part of the paper contains a discussion of i part played by tidal friction in the evolution of the solar system. It is proved that the rate of expansion of the sigsuart orbits Tt a os red, ere rk ss that a knowledge of certain nu- merical walunbae wou w light on the question. Accordingly the moments of momentum of the orbital motion of the planets round the sun, of the sun’s rotation round his axis, of the orbital motion of the satellites round their planets, and of ‘the rotation of the planets about their axes are evaluated with such degree of tecuracy as the data ermit. comparison ua the orbital momenta of the planets and their rotational mo , it is concluded that tidal friction can ite & sensibly have enlarged the planetary orbits since the planets had as eee existence AO4 Seientific Intelligence. in contact with the present surfaces of their planets, as was shown in previous papers to be probably the case with the moon and rth. The numerical values spoken of above exhibit a very striking difference between the condition of the earth and the moon and that of these bet planets, and it may therefore be admitted that their modes of evolution have also differed considera The part played by tidal friction in the evolution of planetary masses is then discusse A numerical comparison is made of the relative efficiency of solar tidal friction in reducing the rotational momentum and the rotation of the ik es a ea It is found that the efficiency as regards the rotation is nearly the same for Mars and for the earth, notwithstanding the greater distance of the former from the earth. is point is important with reference to the rapid revolution of the inner nel wi of Mars, and confirms the explana- tion of ee fact, which has been offered in a previous paper. ers expressive ice the relative efficiency of solax tidal existed much longer than the interior ones. Nevertheless the disproportion between the numbers is so great that it must be held that the influence of solar tidal friction on J eo and Sat- urn has been considerably less than on the nearer plan The manner in which tidal friction and the Scatition of a planetary mass would work together is then considered, and it is found to be pr sobabie that tidal friction was a more important cause of change when the masses were less condensed than it 1s at _mpei thus the present rate of action of solar tidal friction is not to be taken as a measure of what has existed in all past ime. This diseassion leads the author to assign a cause for the ob- served distribution of satellites in the solar system For if, as the nebular hypothesis supposes, satellites are formed when instability is produced by the acceleration of rotation accompanying con- traction, then the epochs of instability would recur more rarely if tidal friction were operative than without it; and if tidal friction were sufficiently powerful, an epoch of instability would neve The efficiency of solar tidal —— apres. as we recede from the sun, and —— re planets near the sun should have no ciseiilaae, and the number of s atelliane should increase for th remoter planets. This is the Soeeaces condition of the solar stem This theoretical otha is also shown to explain how the earth and moon came to di Lapa the other planets in such a manner as to permit tidal fric tion o be the principal feature in their evo- lution, while its effects are ae a in the other planets. Geology and Mineralogy. 405 Among other points discussed are the 2 Cork speeds of rotation of the several planets, and the probable effects of the eee of : satellite on the course of change afterwards followed ya — ae ends with a review of the solar system, in which it is iiows that the tidal hypothesis is a means of codrdinating many apparently Se phenomena, besides eine a history of the earth and m e the origin of the lat These in aiidetnitins afford no grounds for the. rejeotion of the nebular hypothesis, but while they present evidence in favor of the main outlines of that theory, they introduce args astogo . i al fri influence ni bai of reat, and in one instance of even para mount importance, in determining the present condition of the ec a and of their satelli Sight: An Exposition of the Principles of Monocular and Dante Vision; by Joserpu LeConrr, LL.D. 275 pp. 8vo. ew York, 1881. (D. oe & Co. international eae ect to which the author has contributed muc , his own ytd (see numerous articles in this Meteo The develop- ment of this subject is a feature of the volume, and gives it especial value, although it may Sabie seem to some that other topics of no less inter est are sacrificed to 1 II. GkoLoGy AND MINERALOGY. along the St. Gothard Tosi el.—A brief notice of this section by the past year an account of the rocks has been published by M. Stapff, as an Appendix to the Report of the Swiss Federal Coun- cil. A few facts are here cited from Professor Favre’s Review o Swiss le 3 a 1880, published in the Geneva Archives des Sciences, Feb The section is ie 920 meters long. The northern, 2010 meters, are through the mass of the Finsteraarhorn; fro m 2010 t to 4325 meters through the fold of Ursern; from 4325 to 11,742 meters through the mass of St. Gothard; and the remaining 3178 meters through the fold of Tessin, The rock of the mass of the Finster- aarhorn is a gneissoid granite (made of quartz, orthoclase, some n er region of the gray gneiss. In the fold of Ursern, made up of sev- eral secondary folds, the center consists of cipolin or calcareous 406 Scientific Intelligence. beds containing traces of fossils, probably of Jurassic age, and ac- In the Gothard mass, which next follows, there is gneiss varyin to mica schist and to granite, with some serpentine (between 4870 and 5310 meters), and, cahordisiee to the gneiss, hornblendic beds, The rocks are closely related to those of the fold of Ur- sern, passing into them by an insensible gradation. The fan-like position of the beds of Gothard is much more distinct to the south than on the northern side. These Gothard rocks are sedimentary metamorphic terranes, joining without interruption to the most recent beds of the folds of Ursern on the north and of Tessin on the south. feet of dolomite. These roc or hal e close analogies to those ot the Ursern fold, the cipolins of Altekirch corresponding to the dolomite of Tessin, ~ sericite schists to the gray peneineoe mica schist, and so on. The group then in the valley of Tes represents also Diared sa ingaee strata from the Jurassic vA Carboniferous. The beds plunge under Gothard with a — curve, the dip being greater at ate surface than in the tunne Thos, the author observes, the mass of Gothard consists of a and a break oxi between it and the Ursern fold. e serpentine of the Gothard mass is considered by M. Stapff “ aes by the alteration of olivine, some grains of which still M. Cossa has sad po t part of the rock, though of a kind coapable of prieosr entine, is not true serpentine, but consists of talc, ns (not Mesheller) and olivine, with the pyroxene sometimes predominating. Gtimbel has found frag- ments of Crinoids in the Svcekoues of a confirming the ~ of M. Stapff as to the origin of the limestones. The great fault in the Alps after the ‘Comboniferows era.— Atcontaae fee M. Lory (Observations sur la structure des Alpes, C. R. du Congr, Internationale de Geol. of 1878), the dislocation assic era, the Mesozoic beds retin ye id down vo ah on the schists, and sometimes now overlying them in horizontal Geology and Mineralogy. 407 masses Spa ap Rouges, Oisans). There were also other move- — after the deposit of the Mesozoic strata, but of less extent. Raslolarians ‘hebaoleshieiy | making for the most part the ye beds of Tuscany.—Dr. PANTANELLI hei woe ished a paper on the anes jaspers in mp Transactions of t . Ac- cademia dei Lincei (Rome), 1880, giving the results of the micro- scopic study of the Tuscan beds of j Lersewigy in the Eocene, Creta- — Lias e quart number being Troportionatl largest, aceon to observations hitherto made, between 5000 and 10,000 4, Fossil Sponge-Spsenle Jrom the oe Chalk, found in the interior of a single ase Jrom Horstead in Norfolk ; , by Grorce Jennines Hinpr, F.G.S. 84 pp. 8vo, with 5 pla ates. Inaugural Dissertation. abe, 1880.—The material aes wt rom an interior closed cavity of a mass of flint and re- setabied fine eragll Vai — a from i, 10 ot id kinds, with the s onges, being far 2 most abunda om The abundance of the sponge spicules sustains the author’s panei that flint nodules of the Gha k have resulted from the aggre ti e author remarks that only two or three Radiolarians are = known from the Chalk formation. The plates are crowded w excellent figures of the spicules. 5. Vertebrates of the Permian of Texas.—Professor E. D. Corr has a second paper on this subject in the Proceedings of the American _ Philosophical Someiy: xix, 38 (1880). ghigga a r Cope describes in this memoir two species of Theropleura Cope (near the Bbgnahosephalia), one of Dimetrodon Cope, one fe Diadectes, two of Helodectes Cope, defines anew the genera of Ganocephala, Jope and Trinerorhachis Cope, and peepee one fish of rtance, some in nteres esting facts with seit to the reclama- tion of : alkali ta s. As ordinary surface ed gain tends to con- centrate the alkali at the surface—‘‘the more water evaporates from the surface within a season, the more alkali salts will drawn to the surface.” The chief remedy proposed is underdrain- ing, whieh ‘ ‘may so far lower the eal fe fe +3 from which the 408 - Screntific Intelligence. saline matters are derived, and may so far favor the washing out of the salts during the rainy season, that the latter will thereafter fail to reach the surface so as to accumulate to an injurious extent with reasonable tillage.” In his illustrations of the subject anal- yses are given of the waters of Kern and Tulare lakes, and of some rivers of California. In that of Kern Lake, March, 1880, the total residue obtained was 211°50 grains per gallon (about 26 times more than in an average river water), which consisted of Carb. soda 64°37, common salt, glauber salt, ete. 115-41, carb. Ca, Mg and silica 9°29, vegetable matter 22°43. The water from the middle of Tulare Lake, at surface, afforded 81°95 for the total residue, consisting of Carb. soda 35°30, common salt, glauber salt, ete. 35°96, carb. Ca and Mg, and silica 5°37, vegetable matter 5°32. Water of the Cafion of Kern River afforded 9°49 of total _resi- due; but the proportion between the sodium carbonate and the other salts is almost exactly that in the water of Tulare Lake, or 1 to 22; so thatyif 22 gallons were boiled down to 1, the water would have the same alkali in quantity and quality as that of the lake; and if further reduced to 34 pints, it would have about the composition of that of Kern Lake. Professor Hilgard remarks as follows respecting the use of the Kern River waters in. irriga- tion: 7. Biennial Report of the State Geologist of the State of Col- . 8vo. Den- Geology and Mineralogy. 409 sources of mineral and agricultural wealth. He gives also a very full catalogue, arranged pape of the mineral oe found in the State. This is a revision and extension of a Stew work by Dr. Genth, Dr. Loew and others on Colorado min- rals, To complete the long list of Colorado species the work by Allen and Comstock on bastnisite, and the new species tysonite, rundlinien der Geologie von Bosnien- Hercegovina. — Brliuterungen zur geologischen Uebersichtskarte dieser meee von Dr. E osstsovics, Dr, E. Trerze and . Brrr Mit Beitragen von EUMAYR pr C. v. Joun und Shieh oe von Fr, v. Havae. 322 pp. 8 - with a colored geo- parts, the t “Tertiary Inland Mollusks,” by Dr. Neum Jan., 1881.—This number of the Journal has a aeadiifett Hiblio- grap! ic paper on the N. A pacts by S. A. Miller; descriptions fnew Tineina, by V. T. Chambers; pa the Geographical distribution of certain N. A high mollusks and the probable causes of their variation, and on new er rigaag Wea hed Crinoids, etherby, jposides other papers. il- er’s paper, the earliest paper referred to artha’s Vineyard deserves to be noticed : it aay at as Tertiary the deposits of the Atlantic border tile Gay Head and New York to the Gulf of Mexico, and gives many important ital : 10. entageont Reports recently issued. (Received too late for notice in this place. Geological Survey of Pennsylvania.—(1) The Geology of the Oil oo. ¢ Warren, Venango, Clarion and But a Bore 2 by Joun F. CaRut. 482 pp. 8vo., with 23 plates and an of 22 sheets of piri hiswell cae and working drawings of oil-well ars aa tools. Harrisbur; acer at) Report o ss G. Mo, HS. f Pr ts) ong County, 8vo, with a colored map of the county. Harrisburg, e Sana of Clin- County, Part 11, containing a special study of the Carboniferous and Devonian strata along the west branch of the Susquehanna River, ARTIN CHANCE, with a description of the Renovo Coal Basin NER, and notes on the Tangascoota oal Basin in Centre and Clinton Sonate: by TT , with a color ip, sheet of | phical ap of the Renovo Basin, 6 plates and 21 hese in the text arrisburg, 1880. The vol- Geological agers! of New Jersey: Annual Report for “re pe 1880, by the State Geologist, P rof. G. H. Cook. 220 pp. 8vo, with a co map. Am, Jour Scr. Tony Sent, Vou. XXI, No. 125, ae ao 410 Scientific Intelligence. State of Indiana. oe: os the oo of Statistics and Geology, 1880, by Joun Coutetr. 544 pp. 8vo, with plate Geological raga os Canada “Report of ‘th Geology of Southern ist Bruns- bier vrei 8-79, f. L. W. Bar } R. W. Ets. 261 pp. 8vo, with a linge pectogheal ay and 6 plates of sections. Montreal, 1880. bt Brothers.) 11. Lazulite from Canada.—tThe occurrence of lazulite in the District of Keewatin, near the mouth of the Churchill River, is described by C, Hoffmann (Geology of Canada, Report of Pro- gress for 1878-9). e ee occurs ean” in narrow veins in quartz. It has a deep azure blue color specific gravity is 3°0445. An analysis afforded the fo ollowing ‘posite (after the de- duction of 3°81 p. ¢. silica, as impurity): P05 Al,Os FeO MgO CaO H.O 46°39 Pad 14 vod nin 13°84 2°83 6-47=100°76 Carolina. 122 pp. 8vo. Raleig es J, i -2, . 13. pti Be of Building ‘Stones.—Dr. Hiram A. Corrine of Vermont, has made examinations as to the de of heat suf ficient to cause the destruction io different building stones and has extended his experiments to 22 kinds of granite, 23 of sand- stone, 7 of limestone, 7 of mar oe 4 of con lomerate, 1 of slate, 1 of soapstone, and 1 of artificial stone. nder the application of the heat, the granite (1) began to yield at a temperature be- ears 700° a nd 800° F.; (2) became cracked between oe 'F. and 900° F.; (3) became ee cracked between 800 and 950° F. Geology and Mineralogy. 411 and () a made worthless by or before reaching a temperature of 1 ie owing table contains these results under the headings (1), (2), (3), (4), and those also for the other kinds of stones. : (1) Seema (3) (4) Granites 700°— 800° 800°— 900 800°— 950° at or >i 1000° Sandstones 800°— 900° 850°-1000° 900°-1000° °-1200° Massive limestones 850°— 950° 900°-1000° —900°-1100° ‘agate 1200° Marbles 900°--1000° 950°-1000° 1000°-1200 1200° Conglomerates 600°— 700° 700°- 800° 800°- 900° 900°—1000° The granites had a specific gravity between 27600 and 2°727, excepting one from Stanstead, Canada, of 2°833; and immersion in water added to their weight, through ahsorpsicn: from 1-280th of their weight to 1-818th. In the case of a > — re 2168 to 2°661, but mostly under 2-400; and the was l-I7th to 1-80th excepting two giving "1-240th (a feesone from Nova Scotia), and 1-314th (the Montrose stone, Ulster Co., N. Y.) For the marble, sp. gr.=2°666 to 2°848, and the abaaryacee '1-300th gr.=2°478 to 2°706, and absorption 1-280th to 1-480th. The least absorbent of the granites (its ratio of pr tate 1-818th) was one of the most destructible by heat, and the mo absorbent lg P was equally destructible. The limestones Pa marbles are stated to change to quicklime at about 1200° 14. Brief notices of some recently described minerals. —Brgexr- ITE, ccurs massive and in small isometric crystals, showing octahedral and dodecahedral planes. Specific gravity 7° 273. Luster metallic, on the crystals brilliant. Color light to dark- gray. An analysis gave (after de spate quartz) 8 14°97, Bi 20° i 2 Pb 64: 23, Cu 1°70=101°49, This ¢ rresponds nearly to the fo ula Pb Bi S, or oPbS+ Bi, S,. Found at the Baltic Lode, eas Grant P, ah Park Co., Colorado, Named after Mr. H. Begeer of gt Described by Dr. G. Koénig.— Amer. Chem. Journ., vol. ii, : edinn orirE, Occurs in small crystals belonging ne the mono- clinic system, jprenhae in habit the lazulite from Georgia; the crystals often forming drusy surfa Hardness 3-4. Color dish-brown to dark hyacinth-red and streak-yellow. Luster Vitreous inclining to p An analysis gave P,O, 31:88, Fe,O, & 37=100°19, corneas to 2Fe, He,0, is Vv r beraunite, if not identical with it Found with other phosphates at the Eleonore mine near Bieber, also from Waldgirmes near Giessen. Named by Nies, and de- scribed by Eis —Jahrb, Min CITE is a second phosphate from the same localities as Hleo- norite, Te i is a glassy, apparently amorphous, min neral. Hardness - Specific gravity 2°83. Luster greasy to vitreous. Color dark-brown, streak yellow. Fracture semi-conchoidal. An anal- : PO, 24°47 ; The formula corresponds to 4Fe,P, oO, 3H. Fe,O,+27H,0, on the uncertain assumption that the mineral is homogeneous, —AJahrb. Min., 1881, i, p. 16 ref. and p. 1 : 412 Scientific Intelligence. Nerocyanite. A recent sublimation product at Vesuvius, in composition essentially an anhydrous silicate of copper. It occurs in minute crystals of an azure blue color. Described by Scacchi; — Accad. Se. Napoli, Dec. 4, 1880. Analysis of Columbit ite ; by E . J. Hattock, Ph.D. (Com- ote, \'The sample analyzed was from Middleto wn, Conn., and was kindly furnished to the writer by Professor Charles A. oy. The aoe Sable of the crystals freed from gangue was found to be 6°1 wo analyses afforded :— L IL, Mixed acids 82°64 82°56 Tron protoxide 1177 12°08 Man ganese | protoxide 4°95 4°93 Lime 0°50 0°45 The columbic and tantalic acids were not separated, i the specific gravity of the ignited mixed acids from No. 2 was 7°48, eriarten a large proportion of tantalic arp rm Medical College, Atlanta, Ga., Feb., 188 ants Botany anp Zoouoey. Brunt HAM, F.R.S.—Tw notable papers extracted Sant the (still unpublished) eeperraraiet volume of the Journal of the Linnean Society, and i ant as forerunners, being a sketch of the ar- rangement adopted for these orders in the forthcoming and con- cluding portion of the Genera Plantarum, and Shere also occupies the pages of the volume from 281 to 360, and is a suc- cinct exposition of a complete re-arrangement of "this vast and mors order, as to oon tribes, eee and the limitation of many genera. That on the Oyperacec, pp. 3 oe is compara- structure. The genera are grouped under two ptinelpal divisions (after Beckler), each containing three tribes. The history of some of the early genera, and of the way they have been mis- taken or confused, forms a curious part of Mr. Rewehian’ 8 biatcigg 2. On - ops tg | Histology of on Seedling of Wel- patton sf gt B.A.,Camb. Reprinted from the Quarterly fiir ‘of Pr iciososhiéal Science, n. ser. xxi, pp. 15-22, with two plates.—We have had the pleasure of snepeeine from through the winter and are still thriving, although the larger portion was lost. This paper by a promising phytotomist inves- Botany and Zoology. 413 tigates the structure and development of the mature embryo and of the seedling, and is to be followed by a research into the histol- ogy of the more advanced plant from good specimens in spirit. An important intermediate stage between these preserved young plants‘ and the growing seedlings remains to be supplied, and outgrowth, which remains in the axis of the seed, enve by the endospe g after the development and liberation of the cotyledons and their elevation by the elongating growth of the ed, r 8 till capable of furnishing considerable nutriment, Mr. Bower infers that the process serves this residual store of food. He therefore calls it “the feeder” in his description, speaking physiologically ; while morphologically it is of course likened to the “peg” of germinating squashes, the very different use of which, in riving the seed-coat and freeing the cotyledons, has recently been so well described by Darwin. The second point is that the seedling of Welwitchia promptly th ’ that they stand in the plane at right angles with that of the habitat. For good specimens exhibiting flowers, leaves and ripe fruit, he will be glad to exchange specimens of European desider- ata, 414 Miscellaneous Intelligence. of North America, cay the , pro able causes ov their oeahatean: "3 by A. G. Wernersy.—The January number of the Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History contains the first part of this important memoir. A notice is deferred until the promised future paper is published, 1V. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. evil the country ¢ divided into districts which keep a time dif- fering one hour from the times in neighboring districts, after the manner explained in the first volume of the Proceedings of the Society, and sea acta commented on in the Worth American Review for ember, The ieeci: circular includes a fries from the chief signal offi- cer of the “yer f Gen. W. B. Haz the president of the society, Dr. F. A. P. Barnard. In this ‘eta the chief signal officer ex- presses the siciblat the Signal Service would naturally have in per- forming the important duty of dropping time balls in the various parts of the country, wherever competent local authority will fur- nish an accurate standard of time, and the cost of erection of the signal be assumed by those interested. That the public is getting to be fully aware of the economic value of having large sections of country living under the same clock time has been shown b om readiness with which communi- ties have united in such a common time when it has been proposed to them. For example, the bill ‘astiblishing a common State time country large. Ti alls are costly, t e; it worth the while to enquire into ae feasibility “of also establishing time guns—which, though under some conditions for the purpose. We gi ve the frooniiduik accom- bee Gen, Hazen’s letter in the foot note. MEMORANDUM No. 1. ee on which the Chief acim Officer codperates with others in the main- e Ball ieeds any Signal Servi ay rests danas established for the tar au * com- erce and agriculture, Pag - eta h two (2) or more men are necessarily station ae the Chief Signal Officer will contribute such portion of the time of one man will be necessary, in oe to keep in perfect working order the ball, mast, aes Miscellaneous Intelligence. 415 trical and other apparatus at the station, and will have the ball hoisted daily at the proper time, and the electric connections properly made; provided this does not, on - the average, require more of the time of the man on duty than one-half hour pe d 2d.—The ie of battery and battery-room, and of purchasing, installing 4 repairing sigs ie ratus, as also the expense attending the’astronomical determin: tion of Sans a the necessary getting te: must borne by other parties, ee must not in any way be imposed upon the Signal Service 3d.—The Chief Signal Officer will ict undertake such cooperation for the benefit of ~ good a, lo nor unless there is satisfactory evidence that the ‘ ee a nals” will be in charge of such astronomers and institutions as can guar high panned: of erecrar is and the uniform maintenance of their part of the ane service from year ce Wh —The signal. hich consists in dropping the “ time ball”, must be given automatically by tele graphy from the Astronomical Observatory, which shall alone be responsible for "ities ecuracy thereof. —The Chi ef S 1 Officer shoal pleased to publish such portions of the soma perc of t in charge of time balls as relate to the accuracy of t als, th.— Without ghragapt to aecsue r= a Chief Signal Officer would suggest, that the interests o vigators as well of railroad travelers, and of the community at large, as bably be best Pathe rved by serene the iti and especially at noon of the meridians of 75°, 90°, adh r 120° of tiie pial st of Greenwich, in accordance with the following schedu ing isco, time’ balls all drop at noon on iis c meridian. ox wie sao ‘ ae ‘ oc 90th “ Missal yt Valley bs ‘ bi 90th (0 Pacific Coast * “ « he 1S oa Thus, for instance, at Washington, the time ball will be dropped at exactly five hours of Greenwich mean time, which will be eight minutes earlier than Washing- mean noon, and three minutes later than New York mean noon Tth.—The Chief ape Service igen will take action in refo erence to time balls on tions scidaiaiolgts their aasieed to rer isi in water-level of ae on the borders Me Oregon d Ontiiern —A letter to the editors A owas: of ii ackeorvitie, Oregon, states that Goose Lake "30 miles long and two-thirds of it in Oregon, the rest in California, was r cae dp is ten feet deeper than it was in samghte and Tulie Lake, In the same region (the locality of the lava beds where were the eg Sa places of the Modoe Indians) is 10 or 15 feet higher to-day tha n. 3. Bibliographie Astronomique.—The second fascicule of this erie work of Messrs. Houzeau and Lancaster has been dis- 416 Miscellaneous Intelligence. observations; these are to appear in other volumes. The work seems to bé very complete, and will be invaluable to astronomers. 4, M Powe.t has been appointed Director of the Sera y Survey of the National Domain in place of Clarence King resigned. is various reports on the Rocky Mountain region, ss ea she and economical, show that he is well fitted for the positio 5. Report of the Siertitendeit of the United States Coast Survey, showing the progress of the work for the seca year ending with June, 1877, 192 pp., with 25 maps. Among the Appendices are the foll owing: Notes concerning alleged’ changes in the rela- tive elevations of land and of sea, by Henry Mrrenert; Descrip- tion of an apparatus devised for “observing currents in connection with the physical survey of the Mississippi River, by H. L. Mar- inDIN; Description of an optical densimeter for ocean water, by clamp for the ges of theodolites and meridian instruments, Davinson ; Observations of the density of the waters of Chesapeake Bay and its principal estuaries, by oi CoLuiys ; A quincuncial projection of the sphere, by C. 8! Per sorbilag in Practical oe Vol. I, Elementary Exercises, by A. S. Vernon Harcourt and H. G: Madan. Third ‘edition, revised by H. G. Madan. 480 = 8vo. ee 1880 at Press). A Memorial of Jo oseph Henry. 528 pp. st oagyee Pio 1880. Contents: nes duction, Proceedings in Congress relative to a public commemoration; Part I, Obsequies of Joseph Henry, pp. 7-27; Part t IL. Mem orial services at the Capitol, pp. ee -121; Part III, Memorial Proceedings of Societies pp. 125-475; Appendix. A Lecture on the deo of the work of completion of the new improved bed of the Danube at Vienna, and the lessons Spry thereby nee oh r with a descrip- tion of the catastrophe produce . a the B Borge o of 1 by Sir Gustave Wex. 33 pp., with five sheets of draw (Ex from ae eed al of the Society of Austrian Engineers and on rehitects 5 Ro 3, 7880), Translated by Major G. Weitzel, U.S.A. Washington, Meteorological p eentient ie ‘for the use of the Coast Pilot. Part II, On eer as Waterspouts and Tornadoes by William Ferrel. 95 pp. 4to, sat 6 plates. (U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Carlile P. Patterson, i opr ant). Methods and Results. Appendix No. 10 of Coast Survey Report for Report of the Director of the Detroit Observatory of the Tniversity of Michi = to the Board of Regents for the a beginning Oct. 1, 1879 and ending Jan. 1881 20 pp. 8vo. Ann Arbor, 1 Lnnual Report upon vee Surveys, of N sieves and Northwestern Lakes charge of Gen. C. B. Comstock, U. S. A., bein mrs aie a of the Annual Epi of the Chief of ge gee 1880. 93 pp. 8vo, with a map and several plates. Annual Report of the $ yanventean ay of the Selewstane National Park to the Secretary of the eres for the year — 64 pp. 8vo. Washington, Notes on North American Microgasters with descriptions of a new atis by C. V. Ril i Ph.D., 20 pe. Wrets the Mraciateionhe of the Academy of Sciences of St. Louis, vol. i y, No. Parasites of the ersaiten by Joseph Leidy, M.D, 25 pp. with two plates. From the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phileielphia, iy viii. OBITUARY. AcuitLeE Dertxssz, Inspector General of Mines in France and well known for his able researches in geology and mineralogy, died at Paris near the close of March. Vi a aoe ea a AP RE NDA. Art. LUI—Principal Characters of American Jurassic Dinosaurs; by O.C. Marsu. Part V. With seven Plates. In previous articles, the writer has described the main characters of Morosaurus, Apatosaurus, Diplodocus, and Atlantosaurus, the best known genera of the Sawropoda ti second species, equally gigantic in size, has since been found, and its distinguishing features are also here recorded. -wo new genera from the same formation are noticed, and an outline of classification of the best known American Jurassic Dinosaurs is proposed. Brontosaurus excelsus Marsh.t The present genus may readily be distinguished from all the other | oda by the sacrum, which is composed of fiv ankylosed vertebrae, none of the other genera in this group having more than four. The sternum, moreover, consists of two separate bones, which are parial, and were united to each other on the median line apparently by cartilage only. In many other respects the genus resembles Morosaurus. the present species, aside from its immense size, is distin- guished by the peculiar lightness of its vertebral column, the cervical, dorsal, and sacral vertebree all having very large cavi- ties in their centra. The first three caudals, also, are lightened by excavations in their sides, a feature not before seen in this group, and one not shared by the other species of this genus. * This Journal, xvi, 411, Nov., 1878, and xvii, 86, Jan., 1879. t This Journal, xviii, 503, Dec., 1879, and xix, 395, May, 1880. 418 0. C. Marsh—American Jurassic Dinosaurs. THe ScaputaR ARCH. The scapular arch in the present species is fortunately better known than that of any other Dinosaur hitherto discovered. In Plates XII and XII found. They are sub-oval in outline, concave above, an thickened in front, and shows a distinct facet for union with the coracoid. The posterior end is thin and irregular. Tue PresacraL VERTEBRA. in Birds. In the posterior cervicals, the ribs become free. ties, while those farther back have only one large foramen in each side of the centrum, as in the dorsals, O. C. Marsh—- American Jurassic Dinosaurs. 419 is region, but expanded. The vertebree in this region, as in all the known Sauropoda, have the peculiar diplosphenal articulation. This is shown in figure 2. In the vertebra figured, at the base of the neural spine, there is a strong anteridg projection, which was inserted into the cavity between and above the posterior pieepeptyns of the vertebra in front. There appa e lumbar vertebrae, as those near the sacrum sup- ported tee ribs of moderate size. These vertebree have both faces of the centrum nearly flat or biconcave. Tue Sacrum. cavity it contained. This was divided in part oe a median longitudinal partition, as shown in Plate tar i m, however, was not continuous the fh janet of = sac chien, so that the two lateral cavities were virtually on This extended even into the lateral processes. The caasices partitions formed by the ends of the respective sae were also aged so that the sacrum proper was tially a Another peculiar character of the sacrum in the present nus is its lofty neural s spine. This is a thin vertical plate of ne with a thick massive summit, evidently formed by the * Prof. Cope, mistaking the eet of these vertebra in an allied form, described them as Ai gine wean w genus, Amphicelias, and even a new family, Amphiceliide. (Proc. Am. Phi. Soc, xvii, 243) All the known Sawropoda, however, have similar vertebre, with opisthoccelian centra in the cervical and anterior dorsal regions. + This Journal, xiv, 87, July, 1877. 420 O. C. Marsh—American Jurassic Dinosaurs. union of the spines of several vertebrae. In front, it shows rugosities for the ligament uniting it to the adjoining vertebra, and its posterior margin likewise indicates a similar union with the first caudal. In this genus, as in all the Sawropoda, each vertebra of the sacrum supports its own transverse processes. As shown in Plate X VI, the articulation for the ilium is forme by the codssification of the distal ends of the transverse processes. 1e neural canal is much enlarged in the sacrum, but proportionally less than in Stegosaurus. THe CaupAL VERTEBRA. In the present species, the three vertebrae next behind the sacrum have moderate sized cavities between the base of the neural arch and the transverse processes. These shallow pock- ets extend into the base of the processes, but the centra proper are solid. All the other caudals have the centra, processes, and spines composed of dense bone. The fourth caudal vertebra, represented in Plate XVII, figures 1 and 2, is solid through- out, and the same is true of the chevron, figures 3 and 4. The neural spines of the anterior caudal vertebra are elevated and massive. The summit is cruciform in outline, due to the four strong butresses which unite to form it. The median caudals all have low weak spines, and no transverse processes. The posterior caudals are elongate, and without spines or zygapophyses, Tue Petvic ARcH. lage. The ischium is more slender than the pubis, and has its lower end expanded for symphysial union with the one on the other side. This pelvis is more like that of Atlantosaurus than any other of the known genera of the Sawropoda. The three bones shown in Plate XVIII were found nearly in the position represented, Fer aNN A Dil tame Cate Lin oi ie area sei Al Sah 8 O. C. Marsh—American Jurassic Dinosaurs. 491 Ebates: one sp. nov. vertebrae are less massive, the differences — ercaiy noticeable in the zygapophyses. The anterior caudals, more- over, are without the cavities noticed in the type species, and leas nee ed than the Eee ae ae part in Brontosaurus ewcelsu, pi metacarpals of the present species are more tee than in the other known members of the group. Diracodon laticeps, gen. et sp. nov. A new Jurassic Dinosaur of moderate size is je pea by various remains, among which are the tw ary bones. These are unusually slender, and peculiar in ihe, ‘ar e number of teeth they contained. These teeth resemble in form those of Echinodon, Owen. ey have compressed serrated crowns, sculptured on both sides. The base of the crown is expanded, and below this is a distinct neck, which will readily distin- guish these teeth from any hitherto found i in this country. Th teeth are implanted in distinct sockets, and there were twenty- two in each maxilla There is a foramen on the inner side, just below each tooth, and some ao oe on the outer side of each jaw. The teeth are ve e front of these jaws is edentulous, acd 1 this part curves pad so far that the snout must have been a broad one, almost batrachoid in form. can following measurements indicate the size of these speci- ens: ihaes length of pany boke. .ce dats tues 179e™ Space occupied by sade Brontosaurus sana aig Baio view ; one- ul sixteenth natural s , scapula; ¢, d; oid cavity ; 08 right ioe — oe lott sternal one rie cart rile as Ficure 2.—Left sternal bone, pei. a natural size; a, superior view ; }, inferior ion. ie ace for argin next to median line; e, inner front ae P ; Ssaleae a nt FIGURE csieagaite r are. si As young Rhea Americana, Lath; (after Parker); three-fourths natural : size; seen from below. Letters as above AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XXI, 1881. Plate XIV. 4.—The sam The signification of the wears is the same -in all the rae viz: all ; ¢, cup; d, icp ed f, lateral foramen; 2, neural canal; jarayophyss t, peas l rib; 2, anterior zygapophysis; Pa ; — Zy hh All the Maat Be are one-twelfth natural size nite aie AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XXI, 1881. Plate XV. Figure 1.—Dorsal vertebra of Brontosaurus eacelsus, Marsh, side view. 2.—The sam oO a FIgurE 2 ze. The signification of the letters in h s is as follows: }, ball; ¢, cup; d, diapophysis ; J, foramen in centrum; ”, neural canal; p, parapophy- Sis ; bad neural spine; 2, anterior zygapophysis ; 2’, | gamelan! gapopl ot bree 3.—Section through second vertebra of sacrum of ppt sus, one-tenth n —— size; ¢, cavity; . surface far union with ilium ; nc, neural canal. AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XXI, 188). Plate XVI. betwee lumbar vertebra; p, last sacral vertebr Sactum of Brontosaurus excelsus, Marsh, seen from below; one-tenth na _ size; a, first sacral vertebra; }, oe process of first vertebra ; d ; d, transverse a ocess of thir 8 rtebra; d, ra; e, transverse process of fourth pecan a: gf fo ramina esses 0 , surface 1881. Plate XVII. Tt ee ee ses os oa’ Figure 1.—Fourth caudal vertebra of Brontosaurus excelsus, Marsh, side view. Figure 2.—The same, front v In both figures the hi et of the letters is as. follows: c, face for chevron ; m, neural canal; s, neural spine ; t, transverse process ; 2 anterior zygapop hys is; 2’, sapien zy gapophysis. FIGURE 3,—Chevron of Bron tosaurus excelsus, _ view. Howse 4.—The same, front view; h, heemal canal. All the fisce os are vapeamgirie natural size. AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XXI, 1881. Plate XVIII. Pelvis of Brontosaurus excelsus, Marsh, seen from the left; one-sixteenth natural size; a, acetabulum; /, foramen. in pubis; 7, ilium; is, ischium ; P, pubis. ; ‘In this diagram, the three pelvic bones are represented nearly in the lan Same PLATE Xx, \ CT VOL. XXI Cc mn te AE 2 cues mi" Wj oA Ry TOUR. & / AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. [THIRD SERIES.] Art. LIV.— Geological relations of the Limestone Belts of West- chester County, New York; by JAMES D. Dana. Witha map (Plate XIX).* 4. Southern Westchester County and Northern New York Island. In the account, on former pages of this memoir,t of Southern Westchester County and the adjoining part of New York or Manhattan Island, many facts of general interest were omitted. e developments which have been announced have given the region great geological importance, since they. prove, on evi- ence both stratigraphical and paleontological, that the lime- Stones, gneisses and mica schists are part of the long north-and- south line of the Green Mountain formations, and also part of the Lower Silurian series which spread westward over the con- tinent.{ I propose here to describe, more fully than has been . done, the positions and relations of the limestone areas, and the flexures in these and the adjoining rocks. Toward this end * For the earlier parts of this memoir, see pages 21, 194, 359 and 450 of the last ae West of the chief line of the Green Mountains. Am. Jour. Sc1.—Tuinp Series, VoL. XXI, No. 126.—Junn, 1881. 28 426 J. D. Dana—On Southern Westchester County I have made many additional observations which are here included. The facts will be found to explain the origin of some of the features of New York Island, and indeed of New York City, while illustrating also certain general stratigraphical fea-_ tures of the Green Mountain system. In order that the points | may be readily ihe le a large geological map of the area is here added. (See Plate XIX. Explanations of the ig —The accompanying map is drawn on a scale of one mile to two inches. For the sake of precision in locating observations, it has upon it the streets that have been laid out over the surface.* I have added also, from ony map has been copied, by permission, from one of the maps (Nos. 14, 15) of the xy A quarto Atlas of Westchester cou published by Messrs. J. B. Beers & Co., of New York. The original map of the Atlas is a third larger in scale, and gives, among its many details, the poncaarien of pr » cigarette aes of A Street, is about six and a quarter miles long out of the total thirteen and a half. But it contains less than one-third the whole area . oy ote” and but a small part of the population of the city. I here describe, of Supplement to the 2 Artie in the Number for No- RIV. ST.| vember last, a lim a not included i in the Ww — os the limestone, “e at q, q, quarries, the m rthern one on the Delafield estate. At k, ~ ts Minediindk and prs masses of lime- stone about the more southern appear to be partl 77 high and abrupt declivity. About the northern AN 5 DUYVIL termination of the area, outcrops of schist occur IN near the river south of the Riverdale Station as and n the area to the — Liven! wert of N. 10°-18° E.; but north of the the strike of the schist changes to N. 34° E. The schist naomi th the area is ra nentdenilte, Some of the beds of limestone at both q contain and the Northern part of New York Island. 427 tion of the stem, the amount and direction of the pitch or dip of the beds. For the convenience of the reader, I repeat the Tatios between the stem of the T and half its top which are adopted to express the angles of dip. Dip of 80° a ratio of 1 : 4 Dip of 35° a ratio of 5: 4 70° 14:4 25° 6:4 x : 20° 7:4 50° oS 4 15° 8:4 45° 10° 9:4 4:4 Dip of 5° a ratio of 10: 4 Consequence of local flexures or undulations in the stratifica- tion; as in fig. 24 (the dips indicated by which are 25° and 45°), And when such local flexures arch over, the symbol approximately horizontal), as in fig. 25. * On a large ipt map, a convenient length for the top of the T is eight millimeters ; and this adopted, the above ratios are in mi imeters. Or, if the top is made one-third of an inch long (about eight and one-half millimeters), the ratios are in twenty-fourths of an inch. 428 J. D. Dana—On Southern Westchester County Additional notes on the Rocks.—The crystalline schists of the I have us gneiss generally garnetiferous, and in some places hornblendic, or contain hornblende schist in intercalated beds; and have been found to contain cyanite at localities between 4th and 5th Avenues and 42d and 5lst Streets.* I have now to report that the schist is crowded with minute needles of fibrolite at several oints between the same avenues farther to the north (north of 115th street), aud also in Westchester County, north of Mott aven, near the Mott Avenue bridge over the Hudson River railroad track : a fact which adds to the close relations betweer the rocks of New York and those of eastern Westchester County, at New Rochelle, oe also those of the northern part of the county, south of Peeks sa ar of the normal type— that i is, Umearey inc only a moder- te proportion of mica —is not com A fine- grained, thick- heidsied light gray gneiss npaihiag: ‘little black and white mica, makes the bluff bounding on the west the limestone area between Tremont and Morrisania, and has been quarried at several points. By microscopic examination of a thin slice, I have found it to be two-thirds granular quartz, so that it is in reality quartzytic gneiss or gneissic quartzyte. e other ingredients are haga se and microcline, with traces of black tourmaline. It is ous, and weathers rather deeply, and loses thus its black tits before it does its firmness. mon the thicker beds occurs an occasional thin layer of mica schist. The preenee of hornblende or hornblendic schist appears to have often determined a crowd of subordinate flexures and contortions in the beds, and a loss of distinctness in the minor layers. I have explained on on the dee ae hornblende is relatively a fusible mineral (being of the e 8, on von . Kobell’s scale of fusibility), while the feldspar rior whieh ortho- clase is the prevailing one) and the mica (black and white) are of difficult fusibility (5 to 6, on the same scale); and, in conse- uence, beds that become porenene in the metamorphic process easily ie and bend. A good example is seen in a section on 110th Street, between 9tb and 10th Seba © where the micaceous gneiss has high dip (mostly 80° t 90°, but varying locally) and in some are contains much e rnblende. This street (the 110th) here Hen through the schist vedo to its bedding, and has on the north side a vertical face of a ix Soa ay was first found on New York Island by cn Pie not Cozzens, as by Dr. Torrey in this Journal, vi, 364 (1823); Mr. Cozzens, in his «“Geologice! History of Manhattan or New York Island” (843), soap eh io neighborhood of the Deaf and Dumb Asylum (which was then si 49th and 50th Streets and boos and 5th Avenues) as the locality. + This Journal, xx, 24, 200, 206, and the Northern part of New York Island. 429 extensive joint or fracture. The surface over a large area ‘ looks as if made up of the flat ends of great and nearly hori- zontal columns (fig. 26). The rock is here largely hornblendic, 27, quartz, often fail of bedding, and look enough like igneous rocks to be frequently referred, without a question, to that class. Ihave observed other examples on New York Island, and between 133d and 138th streets. The rock over the higher rocky portion of the Park, north of the center (as long known) is largely hornblende schist, in many parts epidotic. The beds are bent in zigzags, and sometimes vary 90° in strike in a few micaceous gneiss outcropping on 10th and 11th Avenues vary little in strike or dip. Such zigzags, however, although com- mon in the hornblendie beds, are not confined to them. ” i _L. D. Gale respecting hornblende beds in aid iin en. pra Bridge (hited in Mather’s N. Y. Report, p: 599): “in places hornblende so predominates as to cause the rock to assume a columnar structure.” 430 J. D. Dana—On Southern Westchester County The crystalline limestone—strictly dolomite—often contains so much dark brown or black mica in scales as to look like a_ thick-bedded gneiss; yet it betrays its true nature, here as usually elsewhere, by the occurrence of some crumbling sur- aces. Besides tremolite, chlorite, with a little graphite and coccolite-like grains. The white crystals accompany tremolite in northern New York, near the King’s Bridge Road,* and the coccolite variety characterizes part of the limestone of the “Mount Eden” region, north of Fleetwood Park. Orthoclase in cleavable pieces also is sometimes an impurity of the lime- stone; and pyrite is a common source of disintegration and iron-rust stains. The limestone areas are in part low and marshy, owing to the easy destruction of the rock. But in some parts of the region there are long, broad ridges, a hundred feet or so in height. One of these ridges extends from Morrisania to Ford- ham, and many quarries have been opened in it. Another of them, equally prominent but of the less pure, gneiss-like limestone, passes through “ Mount Eden,” and has given occa- sion to the extravagant expression Mount in the name of this locality of prospective streets and houses. After these general remarks, I proceed to the special facts connected with the limestone areas and the associated schists. 1. Limestone Arn, No. 1. A. The portions of the Area in Westchester County.—The general fact has been stated that, in this easternmost of the belts, the beds on the eastern side have a high eastward the dip (figure 29), and on the western usually a high ans westward dip, corresponding with the idea that the AW beds make an anticlinal flexure. This steep dip _“_—_ continues on the eastern portion quite to the Harlem: but on the western, it varies in its northern part to 70° E., an south of Tremont station from 80° W. to 60° W., becoming 50° W. and less in local folds. : The center of the belt from Fordham to Morrisania, where it commences to widen, has equally high dip; but south of this e Road. The specimens from this locality were’ first recognized as pyroxene by the Abbé Haiiy, after an examination of crystals sent him by Dr. Archibald Bruce, the editor of Bruce’s Mineralogical Journal. The fact is reported in the last num- ber of that Journal, published in 1814, on page 266. and the Northern part of New York Isiand. 431 there are undulations in the beds with dips of 45° to 30° and less, both eastward and westward, corresponding with a widen- ing out of the anticlinal. These undulations (of which there are successions across the region) are well shown in Melrose, on Elton Avenue, above 159th Street (see map), and also near 30. : SESS Serene GZZEWN ENO LN Z EWN ANS L\Q[SI 156th and 155th Streets, (fig. 30, representing a length of thirty-five yards) and on 150th Street, east of Cortlandt Avenue (fig. 31, representing a length of one hundred yards). There are outcrops also on 149th Street. Farther south, about 140th Street, or below this, the lime- stone area is divided into two bands, an eastern and western, separated by schist—whether underlying or overlying schist, is considered beyond. : he outcrops of schist which prove this occur to the south, between 133d and 136th Streets, east of Willis Avenue (a spot marked by T-symbols on the map). The micaceous beds are iver. It probably extends on beneath the low, now grass- covered, grounds of the west side of Randall Island, the once en low when civilization took possession. referred to occurs on Kast River, fifty feet north of 123d Street, and is exposed only at low tide. The micaceous gneiss is thin schistose, and the beds have a strike of N. 26° E., with the 432 J. D. Dana—On Southern Westchester County dip 60° W. But farther south in the same line, that is, east of 3d Avenue, there are large outcrops of micaceous gneiss between 89th and 70th Streets, having the strike of the bedding N. 30° E. The beds are undulating, pitching at small angles both eastward and westward, except east of Avenue A toward or near Kast River, where the dips become high—90° to 70° E. Fig. 32 represents a section on 75th Street, east of Avenue A; fig. 88, another on 77th Street, east of the same avenue; fig. 34, a portion of a section near Hast River. * ey thus accord in position with the similarly ob situated beds north of the Harlem, and would seem Wit} to indicate that the anticlinal is distinguishable at \ | least to this distance, although it is hardly probable tha tinues so far down the river. The western or Mott Haven Limestone band outcrops on the island between 118th and 124th Streets. The ledge of lime- stone with intercalated gneiss, north of 122d Street and east of and adjoining Lexington Avenue, first described by Mr. Stevens,* is the principal locality remaining. It is about 125 feet in breadth. His section of the limestone and schist con- tains an anticlinal flexure (now hardly distinct); but the mass exposed is certainly but a small part of the whole limestone band, and the flexure is evidently one of the local flexures so common in the stratification of that vicinity. The easternmost of the beds on 122d Street—which is about 35 feet wide and the purest—bends from N. 28° E. (the normal strike) to N. 54° E., and disappears beneath the adjoining yard and house; and probably the chief part of the limestone band is situated farther to the east along 3d Avenue. There are also three layers of limestone in the schist south of 122d Street. Besides these outcrops, there is much calcareous material in portions of the gneiss east of 4th Avenue between 118th and 120th Streets, as reported by Dr. Gale, and also on 124th Street, which localities lie to the west of the general range of the band. : As to the southern limit of the band there is no positive evidence. In view of the range of low land directly south along and east of 8d Avenue, and the outcrops of schist on the western side, it probably goes at least as far as 103d Street. Mr. R. P. Stevens, in the paper already referred to, states that limestone was found 18 feet below the surface, in 50th Street, between 3d and 4th Avenues, in excavating for a culvert; an this must belong to the same band, althongh the limestone 1s * Annals of Lye. Nat. Hist. of N. York, viii, 116, 1865. and the Northern part of New York Island. 433 interrupted over more or less of the interval between, by the s eiss, The schists west of this line of limestone show themselves promi- nently on New York Island east of 4th Avenue between 129th and 130th Streets, and also both west and east farther south between 125th and 114th Streets. The beds have, in general, a dip of 60° to 50°. But there are broad and narrow undula- tions, with eastward and westward dips, as represented on the’ map, and illustrated as to general character in figs. 82, 33. Some portions are /fibrolitic, as stated above; and this fact, taken in connection with the existence of the related cyanitic schist in the same line of bedding or strike near 42d and 45th Streets, is much in favor of the conclusion that this western overlying stratum of schist continues southward at least to 42d Street, or the vicinity of the Grand Central Station; and the fact that limestone exists in the same line of strike in 50th Street sustains this conclusion. 2. LIMESTONE ARRA, Nac, A. In Westchester County.—The limestone area No. 2, or that of the valley of Cromwell’s Creek (called also the Clove) joins that already described through the region of Fleetwood Park, as shown on the map. The northern limit of the belt is about two miles north of McComb’s (or Central) Bridge. At this north farther north the schist makes only its western portion for 600 yards, and then narrows out leaving limestone alone, excepting an occasional intercalation of gneiss; and it is the kind o limestone already spoken of as firm and gneiss-like in aspect, and as containing much mica and in places green coccolite. From the ridge, the limestone extends across Cromwell Creek Valley: but it is here much less firm, and has in general small and varying dip. The beds are well displayed just east of entral Avenue a mile north of McComb’s bridge (near Judge Smith’s House) where the layers dip eastward from 30° to 70° and some are remarkably cbloritic; and also less satisfactorily, half a mile farther north (opposite Sibbern’s Club House, ©.). Limestone of the firm thick-bedded kind is exposed to view also on the rising land east of the lower part of Cromwell's Creek and, at one place, in sight from the east end of the 161st Street bridge (the first north of MeComb’s), it has been quarried. 434 J. D. Dana—On Southern Westchester County The schist east of the limestone along the west side of Fleet- wood Park is nearly vertical in its bedding. That on the west side has, north of 167th Street, a high dip to the eastward, like the prevailing dip of the limestone; but south of this it becomes nearly vertical, and then westerly, and, within a fourth of a mile of McComb’s bridge, the beds have widely varying dip with large contortions in the bedding, though westerly dips pre- vail; yet on the Harlem River side, the beds have greater regu- larity and stand nearly vertical. As shown below, they here face the Harlem River band of limestone. B. On New York Island.—In New York, the limestone band to the east or west of this locality. How far this Cromwell Valley belt extends south of 181st Street is uncertain. The surface continues low to 124th Street, where rise the rocky ledges of Mt. Morris Park, and this may well be its southern limit. It is a question, however, whether it does not narrow and pass by the west side of the park, and, continuing southward, enter the low northeast corner of Cen- tral Park; in which case 103d Street would be its farthest pos- sible limit since on 102d the schists of Central Park spread eastward across 5th Avenue, and so bring to an end the low valley: like area. * This Journal, xx, 362 (Nov., 1880), where I cite a remark respecting it from R. P. Stevens in Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist., N. Y., viii, 116. ‘ and the Northern part of New York Island. 435 3. LivestonE AREA, NO. 3. A. The Limestone.—The main facts respecting this area have already been given, and I have little to add except the evidence with reference to its extension down Hariem River. The map shows its position south of King’s Bridge—its spreading over the Inwood Parade grounds,* the site selected for the proposed exposition of 1883—and its dividing into a western band which extends southward along the valley occupied by the King’s Bridge Road, the chief highway of Northern New York, and an eastern, of greater length. The western band I have not traced by outcrops beyond 194th Street; but the valley is so well defined by its western wall of schist and its flat bottom that there is little doubt as to the continuation of the limestone to 187th Street, and it may not end short of 183d Street, where the valley fades out.t The most southern locality of limestone mentioned by Dr. Gale and Professor Mather is just north of the Inwood Presbyterian Church, to the north of which all the old quarries of the region are situated. r. Gale states, as quoted on page 519 of Mathers N. Y. Report, that “at th Avenue, the rock is entirely changed both in composition and structure; in composition it is a mixture of limestone and probably because of changes since made in t grading. The locality is nearly in the line that the western band would follow. The existence of an eastern limestone band down Harlem River is placed beyond question by the fact—made known to jami Chetek Resident Engineer in charge kK. These grounds lie directly north of Sherman’s Creek, east of the King’s Bridge ad _ + Within this limestone area, east of the Inwood “ Presbyterian Church,” there is a small isolated area of micaceous gneiss, having a nearly northeast strike. It crosses the King’s Bridge Road northeast of the church, and is about 225 yards long and 75 wide : e magnesian character of this King’s Bridge limestone was first determined by Mr. I. Cozzens, who states in his “Geological History of Manhattan Island. that it afforded him 28 per cent of carbonate of magnesia, and adds that he made epsom salts of it. _ ¢ The extremities of the bridge are left off in the copy here presented to reduce it to the length of the page, they being unessential to the illustration of the geo- ical facts. » 436 J. D. Dana—On Southern Westchester County limestone, while numbers 8, 4, 5, 6, 10, 11, 12 are built on piles which do not reach to rock, In the case of piers 10, 11, 12, the stone foundations, as I have learned from the same authority, go down thirty feet below high water, and the piles fifty feet farther. The lower ends of these piles are consequently eighty feet below high water level and yet do not reach the bottom of the river channel. The depth of the excavation, which is thus proved to exist there, makes it extremely probable that the material excavated to such a dept Fa a Oz ~< a) tr) in z a} —— TH E ———— a are i \ ingly probable that it extends to the bend Kas at 155th Street; and, since the valley con- e =P\ linues southward in the same line along Pua Ps 27 IM garden plots, either side of the avenue, It is very probable that the limestone also continues.* These low lands or flats ex- tend quite to Central Park, or 110th “ {ae mars T AME $s e/a whether the limestone also extends to the Hsp 8 Park is among the doubtful points which Gas only boring or excavation can now settle. = ne} B. Schist east of this Eastern (or Harlem le ¢& Eg River) limestone band. — Me ASE g Comb’s Bridge, along 7th Avenue, there HC & ae are ledges of micaceous gneiss which are Hts 2 F continued to 135th Street; the beds are KC Y Se = nearly vertical, the dip being 70° to 80) HY 32 5 to the eastward to 90°, and the strike rp as varies little from N. 28° E. The beds Sectional view of the Croton Aqueduct (or High) Bridge crossing the Harlem River between Westchester County and New York Island. directly north of McComb’s Bridge are * Respecting this upper part of 8th Avenue, Dr. Gale says: “The valley through whee 8th Avense passes is throughont its course a perfect level and but a few feet above the level of Harlem River.” BSE ey Loe RNS ne ee ae aN ER a, EE CA Nt a eS mE MET ‘ ye Sena Stee sige and the Northern part of New York Island. 437 described above. On Harlem River about a mile north of this bridge (or 14 mile south of King’s Bridge), at Morris Dock Station, a light gray, fine-grained gneiss outcrops, which effer- vesces on the application of acid on account of the presence of calcareous or dolomitic material. This characteristic appears to show that it lies near the eastern border of the Harlem River limestone. North of this, to King’s Bridge, there are no tinues to Central Park, the dip being generally 85° E. ° 4. STRATIGRAPHICAL RELATIONS OF THE LIMESTONE AND SCHIST OF THE DIFFERENT AREAS. Mutual relations of the limestones—From the statement of facts which has been made and the exhibition of them on the map, it is evident that the limestone of area No. 1 and that of o. 2 are one and the same mass or formation. As to the identity with these of the limestone of the western area, No. 8, the proof is less positive, since No. 2 is nowhere oa eth de River at McComb’s bridge, because of the varying flexures and low dips in the stratification just north of it (much like map) and the contrast in this respect with the beds just south of the bridge. But after a careful study of the beds of both the 8th, so low that grading for streets has been carried on by filling, not by excavation, and no rocks in place have been encountered. Such features are of the kind natural to a lime- stone area, and suggest that a union of the limestone bands of the 8th and 6th avenues may take place somewhere between 135th and 120th Streets. ~ 438 J. D. Dana—On Southern Westchester County South of this flat country there is a sudden transition to eneissic hills—those of the Park; the limestone is absent. Nothing is seen of the 8th Avenue belt, or of that east of 6th Avenue. Whether the formation continues southward under- neath the schist or not is a problem for further investigation. Some facts that may have a bearing on this point are men- tioned on page 363 of the last volume of this Journal. Thickness of the limestone—The thickness of the limestone formation may be best derived from the northern part of Area No. 1, in Tremont. Since the beds stand nearly vertical, the thickness is about half the width, and therefore not far from 50 feet. From the section at High Bridge over the Harlem, be thickness there may be 700 feet, but probably is not over 0 , correct, then the schist adjoining the limestone on its west side lies in a synclinal fold; and the broad part of the Cromwell Creek limestone band, in the vicinity of Mount Eden, and for the half mile south, is in an anticlinal: a single anticlinal only, although so wide; for the limestone in its western half is in broad synclinal or anticlinal; probably the former, since west- erly dips prevail on the Harlem River or eastern side of the schist and easterly on that of the Hudson. But, on the other hand, the schists north of Tremont next west of limestone area No. 1, so generally dip eastward that it is a fair question whether the limestone of area No. 1 1s not In a synclinal instead of an anticlinal. Again, at the extremity of this ridge of schist on the north side of Fleetwood Park (see on the east, as if the schist of this belt was in an anti- clinal instead of synclinal. eastern end of this section.) the schists to the west of it, on the west side of Cromwell Creek, dip eastward; and this favors the idea of a synclinal for this limestone instead of an anticlinal. ; etapa AT tanya aaa, ay era a Rane eo eae ne aD ar ee tae talks E (et eee TR and the Northern part of New York Island. 439 These statements make it manifest that the question as to the actual character of the flexures is not easily cleared of the doubts that arise from local displacements and from varying positions of the axial plane of the flexures. Uncertainties exist also because of the covering of soil or drift over a large part of the region. Although the plotting of sections from the obtainable facts (exhibited on the map) is consequently unsatisfactory work, I present the following sections (see page 441) as probably, in a general way, correct. The four sections cross the region from west (the left) to east: No. 1, through Tremont; 2, through Morrisania, along 168th Street, just north of Fleetwood Park; 3, through Melrose, along 159th Street; 4, through Mott Haven, along 138th Street. A section through Harlem would differ little from the last. it may correspond to otsdam sandstone and the schist associated with it in some regions (as near Peekskill and ompkins’ Cove). Its veins are mostly of quartz. The syn- comes covered with schist — overlying schist—south of Eden, as appears in section 2, and this ridge extends south to Mott Haven, appearing in sections 3 and 4, and beyond. It is in places fibrolitic to the north of Mott Haven, as well as to the south. Whether the schist between Cromwell’s Creek and the Har- lem River limestone is in one, two, or more folds is uncertain ; ifin only one, the actual thickness of this underlying stratum of schist is large, and only a small lower portion of it is con- tained in the belt of schist west of Tremont. The two westernmost bands of limestone in section 1 are those of Area No. 3,—the eastern or Harlem River band, and the western or King’s Bridge Road band. They are represented as the opposite sides of a synclinal with overlying schist between. In the other sections only the eastern of the two occurs. i schist is mostly micaceous gneiss and mica schist, all the way to 110th Street, but contains in some parts hornblende schist. * The local flexures in the beds are intended to show only that there are local _ flexures, not to represent special flexures. 440 J. D. Dana— On Southern Westchester County 5. ORIGIN OF VARIOUS TOPOGRAPHICAL FEATURES OF NEW YORK ISLAND. Valleys and Low Areas.—From the distribution of the lime- stone, as exhibited on the map, and the fact of its easy wear or erosion, we derive explanations of several topographical features of New York Island and the adjoining region. For example we learn— Why Harlem river has its present position and depth, and its north and south course; Why there is an “‘ Highth Avenue val- ley;” Why the “Inwood parade grounds” are a broad rolling region from the Harlem to the King’s Bridge Road ; Why, south of the Inwood Presbyterian Church, there was a King’s Bridge Road valley, to fix the position of that old highway; Why Sherman’s Creek bends around the Fort George heights; Why Cromwell’s Creek exists and the valley or “Clove” to the north; Why Fleetwood Park is low and nearly flat, except its western side; Why Third Avenue in Harlem and the region east of it is low; Why wide flats (with small exceptions), extend from East River more than two-thirds of the way across the island, just north of Central Park; and, perhaps, why there is an Kast River channel. The limestone lands that are not low may owe their height to the fact that erosion follows water courses; but, besides, the rock when in nearly vertical beds—usually the fact in such places—is generally of a firmer kind, because the pressure which gave the beds this position, served to compact the rock and so favored closer and better consolidation. Trends of Ledges and City Avenues.—We also find a good reason for the precise direction given by the city surveyors to the New York avenues—it being the mean direction of the strike or direction of the bedding in the gneiss, and thence of the rocky ledges of the island. Many parts of the avenues in the northern half of the island have now a low evén wall on one side or the other,.made by a flat and nearly vertical cleavage- surface of the schist.* . The Manhattanville Valley.—The Manhattanville Valley (or Manhattanville and Harlem, as called by Dr. Gale), which cuts across the island obliquely from Manhattanville on the Hud- son in a nearly southeastward direction, is one of its most ex- traordinary geological and topographical features, as mentioned on page 427. It reached Kast River, in a broad creek and marsh south of 108th Street; and so low lay the surface along it from one side of the island to the other, that in 1826 a canal was projected that should here connect Harlem River with the Hudson ; and the canal was so far constructed that a celebra- tion took place of the completion of the first loc * The avenues of New York run N. 28° 504’ E._ This parallelism between the strike of the beds and the avenues is referred to by Dr. Gale. pee % ; . ‘ ee, ‘ + NMS AP - ‘ saUy 39 “PF ys f TeuIpUds 441 eh a ‘. . eg Rea Are eae Tg et ah Pa aa ‘HW } Pye ‘YH H qsitos “yog “g { peupouds w10 LF Fee a \ H i :(F pue g ‘Z suOHoes UL aTO\s =F uot TALL qou) ‘AY oy_ Supe ystyos TT Soper’ Seg ys 4 } i } ; oe i YSZ i ‘ VA eS “YosSe } SUOT098 UT Jou) T woyoes Ul WW feces erste : ; ‘ edopy qunoyY Jo yey Suyoq i i V-'Y HH PA Suryeur ‘ouoys S50. NM { ‘ay yp feuoqseumy JOATY UNO] a 1 “Ws =i Bor Wee Fa Cree S “YOSE 8,[JeaMtMoIN JO suOysomNy “A ae ey ‘) teuojseuny, usps qunop, 4H “aNd "UH ‘AN Jo youd) “i—? SNOILVNV Td XT 99 and the Northern part of New York Island. 6 3 - 3 : c= Jd Z wae iteiy ‘ H : reek SS ie rors TH HH e Bs + 3 es. pot og ‘ ; . H 4 ‘ EST a TED W? s wok "Yyos: . \ bes ee He a Lf ‘ MMO em i's , , ; : ; Am. Jour. Sct.—Tairp Series, Vou. XXI, No. 126,—Juneg, 1881. WH bi ae =e > O 442 J.D. Dana—On Southern Westchester County, etc. The valley is supposed by Dr. Gale to have had a glacial origin, since it follows quite closely the course of the glacial grooves over the island. But the rocks point to its earlier existence and a profounder cause. The general direction or strike of the beds of schist on the west side of 8th Avenue is about N. 29° E.—the dip being nearly vertical. But near this Manhattanville Valley, the strike, while normal to the north of it, to the south diverges eastern part of the Park and north of it. Whatever be true as to the nature of the flexure, the facts support the idea of a wrenching in the schists of the vicinity ; for these variations in pitch are not found south of the Manhattanville Valley.* Finally, we may conclude that the pre-determinations of the fundamental features of New York Island date back to the era of the Lower Silurian, and to the epoch of mountain-making at its close. No other rocks that now remain have been added by subsequent geological operations excepting the loose or * If the occurrence of limestone and serpentine on 157th Street near 10th Avenue, mentioned by Dr. Gale (see page 423)should be verified, it would give some support to the view that the western band of limestone of Area No. 3 is - ee eit NC BORO eee in)” Note nam A Nie ny ar oy ved ie tel L. Waldo—Papers on Thermometry. 443 unconsolidated material of the surface. Fissures and faults ° ot a ® mn =I 5 9 ct 5 e) nm r a © — a) ° e) ra pe) 5B bar) — < o a eb) o _— o oO g9 i=} ro er on o *o ber J ® mM ® 5 or stone outcrops in Harlem, between 3d and 4th and 5th and 6th Avenues, must make his excursion soon. [To be continued. | Art. LV.—Papers on Thermometry from the Winchester Observ- atory of Yale College; by LEONARD WALDO. [Continued from page 226. ] For the comparison of standard thermometers the observa- tory has had constructed by J. and H. J. Green, of New York, a water comparator which consists essentially of an outer and the water is thoroughly agitated by the plunger, which is vent radiation from or to the base of the cylinders by a mat which can be brought close against the base when the Bunsen 444 L. Waldo—Papers on Thermometry. burner is removed.* With this apparatus, and with the assistance of Mr. O. T. Sherman, a comparison between the German standards “Fuess 89 ” and ‘“ Fuess 50.” the French standards “'Tonnelot 2584” and ‘“Tonnelot 2585,’+ * The generai reg is that of Pierre. ace A apse sur la Thermom- etrie et sur la dilatation des Liquides, par J. I. Pie Caen, 1878, p. 57. + the various ae ods propo osed for the dalemanigtion of the calibration errors of thermometers, those of Newmann and Bessel leave little to be desired for elega i tter of practice, however, especiall © ese methods require too much time except for the most refined work. groyene J method will give the calibration Prepare at nine points (inclusive of the term nal ore be cating, t with three columns of mercury, or at seventeen poin ate with f Let 1 = the he gt of a column of mercury occupying the half of the distance n the — ing and boiling points in a thermometer nearest ms i beside oo poi 1,= the Rac of aco aa of mercury occupying the half of the distance n the gated and boiling points in a thermometer nearest oe se heniia oe poin 44—)=A f= +a= the cee correction for the point midway between the * free reezing and boiling poin --42... An... Ai= these eoteeticis for Faso Bilresad. . py .. ty. . 3th of bet the freezing and boiling point, sragugiehegt ey ihe « errors of calibration at the freezing and boiling points ar b, b’,= the eager correction at the points corresponding to As , and Aye on 60, 0%, ov = Rowe calibration correction at the points corresponding to 42. As, 52 4 on the papbsengen that the corrections at the points nd Ajz are each e to zer ddd”... des the oe wnidion at the e points corresponding to 4.1. iy Abs e+... Aj4 on the assumption that the corrections at the points A», As., Aro, Ais are each equal to zero. And we may w or a calibration doterhdiigallion: at fifteen intermediate points, the following equations which admit of rapid and — resent jon A, =0 As. Ai-=ta+ po +4cr+d Aa = Stes eden e ae As = fa+ b+ 404d : Ay = fa + v A». = §a + 3b + feo + a” Ais = da + BY + 40" + a ate = $a + $b ec Rei 0 Az. = fa + $b + $e? + a” For 5 velibeniies computation for seven intermediate points, instead of fifteen, we simply omit the formule containing d, d’; ete., and conversely the computation L. Waldo— Papers on Thermometry. 445 and the Kew standards ‘Kew 578” and “Kew 584” was made. The usual spree is were taken to arrange the ther- mometer readings so as to them from the effects of com- parator radiation, ne after aottecliais the observations for their known errors of calibration and zero points, the Fuess and Tonnelot readings were subtracted from the Kew readings and from the residuals thus obtained a curve was drawn from which the i pec corrections were obtained, ccorenol in Centigrade degrees Siege depending on the glass and the thermometer construction) ‘hag imecd ce the Fuess and Tonnelot standards to the Kew standar A A A A Fuess 89 and = Tonnelot 2584 and Fuess 89 and Bi tn oe 2584 and Reading. Fuess 50. Tonnelot 2585. Reading. Fuess 50. nelot 2585. 0° “00 55° —0° at 5 0°02 0°00 60 —O0°19 0°28 10 —0°03 00 65 —0O17 —0°28 15 —0°05 —0°02 70 —O°15 —0°27 20 0°07 0°05 75 0°14 0°26 25 —0°09 —0°09 80 —0°12 —0°25 30 —O°1l —O'11 85 —0°10 — 0°22 35 —0'13 —0°14 90 —0°0T —0°19 40 0-15 0°17 95 0°05 0-09 45 —O1T —0°20 100 0°00 0°00 50 —0°19 —0°22 T ha land, of the Johns Hopkins ppd the notes of compari- son made between Kew 584, Fuess 50, Tonnelot 2585 and the standards of his laboratory, Baniin 6163, Baudin 6165, Baudin vam be rae by: include thirty-one intermediate points by the insertion of another * é, P erouia take the hecemndahce:t oe of tl tl eter “Tonnel lot 2585,” which is gr it’s scale fr g the boiling points and has 1°= — ‘The columns marked /; and / contain — lengths of the three mae of mercury at the respectiv e places in the therm eter tube indicated by a, b, b’, and ¢, c’, c’, c’”’: of course J, merely indicates that it is the upper column and has a value at shout 89°, 43° and 24° successively. | 333, +3 3 f the thermom- Hh Cus z 7 1, = 000 =0°'000 at 32°0F, 24 =89°190—89°-220,:. a= —0°-015 and Aa= a=" 904 — Nae 018 =+°012 at 54°5F. 26 = 42-743— 42°752 b=— 0-005 and As, = —-008—-005 =—'013 at 77-0F. 20’ = 42-700— 42.720 b’=— 0-010 and Ais = =— ae 002—-006 =—-020 at 99°5F. f¢ = 23°630— 23°593 c—+ 0°018 and AY 8 = =— ‘O15 at 122-°0F. 2c’ = 23-600— 23-613 Ae — 0°006 and Rees sae 002 = —-009 at 144°5F, 2c” = 23-620— 23°617 c’= + 0-002 and Aiz=—*008—"010 = —'018 at 167‘0F, 2¢”"= 23-600— 23-612 pam — 0°006 and ruses 004—'005—-006 =—-015 at 189-5F. 0-000 0°000 at 212-0F. The Tonnelot thermometers referred a were made in Se ge 1879, and mes a graduation em, ing from + 5° to + 230° F, with about 1°8™™ to 1°. They divided to 0°-5 F. re a total length of fob 455™™ with cylindrical bulbs sat wee long. They Se calibrated and are otherwise highly creditable to their maker, Tonnelot of Pan 446 LL. Waldo—Papers on Thermometry. 7316, and Kew 104, which afford the means of expressing the three first named thermometers in terms of the air thermometer ‘observations and referring each thermometer to Rowland’s absolute scale* a combination of the Yale and Johns Hopkins comparisons gives as a probable value of the relation between these standards and the air thermometer, the following system —, of corrections to be applied to the Kew, Fuess and Tonnelot standards respectively. @ Reading. Tonnelot 2535. Fuess 50. Kew 584. 0° 0°-00 0°-00 The curve for this ther- —0-02 —0°03 mometer shows slight ir- 10 — 0°03 —0°05 regularities on both sides i 15 0°05 —0°08 of the absolu a as 20 —0:07 —0:10 no case giving a correction - 0°09 0713 exceedin. 0° if 30 —0'11 —0°15 generally within —0°-02 35 —0°13 —O17 ©. of it. Since to adopt 40 0-15 0-18 these corrections would 45 —O17 —0°19 imply that Jolly’s air ther- 50 —0°19 —0°21 mometer i correc 55 — 0°20 —0°21 indications to 01™™, ozs 60 —0°21 — 0°20 consider th parison 65 0-20 — 0°20 as uncertain, and assume 70 —0°20 —019 that Kew 584 ha mall, 7b —0°18 —017 ndete neg e 80 017 —014 correction to reduce its f 85 —0'14 0:12 readings to the absolute 90 +011 —0-09 scale between +25° and 95 —0°05 —O0°05 +75° C. 100 0°00 0-00 filling. When filled the tube ¢ is sealed in the blow-pipe flame. The capillary 6 ends in a barom- eter tube d, 5™ in length, at the lower end of which a rubber tube forms the connection with a long barometer tube, fe, of the same glass as d. Tube / e projects through an motion in a V-shaped trough in which it is held by springs. Its . vertical motion is communicated by the hand of an assistant. * Vid. On the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. Proc. Am. Acad., Bost., 1880, p. 115. * F Sadi L. Waldo—Papers on Thermometry. 447 The advantage of this form of air thermometer is that the whole of the apparatus is at the temperature of the comparator, and is placed in a medium which will give us with great pre- cision the temperature of the mercury in the air thermometer tubes. The corrections for the air contained in the capillary time to satisfy myself that we reach very nearly the same results as Professor Rowland has done before us. In a subse- scientific men. The general characteristics of the above classes of thermom- eters may be described as follows : Designation. Characteristics. 1. Kew standards, Thick stems, medium sized cylindrical bulbs blown from a separate piece of glass and joined to the ther the same pot as t composed. Flint glass known as ‘‘ Powell’s best flint.” 2. Fuess standards. Thin stem, small cylindrical bulbs blown from the same glass. Detached porcelain seale. Glass unknown. 3. Tonnelot standards. | Medium stem, long cylindrical bulbs blown from the same glass. The comparison with the Johns Hopkins Baudin thermometers shows the glass to be practically the same in both. From a consideration of the above comparisons we reach the following conclusions : . 1 Kew standards made from the glass known as “Pow- of the Kew standards 578 and 584 are very nearly coincident with the air thermometer between the freezing and boiling points of water; the maximum correction not exceeding ~0°-05 C. and reaching its maximum probably in the vicinity of 60° C.. 9. The Fuess standards have a maximum correction — of about —0°-20 ©., which oceurs at a point beyond the 50° point. * Jas. Powell & Sons, Whitefriars Glass Works, Temple street, E. C., London. I have written to these gentlemen for the chemical constitution of this glass, but they are unwilling, presumably from. business reasons, to state the proportions d in its manufac 448 L. Waldo— Papers on Thermometry. 8. The Tonnelot standards have a maximum correction of about —0°-25 C., which occurs at some point beyond 50°. There has not yet been proposed a thermometer which can be used to supplant the mercurial. A slight experience with the air or non-mercurial liquid thermometers will satisfy the SSaghie that they are too difficult to use for ordinary scien- work outside of researches in thermometry. e non- aerate liquid thermometer wets the glass and absorbs air to such an extent as to always make it unreliable, though the pe- culiar errors depending on the glass itself are reduced to an exceedingly small amount owing to the large linear expansion of any liquid used for a thermometric substance as compared ih mercury. t becomes therefore of importance that we should have a Sis of known constitution and methods of manufac- ture, for mercurial standards. It is not sufficient that we should know only the commercial name of the glass, because this seldom gives any good idea of its constitution. Presuma- bly the chemical constitution of the glass is of more importance than its manipulation in manufacture, and it hardly seems just to science for the glass makers to decline to furnish such data regarding thermometer tubing as will best enable students to investigate the peculiarities of particular standards. The manufacturers could hardly suffer financially from such a revelation, since the manufacture of thermometer tubing is so largely a question of individual skill in drawing the tubing Ss. Out of a very large number from many makers which we have examined in this connection, it may be safely said that the glass used in the Kew thermometers (and in general in the about the same amou or our own convenience in the preparation of standards we desire to pursue our inquiries far enough to determine if possi- ble in how far the behavior of glass as a thermometric sub- stance is affected by its constitution and its methods of manufacture. The present state of the matter leads to a con- fusion in the making and examination of standards which is perplexing alike to the maker and the student of science who has not the refined ee necessary to refer every ther- mometer to the air standa After pee the deectripiten of the Fuess standards at p. eceived a note from Dr. Foerster asking me to give Cablacity to the following letter from Dr. Thiesen in wee to —— Q 4 : F Ry: ., ; 4 : L. Waldo— Papers on Thermometry. 449 Professor Rowland’s views regarding the Geissler thermometers, expressed in his memoir referred to. 1 append to the letter a further defence by Professor Rowland of his views.’ ‘A letter from M. Thiesen replying to Rowland’s criticism of the Geis sler thermometers Herr P itednde Rowland hat sich an mehreren Stellen seiner on ae “ On the ma feagecites. Equivalent of Heat,’ (Proce. Am XV. ‘ts and Sciences, Vol. in sehr starken Worten verurtheilend iiber die Geissler’ schen Ther tometer ansgesprochen wird keiner eingehenden Vergleichung der Vorziige und aus Nachtheile der von den verschiedenen Veter herriithrenden und in den einzelnen Lindern bevorzugten Formen des Queck- silberthermometers bedirfen, um nachzuweisen, dass das von 0 nicht barat etl sind, dass sie zu ernsten Bedenken gegen den weil dasselbe am ‘Ende der ariltarcale rt Reservoir trig ‘8 leichtert die Kalibrirung des Thermometers, es erigubs, nach Walferdin’s Vorgang das ST tl auch bei héhern Tempera- turen zu gebrauchen, und es mindert die Schalke der im Quecksilber curidkcebliebetist Wpured von Luft. s diesen Griinden sind auch bereits vor dem Erscheinen der ‘Abhandang des Herrn Rowland deutsche Fabrikanten auf den Nutzen dieses n Auch beim Mangel eines Reservoirs gelingt die Kalibrirung eines Thermometers leicht und sicher. r zu Berlin sind zahlreiche, meist von Beamten der Kaiserlichen toy Signa ungs-Kommission ausgefiihrte Kalibrirungen von mometern mittelst einer Anzahl (dfters tiber 20) abgetrennter Quecksilberfiden von genau bestimmter Linge, aber kein Fall hern ra- turen, als sie abgelesen werden kinnen, wenn alles Quecksilber eine zusamm nenhiingende Masse bildet, diirfte keinem sda pce Bediirfnisse entsprechen und kann nicht zu —— Resultat fiihren, me: der Eispunkt des Thermom seas Pei a kann, Die in den Geissler schen Therm * Seite 79: Geissler and Casella omit it (the echt: nee ry ge condemn their Beane tore Seite 117: The Geissler also had none, but I succeeded in Separating acolumn. The at nee of a reser Sera at e rey 8 ould immediately condemn a standard, for there is no certainty in the work done with 450 LL. Waldo—Papers on Thermometry. noch yorhandenen Spuren von Luft endlich kénnen nur bei sehr engen Stérungen verursachen Der zweite Fehler, welchen Herr Rowland dem Geissler’schen ec aometer ¥ orwirft, ist seine von Rowland gefundene grosse Abweichung vom Lu ftthermometer.* Eine solche Abweichung wird nur dann schidlich wirken kénnen, wenn sie tibersehen wird ; t d e ‘gross oder klein ist. Ausserdem aber ist, es muss ausgesprochen werden, die von Herrn Rowland gefunde ne Abweichung der einzelnen Ther saeaany von Luftthermometer ohne dauernde Be- eutung. as — eider auch in Deutschland bisher meist tiblichen Rechnun ngewe entsprechende — Verfahren Rowland’ die Ablesungen d ermometer bei den verschiedenen Tempe- derung des Eispunktes der Thermometer Rechnung zu tragen, fiihrt zu Resultaten, welche vom Alter des Thermometers, von seiner Behandlung vor und dem modus procedendi wihr nd der Vergleichungen abbingen.+ Resultate, welche wesentlich nur von d Thermometers abhingen, ergeben sich dage- Rechnung gezogen wi ae n Herr Rowland sich die Mahe geben wollte, neuerdings das Gaede’ sche Thermometer oder auch Paudin 6167, welches eine dem Geissler’schen ihnliche Kor- rektion ergab, a erwiirmen und etwa mit de . . 9 andern inzwischen mehrere Monate unberiihrten Baudin’schen Thermometer bei 0°, 50° und 100° zu vergleichen, so diirfte er metern, vielleicht sogar eine von entgegengesetztem Zeichen als 1878 finden. um Schlusse mag noch cle werden, dass von Beobac tern, welche sich eingehender mit dem Queck LAlbarthermoineter beschiiftigt haben, auch andere Fehler der Geissler’schen Thermo- N ngen, welche in der Fabrikation der deutschen Thermo- meter in den letzten Jahren gemacht wurden, beseitigt worden.§ Berlin, den 11. Marz 1881. Dr. M. THIESEN. * Seite 76: which is Sst worst in — sg So Seite 118: The Geissler still seems to retain its preéminence as havi e greatest error of ‘the 1 ot. + Siehe die Aenderu rung “ea 0°—100° Intervals des Kew standard, Seite 97. : Vergl. Pernet “ Beitrage zur Thermometrie in conte Fire apy ofa r Experi- mentalphysik, Bd. XI, 8. 257, Miinchen 181, i Myaatin age ‘lie im Druck be- findlichen * Metronomischen B eitrage 3 aii: oerster, Berlin 1,” und e ebenfalls im Druck befndiiche, pa reer des Bureau Inter- national des Poids et Mesures ah vres. : Siehe Loewenherz ‘“ Bericht tiber die Wissenschaftlichen Instrumente auf der Berliner Gewerbeausstellung im alee 1879, Berlin 1880, Seite 213, 214.” Be NaS eg PEE eee ae L. Waldo— Papers on Thermometry. 451 Remarks by Professor Rowland on the preceding letter, in a com- munication dated Johns Hopkins University, April 29,1 1881. Through the kindness of Dr. Waldo, I have been pride to see met Bical thermometry, but only on that part which should be use- ul to me in measuring differences of temperature within the limits of 0 and 45° C. And sol merely made a study of thermometers, n the course of my investigation I discovered the fact that the Geissler thermometers, especial y the one I Sue efit departed more from the air thermometer ee any woe Now the Geiss- And this a abe was so ie amoun ting to ov r 0°3 C., for allax, and recording his results to thousandth of a degree, and all this on a thermometer having an error of 0 °3.C.! As Dr. Thiesen remarks: If one is to compare his thermometer with the air ther- mometer, the amount of correction is of little importance: but de- parture from the air thermometer is certainly not a recommendation and, indeed, must introduce slight errors. The most accurate Bai, 8 which one can make on an air thermometer will vary several hundredths of a degree. ence we can never use with accuracy the direct comparison With the air thermometer but must ite ab the difference of the two instruments by some formula of the panini ae Should we take an infinite number of terms this formula would 8 ¢~-) € number rms curve of differences becomes smooth and smoother and the formula expresses less and less the irregu- larities of the experiment. e number of terms to be used is a matter of judgment, and this point I sought to determine by the use of the observations of en and others. The rejection of the higher powers of ¢ is more or less of an assumption founded on the fact that we are reasonably certain that the curve of differ- ences between the mercurial and the air thermometer is a smooth curve. It is evident that the less oe correction to be introduced the sig the rejection of the higher powers of ¢ will affect our results, 452 L. Waldo— Papers on Thermometry, e now come to my criticism of the Geissler thermometer for not having a reservoir at the top. Dr. Thiesen has in some way misunderstood my principal reason for its presence. My reason was not that “es vermindert die Schidlichkeit der im Quecksilber et, Spee von Luft” but that only by its use can the mercury in be entirely free from air, Take a ther- no bt and La it with the bulb on top. If the thermometer s large, in nine cases out of ten the mercury will separate and fall down: allow it to remain and observe the bubble-like spel um in the bulb. Turn the bulb in various directions so as to, it were, wash the whole interior of the bulb, and then bring t the thermometer into a vertical position, keepin the bubble in sight. As the mercury flows back, the bubble diminishes and finally, in a good thermometer, almost disappears: but in most thermometers a good sized bubble of air, in some cases as large as the wire of a pin, remains. It is the most important function of a reservoir at the top to permit such manipulations as to drive all such air into the top reservoir and to make the mercury and the glass assume such perfect contact that the bulb can be turned uppermost without the mercury separating, even in thermometers of large size and with good generous bulbs. In many Geissler thermometers such a test might succeed, not on account of the eet to prevent the fall, Now TI think that a thermometer in ich there is this layer of air around the merebiry in the bu inst be uncertain in its action; hence my opinion is unaltered that all thermometers in which we e cannot aac a this layer or at least make certain of its absence should be reje Furthermore, with respect to ci hye the reservoir is not essential to the ese eat of thermometers "whose ee is on and mercury can be stored up in the reservoir so as to allow the col- umn to move over the whole scale. And it is within this limit _ soap ip are of the greatest value in the physical labo- rat and de sewed water to nter,, the ‘small Silieg tube the icake all these were so obvious shee I ahaa my remarks to the more obscure errors : Furthermore, I believe there is some error in most Geissler thermometers from the small size of the bulb and the capillary tube, and this I have mentioned on p. 124 of the paper referred to. Pfaundler and Platter, in a paper on the specific heat of water, in Poggendorff’s Annalen for 1870, found an immense variation within small limits. Ina subsequent paper* the authors * Poggendorff’s Annalen, exli, p. 537. Bae a eet Oe i aaah ee ali es | os ania waite Yo | 7 os PSE AER Se ena LON By er - pepAuneis ao ‘: H. A. Hazen— Reduction of Air-pressure to Sea-level. 453 traced this error to the lagging of the thermometer behind its true ling. The authors used Geissler thermometers graduated to J;° C.! In a series of experiments made by plunging the thermometer into : : t eause be found in the layer of air around the mercury of the bulb which cannot be removed without a reservoir at the top? Or may we not also look for such an effect from the minute size of the bore of the capillary tube which creates a different pressure in the bulb from a rising or falling meniscus? Possibly the two may be combined. Art. LVL—On the Reduction of Air-pressure to Sea-level, and i Determination of Elevations by the Barometer; by H. A. s years at these stations have been published side by side in the 454 ff. A. Hazen—Reduction of Air-pressure to Sea-level. high, situated in latitude 46° north, and seventy miles from Alessandria, in 45° north latitude and 318’ hi gh. Tasie I.—(In millimeters). -—6°C.| —8° 0° 3° 6° -. 12° 15° 18° 21° 550 MPAALINIFAADLO FAT I1/(F°¥90-0 (44 UltIGo J / tl tltod Oo] Le - one cece -<. 12°. Be. 1 38°. Bie. 551 | 2380! 2374] 2396] 2386] ._..| ....| .--.] -..-| --.-] ---- 552 | 2376| 2376] 2376| 2390| 2396| ____| _...| _--.| _---] ---- 553 | 2371) 237 554 | 2379| 2374| 2381| 2388) 2391) ....| ....| --.-] -..-] ---- 555 | 2385| 2378) 2370| 2382| 2397| 2405] ....| ...-| ..--] ---- 556 | 2402| 2375| 2378) 2381| 2388] 2407| ....| ..-.| .---] ---- 557 | 2368| 2375| 2374| 2396| 2399) 2411] 2392) ....| _.-.| ---- 558 | 2362! 2379| 2383| 2379| 2396] 2396] _._.| _...] ... .| ---- 559 | 2360] 2366] 2373| 2379| 2379] 2386) 2395| 2395] ____| ---- 560 | 2356| 2369] 2377| 2383] 2388) 2395| 2399) 2411] 2419] -.. - 561 | 2351| 2364| 2373| 2377| 2386] 2395) 2397, 2407| 2437] - -- - 562 | 234%! 2370] 2376] 2376) 2382| 2398| 2393 2406] ___-| ---- 563 | 2351| 2355| 2374| 2374! 2387| 2393] 2400) 2403] 2419] ---- 564 | 23 2 565 | 2343) 2355| 2374] 2376] 2373) 2390) 2393) 2399] 2417) ---- 566 | 2340} 2345| 2359] 2369] 2369) 2384| 2394! 2397| 2409) ---- 567 | 2340] 2353] 2357| 2370) 2378) 2383| 2388) 2402) 2408; 2421 568 | 2331) 2352] 2357} 2371) 2367| 2383) 2389) 2397) 2407) 2416 569 | 2320} 2342] 2354! 2366) 2356) 2375; 2389) 2393) 2402) 2414 570 | 2331 | 2316 235] (2358 2369 2368! 2385| 2391] 2399) 2412 From this table it is evident that there is a great uniformity in the variation of the elevation as computed from Laplace. ee a AE ae LT oe er on Sieet LO rate ae grea 2 Mesh Peels yg gay Bhd) Peel ear AS Ree he RE AY H. A. Hazen—Reduction of Air-pressure to Sea-level. 455 The computed result is the smallest for a low temperature and high pressure, and largest for a high temperature and low pres- 2 sure. an these variations be accounted for? All who have discussed this subject are agreed that some modification of the formula is necessary. R. S. Williamson has ters at different altitudes, but not separated by any great dis- tance horizontally, we have at once the weights of a column would seem at first sight as if trustworthy results, or, at least, a very close approximation to the truth might be obtained. La- place was the first to propose a complete formula.” On page 13 “Laplace's original formula comprised four terms, which may be designated as the pressure term, including, as is After an extended discussion entirely upon a theoretical basis, rof. Whitney concludes, “ T ; considered essentially unalterable.” He considers that all the et us examine these points: if the only motions of the atmosphere were in a vertical direction and due essentially to the temperature, the solution of the problem would appear not difficult. At first sight it seems as though the temperature term would be the easiest determined and tie one least liable to change, for the reason that the temperature is almost entirely affected by only one great invariable cause. Thus we find the same mean temperature in April and October of each year, the lowest in 456 H. A. Hazen—Reduction of Air-pressure to Sea-level. January and the highest in July. If. the temperature term only were at fault, we should expect to find a regularity in the variation of the difference of elevation as computed from the mean of each of the months, also the same variation at all places ; that is, if we should find the highest result in July and the lowest in January in any one place, any theory sihieh could be applied to the variation of the temperature at different alti- tudes must necessarily give in general the same results at all isolated peaks throughout the world; but neither of these suppositions is according to fact, as has been shown in the puted from Laplace, was in March, and the lowest in August, whereas in the elevation of Pike’s Peak above Dodge City, the highest value was in July and the Jowest in December: We may then consider that the temperature term will remain nearly constant so far as it is affected by the heat of the sun ; this hypothesis will be strongly dane by a_ practical demonstration in the course of this discussio On the other hand, the pressure term is affected by a great variety of causes. In summer there is an upward motion of the atmosphere, the ocean relatively to the land is cool and the air moves toward the that is coolest, while in winter exactly the reverse takes place. This may explain the facts just mentioned. Mt. ase near the coast, is very little affected by this motion, and the results differ ‘but little in January and July. There seems to be, also, a constant motion of the atmosphere toward the east, slower in summer than in winter. It has April obaderikioiy’ | is Seauently greater than that from ae months. This may be due to a general diminution of t pressure at the lower station, which does not seem to sien ; an elevation of 6,000’; such a diminution has been found at over 500 stations in the middle latitudes, but only at the lower stations. It would certainly seem, then, that the pressure term is more liable to change than the temperature term In order to separate the various elements which enter into the formula of Laplace, the following method is proposed : f tables be constructed from Laplace according to the plan of che table on page 370, this Journal, last number, for each thousand feet of elevation, it will be possible to obtain the laws of variation of the reductions to sea-level and represent them by a formula which nee dispense with logarithms and sepa- rate the various term The following ferdambe are founded on such a plan: ; H. A. Hazen—Reduction of Air-pressure to Sea-level. 457 For 1000’ :C = 171675 —0".0389 (30" — p) — 0"-00245 (t~ 32°) 0"-0000065 (t—32°) (¢ —52°) For 2000’: OC = 2":3803 —0"-0794 (30” — p)—0"-00490 (¢—32°) + 0’:0000130 (¢—32°) (¢—52° For 3000’: C = 3"-6401 — 071214 (30” — p)—0"-00735 (t—32°) 4 07-0000195 (t—32°) (¢—52°) The temperature term might have been much simplified, but this harmonizes best with later work. These formule were constructed up to an elevation of 8,000’, and from a combina- tion of the eight the following general formula was obtained: C = -0000000000003A + [":000000021702 — 0"-0000000008(30" — p) |h* 0”:001145482 —0”:0000381 (30" — p) —0"-00000245 (t—32°) + 0"-0000000065 (¢—-32°) (¢—52°) |r in whieh C = reduction to sea, / is hight of station in feet, p is pressure at station, and ¢ the mean temperature at the time of observation, between station and sea. If, now, we assume a pressure of 30” and consider the total hight above such a pressure, as proposed by Prof. Angot, of aris, we may put 80’—p for C 1 : solving for h obtain the following expression, which is general for any altitude: n/4b xX (30" —p) -a'—a 4b X (30 =p) bens ~ 0"-00000000038h" (1). h ° in which w= 07001145482 — 0”:00000245 (¢ —32°) ++ 00000000065 (t— 32°) (t~52°) — 00000381 (30"—p) and b = 0"-000000021702 — 0”:0000000008 (30”— p). e formula a slight change from a rigid value of Laplace has been made for a known variation at Mt. —_ =] ie) ro) =] i] ct br] i] Q g. i=} 0g + a Of) Ap ieete formule is given in Table ITI. The results in column 4 vary the most, and show, as has already been suggested, that no general formula can be deter- he . h . with which the original formula of Laplace may be modified for different places, also the accuracy of this general method of procedure. May it not be possible to determine a general formula from the actual observations in different places, which shall require but a slight and readily-determined change to make it applicable to any locality _ Am. Jour. ea meen eno Von. XXI, No, 126.—Junz, 1881. a eo 6 We” O82 be rooted ee 2 de ts id oe 458° H. A. Hazen—Reduction of Atr-pressure to Sea-level. TABLE II].—Mt. Washington above Portland, true difference 6240’, Laplace. | Diference || angot. | ,Piference || rrazen ci), | Difference nuary 6264’ +167 63297 +807 6245’ + 2! February 6268 +20 6299 +50 6242 — 1 March 6284 +36 6306 +57 6265 +22 April 6242 — 6 6244 — 5 6244 + 1 May 6232 —16 6201 —48 6234 — 9 June 6233 —15 6201 —48 6236 — 7 July 6225 —23 6158 —91 6233 —10 August 215 —33 6198 —51 6225 —18 September} 6236 —12 6217 —32 6230 —13 be 249 + J 6253 + 4 6246 + 3 November} 6275 +27 6286 +37 6271 +28 Decemb 6259 +11 6296 +47 6246 + 3 Year 256 6267 6241 Mean 42 mo’s 6248 6249 6243 The following suggestion is made in the absence ef any all the observations for a series of years, at an other: Let elevated and at a lower neighboring station, be grouped as has already been proposed, then determine a formula which shall best represent all the observations, or, in other words, the laws Tasie IV. Law of variation of th Are of the pees term at different cc ae ae at Veldobbia and Great Lee Bernard | Temperature term variation for Pressure term variation for wee eapsrgneuosaiill each degree Centigrade. Pressure. Temperat’e, | Val. and Al, Ber. and Al. Val. and Al. 55] 5™ 0°733™m ik — §°mm 071 8"™ 552 “610 sas ae. 8 ‘15 553, “500 pie | 0 90 554 "633 eiec 3 23 555 467 0°55™™ 6 23 556 “67 63 9 “35 557 *b4T "48 12 29 558 *613 "62 15 ‘10 559 “640 58 18 “12 560 *590- “T6 21 -00 561 “570 “65 562 “640 *b8 563 “650 "BT 564 ‘570 “58 565 “543 “66 566 “603 “55 567 547 “58 568 “580 54 569 503 “60 570 “560 “65 671 "590 “59 572 “610 aay 573 “BET ae he Mean “593 “598 Ber. and Al. H, A. Hazen—Reduction of Air-pressure to Sea-level. 459 of variation, at any station, of Scions and temperatures at different temperatures and pressu It would seem that if there He taken a sufficient number of stations, near enough together, at different elevations, the above result might be ‘attained. ere are very great difficulties in sae gi satisfactory results at present, owing to the great distance between stations and the lack of reliable elevations. In “Table TV we find, in the case of reduction from a higher to a lower station, the law determined from a comparison of all the mean daily observa- tions at Valdobbia and Alessandria during 34 years; compari- sons are also given for the same time between Great St. Ber- nard and Alessandria. here is a remarkable uniformity in the temperature term variation at all pressures at both stations, but the pressure term variation is subject to breaks and rather regularly dimin- ishes as the temperature increases. e following formule have been constructed from the eae observations at several elevations in Italy and Switzer- and Great Saint Bernard sous Geneva : C = 9°68 — 0"'22 (30” —p) 0” ‘014 (t—32°) Monte Cavo and Rome: C wa 66 — 0""10(30" —p) — 0"°0052(t — 32°) Mondovi and ee PO Cao" 10—0"-06(30" —p) "0027 (t—32°) and from these the general formula, C = 0":0000000117A? + 07-0011068/— 0” Dees e ieee —0"-0000016 (t—32°)h + 070214 A/4b(30’ —p—0"°0214) ++a°—a (2) 2b h, in feet, = in this a = 0"-0011068 — 0”-000029 (30" — P) — 0"-0000016 (¢ — 32°) and b = 0"-000000011 Table V gives difference of elevation by various formule. The results by Angot are better than by peice It will be hoticed that the sixth column has been computed from a formula into which the original observations at "Valdobbia have not entered and in so far goes to show the reliability of teas ethod. The formula applies best to elevations of about 460 H. A. Hazen—Reduction of Air-pressure to Sea-level. TABLE V.—Valdobbia above Alessandria. Month. | Laplace. | Pilference || angot. | Piference |] Hazen (2. | Diorenes January 7699’ — 98’ 7904’ +51’ 78637 — 6’ February T7196 — 1 7904 +51 7916 +47 March 7823 +26 7904 +51 W911 +42 April 7811 +14 7835 —18 7887 +18 May 7848 +51 7851 —2 7887 +18 June 823 +26 7792 —61 7844 —25 1 7842 +45 7818 —35 7854 —15 848 +51 7822 —31 7860 — 9 September 7827 +30 7861 + 8 7860 9 7801 + 4 7854 + 1 1847 —22 November 7735 —62 7828 —25 7830 —39 b 7709 —88 7858 + 5 7862 7 ear 7808 7851 7862 Mean of months TT97 7853 7869 The following formule are added : Mount Washington and Boge C= “ae *82 —0"'12 (30” —p) ‘012 (¢— Professor Whitney has made Say tines years’ observations at Sacramento and Summit, California, stations 77 miles apart with a he of altitude of 6989’. The formula at these stations is O = 5/24 + 0’-25 (30’— p) — 0-010 (t—82°), the reversal of the ms n in ur ase term from minus to plus has been already noticed in the May number, page 366. It has been shown, then : Ist. The formula of Laplace gives too small results at high ake and low temperatures and too great at low pressures and oth temperatures. he pressure term is more liable to variation than the vmperatare term t is possible to so arrange the formula of Laplace as to separate the terms, and dispense with the use of logarithms. 4th. It is possible to construct a formula from the actual Gem high shall give satisfactory results. wing paragraphs have been taken from an article in e “ Seay tor April 14th, 1881 (just received), on Periodic Oscil- lations of Barometric Pressure, by J. Arian Brown, F.R.S., (now deceas ed). They are of interest as Sasening some of the views amrancen | in the alia paper Sedgwick has said ae To explain difficulties in these mnpations 5 ieageem to pressure and tneipersiats ture) ‘the Paging strata have been shuffl accord- “Tf we suppose that the sitevodlon of gravity is not the only attraction which ai the pressure of the sphere, t this pressure varies through some o ting force such as an electric attraction of th nding upon the arying humidity of the air and pending its tem ture ; he exist i mployed, It is quite certain that many “oaewsrert will heotege: 0 edmit the “idea ar an alectiis attraction on our atmosphere in the present : 75 J. L. Smith— Chromite from Cohahuila. 461 our plot — pa efforts to make expansion, and a shuffling of the Be mi to for heric stra must not, however, in our ignorance, attempt Pactivon: in o ition facts, and if these can be satisfied more easily pe ater probabilites in its favor by the aid of the hypothesis of an electric attraction of _ sun, that hypothesis will have a better claim to acceptation than e othe all here note a few facts which cannot be explained by thermi on 1, I have shown that on the average of many years’ sayin d in our ae the mean bln diminishes at the rate of 0/038 of mercury for every one hun dred miles we Seka eed h. This has sects called a heat froth the similar ay slopes: but it is lope, it is a . term used in railway sl : no slope, it is a lev surface of equim like that of the sea. Itisthe mean hights of the baro at the sea- oe which indicate the form, if we may so say, of the ehuitbrating ospher we have seen that the atmospheric pressure oscillates at each station even when the ese are quite near to each other eee ndently of the known laws of equilibrium of gases. When we turn to the mi-diurnal oscillation of the her i ation without peop currents “for days together, the barometer rises and fal tenth of an i wice in tw pik nts hour ‘2 with the regularity of the solar clock. Hen nt : é Art. LVIL—Occurrence of a nodule of Chromite in the intervor of compact Meteoric Iron from Cohahuila ; by J. LAWRENCE Smiru, Louisville, Ky. THE masses of iron from Cohahuila that I have designated the Butcher Meteorites,* to distinguish them from other me- teorites of the same locality, have already afforded me several most interesting and novel results; among them, concretions of surrounding conditions), and, more particularly, the new and Interesting mineral, Sanpréeliter sacoaiee te in the interior of the troilite nodules that exist in this ir A great number of sec- tions have been cut _ dacbreclies is always found with its well defined characteris Recently I hav sae aus two additional inne sections. They have furnished, however, but few nodules. e of these was a well-defined, symme etrically oval nodule, 17 mm. by 12 mm., its diameters situated 6 centimeters from the exterior sur- face, eo nia tag solid iron intervening between the surface and * This pine ii, Nov., 1871. + Ib., xvi, Oct., 1875. 462 J. L. Smith—Chromite from Cohahuila. I was at once struck with its being different from any nodule I had yet observed in meteoric iron. ere was no troilite in it; and although black it was not graphite; so that I supposed it might consist entirely of daubréelite. But its luster was more vitreous than in this last mineral. n examining carefully with a lens, I found in the black material a few particles of a translucent mineral, some particles of which were almost color- less, and one or two of a greenish hue (doubtless magnesian sil- icate) ; and, besides, there were a few specks of iron only trace- able by the magnet. The nodule was virtually a black granular mass. As stated, it was first taken for daubréelite. The smallest particle rub- bed fine and fused with borax gave the intense green of chrome ; but, to my surprise, when the powder was heated in nitric acid over a water bath, not the slightest impression was made upon These reactions convinced me that I had chromite; and on fusing 150 milligrams of the finely pulverized mineral with ten times its weight of bisulphate of soda, it was thoroughly attacked but not dissolved. On treating with water, and fusing the residue with carbonate of soda and niter, and proceeding with the analysis as is usual in the case of chromite, there was obtained, Chromic oxide 62°71—€r Ferrous oxide 33°83—Fe the iron oxide being in the solution from the fused mass, after treatment with bisulphate of soda. The composition thus foun y of chromite has been observed by the assistant of the Professor of Geology in the College of France. The name of this assist- ant I do not now recollect and I cannot now place my hands on the results of his researches in this direction. . A, G. Bell— Production of Sound by Radiant Energy. 468 Art. LVIII.—Upon the Production of Sound by Radiant Energy ; by ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL. [Read before the National Academy of Sciences, April 21, 1881.] IN a paper read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, last August, I described certain ex- periments made by Mr. Sumner Tainter and myself which had resulted in the construction of a “ Photophone,” or apparatus for the production of sound by light ;* and it will be my ob- ject to-day to describe the progress we have made in the inves- tigation of photophonic phenomena since the date of this com- munication, n my Boston paper the discovery was announced that thin disks of very many different substances emitted sounds when exposed to the action of a rapidly-interrupted beam of sunlight. he great variety of material used in these experiments led me to believe that sonorousness under such circumstances would be found to be a general property of all matter. ' At that time we had failed to obtain audible effects from masses of the various substances which became sonorous in the upon the material composing the tube. _ At this stage our experiments were interrupted, as circum- Stances called me to Europe. : While in Paris a new form of the experiment occurred to my mind, which would not only enable us to investigate the sounds produced by masses, but would also permit us to test the more general proposition that sonorousness, under the influ- ence of intermittent light, is a property common to all matter. * Proceedings of American Association for the Advancement of Science, Aug. 27th, 1880; see, also, this Journal, vol. xx, p. ; Journal of the American Electrical Society, vol, iii, p. 3; Journal of the Society of Telegraph Engineers 3 of and Electricians, vol. ix, p. 404; Annales de Chimie et de Physique, vol. xxi. 464 A. G. Bell—Production of Sound by Radiant Energy. The substance to be tested was to be placed in the interior of a transparent vessel, made of some material fol tase glass) is transparent to light, but practically opaque to s Under such circumstances the light could oo ic but the sound produced by the vibration of the substance could not get out. The audible effects could be studied by placing the ear in communication with the interior of the vessel by means of a m Bn by M. Me reo Prof. Tondllt W. - “Tontaen d W. i. Preece,| I may be permitted to quot Teer to Mr. Tainter the passage describing the exiistbis referred to “* Metropolitan Hotel, Rue Cambon, Paris, November 2, 1880. ey uae Mr. "TAINTER : “T have devised a method of producing sounds me action of an intermittent beam of light from substances that cannot be obtained in the shape of thin Rachtians or in the tu ular form; indeed, the method is specially adapted to testing the generality of the phe nomenon we ee discovered, as it can be adapted to solids, liquids, and gase “Place the substance to be eepedaeaied with in a glass test- tube, connect a rubber tube with the mouth of the test-tube, plac- large number of substances in this with great success, although it is extreniely difficult to get a a plingpee of the sun here, and when it does shine the intensity of the ae is not sg be com- pared with that to be obtained in Washington. I got splendid effects from crystals of picheomate of potash, onset of qalphate * Comptes Rendus, vol. xcl, p. 5 + “ Notes on Radiophony,” * ahenser Rendus, Dee. . and 13, 1880; Feb. 21 and 28, 1881. See, also, Saal de -baedegr vol. x, p. 5 + « Action of an Intermittent m 0 iant Heat upon Gaseous Matter.” Proc. Royal Society, Jan. 13, 1881, ak XXxi, PA 2 On the tones which arise from the intermittent cose of agas.” See Annalen der Phys. und Chemie, Jan., 1881, no. “On the Conversion of Radia nt ae into Ronorous Vibrations.” Proc. Royal Society, March 10, 1881, vol. xxxi, p. 5 A. G. Bell—Production of Sound by Radiant Energy. 465 feeble sound was heard. I would suggest that you might repeat these experiments and extend the results,” &c., d&e. Experiments with Solids. Upon my return to Washington in the early part of January,* Mr. 'Tainter communicated to me the results of the experiments he had made in my laboratory during my absence in Europe. He had commenced by examining the sonorous properties of a vast number of substances enclosed in test-tubes in a simple to the discovery that cotton-wool, worsted, silk, and fibrous materials generally, produced much louder sounds than hard rigid bodies like crystals, or diaphragms such as we had hitherto used In order to study the effects under better circumstances he enclosed his materials in a conical cavity in a piece of brass closed by a flat plate of glass. A brass tube leading into the cavity served for connection with the hearing-tube. hen this conical cavity was stuffed with worsted or other fibrous materials the sounds produced were much louder than when a test-tube was employed. This form of receiver is shown in figure 1, Mr. Tainter next collected silks and worsteds of different colors, and speedily found that the darkest shades produced the best effects. Black worsted especially gave an extremely loud sound. As white cotton-wool had proved itself equal, if not superior, to any other white fibrous material before tried, he was anxious to obtain colored specimens for comparison. Not having any at hand, however, he tried the effect of darkening some cotton- Wool with lamp-black. Such a marked reinforcement of the sound resulted that he was induced to try lamp-black alone. * On the 7th of January. 466 A. G. Bell—Production of Sound by Radiant Energy. About a teaspoonful of lamp-black was placed in a. test-tube and exposed to an intermittent beam of sunlight. The sound produced was much louder than any heard before. Upon smoking a piece of plate-glass, and holding it in the intermittent beam with the lamp-black surface towards the sun, the sound produced was loud enough to be heard, with atten- tion, in any part. of the room. ith the lamp-black surface Mr. Tainter repeated these experiments for me immediately upon my return to Washington, so that I might verify his results. : Upon smoking the interior of the conical cavity shown in figure 1, and then exposing it to the intermittent beam, with the glass lid in position as shown, the effect was perfectl startling. The sound was so loud as to be actually painful to an ear placed closely against the end of the hearing-tube. ‘The smoked wire gauze in the receiver, as illustrated in the drawing, figure 1. When the beam was thrown into a resonator, the interior of which had been smoked over a lamp, most curious alternations of sound and silence were observed. The interrupting disk were constantly occurring, which became more and more marked as the true pitch of the resonator was neared. When at last the frequency of interraption corresponded to the frequency of the fundamental of the resonator, the sound was so loud that it might have been heard by an audience of hundreds of people. The effects produced by lamp-black seemed to me to be very extraordinary, especially as I had a distinct recollection of ex- periments made in the summer of 1880 with smoked diaphragms, in which no such reinforcement was noticed. Upon examining the records of our past photophonic experi- ments we found in vol. vii, p. 57, the following note : “Experiment V.—Mica diaphragm covered with lamp-black on side exposed to light. “Result: distinct sound about same as without lamp-black.— Upon repeating this old experiment we arrived at the same result as that noted. Little if any augmentation of sound re- A. G. Beli—Production of Sound by Radiant Energy. 467 sulted from smoking the mica. In this experiment the effect was observed by placing the mica diaphragm against the ear and also by listening through a hearing-tube, one end of which was closed by the diaphragm. The sound was found to be more audible through the free air when the ear was placed as near to the lamp-black surface as it could be brought without shading it. Thus the vibrations produced in lamp-black under the above circumstances do not appear to be communicated to any very appreciable extent to the diaphragm on which the lamp-black is deposited. keeping the light steadily directed on the receiver. Wo and sentences spoken into the transmitter in a low tone of Fig. 8 470 A. G. Bell— Production of Sound by Radiant Energy. and in operating the instrument musical signals like the dots and dashes of the Morse alphabet are produced from the sensi- pahte receiver (A) by slight motions of the mirror (C) about its xis (D). ie place of the parabolic reflector shown in the figure a coni- cal reflector like that recommended by Professor Sylvanus Thompson * can be used, in which case a cylindrical glass ves- sel would be preferable to the flask (A) shown in the figure. In regard to the sensitive materials that can be employed, our experiments indicate that in the case of solids the physical condition and the color markedly influence the intensity of the sonorous effects. The loudest sounds are produced from substances in a loose, porous, spongy mania and from those that have the darkest or most absorbent colo The materials from isoh ‘the best effects have been obtained are cotton-wool, worsted, fibrous materials generally, cork, ie platinum and other metals in a spongy condition, and amp- The loud sounds produced from such substances may per- haps be explained in the following manner: Let us consider, for example, the case of lamp-black—a substance which be- comes heated by exposure to rays of all refrangibility. I look upon a mass of this substance as a sort of sponge, with its pores filled with air instead of water. When a beam of sunlight falls upon this mass, the particles of lamp-black are heated, and consequently expand, causing a contraction of the air-spaces or pores among them Under these circumstances a pulse of air should be expelled, just as we would squeeze out water from a sponge. . The force with which the air is expelled must be greatly in-. creased by the expansion of the air itself, due to contact with the heated particles of lamp-black. When the light is cut off the converse process takes place. The lamp- -black particles cool and contract, thus enlarging the air spaces among them, and the enclosed air also becomes cool. Under these circum- _ stances a partial vacuum should be formed among the particles, and the outside air would then be absorbed, as ; water is by a sponge when the pressure of the hand is remove I imagine that in some such manner as this a wave of con- densation is started in the atmosphere each time a beam of sun- light falls upon lamp-black, and a wave of rarefaction is origi- nated when the light is cut off. We can thus understand how it is that a substance like lamp-black produces intense sonorous vibrations in the surrounding air, while at the same time it com- municates a very feeble vibration to the diaphragm or solid bed upon whieh it rests. _*Phil. Mag., April, 1881, vol. xi, p. 286. A. G. Bell—Production of Sound by Radiant Energy. 471 This curious fact was independently observed in England by Mr. Preece, and it led him to question whether, in our experi- ments with thin diaphragms, the sound heard was due to the vibration of the disk or (as Professor Hughes had suggested) to the expansion and contraction of the air in contact with the disk confined in the cavity behind the diaphragm. In his paper read before the Royal Society on the 10th of March, Mr. Preece describes experiments from which he ¢laims to have proved that the effects are wholly due to the vibrations of the confined air, and that the disks do not vibrate at all. I shall briefly state my reasons for disagreeing with him in this conclusion : 1 en an intermittent beam of sunlight is focussed upon a sheet of hard rubber or other material, a musical tone can be heard, not only by placing the ear immediately behind the part receiving the beam, but by placing it against any portion of the sheet, even though this may be a foot or more from the place acted upon by the light. 2. When the beam is thrown upon the diaphragm of a “Blake Transmitter,’ a loud musical tone is produced by a diaphragm. 1 1s evident, therefore, that in the case of thin disks a real wibra- hon of the diaphragm is caused by the action of the intermittent beam, independently of any expansion and contraction of the air confined in the cavity behind the diaphragm. ord Rayleigh has shown mathematically that a to-and-fro vibration, of sufficient amplitude to produce an audible sound, would result from a periodical communication and abstraction of heat, and he says: “ We may conclude, I think, that there Is at present no reason for discarding the obvious explanation that the sounds in question are due to the bending of the plates under unequal heating.” (Nature, xxiii, p. r. Preece, however, seeks to prove that the sonorous effects cannot be explained upon this supposition; but his experi- mental data are not sufficient to support his conclusion. Mr. Preece expected that if Lord Rayleigh’s explanation was cor- rect, the expansion and contraction of a thin strip under the influence of an intermittent beam could be caused to open and close a galvanic circuit so as to produce a musical tone from a telephone in the circuit. But this was an inadequate way to : wT x ea — NEP, EMBER oh dS —____——_ WL EW SS (1 Ca a 9191 SS ‘ + MEA Sy, WLS a A. G. Bell—Production of Sound by Radiant Knergy. 478 test the point at issue, for Lord Rayleigh has shown (Proce. of Roy. Soe., 1877) that an audible sound can be produced by a vibration whose amplitude is less than a ten millionth of a centi- meter, and certainly such a vibration as that would not have sufficed to operate a ‘ make-and-break contact” like that used by Mr. Preece. The negative results obtained by him cannot, therefore, be considered conclusive. The following experiments ‘(devised by Mr. Tainter) have given results decidedly more favorable to the theory of Lord Rayleigh than to that of Mr. Preece: 1. A strip (A) similar to that used in Mr. Preece’s experi- ment was attached firmly to the center of an iron diaphragm (B,) as shown in figure 5, and was then pulled taut at right angles Fig. 5. to the plane of the diaphragm. was focussed upon the strip (A) a clear musical tone could be heard by applying the ear to the hearing-tube (C). This seemed to indicate a rapid expansion and contraction of the substance under trial. ut a vibration of the diaphragm (B) would also have re- sulted if the thin strip (A) had pare a to-and-fro motion, due either to the direct impact of the beam or to the sudden expansion of the air in contact with the strip. 2. To test whether this had been the case an additional strip (D) was attached by its central point only to the strip under trial, and was then submitted to the action of the beam, as shown in fig. 6. : It was presumed that if the vibration of the diaphragm (B) had been due to a pushing force acting on the strip (A), that the addition of the strip (D) would not interfere with the effect. But if, on the other hand, it had been due to the longitudinal expansion and contraction of the strip (A), the sound would cease, or at least be reduced. The beam of light falling upon Am. Jour, oe oor Von. XXI, No. 126.—June, 1881. 474 A. G. Bell—Production of Sound by Radiant Energy. strip (D) was now interrupted as before by the rapid rotation of a perforated disk, which was allowed to come gradually to rest. No sound was heard excepting at a certain speed of rotation, when a feeble musical tone became audible. This result is confirmatory of the first. Fig. 6. The audibility of the effect at a particular rate of interrup- tion suggests the explanation that the strip D had a normal rate of vibration of its own. When the frequency of the interruption of the light corre- sponded to this, the strip was probably thrown into vibration after the manner of a tuning-fork, in which case a to-and fro vibration would be propagated down its stem or central sup- port to the strip (A). | This indirectly proves the value of the experiment. The list of solid substances that have been submitted to ex- periment in my laboratory is too long to be quoted here, and I shall merely say that we have not yet fuund one solid bod that has failed to become sonorous under proper conditions of experiment.* Experiments with Liquids. The sounds produced by liquids are much more difficult to observe than those produced by solids. The high absorptive power possessed by most liquids would lead one to expect in- tense vibrations from the action of intermittent light, but the ae A. G. Bell—Production of Sound by Radiant Energy. 475 number of sonorous liquids that have so far been found is ex- tremely limited, and the sounds produced are so feeble as to be heard only by the greatest attention and under the best cir- cumstances of experiment. In the experiments made in my laboratory a very long test-tube was filled with the liquid under examination, and a flexible rubber tube was slipped over the mouth far enough down to prevent the possibility of any light ~ reaching the vapor above the surface. Precautions were also taken to prevent reflection from the bottom of the test-tube. An intermittent beam of sunlight was then focussed upon the liquid in the middle portion of the test-tube by means of a lens of large diameter. Results. Clear water ____- rn eas wee eee No sound audible Water discolored. by tak 2.42 2) ee ound. WV oo. 2k eee heard. Sulphuric ether™.. 25222 :35 32g Feeble, but distinct sound. mmoni ae Sita ee aes ee ree sae ag (74 6e ce 66 Ammonio-sulphate of copper... -- “ ™ = Writing nk fe os ee RE Us ee < Indigo in sulphurie acid --------- “ gs - “ Chloride of copper* - -- -- sos wii . . eg - The liquids distinguished by an asterisk gave the best sounds, Acoustic vibrations are always much enfeebled in passing from liquids to gases, and it is probable that a form of experi- ment may be devised which will yield better results by com- municating the vibrations of the liquid to the ear through the medium of a solid rod. Experiments with Gaseous Matter. On the 29th of November, 1880, I had the pleasure of show- ing to Professor Tyndall in the laboratory of the Royal Insti- tution the experiments described in the letter to Mr. Tainter, from which I have quoted above, and Professor Tyndall at once expressed the opinion that the sounds were due to rapid changes of temperature in the body submitted to the action of the beam. Finding that no experiments had been made at that time to test the sonorous properties of different gases, he suggested fill- ing one test-tube with the vapor of sulphuric ether (a good ab- sorbent of heat), and another with the vapor of bisulphide of carbon (a poor absorbent), and he predicted that if any sound was heard it would be louder in the former case than in the latter. The experiment was immediately made, and the result veri- fied the prediction. 476 A. G. Bell— Production of Sound by Radiant Energy. Since the publication of the memoirs of Réntgen* and Tyn- dallt we have repeated these experiments, and have extended the inquiry to a number of other gaseous bodies, obtaining in every case similar results to those noted in the memoirs re- ferred to. The vapors of the following substances were found to be highly sonorous in the intermittent beam: water vapor, coal gas, sulphuric ether, alcohol, ammonia, amylene, ethyl bromide, diethylamene, mercury, iodine, and peroxide of nitrogen. The loudest sounds were obtained from iodine and peroxide of nitrogen, I have now shown that sounds are produced by the direct action of intermittent sunlight from substances in every physi- cal condition (solid, liquid, and gaseous), and the probability is therefore very greatly increased that sonorousness under such circumstances will be found to be a universal property of matter. Upon Substitutes for Selenium in Electrical Receivers. _ At the time of my communication to the American Associa- tion the loudest effects obtained were produced by the use of soon, I shall make no further mention of his investigation than to state that he has found sulphur, iron, lead, and arsenic in the so-called “selenium,” with traces of organic matter; that a quantitative examination has revealed the fact that sulphur constitutes nearly one per cent of the whole mass; and that when these impurities are eliminated the selenium appears to be more constant in its action and more sensitive to light. Professor W. G. Adamst{ has shown that tellurium, like * Ann. der Phys, und Chem., 1881, No. 1, p. 155. i, p. 307. + Proc. Roy. Soe., vol. xxxi, p. t Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. xxiv, p. 163. A, @. Bell— Production of Sound by Radiant Energy. 477 selenium, has its electrical resistance affected by light, and we have attempted to utilize this substance in place of selenium. The arrangement of cell (shown in fig. 7) was constructed for this purpose in the early part of 1880; but we failed at that oa time to obtain any indications of sensitiveness with a reflecting galvanometer. We have since found, however, that when this the tellurium cell with the battery in the primary circuit of an induction coil, and placing the telephone in the secondary rent passed through it, in which case lamp-black could be em- ployed in place of selenium in an electrical receiver. This has 478 A. G. Bell—Production of Sound by Radiant Energy. turned out to be the case, and the importance of the re is very great, especially when we consider the expense of suc rare substances as selenium and iellurium. The form of lamp-black cell we have found most effective is shown in fig. 8. Silver is deposited upon a plate of glass, and a zigzag line is then scratched through the film, as shown, 1 | dividing the silver surface into two portions insulated from one another, having the form of two combs with interlocking teeth. ach comb is attached to a screw-cup, so that the cell can be placed in an electrical circuit when required. The surface is then smoked until a good film of lamp-black is obtained, filling the interstices between the teeth of the silver combs. When the lamp-black cell is connected with a telephone and galvanic battery, and exposed to the influence of an intermittent beam of sunlight, a loud musical tone is produced by the telephone. This result seems to be due rather to the physical condition than to the nature of the conducting material employed, as metals in a spongy condition produce similar effects. For in- stance, when an electrical current is passed through spongy platinum while it is exposed to intermittent sunlight, a dis- tinct musical tone is produced by.a telephone in the same cir- cuit. In all such cases the effect is increased by the use of an induction coil; and the sensitive cells can be employed for the i 1 itl i ut ta! Hii A. G. Bell— Production of Sound by Radiant Energy. 479 reproduction of articulate speech as well as for the production of musical sounds. We have also found that loud sounds are produced from lamp-black by passing through it an intermittent electrical current; and that it can be used as a telephonic receiver for the reproduction of articulate speech by electrical means. A convenient mode of arranging a lamp-black cell for ex- perimental purposes is shown in fig. 9. When an intermittent current is passed through the lamp-black (A,) or when-an in- termittent beam of sunlight falls upon it through the glass plate B, a loud musical tone can be heard by applying the ear to the hearing-tube C. hen the light and the electrical cur- rent act simultaneously, two musical tones are perceived, which produce beats when nearly of the same pitch. By proper ar- rangements a complete interference of sound can undoubtedly be produced. Upon the measurement of the Sonorous Effects produced by different substances. We have observed that different substances produce sounds of very different intensities under similar circumstances of ex- periment, and it has appeared to us that very valuable informa- tion might be obtained if we could measure the audible effects produced. For this purpose we have constructed several dif- ferent forms of apparatus for studying the effects, but as our researches are not yet complete, I shall confine myself to a simple description of some of the forms of apparatus we have devised. When a beam of light is brought to a focus by means of a lens, the beam diverging from the focal point becomes weaker as the distance increases in a calculable degree. Hence, if we can determine the distances from the focal point at which two different substances emit sounds of equal intensity, we can you to-day. 480 A. G. Bell—Production of Sound by Radiant Energy. Distance from Focal Point of Lens at which Sounds became Inaudible with different substances. Zinc diaphragm, (polished) --.-.----.----------- 151" Hard rubber diaphragm .--- .------. -------- i te, Tin-foil . Ae ee Se a, Oe; BS Telephone " (Japanned iron).-.-- ---- 2°15 Zinc ve (unpolished) ... 2.1. 2.22% 2°15 White silk, (In receiver shown in fig. 1)... 3°10 White worsted ; Bea A fs, a STOR Yellow worsted, * Bis oe fs eet ee Yellow silk, - OF cae Re Les WA Ae White cotton-wool, “ pe Oak pismaatin: G5 Green silk, “4 heels Dns ee Blue worsted, . een Daa Oe Purple silk, “ns oye aoe 4 Brown silk, " ner oo poe Black silk, . a es meee ya Red sil < 66 6“ e Gi ce ed oe “ce “6 6°50 Black worsted, # en Lamp-black. In this case the limit of audibility could not be determined on account of want o space. Sound perfectly audible at a distance of.10°00 (1.) A beam of light is received by two similar lenses (A B, fiz. 10,) which bring the light to a focus on either side of the interrupting disk (C). The two substances, whose sonorous powers are to be compared, are placed in the receiving vessels D E) (so arranged as to expose equal surfaces to the action of the beam) which communicate as flexible tubes (I G) of equal length, with the common hearing-tube (H). he re- ceivers (DE) are placed upon slides, which can be moved along the a awt supports (I K). The beams of light pass- ing through the interrupting, disk (C) are alternately cut off by the swinging of a pendulum (L). Thus a musical tone is produced alternately from the substance in D and from that in E. One of the receivers is kept at a constant point upon its scale, and the other receiver is moved toward or from the focus of its beam until the ear decides that the sounds pro- duced from D and E are of equal intensity. The relative posi- tions of the receivers are then noted. (2.) Another method of investigation is based upon the pro- duction of an interference of sound, and the apparatus employed is shown in fig. 11. he interrupter consists of a tuning- fork (A), which is kept in continuous vibration by means of an electro-magnet (B). A powerful beam of light is brought to a focus between the prongs of the tuning-fork (A), and the passage of the beam is more or less obstructed by the vibration of the opaque screens (C D) carried by the prongs of the fork. » Z| 4 ; A. G. Bell—Production of Sound by Radiant Energy 483 As the tuning-fork (A) produces a sound by its own vibra- tion, it is placed at a sufficient distance away to be inaudible through the air, and a system of lenses is employed for the pur- pose of bringing the undulating beam of light to the receiving lens (E) with as little loss as possible. The two receivers (F G) are attached to slides which move upon the graduated sup- ports (H I) on opposite sides of the axis of the beam, and the receivers are connected by flexible tubes of unequal length (K L) communicating with the common hearing-tube (M). The length of the tube (K) is such that the sonorous vibra- tions from the receivers (F G) reach the common hearing-tube (M) in opposite phases. Under these circumstances silence is produced when the vibrations in the receiver (F are of equal intensity. When the intensities are unequal, a residual effect is perceived. In operating the instrument the position of the receiver (G) remains constant, and the receiver (F) is moved to or from the focus of the beam until complete silence is produced. The relative positions of the two receivers are then noted. (3.) Another mode is as follows: The loudness of a musical tone produced by the action of light is compared with the loudness of a tone of similar pitch produced by electrical means. A rheostat introduced into the circuit enables us to measure the amount of resistance required to render the elec- trical sound equal in intensity to the other. (4.) If the tuning-fork (A) in fig. 11 is thrown into vibra- tion by an undulatory instead of an intermittent current passed through the electro-magnet, (B,) it is probable that a musical tone, electrically produced in the receiver (F) by the action of same current, would be found capable of extinguishing the effect produced in the receiver (G) by the action of the undu- latory beam of light, in which case it should be possible to establish an acoustic balance between the effects produced by light and electricity by introducing sufficient resistance into the electric circuit. Upon the nature of the rays that produce Sonorous effects in different substances. In my paper read before the American Association last August and in the present paper I have used the word “light” in its usual rather than its scientific sense, and I have not hith- 484 A. G. Bell—Production of Sound by Rodiant Energy. meaning we bave uniformly attached to the words “ photo- phone” and “light” will be obvious from the following passage, quoted from my Boston paper: “Although effects are produced as above shown by forms of for the producti ion and reproduction of sound in this way the ‘photophone’ because an ordinary beam of light contains the rays which are operative.’ To avoid in future any misunderstandings upon this point we have decided to adopt the term ‘‘radiophone,” proposed by M. Mercadier, as a general term signifying an apparatus for the production of sound by any form of radiant energy, limiting the words thermophone, photophone, and uactinophone to appa- ratus for the production of sound by thermal, luminous or actinic rays respective y- M. Mereadier, in the course of his researches in radiophony, sed an intermittent beam from an electric lamp through a sie and then examined the audible effects produced in dif- rent parts of the spectrum. (Comptes Rendus, Dec. 6th, 1880.) We have repeated this experiment, using the sun as our source of radiation, and have ae results cid HE differ- ent from those note y M. Mercadi (1L.) A beam of sunlight was rottoci from a heliostat (A, fig. 12) through an achromatic lens (B), so as to form an image of the sun upon the slit (C). The beam then passed through another achromatic lens (D) and through a bisulphide of carbon prism (E), forming a spec- trum of great intensity, which, when focussed upon a screen, was toutid to be sufficiently es to show the principal absorp- tion lines of the solar spectrum he disk-interrupter (F) was then turned with sufficient rapidity to produce from five to six hundred interruptions of the light per second, and the spectrum was explored with the receiver (G), which was so arranged that rt lamp-black sur- ace exposed was limited by a slit, as show Under these circumstances sounds were Pahiined in every part of the visible spectrum (excepting the extreme half of the violet), as well as in the ultra-red. A continuous increase in the loudness of the sound was observed upon moving the re- ceiver (G) gradually from the violet into the ultra- red. The point of maximum sound lay very far out in the ultra-red. ma? bet this point the sound began to decrease, and then sto ped so suddenly that a very slight motion of the receiver (G) made all the difference between almost maximum sound and complete silence.* *The results obtained in this and subsequent experiments are shown in a tabulated form in fig. 14. : | Y Sif swigis ‘Gl “Std 486 A. G. Bell—Production of Sound by Radiant Energy. (2.) The lamp-blacked wire gauze was then removed and the interior of the receiver (G) was filled with red worsted. Upon exploring the spectrum as before, entirely different results were obtained. The maximum effect was produced in the green at that part where the red worsted appeared to be black. either side of this point the sound gradually died away, becom- ing inaudible on the one side in the middle of the indigo, and on the other at a short distance outside the edge of the red. (3.) Upon substituting green silk for red worsted the limits of audition appeared to be the middle of the blue and a point a short distance out in the ultra-red. Maximum in the red. (4.) Some hard rubber shavings were now placed in the re- ceiver (G). The limits of inaudibility appeared to be on the one hand the junction of the green and blue, and on the other the outside edge of the red. Maximum in the yellow. Mr. Tainter thought he could hear a little way into the ultra-red, and to his ear the maximum was about the junction of the red and orange. (5.) A test-tube containing the vapor of sulphuric ether was then substituted for the receiver (G). Commencing at the violet end, the test-tube was gradually moved down the spec- trum and out into the ultra-red without audible effect, but when a certain point far out in the ultra-red was reached a distinct musical tone suddenly made its appearance, which disappeared as suddenly on moving the test-tube a very little further on. (6.) Upon exploring the spectrum with a test-tube contain- ing the vapor of iodine the limits of audibility appeared to be the middle of the red and the junction of the blue and indigo. Maximum in the green. (7.) A test-tube containing peroxide of nitrogen was substi- tuted for that containing iodine. Distinct sounds were ob-. tained in all parts of the visible spectrum, but no sounds were observed in the ultra-red. The sounds were well marked in‘ all parts of the violet, and I even fancied that the audible effect extended a little way into the ultra-violet, but of this_ I cannot be certain. Upon examining the absorption spectrum | of peroxide of nitrogen it was at once observed that the maximum sound was produced in that part of the spectrum where the greatest number of absorption lines made their. appearance. 8.) The spectrum was now explored by a selenium cell, and: the audible effects were observed by means of a telephone in) the same galvanic circuit with the cell. The maximum effect was produced in the red about its junction with the orange. The audible effect extended a little way into the ultra-red on * Tn the diagram fig. 14 a mean of these readings is shown. 3 a : . ; A. G. Bell—Production of Sound by Radiant Energy. 487 the one hand and up as high as the middle of the violet on the oy) Although the experiments so far made can only be consid- ered as preliminary to others of a more refined nature, I think we are warranted in concluding that the nature of the rays that produce sonorous effects in different substances depends upon the ees of the substances that are exposed to the beam, and that the ounds are in every case due to those rays of the spectrum that are Decrhsa by the body. The Spectrophone. r experiments upon the range of audibility of different Pbatanoes | in the spectrum have led us to the construction of anew instrument for use in spectrum analysis, which was de- scribed and exhibited to the Philosophical Society of Washing- ton last Saturday.* The eye-piece of a spectroscope is re- moved, and sensitive substances are placed in the focal point of the imstrument behind an opaque diaphragm containing a slit. These substances are put in communication with ‘the ear by means of a hearing-tube, and thus the instrument is ee into a veritable ‘“spectrophone,”’ like that shown in g. 13. Suppose we smoke the interior of our ages 3 ay receiver, and fill the cavity with peroxide of nitrogen e then a combination that gives us good sounds in ail parts of the spectrum (visible and invisible), except “ate ultra-violet.- Now, pass a rapidly-interrupted beam of light through some substance whose absorption spectrum is to be Sr causa, and bands of sound and silence are observed upon exploring the spectrum, the silent positions corresponding to the absorption ands. Of course, the ear cannot for one moment compete oe the eye in the examination of the visible A oe of the spec- um; but in the invisible part beyond the red, where the eye is Aend Hire the ear is invaluable. In working in this region of t (1.) The interrupted beam was filtered through a saturated solution of alum. Result: The range of audibility in the ultra-red was slightly reduced by the absorption of a narrow band of the rays o lowest refrangibility. The sounds in the visible part of the spectrum seemed to be unaffected. . * Proc, of Phil. Soc. of Washington, April 16, 1881. “uaqqney ply Ng uordsosgy — “UNITE AG UOnM40sqy [ mupias T i ee Jo apy yodava puzpo. - waype aranydyng Jo aodnalT | s. QQTH Plo Eee WS fT , DIISIDM Pa ] youd uo T I | “Z49201A DALIN 297024. ‘obipur “Onl “uaa IDK 0 “paw ‘PIN P4110 G07 ZF BF. oF i. oe RE FEF “pl Bla _ Am, Jour. Scr.—Tuirp Series, Von. XXI, No. 126.—Junz, 1881. 32 490 A. @. Beill— Production of Sound by Radiant Energy. (2.) A thin sheet of hard Aibber was interposed in the path of the beam eo Well-marked sounds in every part of the ultra-red. sounds in the visible part of the spectrum, excepting the Stich half of the red. ‘These experiments reveal the cause of the curious fact al- luded to in my paper read before the American Association last August—that sounds were heard from selenium when the beam was filtered through both hard rubber and alum at the same time. (See table of results in fig. 14). (3.) A solution of ammonia- sulphate of copper was tried. Result: When placed in the path of the beam the spectrum disappeared, with the exception of the blue and violet end. o the eye the spectrum was thus reduced to a single broad band of blue-violet light. To the ear, however, the s spectrum revealed itself as two bands of sound with a broad space of silence between. The ie bet rays sraninkiistad constituted a narrow band just outside the I think I have said enou % to convince you of the value g this new method of examination, but I do not wish you t understand that we look upon our results as by any means complete. It is often more interesting to observe the first tot- terings of a child than to watch the firm tread of a full-grown man, and I feel that our first footsteps in this new field of science may have more of interest to you than the fuller results of mature research. This must be my excuse for having dwelt so long upon the details of incomplete experiments. I recognize the fact that the spectrophone must ever remain a mere adjunct to the spectroscope, but I anticipate that it has a wide and independent field of ietilness 3 in the investigation of absorption spectra in the ultra-red. ee 4 a LE a a 9 i a 4 ES ef : é D. P. Todd—The Solar Parallax. 491 Art. LIX.—The Solar Parallax as derived from the American _ Photographs of the Transit of Venus, 1874, December 8-9; by . P. Topp, M.A., Assistant in the Office of the American Kphemeris and Nautical Almanac. HirHERtTO no value of the solar parallax has been derived from the observations of the transit of Venus made at the American ‘stations in 1874. In the volume of observations recently issued, Part the First, General Discussion of Results, are given most of the data which are necessary for the derivation of the solar parallax from (1) the photographs of the transit, (2) the optic observations of the transit. We shall concern ourselves only with the photo- graphic results: these are presented in pages 104-117, in very nearly the form of equations of condition involving the correc- tion of the difference of right ascension of the sun and Venus, the correction of the difference of declination of the sun and Venus, and the correction of the assumed value of the solar parallax. The residual differences, (O.—C.), being given in distance, s, and in position-angle, p, every photograph furnishes two distinct equations of condition. e total number of photographs is two hundred and thirteen, distributed among the several stations as follows :— THE NORTHERN STATIONS. THE SOUTHERN STATIONS. Wladiwostok 13 Kerguelen 8 Nagasaki 45 Hobart Town 37 Peking 26 Campbelltown 32 Queenstown 45 Chatham Island 7 values having bee ted in several cases 1 corrections arising from the absorption of the solar and the g 103. The first and the second effects being supposably small and acting contrariwise on the solar parallax, we may, without very great uncertainty, disregard their combined action. The third correction should be investigated independently from the uations of condition themselves; and this again cannot advantageously be done until the definitive longitudes have been obtained: all the effects of absorption of the solar and the bi etalon atmospheres may then be most opportunely consid- ere 492 D. P. Todd—The Solar Parallax. Tur Equations oF ConpDImTIoN IN 8s. Putting, then, 04, 04... . 6A, equal to zero, every photograph gives one equation ‘of condition in s of the form = a6A + bdD + eda — (0.—C.) The normal equations in s are as follow :— + 23°99 6A + 24°71 6D — 28°72 da — 82°17 + “oy 710A + 18446 dD — 3°16 da — 439°51 872dA — 3°16 6D + 48451 da + 21°72 HU i = whose solution gives— dA = + 1/7181 + 077202 OD = + 277225 + 07-070 da = + 070397 + 0/0418 The probable error of a single photograph is 0°88. The sums of the squares of the absolute terms in the equa- tions of condition are as follow :— nnlw a 627-48 mn}, == 37°02 i nw == 318°25 nn|y = 115°65 [nn|p = 130718 nn|o = 414°46 nn |g = 337°63 nn |e == 27°83 nn| = 1433-50 The sums of the squares of the outstanding residuals are as low :— vv0|w = 77714 wv |x = 20°44 VUin = 62°47 Vlg = 59°74 bet = ae ae VV|o = 95°16 Wig = 85°67 v ch — 8°91 vv| = 358°81 Tur Equations oF Conpirion IN p. Putting, as before, 02,, dA, . . . dA, equal to zero, — photo- graph gives one equation of condition in p of the 0= a@’ dA + W OD + ce do — (0.’—C.’) The normal equations in p are as follow :— + po po dA — 1404261 dD — 138999°20 da — 1421094 — 0 404261 dA + 1521370 dD— 2509311 do + 104421 = 0 ane 20dA — 25093:110D + 7326-76 da + 2651°6 — 0 whose solution gives— dA = + 177109 + 07109 dD = + 07-637 + 0°"224 da = + 07-0252 + 07-0595 The probable error of a single photograph is 3’°447. D. P. Todd—The Solar Parallax. 493 The sums of the squares on the absolute terms in the equa- tions of condition are as fo mn lw = 358'°65 mn} = 38120 nr|y == 1271749 WN |y — 1924°85 nn|p = 269°08 nn|, == 2044°68 NN |g = 1462°97 NN, == .220°70 q nn| = 7933°62 j The sums of the squares of the outstanding residuals are as : follow :— 7 vvlw = 32365 wv]x = 174'34 ‘ vvly = 972°02 VV i_y == 840°69 4 vl, == 519°77 revo == 1236-90 2 VO |g = 1232°09 4 VV |on = 176°04 ‘ fov}] == 5475°50 Frvat Varuss or 6A, 6D, dz. It seems likely that some of the probable errors of these quantities which have been derived are illusory. The best course, however, which we can now pursue will be to combine the values of 3A, 6D, and da obtained from the two solutions in ce with the weights depending upon these probable err ods alee cal, Sea We thus have, for dA, From solution ins, SA = + 1/"181 + 077202 From solution inp, JA = + 17109 + 077109 inal value, dA = + 08075 + 0°:006 And for 6D, From solution ins, JD = + 2/7225 + 07-070 From solution inp, 06D = + 07637 + 07224 Final value, 6D = + 2/7083 8 0’7-067 And for ds, . From solution n in 8, da = + 070397 + 077-0418 From solution in p, da = + 07-0252 + 0” br inal value, dao = + 077035 + 0/70 The assumed value of a being 8’848, we eae finally, for the mean equatorial horizontal parallax of the sun, 8”°883 + 07°034 corresponding (if we adopt the dimensions of the earth given by Colonel A: R. Clarke*) to a distance between the centres of the sun and earth equal to 148,103,000 k:lictabkdre = 92,028,000 miles. Washington, April 27, 1881. * Geodesy . . . Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1880, page 319. 494. J. F. Whateaves—Fossil Fishes from the Devonian. Art. LX.—On some remarkable Fossil Fishes from the Devo- nian Rocks of Scaumenac Bay, in the Province of Quebec; by J. F. Wurreaves. IMMEDIATELY after my paper on the Canadian adele G ll was written, Mr. A. H. Foord, of the Geological Survey of Canada, went down to the Baie des Chaleurs and spent fel LS and a half of the summer of 1880 in a careful and systematic examina- tion of the fish-bearing beds of the ees rocks of the north bank of the mouth of the Restigouche River. The exact locality at which the Pterichthys Ca nadensis was ‘uid is not the Baie des Chaleurs proper but Scaumenac eternal written Escu- minac) Bay, ce Neng Harbor, in the County of Bonaventure. n the shores of t ay a series of shales, sandstones and con- glomerates, now Entei to be of Devonian age, are overlaid, apparently unconformably, by the red sandstones and conglom- erates of the “ Bonaventure Formation From ‘ieee Tavduisi rocks Mr. Ford succeeded in obtaining a large and interesting collection of fossil fishes. Fully four-fifths nes. One of the specimens show s that the Canadian Pteric ‘hve had two labial appendages or bar bels attached to the front margin of the head. These barbels are almost exactly similar in shape to those indicated by dotted lines in the ideal representation of the genus Pterichthys on Plate VI of the “Monographie des Poissons hg 4 du Vieux Grés Rouge,” which Agassiz claims to ne have seen in his P. latus, but in anadensis the barbels are very close togdelina at their nigh n two other specimens of a vialetta collected by Mr. o remarkable, flattened conical, dermal processes are plainly visible on the helmet, one on ilar to that of all the other plates, are half an inch long an lines and a half broad near their base. They taper gradually from their base to 9 obtuse point and are pressed close to the surface of the helm In addition to eae remains of Prerichthys, there are examples of eight or nine species of fossil ‘fishes in Mr. Foord’s collection, which belong to at least seven genera. "The f ollowing is a brief’ description of the most striking characters of six of these species, *On a new species of Pterichthys, allied to Bothriolepis ornata Kichwald, etc., this Journal, xx, 132, August, 1880. J. F. Whiteaves— Fossil Fishes from the Devonian. 495 the sneer of the duieemesnn not having yet been satisfactorily ascertained : aie Two specimens, one showing scales and longitudinally grooved fin spines and the other a large portion of the body, of a small, smooth-scaled Diplacanthus, very like the D. striatus of Agassiz and possibly identical with that species. vlicreak dete fae curtum, hed and acral ‘but nearly perfect examples and several Pisce of a new species of Phaneropleuron, which differs from the P. Andertons of Huxley, from the Old Re d Sa net: rg is six inches long, the length is not much more than twice the height. Pe aieeael asl Foordi, nov. — et sp. he e EHusthenopte s proposed for a supposed new genus holy resembles the “Trisidhoptern of Sir Philip Egerton in the shape and ornamentation of its scales and cranial plates, in the circumstance that the fin rays of ita anal and second dorsal fins are both supported by three osselets ‘articulated to a broad * ep apophysis, and in some other important particulars But the vertebral he of 7 ‘iatichoniterie' are said to be ossified, and is ‘aubolete which support the rays of the lower lobe of t tail are described as “springing from eight or nine inbatapiniven bones,” whereas in Husthenopteron the vertebral centers are not ossified oe a caudal osselets are priniir at to the moditied hemal spines. In Husthenoptheron, too, the osselets and inter- spinous Sones of the anal and pleat dorsal are larger than those ot Tristichopterus, and different also in their shape and relative proportions, The species, which is acne after its discoverer, so A. H. Foord, may be recognized by its large size (it appears to have attained toa length of two aes or more) and by its icin elon- gated and acutely pointed first dorsal ees sia cnet Agassiz. A single, nearly perfect specimen of a small-scaled Glyptolepis which cannot at L pecan be distinguished from the above named European species . cise slender rib-bones, an operculum and a fragment of a’ jaw with teeth, on the same small slabs of shale. * From ev-ofevyc, stout, and 7Tepor, a fin. 496 B. F. Harrison— Rainfall in Wallingford, Conn. Cheirolepis Canadensis, nov. sp. Four exquisitely preserved specimens, two of which are nearly perfect, of a large Cheirolepis which resembles the CO. macroceph- alus of McCoy and the C. Cumingice of Agassiz i in the size, con- tour ye sculpture of the scales of the bo Y. and fins, but which short interval and from the anal by a much longer one. In macrocephalus, on the other hand, the ventrals are “represented by cCoy as being nearer to the anal than they are to the pectorals, while in C. Cuming gie, according to Hugh Miller, “the large pec- torals almost encroach on the ventrals and the ventrals on the anal fin. A more detailed bgt anil of these species ein be found in the current number of the “ Canadian Naturalist.” The existence of fossil plants as well as of ich remains in the ota shales and sandstones of Scaumenac Bay was noticed braham Gesner in 1842, and from these rocks Mr. Foord also attained four species of ferns, which have recently been re- ported on by Principal Dawson. The analogies between the fossil fauna of the fish-bearing beds of Scaumenac Bay and that of the Old Red Sandstone of Scotland aud Russia are very striking. The Pterichthys Canadensis is still peeeuty distinct from the Bothriolepis ornata of Europe; the fragments of a Diplacanthus obtained by Mr. Foord have appar- ently much the same characters as the D. striatus of Agassiz, and the genus Phaneropleuron can now be shown to oceur in the De- vonian rocks of Canada os bs as in those of Scotland. Husthe- nopteron has many features in common with Tristichopterus ; one species of Glyptolepis honk Scuntrbnne Bay seems to be identical ith the G. microlepidotus of Agassiz, from Lethen Bar, while tha other bears a general resemblance to the G. de, eptopterus of the same author; and lastly, Chei ae Canadensis is certainly very closely allied to two Scotch species 1ese Devonian rocks at t Scaumenac may have been of fresh- water or estuarine origin, for no traces of any marine invertebrata have yet been detected in any of them and the fossil fishes which they contain are rae tia found associated with land plants. Montreal, April 7th, 1881 Art. LXL—On the Rain-Fall in Wallingford, chee ate between 1856 and 1881; Record kept by B. F. iLar Tue following table gives the ari in inches of rain and melted snow for each month of each year. The depth of snow in the winter months is also given. The record extends from April, 1856 to December, 1880, inclusive, with, however, the exception * Vol. x, new series. B. F. Harrison— Rainfall in Wallingford, Conn. 497 of the five closing months of 1862, and the years 1863, 1864. At the close the means for each month are given, an also the final average for the whole period over which the observations ex- tend. 1856. 1857, 1858, 1859. 1860, 1861. Rain. Snow./Rain. Snow./Rain. Snow.) Rain. pena soa Snow.|Rain. Snow. January|...__ ._..| 4°39 27°70] 3:13 4°00] 6:94 31°00) 2°38 11°60 a 20°00 Febru’y |.... ._..| 2°08 2°75) 1°92 5°00] 4°24 13°00) 3°13 17-5 potes Mar yap DAT ou : 30] 8 6° 62 ~o 27 met a1. oe ae ce gece oun 50] 5°83 9:00 May ...| 686 22.51.9768 5.1 9 CAPR oo) oe rage dine... | 3-07 2.2) Soe 2 BOS oe Bab. 10 es July 22) 2°98 | B88 ee BB eS ea Pe a Aligust (11-682. Gp Oe oP ee ie es a ee tein. | 9°93 | SIT 2 Erle eae Gs Bee 2 ee! October |. 1-08 |...) 88. 2. S88 ee yet oo SiO. ae : Novem. | 2°67 2°50! 2°06 ____| 2°23 13°00] 2°49 .._.| 63% ....| 447 4:00 : Decem’r| 6°61 12°50! 5°79 5-90) 4°47 3°0C] 4°01 5°50! 4:97 10°50) 1°77 o8 Total - _!43°11 15-00'57°85 46°35'41°64 38°50'57.11 55°50/42°25 40°60|48-93 60-00 1862. 1865. | 1866. 1867. 1868. 1869. January 5-71 16°00} 4°92 11°50; 1°71 14°50} 2°42 26-00 4°55 27 “00 3°05 ebru’ ‘6 4°96 . —<--- Bloc pecs 1-01 19: 00 4°38 10: 50 2°70 13°00] 2°47 12°00) 6°35 15°00 Total _. 130°76 39°00/52°52 pre re 33°00/51°29 81°00 51°76 81:00/58°46 48°00 1870. 187i. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. January 6°38 6°00) 3°88 24°00} 1°47 2-00) 6°71 17°00) 6°51 17°00) 2:90 11-00 Febru’y | 5-19 16-00 yet 22°00} 2°99 12°50) 3°52 13°00) 3°88 26°00 5°18 8°50 M 4 9°00) 654 ... | 4:16 7°00] 2°50 2°00) 1°53 6:00) 5-48 29°50 fuss aod 4:00} 1:72 1°00) 3°28 1,00) 7°88 7-00) 3°74 18°50 2 3 2 ceil SO ce SO cise es Oy Be ay fp eater wen wan dt Sl in cuc] @ae tem oe mont LUA wencpe SOL , oven ce ‘O08 1. LE OUR cial Pa oo) ee. cis) Ooo ciel TOE coccl OUR ceccr ee eee) ae te 4 panei SWS) SOO Pa Cla a ea eo Se andy re f = 6 say S0 osee Se cae e “Eee 50] 5°: ‘36 4°00| 3:12 “50) 5-72 ___- _ _Decem’r} 2:19 1-00 oan 13°50} 3°66 43°00 4:84 20°00} 2°32 10°00) 1:37 3°50 — Potal _. 45°36 48-00/53°38 64-00/46-20 66°50|50°30 57-00/47-11 66°50/43°39 71-00 498 Scientific Intelligence. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. January| 1°36 3°00} 3°47 18°00] 5°83 5°50] 2°64 20°50) 4:02 5:00 Febru’y | 5-26 13°00) 1°50 2°50) 5.71 9°00) 3°88 11°50} 3°79 8°50 March _|10°90 5:00} 8:30 5:00; 2°95 __..| 4°93 10°50] 3°63 10°00 April -| 4 Ceex[ 20 2.2) 218 22] th Sg ese May) SOL Ey 2 or ae sly tyes Aiphone (ies fhe | Semmes Sune a or ORS Socotra 00 | 204 he POD cc Dab ee PAO on B08 a 88 cae PeURUSe 4°69. ee RR SG et Bde el G2). os hs 5°00 Se SE oy SR ey ae ds) Gee eine RS Dh saat ie Oc@ebver! 1-44). 1-00) B34" ots a0 See es Novem. | 4:37 «1°50} 6°81 .___]| 5°87 *5b0| 2°00 1°50) 2°87 1°00 Decem’r} 4°19 24°50] 1°76 ___| 7:06 7°00) 4:19 17°50) 3°00 16°50 Total __|54°20 48°00/47°82 25°50}54°52 22°00 49°79 51°50 42°85 41°00 FINAL AVERAGES. Total rain-fall Monthly Total fall of snow Monthly for each month. Average. for each month. Average. January 88°44 4:020 307°30 14°66 Febrt ry 25. 82°40 3.745 232°T5 11°08 } Be Ge 95°03 4°318 134°50 6°41 EE ore 94°46 4°107 56°00 2°66 Mie eo 100-40 4365 eee an une 92°51 4°020 ee eee Pale ons 85-96 3°739 ee aS AUPE oo 126715 5°734 ‘spans eee September 78°46 3°566 oe os October . .._. 87°22 3°963 1-00 05 November ___ 89°44 4065 34°50 16 I 85°34 3°880 228°40 10°87 Total rain-fall for 22 vears and 4 Wionths.. 2. 1,105-81 inches. Average sere = fall (including choad snow) 49°52 Total fall of s 994°45 verage saieal ‘Tall of snow 45°89 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. ae CHEMISTRY AND PHysIcs. ce On the Direct hesis of Ammonia.—W hile passing nitro-- n gas over ond “hyadrogentzed copper at a red heat, Jounson observed. the formation of traces of ammonia. He therefore re- Chemistry and Physics. 499 ing and drying apparatus with the hydrogen. When the mixture reached the hot platinum, ammonia was produced, the Nessler us was turned plue and white fumes were produced wit dro- chloric acid. panei experiments showed the production of 5°9 mgrms. er hour in this apparatus. This result having been Shesads to on the ground that the vapor of some salt of ammonia might be carried by the saree stream of gas vee! the solutions and be dissociated in the Ate ne: a the antho poise as 0 g r nitrogen the ammonia sa : if present might be dissociated and yield its ammonia. But on admitting me nitrogen to the cold platinum, ammonia was sie ced, 24 mgrms. in an hour. The experiment was then repeated with semen obtained by passing air over heated copper; but no ammonia appeared. Nor was an produced when the nitrogen prepared from the nitrite was previ- ously passed over heated copper. Two hypotheses suggested themselves: either the heat rendered the nitrogen inactive, or some nitrogen oxide, which was present yee Es appareal the ammonia, was removed by the hot copper. On examination it appeared that the nitrogen prepar ed trom ammonium nitrite — — nitric oxide. o remove t ine e nitrogen was passed through ferrous sulphate; and to test its purity it was then passed through a tared tube pone i or -reduced copper heated to redness, the tube being weighed e ery hour. hen ae gas passed over a sufficient length of the prions sulphate so- lution, no increase in weight was observed in the copper tube. The nitrogen being now free from oxides, was used — hydro- gen as before; and with cold spongy platinum, 3 mgrms, of am- monia was produce in an hour. But when the i cite ‘of gases nitrogen, like phosphorus, exists in an active and an inactive state, the were produced by heat. —dJ. Chem. Soc., xxxix, 7 130, Mar ch G. F. irregular in form, but reassume their original size and shape on adding more acid, Concentrated sulphuric acid acts similarly on 500 Scientific Intelligence. the erystals but decomposes the coloring matter, removing the iron, and totes ets rphyrin having a distinct absorption spec ctrum. The r therefore concludes that the blood erys- tals are really sro of globulin Se mixed with the coloring matter, a view y originally he aay y Reichert in 1847,— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges. i , Apr 3. On the Miangsion: pe of Colorless Liquids. —Russeut and Lapraik have repeated and extended their observations of last summer on the abeervaad bands i in the spectra of liquids or- inarily considered colorless. The spectra were in all cases ob- served with the eye, the spectroscope used being made by Desaga and having a single prism of heavy glass. The sources of light were a large Argand gas burner and the lime cylinder. Before reaching the slit, the light traversed a column of the liquid from 2 to 8 feet long. A plate is given showing the bands in the spec- tra of thirty-four liquids. Water, in a tube 6 feet in length gives a distinct absorption band between the 600 and 610 divisions of the scale, these divisions corresponding to millionths of a milli- meter. It is darker on the more refrangible side and ends sharply, fading off ediatty on the other side. e general absorption extends to about 665 in the red, and there appears to be a second band at 705-723. These bands are unaffected by temperature and also by salts in solution, Ordinary alcohol (in which absorp- eens gives a band coincident with that of the arte ethers. The existence of the same band in all these amyl mee ounds shows 703 to 7 14, both eiskably prth and dark. Methyl-benzene (toluene) shows the same bands but the former has become fainter while the latter is as dark as before. Xylene shows the same pro- cess continued farther. Mono- and di-chlorbenzene, the latter dis- solved in ether, er the same bands, but the 606 band is fainter than in benzene. Napthalene no A, at three bands, two sagt ing exactly with Pate enzene bands and the third with the e gen eral absorption of this body. Two "feet of naphthalene priduced as much absorption as six or eight times as much benzene ; and benzene in its turn is more powerful as an absorber than either tol- uene or xylene. Phenol gives two bands, one agreeing nearly aqueous solution shows five bands; the darkest is from 649 to 654; Chemistry and Physics. 501 two others coincide nearly, the one with the water, the other with the alcohol band; another narrow and sharp from 566 to 570; showed the effect of progressively replacing hydrogen by the alcohol radical. Aniline, toluidine and dimethylaniline, and also turpentine were examined. The only liquids which did not show bands were carbon disulphide and tetrachloride—J, Chem. Soc., Xxxix, 168, April, 1881 + other. The openings at the two extremities were closed by mem- branes at right angles to the tubes. It was now expected that made before the first membrane, and ‘gous to a simple sound wave, was obtained by the blow of a small t memobr read | . could be dropped through a given height against it; a second ball of glass, similarly suspended, rested lighty against the other rmi i it w ic as thrown by d ach corresponding deflection of the other ball noted ; ‘he onds, and e : ss then one half of the system was turned 90° in the central joint, as 502 Scientific Intelligence. above described, and the effect again noted; then a further turn of 90° was made, and so on. Several series of experiments were carried on: in one series of eighty trials the mean deflection when the membranes of the two halves of the tube ive parallel was 6°47, and when perpendicular to i other 5°43, a diminution of intensity corresponding to 1671 cent; in aie series the results were 1°68 and 1°04, cor sedpondilig ‘toa dintutrtion of 38°] per cent. When the tubes were filled with air no deflection was observed. The author eaten that by the repeated saree from the surfaces of the membranes separating the co as and air a diminution in n intensity is produced according re the relative posi- tions of the branes, analogous e effects produced in the method of ment is ingenious and the results possess consid- erable interest, the soil seems to demand Soon experiment before conclusions can safely drawn. The ndividual trials, ced di two sets of reflecting surfaces, but it seems probable that this may be explained ae some peculiarity i in the mechanical construc- tion of the appar Assumin sha) tities of the longitudinal vibrations of sound to have been absolutely demonstrated, the author goes fur- ther and draws conclusions, which are far too sweeping consider- ing the nature of t oe eile : that all vibrations in extended media, as light, are only longitudinal, and that when polarization takes place the vibrations become transversal.—Journ. Frank. Institute, 1881. II. Ggeotogy AND Naturau Hisrory. 1. The Zine-ore i ataage of Wiesloch in Baden; by Dr. Apo.r Scumipt.* 2 pp. 8vo, with 3 plates. Beidelberg: 1881. (Carl Winter). “he deposits of zine-ore, described by Dr. Schmidt, are situated near the village of Wiesloch, Baden, rigiee 74 miles south of Heidelberg. The “ Buntsandstein” which a esuatierable development at Heidelberg, dips gently to the south, and near Nussloch it disappears from the surface and the overiping “ Muschelkalk” takes its place; this forms the rock in which the zine deposits occur. e zinc is found as the sulphide, sphalerite or zine blende, the carbonate, smithsonite, with hydro- zincite in limited quantities. Bhd * phalerite roan is — ssa 4 over a limited area, is regarded a oldest dep uch of it, in the form of shell blende (e Schalecblende,”) Aakers of thin wavy layers of cryptocrystalline blende of different colors and often alternating with galenite or marcasite; much of it is * Die Zinkerz-lagerstatten von Wiesloch, Baden, von Dr. A. ScHMIDT. Geology and Natural History. 503 stalactitic in form. ibaa”? greece with distinctly crystal- line structure also occu e zinc carbonate, which forms the mass of the ore, occurs somata Aistinetly crystallized Bite in the vitreous form called “zinkglas,” the nular massive form, | 5 Skizze der ves - Pia IV 1 belsbers bei och. vi pearag deat sa . 0. Nach Grubenrissen 32 @> bigs — Mhifte Das Scderaffirte ist Erz. Yi of the ore-deposits at the Ko oma Ge near Wi - h. och, Baden. Scale, Figure 1, general sketch. Figure 2, vertical section taken oo the 2000. line ab (ae. 1). tau 3, vertical section taken pene the Ti line red (fig. 1 504 Scientific Intelligence. Five independent deposits of ore have been worked in this re- gion, These are irregular masses of ore, some five to seven me- ters in thickness, but with a considerable horizontal extent and with the greatest development in a north and south direction. The smallest deposit is about 140 meters long and 70 broad; and the dimensions of the largest are 600 and 300 meters. en ex- amined more closely, each of these deposits is found to consist not of an uninterrupted and solid body of ore, but rather of a large of limestone. Figure 1 gives a ground sketch. of one of the five ore deposits mentioned, ‘sigs cece a peculiar lenticular forms of “a9 ore masses (here the carbonate.) In general they extend a northwesterly and sicithidaatetoe direction, and are joined to- vethiet 4 in an irregular way, as exhibited in the plate. Figures 2 and 3 represent two cross-sections, the first taken along the line ab, in figure 1, and the second alon ig ed ; these show still more in 8 dene from this aed line to the lower and extend along this— — (figure 3). In al i "how separate Pagar! masses consist of the carbonate with more or less red Pa itermixed in some cases, , the latter being excess. The i ii sr seine’ with the clay. In most cases the is easily separated from the sides of the enclosing rock, pe not infrequently the javhowses is firmly bound to sine limestone and passes gradually into it; in such casés aa 9 mon to find the fossil shells changed into the zinc carbon ied here, evidently, the mineral has arisen not by direct ress but by a process of alteration of the limestone. In regard to the origin of these deposits of zine ore the conclu- sion is reached that they have been made in most cases by the direct filling of previously made cavities and crac s in the lime- stone, although in some cases the deposit of the zine and the re- moval of the limestone must have gone on together. The form- i Tak ic Geology and Natural History. 505 ing of oa: larger of the cavities is to be referred to ei horizontal moveme whi ch resulted in the elevation of the mation of the zine spe pees and then from this there eee with the calcium carbonate, the formation of the zine carbona the zinc sulphide there is also to be recognized that which has resulted from the alteration of limestone, and by direct deposit . from solution. Dr. Sohmidtia memoir, from which the anere facts and accom- panying plate have been taken, is of great interest both to the theoretical and minin geologi uation of the valuable work by the same oun on the lead mines of Missouri, published in 1874 in ection with the Re- port on the Geo ogical Survey of Mae pa noticed in vol. x, 1875, of this Journal. 2. ’ Geological Map of the United States, compiled by C. H. Hrrcncock ; issued both in sheets and on "rollers, New York, “It is made for a wall map,” and a parently chiefly to serve the purpose of ihe lecturer, the details being few and the style of work coarse compared with what w e find on fore reign geological mee of like size. The facmatinas distinguished embrace three divisions under the Tertiary ; the Laramie, Cretaceous and Jura- rias under the Mes keg three under the Carboniferous; one f sentence, we pubcne is Am. Jour. 3c1. satan yeti ihe, pe ee 126.— 506 Scientific Intelligence, gneisses of New England are mainly of pre-Silurian age,” would, according to the writer’s observations, be more nearly correct if a such metamorphic rocks as are not known by stratigraphical evi- dence to belong to this division, or to any of those higher in the series, had been left without color, the map would have been more satisfactory. The Huronian cannot be told by lithological tests, and the Huronian areas, so made, that have any other basis than ; lithological are very limited, and would have been sufficiently distinguished by lining. But the metamorphic areas are only a very small part of the formations represented. The chart also gives the outlines, more or less well ascertained, of the areas of eruptive rocks in the west ; the southern limit of Glacier phenomena east of the Rocky Mount: ains, from Newberry, and the courses of what sha been called terminal moraines—which, for the most par rt, are far from corres- ponding with the most southern Glacier limit, Ne therefore are - as far from the southern line along which true terminal morain might be looked for. As to artistic merit, the chart has Ser eeied disappointing expectation. si co olor ors “hte been selected and grouped without system or judgm and are put on ee by the chromo-litho- graphic process, i ‘ooareely by hand, and the effect is both un- pleasing and Come sin ee Plata the sheets (of which the chart is made up) jo on one is sometimes cut short off in- stead of baviog © a ‘goueheaasion of the color on the other. ‘Still the chart will be of much service to geologists and in the geological lecture aro 3. Report on the Geology of Southern New Brunswick, 1878- 1879; by Professors L. W. Batrey, G. L Marrarew and R. W. Ets. Geological Survey of Canada. 26 pp. 8vo. Montreal, 1880. (Dawson Brothers).—This report contains the aaits of geological observations in the counties Charlotte, Sunbury, Queens, Kings, St. John and Albert. It is accompanied by a geo- logical map of Southern New Brunswick in three parts which out of the four are issued. The map is printed sag sagt and effectively in colors, and shows excellent progress by the geolo- gists of the State h in res work. There is also a large sheet of 5 Bette tee enn but with too many doubtful points among n all cases easily understood or ering) inter- oa Caret ul a of the strike an ad dip at each and and Go.) —This text-book is devoted to a discussion of the gen- eral principles of crystallography, and physical and chemical mineralogy; the descriptive mineralogy is to follow in a compan- Geology and Natural History. 507 ion volume. In the crystallography the author wisely chooses the system of Miller for full development, while the notations of Weiss, Naumann and Lévy are also explained. The statements system, are given with admirable fullness and clearness, and the figures are also numerous and excellent, The author states that he inten ntionally omits the subject of practical calculation, but had it been possible to abridge a little at other points so as to have made room for a few pages on this part of the subject the useful- ness of the book would have been much increased. The pes subject of optical mineralogy is i ed with unusual suce and this also is true of the other topics under physical a s alo E, lan ccvastastinated. March 18). Sadaateed twins of Zircon pare lately been obser ved by the writer ine it h t best questionable. : enhorst’s ) epi men- Flora von Deutschland, Oester- reich und der Schweiz; vol. I, parts 1 and 2; by Dr. G. Wis ER. “we r > 7 others, and from this list of names it will be seen that the scope é of the work is considerably greater than that of the first edition, ; which was written by Ra i nhorst alone. The marine alge, for instance, which were before omitted, are to be described b auck, whose residence at Triest has given him an opportunity to explore the interesting coast of the northern Adriatic he two parts already published include the Schizomycetes, pe sted cetes, Entomophthoree we Aipiaiiodg oe! by Winter. The whole account, including about Fan $ with an introduction the m atte ashe rather minute directions about collecting and mo Ra- enhorst’s “‘ Flora Europea Alga gS ue Dulcis,” the descrip- tion of the ao of the different gre is precede woo * See Mey S. G., Ges., — 11,352; Stapff, 1. c., xxx, 133, xxxi, 405; Hussak, Min. Petr. Mitth, i, 277, 1878 508 Serentifie Intelligence. cuts illustrating the genera. Under the Schizomycetes the cuts 5 are taken principally from Cohn, Koch and Warming, and the e ver executed. i i inte are ell lescriptions given r are also excellent, eee uncomfortably condensed nor too diffuse From the nature of the subject the descriptions of the species 0 should sieceuaneity be followed by notes on the development and variations, and the editor has given much desirable information on the asta principally from the works of Cohn and Warming, and in the Ustilaginew the notes are ce 7 nu- merous Sagal ote "vatio 7. Notes digedoutaiise: deucidme Sascicule; by Ep. Bor pasa : G. Tuuret.—The second part of the “ Notes Rigttowiencad? in- cluding 25 quarto lithographic plates and the index to parts one and two, is quite equal to the portion already issued in the clear- by those of the “Etudes Phycologiques” of the same authors The ie ahy fasciculus differs from the first in that comparatively e portion on None reall eae of that genus. Twenty-nine spline i are recognized and a very large number of synonyms are included under them. To illustrate, it commune Vaucher, as it is commonly called, is referred to der XV. cinoflonum Tournefort, and under that name Bornet sad Thuret include no less than 32 synonyms. Under Scytonema 21 species are recognized, and 8. Ravenelié Wood has included under coast. Under Hormactis Balani, reference is made to the only species found in the United States, which was at first supposed to be new and was provisionally na amed Farlowii. It was after- wards recognized by Dr. Bornet as identical with Wostoe paid Ag., of the ‘Marianne Islands, which according to Bornet, is a tru Hormactis. H. iis known only from the locality ‘named in the Pacific and fora the coast of New England, an prelerne sir for one of the Phycochromace Be On “i meats: ord affinit ies of Halysites ; by A. ny Ver L.—Of the so-called “tabulate corals” many genera have id Thus, Agas- 7, ascertained the hydroid nature of Millepora, and his observations have been fully confirmed by Mosely and others. That og sig and its allies, living and extinct, are true madre- nig corals was shown by me in 1867. That Favosites and related extinct genera are closely allied to the modern Alve- ae and Porites was also demonstrated by me in 1872.* * This Journal, iii, 187-194, Miscellaneous Intelligence. 509 Mosely, while on the 2S Beene Expedition, was fortunate in ex- amining the animal of Heliopora. ae ge oved that it belongs to the Aleyonaria, and referred is the sa roup various fossil gen- era, in some cases apparently without pa es t reason. he affinities of the genus //alysites, the seine “e chain coral” of the Silurian, have hitherto been very doubtful. Within a few days Mr. H. T. Woodman has shown ‘mea very remarkable spe- cimen of this pees, in which the internal structure is beautifully preserved, In this example, which is a fragment several inches septa sitendhng tothe center. Their edges are slightly serrulate, and do not rise above the tubes. . In other words, the structure is that of a true madreporarian coral an ; hat this from a large mass eight to ten feet across, hat “ the: asi part of the mass was like the common rotieta showing no rays; but here and there, in spots, all over the face of the mass, the septa were as well preserved as in the fragment shown to you.” III. MIscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. Elements of Comet (a), 1881, Swift.—The elements and the ephemeris for May of comet (a), 1881, Swift, have been calculated by Mr. 8S. C. Chandler, Jr., at Boston, and by Dr. R. Copeland G : These results have been exchanged across the ocean by cable, according to a code adopted by the closes Scientific Society ; they are published in Special Circulars No. of the Science r. Chandler yemnarked gers the comet was (May 7th) a faint round disc less than 1’ in diameter, with some central condensation and ill-defined edges. T does not he orb resemble that of any known comet. The beeps? are as follows: 1 those of Chandler, 2 those of Copeland and Lohse. ie Per. Passage, sa rd 20° per “Washington Mean Time. Long. Perihelio so Long. Node, 401 Eq. 1881-0 "56 Motion ares: 2. er. Passage, 1881, isi 20° 67, Greenwich Mean Time. Lon Perihelion, "300° g. Node, 124 $4 73g pHa 1881-0. natio 78 48 Log. gq= 91674" gq = 5854. Motion direct. 2. National Academy of Sciences.—The fo lowing is a list of the papers read at the session of the National — of Sei- ences at Washington, in April: 510 Miscellaneous Intelligence. eA rece Bet: Upon the production of go by cms eo. S. 7 ay : The solar constant; The color of the sun; On mountain ee C. 8. Patio: On the progress of pendulum wo Guo. F. BARKER: On electric light menreranric “On incandescent lights; On the condenser met thod of measuring high tension currents; On the carbon lamp fiber in the thermo balance. Epw.’S. Morse: On the utilization of the sun’s rays in heating and ventilating. J. W. M LLET: Results just obtained with regard to the molecular weight of hydro-fluoric ac H. ¥F. PETE ins "A method for finding the proximities of the orbits of minor planets. s Loomis: Reduction to sea-level of barometric observations made at elevated stations rs H. Boy : Recent researches in the vicinity of pers 8 relerts caine % unt of the land-ice of Kotzebue Sound and the Arctic Coast. II. Additions ny out knowle ge of the currents and temperature of ‘ths ocean in the ea of Behring’s Strait. E. W. Hitearp: me the later Tertiary of the Gulf of Mex T. Srerry Hunt: On the auriferous gravels of California; “On the domain of B. Atvorp: The compass plant of the Western prairie E. D. Cope: On on relation between strains and impacts and the structures of ine ‘feet of mamma’ ELLY : on “the relation of soils to health. ra P. Lustey: Biographical memoir of S. S. Haldeman. 3. Popular Lectures on Scientific Subjects ; by H. Hetmuoxrz, translated by E. Atkinson. Second series. 265 pp. 8vo. New York (D. Appleton and Co.).—The subjects of these lectures, for the general interest of which the author’s previous publications are a sufficient guarantee, are: 1, Gustav Magnus; 2, Origin and significance of geometrical atoms ; ; 3, Relation of optics to paint- ing; 4, Origin of the pienetary system ; 5, Thought in medicine ; 6, ‘Academic freedom in German universities. e Constants of Nature, Part IV ; Atomic weight deter- eee a digest of the investigations published since 1814; by Gro orck F. Becker, 149 8vo. Washington, 1880, (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections). —Mr. Becker has brought together in ee compass a large amount of material, which can- not fail to be of much practical value to the working chemist. The abstracts are necessarily very brief, but when more is needed reference can be readily made to the original papers, the abstract being at least sufficient to show what may be expgcted in 18) ations of the Transit of Venus, Dec. 8-9, 1874, made and reduced under ee Ainetion of the Commission created by Congress, Edited by Simon New- U8. "7 Secretary of the Commission. 157 pp., 4to, with two plates Washington, ;~ The Total eer Eclipse of x 29, 1878. Observations at Pike’s Peak, Colo- o. Report by Professor 8. P . Langley. pp. 203-217, with a plate Observations on Jupiter, by ra oa hs 290-321, ig the Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Mittheilungen aus der Zoologischen Station a Ne amen ‘augleich ein Repertorium fir Mittelmeerku re vol. i ii, I, a Pp. | 23-413. orkin me Drawings: How to m and use them; by L. M. gy 55 pp. 12mo, with 30 igure. Philadelphia, 1881. (J. M. Stoddart & Co -) PAR Se eee oO 235. APPENDIZA: Art. LXII.—Notice of new Jurassic Mammals; by Professor O. C. MARSH. Among the fossils from the Atlantosaurus beds of the Rocky Mountains recently received at the Yale College Museum, are the remains of several] mammals distinct from woe hitherto de- scribed by the writer.* These include two new genera, and four species, which are described below This material throws much light on the specimens previously discovered, and also shows some a ope characters not before seen in mammals. Allodon laticeps, gen. et sp. nov. The type specimen of the present species is a left upper jaw, with molar and premolar teeth in good preservation. This ee indicates that the skull was a short and broad one. he anterior half of the zygoma is in we ia and ~~ that the arch was strong, and widely expanded. ere are five premo- inner side, and rounded extern wily The two true molars strongly resemble those of Microlestes, and hence are similar in form to the lower molars of Plagiaulax and Ctenacodon. The crowns are very low, and are divided into an outer and an inner half by a deep worn groove. The last molar has its lon- _ gitudinal groove in a line with the inner Ara of the other f teeth. The principal measurements of this specimen are as ollows e occupied by seven posterior teeth. .--.---- — _ of two true molars. ---. - Os Distance from orbit to margin of | upper jaw - SS, Extent of maxillary above second premolar-- ---- ae *. This Journal, vol: xv, p. 459, vol. xviii, pp. 60, 215 and 396, and vol. xx, p. 512 O. C. Marsh—Jurassic Mammals. The affinities of this peculiar species are not easy to deter- mine, but it should probably be placed in the Plagiaulacide. The number of eee shows that it is distinct from the known genera of this gro The only specimen Bee indivates an animal about as large as a weasel. It was found in the Upper Jurassic deposits of yoming. Ctenacodon nanus, sp. nov. A second and smaller species of this genus is indicated by two lower jaws, found separately. One of these, the type spect- men, has the four premolars and two molars in place, and wel preserved. ‘The former teeth all have two fangs, and smooth, sharp compressed crowns. The last premolar only has its sum- mit marked by faint notches. The molars have one cone with a broad base on the outer side, and three low inner cones of nearly equal size. Between these is a deep worn longitudinal valley, as in the molars of Allodon, above described. “There is no cingulum, and the two molars are of the same size. e ies (Clenacodon te : The following measurements will indicate the size of this specimen : Extent of premolar and molar series ___-.---. ---- gum Extent of premolar series _ - Be NTN Antero-posterior diameter of last premolar Sere Yada fe - Height’ of twin. 2 be ee a ee Heipht ‘of oondyiew 220 2 id os ee 0 2°5 WVIGUN Of CONE YIB Core ee 15 The specimens representing the present species are from the Atlantosaurus beds of Wyoming. Docodon striatus, gen. et sp. nov. The present genus is most nearly allied to Diplocynodon, but may be distinguished from it by having, in the lower jaw behind “8 canine, ees teeth instead of twelve. The canine has two O. C. Marsh—Jurassic Mammals. 513 Some of the dimensions of the type specimen are as follows: Distance from apex of canine to end of condyle. 31°™™ Extent of premolar and molar series --._------- hh Depth of lower jaw below last molar -...-----. 4 Depth of lower jaw below eanine si. ics ee Haight of crown of catine -. 22. 6.655 soos ees 2°5 The only known remains of the species are from the Upper Jurassic deposits in Wyomi Dryolestes gracilis, sp. nov. The present species, which is the smallest of the genus, is represented by several lower jaws, which are unusually long and slender, and nearly straight.. In the type specimen, there d ‘were eleven teeth behind the canine, which was of moderate Ny size. The fangs of the molar teeth are not placed one in front of the other, but opposite, teas one large fang on the outside, and a small inner one beside it. ‘This peculiar feature appears in all the species of qpean ee: but has not been observed in other mammals, recent or extinct. Th pylohioe groove in this specimen is , and extends forward, neonly parallel with the lower border, to the sym- pe depart he following measurements show the size of the est preserved lower jaw referred to the present species : Extent of eleven mses {60th . 6.2 sect acweiss 1 Soup Extent of last five t ni iti ck ae eecateuns, 6° Depth of jaw below canine .--.-.-...-.-.----- - Depth of jaw below fect. pape Pec utie pete bees 2° All the known specimens of this species are from the Upper Jurassic deposits of Wyoming Territory. Yale College, New Haven, May 24th, 1881. INDEX TO VOLUME XXI* peace in! dark heat rays, 236. of colorless liquids, 500 Reddy ‘National, list of papers, "84, Natural Sciences Philadelphia, Pro- ceedings of, 8 Acid, carbonic, of iro sae 401. chlor-hypon nitric, ignition my, por sacchari sclebeuid tropic, — is of, 139, 4 Actinic balance, angley, | Agassiz, , Chun’ n’s Ctenophoree ing by sonst “Wnugteleae of, Fg, 144, Blake, 328. Air, results of analyses of, 83. Alaska, no tes on rner, C, A. " Puenavivesen ee arcnesieet ing © 415. oirs of, 335. Atropine, 4 B —— S. F., Report of Fish Commission, Bailey, L. W., Geology of Southern New Bruns wick, Barker, G. F, chemical abstracts, 66, 136, '232, 321, whi 498. Barometric pressu e, Hazen, 361, Barrois, C., Hall's. ‘Devonian pr of New York, 44. Bauermann, i, Systematic paatiiaitaagel Pr 506. Becker, G. F., SS _ Nature, 510. uerel, H., tory pola ization of Hone Bell, A. G., production of sound by — energy, 463, yr. lh 4a 2 pares se notes on Cyperaces, 412. n Orchidex, 412. Behring | Strait, notes on, Dall, 104 Berthelot, mercuric fulminate, 235 metallic chlorides, rnitric eee 398. Birds, South a Blake, W. P., cine and orpiment in Blood-erystals and their coloring matter, Bolton, 4 C., organic acids in examina- tion of m inerals, 80. Bornet, E., Rak nes 508. Bosnia, Herze a, geology of, 409. Botan Cedar - spples, 332. Eucalypto, graphia, 249. Gymnosporangia, Farlow, 332. Movements of plants, 245. OLO D. L., idee of Buenos set , galvanometer for pow- 395." Braithwaite, iy ibe ort: 329, Bricks, mineral fr Brombfoem a irect reed aie of, 236 Bruhl, J. W., relations mbit molecu. lar structure and re ve pow 0. Brush, ork ie seth gers Socioty ‘a "Natural are 338, Building stones, durability of, 4 amphor, nay er of with alcohol, 400. Carney, ., ice at high temperatures, H. J., Carboniferous sponge- 516 Chlorhydrates of metallic chlorides, 396. pbaetnie of silver, solubility of in water, ‘ooke, Chloroform, direct Aiggriceg of, 236. Chun, C., Ctenophorze Cincinnati omer of ere History, larke, A. R., Geo desy, 337. ic, Coan, , eruptions of cheer Loa, 79. Coast Survey Report, 77, 240, 4] of on pas es Trow- cnt ee remarkable nugget of a pee Comet, be) arn Swift elements of, 509. | Coms W. J, nalys es of onofr rite, | Cooke, Jams abet ge notices, 70. n’s thermoch emical in- vestigations sof structure of hydrocar- bons, 8 sly of chloride of silver in wate eo 'Hallowes Miller, 379. a E. D., Permian poids of Ourthelt K. oe Jetties at the Mouth of the Missi ssippi. Coues, E.., — Ornithological Bib- liography Cutting, Gia D Dall, W. #., eri on Alaska, 104 ementary sation 254. of Wes and New York Island, 4 ©., Power of enveiat in Plants, 245, in, H, tidal Dawson, G. M., ological: Mep sof. British Cohuistie, & geo! logy of eace River region, 391. Neeweng epi ‘ae Ge Géologie, 244. scartes 0: ogy, 80. tamtraction erating: rege of expan- sion of, Mendenhall, 2 Domeyk, ; ee Mineralojia, 1 Jr, Lun gh ag hater of Suinboric Acid, 7 Dowell, B. F., wiles dieal in lakes of Oregon, 415, ca 4, durability of building Pe INDEX. Draper, ee phosphorograph of a so- | lar spectr ust, fogs iba ‘clouds, 237. Dwight, W. B. fo asta in Wappinger Valley limestone, 78. E Earthquake, ian Brno 52. Earthquakes, , 198. on, D. C., bate ae posing "330, B38: cal shadows, Fine Magie, 394. : locticity, chattel ets Trpentede of, dlectrodes, metallic in hydrogen, 323. Meveuour supposed of New England Co oas aes llis, wv. maguetic declination and sun | there, ale of refraction, Long, 279. . F Farlow, W. G., Gymnosporangia of the United States, 332. — enoee , 507. Fine, H. B hadows phoeines during the glow Rachinens i — clouds, dust and, ve ood of Fishes, 3 ae the genus Obolelie, “ef Fossils, ‘see GEOLOGY and ZOOLOG gg Sa G Galvanic elements, chemical energy and cramer force of differen t, 714. Galvan ware powerful peaiae ty Brack —- cron of dark heat rays by, Con of radiant heat on, 323, 324. magnetic rotatory polarization of, 139. influence of on reflecting surfaces, in bonged quartz, 203, under electric trical dischar. dena 7b; Geikie, A., lava-fields of regi 145. Geissler thermometers — petal Titra Guster al Congress at Bologna, 325. map of United States, 505. map of Southern Columbia, 80. map of Florida, 305. colors, and terms, 326. ie ipa se : Pete fd sa le a ag St Cae ee “is ae meaner Pla Pe Rely gee SaRMN Os acl DPR Seat Si ook on SA hat el all eT TE cori An a Deis a RAS ibe Ce eee mi Ee ale imi ae blk ane all Bias EE SE iain pit ee itm TD ra le TE cee OP UE th Ng 5 ea INDEX. GEOLOGICAL REPORTS AND SURVEYS— 6. 410 Pennsylvania, "i, 241, 329, 409. Queensland, 1 Territories, és 244, 328. GEOLOGY— Alaska, notes on, Dail, 104. ripen givsete Hawes, 21. il rsh, A ap, {oasis of the Apuan e, of St. Gothurd Tipo the great fault in, 406. Amyzon shales, Cope, 3 Annelid jaws fr ‘om the Wenlock and Birds, toothe halk, s sponge- spicul es from, 4 Channel-fillings, Devonian, Witivame, 318. Climate of geological time, 149, 150. of Siberia i in era of Mammoth, 148. Coal, Arctic, Neer soy fee Cre Tope, osaurs, American Jurassic, 16%, Docodon, Marsh, 512. Elevations, whine on the New Engl nd Coast, 7 Huphobe ria, Scudd oes Deron nian, Whiten 494. States, 78; Italy, 327; Alps, 405. ion = in srruararans of earthy mate: 345, Glacial era, debe. of, Wright, 120. phenomena in Minnesota, Win- chell, 3 of os ‘ies evada, 149. Ma fe Mexico, tar rd, 288. sects, Devonia , Scudder, 1 Jeu beds of Tu seany, 4' 07. Lakes, changes of Padi in, 415. Laopteryx, Mar. Lava-fields of Nous Europe, Limestone of Westchester County and New York Island, Dana, 425. 517 GEOLOGY— cKean Co, poe nie 241. Mitnaslk Face Mars M orphi c rocks, ous ir 8, 327, 405. Millstone grit, Chance, 134. Mollusks, Garboetferons Whitfield, Mountain making, McGee, 276. Myriapods, Carboniferous, Scudder, w York verse sept 425. Obeletia #0 Paleozoic, sali of in Penn., 242. e F Proétus ei err Williams, 156. n, h, 342. Pterodactyls, Am n, Mars: te in Papell 155. River channels, re-eroded, 155. a , the norther St. Gothard tunnel, 405 Sandstone . Sorby, Sponge-spicules, Carboniferous 158. from the cha , 407, Terminology, : Wappinger rae fossils, 78. Westchester Co. limestone, Dana, 425. Goodale, G. L., origin of starch grains, botanical notices, 2 Gordon, E. H., Wlocteicity ‘and Magnet- ism, 86, Gravity at the summit of Fujiyama, Menden Gray, os ar eis ’s3 Power of Move- ment in ee 24 = notice of Odontornithes, Guilt a Mexico, Hilgard, 288. H — ale ead eee poten of N. York, 44. y, J. B., nic action, 147. Horio. B. F, vmin-tall 1 in Wallingford, Conn., 4§ Hastings, C. S, constitution of the sun, Haughton, 8., Lectures on Physical Ge- ography, Hawes, G. W., Albany granite, New Hampshi a ag carbon dioxide in smoky qu Hazen, Hh i. , projection of lines of equal yetactle of air pressure to sea- level, 453. 518 Heat, measurement of, 187. sound proee intermittent beam of, 323, 324, Heat-rays, | Saabhlon of by gases and vapors, He ence H. , Popular Scientifie Lec- Hennes, penal of Mars, 1 Henry, Joseph, a a ace Hid inerals of Alexauder 159. . N.C, 244. eld Co. ‘meteor jron, 286. geniculate zireo — ois a Wa, piers Report, Higara, J. £., Gulf os Mexico, 288. Clarke's Geodesy, 337. Hitchcock, nited Sta onncta J.C., cietuhs of Astron- omy, yarocarbons, structure af, 8 of Am can petroleum, 7 Sava Hyoscyamine, 400. I Tee ys es mperatures, Carnelly, buried glacier in Alaska, Ne tnaigotin Pad 8 sphttioais of, 69. Tnulin, 13 lodine ee density of a volumes = solid ak Tiguia, 147. Tro nesis of, 80. Fadpion viewe-nbithae 70. Kansas City Review of Science and In- a Kerr, W. oe topography of North Caro- poe 216, ‘of frost in arrangement of eniey seateriak: 345. Konig, G. A., jarosite, 160. L sae of a“ changes of water-level n, 415 Lancaster, A., Bibliography of Astron- len nS. -, the aetinic balance, 187. LeConte, . iy Sight, noticed, Lesquereux, L., Coal Flora, 329. Light, ee of eas ‘of compound ethers Lightning sana AP space protected by, 1 GEL, Geological map of Me INDEX. <—_ #., contributions to meteorology, tn ng, J. H., indices of refraction of Ee Pe ‘ethers, 279. unge, G., Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, 5, 144. Magie, W. ft shadows yeas during the glow discharge, 3 Ce declination, Aer sun-spots, 238. Missouri, 241. rvey 0 f Missouri, Nipher, 3 Magnetism, effect of cold on, Trewbri ge, Malet J. W., atomic weight of aluminum, ‘ane figure o of, 1 arsh, O. C., Pumonee Jurassic Dino- f, 79. W. G., 0 orographic displacement, Mall. P. H., the yeti group, 1 Men denhall, s oe avity at the Barks of Fujiyam codlficient ‘of “expansion of a dif- Mercuric fulminat ercury-pump, n ew form o Meteoric i re a in, Sith 461. Rohe hs re Whi itfie a 5 a Helios 86. oe paren icabe to, Loomis, nikais Begeerite, 411 Beryl, 159. Chromite in meteoric iron, 461. Columbite, aoalys is of, 412. Culebrite. Cyanite of Mae York Island, 4 Dolomite of N. York Island, coitus 435. ma fedaget 411. Guadalcazarite, 315. Hiddenite, Smith, 128. Jarosite, 160. Lazulite, from Canada, 410. etacinnabarite, 316. Monazite, 159. eocyanite, 412. Octahedrite, 160. Onofrite, 312, 315. INDEX. MINERALS— Orpiment, 219. Leary 160. Pyroxene, of New York Island, 430. Qua gases in n smoky, 203, 209. -ore. ircons, esata ated, 507. Missouri, magnetic survey of, Vipher,310. Mitchell, a: on changes of level on New England ‘coast, T. Mor, analyses of a 83. Rennie ksting Mc Gee, 2 Miller, F. v. aly ST rann 249, Nebule, photographs of, 4 Neurine, ‘containing fil on pyl, 70. ewberry, J. S., genesis of-ores ol iron, Newton, H. A., obituary of M. Chasles, Nicholson, H. A. evra Fossils of the n Distri ict, phe "7 E, scons survey of Mis- North ¢ Carolina, minerals of, 410. topography of, 217. 0 OBITU. Fiber sal J. C., 86. Bigsby, J. ee 338. Boricky, Brodie, i a Chasles, Michel, "86, fon Clay, J. A., 3 De te oe o% Miller, W. H., 379. Peirce, B., 33 : Ter 4 Me ag Watso yO, Ocean te tenperataes, arctic, 163, — 265. Oxide, carnitene 8 Ozone, presence oy in the atmosphere, researches on, 233. P Packard, A. S., Zoology, ae 162. Pagosa Springs, water o 519 omen re of Austria- lanbage 157. irce, morial volum : uP analysis of sire 160. troleum from the Caucasus, sphoro, h of a solar spectrum, Photographs of nebule, 401. magnetic ro heey of { Potassium iodide from sealies . 186 owell, J. W., appointed Director of : 01 Survey of National Domain, 416. Introduction to Indian languages, Preece, Woo. = epee’ gece by light- ning conduct or, 1 Pressure, soldering i 336. Rabenhorst’s Kryptogamen-Flora, 507. Rain-fall in Wallingford, Conn., Harrison, Refractive power and molecular struc- g1e, ay os mineral from ae 157. veccuied 8 re-eroded, 1 Robinson, J., Flora of cae Co., 251. — ood, O. G., meteorological notice, t American eet a ae a the northern a ik Rntge! 8 ‘Thermodynami land, H, A., Geissler peed er Royal Society, medals of, 8 Russell, T., calibration of bees ’ 3. Saccharin, Sahara, be ibees, 3 157 Schmidt, A., zine-ore of Wiesloch, 502. Scudder, S. H., Devonian esis i. Carboniferous myriapods, 182, Seuoen, C. @ meteoric iron, Lexing- oa oy i 117. gion 0. z ou ocean tempera- Siberia, climate of in era of Mammoth, ., geology of a 292. Smithson, J., Life o: 520 aor hyposulphite, composition of, Solar system, bagel ge of, 402. e also Spectrum. Soldering by ss anal 336. cone ©. alvanee ear address, Round from in ae t radiant tees 323, 324, 402, su pposed polarization of, 501 Spectrum of ¢ und of carbon with pi ia aa Fis 8 rogen, 74, sorptio nig ei liquids, 500. pata b line j in, 323 p hosphorograph of, Draper, 171. Standards of length, American, 240, Stevenson, J. 1 river-channels filled and re-erode es | Sulph-hyd ecto mee reactions of, 397. Sun, constitution of, Hastings, 33. se — - Todd, 491. Sun magnetic declination, 238. Swift's pela (a) 1881, 509. Tardy, red diluvium of Europe, 155. Terminology in geology, 326. Thallium-papers, meteorological use of, Thermometers, cryorioewet of, Russell,373. Geissler, Thermometry, Wala, rss “226, 6, 443. Thiesen, r thermo meters, 449. Thomsen's thermochemical investiga- Tidal friction, G. H. Darwin, 402. Time Semaia, distribution of, 414, Todd, D. P., solar para a Trow bridge, Je madara deine 74, 139, 236, 323, effe ct os ola on magnetism, 316. U Utah, iron ores of Southern, 80. V Vanadium poor Verri eat: notices, 162. i, A. es squid at ame’ Banks in 1875, 251 INDEX. Verrill, A. E., eh Sanigeean of lost parts in the ot ae id, 3 Sof Halysites, 60 Voteanie action, volumes of “sol uid iron with reference is ‘anna Volcanoes, eruptions of Mauna Loa, 79. Volumes at the boiling point, 136, aldo, L., thermometry, 57, 226, 443. Wappinger Valley limestone fossils, 78. ihe , 8., Botany of California, 251, Wetherby A, De Eee a Mollusks f North A Whites, J. fr, “tosell fishes on De- menac Bay, 4 Caste ciisnons air- ] ., Climatic changes of later besa wien Williams, H. S., Proétus longicaudus, 15 anne lings in Devonian shales, chell, A., James Craig Watson, 62. Winchell N. iH, Dall’s observations on arctic ice, 3 Wi a be abouboints Kryptogamen- Moule strength of, Wright, A. ay Ze smoky quartz, 209. polarization of the corona, 334 Wright, G. F., date of Glacial era, 120. Wurtz, A. D., Atomic Theory 337, Y pomtipay Park, geol. charts of, 244. Yourg, C. A., b-line in solar spectrum, Z Zeitschrift fiir Instramentenkunde, 253- .| Zine-ore deposits of Wieslock, 502. Zoo LOGY—- Haboe of ering genes of, 83. s, affini pe i seatir at ‘Gent ‘Banks, 25 regeneration of lost — in, tis, See further under Gro