JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

JAMES D. any E. S. DANA, ann B. SILLIMAN.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS
Prorrssors ASA GRAY, JOSIAH P. COOKE, anp
JOHN TROWBRIDGE, or Camprines,
Prorrssors H. A. NEWTON anv A. E. VERRILL, or
New Haven,
Prorrssor GEORGE F. BARKER, or Putiaperputa.

THIRD SERIES.
VOL. XXIV.—[WHOLE NUMBER, CXXIV.]
Nos. 139—144. |
JULY to DECEMBER, 1882.

With SEVEN PLATES.

NEW HAVEN, CONN.: J. D. & E. S. DANA,
1882. :

MissouR! BOTANICAL
GARDEN LIBRARY

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXIV.

NUMBER CXXXIX.

Arr. I—Contributions to Meteorology; by Exras Loomis.
Seventeenth Paper. With three plates,._-_--_--------
Il.—The phenomena of Metalliferous Vein-formation now in
progress at Sulphur Bank, California; by Josepu Lr-
onTE and W. B. Ruste, Boat so tea One eed cae ce

: BY,
IV.—On the influence of time on the Change in the Resist-
ance ot ae hy ches Disk of Edison’s Tasimeter; by
: BL ahirthoe. observations on the crystallized sands of the
Potsdam Sandstone of Wisconsin; by A. A. Youna,.--
VI.—On the origin of Jointed Structure ; by G. K. Girpert,
VIL. Fe Sig tome oe ents for ‘transmitting Clock-
; by Francis E. Nipa Caos:
Vin Ciniyed Opiatnosi from ‘ie Devonian; by Joun M.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

23

34

istry and sics.--Absorption-Spectrum of Ozone, CHapputs, 56.—Lique-
faction of Ozone. ee and CHAPPUIS: haga Sulphide, BERTHELOT

and VIEILLE, 57.--P ce oxide, HAUTEFEUI 68.—Crystal-
lization of A u ae fr cass ‘Solution, BEHR,
formation of Carbonyl Sulphide into Urea, BERTHELOT on trow
form of : CKETT, 60.—Relation between Galvanic Polarization
and the surface Tension of Mercury, Lippmay, 61.—The oer of ——
Ve spectrum nag and pigments with decreasing light, CHop: pecific re

ce of Mercury, 6%.—Eclipse of ni HGS dea gratings, rapettlitae Methods

te Calrating Theme THIE

. " si
ish liar isetoe: JONES, Pg aes are of — recently described minerals,
i i nited

asi ny a aa Ee Sn ic ze Americans: Exsiccate, distribute a T. F. ALLEN

Versuch einer ineraikcolinmpsinedhicite der Pranzenvelt insbesondere der Flor.

engebiete seit der Tertia arperiode, ENGLER

’

1s Isoétes in North America,

NOMLMCANN : ore de la sare parses 72. gars rag zur Kenntniss der
Ustilaginee: een, WORONIN. .—Salmon Disease, 74.
Miscellaneous Scienti Inteligence vires nies générale de |’ Astronomie,

ific sae
Hovzeav et Lancaster, 76,—Life in Hawaii, Coan: Studies in Science and |

ligion, heme Knight's New Mechanical Dictionary, 77.—Report of
ana Helvetian rpeleiira

Hawes, 80,

ts of a Smithsonian Institution for 1880: British, French
Ms

.—William Barton wae 78.—Dr. Augustus A. Hayes: Dr. George W.

X.

CONTENTS.

NUMBER CXL.

. Page
Arr. IX.—Tertiary Eerery of the Gene Caiion District ; e
CLARENCE E. Dur With plate IV, - 81
a Helative Neisicieeioes of his ‘eo Hemispheres of the
arth; by WiitAm FRReeL,.: 6.46. 2-2 Stet ee = 89

XI.—Air-thermometer whose andalione are independent of

the Barometric Pressure; by Anpert A. MicnEtson,.-- 92

BERT
XII.—Bearing of some Recent Determinations on the Correl-

rae i. the eee vie Western Terminal Moraines;
CR ARON OU oak ok ee a a we 93

y T. C
Si ” The Flood of the Goniectieut ays er Valley from the

ae of the Quaternary Glaci . The qu yesh? as
o the Elevation of the Land; he 7 AMES D, Dawa,.-.-.- 98

Dan
XIV. -—Ketarlation of the Maxima and. Minima of Ai nye badd

digh Stations; by H.-A: Hagens. 20, os. t= 48 05
XV. Genet Principles of the N omenclatre of the Massive
Crystalline Rocks ; : NDELL JACKSON, -------- 113
XVI.—The Minerals, mainly Geoliton occurring in the basalt

of Table Mountain, near be Iden, Colorado; by W. Cross
ILLEBRA

XVII. —A Property of che ‘Tsentropic Curve for a Perfect

Ch

Gas as drawn upon the Thermodynamic Surface of Pres-
sure, Volume and Temperature; by F. E. Nipaer,

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

emistry and P. Faradoc ne Solutions, aes 14 ha steer
of Bromine, JAHN. 142 ew method for preparing raiiis trous: exit
Apparatus tor Ligquetying Gases, Rarecaib. 143.—Function of tw ‘ate ee
perception of space, S. THOMPSON: Vapor tension of itd:
_ Electros

EN:
¢ dimensions of a magnetic se rotate The sessions ‘of flames,
144. eolanvs Phevomenon, H. BRONGER 45,

Geology and Mineralogy.—Structure and movement of Glaciers, F.-A. FoREL, 146.

—Upper Silurian’ fossils in the metamorphic rocks of Bergen, Norway, H. H.
Reuscn, 148.—Geological Exa reeiloo in Southern Colorado and Northern
New Mexico, J. J. Stevenson, 149.—Manual of the rebaag of India, V. B

Report of Progress of the rae na SS — Can A. R. C. SELWYN, 161
—The Ferde Islands, J. Gerkiv.— Ammonites in oe «eho Group - Califor-

nia, A. Hemprin, 152.—Paleontology of the Diisillad Geological Survey, C. A

Wuite: Geological Sketches at Home and Abroad, A, GrIKIE: ( pei A Or-
azite from Amelia Co., Virgi ginia, DUNNINGTON, 153.—Propagation

tose structure of : AZ: Milwaukee Clays and B : '
154.—Sammlung von Mikrophotographien zur Veranschaulichung der mikro-
skopischen Stru on Mineralien und eine ausgew OHEN: Oc
currence of Vivianite in Los Angeles Co., Calif , H. G. Hanxs: Helvite
from Virginia, H. C. Lewis: Nickel Ore in Neat 155.—Corundum from Le-
high Co., ye K, F. Smitn and N. W. Toom 56.

Tegel and Zoology.—Our Native i and tee me L. M. Uno

och Nord ge Huitm co LINDBERG, 156 —Nomenclator
D) atiawingrs H. Scupp Rip ta of the P abeer oe ihinnele. R. Hier
COOK, 157.
Miscellaneous

neous Scientific Intelli merican Association, 157.—Darwin Memo-
rial Fund: cia ge ye st te ayesha Academy of Arts and Sciences, bets
— Obituary.—G. W. H.

CONTENTS. Vv

NUMBER CXLL

Arr, XVIIL—The fic i bie Paleocampa Meek and Wor-

en, wide diversity of type in the
earliest own! Myriapo wae ; by SAMUEL H. ScuppvER,-.. 161

source of the Bituminous matter in the Devonian

and ont Carboniferous Black Shales of Ohio; by E.

Page

aa
io]
i>)
=<
ws
Qu
g
5
©
ry
2

OOPOR SE Me Oe rae ae
XX. ate Pendihin Study; by O. T. SHerma 175
XXI.—Effect of Mechanical Hardening on athe “Magnetic

Properties of Steel and Iron; by L. M. Cunesay,.- 180
i... See Deerfield Dyke and its Minerals; by B.

XXUtL. ~The Lass and associated Deposits of Des Moines,

Iowa; by W. J. McGexr and R. E. Cart. With Pl ate V, 202
XXIV. - Orthody buon, an animal related to the Rhinoceros,

from the Bridger Eocene ; by W. B. Scorr and ae

RRWORN. C86 UR aE Sy Ee eae, 223

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics—Atomic iio of Carbon, Roscor, 225. —Determination
of Chromium as Vitedhase. Carnot: Earth-metals 0 nepal Roscoe, 226.
—Precipitation of Gyleogen, Kinz: Transformation of Ure to Cyanamide,
Fenton, 227. sstekacrge tron . eg ae of olnceitiein by the ge ames of a
battery, Browa:

Geology and Makedt’ rani pens ative ages and classification of the Post-Eocene —
Tertiary deposits of cond Lope Slope, A. Hrmprin, 228. Diagn of

_ Lake Basins, W. M. Davis: The Catskill Region, W. M. Davis: Address before
the Geological sashon “e the anniversary meeting in ese r, 1882, ROBERT
Eraerings: Artificial forms of Silica, J, ’ ANson and E, A. Pisxuust, 220.

SCH _ New wr Minerals, L. I. lee LSTROM, 232.—
Female poe of Go we CELAK ais 233 .— Report o a Crustacea
ier gaed e Steamer * Blake,” S. I. Suir: Fragments of ihe be rser a
a ert ig gaat Sie s & Scintun: “Memoirs of the “at Society of |
ica + History
Miscellaneous Scien a ‘hte telligence.—Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch fér 1884
mit Ephemeriden der Planeten (1) to (220) far 1882, 235.—Transit of Venus
Report upon Experiments and In nvestigations to develop a System of pacers:
Mines for defending the Harbors of the United — H. L. Apgorr, 236.—

Aehaeae Papers of the Signa] Service: Celebra ed American Caverns, H. 0. :
H 7 —Scientifie Survey connected with the Nonhors Pacific Railroa
By Metra, 439. Obit weak —General Gouvern: neur as arren, 239,

Vi CONTENTS.

NUMBER CXLII.

Pag
XXV.—Notes on Physiological Optics. No. 5. Vision
the Light of the Electric Spark; by W. L. Stevens, 241
its of Monazite from Alexander County, N orth
Carolina; by B..DAMA, 26 os so:54s0 che ene neers
XXXVI. aati and Composition of some Bae
varieties of Monazite; by S. L. PENFIELD, .-----------
XXVIII.—Irregularities in the Amplitude of Oscillation .
Pentaranig: be 6. she ROM, coo pd ph ieee tip end nee
XXIX.—Stresses caused in the Interior as the Earth by th
Weight of Continents and Mountains; by sn 256
XXX. adn Deerfield Dyke and a FN ti by B.
MMMNBOWS 6 ek es ke ee ae os ne hee
XXXII. coy veneeuns of ip ie Scotica in the Utica
Formation near Ottawa, Ontari y J. F. Waireaves, 278
XXXIL—A recent pease of Reel ess from the Strait of
Juan de Fuca; by J. F. Waireaves, ..-.-.2. 1-4: 279
XXXIiI.—Notes on fate esting Minerals g near Pike’s
Peak, Colorado; by W. Cross and W. F. iis iatcaxo, 281

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics—The production of electricity regarded as the equiva-
lence of a chemical process, BRAUN, 286.—Absorption of the Electric Light by
the A ae Ayrton and Perry: Tension of Mercury Va — at low tem-

ra nflnence ves the quantity of gas dissolved in a ba. uid u ial i

surface tension , WROBLEWSKI: State of Carbon in Iron and Steel, Mars
287.—Limit of the liquid mo te of Matter, Hannay, 289. coOryusallinntson "of
silica from f metals,

Geology and Mineralogy.—Geological age of the oo System, J. D. Dawa, 291.

ER Ne 9 cal Report on Indiana for 1881, J. CoLuett, 293.—Nummulitic deposits

in : i

otan
298.—Journal of | the Linnean Society: Analyses of the ash of Epiphytic “Plants,
A. Drxon, 299.
Astronomy.—Elements of the great Comet of September, 1882: Anales de la Offi-
cina Meteorolégica Argentina, por su director, B. A. Goutp, 301.—Monograph
bula of Orio rt of th

uperintendent of the U S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, | 1878: Report of the
Superintendent of the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey, ght Resultados del
Observatorio Nacional ieee ¢ en Cérdoba, B.

,

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence.—Meeting of the A erican ee for the
dyancement of Science, at Montreal; 303.—British "Aeacelals fifty-first meet-
ing, at ton, 310.—Report of the New Y tate Survey, 1880, J.
ER; Cau e Infection of the Waters at , 318.

Acade mel of Sciences of St. Louis, 1882: Journal and Proceedings of the Royal
Society of New South Wales, 1881, A. Liversmpexr, 319.—U. 8. alge of
Fish and Fisheries, S. F, Barrn, 320.—Obituary—Liouville: Plantamo

CONTENTS. vii

NUMBER CXLIIL
Page

Arr, XXXIV. — Remarks _ concerns the Flora of North
Minehica; by Aad Ghavy ihc ee
XXXV.—Notes on Ph pacleaitil Optics. No. 6: Binocular
Union of Spectral Images; by W. LeConrx Srevens,.. 331
XxX ew views of Mr. G. H. Darwin’s Theory of the
Evolution of the Earth-Moon System; by 8. Haveuron, 335
XXXVII.—Recent discoveries in the apee Devonian Flora

of the United States; by J. W. Dawson, - .----------- 338
XXX VIII.—Triassic Trap Rocks of Massachaseit Connect-
icut and New Jerse ; b CONE DAN Teo So ae es 34

y,
ae tial Deerfield "Dyke and its wineealis by B. nae

RSON,
XL. Ni otice of the remarkable Marine Fauna Sah ae he
outer banks off the Southern Coast of New England,
No. 7; and of some additions to the Fauna of Vineyard

Sound; WR EV wiietin o 360
XLI.—North American Minerals; by W. E. Hrppen,_. =. -- 372
XLIT.—Martite of nes rro de Mereado, or Tron Mc ountain,

ee

ue INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry hysics.—Carbon dioxide of the Atmosphere, REIsET, 387.—Basi
tts od Sulphate, Steinmann: Relation between Magnetic Rotatory Polarization
mical Composition, PERKry, 389.—Vapor density of Chl orine B aghcager
on

W. H. phy without a Cable, W. H. Preece, 394. Sunlight
and naiog at ‘High Altitudes, LaxoLey
@ Natural History. een - ‘anaes F. A. Genta, 3
thracite in Sonora, Mexico, E. T. Cox, 399.— Manual of nig oat Analysis,
se Corals,

400.—G. L. Goopate: U.S. Geol peical and Geographical rege Ae of the Ter-
ahaa F. V. Haypen: Young Stages of Osseous Fishes.

—Method for Observing saa oo a el pret ERLE, 401.—
out of the ‘Astronomi cal Observ: arvard College, J. WryLook and
E. ©. PickERING = eoeeeepiie Spectr = Comet Wels) 1882, W. eerie:
402.—Wa shburn Observatory o re ays rsity of Wisconsin, E. S. Honp
Washington Dhaacvasiine for 18 ri

Miscellaneous Scientific om. Xow n ethod of measuring Heights by means
- » Barometer, G. K. Ging 404. hi sa restr Papers of the ea Service,
J. P. Finuay, 407.—The ‘Elements of Forestry, F. B. Hoven,

vili CONTENTS.

NUMBER CXLIV.

Arr. XLIV.—Terraces and Beaches rae Lake Ontario; by
J. W. Spencer. With Plates VI and VU, - : 409
XLV.—Apparent Attractions and Natio of Small Float-
ing Bodies; by Joun LeConte, ..-..----.----------- 416
XLVI.— ae Terraces of the Rivers of Eastern Connecticut ;
Wy oe oe Pe ig os 5s ewe joe ns +b 425
XLVII.—Note on te former Southward Discharge of Lake
We eens Ory Ce MARA 8 toe cee t+ bb 428
XLVUI.—Alleged Change in the Resistance of oe sf due
to Change of Pressure; by Sytvanus P. Tuc i - 489
XLIX.—Figure of the Nucleus or the bright cea es 1882
(Goulc 1); DY EP WARD.S. HOLORH S| ob... 245 2 - 435
L. —Kceentricity and Perihelion Konan of oy Earth’s Or-
it as a cause of change of Clim S. Haueuron,-- 436
LI.—Crystals of Axinite from a bt aia nniek Fan signs Penp.,
with remarks upon the analogies between the sae
forms of Axinite and Datolite ; by B. W. Frazier, - - -- - 439
If.—Marine Fauna occupying the outer banks off the i
ern Coast of New England; by A. E. Verritt,-------- 447
LIIl. —Experiments in Cross-breeding Indian Corn with flow-
ers of the same dss by W. J. Beat roe cumin fe 4s 5 O92
Gaiates SI Ne re ae Ce ake Atos 453

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry te Physics. —Reciprocal Solutions of Liquids, ALEXEEFF : hero
ing Berthollet’s law of partition, BRUGELMANN, 464.

Page

a verbongas oxid yg d Palladium-Hydrogen, TRA

Siticea’ Siphon TIER: Constitution of Bleaching Powder, Kraut, 465.—
Preparation of Ney ide, RMA urolie Acids, V. Ma and

oNSTAM, 466.—Indophenol and Solid Mca Korcunin and Wr 67.—So
ble Alizarin-Blue, RAE Amount of Carbon Dioxide in the
Atmosphere, E. Rister, 468.—Solubility of Carbon dioxide in water under high
_ pressures, W ROBLEWSKI: Piaget of nah ectro-polariscope to Sugar Analy-
sis, W. G. Levison, 469. “S00 less Zon es peiaroien on with fog signals, TYN-
DAL, 470.—Reversal of the Motaltio T -exposed Photographs of

+ ai = a HaRtLey, 471. Mheriaal | Olasitivey of Minerals and Rocks,

Hi iv
“SON, 473.—Balletin of the American des um of Natural History, R. P. Ware

FIELD: American Paleozoic Fossils A. Minter: A new fossil Pseudoscor-
pion, ecole 4 '4.—Paleozoic Cockroach hes: Samarskite, HorFMANN: Mineral-
ogical Notes, WEIsBacH, 475.—Rezbanyite, a new mineral, FRENZEL rite
from Swi nd: Wurtz ean Montane R. Pea A Dictionary of Popu-
lar Names of the Plants, e 1, Description of new © lopoda,
ew sind Spiders of the family Theridi pRTON: A
Mongraph of the British 8 iada. J. 8. BOWERBANK, 477 _—Lehrbuch der ver-
leichenden Anatomie der Wirbelthiere, R. WrepE Synopsis of t
lassification of the Animal Kingdom, H _ son: Vertebrates of the

m, H. :
Adirondack Region, 0. H. Merrram: The Coues Check List of North American
Birds: cone e of the Australian Stalk- wai: Sessile-eyed Crustacea, W. A.

Se pyle —The Gulf Stream from the investigaiions -0 of
the Sous Blake, J, R. BARTLETT, 479.—Distribution of Government Scientific
— ms, 481.—DutTron’s paar on the aap History of the Grand Cafion

strict: National ccomina of Sciences, 482.— y—Henry Draper, 482.

LPs ee ee Se ee ee

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

[THIRD SERIES.]

2oe

Art. I.—Contributions to Meteorology ; being results derived from
an examination of the observations of the United States Signal
Service, and from other sources; by ELtas Loomis, Professor
of Natural Philosophy in Yale College. Seventeenth paper.
With three plates.

[Read before the National Academy of Sciences, Washington, April 18, 1882.] )

Relation of rain areas to areas of low pressure. .
my seventh paper, I examined all those cases in which |

IN
‘the total rain-fall at all the stations of the United States Signal
Service amounted to at least eight inches i in eight hours, dur-

months (viz: from Dec. 1873, to Jan. 1875, inclusive, and —
- from Jan. 1877, to Aug. 1877) I propose to extend the ex-
amination to these later observations. The ollowing table
exhibits ail the eases from Dee. 1873, to Jan. 1875, in which ©
the total rain-fall at all the stations amounted to at least pe”

inches in eight hours; also all the cases from Jan., 1877, to
June, 1877, in which the total rain-fall amounted to at ido as

Shecreatie oe
In the fellowine table column first shows the reference n num ne

Am. Jour. —THIRD — Vou. XXIV, No. 139, hich

2 E., Loomis—Contributions to Meteorology.

Total rainfall at all the — ny monet to at least nine inches

eight hor a
Bar. change |Tem. cha’e} .
¢| pate, |Total] Stationof ‘san! Low moved. | in Shours. | 24 hours. a3 Highest _ S
A rain.| greatest rain. |atdo|y;,o¢tn| Rate.| Front! Rear. Fro't ear. aid wind.
eo 38TS.
1\Dee. 3-1/10°66/St. Louis 22 |—13|+-06|+ 6 —20| 4 |24 S.W.NW.
2 3-2) 10°87) Indianapolis WAG Sat —"10)—12 — 3) 1 |36 SW. 4
2 3-3) 15°06} Louisville 28 |—°321+-07/ + 1/—39| 2 143 W. ‘
4 12-1|10°51|Cleveland 51 |—08)+-05|+12/— 5] 2 |20N.NW.SWoe
1874, ’ '
5 Jan. 6-2)12°65| Wilmington 22 |—'18|—-10/+ 3/—13| 3 |31 NE.
é 7-1/11-81) Wilmington 38 |—‘13|+-10|+22/—21| 3 |26 E. 4
y T- €9 rk 12 |—"12}+ 041+ 4/4 4] 3 SW.E :
§ 22-1|10-25!St. Louis 13 |—-15|+-18|4+26,—14, 3 /24 S. 2
fs 27-2)10°28 hester 32 |—"15| +-24 Ol Fi 6: 138 BB. j:
10 Feb. 13-1{10-75|Cairo 28 |—-07]+°38)421)}—11) 3 |28 SES. :
ee | 13-3] 9°45) Baltimore 26 1 "06)4°06| 4 5\|—217) 3120.5. =
1 21-1| 9 78/Cincionati 37 |—-02]4°16/411/— 2] 1 |25 NW. M
} 21-2) 12-04|Cincinnati —*03} + 08)+4+ 3 0} 7 128 SSW.
ve 23-1] 10°05) Erie 39 |—-45|4-22/4 6'— 7! 5 |65 E.
15 March 4-2)10- paige act 21 |—-30}+°12|4+ 5/—13| 1 |65°SE.
“16! 6-1|10-98| Memphis 1 |—"19}+°0b)+ 3/— 3] 2 |24 SE.
7-1) 9-40 Meueaiety 26 |—-40\+-23/4+ 1\— 8| 3 [36 W.
16-2| 9-43|Montgome 0 |—-09|—-09|— 6|— 6| 2 |36 SE.
April 1-1) 9°38)Shreveport 19 ] |24 E.
8-2) 9-70| Vicksburg 16 |—‘07\ +04 o|—20| 1 |\28 N.NE
9-1 6| Knoxville 28 |—°19}+°14 Oi=-14, 4: 126.8.
19-2\14-61| Vicksburg 25 |—-42| +0 | 0) 2 |28 E.
— 1/Oma 17 |—"16|—-04| o|\— 5] 5 |32 NE
20-1] 14-38|Milwaukee 8 |—"15)+°22) 4 1/—10] 6 |34 E,
5} 20-2 eo neprable ogo 52 |—24)+°43} 0;— 1] 2 |328.
26} 25-2/10-04'Kno —40}4-18|4 3\— 2] 3 [38 K
2ijJuly 4-2 ears New 01 Or 26 |—-06}+-19/+ 6, 0] 2 |24 N.S.
28) 4-3) 9°77|New Orleans 24 |—-06}+-09)+ 2/— 2) 5 |40 NW.
9/Aug. 8-1/11-02|New London 36 |—-10/+-01/+ 6 — 1) 4 [20 SW.
3¢ 8-2|11-42|New Lond 18 |—-28}—-o1| + a 5| 4 |18 W.NW-
a opt ri London 17 |—"17/ +12} o|— 2) 4 |24 W.
32] 2 10°16)Chicago +04! 4-10] — 3\—10| 4 (18 SE.NE.
33|Sept. 16-1] 9-29] Wilmington 14 |—-06|+-01/— 1/4 2| 3 |19 NE.
34) 16-2) 9°11) Washingt 9 |—"10/—-04) 0 | 3 22 NE.
18-3|10-27| Dubuque 32 |—-02/4+-33|— 2|-15| 2 (20 ENW
19-1] 9°53|Memp 48 |—-32|4-22/4 6|—11| 4 [22 S.NW-
28-1|13-01 Savannah 20 |—°36)/—-03/— 1)/—12} 2 |30 SE.
Noy. 22-3]13-25|Cinei 40 |\—-40\+-47/4+12|— 2) 2 |42 SE
23-1)21°45| Barn 36 |—"66/+°33/+ 6] 0) 3 [37 W.
23—2|16-93|Portland, Me. 8 |—"12]/+-45|4 6/~ 5] 3 [58 NE.
| 29-1/10-75) W, 71 35|—-03|}+11/4+ 2| 1 [50 NE.
__ 29--2/13°31| Eastport 29 |—-60/+-01/416|— 7 5 [70 S.
s\Dec, 1-1)14-83|Cape Henry 23 |—"10] -00/+10) 0) 2 |24 NE.
4) tga 14:00| Norfolk 52 |—*53/+-35|4 3\— 6| 2 [45 NE.
45\Jan. 2-1)14°0. 28 |—-44} -00/+14/~ 9] 4 |28 N.NW-
___1-3/10°13|/Long Branch 41 |—-17/—-02/4 7\— 1 1 |40 NE.
_ 24-2)15'10|Barne 32 |—-27)+-10/4 7/— 5] 4 [35 W.
1877.
~2/10°95|Cape Hatteras E.| 54 |—-70/4-2114 2\— 6,3 \50E.
7-1|13°82/New London 45 |—-78}+-10/+35} 0] 2 |30 NE.SW. |
7-2|11°22) Halifax Lae: 41 |~°86)+-41/+16|+11] 2 [32 W. =

E.. Loomis—Contributions to Meteorology. 3

| | | Bar. change |‘Tem. cha’e| |. .| :
aes “Total Station of pata! oe in 8 hours. | 24 hours. ‘13 | Highest
als | rain.| greatest rain. |atdo|,, ; E 40 Phondl Weas (heoalenar, Ze) ind
| |
as » eal
WS e-alts: ‘28lLouisville 1:56/N.70B.| 44 |—-35] +-44| + °s|—is! 3 48 N,
52 eae a: 1)14:11/St. Marks —1°81/N.31E.| 32 |—°49}+-10|411/— 4} 6 |42S.
2~2|18-96|Charlesto 11°40)N.44.K.].44 36|+°24| 00/— 9} 8 408.
bal 8-2/15°51|Montgomery 1°58.N.72E.| 26 |—-41/+-09| 00/32] 3 348.
55) 13|Knoxville ‘90.N.57E.| 39 |—"24|+°12/4+ 8]/—12| 5 478.
56) 9-1|22-05|Cape Henry (1-46 N.51K.| 35 |—°48/+°29/+28/—22) 6 50S.
57 26-1|10°36|Cape Hatteras 1°39 N.60K.| 19 |~-13|+°07|/+ 3)—10) 3 |32 N.NELE.
26-2'18-44|/New London |2°04)N.69E.} 10 |—-*10) +°02)+ 8| 2 |38 N.
59 April 8-212-60|Charleston 3°708.13E.| 4 |—02}+-03 — 1| 4 [36 NE.
13-1|12-24|Charleston (5°20.N.70E.| 36 |—°40| -00}4+12|/— 8| 1 |36 NE.
61 1 10°83| Memphis 1:60/S.18E. | 21 |—"12)/+-03/— 2|— 5) 2 132 NW
62 19-1 15-76| Dubuque 1°55|N.82K.| 21 |—-05}+-°21;/— 2|— 6) 5 [30 N.
63 19-2/17°47|Milwaukee 1°37 N.84E.| 26 |—-08}+-15/— 6|—18) 3 |28 N.S
s- 11-46|St. Marks 1°34.N.85E.| 36 |~-22|)+-13}4+15}/—16] 3 136 N,
65 June 6-3/11-08|New London 2°138.76E. | 12 |+°05)+-10 — 4| 5 |16 NEE
—2 12-92|Memphis 5°26 N.56E:| 44 |—"13'+11]— 4|—18| 4 |38 N.
vel 8-310°39|Corsicana -—«: 1°89 N.46E.| 41 |—-06)4+-17/+ 3|/—10) 5 |24S
—3/14-24|Washington 2°17\N.47E.| 39 |—"12)4+°04;— Tj— 5) 2 |228.
3 poly 16-2 14-21 Uvalde, 6-00,S.808. | 32 |—-07 —-03|+ 3/+ 2) 3 |30 SW.
9-2)14°51/Mt. Washin’n 2°04'N.64E.| 17 |—-04,+-09|— 4/— 4] 6 |32S.
1 20- a 05|Philadelphia (1:75 N.10B.| 25 +-08 0} 4/18 NW.S.
12; 2/11°79|Decatur, Tex. 2°00/N.82E.| 21 |—07)4+-05|. 0) 0) 3 |20 SE.
es 9-2 12°54/R. Grande dd 2°65 8.86, 16 |—-08} -00|— 3/—15) 7 28 SW.
74) 31- =2)1 1:76) Detroit 178 8\S. 61E. | 29 |—16/+-16] O;/— 2) 6 (318.

ber; column second shows the day and hour 4s obese
(the numeral one following a date denotes the 7. obse
en 3

35". Column fourth shows the station at which the greatest
rain-fall was recorded. Column fifth shows (in inches) the
amount of rain recorded at aa station mentioned in column
fourth ; column sixth shows the direction in which the center

ture for the same time at the place occupied by the low cen
at the preceding observation; column twelfth shows the num-

4 E. Loomis— Contributions to Meteorology.

‘ber of rain areas at which the rain-fall since the preceding
observation amounted to at least one-half inch; column thir-
teenth shows the velocity (in miles per Bear), and ‘alas the direc-
tion, of the highest wind reported at any of the stations which
could be regarded as included within the influence of the low
barometer traced in columns sixth and seventh. Occasionally
it happened that the same velocity was reported at several a
ferent stations. In such cases the direction of the wind i
given for each of these stations.

For each of the cases named in this table, the curves of one
half inch rain-fall, and also of one inch rain-fall have been
carefully drawn upon the Signal Service maps. These curves
show the form and magnitude of the rain-areas and their posi-
tion with reference to the center of low pressure. The cen-
tral portion of two of these maps is exhibited on Plate IL.
The character of these results cannot be See eS with-
out the publication of the entire series of but since
such a course is impracticable, I have wicoid: the following
artifice. I took a sheet of transparent paper, and ruled upon
it two lines at right angles to each other; one line representing —
meridian and the other a parallel of latitude; the point of
intersection of these lines being designed to re resent a center
: of low pressure. pee with the first date in the table, I

or ‘the given date. The rain area in which t
greatest was indicated by a small circle; the sie rain-afele
_ for the same date were indicated by across. In like mann
the position of the rain-areas for each of the dates in the tab
_ was indicated. The results are given upon a reduced scale o
Plate I. For convenience of comparison, four large circles are
drawn with radii of 250, 500, 750 and 1000 miles from the low
center, and a few of the rain centers have numbers attached
them corresponding to the numbers in the table on page |
_ Rain-areas distant more than 1000 miles from the low center
are not represented on this plate.
One of the most noticeable facts connected with these g
rain storms is the large number of rain-centers prevail
simultaneously, and often quite distinct from each ¢
| gee i, accompanying. my seventh paper, shows eight
eente ters; and at five of them the rain exceeded a half

EF. Loomis— Contributions to Meteorology. 5

: The table on page 2 shows one case in which there were seven
; rain-areas exceeding a half inch in amount; it shows six cases
in which there were as many as six such areas; fifteen cases in
: which there were as many as five such areas : twenty-seven
cases of four such areas; forty- eight cases of three such areas;
and only nine cases in which there was not more than one
rain area in which the rain-fall exceeded a half inch. Indeed
if the stations of observation were sufficiently numerous, it is
quite possible they would show that in every one of these
storms there was more than one rain-area amounting to a half
inch. This multitude of rain-centers appears to be aie:
a ae with the complex character of most storm

nearly 400 miles. In my seventh paper this distance was
stated to be 300 miles; but this number represents the dis-

date of observation n; whereas in the present paper, the distance
is measured from the position of the low center at the middle
of the period during which the given rain was ee so that
these two results accord pretty well with each ot

An inspection of Plate I shows that there is a aes pre-
dominance of rain-centers on the east side of the low center,
and that they occur most frequently in the northeast quadrant. __
In the following table, column second shows, for each of the
four quadrants, the total number of rain-areas in which the
rain-fall amounted to at least a half inch; and column third
shows the number K/ cases in which the principal rain-center
was found i in each of the quadrants.

Rain centers

adrants. Halt-inch. Greatest.
Wortheash oo. soc 86 3}
e Southeast AL 24
Southwest : 41 9
WOFDIWEE od es 18 a

ose cases in whic oe greatest rain-fall occurred in the

western i roietiad! require special examination, and for con-—
venience of reference they are designated on PlateI by the _
same numbers as in the table on page 2; also all the cases it

6 E. Loomis—Contributions to Meteorology.

which the principal rain-center was more than 500 miles south
of the center of least pressure are designated by appropriate
numbers. The following table shows the nine cases in whic
the principal rain center was south of the low center more
than 500 miles and less than 1000 miles. Column first shows
the reference number taken from the table on page 2; column
second shows the date of occurrence; column third shows the
station at which the rain-fall was greatest, and column fourth
shows the latitude of the station.

No. Date. Station. Latitude.
17 1874, March 7-1 Moutgomery 32°. 22°
36 19-1 mphi 35. OCT
45 1875, Jan. 2-1 Knoxville 35 56
52 1877, March 2-1 St. Mark’s 30°. 10
53 March 2-2 Charle 32 46
54 March 8-2 Montgomery 32. 22
64 April 28-2 St. Mark’s 30 10
67 June 8-3 Cogsicana 7 ie
71 July 20-1 Philadelphia 59. OF

We see that all but one of these stations were south of lat.
36° and the rain in these cases appears to have resulted from
opposing winds attending the advance of a wave of high pres-
sure from the west or northwest. In each of the cases there

produced only a slight effect upon the barometer.

areas were not of very great extent, the majority of them being
less than 200 miles in their longest diameter. No. 71 was of
very small dimensions, as will appear from the following table

was of a local character and of small geographical extent, and
These rain-

which shows the rain-fall for eight hours at all the stations —

.

within 175 miles of Philadelphia. The stations are arran
in the order of longitude from west to east.

Washington .........- 0:00 inch. Atlanite City. 00... 0.6 0°36 inch.
ROG i os oo WOO 4) Rarmpat 3c 6.

Philadelphia _-........ 175 “ | Sandy Hook 0-08 “

Cape Mayo Cha ch | New York .2.. 2020: oor =

In the nine cases above enumerated, the rain-fall had appar-

principal low center advanced, or upon its rate of progress.
This result accords with the conclusions arrived at in my sixth
yper.

rain-center was in either of the western quadrants, viz:
8, 23, 41, 55 and 68. q rants,

were indications of a cyclonic movement of the winds which

ently very little influence upon the direction in which the —

There remain only six other cases in which the pice o |

oe In No. 8 the lowest isobar (29-70) formed an oval whose _

£. Loomis—Contributions to Meteorology. ti

length was four and a half times its breadth, having its longest
diameter directed towards the northeast, St. Louis being near
the southwestern extremity of this oval, and the pressure at
St. Louis was only 0-04 inch above the lowest pressure reporte
at any station.

In No. 10 the isobar 29°50 formed a Jong oval whose princi-
pal axis was directed towards the northeast, Cairo being near
the southwestern extremity of this oval, and there were indica-
tions of a cyclonic movement of the winds of a local character
about Cairo.

In No. 23 the greatest precipitation (0°87 inch) was at
‘Omaha on the northwest side of the low center; but at Cincin-

about Omaha. Under these circumstances the low center ad
vanced eastward, but at a very slow rate, and the precipitation
at Omaha apparently served to retard the eastward movemen
of the low center.

n No. 41 the lowest isobar formed a long oval directed
towards the N.N.E. and extending beyond the stations of
observation; so that the amount cf the precipitation on the
northeast side of the low center is not fully bie There
was however a considerable fall of snow during the preceding
sixteen hours at several of the stations north of the low center.
*The following are the amounts at four of the stations for the

‘Quebec 0:10+0-27=0.37 inch. It is probable that a considera-
ble fall of snow extended much further northward.
In No. 55 the isobar 29°20 formed an oval whose length was
more than double its breadth with its axis directed towards the
northeast, and on the northeast side was a rain area of much
greater extent than that about Knoxville. The rain-fall at
Knoxville was 0-90 inch, and that at Oswego on the northeast
side was 0°63 inch.
In No. 68 the lowest isobar is incomplete, but is evidently

much elongated towards the north, and extends into Canada

beyond the stations of observation.

In order to render this comparison more complete, I will 3%

include the similar cases mentioned in my seventh paper.

we refer each rain-area to the position of the low center at the
ntiddle of the period during which the reported rain was fall-

ing, and omit those cases in which the principal rain-center was
more than 500 miles south of the low center, the following are
the only remaining cases in which the principal rain-center

appeared to be west of the low center, viz: Nos. 14, 26, 46,
: 47 and 53.

é

8 E.. Loomis— Contributions to Meteorology.

In No. 14 it seems probable that the rain-fall reported at.
Keokuk did not all fall during ‘its preceding eight hours, but
represents the entire rain-fal the preceding twenty-four
hours. This is indicated by a ineuariake of the record at.
Rokik with that at the neighboring stations St. Louis and
Davenport. The following is a copy of the record.

January 1.3 | January 2.1 January 2.2 Rate

Weather. | Rain. | Weather. | Rain. Weather. | Rain. »

Keokuk Light rain | aie he | gAgnt rain’ | > =. Olendy snow | 1°63 || *1°63.
St. Louis | Heavy eae 0°30 — Foggy 0°64 || Clo “32 || 1°26
Davenport | Cloudy ‘Light rain | 1-01 ight fain | 0-710(/ Vl

At St. Louis, up eal — 2.1, the rain in sixteen hours.

dent that the observer at Keokuk neglected to measure the
rain until Jan. 2.2, and that a portion of the amount recorded
for Jan. must have fallen before Jan. 2.1. If this conclu-
sion is correct, then the observations indicate that the principal
_ rain-center for Jan. 2.2 was on the east side of the low center.
6 the principal rain-center was 137 miles northwest
of the low center, and during the succeeding eight hours the*
low center Henge 156 miles towards the northwest.
‘n Nos. 46 and 47 the principal rain-center was northwest of
the low ae and the low center advanced towards the north-
west, aS was fully shown in my seventh paper
o. 53 the principal rain-center was 290 miles southwest

_ of the low center. At Nov. 23.3 the lowest isobar formed a
very elongated oval whose principal axis extended from Vicks-
burg to Lake Erie, and the heaviest rain occurred near Vicks-
burg, around which place prevailed a very decided cyclonic
- movement of ares winds. There was at the same time in the

neighborhood of Lake Erie a fall of rain and snow of less.
seated but extending over a greater area.
m this comparison we find that during the entire period
of he ‘pablished tri-daily observations (thirty-seven months), if
_ we exclude the cases in which the rain-center was more than
_ 500 miles south of the low center, there were but six cases of
_ great rain storms in which the principal rain-center was south-
_west of the low center, and in each of these cases the lowest
isobar formed an oval whose longest diameter was from three
to five times its shortest diameter, and the longest diameter
was serene towards the northeast. The -principal rain-center

pe in the southwest portion of this oval; but at

E. Loomis— Contributions to Meteorology. 9

the same time there prevailed in the northeast portion an area
of rain of less depth but of equal, or hone geographical
extent, apparently indicating that a small depth of hues Hes the
northern portion of the United States exerts a influence upon
the center of low pressure, stronger than that pe by a
greater depth of rain in the southern portion.

We also find four cases in which the principal rain-center
was northwest of the low center. In three of these cases the
low center advanced towards the northwest. In the other case,
although there was a station on the west side hes the rain-
fall was 0°07 inch greater than at any station on the east side,
the rain-area on the east side was much the greatest in geo-
graphical extent, and the area of low pressure moved slowly
eastward.

We thus learn that for the whole period of thirty-seven
months, during great rain storms, the principal rain-center was
most frequently situated nearly in - direction of the average
progress of the low centers. The average direction of the
storm tracks in column six of the table on page 2, is 15° north
of east; which corresponds pretty nearly with the direction in

we thalke the comparison for each case separately, we find

observation are too distant from each other show satis-
~ factorily the form and position of the rain- ea, or else the
direction of a storm’s geicirsy' is influenced by other cireum-
stances than the amount of rain

‘rom an examination of sities eight and nine of ps
table on page 2, we see that the movement of a center of
pressure is attended by a fall of the barometer in front of a.

rm and a rise of the barometer in its rear ; the average fall in
front for these seventy-four cases being 0-23 inch in eight.
hours, and the average rise in the rear being 0°12 inch. There
are only two cases in which the barometer rose in front of the
low center, and in these cases the rise in the rear was greater
than the rise in front. There are ten cases in which the barom-
eter continued to fall for eight hours after the low center ha
passed, but in these cases the barometer on the front side fell.
more than it did in the rear. No, 18 is not regarded as an ex-
— to this statement, for in in case the low center was
porte ntly stationary for eight hou

e also see from columns ten sid eleven, that there was gen-
erally a rise of temperature in front of each storm, and a fall of _
_ temperature in the rear, the average change of temperature ine
2 one ey from these seventy-four eases being 5° in front and 7°

10 - E. Loomis—Contributions to Meteorology.

in the rear. In the few cases in which there was a fall of
temperature in the front, there was generally a greater fall in
the rear; and when there was a rise of temperature in the
rear, there was generally a greater rise in the front.

In my former papers I have given reasons which appear to
me to indicate that the progress of a low center does not con-
sist in a drifting of the general atmosphere eastward, but is
rather like a wave whose characteristic feature is a diminution
of pressure in front of the storm, and an increase of pressure
in the rear. The question therefore which is now presented for
our examination is, whaé causes the barometer to fall on one

?

that the rain-fall contributes to this effect. The fall of the
barometer results from the motion communicated to the air, and
is due partly to the centrifugal force arising from the circula-
tion about a center, but mainly (in ordinary storms) to the
influence of the earth’s rotation in deflecting a moving body to
the right. By the precipitation of the vapor of the air and

this precipitation developed a force which tended to divert the
w ward, while a cold wind from the north or north-
west was pressing in on the western side, and increasing the
pressure in the rear of the storm.

The test of the correctness of this general explanation must
consist In its successful application to each of the seventy-four
cases in the table on page 2. I have made this comparison and
_ consider the results to be satisfactory with the exception per-

£.. Loomis— Contributions to Meteorology. 11

haps of a few cases, in most of which the storm extended
beyond the stations of observation, and adequate information
respecting it has not been obtained. As the limits of this arti-
cle will not allow me to take up each case in detail, I shall
confine my notice to those cases which were most remarkable
either for a very great velocity of progress, or a very small
velocity. There are fourteen cases in which the low a
advanced at a rate exceeding forty miles per hour, viz: Nos.

13, 25, 36, 41, 44, 46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 53, 66 and 67. In Nos. 4

front side of the principal center of low pressure carried the
low center forward with unusual velocity, although the change
of pressure in eight hours was small. In Nos. 66 and 67 there

was an area 0 “high pressure on the northeast side and an-
other on the northwest side, which condition seems to favor the
rapid progress of low centers as shown in my twelfth paper.
In No. 25 the conditions were very similar to those represented
on Plate TV accompanying my twelfth paper, viz: a fall of rain
and snow of great geographical extent on the northern side of
the low center, associated with an area of high pressure on the
northeast side and another on the northwest side. In Nos. 36
and 41 the lowest isobar formed a very elongated oval, ee
longest diameter extended from southwest to northeast. The
Ee em soni reported was on the south side of the pine

:

a . .

; southwest to northeast. A considerable fall of rain on the
‘

3

SRE eae Feat an he eS eae eee

ward beyond ere stations of observation, it is not known what
the rain fall was on the northern side. These two cases were
therefore apparently similar to Nos. 4, 18, 66 and

over in No. 36 there was an area of high barometer on the
northeast side and another on the northwest side. In Nos
46 and 48 the low center, which was already near the Atlantic
coast, moved rapidly eastward, being apparently influenced by
the ae rain-fall near the coast. Many cases have been found

intensity, attended by a great fall of rain or snow. Nos. 44,
4 were apparently of this class. In Nos. 49 and 50 the
low center was near the Atlantic coast, and adhered closely to
the coast line, being preceded by a heavy fall of snow. Also
in No. 46 there was an area of high barometer on the northeast
side and another on the northwest side. In No. 51 there was
also an area of high sen on the northeast side and another
on the northwest side, with h eavy rain on the east side of the
_ low center. Also the winds which attended the area of hig .
ere on the northwest were pre! violent, end forty. a

12 E. Loomis—Contributions to Meteorology.

eight miles an hour at Dodge city ; thirty-six at Yankton, thir-
ty-two at Leavenworth, and thirty-one at Escanaba. In No,
53 the low center had already reached Canada, so that the
amount of rain fall on the front side of the low center is
unknown.

Thus in each of these fourteen cases. whenever the observa-
tions furnish the requisite information, we find that a heavy fall
of rain preceded the low center, and in six of the cases we find
a special cause why a small change of pressure carried the
low center forward with unusual velocity. Also in six cases
we find an areaof high pressure on the northeast side together
with an area of high pressure on the northwest side, distant
from the former about seventeen hundred miles. These facts
are regarded as explaining and confirming the remark made on
page 10, that the movement of centers of low pressure is mod-
ified by the distribution of pressure existing beyond the limits
of the low area.

mong the seventy-four cases in the table on page 2, there
are eleven in which the low center advanced at a rate not ex-
ceeding sixteen miles per hour, viz: » ty Be 18, 20, SB,
34, 58, 59,65 and 73. In Nos. 2 and 8 there was a trough of
low pressure extending more than one thousand miles across
the United States from southwest to northeast. A considerable
fall of rain on the southwest side of the principal center of low
pressure, accompanied by a cyclonic movement of the winds,
was apparently the cause of a small fall of the barometer on
that side, which in No. 2 carried the center of low pressure
towards the southwest, and in No. 8 towards the southeast. In
Nos. 7, 38, 34, 58, 59, 65 and 73 an area of low pressure pre-
vailed in the region between the Mississippi River and the Rocky
Mountains, and in some of the cases extended as far as the Pa-

cific Ocean. The influence of this low pressure extended east-

E.. Loomis— Contributions to Meteorology. 13

at about the same rate. This is one of numerous cases which
appear to indicate thatan area of low pressure cannot advance
rapidly unless an area of high pressure advances behind it.
The Signal Service observations also show numerous cases in
which a low area has remained for several days nearly station-
ary between the Rocky Mountains and the gibi ee of 100°.
In No. 20 there were unusually heavy rains on the north side
of the low center and a violent cyclonic movement of the winds
about this center, but on the west side of the low center the
low pressure extended to a great distance, and a high pressure
_ did not appear on the west side until April 9th, after which
_ date the low moved eastward more rapidly.

Thus we see that nearly all of these cases of extremely slow
motion apparently resulted from an unusual extension of a sec-
ond area of low pressure on the western side. These cases of
'. very slow motion, as well as those of very rapid motion, indi-
_ cate that the direction of movement and rate of progress of a
_ storm center do not depend exclusively upon the amount of
_ rain-fall or upon the distribution of rain-fall within an area of
low pressure, but also upon the red ee of pressure, tem-
perature and humidity throughout an extensive region sur-

See

:

_ ¢reases or diminishes in intensity, this change must affect the
_ adjoining areas of high pressure, and this in turn must affect
:
4

_ may be overtaken by another area of low pressure which is
s advancing from the west. If one storm advances with unusual

| ~ side and m ay coa coalesce with it. While then the precipitation of

The pee eines wich ¢ are ieee ound S ye some- |
here in the vicinity of a great tak of rain deserve particular |

14 E. Loomis—Contributions to Meteorology.

miles per hour, but in each case there was, within the low q

miles per hour at some one of the stations within the low area.
We also see that in fifty-three of the cases the velocity rose as
high as twenty-five miles per hour; in sixteen of the cases it
rose to forty miles per hour; and in three cases it exceeded
sixty miles per hour. These high velocities come from all
points of the compass, but most frequently from the south and
northeast. The southerly winds are slightly stronger than the
northerly winds, and the easterly winds are decidedly stronger
than the westerly winds. The most remarkable feature of the
winds attending a great fall of rain is their very unequal force
at stations not very remote from each other. This will appear
from the following table which shows the direction and velocity _
of the wind at nine stations near the Gulf of St. Lawrence for
Nos. 14, 15, 40, 41 and 42 of the table on page 2.

No. 14. No. 15. No. 40. No. 41. No, 42.

{ontreal Nic 2 194 Ne ae eB 11 v.W. 10
bec KE. 66) NE 9} N.E. 58 '| N.E. 50 | SW. a9
Portianed oo on NR 618. 12:) NE 28: | SW. 20 |: (Colm
ee Ore Gio eee B86) 8.90 | BE a4 TE 22) NN.
Pather Point. 26.2... Ne 8 WwW. RE 8 i Wise
Chatham ...____. Cte Cai Be It 1 Calm. '| f 101 S.° os
Oepe Riser 2.2. .u2.. iW. Ti Se Gs TSB oe Ls is |S:
Halifax Ph. 0} SE. 20 | 8.6.17) SB IL
ER Sean + EB, ris it | BE. S| SE. 8 ER oe

E. Loomis— Contributions to Meteorology. 15

: No. 44. No. 48. No. 58. No. 55. | No. 56,

ag |

3 We BW. i4 Be Sw, ae
= Cape Hatteras ......-- SW. 27) G3 Bs73) CW. 8) SB ALS. 2 50
me Nitty Hawk .... 20.25. N.E. 30 | § 12|)S 47 | SW. 36
: N.W.16'| E 1 SW. 13 SAV e 94-\-8. We 2%
f Cape Henry _......_.. SB 8 Bi BO 124 Bo 84) Be ee
m. Cape May _.-.......-. N.E. 28 | N.B. 20 34° [8.2 °s 3871-8 45
meee Baltimore . ooo 22S Sok NB. 15 | NES 8 Pi) Pippa ol ao 1618 8
Me Bamecat 222 oe | ORR ee ts elena eR 26 |S 46
Philadelphia SBR See ee eo NES 20: 17H: 14 -W.-19)) SW. 30) BW. 40
=. Long Branch ..-_...-. N.E. 45

% Sa ndy Ho Ok Bs aw eS Hs N.E. 26 | 8B. 32 5. 28 8 48

In No, 44 compare the ae of the wind at Long Raa
with the velocities at Barnegat and Sandy Hook; in No. 48
compare Cape Henry with ‘Norfolk and Cape May; in No. 53
compare Barnegat with Baltimore and Philadelphia; in Nos.

5 and 56 compare Cape Hatteras and Kitty Hawk with
Miilmington and Norfolk.

We frequently find the winds blowing exactly toward each
other, from two stations less than 100 miles apart. Generally
_ such winds are feeble, but occasionally they are very strong
and in such cases we generally find that rain is falling in that
vicinity. The following table shows — direction and “velocity
As ing wns at Savannah, Charleston and Augusta in eight

which at two of these cos the winds were ap-

pn prosching bape other at a rate of more than twenty miles per
able also shows the rain-fall for the eight hours

; Sine ane the eight hours following the date given in
column second. Charleston is distant from Savannah eighty-
five miles and from Augusta 125 miles; the distance from

Savannah to Augusta is 104 miles

| Savannah. | | Charleston | | Augusta
Date. Rain. | Rain Rain.
Wind. Wind || Wind. | —
Bet’e. After, Befve.| After. | Bet’e.| After
3. Feb. 6.3S.W. 16/0-22|/012 |S. 18| 0-02 | 0-30 |IN. (0°52 0°27
VE. 12} 0-07 | 0 45 ||S.B. 1°37 | 0°52 IN. VF. 20, 0°87 | 0:93
June 27.28. 24) 0°37 | 0°45 ||8. NW
Sept. 28.1) E, 12] 2°80 | 0:95 ||S.E. 30) 1:29 | 2°67 |IN.W. 19) 2:10.) 0°50
C. 6.3)S.V 12) 0°05 | 0°10 |/S. 13] 0°05 | 0°27 '|N. 8} 1
\pril 3.2/S.E. NBS! VE NW. oo
. April 7.3|S.W, 8 0°60 |N.E. 19 WS. 18]. Pee
77. April13.1. 8. W. 18] 1-98 | 0°30 | .E. 36} 5°20| 280 IN.E. 24: 1°76 0-90

Nos. 4 and 8 are represented on Plate II. The isobars for
the dates given in the table are represented, by continuous
black lines; the rain-fall for the eight hours pee, —
given dates is indicated by dotted lines. The outer ae
line shows the begin! on the r rain n region ; the other feted e

16 E. Loomis—Contributions to Meteorotogy.

six miles per hour, and the fall of rain at Charleston amounted
to eight inches in sixteen hours. This case is the same as

A i ee Ne EU of eg ees see Ge ae

| Pie) OTe YS

LTT
hy Mae eet 69-6 Z'0G Lr 0% om aN ret.
I
M!GOWK F9-9 LO1|| ,-punog Alsegq EF-9 |e°6 || {WOANTT 410g /16-8 |Z'6 oe
pUOPSUTUTEM ZO 8 B11} eUOBarTIM/08.9 {LIL} ,UOIsepeyO|g9).¢ |E°O1 yyBuuBarg|eF.g y'¢)]
pUOPSULYSVM |GZ-6 /F'6T}| ,OOMVAIIV LF-L 1/361 jonbuqng)|9)-.¢1) U'6T gOUBD) 18-9 |E°8T
yooyy Apurg!¢s.9 |Z°0Z zadnqyoudry ae. | 10%] e110J10N| 66-9
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LUUIYSe A “IT 6F-S | 182] 080g gp.) 13°6 gapieig: | 19-91 ae '8
UUIYSeM “IN}18-6 |L°91 :
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anya :
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Si Aqur [
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s4odaaeayy ge-6 ‘ady ore
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194S9YOOY | EZ-G |Z'8Z ATOWOT UO) 70-9 BLS :
gAueqry 19-¢ |1's |} cerudjopepyg|zg.9 |e", pPOA MON|69-6 [2°L “URE “FL,
U04sog|L1-9 (Z°ST OTIGOW/GG-9 |T'Sl agwuuoniy 10. L 1-01,
pTPAXOUY| LF.8 | 1'F ePULAsiNOT 90 OL/E's sodeaeipty L8-01/2°§ “stno"] 8 99-01 V8 “O98 “BL,
‘uywa gsoyvai3 | cuyea | D |} super gsaywerd |ruper | 9 |) cuywaasoqvoas |-uwa | Y || ‘ures gsoqwoad | “ayes z | Uw {80qROIT “Uyea isaqwedt | “ups
FO u0T}eIg [vqOL $ jo noms 1810, 8 jo non 1vI0.L S Jo woNBIg =| [BIOL ¢ Fo “po uopeyg jo ToEtI1g IelOL

storm is pursuing its path

18 E. Loomis— Contributions to Meteorology.

e see from this table that in a period of twenty-one
months, there were thirty-six cases in which a total rain-fall of
nine inches in eight hours was followed by a total rain-fall of
more than five inches during the next eight: hours; there were
twenty-five cases in which it was followed by a similar rain-

each other in order of time, were not however in all cases con-
tinuous rain areas, nor were they even adjacent to each other.

Those cases which were apparently thus related as forming

continuous rain-areas, are indicated by the numerals 1, 2, 3,

etc., attached to the names of the stations. We find that out.

of these thirty-six cases there were only fourteen cases in which

the same rain-area continued for as much as three periods of
eight hours; and in only seven cases did the same rain-area.

continue for more than three periods; that is, more than
twenty-four hours.
We thus see that in the United States, rain areas, with a fall

in eight hours at ninety stations. This result has an important
bearing upon the philosophy of storms. It was objected to
Espy’s theory of storms that if his computations were correct,

when rain had once commenced it would have the power of

perpetuating itself; that is, it should be a veritable perpetual

motion, and should never cease. The comparison of three

ears’ observations however shows us that although consider-
able rain attends all great storms, or areas of low barometer,
and these areas of low barometer can sometimes be traced

. * .

eats ee ES Pas Re ee

j

E.. Loomis— Contributions to Meteorology. 19

Atlantic Ocean, the breadth of the rain-belt may vary from 100
or 200 miles to 1500 miles; and the amount of rain near the
central line of the belt may vary from 4 or 5 inches to less
than one-tenth of an inch.

n order to investigate this subject more fully, I have deter-
mined for each of the cases in the table on page 17, the total
rain-fall at each of the stations during the period when it was
included within the low area under investigation.. The follow-
mg table shows the total amount of rain-fall at each of the

fone
& &
~j]
a
(e)
°
S
Re
2 ct
=)
g3
°
S
es
6S
ct
2
fa)
3
me
i=]
=
=:
ie)
..
a
o.
a8
ied
ot
=
pee
5
co
(2 ge
fa)
jamnt
°
4
i)
Lox |
@
2
~e

that is, while the barometer was below 30 inches. At Mobile,
Montgome ery and several other southern stations some rain fell
during this period when the barometer was above 80 inches,
but this rain is Pact included in the following table.

Rain-fall from Dec. \st to Dee. 5th, 1873.

Station. Rain. Station. Rain.| Station. Rain. Station. Rain
Alpena, ____. 0°26! Duluth, 2215 0°15) Leavenworth, _| 0°77||P. Dover,___| 0°81
ugusta, 00) Eastport. *15|' Louisville, ...-) 2°30)|P. Stanley,._| °92
altimore, OL Bre ov sccd ‘41| Lynchburg, ..-| ~96|/Portland, ...| ‘00
Boston, ... .| *10)|Escanaba, ...| 1-12|/Marquette, ....| °55||/Punta Rassa,} °00
“nla 4 11|'Farther Point,| -12! Memphis, - .._. ‘69!\Quebec, __.-_| 134
Buffalo, ..... 4||Ft. Benton, ..| °00 |Milwaukee,. ..| 1°09 |Rochester, --
iligtn “00 Garry, =<.| ?29||Mobile, 2. u- 00 |Santa Fe,.__| “01
1°25||Ft. Gibson, _.| °57|/Montgomery, ..| °09 Saugeen, peal ae
2M ¥,-4.) “OOURt. Sally, ._. 0 pote. ‘37 |Savannah, - 00
. Rozier, .__| °05||Galveston,..-| °02)/Mt.Washington,| “09 Shreveport, - | 1:41
Charleston, -_| -00||Grand d Haven, “44 Nashville "_..| 1°90 |St. Louis, ...| 2°68
Chatham,..._| -01||/Halifax, -__-. London,..' °08 St Paul, .../ “18
Cheyenne, __.| °05 Indianapolie, sn46 New Orleans,_.| ‘00 |Sydney, ....| °00
Chicago, |__| 1-20||Indianola, ...| -00|New York,..-.| “01 |Toledo,_.... 2-07
Cincinnati, __ 2°47 Sacksonviie. prs Norfolk, ie. ‘00 |Toron 26
Cleveland, ___ k 1. Omghao 08 Vicksburg, - ae
Davenport, -.| 1°21||Kingston, --- 3 Oswego, -.-.-- ‘49 | Virginia C.,_| “00
Denver, .___- -37||Knoxville, _._| 1°66}|Pembina, ---_. ‘13 |Washington, ‘01
Detroit, _..._| 1°73|/LaCrosse, -_- oA 85 Philadelphia, .-| ‘ll |Wilmington,| 00
Dubuque, _-_.| °70||Lake City,.._! -00//Pittsburgh, ----| ‘42 |Yankton,---} ‘12

The numbers in this table are represented by curves on
Plate TIL, which shows the boundary of the area having a total
rain-fall of one-tenth of an inch; also the area of a half inch

rain-fall—one inch—two inches and three inches. Weseethat

west of the meridian of 98° from Greenwich, the aggregate rain-
fall for these five days was less than one- -tenth of aninch; and
as the low rey aivensed eastward, the rain-fall rapidly in- —
creased up to 346 inches at Indianapolis ; after which it
declined aith almost equal rapidity, and in longitude 67°
became reduced to one-tenth of an inch. The dotted line
shows the course of the center of low pressure, its position at

20 E. Loomis—Contributions to Meteorology.

the date of each observation being shown by the figures 2°1;
2:2; 2°3; 3:1, etc. During the progress of this storm, the pres-
sure at the center of the low area underwent great changes.
The following table shows for each of the dates, the lowest
pressure reported at any of the stations.

Date. Station. Baron Date. Station, Barom]| Date. Station. |Barom.
|
Dec. 2.1|Denver, 29°65! | Dec. 3.2/Chicago, 29°37||Dec.4.3/Chatham, | 29°29
2.2)/Leavenworth,} 55 scanaba, 08 5.1\C. Rozier, | 29°60
2.3) Dubuque, "62 4.1| Marquette, | 28°91
3.1\ Escanaba, “54 4,2|\ Quebec, 29°43

We see that the pressure at the center of the low area de-
creased until Dec. 4, at 74 A. M., and this was more than eight

mum; also the pressure slowly increased as the amount of
rain-fall decreased. These facts appear to illustrate the inertia
of the atmosphere; the minimum of pressure having occurred
considerably later than the maximum of rain-fall, and the pres-
sure was slowly restored even when the rain-fall had apparently
well-nigh ceased.

The results obtained in this case accord substantially with
those found in a large number of other cases. In all of the
cases shown in the table on page 17, the rain-fall west of the
meridian of 100° was well-nigh inappreciable, and the rain-fall
increased rapidly as the low area moved eastward. Whenever
there was a heavy rain-fall west of the meridian of 85°, the
rain almost invariably declined before reaching the Atlantic
coast. e heavy -rain-falls near the Atlantic coast generally

commence in the south and follow the Atlantic coast towards
the northeast.

_ The facts here developed confirm the remark made in my
_ 7th paper that “the forces which impart that movement to the
air which is requisite to an abundant precipitation of its vapor,

instead of deriving increased force from a great fall of rain,

rapidly expand themselves and become exhausted.” In the
case 1, the decrease in the rain-fall was apparently
caused by a very cold westerly wind which followed the low
area and attained in many places a velocity of 40 miles per

OSES Roches cee Si

| E. Loomis— Contributions to Meteorology. 21
Fall of temperature in 24 hours, Dec. 2-5, 1873.

Dee. 2.3 Cheyenne, 32°| Dee. 4.1 Chicago, 40°|Dec, 4.2 Memphis, 36°
Denver, 37 Dubuque, 31 Nashville, 32
Leavenworth, 36 Indianapolis, 50 |Dec. 4.3 Detroit, 32
Virginia City, 31 La Crosse, 34 rie,

Dec. 3.1 Leavenworth, 37 Louisville, 31 Indianapolis, 30

Dec. 3.2 Keokuk, 36 Memphis, 31 Pittsburgh, 35°
Leavenworth, 35 Milwaukee, 43 |Dec. 5.1 Oswego, L

Dee. 3.3 Dubuque, 42 Nashville, 30 Rochester, 37
St. Louis, 36 t. Louis, 41 |Dec. 5.2 Norfolk, 30

Dee. 4.1 Cairo, 39 |Dec. 4.2 Louisville, 33 Washington, 32

age 14 it was remarked that in great rain-storms the
easterly winds are generally much stronger than the westerly
winds. In the case of No. 1 the westerly winds were much the
strongest, as is shown by the following table which gives all
the cases from Dec. 1.2 to Dec. 5.3 in which the velocity of the
wind rose as high as 25 miles per hour at any of the stations
except Mt. Washington and Pike’s Peak. The table shows the
direction of these high winds, and also their velocity in miles

our :
High winds Dec. 1-5, 1873.
Dee. " Dec. ||Dec.
1.2 |Grand Hayen,|S.E. 29)! 3.3 Indianola, N.E. 48, 4,2 | Buffalo, S.W.36
1.3 |Eseanaba, |S.E. 28 Keokuk, W. 28) Jastport, 8.W.32
2.2 |Santa Fe, S.W. 26 Kingston, 8. 27 father Point, |S.W.30
2.3 |Cape Rosier, |S.W. 25 Knoxville, 8. 28 xr’nd Haven| W. 39
ven S. 28 Milwaukee, |S.W.28 Milwaukee, 29
rrand Hayen,|S.W. 30 : W. 43 ort Dover, |S.W.27
3.2 |Burlington, S. 30}| 4.1 |AT 8.W.40 tochest: 3
ape Rosier, |S.W. 42 Buffalo, . W. 32) augeen, 8.W.30
ndianola, (S.W. 36 Burlington, S$. 32) oledo, 8. 28
<noxville 8. 26 Chicago, 8.W.38)| 4.3 | Buffalo. W. 40
‘icksburg, S. 25]| ~ |Grand Haven,| W. 49) ather Point, |S. W.33
‘ankton, N.W.35 Kingsto' S. 30) ir’nd Haven| W. 32
3.3 ckenridge| N. 28 Port Dover, |S.W.40. cingston, |S.W.34
urlington, S. 26]! Toledo, S.W.40. Juebec, S.W.47
: W. 28}) Toronto, W. 40) augeen, S.W. 28
Javenport, | W. 28/) |Washington, | S. 28) 5.1 |Quebec, S.W.46
___|Galveston, N. 36)| 4.2 |Alpena, N. 27

kee 55 inch, and Dubuque ‘35 inch. Dee. 2d the force of the
inds from the south

fe)
&
s
ee
Sq
a
3
i
=
BY
5.
3
=e
“a:
E
=.
=
a.
oO
=

22 E. Loomis—Contributions to Meteorology.

storm, while the westerly winds on the rear were still stronger,
and on this day the rain-fall was very great, viz: at Indian-
apolis 8:46 inches; St. Louis 2°60; Cincinnati 2°47; Louisville
2°30; Toledo 1:93; Nashville 1:90; Detroit 1°58; Cairo 1:22;
Davenport 1°11, and Chicago 1:02.

Dec. 4th, at the time of the morning observation, the winds
were similar to what they had been on the preceding day, and
considerable rain-fall was reported; but after the morning ob-
servation the rain everywhere ceased almost entirely and the
south winds on the front of the low center had mostly disap-
peared, and were succeeded by winds from the west or south-
west. At 4.85 P. M. only one case of high wind from the south
was reported, viz: at Toledo, and there is reason for believing
that this observation was an error, or that it represented only a
temporary veering of the wind, for at no other place within
a distance of 500 miles was the wind reported from the south.
It will be observed that after Dec. 1st, on the front side of the
storm there was no strong wind from any easterly quarter ;
and the strong winds from the south ceased at about the same
time as the rain ceased; while the westerly winds continued to
blow with unabated force for 24 hours longer. After midnight
of Dec. 8d the westerly winds encroached rapidly upon the
south winds; and by the afternoon of the 4th had almost

and the fl esi at the center of the low area increases.

In order to prosecute these enquiries under different geo-
graphical influences, I have prepared a catalogue showing the
principal rain-falls in Europe for a series of years, but am
compelled to defer its publication until my next article.

Since the publication of my paper on the mean annual rain- —
fall for different countries of the globe, I have received a con-
siderable number of letters communicating rain-fall observa-
tions. As, however, I am hoping to obtain further observations,
I shall defer a little longer the publication of the materials
already received. Meanwhile if any meteorologist has informa-
tion which would be useful in preparing a revised edition of
my rain-chart, he is respectfully solicited to furnish me a copy
of the observations.

LeConte and Rising—Metalliferous Vein-formation, ete. 23

ART. Il.—The Phenomena of Metalliferous Vein-formation now
in progress at Sulphur Ban ne Valea by JosepH LEConTE,
Professor of Geology, and W. B. RISING, Dake of Chem-
istry, University of California.

THE attention of geologists has been already called by Mr.
Phillips* and Mr. Rolland+ to the fact that metalliferous veins
are even now forming at Steamboat Springs, in Nevada, and
at Sulphur Bank and other places in California; but the ob-
servations heretofore made at these places have been of a very
general character, and a mcre careful examination seems still
-a desideratum. Believing that any additional light, tone
-small, on so interesting a subject would be welcomed by
ists and geologists, we have made repeated visits to Salpbe
Bank, viz: in 1877, 1878, 1879, 1880 and 1881, and spent
several days each time in examining the phenomena as the
occur there. In the meantime the mines which, during our
-earlier visits, were mere open surface excavations, have been
recently developed in a systematic way, thus affording us op-
portunities of study which have not been enjoyed by any pre-
vious observers. The observations made on the ground have
‘been ever since the subject of continued thought, but the phe-
nomena are so complex that we desire this communication to
-be considered only as a preliminary discussion. We hope, if
possible, to continue the investigation.

Some general description of the Coast ranges and of the Sul-
‘phur Bank region will be necessary to make the subject clear.

Coast ranges.—The Coast chain of California is a very com-
plex system of ranges with narrow valleys between, contrast-
ing strongly in this respect with the grand simplicity of struc-
‘ture characteristic of the Sierra Nevada. The Cretaceous and
Tertiary strata of which it is composed are strongly folded into
repeated anticlines and synclines by the lateral pressure which
produced the ranges.t As shown by the age of the newest
-eruinpled strata which enter into its composition, its birth-time
was the end of the Miocene. In some places the strata are
unchanged and fall of fossils, eS in others they are intersecte

y dikes and overflowe a, and are therefore highly
metamorphic. This fy el Eo true of me region to the —
north of the Bay of San Francisco. The high mountain —
Phil. Mag., ie. 401, 1871. Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc., xxxv, 390, 1 :
fie des Mines, xiv, 384, 1878. It is proper here to remark Rast our first
visit in 1877 was aia and many of the conclusions hereinafter detailed, w
‘given in a verbal communication to the chemical section of the Cal. Acad. at
‘Science before the visit of Le: Rolland.
¢ This Journal, xi, 287, 1876.

Barb

24 LeConte and Rising—Metalliferous Vein-formation

ridges enclosing the upper part of Napa valley and the moun-~
tainous region about the head of the valley are composed
wholly of eruptive rocks. The culminating point of former
igneous activity, as of elevation in this vicinity, is Mt. St.
Helena, an ancient voleano 4,343 feet high; but the evidences
of former igneous activity continue northward with little.
abatement to and beyond Clear Lake. In all this region the
country rock is largely overlaid with lava, and feeble secondary
voleanic activity still continues in the form of hot springs, car.
bonated springs, oS and fumaroles, or so-called geysers.*

In all this region are also found extensive exposures of serpen-
tine, and aly, in connection with the serpentine, cinnabar.

ciated with serpentine, and it is with iste that we are now
concerned.

Clear Lake vicinity.—Clear Lake is a large Ls Sing sheet of
water about 25 miles long, 5 to 8 miles wide, and 1320 feet.
above sea level, situated about 90 miles north of San Fran-

cisco and 40 miles from the sea, in the mide t of a very rugged

feet above sea mee a flows from these volcanoes ran
down to the lake margin and into the lake waters, and form

romontories and islands which diversify its surface..

Voleanic activity has now died away into feeble secondary

remnants, as hot springs, tt oasniea springs, solfataras and bo-

rax springs, all of which ae amerOUs in and about the lake.

borax lakes, or rather pools, near the margin of the greater

lake. At one time a considerable quantity of borax was col-
lected as crystals from the mud at the bottom of these pools.

* The geysers of California are not true I acco or eruptive springs depositing

silica, but — fumaroles or smoking so
Geol. Sur - of Cal., vol. i, pp. 94 a

”

phic, but careful examination shows that it is wholly volcanic,

ap
is mentioned by Whita es, vol, i, p. 97, as es metamor-

at Sulphur Bank, California. 25

The teme of the volcanic activity is uncertain but cannot be
earlier than the beginning of the Pliocene, for this is the date
of the formation of the Coast chain. It is probable that it com-
menced with the formation of these mountains at the beginning
of the Pliocene and may have continued to a much later time.
In that case it would be contemporaneous with the muc
greater volcanic activity of the Sierra and Cascade ranges,
which seems to have occupied the whole of the Pliocene and
perhaps a portion of the Quaternary.* The eruptive rocks in
all this region are andesites and trachytes, somewhat strongly
contrasted, but no attempt has been made to determine the
order, if any, in which the two kinds have been erupte

The immediate vicinity of Sulphur Bank.—One of the most
active centers of vuleanism during Pliocene times and of solfa-
taric action now, is about Sulphur Bank. This place i 6 situa-
ted at the extremity of an eastward-extending bay of Clear

ake, and in its immediate neighborhood are distingtly visible
four or five low volcanic cones with almost perfect craters, the
nearest two being less than a mile distant. The Bank itself i isa
low, rounded hill, rising from the lake margin and apparently
the lakeward extremity of a lava-stream from one of the near-
est voleanoes to the east, toward and almost to which it a!
be easily traced as a low ridge of lava-blocks. The
which forms this lava-stream, as well-as that of the crater bore
which it apparently flowed, according to Mr. W. Jackson,
the instructor in mineralogy and lithology, to whom we re-
ferred it, is an augite-andesite.+ During all our earlier visits,
the mines were simple excavations in this hill, open to the sky,
and none more than 50 to 60 feet deep ; but when last visited,
in 1881, Se oe mining operations had sey tases by sinking
a shaft 260 feet deep, and running drifts at various levels.
The stratified rock in the vicinity, when aot covered with Java
and concealed from view, consists of sandstones and shales in-
clined at high angles.

* This Journal, vol. vii, pp. 167 and 259, 1874.
+ Mr. Jackso n has 8 given us the following as the re sult of his examination:

rites. oliv
basalt (and I see no other way of Ragan Iding a ‘distinc tion between basalt and au-
ra eae hoy Su _ r Bank rock becomes an augite-andestite. I have
e rock from many different localities in the Pacific
rr Aisle

26 LeConte and Rising—Metalliferous Vein-formation

Description of the bank.—At first sight the volcanic origin of
the surface rock of the hill is not conspicuous. The. bank
looks like an immense oval ash-heap, 300 yards wide, 600
yards long and about 100 feet high above the lake level. The
surface consists of snow-white, very fine pulverulent material
which on analysis is found to be pure silica. It is evidently
the residue resulting from complete decomposition of the vol-
canic rock, as will be explained hereafter. As we go deeper
the rock becomes sounder and the mass now seems to consist
of andesite blocks rounded by decomposition with the pro-

ucts of decomposition between, and looking much like
rounded “ bowlders” imbedded in a white ashy or chalky earth.
Very often the rounded blocks (so-called bowlders) disintegrate
into concentric whitish shells which scale off to
sounder rock in the center. These shells are undoubtedly the

rocks.
As far as yet described the rocks have evidently been

oP ac ee
2s ae eT Ne

at Sulphur Bank, California. 27

thus far mentioned have been noticed also by others. The
facts now about to be mentioned, however, have not been

previously described.

At the time of our earlier visits, viz: from 1877 to 1880 in-
clusive, the underlying country rock was reached and examined
only in one place, viz: in the excavation called ‘‘ the wagon-
spring cut.”* This, at that time the deepest opening, is situated
near the margin of the lava-flow, where the lava is thin, and
therefore the stratified country rock is quickly reached and is
penetrated thirty or forty feet. The stratified bed-rock consists
here of sandstones and shales standing nearly on edge. The
opening has followed a soft brecciated stratum, several feet
thick, composed of a mere rubble of angular fragments of
sandstone and shale with mud of bluish clay between. On
either side of this rubble-mud stratum is firmer rock; on one
side sandstone and on the other shale. The mud is hot and at
the bottom of the cut, hot alkaline waters highly charged with

hy
rubble-mud stratum is rich in cinnabar, though in invisible

* The underlying strata had been previously reached in two other places, viz:
the “Bath-house cut” and the “Parrott shaft;” but these openings had been
abandoned and at the time of our visits were filled with hot water.

28 LeConte and Rising—MNMetalliferous Vein-formation

particles. Pyrites is also found in notable quantities both im
the rubble-mud and in the bounding rocks on each side, espe-
cially in the more porous sandstone. Thesame rubble stratum
can be traced out-cropping on the surface farther east beyond
the limits of the lava-flow, and is there also the seat of solfataric
action, and has been worked for cinnabar. The question of
the origin of this rabble-mud stratum will come up for discus-
sion hereafter.

Completer examination of the strata beneath the lava.—The above
is a brief description of the phenomena as seen during our
earlier visits. In the summer of 1881, we again visited the
mines, and in addition to complete confirmation of previous
results, had an opportunity, never enjoyed before, of examining
the stratified rocks underlying the lava to a depth of 260 feet.
Since our previous visit in 1880, the very intelligent Superin-
tendent, Mr. Fiedler, had sunk a shaft some distance. to the

spring cut,” but had not yet quite reached a point directly
beneath it. The phenomena observed are as follows: for 70
or 80 feet from the shaft the rock is barren sandstone and shale
dipping to the south and comparatively dry and cool. Then
the rock becomes shattered or brecciated and highly charged
with up-coming hot water containing large amount of alkaline
sulphides, with excess of CO, and H,S. In the hottest places
the temperature of the water is 160° and the CO, bubbles up
so profusely that a lighted candle near its surface is quickly
extinguished. The heat of the freshly cut rock is often too
great to be borne by the naked hand. In this hot shattered
rock is found the ore. The mine is worked with difficulty on
account of the almost insupportable heat. This difficulty has
now been largely removed by the more complete ventilation
subsequently introduced. The lower-level drift had not at
_the time of our visit yet reached the ore- body.*

Description of the ore-bodies.—The brecciated layer which
forms the water-way, is here, as in the wagon-spring cut, com-
posed of fragments of sandstone and shale, mostly angular but
sometimes sub-angular, as if the edges had been either worn
away or else dissolved away. In some places, where the up-

_- ore-body and reaching only barren rock on the other side, The fourth level has
he een pushed 136 feet and has reached the ore-body. The varying dip on these
oe different levels show that the strata are very much broken up.

at Sulphur Bank, California. 29

coming water is abundant, there is only hot mud between the
fragments, but in other places where the rock is drier and the
d

united by a paste of cinnabar, pyrites and silica, but mostly
cinnabar. The spaces between the fragments are sometimes
entirely filled with deposit, sometimes only partially filled,
leaving hollow spaces between. In this case the mass may
have the appearance of an aggregation of round pellets of
cinnabar, but on breaking these pellets they are found to have
an angular fragment of rock as a nucleus. The deposits lining

accompanying figure roughly drawn from a spec pinist in our
possession, will give a general idea of the appearance of the
richer portions of the ore-body.

ag Cavities.
[=] Sandstone.

ng
even pinching out and di kppedritig aiavelyy ‘6 reappear again

* A similar gelatinous condition of us has been frequently observed by one

-of us in the hydra a gravel mines, usually in connection with decaying drift-
shea n colored Brogan ty oxide of i Se and i a color and appearance
actly resembles they toplasmic mass of some lowe s of vegetation, as

to pore Pid alts all but the ches careful Frere

30 LeConte and Rising—Metalliferous Vein-formation

gh, passe

traced ; or it may be the remains of a very viscous eruption
coming up through a fissure and spreading but little; and thus
simulating a lava-stream. We have assumed the former as by
far the more probable, because it can be traced almost continu-
ously to a neighboring crater, the rock of which is identical
with that of Sulphur Bank, but the question can be definitely
settled only by continuing the tunnels beneath the lava cap

at Sulphur Bank, California. 31

and ascertaining whether or not a dike is cut through. If the
lava cap is a stream from a neighboring volcano, as seems
almost certain, then its presence here has nothing ‘to do with
the solfataric action or the occurrence of cinnabar. These origi-
nate far beneath the lava and would come to the surface, all
the same, if there had been no stream in this place or if it had
not reached so far. Rolland thinks the solfataric action pre-
ceded the voleanism—that the lava stream flowed over and
covered pre-existing solfataric vents and thus compelled the
waters to seek the surface through their jointed structure.
This may or may not be true of this particular stream, but is
probably not true of the volcanic activity of this vicinity.
Solfataric action usually follows rather than precedes eruptive
activity. We suppose therefore that with the decline of Plio-
cene voleanic activity of this vicinity, the solfataric action com-

itself beneath the lava cap, spread in all directions through its
open jointed structure and so reached the surface, Rigs ae:
more diffusely and therefore in less available form in this sur-
face portion. The same open joint structure has See freer
access to air, and therefore produced a more decided surface
ea isd as will be explained below.

: There are aridenile here two very different and
even peat kinds of chemical ee going on; the one

rimary an

kinds of products previously Gene ned.

ction of us Bist coming oan water.—(a.) Clay and
Sihea. The ascending waters, by analysis, contain a Mage
amount of sul shades and carbonates of sodium and ammonium
with excess of carbonic and sulphydric acid. They also con-
tain a considerable amount of boracic acid. These waters,

aon and etal chalcedon
(b.) Cinnabar. The same patie chiens waters must have

32 LeConte and Rising—Metalliferous Vein-formation

held in solution also metallic sulphides, especially mercuric
sulphide: for these are found associated with the silica in suc
wise that the two must have been deposited from the same
solution. Sometimes the cinnabar is embedded in the silica,
and visible on cutting or breaking as reddish cloudings and
streakings, sometimes alternating with silica in successive layers
lining cavities and fissures, and sometimes alone lining or filling
such cavities and fissures. The solvent of the cinnabar seems
undoubtedly to have been alkaline sulphides. There has been
it is true, much difference of statement among the best chemists
as to the solubility of most metallic sulphides in alkaline sul-
phides, but recent experiments have made probable at least a
feeble solubility, and the most recent and reliable of all, viz:
ose of Mr. Christy* in which cinnabar was subjected to the
prolonged action of alkaline sulphide solutions, exactly imitating
the composition of the solfataric waters of California, under
heavy pressure and super heat, has placed the solubility under
these conditions beyond all reasonable doubt. Whatever be
the solvent, it is evident that cooling, relief of pressure and per-
haps escape of H,S and CO, in the ascending waters would
diminish solubility and produce deposits in the water-ways.

c.) Pyrite. The pyrites found disseminated in the rocks at
al] depths yet reached may (1) have been brought up from
below in solution in the solfataric waters and deposited like the
cinnabar, or (2) may have been formed by reaction of alkaline
sulphides on iron-silicates of the rocks, especially the lavas,
as suggested by Bunsen, in the rocks of Iceland, or finally (8)
may have been formed by deoxidation of iron sulphate

* This Journal, xvii, 450, 1879.
+ Phillips also found it imbedded like cinnabar in recently deposited silica.

SE See ae SORE SDN eS ME SRE I es Sp NER Ce Sg nD PE Se cg EE Se RT ee

ee ee a Pee eS een ae Dey ear

Ge ge Ss epee a ae he ee ee

ai, ink icp arta che a ee i se Deets AES Oe me Ra Sie bok ae

at Sulphur Bank, California. 33

coming subterranean waters. We now come to speak of the
action of the down-going surface waters. The deposit of sul-
phur last spoken of forms the transition between the two, since
it requires the presence of air.

Action of descending surface waters. (a) The sulphurie acid
is, of course, formed by the more complete oxidation of the
sulphydric acid gas, the result of more complete contact with
air. In fact this takes place mainly in the air, and the effect
of prevailing dry winds in carrying it in particular directions is
plainly seen. Sulphuric acid is however also formed as a

effects have been less observed and are therefore of the highest
interest.

We have attributed the deposit of metallic sulphides and of
silica, to cooling and relief of pressure and, possibly, escape of
H.S. Doubtless these are the main causes of decrease of
solvent power and therefore of deposit. But it is probable also
that at a certain line where the up-coming alkaline meet the
down-going acid waters, the deposit iscompleted by neutraliza-
tion. Thus the line of demarkation between the two kinds of
reaction is sharper than it would otherwise be.

t will be observed that in the present article we have con-
fined ourselves wholly to the description of phenomena and to
such immediate explanation as is forced on the observer. e
have not attempted any discussion of the bearing of these facts
upon the — theory of metalliferous vein formation. This
is reserved for a possible future paper in case our investigations
justify it.

Am. Jour. pings ey Series, VoL. XXIV, No. 189.—Ju.y, 1882.
3

34. O. A. Derby—Occurrence of the Diamond mm Brazil.

Art. Il].—WModes of occurrence of the Diamond in Brazil; by
ORVILLE A. DERBY.

known at present, may be taken as types of all the washings
of the empire.

The diamond region of Diamantina is situated along the
crest and on both flanks of the Serra do Espinhago, the great
interior mountain range of Brazil which divides the waters of

Ves

- B Co bp re
Pgh a ea Ps
= i Wee \ \\ SN Con
———— = \\ 0 i ox \\\ \ \ &
\ i \ | kes v \\ \\ \\ XN

_A, River Sao Francisco. 3, Gurvea. c, Heights of Guinda, p, Diamantina.
E, Heights of Curralinho. ¥F, River Jequetinhonha. :
te gneiss exposed in a long narrow zone running N.-S., to the south-
mantina near the village of Gurvea. I
to the northward going directly west from Diamantina this series did not appear.
Sea ies of hydromica schists, schistose granular quartzites (itacolumites) and
itabirites. ¢—Series of granular quartzites passing at times to conglomerate.
d—Series of argillaceous shales and slates, limestones and sandstones. e—Hori-
zoutal shales and sandstones.

The point in which this section differs most materially from
the descriptions of the region hitherto published is the separa-
tion of the upper quartzite (c) as a distinct formation, uncon-
formable to the series containing the itacolumites or lower
quartzites, with which it has generally been confounded. This —
confusion is easily explained by the fact that most travelers
os have confined their observations to the eastern side of the
_ watershed where, owing to the two quartzites having the same

O. A. Derby—Occurrence of the Diamond in Brazil. 35

strike and the same easterly dip, the unconformability of strat-
ification is not very apparent and the close lithological resem-
blance of the two rocks throws one off his guard in regard
to it. Having recognized the unconformability of these beds
on the western slope of the range where in places the dip is in
opposite directions, I took pains to look for it elsewhere and
found many evidences of it on the eastern side as well.

tooth-like into the mass of the upper, and the two former are
apparently homogeneous rock in which only the closest seru-
‘tiny can detect the line of junction, indicated by a few scattered
fend ora very slight ei os in the intimate structure of
‘the rom the line of junction this discrimination
-of the two series is more difficult and, if no pebbles can be
found in the rock, is often impossible, so nest is the resem-
lance between the finer portions of the upper quartzite, and
the lower to which I would to restrict the name of itacolumite.*
The relations of series ¢ and d have not been clearly worke
out as the two have not been seen in contact, and it is possible
that they should be united. The differences in the lithological
characters of the rock and in their distribution is, however,
against this view. The limestone of series d is the. only rock
ot the region that en Panne € fossils. At Bom Jesus da

‘of white calcite which might be mistaken for fossils. os-
sil oyster of the same author from the sandstone of the ‘Abas
{series ¢) appears to be based on structure lines in the rock. I
failed to find any evidence in support of his view of the Secon-
dary age of a rocks, and on the contrary have direct evisenee
in Mihi itio

These ieeliiniingies are necessary for a correct appreciation
-of the grrr presented in the various washings which will
now be des E 1e miners established a distinction, which
it is convenient to retain, between river washings (servicos do
~to) and prairie sacking: (servicos do campo). Of the former the
most famous are in the bed of the Jequetinhonha where
an opportunity = owe a three, the only ones that have
been worked of la

These mines we sieaated to the eastward and southeastward

th series occur in the Serra do [tacolumi at Ouro Preto from which the rock
takes its name. Jt is only the lower one however that affords, and that rarely,

the flexible variety to which the name is more phen larly applied.

36 O. A. Derby—Occurrence of the Diamond in Brazil.

of Diamantina at distances of from 6 to 15 miles from the city
and three or four miles from each other along the course of the
river. The upper one, the Canteiro, is situated a mile or two
below the bridge on the road to the provincial capital. The
Santo Antonio mine is a little above and the Acaba-Mundo a
little below the confluence of the Jequetinhonha with its equally
famous tributary, Ribeirao do Inferno. The Jequetinhonha is
here a wild mountain torrent flowing in an exceedingly rugged
and picturesque narrow gorge. The river had been turned for
short distances by means of temporary dams and wooden sluices
and the sand and gravel had been removed from those parts of
the bed thus exposed which were known or supposed to be —
unworked.

gravel had been deposited. Some of them had been more or less
thoroughly cleaned out by former workings and of course refilled
immediately when the river took possession of its bed. This
newly deposited gravel is not considered worth washing, althougi
it contains some diamonds, and in fact since diamond-washing
commenced in the river the newly formed deposits consist of
material that has already been more or less thoroughly washed.

Each of these submerged cafions presents some peculiar
features dependent on the character of the beds and the relation
of the river to them. A diagramatic section of each is given

elow.

SN

An
We
oss
JS
ae
a
eee,

we

oo
Seon,
os

e
ER SS

we
poe
See

x"
NY aes

me
ao
ee
s
me
a
beg egret
==

Ai
it
a
fe

o4
Sepak te
|
Saas HI

==

* t q 4;

ANY AN SS i H 1 tilt
WARY WS ws Hi seit Mm HEH Hi eat
ANY ARS OH a ph
\ ANS) (AY HH EE ey | EER
AN Ni * fy iH va Hilal Hist tity,
Ms TH Aa iii

—
ahs

AAA ra Ta UU
Acaba-Mundo.
e— Upper quartzite.

Canteiro, Santo Antonio.
a—Lower quartzite (itacolumite). b—Schists,

At the Canteiro mine the river runs N. 25° KE. along the
strike of a series of beds of the lower quartzite, dipping 60° to
the eastward. € cafion, several hundred metres long, is
formed of a line of pot-holes which are generally confluent below
the surface so as to form a nearly continuous underground
channel. me
metres but in general they are much narrower. Some are

O. A. Derby—Oceurrence of the Diamond in Brazil. 37

regular from top to bottom, while others present constric-
tions as represented in the diagram. The upper levels of these
pot-holes had been worked out ‘by former owners and were found

filled with new unproductive gravel but in the lower levels rich
virgin gravel was foun

At Santo Anvoei: the cafion occupies the whole width of
the river-bed and has even widened out below so that the
walls are overhanging. The river has here cut through the
upper quartzite so as to meet the junction of the two series at
about the present natural level of the river-bed. Flowing
along the strike of the lower series, it has encountered the thin
layer of softer beds of schists and schistose quartzites which
form the floor of the cavern, enclosed between the more mas-
sive beds which form the walls. The cafion whieh is about
100 feet deep was filled with fallen masses of rock and gravel
which had been removed at the two extremities of the work-
ing, but a large rock tightly wedged in between the walls, and
which had formed a small fall in the river, had been left, and
shored up by stout wooden braces, while work was being

carried on underneath by the light of torches.

The Acaba-Mundo cafion is similar in many respects to that
of Santo Antonio, but is remarkable in being transverse to the
bed of the river which it cuts completely across. The position
of the beds is here approximately as follows:

‘ er uartzite strike N. ne W., di nee S.W.
Lower : Nl 20° W. 80° EN.

This oe cul-de-sac cut nearly es a below the
natural river-bed, which is here quite shallow, appears at first
sight to be an old river channel. That this is not the case is
proved by the fact that on the right side (where it was open to
examination) it abuts against a hill, as is shown in the accom-

ee plan. The small stream which, flowing from this hill,
falls into the head of the cul-de-sac is

too insignificant to have excavated this
channel as wide as that of the main
river which above and below the cut
has exercised but little excavating
power. The true explanation of its
formation is to be found in the fact
h

that the river here flows across the
ret ne gs! oan strike of the lower ‘peda and that, hav-
ine om the position of the ing cut the compact upper beds, it
found a soft bed of schist cutting across
_ its course and enclosed between two harder beds. The soft bed —
now forms the soft clayey bottom of the cafion, and though
decomposed still shows its schistose character. — constric-

88 O. A. Derby—Occurrence of the Diamond in Brazil.

tion in the river just below would naturally form a back-water
with eddies at this point. The small stream mentioned may

very far. The finer material including many rare minerals

with‘the diamond may have come from greater distances, either

from the main river, or its tributaries, but there is a strong

presumption in favor of the view that this also has been
Vv

A similar mode of occurrence is seen on the high ridge to
the southwestward of Diamantina at Guinda and Sopa. These

O. A. Derby—Occurrence of the Diamond in Brazil. 39

localities are on opposite sides of a high rounded ridge forming
the divide between the Jequetinhonha and the Rio Pardo, an
affluent of the Rio das Velhas. This ridge is composed for
the most part of schists and quartzites of the lower noel, with

layer of red soil with a thin bed of gravel beneath; then a
thick layer of reddish sand with acathaned pebbles which passes
into a coarse gravel containing pebbles of various kinds and
bowlders of quartzite and schists. The bottom of the excava-
tion is formed by decomposed schists and schistose quartzite in
highly inclined beds traversed by veins of lithomarge —

conglomerate, belonging to the upper quartzite series. At the
neighboring locality of Guinda the conglomerate character of
the deposit is even more apparent, and I am convinced that
both of these deposits can with safety be referred to the same
category as those of Bom Successo and Boa Vista.

About 100 miles to the nertiwacd of Dacanius on a stream

oS =
24 @
Ze
+2
ae
a 2
i
gr ¢
2 &.
=e
oF
fn
i)
as
gag
gS
@,
SF
v6,
2B
8 2
og
°
cee
rq?)
cS
a
n ©
a
wy 2
oa
a
ae
YS
Oo
‘Gio
ds
eo
Bs
So

a
>
ia]
09
; 2
S
ag
S
&
5
4
=
oe
a toe
oO
a
[a9]
@
73.
“Oy
oO
—
bo]
i=]
fore
oe
.
ie)
oo
>
e
a?)
4
oO
soe

sider the view, which he alduisiely rejected, that this was a
regenerated rock, that is, a conglomerate. I have elsewhere
(Archivos do Museu Nacional, vol. v), inaintained the opinion
that these masses are true rolled pebbles, and that this rock
belongs to the upper quartzite series.

_ The conglomerate character of the diamond - bearing rock
_ has now been clearly — by Professor Gorceix who
___was so fortunate as to obtain at Diamantina a specimen show-
ing a rolled aie of byalics quartz alongside of an embedded

: nty o
_ resembles a railroad cutting

40 O. A. Derby—Occurrence of the Diamond in Brazil.

have recently been discovered in that series as well. In von
Helmreichen’s complete memoir, which I have only recently
seen, there is a sketch of the locality which shows conclusively
that both quartzites occur at the Corrego dos Bois, and that the
diamonds are found in the upper one just above the line of
junction of the two series. This sketch is interesting also as
showing how close must be the resemblance of the two rocks
to have led so able a geologist (as von Eschwege also, in other

places) to overlook such unmistakable evidence of the exist-—

ence of two unconformable series.

In the four localities of Bom Successo, Guinda, Sopa and
Grao Mogol the diamond occurs with rolled pebbles derived
from older rocks and must itself be regarded as a pebble in its
secondary deposit. In many other servicos do campo it occurs
in gravel deposits that are clearly of modern origin. The

hesitation as of glacial origin, I have recognized the presence
of pebble-bearing formations. In other washings the gravel
consists of angular fragments of vein quartz left on the surface
by the wearing down of the soft beds traversed by the veins.
In these cases the matrix of the diamond must be near at band,

r more meters deep which closely
the sloping sides of this cut show

ae
Soe sot ashe eee tS es Pate a a eee © abet ee iy ae -

O. A. Derby—Oceurrence of the Diamond in Brazil. 41

a layer of red soil above, with some coarse ferruginous g gravel
at the base, resting on soapy parti-colored clays. The disposi-
tion of these clays is much obscured by slides, but in a number
of places it may be seen that they result from the decomposi-
tion in situ of unctuous (hydromica) schists underlying a bed
of itacolumite which is well exposed at the we eae: of the
Barro mine. This bed strikes N. 5° W. and dips 40° E. The
direction of the cut is approximately N.-S., s yaa that the

iamond-bearing material has been followed along the strike of
i beds.

The diamond-bearing clays are found in layers up to 1$
meters in thickness intercalated in the midst of the barren
de Three distinct layers have been described of which I

sated of two in considerable masses that had been
Ee by slides. One was a soft bluish black mass show-
ing on a fresh fracture thin alternating layers of white clay and
black powdery hematite. The second mass consisted of a

Gorceix as Pilar ae of ie with crystals of quartz
presenting the same aspect as the topaz- Geatise lithomarge

eins of Ouro Pre

The reddish sacth of the second mass is the diamond-bearing
material of that layer. It is evidently a decomposed rock con-
sisting of a clayey and a sandy portion. The sand consists,
according to scenes J. W. Mallet, who has kindly examined
specimens, for me, of quartz grains, microscopic tourmalines,
and another black ‘silicate. The c clayey portion consists largely
of iron. The original character of the rock from which this

and in the same geological serie e quartz portion of the
Sao Joao vein is much erat sal fall of ‘brilliant plates of -
specular iron,

42 O. A. Derby—Occurrence of the Diamond in Brazil.

river gravels, which may also contain diamonds washed from
the superficial gravels and that are therefore in their fourth
place of deposit.

If an observation made to me by Mr. Meziel F. de Aguiar,
owner of the Sopa mine, be exact, the diamond-bearing veins
are persistent over long distances. He stated that a straight
line drawn from the Sao Joo mine through the Sopa and _pro-
longed to the southward would pass through or near some half
dozen of the most noted campo washings. Such a line would
have a length of about twenty miles, and it corresponds exactly
with the general strike of the beds in this region. In fact I
noticed at the Sopa mine that the line of strike prolonged
would cut the deep excavation of Sao Joao which was plainly
visible at a distance of four or five miles, I have reason to sus-
pect, from the information given by this intelligent miner, that
the true barro formation occurs also at the Sopa, though it has
never been recognized as such.

Near the river Sao Francisco there is a rich river washing

the diamond fields of the provinces of Bahia, Goyaz, Matto
Grosso and Parana is substantially the same as that above
described for the central part of the province of Minas Geraes.

NTS Fe Me ES ry ee cane ae a geen Ree Se Cae Sk SS Rg ge ES OO ee ROR Se ae ES

T. C. Mendenhali—Edison’s Tasimeter. 43

Art. IV.—On the Influence of Time on the Change in the
Resistance of the Carbon Disk of Eison’s Tasimeter ; by T. C.
MENDENHALL, Columbus, O.

[Read, by invitation, at the April meeting of the National Academy. ]

UT five years ago Edison announced the discovery of the
deamon property sea'gth by carbon when prepared in a
special manner, in virtue o ich its electrical resistance was
greatly lessened by sabjeuting ‘t to an increase of pressure.
Among the numerous interesting applications of this discon

which were quickly made, none was more promising or more
interesting than the Tasimeter devised by Edison himself. The
extreme sensitiveness of the carbon to the slightest changes in
pressure gave rise to the hope that the instrament would far
exceed in delicacy those previously in use for the detection of
minute quantities or heat.
Mr. Edison was a member of the Draper Eclipse Expedition
n the summer of 1878, and used his T'asimeter during the total
vetines of July 291 in that year, attempting to measure the heat
emitted by the sun’s corona. His report to the director, Dr.
Henry Draper, was published in the Proceedings of the Ameri-
can Association for the Advancement of Science for the same
r. This report shows that the attempt was by no means as
successful as could have been desired, the principal obstacle
being apparently the difficulty in the adjustment of the i
meter so that the galvanometer needle would remain at z
and to secure its return to that point after it had been deflected.
In fact, the zero adjustment was only made by the use of a
eculiar shunt of variable resistance ingeniously contrived by
r. Edison for the purpose.
he writer is not aware of any other systematic attempt to
secure quantitative results through its use, and, as far as known,
the instrument has been generally regarded as peculiarly incon-
stant and unreliable in its indications.
Having in his possession a Tasimeter constructed after the
model of that described in the sande referred to above, the

be ae obieen tae on account of the itapoesibilty of
exactly reproducing a given pressure. This apse of the
instrument was therefore entirely removed, and an arrangement

made by means of which any definite pressure might be quickly

44 T. C. Mendenhall—Kdison’s Tasimeter.

brought to bear upon the disk or removed from it. A slender
brass rod was placed in a vertical position upon the center of the
upper contact piece, the upper end of which rested lightly in a
small conical cavity made on the under side of the scale-pan of
a balance. The weight was suspended above by a fine thread
passing over a pulley, so that by raising or lowering it the
pressure was applied or removed as was desired. The carbon
disk was made one of the branches of a Wheatstone’s Bridge
as described by Mr. Edison. In lowering the weight care was
taken to make the movement slow enough to avoid any shock
to the disk. When the apparatus stood with the weight lifted,
the adjustment of the galvanometer to the zero was made with-
out any difficulty, the resistance of the disk appearing to be
_ quite constant. en the pressure was applied, however, the
adjustment became very troublesome, and after a few trials it
was discovered that time was a very important element in the
problem. The addition of a pressure of fifty grams reduced
the resistance to nearly one fourth of what it was in its normal
condition instantly, but it was found that the minimum was not
reached at once. The resistance continued to fall during the
first two or three minutes with considerable rapidity and after
that more slowly. A series of experiments was accordingly
undertaken for the investigation of this phenomenon. After a
number of trials, the bridge was adjusted so that when the key
was closed simultaneously with the application of the pressure
the needle of the galvanometer would remain momentarily at
zero, for the instantaneous effect of this pressure seemed to be
quite constant. In a few seconds, however, the needle began to
move, showing that the resistance was diminishing. With this
constantly decreasing resistance it was, of course, difficult to ob-
tain balances which were very accurate, but generally one could
be obtained within a minute after the application of the pressure,
and another a minute or two later, and so on. The operation
was repeated many times, and a number of points for the curve
shown below were obtained, which, though necessarily some-
what scattering, were so situated as to render its general form
almost certain. In almost every instance immediately after the
removal of the pressure, the normal resistance was again meas-
ured, and it was found that while time was necessary for the
resistance to reach a minimum after the application of the
pressure, the disk seemed to recover its maximum normal
resistance instantly upon its removal.

\fter the construction of the curve showing the relation
between time and resistance, and on the supposition that it
_ correctly represents that relation, it was easy to know what the
adjustment of the bridge should be at the end of any given
_ time, and thus the difficulty of that adjustment disappeared.

reap en Pe ee

Resistance.

de C. Mendenhall—Edison’s Tasimeter. 45

When tested in this way, the curve was found to be correct
within the errors of experiment. The following table exhibits
the resistances after various times, the zmstantaneous resistance
50

3°00 10m. 20m. 30m. 40m. 50m. 60m. 70m

Time.
Curve showing the relation between Resistance and Time.
being called 100. The resistance before the addition of the

pressure of 50 grams was 11°67 ohms, which immediately fell
to 8°52 ohms upon the application of the weight.

Time in Minutes, Resistance. Time in Minutes, Resistance.
0 .
Mi 96°6 20
2 95°4 25 92°3
3 94°9 30
+ 94°5 35 92°0
5 94:2 40 91°8
6 93°9 50 91°5
7 93°7 60 91°2
8 93°6 70 90°9
9 93°4 80 90°8

10 93°3 90 90°7
a= 93°1

It will be seen that the resistance falls a little more than

46 T. C. Mendenhall—Edison’s Tasimeter.

The resistance before the application of the pressure was 11°08
ohms. pon applying the pressure it immediately fell to 2°34
ohms. In two hours this had been reduced to 2°10 ohms, and
at the end of a week it was 1.93 ohms. Thus in two hours it
was reduced by about ten per cent, and after one week it was
- again about ten per cent lower.

It appears, therefore, that the element of time plays an impor-
tant part in the phenomena exhibited by the carbon disk, an
it seems highly probable that this has been one of the principal
causes, if not the chief cause, contributing to the inconstancy
and unreliability of the indications of the Tasimeter. e
experiments made thus far indicate a fair degree of constancy
in its results when this factor is considered. The writer hopes
to be able to make further examination concerning the extent
to which all of the conditions necessary to its use may be
controlled.

late and a flat disk nearly four times, to say nothing of the
‘recovery’ which takes place so promptly upon the removal
of the pressure.

$A 5s pe es eee

A. A. Young—Sands of the Potsdam Sandstone. 47

Art. V.—Further observations on the ei hiseta Sanis cA the
Potsdam Sandstone of Wisconsin; by Rev. A. A. You

A BRIEF note on the crystallized sands of the Potsdam sand-
stone quarried at New Lisbon and the St. Peter’s sandstone of
Wisconsin is published on page 257 of the last volume of this
Journal. A fuller account of the observations which I have
made is here given.

The quarries near New Lisbon affording the sands described
are situated five miles north of the place. The rock is a hard,
compact and eben! very fine-grained sandstone. Some slabs

carry excellent ripple- marks and fossil tracks. The rock
sparkles ‘lina in the sunlight through the reflection from
innu e but minute faces of crystals. When broken up

and oisnared for the microscope, nearly all the grains show, at
least on some part of their surface, a portion of an edge, or face,
or an apex of a crysta

The most finished crystals occur

sand varies from Zr to ike of an inch
in longer diameter. Some of the small

sided pyramid, but others have por-
mens of the cegieasyer ea prism of —

at the larger a cluster of minuter pyramids. The larger part
of the grains have many irre Heeger of form, whose explana-
tion is obvious when the sand is mounted i in balsam

in the grains of sand. The rough exterior of part of the grains
appears to have sometimes come from the breaking apart of —
cohering grains. Some of these rough spots occur in the midst

of smooth faces, and are shallow six-sided pits with straight oe
sharp edges.

While dry mounting exhibits to the best advantage the crys-

talline faces, a balsam mounting, or its equivalent, discloses
b

est the interior structure and the mode of origin. Thus

48 A. A. Young—Sands of the Potsdam Sandstone.

apparently two different objects.
The greatest thickness of the crystal envelope which I have
yet measured is 004 in. Ordinarily the maximum thick-

exists, or irregularly scattered bubbles; and in others there are
planes or belts of bubbles. Aside from these are other note-
worthy enclosures, Some grains are traversed by needle-like
lines, suggestive of rutile threads in quartz, which occasionally
terminate abruptly against the inner surface of the transparent
crystalline envelope. In some grains these threads form @
parallel system, and in others they are set at all angles with one
another. Very rarely they are curved or bent. t one grain,
only 02 in. X ‘O15 in., nearly fifty such threads occur. I have
found this rutile-like structure also in the samples of the Pots-

dam sand from various horizons; in sand from the Pictured

rocks of McGregor, Iowa, and in the St. Peter’s sand.

Fo Re ae ee ee ee at
SAIS ee

a ae Ae PE eS ee ee ee

A. A. Young—Sands of the Potsdam Sandstone. 49

Enclosures of another type are transparent spaces irregular
in shape; some of these of the form paves prisms, and
others appearing to be cylindrical. One of the latter, Raetas oe

in a grain measuring ‘016 in. X ‘008 in., was ‘0045 in. x 00038
in. In another grain a tubular or prism- shaped cue liber
measuring ‘008 in. X ‘O01 in., with an enclosed brown spot ‘001

n0.. long... A on iM measuring a in. X ‘012 in. contained
eleven of these transparent cavitie

Other enclosures are colored aan yellowish, reddish, neu-
tral, or nearly black. Some are evidently cavities with colored
contents, a few hae solid contents. One of the larger measured
0045 in. x 0035 Some are of irregular contour, but the
most ae hints of pats: sides and forms. From one brown

baa 0045 in. X ‘0033 in., there extended a tube, at right

008 in. oe x ‘001 in. broad. In one grain, ‘024 in.
Se "020 in., there was one brown cavity, ‘007 in. X :006 in
with upper and lower ides parallel planes; a second similar

cavity, ‘003 in. x ‘002 in., in some positions showing a six-sided

shape; a third cavity, drab colored, ‘002 in. X ‘001 in., and five
minor ones, are plainly hexagonal. Such eclenie appear to

be common to all eee of Potsdam, and are found to some
extent in St. Pete

In two instances ne have found inclusions that were apparently
minute grains of worn quartz. One was furnished by a nearly

oval grain of sand, measuring ‘03 in. X ‘025 in., whose crystal
envelope was very thin. Embedded in this grain, at a depth

‘alell eon of sondibers The second instance occurred in a
grain nearly oval, ‘017 in. x ‘014 in. across. The enclosed grain

measured ‘0035 x 003 in. When viewed by reflected light it
was very distinct in outline; and translucent, but in a less
d.

degree than the grain in which it was embedde

ied rock, that is composed of pues bag -sand, gleams

e quarr
brilliantly in the sunlight. It may be worthy of record that

the same sparkle of minute crystals appears also in the smooth
surface of some of the fossil tracks, and in the Bid eke
many of which are preserved with admirable distinctne:

The grain of sand figured above is one of special avin
and completeness of finish, which shows well the relation of the

crystal envelope to the imprisoned nucleus with its inclusions.

Am. Jour. oo Series, VoL. XXIV, No. 139.—Juy, 1882,
4

50 G. K. Gilbert—Origin of Jointed Structure.
Art. VL—On the Origin of Jointed Structure; by G. K.
GILBERT

In the March number of this Journal, President LeConte
proposes to explain the jomted structure of the Quaternary
clays of the Great Salt Lake Desert by referring it to the same
category with certain shrinkage cracks observed in recent
Californian alluvial deposits. The cracks he describes form by

seem to imply the irregular arrangement characteristic of sun
cracks. The joints dividing the clays of the Desert have, om
the contrary, a regular arrangement. In describing them in
the January number of the Journal, I spoke of a drainage
system to which they give rise, and said that the blocks
marked out by that system are ‘rudely rectangular,” but the _
adjective rude could not with propriety be applied to the blocks —
cut out by the joints, for these are well-defined parallelograms.
The joints are definitely divided into two systems, one nearly
at right angles to the other, and within each system they are
parallel. For this reason I am led to regard the proposed ex-
planation as insufficient.

Vhen a moist clay stratum shrinks by drying, its fracture
is resisted, first, by its internal cohesion, and second, by its
adhesion to that on which it rests. The average size of the
blocks into which it divides is determined by these two condi-
tions—the cohesion tending to make them large, the adhesion to
make them small. The forms of the blocks are determined pri-
marily by the fact that the contraction is equal in all diree-

tions, and we may conceive that each block tends to be cireu-

lar about its center of adhesion—becoming actually polygonal,
locks. The

with as many sides as there are contiguous blocks.

arrangement of the centers of adhesion follows no law, but is
thus formed that they meet but do not cross each other. I

The features characteristic of sun cracks in clay are repeated

wherever a superficial layer of any material shrinks so rapidly :

as to crack. They are illustrated by a great variety of cooling ©
and drying processes in the arts, and conspicuously by the

. *

ee Se ee ea ys

Seren eee

SNES Sait aah

IS Ee PELE ge

3

G. K. Gilbert—Origin of Jointed Structure. 51

cooling of lava beds. The system of cracks formed on the
surface of a cong gealing lava stream are carried downward as
solidification and contraction progress, and cause the rock to
be divided into a system of polygonal, prismatic blocks.

Cracks of this type are included by some writers under the
head of joints, but it will be convenient here to call them dis-
tinctively shrinkage cracks and follow Professor Dana in giving
to the word joints a more restricted meaning. The oints
which occur so generally in indurated rocks are characterized
primarily by parallelism. By means of parallelism they are
grouped in systems, and most rock-bodies are traversed by

wo or more of these systems. Their tracings at the surface:
constitute a lattice of straight lines or of lines nearly straight.
The lines of two systems cross each other without interference.
From each point of intersection lines go in four a eebig s and
the alternate lines prolongations of each other. Exce
tional points can be found in which three fee meet, but the
meeting always makes a letter T and never a letter Y—that is
o say, two of the three meeting lines always agree in direc-
tion so as to constitute a continuous line, against which the
third terminates. Usually the hammer will reveal an inchoate
joint in the prolongation of the third line. In each of these
respects joints differ from shrinkage cracks.

Joints of the same system are parallel; shrinkage cracks are
not parallel. Joints of different systems cross each other;
shrinkage cracks do not cross each other. In jointed structure
the joint is the leading feature, the block is incidental, and the
wide-spread evidence of system everywhere olen ae
that the causative force either is diffused or is extraneous.
shrinkage-crack structure the causative force is localized in he
shrinking block, and the crack is incidental.

other points of difference could be enumerated, but
enough have been adduced to show that the two series of phe-
nomena are not closely parallel. Perhaps the aiinian
hypothesis for joints should not be set aside as absolutely un-
tenable, but it certainly cannot be adopted until division planes
demonstrably due to shrinkage are ie some instance shown to
have the peculiar characters of join

If we turn, now, to the voladlin: between jointed structure
and —— cleavage, we find, to say the least, a ae rie

able, though perhapess we & certaialy know : tae t o or more

52 G. K. Gilbert—Origin of Jointed Structure.

parting planes are separated by wide interspaces, while in the
case of slaty cleavage the interspaces are small. Another
difference is exhibited by the internal structures of the blocks
separated by the division planes. In slaty structure the blocks
are themselves cleavable in the direction parallel to the planes
of division, while in typical jointed structure the blocks are

thus cleavable. These two differences are perfectly evi-

every instance as evidence of compression, and we must con-
clude that all or nearly all level-lying strata have been sub-

of systems of joints, theoretically indicates the successive, and —

not the coincident, existence of the same number of mechanical

tion.

If the theory of lateral compression were valid, and if each
epoch of compression left its record in a system of joints, it
would be reasonable to expect that the older strata would be

ere ee ea

SS see ea hr Ae ee ee ee

Ee ND Ma eee PSE, RO ON SS ee Pes oP Ee Ry
eS ee ig cies hoes

G. K. Gilbert— Origin of Jointed Structure. 53

found to contain a greater number of joint systems than the

stricting our attention to those rocks which lie nearly level,
we find that Paleozoic rocks rarely exhibit more than three or
four joint-systems and frequently only two, while the same re-
mark applies to Secondary and Tertiary rocks, and while the
Quaternary clays of the Salt Lake Basin have two systems.
n the range of my own experience the rocks freest from joints
are the massive, cross-laminated, T'riassic and Jurassic sand-
stones of the Colorado Plateaus, and these strata afford the
only localities in which I have ever observed a single joint
system. Indeed, the record of single systems of joints is so
rare that I am disposed to question my own observation and
suspect that the minimum number of coincident joint systems
is two. However this may be, it is certainly an objection to
the compression theory that, while the number of joint-systems
in level-lying formations of all ages is frequently no more
than two, it is rarely or never one.

competent writers who have treated of them have classed them
either with shrinkage cracks or with slaty cleavage, ascribing
them on one theory to mechanical pulling and on the other to

mechanical pushing. If the considerations here adduced have

weight, then neither hypothesis is satisfactory, and the problem
i$ an open one. It is certainly hard to correlate the parallelo-
pipedons into which the clays of the Salt Lake Desert are
divided with the polygonal prisms normally arising from
shrinkage ; and it is equally hard to admit that the clays have
been subjected since their deposition to coercive pressure from
two independent directions.

54 FE. Nipher—Arrangement for transmitting clock-beats.

Art. VII.— Break-cirewit arrangement for transmitting clock-beats;
by Franois EK. NIpHeEr.

{Read before the St. Louis Academy of Science, March 20th, 1882.]

A SIMPLE device for the transmission of clock-beats upon
telegraph lines has been found so satisfactory in its action, that
a description is here given for the benefit of any to whom it
may be of service. The break-piece, which is represented in
the cut, is best attached to the lower end, p, of the pendulum.
It consists of a small brass bar which is screwed to the end of
the pendulum rod, and set with a “jam nut” below. ‘Two
shaped strips of brass (u) are slipped around the vertical sides
of the bar, to which they are clamped by bolts. The U strips
are slotted to admit of lateral] adjustment, asshown. Stiff strips

of brass (s) are soldered to the bottoms of the U pieces, and
carry the two blades B which terminate below in platinum
sheets p. It is evident that the adjustment of the slotted U
pieces enables one to adjust the width of the gap between the
blades B. For telegraphic transmission, where the signals are
repeated, with a pendulum vibrating so that the amplitude
chord is 2 inches, the interval between the blades should be
about 7; inch, while for chronographiec work it should be some-
what smaller.

The mercury is, as is usual, contained in the hollow screw ¢;
which is carried by the bed plate 6. The screw c is tipped
with a cylinder of wood or vulcanized fiber, and the mercury
cavity terminates at the top in a Jong, narrow slot, at right
angles to the plane of vibration.

This break is now in daily use by Professor Pritchett at the
Observatory of Washington University, and the clock-beats are
_ sent over something like ten thousand miles of wire. Arrange
ments now pending will increase the number of miles of wire
to 28 or 30 thousand, |

A
;

4
:

J. M. Clarke— Opustacean from the Devonian. 55
Art. VIUL—(Qirriped Crustacean from the Devonian; by JOHN
M. CLARKE.

THE genus Plumulites was erected by Barrande to cover
certain fossils regarded by him as the capitulum plates of

sessile Cirripeds and the name has been so interpreted as to

cover the genus Zurrilepis, proposed by Woodward (Quart.

Jour. Geol. Soc, 1865) for a form which he regarded as bearing

a scaly peduncle, the latter name having priority in time but
not sufficiently carefully defined to entitle it to stand. Bar-
rande, in regarding his specimens as all capitulum plates and
not the scales of the peduncle, has based his conclusions upon
the external markings of the plates rather than upon any such
variation in shape and size as we should expect to find in the
‘ecapitulum plates of a Lepadoid, and though his conclusions are

his

This species, Plumulites Devonicus, is from the base of the
Hamilton shales at various localities in the towns of Canandai-
gua and Hopewell, Ontario Co., N. Y., and is interesting in
being the first representative of fossil barnacles from the
Devonian, Barrande’s species of Plumulites and Anatifopsis, as
well as the Turrilepis of Woodward being from the Upper
and Lower Silurian and Plumulites Jamesi (Hall & Whitt, Pal.
‘Ohio, vol. ii), from the Hudson River group.

Plumulites Devonicus.—Seutum (2). Length 4™™, width at
base 13™. Outline elongate sub-triangular or feather-like.

56 Scientific Intelligence.

A curving median elevation rans from apex to base, growing
more marked with each younger accretion to the v alve. Lines
of growth strongly marked. Nucleus apical. Latus(?), Length
24™m width 2™", round-triangular. Lines of growth strong; no.
median ridge; nucleus sub-apical.

Since this note was eh in type I have received from Mr. R. P.
Whitfield a copy of a er by him (‘Descriptions of new species
of Fossils from Ohio”), read before the New York Academy of
Sciences and bearing the date of March, 1882. In this paper the
identification of this genus Plumulites i is ar ots in the Huron
(Genesee and Portage) shales, and a new s s Pl. Newberryt
described. Mr, Whitfield has, however, Pe) [7 the author his
reason for feeling some doubt as to the advisability of referring
his forms to this genus as they present considerable variation

acters in comm

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.

1. On the Te ANS tat of Ozone. Pov pema has stud~
He fin

ied with care the absorption-spectrum of ozo e finds it
exceedingly characteristi, so much so that rs serves for the

r chemical properties. By its means he has investigated the
Ese poriton of ozone by heat, the formation of ozone when
carbon dioxide is subjected to the electric discharge, she produc-
tion of pernitric oxide when oxygen and nitrogen are electrised,

and other similar phenomena. The spectroscope used had two

prisms, only one of which might be employed if desired. The

ozonized oxygen w d in a tube 45 ers long,
and was ared under atmospheric pressure and os
Eleven bands were observed in the spectrum, their wave-lengths

being as follows: (1) 628°5, (2) 609:5-593°5, ’(3) 577°0-560°0, .
547°0-544°5, (5) 535°0-527°0, (6) 508°5-502- 0, (7) 492°5-491°0, af

a 5-479-0, (9) 470°0-468°5, (10) 464°5-460°0, (11) 444-0. The:

band was observed only twice and this where the ozone had
been prepared with great care and was examined in a lon tube.
The second band is the most easily visible of all. It contains a
darker portion near its center, from 603°5 to 597-0. hird

band appears much darker in the region near D, the maximum aS

t
being at 573°5. The other bands are alike in intensity and are

nebulous on their edges. Photographs show absorption of the
more refrangible rays but no new bands. By no method tried

ete

Chemistry and Physics. 57

could any of the bands be resolved into lines. As the eee
and the density of the gaseous layer increase, the bands inc
in width and intensity and new ones make their appUnbanee’ a.
fact observed with nitrogen retronde by Brewster. The first
bands which appear in the spectrum of ozone are 2 and 3. Then
come 5, 6 and 8, and finally 10 and 11. Only in rare cases are 4,
9 see n, and 1 is extr emely rare. Lowering of the tempera-
aie also deepens the color of the gas and increases the number
and intensity of the bands. The blue liquid, obtained when a
ixture of ozone and carbon dioxide is compressed, gives an
absorption-spectrum essentially similar, showing both the absorp-
tion bands near the solar line D.—C. Re xciv, , 858, March, 1882.

2. On the Liquefaction of Ozone.—When a highly condensed
mixture of oxygen and ozone is suddenly expanded a dense mis
appears; and from the character of this mist and the cireum-

F d

now succeeded in obtaining iy mg tao ozone. By means of a
Cailletet’s apparatus a mixture of oxygen and ozone was com-
pressed to 125 atmospheres. The glass ates heparin the gas

was recurved at its extremity so as to be immersed in auc uid

ascending yon tion me t
cooler Hail 1on shows 6 olor. On sudden expansion, the

utes under a pressure of 75 atmospheres and its evaporation was
not very rapid even when the pressure in the tube reached that
of the atmosphere without.— C. R., xciv, 1249, May, 18 ie

3. On Nitrogen Sulphide. — Brrtueior and ore ware
examined nitrogen Pah eee with a view to determine the heat of
its formation. It is a beautiful, well-defined crystallized weay
having the formula NS, corresponding to the dioxide N,O,. It
is produced by the action of NEL). gas on calphutous chloride
according to the reaction: (NH,), + (S,Cl,),; =(NH,Cl), +
N,5,+(8,),. It is permanent in * air, detonates with violence

under the hammer, Ae deflagrates at 207°. Its density at 15° is
2-22, The heat of detonation is: N,S, solid = N, + 8, solid, at
constant v olame +64:4 calories. The heat of formation is there-
fore negative: N, +S,=N,8, solid — 644 calories. This

58 Scientific Intelligence.

be furnished by some auxiliary reaction. These constituents
should therefore be in the nascent state, as = used to be called;

, 11, xxxvii, 388, May 2.
‘ Ge pos oxide.—W hen Geol precautions | are not
taken to avoid the presence my nitrogen in the oxygen submitted

given the name pernitric oxide, CnHappvis has cooae the
= aise tae of this new oxide and finds it to consist of eight absorp-
on bands. Since ozone is also present sabe w 6 , its bands are

init ozone ban

spectrum shows fine black lines in addition, The following bands
were observed, the tube being two meters long: (1) 668°0-665°0,
(2) 639-0, (3) 632-0-628°0, () 628- 0-035 0, (5) 617-0, (6) 606-0,
(7) 598°0, (8) 588°5-590°0. The lines 1 and 4 are the sharpest
and the most intense ; they are ene the most characteristic
and may be seen in a tube a decimeter long. Line 3 is gray an

middle portion. They appear at the same time as band 8, which
is superposed on D. These bands require a tube 1°5 meters long.
Lines 2 and 4 are very fine and are seen when the length of the
sein is at least 2 meters

second paper Havrerevinie and sso aba’ give the con-
ditions of the formation of pernitric oxide. Like ozone the action

corresponding to any given temperature being fixed he dimi-
ution of volume which the gaseous mixture saad ey
over there is a retrograde effect here as with ozo s soon as

into nitrogen tetroxide and oxygen, shown by a sudden diminu-
tion of pressure and an intense red color. The heat thus set free
estroys at the same time the ozone form If the nitrogen

d e e ti
tetroxide be present in certain proportions, neither ozone nor
_pernitric oxide is reproduced by the discharge, if the tension be

x

Chemistry and Physics. 59

cone able. At very feeble tensions, however, this re-formation
takes place. Experiments made for the purpose showed that the
maximum yield of pernitric oxide was, at 15° and 600mm., about

cent, and that, independently of the propor ore "of the
gaseous mixture. Low ering the temperature from 25° to 5°
increased the product by one- quarter. In preparing ae
oxide then, it is necessary to watch the progress of the conversion
carefully so as to obtain the ES quantity and avoid ice
dation. This is best done by of the spectroscope. In the
author’s apparatus me chaveaenatle lines of pernitric acid appear
at the ee ot about an hour.

On exposing the electrised mixture to a cold of —23°, crystals
were obtained, but they were very volatile and in too small quan-
tity for examination. The gaseous mixture then exposed to

concentrated sulphuric acid. Knowi ng its initial and the final
composition, that of the absorbed portion was calculated. The
following mixtures were electrised from an hour to an has and a
Peg at a temperature of 4° to 16°. Nitaose 2 vols., oxygen
5°22, 5°56, 5°94, 6°18, 6°70, 7°63, 7 "46, 9°51. The gas absorbed
preter to 2 vols. nitrogen, 6°3, 6°2, 6°0, 6°5, 6°6, 6-2, 6°6 vols.
oxygen. The latter ratio remains sensibly constant though the
ormer varies widely. The mean visti of nitrogen and oxygen
: : 6 j

> Oo

traction which paaesiere 4 its formation. For this purpose the
numerical value of the nent ne t the time when the electric

it contains no ozone. Both these aditeet methods agree in
assigning to pierhitrto oxide the formula N,O,. Further re-
searches mba vl are in progress.—C. &. | xciv, 946, 1111, 1306,
April, May

5. O ee Grmalindion of rage ee? Glucose from n
Aqueous Solution —Anh 1ydrous glucose has hitherto been ob-
— on ers sap om a oholic solutions, methyl alcohol being the
more recently Breur has fou ind that Nast vavased

ments of the soli
solution a fragment of the anhydrous glucose. The next morning
he was surpris ised to observe that the mass had erystallized, but
with an appearance quite —- from that ordinarily seen. By

60 Scientific Intelligence.

and the large use it will have in replacing loaf sugar made from
the cane and the beet, all ensure its rapid introduction. The
author estimates its sweetening power as compared with cane sugar
as 1 hem. Ges., xv, 1104, May, 1882. G. F. B.
6. On the Transformation of Carbonyl Sulphide into Urea.—
BertTHELor pointed out some time ago the fact that carbonyl
sulphide and ammonia gas form, by their combination, oxysulpho-
carbamate of ammonium, transformable into urea by the simple
elimination of hydrogen sulphide :
COS(NH,),=H,S+CH,N,0.
In presence of metallic oxides this reaction is very sharp. He
now finds that by simple evaporation of the aqueous solution of

this salt, at a moderately high temperature, there is obtained a

COS(NH,),=H,0+(CH,N,S.
This formation of both bodies is due either to the existence of two
isomeric oxysulphocarbamates, or to two simultaneous reactions
resulting from the multiplicity of the points of attack of a single
one.— C, -» civ, 1069, April, 1882. 3. F. B.
7. Note on the Littrow form of Spectroscope ; by Professor c,.
F. Brackert, Princeton, N. J. (Communicated.)—In the em-

as well as those of convenience, it was decided to attempt the
construction of one which should give great dispersion, on account
r

__ lowing specifications: the lens to be of about eight feet focal length;
____ the surface of the flint member of the combination looking towards
the slit to have a radius of curvature equal to the focal length of

EI SN ie eat Si Ste ee Me ey CO a

oat

a

pes Sant, ee a

Chemistry and — 61

same radius as the contiguous surface of the crown, in order that
the two may be joined with balsam, thus avoiding, as emer as
possible, reflection at these surfaces ; ‘the r remaining surface to be
determined by the conditions of focal length and the a NN of
ania and chromatic aberratio

se conditions having been fulfilled by the makers, notwith-
anaing the most careful blackening of the tube and the use of dia-
phragms, Wi amount of light coming back to the eye from the lens
was found to be almost fatal to the usefulness of the instrument.
But as all the surfaces of the leus, except that nearest to the slit, are
of necessity curves of short radius, the light which can reach the

1 screen pe all annoyance from this cause
The loss of light which the small screen cuts off from falling on
t ing is very trifling,—not to compared, in Nee with

equal to that which would be secured by one having the usual
bei foie tan with telescope and collimator mounted separately.
a Rutherfurd grating of 17,000 lines to the inch, it can
Ret hee many of the Fraunhofer lines, which the maps of Kirch-
hoff and Angstrém lay down as single, to be composite.
Princeton, May 12, 3882.
8. Relation between galvanic polarization and the surface
of mereur. bro investigators have occupied them-
‘ :

of apparatus was sophead ‘b means of which the smeeouns sur-
face was bounded by a minimum surface of glass. The surface of

62 Scientific Intelligence.

the Berlin chabhee Laboratory—in the midst of jars and tre-
mors from the neighboring —— rfered seriously with the
work. It was found that with different fluids and with different
values of potential, the surface cen. had a certain maximum

value—which subsided to a lower value—thus confirming the re-
sult of Quincke that a strong negative charge on the quicksilver
resulted in a diminution of its surface tension. A careful study

The article of Konig contains some remarks of Helm-
alts upon the electrical work done at the surface of separation
between liquids, which results in diminishing the ae tension.
—Annalen der Physik und Chemie, No. 5, 1882, pp. 1-38.

9. The change of color tones of spectrum colors and pignientl
with decreasing light.—Certain observers, among whom is Dr. A.
Cuoptn, have maintained that there is a close ‘analogy between
the colors of pigments and the colors of the spectrum. The
latter maintained that with diminution of light yellow, orange
and green impress the eye more than blue and violet. On the
other hand Purkinje states that pigments with shia ae light
become colorless, and that blue continued to impress mo Dove
noticed in a picture gallery that blue could be puteeieed with in-
sufficient illumination better than red. EE, Albert examines
the subject anew and comes to the following conclusions: The
analogy between the Serger in spectral colors and in pigments

oes N ist. Fro e change of a homogeneous colur no

iffer
diverse great iessening of scuairanied in this wise, that for gage
of smaller wave lengths, in whatever part of the spectrum they
ae ng; | it dec ran more slowly than for waves of - seer wave

126-16
10, fees cific resistance of Mercury.—A new determination ‘of ‘the
oo between th . unit and the Siemens mercury unit

as been made by Lord mexiesh and Mrs, H. Sidgwick.
petgatien to Siemens’ experim

1 mercury wih sibab tas B. - ais and according to Mat-
thiessen and

: : gnstenry sinik = 6° 9619 B. A. units, Lord Rayleigh finds

1 mercury unit = 0°95418 B. A. units.

Chemistry and Physics. 63

Combining nos Levigrs of the determination of the mereury unit
with the value of the B. A. unit obtained by the same experi-
vet the following value results:

ercury . 94130109 C. G. S.— Proceedings Royat
Society, Ma 4

Ee eg ‘of 1882.—The following collective note of the
resus obtained was agreed upon by Lockyer, Tacchini and
Thollon: “ Photographs of the corona and of its complete spec-
a were obtained by Schuster on Abney’s plates, H and K
being the most intense lines. A study of the end of the spectrum,
of the corona and prominences was made by Tacchini. A comet
which was very near the sun, and a very striking object, was

were observed, before and after totality, of different heights, by
Lockyer, and with intensities differing from the Fraunhofer lines
by Lockyer and Trépied. n absolute determination of the
tes ;

observed in eg th ete of the corona by Tholion, and were
photographed by Schuster. Hydrogen and coronal lines studied
in grating spectroscope by Paiseux, and in direct-vision prism by

ollon. Rings observed with grating by Lockyer, first, second

in 1878, and cinta ed ae in 1871. Intensity of absorption
observed in group A, at the edge of the moon, by Trépied and
Thollon.”— Nature, June ats 1882. J. =

12. Diffraction gratings.— Professor H. A. Rowianp, in a
liminary notice contained in the Johns Hopkins Univ orveity
Circular, No, 16, gives some results of a new dividing engine.
Owing to a new method of manufacture a very perfect screw was
obtained, and by means of this, diffraction gratings with 43,000
lines to the inch were obtained. Surfaces 64x44 inches can be
ruled by the machine. The screw is practically perfect and has
been tested to s5j555 of an inch without showing any apprecia-
ble error. A flat grating linch square with 43,000 lines to the
inch divides the 1 474 line in shi first spectrum. A flat grating
234 inches, with 14 ,438 lines to the inch, shows the Z line, icf
length 8,240, and as much below the A line as iar B line i
above the A line. Line e al led cave wiiaiee:

of the telescopic arrangements of a spectroscope. A concave
grating 3X54 inches, 17 feet radius of curvature, 28,876 lines to
the inch, showed more in the first spectrum than was ever seen
before. It divides 1 ,474 and E very nciis and shows Neo
stronger component o f Angstrom 5,275 dou

13. On the methods Jor calibrating iansenewet by M. Tai
sEN, Berlin, Germany. (Communicated.)—I take this opportunity
to call attention to an inaccuracy in two papers recently published

64 Scientific Intelligence.

in this Journal by Mr. Russell (xxi, 373) and by Mr. Holman
(xxiii, 278). In them reference is made to the papers of mine in
Carl’s Rep., xv, 285 (and 677) and in the Zeitschr. d. oesterr.

. f. Meteor., xiv, 426 as simply giving Neumann’s method for
calibrating thermometers. This method is given, in the papers

amplifications and improvements of it by myself, which were

importance.

In Holman’s paper it is asserted that some of the advantages of
Neumann’s method are offset by the considerable error arising
from taking readings with an end of the thread apparently just at
the line of the scale. This method of taking readings, often ree-
ommended it is true, is by no means an essential part of Neumann’s
method nor was it adopted by myself; that will be seen from the
examples given in the papers quoted. In the thermometers used
in Germany it is not necessary to avoid particularly the coinci-
dence of top and line, since they allow the top of the mercury to
be seen before the lines of the scale,

I shall venture to add some remarks on the methods of calibrat-
ing thermometers, a matter too often disregarded, and about which
there seems now to be some interest felt in this country. I think
I am acquainted with all the important and many of the unim-
portant papers on this subject, but I have never found a method

nary cases. 3. The methods based on Neumann’s principles
requiring a great number of observations but giving the best
results with little trouble.

y employing the method of least squares instead of No. 3 (a
method which I may call Hansen’s method, though Hansen pro-
posed it for another matter) the labor of calculation is increased
rather more than the accuracy; moreover, there is not always
occasion for employing this method and it is not easy for every-
body to be so acquainted with it as to be always ready to employ it.

To the famous method of Bessel and its modification by Oettin-
gen, to-day only a historical value can be attributed.

II. GeoLtogy AND MINERALOGY. ¥

1, Abstract of a Report upon the Geology and Mining Indus-
try of Leadville, Colorado; by 8. F. Ticicass, Gadiopiat in-charee
Rocky Mountain Division U. S. Geological Survey. 290 pp. 4to,
with two colored plates. Washington, 1882. Extr. from Ann.
Rep. Director Geol. Surv. of 1881.—The subject of the Report of
which an abstract is here given is one of great interest, and the

aS Ce ee ee ae eee ee ee ye Se

Geology and Mineralogy. 65

‘character of it, as the abstract shows, is every way calculated to
satisfy the reader. It is to opographical, lithological, geological
nd economical in its range, and enters into full de tails under eac

s.
Atlas of fourteen plates. The cue, by the author, Mr.
Emmons, syed a general review of the whole subject, per from it
we make out the following brief sketch.
In the latitude of Leadville, 39° 15’, the Rocky Monat chain
includes (1) the Front or Colorado Range on the east; (2) the
ek tpt or Park Range with cane over 14, 000 feet , next west—

: een Big Ev
California Gulches at the base of Carbonate Hill.” The first dis-
covery of ore was made in 1860, In 1877 its population was less
‘than 200, its opened mines three, and there were surface scratch-
ings; in 1880 it was a city of 15,000 inhabitants, and its produc-
ing mines numbered over thirt

The Paleozoic rocks of the Mosquito Range have a thickness of
4050 to 5600 feet and are more or less folded and faulted. They

1000 to 1500 at top (Upper Measures), with grits (Weber grits),
sandstones and shales, partly calcareous, between e Kan
section on the Colorado, thé Paleozoic has about a same thick.
ness (85 feet of it refer red to the Permian) ; but in the Wahsatch
‘section cited, the thickness is 30,000 feet, 12,000 referred to the

ambrian, 3400 to the Silurian‘and De evonian, 15,060 to the Car-
boniferous and 650 to the Permian.

Besides these there are eruptive descr Ba A nae and diorytes
ethers Mesozoic in age. The common kind is the white por-
phyry, an evenly granular rock, souiniatiag of quasi (70 per cent),
feldspar (the latter occasionally in small rectangular crystals),
black mica or biotite, and some muscovite. The rock is partly
decomposed, and the muscovite “is the result of the decomposition
of the feldapar ” Other kinds of porphyry, more granite-like, con-
‘sist of quartz, two feldspars and biotite, and in one variety horn-
blende is present. The dioryte is a porpbyritic phd tert deren
variety. The white porphyry occurs to the south of a -and-
west line through Leadville, and the other kind north ‘of chi ine.
The main sheet of the former which lies upon the surface of the
blue limestone forms, at the 4-mile Creek where is its Baer on
vent, the larger portion of a hill 2000 feet high, and thence spreads
southward reaching nearly to Buffalo Pes aks, On Iron and Car-
bonate hills it has a possible thickness of over 1000 feet; but
_ Am. Jour. sy .—THIRD Serigs, Vout. XXIV, No. 139.—Juy, 1882,

5

66 Scientific Intelligence.

ngle section coy “teen pater many
he

Pad of the Carboniferous.” e various shéete of porpbyry form
an integral part of the sedimentary series; they never reached
the surface, but were spread out and cooled between deep-lying |
strata—lacco ith-like, before the - ahaterea iba bap epoch at the

close of the Cretaceous, and therefore before the associated strata.

Sawatch Range on the west, and of the Front Range on the
and their areas must hav e been great islands i in the Paleozoic ae

ih leat shallow waters.”

Of later formations, the region contains only the Quaternary 5
what have existed of Mesozoic strata —probably not less than
19,000 feet—having been removed by erosion and abrasion.

‘Several a yues occur, the more prominent of which have the
strike of the rocks, or about N. 60° W. and the upthrow on the
east side ; and "of these, the Mosquito fault, west of the main ¢ crest

panes he Blue Gael dae cine occasionally also underneath the
orphyey | in the White or Si as limestone, and the Cam-
brian quartayte. The ore deposits penetrate into the limestone

products le cad carbonate, “il ide, and, less abundant
lead sulphate or anglesite pyromorphite, minium, zine blende
and calamine angue, or material mixed with or bolting the

ore, consists of Wydrated iron oxides or ma anganese oxides, silica _
and clay, all secondary products, the clay coming from the decom-_
posed porphyry. he cavities in the ee were made by the
eroding solutions which introduce the ores; the action commenced
at the top of the shat oes shia ‘sheet of porph Ys —
se this pine) wo orked « ward into the Wnpwetine The m

figs eit as Nhs. 1

Geology and Mineralogy. 67

erally of Ali stae or dolomite but sometimes also of siliceous
rocks.” Dike s intersecting the ore-bearing ormation “seem to
tavor the concentration of rich ore-bodies or bonanzas in their
psiitty ;’” but the planes of faults afford no deposits of import-
ance, and evidently for the — that “their origin is later than
that of the original ore-deposits.” Thus the intrusion of the i igne-
ous sheets preceded the He of the ore-deposits and ot “the
cavities containing them; and the production of the ores antedated
the era of great distur bands which closed the ok period or the
Cretaceous, and which has continued to be followed by feeble
movements until the present time, even since the opening, accord-
ing to some sgutoree of the Leadville mi
Mr. Emmons’s abstract of his eport is, eR as all his geological
ee clear and pr ecise in style, and of the te t kind of science —

deposlen in northern Alaska depends on the identification by Dr.
trata from Norton Sound and
)

same as the brown marine sandstones of the vicinity of San Fran-
cisco and Monterey. They are not of course continuous, but are

California sandstones lled Miocene, though they cones
numerous shells chiefly of still-living mollusks. The shells in

northern strata are not characteristic, and belong to Crepi dul,
Mytilus, Ostrea, and some indeterminate Gasteropods, all extinct
species as far as ‘T have noticed, except in one deposit on St. Paul
dap which may be of later ides These brown caneess

a very much greater and ext sendin the at Gaye
Tolstoi on Norton Ae ‘north of St. Michael's (which is later

East and West Section at the Shumagin Islands.

(7D

te 3 6 8 4
A B 8 DF FR G pS Gee J me BOR Oe

1. Tertiary; 2. Lavas; 3. Metamorphic; 4. Granite.

A. West peninsula of Unga Island. I. Twin

B. Unga North Harbor, J. Specta me

C. East penis —* of Unga Sound. K. Big Koniu

D. Popoff § L. Little sateen seni Strait.
E. Popoff Is vas oi. M. Little Koniushi Islan

F. Strait beach tey fine and Nagai. N. Twelve- trait,

R. The submari QO. Sim s

G. Island of fie ai. P. Off shore fishing ground.

H. Strait east of Nagai. 8.T. -level,

68 Scientific ss yy eta

basaltic rock, a formation appearing low down on the Yukon also),
They are also the top-rock at the Shumagin Islands, where we
have a very pretty section down to the Triassic or Jurassic certo
which are the base rock of the country nearly every w
1) The marine brown sandstone with Crepidula, ime verte-
bre, oysters, and fossil ee Ww
(2) Co nglomerates brown and iron-stained with thin sandy
layers bearing Sequoia and ouhen vegetable remains.

3) Bluish ‘sandy slates and shales with Platanus leaves inter-
stratified with conglomerates and layers of pers wood and
eae beds. (This is the Miocene of Newberry a na

ent much oo kan atl
is) 8 yenites (or granites without m
chia all the later strata (1-4) ve pulne ejections of basaltic

The sketch of the Shumagin section, herewith sent, was made
irregular shapes, but domes o pi comapee ler ae ” on Richtho-

fossil-bearing, with occasional patches (as in a. ae =
lava and basalt of — origin. Northward we hav

ground-ice forma en here and there by hills “of Paleevols
age with characteristic ‘fossils and coal of good qu ualit
Oo Penin a we have fossiliferous strata Tron the Jura

coast, nor much north of Nulato on - Yukon. Leaving them

and going east on the river, we com upon quartzites and con-
glo fae ia and strike the syenite at ‘the junction of the Yukon
and Tan Rivers; farther eastward the region is probably

a submergence there I do not quite clearly see. There was a de-
pression farther east, of course, and farther south, but a¢ and
near the straits it seems more doubiful.
3. Origin of Jointed Structure ; by J. H. Krnanan. (From
letter to J. D. Dana, — Geological ee of Ireland, April
' : i

Marl Deposits” are of considerable interest to me. For years

Geology and Mineralogy. 69

have believed that many geen give much less credit to
“shrinkage fissures” than they are entitled to. This cause is

oO

Saabs , places i in the county of Clare there are, under the basal
and shales, peosiue siliceous

or calcareous rocks that send wise dykes into the underlying

Cambro-Silurian rocks; and these dykes and other intrusions, as

stated in the memoirs, I believe to have filled “ shrinkage fissures”

in the older rocks. Sim milarly, in the counties Mayo and Galway,

the basal bed of the Silurians (or Lower Old Red Sandstone)

any of the
“troubles” or “horses” were filled fro ck e, and anciently
were “shrinkage fissures ;” while in ane places it appears to me
any dykes of oo ” are the filling in from above of
. a shivinkswe fissu
4, American Seolagiou! Society.—The proposal to organize an
American Geological ee 0) was brought up at the last meeting
of the American Associ on, and a committee was appointed to
esata Dede Uiviea bling of it and report at the next meeting
This mittee consists Wi inchell of Minneapolis,
Sr actacté, John H. Proctor of Fran kfort, Kentucky, H.
Williams of Ithaca, N. Y., John Collett of Indianapolis, G. Cc.
i J. Davis isvi

b ‘ i >
. A. Miller, of Cincinnati, Ohio. The chief objection to it,
offered at the time of aps sal, was 8 that the Sener nee Association

American Geological Society at some central city, for monthly
meetings, might promote greatly the pr ogress of Be science, if it
should have men and money to sustain it. rey would be
il ely To in order that all memoirs offered aaa be fully
illustrat

70 Scientific Intelligence.

6. Brief Notices of some recently described minerals.—H1ErRa-
TITE—Occurs at the fumaroles of the crater of Vulcano, one of the
Liparilslands. It forms a part of stalactitic concretions of a grayish
color, generally of spongy texture, rarely compact and vitreous.
These concretions consist of very small crystals of the new min-
eral, lamella of boracie acid, and are veined with selensulphur,
arsenic sulphide, ete. An analysis of the octahedral crystals,
separated trom the aqueous solution, showed them to have the
tions also contain potassium alum, and cesium and rubidium
alum, with small quantities of thallium. The name is given from
Hiera, the Greek name of Vuleano.—Cossa in Jrans. Acad. Line.,
IL, vi, 141

GuNNISONITE—A massive substance of a deep purple color,
intimately mixed with caleite. H. about 4. G.=2°85. An analy-
sis, after the deduction of 12°75 p. ¢. of admixed calcite, yielded

aF, 74:89, CaO 11-44, SiO, 6-87, Al,O, 5-95, Na,O 0°85=100.
From the neighborhood (20 miles south) of Gunnison, Colorado.
The describers, Clarke and Perry, suggest that it may be an
alteration product of fluorite, or a mixture of that species with a
silicate, though the mineral seemed to be homogeneous.
name is only given provisionally, but it is to be regretted that it
was not withheld until the very serious doubt as to the homo-
eety of the substance under examination was decided.— Amer.

v, 140.

Uranornatiire.—Schrauf has given this name to a uranium
carbonate from Joachimsthal, partially described by Vogl, and ana-
lyzed by Lindacker (see Dana, Syst. Min., 5th ed., p. 717). Schrauf
makes the crystals, which form confused aggregates, orthorhom-
bic with an axial ratio near that of aragonite. An analysis on
0°15 gr, gave him results agreeing with those of Lindacker, viz: CO,
22°95, UO, 36°29, CaO 16°42, H,O 23:72=99°38, for which he cal-
culates the formula UC,O,+2CaCO,+10 aq. Zeitsch f. Kryst,

bl
ever, see nnecessary as the substances named are cer-
tainly not distinct species; they are Kretypuire—a set pentinous
substance coating altered erystals of ; Enopurre—

Lge : ly used by Lewis
description of philadelphite) ; Beriavurre—a chloritic substance

ee ee ee ee ce eM etre oe ee ee eG Ie

Geology and Mineralogy. 71

filling cavities opin Sie cons and serpentine near others of
the vermiculite oup ; UCHARDTITE—the so-called chrysopra-
serde from Gliserndorf Siles ia, (Syst. Min., 5th ed., p. 510, H
=21°03, not 31°03). Schrauf uses the name Paracntorrre for
these substances poe ts can be expressed by the gen-
eral formula m(AI,Si,0,,)+7(R,SiO,)+p aq; also, Prorocaio-
RITE for those corresponding to sey $10.) +7(R, SiO Jp aqg.—
Zeitsch. f. Kry 1, 321

Mocrnioie ea. CoBaLToMENITE. — The remarkable copper

(xxii, 155). Tothis new group of minerals Bertrand has added
two others from the same locality, a lead selenite and a cobalt
‘selenite. The first, digs serait (uolvufdos lead, and pnvn
moon), occurs in very thin white lamelle, with a vitreous luster
and nearly transparent; crystalline system orthorhombic, cleavage
in two directions. Affords lead oxide and selenious oxide ; some
varieties have a greenish color and contain a little copper. The
cobaltomenite is associated with the other mineral in the midst of
the selenides of lead and cobalt. It ovcurs in very minute rose-
red crystals resembling erythrite, but differing from it optically.
Associated with these minerals is another which appeared to be
pure selenium dioxide, entirely volatile.

7. Statistics of the Production of the Precious Metals in the
United States; by CLARENCE Kine. Tenth Census of the United
States, Francis A. Walker, pipiens peta: Department of the
Interior. 94 pp. 4to.--This is very carefully ree report,
covering all the divisions of eg subject connected with the pro-
duction of the precious metals in the different States yee Terri-
tories. Mr. King in his “let her of transmittal” observes that
this statistical statement is presented in advance of a report
on the production of the precious metals, because of “its immedi-

ts.
8. Supposed ret ieee remains in meteorites.—The fanciful con-
clusions of Dr. Hahn (vol. xxiii, p. 156), that meteorites of the
ia gee — cree many distinet fossil remains, have found a
supporte Dr. D. F. Weinland, Ee Esslingen. In a pee

not have beak directed by sind sie
9. oe on. the “Mineralogy Ad Missouri, by Atexanper V.

localities. It would be well if the same work could be done with
equal care for every State in the Union.— Trans, St. Louis Acad,
Sci., vol. iv, No. 3.

72 Scientific Intelligence.

Ill. BoTaNy AND ZooLoGy.

1. Characee Americane a distribute a T. F. ALLEN,
M.D. cindy >» I was issued some time 389; fase. II and HI we

e
not put on sale, but are presented by the author to —) among
vost who will contribute for the continuation of the work about.
A som ebeg of any desired species or variety, yeaperly. prepared,
Par allel with the issue of the Aixsiecate we may expect further
papers, like those recently issued, with creditable veya
in the Bulletin of the Torrey Club for April and the American
pd for May last. And at length we may have the
rican Characez” illustrated in systematic order and with
a ‘completeness of fuller knowledg
Ve

G.
einer Batoietdinpapeachichin der Phlanzenwelt ins-
Dr.

besondere der eo seit der Tertidrperiode, von

a Exeier. Part I, 1879, Part II, 1882. Leipsic (Engel-
ann).—The first part of this History of the development of the

Vv aectalite Kingdom since the Tertiary period, which is concerned

with the flora of the northern hemisphere, fills 202 octavo pages3.

the second, which treats of the southern hem at ii and the
tropical regions, fills 386 pages, including a full index.

ere are two maps, one for the Tertiary per Ga. one aia

the present spe tagetaaele of plants. . A very important work, w
we can here only announce, but which we may hope _— gre
to ia the account of whiel it well deserves.

enuUs nO in North Am rica; by Dr. Osneae En--

é e
GELMANN.—We must announce this essay, though we have not
room for an stiches of it. It is separately ieaed, in 33 pages,

8vo, from the fourth volume of the Transactions wy the St. Louis.

Academy of Science, to which it was communicated in February
last. The author, with customary acaata ein bes the history
of the genus as to this ¢ country, from the time of ’Pursh siete? found
chan he took for Isoétes lacustris in Gawens River, down to the
dato: memoir, in which he fully characterizes fifteen eck the
atest (J. Howellii) discovered in . 880, and ‘ooaaethy the m orphol-
ogy, biological oo rs, Syst matic arr it, di stribations
etc. Several of our botanists : are re nasarally a ate ‘of helping on

the science by dca some special original work. Let ein reas.

this paper as a m mode
4. Flore de la Gir onde; par A, Cravaup. Paris, Mined:
conden. Feret. a ve received the first sh of this

in 222 pages, issued in 1882, and we perceive “that it is a work of
real character. It is wholly in French, gives full descriptions,

also keys both to genera and species, and in both the more diag-

nostic characters are italicized after the manner of Koch and of

Botany and Loology. 73

Gray’s Manual. What adds to the value of the work is, first, that
the descriptions are not only drawn from the plants themselves,

stirpes, regarding them rather as the stocks of species. The more

strikin gly differentiated portions of such a group, the meets ent

of other authors, he designates as the species, and arra them

under the more generalized stirps in full-faced type. "The less

marked or subordinate forms, or So proper, bave the names
e autho

who deal with plants over wide regions may be grils to do.
There is an accompanying atlas of figures, after the manner of
Cosson’s Flora of the Environs of Daath Eight plates of this atlas.
accompany the first installment of the Flora. They illustrate
very neatly the sub-genus ers critical forms of Tens
Viola, Polygala, Cerastium G.

rn Pilze, and aera follows at four, which was recen ne
reviewed in this Journal. The greater part of hee article is
devoted to the development of Tuburcinia Trientaiis B. & Br.,
which is parasitic on Trientalis europea. Int cepsroy and ear rly
summer it forms whitish patton: on the leaves and youn g stems,

examinati
aggregated a characteristic of the genus. The author

from swollen wisn of the hype; ; but the process is soon

obscured by a growth of lateral ae which sgt are! hide the
spores in the later stages of formation. Each one of the aggre-
gated spores can germinate singly and produce a eo pelea) at
whose tip is a whorl of sporidia which usually, ps not always,
connect hon one another by a series of conjugating processes, as in
Tilletia. But Tubvreinia differs from the last named genus in that.
the i at of the ne eee whieh | is separated from t e

a
Woronin then describes the development or more gio rf arly the
germination of several species referred by different writers to

74 Scientific Intelligence.

Sorosporium, Thecaphora, Entyloma and Melanotenium.
rosporium Junci Schr., he makes the type of a new genus Tole

mmissioners in 1879 to examine the facts. Prof. Huxley has a —

Com
paper on the “Pathology of the epidemic known as the Salmon
isease” in the Proceedings of the Royal Society for March 2,

5S

ly increasing class of diseases which are caused by pa a 4

organisms. It is a contagious and infectious disease of the s

order as ringworm in the human subject, muscardine among “silk
worms, or the potato disease among plants; and, like them, is
the work of a minute fungus. In fact, the Saprolegnia, w which

is the cause of the salmon disease, is an organism in all respects —

very closely allied to the Peronospora, which is the cause of the
sorenes disease.
It

$ he
tac ok, wi rls a “‘ papyraceous slough- like substance,” which i
myeelinn or felt- like fungus; a nd the zoospores set. free are the
so e contageousness of the disease. Prof. Huxley made

paperless on the ‘transplantation of the Saprolegnie of the live 3

ing Salmon to dea
“The body of a recently, killed common house-fly was gently
rubbed two or three times over the surface of a patch of the dis-

eased skin of a salmon and was then _placed in a vessel of water, —

on the surface of which it floated in consequence of the large

nef mb get on the Disease which has recently prevailed among the Salmon in
d, Eden, and =, ae in England and Scotland.” By Messrs. Buck-

Tw
land, Walpole, or Young

See also the three vale ble communications to the “Proceedings of the Royal

Society of Edinburgh,” made by the late Mr. A. B. Stirling in 1878-79.

LE a ee ee ae ae ees, eS se ST RA Ree ewe

Botany and Loology. 75

quantity of air which a fly’s body contains. In the course of
forty-eight hours, or thereabouts, innumerable white cottony fila-
ments made their appearance, set close side by side, and radiated
from the body of the fly in all directions. As these filaments had
approximately the same length, the fly’s body thus pares in-

closed in a thick white spheroidal shroud, having a diameter of as
much as half aninch. As the filaments are specifica lly heavier
than water, they gra becky overcome the buoyancy of t

contained in the tracher of t y, and the whole mass sinks to

the bottom of the vessel. The filaments are very short when
they are first psaiawe vs and usually vege their appearance
where the integument of the fly is softest, as between the head
and thorax, upon the pints and pareesiete the rings of the ab-
domen. These filaments, in their size, their structure, and the
manner in which they give rise to zoosporangia and pan ets es, poe

d the

Saprolegnia and not an Achlya. Moreover, it is easy to obtain
evidence that the body of the fly has become Se note by spores
swept off by its surface when it was rubbe er the discased
salmon in These spores have in fact getline tel and their
hyphe have perforated the cuticle of the fly, notwithstanding its
ee density, and have then ramified outwards and in-

wards, growing at the expense of the pbperie t= supplied by the

“ Having infected dead flies vase the salmon Saprolegnia, once
from Conway and once from Tweed fish,* I was enabled to Mera
gate it from these flies to other fies, and, in this manner, to set
up a sort of garden of Saprolegnic.’

“ Whether the zoospores are serigt locomotive or not, they are
quite free when they emerge from the zoosporangia ; and, from
aiff extreme minuteness, they must be jee carried away and

probability of biloution, other nee onde e in pro-
ortion to the quantity of the growing Saprolegniy se =
vigor with which the process of spore-formation 1

hours, the result vill be the production of 40,000 zoospores in a
day, which is more than enough to ss one ripe ee to the
ney inch of twenty cubic feet alee we halve this

low stream as ‘abn on often ascend for spawuing purposes, dan-
gerous ss several days. But a large fully diseased salmon may

rene since this paper was read once more from the North Esk fish. (March
8, 1882.

76 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

have as much as two square feet of its skin thickly covered with
Saprolegnia. If we allow only 1,000 fruiting hyphe for every

river in the course of a season. ;
will be understood that the above numerical estimate of the

sake of illustration; that I do not intend to suggest that the
zoospores are evenly distributed through the water into which
hey are discharged the zoosporangia; and that allowance

salt water; and there is only one case on record of any fungus.
occurring on a fish in salt water.

TV. MisceLLangous Screntiric INTELLIGENCE.

_ 1. Bibliographie générale del Astronomie ou Catalogue méthod-
ique des ouvrages, des mémoires et des observations astronom-
iques publiés depuis Porigine de Vimprimerie jusqu’en 1880, par J

C. Houzeau et A. Lancaster. Tome second: émoires et.

les
region fascicule, columns 1548-2225. Brussels, April, 1882.—

; study of astronomy ; graph
spherical astronomy ; theoretical astronomy ; celestial mechanics;
physical astronomy; monographs on the solar system. The vol-

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 77

ume concludes with an alphabetical index of the authors whose
h

works are mentioned in this volume. It is the complete methodi-
cal catalogue of hy sie al memoirs and is indispensable to

astronomers. rst and third volumes of the Bibliographie

will contain honk at astronomical observations.

2. Life in peta: by the Rev. on Coun. 340 pp. 12mo,
New York: F. Ran ndolph & Co.)—This autobiographic
sketch of mission a and work, besides its deep interest on account
of the great successes of the author’s labors among the Hawaian
people, has a value also to science trom his various explorations of
the Hawaian volcanos. Mr. Coan has been since 1840, as the
readers of this Journal are aware, the chief source of information
with respect to the eruptions. He has made at least “a hundred”
visits to Kilauea, ie ing its phases, and has traced the courses

of its eruptions and also of those of the summit crater, one of t

latter from a height of 12,000 feet. His vivid descriptions, abe
last little over a year old, have given the world a large as of
what has hitherto been known about the movements of the two
craters. This volume will therefore always have a place among
works of original observation on volcanic aeteny ena.

Studies in Science and Religion; by G. Freperick WRriGHr,

understands well both sides of his subject—the arguments which
come from recent developments in Malena’. including their bear-
a ee n theories of evolution, and t which proceed from the
subordination of the natural to the theiatie All classes of readers
may derive profit from his able discussions with respect to evidence
from nature and Darwinism on the one side and religion or Christ-
ianity on the other. One of the later chapters is an essay on pre-

istoric man, in which known facts are briefly reviewed, and the
special facts ‘from Ameri ica; and those of the Trenton Gravel are
given with more detail, the latter largely from Mr. Wright’s
personal investigations.

4. Knight’s New Mechanical Dictionary, in four sections, large
8vo. Boston (Houghton, Mifflin & Co.) A description of tools,
instruments, machine , processes, and ox en with indexical

E Kn

L.
whose value is ony tr It gives in three polation
aggregating 2,831 pages, a very complete digest of mechanical
appliances in science and the arts. It was completed in 1876,
and the publishers now announce that the remarkable progress
which has been made caring, this time in the department of the
diastetal uses, has

under the general head, with a large number of illustra
volume will also contain a complete index to eckitienl: a

78 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

giving under each subject a list of all the articles which have
appeared from 1876 to 1880 sg aa in the pages of English and
merican technical journals. ork is to be published i in four
eeeiane of 240 PP- each, to be fondly every second month, com-
mencing with Jun
5. Remon of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution for 1880.—The Report of the Secretary, Professor Baird,
on the organization of the deg and its work and pr ogress,
in its various departments, during the year 1880, is followed by a
General Record of Scientific Progress for the year: in Astronomy

ey .

. Hawes; in Physics and Chemistry ‘by Professor G. F. Barker ;

in Botany by W.G. Farlow; in Zoology by T. Gill ; 5 and in Anthro-
pology by O. T. Mason. It also contains a paper on the Luray

tution in July, 1880; a discussion of Professor Snell’s barometric
observations by T. H. Loud; an investigation of illuminating ma-
terials by the Jate Secretar y, Professor Henry (reprinted from the
Report of the Light House Board for 1875); Synopsis of the sci-
entific writings of bas — Herschel, by E. 8. Holden and C. 8.
Hastings ; and Re eports of Astr onomical observatories.
6. The British eanciesin meets, August 23d, at Southampton,

‘ IEMENS, Esq., President ; the French Association, August
24th, at La Rochelle, M. JANSSEN, President ; and the Helvetian
Association, September 1 11th, at Linthal, in the Canton of Glaris,
Dr. F. Kenia, Presiden

OBITUARY.

Wiu.am Barton Roaers, President of the National
Academy of Sciences, and long one of the ablest of American
men of science, died suddenly at Boston, May 30, while in the
act of delivering an sit before the Massachusetts sae
of bidet of which he was the founder and t t presi-
den e occasion was the graduation exercises of the Insti-
rho Pebloscar Rogers was announced for a short address, at the

close of the exercises ; appearance was the signal for pro-
longed and enthusiastic applause which deeply moved hi e
commenced speaking with deep emotion, when suddenly he fell

lifeless to the floor without a stru
Professor oer ee = Pg Philadelphia, in 1805, and was

the second son of Dr ogers. His father was Professor
of Physics sch Chemistry at the college of William ane pris
Virginia, from 1819 to 1829, when he was succeede his son

sity of Virginia, in 1835. e discharged there with distin

guished ability the duties of the Chair of Physics, and also of

instruction in mineralogy and geology until 1853, when he
- :

osto
ture on the Rabari of force which he heard Professor Rogers
deliver at the University of Virginia in the autumn of 1835, when

nL a ears Sele

Eee” ahh as Lae ae ean 5 Gee a a ES EERE II TEL Ia yy ee ISS

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 79

the lecturer was in the prime of his manhood, at thirty years,
and had already developed those charming qualities of method
and discourse which always made. it a Pleasure to follow him,

ence and the gaara of some fannie! reports of progress, in
1842, the effort was abandoned for want of any adequate support
from the State. The materials accumulated for a final report
have never been published, but Professor Rogers united with
his brother, Henry pide! Hee geologist ‘of Poa fais
in the authorship of a orable memoir on the structure
of the Appalachians in aay pias and Virginia, "This aper
was jointly presented by the two brothers, at Boston, in the
autumn of 1842, before the session of the American Association
of Geologists and Naturalists. It excited the greatest interest

his was the first important contribution to dynamical
and structural eevey ¥ which, up to that time, had been brought
forward in this countr With it a peared, also for the first

on tn
tion of Thermal Spri n Mace with Anticlinal Axes and
Faults,” by Pralesace ‘Faln B. Rogers, was presented at the
same meeting, and both papers were published in the Transac-
tions of the Association for that year.
But probably the most important life work of Professor Rogers
was that connected with the sac crpecagier ites Institute of Technol-
ogy at Boston, an institution which owes its existence, mainly, to
his zeal and untiring industry, hirodsh eieek, in 1860, 1861, he
secured for it the support of the State and of individual founders
e wo is Pie crowned wit success, an in 1862 Professor

n 1878, upon the death of Professor Joseph Hen a, Probes
rs was elected to the presidency of the National Academ

of Sciences, the duties of which he has discharged with eminent

ability. are presided at the stated session of the cademy, in

April, of this year, at Washington, with his accustomed

hanks ia tact, sustaining the work, which is not small, wit

t wi i thi

sessions in Pe Hila eulogies upon several of the decease
members of the Academy i deaths had not been previously

In November of last year at the meeting of the Academy at

Philadelphia, President Rogers delivered a discourse in which he

80 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

reviewed with critical care some of the more important se
t

w

courses upon scientific topics that the breadth of his views, the
accuracy of his knowledge, the charm of his diction, were most
conspicuous.

His public segs before the large audiences gathered at the
Lowell Institute in Boston, on various departments of physics,
are remember vith pleasure by all who heard them in 1862,

nd subsequently. one excelled him in the neatness and

originality of his experimental demonstrations on these occa-
sions. A writer for a Boston paper rare well, on the day of his
funeral: “The hundreds of men, young a old, on whom his influ-
ence bore, think of him gene and : gictonately: All tes-
timony is alike as to the e power of his personality. He was the
creator of the Institute of Wechnolage; + the inspirer of its teachers
and pupils, His direct influence through contact has been very
great. But fortunately the value of men to their fellows is -
limited by personal acquaintance. This limitation, however,
the fate of almost every instructor. The work of teaching piles

ance of it like the voice of a pr pea and his face to glow with
a light which no one who saw it could ever forget. He stood for
loyalty to absolute truth. He gave himself to this thought with
an intensity and consecration which made it like a religion. To
hear him speak of his great idea was to realize something of the
plore of science.”

lines of research, in ysics, in Ls ae iene, and i
geology. A ist of his chemical papers, both d in
company with his brother, Rober ogers, will be found in

of his contributions to the various departments of science remains
to be compiled.

President Rogers was married, after his removal to Boston, to
the only daughter of the late J udge James Savage, of =
city, who survives him. B.

Avcustus A. Hayxs, for man " years State Aunyer ia
Sassacbnectte, the author of ‘a aay s in Chemistry and Mineralogy,
has died at the age of 76 yea

Dr. Grorce W. Hawes, Diasktor of the Mineralogical a t-

'* American Contributions to Chemistry, pp. 83-84.

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AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. |

[THIRD SERIES.]
+ &

Art. [X.—TPrtiary History of the Grand Cation District ; by
Cuarence E. Durron, Captain of Ordnance, U.S. A., 4to,
with folio atlas. U.S. Geological Survey, CLARENCE Kine,
Director. Washington, 1882.—With plate 1V.* _issestip cuscu

THE features of the Grand Cafion of the Colorado and its

)
word-pictures, besides describing its geological structure and
i - In the ec

reader on several excursions through the Grand Cafion among
the castellated and cathedral-like peaks and ridges two to five
thousands of feet in height which stand over its bottom and
project from its deeply alcoved borders; and gives explana-
tions along the way with regard to the peculiar features of the
different rocks, the water-sculpturing process, the long and
profound faults of the region, the many volcanic cones and
outflows, and the era and extent of the great erosion.
ese several topics are further discussed in separate chap-

ters, treating of the physical history and evolution of the

* This notice has been pfepared from advance sheets placed in the hands of
the writer by the author.

Am, JOUR. a Series, VoL. XXIV, No. 140.—Aveust, 1882.

1

82 Dutton—Tertiary History of Grand Cation District.

arious cations of the district, their excavation, and the origin
of a cei details.

In a previous Report on the High Plateau District of Utah,
published in 1880, Captain Dutton had described with like
fulness the country immediately north,* and the two Reports
grad really to different parts of the same great plateau area.
Between the os Reap m 40° and 40° 80’, the Great Salt Lake

comes to its southern ust east, in the same latitude, the
Wasatch Soe ‘sing in points to 18,000 feet, begin their
north-and- eae course. Farther eastward are spread out the

reaching at one place a height of 18,694 feet. To the Soe
below the parallel of 40°, the Wasatch range falls off into the
“ High Plateaus” of Southern Utah, the Wasatch, Pavant,
Awapa, Aquarius, Paunsagunt an Markdgunt plateaus, rang-
ing from 10,000 to 11,600 feet in height, which are the subject
of the former Report. These plateaus ‘have together a length
from north to south of 175 miles, with a breadth of 25 to 80
miles. yaw beds, of lacustrine origin, are widely distributed
over the summits with also extensive streams of trachytic and
basaltic ae of still later origin; and Cretaceous, Jurassic,
Triassic, Permian and Carboniferous rocks come to view suc-
cessively on descending into the intersecting gorges or valleys.

Passing south and southeast of the southernmost of these
High Plateaus, the Markagunt and the Paunsagunt, a series of
great steps commences leading own, over successive cliffs and
broad plateaus, from the Eocene table-land of the summit to,
finally, the depths of the Grand Cafion—and with the account
of this majestic “stairway” the new Report begins.

These successive steps to hag caiion, along with the plateaus
below them, cover a region on the north side of the river
averaging 75 miles in Sreadih. The plateaus which this border
area of the Grand Cajion include, beginning to the eastward,
are the Kaiparowits, Paria, Kaibab, Kanab, Uinkaret, and
Sheavwits a us.

he first step down from the Eocene of the summit is over
Cretaceous rocks, for 4000 to 5000 feet—a vast series of _
stones and shales, of pale yellow and light brown to gra
in rather brilliant in effect. The Kaiparowits plateau, ve
easternmost, is wholly Cretaceous at top, almost to the margin
of the Colorado; and similar Cretaceous mesas cover nearly
all northeastern Arizona and reach indefinitely eastward. The
second step downward is over the Jura-Trias—first a descent
of 300-500 feet over red shales with foasiliverous calcareous
layers containing Jurassic fossils; then a great stratum of

* See for a notice, vol, xx, p. 63, 1880.

Dutton—Tertiary History of Grand Cation District. 83

white sandstone, conspicuous for its cliffs and its massive
architectural projections with few horizontal lines, a marked
feature in the landscape along the Virgen. Below the “ White
_-Cliffs” come the “ Vermilion Cliffs” of the Trias, mostly 1200
‘to over 2000 feet in height, generally thin- bedded, often pre-
senting southward ‘a majestic front richly sculptured and
blazing with gorgeous colors.” The Paria plateau consists of
the Trias at top. Below the Trias, and in some parts making
the lower step of the ea stairway, lies the Permian, consist-
ing of evenly bedded y shales with thin layers ‘of lime-
stone, of deep and sigh eblbring ofan chocolate, purple,
red-brown between horizontal patches of violet, lavender and
white

Below all these, lies the Carboniferous. It is the floor of
all the plateaus above enumerated except the two eastern, the
Paria and Kaiparowits; and covers also a wide region south
-of the Colorado at the same level.

he thickness of rock passed over in descending from the
top of the Kocene of the High Plateaus to the Carboniferous is
5000 to 6000 feet. But the Eocene thickens toward the Uinta
Mountains to 4000 and 5000 feet, making the whole thickness of
the formations overlying the Carboniferous about 10,000 feet.
‘The Carboniferous has a small dip to the northward, The
overlying beds See of this dip in some degree, “il esc
at their free southern ers. The beds thin somewhat
eastward and most markedly so the Triassic in sonteeet ‘with
the Tertiary which thicken in that direction

Grand Cafion, 5000 to 6000 feet in depth, is cut out of

the Carboniferous and Sa formations, the NekRoraee
‘making 4000 to 4500 feet of the whole, and the Archze
with in some parts Silurian and Devonian strata, comet ute
‘the rest. The higher beds of the Carboniferous for 700 to
750 feet are of limestone; next below are red and gray sand-
stones and shales for 1000 to 1500 feet; and again below, for
sate feet, mostly limestones, with other sandstones under
neat

The channel of the cafion has (1) an upper portion or story
which is 4 to 5 miles wide, and about 2000 feet deep, and (2)
an inner chasm cut through the floor of the upper to a depth
-of 8000 feet or more. The lofty walls of the upper portion, —
a back 2 to 3 miles from the profounder chasm and stretch-

ng along interminably (more than 100 miles), up and down
ais stream from east to west, are wonderful in architectural
pha and add immensely to the grandeur of the landscapes.
The so-called inner chasm is not a narrow cleft with perpen-
ici walls, and a ph PR ek, of water half hid away in the

ark depths. It has nowhere a width less than its depth and

84 Dutton—Tertiary History of Grand Caron District.

is generally of much greater width ; and over part of the broad
area are crowds of mountain towers and temples, 3000 to 5500
feet in height, with combinations of amphitheatres, alcoves, but-
tresses and towers along the sides; and all is open to the sun-
light ;
“The scenic effects of the out- -cropping formations depend

greatly on the peewee bedding; but also largely on the

unequal spacing of the beds, the variations in hardness tending

to make cliffs to aha with taluses, at longer or shorter —
intervals ; and on the diversities in shade and brillianey of color-
ing. The architectural forms, though on a mountain scale, are
literally architectural, and different in type for the different
formations. We quote a few paragraphs from the descriptive
part of the Report.

the Rasen to the Permian inclus ae its own style of sculp-

counter as we descend the great stairway which leads down from
the High Plateaus. As we pass from one terrace to another the
scene is wholly changed: not only in the bolder and grander
masses which dominate the landscape, but in every detail and
accessory ; in the tone of the color-masses, in the vegetation, and
in the spirit and subjective eavaaee of the scenery. “Of these and
many strong antitheses, there is none stronger than that between
the : Fepose of the Jura and the animation of the Trias. :
he profile of the Vermilion Cliffs is very complex, thor
semteraing toa definite ped 2s and made up of simple elements.
consists of a series of vertical ledges rising tier above tier, st
above story, with Siseveniae slopes covered with talus, thro
which the beds project their “fretted edges. The stratification |
always revealed with perfect distinctness and is even emphasize
by the peculiar weathering. Northwestward of the southern

u ear the
of the series is a very heavy stratum of sandstone, which is ev:
where distinguishable from the others, is member is —
— with a thi ckn ess of about 200 feet. Iti increases W

Vien, It hak many ‘gione feature, ee yet ies elude dee

he fissures thus ite uced have been pont enlar
i otharee and down the face of every aa run t

Rie Demiead Gil aceite mG ine bee rel ein ieee a 2D es eink 4

Dutton—Tertiary History of Grand Cation District. 85

shadows of these rifts. Thev reach often from top to bottom of
the mass and penetrate deeply its recesses. Bde: this great
member forms the entablature—and west of Pepis Spring it usu-

roa

Virgen. At length they reach the sublime. e altitudes increase
until they approach 2000 feet above the plain. The wall is recessed

with large amphitheatres, buttressed with huge spurs and decora-
ted with towers and pinnacles. ere, too, for the first ae along
their westward trend, the Vermilion Cliffs send off but nd
giant buttes they verily are, rearing their asliabie ‘sommnits
into the domain of the clouds, rich with the aspiring form
Gothic type, and flinging back in red and purple the intense sun-
light a. over them.

“ As we moved northward from Short Creek, we jad frequent

opportunities to admire these cliffs and buttes.’

“In an hour’s time we reached the crest of the ae and in

uo) nd
a ce eut by narrow <p rans. The s Hane se winding

horizontal belts, strongly contrasting with each other, and the

ever-varying slope of the surface cuts across them pep enc so
that the shar ply defined belts wind about like the meee sn

map. rom right to left across the farther foreground of the 2 bie
ture stretches the i inner cafion of the Virgen, 900 0 feet in depth and
here of a ah mee th. _ Its bottom is or the miont pe un-

ing the vicid green of pear Across the cafion, aad. ra ather
more than a mile and a half beyond it, stands the central and
commanding object of the picture, the western temple, rising 4000
feet above the river. Its glorious summit was the agin we had
seen an hour before, and now the matchless beauty and maj

of its vast mass is all before us; yet it is only the Baek object
of a mighty throng of structures “wrought up to the same exalted

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mine descending its vertical walls. The to wers oie surround it
are of inferior mass and altitude, but each of them is a study of
fine form and architectural effect. They are white above, and

It is neither repetitive, nor symmetrical. But though exact sym-
metry is wanting, nature has here brought home to us the truth
that symmetry is only one of an infinite range of devices by which
beauty can be materialized.”

The illustrations of the report, both in the text and atlas, are:
admirable, and more than sustain the author’s descriptions.
Those from the drawings of Mr. Holmes are like photographs
in accuracy of detail and aerial effect. Plate IV isa reduced |
copy of a plate in the text, representing ‘‘ Vishnu’s Temple,
one of the architectural masses in the Cafion south of the
Kaibab plateau, having a height from its base of 5500 feet. For
others, and a continuation of the descriptions of this region of |
nature’s architectural marvels, the reader is referred to the
report itself.

The following are some points in the geological history of
the region which the report brings out:
hile Silurian and Devonian rocks (the latter paleontolog!-
cally identified in the Kanab Cafion by Mr. Walcott) occa-
sionally occur, the Carboniferous, for the most part, rests.
directly on the Archean. Between the Carboniferous and the
underlying Paleozoic beds there is always unconformability,
both through the greater or less dip of the latter and the ero-
sion of the surface; and the same is true through the Sierra.
country of central and western Arizona, and of Nevada and
western Utah. But from the bottom of the Carboniferous to-
the top of the Cretaceous the beds are one continuous conform-

mergence going on during its progress also, ending finally im

Dutton—Tertiary History of Grand Cation District. 87

widely-extended estuary and terrestrial conditions. The Cre-
taceous seas probably stretched across from the Gulf of Mexico
to the Pacific, with interruptions only of narrow emerged
areas—that of the Great Basin being one of these, and another
in Arizona. Between these two areas, or along the parallels of
34° and 87°, ‘‘we can now travel from the Mississippi to the
Pacific without being at any time more than fifty miles dis-

so that the Tertiary over it was laid down on the Jurassic

eds; and similar facts occur at other points indicating that
“the Cretaceous closed amid important disturbances. Still the
deposition of strata was not ended.” The depositions of Eocene

eds went forward in /resh waters until 1200 to 5,000 feet of
strata were added to the series, the facts showing that a single
lake extended from the Uinta Mountains southward over the

Pliocene a greater upheaval of 3,000 to 4,000 feet.”

The making of the great north-and-south faults of the pla-
teau region—first described by Powell—some of which extend
northward over the region of the “ High Plateaus” far toward
the Wasatch Mountains, began, according to the author, at the
close of the Miocene, and went on for some of them during the

88 Dutton—Tertiary History of Grand Cation District.

Pliocene. Among them the largest is the Hurricane fault, fol-
owing the west side of the Uinkaret plateau, along which the
displacement in the south wall of the Grand Cafion is 1500
feet; and farther north, near the Virgen River, 6,600, it mak-
ing the Hurricane bluff 1200 to 1600 feet—ten miles farther
north probably over 12,000 feet, the Eocene being on one side

the Carboniferous on the other—that is, if, as is probable,
the.Permian and Mesozoic beds, which there are now absent,
‘were once in the series as they are elsewhere; and, farther
north, it extends into Utah, along the west side of the Marka-
gunt plateau and the southwest flank of the Tushar range,
where it finally ends its course of 200 miles beneath great lava
floods. Another is the Kaibab fault which outlines the Kaibab
plateau on the west, and extends to the northward about as
far as the Hurricane fault. The Kaibab fault is referred to the
Pliocene and the Hurricane to later Pliocene.

e numerous volcanic cones and wide spread streams of

widely spread sheets of lavas. The Miocene, or its close, was
the era of the earlier volcanic out-flows; but a large part were
of Pliocene date; and some are of quite recent time, their
scoriaceous lavas looking as if of recent ejection, perhaps dating
but a few centuries back. :

n the history of the erosion, Captain Dutton observes that
the first channeling along the line of the Grand Cafion occurred
in the early Tertiary or at the close of the Cretaceous. e
removal'of Cretaceous beds that once covered the borders of

the upper part of the Carboniferous, and although it must at
first have been narrow, it finally reached a width of some miles.

°

W. Ferrd—Relative Temperatures of the Hemispheres. 89

Then after another rise, ‘‘most probably near the close of the
Pliocene,” “the faults increased their displacement, the vol-
canic vents reopened,” and the Colorado River resumed the
operation of sinking its channel; and, as time went forward it
made the inner chasm with all its grand features. The erosion
made quite rapid progress owing to the high pitch given the
surface by the new elevation; it has now almost ceased, the
river having nearly reached a level of slight change by erosion
or what is here called its base-level,—a base-Jevel nearly for -
the stream at the present state of elevation of the land and
ordinary annual floods. Captain Dutton observed that the
Glacier period intervened between the Pliocene and the present
time—a rainy rather than an icy era for that district—increasing
the depth of the Cafion and making some new channels; but,
he adds—limiting the effects more than some others might do,
in view of the fact that the head waters of the Colorado drain
the wide mountain region of the Rocky mountain summit for
a breadth from north to south of more than 300 miles,—
“The Glacial period appears to have been of too brief duration

- Le

to have achieved any very great results in this district.
J.

ArT. X.—The relative Temperatures of the two Hemispheres
of the Earth; by WILLIAM FERRELL.

40°, and so far as this comparison extends, the mean tempera-
ture of the southern is really greater than that of the northern.
t was, however, first suggested by Dove, and rendered still
more probable by the researches and theoretical considerations
of i shee. Sartorius von Waltershausen, Forbes and others,
that the conditions may be reversed in the higher latitudes,
and the mean temperature there be greater in the southern
hemisphere than in the northern.

With a view of settling this question, and that of the
equality or inequality of the mean temperatures of the two
hemispheres, Dr. Hann of Vienna* has recently undertaken a

* Ueber die Temperature der siidlichen Hemisphare. Sitzb. der k. Akad. der
Wissensch., B. lxxxv, 1882.

90 W. Ferrel—Relative Temperatures of the Hemispheres.

new discussion of the subject, availing himself of all the more
recent observations made in the lower latitudes of the southern
hemisphere, especially of those made by the Venus expeditions.
to the islands of Kerguelen, Auckland and St. Paul. . With

the aid of these additional observations he obtained as an ex-

pression of the mean temperature of the southern hemisphere,
in centigrade degrees,

T=26°:0+6°°94 sin P—42'28 sin’? p
Fro
obtained by the writer* for the northern hemisphere, 15°%,

T=26°'0+10°°03 sin p—47'13 sin® @
From this expression the mean temperature of the southern
hemisphere was found to be 15°-2, very nearly the same as
found from the other
The comparison of the temperatures, given by the first of
the preceding formule for the several latitudes, with those
obtained by Forbes for the northern hemisphere, is as follows:

Latitude, 40° 45° 50° 55° 60°
S. hemisphere, 13:0 9°8 65 33 0°3
N. hemisphere, 13°6 9°7 58 2°3 —1:2
Difference, —0'6 +01 +0°7 +1°0 +15

It is seen from these differences that, at about the parallel of

45°, the southern hemisphere begins to be warmer than the

northern, and as Dr. Hann now considers the temperatures ab

the latitudes 40° to 50° to be pretty well determined, he thinks

it leaves the result with scarcely a doubt. It seems, therefore, —

to be now well established that, although the temperatures of
the lower latitudes of the southern hemisphere are less than
those of the same latitudes of the northern hemisphere, yet it
is the reverse in the higher latitudes, and that there is no sen-
sible difference between the mean temperatures of the two
hemispheres,

The reason of this becomes clear when we consider that if

+ Meteorological Researches, Part I; U. S. Coast Survey Report, 1875.

eS eal poe

a Se aa ar ce ig Wt NE Kelemen ee ote I)

See eae ie get b= ORS ee anes ame

Reape Iie ree Bok 20> Fee pe A ee

oF a a paca ll
as

W. Ferrel—Relative Temperatures of the Hemispheres. 91

ocean currents from the equator toward the poles, while in
the latter the well-known gradual interchange of water between
the equatorial and polar regions, arising from a difference of
temperature, conveys a great amount of heat from the former
to the latter, diminishing the temperature in the lower latitudes.
and increasing it in the higher ones. It has been estimated.
that the heat trausferred from the torrid zone to higher lati-

_ tudes by the Gulf Stream alone amounts to about one-twelfth

of all the heat received by the earth from the sun between the:
equator and the tropic of Cancer, and that transferred by the
Kuro-siwo to more than twice as much more. all the heat

ess. We see tlie effect upon temperature of this transfer of
heat from equatorial to polar regions in the relative mean tem-
peratures of land and water in the northern hemisphere. In

_ the lower latitudes mean ocean temperatures are lower, and in
A

b] «<
the higher latitudes greater, than on Jand. And the differences
would be still greater, if much of the heat conveyed by ocean —
currents to the higher latitudes were not transferred to the

_ land by the general eastward motion of the air in those lati-
st

tudes.

Since the amount of transfer of heat from equatorial to polar
_ regions must be somewhat in proportion to the amount of
- ocean surface, the amount of this transferrence must be greater
in the southern than in the northern hemisphere. Hence the
_ difference between the mean temperature of the equatorial and

polar regions must be less in the southern than in the northern

_ hemisphere. If the mean temperatures of the two hemispheres.

the greater proportion of land in the northern than in the

southern hemisphere, would cause the temperature of the

92 A. A. Micheson—Aitr-thermometer.

ormer to be a little the greater. But if the principle of the
equality of the absorbing and radiating powers of all bodies is
true, which is generally conceded, thus a greater absorbing
power, if it is accompanied by a proportionately greater radiat-
ing power, cannot give rise to a higher temperature, and to
account for any difference in the temperatures of the two hemis-
pheres, it would be necessary to suppose that the absorbing
and radiating powers are different, either in a land-, or im a
water-surface, or in both.

The establishment, therefore, of the equality of the mean
temperatures of the two hemispheres seems to confirm the
principle of the equality of the absorbing and radiating powers
of bodies, since this seems to be the case with regard to water,
and Jand with all its variety of surface. If this were not true
for any considerable part of the earth’s surface, it would affect
the equality of the mean temperatures of the two hemispheres.

Arr. XIL.—An Air-thermometer whose indications are independ-
ent of the Barometric Pressure; by ALBERT A. MICHELSON.

about 40™" and the latter about 2™™ in interior diameter. The
bulb contains dry air at a pressure of about 100™ of mercury,
and this air is separated from the upper portion of the tube by
a column of mercury about 100™ in length. The mercury
remains above the air, notwithstanding the large diameter 0
the bore, owing to the resistance to deformation of the
meniscus. ‘The space above the mercury is a vacuum.

Thus the pressure of the air in the bulb is constant and 1s
equal to that of the column of mercury above it. If the bore
of the stem is not of uniform section the length of the column
will change—but this length is easily read off and gives at once
the true pressure. :

The pressure need not be limited to 100™", but if it be much
erate the instrument becomes inconveniently long
an ordinary mercury thermometer, is that the stem must be
kept vertical.
_ Case School of Applied Science,

Cleveland, O., July 5th, 1882. "

* Annalen der Physik und Chemie (Beiblatter), No. 5, 1832.

. Eo ag .
he only precaution to be observed, beyond what is used 1M

T. C. Chamberlin— Correlation of Terminal Moraines. 92

ArT. XII.—The Bearing of some Recent Determinations on the
Correlation of the Eastern and Western Terminal Moraines ;
by Professor T, C. CHAMBERLIN.

For several years a group of geologists of the interior have

been engaged in tracing out an extensive range of terminal
moraines. This may be said to have become a definitely

organized movement, and to have already accomplished, so far
as the interior is concerned, its main purposes, though many
details remain to be worked out. The character and brevity
of this note forbid any attempt to set forth in detail the
respective parts played by the different investigators who
have contributed to this work. In a paper entitled, “On the
Extent and Significance of the Wisconsin Kettle Moraine,”

nificant portions of the formation in the seven interior States
traversed by the moraine. Of the much more atin eam
work which “hi been done since, the writer hopes to find a
early opportunity to speak fully

The result of these investigations has been the determination
of a morainie belt of extraordinary extent and character. It
traverses portions of Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, a bese
sin, Minnesota, Iowa and Dakota, and extends a distance, as
yet undetermined, into the British Possessions. Penaaly it
crosses the continent. It will be convenient to speak of this as

as to sabia a belt twenty « or eer miles in widt
I to our present purpose to observe three
salient facts that characterize =
1. Instead of pursuing a somewhat direct course across the
country it ts disposed in large es which have for their axes the
great valleys of the interior. These loops represent the margins
of great glacial lobes that finged the greater ice-sheet of the
north, the ten great lo bes now determined, one occupied
each of the following valleys, viz: of the Dakota River, of the
’ Minnesota River, of the western projection of Lake Superior,
of the Chippewa River, of Green Bay, of Lake Michigan, of
Saginaw. Bay, of the Maumee, of ere Scioto, and of the Grand

94 7. OC. Chamberlin—Oorrelation of Terminal Moraines.

River, the special interest of this discussion attaching to the
last.

2. The moraine does not lie upon the margin of the glaciated
area, but is distant from it at considerable, though varying
distances. '

3. The moraine marks a second glacial advance separated from
the former by a considerable interval of time. Fro e consider-
ation of several distinct lines of evidence, the impression has
been gained that the interval which separated the earlier from
the later glaciation, was equal to, or greater than, that which
has elapsed since the latter. But the correctness or otherwise
of this is unimportant to our present purpose.

Somewhat later a similar attempt was made by eastern geol-

massive morainic belt traversing northern New Jersey, the
entire extent of Long Island, and the smaller islands lying to
the eastward, striking the Atlantic on the peninsula of Cape
Cod. Concerning this it is likewise essential to note two char-
acteristics and a negation.

1. Unlike the western moraine, it 7s not disposed in conspict-
ous loops, as now delineated. This is the more to be remarked,
since the surface inequalities of the region lying north of it are
greater than those of the interior.

2. This moraine marks the southern limit of the drift-sheet.

3. It has not yet been determined whether this moraine rep-

resents the limit of the earlier or later glacial advance.
Notwithstanding their differences, the characteristics of the
‘eastern and western moraines are so strikingly similar, that
their tentative correlation as portions of a single moraine pre-
sented itself on the first appearance of Professor Cook's results,
and was given expression to in the paper above cited.
correct correlation of these moraines and the decisive deter

mination as to whether the coast member belongs to the earlier

or later period of glaciation, are manifestly questions of great
interest, and the purpose of this paper is to make a prelim!
nary contribution toward their solution. The hypothesis of
their unity is somewhat strengthened by the fact that thus far
no similar moraine has been traced along the margin of the
drift in the interior. It may be, however, unsafe to assume

critically examined with especial reference to this question.
During the past year Professors Lewis and Wright, of the

Pennsylvania Survey, have been engaged in tracing a marginal
raine from the western terminus of the New Jersey range

across Pennsylvania. Their results are not yet published, and

will be awaited with interest.

T. C. Chamberlin— Correlation of Terminal Moraines. 95

Meanwhile the investigations of the writer, which have been
pursued, though with considerable interruption arising from the
pressure of other duties, since 1878, have developed some evi-
dence having an important bearing on the correct correlation
of the eastern and western moraines. In the paper above
referred to attention was called to the fact that, while in the
immediate Mississippi valley the kettle moraine lies some hun-
‘dreds of miles back from the drift margin, in Ohio it
approaches it much more closely, and this fact was adduced in
‘support of the presumption that the kettle moraine might
become marginal to the drift area somewhere farther east.

n the reports of the geological survey of Ohio a series of
peculiar drift accumulations, consisting largely of gravelly hills,
are 2h gue as occupying the water-shed naib the Ohio

d Lake Erie. The identification of these with the kettle
moraine made* on the basis of the decoteatne of the several
geologists who have taken account of them, interpreted in the
light of some personal observation, is in the main confirmed by
further investigation. But, whatever may be true of the
kame-like gravelly hills, the course of the moraine diverges
‘quite widely from the summit line of the water-shed. In con-
ormity to its habit, it is disposed in loops, one of which has for
its axis the Maumee valley, another the Scioto, and a third, in
eastern Ohio, with peters we are more especially concerned,

pee Wie er

notaries to the three hydrographic sections of Lake Erie, as
by its surface vee but more significantly by the

a cndbies of the Lake Surv
The interest which stich ie to the eastern loop in its bear-
ng upon the correlation of eastern and western moraines lies
in the fact that in its southern portion it constitutes the margin
-of the drift-bearing area. Its geography may be briefly
sketched as follows: Beginning with the eastern marginal

5 5
moraine of the Scioto lobe, in the southwestern corner of
S 0., it pursues a north-northeasterly course to the north

ern part of Portage Co. In this portion, the moraine attains a

EE ER Fe PERE NE GT EF Pe Pc ee ey Pe ET Lae ee Re ae ea, gSnee | Meme Meet Oe a eee ee oN ee gy ee = Pet ART SOR PS et Pe as ge CdSe EE eS eee OEY ae ee ee ee IL Cee oe. cs

constitution, than those portions which were simply ashe

isk agit cited, pp. 21-2 + Geol. Survey of Ohio, vol. ii, pp. 4
: tOn the Fresh Webi Glacial Drift of the Northwestern States, patheabe
_ -Contributions, p.

3
a

96 TZ. C. Chamberlin—Correlation of Terminal Moraines.

to the glacier. The northerly part of this belt is such an in-

termediate moraine, formed between the Scioto an rand
River glaciers € moraine pro to the Grand River
lacier diverges from this common intermediate one in the

ward in an undulating course Ponat the northern portion of
Columbiana Co., from which it enters Pennsylvania. The
latter state being under investigation, the course of the moraine
was not pursued oer me further than to determine its general
northeasterly direction and ae ge latter portion
marks the left hand sa of the glaci

These determinations are fepaen yy in Jee with, and
bring hi rational unity the interesting observations of Mr.
M. C. on the direction of glacial ‘striation in northeast-
ern Ohio. ae my working hypothesis was based upon
them. These striations show a remarkable divergence from
the axis of the Grand River valley toward the high lands that
form its rim, and, as it proves, toward the margin of the glacial
lobe that gave rise to them. This conforms to the law of di-
vergent internal movement, first demonstrated by myself in
respect to the Green Bay glacier, ee since shown to be a gen-
eral character of the glacial lobes the interior, and ‘wil
doubtless prove to be a uniform fata of glaciers gee Be
in an open country. That the southern extremity of this lobe
reached the margin of the drift area is affirmed by the observa-
tions of Dr. Newberry, on Columbiana Co.,+ who asserts that
the drift is confined to the gon western portion of the county,
and of Professor J. J. Stevenson on Carroll Co.,{ who says
that pore Spee exemiatne, no drift was found ex ccept a
few doubtful specimens in the northeast, and that the boundary
line of aif influence lies to the north and portnen) of the
county.

re outer margin of the moraine, according to my determi-
natio approaches to within less than three miles of the
sores line of Carroll Co., and I observed no apparent evi-
dence of glaciation south of i i ak little farther east, however’,
drift was observed from three to four miles south of the ap-
parent margin of the moraine. Whether this was formed con-
temporaneousl y with the moraine or during the earlier glacial
epoch, seems to me uncertain, but the general fact that the
moraine here reaches the essential limit of the drift-bearing
ale is satisfactorily determined. This removes one of the

Geol. Survey of Ohio, vol. i, p. 531.
+ Goal, Survey Ohio, vol. iii, p. 90. t Ibid, p. 179.

T. C. Chamberlin—Correlation of Terminal Moraines. 97

“apparent distinctions between the moraines of the coast and
interior.
; hile, however, this distinction has been removed, the re-
maining one has been intensified, for it is shown that the lobate
‘character of the glacial margin prevailed thus much farther
east, and as that character is manifestly due to topographical
features, it becomes all the more remarkable that in the more
diversified region of the east, the glacial outline should become
more nearly uniform rectilinear, as determined by the
‘geologists of that regio

In Ne ork, morainic accumulations identical in character
‘with the class under consideration have an extensive develop-
‘ment, but their relations and connections are not yet fully de-
termined. The more pronounced character of the topography
manifestly made itself felt upon the margin of the ice, and
‘gave rise to local modifications, and seemingly to independent
local moraines that increase the difficulties of a safe interpreta-

first ecto In view of the fact that the ide separation on
i t

earlier in the coast region, may be worthy of entertaining as a
working hypothesis. It may be further remarked that if there
be alternating contact and divergence of the margins of the
two glacial sheets, that a considerable belt Jying back from the
drift ast toe prt investigation.

found unsupported by evidence after diligent search.

It is hoped that the Se mS suggestions at this stage of the
investigation, while yet final conclusions are unformed and
‘opinions still plastic, Stay not be without service to the in-
heen large number of workers in this somewhat new
fie

Am. Jour. se ccd Srrigs, Vou. XXIV, No. 140.—Aveust, 1882.
; 2 ;

98 J.D. Dana—Flood of the Connecticut River Valley.

Art, XIIL—On the Flood of the Connecticut River Valley from
the melting of the Quaternary Glacier ; by JAMES D. Dana.

[Concluded from p. 373, volume xxiii. |

6. The question as to the Elevation of the Land.

THE remaining question in connection with the discussion
respecting the Connecticut Valley during the era of the great

od is that relating to its apparent depression at the time:
—W hether the change in pitch, which was proved to have been
a fact, was due to a change in land-level, or only to a change
- in sea-level.

To understand the events of the Glacial era and that follow-
ing and reason correctly on the facts, we should know which
of these views is right, and, in order to know, take evidence
from the region.

Toward this end, we may first compare the requirements of
an hypothesis which refers the change to a change in sea-level
with the facts observed. If the facts do not accord with the
demands of such an hypothesis, we are then free to adopt the
other view—that the depression of the land was actual and
not merely apparent.

The followi “acts bear is subj

e following are among the facts bearing on this subject.
(E) ere is no correspondence between the amounts of

change deduced from observations and those required by the
* Assuming that the earth is so far rigid that it would not suffer deformatioo—

or a depression of the crust—from the weight of the ice resting on its surface.

Pes ee ep ee ee ee fers sree sa ei te

J.D. Dana—F lood of the Connecticut River Valley. 99

hypothesis. Since the amount of the apparent depression,
that is, of the rise in the earth’s curving water-surface which .
would follow from such a change in the position of the center
of gravity, would increase northward very nearly in the ratio
of the sine of the latitude, it follows that if the amount at
Montreal were 520 feet, as the facts reported show, they should
have been about 507 feet at Lewiston, Maine, 491 ‘feet at Point
Shirley, Mass. (near Boston), and 480 feet along the north
shore of Long Island Sound. But, instead of the amounts
507, 491 and 480 feet, the actual levels observed are 200, 75 or
80, and 25 to 15 fee

Further, the hypothess,—ealenlating again from the Mon-
treal level, 520 feet,—would give hardly 73 30 feet for the region
about the North Pole, and 720 for latitude 81° to 82°, or that
of Grinnell Land and Northern Greenla nd; while in the latter
region, Feilden and De Rance found sea- shells (Pecten Green-
landicus, Astarte boreale, Mya truncata, Saxicava rugosa, i

in beach-made deposits at different levels up to 1000 feet
Soe this is not all the divergence of the facts from Greenland
erraces. For, in the part of Danish Greenland Spi Southern
Gussie d (between the parallels of 60° and 67° 40’), the part
_ best known, no heights of terraces or sisciied beaches have been
reported above 350 feet. Dr. Ri nk, one of the Greenland ex-
plorers as well as Government Inspector for many years of
outhern Greenland, mentions, in his latest work on Danish
Greenland (1877), the occurrence, in this part of the semiconti-
nent, of terraces at a height of 100 feet, rising in some places
to 200 feet, and nothing of via level. Mr. A. Kornerup,
Geologist of Lieutenant Jensen’ s Expedition of 1878,{ ob-
served terraces at several —_ ee describes a series, near
the parallel of 63° 10’ N., to the north of Fiskernaes, the
highest of ah was 101 hetene ‘ad hen in 638° 5’ N., of
106 meters (348 feet) as the maximum height. Nordenskidld,
in connection with his exploration in the vicinity of Ja obs.
havn, in 1870,§ observed shell beaches up toa height of 100
feet near 69° 10’ N. Hayes, in his ‘Open Polar Sea,” gives (p.
402) 110 feet as the height of terraces at Port Foulke, near
78° 10’ N., north of Cape Alexander. Kane describes, in vol-
ume ii of his Arctic Explorations (p. 80) a series of terraces in
78° 40’, the highest of which was 480 feet above the sea.
Three degrees in latitude north not the last region occur the
— at 1,000 feet, mentioned above. The discrepancy is
e height of the _ . Point Shirley i is made 75 or 80 feet by Professor

salen his recent quarto volume on Glaciers forming the first volume of his pro-
a: Dero ay v8rip" of the Barth “s ea
xxxiv, 5

t oeebene om Grénland, 386. st im Copenhagen, 1879.
Geol. Mag., 1872, p. 400.

100 J. D. Dana—F lood of the Connecticut River Valley.

thus increasingly great on going southward along the Green-
land coast.

It may be said that the facts from Greenland are only par-
tially known; and, again, that a depression is now going on in
Southern Greenland which has increased, and may have occa-
sioned, the discrepancy. But, connecting them with the facts
from the Atlantic borders in more southern latitudes, the evi-
— against the hypothesis is decisive.

The idea of a polar ice-cap of the extent — is an
oa tion opposed to known meteorological laws and ob-
served climatal facts. or the position of the region 1 af maxi-
mum ice would have depended very largely on that of the
area of greatest precipitation; and, as the Behe Rend
some years since suggested,* and Mr. W. J. McGee has form-
ally songelec avian ,t the ice would have ener toward the
pole as we o the northwestward. The eastern ice-range,
located in fis see between the Atlantic rea and points not

ar west of the Winnipeg line of lakes, 1000 miles in width at
base, presented an immense surface for condensing the moisture
of the Atlantic winds and diminishing the amount carried north-
ward, so that the ice in Greenland would have had hardly half
the height of that to the southwest, ‘and more northern polar
regions still less;—Mr. McGee's calculations making the hind
ness in Greenland in 60° N., 5728 feet, and in 70° N., 2800 feet,
while south and southeast of Hudson’s Bay on the Canada
water-shed, it was probably not less than 12,000 feet

In accordance with these conclusions, the i ice, at the present
time, is reported by Arctic travelers to be less thick in the
northern part of North Greenland than in the part to the south,
and also in the lands west of Greenland than on Greenland
itself. Messrs. Feilden and De Rance (loc. cit., p. 567) speak
of the paucity of glaciers in Grinnell Land, vei just west of
Greenland, stating that north of 81° N. on this more western

more favorable sinditions for precipitation of the Glacial era.
As to the height of the Greenland ice in the Glacial era we have
the observations of Mr. A. Kornerup, of Jensen’s Expedition,t
that, near the parallel of 64° N. about the Ameralik and Buxe
fiords, there are glacial scratches at a height of 1260 meters

: tag Journal, III, v, 206, 1873, ix, 312, x, 385, 1875, xiii, 79, 1877, xv, 250,
87

tion of which paper on the particular point above referred to is cited in vol. xxii,
of this age, p. 264 (1881). Mr. McGee gives ri the ‘ideknens at 50° N. onl,
8213 fee t Loe. cit., pp. 109-1

+ Proc. Pesce Assoe., xxix, 1880, on Maximum Synchronous Glaciation; a pot-

FEAR a ie air.

J. D. Dana—F lood of the Connecticut River Valley. 101

(4134 feet), a level almost 3000 feet above anv glaciers now
in that vicinity, and near the parallel of 63° N., in the vicinity
of Kuvnilik and Bjérnesund, at heights of 940 to 1100 meters
(the latter 3609 feet); but none on the upper part of Nukag-
piarsuak, northwest of Kuvnilik, whose height is 1520 meters
(4987 feet). Mr. Kornerup also states that in the era of ex-
treme glaciation when the glacier was 3000 feet higher than
now, the movement of the ice was nearly east-and-west, but subse-
quently, as the scratches at lower levels show, it followed the
direction of the fiords or valleys :—a change evidently due to
the thinning of the ice, the pitch of the upper surface being
great enough when the glacier was at its maximum to cause
ice to move independently of the courses of valleys or depres-
sions beneath, and not so after the thickness had been much
reduced. This fact had its parallel all over glaciated North
America.

(3.) In addition, the hypothesis makes the submergence of
the Coast region (indicated by elevated beaches) to. have taken
place during the Glacial period, and to have passed its maximum
in the height of the period ; when, according to the facts, what-
ever the condition in the Glacial era, the submergence was a
prominent feature of the era when melting was going for-
ward and the ice finally disappeared—the Champlain period.
This point needs no special remark after the descriptions already
given of the Connecticut River terraces, and the explanations
in the following part of this paper.

(4.) But the Glacial era was not for the higher latitudes
generally one of /ess elevation in the land than now, and wa
probably one of somewhat greater elevation for large portions.

e arguments in favor of such elevation I here briefly
review, in order to test them by a reference to recent discoveries.

(a) One of these arguments is based on the depth to which
many river channels are excavated below the present bed o
the stream. It has been strongly urged by Dr. Newberry and
others. The facts supporting it have been drawn from New
England and the States of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio,
Indiana, Tlinois, Wisconsiti, and from British America; and

ases are annually becoming known. The Pennsylvania
M

e and Crawford Counties (among the western counties of
the State), remarks that a boring for oil on French Creek,
below Meadville, descended for 285 feet through the drift; and
another, in Conneaut Creek valley, 180 feet in drift; and in
connection with his account of these and other cases, he speaks
of it as a general fact that ‘“the present water courses meander
along the upper surfaces of drift-deposits which fill the ancient
valleys to various heights above the old rock beds.” Other

102 J. D. Dana—F lood of the Connecticut River Valley.

similar facts from western Pennsylvania are presented in the
report of Mr. J. F. Carll, for 1880. During 1881, Mr. J. W.
Spencer published facts respecting a buried channel between
Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, which entered the latter lake
along the steeply escarped Dundas Valley.* He states that in
this valley the drift has been penetrated to a depth of 227 feet
below the level of the lake without reaching a rocky bottom, and
that the depth of the drift is probably as much as 1,000 feet.
He also points out that the channel of Lake Ontario, which has
its greatest depth abruptly near the southern side and gradually
shallows northward, is a channel of erosion and probably of
cotemporaneous erosion with that of the Dundas Valley.

eported examples of this kind are so numerous that they
are regarded now as representing a general fact. Such excava-
tions could not have been made by running water while the
Jand was at its present level; and much less could they have
been made when the land was lower than now. ‘Their origin
was hence before the Champlain period in Glacial or pre
Glacial time.

area instead of with material from a more northern source.
nd if open in the Glacial era, the land was at a higher level
than in the Champlain period, or that of great deposition ; high.
enough for a flowing stream to have kept the trenches clear of
deposits. Many of these valleys, like that of Dundas Valley,
have a different course from that of the movement of the gia-
cier, and hence, no aid could have been afforded by the gla-
cier in the excavation if the level was as now; and the aid
would have been ineffectual whatever the course. :

The facts thus prove that if the material filling these buried
valleys is true drift, the land in the Glacial era was higher
than now; and much higher, if the drift of the Dundas Valley
is 500 to 1,000 feet deep. The valleys may have been pre-
Glacial in origin, but their depth would have reached its low-
est limit from the latest erosion or that of the Glacial era.

The argument from the deep river-made channels intersect
ing sea-border regions, and now occupied by the sea—that 1s
from long bays and fiords 100 to 3,000 feet’ or more in depth
of water—which characterize the shores in the higher latitudes
on all the continents, north and south, still stands good so far

* Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., 1881, and Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1881.

J.D. Dana—Flood of the Connecticut River Valley. 103

as this at least, that if, as is probable, antedating in first origin
the Glacial era, the final deepest erosion took place at that time.
Being proof of water erosion, they are proof of the emerged
state of lands where now are seas 1,000 to 3,000 feet deep.
But they do not prove that there may not have been several
successive emergences and Glacial eras concerned in their
production.

.) Again, there are deserted water-courses. which appear to
‘owe their desertion to a change of level which took the flow
from the waters. In many cases the desertion was due simply
to a decline of the flood, and a filling of channels by the depo-
sitions. But in other cases, like that of the discharge of the

higher portions of the United States, was not completed until
the close of the Pliocene—the vast Pliocene fresh-water lakes
proving this; and the close of the Pliocene was the beginning
of the Glacial era. Besides this upward movement in the
western two-thirds of ‘the continent, a smaller took place in its
‘eastern portion, as geologists have inferred from the absence of
marine Tertiary either above or at the sea-level north of Cape
Cod, and of Pliocene Tertiary to a large extent south of it.

us the Tertiary changes of level were, in the main, upward
to the end of this age. :

It is evident, too, that these changes of level in the Tertiary
were changes of land-level. For changes due to a transfer of
the ocean’s water meridionally would have been alike on the
two sides of the continent.

It is deserving of consideration also that an elevation -

cold of arctic seas and lands and of the lands south, and the
warmth and rate of evaporation of the North Atlantic in tem-
perate latitudes.

The evidence reviewed thus shows that there were real

104 J. D. Dana—F lood of the Connecticut River Valley.

and depression over the higher latitudes. ‘They do not enable
us to decide whether there were not, extending northward, a
series of upward and downward flexures, with only a greater
general emergence than now in the Glacial era and a greater:
general submergence in the era following. The heights of ter-
races on the coast of Greenland seem to be an indication as to-
one in this series of flexures. In any case the facts do not
sustain the ordinary assumption that the amount of depression
in the Arctic regions was approximately alike in all parts, and
they leave it to be proved that all portions participated in the
subsidence.

he cause of the depression of the land, or of the previous:
elevation, this is not the place to consider.

H. A. Hazen—Air-pressure at High Stations. 105.

Art. XIV.—On the Retardation of the Maxima and Minima of
Air-pressure at High Stations; by H. A. Hazen, A.M.

[Communicated by permission of the Chief Signal Officer of the United States.
Army. ]

In his tenth paper, published in the number of this Journal
for January, 1879, Professor Loomis advanced certain evidence
to show that, apparently, the progress of a storm center was much
more rapid at the surface of the earth than at elevations above
it. Many arguments have been advanced by others for and
against this theory. It is the purpose of this article to put forth
certain facts which have come - light, and which it is hope
will tend to elucidate the su

Many years ago it was sh from hourly observations at
Zurich and at the summit of the Rigi, that while the morning
maximum, in the diurnal range of ee ger Se at the
lower station at ten, it did not occur at t mit of the
mountain until twoP.M. Professor Loomis vate (this Journal,
January, 1879, pp. 11 and 1 12): “Over the United States both

e maxima and minima’ ’ [of accidental fluctuations] “ of atmos-
pheric awe generally occur first near the surface of the
earth, and they occur later as we rise above the surface, the
retardation amounting to one hour for an elevation of from
ee hundred to thirteen hundred feet.” He says again (pp. 13
and 14

peculiarity similar to that found for the accidental fluctuations.
he principal maximum occurs at the base at half past eight,
but on the summit it does not occur until noon, being a retard-
ation of three and a half hours, which is tices identically the
same as we have found by a comparison of the accidental
fluctuations.” He says further 19): “The low center at
the height of Mount Washington ‘sometimes lags behind the
low center at the surface of the earth apparently as much as
two hundred mi -

he Rev. Clement Ley, of England, in a paper published in
be Quarterly Taal of the Meteorological Society for July,

, adopts this statement advanced by Professor Loomis in
aa te of his hypothesis that the storm center lags behind at
elevations as shown by his own observations of cirrus clouds.
Mr. Strachan in discussing this point as brought out by Mr. Ley

be inclined 89°°5 to the vertical, or, in other words, lie almost.
parallel with the anh. surface.

106 =H. A. Hazen—Air-pressure at High Stations.

Professor Ferrel, in his paper, ‘‘ Meteorological Researches
for the use of the Coast Pilot, Part I,” has advanced the theory
that a storm center lags behind at the earth’s surface, and,
speaking of the apparent contradiction of the researches of Pro-
fessor Loomis, says: ‘These results of Professor Loomis show
too much for this hypothesis” [that the axis of a “low” is
retarded at elevations], ‘‘ for they show that there is a similar
retardation of just about the same amount in the times of the
maxim inima of the diurnal changes of barometric
pressure at the summits of mountains, and we cannot reasonably
explain this by means of cyclones with reclining axes. When
we shall have a satisfactory explanation of this retardation in
this latter case, we shall probably have one in the other.”

discussing the probable cause for this retardation, the

center has passed the base?
It is exceedingly desirable that special experiments be made

at the same stations. The latter have been published in the
annual report of the Chief Signal Officer for 1873. These
stations lie three miles apart in a horizontal direction, and
hence we may compute with a near approach to accuracy, from
the observations for pressure and temperature, the difference of
level between them, by the use of Guyot’s hypsometric formula.

Sie tree ee a Nem
Se ee ee ee ee ss

H. A. Hazen—Air-pressure at High Stations. 107

In order to show that varying temperature does not appreci- —
ably affect the relative results of such computation, the follow-
ing comparisons are given.

Ata recent meeting of the Washington Philosophical Society,
Professor G. K. Gilbert, of the United States Geological Survey,
gave a method for determining differences of elevation where
air-pressures are observed at three or more neighboring stations

aving different heights, which may be outlined as follows:
Let P, P’ and P” represent the observed air-pressure at stations
A, B and C, then will the formula,

H=C (log P—log P')fQS(O)f(m) (1)
express the difference in height between A and B, and
H’=C (log-P—log P”) f(QF(O)F(m) (2)

the same for A and C; dividing (1) by (2) we have
H log P—log P’
H’ log P—log P”

if now we have either H or H’ given, we may compute the
other, without referring to temperature, latitude or moisture.
uring the month of June, 1878, hourly observations were
made at the base and summit of Mount Washington and at two
intermediate stations. Considering forty-three cases taken at
random, I find twenty-three of them in which the mean height
of the summit above the base is too small, by Gilbert's
and Guyot’s formule, forty-six and fifty-five feet respectively ;
while the remaining twenty cases give a value too great by
fifty-one and forty-eight feet. We may therefore, in comparing
relative heights, neglect the effect of varying temperature as
introduced by computations with Guyot’s formula. |
f the wind affects the pressure directly, we would expect
that the computed difference of level would be the same as the
true difference when there was no wind, and would gradually
increase as the wind increased, unless there were some causes
beside pressure, temperature and wind affecting the computa-
tion, Ihave grouped these computed differences in elevation
according to the force of the wind, as may be seen in Table L
In the following table, for May, 1872, all winds under ten and
above forty miles per hour are included, and in May, 1878, all
the cases except a few which were omitted because of serious
errors in the observations. The table shows this remarkable
peculiarity, that, though with winds above sixty-one miles per
hour, the mean computed difference in height is too great by
sixty-six feet; with winds under ten the mean difference is too
small by thirty-tive feet. We conclude, then, that some other

+D:

108 =H. A. Hazen—Air-pressure at High Stations.

cause must produce the results or must act in conjunction with
the wind. Taking winds above sixty-one miles per hour I
have found ten cases in which the height was too small by
about fifteen feet; also, a great number of cases in which
though the wind continued strong from the same direction, yet
the computed height continually became less, showing that the
wind does not produce a direct effect upon the indications of
the barometer.

TABLE I.

Mean amount to be added to the true difference in height between = eee and base
of Mount Washington to give the computed differen

Wind force in miles per hour.

0 to 10. 11 to 20. 21 to 30. 31 to 40. |* 41 to 50. | 51 to 60. Above 61.

Ca- ! |

Date.| ses.| Amt. c.| A. O: | A Ge oe c.| MeO AS oO. be eas
May, | | . n
1872,| 77)/—2771) 25)—1876 30/—3"1 43 + 137:8/65| + 107°5/32| + 337-9/50| +5174
ay, |

1873,|1041 —43°5/134' —22-0 188! +4°1|135) +15°6|99' +34°9/61) +52°4|27| + 80°L

On projecting the curves of pressure in connection with the
computed elevations, we find that there is a striking uniformity
in the occurrence of small and large differences of elevation
with the maxima and minima of pressure, the least coinciding

with high pressure and the greatest with low. Grouping 4

second time, then, with respect to the maxima and minima
of pressure we have Table II.

TABLE II.

Mean amounts to be added to the true difference in height between -eelega and base
of Mount Washington to obtain the computed differe

Maxima of Pressure. Minima of Pressure.
Cases. Amount, Cases. Amount.

Date. Locality.

Mt. W. and 5 ‘

May, 18720005. - base __.. 21 —32°5 70 + 574
Mt. W. and

May, 1873 2... base. _.. 102 —61°6 137 + 673
Jan., Feb., Mar., Mt. W. and
Oct., Nov., Dec., mean of

BO oes B, and P. 119 —29°1 120 +127°0

an Pp. M., Washington time, during Jan., Feb. , Ma r., Oct.,
Nov. and Dee., 1880. Burlington and Portland, near sea-level,

i

H. A. Hazen—Air-pressure at High Stations. — 109

* Ie on opposite sides of Mount Washington and at distances
altogether too great to give the best results; if, however, we —

- ?
take the mean of the two we shall obtain an approximate value
for the base of the mountain.

It is evident from Table II that during the prevalence of
relatively high pressure, elevations, computed barometrically,
will in general be too small, and, on the other hand, when the
pressure is low the computed heights will be too great. This

minima of pressure, controls also the different values of com-

puted elevations, and that high winds are rather an accompani-

‘ment than a direct cause of the same variations

May not the apparent lagging of the axes of “highs” and
“lows” be due to the effect of varying temperature. ‘The gen-

eral tendency of high temperature being to expand the air and

force it from the lower levels, above the summits of mountains,
and of low temperature to produce an opposite effect, we should

‘expect at elevated stations high pressure with high temperature

and low pressure with low temperature. This principle is well
illustrated by the Signal Service observations of pressures on
Mount Washington and Pike's Peak. In January the mean

pressures are 23’""393 and 17512 at the two points respectively,

while in July they are 23’894 and 18-078. The same results
would follow the accidental fluctuations, whenever there might
be a steady, gradual rise or fallin temperature for a sufficient
period of time. hen a “low” has passed a station at sea-
level, the temperature frequently falls steadily with a west
wind and the result is a contraction of the air, which causes its
withdrawal from the upper atmosphere and a further fall in

aber there. This process will continue until the fall caused —

y the low temperature is counterbalanced by the rise due to
the advancing high. The reverse of this may take place at the
passing of a “high.” In order to ascertain the influence of
varying temperature as suggested above, I have projected the
pressure curves for a singular case at Pike’s Peak, in which the
minimum occurred forty hours earlier at Denver than at Pike's
Peak; also, fora case in which the minimum for Burlington

-and Portland occurred twenty-four hours earlier than on Mount

Washington.

Referring to the curves and the temperatures at Pike's Peak,
we see that on November fourteenth, at the 7 4. M. observation,
the mean. temperature of the air column was comparatively low

and the pressure at a maximum at Denver; the temperature

110 H. A. Hazen—Air-pressure at High Stations.

gradually increased to three Pp. M. of the iene, 1, and though +

there was a steady fall in pressure at Denve rose on

Pike’s Peak until seven A. M. of the fifteenth ; om this point
Retardation of the minimum of pressure at Pike's Peak, Nov. 15 and 16, 1880.

14,149143 15159155 Ps 165 17,17217s 18, ms 185 Date

6°20 19 22 3416 6 20 -10 -12 — 6 Mean : Temp.

S Colo. Sp’gs-

Curves of Air-pressure,
Mt. Washington and mean of Burlington and Portland, Nov., 1880.

17 18, 18. 185 19, 195 195 20, 205 20, Da
36°37 44 36 10 38 ~-2 -4 6 138 sean Temp.

Base.

Summit.

Curves of Air-pressure,

the pressure rose steadily at Denver under the influence of an
extraordinary cold wave; this same cold wave reduced the
pressure on e’s Peak, which did not reach its minimum till
sevén A. M. of the seventeenth, or forty hours later than at

:
;
:
1
’

HI, A. Hazen—Air-pressure at High Stations. 111

Denver. Ona comparison of the curves at Mount Washington,
we see another illustration of the same nature.

Ii now we apply the same reasoning to the maxima and
minima of the diurnal range of pressure, at the base and
summit of mountains, we shall find that it affords a satisfactory
hg ame of the ep: at the summits. For Ne

1874.
in Table III. The difference in level between the base and

TABLE IIL.

Diurnal range of air pressure, and the mean temperature of the air column at Mount
Washington and Pike's Peak.

May, 1872. May and June, 1873. | Aug. and Sept., 1874.
= of; Air pressure. Mean T.| Air pressure. |Mean T.| Air pressure. Mean T,
es M Base, | Aircol.; Mt.W.| Base. | Air col.|Pike’s P.|C. Sp’gs.| Aircol.
LAM. 23"-760|27"-165| 37°-2
2 T5T ‘161| 38°8
3 751 °158] 38°4
4 "746 160; 38°0
5 153 *165| 37°8
6 23"°675*|27” 098+ 36°°2 “156 173} 38°6 | 177982] 24"°201) 47°°1
( 670 "100 | 37-4 762 “180; 40°] 7-988 *202| 51°8
8 “671 101 | 38°7 767 *181| 42:2 17°995 204) 55:0
9 674 | +103 | 39°6 173, ‘181| 44-0 | 18-002] -205) 58-0
10 683 ‘098 | 40°6 78 180} 45-1 18-009 198) 60°4
11 689 "096 1 784) 176) 46°6 18°009 188} 62°8
Noon 690 “093 | 42°6 187 *169) 48°0 18°007 *176) 64°3
1PM 690 085 | 43°3 “785 *163} 49°0 18°005 164) 65-0
2 687 081 | 43°6 “783 *157| 49°0 18°002 150} 64°4
3 689 082 | 44°0 1 *152| 48°8 17°998 144) 63°3
4 "688 078 | 43°8 “775 150) 48°6 17°994 142) 61°2
5 683 066 | 44°0 "TUL *150| 47°6 17°992 146, 60°1
6 691 084 | 43°2 akes 155| 46°2 17-992 152! 58-2
7 AT 3 43 | 17-997 165) 55°
8 173) -166| 42°4 | 18-001; -180
9 680 102 } 38°5 779 bai hy i He © ay 18-003 8} 52°3
10 “EUS: 171} 41°0
i “T70) ‘171| 40°2
Midn.| ‘676 | ‘095 | 37°4 165) °167| 39°8
Mt. W.* Base.
Uncorrected Att. Att.
Barometer. Ther. Ther.
GA, 23"°730 55°] 50°4
fi 730 57°83 49°5
8 “39 60°7 49-4
9 , 64°6 "e
10 762 65°7 49°8

112 H. A. Hazen—Air-pressure at High Stations.

summit of Mount Washington i is 3590 feet, and between Pike’s
Peak and Colorado Springs it is 8100 feet.
he figures in this table, in the fifth and sixth columns, wer

columns I have computed from the original observations.
Unfortunately the hourly observations of 1872 and '74 were
continued only during the day hours; they, however, give
satisfactory results for the principal morning maximum an
afternoon minimum. marked peculiarity will be noticed
in column two in the means of the observations for seven and
eight A. M., namely: a steady fall during these hours. This is
due not to natural causes at all, but to the fact that at the nee
night observation the barometer was pushed into its case and
locked up. In this position the temperature indicated by the
-attached thermometer was lower than that of the room, con-
‘sequently, by the on e of the ote observation the next

mean cig ape of the air column was rising, and in

‘sequence, the ree, did not begin to fall at the sire
till some time had elapsed. For the afternoon minimum a
reverse of the gon disown and effects is notice able. One inter-

Peak it was only two hours for 8100 feet, or one hour to 4000
feet. This is due in part to the fact that after the morning
maximum the fall in pressure was much more rapid at the
lower western station than at the eastern, and this counterbal-
anced the rise in pressure at the summit due to the increase of |
temperature.

gain, we see that in the single case we have of observations
through the night, there is little or no retardation in the morning
minimum and night maximum. This is precisely what we
might conclude from the fact that during this time the temper-
ature changes only slightly, though little ieee can be laid
upon this because the oscillation is correspondingly small.

A. W. Jackson—Nomenclature of Crystalline Rocks. 113

Another cause for a portion of the retardation may be con-
ssidered to be the sluggishness in action of the summit barome-

maxima and minima of pressure would enter and leave the
room where the observations were made, undoubtedly less
accessible to the atmosphere at the summit than at the base.
These last two causes, ae would be of little consequence
‘in producing the results n

May we not be shabled, by a sufficient number of carefully
conducted obser vations, extending over a year, at the base and
along the side of Pike’s Peak or some other isolated mountain,
to determine the cause of the diurnal range of air pressure,
which has been characterized as the most persistent of all

-axis of a “low” at high stations prove satisfactory, it will also
show the great difficulty which inevitably attends any attempt
made in comparing pressures observed at elevations above the
earth with those observed at the same time at sea-level.

Acknowledgment is due to Professor Abbe for suggestions
in the final construction of this paper.

ART. XV.—On the General gan reg of the Nomenclature As the
Massive Crystalline Rocks ; by A. WENDELL JACKSO

INTRODUCTION.

THE objects of the present paper are, first, to suggest the com-
‘plete separation of rock-nomenclature from rock-classification,
-and, second, to investigate and to establish, as far as may be, the
principles upon which any system of nomenclature for the mas-

names of the rocks themselves and not of the larger groups
recognized in rock-classifications.

The existing confusion in rock-nomenclature is due to sev-
eral causes, not the least of which is the admission of classifica-
‘tlon as a consenting eae: in nomenclature, and the tendency
seems to be more and mo this direction. This principle is
even directly piesiaied in a 1 recent able work (Dutton, ‘“ Geol-

ogy of the High Plateaus of Utah,” Chap.iv). Its general he
ognition can only result disastrously to the science. The tru
function of present systems of classification is to express fala.
tions between the objects classified. The true function of a
“system of nomenclature is to furnish each of these objects with
Am, Jour. aa —Tuirp Series, VoL. XXIV, No. 140.—Aveust, 1882.

114 A. W. Jackson—Nomenclature of Crystalline Rocks.

a name that shall be as a subject to change as possible, for
change produces confusio

Classifications are soamarily changing and if our rock-names.
are made dependent upon them, an element of poaerees in
nomenclature is introduced that is both undesirable and unnec-
essary. Our only remedy lies in a complete divorce of nomen-
clature from classification such as has long been recognized in
zoology, botany and mineralogy.*

In the following pages I wish to discuss He principles of
nomenclature as considered thus entirely distinct from classifi-
cation; it goes without saying that the crotioal, ee
and geological considerations which I discuss with reference to-
the irbearing on nomenclature are entirely open to a re-discussion
with reference to their bearing on classification ; and one may
arrive at diametrically SEpOS YE conclusions as to their value for
classification from my own as to their value for nomenclature
without in the least invalidating the results reached in the
present paper

In the first ‘chapter I state and explain me principles which
I conceive should aces us in the formation of rock-names and

with the pips suggested and give reasons for adopting
provisionally a different system of names.

CHAPTER I.

I conceive the fundamental principles to be borne constantly
in tke in the formation of a system of nomenclature to be
three: 1. Uniformity, I. Stability, TI. Adaptability. I shall
ania each of these and indicate its bearing upon the ques-
tion at issue.

-

mtty Stability. tt a "stable ” nomenclature, I mean one that
is not subject tochange. A rock that has once received a defi-
nite name should continue to be known by it. This principle
is second in — only to the first. If ali geo ogists
would agree to change any given name, there would of cou

* For a more extended discussion of this topic see the reprint of this paper in
the ——— of the California Academy of Sciences. Volume for 1882.

A. W. Jackson—Nomenclature of Crystalline Rocks. 115

be no objection to the change; uniformity would still be pre-
served. is principle as well as the first has been frequently
violated in petrography.

III. Adaptability. In considering this prineiple it is desirable
to bear in mind the peculiar nature of a rock as distinguished
from a mineral. A mineral is a definite homogeneous chemical
compound and one usually has no difficulty in recognizing it
and applying at once the name that has been agreed upon for
that particular compound. But a rock is usually a mechanical
mixture of two or more minerals, admitting considerable varia-
tion in the relative amounts of the different constituents, re-
maining in the estimation of the geologist substantially the
same rock. By the “adaptability” of a name I mean that it
should adapt itself to this variation. A change in the relative
amount of the constituents within certain not all-too-broad
limits should not necessitate the use of a new name.

It is here that I conceive some may take issue with me as to
the practicability of upholding this principle. It will be con-
tended that rocks grade off into each other by insensible transi-
tions and that the transitional forms are just as common as those
we may choose to set up as typical forms; that a name conse-
quently cannot be made to adapt itself to this indefinitely shift-
ing mixture of minerals. The answer to this has been so finely
stated by Rosenbusch (Massige Gesteine, p. 25) that I cannot
refrain from quoting it in full, premising that I have fully ex-
perienced the truth of his statément.

e says: “In the same way that insensible transitions from
one rock to another are brought about by change in the min-

In the second stage, the conviction presses itself gradually upon
the mind that nature cannot be fitted into so exact and rigid a

7 f
bind together and totally obliterate the types of the first stage.
_ Finally, in the last stage, one begins gradually to discover cere

116 A. W. Jackson—Nomenclature of Crystalline Rocks.

tain fixed points in this vague and indefinite mass of transitional
forms; or, to express myself petrographically, in the formless
magma of our views crystallization-centra begin to appear, about
which homogeneous material begins to deposit itself concentri-
cally with gradually decreasing density as we recede from the
center. Thus arise rock-groups whose central types are well-
defined and distinctly separated from one another, while their
peripheries tangent and in many ways coalesce. ne now re-
turns to the definite system which no longer possesses however
the rigidity and dead immobility of the first period.”

One who believes there is no such thing as a definite rock-
type, finds himself in the second stage of his development and
only needs a more extended range of experience to discover the
“os etn and to view them in their true relations; and he
will then perceive the true significance of this principle of
adaptability and will recognize the importance of conceding to
it a high degree of influence in the construction of rock-names.

Mr. Darwin has demonstrated the necessity of recognizing
this principle in the organic natural sciences and the mineral-
ogist has to bear it constantly in min

Were the necessity at all incumbent upon us to form a system
of nomenclature for material that had reached a perfect natural
classification, I should certainly add a fourth principle to the
three thus suggested, namely, that a name should be construct-
ed so as to suggest the relation of the rock to all allied rocks;
in other words I would seek to construct a complete systematic
nomenclature that should be an exact expression of the system-
atic classification.

As such a system has not yet and may never be reached, it
is certainly unwise to allow this principle to enter largely into
the determination of present nomenclature. It would at once

conflict with the first two principles of uniformity and stability.

To a slight extent it may perhaps safely be done; we shall con-
sider such cases later.

accord with these principles, they will be endorsed; in so far as
they are in conflict, they will be rejected.

I claim, first, as of fundamental importance that facis, and facts
alone, should determine names and that speculations, hypotheses

and theories should be entirely ignored. Facts are susceptible o

demonstration, and a nomenclature founded upon them is sure
to be uniform and stable, while speculations, hypotheses and

theories admit of differences of opinion, and if our names are to
‘ye influenced in any way by them, we at once admit an element

A. W. Jackson— Nomenclature of Crystalline Rocks. 117

d
they remain in the condition of a theory they should be totally
ignored in forming rock-names. The value of a fact in this
connection isto be measured by its generality; facts of local
: value should be reserved for local distinctions.
q he kinds of facts which are more immediately accessible to
the geologists are three: chemical, geological and mineralogical.
I will indicate what I conceive to be the value of each class for
| the formation of names.
q 1. Chemical. Perhaps the most striking evidence of the im-
d possibility of basing nomenclature upon chemical composition
can be presented in the fact that during all of the years preced-
ing the use of the microscope in petrographical investigation,
chemistry was unable to discover distinctions that become evi-
dent with the first glance into the microscope. ocks are not
minerals and have not the same well-defined stochiometric com-
position that minerals have. n the contrary, rocks that are

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composition. It ee at the fact of mineral
composition is of a higher order of utility than the fact of
chemical composition. The latter is a function of the former

mit the value of this conception and appreciate the significance
of the results to be gained by tracing different rocks back to a
common magia, still I hold that a rock is something more than
a certain chemical mixture, it is a chemical mixtare with a
history that is equally interesting. It has been subjected to various

118 A. W. Jackson— Nomenclature of Crystalline Rocks.

physical conditions of temperature and pressure that have de-
termined its rate of crystallization and that, equally with the
original magma, have determined the precise minerals which we
now find in the rock itself. is true we do not yet know
enough of the relations between varying conditions of tempera-
ture and pressure, and the resulting minerals to be able to
reason backward from the minerals themselves to the conditions
of which they are the (partial) expression; some progress has
been made in this direction and certainly more is to be ex-
pected.

The mineral composition of a rock will give us a conception,
then, not only of the original chemical composition of the mag-
ma from which it was derived. but also (particularly with
texture, see p. 19) of the physical conditions which have pre-
vailed during the process by which the rock acquired its present
appearance; it suggests both chemical and physical conditions
while the chemical analysis suggests only the former. Whence
I conceive that the use of chemical facts in constructing rock-
names is superfluous.

The inconvenience of making a quantitative chemical analysis
before deciding the name of a rock is certainly not the least ob-
jectionable feature of the plan.

Geology must always remain more or less of a natural history
science and the field geologist will always need a name that
will convey some conception of the appearance of a rock, such
as a mineralogical name will give him. .

2. Geological. The geological facts that might be used in

quartz and sanidine porphyritically developed, the ground-
mass of both was erypto-erystalline througbout and yet the one
was “ quartz-porphyry” because Pre-Tertiary, and the other
was “quartz-trachyte” because Post-Cretaceous. For the same
reason melaphyr is separated from basalt, with which it 1s
otherwise identical; hornblende porphyrite from hornblende

Baer.

A. W. Sackson— Nomenclature of Crystalline Rocks. 119

andesite; augite porphyrite from augite andesite; orthoclase
et

porphyrite from trachyte; and diabase from dolerite.

Those who hold to this distinction do not indeed deny the
frequent mineralogical identity of the rocks thus separated ; but
they hold that it is desirable to express thus the difference in age

-of the same mineral aggregate. With Prof. J. D. Dana* I

must confess myself unable to see the value of this distinction
for the nomenclature of the science. It appears to me muc

sometimes of Carboniferous, sometimes of Permian, and some-

times of Post-Cretaceous age. We find no difficulty in mineral-
ogy of uniting the quartz of the Pre-Tertiary quartz porphyry
h

with the quartz of the Post-Cretaceous quartz-trachyte (or
liparite, or rhyolite) under one species, in spite of the fact
that geological periods separated the dates of their formation.
‘One who would adyocate their separation into two species would
be properly ignored and yet the geologist makes a similar un-
necessary and unphilosophical distinction daily.

Moreover those who insist upon this distinction are not con-

‘sistent. They separate quartz porphyry from liparite, but they

fail to separate the Paleozoic granite of the Harz Mts. from the
Mesozoic granite of Cornwall; and they fail to separate certain
‘Triassic quartz porphyries of Germany from ilurian quartz
porphyries of England. In other words, the line is drawn

etween Mesozoic and Cenozoic but not betweeen Mesozoic

and Paleozoic. The reason for this (Roth, Beitriige zur Petro-

searches do not seem to favor this idea. Paleozoic voleanoes,
Java streams, and even tufas have been found and we should

* J.D. Dana. On some points in Lithology. This Journal, iii, p. 336. _

120 A. W. Jackson—Nomenclature of Crystalline Rocks.

certainly expect @ priori that they would have been formed then
as now; but in the tremendous lapse of time that has intervened

“older” and “newer” rocks may be due then not to their
difference in age, but to the difference in the physical conditions.
of their crystallization, conditions which held equally in Paleo-
zoic times and in Tertiary times, only the Paleozoic superficial:
formations have been mostly swept away and the deep seated
rocks of that age exposed by the removal of thousands of feet
of superincumbent strata while the superficial rocks of Post-
Cretaceous times, the trachytes, andesites, phonolites, basalts,
etc., are preserved to us because of their recent origin and the
granitic rocks now forming are too deep-seated to be exposed —
for observation.

- I would oppose then this distinction of rocks into ‘“ older”
and “newer” (for purposes of nomenclature) first, because the
original grounds upon which it was made seem no longer ten-
able; second, because such distinctions as exist in fact between
older and younger rocks can be accurately expressed by a

_ The third geological consideration to be noticed is origin.
The first objection to be urged against its use in rock-naming
is the fact that the whole subject of rock-genesis lies too much
within the region of theory and even speculation; whence for

DSS ae ee eee
+ pas Nett 7

A. W. Jackson—Nomenclature of Crystalline Rocks. 121

composition would be provided with different names according
as they were formed by one process or another. en actual
differences in composition result from different modes of form-
ation, such differences will find expression in a mineralogical
nomenclature, and when no differences exist, it would seem far
more rational to use but a single name. I would quote here.
with additions of my own in italics, from Prof. J. D. Dana’s
Manual of Geology, 3d edit., p. 76. “Further, rocks, as ob-
jects in science, sliould be defined and named according to their
kinds,—not according to the era of formation nor the method of
Jormation,—since the same things are the same whenever made
and however made.” Fortunately there is no pronounced ten-
dency to transgress in this direction.

3. Mineralogical. We come now to an examination of the
mineralogical facts at our disposal, in the light of the three
principles previously laid down. Under this head I propose to
include both the mznerals themselves and the manner in which
they are combined together, in other words rock-texture.

irst, with respect to the minerals themselves. They are
susceptible of exact determination, there can be no differences
of opinion as to what the essential constituents of a rock really
are. The use of the microscope, the application of polarized
light whereby the positions of optical planes can be accurately
determined, Sorby’s method for determining the indices of re-
fraction of minerals in rock-sections, Thoulet’s method of me-
chanically isolating rock constituents so that they may be quan-
titatively analysed if necessary, have all reduced the process of
mineralogical determination of the constituents even of compact
rocks to great exactness. :

It may be conceived that the difficulty, rarely perhaps im-

greatest ease. :
hile it cannot be regarded as proved that albite and anor-
thite, the soda-plagioclase and lime-plagioclase, do not widely
occur as rock constituents, still the results of investigations up
to the present point in this direction. It is the intermediate
use the term “plagioclase” in its eriginal sense, including the albite-an-
orthite series and excluding microcline.

122 A. W. Jackson—Nomenclature of Crystalline Rocks.

members of the plagioclase group for which as nse and
labradorite stand as types, that most commonly occu
great element of uncertainty would be introduced sat our
nomenclature if we considered plagioclase a single mineral
— subject of course to variation in the amounts of soda,
me and silica, and in the future progress of the science, as the
beaok nature of the ee ae for each individual case became
determined, the name of this variety could easily be substi-
tuted for pigascidee ‘i the name of the rock, or used as an
adjective modifying the name, if a purely trivial one. We
should ait e. g. oligoclase- basalt” and “labradorite-basalt”
in Nai place of “basalt” as now use t must certainly be

what minerals shall be utilized for this purpose. The mineral
constituents of a rock have been divided into primary and
secondary according as they are the product of immediate crys-
tallization out of the original rock-magma before or at the final
solidification of the rock; or are produced by changes in the
ock subsequent to its final solidiRoution brought about by
atmospheric waters or local metamorphism. To these may be
added such minerals and fragments as may have been mechan-
- enclosed during the process of eruption; I shall call
such foreign minerals and fragments. With the fragments of
course we have nothing to dc
Of these the secondary and foreign minerals should unques-
tionably be disregarded in namin , as in fact has
always been the practice. They are evidently purely adventi-
tious and have nothing whatsoever to do with the rock as such.

ion between essential and accessory constituents. The acces-
sory mineral of one rock is the essential mineral of another,
and just where to draw the line is not always at once evident
from the fact that an approximate quantitative estimate of the
mineral has to be made. It is here that practice only can ren-
der skillful. From the nature of the case it can never
otherwise, and serious embarrassment is not to be feared from

this source. It is to be presumed that geologists are to be
educated oe the ability to make such distinctions must
learned. who runs cannot expect to read. On the other

_ + hand, it ce be observed that mistakes arising from this

A. W. Jackson— Nomenclature of Orystalline Focks. 123

source are liable only about the peripheries of the rock-groups,
to take up Rozenbusch’s figure once more; and the alternative
is to place the rock in a closely allied group where the mistake,
if it be one, can do the minimum of harm.

I have shown thus far that uniformity and stability would re-
sult from a purely mineralogical nomenclature; let us now

over even a higher order of adaptability than this. I have
quoted Rosenbusch on the subject of rock-groups wherein
he asserts the substantial unity of rock-types but of rock-types
that are themselves united by transitions due to the gradual re-
placement of one or more constituents by other minerals, or
by a gradual change of texture. Such names can be made to
adapt themselves most perfectly to the expression of the rela-
tions between the different members of a rock-group and he-
tween each and the central type. 70 this limited extent the
attempt could safely be made to be systematic in our nomencla-
ture; for the relations between the closely allied rocks of each
group both chemically and geologically as well as mineralog-
ically are too evident ever to become questioned. :
To illustrate with the granite group, Rosenbusch (Massige
Gesteine, p. 18) following and developing the suggestion of
ustav Rose has divided and named the group in accordance
with these principles. Quartz, orthoclase, and plagioclase are
present im every granite; associated with these are muscovite,
biotite and hornblende, sometimes one, sometimes two. hen
muscovite alone is present we have muscovite granite; when
biotite alone, biotite-granite (or granitite); when hornblende
alone, hornblende granite, when muscovite and biotite together,
aes (in strict sense); when biotite and hornblende, biotite
ornblende granite, or, more conveniently, hornblende grani-
tite. Muscovite and hornblende do not occur simultaneously
with the type constituents, but if they did it would be a sim-
ple matter to make a name for the rock.
The basalt group furnishes another good instance. From
basalt as a central type (plagioclase, augite, olivine) we pass to
nephelite basalt (— plagioclase + nephelite), or to leucite basalt

124 A. W. Jackson—Nomenclature of Crystalline Rocks.
i plagioclase + leucite), or to diallage basalt (—augite + dial-

Cb this way then our nomenclature ‘na rich adapt itself
to the special circumstances h )
sidered desirable, purely trivial names feild be given to enich
of these closely allied rocks; but my own preference would be
for descriptive names so long as they could be formed by the
use of a single mineral name as a modifier, such as “ biotite
granite,” “ leucite basalt,” aid at ‘the reduction in number of
the purely trivial names to a m m.

In addition to the mineral paeaeidents. many rocks contain
more or less of the solidified magma- residuum that was no
taken up by the crystalline elements before molecular seohdon
of motion was stopped by the final solidification of the r

ure.
rock ~Texture.—From the earliest times texture has been
utilized for the purpose of naming rocks, and the desirability of
continuing its yse particularly for purposes of descriptive
petrography is evident. It is none the less so from the fact
that it is the expression, so far as we yet understand it even
more perfectly than the minerals themselves, of the prevailing
ees conditions during the process of cooling and solidifica-

ae rock-texture be used in forming a nomenclature, with-
out danger to our fundamental principles? Does it present
itself in such forms as to be accurately and universally recog-
nized? The accuracy with which Rosenbusch has defined (1. ¢.
p- 70 et seq.) certain important forms of macro-, and micro-tex-
ture renders possible an affirmative answer to these two queries.
I will r age his definitions. Ground-mass is the term ap-
plied to the compact portion of a rock as distinguished from
the large, distinctly visible, nator crystals. “It is entirely
@ macroscopic conception. Under the microscope this ground-
mass may be developed entirely sryataltine i. e. anisotropic ; Or
as a mixture of crystals aud isotropic material one the base ; ;
r entirely isotropic. If entirely anisotropic, it may be either
caiareoyuinliiie: i.e, made up entirely . distinc erystalline
granules ; or ie dca agai ce i. e. consisting of anisotropic
material thro ughout but with the oyaallne individuals alto-
te indistinguishable from one another. No sharp distinc-
e drawn between these two; they pass by insensible

seaciaiaci into each other.

the ground-mass contains isotropic material, this material

may be developed as a microfelsitic base, i. e. showi ing no polar-

A. W. Jackson—Nomenclature of Crystalline Rocks. 125

ization and no glass, but consisting entirely of granules, scales
and thread-like forms; or as a glassy base, i. e. a glass with

stage of subsequent molecular rearrangement in the “ older”
rocks, But the distinction cannotinvariably be sharply drawn
between them.

One can however at once distinguish sharply between the
presence or absence of isotropic material in the ground-mass,
and upon this a distinction in nomenclature can safely be based.
Bearing in mind the terms thus defined, I will illustrate the
use that can safely be made of rock-texture, by applying it to
the series of rocks having obsidian at one extreme and granite
at the other, including thus the liparites and quartz porphyries.

If the rock is to the unaided eye distinctly and completely

were developed in larger crystals than the rest it could be indi-

called with Rosenbusch “ microgranite,” and if porphyritic,
‘‘porphyritic microgranite.” If the ground-mass containe

isotropic material it would be desirable to distinguish between
two cases; first, where the crystalline portion is in excess (the
“quartz porphyries”), second, where the isotropic portion is in

‘or pure glass, Or the trivial name “liparite” could be used,

126 A. W. Jackson—Nomenclature of Crystalline Rocks.

opposite to each the term. pate opie has applied to the same
mineralogical and textural aggregat
Jackson. Ngan aay

Granite Gran
: Grant Tpante or part).

Porphyritic granite,

i i i ranite.
Microgranite, {ii ite

Felsite fels.
ee ; § Quartz porphy
FPorphyritic microgranite, - l Granitis italy (in part).
tasooh mi
Quartz porphyry, Fel
Viteoohye (in part).
microlitic, Trachytie pitchstone porphyry-
aia ve Felsitic wig Ben porphyry.
Obsidian porphyry < felsitic, _-.-----.---- | Vitr ophyr (i
LPlassy cos Os ee Obsidian
microlitic, Trachytic pitc na ode
Obsidian < felsitic, Felsitie e pteisto ne.
glas ssy, Obsid

In these names which I have thus suggested, the much ab-
used term “ porphyry” obtains a perfectly definite meaning; it
indicates always the presence of determinable crystalline con-
stituents and of a base e, which is of course always isotropic.
The term “ porphyritic ” would be used only in the macroscopic
sense. These names are as much as possible descriptive; trivial
names could be substituted throughout but, as I have said be-
fore, I think such names should never be coined where a con-
venient descriptive one will answer the same purpose. It wil
‘be observed that, following the principles previously laid down
every possible textural aggregate in the series has received a
name, that each has received but one name, that, consequently,
the same name is never applied to aggregates that are object-
ively distinct, and finally that they are based pret distinctions
about which there can be no differences of o

milar manner these textural Sanerons could be ap-
plied to every similar rock-series and perfect uniformity and
consistency established sb roueheoek
ave poise a in the present chapter only the most general
considerations. Even if the principle of a strictly mineralogical
nomenclature were accepted, the exact part which the different
essential rock-constituents would play therein would still re-
main to be determined. The discussion of this question is
shea? however, until the more fundamental proposition is
palin
s to me clear that a rock-nomenclature founded upon
purely chai or geological or upon mixed chemical or geo-
ogical principles either with each other, or with mineralogical
principles, necessarily must lead, as it ie y has led, to much

j
3
;
:
eg

A. W. Jackson—Nomenclature of Crystalline Rocks. 127

mineralogical grounds alone. is only thus that an exact
system of names can arise that can give worthy expression to
the exact work that is now being done in this department of
geology. Until some such uniform system is established we
must continue to waste our energies in struggling to understand
one another when the real difficulty is not with the facts but
with the rms in which we express them. The energies ex-
pended in this effort would be far more profitably utilized in
advancing our knowledge of the facts themselves.

Justin Roth says that Petrography as a descriptive science
loses all significance.* True, but 1t must be remembered that
the purely descriptive stage of a science must always precede the
scientific stage; and that the latter stage is only possible after
the former has become exact. Whatever conduces to exactness
of expression in descriptive petrography will add greatly to the
scientific usefulness of this branch of geology in helping to solve
many of the profoundest problems that engage the attention of
the geological thinker of the present day.

CHAPTER II.

It will be observed that I refrain from any attempt to frame
a system of names in accordance with the principles I have laid
down. I do this because I think that no new name should be
introduced into a science unless it is tolerably sure of being
accepted in the sense in which it is proposed. Names are used
to promote clearness and not confusion and unless this end can
be attained it is better to refrain entirely from their introduc-
tion. The reformation of the entire nomenclature of a science
is a task that should be attempted only by one who has gained
authority by long years of special work, by one who is univer-
sally recognized as fitted for the undertaking. There are but
one or two men living who could hope to succeed.

All that can be hoped for under the circumstances is that
every writer should use the same nomenclature; uniformity,
even if based upon principles that all will not accept as valid,
is of the first importance. It is better that each should forego
the luxury of insisting upon individual idiosyncracies, which
in the majority of cases can never hope to become currently ac-
cepted than that by so doing he should add to the existing con-
fusion, Just as strongly as Capt. Dutton + would insist upon

* Gest. Anal., 1873, p. 90. Die Petrographie, welche nicht mit den beschrei-
benden Zweigen der Naturwissenschaft in einer Reihe gestellt werden kann,
gewinnt nur durch die Unterordnung unter die geologische Forschung ihre Be-

g-
+ Geol. of High Plateaus, p. 85.

«

198. ASW. Jaakein Nt omenclature of Crystalline Focks.

the duty of each to express his ideas in the form of a classifica-
tion, just so set would I insist ss the duty of each to
refrain from using a name in a di nt sense from that in
which it was Be ly proposed, or fon that which is already
current.

In selecting a nomenclature, that one should be chosen which
is embodied in a convenient form accessible to all, which is

the foster-mother of petrography and the mete os De
other country is small compared with her In many
two oe. and Rosenbuech—have. w won the “highest re-

gine” (1878) and Rosenbusch’s “ Mikroskopische Pa ynetie
phie der massigen Gesteine ” (1877) are en worthy of being
cited. The latter is later and goes more systematically over
the entire field. I think Rosenbusch’s names are better chosen
avd capable of better defense than Zirkel’s, where they differ.
I shall follow Rosenbusch in the series of papers which I pro-
pose to present to the Academy of Sciences of California on the
rocks of the Pacific coast.

SUMMARY.

Permanence of rock-names is desirable ; hence names should
not be dependent in any manner upon the system of rock-clas-
sification, for classifications change.

The names of rocks should be 1 uniform, i. e., used in the same
sense by all geologists; they should be stable, i. e., not subject
to change; they should ve adaptable, i. e., to the somewhat
variable nature of each r

n forming rock. eee ge facts and theories offer them
selves as determining elements. The latter should be rejented
as they admit of honest differences of opinion. Of facts, we
have chemical, geological and mineralogical at our disposal.

Both chemical and Leech facts should be rejected in de-
termining rock-names, because mineralogical (and textural)
differences among massive erystalline rocks can be adequately
expressed by a purely mineralogical (and textural) nomenclature,

and where such differences do not exist, it is undesirable to
tive names based upon geological or slight chemical differences.

Cross and Hillebrand—Minerals from Colorado. 129

It is only by the adoption of names based upon purely mine-
ralogical differences that we can hope to obtain a nomenclature
that shall conform to the three fundamental principles of Uni-
formity, Stability, and Adaptability.

As it is not to be hoped that a sweeping reform in _petro-
graphical nomenclature can be carried out at once, the good of
the science requires that at least the first and most important of
these principles, viz: Uniformity, should be recognized and in
conformity therewith that al! should use some one published
and easily accessible system of names until a belter complete sys-
tem of names can be offered with some chance that it may be
generally adopted.

In the opinion of the writer, the nomenclature of Rosenbusch
as recorded in his “ Massige Gesteine, 1877,” is the most widely
recognized and the best now accessible.

University of Cal., Berkeley.

Art. XVI.—Communications from the U.S. Geol. Survey, Rocky
Mountain Division. 1. On the Minerals, mainly Zeolites, occur-
ring in the basalt of Table Mountain, near Golden, Colorado ;
by Wuitman Cross and W. F. HILLeBRAND.

(Continued from page 458, vol. xxiii.)

4, APOPHYLLITE.

is in most cases quite subordinate, or wanting entirely. The
larger crystals, which are occasionally half an inch in diameter,

This angle is nowhere prominent, yet may be easily identified
on all clear crystals both large and small. No corresponding
irregularity of any kind could be detected on the dimetric
prism of these crystals. ans
As a rule, the largest crystals occur in the small cavities,
and their growth has been more or less hemmed by the walls,
Am. Jour. Sc1,—Tuirp Series, VoL. XXIV, No. 140.—Aveust, 1882,
9 4

130 Cross and Hillebrand—Minerals in the basalt of

while the more perfect crystals are present in the large cavities,
and are usually small and numerous.

In time of deposition apophyllite follows analeite. The opti-
cal properties of this apophyllite are noteworthy in so much as
they seem to indicate very clearly the cause of the anomalous
action, so often noticed in that mineral. No hypothesis of a
complicated twin structure, such as that of Rumpf,* to cite the
most recent, as well as the clearest and most consistent, can
explain the phenomena observed in this apophyllite. While
an extended description of the observed anomalies is impossi-
ble in this notice, the chief features will be given.

If from a small, clear crystal from Table Mountain a section
be taken parallel to the base (0) and so situated that it cuts
both pyramid (1) and dimetric prism (7-7), an eight-sided fig-
ure results (see fig. 1), in which the outlines of the pyramid
will be referred to as those of the normal prism (/).

h a section seen between crossed Nicols, whose principal
sections lie parallel to the diagonals of J (position I), presents

L an appearance indicated by the diagram, tig. 1.
There appears, namely, a dark square, whose
sides lie parallel to the outlines of the prism
(I), with dark lines running to the outlines of
77, and perpendicular to the same, thus coin-
ciding with the diagonals of £ The dark
square and lines are well defined. The outer
zone, divided by the dark lines into four seg-
ments, is in position I at its maximum of brightness.

On revolving the section through 45°, or until the principal
sections of the Nicols coincide with diagonals of 7-¢ (position 11),
the whole field becomes equally dark, and the interference
cross of the calcite plate suffers no distortion in any part o the
section.

* J. Rumpf “ Ueber den Krystallbau des Apophyllits” Min. und petr. Mitthel-

- angen von G. Tschermak, Neue Folge, ii, 369.(1879).

Table Mountain, near Golden, Colorado. 131

‘a section placed in position II was wholly dark, excepting at one
of the angles of the square, where a faint light was visible,
producing distortion of the calcite interference cross at. this
point. In another section, in position I, the dark figure was
not completely dark, there bei eing light enough to admit of the
distinct appearance ‘of two perfect black crosses, whose thick

ushy arms lay parallel to the diagonals of prism 1, and which,
revolving with the section, disappeared entirely in position II.
All but transmitted light must be excluded, in order to see
these crosses distinctly, as the whole of the square is still very
dark in contrast with the outer zone. In cases where the
boundaries of the dark figure are much-broken lines, the space
within is commonly divided into a number of irregular patches,
each with its black cross, seen in position I. In such cases, too,
the whole field does not become uniformly dark in any posi-
tion. The size of the dark figure relative to that of the section
‘varies greatly. In most cases the relation is similar to that of

g. 1; while in some prismatic sections the dark square is
larger than can be inscribed within the prism, its angles being
“cut off by the outlines of 7-2. Again, the dark figure becomes
very small, though in no case yet observed has it bbe entirely
wanti ing.

It is impossible to indicate all the irregularities observed,
‘within the limits of this article, and the fuller paeh te of
these interesting phenomena must be pene the final
report on the region embracing Table Mountain.

None of the sections thus far encat parallel to the prism
i-t, have exhibited any marked abnormal properties.

Th is thought that the degree of variation, in the comes prop-
erties, from the simplest form illustrated by fig. 1, stands in
intimate relation to the degree of irregularity in crystal growth
‘indicated by the faceted surfaces. Certainly no hypothesis,
however ingenious, which considers the tetragonal symmetry of
Ap hyllite as a result of intricate polysynthetic twin structure

rhombie or monoclinic individuals (that of Rumpf |. c.),
antes the present case with a tithe of the plausibility with
which the theory of inner tension* is able to do it.

It is hoped that further investigations will prove the direct
apiphionbilisy of sr latter theory to the present instance,

* As leading instances of the application of this theory to the explanation of
optical anomalies in minerals may be mentioned :—
(2), ver Klein, “ Ueber den Boracit,” Neues Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, ete., 1880,
ii, p.
bye O. Klein, Zur Frage tiber das Krystallsystem des Boracits,” ibid., 1881, i,
‘(c.) Alfredo Ben-Saude, ‘‘ Ueber den Analcim,” ibid., 1882, i, p. :
Pog Loe . Klocke, “‘ Ueber Doppelbrechung regularen n Krystalle, ” ibid, 1880, i, p.

132 = Oross and Hillebrand—Minerals in the basalt of

F. Klocke* in a critical review of Rumpf’s hypothesis (1. ¢.),
advocated the theory of inner tension (Spannung) in explana-
tion of the anomalous optical behavior of apophyllite. He also
showed that Rumpf’s hypothesis could not fprreotls explain
phenomena in apophyllite much simpler than those above
described.

In chemical composition this es a is quite normal,
the fresh substance yielding the followin

Oe eee oes: 51°886
a 1°540
PO ee ie: 07130
UP 2 oN oe See oe at 24-515
Ae ra i a 3°809
NED 2 ads Chg aia, 0°590
3 Segre ce eapiaeen scenes 16°523
We Ske oe haw on peh Wineie 1°700
100°691

Yor Be ee a
99°975

Considering all potassium and sodium as combined with fluo-
rine, the following oxygen ratios are afforded :
nie Sid, : H,O
: 395 : 2:09
The theoretical ES 1:4:2 would be still nearer ap-
proached were it not fora probable slight loss of silica and excess
of water, scarcely to be avoided in analyses of silicates contain-
ing fluorine. The FeO, is undoubtedly owing to minute parti-
cles of limonite, which could not be completely removed. The
A1,0s5 i is much higher than in most analyses, and the condition
in which it is cient seems undeterminable.
Much of the Table Mountain apophyllite has suffered altera-
tion to a snowy-white substance resembling that commonly
known as albine. Knop eC has proven for many cases at least,

haan markedly, while the percentages of SiO, alice and
ont increase greatly.
ocke, review of Rumpf’s article, “ ened den Krystallbau des Apophyl-~
’ in ‘Neues Jahrbuch,” etc., 1880, ii, p. 1
ae in n Blum, ‘ Die Pseudomorphosen, ete, Deltiee Nachtrag,” 1863, p. 41.

Table Mountain, near Golden, Colorado. 133

__ There is no calcite in the product at all. The substance is
light, has a pearly luster, and is finely foliated parallel to the

5. CALcITE.

The carbonate of calcium has had three periods of deposition
in the basaltic cavities of Table Mountain—two as calcite, and
one as aragonite.

In the form of wine-yellow crystals, it preceded even chaba-
-zite, being in all observed cases deposited directly on the basalt, —
and coated usually by chabazite or thomsonite.

It is rarely found in those cavities to which water has had
access through fissures, having been dissolved.

he second deposit of calcite came after apophyllite. These

‘crystals are colorless or slightly straw-yellow, and the form of

th varieties is commonly that of a sharp scalenohedron ter-
minated by a low rhombohedron. :

The aragonite is present only as a snow-white inerustation,
apparently with a special tendency to deposition upon chaba-
aite, though often noticed on apophyllite and thomsonite. It
was next to the last mineral deposited, only mesolite having
been observed upon it.

6. MeEso.ire,

ane, a Ag
web. The exquisite delicacy of some of these films is quite
wonderful. In rare cases, bunches on the upper and lower
walls of a cavity are united by such a membrane. Single
needles are clear, but the aggregate appears pure white.
As was mentioned under thomsonite, the loose aggregates of
the second generation of that mineral, seem specially suited to
attract the deposition of mesolite.

134. Cross and Hillebrand— Minerals wm the basalt of

None of the mesolite needles are large te to allow any
determination of their crystal form, even er the microscope-
at a high power. They seem a like very fine aaa

a b c
sid. 46138 46°020 46°333
Al,O3 26°880 26°870

aO 8770
Na,O0 67190

H,O 12°168 12°169 12°130
100°146

Oxygen ratio:
RO: R.0; : SiO. : H.0
1 306 599 2°63
If mesolite be considered as a mixture of the isomorphous.
silicates contained in scolecite (CaA1,Si,;0,,+38 aq) and natrolite
(Na,Al,8i,0 +2 aq), the bran occurrence wou!d answer very
nearly to the requirements of the combination of 2 of scolecite
+1 of natrolite, the serait tage. of which would be SiO,
46°32, Al,O,; 26 40, CaO 9°61, Na,O 5°32, H,O 12:35 =100-00.
With mesolite ends the chief series of Table Mountain
zeolites. The species described are for the most part clear or
colorless, and well defined in crystallization, while they occur
so often associated as to make the order in which they have-
been described a perfectly natural one.

A second series of zeolitic minerals will now be taken up, the
members of which, in time and manner of deposition, and par-
tially also in composition, are very distinct from those already
i oned.

the perrieee article (this Journal, June) chabazite was.
ied to be eat of the zeolites, ‘with the exception of
certain peclia stratified deionts in some of the cavities.”
Since then the character of these deposits has been determined,

Mountain is immediately attracted to a reddish-yellow sand-
stone-like material, which occurs in many of the cavities. In
the larger ones it ‘takes the form of a fakat the upper surface
being horizontal, and the deposit may be several inches in
thickness. Small cavities have sci completely filled by it,
and it is clear that the ne deren has taken place from the
bottom of each cavity, upw

In parts of South Table Mountain es eonlly te same ma-.
terial has filled fissures. Usua = owe

Table Mountain, near Golden, Colorado. 135

spherules of a similarly colored radiate mineral. These
spherules are seldom more than 2™™ in diameter, and are very
perfect spheres. They increase in number upward and finally
compose the greater part of the deposit.

In one cavity, 6 to 8 feet in horizontal diameter and about
two feet in height, the deposit is quite different. Here the
main mass is loose ly granular, and is formed chiefly by a
bright pg ours -yellow mineral, while a stratified appearance is
produe layers of a white or colorless mineral. Some of
the Net i are chiefly made up of easily recognizable
stilbite, and the same mineral in distinct tablets forms the
upper layer of the whole deposit. There are also irregular
seams of white running through the yellow mineral.

The determination of the minerals in these deposits began
with the greenish-yellow sand of this las mentioned cavity,
and the GRRHDEDD will follow the same order.

[ ose sand be placed under the microscope with a
power of eit fifteen diameters, it is seen to consist of pris-

mentioned, while others are dull. The clear prisms polarize
strongly, and veel takes place at an angle of 35° to 40°
with the vertical a

grains e prism angles are nearly 86° 94°, and the
termination is usually formed by an Seuaue. plane, like a
hemidome Se the monoclinic system he optical orientation

a b
Yellow grains, White crystals.
Si0, 51-738 52°835
Al,Og 21-649 21619
FeO; 0947
0 11°949 11406
Na,O 9°19) 0°48
K,0 0°352 0424
HO 13°297 13°324
100°123 100°092

Oxygen ratios:

a 2 Boe

RO : R,O; : Sid, : HO
a bot eee 78.
1 29s 2 Se 6 oa

136 Cross ond Hillebrand—Minerals in the basalt of

retical requirements of laumontite 1:3:8:4, especially as it
can scarcely be supposed that the material was absolutely pure.
It is quite probable that a small amoun stilbite was in-

exposure.
The mineral is not quite so easily fusible before the blow-
pipe as typical laumontite should be, according to the text-
oks, but the difference is not sufficiently pronounced to be

ur w to
which correspond so closely to the one described, the same
constituent minerals were sought for. Some small cracks or
fi

ticed, som which were only partially filled with minute
white crystals. On splitting the mass open, along such a half-
fi crack, two surfaces were obtained, coated with minute,

e
of the yellow granular mass, care being taken to exclude al
reddish spherules. The results are given under c and d below.

c d

SiO, 55°370 54°802 40°518
Al.,O: LT 641 17657 29°216
Fe.0, 0-790 0-754 0-78

$526 8°412 12°427
K,0 0-173 0°069
Na.O 429 1506 4°306
H,O 16278 17040 12°794

100°206 100°140 100-049

Table Mountain, near Golden, Colorado. 137

The oxygen ratios are:
RO : R203 : Si0e : HO
c 1: 2°99 : 10-42: 5°11
d 1 : 3°00 : 10-42: 5°40

This eomposition is such as would result from a mixture
of stilbite and laumontite, and although the latter mineral
could not be positively identified in the sand examined with
the microscope, there seems to be no good ground for doubt-
ing that it is actually present.

It. seems remarkable that the material from two different
cavities should contain the two minerals in so nearly the same
proportions, as indicated by the analyses.

Concerning the reddish spherules, no data of importance
‘could be obtained except by chemical analysis. Under eabove
is given the composition found for this substance in material
which was apparently very pure.

he oxygen ratio for this, is:
RO : R40; : SiO, : HO
1: 2°98 <-4°64.:.2'42 >
These figures agree so well with those obtained for the
_ thomsonite of the first series (see Analysis I in June number,
this Journal), viz:

Fe ee oR ee ee eee Solin Pee yee Le RN ee he See eee ||

1:.3:09 : 476: 2°61

j water could be expelled only at a very high temperature.

portion of the alumina.
e occurrence of cavities containing these stratified de-

posits side by side with those entirely free from anything of
the kind is very interesting. It seems to be explainable with
plausibility on the theory that fissures formerly led into those
cavities containing the reddish deposits, which were naturally
followed by percolating waters.

The formation of zeolites in all cavities alike could only
begin after the filling up of these fissures by the deposition of
mineral matter. In support of this theory, it was noticed that

138 F. E. Nipher—The Lsentropie Curve.

in no case were the reddish deposits formed upon any clear
mineral of the first series described, and that in all cases where
minerals of the first series were formed in past containing
the stratified deposits, they occurred in the same order and
manner as in any other cavity, being Faued c on nthe roof and
sides as well as upon the floor. Fissures filled with these red-
dish minerals were in fact seen in several cases leading into-
a containing stratified deposits of the same mine

n article, still other zeolitic species ‘panne ‘Table
Monsese will be described.

Art. XVIT.—On a Pi roperty of the Isentr Lien Curve for a Perfect
Gas as drawn upon the Thermodynamic Surface Ae ae
Volume and Temperature ;* by Francois EK. NipH

THE uct of this thermodynamic surface is
po = RT, (1)
where p, v, T represent the pressure, volume and absolute tem-
perature, and where R is directly proportional to the volume of
a unit mass (or inversely proportional to the density) of the gas
at a standard temperature and pressure.
By differentiation (1) becomes

dp == ite (2)
For convenience putting
= = A, ae a, B,
v v
and (2) becomes
dp = AdT — Baw. (3)
1°. To find the incon of maximum slope with respect to
the v,T plane at any point on the surface. For this purpose

pass a plane through on point in the surface, and at right.

angles to the v,T plane. Its trace upon the v,T plane is
T=f + az, (4)
p being indeterminate; where a is the tangent of the angle

which the trace makes with the v axis, Or
dT
"diol 5
“= de @)
From (3) and (5) we have
dp = (Aa —B) dv. (6)
* From Trans. of St. Louis Academy of Science, read April 3, 1882.

F. E. Nipher—The Isentropic Curve. 139

Calling S the slope of any element of the intersection of the
plane and it surface, dz being the projection of the element.
on the v,T plane, we have

oe ia cee ; (7).

i dz /dv'+dT°

which by (5) becomes
Ss

do Sita
and by (6) we have further
pa ee (8)
V1+a?
In determining the direction of maximum slope at any point,
it is evident that A and B will be constant, which gives as the
required condition,

_ A+Ba _
(14a)?
Piece
a= B
Substituting the values of A and B, we have

or

v R
=—s SS j 9
a T - tan é, (9)
For very low pressures, the direction of maximum slope 7 a
_ becomes more and more nearly at right angles to the plane of
p,v; while for high pressures this direction becomes more and
more nearly parallel to the plane of p, v. The direction of
: ‘

r
es To find the direction of the isentropic line at any point.
the surface, as related to the direction of maximum slope

determined in 9).
Poisson’s equation :
| 5 Ty? =const. (10).
is a projection of the isentropic line upon the plane of », T,
: where k is the ratio of the specific heats = 1°41.
Calling a’ the tangent of the angle which any element of this.
projection makes with the v axis, we have
my, ee
| . =tan 2.
__ This value of a’ is obtained by differentiating (10) and is
found to be

aL. To iy
do =o # = —Qe-D- a

140 F. E.. Nipher—The Isentropie Curve.

Here also the condition of constant pressure gives a constant
value for a’. Hence, at any point along any line of constant
pressure the projection of an element of the isentropic line,
upon the v, T plane, makes a constant angle with the projected
line of greatest slope at the same point.

- From equations (9) and (11) it follows that
» k-1,
tan 7 sere (12) |
from which it will appear that for either very high or very low
pressure the isentropic line runs at right angles to the direction
of greatest slope. The condition that it shall coincide with the
direction of greatest slope is

tan 7=VW/k—-1 =,
or
R
oe (13)
e Vk—-1

tion, (14) shows that they will also have a common density,
which when T is 278° will be 0:000058 grams to the cubic
centimeter.

It will be observed that for air, the pressure indicated in (13)
is practically the same as that at which Maxwell’s law for vis-
cosity begins to fail. This, however, is a mere coincidence.

he two phenomena have nothing in common, as is evident —
both from theoretical considerations and from experimental :
results.

Washington University, March 30, 1882.

Chemistry and Physics. 141

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.

On the Constitution of Solutions—Kriss has applied the
spectroscope to the determination of the constitution of solutions.
It is well known that the absorption-spectrum of a solution con-

width was 10+a™, nid whose Stas sides were a@™™ thick.
glass plate of thickness @ was placed within the liquid and a
second one outside, both being perpendicular to the light-rays.

ter showed a no diethact color between A==483°8 and the Hola.

When the t cells were inter ; b
A=570'4—518°2 appeared, and also the strong absorption begin-
ning at A=4 hen a mixture of t oluti a

examined, the absorption bands A=570°4 —518°2 had pela cen
and a pretty strong absorption from A=576-9 toward the violet
had taken its place, while from A=483°8 no distinct color could
be recognized. These changes have unquestionably a chemical
origin, “If, however, solutions of neutral potassium chromate and

tra

examined quantitatively by Vierordt’s method, on the othe
and, using a solution of ee former salt of the concentration
y=0° 01805 grams in 1¢, and one of the latter of e=0-02 grams,
the superposed spectra show in rte region E26F—E45P, a light-
intensity of 0°2366 and E6é3F—ES80F of 0°361, corresponding to

ie extinction-coéfficients €—=0°52784 and ¢,—0°44250.
éfficients, calculated by Vierordt’s formula from his data, are
identient with the above values within the limits of error. In

142 Scientific Intelligence.

the region E26F—E45F, se eal “eats for ammonium-
cupric sulphate is a=0 and potassium chromate

=0°1292; and in the ab: ees! —EsoF it is y==0°03472 for
the — and 6=0°05937 for the latter. From the formula

f= == tae the value of ¢,==0°52611 for the former region, and

aes oa

oe
eS 20°
tions are mixed, the extinction-coéfficient ¢,=0°21468 and ¢,=

0°07573. These values differ so much from the others as to jus-
tify the conclusion that a chemical action of some kind has taken
place. If solutions of potassium chromate and dichromate, or of
permanganate and dichromate are mixed, the spectrum of ie
mixture is identical with that of the sum of the single spectr

author concludes that spectrum analysis gives a Sone

fies

any chemical change taking place.— Ber. Berl. Chem. abo v,

1243, apr a . B.

2. @ Vapor-density of Bromine.—Jaun has determined
in Tait. s laboratory the vapor-density of bromine. The m

rial was carefully purified, and had a Sava boiling oat of
1ed Bun

63:07° C. The ober ccaey was determi by sen’s
method mine modified. e first series of determinations
was made at 102°6° C., ‘id gave (a) 5°7225, (6) 5°7388, (¢) 5°72285

mean, 5°728. The second series, at 131-92° C. , gave (a) 5-635, 0)
5-646, (c) 5°638; mean, 5°640. The hid gave at ieee C., (4
5°603, (6) 5°605; mean, 5604. The fourth, at 210°32° C., gave
(a) 5543, (6) 5°549; mean, 5°546. The fifth ey ay: ob G, » (4) ,
55241, (6) 5°5245, (c) 5°5244; mea Taking Stas’s
value for the atomic weight 79° 951, the naleadeted vapor-density
- 159°9
is eae O50 ; ; a value practically identical with that last
‘given. If further the expansion be assumed to increase with the
temperature and in the linear formula D=a+2t, the value of the
‘constants @ and b be ones from the above data by the
hod of least squares, @ is found to be 5°8691 and d=
—0°00153. ae fie the formula, the eeaalated vale
are obtained for the above temperatures. They agree with t
v5 abe ental st on very well except at 102°6° and 131° 92°,
Here the expansion eurve is a conic section, the temperature
halen not far above the boiling point. Using, therefore, the
8'°535 sea 04
quadratic formula D=5'5189— —— + —- the calculated val-
ues come out 5°729 at 102°6° and 5638 at 131-92°. vec this
point the linear equation holds. essa soe the vapor-den-

Y —-44003 for the latter. But when the two solu- |

Chemistry and Physics. 143

point chlorine reaching its 1 slew voaety at 240°

oiling point, and iodine at its boiling point. Jahn attributes

this to molecular aggregation, the molecules becoming single and

separate only at temperatures at which the vapor-density becomes
sgh ae — Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xv, 1238, June, 1882. G. F. B.
3, New method for preparing ’Huponitrous acid.—¥or the pro-

duction of hyponitrous acid, HNO, the agents peice used for

gen. In practice, pure ferrous sulphate is dissolved in water and
mixed with milk of lime, avoiding an excess, and leaving the
solution slightly acid. To this thin magma is added, a solution
of sodium nitrite (one part of the nitrite being used for ev ery 10
—— of the ferrous sulphate) and the whole is ; well cooled. "The

ass foams, and the reduction is re in a few hours. It is

precipitated with silver nitrate. The ee of silver hypo-

mixed with the precipitated hyponitrite. From 100 grams
nitrite and one kilometer of ferrous sulphate, 10 grams pure sil-
yi. oo was obtained.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xv, ses

4. n Apparatus for Liquefying Ciaieon'- Hore cr
douertbed a simple form of apparatus for liquefying ammonia gas,
which may be used with other gases as well. It consists of a

iene ma

with pure ary ammonia gas in the usual way, is immersed in ie
mercury, with which the apparatus pee been filled, and the cap
screwed on. Mercury is then removed from the longer leg, leav-

ing a space of 12™ between the metal and the oe is space
is then filled with the strongest solution of ammonia, and the , §
is firmly screwed on. If now this tube be heated "gradually wit

a Bu — burner, the mona gas set free by the heat exerts
resses the as nm the

pre upon the m cury and so com
<Seitletne tube until finally | is pr roduced and a layer of

144 Scientific Intelligence.

the liquefied gas appears in the capillary portion of the tube.
se cooling, the gas is reabsorbed.—J. Chem. Soc., xli, nae sp
882.

* Function of two ears in the perception of space. Bae
Strvanus P. THompson concludes from a review of rival theories
that eae as Ay the direction of sounds are based, in

6. Vap nsion of mercury.—At a meeting of the ee
Society a Berlin, May 26, Dr. Hagen discus sed the results of
Regnault on the vapor tension of mercur , and gave the results
of his own determinations. Dr. Hagen’s apparatus consisted of
a V-shaped tube, having at the lower part a long straight tube
united to it by fusion, while above either branch terminated in a
tube twice bent at a right angle, hi closed at the lower end.

eter, and the difference of their eights gave the vapor tension.
The values so obtained were less for all temperatures than those
given by Regnault. Dr. Hagen concludes “that the Regnault
values for the sh tension of Sahin eee have peed into
all text — too large.”— Nature, Jun

alate erin of a mee “4 —CLAvstus ; gives
his” resis for believing that Maxwell’s expression for the di-

mensions of the unit of static magnetism, viz: ML a
wrong and that the true value of this unit docla” be ae

adits]; cy Professor J. J. Thomson defends Maxwell and
shows that Maxwell’s value results from the introduction of /
the poke ey “ the medium. Mr, W. D. Niven sug-
gests that the value giv ae Clausius for the Pee of a
ROPERS ers does not make the magnetic force between two
such poles: of the dimensions “of a force, which ought to . the
case.—Phil. Mag., June, Si pp. 381-398 et 427-429, J. T-
8. The electricity of flames.—Several observers have investi-
gated the ee of fein 5 nd have Mine at various con-
8:

1.) The electricity of flames depends upon the process of com-
bustion (Pouillet, Hankel). Pe por P

Chemistry and Physics. 145

(2.) The flame behaves like - — olyte to the metal electrodes
~which are immersed in it (Matteucci).

(3.) The explanation of the Ciestetdice of flames is found in the
thermoelectric difference of the electrodes (Bu

Julius Elster and Hans Geitel believe that previous observers
have overlooked the influence which the heated layer o air out-
side the flame exerts. On account of the great resistance of this

that they were the first to use a Thomson’s electrometer for this
purpose. The same method, however, was used by J. Trowbridge
(this Journal, 1873
- eir conclusions are as follows:
The length polarization of the flame (Hankel) is only an
als henomenon ares is ia to the unequal immersion of the
wires which s s elec
pokes ease in ae to be strongly Hie ove:
‘the tocieede in the surrounding layer of air appears to be
sins positive toward the electrode in the flame
3.) The a cmanas force is independent of the size of the

(4) 7 aan pe rAd polarity of the flame is due to change of
“position a the des.

5.) The dean force of the flame is dependent upon the
nature of the metal from which the exploring electrodes is made,
and also upon the nature of the burning gas. uminum and
magnesium call forth strong electrical effects. If the electrode
in the layer of air is covered with a salt the electrical effect is
very weak.

(6.) With the use of water a and exclusion of metals,
the electrical phenomenon of flames is also seen. The ele etrode
in the outer layer of heated air is eas positive to that in the
flame itself.

7.) Flames can be combined in series just as —— are
joined for intensity.—Ann. der Physik und Chemie, No. 6, pp.
193-222, 1882. Bat

9. Kerr’s Phenomenon.—H. BroncErsMa has repeated Kerr’s
experiments on “ A new relation between japhadae and light,”
Phil. Pages Se No, 4 no p. 337, 1875, and_has ¢ roborated Kerr’s

1889. ped 4
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Tutrp Series, Vou. XXIV, No. 140.—Avaust, 1882.
10

146 Scientific Intelligence.

Il. GEoLoGy AND MINERALOGY.

«On ‘

Foret, of Morges, Switzerland, has recently published (Bibl.

Univ., III, vii, 329), an important memoir upon glaciers, embody-
of 0 H

side

the crystallization; or, each grain increases in size by means of
the water which reaches it from above from the surface of the
glacier. Of these two hypotheses, the first is rejected on the
ground that wherever observations have been made, they have
shown the grains to be all of sensibly the same size in the same
region, and not to be some small, others large, as this explanation
would require,

Accepting provisionally the second hypothesis, the author re-
marks that for the increase in volume of the crystals there are

h
would be absorbed by the mass of the glacier and used in increas-

Geology and Mineralogy. 147

pense of the water derived from surface melting, and in the pro-
of the warming of the glacier which goes on during the sum-

‘Amv uming the correctness of the results of Hugi, as to the in-
crease in size of the crys ie age — that is, in brief, that they
increase from a diameter of 1 ne of 4 centimeters, taking 100
years for the time of their dev clown the author finds that the
annual increase in volume is 44 p. c. Assuming further that the

cold of winter is all employed in bringing about this increase, it is
favohlated that the hypothesis advanced is satisfied if the - temper-
ature of the glacier descends in winter to —6°°8 C., or in round
numbers —7°C. This te emperature, the correctness of which is
obviously dependent upon the accuracy of the assumed data as to
the rate of increase of sn is too low to be accepted and leads
to the inference that t of the increase is accom plished by a

tween the Geyetalliniing rains. there erp be water; now as the
1 in

would be the solidification of this water and the consequent in-
crease in size of the crystalline grains. Taking into account this
last point, the author regards that the temperature that would
have to be assumed for the glacier at the end of the winter would
be quite within the range of possibility.

The hypothesis, which has been maging depends upon the
re that the water can find its way into the interior of
the glacial mass through the capi insty. — a ting the
individual grains. This t is one which is yet somewhat
doubtful, and the author after considering the various observa-

In re aes to Cree cause of the movement of glaciers, M. Forel
places himself on the side of Hugi and Grad in supporting the
theory of ped ago Pe although modifying somewhat their hypoth-
esis, On the old dilatation theory, it was the expansion of the

by
water tained in the capillary fissures at the moment of their
SH nt to which the glacial movement was supposed to oe

Aceordin
expansion plays a subordinate part, and
Increase in volume of the ergecalling grain due to the molecular

148 micvaniyee Intelligence.

affinity which causes a crystal to grow in the mother-liquor in
which it is placed.

In discussing further the application of the hypothesis, a dis-
tinction is made as to the course of events during the youth an

which h falls during the year ; — a part of the snow is consequently
transformed into water and this eben into the layers below
and is solidified there; the temperature is much below the frecsing
oint. This is the region of the infancy of the glacier. Fo llow
ing this comes the line of separation where the heat of summer is
just sufficient to aN the winter’s snow, and there is no excess of
heat to attack the ic
The second cet ‘that of the youth be the sain is found
below this line of separation where the summer’s heat not only
melts the snow, but also partially ke. the ice; ie water so
formed is absorbed and assimilated by the ice, and the tempera-
ture below the surface is even at bi end of summer below zero.
In this region the glacier is increasing in volume and consequently
f

moving downward. Then fellas, ‘a second line o iano

where the water absorbed is all used in the increase of volume
the glacial grain. At this point the wong Leas oes has its
origin, and at the summer’s end the temperature is at
The third stage is that of the old age of the Api ae where the
supply of comin eras that needed to bring the temperature of
the ice back to 0°, the excess of water flows off in the glacial
streams; the i digimes of the ice is at 0° during the summer
and the excess of the summer’s heat goes to cause the melting and
—— of the glacier.
In coneluding his interesting memoir, the author promises to
test his hypothesis by further obser vations and experiments, bear-

mass of the ice.

2. Upper Silurian fossils in the metamorphic rocks of Bergen,

orway.—The discoveries of fossils in metamorphic rocks are
esd pe in numbers with the extension of careful observations.
Mr. . Revuscw has a memoir on new discoveries of this
kind in ithe egerinsa ok Bergen, Siuseraied by a colored geolog-
ical map and plates, which is published by the University of
Christiania, under Be direction of Prof. Kjerulf. Bergen is in 60°
N., on the west coast of Norway. The predominant rock is

nitoid gneiss. With the gneiss, ‘in conformable strata, occur

various schists, with nearly vertical di ip—dioryte schist with in-
cluded beds of granulyte and gneiss, labradorite rock, argillitic
and celia mica schist, chloritic mica schist, hornblende schist
more or less chloritic, and in some parts epidotic and calciferous

Geology and Mineralogy. 149

gneiss; also thin strata of a conglomerate made up of compressed

ebbles or stones, a feldspathic quartzyte, and intercalated layers
of crystalline limestone containing fossils. In addition the region
includes in parallel position with the rest and adjoining the cal-
ciferous gneiss, a belt of “saussurite gabbro or greenstone.” The
strike of the whole is about E.N.E.; and, according to the ne
the limestone or marble, the various liana of schist, including t
gneiss and = Sagal hoo together with the quartzyte and cones ee
ate, gle ri i eairec one continued metamorphic seri

e sa “The v ous gneisses which a pear to ite, included —

P] o n sou
ern Bergen in two zones; in both of them the fine grained argillitic

schist graduates into coarse mica schist (muscovitic), and includes —

layers of gneiss ; re eee A are gg iferous. The fossils found
n ul

with quartzyte or quartzytic eal a sonia merate oat
ito mie S eae anin's gabbro,” and hornblende schist. The argil-

Calymene and Dalmanites ad Bra al appeals ‘idioki:
ing the age to be “the lo wer part of ee er Silurian;
the schist. ze slate of Ulven water has afforded Graptolites of the

hollow 2 sora that appear to be erinoidal stems, and a “ closely
netted chain-coral,” showing that the beds are of the same horizon
as ae of Ostren n.

ous pone te Fossils 0 of New Mexico, rh C. A, WuirTE, +
420 pp. and App. of xxxvi. 8vo, with four plates and many wood
cuts. Report of the U.S. Geological Survey West of the 100th

-

150 Scientific Intelligence.

Meridian, in charge of Capt. G. M. Wheeler, Engineer Corps, U.
8. Army. Washington, 1881. (Distributed i in June, 1882,)-—Pro-
fessor STEVENSON’S Report treats of the geology of North Central
New Mexico and South Central Colorado, between 37° 20’ N. and
35° 20’ N. and west of 104° 74’ W., a region along the “ Bpane
Ranges” <n a continuation of the Sangre de Cristo Range—hav
ing the Rio Grande on the west and headwaters of the Arkona
on the east. To the north the mountains are high and sharp, one
peak over 14000 feet, while the southern part is comparatively
* gentle in slopes and crossed by roads. He describes the central
portion of the mountain region from north to yn as Bicep >.
mostly of Archean rocks; on the east ate end the top,
Carboniferous beds, resting on the Arche Bae eas oat. overlying
the Carboniferous or else the - Archean, Cretaceo ous strata of the

Prof. Stevenson devote ny pages to the Laramie or Lignitic
group, and follows his descriptions Ww ith a 5 ecaseica of its relations
the Cretaceous and tiary. New facts from the author

hoc wuca: bearing on this disputed point, are brought for ak

and the conclusion ‘strongly urged that the formation is the true
e cl

Upper
beds are facts now generally admitted. But Professor Stevenson
observes, beyond this, that while the Laramie is largely brackish-
water and fresh-water in origin, as usually stated, typical fossils
of the Cretaceous of the Fox Hills group (the upper Creta-
ceous of Hayden), are occasionally obtained, as at Evans and
reeley, as well as along Saint Vrains and Thompson Creeks in
Colorado, from the very summit of the Laramie. The query
arising here is whether the beds with the Fox Hills fossils ptm not
er of the Fox Hills group. Profe essor ee
ep

They are from New Maxied, and re present, rages to Dr.
White, rather the Upper part of the Coal Measures than the Middle
or Lower. He states rh nearly 100 species are identical with
species found in the Coal Measures east of the sere de

species: of Rotella here described, R. verruculifera White, is the
first of this genus yet recognized from the Carboniferous. "The

Geology and Mineralogy. 151

previously described species of the genus are mostly, if not wholly,
Tertiary and recent.

4. Manual v, oe ey of. India: Part III, Eeonomie
Geology, by V. L, M.A., F.R.S., Officiating Deputy Superin-
‘tendent Geblogieal Gacrey see India. 664 Pp. ec ee Bv0, with

processes are described in detail ae illustrated by sketches of
the workmen at their work, some of which are entertaining as
well as instructive. Among the maps one is a large and beautiful
topographical map of India; another, similar, illustrates the dis-
tribution of the coal mines; and others represent the diamond-
‘bearing districts,

The volume is history, science and popular description com-
bined. As the Superintendent of the Geological Survey of India,
Mr. Medlicott, says in his preface, “'The student as well as the
man of enterprise will long owe the author eed for the great
store ~s pr thus brought within easy referen
t of Progress a the Geological aes ey of Canada

LFRED R. C. Setwyn, Director, Montreal, 1881.—

the ral es of rvers is small. This new volume; after a review

by the on boring operati ons in ris River Valley,
hear the Rividre des Lacs, 229 miles wet s "Red d River. . Next
follows a Report on the ’Lignite Tertiary formation from the
Souris River to the 108th meridian, by G. M. Dawson, in contin-
uation of that by the same author in. his Report on the Geology

of the 49th parallel connected with the Reports of the beet
Commission. Thirteen analyses of the lignites give for the
average, 41°10 fixed carbon, 41°41 uae combustible matter,

5°55 =o with, 12 per cent of water. The c y iron-stones accom- —

.

152 Scientific Intelligence.

Olriki, of Heer, who has described it from Alaska, Greenland ae

Spitzbergen. After these there are: a Report b "G. M. Daw

on an Exploration from Port Simpson, on the Pacific aaa ‘

Edmonton, on the Saskatchewan; on Hudson’s Bay, and some of

the lakes and rivers lying to the west of it, by R. Brrr, contain-

ing also a paper on the northern limits of trees in Canada, east of
Bel

the Rocky Mountains, a list of fossils collected by Dr. lin
Manitoba, by J. F. Whiteaves, and other papers; also Report on
New Brunswick, b . W. Exts; on Nova Scotia, by

ical contribution to the survey, by G. C. ana The volume
is illustrated by many maps, plates and section
The Ferie Islands.—Professor James Ge ikie has a paper 0

the ‘geology of the Frrée — in the Transactions of - Daal
Society of Edinburgh for 1882. The principal rocks a e bedded
basalts with intercalations of tufas, and in Myggenes ead Suderée
of shale and coal. The basalt, with the shale and oal, are re-
ferred to the Miocene. The basalt of Suderde is ‘ily a ate so-~
litic dolonie, mostly fine-grained and rarely porphyritic; a ‘bed
sometimes has above a scoriaceous crust, or passes into a jumbled
mass of fragments of scoria. The same rock on the northern
islands, unless amygdaloidal, is more coarse grained and porphy-
ritic; but amygdaloidal and n non-amygdaloidal areas frequently
alternate in more or less regular beds parallel to the bedding.
The thickness of the basalts is stated to be 9,000 to 10,000 feet
above the coal and 4,000 feet below the coal. The islands are
glaciated, soni scratches and roches moutonnées, and indicat-
ing a move t for the most part to the southwest, ‘but partly to
the seuss” In the northern islands the thickness of the ice
was 2,200 or 2,300 feet, and at least 1,400 on Suderde; and judg-
ing from. this thickness, the glacier probably reached out to the
100-fathom lin

7 mmonites in the Tejon Group ‘if sitar ia.—In a es

his Ammonite was found by Gabb also in — beds

of undoubted Cretaceous Age, called by helen the Martinez
group (Rep. Pal. Calif., vol. ii, p. 134). "The writer, in his Geol-
ogy (p. 45 § recognizes the Tertiary features of the fossils de-
scribed by Gabb, and to show it gives a complete list of the spe-
cies (p. 508) ; but at the same time suggests that the beds are
the equivalent of the Laramie or Lignitic beds, which also are
strikingly Tertiary in the penser. though most geologists now
make them the top of the Cretaceous. The Tejon meer is bur
only lignitic portion of the California Cretaceous.

~*~

Geology and Mineralogy. 153

8. Pubonvtiyy of the Brazilian Geological Survey.—A let-
ter to the editors from Dr. C. A. White states that he has finished

studied.” He has found a new ot cies of the genus Meekia of Gabb,
which he has named Meekia commemorata, in com memoration of

ted Rieydons 332 pp., with illustrations. 18 London and
New York. (Macmillan & Co.)—Geological descriptions illus-
trating well the keen eye of the author as well as “ restless.

energy of nature,” landscape sketches almost as abe as nature
herself, fragments of entertaining history, and amu a ———
of travel, are combined in these collected essays of the accom-
plished author in a manner fitted to attract all evade Tp e
“Old Man of Hoy” is an account y is sea-coast scenery,
and the various work of the waves am different kinds of rocks;
“The Baron’s Stone of Killochan” discourses about bowlders,
glaciers, and the delightful scenes of a region within sight of the

Firth of Clyde. And similarly, the chapters, “Among the Volea-
noes of Central France,” “the Old Glaciers of Norway and Scot-
tand,” “A Fragment of Primeval Europe,” “The Scottish School
of Geology,” “ Geographical Evolution,” others in the work

put instruction in an attractive form. Som “ae best chapters
are chien entitled, “In Wyoming,” and “the Geysers of the
Yellows one” —regions visited by ‘Prsteaae Geikie in the sum-

mer of. rect Another also, “the La va-fiel ds of scp
t

wearin J and kn nowing compan ion of the r er.
Columbite, Orthite and —anaiticoies gis Amelia Co., Pigina

Co., Va., has been noticed in thie: J ournal piss 82, 1881). The
same author has recently further investigated the other minerals.
of the locality. The columbite had a red color in thin splinters.
Ls =6°48. Analysis gave:
Ta,O; Cb,0,; SnO. FeO MnO CaO MgO Y20;(?)
84°81 5°07 8°05 1:27 0°20 0°82=100-22

4 a he however, ta oks the fact ibe a translucent colum-
bite, with G.= has been described from Branchville, Ct.,
which contained a MnO (15°58 p. ¢., 0°43 FeO) and had closely
the ratio of 1:1 for the metallic acids (G. J. Brush and E. 8.
Dana, this Journal, xvi, 34, and Comstock, xix, oer

154 Scientific Intelligence.

Orthite occurs in imperfect eee es cay tele pavers inches in
length. An analysis gave: SiO, 5, Al,O, 2, Fe,O, 4°49,
Ce,O, 11°14, La,O, 3:47, Di, 0, 01, FeO 10° is Mao i: 12, CaO
1 47, aS O, Na 20 0°46, Hi. O 231=100°62. Monazite also occurs
at the same locality in masses of yee size aay to 20 ponneey as
prey iously shown by Konig (Proc. Ac. Nat . Phil,

882). The analysis by Dunnington shows ye resence of 18 6
: c. ThO, and 2°7 SiO,, and he remarks that these agp le ae may

be present in the form of orangite ; excluding them, vbgiaa oy. is
a Seine: pepe . di idymium, ‘cerium and ote num.— Am
m. Journ., iv, 13

ve ‘On the pr Bia of ig as determined by the erystalline
structure of minerals and by the schistose structure of rocks.—M.
ANNETTAZ has ae a series of experiments in the line so

distinction, however, does not ly to Bee ah acs, or in
ot ther words, to the lamellar structure resembling c cleavage observed
in some minerals, for example, sahlite. The author finds also that

the relativ e Orientation of the major and minor axes of the isother-

stratification is without influence on the ropagation of heat, but
that in schistose rocks (when the schistostty | is due to lateral pres-

sure), it takes place more readily in a aca parallel than in one

per At to the plane of schisto

2 agp oni Clays and Bricks, ~The following are analyses
by Mr. E. T. Swzer of (1) ee Milwaukee clay that produces the
buff: oolred brick; (2) of a clay from Madison, Wisconsin, which
burns red; and (3), of the Mile iukes brick,

Le 2. 3

Silica 38°22 75°80 53°78
Alumin 9°15 11°07 13°21
Peroxide Of irons: oes a 2°84. 4°92
Protoxide of tio 116

yarbonate of lim 23°20 2°45
Oarbonate of seleesiain ul swoas 15°83 sy ae 4
Lime (CaO) 3°24 “39

Po rash 2°16 1°74

Soda : > “65 1:40 "92
Water in composition ......_-_ .. 1°85 2°16

Moisture *95 1°54 “19

99°85 99°56 99°94
Mr, Sweet sage he that the ingredients of the clay enter into

a combinatio mewhat analogous to some members of the
amphibole ee se

|

4
*

q
ig
4
ix

ees eet

.

Geology and Mineralogy. ° > £08

12. Sammlung von Mikrophotog bee zur Rae iol
ung der mikroskopischen Structur von Mineralien und Ges
ausgewahlt von EONS: anigenommen ¥ von J Grimm in Often

published, including forty plates, each giving four distinct photo-

raphs. The plates already issued cover a wide range of subjects,
including the inclosures in minerals, as crystallites, microlites,
glass inclosures, inclosures of fluids and gases; showing also

ure, fibrous, zonal, contretionary, ete.; the figures produced by
etchings, by a blow or by pressure; also various optical phenom-
ena, anomalous double-refraction a Oo on. execution of

the plates is worthy of the highest praise. Dr. Cohen deserves
the thanks of all interested in’studying or teachin bene Naan, of

vite Pi Virginia.—The rare mineral helvite has
hse maida by Pro fieor HL ©, Ley among some minerals
br rought from the mica mine near einelis Court House, Amelia

County, Virginia. This is the locality which has fivnished the
large specimens of microlite (xxii biel and also monazite, orthite,

talline masses imbedded in orthoclase Be f0e. oe or

the deduction of the gangue and the calculation of a a portion of
the MnO as Mn combined as Mn, the results in (2) are ohana!

SiO, BeO MnO Al.,0, Fe,0; CaO K.2O Na,.O S_ gangue .
(1) 23°10 11°47 45°38 2°68 2°06 0°64 0°39 0°92 4°50 9°22—100°35
(2) 25°48 12°63 39°07 2°95 2:26 0°71 0°43 1°01 4°96 Mn866= 98°16

The author remarks that the last analysis does not correspond
with the original helvite, which has 33 per cent SiO,, so that a
further investigation is to be desired.—froe. Ae. "Nat. Sci.
sors 1882,

5. Mi ckel ore in Ore egon.—It is announced that a deposit of
a hiidsatoa cliente of nickel and magnesia has been discovered on

156 Scientific Intelligence.

ica Mountain, Cow Creek, Douglas County, in southern =
43 1 is amorphous, has an apple-green color ;
icke

Pena is described by Edgar F. Smith aid N. Wiley Thomas.
The crystals have been found loose in the soil, thrown out in

Philad., March 17, 18

Ill. Botany AND ZooLoGy.

1. Our Native Ferns and their Allies; by Luctrn M. UNDER-
woop, Ph.D., Professor of Geology a and Bot tany in the Illinois
Wesleyan Universit ty. Bloomington, Ill, 1882.. 12mo, 134 pp.
—This is a second and enlarged edition of a former work by the
same author. ‘Our Native Ferns and how to Study them” in-
cluded ferns only: the present volume has the remaining orders
of fern-like plants. hcg work has nine chapters devoted to the
habits, structure, physiology, description, literature and study of
the plants, taking up nearly half the volume; and then follows
the yd ei and descriptive part, concluding with a _well-

seven illustrative figures, many of them from the author's own

The subject is well-arranged, and concisely but sufficiently
developed and explained, in the nine chapter ‘; fuho e taken to-
gether form a very oak ge feadttiodion to the study of this class
of plants. The genera and species are mostly prayed} in accord-

o

ance with the sathorivies which the author refers to; as well as

of the needed literature. D. C, EATON.
re Haven, July 10, nae

2. Europas och Nord Amerikas Huitmossor; i. e. European
and North American Peat-mosses (Sphagna) ; by S. O, LINDBERG.
Helsingfors. 1882. Pp. 88 and xxxviii, quarto.—Following
upon Dr. Braithwaite’s monograph of Sphagnum, comes this
now from Professor Lindberg, with a copious morphological in-
troduction. The twenty-one species are arranged under the three
sections, Husphagnum (which includes the groups, Palustria,

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 157

Subsecunda, Compacta and eee Isocladus (for 8. macro-
phyllum), and Hemitheca for &, Pylaiei and 8. eyclophyllum) ;
the ample characters are in ates, re the synonymy is very full,

a complete index to the synonymous names. Although arranged
primarily for Scandinavian use, the peenalan will be w anes) by

all bryologists
3. Nomenclator Zoologicus, by SamueL H. ScuppeEr. bi
Supplemental list. 376 pp. 8vo. 1882. Bulletin of the U. 8,
Nat. “ae Dept. of the road ian Published under the sae
Ff of his

The preface states that Part II, or the “ Cnivel Index,” con-
tains about 80,000 references and includes the generic names In
all previous lists, It gives ere name of the genus mer also,
in italics, such family or higher names as appear in Agassiz’s
Nomenelator or the aiibor s miata List); 2d. The authority ;

e 7 iat 4th. The date; and 5t the LiGegewe to the

science pe eat the world.
4. nopsis of the Fresh-water Rhizopods.— A condensed

subject. b Professor Lei eidy. This bottom branch of zoology is a
fertile field for the capable embryological eg: cs

as MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC ienpexonioll

. American Association. —The circular of the Local Com-
sition of the meeting at Montreal of August 23, states the fol-
lowing with regard to reduced rates of fare on railroads d
Steamboats.

The Grand Trunk, the Great Western, the Intercolonial, the

158 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

Quebec, Montreal, Ottawa and Occidental, the South Eastern and
the Canada Pacific Railroads, the Richelieu and Ontario, the Ot-
tawa and the St. el ence es esa Companies,

te Niagara Fa Ils

The Delaware and Hudson and the Central Vermont Railroads
give tickets over their lines to go and return, at a single fare, the
tickets on the two lines being interchange eable between Montreal

will secure cage arrangements with other railr ~_ lines to the

south and w Those members whom this matter may concern
will please 2 ba sara to one of the Bonotary Secretaries
at Montreal. Ticke the above-mentioned rates, good for

oing and returning loa August 10th to September 10th, will be
furnished to persons presenting a certificate of membership of the
neg for 1882. The following list of some principal points.
n the above-mentioned railroad lines in the United States may
serve as a guide to members: Albany, Binghamton, Boston,
Chicago, Detroit, New York, Portland, Providence, Saratoga,
rl nie oe Troy, "Worcester.
will be excursions to Ottawa — Quebee by the Quebec,
Moniek, Ottawa and Occidental R. R.; to Lake Memphremagog
by the South Eastern R.R.; .; and also one 4 Lachine by the Grand
Trunk R. R.; which will be given by these lines free of charge.
Through the liberality of the Wench Union and the Great
orth Western Telegraph Companies, telegraphic messages
relating to family, social or scientific matters, will be sent from
Montreal during the meeting, for members of the ——
free of charge, to all parts of the United States and Cana
anadian, the National, and the United States a Can-
ada Express Companies will undertake to forward and deliver

“ Care of Professor Bovey, A, A. A. 8., Me Gill College, Mon-
treal,” and should have their contents marked on the outside.
By the courtesy of the Collector of Customs such objects will be
admitted from the United States free of duty.

to members after August 15th should be addressed
A, A. A. 8., Montreal, Canada. All enquiries teres ee
ings should be adfecual to Mr, J. thao Secretary Nat. Hist

Obituary. 159

. Darwin Memorial Fund—mThe following persons have con-
vented to act with the English Executive Committee in contribu-
ting and midi funds for the oo Memorial: Asa Gray,
Chairman ; Spencer F. Baird, James D. Dana, Charles W. Eliot,
D. C, Gilman, ‘Janie Hall, Jos seph “LaConts: Joseph Leidy, O. C.
Marsh, 8. Weir Mitchell, Simon Newcomb, Charles Eliot Norton,
eh rancis - Walker, Theodore D. Woolsey, and Alexander Agassiz,

rea
Subscriptions should be sent to Alexander Agassiz, Cambridge,

The Atheneum of July 8th states that the Darwin Memorial
fund, which had already amounted in England to very nearly

£2500, will take the form of a marble statue, and that the Trus-
tees of the British Museum will be asked to place the statue in
the large hall of the Museum (Natural History), at South Ken-
sington

3. Transactions of the Connecticut reals of Arts and Sei-
ences.—Volume iv, pt. 2, contains: Some interesting new Diptera
py BW Williston ; on the species of Pinnixh inhabiting the New

England coast with remarks on their early stages, by S. I. Smith;
oo. occurrence of tropical and sub-tropical Decapod st us-
taceans on the coast of New England, by 8. I. Smith; on
Aaapnisodis genera, Cerapus, Unciola and a png et deouthed
by Thomas Say, by 8S. I Smith, with plate 24; New England

hitherto recorded, y A. errill, with plates 3-12; the North
American species of rp y 5. illiston. Vol. v v, pt. 2,
consists of a paper by A. E. Verrill, on the Cephalopods of the

north-eastern coast of America, with plates 26-41, 45-56 ; and Cata-
logue of the Marine Mollusea added to the Fauna of the New
England region during the past ten years, by the same, with igilates
42-44, 57, 58.

OBITUARY.

Dr. Grorer W. Hawes, Curator of the Geological Department
of the National Museum at Washington, died on the twenty-sec-
ond of June last, at Manitou Springs, Colorada. Dr. Hawes was
born December 31, 1848, at Marion, Ind. His parents died when
he was very youn and his early ‘life was spent at brie Se.
Mass. In 1865 he reatatid the Sheffield Scientific School in

aatiafie d with such a life, and after trying t is for four veadiohe
returned to New Haven and was graduated at the Scientific
School with the Nee of 1872. During the moot year of 1872-

the position of assistant and on tructor in min pigniboley ait
pipe analysis, i in He Scientific School. In March 1878 he went

160 Obituary.

the National Museum at Washington, which he held up to the

ie . 4
months after the disease was first distinctly recognized, it had
done its work,

should be cut off thus peomeantly. During the years of his resi-
dence in New Haven, Dr. Hawes publi

In 1878 he wrote a report on the mineralogy and litholo

which he carried out all that he undertook. Dr. Hawes’s investi-
gation of the building stones of the country, already alluded to,
was a work in which he felt great interest, and which promised
to yield most valuable results; unfortunately he was not allowed
to carry it to completion.
the private character of Dr, Hawes this is hardly the place
to speak, Though possessed of but few near family relatives, he
had a singular power of winning personal friends, so that he
leaves a wide circle to mourn his death, His purity and modesty
of character, earnestness and uprightness of purpose, and unselfish
eee others will be long remembered by those who knew
im well.

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

[THIRD SERIES.]

Art. XVIIIL.—The affinities of Paleocampa Meek and Worthen,
as evidence of the wide diversity of type in the earliest known
Myriapods ; by SamuEL H. Scupper.

[Read before the National Academy of Sciences, in April, 1882.]

IN an article on the structure of Euphoberia of the Mazon
Creek nodules, published in this Journal a year ago, the wide
departure of modern myriapods from their ancient allies, in
structure, general appearance and habits, was clearly pointed

memoir just published by the Boston Society of Natural His-
tory. hanks
plored the beds of Mazon Creek, and who have furnished
nearly all the material for the papers mentioned, I shall now
attempt to show that Paleocampa is neither the caterpillar of
a lepidopterous insect, nor a worm,* but a myriapod of another
new and strange type. Messrs. Carr and Bliss, of Morris, IIl.,
have sent me three specimens of Palseocampa in fine condition,
better preserved and a little larger than the original, which has
* Cf. Meek and Worthen, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad., 1865, p. 52;-—Ib., Geol.
igh vol. ii, p, 410, pl. 32, fig. 3; vol. iii, p. 565 ;—-Seudder, Geol. Mag., vol-
7p. 418.
Am. Jour. sate ree Series, Vor. XXIV, No, 141.—SerTemBer, 1882.

162 S. H. Scudder—Diversity of Type in ancient Myriapods.

been lost by fire. Messrs. Meek and Worthen have also exam-
ined a second specimen, so that five in all have now been
studied. Only one of these, that procured by Mr. Bliss, is
preserved in such a way as to show the legs, and, until its dis-
covery, the affinities of this animal would necessarily have
remained very obscure.

But for my previous study of the Archipolypoda of Mazon

divergence of structure between extinct and modern forms of

yriapoda, it would have been difficult to reach the full con-
viction that Paleeocampa was a myriapod. It is a caterpillar-
like, segmented creature, three or four centimeters long, com-
posed of ten similar and equal segments besides a small head;
each of the segments excepting the head bears a single pair of
stout, clumsy, subfusiform, bluntly pointed legs, as long as the
width of the body, and apparently composed of several equal
joints. Hach segment also bears four cylindrical but spreading
bunches of very densely packed, stiff, slender, bluatly tipped,
rod-like spines, a little longer than the legs. The bunches are
seated on mammille and arranged in dorsopleural and lateral

ows.

The individual rods have an intricate structure; instead of
being striate, as supposed by Meek and Worthen in their last
examination, they are furnished externally with about eighteen
longitudinal, equidistant ridges, about half as high as their dis-
tance apart ; the edges of these ridges are broken into slight

the base at the lowest point of each serration, gives the whole
pe a jointed appearance; but aclose inspection of the floor
of t ne i

me de
longing to the myriapods, must be excepted from this statement; their relation
to Paleocam

WS. H. Scudder—Diversity of Type in ancient Myriapods. 163

con
-carctia, etc.; or in the terminal fascicles of barbed hairs in the

myriapodan genus Polyxenus.

There is no group of animals into which such a jointed crea-
ture as this could fall excepting worms, myriapods, or the lar-
ve of hexapod insects. The certainty that this animal pos-

-Sessed a single pair of well developed, legs of identical charac-

ter on every segment of the body behind the first segment or
head is of itself sufficient evidence to exclude it both from the
worms and from the larvze of hexapod insects. No such legs

or Jeg-like structures occur to-day in worms, and it would be

idle to look for them in their ancestors of Carboniferous times.

‘The only approach to such an appearance in hexapod larve is

In the young of tenthredinous Hymenoptera, where, however,
: : d

Some smaller groups, formerly, and by some authors still, considered as be-
d

pa will be discussed further on.

164 S. H. Seudder—Diversity of Type im ancient Myriapods.

The differences between the stout, forked and bristling spines
of the Archipolypoda and the close set but spreading bunches-
of highly organized stiff rods of Paleeocampa appear upon the
barest statement. Were it not however for the complicated

chilopods and diplopods. , The discovery of this type is of the

greater importance because we have hitherto known nothing of
any chilopodiform myriapods previous to Tertiary times, unless:
Minster’s dubious Geophilus proavus from the Jura possibly be

an exception

In studying the Archipolypoda we necessarily confined our

comparisons with modern types to the

o
7
°
Qu
tg
og
is”)
oO
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S
wR
o
°
Ey

_ In Chilopoda, of which the modern scolopendra or centipede
is the type, the body is always depressed, formed of many
segments, rarely as few as sixteen behind the head, each of which
is compound, being formed of two subsegments, one of them
atrophied and carrying no appendages; both dorsal and ven-
tral plates are coriaceous, of nearly equal width, and possess:
no armature whatever excepting the simplest hairs, which are
occasionally scattered over the surface. The larger subsegment
bears a single pair of legs, which are composed of five slender,
cylindrical, subequal joints beyond the coxa, and armed with a
single apical claw ; they are attached to the interscutal mem-
brane uniting the distinct dorsal and ventral plates of each
segment and are therefore separated by the entire width of the
broad ventral plates. The hindmost legs are transformed to

‘

x

i

a

es

a
ey

&S. HH, Scudder—Diversity of Type in ancient Myriapods. 165

166 S. H. Seudder—Diversity of Type in ancient Myriapods..

poor preservation in the only specimen in which they have
been seen prevents any thing more than the mere statement of
p 7 g

them by some authors, with which also we should compare
Paleocampa. The first of these is Peripatus, our knowledge
of which has been so much increased of late years, and espe-

’ Oo
being perceptible only at the extreme tip and on the apical half

é sme} even in the nervous sys-
tem it is only indicated by a small ganglionic swelling next
each pair of legs. The trachez are like extended cutaneous

S. H. Seudder—Diversity of Type in ancient Myriapods. 167

| evelopment of these parts in the two groups. The body is
profusely covered above with corrugated papillae, without reg-
ular distribution.

From this it will appear that Paleeocampa differs in many
essential features from Peripatus, and in most at least of these
shows a higher organization. ‘The segments are well separated

The

from one another, and the head is distinctly marked.

The other aberrant group which we must specially notice is
Scolopendrella, placed at first among Chilopoda, but recently

168 SH. Seudder—Diversity of Type in ancient Myriapods.

shown by Ryder and Packard to differ from them in very
important features, in some at least of which it agrees with
Paleeocampa. The researches of these naturalists, as well as
the earlier observations of Menge, clearly prove that it must be
separated from the myriapods altogether, and thatit is certainly
provided with many points of affinity to the Thysanura.
Ryder suggests for it an independent place between the Myri-
apoda and Thysanura under the name Symphyla. Packard,
with better reason, would place it within the Thysanura, under
which head he would also include the Collembola and Thy-
sanura proper, or Cinura, as he terms them.

Scolopendrella, as these authors point out, differs from the
Chilopoda in that the appendages of the segment behind that
furnishing the mouth-parts proper do not serve as auxiliary
organs for manducation, but are developed, like those of the
succeeding segments, as legs, while the mouth parts resemble
those of Thysanura, and differ from those of Chilopoda; indeed
the whole head is decidedly thysanuriform; the legs are pro-
vided with a pair of claws, and the terminal segment bears a
pair of caudal stylets with a special function. Besides these
points the possession of a collophore is distinctively thysan-
uran, and the position of the stigmata, between the legs, is dif-
ferent from the position they uniformly maintain in Chilopoda,
while it only adds to the great irregularity of place seen in
Thysanura. On the other hand, the identity of form in the
thoracic and abdominal segments, the full development, upon
the abdominal segments, of jointed legs like those of the tho-
racie segments, and the occasional alternation of leg-bearing
and apodal segments in the abdomen, are striking marks of its
real affinity to the chilopods. Abdominal appendages, homo-
logous with legs, but unjointed, do, however, occur in Thy-
sanura to a greater degree than in other hexapods, so that we
can hardly refuse to admit these polypodous creatures as low-
est members of the sub-class of insects proper, although they
are the only non-hexapodal type.

ow the separation of the head and its appendages fro
those of the next succeeding segment distinguishes Palwo-

pendrella; so, too, the segments behind the head in Palwo-
carapa and Scolopendrella, alone of all arthropods in which the
head is thus clearly separated, agree in showing no distinction
whatever between what may be looked upon as thoracic and
what as abdominal, whether in the form of the segment itself,
or in the appendages of the segments. These are certainly fun-
damental points, but when we have mentioned them we have
reached the end of all possible affinities, or points of resem-
blance, unless we may consider the minute structure of the

«
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;
3

4
a
a
iq
4
4
dl
q
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i

&. H. Scudder— Diversity of Type in ancient Myriapods. 169

rods in the fascicles of Paleocampa paralleled by the well-
known delicacy of organization of the scales in other Thysan-
ura, though they do not exist in Scolopendrella. The limited

further point were it not that the number is even less than in
Scolopendrella or in the Cinura; and that the Pauropida
among diplopod myriapods have in some instances even a still
smaller number. On the other hand, the character of the legs,
the apparent absence of a double claw at their tip, the pecul-
iar armature of the fascicled rods, which forms so striking a
feature in Palseocampa, the want of any caudal stylets, and the

thing occurring there, even its cylindricity being foreign to the
Thysanura, excepting in their highest types among the Col-
lembola. It seems therefore clear that the points of affinity
between Palzeocampa and Scolopendrella, with the single
exception of the separation of the head and its appendages
from the body, are precisely those in which Scolopendrella is
chilopodan, and that the assemblage of features which our fossil

required a vast time to produce, but which we now seem to
find at the very threshold of the apparition of this type of

arthropod life,
Second, that af this early period, in marked contrast to what
we find in other groups of articulated animals, the a
is

of structure among myriapods was as great as itis to-da
é j *

s the more surprising because we possess only imperfect
remains of a few types, and yet from what we already know o
the Archipolypoda on the one hand, and of the Protosyngna-
tha on the other, they are found to differ quite as much as the
Diplopoda and Chilopoda, and in points fully as important as

*

170 8. H. Seudder— Diversity of Type im ancient Myriapods-

those which separate so sharply these great modern groups.
Whether they are to be looked upon, one as the ancestor of
one, the other of the other, of these modern groups, is another
question. It would certainly be reasonable to consider the
Archipolypoda as the common ancestors of both the Chil-

e
types now before us, we are compelled, on any genetic theory,
either to presume a great acceleration of development in earlier
times or to look for the first appearance of myriapods at a
vastly remoter epoch than we have any reason to do from the
slighter hints in the rocks themselyes—a period so remote as
to antedate that of winged insects, which are now known from
rocks older than any which have yielded remains of myria-
d namemoir on Devonian insects, the concluding por-
tion of which was republished in this Journal,* I showed the
probability, on developmental grounds, that some of the Car-
boniferous insects, “together with most of those of the Devo-
nian, descended from a common stock in the Lower Devonian

* Vol. xxi, p. 117.

E. Orton— Bituminous matter in Ohio Black Shales. 171

Art. XIX.—A Source of the bituminous matter in the Devonian
and Sub-Carboniferous Black Shales of Ohio; by Epwarp.
RTON, Columbus, Ohio.

THERE are three strata of black shale in the Devonian and
sub-Carboniferous series of io, viz: the Huron and

: the
Cleveland shales of Newberry and the Waverly Black shale of

Andrews. The latter name, I have followed Meek in replac-
ing by the designation Berea shale. It constitutes the base of
the Cuyahoga shale of Newberry. The first of these strata is
unquestionably Devonian in age, and the last is referred with-
out dispute to the sub-Carboniferous series. Tio the same
division is referred the Cleveland shale by Newberry, on
account of the presence in it of fishes of sub-Carboniferous type.
n northeastern Ohio the Cleveland shale is separated from
the underlying Huron shale by the Erie shale of Newberry, a
mass of green and blue shale which ranges from nothing to.
1,000 feet in thickness. Dr. Newberry showed, a number of
years since, that the Erie shale thinned out as it was followed
westward from the northeastern counties, and disappeared
altogether in Huron county, letting the black Cleveland shale
own, by overlap, apon the underlying Huron shale, which is.
also black. I have since shown that it is this-compound stra-
tum, the Cleveland (Erie), Huron shale, that constitutes the
great black shale of Ohio, that extends from Lake Erie south-
ward to the Ohio River and beyond. In central and southern
hio, at least, it seems impracticable to divide it, and_to refer
one portion to the Devonian and another to the sub-Carbonif-
erous, from the lack of characteristic fossils or stratigraphical
marks in the formation. The average thickness of the com-
pound formation through the State is probably not less than
300 feet.

Berea shale.
The sources of this bituminous matter have not as yet been
made apparent. The presence of conodonts and fish remains.

s

172 E. Orton— Bituminous matter in Ohio Black Shales.

regard as exclusively marine. (Geology of Ohio, vol. i, pages
155-6.

Professor H. B. Andrews, in the Ohio Geological Report of
1869, also discussed the problem briefly. He believed that the
water in which the shale was deposited must have abounded in
minute forms of vegetable or animal life, but he added that a
search for these forms had been unrewarded.

ithin the last few months I have discovered a new source,
and, as I believe, a chief source of the bituminous matter of
these shales, in certain minute forms of vegetable origin which
they contain in vast numbers. I herewith present a brief
account of the discovery and of the facts involved.

In 1881, Mr. J. A. Flickinger, County surveyor of Ashta-
bula county, Ohio, sent me specimens of the drillings from a
deep well which was being sunk at Kingsville, Ashtabula
county, in the search for petroleum or gas. For 800 to 900
feet the drill S yevas through blue shale, quite uniform in
appearance, and destitute of fossils. This is evidently the Hrie
shale of the Ohio scale.

At about 900 feet layers of black shale began to be met, and
they continued to occur for 800 feet, when the boring was
stopped.

In examining with a microscope the fragments of this black
shale I found many of them covered and filled with yellow,
translucent discs, ranging from one one-hundredth to one two-
hundedth of an inch in their longest diameters. The discs
present the appearance of empty and flattened spherical sacs.
When the shale is cut transversely, the discs appear as elonga-
ted and translucent yellow bars, roughly parallel to the bed-
ding, and sometimes they present the appearance of flattened

oops.

The dises have a decidedly resinous appearance, but they
yield but slowly, if at all, to ordinary solvents. When the
shale is raised toa red heat, they disappear entirely, leaving
empty pits in the shale. ‘

At some points, and especially at a depth of 1,000 feet, the
shale is so charged that every fragment contains them, while

E.. Orton—Bituminous matter in Ohio Black Shales. 173

descriptions given by Williamson of the lyeopodiaceous spores
in English coals will apply without change to the general
appearance of these forms, in sections parallel and trans-
verse to the bedding, but they lack the peculiar markings and
shapes that characterize lycopod spores in particular, and will
probably find their place in some lower group.

Different sizes have been recorded for these forms, but there
is no doubt that all of them are macrospores. The finely-
divided carbonaceous matter that is associated with them in

rigin.
two inflammable Australian pelt, a white coal and
tasmanite, have been shown by microscopic sections to owe
their inflammability to the resinous spores of ‘lycopodiaceous
plants. These minerals belong to a much later geological
period than the Carboniferous. The tasmanite above referred
to is a shale containing 26 to 80 per cent of combustible mat-
ter. [tis therefore but little richer than the best portions of
our Berea shale, which contain 21°4 per cent of bituminous
matter.

174. E. Orton— Bituminous matter in Ohio Black Shales. °

I do not know, however, that spores have heretofore been
‘shown to supply bituminous matter in large amount to an
formation older than the Carboniferous

If the construction placed upon the facts recorded in this
paper shall be accepted, and vegetable spores shall be recog-
nized as a chief source of the bituminous matter of these black
shales, the perplexing question as to their origin will have
been carried one step further back.

These black bands of the Huron shale lie geologically not
far below the Venango oil-sands of western Pennsylvania.
The resinous substances now described seem to offer an ade-

matter of these shales consists mainly of hydro- patead The
discovery of an ample supply of resinous spores within the
substance of the shales certainly strengthens the claim that has
been made for them as the main source of the valuable accu-
mulations of oil and gas of the sandstones and conglomerates
that overlie them.

orms above referred to under the n of aang Huron-
et (See this Journal, April, ism, pace 257.) The specimens

which his description was fou came from the bituminous
shale of Kettle Point, Lake Hise a bed of brown shale, burn-
ing with much flame, of r Devonian age, from twelve to
fourteen feet in thickn ness, occurs here. he spore-cases are
described as paras ees bodies, ay yooh ore than one-

ine

internal cha and are seen to enclose patches of granular matter
hich may be the microspores.
r. Dawson has kindly furnished me with a piece of the Kettle
Point shale. The spore-cases appear to be identical with those
first recognized by me, coming from Kingsville, Ohio. In the
large range of rock which I have now reported, there are appar-
ently several s 2 pate of these bodies.
Dr. Da refers the spore-cases to Lycopodiaceous pie
and suggests i nA of Lepidodendron, the remains o
are found at the e horizon, i e ENeY to furnish them, viz: z.
Veltheimianum aud J aspia
Columbus, Ohio, Jnne 1, 1882,

O. T. Sherman—A._ Pendulum Study. 175

ArT. XX.—A Pendulum Study; by O. T. SHERMAN.

“LE mode d’installation du pendule, la nature du support
sur lequel il est placé, en raison de |’elasticité de la matiére
dont il est composé ou de sa masse relativement peu considér-
able, peut exercer une influence sur le mouvement du plan de
suspension. Cette influence est tres-sensible pour un support
en bois; .... elle est encore appréciable entre un pilier en

ierre .... et le pilier trés-massif sur lequel les observations
ont été faite... . a Genéve.”—E. PLANTAMOUR.

The above describes pretty completely the only result which
it is my fortune to draw from a series of pendulum observa-

themselves?

The stand with which the expedition was furnished was formed
by three beams of about five inches square, and fastened by
bolt and screw mutually at right angles. These are braced in

by bolt and screw. The agate lanes were fastened to a
weighty, solid gun-metal casting, and it in turn by screws to
the back of the case; the whole forming a support as stable

y any smooth curve. The observations for the larger arcs
I ewhat sinuous, the

176 O. T. Sherman—A Pendulum Study.

For better distinction the threads were divided into tallies—
five black and five white. The interval between the threads
was about seven-tenths of a millimeter. The observer then
sitting behind the telescope made at each apparent contact of
the knife edge with a thread, a signal on the curonograpy at
once representing the tally and thread which the knife edge

seemed to touch. The result was so unforseen as for some time
to cause a doubt in the mind of the observer as to its correct-
ness. He assured himself of its reality by obtaining fairly
identical results again and again. ver some threads the knife
edge passed with rapidity. ‘On others it rested for an interval
increasing with the decreasing rapidity of the movement.
Many it “touched, pee, retouched, repassed. A representa-
tion is annexed. The abscisse being the interval in minutes
since the ee sesnent of observation. The ordinates, the
number of threads from the center.

Tally 6, !
Tally 5. 6

Tally 4.

Om 20 30 40 5U 60 rl) 80

It is interesting to compare with the above paraeaph a
remark of the Coast Survey Observer, who notices that the er
crepancies of the separate observations of the intervals at
which his pendulum reached a given arc are several times lar-
ger than can well be attributed to errors of observation. Is it
not quite probable that there was.in his case an indeterminate-
ness similar to that shown in the diagram ?

It seemed likely that this was due to a walking of the pen-
dulum, such as might effect a change in the absolute pone
of the bar during the time of swing. I therefore fixed on th
bar a small bit of looking-glass in ‘which was reflected a saat
At the beginning of the swing a thread was set so that when

O. T. Sherman—A Pendulum Study. 177

oe by the cross-wire of the telescope it bisected the knife
The telescope was then directed to the mirror and
fensed so that a division of the reflected scale was visible on

‘of small movements of the stand which a t synchronous

with the swing of the pendulum. In one eet “of observations
this resulted from the nature of the ground on which the stand
rested ; in another it varied with the varying tightness of the
joints from the dryness of the wood; in a third which has
lately been called to, our attention it is apparently arta by
the vibration of the clock on the same wall. It has been
shown that the effect of the motion of the plane of buspsition
due to the elasticity of the support increased the time of vibra-
‘tion by a constant. If, however, there are other causes for the
motion of this plane than the elasticity of the support, the vari-
-ation of the time is nupeny: by

P=—..6's cot@m - - 5
oa” ts ee Oe
where ot represents the variation of the velocity of the motion
‘of the plane of suspension; V, the velocity of the pendulum
pee ., Cot

‘due to its instantaneous position. Of this differential ae

: 0's
passes through its series of values with each swing. I 32
the same period the integral is evidently a pon-ponedie function
‘of the are or a constant. If, however, = has a period, or

‘series of periods, which are different from that of oe, the

O's
value of the integral will depend on the phase with which —; yg
enters ; and since in the course of the observation this phase will

: oe : cot
again occur with the commencement of the period of - vt 8 the

function representing the disturbance of time of oscillation
should be one possessing maxima and minima disposed accord-

ing to some law. Since the phase of —— at entrance reacts on

Am. Jour. Sct.—Tuirp Serres, VoL. XXIV, No. 141.—SepTemper, 1882.
12

178 O. T. Sherman—A Pendulum Study.

the time of swing, the limits of om integral will be irregular

included, and we should

wit

have a series of minor Se themselves following some
law, superposed on the curve produced by the varying phase at

entrance. Again, since the value and relative period of © “and

V do not necessarily decrease in the same ratio with ite con-
tinuance of the observation, the amplitude and period of ob
disturbance should continually increase or decrease. Al
these are distinct from the traces of other errors of the vate
lum. ‘This curve is a record of the variation of the time of
vibration produced by the motion of the plane of suspension,
and therefore a definition of the steadiness of the stand. We
spe wit abee with means rather than the time of single vibra-
and obtain a different defining curve for different limits
of ‘ha coed integral. But from whatever number of vibra-
tions our means are derived we obtain the above peculiarities.

Pues

500 900 1300 2 2900 3300

WASHINGTON.D.C.

500 1300 2100 2900 8700 4500 5300 6100

In rine there is also another variation from the fact that
the transit of the cross-wire is not coincident with g=0:
Rs pentueniaile we can obtain but an approximation to the
actual curve representing 4 T, but yet certainly a sufficient
approximation. o this end the select seated with his eye

at the telescope has recorded on the chronograph the time ‘of
each transit in the same direction. Frequent short breaks are
indulged in. They break the rhythm and better rather tl
injure > the observation. Then reading the sheet we have taken

So
>
oo
~

O. T. Sherman—A Pendulum Study. 179

(e. g.) the mean of the interval bounded by the first and
thousandth transit, the second, and thousandth and second, ete.
Thus including in the second interval by far the greater part
of the first interval, but depending on two different observa-
tions. This served to insure against accidental errors. These
values are then carefully plotted, the number of transits from
the beginning being used as the abscisse. The curves thus
derived fulfill our expectations as far as we can sharply criti-

Furthermore, curves from the same mounting preserve their
general peculiarities for different observations. For different
mountings the amplitude is greater with the less stability. In
the preceding diagram we represent certain of these curves for
the different places of observation. The sharp and quick
irregularities are omitted on account of the smallness of the

In fact we have not now to deal with them.

Since at the time of observation we supposed ourselves
dealing with synchronous motion, the curves are not complete.
They serve their purpose. The curve for Washington repre-
sents the least stability ; that for Disco the greatest. At Disco
we give three curves. The first represents the action of the
stand when first set up, the parts being dry. The stand was
exposed to the weather. Between the first and second series a
heavy fog had swollen the parts. Between the second and
third a heavy snow storm had still further swollen the various
arts. For the first installation the amplitude of the curve is

at least 0-0008 of a second; for the second at least 0-0003.
For the third it is indeterminate. All refer to about the same
amplitude of vibration. The curve for St. Johns represents
fairly the increased effect of the disturbance with decreasing

h
and the second curve for Disco. It has not seemed necessary
to correct the values here represented for arc.

e venture to think, then, that while an observer who finds
himself compelled to work with a mounting other than he
would wish can not consider that his time Is increased by a con-
stant, yet he is in a position to detect and define the effect of the
stand movements at the moment of observation. This would
seem the first step toward eliminating the effect. That suc
an elimination can be made—at least a practical elimination—
we hope to show later. We can offer as yet no experimental
data of its completeness.

It is to be observed that the curves derived from this cause
are distinct from those produced by the form of the knife edge.
It is easily shown that for any smooth, rounding, and practi-

cally, for any slightly waving form of the edge, the time of
by

vibration is represen

180 L. M. Cheesman—Lifect of Mechanical Hardening

ee art
ito a/ 07 a4 +4(1+Pa’)a’

where P and are constants depending on the form of the
knife edge and varying inclination of the instantaneous axis to
the face of the ea e Such a variation, as has already
been recognized (India Survey, Pendulum Operations ; Coast
Survey Report, 1876), is detected by a non-periodic acceleration
or retardation of rate.

Art. XXI.—On the Effect of Mechanical Hardening on the
rte sh a of Steel and Iron; by Louis M.
CHEES

1. Introduction. —The relation sete the magnetism and

hardness of steel and iron has for many years been a subject of
scientific ci agai and especially in the last few hac
many valuable results have been obtained in this connectio

These riven entiouk nawiaeee have been almost exclusively
confined to the effect of the hardness brought ne in steel an

chanical means has been left for the most part qnonseidered
This is the more remarkable as the fact, shat the mechanical
ye exerts an influence on the capacity to oni magnet-
has certainly been known for nearly a century. Cou-
tomb who I believe was the first to publish Loge Bact arch in
speaking of increasing the magnetic capacity by means of
hardening, that “the hardness does not need - be einpleel
by heating to redness and then suddenly cooling, but that a
mechanical hardening as well causes an increase in the perma-
nent magnetic moment.
In this connection should also be mentioned an investigation
avis who informs us “ the magnetism assumed by cold-

by no means a new one, still ie if ers diene sar what
has already been stated, seems to be known i n regard to it; and
I have therefore endeavored, at the instigation of Prof. coe.

* Translation from Wiedemann’s Annalen, vol. xv
Mogg mém. del’Acad. roy. des Sciences, p. 266. y184. Wied. Galv., U1. a,
a —. on Iron Built Ships. Philos. Trans. 1839. Fortschr. der

tA
Physik., xix, p. 4
Lamont’s Handbuch des Magnetismus, p. 255.

on the Magnetic Properties of Steel and Iron. 181

Kohlrausch, to study the matter somewhat more systematically
than hitherto has been done, with especial reference to the
question, whether there are any qualitative differences between
the effects of the two kinds of hardening on the magnetic prop-
tee of steel and iron.

. Division of the work.—The work divides itself naturally
ts a consideration of the effect of the mechanical hardening :
Ist, on the permanent magnetism of saturated magnets; 2d,
on the temporary, as well as the aetna magnetism, by va-
rious intensities of the magnetizing fore

3. Materral.—tIn regard to the fiatetal used it should be sta-
ted, that experiments were made with steel and iron from many
sources. The kind of steel chiefly employed however, was that

nown as “ English Silver Steel,” which was obtained from
Crooks Bros. in Sheffield and Manchester, in the form of wires,
3307" long, with the diameters 1:0™", 1-2™ and 16™. The
iron magnets were cut chiefly from a long piece of soft “ Com-
mercial Iron Wire,” having a diameter of 1°6
ll the dinturlil when the contrary is not stated, was sof-
tened, before being used for the experiments, by heating it in
an iron box filled in with forge scales. After the box with its
contents had been at a red heat for some time the fire was al-
lowed to die out, the material remaining in the forge until it
had cooled down to the ordinary temperature. After the wires
had been softened every precaution was taken to prevent any
Pe hardening.

Hardening.—The wires were hardened either by “ bend-
ing, “stretching,” “ hammering,” or “ pulling” them through
holes i in the well- ‘known sopatiite for reducing the diameter of
wires.

The last mentioned method has the great advantage of ena-
bling us to obtain wires of different degrees of hardness with
very nearly equal diameters. Thus if three wires differing in

ardness are to be obtained they may be pulled, for example,
wire (a) through holes [1], [2] and [8], wire (b) through [1] and
[2], and wire (c) through hole [1]; they are then softened and

This advantage, howe: is more than counte (elie: by
the fact, which was evident in many ways, that the hardening
is very irregular.

By far the most satisfactory os Sete were oie: with
wires Geisler ed by ‘‘stretching” them in apparatus [Per-
coal for determining the ‘ rerre weight * the voeks being

ead off by an index in kilogra

182 L. M. Cheesman—FHffect of Mechanical Hardening

L—PERMANENT MoMENT OF SaTURATED MAGNETS.

The general course of the experiments here was to magnet-
ize to saturation wires having, as faras possible in the same set
of experiments, the same constitution and dimensions, but dif-
eee in their hardness; then to determine their magnetic
mome

5. Hepicannen. —The wires were magnetized by means of a
large horse-shoe magnet,* and in all cases the magnetization
was repeated until the deflection on the magnetometer re-

c
to Be a wires similarly, two magnetizations were generally

It aout be stated that a series of experiments made later,
the wires being magnetized by means of a coil and the current
from a dynamo-electric machine, afforded results differing in no
essential degree from those given here.

6. Determination of the magnetic moment.—The magnetic mo-
ment was determined with a small magnetometer by the Gauss
deflection method, the magnets lying in such a position, west
of the magnetometer, that the prolongations of their axes were
ed Algae to the undeflected magnetometer needle at its

iddle point; the readings were taken by means of a scale
sink elaebne.
steel mirror, Peripnene lle aes 22™™) hung on a silk
fiber, served as netometer needle.

To siaahats a og “aneynaietrical distribution of magnetism,
as well as the zero point of the scale, the magnets were placed
alternately with their north and south ends toward the mag-

2000
ulation of the Experiments. nila specific magnetism
was caloulated by the following formul

ot _ $=] ekg ~ mm? mg~?, sec—!
ee

s denoting the specific magnetism,
M denoting the magnetic moment,
m ee the mass of the magnets in mgs.,
¢ denoting half the angle of deflection of the magnet,
denoting the horizontal intensity of the earth’s magnetism,
r denoting ~ distance between the center of the magn nets
and the mirror

*Horse-shoe magnet made by Funckler; portative force, 50 kg.

on the Magnetic Properties of Steel and Iron. 183

‘ Sia seaman the distance between the poles of the magnets in
millim

In all cases the specific magnetism, 1. e., the magnetic moment
divided by the mass of the magnet, is given, instead of the
magnetic moment, so as to allow a comparison of the results
obtained with magnets of different dimensions.

The value of the horizontal intensity for one point in the
laboratory being known from a recent absolute determination
by Professor Kohlrausch, its value for the position of the mag-
netometer was obtained by relative determinations.

s the results to be obtained did not possess sufficient quan-

quantity

The torsion-ratio of the fiber holding the mirror was deter-
mined as 0°00027 and not taken into consideration in the calcu-
lation of the results.

EXxpPERIMENTS.

8. Experiments with Iron.
SerI.* Troy. LenetH=90 mm.

Deflection in Specific
No Condition. Diameter. scale divisions. Magnetism.
1 Natural 170mm mm
2 ammered 1° 27:9 208
3 Stretched 1°60 31:7 276
4 Stretched - 1°61 30°8 253

* Not specially softened.
Magnets 3 and 4 were hardened by stretching, one end being
held in a vice.

Ser ll. Iron. Lenetrs=100mm. DIAMETER=0°94mm.

Number Deflection in pecific:
No of holes. scale divisious. magnetism.
1 0 16°8mm 341
2 1 25°2 490
3 2 26°6 489
4 a 26°3 492
5 4 28°1 525
6 6 25°6 49]
7 6 27°6 526
8 6 29°8 557

se wires were hardened by “ Sapte’ ” them ag the
number of holes d designated in the second column, by wi
poe bies more fully described under “ Hardeni ing.” (See 4
above.)

184 LZ. M. Cheesman—Fffect of Mechanical Hardening

Setill. Iron. LenetH 100mm.* DIAMETER 1‘67mm.

Stretching Deflection in Specific

No, weight. scale divisions. magnetism.

1 0kg 26°2 164

2 0 246 160

a 10 26°4 Li3

4 25 25°0 165

5 35 30°8 204

6 45 30°3 201

yf 55 319 217

8 60 32°5 230

9 H5 soo 241
10 65 354 275

* The decrease . Lak diameter from No. 1 to No. 10 was about two per cent of
the diameter of N

These wires were hardened by subjecting them to the action
of a stretching force in the apparatus made by Perreaux for
determining the ‘“ breaking weight” of wires.

Wire No. 1, of Set III, being subsequently hardened by
“hammering,” the increase in length due to the same being cu
off, had after magnetization a specific magnetism of 1

Wire No. 2, of Set III, having been beat several times and
setiacaoniand, ‘had a specific magnetism

Comparing I, II and III, we find in east set the smallest
value of the specific magnetism in the case of the softest wire
and a gradual increase of the same with the hardening, in set
III the increase amounting to 70 percent. The increase of the
specific magnetism seems at times somewhat irregular ; this
ebbees feet erties pages by the remarks.made under the

oe
ing.

Experiment mal with a magnet of cast iron (length 102mm.
diameter 7mm.) also gave an increase of the specific magnetism
with the hardness, “ts hardening being brought about by gentle
pee aga

9. ments with Steel—In the experiments with steel a
difficulty presented itself, which though also present with iron
was far less annoying there, namely the fact that the different
wires were not homogeneous. This was noticeable not only
from the fact that wires, in as far as SS the same physical
condition, could be magnetized t to y different extents, but
also in that their “ breaking weights ” differed widely. On the
other hand, however, sored cut from the same wire gave results
comparable with each ot

n the following eapieciin oats a gta of each wire used was
left soft tor the sake of com parison

on the Magnetic Properties of Steel and Iron. 185.

SerIV. “EnGuisH Sitver Steen.” LenetH 100mm. THREE WIRES.
Deflec- Specific.

Diameter, tion, mag.
No. 1 ; a. Broken by a weight of 125 kgs.....---. 148mm 51°9 452
; b. Soft 1-56 85°6 685
No. 2 ; a. Subjected to a stretching weight of 60 kgs. lhl © Ses 499
; b. Soft E4 72°2 580
No. 3 } a. Subjected to a stretching weight of 30 kgs. 151 76°5 621
oe Mg >hawes by ; weight. of 77 kgs.......... 1°52 srt 379
0. . Hammere POR ey ear en O Lart re a 65°5 524
No.2 %. Hammered ¢ Te™magnetized t ee 611 480.
Set V.* Sreen. Leneta 90mm.
: Stretchin, Specific
Wire. weight in kg. Diameter. Deflection. magnetism.
Ila 0 1:28 61-4 781
Ta 0 1:28 60°0 756
Illa 0 1:28 6071 769
Ib 20 127 1°0 176
IIb 2 1:29 611 173
Ie 50 1:28 611 775
Ulb 55 1-27 60°2 - 774
Ile 1:28 55-2 708
Titd 65 1:26 48-4 623
fa 70 1:29 50°1 637
Id 75 (brach) 1°29 43°7 556

* Not specially softened.
These wires were hardened as in “Set III, iron.”

Comparing the results obtained with steel (sets IV and V).
we find the reverse of what we saw in the case of iron, namely,
that the greatest specific magnetism occurs with the softest
Wires.

ent quality of the steel employed.

186 L. M. Cheesman—Effect of Mechanical Hardening

It will be observed, however, that the dimensions of the

agnets used in these later experiments were very different
from those of the magnets used earlier, when the magnetism
was found to decrease with the hardening; in the former case
the ratio of the length to the thickness being 14°3, in the latter
ease in the neighorhood of 65.

To ascertain whether this caused the apparently contradictor
results obtained, a magnet was made of “ English Silver Steel,”
the length being so chosen as to obtain a magnet with about

the same value of = as in the case of those magnets, which had

shown an increase of the specific magnetism with the harden-

ng.

The constants of the magnet were: length = 21:0mm., diam-

L
eter = 154mm., es 13°6. The magnet showed a 30 per cent
larger specific magnetism in the hard than in the soft condi-
tion.

Thus the apparently contradictory results with steel seemed
to be due to the different values of the ratio —.

The following sets of experiments, VI, VII and VIII, were
made to test this conclusion more fully.

Set VI. “EnGiise Siuver Sree.”

The wires designated by (b) were hardened by a stretching
weight of 70kgs.

Wire. Length. ; Deflection. magpnetam.:
lb 21-0mm 139 10°9 80
la 21°0 14°3 i3°3. 102
2b 40°0 26°0 50°0 90
2a 40°0 26°T 62 247
3b 60°0 39°0 1240 309
3a 60°0 40°8 124°] 338
4b 120 80°0 600°1 742
4a 120°0 784 428-7 522

Set VII. From one wike or “ EnGuisu SILVER STEEL.”

1b, 2b, 3b were hammered to obtain la, 2a, 3a.
Specific

Wire. Length. ; Deflection. magnetism.
lb 31‘lImm 20°1 31°8 162
la BO es 2071 38° 186
2b 60°0 38°9 Lis-2 454
2a 61°0 39°1 1764 456
3b 100°0 64°9 463-7 706
3a 101-0 65-4 371 566

4
4
4
c
:

on the Magnetic Properties of Steel and Iron. 187

Ser VIII. FROM ONE WIRE oF “ENGLISH SILVER STEEL.”

The wires were hardened as in set VII.

Wire. Length.* z Deflection. BBs! OH
OL ate iy ee ae
8 404 93°0 484
cake 58°6 1138 bos

* By mistake the increase in length due to the hammering was not measured.

The results of VI, VII and VIII, are represented graphic-
ally in fig. 1, p. 198.
_ From these results we see that a cylindrical magnet, magnet-
ized to saturation, is able to retain more or less magnetism
when soft than when hard, according to whether the quotient
ra its length by its diameter is greater or less than some value
a,)

ore -

Furthermore it is evident that the specific magnetism is a
continuous function of the quotient D

Both of the foregoing laws have already been proven for
heat-hardened magnets.* :

No further experiments were made to ascertain from what
the value of = where the curves cross (a,) might depend; Ruths
found (a,) to vary between 30 and 40, while in the three cases
given here it varies but little from 41.

With iron no crossing of the curves of the hard and soft
magnets was observed; it is probable, however, that at greater
values of 3) the curves do cross, and I hope at an early op-

portunity to study this portion of the subject more fully. _
Effect of heating the hardened wires. — The question

moments increased or decreased, as the case might be, by a

second hardening.
* Chas. Ruths, Ueber den Magnetismus weicher Eisencylinder, Dortmund, 1876.

5°

188 L. M. Cheesman—Lffect of Mechanical Hardening

12. Before leaving this part of the subject the result of
some experiments should be stated, which were made to ascer-
tain what care was necessary to be taken to are a loss of
magnetism while the magnets were ae adjusted, ete.
large loss of magnetism was observed in all cases when the
magnets were subjected to any maiden 5 sai: so that, as may
be seen from the following table, great care had to be exercised
between the magnetization and ‘the determination of the m ag-

netic moment.,
ee a original

ire. Falling. netism.

1 Steel, s 15m "30 per cent.
2 Senay hard 2-0 ah
370 57
o De OW e aa pre aaa as 3°0 55
4 = mechanically hard 2°0 52
5 Tron, 2°0 84
6 “ “ 3°70 84
7 i soft ele cat Le 2°0 83
8 She hese ee oe 2°0 97
9 Steel, heathardened Des 3°0 6
10 4 ee 3°0 4

As is well known the Heat -hardening does much to render a
magnet less sensitive to jarring, etc.; it was not discoverable,
from the experiments made, that the oe hardening
produces even in a small degree a similar e

IL—ExpERIMENTS WITH UNSATURATED MAGNETS.

13. Apparatus.—The apparatus was arranged as is usual in
cases where the temporary magnetic moment is to be deter-
mined by the deflection of a magnetometer needle; the method

aving been so often described by others,* it would seem un-

ere.

The effect of the magnetizing helix on the magnetometer
was counterbalanced by a second one, the helices being placed,
the one to the north, the other to the south of the instrument.
The course of the current was as follows: from th battery
through the two coils and a variable resistance to a key, and
finally Saori a tangent-compass back to the battery.

acommutator,the direction of the current in
the ae para could be reverse

The constants of the magnetizing helix were as follows:

I ee ee i 223mm
Internal radius 19
ids 5 AUTEN Me ii thet areal Coapp 52

mber of dion Lee MS oes 55
Busia of la 10

san accurate a at ee same time convenient method

of
adjusting the magnets, a glass tube, with an internal diameter

* Compare Ruths, Ueber den Magnetismus weicher Eisencylinder. Dortmund,
1876.

a

on the Magnetic Properties of Steel and Iron. 189

‘somewhat larger than that of the magnets, was held firmly by
corks in the axis of the coil, and the magnets pushed into posi-
tion by a glass r

The tangent- Ancipiiss was sete with a single ring of copper,
having a mean diameter o

The compass needle, bee ee 20m long, was provided with
a glass pointer; the scale, which was divided into degrees, was
cut on mirror glass.

The order of the observations was as follows: se ) reading of
the magnetometer with the circuit open; (2.) with the circuit
closed ; (3.) with the circuit closed ina the ee in the coil;
(4.) the Jedcctna of the tangent-compass was then determined
[commutated] ; (5.) and lastly the magnetometer pe was
taken with the circuit open and the magnet in the

The difference between the readings (8) and @). nee the
deflection due to the temporary magnetism ; ord between 5
and 1, the deflection due to the permanent magnet

14. Calculation of the Hxperiments.—The a a renee resolves
itself into (a) that of the magnetic intensity in the coil, and
{b) that of the resulting temporary and permanent magnetism.

(a.) Intensity of the magnetic force.—This resolves itself again
into two, the calculation of the intensity of the ashi ag an
that of the constant for the magnetic working of the

The intensity of the current was calculated by he fon ala:

Tr
«=A tg ¢. The reduction factor (A= xm) of the tangent-

compass to the absolute system was calculated 62°7.

The correction to the above formula, due to the cross-section
of the windings and the length of the needle lay within the
errors of observation, and was therefore not considered.

ae peed of the magnetic field in the cott.

ormula,

(I) = a+e2z |
a" Casey er
are the magnetic effect of a coil, of the length 2a, the radius
7 and n windings traversed by a current of intensity 7,on a
point situated in the axis of the helix at a distance from its
ente

To ‘oven the mean intensity of the field for a bar, with the
length 2b, and with a cross-section so small that we may con-
sider the bar as lying wholly in the axis, we divide formula
(I) by 2 ante after a by dx, integrate between the
limits c=—b and a=+48,

We thus obtain,

(II) ee e dn="— "ri (atb)' +2714 {(a—b)' +7°} 4]

xr=—b

190 L. M. Cheesman—Lffect of Mechanical Hardening

Finally to obtain the effect of the (c) layers of feng the
external and internal radii being respectively r’ and r can
dr and integrate the product
We thus obtain,

+ tog + MEO
r+a/(atb)+r”?
r +/(a—b*) +r? ; —53 nh
+(a—b)* lo es eee pf] at+6)y+r
( ) & vr’ +a/(a—b)? +7” v( )
—V/ (a= 7} +r {Va (at by er |

The value of (=) calculated by (IIT) for the magnetizing

helix used was found to be 29° sa for 2b= aime ig

multiply formula (II) by Ps pS
with respect to r, from r=2" to r=r",

x ae
* peer
(IIT) = =4 a

M rT't 1 5
== PTiee .—.mm?mg~?, sec—!
m Pim
1-855
he various quantities have the same meanings as in the cor-
responding formula in part I.

f germs

15. Haperiments.

“ENGLISH SILVER STEEL.” WIRE la. Harp. SUBJECTED TO A STRETCHING

WEIGHT OF 81 kgs, Lenern 100mm. Prasisbepied =69°0.
DIAMETER
rm. mag. Temp. mag. tic
Deflection. Sp. mag. Deflection. Sp. mag. ae ee — wee.
Or1 3°15 0°3 11°2 0°-90 288
0-8 29°9 2°4 89°9 81°6
1-4 52°4 4 172 3°55 114
2°8 105 232 4°5 144
48 180 10°1 378 6° 207
78 292 167 625 10°65 345
9°8 376 26°8 1004 19°55 6
10°9 408 32°0 1202 31°45 1125
1L-0 412 33°6 1258 37°55 1410

* Com W. Weber, ‘‘Elektrodynamische Massbestimmungen, insbeson
liber Dia snaps inca & p. 547, Ruths, Magnetismus weicher Hisencylinder, rs *t.
+ All the magnets used were 100mm long.

on the Magnetic Properties of Steel and Iron. 191

Wirelb. Sorr. Lenetra=100mm. a =;
DIAMETE
Perm. mag, Temp. mag. :
Deflection. Sp.mag. . Deflection. Sp. mag. i Bettection, ox’ ~—

0-1 3°66 16 58°6 he 41°6

1:8 65°9 4 150 2°45 78°4

3°6 132 260 2°80 89°7

8-0 s 13°2 483 4°45 143
11°9 436 133 706 6°40 206
14:0 512 23°1 845 8:4 272
18°8 688 30°8 1127 18°20 603
20°0 732 34°4 1259 28°70 1004
20-1 736 35°4 1295 35°90 1327

‘ENGLISH SILVER STEEL.” Wire 2 a. Harp (HAMMERED), LENGTH=100mm.
LENGTH 69-9

DIAMETER
Perm. mag. Temp. mag.
——— ¢ . Tangent-compass Magnetic
Deflection. Sp. mag. Deflection. Sp. mag. er
0 24°3 2°2 764 ais 9°
0 69°65 5-0 174 3°45 110
BD 122 8:4 29 4°20 135
43 254 14°4 500 6:00 193
10°0 347 12 736 9°80 aii
11°9 41 26°7 93 13°5 440
14:0 486 31°8 1105 23°45 795
16°5 538 35-9 1247 40°30 1554
LENGTH
Wire 2b. Sort. Lenera=100mm, rer 4 <=" 0°0;
oe ce Pec bch dor . Tangent-compass Magnetic
Deflection, Sp. mag. Defiection. Sp. mag. eflection. force,
0°2 7710 19 675 17-40 3°8
ae 39°1 4-1 146 2°30 73°6
a7 131 7-8 2TT 3°00 9671
73 259 13-0 462 4°35 140

19} 3 359 Itt 7 5°30 170

13°8 490 23°% 842 8:40 271

16°5 586 28°7 1020 12 422

Bae ae 647 32°3 1143 18°05 597

19°9 707 35°5 1260 28°05 977

19°8 703 36°9 1310 35°70 1318

“ENGLISH SILVER STEEL.” Bar 3a. Harp (HAMMERED). LeneTH=101°5mm.
LENGTH
——___—_—— = ]4'5,
DIAMETER
Perm. mag.

Deflection. Sp. mag. “en ap
1-0 1°61 1°°35 43°2
3°65 5°62 3°10 99°3
51 8°19 4°45 43
3 1ia’3 6°90 222

13°1 21:0 9°60 310
20°3 32°6 14°20 464
33°3 53°5 33°50 1103
355 57:0 37°65 1416

192 ZL. M. Cheesman—Effect of Mechanical Hardening

LENGTH
+* BNGuisH SILVER STEEL.” Bar 3b. Sort. LengtH=100mm, =14'3,
DIAMETER

Perm. mag.
—_ oo Tangent-compass Magnetic
Deflection. Sp. mag. efiection. force.
3°72 5°10 2-20 72:0
4°9 781 3°30 106
6°9 11°0 4°30 138
9°0 14°3 5°50 Lek
12°6 20°1 8°50 274
18°0 28°7 12°85 418
23°1 36°8 17°85 5
32°2 51:3 31°90 1140
34°3 541 38°45 1450
LENGTH
Tron. Wrre4a, Harp (‘Putten’). Lenera=100mm. meg eh
DIAMETER
Perm. mag. Temp. mag. : >
AS SET ELL TATE r — Tangent-compass Magnetic
Defiegtion. Sp. mag. Deflection, Sp. mag. eflection. force.
0 0-0 1 91°9 85 5971
0-2 26°3 1°6 110 2°10 67-2
539 5°9 775 426 135
51 670 U2 946 5°40 173
59 775 9-2 1208 8°35 269
63 827 12°5 1642 18°10 599
LENGTH —139.

Tron. Wire4b. Sort. LenerHo=100mm,. ————
DIAMETER

Perm. mag. Temp. mag. r Mi 16
ne = : ° e
Deflection. Sp. mag. Deflection. Sp. mag. ti Terce.
18 245 2°83 3 °-95 40°0
2-7 367 40 543 1°45 4674
3°8 516 59 801 1-90 60°38
42 570 8-8 1195 4°15 133-0
43 584 9°9 1344 5:60 179°7
4°3 584 11-4 1548 13°60 443
43 584 11°8 1603 19°55 651
The results are graphically represented in figs. 2 and 8 on
the following page.
16. Conclusions.—If we compare the curves (Fig. II), repre-
i as

senting the temporary specific magnetism of steel and iron
to be

is greater than

_—_

of steel we see, that, where the quotient (5
(a,), the softer magnet has the advantage, without reference to
the intensity of the magnetizing force. If on the other hand
(5) is less than (a,) (Fig. IIT), the softer magnet has the advan-

hen the

on the Magnetic Properties of Steel and Iron. 198

|
|
a F ichi a 5
Pa Pe /\Har
OB a A y ao L
ee A
oi ff : Lf:
. LL VA YA,
o| 1A y
a * F -
a
Steel, Troe.
L. Large. Soft / Barprary
S Pat: 5 | LV.

84 Pate Sekt i
oe Sat "Filan, F
x . igbasbe hint

ea : |
e.
a ie igie
By?
rar
R =
¥ § =
x a zing 2, Fig}3
E
eT
bl

Am. Jour. Sct,—Turrp Series, Vou. XXIV, No. 141.—SepremsBer, 1882.
13

194 LI. M. Cheesman—Mechanical Hardening.

The same holds for the permanent specific magnetism of
iron,* as for steel where (5) is less than a,. These results are

in entire accordance, qualitatively, with the results obtained
by Ruthst and others with heat hardened magnets.

Differences between the mechanical and heat hardening.—We
have thus seen that both mechanical and heat hardening bring
about changes in steel and iron, which, for the most part, affect
their magnetic properties similarly, and the question naturall;
arises whether there is any reason for believing the conditions
caused by each to differ, other than in degree.

A comparison of their effects on some of the physical prop-
erties of steel would seem to require an affirmative answer.

Thus the specific resistance of steel has been shown to be
very materially altered by the heat hardening, a change of 200
per cent taking place at times,t while the specific resistance
of steel wires hardened by “ pulling” is thereby altered, at the
most, a few per cent.

if heat hardened, has the smallest specific gravity§ when hard-
est and the largest specific magnetism [pre-supposing 7 small],

so that the largest specific magnetism corresponds to the small-
est value of the specific gravity; when steel is hardened by

hammering, on the other hand, the specific magnetism [z small |

and specific gravity increase together, as I have repeatedly
found by experimen

It would seem also to follow from the foregoing that the
magnetic moment is not dependent on the specific gravity, as
at times has been supposed.|

Physical Institute. University of Wurzburg, Nov. 1, 1881.

*Compare remarks at end of paragraph 10.

+Chas. Ruths, Ueber den Magnetismus weicher Hisencylinder. Dortmund, 1876.

¢ Compare Strauhal and Barus, Ueber Anlassen des Stahles und Messung
seines Hartezustandes, Wied. Ann., vol. xi, p. 976.

SCarl. Fromme, Wied. Ann., vol. viii, p. 352. 1879,

(Compare the remarks of Ruths on this point, p. 48.

B. K. Emerson—The Deerfield Dyke and its Minerals. 195

Ant. XXII.—The Deerfield Dyke and its Minerals ; by Bun. K.
MERSON, Professor of Geology in Amherst College.

Description of the dyke.—The most northern of the large
dykes of diabase associated with the Connecticut River sand-
‘stone commenees in Gill, and after running southwestwardly a
‘short distance, swings round to the south and runs down the
west side of the Connecticut through Greenfield and Deerfield,
-and turning eastward crosses the river and ends in Mt. Toby.

It has thus the elongated U-shape characteristic of the Tri-
-assic dykes of the basin, which appears on a scale so much
larger in the Holyoke Range. It is worthy of note that the

igh western border of the valley corresponds in direction to
both these dykes, being set back in Greenfield and Northampton
‘SO as in each case to present a reéntrant angle to the N.W.
corner of the dykes with W.E. and W.S. sides parallel to the
‘corresponding portions of the respective dykes. The dyke is
about twenty miles long and at Cheapside, in the north part of
Deerfield where the Deerfield River breaks through it, is about
-80m. thick. The rock is intercalated in the red sandstone and
dips eastward with it, but would seem to follow this direction
‘only a little way before coming to the fissure through which it
was erupted, as an artesian well sunk on their property in
‘Turner's Falls by the Montague Paper Co. went down in sand-
‘stone 274m. below the level of the Turner’s Falls dam, while
immediately opposite on the west and separated only by the
width of the river, about 200m., the trap is about 80m. above
‘the dam, and dips toward the well with an angle of 32°.

Fault at the mouth of Fall River.—The best point for the
‘study of this dyke, as indeed for the study of the Connecticut
River sandstone in Massachusetts, is at Turner’s Falls, and
opposite this village at the mouth of Fall River, at the
chloropheite locality the dyke is beautifully faulted. It
comes down from the north to the water’s edge, and directly in
- eontinuation of it in the Connecticut is a sandstone island,

he dyke rests to the west on coarse granitic sandstone
which it has baked for an inch into a black hornstone and in-
fluenced for a foot. The diabase is compact in its lower part
and amygdaloidal above, and the soft red shales which rest
upon it are wholly unaltered—are never included in the trap—

196 B. K. Emerson—The Deerfield Dyke and its Minerals.

things holds with regard to the great Holyoke dyke, and in
addition the extensive tufa beds intercalated in the sandstones.
above the latter and described by President Hitchcock * can
not but strongly reinforce this conclusion. I am aware that it.
has been suggested that the beds described by President
Hitchcock as tufa beds have been explained as bands of the
common sandstone indurated by steam escaping during the
ejection of the lavas between the layers of the sandstone, but I

ave cut sections from the blocks of diabase enclosed in this
stratum at the most accessible locality of it, the roadside below
Smith’s Ferry in Northampton and find it to be identical with
that of the Holyoke range immediately north. The blocks

in an advanced stage of decomposition though appearing quite »
fresh ; plagioclase apparently of two species ; augite, magne-
tite and olivine are uniformly present. Apatite cannot be
detected.

* Geology of Mass., 1841, p, 442.

/

B. K. Emerson—The Deerfield Dyke and its Minerals. 197

intact. The olivine is often the freshest looking mineral in the

slide except the magnetite.

The rock at the new cutting and southward is very fine
grained, breaking with conchoidal fracture, dark gray and com-
pact at the base of the dyke, and there distinguished by the
abundance of the well-known feathery aggregations of the mag-
netite grains, while in the whole upper portion it is coarsely

amygdaloidal, the amygdules filled commonly with diabantite,

calcite, or both—when one penetrates below the deep layer o
rusty scoriaceous rock from which all the secondary minerals
have been removed,—and here the magnetite is never arranged
in feathery groups. At the old cutting on the other side of the
Deerfield river, a few rods north, the rock becomes more gran-
ular in texture, grayish and reddish varieties occur, sub-porphy-
ritic, and abounding with flattened steam cavities filled now
with diabantite which arranged in layers give the rock an indis-
tinct fluidal structure. These varieties continue northward and

are exposed in great force for nearly a mile of fresh cuttings,

where the road from Greenfield to Turner’s Falls crosses the

dyke, and from the Suspension bridge, at the end of this road,

along the river side for a mile north to the mouth of Fall
River and beyond. Through all this area prehnite and the

An exceptional rock occurs abundantly in bowlders on the
south side of the Deerfield, but I have not met it on the north
or in place. It is a clear, light gray rock, with roundish
blotches of white, and it looks like a weathered leucitophyr.

nder the microscope the blotches are seen to be made up 0
aggregated stout crystals of plagioclase, and the rest of the mass
between, of rod-like plagioclase and magnetite with almost no

* Tschermak, Min, Mitth.

198 B.K. Emerson—The Deerfield Dyke and its Minerals.

augite. The rare amygdules in this rock are filled with a fine
silky radiated mineral, apparently an altered prehnite resting:

as the chloropheite of Macculloch. In the final report on the:
Geology of Massachusetts, pp. 208, 660, he enumerates the min-
erals there known without increasing the former list: barite,.

opper, malachite, chalcocite, chalcopyrite, chlorite, chlorophe-
ite, calcite, prehnite, augite, quartz and varieties, selenite, chab-
azite, lincolnite.

A few years ago railroad cuttings on the north side of the
Deerfield River at Cheapside exposed veins of massive datolite
3 to 4™ wide, which showed no distinct crystals and occurred
without the minerals which commonly accompany it, excepting
prehnite.

During the summer of 1880, a heavy cut was made through
the corresponding portion of the dyke on the south side of the
river for the extension of the Canal Railroad, and opened up:
veins cage ae the usual trap minerals in great abundance and
beauty. These veins run nearly vertically, with a thickness
not above 10™, and were exposed to a depth of above 18". I
propose to describe the minerals in the order of their occur-
rence in the veins and to discuss at some length their paragene-
sis and the crystallography of several of them.

IABANTITE. echloritic mineral, so uniformly and abund-.
antly disseminated in the diabase of the valley, was entered in
the catalogue of the State collection by Dr. Hitchcock as foli-
ated chlorite, Turner’s Falls, and a paler pulverulent variety,
as earthy chlorite, Springfield. A third mineral, intimately
associated with these follows them in the collection under the
name chlorophocite, a misprint for chloropheite, Gill. The
latter is for the sake of symmetry made to follow prehnite, it
being a product of the decomposition of the latter mineral.
That the former mineral is chemically identical with that ana--
lyzed by Hawes and named diabantite by him, is extremely
probable in view of their identity in all physical and especially
optical properties, and of the monotonous similarity of the
_ many digbase dykes of the Connecticut basin, in which both
occur. That the mineral is distinct from delessite, as the word
is used by Zirkel, Rosenbusch and Heddle, is much less certain-

_ * This Journal, i, 115, 116. + This Journal, x, 393.

B. K. Emerson—The Deerfield Dyke and its Minerals. 199

It is the earliest product of the decomposition of the diabase,
and proceeded doubtless from the alteration of the augite. In
one case | found a mass having the shape of an augite crystal
filled with magnetite toward the outside and polarizing as a
single individual but possessing the bright green color and the
strong dichroism of diabantite. It is disseminated in compar-
atively small amount through the mass of the rock between
the feldspar crystals and thus in the place of the augite, much
more abundantly in the steam cavities and shrinkage cracks
with which the rock abounds. It generaily coated the Freak

amygdaloidal cavities first with a quite thick (}-1™™) foliated- .

radiated layer with minute, delicate botryoidal surface. Several
such layers sometimes followed each other, and then the center
became filled with a confused granular mass of the same ma-
terial, the whole making a very pleasing effect under the micro-
Scope with its bright green color and striking dichroism. Under
crossed Nicols this central granular portion often assumes a
deep chlorite green studded with bright colorless spots (calcite?)
and maintains this color through a whole revolution o
object, the bright spots being alternately extinguished. Some-
times, in the gray mottled diabase, a layer of magnetite or coal
grains was interposed between the layers of diabantite, and
rarely large distinct crystals of magnetite appear wholly sur-
rounded (in section) by diabantite, and in one case a fine, large
feather of magnetite projected into the diabantite. The long
feldspar crystals, also, which border the cavity, often project
freely into it and are then perfectly and more complexly termi-
nated than when in the mass. The diabantite folds around
and does not penetrate them. Often the center of the cavity is
filled with calcite, impregnated with diabantite, so as to pro-

uce a pegmatitic appearance on cleavage faces, or with finely
fibrous prebnite and this also is for a greater or less distance
toward the center blackened by the abundance of the diaban-
tite which it has enclosed.

On the other hand where over the botryoidal layer of dia-
bantite there appear quartz, datolite, natrolite, sphalerite or
other sulphurets, they are entirely free from this impregnation.
In the broad mineral-bearing fissures, the diabantite often so
Impregnates layers of scaly or fibrous prehnite 1-5™ thick
over considerable surfaces that a black or blackish-green mass
results, often abundantly slickensided, which so resembles
very fine grained scaly or fibrous schist that I supposed it to be
formed by the pulverizing of the trap by friction and the
cementing of the powder by prehnite, until the microscope made
known its true character.

Farther north on the dyke opposite Turner’s Falls the large
flattened cavities are lined with a botryoidal layer 1™™ thick,

~

200 B. K. Hmerson—The Deerfield Dyke and its Minerals.

and albite upon it. e interior is very often

dark olive-green, fine-granular mixture of crystals of diaban-
tite which can be shaken out of the cavity as a fine powder,
each grain of which appears, under the microscope, as beauti-
fully vermicular as the helminth of the older rocks.

The paragenesis of the mineral is thus quite definitely fixed.
It was the first product of the decomposition of the diabase
and its formation ceased not very long after calcite and prehn-
ite began to be deposited in the cavities and fissures. As the

of black-green diabantite with crystals of chalcopyrite, blende
i d with a

the valley may have been deprived of oxygen and able to

tical with our diabantite and which forms the first coating of
the amygdules of the phillipsite-bearing feldspar-basalt of
Salesl, von Zepharovich* derives the same from spheerosiderite,
the radiated and concentric structure and the botryoidal surface
resembling in miniature that common in the carbonate. A
cellular structure and traces of rhombohedral forms were also
observed. I have seen here no traces of any such crystal forms.

* Zeitsch. Kryst., v, 98, 1880.

B. K. Emerson—The Deerfield Dyke and its Minerals. 201

When a slide of the diabase is treated with hydrochloric
acid both the fresh and the altered diabantite are decomposed
and white silica remains behind in plates having still the
shape and arrangement of the original mineral. This is also
the case with the vermiculite out of the primary rocks in

elham.

Similar amygdules occur in the compact diabase having a
white color or being in part still green and dichroic, and hav-

202 McGee and Call—Liss of Des Moines, Iowa.

ations of Max Schuster,* the second is explained by the multiple
twinning of the crystals,

7

dorite near the bottom, the crystals found the exact level of

to the level of quartz, sp. gr. 2°64, but all were separated by a
broad interval from the other triclinic feldspars. The position
of these crystals is interesting from a paragenetic point of
view. ‘The cavities are tapestried on all sides by the diabantite
and the albites rest, often very loosely, upon it, an hi

forming projected freely into the interior as is shown by their
glassy clearness and perfection of form and polish. The last of

albite probably demands elevated temperature and increased

pressure for its formation, the diabantite upon which it rests
must be assigned to the time following immediately upon the

(To be continued.)

Art. XVITI.— On the Liss and associated Deposits of Des Moines ;
by W. J. McGrz, of Farley, Iowa, and R. ELLswortH CALL,
of Des Moines, Iowa.

[Read before the Iowa Academy of Sciences, May 31, 1882.]

HE occurrence of typical léss at Des Moines has already
been noted by F. M. Witter,+ the junior author of this paper,t

suggested by this observation.

In its leading geographical features the accompanying map 1s
a copy of a part of the map of Polk county in Andreas’s Atlas ;§
though a few minor details have been added from observation.

*Tsch. Min. Mitth., iii, 117, 1880.

+ Paper read before the Muscatine Academy of Sciences, Muscatine Tribune,
Feb. 10, 1879.
: American Naturalist, xy, Oct., 1881, p. 782; loc. cit., xvi, May 1882, p. 369
et seqq.

§ A. T. Andreas’ Illustrated Historical Atlas of the State of Iowa, 1875, p. 181.

°.

ie fae ae : acre

: Ee

seve Lin

_zarde Fog sinoquey

"eMVENLLY: ----
"ghiag
*hyrurA Puy
pmo’ sauroyy sal

204 McGee and Call—Léss of Des Moines, Iowa.

The cenological* and hypsometrical features were made out
during the progress of the present investigation. In the pro-
jection of the contours, as well as in the construction of the

profile, use was made measured railway, roadway and
street elevations within the area show ata were
supplem y observations and estimates made on the

t may be explained that in this latitude in Iowa the drift is
everywhere superficially modified to some extent; the upper
:* se m

in structure, aspect and topographical configuration, but grad-
uating imperceptibly into unmodified glacial drift within a few
feet below the surface. The term “drift” is herein applied
only to the upper till, i. e., to the glacial deposit overlying the
Jorest bed. The lower till has not been seen within the area
shown.

The cartography and the preparation of the cuts are the
work of the senior author; the determination of, and remarks
on, the fossils enumerated are by the junior author; while the
field work was jointly performed.

age. Asa broad trough, this plain connects the angles in the
valley of the Des Moines river above and below the confluence
of the Raccoon in so marked a manner as to have given rise to
the general (but erroneous) popular impression that it is an

MeGee and Call—Liss of Des Moines, Iowa.

abandoned channel of that river. From its
western border rise two insulated plateaus
. of characteristic léss topography but with
numerous erratic bowlders scattered over
their summits; the southernmost, known
as ‘Capitol Hill,” being the higher. Both
have nuclei of Carboniferous rocks forming
perhaps three-fourths of their altitudes;
and both are manifestly separated from the
high land to the westward by the erosion of
the Des Moines valley.

West and north of the Des Moines and

clines gently, and the plateau merges into
the drift-plain covering most of the State.
Northward and westward Beaver creek and
Walnut creek wash its base, and sharply

deposits are the same, in the immediate
Vicinity of the river bluffs, as on the cen-
tral plateau above the confluence of the
rivers; the Carboniferous strata forming
ae three-fourths of the height of the
luffs. The altitude here is rather less

Axce og Wet Witt.
960

205

+
|
i

Top geet steps sea Lerti,

4
a

along dotted line,
Pig. 2.

Progite

206 MeGee and Call—Liss of Des Moines, Iowa.

than on the central plateau, from which this region has mani-
festly been separated by the erosion of the valley of the Rac-
coon river. Southward from the river bluffs the bowlder-bear- .
ing depict merges into the superficially modified drift extend-

ing to the Three Rivers, and the general altitude gradually
diminishes. Ascending the Raccoon the elevated range of bluffs
rather suddenly dies away at the westernmost Four Mile creek ;

and above are the more gentle slopes characteristic of drift areas
—the slope here being toward, instead of away from the river.

Summing up the predominant 2 ob aoe features of
the region “under consi ideration, it appears (1) that the Des
Moines and Raccoon rivers have S aded uniform plains and
have corraded their channels through the most elevated plateau
of sedimentary strata existing within many miles; and (2) that -
there has been an unusual accumulation of Quaternary deposits
over this plateau about the confluence of the rivers.

These features conform to laws which the senior author has
found to obtain over much of eastern Iowa; for not only do

of a ese rivers is at eet angles to the mean slope of the
surface which they drai
: IT.

The following are a few only of the sections examined.
Each is located on the map, and numbered as in the text.
The altitude is to the top of the section. The probable error
in altitude refers to the city datum of low water at the confiu-
ea of the Des Moines and Raccoon rivers, which is assumed

o be 780 feet above sea level.* In the lists of fossils, species
ms now living in the vicinity are marked with an asterisk.

SEcTION 1.
ori COR. WALNUT AND E. 9TH Sts.—ALTITUDE, 860 + 2 FEET.

Ten hea

* Gannett a - Elevations, 4th ed., 1877, P: Jn gives 779 feet as the low-
water altitude of t es Moines river at fos Moi
+ Over 2800 léss-kindchen, main] ie pean 1, 2 and 9, were recently
examined and in part figured and described, by the ‘ania author,—American
Naturalist, xvi, May, 1882, p. 373. Plate

McGee and Call—Liss of Des Moines, Iowa. 207

2.—An arabe ferruginous band an inch or two broad, consti-
tuting a

lations, where there are un 1 numbers of léss-kindchen
immediately above, and of cylindrical ferruginous concre-
tions immedia tely belo

3.—Liss, ashen or bluish, containing léss-kindchen, tubelets and
fossils Le vie with Pie e of No. 1, as w well as cylindrical

concretio Below reaper: es silty, pulverulent, and
obscurely raihinted’ viseatiel with the base; and fos sils,
Pky and lodss-kindchen disappear within one or two

rom its lower limit. Four feet.
4—Vermilionted bre as in the onan section, One foot.

depth of strata. The ferruginous band marks the limit of sec-
ular oxidation, and is not ‘structural, though it generally fol-
lows the obscure lines of reo Sugita aes bee occur

SECTION 2.
E, sie E. 97 Sr. per, WaLNuT St. AnD Court Av.—ALT. 858 + 2 FT.

'

' ; '
‘ ! sf oe

i ' t

PR ag es Senay eh 0

itn cord) . by plat Reel

fLogh a tin
Fig. 3.

1 Bw. ashen or light drab, i an vertically cleft, and con-

ing léss-kindchen, tubelets, and rare fos sils above
obscurely laminated, pebvetallext, silty, nnfostiiferons and
with minute ssheooua s specks below. The lamine follow

the major undulations of his irregular base, but in part

portion and into No.

208 McGee and Call—Liss of Des Moines, Lowa.

2. sala spas clay, tenacious when wet, friable and granular
ry, massive below and o obscurely laminated above,
sop orty a few small exfoliated pebbles of shale and more
abundant minute reniform nodules of impure limonite, and
exhibiting occasional dark-red ochreous stain
3. LS Recacsns Carboniferous shale, gray, blue, yellowish and
drab in color

The ldss in this section is continuous with that in the last,

Suceinea obliqua Sar Mesodon clausa bay
Limnophysa eee Say, Patula striatella Anth.
*Helicina oceulta Say * Vallonia wichela Mill.

SEcTION 3.

N. smwe Court Av. Ber. E. 10TH anv E. llta Sts.—Atrt. 880 + 3 FT.

1. fiers reddish-buff unstratified drift clay Containing numerous
nded, subangular angular pebbles, mainly erratic,

os ee six aces in diameter, bits of coal and a lenticular

mass of pal apenas clay three feet long and six inches

thick. Seven fee
2,—The same, ,obseurely ‘and irregularly stratified, ner
with of léss, and sometimes contorte containing

pekiudehos, tubelets and fossils (often Hommantar), in
the drift strata in direct Zany ay with pebbles, as well
as in the bands of loss. Five fee

3.—Léss, pee to and continuous with ne observed in sections
1 and 2, abounding in léss-kindchen, tubelets and fossils ;
the following species being represented :

Succinea obliqua Sar. Mesoden clausa Say.
Limnophysa humilis Say. Stenotrema monodon —
* Helicina occulta Say. esse ina arborea Sa ay:

distinct. The fauna here was found to be identical with, but
less abundant than, that of the undisturbed léss, which was
exposed for only about a foot at the base of the section. The
léss here is confidently codrdinated with that of sections 1 and
2 on paleontological, lithological and stratigraphical grounds;_.
for not only are faunas and “physical characters identical, but

McGee and Call—Liss of Des Moines, Iowa. 209

actual continuity was traced in the street excavations. The
next following section is on the opposite side of the street, and
the principal members were unquestionably continuous ‘with
those in this section before the street was graded. It was not
fresh when examined, and the transition from drift to léss was
obscure,
Section 4.
S. Sipe Court Av. ser. BE. 10TH anp E. lira Srs—Aut. 882 + 3 Fr.
1 agp sandy clay containing numerous rounded,
ubang and angular pebbles up to twelve inches in
diameter, aasodiated eit a base with léss-kindchen
and fossils. About t eight fe
te light buff, somewhat ie and pebbly above, contain-
ing numerous léss-kindchen, tubelets and fossils. "Six feet.
The following are some of the pie here found:

Suceinea obliqua Sar. Hyatina arborea Say.
Succinea avara Say. : Vallonid pulchella Mill.
*Helivina occulta Say. * Patula strigosa Gou
Limnophysa humi les Say. Patula rhs Anth.
it desidiosa Say. Patula alter
* Pupa muscorum Linn. Strobila tabyrinthics Say.
Pupa seein | (?) Say. Mesodon clausa Say

A like sequence was observed in a number of other sections
in the vicinity ; and drift, sometimes modified superficially, but
containing many erratic bowlders up to three feet in amet
on or near the surface, was found to prevail over the entire
summit of Capitol Hill. The proportion of pebbles in this
drift is less, however, than is usual in this latitude; the clay
presents a somewhat léss-like aspect, contains calcareous con-
cretions and yields a calcareous efflorescence ; and the topog-
raphy assumed is essentially identical with that of léss areas.

The plateau north of Capitol Hill (generally known as North
Hill) is similarly capped with drift of the aspect described ; and
in like manner léss crops out along the bluffs ovérlookitig the
Des Moines river. A general section here by the junior author*
exhibits typical léss reposing on drift on both sides of the river.
‘That on the east hon the following fossils:

Succinea obliqua 8 Pupa armifera Say.
Lim conte ier Say. Pupa ge tig

Limnophysa desidiosa Say. Hyalina arborea Say.

* Helicina oceulta Say. " Patan putohola Mill.
Patula alternata Say. Stenotrema monodon Rac
Patula striatella Auth. Helicodiscus Lecuiae Say.

*Patula strigosa (?) Gould. Strobila labyrinthica ef
Pupa fallax Say. Undetermined fish spin

* American Naturalist, xv, p. 783, Oct., 1881.
Am. Jour. Sct.—Tuirp Series, Vou. XXIV, No. 141.—Serremper, 1882,
14

210 MeGee and Call—Liss of Des Moines, Iowa.

Sxection 5.
N. smwe CENTER St. BET. W. 7TH AND W. 8TH Sts.— ALT. 877 + 2 FT.

and more homogeneous.

2.—Léss, light buff, with a few irregular and tortuous lines of clay,
sand or gravel intercalated above, but undisturbed and in
all respects typical below, where it contains abundant
tubelets, rather few and small léss-kindchen, and rare fossils
of the following species :

Suecinea obliqua Sar. Limnophysa humilis Say.
uccinea avara Say. * Helicina occulta Say.

The cutting (which was not fresh at the time of examination)
is nine feet deep; its summit being approximately level for
half a block. The line of junction of 1 and 2 slopes west, ex-
posing only the léss at the middle of the block, and only drift
at the northeast corner of Center and Seventh streets. The
drift has manifestly been removed by erosion toward the east.
“Within half a block to the north the superficially modified
drift has been removed to a depth of two feet from a consider-
able area, exposing some dozen crystalline bowlders up to three
feet in diameter; one, of green stone, being polished. Over
this area, as in the léss of the section, there is a profuse cal-
careous efflorescence.

SECTION 6.
CIsTERN ON N.W. Cor. PARK AND JEFFERSON STs.— ALTITUDE 970 +12 FEET.

In this excavation, fourteen feet deep, only drift is exposed.
It is rather fine, clean and homogeneous for the first three feet,
then abounds in pebbles of stone with a few of sand for eight
feet, and toward the base exposes mainly sand, pebbles associ-
ated with small stone pebbles, léss-kindchen, tubelets, and rare
fossils; but these phases graduate into each other—there being

another, a calcareous concretion is attached. Most of the sand
pebbles (of which a score or more appear in the sides and bot-

MeGee and Call—Léss of Des Moines, Iowa. 211

largest are lenticular in cross-section, each about two feet long
and eight inches thick; one consisting of fine laminated sand,
and the other of coarse ferruginous gravel. None of these
pebbles, except the last mentioned, are at all cemented. About
eight feet from the surface is a distinct dark-brown ferruginous
band one or two inches thick, above which the drift is brownish-
yellow and free from cylindrical ferruginous concretions.
Below it is quite blue and abounds in the ferruginous concre-
tions for three feet, then irregularly mottled and with rare con-
cretions for two feet, while for the last part it is again brownish-

léss-kindchen, and tubelets, and are mainly fragmentary. The
following species, in addition to many indeterminate fragments,
were observed :—

Succinea obliqua Sav. Limnophysa humilis Say.
Suecinea avara Say. Patula striatella Anth,

excavation was examined while in progress, and im-
mediately after completion. Erratic bowlders up to five feet.
in diameter were exposed in contiguous street cuttings.
Thronghout the drift presents a léss-like aspect in color, con-
stitution and structure. On ee it hardens exteriorly and
yields a calcareous efflorescence

SEcTION 7.
S.-W. Cor. Wasnineton Sr. anp Corrage Grove Av.— ALTITUDE 915 +5 FEET.
1.—Brownish-yellow drift clay containing rather numerous erratic,
and a few local pebbles and bowlders. Fiftee
2.—Liss, light buff, containing léss-kindchen, tubelets, and the
following fossils :
Succinea obliqua Say. Pupa, sp. undt., wigoea yi
Limnophysa humilis Say. pentadon 10 (? ) ft.
3.—Irregularly stratified sated sand and pebbly drift clay,
brownish-yellow. Two fee

The section was based on the materials thrown from a well
just completed and walled, the sequence being determined by
the arrangement, and the thickness of each member estimated
from the amount of such material in the annular apt paibocae
ing the well. It supplements the adjacent section
ing that on this plateau the drift is a eeieaaty! duberiain .

212 McGee and Call—Léss of Des Moines, Iowa.
by léss, which in turn reposes upon another drift stratum.
Careful search for fossils was not made; a number of indi-

viduals of the shells enumerated being found in a single clod.

SECTION 8.

ROAD CUTTING NEAR §.E. Cor. S.W. S.E. 1, 78 N., 25 W.—ALTITUDE 950 + 20 FEET,

Sea, Oe a a ee a

scar

monodon, and several fragment s of shells.
2.-—Irregular and tortuous bands of cusiattes léss-like nepent
3.—An_ irregularly iar ana ochreous band separa ing t
brownish-yellow from t enatiled and bluish division of
is-

tinct medially.
ee brownish-blue and mottled drift ark identical with
iber except in color, containing bowlders as indicated
= to op inches in diameter r, rounded sand and gravel
bowlders up to ten inches, many erratic ere of which
. are polished, one striated, and one cemented to a
caleareous concretion, a few local ‘pebbles inolading bits of
coal, ve spherical mass of ldss oh meat in diameter,
a few cylindrical ferruginous concretions, numerous 10ss-
kindchen and Aegina and a similar pal to that of num-
ber 10, but with most of the shells crushed and frag-
mentary. Below it is contorted, is obscurely interstratified
with bands of léss, and contai ains intercalated layers an
masses of stratified or laminated sand and gravel in which
the laminz are broken and conto Ped. m A to B, it
‘graduates insensibly ve sca 10.
5,—A well-marked line of divi
6.—Brown and yellow sand ae gr ravel, generally coarse, strati-
. fied and irregularly contorted. Unfossiliferous.

McGee and Call—Liss of Des Moines, Iowa. 218

7.—Identical with base of No. 3.
8.—A band of fine, massive, homogeneous marl.
9.—A distinct line of separation, somewhat ferraginous.
10,—Léss, bluish for one-half foot from the summit, light eae to
rownish-buff below, yielding a calcareous efflorescence,
exhibiting typical structure and constitution in all respect,
containing cylindrical ferruginous concretions (most abund-
t i blue portion), oe ndchen and tubelets, ana
affording the following fa

Succinea obliqua Sar. lsen monodon Rack.
Succinea avara Say. Helicodiscus lineatus Say.
Limnophysa desidiosa Say. Mesodon clausa Say.
Limnophysa humilis Say. Mesodon multilineata Say.
*Helicina occulta Say. Pupa corticaria Say.
Hyalina arborea Say. *Pupa muscorum Linn.
Patula striatella Anth. Pupa armifera Say.
*Patula strigosa Gould. Strobila labyrinthica Say.

* Vallonia pulchella Mill.

Though the section was not fresh at the time of examination,
it was little obscured by weathering or talus and exhibited the
details very clearly. A syenite bowlder nearly three feet in
diameter ma partially imbedded in the drift within a few feet
of the sec

SECTION 9.
Raitway Curing on Fair apne SIDING Le vee (2?) 7, 78 N., 26 W.—
. 875 + 15

1.—Brownish-yellow oh ne anne erratic pebbles and
bowlders up to four feet, yielding Succinea obliqua and
pet ah humilis toward the bas e, where it passes into
number 2 by both Se pa insensible grada-
tion. About eee

2.—T ypical liéss, containing pie inous concretions, léss-kindchen,
tubelets, and the following fossils:

Succinea obliqua Sar. | * Helicina occulta Say.
Succinea avara Say. * Vallonia pulchella Mill.
Limnophysa humilis Say. Helicodiscus lineatus Say.
Hyalina arborea Say Mesodon clausa Say.
yalina nenuaula Bin, Mesodon aulesinctcs Say.
* Patula strigosa Gould. * Mesodon thyroides (?) Say.
Patula striatella Anth. Strobila labyrinthica Say.
Patula alternata Say. Conulus haga rap.
* Pupa muscorum Linn, ponee © a Say.
Pupa corticaria Say. Caapchiin. pak Say.

The section was much obscured by a heavy talus and by
debris feo near the surface at the time of examination

Like phenomena were observed in a number of sections not
here described ; and over the entire plateau lying between the

214 McGee and Call—Léss of Des Moines, Towa.

brick), leaving abundant bowlders eae on the surface.
of these, of green stone, two or three feet in greatest diameter,

polished on one side. The topographical configuration is in
general similar to that of léss areas; but the erosion has thus
far been mainly peripheral.

SEcTION 10.
BRICK-CLAY Pit 8, OF COR. JEFFERSON St. AND INpDIANOLA AV.—ALT. 845 + 6 FT.
1.—Light brown, coarse, friable loam, free from pebbles, massive,
‘put gra raduati ting into number 2. Three feet
2.—Light brown and gray stratified sand in slightly sinuous but
generally horizontal bands one-third inch thick, each mas-
sive.
3.—Lioss, blue and ashen -blue, obscurely laminated horizontally,
with rather rare loss-ki ndchen, abundant tubelets and
cylindrical vies 0 concretions, and very rare fosails
jap se of apo Nie a and Pupa appearing on hasty

xam
rabaseobe! shale of the ‘Coal Measures, partially decomposed

The two uppermost members form a portion of a nearly
destroyed terrace. very few pebbles and two or three

rates numbers but in reality there is some interstrati-
fication about the line of junction. “gages below this
and cylindrical ferruginous concreti r in_ greatest

texture, as toward the base in sections
sequence, substantially identical with that noted on Cap-
ito]. Hill and on the central plateau, was observed in two or
three — near the summit of the bluff; and in S.E.N.W.
21 4 W., where the surface is formed of drift, a cellar
is reported - have entered a lass-like deposit. The topography
is labyrinthine, and the drift is as léss-like and calcareous as on
the north side of the river; but no bowlders more than two feet
in diameter were here seen.

McGee and Call—Léss of Des Moines, Iowa. 215

The desirability of tracing the superior and inferior surfaces
of the léss toward the periphery of the once continuous plateau
on which it is found, and to their termini, was fully realized;
but it was found impracticable to do so. Drift materials were
however found beneath the léss in section 7; and this is known

beneath it. The stratigraphical relations of the léss of this
vicinity must, accordingly, be as shown in the accompanying
ideal section, in which erosion is not taken into account.

Recapitulating the salient stratigraphical features of the
region under consideration, it appears, (1) That the léss is
confined to elevated plateaus; (2) That its upper portion is
broken up, contorted and interstratified and commingled with
glacial drift; and (3) That the whole is overlain by unmodified
glacial drift.

The first of these features is consonant with the phenomena
observed by the senior author in northeastern Iowa, where the
léss similarly affects the highest summits and divides; but the
others are unknown elsewhere.

IIL.

* These last are not Pulmonata, however. :

+ In the case of Succinea this statement should not be taken too literally.
Though it prefers extremel p or moist stations it is often found far removed
from such localities and in even very dry situations. Nevertheless its optimum

,

steal Table. “L—Loes Fossils.

x — now extinct in this locality in italics.)

SeBlzen Normal meas-
Families. Sub-Genera. Species. 83s g ea Measurements. Gin goog es
Pas 3
729 7 Se, scriptions.
Limneide. |Limnophysa {humilis. Largest 3; in #» inch.
Smallest ;45 + nga (19)
desidiosa. 2 Largest 22 i +g inch.
Smallest = inch. (63)
Helicide. Succinea obliqua. rgest 19™™, mm,
Smallest 6™™. "eit
Average 134™™
avara, 2 Large Extreme
Smallest 2™™, (37) length 6™™,
Average 4:54™™,
Mesodon clausa. Greater diam. 7™™. aibepitt diam.
Height 68™™, (2)
Height Th"
multilineata. Greater diam. 19°5 fh icieing diam,
Height 13°5™™, (13).
He tht 14™™
thyroides. (?) | 3 A oe gee Greater diam.
uch below normal) 22™™,
it “identification EP Height 13™™..
Stenotrema (monodon. 1 Greate ak §mm Greater diam.
He echt. 6=m, (11) 1) mm
Height 6™™.
Patula alternata. Greater diam. 16™™, |Greater diam..
Height 5mm. (6) oe
Height 10™™..
strigosa. Greater diam. A Jargon Greater diam.
speci 19™ 236".
Height 15™” (59) Height 10™™..
verage diam. 16™™,
striatella. 3 Greater dia 5mm mnertaig diam..
Height 3mm, (109)
Height ome
Strobila labyrinthica. | 1 Slightly less than nor- Grea ter diam.
mal. (6)
Height lps.
Conulus fulvus. 1 Greater diam, 4™™, — -
Height 2°8™™, (15)
He “ight 8
Helicodiseus _lineatus. 1 Greater diam. of largest sh gone dass:
specimen 3°175™™.(20)
| Ave “er ne mm Height “14.
Vallonia pulchella, 1 Average o bis ages a diam.
x mens Tkthy equal to
the Height i
Hyalina arborea. Slightly less ‘than nor- —— diam.
Average height 2°8™™, Height age".
minuscula. 2 | 15 |No measurements. Gr eater diam..
Specimens all imper-
ect. ight [mm
Pupade. Pupilla pentodon. See context. vength 2™™
: iam. 1°.
: muscorum, 2 See context. yength 4™
3readth 14".
Leucochila —_armifera. See context. ngth 4g".
iam. 297".
corticaria. 2 See context. vength 24"™
Ge eat’
Isthmia ovata. 1 | 5 |See context. bag aaa
Jiam, 19™™.
Helicinide. | Oligyra occulta. 1 | 1 |Diam. 64™™. iam. 9™™.
Height 5°25™™_ (350) Jeight one.
Auriculide. |Carychium exiguum. 1 | 1 |See context. -.
5 15 24 24 | 24

Synoptical Table.

Families. Sub-Genera. Species. Distribution.*
Limneide. |Limnophysa mea nterior & Eastern provinces.
reflex t. prov., northern half.
aeahiios S nt. & Eastern prov.
Physa Iheterostropha nt. & Eastern prov.
gyrina. nt., northern half,
Helisoma trivolvis. t. astern prov,
bicarinatus. 2 serene . —_ prov
Gyraulus parvus. 1 nt. & ™m pro
; Menetus exacutus. 1 | 9 |North- & Tast-at. “i East’n.
Ancyline. Ancylus tardus. nt. & pro
ay rallelus 2 2 (Int. & Eastern hee
Viviparidee. |Campeloma |subsolidum 1 | 1 |North-Int. prov.
Valvatidee. alvata tricarinata I | 1 |North-Int. & Eastern prov.
Rissoide. Bythinella —_jobtusa. 1 North-Int & Kastern prov.
mnic mosa. North-Int. & Eastern prov.
arva. rn pr
porata. 3 North-Int. & Eastern prov.
ae Somatogyrus |subglobosus: | 1 5 |No & Eastern pro
Helicide, Hyalina a ‘ All of North America.
uscula. 2 West-Eastern, Central, & Pa~
ce. Also extra-limt
Paitula striatella, Northern prov. & a
alternata. 2 All over Eastern pro
Succinea obliqua. No ao coed : Hoa Region. of
avara. ttistern 'k Denti
ovalis. 2 sg aes & Int. Resins of
Helicodiscus /lineatus. 1 Gaiters, * Santa, & Pacific
Ferussacia jsubcylindrica,) 1 N orthern Fate ~ apse
prov. Cire
Stenotrema j|monodon. Eastern pro
hirsutum, 2 N orthern-Bastorn prov.
Macrocyclis |concava. 1 ro p
Strobila labyrinthica, | 1 Raitorn prov.
Conulus fulvus. 1 Circumpolar. All over East-
ern prov.
Mesodon albolabris. fastern pro
profunda. nt. Region of Eastern prov.
clausa. nt. Region of Haste v.
multilineata. | 4 | 18 |Int. Region of Eastern prov
Pupadee, Isthmia ata 1 jastern & Central prov.
Pupilla pentodon i “bp heeseige emg prov.
Leucochila mifera. jastern
cortica “iol Bae.
fall 3}. 6 — portions of East-
prov.
Auriculide, |Carychium exiguum. ea Interior & Eastern portions
of Eastern prov.
8 25 42 42 | 42

* The
et seqq.
trary.

provinces are those defined by W. G. B
fe is, of course, understood that all ii diveions are more or

y, vide “Terr. Moil.” v, pt
less se

AMER. JOUR. SCI., XXIV, 1882. Plate V.

=e
04¢
¢

~ 37.
© ©
79. 20. 21
a © eG
: 40
©S© se .
22, ae 29, : @
41. 42- 43. #4.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE V.
* Figs. 1- . stot Sa desidiosa Say.

cen
Figs. ein Limnophyse humilis Say.
9-11. R

Figs. 12-16. aoc avara Say.
15-16. Recent.

Figs. 17-19. Patula ‘striatella Anth. Fossil.

Figs. 20-24. Helicina ( Oligyra) occulta Say.
23-24. Recent.

Figs. 25-29. Stenotrema monodon, Rack.
2)

35-36, Recent.

Norte nate has herein been listed, either of recent
* fossil ‘ecm, on ‘on eatiiion authority. ‘Local examples of every poe tase:
have been under ciadsinslion in framing them.

McGee and Call—Léss of Des Moines, Iowa. 219

prise both fresh- waher and marine genera, Those enumerated
are fresh-water only. The facies of molluscan life seems there-
fore to have become decidedly more aquatic in recent tim

Some of the forms indicated in table I are widely distributed
both in time and space, while several of the subgenera attain a
very high antiquity.t Of the families the oldest terrestrial
group is the Helicidet represented by Strophites grandevus
Dawson, from the Erian plant-beds of St. John, New Bruns-
wick. The e subgenus Conulus dates back to the Carboniferous,
being represented by Conulus priscus Carp., from the So uth
Joggins, Nova Scotia. Of equal age is the subgenus Pupa,
represented by four species described in the paper last above
cited. Vallonia pulchella and Strobila labyrinthica have each a
great pti ha the last named having, however, the widest
distribut The former is cireumpolar, is a har y species,
and is rae to abound at tout. Ge nie ae

Crag.| Its wide distribution is suggestive of its great antiquity.

The second of these species, Strobila labyrinthica, is a pe ctioren”
tative of a now almost exclusively American subgenus, one of
whose species, however, occurs in Jamaica. It is distributed
over all the Eastern provinces of Binney. From the Kocene of
England is recorded an extinct Helix referable to this species.
According to Bland the fossil Helix labyrinthica from France
“is apparently identical with our = sac Bin ney quotit ng

Si of the Miseiipph,

In similar deposits to that now under consideration in Bel-
gium many of the same genera and some few of me
species are found. This is really an important fact as establish-
ing the former wide geographical distribution of forms now
confined almost solely to one or the other of the two continents.

For some interesting generalizations respecting the origin of our land-mollusks
as illustrated oe be os sng - Ine Mississippi Valley, vide Bmney “Terr. Air-
Breathing Moll.,

+ Vide this Toural: vol. =, my 44-4

Vide Dawson on ‘ Paleozoic Land Shells” beige otha: vol. xx, p. 414.
oat Hemphill, Quart. Je vie of Conch., p. 1

ide * Terr. — ing Moll., ” vol, v, as
FT Op. cit

220 McGee and Call—Léss of Des Moines, Towa.

From the recent alluvium and ldss-like beds at Thiede, near
Wolfenbiittel, the following genera, found in our area, have been
taken, along with others confined to Europe: * Pupa, tonella,
Helix, Vallonia, Patula, Hyalina, Succinea and Lim
Suecinece, like those of our area, are eee sia idarc ‘Waerolieh
haiifig). The species common to the two localities are Pupa
muscorum, Helix (Vallonia) pulchella, and Cionella lubrica.t In
the léss deposits at Wiirzburg,t the same species and the fol-
lowing genera were found: Lymncea, Pupa, Cionella, Helix and
Succinea. From a third locality, “Die Fucbelécher am Rothen
Berge bei Saalfeld, ’ was obtained but a single species— Pupa
muscorum—and four genera— Patula, Hyalina, Pupa and Sue-
cinea—common to our area. A similar comparative paucity is
— a ee list pine the léss of the Rhine at Unkelstein, near
Rem where were found Helix, Pupa and Succinea, with
Helix *(Vallonia) pists and Pupa muscorum common. In
every case in these localities were found the fossil remains of
—— comprising bones of mammals, fishes, batrachians
an
Independent of its geological bearing, table I affords some
data of great interest from a zoological stand-point. A compari-
son of the columns of measurements will lead to the important
generalization that the fossil forms enumerated are depauper-
te. Only those specimens were measured which were perfect,
or nearly so; the entire number of measured specimens being
over one thousand. The forms of Stenotrema cette present
some important differential characters, the apices being more
elevated, the whorls more convex and xian loosely “coiled,
with apertures more lunate than in recent specimens. The
reflected portions of the lip and the parietal teeth are also less
ealcareous. In all other respects they correspond generally
with the variety of the recent form known as Stenotrema mono-
don, var. Leaii. The Patula strigosa present, in a remarkable
degree, those features determined by Professor Alpheus Hyatt$
as seer ac of lessened vitality or even of traumatism.
The average diameter of this species, as is seen by the table of
iiohan inion falls far below the normal. The form described
as Patula Cooperi, but now quite properly placed in the synon-
is in excess of all the others assumed by
this protean’ epoca all of which, however, are much meio:
aa 2 880) “ Zeitschrift der Deutschen geologischen Gesellschaft, vol. xxxii, P-
a e have here Driparess the ecameteen a adopted by the author quoted. The
eight of authority, h ver, would make this species a synonym of Ferussacia
( Cionella) pate it Ung ahd hene @ identical with the American form.
cit., pp. 494, 496, 503 STs 508, for this and the following lists.
“On the Tertiary species of Planorbis at Steinheim.” Anniversary Mem.
Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1880, p. 13 et segq. is memoir is a most important and
valuable contribution to the literature of evolution.

McGee and Call—Liss of Des Moines, Iowa. 221

than the specimen serving as the type.* None of the measure-
ments of the Pupade are given in ms sry abe Legge in

mens examined, upwards of one hundred and fifty, the smallest
of the living forms were larger than the largest of the fossil
ones. The two aquatic species, Limnophysa humilis and Lim-
nophysa desidiosa, present the same depauperate polar bed Hy lead
us to the same general conclusions. Plate V figures both
recent and fossil forms of these several species in Faaaponnare
the specimens figured ilinstrating:< quite well the most common
variations and the relative sizes. (See explanation.)

n this connection it will be found of great interest to consult
the Foraees of Sempert on the influence exerted “e animal ie
by low temperatures. That author experimented on Lym
stagnalis, and the results of bis long continued sbeerse uit “ed
to the statement that the Lymnaea may be quite frozen up with-
out being killed. Extremely low temperature had no influence

on the lamers life, but entirely Soak ta apy growth.t In this

y a perm ently diminutive race might arise. At all events
ae. fossil fiadseial studied by the junior author, comprising
many hundred examples, vabekita the fact of such depauperate
races whatever may have been the cause.

LY:

In order to state intelligibly the working hypothesis sug-
gested by the foregoing facts, it will be necessary to briefly
state the conclusions as to the formation of asar and the deter-
mination of river courses reached by the senior author after a
practically exhaustive survey of the cenology of the north-
eastern quarter of

he ice-sheet ovér this region was thin; not more than five
hundred feet in average thickness. Each pre-existing pistent
or ridge accordingly H usc onienree ds a relatively considerable attenua
tion of the sheet. Three results followed: (1) The motion of
* Vide, ‘‘Terr. Air-Breathing Mollusks,” vol, v, p. 158, fig. 64.

+Vide “ Animal Life, oat affected by the Natural Cbaltien of Existence,” 1881,
p. 108-109, and elsew her

t cit., p- 108. ide, , also, Lael Bs the Origin of Species by means of
Natural Selpiien: i Raition of 1877, p. 5

A memoir embracing the results of this survey is approaching completion.

222 McGee and Call—Léss of Des Moines, Iowa.

the ice was retarded along the ridge, and the pressure was
reduced, thereby not only diminishing the rate of erosion, but
heaping up an unusual thickness of morainic debris along the
ridge in what may be styled a submedial morain. (2) The
attenuation of the ice memiene the fine debris undoubtedly dis-

such lines so reduced its Heectolice and diminished its pressure
upon the subjacent surface as to divert thither all sub-glacial
water, which accordingly formed sub-glacial streams coincident

jacent deposits, according to the slope of the surface. In either
case, when the cafions were long, the streams so deeply corraded
their beds before the bounding walls of ice disappeared as to
permanently retain the water-ways in the ridges over whic
they were first defined; while, when the cafions were short, the
streams left the ridges as soon as they reached the margin of
the ice.

Passing now to the region shown in the accompanying map,
we find to the eastward a typical as in which the ice-cafion was
too short to define a water-way, and about the confluence of

attested by the depauperate shells found imbedded in it. eye
however, a re-advance of the glacier occurred before the ice was
melted from the ane east of Capitol Hill and west of Walnut

and bowlders of a oa sheet of anit: the re-adyance
being too a to completely remove the liss even from ex-
osed localiti

ee to he re-advance of the ice-sheet here suggested is
Upham’s discovery that Des Moines lies approximately in the
course of the southernmost lobe of the great terminal moraine.”
Now, if the phenomena ye coincident, as is forcibly suggested,
it follows that, as has already been urged by Ghamberlin,t
this moraine was ae not during an independent ice-period,

* Ninth An f the Geological and Natural History Survey of

Minnesota, p. hoe Bose vt (1880).

+ Geology of Wisconsin, 1873-1877, ii, pp. 214, 218.

Scott and Osborn—Orthocynodon from the Eocene. 223

but during a temporary halt and slight re-advance of the slowly
retreating ice-sheet which formed the drift without its limits.

Tncidentally the observations herein recorded indicate (1)
rom the essentially homogeneous and unquestionably uni-
partite character of the drift-sheet above the ldss, especially in
section 6, that the Torrellian hypothesis of the deposit of a
ground-moraine and a superficial moraine by each glacier is in-
valid; (2) from the disappearance of the blue coloration down-
ward in sections 6, 8 and 10, that this blue color is not normal
and changed to brown or yellow by oxidation from above, as
urged by Hawes,* Julien,t Von den Bruch,t Shaler,§ and
others, but is in some way acquired.

May 31, 1882.

ART. XXIV.—Orthocynodon, an animal related to the Rhinoceros,
Jrom the Bridger Eocene ;| by Wm. B. Scorr and Henry F.
OSBORN.

ORTHOCYNODON is the name given to designate a new genus
of the Rhinoceros line from the Bridger Beds of Wyoming.
It was discovered by the Princeton Expedition of 1878, in the
Bad Lands of Bitter Creek. It carries the Rhinoceros line
farther back than it has been supposed to exist. The oldest
representative of this line known hitherto is Amynodon, a
genus found by Professor Marsh in the Uintah beds which
overlie the Bridger. Orthocynodon was at first referred to the
latter genus, until important differences in the molar dentition
were discovered.

Generic characters.—The lower canines are erect and func-
tional, giving the name to the genus. The lower incisors are

a sagittal crest separating the temporal fosse. :
This genus differs from Amynodon in the erect canines, 10

* Geology of New Hampshire, 1878, iii, p. 333.

+ Proc. A. A. A. S., 1879, xxviii, p. 352. a

t Mémoire sur les Phénoménes d’Altération des Dépots superficiels par
tration des eaux Météoriques, 1881, pp. 147-168.

§ Glaciers, 1881, p. 16

| Description from specimens in the E. M. Museum of Geology, Princeton, N. J.

{ This Journal, III, vol. xiv, p. 251.

ad

224 Scott and Oshorn—Orthocynodon from the Eocene.

procumbent and the premolars are all unlike the molars. It is
singular that this genus, belonging to a more recent geological
formation than Achaenodon, should have less of the typical
Rhinoceros structure in its molars.
Orthocynodon antiquus, gen. et sp. nov.,
.2-2? 1-1 3-3? 3-38
Dental formula, 7 99 °° P" Ga ™ £8
The specimens consist of the skull and lower jaw of one
individual, and a portion of the skull containing the molar
series of another. In each the upper canines and incisors are
wanting. The lower incisors are close to the canines; they are
semi-erect in position and placed in a quarter circle. The;
have slight fangs and sharp crowns, with low cingula posterl-
orly. The canines are almost tribedral in section and curve
upwards and slightly backwards, worn at the back of their
pointed tips by the upper teeth. A diastema of two inches

molar series differs only in size and minor details from that of

Rhinoceros. Each of the remaining teeth presents two for-

resemble that of its modern relative. The parietals are narrow
and compressed; the /rontals expand into a broad well-
u

whether the nasals bore protuberances for the support of horns.
It seems probable that they did not.

Chemistry and Physics. 225

This animal will be fully described and figured in a later
Ameer The above is intended merely as a oh ness!
notice. Orthocynodon may be briefly described as e
perissodactyle spose with the premolar-molar dextition ofa
Rhinoceros, and somewhat resembling Amynodon in the posses-
sion of canines anda loss of the median incisors. It has little of
the rhinocerotic character in the skull, but the resemblances
in the dentition points it out as related t 0 Amynodon, with
which it belongs, among the group of fecsets progenitors of

the Rhinocerotidee.

M&rASUREMENTS.
Total length molar series of the lower jaw ..-----.--.-------- "192
ntero-posterior diameter of the first paste MAE Dee cee 038
Transverse ssleniyeer: of the first lower m 022
ertical diameter of the er of the Aa -040
Transverse diameter of the first apees molar 035
Antero diameter of the first upper molar 035
Total length of the upper cae estimated 165

See alc eS OG

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.

a On the Atomic Weight of Carbon.—Roscox has re-deter-
the atomic weight of carbon by the method employed by
Danas and Stas, which consists in the direct etbabiion of the
dia For this purpose diamonds from the Kimberley mines,
South "Aiton were used, those burned by the French chemists
having come from Brazil. The method employed was the same,
carefully purified oxygen being conducted over the diamonds con-
tained in a tarred platinum boat placed in a —, tube of Berlin
porcelain, which was heated in a charcoal fire. e products of
combustion were absorbed (1) by a weighed U-tube — s
umice moistened with iuiphars acid, (2 of
Pit Feet potash bulbs, containing | Re solution; "(3) by

t -tubes containing pumice wet with a solut n of caustic
potash, and (4) two small U-tubes containing etausiee su sulphu-

Six arate experiments were made. I e first, six

the

carbonado, Assuming Stas’s atomic weight for oxygen 15°96,
the values obtained for earbon in the six experiments were as fol-
lows: 11°970, 11°978, 11°970, 11°976, 117966, Stas mean,
is dks 9708 wat the exception of the ome ex

Am. Jour. Sc1.—Tuirp SERIES, VOL. XXIV, No. 141. pp diel oa 1
15

226 Scientific Intelligence.

did not exceed as a mean one seven-thousandth part of the weight
of ~ diamond, and was probably derived from nov in the
ap us. In presenting this memoir to the emy, Dumas.
ealted: attention Ms the fact that if the atomic aeight of oxygen
assumed as 16, that of carbon is 12°002, or within one-six-
thousandth of a . number.— C. &., mays 1180, May, lp —
Ann. Chem. Phys., V, xxvi, 136, May, 1
2. On the Determination of Behan a as Piha ia ee
has proposed to determine chromium as phosphate. When a

as phosph The method succeeds not only with the green
salt but = with the violet ones, and with chlorides, sulphates
and acetates, but not with oxalates. The chromium in "chromates

simultaneously to reduce the chromic acid. The precipitate is a
green hydrate having the formula Cr,P,O,, (H,O), when dried at
100°. It may be washed with boiling water, in which it is nearly
insoluble, or better with hot solutions of ammonium acetate and
nitrate. On ignition it loses its water and becomes Cr,P,O,, con-
taining 51°86 per cent of chromium. Aluminum and “chromium
are readily waags ated by converting the latter into chromate, pre-
cipitating the former as phosphate, then reducing and eee
tating the chromium as phosphate, as already described. The

chromium phosphate the author believes to have a commercial
value as a green pigment.— Bull, Soc. Ch., Il, xxxvii, 482, 5 noes
1882, . B.

3. On the Earth-metals of Samarskite.—Roscox has sande a
study of the rarer earth-metals occurring in samarskite. About

ted with an equal volume of water. The solution was decanted
from the precipitate, and this after being well dried was heated
ia sulphuric acid, and after aang of the uranium the

rths were precipitated as oxalates. The oxalates on ignition
yielded oxides which were caieractad into nitrates, fused, dis-
solved in water, the solution precipitated with potassium sul-

tional precipitations separated into two groups. One of these
gave a ee soluble in 30 parts of a cold saturated solution of

ss oxide was of a fawn color, and it contained philippia,
ytt ria, ur and traces of erbia, The other sulphate was solu-

oxides from the former portion weighed 60 grams; from the lat-

with successive small volum mes of hot water, each extract being
evaporated to dryness apne analyzed. hh this way a large num-

Chemistry and Physics. 227

ber of fractions were finally obtained, one of which was richest in

philippia, another in terbia and ano ther in yttria, All attempts,
however, to obtain a formate ints a constant atomic weight
of 121-123 failed, entirely. In view of the curious fact that the
formate which yields an atomic weight nearest to 122 possesses
distinctly different physical properties from the formates obtained
from oxide igher or much lower atomic weight, some

in a form sauied to That pray —ZJ. Vhem. Soc., xli, 277,
1882, G. F. B

4. On the Precipitation of Glycogen.—It is well known that
in the preparation of glycogen from animal tissues the amount of
material precipitated on the addition of alcohol is often very
slight. Ké1z has examined this question and found that as the
product i is purified by repeated precipitation, the yield becomes
less, esscie prepared 49 grams of glycogen from a dog’

precipitate. That the drying had no effect was shown be the
fact that a glycogen, eae 13 a cent of ash and so dried,
dissolved in the proportion of 0°5 to one gram to 100° of water,
and was readily sreupiatad by absolute alcohol. ssi on repeat-
ing the process on the same sample a point was soon reached
where its purity was such that no precipitation took is e
addition of a minute Bane of salt, even 0°002 gram, produ
a precipitate at once. The author calls attention to the simi-
larity in the helnvied of this body to the salt-free soluble serum-
pea of Aronstein.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xv, 13 = Dhow
882.

5. On the Transformation of Urea into Cyanamide. es
chemists have studied the conditions under which cyanamide,
through the influence of dilute acids, takes up the elements of
water t to form urea, CN,H,+H,O=C ~ But the yorenil

(CON,H,),+Na, eee: ey ats ,0H),-+H,
Sodium acts upon ammonium carbamate and saooane in the

228 Scientific Intelligence.

same way and produces phage il though the yield is not as
abundant as with urea—J. Chem. Soe., xli, 262, Jane, Bes

6. Oscillation of the plane of "side ahaa by the discharge of
a battery.—Bicuatr and Bro have studied the effec
Leyden jar discharge in fosdwethis a rotation of the plane oy er
larization in a transparent medium. The body is placed between
the polarizer and analyzer, arranged for extinction in a bobbin,
which is wound round with a long fine wire. A discharge takes
place when the difference of potentials is sufficient ; at this instant
a bright reappearance of light is seen by the eye situated in front
of the analyzer, showing a rotation of the plane of polarization.

mirror, rotating on a vertical axis, was now placed before the
optical apparatus; the polarizer was provided with a vertical slit
whose image was observed in the rotating mirror by a telescope,
the arrangement being such as to cause the appearance of the spar
at the right instant. In general, a series of broad luminous bands
was observed corresponding to the oscillatory currents of the dis-
charge. Further, it was observed that the rotation of the ana-

he
were seen one above the other. It was found that the two
systems corresponded exactly, so that the two phenomena must be
considered to be simultaneous; no difference in time as great as
yoy Second could be obser ved. —C. &., June 12, 1882.

Il. Geotocy AND NatTurAt History.

n the relative ages and classification of the Post-Kocene
Tertiary deposits of the Atlantic Slope ; by ANGELO HEILPRIN
36 pp. 8vo. (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sei . Philad., June, 188 ».)—Mr.
Heilprin reviews the facts respecting the post-Eocene fossils ie
geographically and stratigraphically, by comparisons betweer
those of Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolin
He _ that oF ag lamellibranchs found in South Carolina about
able

Geology and Natural History. 229

the upper one corresponds to the Virginian. Finally, the eubial
ep i of the Tertiary of the Atlantic and Gulf border are thus
ula
PLIOCENE | ? 2
\CAROLINIAN Deposits of South siete
| (Upper Atlantic) North Carolina (“Sum
Miocene). ter” epoch a

Dana).
M Deposits of Virginia, and)Probably equivalent of
IOCENE. | (Middle Atlantic| of the “Newer” group} the “ ae ond Me ee ter-
Miocene). of Maryland (‘ York-| ranea stri
town” epoch, in part, aes of a tabiane of

of Dana).
MARYLANDIAN |Deposits of the ‘Older " Probably (os at least par-
(Lower Atlantic) group of Maryland, and) tially) equivalent of the
ioceue). possibly the lower Mio-| ‘First Mediterranean”

ene beds of Virginia) of Austria, and of the
(‘ Yorktown ” epoch, fahlu f Léognan
part, of Dana). and Saucats.
OLIGOCENE, ORBITOITIC. Strata se ngaphew Sat cad AM
cies of Onbitoides,
Vicksburg beds, Florida
JACKSONIAN, Jackson beds of “Mississip-
pi—“ White Limestone”
of Alabama
|CLAIBORNIAN, Fossiliferous — arenaceous;Age of the ‘Calcaire
deposit of Claiborne,| Grossier” of France
a., an (Parisian).
BUHRSTONE, Beds below the true Clai-

bornian on the Alabam

of
Eocene. the southern portion of Londonian ?
the State, oe Silice-

of] ississippi.

E0-LIGNITIC. Lignite, sands, and clays Thanetian ?
i base of

me
Alabama, etc.
beds of Maryland 2?

230 Scientific Intelligence.

2. On the ee of Lake Basins, by Wu. M. Davis.
—This paper ma nearly 70 pages of vol. xxi of the Proceed-
ings of the Biases ‘Beokety of Natural History. It reviews the
kinds of lake-basins and considers their modes of origin. Among
the conclusions presented are the following: that the Great
Lakes of North America are not a result of glacial excavation;

i i rat which a

rs ) fF
the necessity of considering them orographic or glacier-erosion
basins ; that the kettle-holes and other depressions over the drift
deposits, unstratified and stratified, may in part have originated
in hollows occupied by isolated ice-masses during drift deposition,
as suggested for American examples by Upham (an explanation
applied by Peschel, as Mr. Davis states, to a ep for the

e Catskill region.—A paper on the Little Mountain, east
of ‘ho Catskills, by Wu AVIS, giving instructive sections of
the rocks of these elevations and of the region between the Cat-
~“ and the Hudson, is contained in vol. iii i of Appalachia, No. 1

4, Address before the Geological Society at the anniversar fe
meeting in February, 1882; by Roperr Erseriper, Es wa “9

ave be A.
urst. To illustrate the stalactitic, or exogenous, type of agates,
the ig ~~ are obtained as OWS!
ong solution of an Ber silicate is taken, containing a
jcthie oe of alkaline carbonate, and a strong acid (sulphuric
seems to give the best ssa is introduce by means of a pipette
to the bottom of the vessel in which the Slaton 4 is contained.
Bubbles of carbonie ea gas immediately arise, carrying with
them a certain amount of the stronger acid. Roun the stream

of ascending bubbles silica is deposited by the decomposition of
the alkaline silicate, and in a very few minutes a tube is formed

reaching from the bottom to the surface of the solution. This

Geology and Natural History. 231
soni to act upon he surrou Ming silicate, the walls of the

of acid is kept up, so long does the bahe fia w in diameter by the
deposit of sesicatnes ete and the result is a hollow stalactite
ringed i in cross section.

The carbonic acid press from the carbonate in the solution is
Pha to the successful commencement of the tube, but when
this is once formed, the sulphuric or other acid can be itself forced
through it, and by the application of pressure to the surface of the
fluid in the pipette, the action can be kept up for a long time, and
stalactites of 2 inch in diameter can be formed with little difficulty.

uced by passing an acid gas, or even
air highly charged with an acid, through the alkaline silicate
it wi ffects can be

ie)
)
5
@
_
a")
R
= me
5 pas
oO
pS)
5
o
(e)
=
°
Qu

the silica, such as acid salts of various metals. — In fact , the process

can be varied in a hundred different ways. In natural apipre ne

Stones, where stalactitic forms enter into the structure, we con
e

rutin eA aca vaeueaea to the direction in sone: e bubbles of
gas or the acid escapes from the end, or from points of least resist-
ance in the sides of the tube. Sin se s “ Iron tree” is one form
of this stalactitie growth.

‘We consider, then, that Ao adie productions thus made
are the analogues of all the group of banded stalactitic growths ~
which enter so largely into the constitution of many siliceous
stones, where the growth appears to have proceeded from a central
cavity, now frequently only a core by reason of subsequent filling in.

* If the action is carried so far that the surrounding fluid becomes
saturated with acid reagent, t, the whole of this surrounding fluid
A pehaapaes by the precipitation of amorphous gelatinous silica, and

We suppose a case in which such stalactitic forms have been
wea in nature in an Ses rock cavity noneaniiog an alka-
line silicate — by the infiltration of an acid solution, a like
ae as ould oceur. ” ey of fact, as we have ny eves ge

232 Scientific Intelligence.

With chen ae to the banded or endogenous type of agates the
it ta rem

* Ass ae hypothetically a rock cavity containing a solution of
slicatines nilicate, and the rock in which this cavity is situated per-
meated with an acid solution or gas, we should naturally expect to
find a Layer of dilics deposited on the walls of such a cavity, and, as
the action continued, more and more silica would be de osited ;,

and if the solution were enclosed i eae ‘ee cavity, the central
portion would, when the action hind continued to a certain point,,
set in an amorphous mass, ‘This stint is Deby iolapletely paral-
leled in some of the sevatsiion which we nM ve coi and in
some of these we have found that a central vacant space was left,
owing to there not being enough silica in the ielieen ts fill the
whole cavity when precipitated in the pole shoe form. This is

precisely what occurs in many natural agates, where we find a
deposit of crystalline unbanded sha within the banded portion,
with a vacant space in the center of all.”

e use of acid solutions ¢ bic tad niacs various metallic and
earthy salts the coloring of natural stones can be imitated, that is,
jaspers, moss agates, onyx and so on. The horizontal banding

vi Iso ve

é origin iid Relations of the Carbon minerals, by
Professor J. EWBERRY, 24 pp. 8vo. From the Annals of
es ;

1
that it is indigenous in the sand-rocks which hold it, expressed by
Professor Lesley (Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., x, 33, 187), on the

ghee of organ ¢ matters below.

Lehrbuch is sree von Dr. Gustav Beowns ro ak, II.
Lieke erung, pp. 193-368. Vienna, 1882 (Alfred Holder). —This
second part of the valuable new Miner alogy by Professor Tsclier-
mak (see this Journal, xxiii, 68) contains the remainder of the
physical portion of the subject, the chemistry, the discussion of
method of occurrence and of paragenesis of conalage the classi-

cently described two new minerals from Wawel. Sweden. Man-

Geology and Natural History. 233

vag o r
‘originally nearly colorless; translucent in thin splinters. An
analysis gave, after deducting a very little silica and calcite:
MgO MnO H,0
57°81 14°16 28°00 = 99°97
This corresponds approximately to the formula (Mg, Mn) H,0,,
or a manganesian variety of brucite.

An analysis of 0°85 gram of mineral mixed with matrix
(0°585 insoluble in HCl) gave:

P05 FeO MnO CaO MgO

32°82 16°12 14°86 14°91 17-42 = 96:13

emphatically on the great importance of the study of the anamor-
hoses (as he calls those monstrosities which are the result o

separated and developed. In more evolved cases an anterior and
the Oo i

234 Scientifie Intelligence.

the conclusion that, at least in Adzetinew, EKichler’s theory (that

the carpellary scale is a mere emergence or ligule of the bract) is

quite wrong, and that Mohl’s view (1871)*—that the carpellary

scale of these oniele consists of the two connate lowest leaves of
e

ies

He further concedes that the same explanation may possibly
be the true one for all conifers, and that all morphologists who
have treated this question thus far , have, whatever their views,
assumed a conformity in this respect in all the tribes of conifers,
and a complete homology of their female organs. But he t thinks
that this is not necessarily so, and that Sachs? and Eichler’s emer-
gence- or ligular theory may ‘be true as to Araucariew, and that

In regard to Taxodinee and Cupressinee he is convinced that an
inner fruit scale really exists, conuplitaly adnate to the bract and
soon outgrowing it, bu not veo to pronounce on its
nature, because he thus far has no ocular demonstration of it

e
through any anamorphosis. e Profes ssor 2 Celakdveicy concludes that
the arillus of Zuxacew corresponds with the ligula of aaa paes

He speaks of the terminal position of the ov ule in this tribe as of
very little morphological cis abba being really a lateral one
Ses to the top of an ax

and Jurassic oeeiaiooe. ks aie: aad age of the
different tribes of plants is of much less importance for the appre-
ciation of their degree of development and their position in the
hee than some suppose. Thus the Cycadea, the Pheenogams

It appears now that A . Braun oe Brean cote same bead as early as 1842
‘on t Ww

ab eyintanye but with characteristic modesty he gave them to science without
urging them or claiming scientific pro pore or priority in them
whe writer of this is in possession of a proliferous cone of Sequoia eae
which seems to prove, not only that the frnit scale in this ae. ne tieg :
quently in the whole tribe) is homologous with that of Abietinee, in so far re it
consists of leaves of an axillary shoot, yet that these leaves are mee a saute pair,
but, as A. Braun has long ago suggested, in regard to Cupressinee, that there is
a number of leaves, laterally coérdinate and connate, bearing a number of ovules
on their bac
ft It mi ht be well to draw sooner to the singular fact, that in the allied
ote apt family of Gnetacew, the female flower (for such it is now w assumed
to be, the outer integument or ue le being considered as a two-leaved carpel) is
always referred to ‘ terminal,” whether single, double or triple, while a ter-
minal organ can say he Sagal than single. The fact is that the female flowers
are here axillar the axils of one or more of the uppermost bracts, and, if
Single, are pushed i the sop of the shoot.

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 235

most closely allied to the vascular cryptogams, are, as Professor
Heer states, very uncertain in the Carboniferous, and make their
decided appearance first in the Permian rocks; ehereiore es
later than the higher developed conifers.

10, Report by 8. I. Smira on the Crustacea, Part I, pe eet th
One of the Reports on the results of Dredging under the super-
vision of A, Agassiz, on the east coast of the United States, dur-
ing the summer of 1880, by the U. 8. ee) pidge cee r

Cree, Zoology. Among - new — described in this
pct paper, there are a Lithodes, Z, Agassizii, and a remark-

vahens of much interest. plo new genera of Mac crurans are
Rhachocaris of the Crangonide, Meningodora and
retiatse of the Poadatur = Amalopeneus of the Penxide.
e plates have the perfection which comes from accurate draw-
a copied by photolithograph

11, Kragments of the coarser anatomy of Diurnal Lepidoptera,
by Samu, H. Scupprer. 84 pp. 12mo, 1882. Reprinted from
volume ng of Psyche e.—The anatomical notes contained in se

little volume are on the larves and pup of Danais Plexi

=. Maisie of the Boston Natural History Society.—The third
Bi tes of the quarto Memoirs of this Society thus far published,
contain the following papers: on Distomum crassicolle, by C. 8.
ecg 20 pp., with one plate, 1878; Early Types op Insects, by

H. Scudder, 9 pp.; Paleozoic Cockroaches, by 8 _ Sendder,
112 pp., with five plates; New Hydroids from Chesapeake Bay,
by S. F. Clarke, 8 , 8vo, with three plates, January, 1882;
Archypolypoda, a subordinate type of spined myriapods from the
Carboniferous Se rmation by 8. H. Scudder, 40 pp., with four
plates, May, 18

III. MisceLLANEOvus Screntiric INTELLIGENCE.

Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch fiir 1884 mit Ephemeriden
Pes Planeten Ye (220) far 1882,.—This the 109th volume of the se-
ries is prepared, as for several years past, under the direction of
Dr. TrETsEN. ‘The ephemerides of the small planets form as usual
the distinctive feature
In the Jahrbuch for 1883 there was a great increase in the

236 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

number of stars e which the apparent or mean places were
giv The mean places are now given for 622 stars, and the
apparent places of na of these at least as often as each ten ays.

€ preparation of the large catalogue of the Astronomische
Gesellschaft makes dounabla this increase in the number of the

In the Appendix Dr. Anwers compares the places of the stars
given in the Jahrbuch with those in the Am. Ephemeris, the
Nautical Almanac, and the Connaissance des Temps, all for the
epoch 1883°0. The numbers in the several almanacs are as
follows:

Total. B. J. A.E. N.A. C.T. Common to all.
Ephemeris stars, 599 450 208 19% 309 111
Total stars ere: 791 622 383 197 309 183
South of —32 Dee, 51 cs 44 15 18 ghar.

right ascensions and declinations of the whole 791 stars
are Senenared steer and both the systematic and irregular
small differences are shown between the Jahrbuch and — other

u
The srsigss gore is as follows:—Rio Negro (41° 8.), M. wpe

and Dela acroix, and M. Guénaire, photographer to the Sirsa
?

apt. Fleuriais, assisted by Lieutenants i Pord and de Royer
de Saint Julien, and M. Lebrun, naturalist. Arrived at Monte
Video, the first two missions will probably ete in the advice
boat La Bourdonnais, the third in the advice boat Le Volage.
In the course of observations, detachments from the Voluge will

a the Straits of Magella wi Nakon Aug. 3.

From the United States, a party goes to Santa Cruz, Patago-
nia, in charge of 8. W. Very, U. 8. Navy, with B. Whe eler,
assistant astronomer, singers Bell, photographer, and ea Stanley,
oe photographe

Report upon Gaewink and Investigations to develop a
Haale of Submarine Mines for defending the Harbors of the
United cs i homens to the Board of Engineers by Lieut.-
Col. Henry L. Ass Corps of Engineers. 444 pp. 4to,
with 27 scsi Wuliankon, 1881. (Professional papers of the
Corps of Engineers, U.S. A., No. bee the — volume

f
and investigations carried on under the ahaa! of General Abbott
since 1869, and bearing upon the general subject of submarine

=

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 237

mining. The eee discussed in the three chapters of the wo
now made ke aepenc e: sub-aqueous explosions, electrical fens 8,

ped
nature they will be printed ve for the use of the School of Subma-
rine sie 3 at Willets Poi

frictional apparatus of various types with a generator of fric-

tional electricity and a condenser; the voltaic induction appara-
tus ae ane familiar principles of. the induction coil; the
many kinds of magneto-electrie and dynamo-electric machines;
and finally, the voltaic batteries. Appendices A, B, C, contain
details of experiments made with the rings, crate, and iron
target.

give some idea of its scope. The experiments and ees

e 1 wi
thowenshiwe that the importance of the volume can hardly
overestimated ; it is of vee not only in its bearing upon harbor
defenses in case of war, but also to all engaged in harbor im-
provements, rock piastiee and other similar work. ‘The frontis-
piece is a heliotype reproduction of one of a series of six instan-
taneous photographs taken during the Astle tt of a schooner
blown up at Willets Point by the simultaneous explosion of two
torpedoes, containing each 50 pounds of mortar powder, sus-
pended 10 feet apart and 3 feet below her bottom amidships.

238 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

This Rae was taken one-tenth of a second after the ne Steer
and shows the bow and stern plunged in the water and the
dle of he: vessel raised about 16 feet; the masts were still verti
cal and the jet of water had reached a height of about 70 feet.
Another picture, taken after 1°5 seconds, showed a water column
160 SS and a third, 2°3 seconds after the explosion, showed
the jet at its maximum height of 180 feet, the air being full of
fearmsets not yet descending. At the end of 4:3 seconds all
Aen ences of violent action were gone.

Professional papers of the Signal Service.—The U. S. Sig-
wk Service has begun the issue of what promises to be a most

from 1870-1879, compiled by a Ww. Gr eeley. The
fifth is on the construction and maintenance of se ba Ils, a nd
contains ten or twelve letters of penton s who have had ipeaal
experience ue managing these time dizaale The sixth paper is

Mr: H, Hazen on the reduction of air pressure to the sea
level at avin d stations west of the Mississippi River.

Jelebrated American Caverns, especially ammoth, Wyan-
dot and Luray, together with historical, Petia A and descriptive
pi o caves and grottoes in other lands; by Horack ©, Hovey.

pp. 8vo, with maps and chicane oe Cincinnati 1882.
(Robert Clarke. & Co.)—The author of this volume is an enthusi-
astic explorer of caverns, He has spent much time in the study

d enjoyment of the scenes they afford, the discovery of n
assages, and the examination of the various objects of interest
y the way; and his cave-wanderings have extended to numerous

| ti ‘ :

f lite
ducts and cavern inhabitants. His volume, ‘Semnlcigne while popu-
lar in style, and dealing much in the marvelous, and in scenic
descriptions manifesting his intense apredintion of his subject,
The maps he

to > joints: bedding, harder and softer or impurer en pissnaning;
erosion by corroding carbonated waters, by direct abrasion, av

to some extent through nitrification and the pie oe of pyrites-
decomposition. The facts of scientific interest are partly given in
Mr. Hovey’s paper in volume xvi (1878) of this Journal. Luray
cavern in Luray Valley, near the village of Luray, Page County,
Virginia, was little explored or known before 1878. It is much

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 239

smaller than the Wyandot, but is more remarkable for its stalac-
titie hangings and the consequent beauty of its passages and
cham
The illustrations le the volume in general abt well, and
averns.

not aprile enie! ste e of the scenes of the ¢
6. Scientific pi hea connected with the ‘Northiaek ark rail-
road.—The directors of the northern Pacific railroad and of the

objects in view are the discovery and testing of deposits of coal

or ores or other useful materials, the examination of timber lands,

the investigation of soils, and the study of whatever may affect
of

the resources and value the region. Professor Pumpelly’s
ead-quarters at the p a: time are Helena, Montana. He has
associated with him Piotoes r KE, W. Hilgard in the wi gedaren

of soils; Dr. H. A. Hazen vot Harvard, entomologist, —
Henshaw as assistant; Professor A. D. Wilson, chief t
ait my ED

pher, with L, Ne od, assistants ; Professor Shrgent
of Harvard depavedient of forestry ; Professor n
department of forest plants; and B on, G. H. Eldridge and

ogists.
Newport, Rhode Island, where Dr. F. A. Gooch is chief chemist,
i i o the Ne

York Sun, from which the above facts are taken, se that “ by

the — the northern route to the Pacific is open, on the Ist of
July, 1883, it is sete that the results of the baciey will in
part be iv to the public

Mémoire sur la Géologie de la partie Sud-est de la Pennsylvania. Thesis pré-
sentées a la Faculté des Sciences de Lille. yp teen de France, pour obtenir le
grade de Docteur és-sciences na turelles, par PErsiroR Frazer, A:M. 176 pp.
roy. 8vo, with plates ar te maps. Lille. 1882.

The Elements of Forestry, particularly adapted to the wants and conditions of
the United States, by Frankia B. Hough, Ph.D. 382 pp. 8vo. Cincinnati. 1882.
(Robert Clarke & Co .)

Forest Trees’ of saiteige by A. Kellogg, M.D. 148 pp. 8vo. State Mining
Bureau, Henr ury G. Hanks, State Mineralogist, State Office, Sacramento. 1882.
A popular treatise.

Darwin Memoniar.*

Large additions are due from America to the Darwin Memorial
Fund, All naturalists, and all thinkers with few exceptions, know
that they have been greatly enriched in knowledge, and raised to
a higher level of thought and study, as a consequence of Darwin’s
labors in science. Feelings of gratitude are hence natural; and
the memorial affords an opportunity for their substantial expres-
sion. There is special satisfaction in honoring one who sought
only truth-—not honor—in his life-work. J. D. D.

* Page 159 of the last number of this Journal.

240 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

OBITUARY.

General GovuveRNEUR Kermste Warren.—General Warren
died at Newport, Rhode Island, on the 8th of August, in his
sixty-fourth year. On gra duating at the West Point Military
Academy in 1846, he was assigned to the Corps of Topographical
Engineers. With the e exception of two years—from 1859 to 1861
—as Eepleeer of Mathematics at West Point, and active service

the war from 1861 to April, 1865, bis labors were chiefly in
aohiesGen with the department of United States Engineers, and
they comprise many of the most important and responsible works
carried forward by the department. The surveys of the Missis-
sippi and other rivers with reference to improvement of naviga-
tion, construction of breakwaters, bridging, and reclamation “of
aiuiial. ta nds, became under him a source of important geological
Gccssone on the formation of sand bars, the relations of deposi-
tion to the flow of meeting streams, the changing courses of

i ubje S. he

orthern tributary, the Minnesota; and th ervations made
were the basis of a Report to the Chief of Engineers the following
year, and more fully later, on the former discharge of Lake Winni-

the most important ape nae to web y and physical geogra-
phy that has appeared, and will have far-reaching effects on the
science.

eral Warren received the commission of Brevet Major-
ow al United States Army, in view of his zallant and meritori-
ous Rervices in the war,

Grorce P. Marsu, Jong American Minister to Italy, eminent
as a sate and an able statesman, author of “The Origin and
History of the English Language,” “Man and Nature, * « The
Earth as Modified by Human Action,” and other works, died in
July at Vallambrosa, near Florence, at the piney of eighty- -one. He
was born at Woodstock, Vermont, on the h of March, 1801,
and graduated at Dartmouth College i in hg

?rofessor M. F. Batrovur, author of a “Treatise on Embr
ology” and other works, the “ablest member” of the School a
Science of Cambridge, England, ost his life in July, on Mont
a the Atheneum of July 29 states, though only thirty-

e years of age, Mr. Balfour had taken the first place among
English men of science

Epwarp Desor. ily full list, by Dr. Geinitz, of the publica-
tions of Mr. Desor, hei: death was announced. on page 422 of
the last volume of this Journal, is contained in Part 4 of Isis
(Dresden) for 1882. The first appeared in 1840, and related to
the glaciers of Monte Rosa ard Monte Cervino: the last, in 1881,
on the Fossil Man of Nice,

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

[THIRD SERIES.]

Art. XXV.—WNotes on Physiological Optics. No. 5. Vision by
the Light of the Eleetric Spark ; by W. LEConNTE STEVENS.

IN previous papers the phenomena of optic divergence have
been discussed, and also various peculiarities of vision under
controllable physiological conditions. Among them was ste-—
reoscopy from a pair of perfectly similar figures, produc

80 varying these in relative position that the retinal images of
them were dissimilar. A geometric explanation of this was
given, in which it was assumed that freedom of motion was

scope,
already described as a device to indicate the value of the optic

he apparatus employed was a large induction coil, belong- —
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Tuirp Series, VoL. XXIV, No. 142.—Octoper, 1882.
16

+

242 W. LeConte Stevens—Physiological Optics :

ing to the physical cabinet of Columbia College, the use of
which was kindly granted by Professor O. N. Rood. In the

mirror that reflected its light into the eye of the observer.
The sum of the incident and reflected rays from each to the

te .

receiving eye was, as nearly as possible, 25 cm.

work being distributed through a number ays h
purpose of avoiding fatigue at any one sitting. When the
relation between the visual line h as to imply no

unusual muscular strain, each of us found it possible to inter-
pret the binocular retinal image correctly by tbe light of a
single spark. Many other stereographs were substituted in
succession for that of the moon, and with similar results.
Some of these consisted of heavy black lines on a white ground,
others of white lines on a black ground; in some cases one
picture belonged to one of these classes and its mate to the
other. At the suggestion of Professor Rood a pair were con-

tures were arranged to give stereoscopic relief, but the nature
of this, whether direct or inverse, was what the observer had
to determine.

3
‘y

Vision by the Light of the Electric Spark. 243

Upon each arm of the stereoscope was now placed a vertical
frame, pivoted centrally over a divided horizontal circle (fig.
1), so that the plane of the card that was fitted into it could be
made to assume any desired angle (g) with the direction of the
arm, A pair of cards on which were similar series of concen-
tric circles were then introduced, the arms being arranged for

“s
©
=
~~]
~
>]
ee
=
z
fo)
5
©
Ss
Q
a
=
fe)
_
-
©
; 6
f°)
77)
Q.
_
o
©
—-
—s
ce
rs)
fe}
os
°
a
mn
+
=
g
oO

across the combined line of sight. The manipulator then

opposite obliquity of projection upon the two concave retinas,
was itself convex or concave. ‘This was tried successively and
independently by Professor Rood, Mr. Share, and the writer,
wit

circle being 8 em. and the sum of the incident and reflected
rays from its center to the eye of the observer being 25 em., It
becomes possible to calculate the maximum difference horizon-
tally between the two retinal images. Let m and m’ (fig. 1) be
the points of incidence for rays from the centers ¢ and c’, of the
circles whose horizontal diameters are ab and a’b’, the cards

244 W. LeConte Stevens—Physiological Optics :

having been revolved each on a vertical axis through the angle
. Then to the eyes whose nodal points are o and o’, the
toe appear by reflection at AB and A’B’, the visual
and o’c’ being parallel and perpendicular toce’, But if
diescted to A and A’ or B and B’, the visual lines become con-
vergent to an extent eae by the haart of the angles
aand a’ or # and f". values of @ an n be expressed
in terms of the variable : and the known Sieaitities Ac an
co, and we are thus enabled to find for what value of @ the
difference, a—a’, becomes a maximum. For the values just
assigned to Ac and oc, this condition is attained when g=52°
By ordinary methods in trigonometry two sides and the
included angle of each triangle being known, a and a’ are then
determined, and their difference found, which in the present
case becomes 1° 25/87” ssuming anaverage value, 15°75 mm.
for the distance from nodal point, o, to retina, R, the linear hor-
izontal displacement on the retina corresponding to 1° 25’ 37”
is a trifle over 39 mm., or more than 80 times the diameter
corresponding to what has been estimated to be the minimum
visibile. For angles even smaller than 52° 25’ both Mr. Share
and myself found it possible to detect double images at
margins of the binocular picture; this, however, did not
vent the perception of the particular ind o relief eta
concavity or convexity, which the arrangement necessitated.
In trying the experiment by continuous light many persons
rave at first been confused, but a few moments of play of the
eyes were enough to produce clear Uliewladanty and the form of
the binocular image thenceforth r ned distinct even when
the gaze was kept as nearly ik: as ar sible. Unless there
has been special training in inocular vision ne duplication of
these marginal images is rarely perceived at a
On the other hand, to find the smallest cecal displacement
through which change of form in the binocular image can
perceived in this manner, I have substituted series of circles in
which the maximum diameter was only 4 cm., keeping the dis-
tance unchanged. The plane binocular image became noticea-
bly concave for a rotation of each through only 1°. By calcu-
, the angular retinal displacement is here found to be only
n amount so small that under the most favorable cireum-
ete no double image could be perceived with the acutest
vision thus far teste ese data therefore tend to
confirm the conclusion reached by He Imholtz,* in opposition
to many other Eprnologiess, that neither play of the eyes nor
the perception of dou mages is indispensable to the attain-
ment of binocular relief, genes’ important these elements may
sometimes be in confirming our visual judgments, whether con-
* Optique Physiologique, p. 1007, et seq.

eR ee all Ry

oe
a
x
:
ze
3
i
‘

Vision by the Light of the Electric Spark. 245,

scious or unconscious. They are exceedingly convenient for
the purpose of explaining binocular vision, but so limited an

explanation can never cover all the facts.

placed smaller circles, B, B' and B’’, the latter equal to each

other. A and B are concentric, while the centers of B’ and B”
are on opposite sides of that of A’ and aligned with that of A.
On combining the two pictures binocularly, A and A’ at once
unite; B and B’ when united form a small circle whose plane
is nearer, B and B” one whose plane is farther than that of A
and A’, asst ming the union to be by diminished convergence
of visual lines. The circle BB” appears as much larger than
BB’ as its distance is judged to be greater, — the fact that
the small circles are all of equal size. On the theory of double
images, when BB’ is regarded, the circle B’’ remains uncom-
bined while AA’ should be seen double; the comparison. of

regarding them successively. Bu fact the appearance of
the three circles, each at its proper distance, is instantaneous
and simultaneous, not successive. If the observer's eyes ar

well trained the circle AA’ may be abbectod as double while
the others are seen athe If the gaze be very rigidly fixed
upon the center of the combined circle AA’, the others are
separated, three small circles are seen, but all apparent varia-
tion in distance i is lost. This stereograph has been examin

246 W. LeConte Stevens—Physiological Opties.

apparent combination of one line with two other lines at the
same time was noticed by Professor W. B. Rogers in 1856 and
further discussed by Helmholtz in 1867, but its bearing on the
theory of binocular perspective has not received sufficient
attention. It not only shows the insufficiency of the theory
upheld by Briicke and Brewster, but also seems to indicate

heteronymous and homonymous double images, this power

belongs to both kinds of double image at the same time.
we admit intuition at all in this connection, we must further
grant that a distinction can thus be made instantly between

unconscious; but probably we shall never be able to put an
exact dividing line between those due to the experience of the
individual and those that spring from tendencies transmitted

y the race. e learn to see, just as we learn to walk or talk
in infancy, by oft-repeated efforts which form a succession of
experience passive seeing be a result of mere inheritance,

was completed. After the arms of the stereoscope had been
arranged to necessitate a particular value of the. optic angle,
the observer opened his eyes, and, by the light of a slow suc-
cession of sparks, adjusted them to secure binocular vision of
the stereograph of the moon, each picture of which was kept
in a fixed position on the arm that carried it. The observer's

£. 8. Dana—Monazite from North Carolina. 247

judgment of the distance and diameter of the combined image

almost uniformly a little less than my own. In cases of optic
divergence it was more difficult to secure the proper adjustment
of visual lines than in those of convergence. Distinct vision
was not attainable for divergence of more than —8°, thoug
with slight indistinctness I found it possible to attain the per-
ception of binocular relief for values as high as —7°.

limit, therefore, ~3° was selected, and this was attained by
both observers, through voluntary control of the oculo-motor
muscles, Since divergence of visual lines is never necessary in
ordinary vision, such adaptation of the eyes, if these be normal
and not specially trained, requires usually two external points
of fixation, and time becomes an element of more importance
than when the cordination of muscular actions is such as habit
has made easy.

Art. XX VI.—On crystals of Monazite from Alexander County,
North Carolina; by Epwarp S. Dana.

AMONG the results of the mineralogical investigations in
North Carolina, by Mr. W. E. Hidden, one of the most inter-
esting has been the discovery of the rare mineral monazite at

mber of localities. Mr. Hidden remarks* that at

* This Journal, III, xxii, pp. 21, 22, July, 1881.

28 ES. Dana—Monazite from North Ourolina.

several hurdred perhaps only half a dozen exceeded 54, inch
in diameter; rarely crystals of } inch in length were found.
The crystals were highly modified, very brilliant in luster, of a
rich topaz-yellow color, and perfectly transparent.

It is further stated by Mr. Hidden that he has found large
crystals of monazite 7m situ in mica schist at the Deake mica
mine in Mitchell County ; one of these was 14 inches in length
and # inch in width. ‘The same mineral occurs in white ortho-
clase at the Ray mica mine on Hurricane Mountain in Yancey
County. He has also found it very commonly in the aurifer-
ous gravels of McDowel, Rutherford, Burke and Polk Counties.
It is most abundant at J. C. Mill’s gold mine in the Brindle-
town District, Burke County, “ fifty pounds of gravel washings
from this mine afforded sixty per cent of monazite.” The
crystals from this last locality have been analyzed by Mr. 8. L.
Penfield (see p. 251, in this number.)

A few of the best crystals of the monazite from Milholland’s
Mill, Alexander County, have been placed in the hands of the
writer by Mr. Hidden; and one of these,
much superior in luster to the others, has
given an opportunity for a tolerably exact
determination of the crystalline form. The
crystals are generally prismatic (see figure)
in habit through the elongation of the
planes v (+1), and in this respect they
are similar to a variety of the Russian
mineral figured and described by von Kok-
scharof,* as also to crystals from Canton
Tessin, Switzerland, described by Selig-

mann.

The single crystal, which was subjected to careful measure-
ment, was very brilliant in luster, and most of the planes, with
the exception of those lettered v (+1) gave good reflections.
The following planes were observed, all of which are common
on ordinary monazite:

a it (100) v +1. (111)
Ps (110) @ 9-9 (121)
w —l-i (101) a + 9-9 (211)
. 14 (O11) z + 3-3 (311)
et | (111)

In addition to the above, three other planes were observed, viz:
€, replacing the edge w/v (121, i11); ¢, replacing the edge w/v
(121, 111); and g replacing the edge re (111, 011). The meas-
ured angles §,@=44°, 6, 0=56°, yAe=44°) were only rough
approximations, so that no indices could be given to the planes
with any degree of certainty.

* Min. Russland, iv, 17. + Zeitsch. Kryst.,, vi, 231, 1882.

E. 8. Dana—Monazite GS North Uersieds 249

The following fundamental angles (supplement) were meas-
ured with a Fuess goniometer provided with two telescopes,
viz:

anw 100. 101=39° 12” 30°

I,I -1104110=86° 34’ 20°

@.e ~ 100, 011=79° 63” °3"
Kach of these is the mean of a considerable number a inde-
pendent measurements, whose extremes var ried not more than
30” from the mean given. The axial ratio hed seas frou them
may be regarded as reasonably exact, viz

¢ (vert.): b: d=0-95484: 103163: 1.

B=76° 20’

The following table contains a list of the more manor angles
(supplement angles) pele from the above data, and also
such measured angles as could be obtained with sufficient ac-
curacy to make them of ‘tdbiek The agreement between the
measured and calculated angles is close in the cases where the
planes yielding the former gave good reflections, but the planes
which give the prismatic habit to the crys stals (”) afforded
angles on which no dependence at all could be place

Measured angles. Calculated angles,

Qac 100. 001 athe 76° 207

1004 110 43° 177
he 1 3002. 110 43 18 t weir’
axe 100 . 011 79 53* 19 53
aaw 100.101 39 124* 39 124
Gar 100 2 111 47 55 approx. 48 14
Gav 1004 111 oe. 61 304
Ono 100. 121 59 50 59 484
we 100 ~ 211 Ace 38 21
ant 100 4 311 26 57 approx. 26
DAG 1104 001 goal 80 6
ine 110. 011 54. 4 54 6
Taw 1104101 55 414 55 40
Per 1104 111 ea 33. 35
Tav 110.4911 m 40 50
LA 110.121 7. 26 97. 95
Tut 130.971 30 42
af SNS 8 110.110 86 34% 86 34
ene O1L A OIL oe 83. 56
Tat pa ee on 60 40
VAY T1ll 4 1h 13°12 73.19
O AW 21a 191 99 98 58
trnt Dit 22h1 eee 49 51
Zaz 3114311 peel 35 35
Ware 101. 011 53 384 53 384
WAT 1014 111 30 approx 30 20

101.4121 49
yee tors ta1 49 at wah se
6€r Olt 121 26. 39 26 41

It\is a matter of some interest to compare the axial dimensions
of the Alexander County monazite with those of the same

250 S. L. Penfield—Composition of American Monazite.

mineral from other localities. The following table exhibits the
relations.

c (vert.) b
Alexander Co., N. C. . 0°95484 103163 a i 76° 20°
Norwich, Mass., J. D. Dana, Syst. Min... 0°94715 1°0265 I 76 14
gage pe near R. Sanarka, N. von

0°95010 103037 L* 76 14

Kok
Tovetec, pacer (turnerite), G. vom
TIRE doe Gc uae aa rs wok 0'96166 1°04336 i: VT 18
Laacher Ae (turnerite), G. vom Ratht -- 0°95425 1 03532 - 76 32

* Min. Russl., iv, 5 et seq. + Pogg. ta exix, 252, 1863.
t Pogg. Ann., Erg.-Bd., v, 413, 187

The same relation is more clearly brought out ae comparing a
few of ves more important angles in the above cases, as also.4 in
some othe
Bac anw anf Gav GAO. DAV,
100 . 001 100 . 101 100 . 110 100. 111 011 . 010111. 111
Alexander Co., N.C.

KS. Deaia. os es 2 16°. 20° 39° 124” .43° 17’ 61° 303’: 83° 66’ TS" 19”
Norwich, Conn., J. D.

PoE ve t. Min gees 76 14 39 20 43 25 61 47 83 44. 13 24
Ural, N Kokscharof* 16 14 39 16 43 18} 61 404 83 42 173 16
Ta vetach b (turner e@),

G. v tht. "7 18 39 33 43 5 60 473 83 56 1712 32

Laac ba iy (turnerite),
G. vom Rath (I.c.)..76 32 39 19} 43 123 61 233 83 46 73 1
Mont Sorel (turnerite),
Des Cloizeaux...... ---- SOOO 2 as A os oi 83 40 13
* 1. c. and ib., vi, 200, 387. + 1. ¢., also Jahrb. Min., 393, 1876.
In addition it may be stated that Trechmann* has found on
monazite (turnerite) from Tavetsch, a, [=48° 16’,c, e=84° 47’;
~ for the same mineral from the "Biuinerithal, Gwe? 6,
=85° 19’, vav=72° 74. On crystals from the Ilmen
Mousa von Potanigal obtained aac= 1 a

Art. XXVII—On the Occurrence and Composition of some
American varieties of Monazite; by SAMUEL L. PENFIELD.

MY attention was first directed to the composition of mona-
zite by Professor Brush, who placed in ae hands a specimen of
an unknown mineral collecte by . F. Sheldon at Pel-
ton’s Quarry, Portland, Conn. It wa F tien suggested that it

might prove to be microlite, because of its resemblance to the
so-called altered microlite (in act, monazite, see beyond), from
Amelia Se Virginia, specimens of which had just arrived
at New Hav A short chemical examination of the Port-

* Jahrb, Min., 1876
+ Verh. Min. Ges. St. Pek, Il, xii, 287 (Zeitsch. Kryst., i, 398.)

SS. L. Penfield—Composition of American Monazite. 251

land mineral proved, however, the presence of phosphoric acid,
and the specimen was identified as monazite. Subsequently
complete chemical analysis was made, the results of wich will
be given farther on.
he mineral is of a cinnamon-brown color, of rather resinous
luster, and shows one perfect cleavage. e specimen
somewhat cracked, and along the fractures showed some signs
of alteration which did not, however, penetrate into the solid
material. It was easy to obtain for analysis material showing
none of this alteration and apparently homogeneous. The

con, a little quartz, and a few other minerals. T azite
is easily distinguished from the accompanying material, and by
careful picking enough was soon obtained, appare pure, for

of the selected material amounted to 5°10. The analysis is
given farther on.

About the time when the analyses of the specimens were
completed, a letter was received by Professor Brush from Pro-
fessor Wm. M. Fontaine, stating that specimens which had
been sent up to New Haven as altered microlite, had proved
by examination to be monazite.t In connection with my
other analyses I thought that it would be interesting to add an
analysis of this new variety. The material for analysis was
rom a specimen in the Yale College collection. :

The material selected was perfectly pure as far as the eye
could judge. The color and luster were the same as in the
Portland specimen, but a little darker than that of most of the
Virginia specimens which had been sent here. The analysis
will be seen below ; the silica and thoria were carefully deter-

. 248.
+ The monazite from this locality was first mentioned by Kénig (Proc. Acad.
Nat. Sci. Philad., 1882, 15), who gives an approximate analysis. Later, a com-
plete analysis was published by F. P. Dunnington (Amer. Chem. Journ., iv, 138,

haps be present as orangite. e. Jast-mentioned article was received by me
after this article was in manuscript.

252 8. L. Penfield—Composition of American Monazite.

mined, the rest not being carried out in duplicate owing to
want of time at my disposal.
Analyses.
1. Portland, Ct. Sp. Gr. 5°20-5:25.
Le E

Il Mean. Ratio
as arcee TRAE: 28°19 28°16 28°18 1
RD ep ey a arte So 33°69 33°40 33°54 188
(ia ih eke woos 28°15 28°51 28°33
8°33 17 8°2 031
EEN aay pe ee 157 Pui 1°67 028
at Dg bee ou 36 38 3
100°29 100°39 100°34

Hence, (Ce, La, se P.O 00 : £06 = 1" 1, and
: SiO, = 1-00: Ne eas |

2. Burke Co., Non Ver ee Sp. Gr. 5°10.

lq, Me tio
P.O. ae 45 ae 20 29°20 29°28 206
tories. 31:38. 31°94 30°77 31 190
(La, Di)oOs eee 30°67 30°80 = BEN | 30°8
tp Caraga awn 6-68 6°24 6°56 6°49 025
Pile cores. oe 1°46 A wore 1°40 023
Ignition .._.- 20 20 :

99°78 99
Hence, (Ce, La, eo P= 20} Ls se]: by and
BOs: SiO, =100: 92=1:
3. Amelia Co., Virginia. Sp. Gr. 5°30.
I Il.

. Mean Ratio
P.O, Pega ee My ger a ea 26°12 sak ellen 96°12 18
: 29°89 fae 29°89 172
a DOs 23... 26°66 aoe 26°66 t
veo 14°07 14°39 14°23 054
ro A ESS iat ieee a 2°82 2°87 2°85 048
A 67 ae
100°23 100°42

Hence, (Oe Ph Bs PO = 100: 107 = 1: 1, and
ThO, : SiO, = 1-00: O38 = 1:

A glance at the ratios calculated for these analyses will show
that in every case the ratio of (Ce, La, Di),O,: P,O,=1: 1.
This is the ratio required for a normal phosphate of the cerium
metals, R,P,O,. It may be added that Rammelsberg* has
described and analyzed monazite, from Arendal, which con-
tained no thoria, and agreed with this formula. It will also be
seen that each analysis | has afforded a certain amount of thoria

W
considered that oxide of thorium is widely different in its
* ZS. G. Ges., xxix, 79, 1879.

S. L. Penfield—Composition of American Monazite. 253

chemical relations from the oxides of the cerium metals, and
hence should not be present as an isomorphous replacement of

i

cal point of view, to assume that the tharia, often found in
Pe exists in the form of thorium silicate as an impurity.

A careful examination of the Portland mineral with a
pocket lene revealed no signs of an impurity which could be
identified as thori ite, so that a more careful investigation was
made. <A thin section of the mineral was examined with the
microscope ; it showed small grains of a darker resinous sub-

the mechanically mixed thorite. On the fragment of Virginia
monazite, from which the material for analysis was obtained, a
very little of a resinous- -looking mineral could be seen, and a
small fragment of this powdered and treated on a watch glass
with hydrochlori ic acid gave evidence of a jelly. Further, two
thin sections of this material were examined; both showed
dark resinous particles scattered through’ the section. These
were similar to those in the section of the Portland variety, but
more abundant. One of these sections was moistene
hydrochloric acid, gently warmed, then carefully hea Ms
water and again examined with the microsco Whi
blotches were seen to have taken the place of many ‘of the res-
inous spots, and when a solution of fuchsin was pou Ov
the section, and the excess gently washed away, the delusions
silica retained the coloring matter, The monazite “appeared
wholly unattacked by the treatment with hydrochloric acid.

These observations prove beyond question the presence of
thorium silicate in monazite, and thus substantiate the above
chemical evidence. It is a curious fact that these two rare
minerals should be associated in this way together, and it may
be hoped that, with the material at our disposal in the United
States, good specimens of this silicate of thoria may be found.

glance again at the analyses shows that water is present in
small quantity, as indicated by the loss by ignition, and if this
belongs to the thoriam silicate it amounts to nearly one mole-
cule of water to one of the silicate; this is, nearly, the propor-
tion in which they are united in the minerals thorite and
orangite, but their water content is aadtiqanbts and the mate-
rial at our disposal was too limited to warrant further specula-
tions,

With reference to the method of analysis it may be stated
that phosphoric acid was separated from the bases by fusion
with sodium carbonate and extraction with water. TThoria
was separated from the oxides of the cerium metals by obtain-
ing all the mixed oxides, free from phosphoric acid, as normal

24 8 C8. Peirce—Oscillation of es

filter, et ignited and (Hermann’s meth
he a t of cerium was arrived at Fed determining the
excess of oxygen in CeO, over Ce,O,; this was obtaine

dissolving the ignited ee (free from thoria), in dilute sul-

hurie acid mixed with oxalic acid; the oxides dissolved and
the higher oxide of cerium decom posed the oxalic acid, setting
carbonic anhydride free, which was collected in potash bulbs
and weighed. Silica was determined by decomposing the min-
eral with sulphuric acid, evaporating till fumes came off, soak-
ing out with water and

A determination of anebane, anhydride in a ee quan-
tity of the mixed sulphates of the cerium metals from the
Portland variety gave for the joint molecular Waiobé of the
oxides 328°2, or a joint atomic weight of 140:1, which deter-
mination was used in the calculation of the three analyses. It
may be stated that great care was taken to prove the identity
of the thorium. Besides its giving all the reactions for that
element, a weighed quantity of the oxide gave b conversion
into sulphate an atomic weight of 238°5. This sulphate was
not quite soluble in water, which readily accounts for the
result being a trifle higher than that usually accepted for thoria.
The atomie weight, 281°5, was used in calculating the analyses.

In closing I wish to express my thanks to Professors George
J. Brush and E. S. Dana for kindly providing the material for
carrying out this investigation.

heffield Scientific School, May 3, 1882.

Arr. XX VIII.—On Irregularities in the rie ay of Oscillation
of Pendulums ; C

[Communicated by the authority of the se ne of the U.S. Coast and
Geodetic Survey.

THE pendulum experiments eonddetad by iat or the Coast
Survey exhibit cai hse differences in the rate of descent
of the arc on different days. Mr. herman (this Journal,
xxiv, 176) having’ nigreaied that this might be due to a
periodic variation of the amplitude, I feel called upon to say,
—what a study of my published observations will show,—that
this supposition is inadmissible. For, in order to account, in
this manner, for the observed discrepancies, it would be neces-
sary to suppose a periodic variation too great to escape direct
observation. In most of my observations, I have used an are
accurately divided into thousandths of the radius. The read-
ing telescope has a sidereal magnifying power of from 60 to

* Journ. £. pr. Chem., xxxiii, 90.

C. 8. Peirce—Oscillation of Pendulums. 255

wire at the extremity of its swing. It would thus be quite
impossible to overlook a variation of the amplitude amounting
to one ten-thousandth of the radius, while that of the pendu-
lum was, say one-thirtieth of the radius.

The motion of a pendulum upon a flexible support has two
harmonic constituents. One of these has nearly the natural
period of the pendulum, the other nearly the natural perio
of the oscillation of the support. If the amplitude of the sec-
ond motion is sensible, an irregularity of the are of oscillation,
often of a plainly periodic character, will necessarily result.
The ratio of the amplitude of the second harmonic motion to
that of the first depends upon the manner in which the pendu-
lum is started; and upon a very flexible stand it is easy to
“Start the pendulum in such a way as to produce a considerable
variation in the amplitude. But theory shows that if the
pendulum be started by pushing it to one side by a force ap-
plied at the center of oscillation and then letting it go, the
second harmonic constituent vanishes. Now, this is the man-
ner in which I always endeavor to start a pendulum. That, in
point of fact, the second harmonic constituent is insensible is
shown by the fact that it hardly shows itself even in the oscil-
lation of the support, where it is relatively many times larger
than in that of the pendulum. The equations showing this
are given in-my paper appended to the report of the Stuttgart

. . .

meeting of the International Geodetic Association.

256 = G. H. Darwin—Stresses caused in the Earth by

Art. XXIX.— Stresses caused in the Interior of the neh oe a
acne of Continents and Mountains; by G. H. Dar
R.S.*

THE existence of dry land proves that the earth’s surface is
not a figure of equilibrium appropriate for the diurnal rotation.
Hence the interior of the earth must be in a state of stress,
and as the land does not sink in, nor the sea-bed rise up, the
materials of which the earth is made must be strong enough to
bear this stress.

e are thus led to inquire how the stresses are distributed
in the earth’s mass, and what are their magnitudes. ‘These
points cannot be discussed without an hypothesis as to the
interior constitution of the earth.

In this paper I have solved a problem of the kind indicated
for the ease of a homogeneous nage eege elastic sphere,
and have applied the results to the case of the earth.

It may of course be urged that the earth is pa such as this
oo tea ay es.

ik w which was formerly generally held was that the
earth latte of a solid crust floating on a molten nucleus. It
has also been lately maintained b ugust Ritter, in a
series of interesting papers, that the pine of the earth is gas-
eous.t A thir — contended for by Sir William Thom-

son, and of which I am myself an adherent, is that the earth is
throughout a solid of erent rigidity; he explains the flow of
lava from voleanoes eit y the existence of liquid vesicles

pressure occurs

There is another consideration, which is consistent with Sir
William Thomson’s view, and which was pointed out to me by

* This article is cited from the ins een Transactions for 1882, Part I. It
is the second part only of Mr. Darwin’s memoir and has the title ‘Summary
investigation based on a eiesrmeavalta Ra ie of Sir William Thomson's. References

itted.

+A dung d r mechanischen “Winches auf kosmologische Probleme.

ek _Bampler, plasiipee: 1869. This is a reprint of six papers in Wiedemann’s

mit tter nak that the temperature in the interior of the planet is above

og critical temperature and that of dissociation for ail the constituents, so that

only Late as gas. ata are wanting with regard to the mechanical
ropert: atter at, 0° Fahr., and a ure of many tons to the
square inch it not possible that such “gas” e the density of mer

eury and the rigidity and tenacity of granite? Although such a conjectural
“ gaseous ”’ solid might possess high Moet bs almost certainly would have great
compressibility: but it is proved in § 10 that the compressibility will make
exceedingly little difference in the result nerd the present investigation excepting in
he case of the second harmonic inequality

the Weight of Continents and Mountains. 257

Professor Stokes. It may be that underneath each continent
there is a region of deficient density; then underneath this
region there would be no excess of pressure.

For the present investigation it is to some extent a matter of
indifference as to which of these views is correct, for if it is
only the crust of the earth which possesses rigidity, or if Pro-
fessor Stokes’s suggestion of the regions of deficient density be
correct, then the stresses in the crust or in the parts near the
surface must be greater than those here computed—enormously
greater if the crust be thin,* or if the region of deficient den-
sity be of no great thickness.

With regard to the property of incompressibility, which is
here attributed to the elastic sphere, it appears from § 10
that even if we suppose the elastic solid to be very highly com-
pressible, yet the results with regard to the internal stresses
are almost the same as though it were incompressible. I think
the hypothesis of great incompressibility is likely to be much
nearer to the truth than is that of great compressibility. I
shall, therefore, adhere to the supposition of infinite incom-
pressibility, bearing in mind that even great compressibility
would not much affect most of the results.

Now a stress-axis has the property that this force is parallel to
the stress-axis to which the inter-face is perpendicular. Thus
along a stress-axis the internal force is either purely a traction

* The evaluation of the stresses in a crust, with fluid beneath, would be
tedious, but not more difficult than the present investigation. I may, perhaps,
undertake this at some future time.

This term is due to Professor James Thomson.
Am, Jour. Scr—Tuirp Series, Vou. XXIV, No, 142.—OcToBeEr, 1882.
17

258 G. H. Darwin—Stresses caused in the Earth by

or purely a pressure. ‘Treating pressures as negative tractions,
we may say that at any point of a stressed elastic solid there
are three mutually perpendicular directions along which the
stresses are purely tractional. The traction which must be
applied to an inter-face of a square centimeter in area, in order
to maintain equilibrium when the matter on one side of the
inter-face is removed, is called a principal stress, and is of
course to be measured by grams weight per square centi-

difference between these principal stresses.

In one very simple case we know that this is so, for if we
imagine a square bar, of which the section is a square centi-
meter, to be submitted to simple longitudinal tension, then two
of the principal stresses are zero (namely, the stresses perpen-
dicular to the faces of the rod), and the third is equal to the
longitudinal traction. The traction under which the rod
breaks is a measure of its strength, and this is equal to the
difference of principal stresses. :

If, at the same time, the rod were subjected to great hydro-
static pressure the breaking load would be very little, if at all
affected; now the hydrostatic pressure subtracts the same
quantity from all three principal stresses,’ but leaves the differ-
ence between the greatest and least principal stresses the same
as before.

Difference of principal stresses may also be produced by
crushing.

In this paper I call the difference between the greatest and
least principal stresses the ‘‘stress-difference,” and I say that,

crushing.

Ishall usually estimate stress-difference by metric tonnes (a

million grams), per square centimeter, or by British tons
neh.

per square inc

the Weight of Continents and Mountains.

259

In Table VII, § 9,* are given the Perper sty deter-
mined values of the Ere aking stress-differen or various
errs

the difference in meaning of the numbers given in the first col-
umn and those given in the two latter columns in the first half
of the, table.

The cases of wood and cast brass are the only ones where a com-
parison is possible between the two breaking stress-differences,
as differently produced. It will be seen ihe the material is
weaker for crushing than for tension. For reasons given
that section, Iam inclined to think that ae tables rate the
strength of the materials somewhat too highly for the purposes
of this investigation. I conceive that the results derived from

various kinds of rocks seem to have been principally derived
from crushing stresses.

This table will serve as a means of comparison with the
numerical results derived below, so that shall see, for
example, whether or not at 500 nie Foil the surface the
materials of the earth are as strong as g

e@ may now pass to the cies ang ah ‘investigation.

* This table of limiting stress-difference is as follows:

It

TABLE VII. Ei a sai stress-difference.

5 Produced: by tension.

Produced

by crushing.

Cai er yey

3 =

Stress-difference at which

permanent set begins in—

on’es gen coun oer aa boing

per square
centimeter.

27
“94 to 2°04
re

ip
»

62
020 “g ‘O21

68 to ‘90

per
cent timeter,

Material.

;Breaking ig adapt

Met’ctonnes
per square
centimeter.

British tons
ig —

23
“41T
120
12
114 to 1°87
4-00
23°56

1:46
2°64
2:06(R
761

8°05
7°23 to 11°86
25°36

Strong red pe 2
Strong sandsto
) toes siinaateis

¥) rate (Mount

A halon poe np)
Vast

OTT

“20

“60

39

39 to 77

Py
“19

on

23

2°52 to 2°84

4
16 ta 18

second and third columns phd ~ product of Young’s modulus into

stress-di fferen ce when
permanent
breaking stresediffrence is s given in both m tish un

ing in the third colum second half ne the eaten e8 results marked F are
from Sir William Fairbairn’s s spaniels

960 @. H. Darwin—Stresses caused in the Earth by

inequalities. Although the H caani of distribution and

magnitude of the stresses are thus independent, it will, in gen-

eral, be LL to discuss them more or less simultaneously.

oblem has only been solved for the class of superficial

ist uadities called zonal harmonies, and their nature will now
be explained.

zonal harmonic consists of a series of undulations corru-

some equator on the globe; the number of the undulations is
estimated by the order of the harmonic. The harmonic of the
second order is the most fundamental kind, and consists of a
single undulation forming an elevation round the equator, and
a pair of depressions at the poles of that equator; 1t ema also
be defined as an elliptic spheroid of revolution, and the abso-
lute magnitude is measured by the ellipticity of the aheteds

If the order of the harmonic be high, say 30 or 40, we have
a regular series of mountain chains and intervening valleys
running round the sphere in parallels of latitude.

e sake of convenience I shall always speak as though
the eanatar were a region of elevation, but the only effect of
changing elevations into depressions, and vice versa, 18 to dia-
metrically reverse the directions of all the stresses.

The harmonies of the orders 2, 6, 10, ete., have depressions
at the poles of the sphere; those of orders 4, 8, 12, etc., have .
elevations at the pole.

The harmonic of the fourth order consists = an equatorial

equatorial continent and a pair of annular continents in lati-
tudes (about) 60° on one and the other side of the equator.
The eighth harmonic brings down these new annular conti-
nents to ts latitude 45°, and adds a pair of polar continents ;

and so 0

B sonenanaae of this process the transition to the moun-
tain hci and valleys is obvious.

In section five the case of the second harmonic is considered.
As above explained, the sphere is deformed into a spheroid of
revolution. The ih gay also applies to the case of a

rotating spheroid, such as the earth, with either more or less
oblateness than is nepeietats ie the figure of equilibrium.

It is remarkable that the stress-difference is the same all over
the surface. In the polar regions the stress-difference dimin-
ishes as we descend into the spheroid, and then increases
again; in the equatorial regions it pre increases as we
descend. The maximum value is at the center, and there the
stress-difference is eight times as great as at the surface.

the Weight of Continents and Mountains. 261

If the elastic solid be highly compressible the stress-differ-
ences are not nearly so great as on the hypothesis of incom-
pressibility. In all the other cases considered in this paper
one ny makes pata no difference in the results.

uating the stress-difference, on the hypothesis -
fnodmipressibility, arising from given ellipticity i in a spheroid of
the size and density of the earth, it appears that if the excess
or defect o ellipticity above or below the i cag value
(namely, y4, for the homogeneous earth), were z9/;,, then the
stress- difference at the center would be eight tohs per square
inch ; and, accordingly, if the sphere were made of material as
strong as brass it would be just on the point = Topas
Again, if the homogeneous earth, with ellipticity s4,, w
stop rotating, the central stress- difference would be 33 one fet
Square inch, and it would rupture if made of any material
ate the finest steel.
ough calculation* will show that if the planet Mars has
elliptcits gy (about twice the ellipticity on the hypo — of
omogeneity), the eset stress-difference must be six tons

pecenices forces is identical with that caused by ellipticity of
gure.t Hence the investigation of § 5 gives the distribution
of stress-difference caused in the earth by the moon’s attraction.
Omputation shows that the stress-difference at the surface,
due to the lunar tide-generating forces, is 16 grams per
square centimeter, and at the center eight times as much.
These stresses are considerable, although very small compared
with those due to terrestrial inequalities, as will appear below.

10.
It is found that the stress-difference eas only on the
depth below the mean surface, and is independent of the posi-
tion of the point considered with regard to ridge and furrow;

* The data for the calculation are, Ratio of terrestrial radius to sarees Serie
1°878, Ratio of Martian mass to terrestrial mass, *1020. ence ratio of Mar-
tian gravity to terrestrial gravity, °3596. Central stress di fference, cre to ellip-

ticity e, td tons per square inch. ‘ Homogeneous” ellipticity of Mars, 74;;
and 334 equal to 6

+ This i is pari to certain qualifications noticed in section five.

262 G. H. Darwin—Stresses caused in the Earth by

the direction ite the stresses does, however, depend on this lat-
ter considerat

The sttkteat ebieae difference depends merely on the height
and density of the mountains, and the depth at which it =
reached merely on the distance ‘from ridge to ridge, being 7-3_
of it.

Numerical calculation shows that if we suppose a series of
mountains whose crests are 4,000 meters, or about 13,000 feet,
above the intermediate valley- -bottoms, formed of rock of spe-
cific gravity 2°8, then the maximum stress-difference is 2°6 tons

mountain chains are 314 miles apart the maximum stress
difference is reached at 50 miles below the mean s

It may be necessary to warn the geologist oo this weet
tion is approximate in a certain sense, for t
give the state of stress actually within the niwtett prominen
ces or near the surface in the valley bottoms. The station
will, however, be very nearly accurate at some five or six miles
below the valley-bottoms. The solution shows that.the stress-
difference is nil at the mean surface, but it is obvious that
both the mountain masses and the valley- bottoms are in some
state of stre

The mathematician will easily see that this imperfection |

arises because the problem really treated is that of an infinite
elastic Shel subjected to simple harmonic tractions and
pressur

To find -the state of stress actually within the mountain
masses would probably be difficult.

The maximum stress-difference just found for the mountains
and valleys obviously cannot be so great as that at the base of
a vertical column of this rock, which has a section of a square
inch, and is 4,000 meters high. The weight of such a column
is 7-1 tons, and therefore the stress-d ifference at the base would
be 7-1 tons per square inch. The maximum stress-difference
computed above is 2°6, which is about three- eighths of 7-1 tons

of rock, in the case just considered, serves as a relief to the
rock to the extent of about five- -eighths of the greatest possible
stress-difference. This computation also gives a rough esti-
mate of the stress-differences which must exist if the crust of
the earth be thin. It is shown below that there is reason to
suppose that the height from the crest to the bottom of the
depression in such large undulations as eo bce by Africa
and America is about 6,000 meters. The weight of a similar

second to the twelfth, but for all except the second corks
only the equatorial region of the sphere is considered.

the Weight of Continents and Mountains. 263

In §8 I build up out of these six harmonics an isolated
equatorial continent. The nature of the elevation is exhib-
ited in Plate xx, fig. 5, in the curve marked ‘“represen-
tation ;” no notice need be now taken of the dotted curve.
This curve exhibits a belt of elevation of about 15° of latitude,

constituent.

I have not attempted to trace the curves of equal stress-
difference arising from these two kinds of elevation, but I
believe that they will consist of a series of much elongated
ovals, whose longer sides are approximately parallel with the
surface of the globe, drawn about the maximum point in the
interior of the sphere at the equator. The surfaces of equal
stress-difference in the solid figure will thus be a number of
flattened tubular surfaces one within the other.

At the equator, however, the law of variation of stress-differ-
ence is easy to evaluate, and Plate xx, fig. 6, shows the results
graphically, the vertical ordinates representing stress-differ-
ence, and the horizontal the depths below the surface. The

the case where there is no second harmonic constituent.

The central stress-difference, which may be observed in the
upper curve, results entirely from the presence of the second
harmonic constituent in the corresponding equatorial belt of
elevation.

he maximum stress-differences in these two cases occur at
about 660 and 590 miles from the surface respectively.

e€ now come to perhaps the most difficult question with
regard to the whole subject— namely, how to apply these
results most justly to the case of the earth.

he question to a great extent turns on the magnitude and
extent of the superficial inequalities in the earth. As the
Investigation deals with the larger inequalities, it will be
proper to suppose the more accentuated features of ridges,
peaks and holes to be smoothed out.

he stresses caused in the earth by deficiency of matter over
the sea-beds are the same as though the seas were replaced by
a layer of rock, having everywhere the thickness of about 4:92
or nearly 54, of the actual depths of sea.

264. G. H. Darwin—Stresses caused in the Earth by

Sagi surface being partially smoothed and dried in this man-
ner, we require to find an ellipsoid of leaner which shall
a the corrugations in such a manner that he ig

ea “ea of pears
Sete Bruns has introduced the term “ geoid’” to express
any one of the “level” surfaces in the neighborhood of the
earth’s surface, and he endeavors to form an estimate of the

mean geoid. rom the geodesic point of view the conception
is valuable, but such an estimate is.scarcely what we require in
the present case he mean geoid itself will necessarily par-

take of the contortions of the solid earth’s surface, even apart
from Apion ag caused by local inequalities of density, and
thus it cannot be a figure of equilibrium.

Thus, even if we were to suppose that the solid earth was
everywhere coincident with a geoid, which is far from being
the case, a state of stress would still be produced in the inte-
terior of the earth.

n example of this sort of consideration is afforded by the
geodesic results arrived at by Colonel Clarke, R.E.,+ who finds
that the ellipsoid which best satisfies geodesic measurement

as three unequal axes, and that one equatorial semi-axis is
1,524 feet longer than the other. Now, such an ellipsoid as
e

ellipticity would produce a central stress-difference of 345,%8,,
nearly one-third of a British ton per square inch.

From this discussion it may, I think, be fairly concluded
that if we assume the sea-level as being the figure of equilib-
rium, and oe the departures therefrom, we shall be well
within por ma

Sau height of pe sige ae is aL 350 sie
5; aise feet), and the average d of the oceans is,
round numbers, 5,000 meters (16, 000 feet) ; oa ine latter 8

* Die Figur der Erde. Von Dr. H. Bruns. Berlin. Stankiewicz, 1878.
+ Phil. Mag., Aug., 1878

the Weight of Continents and Mountains. 265

is open to much uncertainty.* When the sea is solidified into
rock the 5,000 meters of depth is reduced to 3,200 meters
below the actual sea-level. Thus the average effective depres-

great, and put the depth as 3,150 meters; but it is of course to
d ~_ perhaps eight and perhaps ten might be more

correct facto
In the axinly ical investigation of this paper the outlines of
the vertical section of the continents and depressions are

sea-beds to have been smoothed down into sweeping curves,
which we may take as being, roughly speaking, of the har
monic type. The smoothing will have left the averages
ae ect =

verages are not, however, estimated from a mean sphe-
voided: sacface, but from one which is far distant from the

The questions now to be determined are as follows: What
is the proper gre eatest height and depression, estimated vase a
mean aku
mated from present sea-level, and what is as position of nr

tom the solution of the problem comers in the note
below,t+ it appears that, if the continents and sea-beds have sec-
tions which are harmonic curves, then if we take,—
* In a previous paper, “Geological Changes, etc.,” Phil. Trans., vol. 167, Part
I, p. 295, I have endeavored to discuss this fade and references to a few
anthiorities will be found there.
Conceive a series of straight harmonic undulations catroas ne a mean hori-
zontal surface, and suppose them to be flooded with wa will represent
fairly well the undulations or the dried earth, me! the watndave! will represent
the sea-level.
ae, acy that the average heights and depths of the parts above a oo
water are known, and that it is required to find the position of the mea zon-
tal surface with fries nee to the water level, and the height of the chitiiateids
goa en that mean surface.
gin of co-ordinates in the water-level, the axis of x in the water-
lve =e "prpedioda: to the undulations, and the axis of y measured upward.

y=h(cos —cos a)
be the equation to the undulations.
The average height of the dry parts is clearly ae +4 de oS A sin a—4 COS a).
Similarly the average depth below water is

“—[sin (—a)—(—a) cos (x—a) ] or . [sin a + (m— a) cos a]
—a To

266 G. H. Darwin—Stresses caused in the Earth by

The mean ined bisecting elevations and depressions as 2,480
meters (8,150 feet) below the sea-level, and the greatest eleva:
tion and depression from that mean level as 3,009 meters
(9,840 feet), it results that the average height of inks land above
sea-level is — oe and the average depression of dried sea-
‘sa is 8,150 me

of this paper, if the earth were homogeneous. But as the den-

sity of superficial rocks is only a half of the mean density of

the earth, I shall take 1500 meters as the greatest elevation and
depression rom the mean equilibrium spheroid of revolution.

It is proper here to note that the height of the undulations of

elevation and depression in the zonal harmonic inequalities 1 o
t

point biden; than it does on the ees in remote
parts of the sphere.
Now in all the inequalities, except the second harmonic, I
have considered the state of stress in the equatorial region, and
If the latter average be p times as great as the former

ph cos @ ; wna =h cos a =hytn a+)

This is an equation for determining a,

Now I find tha Ki oe 30’ gives p=8" 983, which corresponds very nearly with
p=9 of ei text

This Bohs a se iiemecids with an average equal to ee mai the height
above Shere and 1°'0469/ for the depth below water. Now, if w

1°0469h=3150 meter
which gives 1165h=350 metors, very nearly,
we have A=3009 meters
The depth tew. water-level of the bisa level is h cos 34° 30’, or 2480 meters.
The npc test height of the dry part above the water-level is 3009— 2480, or 429
meters, and the sl nig depth of the pled part below water-level is 3009 +
2480, or 5489
[Aft ter the Drootshe ts of this paper had been corrected, Professor passage
pointed out to me that, according to Rigaud (Cam. Phil. Soc., vol. vi), the area of
of the

If I have
ably over d I do not think that I have done
SO), the d discrepancy must arise rt the ds — actual continents and pg
do not present in section curves whic nt orm e. harmonic type;
must also be a difference between corrugate epee a plane surfaces.
e geological denudation of the land must, to some extent, render our conti-
nents flat-topped.— Added May 4, 1882.]

the Weight of Continents and Mountains. 267

it will therefore, I think, be proper to adhere to the 1500
meters for the greatest height and depression.

We have next to consider what order of harmonic inequali-
ties is se nearly analogous to the great terrestrial continents
and oceans. The most obvious case to take is that of the two
Kiveticns and Africa with Europe. The average longitude of
the Americas is between 60° and 80° W., and the average lon-
gitude of Africa is about 25° E., hence there is a difference of
longitude of about a right- angle between the two masses.

hese two great continents would be more nearly represented
by an harmonic of the sectorial class,* rather than by a zonal
harmonic, nevertheless I think the solution 2 the zonal har-
monic will be adequate for the present purpos

Now it has been explained above that the diaries of the
fourth order represents an equatorial continent and a pair of
polar continents. In the case of the fourth harmonic therefore
there is a right angle of a great circle between contiguous con-
tinents. We may conclude from this that the large terrestrial
inequalities are about equivalent to the harmonic of the fourt

0 :

Table V (0), § 7, gives the maximum. stress- rei

under the center of the equatorial elevation of the several
seal harmonics, the height net each being 1500 meters. ie "The
point at which this maximum is reached is given in each case,
and Plate xx, fig. 4, illustrates grapbiaiy the law of variation
of sae difference. |

The second harkaonte cannot be said to represent a conti-
nent, alia the table shows that in each of the other cases -

maximum stress-difference is very nearly four tons per squar
inch. The depths of the maximum point are of course vee
different in each case.

* The sectorial harmonic of the fourth order sin‘ @ cos 4¢ would well represent

e gr tinents. It would fairly represent China and Australia, but
would annihilate the Himalayan plateau, and place another — maguspscy in mid-
Pacific. It is not at all difficult to find the stress-difference r ofa

sectorial inequality, but to find it generally involves hs | dolatiok ot a ‘tio
equati

+ The following i is the table:

TABLE V (b).-—Mazimum stress-differences due to harmonic continents and seas.

Order of harmonic. 2 4 6 8 10 12

Max. stress-difference, in metric tonnes per
Sq. c.m. due to contin’ts 1500 meters 8 858 *633) °626) °625) °625) °625
Ditto in sadingg h tons per sq. inch, for sa
in 4°01] 3°97) 3°96) 3°96) 3°96

543
{, f oarth ¢ {2 1146] 725] 632] 420) 347

Depth i in rh miles at which this stress
ined

ee eee er ee ee

NB The continents referred to are supposed to be of the is mean dual and
are equivalent to actual continents of double the height.

268 = «G. H. Darwin—Stresses caused in the Earth by

We have concluded above that Africa and America are
about equivalent to an harmonic of the fourth order, hence it

may be concluded that the stress-difference under those conti-
nents is a maximum at more than 1100 miles from the earth’s
surface, and there amounts to about four tons per square inch.

comparison with Table VII shows that marble would break
bee pins stress, but that strong granite would stand.

‘tunately I have found it difficult to arrive at a satisfactory
conclusion as to the proper height to attribute to the continent.
The average height of the American continent is about 1100
feet above the sea, and the average depth of the Pacific Ocean
about 15,000 feet If the water of the Pacific be congener
into rock it will have an effective depth of 10,000 feet. The
greatest height of the American continent above the bed of the
dried Pacific when smoothed down must be fully 12,000 feet,
or 8700 meters. The height of the great central Asian pla-
teau above the average bed of the southern ocean (after drying)

must be considerably more than this.
in the application to the homogeneous planet the

the top of the equatorial table-land above the remaining
peel spherical portion of the sphere.

investigation of § 8 then shows that the equatorial
table-land will give rise to a stress-difference of 4:1 tons
per square inch at a depth of 660 miles; and that the equato-
rial table-land counterbalanced by the pair of polar continents
(the second harmonic constituent being absent), gives a stress-
cir aha of about 3°8 tons per square inch at a depth of 590

This estimate of stress-difference agrees in amount, with sin-
gular exactness, with that just t found from the case of the
fourth zonal harmonic, but the maximum is reached 400 or 500
miles nearer to the earth’s surface.

I think there can be no doubt but that there are terrestrial
inequalities of much greater breadth than that of my isolated
continent; thus this investigation for the isolated continent
will give a position for the maximum stress-difference too near
the surface to iin aris with the largest continents. On the

other hand, I do not feel at all sure that I have not consid-
erably underestimated the height of such a comparatively nar-
row platea

In the ey paper it has been impossible to take an
notice of the stresses produced by the most fundamental

the Weight of Continents and Mountains. 269

inequality on the earth’s surface, because it depends essentially
on heterogeneity of density.

It is well known that the earth may be divided into two
hemispheres, one of which consists almost entirely of land, and
the other of sea. If the south of England be taken as the pole -
of a hemisphere, it will be found that almost the whole of the
land, excepting Australia, lies in that hemisphere, whilst the
antipodal hemisphere consists almost entirely of sea. This
proves that the center of gravity of the earth’s mass is more
i from England than the center of figure of the solid

obe.

A deformation of this kind is expressed by a surface har-
monic of the first order, for such an harmonic is equivalent to
a small displacement of the sphere as a whole, without true
deformation. —

ow if we consider the surface forces produced by such a
deformation in a homogeneous sphere, we find, of course, that
there is an unbalanced resultant force acting on the whole
sphere in the direction diametrically opposed to that of the
equivalent displacement of the whole sphere.

e fact that in the homogeneous sphere such an unbal-

e

such an inequality does exist, and the force referred to must of
course be counterbalanced somehow. The balance can only be
maintained by inequalities of density, which are necessarily
unknown. The problem therefore apparently eludes mathe-
matical treatment.

It is certain that so wide-spreading an inequality, even if not
great in amount, must produce great stress within the globe.
And just as the second harmonic produces a more even distri-
bntion of stress than the fourth, so it is likely that the first
would produce a more even distribution than the second.

It is difficult to avoid the conclusion that the whole of the
solid portion of the earth is in a sensible state of stress,

would not, however, lay very much emphasis on this point
because we are in such complete ignorance as to the manner in
which the equilibrium of the solid part of the earth is main-
tained.

From this discussion it appears that if the earth be solid
throughout, then at a thousand miles from the surface the
material must be as strong as granite. If it be fluid or gaseous
inside, and the crust a thousand miles thick, that crust must

e stronger than granite, and if only two or three hundred
miles in thickness much stronger than granite. This conclu-
sion is obviously strongly confirmatory of Sir William Thom-
son’s view that the earth is solid throughout.

270 B. K. Emerson—The Deerfield Dyke and its Minerals.

Art. XXX.—The Deerfield Dike and its Minerals; by Burn.
K. Emerson, Professor of Geology in Amherst College.

PREHNITE.—a. In fissures at Cheapside, south of the river.—
Prehnite occurs here most abundantly and always as the oldest
mineral in the veins in which it appears. That the veins where
it is absent bave been filled at a later period and at a lower
temperature is evident from the fact that in these the vein-walls
are quite as fresh as the body of the rock, while in the prehnite
veins the walls are deeply decomposed, often to a depth of sev-
eral centimeters into a rusty vesicular mass, which has been
filled with massive prehnite, forming a rock nearly as compact
as the trap itself. Similarly many detached fragments of the
trap have been thoroughly decomposed and in the same way
filled with massive prehnite. Under the microscope the mineral
is here seen to be made up of fibers variously matted and inter-
laced and intermingled with the remains of the trap, and much
of it exactly resembles chiorastrolite. In other specimens the
oldest layer of the mineral is jet-black to deep oil-green, pol-
ished and often slickensided and gashed, the color being due to
the thorough impregnation of the prehnite with diabantite.
The motion of the rock walls has also at times broken up the
prehnite into sheets which are slipped over each other variously
and re-cemented by prehnite. Wherever the mineral is hind-
ered in its growth it shows a strong tendency to take on these
fibrous forms which seems to me to depend upon a greater
energy of the crystallizing force in the direction of the long
horizontal axis; upon which depends also the curvature of the
faces so common in the species. Generally these fibers are
quite large, peculiarly rigid and in large numbers parallel to
each other. In one slickensided piece the fibers of black preh-
nite, all straight and parallel and placed at a slight angle to the
surface of the trap, seem as if combed into this position by the
movement of the walls and being jet-black from enclosed dia-
bantite, resemble in appearance seams of fibrous hornblende or

chrysotile.
The fibers are, however, generally colorless, transparent and
of a high satiny luster on the face 0. ey are apparently

always elongated in the direction of the long horizontal axis
a y the planes O, 7-2, 7-7. At times the satiny
luster is reflected from a large group of the needles at once, and
they are seen when magnified to be in juxtaposition, and form-
ing each group for itself an aggregrate crystal, the lines of junc-
tion being represented in the larger crystals by the striation
parallel to the long axis. At times the little groups ran under
and over each other, or joined at their ends under angles of 80°

B. K. Emerson—The Deerfield Dyke and its Minerals. 271

and 100°, as if there were some trace of twinning on J, as in
the spindle-shaped crystals described later. It seemed like a
model of the complex striation seen in the latter.

The prehnite also occurs in many drusy cavities covered
with small distinct crystals, pale green, emerald-green to yel-
low, and in delicate emerald-green ‘‘ roses” produced by the
multiple twinning of the same form 0, 7-7, 7-2, and in stout, square
prisms with base and two sides convex, the two remaining
sides concave. The more common botryoidal forms are scarcely
represented. :

B

directly base to base with an angle of 80°, or separated by a
plane cylindrical, which may become as wide as the conical
faces by which it is bounded; rarely this face is replaced by
a reéntrant angle of 41°. These three faces are physically
unlike, the two sloping ones being sometimes smooth an
polished, at others mosaic-like, the equatorial plane being
oftentimes milled as regularly as a coin, by the oscillatory
repetition of J and 7-2; and finally the conical faces become
rarely convex in the direction from the apex to the base, pro-
ducing small globular forms. These cones are laid usually
with their axes parallel to the surface on which they rest—the
axes pointing in all directions in this plane—and fused together
so that only a fraction of each one is distinct, though they often
stand out so that half or three-quarters of the circumference is
visible, and in this way completely cover broad surfaces with a
splendid crystallization. In color, they range from white and
nearly pellucid to pale celandine-green, and rarely to pale rose
color in the smaller spindles with polished sides; to deep clear
apple-green in the largest cones; and in other forms with very
broad cylindrical faces, deep mountain-green. Several pieces a
foot square were obtained covered with the finest crystals. In
a single instance the crystals of this form have spread over cal-
cite, and this having been removed, they presented a group of
scarcely adhering individuals,—the segments of cones bounded
below by a single, saddle-shaped face.

The internal structure of these crystals is 5 peculiar. The
pearly basal cleavage passes inward in the direction of a verti-
cal section of the cone, and plates cut in this direction and con-
tinued down into the trap show the fibrous prehnite at the
base felted together with much decomposed trap, above grow-
ing purer and forming distinct crystals, with doubly striated
cleavage faces, which are twinned along a distinct suture and
bounded outwardly by irregular planes of contact. After each
crystal has risen above the general level to form the segment
of a double cone, the suture forks with an angle of about 41°

272 B. K. Emerson—The Deerfield Dyke and its Minerals.

and the two lines run to meet the angles formed by the nee
of the two conical faces, with the central zone. Hach of t
spindles is thus made up ‘of three crystals, one on either side
and one within, the angle of the Y-shaped sutur
The sede. portion of fig-
és ure 1 represents such a ver-
tical section, in which me
and Do (=?-1) are the
tions of the two conical Sheed
and 0” o’ (=7-7) that of the
central cylindrical face.
The relations of the three

(O) in common are revolved
the common meat ta) axis
c to right and left until a

twin with a face of J in common, and are twinned against
the middle one so that the same face (/) in each is parallel
with: v2 of the latte er ia Ag yori angle of the two

formed. “The ei tent erystal has the form of a triangular
belt fitted into a similar groove upon the circumference of a
wheel. An inspection of the figure will show that the arrow-
headed twin, if formed by the union of two crystals having
only the faces J and 7- z, would leave for the third crystal only
an extremely shallow reéntrant angle of 160°, whereas the
latter penetrates between the two in an angle of about 41°. is
is because the obtuse angles of the lateral crystals are each
replaced by the form 7-24, giving a reéntrant angle at x 0
40° 57’. 6. The Se faces of this form | are alone

B. K. Emerson—The Deerfield Dyke and its Minerals. 273

of the long horizontal axis, so that of the many crystals which
start in the fibrous base, only a few survive and grow up into
the free space by preponderating additions to the face 7-2 at right
angles to the long axis, and are soon twinned so as to allow a
third crystal to wedge in between them and grow by the devel-
opment of the same face. All three grow thus predominantly
in the same direction and expose and add to only the single
crystalline face, and the crystal expands in growing like the
top of a growing tree. The common vertical axis of the three
crystals is bent thus into a circle.

en examined under the polarizing microscope, the central
crystal, though showing a strong vertical and a faint horizontal
Striation, acts as a single crystal. The two flanking crystals
present through a whole revolution under the Nicols a complex
lattice-work of brilliant colors with two predominant positions
ol maximum extinction, or rather of extinction of the greatest
number of the narrow bands and wedges of color in the field,
at angles of 40° and 50° on either side of the suture; that is,
when parallel to the two sets of axes a’, b’, and a” b” of the two
lateral crystals. The narrow wedges of color often repeated
many times, placed parallel to each other, extinguishing th
light together and bounded by lines making an angle of 10°
with each other, are especially peculiar.

Of course the extinction of the light on the right hand of
the suture parallel to the axis a’ can alone be referred to the
right hand crystal, and the extinction at an angle of 10° with
this and on the same side of the suture, that is parallel to the
axis of the left-hand crystal, must be referred to this latter. So
that the twin is not formed simply by the approximation of the
two parts along the common suture plane, but by the interpen-
etration also of each by the other in narrow, and, as it were,
interwoven bands, as is represented schematically in the figure
—much more regularly, of course, than in nature.

The two principal striations in the lateral prisms make an
angle of 40° with the central suture—that is, an angle of 80°
with each other.

It follows, taking the prism on the right (fig. 2) for example,
that while one of these striations is parallel to the long axis 6’
of this prism, the other is parallel to the long axis b” of the op-
posite, and in fact both striations seem in the plainest manner
to be continuous as right lines across the suture. ;

_ Traces exist also, very faint indeed, of two other sets of stria-
tions at right angles respectively to those already described,
Which are identical with the delicate horizontal lining of the
central crystal, and which combined with those first deseribed
produce the long wedge-shaped blades with angle of 10°
described above. This second striation is indicated in the
Am. Jour. arena Series, VoL. XXIV, No. 142.—Octoser, 1882.

274 B. K. Emerson—The Deerfield Dyke and its Minerals.

lower portion of the shading in fig. 1. The phenomena here
detailed would seem also to find their explanation in the inter-
penetration of the lateral prisms.

similar twins of prehnite from Farmington, Conn., which
occur in the same triassic trap as the Deerfield crystals, were
described by M. DesCloizeaux,* and have been recently the
subject of Heniacion by the same author + and by M. Mallard ¢
because of their optical peculiarities. They do ae seem from
the descriptions to present the spindle shape described above,
and in cross-section they differ from the Deerfield crystals in
one soln particular.

In the Farmington crystals the sloping faces (F' in fig. 1)
make an angle of 100° with each other, and the ne, of
the crystal is thus bounded by a threefold repetition of the
face 7-7, while in the Deerfield forms the corresponding angle of
the two sloping faces measured over the single exposed face of
the central crystal is 80° (DbD, fig. 1), and the three faces
have the formule 7-7, 7-7, 7-2.

One may express the relation of
the two very simply by saying that
in the Farmington crystals the end
of the arrow-headed twin having the
re-entrant angle has its acute angles
truncated by Va
sides, while in the Deerfield forms
the other end is developed, and the
outer obtuse angles truncated by 7-2,
as in the annexed figure

It seems to me sim ler to say
that the interpenetration of the two
is so complex and at the same

time so varying that in one case
on the right of the suture the crystal ‘which is turned to
the right ‘predominates and is truncated by 7¢2 (F in fig.
and in the other that which at right angles to 0’ is turned to
the left predominates on ee same (the right) s side, and deter-
mines ithe truncation by 1-2 (P in fig. 1), a ight angles to
axis a’; while in the bee cay in the isaac o a, ‘and in
those with faceted faces there is a gradual or interrupted tran-
sition from the one to the other.

This would also harmonize very well with the complex op-
tical results detailed in the above papers, and especially with
the any. tetiintoe — signalized by M. DesCloizeaux for the
Farmington crys

f the Moons ike 3 in the Deerfield crystals like those of the

* ag ; p. 451, Atlas X XTX, 167 bis, 1862.
+ . Soe. Min., vol. vy, No. 2 and No. 5, 1882. t Ibid., No. 3.

Farmington.

B. K. Emerson—The Deerfield Dyke and its Minerals. 275

Farmington be referred to the acute angles of the arrow-head,
to recur to the first siaangiieee given above, Fins would have

the len yes is at the sides, while the Grawite, o) es-

ington.

That is, in the first they are parallel to 6’ and b” (fig. 1),
while in the second case, if they were exactly the reverse, they

would be parallel to the short axes a’ and a’ ; but they are
stated in the later article of M. DesCloizeaux to make an angle
not of 80° but of 82° with each other, so that while one is par-
allel to a abot axis, the other is parallel to a hypothetical face,
1-6. If they made an angle of exactly 80° with each other,
they would represent the horizontal striation of the central
crystal and the faint second striation described in the Deerfield
crystals as slightly indicated at the bottom of figure 1. As it
is they are difficult of explanation.

6. In amygdaloidal cavities.—The amygdules of the trap quite
closely repeat in miniature the occurrences of the large fissures,
but the peculiar changes the prehnite undergoes in the former
case makes it needful to discuss separately its modes of glee
ance there.

n the coarse diabase it occurs compact, of a bright green, as
if colored by copper. The paragenesis is (1) diabantite, (2)
Ba eat pyrite, gulena, prehnite, one or all, (8) ca

I red diabase, so abundant in the upper eee ‘of the
y es ough Greenfield and Gill it appears in spherical and
spheroidal balls 12-15™ in diameter, very fine-fibrous and
res and very bier green to eens coated, and for a

several centers and meeting along sharp suture ee so that
only parts of spheres result, and if water-worn the grains would
form perfect chlorastrolites.

In the dark gray diabase from the north side of the Deerfield
and on through Groehtield and Gill, cavities 10-85™ across are
sometimes filled with fibrous prehnite, e, the whole blackened as
if it had been held in the flame of a candle. Under the micro-

magnet, or like a work of soot-covered cobwebs: The
w hole seems to be Sendra in character.
* Min., loc. cit.

276 B.K. Emerson—The Deerfield Dyke and its Minerals.

PRODUCTS OF THE DECOMPOSITION OF PREHNITE. Chlorophe-
ate (of Hitchcock.)}—The mineral, chlorophseite, described by
Macculloch in 1825, but not analyzed, proves now, from the an-
alysis of Heddle,* to be of very different composition ‘hots the
highly hydrated protoxide of iron silicate analyzed by Forch-
hammer, with which it has been associated. It is a magnesian
peroxide of iron silicate with about 25 per cent of water, some-
times aluminous, and it approaches thus much more nearly to
diabantite, from ‘which it differs mainly in the peroxidation of
the iron and in containing double the quantity of water.

n 1825 Pres. Hitchcock discovered a mineral “in the trap
rocks about Turner’s Falls, in ae Mass.,+ which Professor J.

Webster, of Harvard Univ ersity, api daounces to b ue
chlorophwite of Macculloch,” and the description given
Pres. Hitchcock agrees so exactly mith that of Macculloch aod
et and the rapid blackening of the mineral is so ee

perfectly fresh, and contained in abundance scales of diabantite
with remarkably strong dichroism, brown-green to black.
Although the smoky- -black mass resembled closely an am

ment broken from the specimen gave a pale-green powder and
scratched apatite without difficulty. The cavity in which it is
found is lined first with the foliated diabantite, then follows
inwardly obalcopyrits, chlorophieite, the age? occupying thus
the same place as the prehnite in the unaltered nodules.
Under the microscope traces of the bright uarse: -like polar-

* Trans. Roy. pee am xxix, 84.

+ Thi igvolies

t State Boa dof ec Report, vi, Appendix, p. lvi, where the mineral is
misprinted hae

‘

B. K. Eimerson—The Deerfield Dyke and its Minerals. %77

sic and the peculiar “nine: of prehnite could be clearly
The latter mineral was, however, for the most part

stnaged into a red-brown indistinct scaly mass, with very

faint polarization. The fibers of the original prehnite had
en

material between the needles. In specimen No. 92 of the same
collection with H. 1:5, the fibrous structure is much less dis-
tinct than in the former one, both are of the same dull black

further presence of unchanged prehnite. The brown material
is not to be distingtished under the microscope from that
which results from the change of diabantite, except that in
each case the structure of the original mineral is retaine ‘
In other cases the change of the prehnite has taken another
course. In the variety from the new cutting at Cheapside de-
scribed on page (270), where the lustrous bars of the mineral
are interwoven with minute green fluor, the bars change toward
the side where the fissure in which they were formed opened
into the main vein, gradually into a nor green scaly mass
which retains for a distance the shape of the bars and their re-
lation to the fluor, but farther on is blended into a pale green
mass with satiny luster, which looks as if it had been worked
up into a paste and dried in a thin layer upon the surface.
Similar masses are found abundantly, especially in the perme:
and under the microscope contain still fragments of fresh, u
changed prehnite. The mineral itself is under the sienna
seen to be made up of loosely aggregated scales and to show
a bright green color and a dichroism, both like that of diaban-
tite. It is apparently hexagonal, many scales remaining black
during a complete revolution between Nicols. Its lighter color
seems to be the result of its different aggregation, and the
powder of both is of the same light green. Prehnite can thus
change into a mineral very similar to if not identical with dia-
bantite (enough pure material for an analysis could not be ob-
tained), and both the patie and the common scaly-radiated
diabantite change into red-brown almost ee materials
which Readies si —— microscopica
on what seems good prouude that the
diatantse chien fills the fibrous prehnite so often was formed
at the same time with the latter, and it often shows a zonal
arrangement in the prehnite which goes far to show that this
was so, and in the specimens the two cases* can be easily dis-
* That of the diabantite originally enclosed in the sie oS and the sim-
ilar scaly mineral formed by the decomposition of the latte

278 J. F. Whiteaves—Occurrence of Siphonotreta Scotica.

to partial dehydration.*
[To be continued. |

“Art. XXXI—Note on the Occurrence of Stphonotreta Scotica,
Davidson, in the Utica Formation near Ottawa, Ontario; by
. H. WHITEAVES.

In the spring of 1881, three specimens of a remarkable
spinose brachiopod were collecte Mr. J. W. H. Watts,
R.C.A., from a band of impure limestone in the Utica Slate at

Cumming’s Bridge, near Ottawa. These specimens, which Mr.

marked with pitted imbricating concentric lamellae, the pits
representing the fractured bases of the spines. In each case
the margins of the valves are densely fringed with a single and
continuous row of fine hair-like spines, except immediately
upon the beaks.

Upon examination with an ordinary simple lens it was at
once apparent that these specimens are referable to DeVer-
nueil’s genus Stphonotreta, and that in most respects they bear
a very close resemblance to an English species, the 8. Anglica
of Professor Morris. But the spines of & Anglica are distinctly
stated to be annulated, whereas those of the Canadian speci-
mens appeared perfectly smooth when viewed under an achro-
matic microscope with an inch and a half objective.

A few months ago the writer had occasion to send some
Canadian fossil Brachiopoda to Mr. Thomas Davidson, F.R.S.,

* Loc. cit,

SA Whiteaves— Heteropora Srom Juan de Fuca. 279

for examination and comparison with British species. In the
parcel forwarded the three examples of the Siphonotreta from
Cumming’s Bridge were included, and in a letter received from
Mr. Davidson in May last they are reported upon as follows:

“The Stphonotrela from near Ottawa interests me much.
is identical in shape and characters with the Upper Llandeilo
species which I named Siphonotreta Scotica. Iam very uncer-
tain whether the Wenlock Shale species named S. Anglica by
Morris is the same or not. Only one crushed specimen of the
S. Anglica has been found, and its spines are annulated as
described by Morris. I could see no annulations in the spines
of the many specimens of S. Scotéea found by Mrs. Gray in the
Upper Llandeilo of Craighead, nor do I see any in your speci-
mens. As there is uncertainty as to the specific identity of the
highest Upper Silurian form with the Lower Silurian one, and
as none have been found in all that mass of intervening strata,
I prefer provisionally to retain the two names, or until other
Upper Silurian species shall have been found.”

S. Scotica was originally described and figured in the Geo-
logical Magazine for January, 1877, and if the Canadian speci-
mens are specifically identical with those from Scotland, the
Species must have had a considerable range in time, for the
Upper Llandeilo rocks are generally regarded as of about the
same age as the Chazy Limestone of the State of New York,
and the Utica Slate as corresponding to beds on a comparatively
high horizon in the Caradoc or Bala Group. To the paleon-
tologist, Mr. Watts’ discovery will be of special interest, as this
is the first time that the occurrence of a species of Siphonotreta
in North America has been placed upon record.

Art, XXXII.—On a recent species of Heteropora from the
Strait of Juan de Fuca; by J. ¥. WHITEAVES.

Survey of Canada, found a single specimen of a recent
tghontys in 1874, which, in the writer’s judgment, cannot
e distinguished by any tangible character from the Japanese
and New Zealand species of Heteropora described by Messrs.
Waters and Busk. No thin sections of this specimen have
been made to show the minute structures of the interior,
but the whole of the outer surface has been carefully

be held as indicative of a specific difference from the

Cross and Hillebrand—Minerals from Pike's Peak. 981

Art. XXXIII.—Communications from the U. S& Geological
Survey, Rocky Mountain Division. I. Notes on some inter-
esting Minerals occurring near Pike's Peak, Colorado; by
Wurman Cross and W. F. HILLEBRAND.

THE region about Pike’s Peak, in El Paso County, Colorado,
has, within the past few years, become well known to mineral
ogists the world over through the large and perfect crystals of
Amazon stone (microcline), which have found their way into
almost every collection of importance, in Europe as well as in
America. Other minerals, for the most part associated with
the Amazon stone in occurrence, have also come into circula-
tion to a less extent. The following minerals have been

phenacite, ‘eryolite, thomsenolite, and others not yet fully
d.

The phenacite and topaz were found about two years ago by
Mr. Thebaut, a prospector of Colorado Springs, associated
with feldspar, smoky quartz and zircon, in one of the “pockets”
described. A crystal of phenacite came into the hands of
Rev. R. T. Cross, of West Denver, to whom we are indebted

282 Cross and Hillebrand—Some interesting Minerals

for calling our attention to it, and for aid in procuring other of
the specimens here to be described.

Topaz.

Three crystals of topaz have been examined, all of them
remarkable for size and clearness.

e most perfect one measures 2°5™ parallel to the vertical

axis, 3. 3™ parallel to the brachy-axis, and 2°8™ parallel to the

eo of the faces which bound them. The pyramid ne P)

s been recognized with certainty, while a form between
+aD and 1(P), ee is probably 4(4P), ats another pyra-
mid near 2-4 (2P4) are also present. Measurements of suffi-
ae centneaed for the calculation of these Sister forms could

t be obtai Hae The lateral edges of these pyramidal promi-
nences lie in a plane corresponding to the brachydome
2-7(2Po), and although that form does not actually appear,
the crystal has a domatic habitus. A rough face of 4-2 (4Pc )
is present quite distinctly. While one termination is more
perfect than the other, both are alike.

The second crystal is less perfect. The prism 7-2 ( P2) p
dominates, and the terminations are low and indistinctly aan
The crystal measures Rs parallel to the macro-diagonal, and
has a slight greenish tin

The third erystal, or ruber fragment, was found recently
near Florissant, northwest from Pike’s Peak, with Amazon
stone, ete. It is mainly noteworthy on account of the enor-
mous size of the original crystal from which it came. This
specimen is but a corner of a large crystal, the forms appearing
being two faces of 7-2 (a2), one of I( a oP), and one each of
Q-¢and 4, The fragment is about 9™ (34 in.), in its longest
diameter, and if the other faces were developed to correspond
to those here seen, the complete crystal must have been nearly
or quite one foot in diameter parallel to the brachy-diagonal.
It is clear in parts and has a decided greenish tinge. It was
supposed to be fluor spar, by the original collectors, and the
other pieces of the crystal are undoubtedly lost.

The specific gravity of this fragment is 3578 at 22° C., and
its chemical composition is entirely normal.

PHENACITE.
The two crystals of phenacite apatite were found
together, and are, so far as we can Jearn, the only ones as yet

obtuined. They are but fragments, Sdecatiig in each case

occurring near Pike's Peak, Colorado. 283

somewhat less than half of the complete crystal. The accom-
panying figure represents the smaller crystal in about the natu-
ral size; the other one measures nearly

in longest diameter, and has the same faces
developed in a similar manner. In neither
erystal do any faces of the vertical zone ap-
pear, thus producing a flat lenticular tose
us. The forms AS, have been iden

fied as R, -$ (-4), -1(—#), and 3-2 (3P2), a although’all
faces are too rough to admit of exact measurements with the
reflection-goniometer, the size of the faces and their simple de-
velopment renders sufficient accurate results with the hand
instrument possible. The angles obtained, as means of several
measurements, are—

Crystal a, (fig.) Crystal 6. Authorities.

RAR (terminal) Ce sae Bruner ae 116° 20’ 116° 367 (D)

BX lateral) oo ee ee ee 63° 00’ 63° 24’ (S)

Ra-+ (over 3-2) eg ei 148° 30’ 148° 50” 148° 18” (D)

RA 3-2 159° 45 159° 58” 159° 56” (D&S)

Ra-l 40’ 0, £2467 (8)
-$.-4 148-144" 00" 1 20

ey etd Send Wiel ka Oe eS y Margy ct hoch 163° 437 163" aot a
$-2 4-4 166 7ei" 168° 50” 168° 22” (S)
$-2 ~ 3-2 156° 407 156° 007 156° 44/ (D&S)

The figures of the third column are the yah angles given
for phenacite by Dana* or Seligmannt, or else our own calcu-
lations based on the Geucreated values given Thy them. The

Strie and partially regular ioprenus seem like natural etch-
figures, sey pene out the rhombohedral symmetry of the min-
eral very plain

cheer at and by the: chemical composition There is an

clear and colorless, resemblin cade. and the hardness is
ey | or quite 8. The specific gravity ‘of the crystal figured,
though containing some impurities, is a t 28° C.

* Dana, System of Mineralogy, Fifth Ed., p. 2
+ G. Seligmann, in ‘‘ Neues Jahrbuch fir Piseraloate, " etc. 1880, I, 129.

284 Cross and Hillebrand—Some interesting Minerals

According to the latest edition of Naumann—Zirkel’s “ Hle-
mente der Mineralogie” (Leipzig, 1881), phenacite has been
described from but four loc te Ege, the Ura ountains,
one in Lothringen, and -one in Mexi Dus gives a second
locality in Mexico. The deat, realy recently by
Websky+ being from an unknown source, the locality near
Pike’s Peak seems to be the sixth authentic occurrence of this
rare mineral, and the first in the Unite tes.

A partly iat eae description of SHenahiee and its known
forms was n by G. Seli eas in the “ Neues Jabrbuch fiir
iineratogis ” ee 1880, I, 129.

ZIRCON.

G. A. Kénig has described and analyzed zircon from two
occurrences of the Pike’s Peak district, in one case the mineral
being associated with astrophyllite,t ‘and in the other with
Amazon-stone.§ In one of the instances we have to describe,
the zircon is intergrown with large crystals of flesh-colored
microline, in one of the localities above-mentioned, and is thus

prism is ce Jacking on all of our specimens. Som

tals are more than an inch in diameter, and Wiese aoe a
especially are often mere aggregates of numerous small pyra-
mids grown together with a common crystallographic orienta-
tion. The lateral edges of such crystals are often sig aba,

Although the pyramid 1 is the only prominent form, one ca
notice, on looking at the terminations in the right position, a

minute reflecting surface on each perfect apex. A closer
examination with the loupe shows it to correspond to the basis
O, but all observed surfaces are too small to admit of certain
determination.

Near the Pike’s Peak toll-road, about due west from Chey-

enne Mountain, a prospect tunnel, in following a vein-like mass
of white quartz in granite, has disclosed a number of interest-
ing minerals. The main body of the quartz is pure white in
color and contains only traces of galena and chalcopyrite.

Within this body, however, is a second smaller vein consisting
likewise chiefly of white quartz, but carrying in it a number of
other minerals, the most abundant of them being zircon. The

* System of Mineralo

+ Websky, “‘ Nenes Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie,” etc. on I, 207.

G, A. Konig, Zeitschrift fir Krys ate Se raphie, I, p. 423.
§ G. A. Kénig, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad.

occurring near Pikes Peak, Colorado. 285

perfect crystals of zircon. Fluorite and a white foliate mineral
are sometimes associated with the others. The two foliate

which forms an angle of 164° 46’ with This corresponds
very nearly to 44(44P). The angle between this form and 1

ance to the crystal. fe
e chemical investigation of this zircon shows it to be

286. Scientific Intelligence.

exceedingly pure, and the specific gravity of the transparent
crystals is 4°709 at 21° C.

The perfection of the crystals, with their transparency and
gk make this occurrence of zircon one of the most beautiful

nown.

In a paper which we hope may appear in this Journal within
a short time, we shall describe several minerals of the cryolite

are identical with those associated with eryolite in Greenland.
The of mineral ncaa is of small extent, but yields a
large number of specie

ere are also aul interesting species more or less closely
associated with the zircon, in the study of which we are now
engaged. The results we hope to communicate in a future
number of this Journal.

Denver, Colorado, apes 3, 1882.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

I. CHEMISTRY AND PuHysIcs.

1, The eet of electricity regarded as the vines desea of
a chemical 3.— homson and Joule have shown that
in the case oF he Daniell cell the chemical, cag of We cell

J. Thomson has lately shown a ebeatal measurement that the

a aint dbo he satay a were right as far as the Daniell
cell is concerned. W. Thomson, among others, include to the
belief that atisratoal heat in the case of all galvanic cells has its

equivalence in the electric currents produc ced. F. Baace in this
sts — his objection to the above é¢onclusion as far

t becomes a general one, and shows that in certain galvanic
Ge being all the che mical heat is not change into lee-

lence in an electrical current. ‘He shows that ‘the theory that in
a combination of sulphate and acetate of zinc, copper and cad-
th

siidal currents prodt uced F be these cells, leads to Teneabhclable
contradictions, He maintains that there are a number of polari-
zation free an ere combinations in which the processes taking
place within the cells are fully known, yet which afford more
electrical energy than is the equivalent of the heat of these in-

Chemistry and Physics. 287

ternal processes. He calls attention to the fact that there are a
large number of endothermic reactions—that is, chemical Es
in which heat is absorbed—and promises a continuation of in-
eas -—Annalen der Physik und Chemie, No. 8, 1882, PP.

2. Absorption of the Hlectric Light by the Aimosphors Pe o-
fessors Ayrton and Perry in using their Dispersion Photometer

rays of the electric light by the atmosphere. The green rays on
certain days are absorbed by an atmosphere which appears per-
fectly clear to the eye. The photometer employed y them has

become simplified and they now use Rumford’s method in prefer-
i to other screen methods.—Phil. Mag., July, 1882, pp. 45
un,

Tension of Mercury Vapor at low temperatures. —The
th ass of various observers have differed. Those of Radnwalt
re been generally accepted. Herr E. B. Hagen has made a
careful investigation to reconcile the differences of various ob-
Servers and is led to the conclusion that Regnault’s results, which
H

are given in most text-books, are too great. agen gives a table
of sp nLabe ne his results and those of Regnault extend-
ing from 0° to 100° (for differences of 10 t 0° Hagen ob-

tains ‘onto and Bogsoule 0-0200™, At iba% Hagen gives
0'21"" while ey ne gives 0°7455.—Ann. der Physik und
evssess No, 8, 1882, pp. 610-618. x
4. Influence’ of we quantity of gas dissolved in a liquid up
its surface tension.—WROBLEWSKI states that in all the liquids
studied by him the surface tension in contact with air is a little
greater than in contact with carbonic acid. Under pressures of
| to 30 atmospheres there exists a remarkable relation between

Pp
sure and depend only on the state of saturation of the surface of
the liqu % C. 1 i. Mag., Septembe

ug. 7. ;
. the state of © “Oa on in Iron and Steel: a New Hy-
pothesis ie es Hades of Steel; by R. Sypney Marspen,
D.Sc., etc. (Ab oii t from Proce, Edinb. Roy. Sci.,
1881- Py P. a —This me er treats of the composition
and properties of the ilsrent. ads of iron, known as wrought
iron, steel and cast iron, and especially of the changes which steel
undergo oes on being h eated to redness and then suddenly cooled
y plunging it into wa ater, mercury, or oil, and known as harden-
ing ; also of the peculiar property known as tempering, by which
the hardness and brittleness can be removed
After having passed in review the chief Pd Bia of the dif-
ferent kinds of iron, the paper goes on to discuss the different
—— that have been proposed to account for x properties.
objection is raised against the different theories which con-
alee the iron and carbon as chemically united together, on the

288 Scientific Intelligence.

grounds that if these hypotheses be pe we are then presented
with an anomaly unknown in any ot nstance, viz., that of two
svinuhts uniting together in all proportions up to a certain point,
and then suddenly losing this power, and it is very difficult to be-
lieve that such can be the case; whilst another difficulty is the
fact of the carbon being capable of changing its hig aeripa and
passing in and out of combination under the action of heat or dit-
ferent methods of cooling, in a manner at once e ee coadaary and
totally different from poy ihing else with which we are acquainted
in the whole range of chem
A new h se pan is ay rege with regard to the nature of the
different kinds of iro
e carbon is peciot ed to be in a state of solution in the iron,
and it is shown (by analogy of what takes place in the case of a
solution of carbon in silver) how if the metal be cooled slowly the
carbon by preference crystallizes in the graphitic form, which ac-
counts for the carbon in slowly cooled steel and cast iron being

effected by plunging the metal in water or running it into a cold
rout (as in chill casting) rem the carbon is not as it were given
the option as to which form of crystallization it will take, but. is
caused to crystallize in the diamond form, and in this way the
hardness of steel and chilled cast iron is accounted for by the
presence of an in ao quantity of excessively minute diamond
aie disseminated over the whole surface of the hardened metal.
hen shown iy ti g this hypothesis to be correct)
such gee of difficulty as the following can be explained, namely :
at constitutes the difference between steel and white cast
iron, and between white and gray cast irons ?
ca Why steel requires some time after fusion of the metal to
become good steel
3. How the hardening of steel takes place ?
4. Why hardened steel has a less sp. gr. than unhardened steel,
and why it is so brittle ?
5. How tempering is effected ?
6. How the passage of carbon from one condition to another
can be accounted for
7. How re-hardening takes place ?
8. How the brittleness of steel is removed by tempering ?
9. Why Sne steel instruments when used gradually lose
their hardness ?

10. Why iron caine from 0°4 to 1°7 per cent. of carbon
only presents these properties of hardening and more par-
ticularly of tempering that are peculiar to steel ?

11. How oe steel is produced ?
Steel is regarded as a normal solution of carbon in iron, and cast

ence between a normal and a supersaturated solution is sufficient
to account for differences as great as those between steel and cast
iron, Objections to this hypothesis are then discussed, particu-

Chemistry and Physics. — 989

larly the two strongest, viz., (1) the Pan of hydrocarbons
when hardened steel or w ite cast iron is dissolved in acids; and
(2) the reversed analogy of the copper Ba ‘tin alloys in fees of
ay" physical theory.

6. The Limit of the Liquid State of Matter; by J. B.
Hannay.—The conditions under which an investigation is carried
out often predetermine the conclusions to be drawn from the ob-
servations made. That this has been the case with the observa-
tions made upon the upper confines of the liquid state, egg is
now ample evidence to show. When Cagniard de Lat on
heating liquids in sealed tubes, ied the Ancieataaee of the
liquid surface, he came to the conclusion that the liquid state had

varying the volume by means of a screw; and it is to the work
performed with this apparatus that the above remark is applied.

two modes of observation Dr. Andrews arrived at the con-
clusion that the liquid and gaseous states of matter were con-
tinuous. The Sree being conducted in transparent glass
tubes, the appearance of the contained flu id constituted one
mode, and the eae of the pressure constituted the other,
Neither of these methods could by the ee of the case give
any aid in pitseibligber the state of m ws’
method of demonstrating the pr at ‘by favs sing from

P

under examination, and precluded the existence of a visible
liquid surface ; and as liquid and gas are equally pose we no
tidings of the ’state of the fluid under examination could come to
im by observations of its appearance. ow did Dr. At ews
tell when his tubes contained liquid? By lowering the pressure
till a meniscus was seen. Then the formation of a@ meniscus is
the only test of the liquid state. Dr. Andrews then obliterated
the only ocular test of the fluid’s condition by increasing the

curred—that is to say, that it was impossible to say that the
fluid was either liquid or gaseous, but that it had probably passed
through an intermediate state. course a change of state had
taken place, and if we only reflect that the change from cohesion
to repulsion is ¢ the thermal velocity of the molecules,
and not ee the number of them in a camel a change should de-
pend upon temperature and not upon press

The characteristic property of the Niquid ae is boats the pos-
session of cohesion sufficient to form a surface, or ere y surface
tension ; and could this property be retained in a visible form at

Am. deni So Series, VoL. XXIV, No. 142.—OctToseEr, 1852.

290 Scientific Intelligence.

all pressures, the existence of the continuity enunciated by An-
drews could be put to a crucial test. By compressing hydrogen
over various liquids in which it is insoluble, I was ; enabled to
carry the above proposition into effect, and after several hundreds
of experiments, detailed in a dies read before the Royal Society,
he conclusion was arrived at that the two states are not more
continuous than are the solid ee liquid states, but are separated

with its own vapor, the critical point is the only place where the
direct passage from liquid to gas is visible, but the employment
ydrogen for retaining a free surface enables us to observe the
passage at any pres sure, and it takes place as suddenly at 200
atmospheres pressure as at the critical pressure. Thus the critical
point is the termination of an isothermal line, which is the limit
of the liquid state.
As to the other mode employed by Andrews—namely, pressure
saree of pressure does not prove continuity of state. If
id the continuity of solid and liquid states could easily be
roven. In fact, the irregularities observed by Andrews in the
vicinity of the critical point rather lend support to the views
that a ea, of state takes place there.
state the change thus :—The cohesion of the liquid
state te wonkcuell as the thermal motion increases, till the repul-
sion is in excess of the attraction, and the gaseous state ensues.

be the case, a

‘that oe has no effect in altering the occurrence of the
nomenon. us we are led to the conclusion, that so far don
the liquid and gaseous states of matter being continuous and
indistinguishable, the liquid limit or “absolute boiling point” és
the only ; feed point among the properties of matter. The freez-
ing point can be altered by pressure, and besides, many bodies
like ethyl alcohol may have no freezing point, probably becoming

more and more viscous absolute zero is reached. But all sub-
stances may ma o pass into the gaseous state, and even
delicate ssiupdusida ‘iy be rendered gaseous without decomposi-
tion when under sufficient pressure. We see then that this im-

Mars n examination af microscopic sautions a some Ber-
lin porcelain crucibles which had been used in experiments with
fused silver an orphous carbon at a temperature considerably

above the sulting point of the former, found that, while the alu-
mina part of the crucible had under zone little change, the glaze

d become a “mass of little crystals of a hexagonal form.” Simi-
lar prisms were separated from the silver. The crystals cody

St a ee

Geology and Mineralogy. 291

dissolved in hydrofluoric acid, while not acted on by nitric or
hydrochloric acid. There were also leaf-like forms, apparently
silica, which are not yet fully explained.— Proe. Roy. Soe. Edinb.,
Session of 1880-188

II. Grotocy AND MINERALOGY.

Geological age of the Taconic System; by J. D. Dana
Gaike J. Geol. Soc., xxxviii, 397, 1882; read Apel 5, 1882, Pr
paper opens with the following paragra aphs :

“A paragraph in the “ Proceedings of the Geological Society”
for the 16th of November nak making part of an abstract of an
address by Dr. T. Sterry Hunt sustaining the re-Cambrian age

more doub

or geologists. It does not rhe bes as & reason isi? doube

mentions what the author glee fe asa s Hostble'se urce of error in
any study of folded sarnra holt strata, and urges this as a prob-
able source in the ae

e paragraph says: “ The speaker insisted upon the fact that
where newer strata are in unconformable contact with older ones,

faults. This phenomenon throws much hehe on the poms
Tecency of many crystalline schists.”
e supposed recency of the Taconic schists, and the observa-

paragraph is meant especially to apply. It implies that in any
overlying, apparent or actual, it is an overlying of newer strata,
uncon form ably.

The Taconic system, first propounded by Professor E. Emmons
about forty years since, in his seat! wir Geo logical Report, pub-

of unconformability to the associated rocks and geological age, by
one of the workers in the field, would be acceptable to the Geo-
logical orieey 8

e true
mountain nS at the base of one portion of which Protetioe
Emmons for many years lived and labored. The range stands

2 nt to its center, aud southward across northwestern Con-
hecticut into and through Dutchess County, New York. The

292 Scientific Intelligence.

general course of the range is nearly north and south (about N.
10° E., and 8S. 10° W.), and the length about 150 miles. The
schists make the center of the belt. ree nearly all the
eastern side of these schists there lies a stratum of crystalline
apes samme Pe Stockbridge Limestone by Professor

d against the greater part of the western, another range
oP Tinh eatine! mae perfectly crystalline, the Sparry Limestone of
Professor Emmons. ese three ranges of rocks (the central of

sidered: for the question is only this—are these strata conforma-

ble, or, as the cited paragraph implies, is the eastern of these —

limestones a newer rock than the Taconic schist, and unconform-
able to it a

It is plain, from these statements as to the position of the range,
i the spportinit ies oe Rewriting a2 the relation in stratification
the Taconic schists the adjoining limestones are not con-

fin ed be a single disturbed area. They occur all along the 150
miles; and observations have been made from the northern end
of the range to the southern.

It is next explained that the Taconic rocks here cca to are
those of the Taconic range itself; those on which Professor Em-
mons founded his Taconic system ; those which should “tc ealiad
“Taconian” if any are; and that the so-called Taconic slates of
Northern Vermont and Seat and of other States or countries
are not under conside1

e paper then sae ‘thet all observers who have studied the

bility and general eastward L aip ap by Rogers and Emmons
see Geological Report

ated by Professor C. H. Hitchcock in a note published in volume
xix, of this Journal 1880); that the same conclusion was sus-
tained, after stg alate of the Berkshire region, by Sir Wil-
liam Lo ogan, who referred the series of slates or schists and lime-
stones to the Quebec es stem ; that it was still more fully proved

y the investigations of Mr. A. Win ng, reported at length in this
Journal for 1877, who, after new discoveries of fossils, reached
the coehudon that the eastern and western limestones and the
slates with the accompanying quartzite, represent the whole

The ane, hinges further that the writer’s study of the rocks,
over the country from Central Vermont to Western Connecticut
and aes County, New York, was undertaken to ascertain

Geology and Mineralogy. 293

servations of previous investiga ators; that it also had i in view the

bith ‘renton and Calciferous, in the same Dutchess
m. B. oO e

Ee ee eee
a
=
®
n
°
—
‘eS
2
5
ge &
DP}
ct
mai
oo
=e
ig)
e ©
m
—
2
et
is)
mR
ao
oO
TT
=

gg
ct
=x
®
es
=
@
fe)
et
Hh
=
~
ot
— 3
=
ie")
wR
7:

On the closing page it is ato d:
“A word further with regard to the paragraph cited in the early
: = of this paper from the Proceedings of the Geological Society.
“This paragraph makes the stratigraphical evidence doubtful,
bec cause it- says, ‘where newer strata are in unconformable con-
tact with older ones, the effects of lateral movements of compres-
sion, involving the two series, is generally to cause the newer an
iefeeaes strata to dip towards and even beneath the edges
of | the older rock.”
“The fact hors alleged may be questioned. But letting it stand
that, under the conditions stated, the newer and more yielding

ward the Taconic schists, which are claimed to be the older.

, Through nine tenths of the lengths 2 the belt, the Ht as all ob-
servers have fou nd, and as recognized above, is eastward for both

the eastern limestone, the schists, st the western limestone, the
westward dip of the eastern limestone occur ring as has been

gion of the higher a e the ig in-

the sreklieocaead use of the gray Odlitic limestone onifer-
ous in age (St. is group), which occurs in the consis o
R wen, Monroe, Lawrence, Washington, Harrison and Craw d

Analyses of it were published in the Report for 1878. Tn : an in-
vestigation, by Mr. T. H. Johnson, of its strength and ramen
the modulus of rupture—or the load that would break a beam

inch square, resting on supports one inch apart—was found to es
2 sod Ibs. for the sawed material, and 1,477 for the pt dressed,
show ing the great weakening that comes from the hammering in
took -dressing. The .same for compression was 12 675 and 7, 857

The following pages treat of the topographical features, geology
and economical mineral products of Shelby, Scie, Delaware

294 Scientific Intelligence.

and Bartholomew Counties. The volume is very full in its pale-

covering 130 pages of the volume, with 30 plates; and another
y Dr. C. A. WuitTE - other fossils of the Indiana Ro occu-
ying the remaining 55 pages, with 19 plates. Prof. s me-
moir is chiefly from his paper published in a eee edition
of the New York State Museum Report in 1876, and in 1879 in
the Museum vee i of the Report, and a later paper in the Trans-
actions of the Albany Institute for 1879. The pages by Dr.
hite sea descriptions of various Illinois fossils, four of which
are new species, and some of the others were never efore figured.
The last ene of the plates are made up of figures of cor als, en-
graved many years since by J. W. Van Cleve, and in the text are
contained the descriptions of them by the authors on American
corals who sil sg anes the species. The new species described
by Dr. e Gyroceras Kilrodi, from the Niagara group,
Patella jpn from the St. Louis group at Spergen Hill, Lepi-
desthes Colletti, from the Keokuk division of the Subcarboniferous,
and Agaricocrinus Springeri, probably from the Keokuk or lower
Burinrton division of the Subcarboniferous. These memoirs on
fossils make the Report se uatineS convenient and valuable for the
student of Illinois geology. Copies of the original plates of Van
Cleve it is now almost impossible to obtain.
in

chiefly, according to Mr. ANcrto Hetprin (Proc. Acad.
Philad., _ p- 189), of Nummulites of the genus enue tni
ey are of one species, which he names WV. Willcozi, from its dis-

coverer Mr. Joseph Willcox. It is remarkable, as stated by the
author, that the accompanying fossil mollusks are of species more
recent than Eocene, even living species of ue | genera, viZ.,
Glandina parallela, Paludina Waltonii, Ampullaria depressa.
But the genus Orbitoides, which had its ‘largest rine aE In
the Upper Eocene, is also present, indicating with “little or no
doubt” that the rock fragments “derived their faunal character
from deposits of a more ancient formation,” either Eocene or Oli-

— which there existed; and, since there lay over the nec
many fragments of sticks that had been cut by beavers, it is con-

cluded that the stream was afterward dammed by the beavers 80

that the pond they made covered the skeleton ; ikesancaily, on

Geology and Mineralogy. 295

the metal ti of the dam, the pond ultimately hy drained,
and the area became a peat swamp and afterward a m

of the New J ersey coast, and as proof that the mastodon was liy-
ing in the region after the wie pine of the modern beaver. The
teeth and tusks were in a " state of preservation, and crumbled
to pieces on reaching the a
New Fossil Al oases —Prof. E. D. Corps, in the American

Naturalist for August, adds three to the two species of ee
like hee which he has described from the Eocene of oe
erco, New Mexico, and for one of them the new genu a Palme
todon, is institute a: The species are P. Tadensis, C itopsati pot.
lux, Ptilodus Trohieresavitanes (after Dr, E. L. Tro
Ange ers). He also describes from the same beds Hips ento-
conus and H, Gillianus

6. Fossil Corals of the Niagara and Upper Helderberg Groups,
by James Hatt. 60 pp. 8vo. Published in advance of the An-

Liy sai dm on Silurian Corals from Northern Russia
and Siberia (Svenska v. Akad. Handl., vi, No. 18, January, 1882).
Mr. LINDSTR¢ :
Silurian species of coral, and among them new species of the
genera Cyrtophylium, Rhaphidophyllum, Gaphwentin, gy ees
laria a and Palearcwa.

—Ina paper, in the Journal of the Royal Sseety of N.S. Wales,

vol. xv, 1882, entitled “Notes of a Journey on tl ng,
by ) BBoTT, the author refers to the observations of
Mr, Russell, which seem to prove that the amount of water re-

ceived by precipitation over the watershed of the Denne much

exceeds that which is carried off by the Darling and by evapora-

tion; and he inclines to the opinion expressed by Mr. Russell, that

there is an underground bs system wholly distinct and dif:

ferent in direction from the surface drainage. The underground
b rse to the

e
suggests that. this may have been the course of a more ancient
river-system. Some evidence with regard to such subterranean
waters is presented from wells which have been sunk in the vicinity
of the Da rling Sn whose flow seems to be independent of varia-
tions in that ri

296 Scientific Intelligence.

Ill. Botany AND Zoo.oey.

G. Briost. Sopra un hcg Jinora non avertito di aleunt
Eimbrionit Vegetali. Abstract of a Memoir presented in 1881
to the Accademia dei Lincei, now published in the Proceedings
of the Stazione Chimico-Agraria Sperimentale of Rome, by its
Director Briosi. Illustrated by eighteen figures on three litho-
graphic plates.—The discovery here announced was made in the
first instance upon the germinating seeds of Hucalyptus globulus.
The caulicle (rail of system atic writers) is slightly club-
shaped, and with broad extremity as it were truncate. Close
examination and longitudinal section show an opening at the
cidia aa into a shallow cavity, partly filled by a conical projec-

n from above. This is the incipient root, which develops 1n
the sete bag The hollowed extremity of the caulicle surround-

t grows into an annulus or frill of considerable size, and a
whole sete of this promptly developes long « root-hairs,”

show the same ee. Traces of the same were ain in
brick

and UM. y oontel accord with Fabricia. Extending iia 6 observa-
tions somewhat into orders allied to the Myrtacew, Briosi found

nother
riosi Sais takes ne fantlion of this ‘collar of hairs on
the bas ; e of the caulicle to be the same eas t that of the ordinary

et ow
well rejoins, that this open ealotte of Eucalyptus cannot well
be the homologue of the closed Miskin of Richard, pobine
which the incipient root breaks its way, and whi ch h

Botany and Zoology. 297

function, the term coleorhiza being only an inapt expression i
the fact tha t the root originates within: whereas this is
structure with evident function. Also that Irmisch, as_ his
gure and remarks — saw the structure too late to aege
its a and meaning.
2. Latent Vitality of Seeds, <The is the heading of a aor
article in a recent number of the Gardeners’ Chronicle, mention-
ing “some preliminary experim eats to ascertain the effects . a

eds were

ct,
a

pure c¢ bon © acid. At the end of two
os

and peas about of their original weight. The seeds con-
fined in closed air had gained a little, peas rhe and beans +755:
The seeds confined in carbonic acid gas hardly at all varied from
their original weight. As to comparative germination ; of
Peas oe in the free air, 90 per vent germinated.
Mr osed air, 45
i) ee ce arbonic acid, n
Beans (Phaseoti) bape in free air, 08 pat cent germinated.

osed air,
" «3 chee = acid, none.

nitely prolonged. Ver ery oO old seeds exposed to the air must be
dead by exhaustion, and anne deeply buried, by suffocation; and
the numerous recorded cases of the germination of ancient seeds
are more and more to be distrn sted.

3. Contributions to American pny x. By SERENO “Wat
son. From the Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts

n
Seaisibutions i 4 the aut thor has made since the publication
of the Botany of King’s Exploration upon the 40th parallel,
ten or twelve years ago; which shows unparalleled ry i
The leading paper in the present publication is a List of Plants
from Southwestern Texas and Northern Mewico, collected chiefly

Dr. E. Palmer in 1879-80; Part I, Polypetale. This collec-
tion has been distributed in sets among botanists; and the th
mination is opportune and important. The Texan por — of the
collection is of comparatively small account, havin a na
at an unpropitious season. That of the adjacent parts of Mexico

298 Scientific Intelligence.

(in Coahuila and Nuevo Leon), is most interesting, as few her-
baria possess the plants collected in this region by Gregg, Wisli-
cenus and Berlandier. It supplements the earlier ‘collection m ade
by Dr. Palmer in conjunction with Dr. Parry, in the province of
San Luis Potosi, which was also distributed, and it contains a

are added. The second paper ists of Descriptions of New
Species of Plants, chiefly of our Western Territories. Seventy ~six
species are here characterized, of which 47 are Po ypetale ; two
are Gamopetale ; ely, Douglasia dentata of the nee Ss own
discovery, in the Siitariby “of Washington Territory (very near D
levigata) and Pedicularis burbishic, an interesting } Reseskers
“on wet banks of the St. John’s River, at Van Buren, Aroostook
Co., Maine, and extending along the river for sixty miles. Dedi-
cated to its discoverer Miss Kate Fur ish, whose careful study of
the flora of her State, and perseverance and success in illustr ating
it by colored drawings of all the species, richly deserve an appro-
priate recognition.” The remainder are Apetale (four more spe-
M

cies of Atriplex and as many o togonum) nape onocotyle-
dones (three of Allium, two of Brodiwa). One o fare is the
remarkable C ypripediun poh and of Kellogg, now first pub-
hed, which, in addition to three or four Californi nian localities,

has been detected a Mr. Suksdorf in Washington Territory.
The following notice contains the vee and contents of another
separate issue from the same volum

4. Contributions to North drei Botany, by Asa GRay.
From Proc. of Am. Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. xvii.
Issued June 26, 1882, , Pp. 163-230.—It contains: 1. Studies of

e
acters of new species, and critical notes on some old ones, in
recent collections, for the most part made in Arizona and adjacent
parts of Mexico, California, etc. This publication appears to
add 85 new species ; some of them were distinguished and named
by pane botanists, Naturally they run very much to Composite,
three new genera of which are here proposed, viz:
( ‘Soria das, dedicated to the discoverer, the wife of Mr. Lem-
mon; Dugesia (Mexicana), dedicated to Pr ofessor Alfred Duges
of Guanajuato, Mexico, a little plant which was formerly named
Lindheimera Mexicana; and Heeastoeleis ee a very
curious nape see ceous shrubby Composita, discovered by Mr. Ww.
8. Shockley in Southwestern er ada. The principal nopbributors
of these movitiw are Mr. and Mrs. Lemmon, Messrs. Pringle,
Palmer (Northern Mexican pres af and the Messrs. Parish.
From notes and from seeds — ted by the latter is derived
the illustration of the embryo a ecaaret on of Bursera micro-
Aylla, at the close of the Sater: The plant is remarkable for its
biternately divided cotyledons. A. G.

Botany and Zoology. 299

5. Journal of the Linnean Society ; Botany.—The ba most
recent numbers, 120 and 121, issued last summer, besides numer-
ous other papers, nape the special interest of ¢ containing the last
writings, and an account of the last investigations, of Charles
Darwin, viz: his ma on “The Action of Carbonate of Am-
monia on the Roots of certain Plants,” and “The Action of Car-
bonate of Ammonia on Chlorophyll-bodies ; ; which were read on
the 6th and the bate f March, little more than a month before
oa death. The tw Sgr iitoke are characteristic specimens of the

paper On the connection between Geotropism and Growth, a con-
vincing reply to some criticisms by Weisner, made by means of
new sc a i nts,

In the last number B. Daydon Jackson, the le Flore of the

Society, has an article On the Oceurrence of Si Single Florets on the
Rootstock of Ca ——_ a ston re Ee Composita), a
ae. of M. Battandier in Algeria. A note at the close states

Sir Joseph Hooker = hanes Dyera, a new Genus of

Director of ow ana 1 “Tiseton wae . Marshall

yard, who went to Ceylon for the purpose, here publishes
Researches on the Life-history of "Heindiets vastatrix, the bial oe
of the Coffee-leaf disease, an elaborate paper, of 36 pages

A. G.
Sen te ih the ash of Epiphytic Plants, by A. Drxon.
(Journ. Roy. Soc. New South Wales, 1881). —The special object
in view in es halve was to ascertain (1) the amount and kin
ash as compared with plants that grow in ordinary soil, and

(2) the i bp es of the constituents to those afforded by the ash
n

The Platycerium grande, or stag’s horn fern, “grows single,
and throws out, at intervals of about six months, large barren
fronds or plates aiatiately to the right and left, which cling
closely to the fronds which preceded them and to the tree to

upper part spreads out into a crown, surmounted by antler-like

*

300 Screntific Intelligence.

processes, from which it derives its common name of stag’s-horn
fern. As the fern grows outward from the tree stem by the addi-
tion of plate upon plate, a basket-like space is left behind the
crown, or damien tg t should be rather called coronet, to distinguish
it from the growing crown of the plant; and this space forms a
receptacle for rain, leaves and dust, while the dead plates form
a humus-like mass iierepersed with small rootlets, which often
eeigtie: several hundred weight. In this peaty matter an abundant
fauna finds shelter, the specimen which was — ieee examina-
tion containing earthworms, centipedes, two species of ant, and
several beetles. Some of these probably bring pieardineat to the
plant from without.

The ash from the live fronds amounted to 8°62 per cent; that
from the humus and roots, 3°21 and 2°02 per cent; that from the
wood and bark of the tree on which it grew, 1 2 per cent. The
analyses of the ash afforded:

From live ¥rom wood and

fronds. From humus. From roots. bark of tree.
Potash 33°88 705 J1°25 14°93
Soda 11733 2°26 3°61 KCl 8°09
Sodium chloride __...._.-- Ty 2°26 3°61 trace
ii ee aE Oe 26°63 42°52 39°91
Magnesia 5°58 2°26 3°61 23°84
Alumina 816 12°88 20°55 ea AS
Jron sesquioxid 247 1°83 2°90 1°46
Manganese oar Mn;0,4--- 0°45 pegs bce trace
Phosphorus pentoxide -.-.- 9:18 116 1°85 794
“miro bIGKICS cok ayeenageae Wt 6°33 10°10 trace.
iO Bide 3°54 Pe 3°89
Silica “al undecomp. silicates -.-. 3731 Boek eee
99°82 99°97 100°00 100°06

The species Platycerium alcicorne, similar to the last, but grow-
ing not singly but numerous individuals together and. forming a
common humus mass, and either n projecting ie or attached
to the stems of Casuarinas and ‘ihrer trees, afforded 4°51 per cent
of ash from live nce of a plant grown on a rock, and 4°74 of a

ed:

plant grown on a Casuarina, The ash contain
a
spomaen Lagoramy Delt ya, Sp
a 20°51 40°48 2°95 9°59
ee as 7-90 68 io 71 Soak 9°87
Sodiuim chloride - -__. 12°07 10°16 KCL 5-64 9°64
Sole 13°73 03 28°54 39°89 50°57
— 14°57 77 TOT 8:2 11°54
Abmines oe Cl 10°51 7°28 21°42 13°41 ke
— costo woe ee 68 3 1°34
Ce Ue 1°14 Soon ae co 1°85
osphorus pentoxide 3° A 4°75 5°38 4-41 8°38
futphar trioxide .... 2°5 3°95 10°25 12°22 trace
Soluble silica....--.- oo 0°93 Uoes gees 3°24
Sand and silica... -- es ok ene oe seers
99° “99-73 99°71 100-00 100-00 100° 0°39

The amount of ash from the withered fronds of B, after Lad
rating sand and a trace of copper, was 1-21 per cent ; and fro

$ Astronomy. 301

the humus, 1°91 per cent, from the Casuarina wood and bark,
2°03 per ce nalysis . the ash (12°55 per cent) of

sh
no alumina, 28°26 potash,
, 13°26 sain chloride, 18°56 lime, 0°87

eal on i which the peas i orew Scaed 22°12 po se and 3
ean with no soda and traces only of sodium chloride, with
07 lime and 17°07 soluble silica
“The author remarks in conclusion that the abe os do not
get their inorganic matters from the plants on which they grow;
and that the sand often ot in the humus indicates that they
obtain much in the form of

IV. AsTronomy.

. Elements of the frost ae of September, 1882, from obser-

ee on Sept. 19°1, 19°9 20°9, made at the U. . Naval

Observatory. Com intniehted by the Superintendent of the U. 8.
aval ea Washingto

ans oe fs ~ Wash. M. 1

™ [Obs. Rae ]
rs az 248 2 41 Agreement of middle place j Sea Ree
QO 70. 56°: 26
log:g =. 19396
Servier Guan
h 8 (hc Ns
Sept.19°1 2 45 42° WM d; ll 19. 29°8 Be BA
19-9 on meridian. LL leh 18:94 0 34.0385
20°6 on meridian. Th 8 1GST = 3 38 2)
28-7. 18°) 19 36" Wet, 7. 10 568 12 —3 54

The elements were computed by Messrs. Frisby and Skinner.
EPHEMERIS COMPUTED BY PROF. FRISBY.

bo 8 = : ; rat

Sept.105 9 56 10— 0 481 0°0330 9 5827 0°221
12% 10 “205 13 —".0 38. O01se S4iTr OSys
995 11 8 280 — 2 149 00746 96l44 0:250

266. 10°. 50... 44 4 40°0 0°0982 96794 0°105
$0°6-10.. 45 37 6 48:0 0°1144 9°7847 0-060

Oct. 46 10:84. 26 8 41°4 071275 9°8611 0°040
8: 10% 26. 3 10 310 0°1383 9°9226 0°028

176 30°. 32 22 12 15°6 01467 9729 0°022

165 10 16 53 13 52°6 0:1532 0°0158 0-017

20°56 20: Ji 33 15 32°8 071584 00531 0014

245 10 8 16—17 32 01612 00788 0013

% = r [9°99558] sin (171° 43’ 32” + v)
9°98796| sin (263° 42/ 42” + v)

at 13629] sin( 50° 58’ 0” + v)
by Anales de la Officina Meteorolégica Argentina, por su diree-
. A. Goutp. Vol. I, 4°, Buenos Aires, 1881.—This volume
(for notice of vol. i, see ‘his Journal, xvii, p. 83) contains the
results of observations during a period “of twenty years, at Bahia
Blanca by Senor Caronti, and during seven years at Uccitentes

302 Scientific Intelligence.

by Senor Fitz-Simon. The observations are discussed in full by
Dr. Gould, and the results expressed by trigonometrical formulas
oa by plat es.

3. Monograph of the Central parts of the Nebula of Orion;
by E. 8. HotpEn. Appendix to the bifold Astron. Obser-
vations for 1878. 4°, pp. 230. Government Printing Office, 1882.

is is an pred gel résumé and discussion of all the observa-

tions hitherto made the central parts of this nebula. The
accessible published sd eu ished drawings a in general
reproduced. The author’s observations made with the Washing-

ton 26-inch telescope from 1874 to 1880 are added, a the mono-
graph v ne Phe Le da closes che ane photograph taken by
Professor y Draper, March 1

Printing Office, 1881. doe’ ides the fall sceount of the work on
the coasts and in the interior done by the survey during the year,
this report has with na bea at in the appendices : Observations
on the Transit of Mercury; Adjustment of the primary triangula-
tion between the Kent Seana and Atlantic base-lines ; Physical
Survey of the Delaware river in front of Philadelphia, by Henry
Mitchell ; Meteorological researches, by Wm. Ferrel; and Dis-
cussion of Tides in Penobscot Bay, by Wm. Ferre

The triangulation between Hone ‘Island and the Atlantic consist-

tena and waterspouts, n abstract is given on p. 33, vol. xxi
rt of the Superintendent of the U. 8. Coast and Goviletas
Surve Pe the year ending June, 1879. Washington, 1881.—The
Epics ve this report of the late superintendent, Mr. Patter-
son, include owing among other papers: Comparison of
local deflesiions of the plumb-line, by C. A. Schott; Secular

the Gulf of Maine, by Henry Mitchell; The internal constitution
of the earth, by B. Peirce; Instruments and methods used for
gs leveling, by O. H. Pitt tmann; Refraction on lines pass-
ar a surface of water in geodetic oo by Andrew

rai

doba, Bens. OULD, director. Vol. . Buenos Aires, 1881.—
The first v olume of this series was the Ursioenen Argentina (see
this Journal, xix, p. 376). The present volume contains the zone

observations of 1872, being 128 zones with an aver age of over 100

ss aaa

a

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 308

stars each, Dr, Gould has nearly ready for printing all the obser-
vations made at the Observatory up to 1880 inclusive, which reach
the enormous number of over 250,000. hes e will require for
pee publication twelve more v olumes ; and hay will constitute

the most important cont clown made to astronomy in
this scadeaticin

V. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC sanders

1. Meeting of the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science at Montreal.—The thirty-first ene of the
American hp was held at oe under the pr residency
of Dr. J. W. Dawson, of McGill Colle The meeting Hb
on Wednesday, ieee 23, with a agen Session in Molso

resigned by him to the president me Dr. J. W. Dawson. _Intro-
ductory remarks were made b T. Sterry Hunt, chairman of the
Local Committee, and a ee to the Association on behalf of
the citizens of Montreal was eye ee by the Hon.

ere a large ‘aie nee in t e Queen's Hal, upon “the ea

officers were as follows: in Sectio a atics and hieow
omy, Wii M Harkness, (in his absence his ‘eideos was read by
Professor ure. AN), ogERs was later elected to preside
over the she ha in Section B, Physics, T. ©. ng tic a in
Section istry, H. Carrincron Boron; in n D,
Mechanical Soiense. W. P. TrowsripGe ; in Section oe Geoligy
a bouton y, E ; in Section F * Biology, ALL
ction G, Histology ee "Microscopy, A ; ‘UTTLE ; in ‘Section
Aniaroes ology, A INCHELL, in the absence of Daniel
Wilson; in Section I, ‘Boot mic Science and Statistics, E. B.
Eu The remainder = Thursday and also Friday, Monday,
fee a and in ease of so the Sections a portion n of Wedn nes-

ing an eee was delivered in the pelos room sat the Museum
by Rev. H. C. Hovey on Caves and Cave Scenery, illustrated by
numerous lantern views. Saturday, August 26, was devoted to

304 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

excursions to Quebec and Ottawa, in one or the other of which
the members present too art. seme evening,

day, the 80th, after the election of the officers for the following
meeting, as noted be eyond, the a adjourned. On Thurs-
day a concluding excursion to La emphremagog was enjoyed
by many of those who remained to the end.

The meeting was with one exception the largest which has ever

b

was worthy of the highest ab Nothing was left undone which
could contribute in any way to the comfort or entertainment of
the visitors. Numerous receptions were given by prominent citi-
zens of Montreal in the afternoons and ev ace and besides the
longer excursions mentioned, various shorter excursions to the
Lachine Rapids, to the intoris Bridge and so on, were pro-
vided for the unoccupied hours

The next meeting of the Associ iation, in August, 1883, was
appointed ae be held at Minneapolis, Minn, The officers elected

are as follows :—

President, “6. . Youne of Princeton ; nalgingl necobes Ys
F. W. Putnam ten. General Secretar ry, J. R. N of
Washington ; Scie! eneral Secretary, ALFRED Srixon of
Cincinnati; Trea er, Wa. Litty of Mauch Chunk, Pen

Vice- pialte Becton A , W. A. Rogers, _ Cambridge Mass.;
Section B, “TL A. Rowtanp, Baltimore, Md.; Section C, Epwarp
Ww. Morey, Cleveland, O.; Section D, DrVo ok Woop, Hobo-
ken, N. J.; Section E, CG. H. Hrrencock, Hanover, N. H.; Section
F, W. J. Beaty, Lansing, Mich. ; Secti on G, J. D. Cox, Cincin-
nati, O.; Section H, O. T. Ma ASON, Washington, DD. ©: Section 1,

. B. Hove GH, Lowville y ASY,

"Secretaries of the Suis pay es A, W. W. Jounson, An-
napolis; Section B, C. K. Weap, Ann Arbor; Section C, J.
LANGLEY, Ries Arbor ; aconen D, - J. Donors, New Haven ;
Section E, Arex. A. Jutien, Ne w York; Sect nF, 8. A. ees
Normal; Se euon 6. Cari SEILER, Philedelphiss Bide H, G. H.
PERKIN, Bur lington ; Section I, Joseru CumMinas, Evanston.

List of Papers accepted for Reading.
Section A, Mathematics and Astronomy.

- HA: Parallax of a Lyre and 61 Cygni,
oun@: Description of new 23-inch equatorial recently erected in the

Halstead sbeerice ef at Princet

W. W. Jon verse elit ‘functions and the imaginary period; Circu-
lar adiaka: and complex armonie ratios.

W. E. Hamitton: A mode “of representing any cyclical fact in meteorology.

TC, sar ie nena Note on an experimental solution of a problem in the
doctrine of chance

Miscellaneous Intelligence.

Pury Earte Cuase: Conservatism of solar energy.
a P. Harr: Mae: rien of chords.
Mm. A. : On the performance of a new form of astronomical level; On
a Rote of reducing canon tte of stars to a ereeninets us system.
. VAN DER W Some suggestions on eo nature of ekaes in connec-
tion with recent astronomical and Ginsrical peat eri
JAMES VER: A method of finding se law of "Aiea elasticity in a metal ;
On es td of distribution or osha plant n rs.
of Mr. ¢ rge H. Darwin’s theory of see
evolution of the Barth 1 isos it system, considered as to its bearings on the ques
of the duration of geological time
URKITt WEBB: A method of eliminating the personal equation in transit
observations,
CuarLEes H. RockweLu: Scheme for observing the great Eclipse of May, 1
ENRY M. ParKHuRST: Bell attachment for telescope circles (with ‘lingtretion),

Section B, Physics.

S. P. Lanaury: ae color of the Sun.
STEPHEN 8. Hale Davee from lightning increased by telegraph wires.

M. H. Brewer: On the db size of magnified
W. LeCoyte Stevens: On vision by the light of oo electric spark; The

binocular fed of spectral hanhing
E CHASE: Atomic opdetoe es,
GrorcE F. BarKER: On secondary ba
DeVotson Woop: The tension of the Tabtasnios ether.
GRAHAM Bett: Upon the electrical experiments to bee ceaoag the loca-
du

tion of the bullet in the bik of the late President Garfield ; nm a success-
ful form of inductive balance for the painless detection of metallic masses
embedded in the human body; Upon a proposed method of producing artificial
respiration by meang of a vacuum jacket.
Grorge ILEs eae force of poate of be Asie forming the atmosphere.
- Bieoeb : Electric in ion Me

Ae A Pemnantin A new soi i therm:
me NDENHALL: On ire reduction 0 of. the electrical resistance of the carbon
button by the passage of an elect ren
H. A. Rownanp: Concave atit ings for use in yp aemegmon work.
he

H. T. Eppy: Radiant heat an exception to t d law of thermodynami
_ A. E. DotBear: eo the con phapegs of magnets > Be ictal pats Serre CS
induction ; On the te telephone as sce in an electric field; On vortex r' ing
phenomena ; ve tel seenine wit thout wire:

W. A. Rogers: Exhibition of a simple al inexpensive comparator for meas-
uring distances tution the limits 1 min. and 1 ah perimental determination
of the limits of accuracy in measurements by bigs e of fee eling; a on seine

of the relation : Metre des Archives = Imper sl yard "£33 37015 ine
E.8.N — Pdi the poedyaage of color impressions upon the 1 ret; ina. :

D
1 temperament of 1 12, “a and 31 tones in the octave, with exhibition of ree

scale indicators and correcting keyboa
BA poo tt: Experiments with Siemens’ electrical deep-sea sounding appa-

ratus, °
Cuartes K. Weap: On a mean direction integration pine Sg
C. 8, Hastings: On certain complex flame spectra of s
a ke D. Warner: Note on the appearance of a halo pi c~ evening of Aug.
1882.
Rupowpu Kate: The influence of harmonics on the timbre of sound.
Henry CarmicHagL: An instrument for readily producing low paiieennce Paha
Brown a On some phenomena of diffraction due to the shape of the
source of lig
Epwin H a: On the “ rotational coefficient” in gold, iron, etc.
Vou. XXIV, No. 142.—Octoser, 1882.

306 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

Section C, Chemistry.

Tromas W. Topin: On the causes which render flour and organic dust explo-
sive, with suggestions for the prevention of such explosion
Lzonarp P. Kennicutt: Action of water at 100° ©. on the B-phenyltribrom-

LBERT R, LEEDS: Preliminary notice of a new organic base.

‘ IN@ton BOLTON: Application of organic see to the examination of
minerals: Note on the absorption spectrum of humic

. F, MABeRY and RaLtepH WILson: The action of. babic bean on chlortri-
brompropionie acids : Os aa peng 8 acrylic and prop
Cuas. W. D.

ABNEY, Jr. on effects of different soils ae aokable phos-
a Some darwaiiven of. fopietaantats acid; A benzoyl anhydro acid from
B-metamidosalicylic.
C. F. MaBerRy: On the products of the distillation of wood at low tempera-

tures.

©. ©. CALDWELL: Pemberton’s method for the volumetric determination of
phosphoric acid.

Harvey W. Witey and U. A. CromprTon: Estimation of dextrine in solid
commercial starch sugar by loss a aemee rth on solution.

ARTHUR LLIOTT and FRED m Bone Oil.

R. B. WarperR: Observations on aes pein heen of City W:

Ernest H. Cook: Carbon dioxide in the Atmosphere; A ans laboratory

ance,
ARTHUR H. ExLiorr: On Nitro-saccharo
Pde age ee several Agricultural Chemists. on the estimation of reverted phos-
phoric

Harvey W. WILEY: sph estimation of dextrose, dextrine and maltose in
commercial on eo (sugar st ast

J. B. Lawes and J. H. Determinations of nitrogen in the soils of
of iia atpetimental ba fie ids a Rothamsted and Ye bearing of the results on
the question of the sources of the nitrogen of our crop

J. $zané6: On a new micro- aus method of aetiniatiig the feldspars in

oa 8.

J. Kitske: Fire-damp indicator.

©. G. Wueeter and F. Menzeu: Transmission of gases through liquids of
ye temeh densities.
HENRY CARMICHAEL: The ee and late crystallization of gold heated with
ehlorohyai ~ai ih a sealed tu

WituamM Dup Acoma ‘a the sik areas of the Iridium knife-edge to
pone a balan

Wa. haus. iaioe Tea analyses

L. W. ANDREWS: On the constitution of Benzole.

Section D, Mechanical Science.

R. H. Taurston: Newly discovered absolute limit to economic expansion in
the Steam Engine
G

EETANO LANZA: ‘Transverse strength of large Spruce beam
OSsEPH L’Hrore: A review of the € subjects of nat hae eee pipe
and gases, wi i practical aérial navigatio ba —

8 0

F. erat BaTeMAN: St. Lawrence Bridge and “Maputsctaring 80

J. Burkitt Wess: A method of cutting screws of increasing Scr "{ndicator
shiashaciein for ~~ peeds.

T. R. Bake The Pe pocnarg | of ey linings of house walls to

W. H. “Torso e future of the balloon as a practical means a aérial travel.

SAMUE Experiments to determine the strength of cylinders with
dome sseaieee mi specime ns,

Section E, Geology and Geography.

James Hat: On the relations of Dictyo on, Phragmodictyum and similar
gen with Uphantznia; Note upon the bien Plumulite oe

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 807

D Orton: A Source of the bituminous matter in the Ohio Black Shale
aly Shale of N alana. Suggestions as to the History of the Lower Coal-

WILLtAM Bios: The T sess Kae Gea of the Great Salt Lake valley.
RLES WHITTLESEY: Pre ace channel of Eagle River, Lake Superior.
TEAVES: Recent Discoveries of Fossil Fishes in the Devonian

J. F. Wuire Roe
of Canada; Note on the sabuianee of Siphonotreta Scotica in the Utica fevindiion
near Ottaw a, Ont.
R unt: The Eozoic Rocks of Central and Southern Europe; The
Becpenkinad ¢ of Italy.
OHN RazE ech Explorations in North Am
B. : Recent investigations and ee wn een in the
Wappinger mestone of Dutchess and neighboring counties, New
Sam oop: A Mas ld n Americanus in a Beaver jer near - Freehold,

Rovent B. Warpver: Silicified stumps of South Park, Col
. Dawson: Paleozoic Floras of Eastern North America and more espe-
tially of hen
J. R. : Deep-sea soundings and al 0g ae in ce Beis Stream off
the athens Coast, ‘taken under the direction of the U. S. Coase vey.
J SPENCER: Terraces and oe che f about Lake eae: ‘Oesutreiin of
Graptolites i in eons Niagara Formation of Can.
Gzo. H. : On the Cha anes of palais level of the ocean and uplands on
the s Kastor coat of North Amerie
Britton: On a Post-Tertiary Deposit containing impressions of leaves
in rth County , Ned,
W Cross On’ the classification and origin of Joint structure.
G. H. Rane ld On the Winooski Marble of Vermont, with exhibition of speci-
pee
JULIEN: The page arco stratigraphy of the crystalline rocks of
ch Onrolins cd Pha da ; ia Genesis of the crystalline iron ores of North
Caroling and Zp ern Michiga : The Dunyte beds of North Carolina; The
Felsyte-tufa o: £ Cole reds.
H. F, Watuine: The origin of joint crac pee
H. Carvitt Lewis: The fides t terminal m e across Pennsylva
W. CLarpote: Note the exterior apie ori of bark of Tepidodendron
Chemu ungense; On Amphicce atin pyre ore from the ree group of Cedar
ville, be 4 Note on the Fauna of the Catskill Red {Sandston
Cus. H. Gravam: A Rockin ng Stone in a Weer York ¢
w. Hasicrox Merritt: Occurrence of Magnetic a ‘deposits in Victoria
County, Onta’
vee RY §. Written: The Undulations of the rock-masses across Central New
or
Dz W. ee WALEVSKY: Freshwater lignitic series of the beds in the Cretaceous
formation of —
J . : On the surface limit of the thickness of the Continental gla-
pete! in = ew Jenuay and adjacent States, with notes on glacial phenomena in the
atsk
C. i ‘Hirncncock: The Glacial flood of the Connecticut River Valley.
J. 8. N — RY: Some mooted points in ; Genesis of North
American
J. Suauvons Huripert: Currents of air and _ in connection with cli-
mate; Regions of summer rains and summer droug:
Horace C, Sigg y: Subterranean Map-making, with new maps of Mammoth

ganic mater
F. Cope Warrenouse: The Caves of Staffa and their relation to the ancient

civiliestion be tags na.

: : On the association of erystals of Quartz and Calcite in parallel

position,

308 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

Section F, “ee

THOMAS MEEHAN: The Fertilization of Yucca

WitiiamM Oster: Demonstration%of a series or B Sentne’ feel by Giacomin’s
method.

Ropr. E. C. Stearns: Description of a new species of ny lec Polyp.

4 H. Epw shareah On the Polymorphism of Lyczena pseudargiol

. W. Cha : Note on the doer of the Canada This tle at Yellow
Spri ngs , Ohi co s versus Flow n the matter Ps on Note on the
occurrence of traces of . — ern Vota is in Southwestern Ohio
fa WM. Saunpers: On t uth of the tai of Chrysopa
Mrs. A. B. Buack ohn yinietts eredity from sex tos

roe Gray: Some remarks 0 hay —_ of North Fehon
Henry F. Osporn: a higes ies m the Bridger epee beds.
Henry O. Marcy: The Plac ar develo opment in Mam
W.S. Beat: The moti mnie’ roots and radicles of fadian ‘Dom and Bea
C. V. RitEy: Observations on the ‘ferlization oi Yueca, and on structural
and anatomical peculi jarities i in Pens and Prod fbn E

ae age the U.S., a settled fact; aha pdt of pos oes and their valvh. ia

K. oKS: A sketch of the history of our knowledge of the budding of
Salpa; Tite Miller and the Nauplius of Decapods.
ESLEY Examination of some controyverted points of the physiology
of pha
. Macnosxie: Achenial hairs se fibers of Composite; Observations on the
Eim- leaf Beetle (Galeruca xanthomelana).
Wma., H. SE Blastesis pire ;, a pear-tree fungus
J. F. Wurrgaves: On a recent specics of Heteropora from the Strait of Juan
de Fuca.
W. A. BuckHouT: the Gall Mite:
J. A. Lintyer: A new Sexual shares) in the pup some Lepidoptera; On
an Egg parasite of the ores saw-fly, Nematus ventrico:
CLARENCE J. BLAKE: On the posite’: of the Guana: Progressive growth
of Dermoid coat of the Membrana tympani

B

8 The Jessup collection to mg al a American POreeny.
in ee pepe of 3 Natur 1 History, Central Park, New

Luster F. Warp: The Organic Compounds in their alsin to life; Classifi-
cation of organisms.

Burr G. WILDER: sa Asa — of Cryptobranchus.

C. E. Bessey: Some observations on — ction of frost upon leaf-cells.

Epwarp D, Cops: The Fauna ot the Puerco Kocene ; The primary divisions
of the Ungulata.

Wruus A. Smtiman: Remarks on the Turbellaria.

Siae. F. James: Monogr raph of the Clematide of the myst States.
SerRENO Watson: Notes on the hon of the Rocky Mountai

Section G, Histology and Microscopy.

Wa. B. Carpenter: On angular aperture in relation to biological investiga-
on.
. OsteR: Demonstration of the Bacillus of Tuberculosis; The third rindi
enlar clement in the Blood; The dev Sy snare of Blood Corpuscles tein the bon
marr n the Microeytes of the blood, _ their probable ori

Louis Es yoda oo cells” and livi ing m
Henry O. MAR : Histology of uterine fibroid Gee Illustrated by micro-
2.

BURRELL: Some vegetable poiso
oGERS: A study of the problen of fine rulings with reference to the
ie ‘of pe eye visibility and microscopic resolution; On a new form of dry
anti

*

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 309

THOMAS TAYLOR: The House Fly prema e She connection with the di ice
tion of infectious and agaean ~ ons; w economic freezing Microtom
for Or ee echanical ier ic ;

Orr On the cglarnts of Marsipobran

nchs.
2. FE, Paunitany. Notes on some of the peculiarities incident to the diseases
ts) aol
RomMEyN Hrroncock: Notes on ip present ae of sanitary inspection, with
special reference to the examination ter an
0. E. Hanaman: A filtering wa pra ttle ada spted to the use of the Hi stologist.
J. H. Prutspury: Development of Cilia in the planula of Clara leptostyla.

Section H, Anthropology.
Ov1s z Mason: A baci of Anthropol By
oa sir: WHITTLES The Cross and the Crucifix.
NS: Noti of a colle ce iol "Aiba weapons and articles of dress ;
eek Ptriencertle discoveries in
J. M RIER: Stone i implements from Bomoseen and Castleton Valleys.
CHARLES Rav: A Stone Grave in Tlli

ALBert 8. Gatscuer: Chief deities in weno n religion
Mrs, ERMINNIE A. SMITH: Beliefs and superstition of ais Troquois Indians;
A few deductions from a peapgpreses of the Tuscarora dia
OwEN Dorsey: On t anne chonchs ey of four Siouan languages;
The aoe wee and marriage laws of the Dhegiha
: Who made the native copper implements “e “Who a the seers: ?
n Copper impleme s from North A
Discovery of the remains of a log ing longing a the sto Onaehe e period's in

?
tents ‘at eighty-four stone graves at : Brenbw wi ‘
i Indian migrations, as eviden by language.
NE: On some Pe rto unnoted affinities between ancient customs in
ents.

Tennessee; Account of three mounds explored in Ohio and Tennessee; The con-
be Te

tlantes.

of chipped stone articles on ree ES coast and

eaibition s Spe Paap fat Remarks upon the depts ay
WILLS Monumental and art rem _ og tet region of Ohio,
Pennsyivania ae New York; Mountain antiqui > Gestogienl soasinipay to the
antiquity of man in Ame erica; Archeological exploration, apachitn s of discovery.

. HK. Douetas: A find of ceremonial weapons in

Auice ©. FiercHerR: Home life among some oof the : Tdi tribes; Relig-

I wers: The bleaching of the Aryan
ek. EEN GSTON: Influence er climate of Canada on Europeans.

Section I, Economic Science and Statistics.

Cuas. W. Smiter: Exhibition of some statistics of College men; Notes upon
some meth and results a collecting statistical matter ai

E. LuoTr: On in tandard time; on certain Government secu-
rities ; Sugsestions on sisetrtce ni .

FRA : Open't ‘ei investment of labor and capital in forest

culture a ahuipaion with other productive industries; Experimental plantation
of Buealyptu us near Rom

J. OWEN Dorsey: On ‘methods of seemigsn registration of vital and other sta-
sear of the Omahas and co Sogn — f India

tree-growth and oes dads a
Low Upton: Standard time for North America.

Three of the papers are published in the preceding pages, and
prebss will appear in the following satibel of this Journal.

310 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

2. British Association ; fifty-first a, at Southampton.—
The fifty-first meeting of the British Association aay i on the
23d of August. The address of the sneaaoie of the

SIEMENS, elated especially 2 recent Reha applications of
science, ‘to which some o e profoundest workers in pu
science have Sonshinivedvideianti: scat eal having “ hide
theory and practice $0 cote coscaty that an intimate union of

th of

w
and used in science; and passing "from this subject of “ accurate
measures of length, weight and time,” discusses the subject .

when a current of one ampére passes through a resistance of one
ohm, or, of-a eo ae eliminating a factor which
comes i calculations ; (2) a unit of magnetic pole, to be called
*“« Weber ;” (3) a unit of magnet tee to e called a “ Gauss ;”
(4) a anit ‘Gt heat, to be called a “ Joule” = the amount of work
done, or its equivalent, th quantity of ee aaa by the
i flowing thro ough a m for one second. The a oe

sumptio pounds of coal per horse-power per hour, whereas
all engines distributed over a district seein osha e not less
than ; we thus see that there is a in favor of

tage
electric transmission as regards fuel, Independently of the saving
of labor and other collateral benefits

of t
very great, the power communicated to the locomotive reaches Its

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 311

maximum when the motion is at its minimum—that is, in com-
mencing to work, or when n encountering an pou. ones ie yeni
—whereas the utmost economy is produced in the normal condi-
tion of working when the velocity of the powerabsorbing nearly
equals that of the current-producing machine

e next touched on the deposition of metals by the electric
currents; heating and lighting by electricity ; the relative values
1

attainment of maximum results,” and that “it may reasonably be
supposed that the difficulties still in the way of their application
on a large scale will gradually be removed ;” the ways of improv-
ing steam ships and their equipment; the deep-sea sounding
machines of Sir William Thomson; and some of the recent engi-
i a projects and accomplishments,
iemens closed with remarks on the progress now se

Lwied clearer conception of the condition of matter when par-
ticles are left some liberty to pas individually the forsee brought
to bear on them, as in vacu and in interstellar space.

quotes the result of the last toa expedition as follows: “ Dif-

e is
mosphere; the constitution of the corona has now the aap
of being. determined, and it is proved to Shine sith its own light.

ie own, in a paper read March last before the Royal seme
concerning the conservation - solar energy, which was based o
the three following postulate

“1. That aqueous vapor a carbon compounds are present in
stellar or igre secre space.

2. t these gaseous compounds are capable of being disso-
ciated ies radiant solar energy while in a state of extreme attenu-

ion.
3. That the effect of BOIRT,. rotation is to draw in dissociated

Md e American observations reveale striking
haat (with ich I was not Pattee geo writing m
paper) were absent in Egypt; but the outflowing equatorial

= lar disturbances or by electric discharge; an e occasional
appearance of such luminous LP py would othe only to dis-

prove the hypothesis entertained by some, that they are divided

planetary matter, in which case their siacershel should be per-

312 | Miscellaneous Intelligence.

manent. Prof. Langley, of Pittsburg, has shown, by means of

his bolometer, that the solar actinic rays are absorbed chiefly in

the solar instead of in the terrestrial atmosphere, and Capt.
e i omet

solar and terrestrial atmosphere ; in order to test this interesting
Hesult still further, = Moe lately Lee his apparatus to the top of
the Riffel with a of diminishing the amount of terrestrial

.

atmospheric air between it and "the sun, and intends to bring a

such matter as hydrocarbon and aqueous vapor would establish
a material ‘apietniity between the sun and his planets, and
bet ween the innumerable solar systems of which the universe is
compose
The address of Lord Ray.uten, before the Mathematical and

fe
stigmatise as theoretical. The tendency of the mathematician is
to overrate the solidity of his theoretical structures, and to forget
the abled ig of the experimental foundation upon which many
of them rest.
Protea G. D. Liverne, President of the Chemical section,
observed that the a important progress recently made in

ow far can we say that mechanical priveples are actually
recognized as the true basis of rational chemistry? So far as I
know no chemist denies that it is so, an sek. oe little do our
text-books, even the most recent and the most highly reputed,
show the predominance of this idea! How very small a portion
of such books is taken up with it; how much seems utterly to
ignore it, or to be couched in language which is antagonistic to
it! We still find chemical combinations described as if the

were statical phenomena, and expressions used which imply that

can b i i

ing each other into fixed relative Bieter sah still ind

and at anoth
We still rte eeeaied sono spoken o > as : the stability
of a compound were independent of eae let and chemic

in Eeyhnnice a final sears without any reference to the
dynamical conditions of the problem, without any a re
whether the fineied intermediate reactions imply a winding up or

running down o g act our long familiar chemical
equations represent only the conservation of matter, and to kee
always in d the mechanical conditions of a reaction is as
difficult to some of us as it is to think in a ae language.
Moreover we still find in many of our text-books the old statical
notion of chemical ight stereotyped in Eee of mole-
cules. I do not, of course, mean to accuse the distinguished
goat of g graphic Forkaate of oe to depict molecules,
for I believe they w ould agree with me in thinking that these
diagrams do not any more aeRO | re vadots ‘anttial molecules than
they represent ‘the solar system but unfortunately we cannot
prevent beginners from. supetaiag them as pin ies and moulding
their ideas 1 upon them.’
Professor Liveing observes that ‘“ the vortex theory, whether we

think it probable or not, at least gives us a standing groun

the assertion cre the supposed impenetrability of matter, and the
curious compound of nucleus and atmosphere which has been
invented to passer for slaniaiey. are not necessary riety ae
The kinetic theory of gases has analyzed for us the different
motions of the molecules i in a mass of matter, | and has facilitated

susceptible of mathematical calculation the problems of chemistry.

ost of these attempts have proceeded on the well-known me-
chanical Paget vei the change of vis viva of a system in
passing from an intial to a final onfiguration is independent of
the intermediate digs through which it may have passed so long
as the external conditions are unalter ed; and on the principle of
the dissipation of energy, that is to say, on the condition that the
State of the system, if it bea stable one, must be such that the
ony run down in reaching it is a maximum. These principles

is that of an equilibrium of antagonistic reactions in a mi eae
of materials, a mobile equilibrium such as we are now familiar
with, dependents on compensating effects ; ba he does not seem
able to solve the gh a in any gr reat, number of cases. In

ematically the coidi ions of the pr roblem as in the de oF
knowledge which depends upon experiment. And it is just in
this that I think the outlook most hopeful. In some cases the

314 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

patient work of weighing and measuring and comparing, which
1s necessary to make our theoretic op olaaeetie of any substantial
dy done for The pu

foundation

Further, ‘the laws of dissociation so ably investigated by De-
ville have taught us that the force called chemical affinity, by
which we suppose the atoms of unlike matters are held together
in a compound molecule, follows precisely the same laws as the
force on cohesion, by which particles of a similar kind are united
in mo

Dr. Artur GamGer, president of the section of Biology, ably
icuplecumd: “the growth of our knowledge of the function of
retio

te of the Geological section, Roperr ETHERIDGE,
took for his subject one of local as well as general interest, a
review of what had been hitherto done in the study of the
— rocks of the Begg oe basin.

ICHARD TEM President of the oe lagen ce
sacorenee jnatraciively on the Central Platea —its
mountains, river-sources, plateaus, ear pha pies ati the
importance of - farther investigation of the great region to the
sciences of terrestrial physics, geolog and meteorology, as well
as to that of eul a) history and soci ieee

In the section of Biology, the De auc in the department
of Anthropology, Professor Dawkins, spoke on “the present
phase of the Antiquity of Man.” Professor op aaie Sherpas
upon the great improbability of the discovery of rem of man
in the Eocene or Miocen € from the fac t that the known placental

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 315

ive, e evidence brought forward by Professor Capellini, in
favor of Pliocene man in Italy, seems both to me and to Dr.

le next gives a general review of the mammalian life of the
Pleistocene or Quaternary era, with reference to the associates of
the earliest remains of man, called by him “ River-drift Man,”
speaks of English, European and American discoveries, and gives
the following as his general conclusions :

“It remains now for us to sum up the results of this inquiry, in
which we have been led very far afield. The identity of the im-
plements of the River-drift hunter proves that he was in the same
rude state of civilization, if it can be called civilization, in the Old
and New Worlds, when the hands of the geological clock pointed
to the same hour. It is not a little strange that his mode of life
should have been the same in the forests to the north and south of

banks of the Wiley or of the Solent. It does not, however, fol-
low that this identity of implements implies that the same race of
over this vast tract. It points rather to a pri-

f

of both, in the high northern latitudes.
I therefore feel inclined to view the River-drift hunter as hav-

implements occur. In India he was a member of a tropical fauna,
and his distribution in Europe and along the shores of the Medi-

316 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

terranean prove him to have belonged either to the temperate or
the southern fauna in those regions

It will naturally be asked, to what race can the River-drift man
be referred? The question, in my opinion, cannot be answered
in the present stage of the inquiry, because the few tarsi of
human bones discovered along with the implements are too
perfect to afford any clue. ai can we measure the ‘ciferak in
terms of years which separate the River-drift man from the pres-

must, however, have been very great to allow of the changes in
geography and climate, and the distribution of animals which has
taken place—the succession of races, and the development o
civilization re i history began. Standing before the rock-hewn

the kings at Luxor, we may realize the impossibility of
fixing the time when the River-drift hunter lived on the site of
ancient Thebes, or of measuring the lapse of time between his

days and the splendor of the civilisation of Egypt.

n this inquiry, which is all too long, I fear, for my audience, and
all too short, I know, for my subject, I have purposely ey d all
reference to the successor of the River-drift man in Europ -—the

ave man, who was in a higher stage of the hunter civilization.”

he first of the evening lectures was that of Sir Masts

Tuomson, on the Tides. The Atheneum of September 2d,

orts: “It was delivered with but few notes and without each
regard to exact logical consecution of topics; but the intense
energy of the lecturer and the startling points he made sustained
the attention of Se audience. The subject is one which, as rie
man a the Ti me Committee of the Association, he has worked a
for many years, and one result of his labors has been the Dibtics-
tion ot very Eoeiplets og tables for the principal Indian ports.
Another result, of great importance to the geologist, is a deter-
mination of the ‘pie b which the solid earth yields to a
same distorting forees which produce tides in the sea. If it w
of India rubber, or, what amounts to much the same thing, if it
had a crust only twenty or thirty miles thick, with fluid within,
its yielding would be so great as practically to prevent any tidal
currents from being formed in the water, for the formation of
these depends upon the water yielding more than the land. Sir
William’s calculations show that the actual amount of yielding on
the part of the land is less than it would be in a solid globe o
glass of the same size, The latest forms of his tide guage and
tide-predicting machine were exhibited, and his nee monic analyzer
was explained by the aid of a diagram.”

The report of the committee appointed for the purpose of ob-
taining photographs of the typical races of the British Isles, gives
the following aehaitions of the main types:

Dak, £2"

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 317

“The First or lente oan Dark Type, A.—The definition
of the short, narrow-headed race shown by Dr. Thurnam an
Professor B. Dawkins to hae preceded the so-called Celts, and
termed by them Iberian (=the Silurian of Professor Rolleston), i is
at present Heenan The forehead, ms ver, appears to have
been fairly vertical, the brows prominent, the nasal bones lon ng
and straight, the lower jaw weak (IRolleston), and the hair and
dark. Statistics of the color of the hair and eyes, collected

Dr. Beddoe, show that the race exerted a much wider influence
fe the population than is usuall upposed.

Second or Brachicephatio Fair Type, B.—The principal
characteristics of this race consist in the prominence of brow an
supra-nasal ridges; a slightly receding forehead; sharply project-
ing nasal bones, causing a high-bridge ed or arched nose, without
undulation ; a long, oval face ; high cheek-bones; anda prominent
fine chin. From Mr. Park Harrison’s observations the lips of this
type appear to be thin, and pei ear oT with no proper
lobe, the fossa being contin

and a stature above the average. is type inatnaee Belgic,
Cymric, and Danish _varieties, >, ENED further nage ei the

ton’s s deductions in the e appe nidix “Br itish Barrows.
é Third or Sul-Dolichocephali Fair Type, C.—The Com-
mittee believe that the following is a correct definition of true
sea features, aie smooth; forehead rounded and vertical ;

ered ge.
The definition neta with Schadow’s pure German (Teutonic)
type, and ee the Saxon type of — and apse osh.”

papers read, and other pro cee eding

The British Association, after much discussion, decided, by a
vote of fifty-three to thirty-nine, to hold its meeting in 1884 at
Montreal. “The Atheneum of September 2d says:

“Great inducements were offered in the shape of facilities for
traveling; and the rare chance thus afforded of seeing America
Was doubtless a powerful attraction, especially to the younger
portion of the members. At the worst, no very great harm can

318 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

come of it. The regular work of the Association is not so vitally
iesacitial that a year’s interruption for the sake of a holiday tour
will produce any very grave inconvenience.”—It can be safely
promised that the scientific men merica will do what they can
toward making oh Mesh very saith and the profit of the occasion
great in ¥ Pgs
3. Rep t of ps e ee York State Survey Oe ae
Jor the tear 1880, JAMES ARDINER, Director. 80 pp. 8
with five maps. Alban ny, 18 81.—This r report announces the com-
pletion of a line of triangulation across the State of New York,
rom the Massachusetts line in the town of Canaan to the western
boundary near Lake Erie. The width of the State between these
a is found to be 326-46 miles, instead of 328-68, the result of

tion of the southern boundary of the State along by Pennsylvania
and New Jersey is promised in the nl as another practical re-
sult of the triangulation soon to be realized.

4, On the Cause of the Infection of the Waters at Lille; by M.
Atr. Giarp.—The reddish color, era taste, and unpleasant odor
presented at times by the waters o e Emmerin springs which
supply the town of Lille have long ‘a0 daituod by the population

the water which was offered to diane A microscopic examination
showed that the cause of the infection was a Schizomycete, Creno-
thrie Kihniana Rabenh., the filaments of which become charged,
in contact with the water ‘exposed to the air, with a os. tina =
sesquioxide of iron, then putrefy, and communicate a most
agreeable flavor to the wate

“This Crenothriz has been noticed in several localities, Ce
Halle, Breslau and Berlin, and has been - efully studied
fessors F. Cohn , 0. Brefeld and W. Zopt. To the prism hl pa
of those eminent botanists we have oe to add that the micro-
gonidia, formed in the swollen extremities ef the tubes of Creno-
thrix by transverse division of the bacillar pre constituting
those extremities, are animated uring some time with an active
motion, due to the existence of a fla ellum. The latter is visible
only with the Peis magnifying power (Hartnack immersion ob-

a. No. 1
he nie ‘afterward gave birth to an “eS form (Meris-
dia), which is soon transformed into a m of Zooglue,

similar to a Paimella, and finally into regularly aptiaael tubes
of various lengths

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 319

The causes which have brought about the exaggerated develop-
ment of Crenothris: i in the Emmerin waters are evidently manifold.

acne abdae 5 meters. The rains of the s spring an e bogie
ning of the summer suddenly raised it, and carried wath them the
pil a ati or the animals which had been developed

n the humid eart

an at er the C; Been was ea brought 1 in abundance

o the E rin reserv water-pipes, several wells
at Tour urcoing furkished balls i a fine Oli sosnis worm (Phreoryctes
s-peogaspyl till then unknown in France

astly,a portion of the aqueduct is dug in the aquiferous chalk;
and it was thought needless to arch over that part; moreover,
inlets have been pierced in order to increase by drainage-water
the supply. furnished by the springs. Every time that the flow of
the water is made more rapid, in that part of the aquiferous layer
a ver itable aspiration is produced, which carries into the aqueduct
the spores and filaments of the Crenothriz, which a slower and
more ote filtration would have retained i in the soil.

To remedy this scourge, we at first advised to dé away with
the latter source of contamination, against which it is compara-
tively easy to guard. “But we believe that this palliation would
be insufficient while the channels are sown with the innumerable
Spores of the Schizomycete. We shall doubtless be obliged to

ave recourse to filters of sand, similar to those recommended at
Berlin by Zopf and Brefeld.

Towns establishing new systems of canals of potable water will
do well, in order to avoid the Crenothrix, to take the. sources in

31, 1882, xev, 247-249. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Sept. 1

8. ——— ve the Academy of on of St. ion sts Vol.
Iv, No. St. Louis, Missouri, his number contains
among is eclentifie pee metacrra ie C. 0. V. RILey on i-
crogasters with descriptions of new species, and on ne w Tortri-

ide; by F. IrHER, on problems i in refraction, and m magnetic
determinations in Missouri in 1880; by C. A. Topp, on reversion
f type in the digastric muscle of man; H. 38. PriresErt, an
ephemeris of Mars for the Ati of 1881; G. ENGELMANN, on
the genus Isoetes in North Am - eo m ENGLER, 01 on auroral
phenomena of Sept. 12, 81.

320 Mi ee Ree atTntelligence

Chem, and Min. Univ. Si idney. 1882.—The papers in this volume
discuss subjects soansiee des the panty, geography, and botany

of Australia, and give the results of extended astronomical ob-
servations. The ghulyeas "st epiphytic pat by Mr. Dixon on
age 299 are from one of its articles; an o the note on the

8 ERBUT, H
pearance of the same comet, oe Mi. . Russet, AS.; &
paper of sixty-six pages on ‘“ New double stars and measures of
some of those found by Sir John Herschel,” by Mr. RussExx; ane
on the Transit of Mercury of Nov. 8, 1881, by the same obser
Mr. Russell states that about 746 of Herschel’s stars have face
re-measured, and 350 new double stars have been found. §
of the latter have afforded evidence of motion. 46 of Herschel’s
list have not been found

7. U.S. Commission ‘of Fish and Fisheries, Part VII, being
the Report of the Commissioner, Prof. 8. F. "Barr, for 1879.

large amount of information on these ey ree subjects pe
outside sources. Some of the headings of its chapters from
European writers are the following: the alan Toews ee
the herring’s mode of life ; he. fisheries of the west coast of Sout
ep the tem eratare, saltness, currents, etc., of the sana
ith reference to fish support and propagation, and the habits
of. hood dale the pollution of public waters by refuse from fac-
tories ; saw ust as a source of injury; foreign aa abe estab-
lishments ; and the oles of sponges from cuttings. It also con-
tains a treatise a the sea-weeds of New itopland, with fifteen
plates, by Prof. V Ge Fartow, the ablest writer on the subject
in the country, aa a ee on the gigantic squids and other
cephalopods of the northeastern coast ‘of America, by Prof. A. E.
VERRILL, iHastrated a forty-six plates.
OBITUARY.

LIovvILLE. ae ae announcement of the death of the veteran

mathematician, J. Liouville, founder and, for nearly forty years,
editor of the 3 ournal de Mathematiques, has been announced.

Priantramour.—The late director of the Observatory at Geneva,
M. E. Plantamour, died recently.

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

[THIRD SERIES.]

Art. XXXIV.— Remarks concerning the Flora of North America ;
by Asa GRAY.

[Read to the Botanists at the meeting of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, at Montreal, August 25, 1882.]

Iv the remarks which I have to offer to this Section, you
will understand the word Flora to be written with a capital
initial. Tam to speak of the attempts made in my own day,
and still making, to provide our botanists with a compendious
systematic account of the pheenogamous vegetation of the whole
country which the American Association calls its own.

of a first fasciculus; the first volume of 700 pages was issued

two years afterward; and 500 pages of the second volume

appeared in 1841 and in the early part of 1843. The time for

continuing it in the original form has long ago passed by. Its

Completion in the form in which I have undertaken it anew, is

Precarious, Precarious in the original sense of the word, for it
Am. Jour. MN Series, Vou. XXIV, No. 143,—NovemBER, 1882,

322 A. Gray—Ff lora of North America.

is certainly to be prayed for: precarious, too, in the current
sense of the word as eing uncertain ; yet not so, according to
an accepted definition, viz : ‘unce ertain, because depending
upon the will of another ;’ ’ for it is not our will but our power
that is in question ; and it is only by the combined powers and
efforts of all of us interested in Botany that the desired end can
oe be attained.

well to consider for a moment how and why it is that
a task ahich has twice — would seem—easily accom-
pen has now become so difficult.

The earliest North Deck Blots, that of the elder Mi-
chaux, appeared i in the year 1803. It was based entirely upon
Michaux’s own collections and observations, does not contain
any plants which he had not himself gat ered or seen, is not,
therefore, an exhaustive summary of the ee of the country
as then know wn, and so was the more readily prepared. 1-
chaux came to this country in 1785, returned to France in
1796, left it again in Baudin’s expedition to Australia in 1800,
and died of fever in Madagascar in 1802. The Flora purports

the — of a_master; and tradition has it ahat these were
drawn up by Louis Claude Richard, who was probably the

fact that Richard’s herbarium (bequeathed to his son, and now
belonging to Count Franqueyville), contains an almost complete
set of the plants described, and I found that the specimens of

’

Svcwaty enough, Sever sey is no reference whatever to
Richard in any part of the Flora, nor in the elaborate preface.
The most venerable botanist now living told me that there was a
tradition at Paris that Richard per formed a similar work for
Persoon’s Synopsis Plantarum, and that he declined all mention
of his name in the Synopsis and in the Flora, because the two

cida, Dichromena, Oryzopsis, Wien, and the like. For, ee
the record these are of ONE: flora Boreali-Americana, and
not of Richar

Michaux’'s explorations extended from Hudson’s Bay, which
he reached by way of the Saguenay, to Florida, as far, at least,

A. Gray—Flora of North America. 323

as St. Augustine and Pensacola; he was the first botanical
explorer of the higher Alleghany Mountains, and, crossing

pany it as naturalist. This may have been the germ or
the fertilizing idea of the expedition of Lewis and Clark,

ss old. He was able to make the acquaintance not only o

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Pursh’s personal explorations were

Rot extensive. From 1802 till 1805 he was in charge of the

324 A. Gray—Flora of North America.

gardens of Wm. Hamilton, near Philadeiphia. In the spring
of the latter year, as he says, he “set out for the mountains and
western territories of the Southern States, beginning at Mary-
Jand and extending to the Carolinas (in which tract the inter-
esting high mountains of Virginia and Carolina took my par-
ticular attention), returning late in the autumn through the
lower countries along the sea-coast to Philadelphia.” But, in
tracing his steps by his collections* and by other indications, it.
appears that he did not reach the western borders of Virginia
nor cross its southern boundary into the mountains of North
Carolina. The Peaks of Otter and Salt-pond Mountain (now
Mountain Lake), were the highest elevations which he attained.
Pursh’s preface continues: “The following season, 1806, I went
in like manner over the Northern States, beginning with the
mountains of Pennsylvania and extending to those of New
Hampshire (in which tract I traversed the extensive and highly
interesting country of the Lesser and Great Lakes), and return-
ing as before by the sea-coast.” .The diary of this expedition,
found among Dr. Barton’s papers and collections in posses-
sion of the American Philosophical Society, has recently been
printed by the late Mr. Thomas Potts James. It shows that the
journey was not as extended or as thorough as would be sup-
posed; that it was from Philadelphia directly north to the Po-
kono Mountains, thence to Onandaga, and to Oswego,—the only
point on the Great Lakes reached,—thence back to Utica, down
the Mohawk Valley to Saratoga, and north to the upper part.
of Lake Champlain and to the lesser Green Mountains in the
vicinity of Rutland, but not beyond. Discouraged by the late-
ness of the season, and disheartened—as he had all along been
—by the failure and insufficiency of remittances from his pat-
ron, Pursh turned back from Rutland on the 22d of September,
reached New York on the Ist of October, and Philadelphia on
the 5th. The next year (1807) Pursh took charge of the Bot-
anic Garden which Dr. Hosack had formed at New York and
afterward sold to the State, which soon made it over to Columbia
College.t In 1810, he made a voyage to the West Indies for the
recovery of his health. Returning in the autumn of 1811, he
landed at Wiscasset, in Maine, “ had an opportunity of visiting
Professor Peck of Cambridge College, near Boston,” and of see-
ing the alpine plants which Peck had collected on the White

* In herb. Barton and herb. Lambert. :

+ Expecting, no doubt, that it would be kept up. But “the Elgin Botanic
Ga as soon discontinued. It occupied the block of ground now covered
by the buildings of the College, and the surrounding tract—now so valuable—from
which the college deri ple revenue. Noblesse oblige, and it may be expected
that the College—so enriched—will, before long, provide itself with a botanical

A. Gray—F lora of North America. 325

pine * At the end of the latter year or early in wes he
ent to England with his collections and notes; and at the

ies of 1813, under the auspices of Lambert, he scotieol his

Flora a, consulting, so while, ~ herbaria of Clay ven, iti

in 1820, at the early age of fo orty- six. More is ae ae known
of him here. If I rightly remember, his grave has been identi-
fied, and a stone placed upon it inscribed to his memory.
tradition has come down to us—and it is partly confirmed by
a statement which Lambert used to make, in reference to the
vast quantity of beer he bad to furnish during the ai eae
of the Flora—that, in his latter days, our predecessor was given
to drink, and that his days were thereby shortened.
In Pursh’s Flora we begin to have plants from the Great
see the Rocky Mountains, and the Pacific Coast, although
ollections were very scanty. The most im portant one
which, fell into Pursh’s bands was that of about 150 specimens,
gathered by Lewis and Clark on their homeward journey from
€ mouth of Columbia River. A larger collection, more
leisurely made on the outward journey, was lost. Menzies in
ancouver’s voyage had botanized on the Pacific coast, both in
California and much farther north. Some of his plants were
seen by Pursh in the Banksian Herbarium, and taken up. I
may here say that in the winter of 1838-39 I had the pleasure
of making the acquaintance of the venerable Menzies, then
sons via -five years old.
at Wiscasset, therefore, that Pursh’s \ Plantago of tegete am een oy in
ie See situations, Canada and Province of Mafhe,” is to be Mr. Prin-
recently found the related P. ee (which may be che. mt pant te
lower Casas. not far from the other side of Maine.
It must have been in Professor r Peck’ s herbarium “eg he lie that tipo
saw res se took to be Alchemilla alpina, w arks efe
mory only, probably mistakenly. For it goes gee iti sae ewrenige
either i in Vermont or New Hampshire, or anywhere in North America; and
Gree Moat Aes makes it certain that he did not reach any alpine region in the
reen
n the C sahatfen Lars ralist, Principal Dawson gives a brief account of the
eee rence of the remains of Pursh from a grave-yard below Montreal, in which
they were interred, to Phe beautiful Mount Royal Cemetery, where they rest in a
po sa geno for the purpose and under a neat and durable granite monument,
vi compa

: the naturalists of Montreal and their friends. $ pany of
tanists. led by Dr. Dawson, visited the spot shortly after the reading of this
learned that Pursh "had botanized largely in Canada, in view of a

~~ nadian Flora. and that his collections were consumed by a fire at huebeo shortly
efore his death, to his extreme discouragement.

326 A. Gray—Flora of North America.

In the Supplement, Pursh was able to include a considerable
number of species, collected by Bradbury on the Upper Mis-.
souri, in what was then called Upper Louisiana,—much to the
discontent of Nuttall, who was in that region at the same time,
and who, indeed, partly and imperfectly anticipated Pursh in
‘certain cases, through the publication by the Fraser’s of a
catalogue of some of the plants collected by Nuttall.

To come now to the extent of Pursh’s Flora, published nearly
sixty-nine years ago. It contains 740 genera of Phenogamous
.and Filicoid plants, and 3076 species. Just about double the
number of species contained in Michaux’s Flora of eleven years
before.

I must omit all mention of more restricted works, even such
as Nuttall’s Genera of North American Plants, which came
only four years after Pursh’s Flora; also the Flora Boreali-
Americana of Sir Wm. Hooker, which began in 1829, but was
restricted to British America. I cannot say how early it was
that my revered master, Dr. Torrey, conceived the idea of the
Flora which he at length undertook. But he once told me
that he had invited Nuttall to join him in the production of
such a work, and that Nuttall declined. This must have been
as early as the year 1832, that is, half a century ago. My cor-
respondence with Dr. Torrey began in the summer of 1830,
when I was a young medical student, and three or four years
afterward I joined him at New York and became, for a short
time, his assistant, for all the rest of his life his botanical
colleague. He was very much occupied with his duties as
professor, chiefly of chemistry; he had not yet abandoned the
idea of completing his Flora of the Northern and Middle
States, the first volume of which was finished in 1824, while
yet free from all professional cares. Aithough working in the
direction of the larger undertaking, the Flora of North America
did not assume definite shape before the year 1835. I believe
that some of the first actually-prepared manuscript for it was
written by myself in that or the following year. I was then
and for a long time expecting to accompany the South Pacific
Exploring Expedition, as originally organized under the com-
mand of Commodore Ap. Catesby Jones, but which was sub-
ject to long delay and many vicissitudes; during which, having
plentiful leisure, I tried my 'prentice hand upon some of the
earlier natural orders. Before the expedition, as modified, was
ready to sail, under the command of Capt. Wilkes, I had
accepted Dr. Torrey’s proposal that I should be his associate
in the work upon which I had made a small beginning as a
volunteer. ‘Two parts, or half of the first volume (860 pages),
of this Flora, were printed and issued in July and October,
1838.

.

A, Gray—Flora of North America. 327

It was thought at first, in all simplicity, that the whole task
could be done at something like this rate. But, apart from
other considerations, it soon became clear that there had been
no proper identification of the foundation-species of the earlier
botanists, from Linnzeus downward; and that our Flora could

some particular plants in the herbaria of Hooker, Lambert, and
Michaux, and the acquisition, from Hooker, of a good set of
the Arctic plants of the British explorers, was about all that
ad been done. I proposed to attempt something more; so,
taking advantage of a favorable opportunity, I sailed for
Liverpool in November, 1838, and devoted a good part of the
ensuing year to thét-examination of the principal herbaria,
which I need not here’ Specify, in Scotland (where the import-
ant one of Sir Wm. Hooker still remained), England, France,
Switzerland and Germany, namely those which contained the
specimens upon which most of the then-published North

merican species had been directly or indirectly founded,

@specially those of Linneus and Gronovius, of alter, of

iton’s Hortus Kewensis, Michaux, Willdenow, Pursh, and
the later ones of DeCandolle and Hooker.

second volume, mostly occupied by the vast order Composite,
had been issued. But meanwhile I had in my turn to assume
professorial duties and incident engagements,—with the result
that, although the study of North American plants was at no
time pretermitted, either by Dr. Torrey while he lived, or by

self, we were unable to continue the publication during my
associate's life-time; and it was only recently, in the spring of
1878, that I succeeded in bringing out, in a changed form,
another instalment of the work, completing the Gamopetale.

In the interval I had made two year-long visits to Europe

for botanical investigation, the first partly relating to the botany

of the South Pacitic, the second wholly in view of the North
American flora. And since this last publication still another
visit—the fourth and we may suppose the last—of the same char-
acter and the same duration, has been successfully accomplished.

The serious question, in which we are all concerned, arises,
whether this work can be carried through to a completion, and
the older parts (wholly out of print and out of date), re-elabo-

* See, in this. connection, “ Notices of European Herbaria, particularly those
Pal yr. to the North American Botanist,” in this Journal, vol. xi, Janu-

s

328 A. Gray—Flora of North America.

consider why the undertaking to which so much time has been
devoted, should be so slow of accomplishment.

If this slowness is a constant wonder and disappointment to
most people interested in the matter, I can only add that it is
hardly less so to myself. It is a constant surprise—if one may
so say— that the work does not get on faster.

f course the undertaking has become more and more for-
midable with the enlargment of geographical boundaries and of
the number of species discovered. As to the increase in the
number of species to be treated, we have by no means yet
reached the end. The area, that of our continent down to the
Mexican line, we trust is definitely fixed, at least for our day.

, Since we cannot be rid of the peninsula and keys of Flor-
ida, which entails upon us a considerable number of tropical
species, mostly belonging to the West Indies—the southern

oundary is now as natural a one as we can have.

The area which Pursh’s Flora covered was, we may say, the
United States east of the Mississippi, with Canada to Labrador,
to which was added a couple of hundred of species known to
him outside these limits northwestward.

more northern line. e British arctic explorers, both by sea
and land, had well developed the botany of the boreal regions,

pen

As to the number of species which Torrey and Gray had to
deal with, I can only say that a rapid count gives us for the
first volume about 2200 Polypetale; that there are 109 species
in the small orders which in the second volume precede the
Composite; and that there are of the Composite 1054. So one

A. Gray—Flora of North America. 329

may fairly conclude that if the work had been pushed on to
completion, say in the year 1850, the 8076 species of Pursh’s
Flora in the year 1814 might have been just about doubled.
Probably more rather than less; for if we reckon from the
number of the Composite, and on the estimate that they consti-
tute one-eighth of the phenogamous plants of North America,
instead of 6150, there would have been 8480 species known in
the year specified.

It most concerns us to know the number of species which,
after the lapse of thirty years more—years in which exploration
has been active, and has left no considerable part of our great

area wholly unvisited—the now revived Flora has to deal with.

We can make an estimate which cannot be far wrong. In the
ear 1878, my colleague, Mr. Watson, finished and published

have to be enumerated and most of them described, is, unhap-

long rise to eleven or twelve thousand. Only the experienced
botanist can form a just idea of what is involved in the accurate
discrimination and proper codrdination of 10-12000 species,
and in the putting of the results into the language and form
Which may make our knowledge available to learners or to
Succeeding botanists. .

Moreover, there is of late an embarras des richesses which is

oming serious as respects labor and time. The continued

_ and ever increasing influx of materials to Cambridge, beneficial

as it ever is, is accountable for this retardation of progress in a
bees degree than almost any one would suppose. The her-

‘rium, upon whose materials this work is mainly done, and
Which has been, like the Temple, full forty and six years in
building, has received the contributions of two generations of

Md I say “unhappily,” for they adulterate the natural character of our flora, and
raise difficult questions as to how much of introduction and settlement should
Sive to these denizens the rights of adopted citizens,

330 A. Gray—F lora of North America.

read, or the practised eye infallibly determine. But in fact
species are judgments—judgments of variable value, and often
very fallible judgments, as we botanists well know. And

to be done over and over, how much more so in America,
where new plants are almost daily coming to hand. It is true
that thése fall into their ranks, or are adjustable into their
proper or probable places, but not without pains-taking and
tedious examination.

Of our Flora, it may indeed be said, that “If ’twere don

actual elaboration, must largely be upon associates, upon the
few who have the training and the vast patience, and the access
to herbaria and libraries, requisite for this kind of work, but
above all upon my associate in the herbarium at Cambridge, to
whom, being present with us, [ will not further ailude.

Of course we rely, very much indeed, upon the continued
codperation of all the cultivators of botany in the country; an

W. LeConte Stevens—Physiological Optics. 331

it is gratifying to know that their number is increasing, new
ones not less zealous than the old, and better equipped, are
taking the places of those that have passed away, and some of
them extending their explorations over the remotest parts of
the land, and into districts where there is most to be discovered.

this regard, as a matter of common interest and advantage.
For we are all equally concerned in forwarding the progress of
the Flora of North America; and we may confidently expect
from our botanical associates their sympathy, their forbearance,
and their continued aid.

Art. XXXV.—WNotes on Physiological Optics. No. 6. Binocu-
lar Union of Spectral Images; by W. LeConte STEVENS.

[Read before the Physical Section of the American Association for the Advance-
nt of Science at Montreal, August, 1882.

Ir a sharply defined object be momentarily illuminated by
the intense light of the electric spark, a positive and then a
negative after-image is perceived, neither, however, lasting very
long. A negative after-image lasting several minutes may be
secured by gazing very steadily on one point of an object which

332 W. LeConte Stevens— Physiological Optics:

appears in the direction of the visual line, changing in apparent
position with every motion of the eye.

Professor W. B. Rogers* in 1860 published some experi-
ments in the binocular union of after-images from illuminated
lines so arranged as to produce the appearance of relief. Per-
spective after-i -images were likewise obtained by Wheatstonet
and W undt;{ but the objection to conclusions drawn from suc
perceptions as these consists in the fact that the observer knows
what effects would result in direct vision, under the conditions
imposed ; and it is difficult to determine how far the perception
may be due to imagination rather than to retinal sensation.
Professor Rope succeeded in attaining perspective after-ima-
ages, even when the luminous lines were regarded decyinieg od
instead of together; but thus far no one else seems to
recorded the same results, and the experiment is still liable 3c
the objection that the visual judgment is warped by anticipa-
tion and. association. I have undertaken to test these results
as rigidly as possible, and at the same time to ascertain whether
any modification would be imposed by varying the muscular
conditions under which the spectral images are seen.

- Across the median plane of vision was held a card, with

spectral asily perceived, apparently in mid air.
With visual tie parallel it became a ae on the wall but
without losing its pe On Sa contracting the

much smaller and nearer, The experiment was repeated many
times, and varied, but with uniform results.

ate eye. In the dark room the resultant after-image was dis-
tinetly noes in mid air, standing out in bold relief. On

* This Journal, II, xxx, Nov., 1860. + Phil. Transactions, 1838, ii, p. 392.
¢ Opt. Phys., p. 936.

Binocular Union of Spectral Images. 383

picture was made to approach and grow apparently
smaller, in almost as marked a degree as by the previous exper-
iment,

3. A series of concentric black and white circular bands was

held
obliquely crossing the horizontal visual line of the left eye.
After the retina became fatigued, the card was held across that of

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dark room and requested to describe the resultant spectral im-
ages perceived. Without allowing him ever to know whether

Concentric circular bands; and in like manner he soon learned
what kind of obliquity should be given the plane of each card

334 W. LeConte Stevens—Physiological Opties.

S. Haughton—LEvolution of the Earth-Moon System. 335

Arr. XXXVI.— New views of Mr. George H. Darwin's Theory
of the Evolution of the Karth-Moon System, considered as to its
bearing on the question of the duration of Geological Time; by
the Rev. SamugeL Hauauron, M.D., Fellow of Trinity Col
lege, Dublin.

[Read before the Mathematical Section of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science, at Montreal, August, 1882.]

It has been tacitly assumed, even so far back as the times of
Newton and Clairaut, that the earth and planets have passed
through a liquid condition (owing to former great heat) before
assuming the solid condition, which some, at least, of them now
possess

Laplace, in his nebular bypothesis, also assumes the former
€xistence of this liquid condition, and it is openly asserted by
all geologists who believe that the earth consists of a solid crust
(more or less thick), reposing upon a fluid or viscous nucleus.

t has been proved by Sir William Thomson, following out
the views of the late Mr. Hopkins, that the present condition of
the earth, taken as a whole, is such that it must be regarded as

Ing more rigid than glass or steel, possibly more rigid than
any terrestrial substance under the surface conditions of pressure.

lhe following considerations show that it may be fairly
doubted whether the earth or any other planet ever existed in
a fluid condition.

1. The possibility of the equilibrium of the rings of Saturn,
‘On the supposition that they are either solid or liquid has been
more than doubted, and the most probable hypothesis respect-
she them is, that they consist of swarms of discrete meteoric
Stones.

2. It is difficult to understand the low specific gravity of
Jupiter and the other outer planets, on the supposition that
they are either solid or liquid, for we know of no substance

336 S. Haughton—G. H. Darwin's Theory of the

light enough to form them.* If the outer planers consist of
discrete meteoric stones moving around a®olid or liquid nu
cleus, the difficulty respecting their specific gravity would dis-
appear.
im The recent researches connecting the November, the
August, and other periodic swarms of shooting stars with com-
ets tend in the direction of showing that comets in cooling,
break up into discrete solid particles (each no doubt having
passed through the pauls condition); and that probably the
solar nebula cooled in e manner into separate fiery tears,
which soon solidified by radiation into the cold of space

4. Mr. Huggins’s recent comparisons of the spectroscopie
appearances of comets and incandescent portions of met
stones, showing the presence in both of hydrocarbon and wine
gen compounds, confirm the conclusions drawn from the iden-
Be of the paths of comets and meteoric periodic shooting stars.

Mr. H. A. Newton, in a remarkable paper read before the
Shettield Meeting of the British Sor naitaitg (1879), showed the
possibility (if not probability) of the asteroids being extinct
comets, captured and brought into the solar system by the
attraction of some one or other of the outer large planets, and
permanently confined in the space between Mars and Jupiter,
which is the only prison cell in the solar system large enough
to hold permanently such disorderly wanderers.

In the same paper, Professor Newton threw out the idea
that some of the satellites of the large planets might also be of
cometary origin.

From all these and other considerations it is therefore allow-
able to suppose that the earth and moon when they separated
from the solar nebula, did so as a swarm of solid meteoric

quence of tidal friction) have pushed each other asunder to 4
gies of sixty times the radius of the earth.t+
is paper on the tidal friction of a planet (supposed
viscous and under the influence of bodily tides caused in
it by an external body such as “the moon), Mr. Darwin has
found a remarkable equation of condition, which may be
thus expressed :
* aed force of this my Seer Mages not be felt before. the revelations of the
oscope, because at that t there was no proof that the whole un niverse
he composed of kgs same astigle i substances, and those very limited in number-
ceedings of Royal wo ge June, 1879.
t Phil i rand, 1881, Part ii, p. 4

Evolution of the Earth-Moon System. 337

sl Wat
Uf r) & op: (1)
y = distance between centers of earth and moon.
¢ = time elapsed from a fixe
pate P (n—Q) 2
hee 1+p?(n—Q)? (2)
n = angular velocity of earth’s rotation.

Q = angular velocity of moon’s orbital revolution.

p = quantity varying inversely as the viscosity of the planet.
The extreme interest of equation (1) consists in the appearance
of the inverse sixth power of the distance.

As the function ¥ varies very slowly, we find by integration,
for any portion of time during which ¥ may be regarded as
constant

c= Ar? +B, (3)
most unexpected and remarkable result.

3 Upon reading Mr. Darwin’s papers, my mind turned to a
problem with which I was familiar, viz: the retardation of the
___ earth’s rotation produced by the lunisolar tide exerted upon the

Ocean supposed collected in an equatorial canal, the moon and
Sun having no declination, and I readily found an equation to
express the evolution of the earth-moon system, on the fore-
going hypothesis as to friction.
This equation is the following :

Afr) « LS (4)

S
=

where

2 =

Tce (6)
{4V" (n—O)'—BY /4(n—OV tf
J = coefficient of friction supposed proportional to

relative velocity
k varies inversely as 7.
V, = velocity at earth’s equator.
This leads, as in Mr. Darwin’s hypothesis of viscous earth, to
the integral

[= Ar? + B' (6)
The form of the functions ¥ and @ is similar, as both ascend
by odd powers of (n— 2) and vanish when n=2, that is to say,

at the beginning and end of the evolution by friction of the
earth-moon system,
It is quite clear, therefore, that the remarkable expression (1)
found by Mr. Darwin, is not peculiar to his special hypothesis
_ Of a viscous earth, but can be deduced equally well from the
totally distinct hypothesis of an absolutely rigid earth retarded
by the tidal action of a liquid ocean.
M. Jour. Rian Series, VoL. XXIV, No, 143.—NovemBER, 1882,

338 J. W. Dawson—FKrian Flora of the United States.

I was led by this result to consider the case of the earth-moon
separating (as I believe they did) from the central solar mass, in
the form of a swarm of discrete masses of meteoric iron and
stone, each one having the temperature of the cold of inter-
stellar space, or not much above it. Translating this concep-
tion into mathematical language, I find that the equation of
continuity belonging to the hydrodynamical theory applies
equally well to the meteoric theory, viz:

vy = vy’ (7)
where », v’, are the velocities at any two points, and y, y’ are the
depths of the ocean or meteoric swarm at the same points.

The depth of the swarm or ocean, without jostling or friction
will be least under the moon, and greatest at right angles to the
moon, and the velocities will be inversely. Hence the chances
of jostling among the meteorites, when disturbed by the moon’s
tidal action will be proportional to the velocity, being greatest
where the velocity is greatest and the area of passage least, and
vice versa.

This consideration reduces the meteoric problem to that of
the hydrodynamical problem, with a friction proportional to
the velocity, and gives equations, in all respects similar to those
derived by Mr. Darwin, from the hypothesis of a viscous earth.

On the meteoric hypothesis, if the jostling of the stones be
slow they may cool almost as fast as they are heated and the
result will be a cool earth and almost indefinite time at the
disposal of geologists.

Art. XXXVII.—Recent discoveries in the Erian (Devonian)

Flora of the United States; by J. W. Dawson.

Tue following notes are extracted from a Report on Devonian
Plants prepared for the Geological Survey of Canada, but not
yet published. They relate to the recent discoveries made in
the United States, and their bearing on points of interest with
reference to the Erian Flora.

I. Tae Nature anp AFFrnities oF Pri,oPpHyTON.

(Lycopodites Vanuxemii of Report on Devonian and Upper Silu-
i . . plumula of Report on Lower

by Gceppert in his description of the European species Lyco-
podites Fee eg which is very near to the American Erian
form. Since 1871, however, there have been many new specimens

J. W. Dawson—LErian Flora of the United States. 339

obtained, and very various opinions expressed as to their affini-

ties. While Hall has named some of them Plumalina and has
regarded them as animal structures, allied to hydroids, Lesque-
reux has described some of the Carboniferous forms under the

Plants,* separated this group from t enus Lycopodites and
formed for it the genus Pt:dophyton, in allusion to the feather-
like aspect of several of the s sons for this, and

the affinities of these plants by finding in Professor Thomson’s
collection a specimen from Caithness, which shows a plant
apparently of this kind, with the same long narrow pinng or
leaflets, attached, however, to thicker stems, and rolled up in a
circinate manner. It seems to be a plant in vernation, and the
parts are too much crowded and pressed together to admit of
being accurately figured or described ; but I think I can scarcely
be deceived as to its true nature. The circinate arrangement
'n this case would favor a relationship to ferns; but some

branchlets, and upon these and also oe the curved extremi-

ties of the branches, are long narrow linear leaves placed in a
crowded manner. The specimen is thus not a spike of fructifi-
cation, but a young stem or branch in vernation, and which

when unrolled’ would be of the form of those peculiar pinnate

* Canadian Naturalist, 1878.

340 J. W. Dawson—LErian Flora of the United States.

Lycopodites of which L. Vanuxemii of the American Devonian

and L. penneformis of the Kuropean Lower Carboniferous are
the types, and it shows, what might have been anticipated
from other specimens, that. they were low tufted plants, cir-
cinate in vernuation.

As these plants constitute a small but distinct group, known
only, so far as I am aware, in the Lower Carboniferous and
Erian or Devonian, they deserve a generic name, and I pro-
posed for them in my Paper on Scottish Devonian Plants,
1878, that of Pélophyton, a name sufficiently distinct in sound
from Psilophyton, and expressing very well their peculiar
feather-like habit of growth. The genus was defined as follows:

‘‘ Branching plants, the branches bearing long slender leaves
in two or more ranks, giving them a feathered appearance ;
vernation oe Fruit unknown, but analogy would indi-
cate that it was borne on the bases of the leaves or on modified
branches ik shorter leaves.”

The Scottish specimen above referred to was named Pt.
Thomsoni, and was characterized by its densely tufted form
and thick roles: The other species known are:

Pt. penneformis Goeppert, L. io i rapa
Pt. Vanuxemii Dawson, Devon
Pt. plumula Dawson, ae Carbonitercan

Shumard’s Filicites gracilis, from the Devonian of Ohio, and
Stur’s Pinites antecedens, from the Lower Carboniferous of
Silesia, may possibly belong to the same genus. The Scottish
specimen referred to is apparently the first appearance of this
form in the Devonian o

I have at a still later date had opportunities of studying con-
siderable series of these Seale collected by Professor Williams
of Cornell University, and have prepared a note in reference
to re for the Americau Association, of which, however, only

illiams’s specimens occur in a dar shale asso-
ciated with remains of land plants of the genera Psilophyton,
Ethodea, etc., and also marine shells, of which a small species
of Rhynchonella i is often attached to the stems of the Prilophyton.
Thus these organisms have evidently been deposited in marine
beds, but in association with land plants.

The study of the specimens collected by Professor Williams
developes the teiitey facts: (1.) The plants are not contin-
uous fronds, but slender stems or petioles with narrow linear
leaflets attached ee a pinnate manner. (2.) The pinnules are

so articulated that they break off leaving delicate transverse
_ scars, and the lower parts of the stems are often thus denuded

J. W. Dawson—Erian Flora of the United States. 341

dichotomously toward the top; but this is rare. ’ ere
are no indications of cells on the pinnules; but, on the other
hand, there is no appearance of fructification unless the minute
granules which roughen some of the stems are of this nature.
(6.) The stems seem to have been lax and flexuous, and in

erect in the water. (8.) Some of the specimens show so muc
carbonaceous matter as to indicate that the pinnules were of

Tepresent a different species with similar slender pitted stems,
often partially denuded of pinnules below; but the pinnules
are broader and more distant. They are attached by
very narrow bases, and apparently tend to lie on a plane,
though they may possibly have been spirally arranged. On
the same slabs are rounded sporangia or macrospores like those
of Lepidodendron, but there is no evidence that these belonged
to Trochophyllum. On the stems of this plant. however, there
are small rounded bodies apparently taking the places of some
of the pinnules. These may possibly be spore-cases; but they
may be merely imperfectly developed pinnules. Still the fact
that Similar small granules appear on the stems of the Devonian
Species, favors the idea that they may be organs of fructification.

he most interesting discovery, however, which results from

f

varboniferous periods, and perhaps allied to Lycopods and
Pillworts in their organization and fruit, but specially distin-

342 J. W. Dawson—Erian Flora of the United States.

the limits of Canada is Pt. plumula found by Dr. Honeyman in
the Lower Carboniferous of Nova Scotia; but as Pt Vanuxemir
abounds in the Erian of New York, it will no doubt be found
in Canada also.

Il. Nore on Ertan Trees oF tHE Genus Dapoxyton, Unger
(Araucarites of Geppert, Araucarioxylon of Krans.)

Large woody trunks, carbonized or silicified, and showing
wood-cells with hexagonal areoles having oval pores inscribed
in them, occur abundantly in some beds of the Middle Erian
in America, and constitute the most common kind of fossil
wood all the way to the Trias. They have in the older forma-
tions, generally, several rows of pores on each fiber, and med-
ullary rays composed of two or more series of cells, but become
more simple in these respects in the Permian and Triassic
series. The names Araucarites and Araucarioxylon are perhaps
objectionable, inasmuch as they suppose affinities to Araucaria
which may not exist. Unger’s name, which is non-committal,
is therefore, I think, to be preferred. In my Acadian Geology
and in my Report on the Geology of Prince Edward Island, I
have given reasons for believing that the foliage of some at least
of these trees was that known as Walchia, and that they may
have borne nutlets in the manner of Taxine trees (Zrigonocar-
pum, ete.). Grand d’Eury has recently suggested that some of
them may have belonged to Cordantes, or to plants included 1n
that somewhat varied and probably artificial group.

The earliest discovery of trees of this kind in the Erian of
America, was that of Matthew and Hartt, who found large
trunks, which I afterwards described as Dadoxylon Ouangondta-
num, in the Erian Sandstone of St. John, New Brunswick,
hence named by those geologists the “ Dadoxylon sandstone.
A little later, similar wood was found by Professor Hall and
Professor Newberry in the Hamilton group of New York and
Ohio, and the allied wood of the genus Ormoaxylon was obtained
by Professor Hall in the Portage group of the former State.
These woods proved to be specifically distinct from that of St.

ohn, and were named by me D. Aalli, ewberryi, and
Ormoxylon Erianum. The three species of Dadowylon agreed
in having composite medullary rays, and would thus belong to
the group Paleoxylon of Brongniart. In the case of Ormoxylon
this character could not be very distinctly ascertained, but the
medullary rays appeared to be simple.

I am indebted to Professor J. M. Clarke of Amherst College,
Massachusetts, for some well preserved specimens of another
pee rom the Genesee shale of Canandaigua, New York.

J. W. Dawson—Erian Flora of the United States. 343

rows of slit-formed bordered pores in hexagonal borders. The
medullary sheath consists of pseudo-scalariform and reticulated
fibers; but the most remarkable feature of this wood is the
structure of the medullary rays, which are very frequent, but
short and simple, sometimes having as few as four cells super-
Imposed. This isa character not before observed in Coniferous
trees of so great age, and allies this Middle Hrian form with
some Carboniferous woods which have been supposed to belong
to Cordaites or Sigillaria. In any case this structure is new
and I have named the species Dadoxylon Clarkii, after its dis-
coverer. The specimens occur, according to Professor Clarke,
in a calcareous layer which is filled with the minute shells of
Syliola fisswrella of Hall, believed to be a Pteropod; and con-
taining also shells of Goniatites and Gyroceras. The stems
found are only a few inches in diameter, but may be branches
of larger trees.

t thus appears that we already know five species of Conifer-
ous trees of two genera in the Middle Erian of America,
40 Interesting confirmation of the facts otherwise known as

have been as well established and differentiated into species in
the Middle Devonian as in the succeeding Carboniferous.

Professor Clarke has been so fortunate as to find in the

Styliola limestone, which contains the branches of Dadoxylon, a

* Stara showing the structure of Cladoxylon, and so similar to
- hger’s species, C. mirabile, that I think it may safely be referred
foit. The stem is 15 centimeter in diameter, and marked wit

about fifteen longitudinal ribs; which are the edges of the

* Vienna, 1856.

doscalariform tissue, with intervening cellular matter. Enclos-
ing the axis is a cylinder of thin-walled cellular tissue traversed
by a few bundles of fibers. The outer surface has a dense
cortical structure, but unfortunately shows no external mark-
ings. is discovery affords another interesting link of con-
nection between the Hrian flora of Eastern America and that
of Europe.

western Canada, were covered by the sea. It thus happens

interior portion of the Continent, consists merely of drifted and
macerated remains carried out to sea. The number and variety
of these remains, however, testify in a remarkable manner to
the richness of the flora, representing as they do, though in an
imperfect manner, many species of Conifers, T'ree-ferns, and
Arborescent Lycopods, all of which probably grew on limited
insular areas.

o Professor Clarke we are also indebted for the discovery
of a remarkable tree of the Hamilton period (Celluloxylon pri-
mevum Dn.); and Mr. B. M. Wright of Penn Yan, N. Y., has
recently added to the plants of the Portage and Chemung the
singular types of tree-fern, Asteropteris Noveboracensis Dn., an
equisetaceous plant, Equisetites Wrightiana Dn., and Cyclostigma
affine, a plant allied to the well-known Oyelostigma of the Irish
Devonian. These species have been described in the Journal
of the London Geological Society for May, 1881.

IV. PsttoppHyton anp RuopeEa.

Reference is made to the abundant oecurrence of the species
P. princeps and P. robustius in the Lower Erian near Campbell-
ton, and the corroboration which the specimens afford of the
author’s previous statements as to the structure and affinities
of these plants so characteristic of the Hrian both in Kurope
and America. :

A

minute acicular leaves, while the spore-cases, though in the
form of sacks, having some resemblance to those of Archwopte-

W. M. Davis—Triassie Trap Rocks. B45.

ris, are entirely different ia their habit of growth, and also very
much larger

In this connection I may mention that in specimens from the
Chemung shales of New York, recently obtained from Professor
Williams, I have found plants which may be referred to Rhodea.
They are slender delicately striated or smooth petioles, giving
off pinnate divisions, which ultimately bifurcate frequently an
appear to terminate in flat blade-like or cuneate leaves or fronds.
They are the same objects which I described, from fragmentary
specimens obtained from Professor Hall, as Hhachiopteris pinnata,
in my paper on Devonian plants, in the Journal of the Geolog-
ical Society of London, vol. xviii. In a note on Professor

illiams’ plants, presented last year to the American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science, I have described these

plants I have not seen, but they are in appearance and habit of
growth altogether distinct from Psi/ophyton. I may also ob-
serve here that the stems of Psilophyton are much more woody,
and in their round central scalariform axis, present much more
of structural affinity to Lycopods than to Ferns.

im

ART. XXXVIII.—Brief Notice of Observations on the Triassie
Trap Rocks of Massachusetts, Connecticut and New Jersey; by
W. M. Davis.

DurinG the past summer I have examined the Triassic trap
rocks in Massachusetts, Connecticut and New Jersey at a num-

er of points where they are shown in characteristic develop-
ment. ‘The detailed statement of these observations will soon
be published in the Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative

oology, Cambridge, with full reference to previous work; in
the mean time the following brief account of the results at-
tained is presented.

The traps occur in three distinct conditions: first, in dikes
Crossing the strata of sandstones and shales; these or similar
Ones not yet revealed by erosion were undoubtedly the pas-
Sages of supply for the trap sheets; second, in intruded sheets
often of great extent and thickness, lying in nearly all cases con-
formably between the layers of stratified rocks; third, as over-
flow sheets poured out during the formation of the sandstone,
in thickness and extent equal to the intrusions, and similar to
them in topographic effects.

346 W. M. Davis—Triassie Trap Rocks of

from a ten-foot dike, or eight to twelve feet from a hundred-
foot dike. The largest dikes that I have seen are Mill and
Pine Rocks, New Haven: they are one to two hundred feet
thick, of medium coarse texture in the middle, fine at the
sides, compact throughout; they break through gently iv-
clined, coarse sandstone strata about at right angles to the bed-
ding, and have a rough transverse columnar structure. is
probable that few of the supply-dikes which fed the largest

written upon them; Mr. L. C. Russell has recently stated this
view of the origin of the First Newark Mountain, N. J. (in-
correctly, as I think), as well as for the Palisades. Professor
Dana considers all the sheets intrusive, and does not mention
overflows in his Manual of Geology,

The overflow or contemporaneous origin for the trap sheets
was first clearly stated by E. Hitchcock, 1833 and 1841; 1t
was later advocated by Principal Dawson for Nova Scotia, and
recently by Professor Emerson of Amherst,* but it has never

id many advocates.

The overflow sheets are known from being commonly very
amygdaloidal on their back or upper surface, and sometimes

* See this Journal for September, 1882.

Massachusetts, Connecticut and New Jersey. 347

within the mass or at its base; they exert a small metamorphic
effect on the underlying stratum, and none at all on the over-
lying bed which was deposited conformably upon them. They
are sometimes accompanied by a tufaceous deposit, presumably
of ashes thrown into the Triassic estuaries; and the overlying
sandstone sometimes contains trap fragments. Examples of
overflows are the Turner’s Falls—Deerfield Range, as lately
shown by Emerson; Mts. Holyoke and Tom, first proved by
Hitchcock, and their extension southward into Connecticut to
the Hanging Hills at Meriden; Lamentation Mountain and
some others to the south of it, with their subordinate lateral
ranges nearly to Long Island Sound; and First and Second
Newark Mountains in New Jersey. The evidence is not

turbance show no igneous rocks; but very probably because
the disturbance was a downfolding and not a general upfolding
a8 in most mountain ranges. The deposition of more strata
aud the overflow of more trap ceased when the downfolding,
that had begun and deepened the Triassic troughs, changed
(for some unknown reason) to disturbance with uplifting.

The general monoclinical structure of the several Triassic
belts is not considered the result of original oblique deposition
a8 proposed by Rogers; or of broad anticlinal folding as sug-
gested by Kerr and Russell; or of a simple monoclinal tilting
as assumed by Hitchcock and LeConte; but is regarded rather
as the effect of lateral compression, producing a peculiar dis-
tortion, The style of the distortion is best recognized by
means of the overflow trap ridges, which are generally con-
tinuous for several or many miles; for these, when once proved
to be overflows, are established as well marked horizons in the
generally monotonous sandstones and shales; satisfactory evi-
dence can thus be obtained to show that the strata as a whole
are both folded and faulted. The folds take the form of shal-
low oval dishes or boats, of gentle curvature, canted over a
little and faulted on the side of the general monoclinal dip ;
and the outcropping edges of the hard trap sheets then neces-

348 _W. Mt. Davie—Triassic Trap Rocks.

sarily take the crescentic form, first fully recognized by Percival,
with their bold convex side toward the up-slope of the mono-
clinal, and their horns toward the down-slope. The existence
of such folds is well proven for several cases by finding that
the strike of the neighboring sandstone is closely parallel to
the trend of the curved ridge, and that the dip is directed in
toward the center of the curve. This has been shown but not
fully appreciated by several observers.

Faults are known by the reappearance of certain strata, or
series of strata. In this way it may be made very probable
that the Hanging Hills sheet reappears in Lamentation Mount-
ain, and again in the several strong ridges as far south as Lake
Saltonstall; the face of most if not all of these ridges being
characterized by sandstone, amygdaloidal trap, limestone, shale
and heavy trap, always occurring in this (ascending) order:
smaller examples could also be named. But no sufficient
reason has been found to show why a general monoclinal tilt-
ing should have taken place.

The New Jersey and Massachusetts areas have few folds and
faults shown by trap ridges; they are made on a larger pattern ;
but faults may occur, unperceived, in their sandstone. Con-
necticut is decidedly the best field for the study of all the
points above mentioned in the history of the Triassic forma-
tions.

The age of the intruded sheets has been referred to as inde-
terminate: it is not as yet susceptible of good limitation. The
early writers, who considered all the trap intrusive, often
looked on it as the agent of disturbance of the sandstone;
later writers, as Dana and Russell, regard it as intrusive after
the tilting of the sandstones had been accomplished by some
other force. As opposed to these views, I would present the
following evidence of its intrusion before the tilting and per-
haps nearly contemporaneous with the appearance of the over-
flows. The dikes and the intruded sheets, where seen to break
across the strata, show irregular or ragged edges, as above
noted: their intrusion therefore took place before the produc-
tion of joints, now very distinct in many parts of the sandstone,
and hence probably before the tilting, for the joint-making
almost surely could not have been later than the tilting and
may have been earlier. Moreover, if the intrusions took place
during or after the tilting, there is no reason why they might
not appear at any part of the Triassic belts; but as a matter of
fact the large and well proved intruded sheets occur only near
the base of the formation, close to the adjoining crystalline
rock; and the only reason that I can assign for so peculiar a
limitation is that the interbedded intrusions took place only
under a considerable pressure of overlying rocks, as was the

B. KE. Emerson—The Deerfield Dyke and its Minerals. 349

case with the western Laccolites which these intruded sheets

resemble in many ways. Finally, the intruded sheets, as well
as the overflows, outcrop along curved lines; this curvature
in the overflows results from a bending after their eruption ;
therefore the others also were probably bent after their intru-
sion. But it must be borne in mind that all of this is only
presumptive evidence and not final proof; the age of the
intrusions is not yet determined.
Cambridge, Mass., Oct. 5, 1882.

Axt. XXXIX.—The Deerfield Dyke and its Minerals ; by Ban.
K. Emerson, Professor of Geology in Amherst College.
[Concluded from page 278.]

Kaourn.—Along the shore in Greenfield opposite Turner's
Falls, and especially on the new road between these towns, the
decomposition of the radiated prehnite has very frequently
taken a different course. The nodules are in whole or part
changed into a white kaolin (?), the change uniformly commenc-
ing from the different centers of radiation and proceeding
regularly outward. Under the microscope the kaolin-like
material separates into opaqve granules so extremely minute
that they show in water tue Brownian movement with wonder-
oa pebiatingss

and accompanies in varying forms all the later numbers of the
Series, It also occurs independently in the uppermost layer of
the dyke to the depth of a meter in the immediate vicinity of
the quartz veins mentioned later, though the two remain

~

350 B. K. Hmerson—The Deerfield Dyke and its Mimerals.

strictly separate. Here it fills large steam pores 10-30" in

iameter, which rise vertically 10-15™. The walls are coated
with a thick layer of diabantite and they are filled with brick-
red and transparent calcite in layers.

2. EprpoTr.—Occurs rarely low down in the prehnite; more
commonly in drusy surfaces in its upper part, or spread in del-
icate tufts of flat blades upon the spindle-shaped crystals. It
is included also, with interrupted crystallization, in the calcite
which follows upon the prehnite. The maximum size of the
erystals is 8™™. ey are mostly thick plates, and under the
microscope show as brilliant luster and as rich dark green as
the specimens from the Dauphiny. It encloses as an aggre-
gate prehnite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite and calcite, but the
separate crystals are perfectly pure and transparent. The
thickest crystals are deep pistachio green; the thin plates are
deep brown-red, sometimes half colorless.

AxiInitE.—Jet black, opaque crystals, the largest 10-12"
in length, imbedded in prehnite and calcite and resting on
prehnite. The crystals are thick plates, resembling, as do
many of the minerals found here, the simpler forms from
Bour d’Oisans—the faces P and wu large and striated vertically,
and P also striated horizontally parallel to the intersection eage
of P and r. The face r is smaller and striated horizontally.

YRITE appears in minute fresh striated crystals in prehnite
and calcite and in limonite pseudomorphs in the same situation.

-

B. K. Emerson—The Deerfield Dyke and its Minerals. 351

Also alone, as one of the most modern minerals present, in
broad, flattened rosettes in comparatively fresh fissures in the
trap.

p.
GALENITE.—Extremely rare in minute grains in prehnite,
chlorophceite, and calcite.

Here a few minute, elongated prisms appear in and on preh-
nite. Toward the upper surface of the dyke occur veins
4-5™ wide, coarse comby quartz whose terminations interlace
regularly at the center. Between the wall on one side and
the regular cockscomb quartz a layer 10™ thick of broken-up
aie crystals, re-cemented by quartz, showing that the vein

age,

In the Cheapside veins similar, but smaller negative crystals
occur in the prehnite which at times rose around and covered
the selenite, before its disappearance, forming thus rude pseu-

omorphs; and I suspect that part or all of the abundant
gashing of the prehnite, quartz and datolite may be due to this
mineral,

FLuortre.—Emerald-green dodecahedra-like beads strung
Upon a satin thread occur half imbedded in and scattered over
and among the last-formed fibrous prehnite, the crystals 03" in

352 B.K. Emerson—The Deerfield Dyke and its Minerals.

CaLciTeE.— Of the minerals which succeed to the prehnite, cal-
cite and datolite are the most important and most abundant
and generally replace each other in different veins. In some a
Jarge development of calcite occurs with much axinite, in
others an equally large development of datolite. The axinite
shows that boracic acid was not wanting during the formation
of the prehnite and during the subsequent increase of the
calcite in the veins where the datolite fails to appear, and the
presence of epidote and the more abundant development of
prehnite indicate more elevated temperature in the latter, while
in the other veins the supply of boracic acid was greatly in-
creased so that nearly all the calcite was absorbed in the for-
mation of datolite.

Excepting quartz all the minerals enumerated above as
enclosures in prehnite occur as enclosures in the calcite which
follows it, and when pieces where the latter is abundantly de-
veloped are thrown in acid and the calcite nearly dissolved
away, specimens of great beauty are obtained, the delicate
frost-work of prebnite, chalcopyrite, epidote, and the blac
stout axinite being set off against the brilliant luster of the
etched calcite, the whole being sprinkled over with minute
pale green dodecahedra of fluor. It occurs abundantly in dis-
tinct crystals and drusy surfaces over the prehnite; —}R small
_ with rounded edges; 1° bristling over large surfaces; 1’, 0,
4R 7, 1°, with curved and striated faces; 1 with deeply striated
faces and often distorted; 1’, -4°, the first striated parallel to
—4R, and the form either acuminate or truncated by a single
face of R. Other delicately suspended forms had at one end
a single broad face of R and rose in a group of sharp scaleno-
hedra at the other end. Every where the crystals were small
and affected the most elongate forms with rounded edges and
rounded, striated and distorted faces, as if to imitate as closely
as possible the prehnite with which they were associated,
while on the datolite the forms 2R or -2R, R invariably ap-

ear in large perfectly transparent crystals up to 18" in
ength, and with a luster equal to that of the datolite itself _

DarouitE.—The datolite is second only to prebnite 1n
abundance at the vew cutting, and surpasses all the minerals
occurring here in beauty, perfectly pellucid crystals up to
12™ long being not uncommon, and many of the same show-
ing a great range of rare faces and curious and perplexing dis-
tortions. It occurs also in thin veins, developing no crystals
on the north side of the river and rarely in the amygdules in
the light gray diabase. The mineral fills the veins often com-

letely with a white saccharoidal deposit from 10 to 50"™"
thick, with only here and there cavities in which fine crystals
ave come to feceenens It rests sometimes upon the trap

- , —1-7 (u), -
2-1 (8), $2 (2), 129 (0), £2 (0, 2 )
1 (mw), 4 (x), -6-3 ae (0). £2 (0), 12-$ (x), -16-2 (R), -8-
{), 4-2 (Q), ~§ 2 (U), -2-2 (7), 2-2 (a), $-2 ©), 8-2 (B), $2 (C)
(new', 3-3 (E), $-3 (F), $5 (K), $-9 G). o
_ or convenience of description the crystals may be divided
into three types:
The regular.—In this almost spherical forms are age
ae

=

by the equal development of a large number of faces
one crystal ~, e, m were slightly larger than the rest; a, M, n,
, 8, Q, equally developed ¢, g, B, very small.

Another very stout, prismatic and resembling the Andreas-
berg crystals somewhat in the distribution of its faces, except
that the elongation in the direction of the clinodiagonal axis ~
was only slight, had the faces x, ¢, A, g, m, largest; 7, M, -4, p,

»U, pw, 72, about equal; w, », 9, 8, §, 9, 2, 4 x, smaller.

A third was formed by the nearly equal development of a,
: f m, &, 4, p, M, 0, n, 8, B, with O, s (-62) g and 7 subordi-

ate,

A fourth minute but very beautiful crystal was unique for
this locality in havifig the face o large and square and w elon-
gated vertically, the faces g, m, u, 2, a, n, M, ¢, A, 0, 8, Q, U, a
about equally large, &, g, 4, 7, F small.

Several of the larger crystals of this type showed a new
face in the zone A (4), g (22; and 0 (4-2), ¢ (O) = $-2 to which
Thave in the preceding list applied the letter C.

* Tsch. Min. Mitth., 1874, p. 5.
Am. Jour. Sc1,—Tatrp Series, Vou, XXIV, No. 143.—NoveMBER, 188’.
23

354 B. K. Emerson—The Deerfield Dyke ond its Minerals.

the direction of the axis of the zone a, 0, m, the sharp edges:
of which are beveled by n and o elongated into narrow planes.
The other planes are grouped in a very confusing way around
the ends of this prism. The uniform dullness of the face x is a
characteristic feature

The crystal under this type which was richest in faces
showed the following combination a, }, ¢, M, 0, a, g, m, ”, ¢, 4,
4d, B, Q, U, B, a, 7; another lacked ‘the faces b, k, and those in
the zone B, 0, 8. Other crystals showed the faces R, 2, and t,
in traces.
Ill. The tabular type-—The roughened faces of x are large
and nearly circular and approached so as to reduce the crystal
to a thick plate, around the edge of which the other faces are

laced. The crystals of this type resemble closely the Hay-
torite pseudomorphs, some of them having the same faces in

e same relative development as in the latter, others being
even richer in forms than any I have seen described from the
Haytor mine.

One crystal contained twenty-eight distinct forms, several
only as fine lines, but all capable of quite close measurement.
The crystal was peculiar in having the face a (2-2) striated in
two directions, forming a series of V’s, as is common with the
face o from other localities. The latter face is here finely
polished. This striation was eepereney parallel to the inter-
section edges which the face @ produced would make are 0
and 7-2. The forms sleent were a, c, M, 0, u, 8’,

Gm, 6 4 We 2. 0, P,Q, U. B, E, F, K, G. hades
erystal of this type went to Push extreme of simplicity, being
ounded by the faces a, ¢, n, &, A, #, q, all quite

large except g and O, and the hae e ca haa large and shield-
sha

e

Siilne tabular forms have been Dupree described from the
spheres of chalcedony from Theiss in

ENCLOSURES IN DATOLITE. Calcite. a When the datolite is.
thrown in acid much calcite is dissolved and a vesicular mass
left ; and similar pieces are found in the vein itself, showing that.
the same operation has been performed by natural agencies.

Selenite? Barite?—In the thick veins the minerals are often
abundantly ie by the removal of broad, thin blades of some
mineral, possibly selenite or barite, and ‘the surfaces drused
over by minute, very distorted crystals of datolite

Aainite—Some of the finest crystals of axinite occur in the
datolite. The crystals are here sometimes short stout prisms.

Prehnite.—Small portions of prehnite are enclosed rarely in
the lower portion of the datolite, also small patches of the
chloritic mineral naga with that derived from the decom-
position of the for

*0, a Zeitsch. Kryst., v, 425.

a
.

B.K. Lmerson—The Deerfield Dyke and its Minerals. 355

Sphene.—Very rarely small brown crystals of this mineral
<a resembling exactly the similar occurrence at Bergen
ill,

Tourmaline—A_ single minute greenish-brown, hexagonal
prism with trihedral termination, which seemed to agree exactly
with the sharper one, common in tourmaline, rested upon epi-
dote.

Chaleopyrite-—Small particles of chalcopyrite and pyrite com-
lete the list, the datolite being generally exceptionally free
om enclosures,

Borryonire.—One large cavity of the trap and nearly globu-

ATITE.—Occurs rarely in extremely minute, flat crys-
tals, blood-red by transmitted light, upon prehnite, and quite
abundantly, as the coloring matter of the red diabase.

AD.—Occurs scattered over much of the prehnite: in dots

trated the fissures and lay across the botryoidal surface.

The minerals of the third group, natrolite, stilbite, heulandite,
chabazite, analcite and pyrite, associated still with calcite and

vor, appear after the formation of the preceding silicates had
ceased entirely, and after much had been removed from the
veins by the action of water.

Narroxite.—This mineral occurs in loose tufts of very
Minute needles 01 to 004™™" in diameter, coating prehnite,
especially in those specimens where epidote was abundant. It
was not found associated with datolite or any of the succeeding
minerals. The needles were colorless when fresh, but large
Pieces of the rock were thickly covered with brown tufts of
4pparently the same mineral which gave a black bead with the
blow-pipe and seemed to be nearly transformed into limonite.

356 B. K. Hmerson—The Deerfield Dyke and tis Minerals.

Other thas were shining-black from a coating of an oxide of
mang
Pipacon OF DECOMPOSITION OF NATROLITE, Saponite.—In

into small masses from milk-white to straw-color, which are
spread over the surface of the prehnite like a thick layer of
dried cream with abundant shrinkage-cracks. The hardness is
one or less. It gives up only a little iron with hydrochloric,
and is quickly decomposed by hot sulphuric acid. A portion
introduced into a drop of water falls asunder neh like starch
—-which it every way resembles—with a series of slight explo-
sions which occur at first in rapid succession and continue,
growing fainter and farther apart for some little time, until the
whole is spread in a broad circle upon the glass. This process
exposes minute glassy fragments of prehnite. The flakes after
their dispersion present a peculiar appearance under the micro-
scope. ‘T’he first san i ak is strikingly se of a slide of nearly
dried blood corpuscles of uniform size 005--007™", the single
discs being variously xiumobied to each other. Separate groups
of discs often simulate closely in shape the grub of the com-

mon May beetle. The scales polarize brightly in bluish tints
and are indistinguishable from kaolin. In many cases a small
mass of the mineral seems to have undergone this vermiculite-
like reaction in the vein itself, and a delicate bloom is spread

has a tuft of natrolite needles perched in and around it, these
latter having minute dodecahedra of fluor strung upon them as
described below. The whole is now transformed into or coated
with the saponite, and a delicate bloom of the same coats the
surrounding epidote.

Tt occurs also in hollow pseudomorphs—acute prisms modi-
fied by the brachydome and resembling epistilbite.

The natrolite is succeeded in the prehnite-epidote veins only
by calcite, acute scalenohedra enclosing whole tufts of the
former mineral, and by fluorite, which is speared upon the del-
icate needles of the natrolite in minute transparent colorless
octahedra, pierced through a hexahedral axis. From one to
four of these are strung upon a single needle, often’ at the very

with radiated structure 10-20™ in diameter and up to
2=" thick, either spread separately or aggregated so thickly as
in small hemispheres. Farther

occurs associated with calcite, and rarely chabazite. The second
with heulandite and chabazite, and I examined a flat surface of
the trap, four feet square, one-half of which was covered with
| radiated stilbite, at first thickly covering the surface, then sep-
arating into distinct discs, and then quite suddenly replaced
y heulandite with which was associated chabazite, and rarely
the small prismatic crystals of stilbite. A third form of stil-
bite (c) is in interlaced crystals, 4™™ long, perfectly pellucid,
with even, highly-polished faces 2-2, 7-2, 0 i

scope the mineral shows a fine, rigid lining parallel to o which
seems to mark lines of growth, and bas no effect upon the
Polarization. At right angles to this run (a) long lines of flat

ie

RODUCTS OF THE DECOMPOSITION OF STILBITE. Kaolin (?).
—Many broad surfaces of the trap are covered with
Show-white stellate patches of stilbite which show all stages of
‘1€ decomposition of the mineral into kaolin(?). In specimens
already become snow-white an opaque the kaolin can be

length with sharp edges and no indication of other faces. It is

358 B. K. Emerson—The Deerfield Dyke and its Minerals.

chabazite ae Bytes ser he with it, show entirely fresh
. s. It is the lincolnite of President Hitchcock, an

ecimens dated by me agree exactly with those labeled
Heigolnite by him, and coming from the old locality east of

The mineral collection at Amherst contained a few

crystals, also identical with the above, from the Fitchburg cut-
ting, and these were separated by Professor Shepard from heu-
landite under the name lincolni

After careful study I find all these crystals identical with
each other and with heulandite, both optically and crystallo-
graphica

Awatcite.—Occurred (a) in a single crystal upon prehnite ;
(b) in flat pig gerne ‘gene 10-12™™ across, striated and formed
by the growth of the trapezohedron, in a narrow fissure; (¢)
in milk- nite alms circular and octagonal, 5-10™™ across ;
(d) in extremely fine botryoidal surfaces “with crystalline struc-
ture, with here and there a system of curious concentric
depressed rings, like the siliceous annulations on some fossils
(Beckite). They are as if formed by pressing several rings
each smaller than the other into a soft mass, so that it should

Other pieces which seem to me to have been analcite of the
form (4) are now wholly Sng into a yellow ferruginous
kaolin (?).

and the calcite afterward Lavine been r

CHABAZITE.—At Cheapside it occurs in small pellucid rhom-
bohedra with delicately striated faces. Crystals 1™™ in
ength. It rests always upon the trap and never upon the
heulandite with which it is associated, though when they
come in contact the latter penetrates the chabazite and is the
older m

Farther south, east of Old Deerfield, it occurs in the same
association. Most of the specimens agree in all respects with

¥O U. Shepard, eee of Minerals found within 75 miles of Amherst Col-
lege. Amherst, 1876.

ie “1

BLK. Emerson—The Deerfield Dyke and its Minerals. 359

encrusts broad areas producing a tessellated surface made up
of a great number of flattened crystals showing each a single
face of R, the adjacent ones being in twin position and the
whole reflecting the light together like a single face of a very
large crystal.

The paragenesis of the stilbite-chabazite veins is—

J. Radiated stilbite. 1. Prehnite.
2. Chabazite. 2. Heulandite.
3. Calcite. 3. Prismatic stilbite.
. Pyrite; or 4, Chabazite.
5. Calcite.

Below is a general table of the paragenesis of the minerals
found. The oldest is first, and the overlap of the words corre-
sponds approximately to the overlap of the minerals.

{ Diabantite.
Albite

3
5 4
2 Prehnite.
£3 Epidote.
a = Axinite.
83 Tourmaline.
m S 4 Calcite.
>) Fluor.
es Sulphides.
‘3 Datolite
3 phene
a cite.
a Sulphides.
. _ Natrolite
= Stilbite.
a Heulandite
§ | Analcite
. | Calcite
bE 2 Fluor.
5 * | Sulphides.
Ss Chabazite
° Calcive
ve) Fluor.
s Pyrite.
aa Saponite.
ro Chloropheite.
s Ey Kaolin
*% © ~ } Malachite.
o> 2 ; j
bes imonite.
A | Wad.

360 A. E. Verrill—Marine Fauna off New England Coast.

Art. XL.—Notice y the remarkable Marine Fauna occupying
the outer banks off the Southern Coast of New England, No. 7,.
res of some additions to the Fauna of Vineyard Sound ; by

EK. VERRILL. (Brief Contributions to Zoology from the
igs. of Yale College: No. LIII.

[Published by permission of Professor 8. F. Baird, U. 8. Commissioner of Fish
nd Fisheries. |

DURING the present season, as in 1881, the headquarters of

the U.S. Fish Commission were at Wood's Holl, Mass. The

organization of the party was sgh the same as last year.*

The special object, this year, was to continue the exploration

of the sea-bottom, and its fauna beneath the edge of the Gulf

Stream, which had been so haps aye carried on during the

two previous seasons. Owing to the unusual delay of the in

in the best part of the season, for we could not begin ou

dredging until August. Unfavorable weather and other ime
afterward prevented us from making more than five trips to
oe Gulf Stream slope this year. But these were very success-

One trip, occupying three days, was also made to the region
east of Cape Cod. On this trip very cold bottom- water was

abe , many, larg : ae 3 90 fath ; Hippasietat
phrygiana <Ag., several, large, 34 to 90 fath.; Astrophyion
gasstzii ee , 55 to 61 f oe off wag sree sta. 10 8,

90 to 110 han Geryon eltsgesions: 110 fath. : Balanus Hamer,
33 fath. ; Rossia Afyatti, several, large, 44 to 90 fath.
Of the five Gulf Stream trips, one was made southeastward
* The scientific party, associated with the writer in-carrying on the dredging
tog and making = CRECHODE, this Rivae, consisted of Mr. Richard Rath-
bun; Mr.Sanderson Smith: Mr. J. H. Emerton (as artist); Professor L. ;

Mr. 'B. r Koons; Mr. i Bruner; Patent win aw Professor 8. 1.
Smith was with us for a few days. Mr. Peter Parker and R. H. Miner, midship-
men N., took charge of the fishes. John Blish, midshipman ;
kept the records of soundings and temperatures, and C C. Chester had
charge of the dredging apparatus, as in previous yea he dredgings were all
by the “Fish Ha beck commanded by Lieut. Z. L. Tanner, U.S. N., as dur-

e two previous y e writer, as usual, ha genera charge of these

eachonasicn, and of the yeinligiatives of the invertebrate fauua

A. E. Verrill—Marine Fauna of New England Coast. 36%

from Nantucket, farther east than any of those of 1880 and
1881, while another was made to the region about 100 miles.
south of the eastern end of Long Island, farther west than any
of the former ones; the other three were in the intermediate:
region, off Martha’s Vineyard. Our dredgings, in this region,
therefore, now cover a belt about 150 miles, east and west,.
mostly between the 100 and 600 fathom lines. The total num-
ber of successful hauls made along this belt, in more than 100
fathoms, is now over one hundred. These have nearly all
been made with the large improved trawls; a few have also.
been made with a large rake-dredge. Probably no other part.
of the ocean-basin, in similar depths, has been more fully ex-
amined than this region.

_ the total number of species of Invertebrata, already on our
lists of the fauna of this belt, is about 575 nis number in-
cludes neither the Foraminifera, nor the Entomostraca, which
are numerous, and but few of the sponges. Probably the total
list. of Invertebrata, already obtained, when completed will
Melude not less than 700 species. Of these less than one-half
were known on our coast before 1880. Of fishes, there are, per-
haps, 75 species. Of the whole number, already determined,
about 265 are Mollusca, including 14 Cephalopoda; 85 are
Crustacea ; 60 are Echinodermata; 35 are Anthozoa; 65 are

nnelida,

The Steamer “Fish Hawk,” with which we have explored
this region during the past three seasons, was built particularly
or use in the hatching of shad eggs, in the mouths of shallow
rivers, and is, therefore, not adapted for service at sea, unless
in very fine weather. A much larger steamer, the ‘ Albatross,”
of 1000 tons, has been built for the use of the Fish Commis-
‘ion, and is now being fitted up expressly for deep-sea service,

have been taken. The use of steel wire for sounding, and of
wire rope for dredging, has enabled us to obtain a much greater

362 A. EF. Verrill—Marine Fauna off New England Coast.

number of dredgings* and temperature observations than would
have been possible, under the old system, adopted on the
“ Challenger.

Of Echinoderms, nearly all of the species previously enumer-
ated from this region and several additional ones were obtained.

mong those of special interest were Goniocidaris papillata, 156
to 158 fath.; Brissopsis lyrifera, 158 to 194 fath.; Spatangus
purpureus, 89 to 158 fath.: Sehizaster canaliferus, 100 fath.,
several; Hehinus Wallisi A. ‘Ag. 640 fath.; Z. gracilis, numer-
ous and of large size at stations 1097 and ‘1098, in 156 to 158
fath.; Phormosoma Sigsbet A. Ag., station 1123, in about 700
fathoms,+ several, both large and small, the largest 124™™ in
diameter; Porania grandis V., abundant in 156 to 158 fath. ;
Odontaster hispidus V., abundant in 89 fathoms.

mong those added to the fauna this year are a Diadema-like
sea-urchin; Solaster Barllii V., of which a large nine-armed
specimen, bright scarlet in color, was obtained in 284 fath., sta.
1121; Lophaster furcifer, several from 234 and 640 fath. ;
Astrogonium granulare, from 156 and 640 fath.; Astrophyton
Lamarckii, color bright orange, several from 194 fath. Aster-
onyx Loveni M. & Tr., sta, 1123, in about 700 fath., on a pen-
natulid, er bright orange ; Ophi oscolex, new sp., with
arm-spines, and a smal] bea tslebae: 234 fath. ; yaaa inus
aed young, from 640 fath.

Most of the Anthozoa of the previous years were again ob-
tained, with some additional ones, including a remarkable new
Pennatulid belonging to a new genus,t and two Gorgonians;

illustration of oe rapidity with which this work has been sag by
euplavin ne persons skille the various operations, and using the wire rope,
reeled upon a large drum, I give here a memorandum of the time vampire’ to

rope out; comme enced heaving 1 in “at 5:17; it was on deck at 5:44 Pp. m.; total time
for the haul, 1 hour, 15 minutes. The net contained several barrels of specimens,
including a great number and large variety of fishes, as well as of all classes of
inverte rtebrata, probably more than 150 species sarees: hake ral of them

PLU, in at 6:
deck at 6:50; total time 47 minutes. This was a very good haul, but not so large
as 1124. This was the seventh successful haul of the trawl made that Pru Ru
the specimens were assorted, labelled and packed away in alcohol, befor
+ The trawl was ‘pit own, at this rey in 780 fathoms, put scene a was

. choptilum V., gen. nov. Se hig pennatulid, with 9 rages Licey the
whole length, and polyps flan alternately, =e ow, on each side;
ealicles bilobed, appressed; zooids three she aa “aii, om sae ter an ae one on
each side of each cell; spicula “Sieg in the calicles, Leads and stalk.
Distichoptilum gracile PY. sp. Long and slender, with a long stalk.
Polyp-calicles, rather large, rigid, e lovely appressed, with tw: 0 sharp oe lobes,
filled with spicula, concealing the open mg se overlapping the base of the calicle

in front of each polyp cell; stalk long, a“ pepper w bulb; color
bright orange-red, due to the ee end br bald ‘yellowish grec 18 inches,
or 456™™; breadth i in "middle, 4 ; length of stalk, 1

3

gh s

A. EF. Verrill—Marine Fauna off New England Coast

363

List of off-shore Stations occupied by the Fish Hawk in 1882, to Sept. 8.

| Temp. F.
sat Locality. Fath. Bottom. Date. Bot- Sur Hour.
besaes face
. OF Ce Cod. Aug.
i us Nauset Beacon, NW $N, 10 m.| 55 fine sandy mud 2.1377. 63°. | 7130 a. Me
Be NW byW iW, 8im.| 61 2 \37 |63°5| 8.40 “
ie 1080 « NW byW4W, 64m.| 55 fine 2/37 |615| 9.40 “
=. 1081] os by 8, 54 m.._-. 334) gravel find pebbles 2180 3 (69* ObG: co
13 Cape Cod Lt, NW EN, 114 m.| 28 coarse gravel 2 40 |59 |11.45 “
W by N 20 Tos Oa BAe oe oe 2 |38 |64 |12.45 P.M
Ww, 8m.__} 374 coarse sand 9138 162'O 1 288 SS
is Race Point, Mi os E, 2m. -.--| 344] fine sandy mud 3 39 |64 6.15 A. M,
20° W, 22 m....| 34 fine sa 3 |\39°5 |64 | 7.00 *
: Is Cape Cod Lt SSW, 7 m..... 44 gray sa 3/39 1625] 8.30 “
he SW aW , 94 m....| 90 coarse sand 3 |38 |62 60°"
2 1083 “ SW W, 14m. ___|110 gray mud 3 385/63 (10.10 «
> 1090} “ SW 2 W, 13% m.../110 gray mud 3 385/62 |11.50 “
ae }
: | Off Martha’s Vineyard.
“a |_N. Lat. W. Long.
—_—-1091. 40° 03” 00", 69° 44’ 00") 65 | gray sand, shells | 11 46 |75 | 5.30 “
109239 58 00; 69 42 00 |202 ra iad Ta: eee
109339 56 00; 69 45 00 |349 sandy blue mud 11°\40 }tb S.do
9439 57 00; 69 47 00/301 blue mu 11 40 |76 |10.10 *
109539 55 98. 69 47 00/321 soft greenmud | 11 40 |76 (11.55 “
1096.39 53 00 ; 69 47 001317 green mud 11 (40 |75°5| 1.39 P. Mw
109739 54 00: 69 44 00 |158 fine sand 11/45 |75°5| 3.10 “
109839 53 00 69 43 00/156 fine san 1] [43°53 /75 | 4.35 “
110740 02 00 70 35 00 j116 gray mud 22 48 |71 | 6.004.M.
110840 02 00 70 37 30/101 fine sandy gray mud| 22 48 (71 | 6.55 “
1109.49 03 00 70 38 00| 89 gray mu 223 149 |T1 | 7.55 *
11040 02 00 70 35 00100 fine sandy gray mud] 22 47 /72 9.10 “
111140 01 33 70 35 09 (124 ne sand 29 47 |12 (10.45
111239 56 00 70 35 00/245 | green sandy mud | 22 43 (72 |12.43 P.M.
111339 57 00 70 37 00|192 | green 22 43 |72 | 145 «
111439 58 00 70 38 00/171 green mud 99 43 |72 | 2.40 “
1539 59 00: 70 41 00 (146 sandy mud | 22 45 |72°5| 3.28 “
11639 59 00: 70 44 00(|144 | hard sandy mud | 22 46 |72 | 4.20 “
117.40 02 00; 70 45 00| 89 e sand 92 48 |72 | 5.30 “
11849 03 00; 70 45 00| 70 fine sand 22 49 |72 | 6.20 “
Of Nantucket, S.S.E.
119\40° 08” 00"; 68° 45’ 00"| 97 sand, shells 26 48 (65 | 6.32 A.M.
112040 05 00; 68 48 001/194 fine sand, stones | 26 42°5 /65 41
121/49 04 00; 68 49 00 |234 |fine s’nd, foss. stones! 26 41°5 |65 | 9.05 “
112240 02 00; 68-50 00 [351 dand stones | 26 (40°5\67 [10.28 “
112239 59 45; 68 54 00|780 | green sandy mud | 26 39 [69 |12.00
bp 40 01 00; 68 54 00 (640 fine s’nd, foss. stones} 26 39 (65 | 4.01 P.M.
12540 03 00; 68 56 00 [291 sandy mud 26 40 \64 | 5.45 “
| Block Island, S. Sep
1137/39° 40” 00’, 71° 52” 00"(173 fine sand 8/46 |70 | 6.004. M.
113839 39 00; 71 54 00/168 | fine soft sand 8 |46 [71 | 7.24
113939 37 00; 71 55 00/291 mud g |44 [v2 | 8.48 «
114039 34 00; 71 56 00 (374 \sandymud,gr’vel,peb., 8 [40 |73 (10.35 “
114139 32 00; 71 57 00/389 sandy mud 8 |40 |74 |12.27 P.
114239 39 00 ; 72 00 00 |322 | fine sandy mud, peb.| 8 |41 (74 1,52 :
114339 29 00; 72 01 00 |452 sandy mud 8 40 [74 | 3.36 “
1144139 31 00 72 06 00 |386 soft sandy mud 8 [41 ‘74 | 6.00 “

364 A. FE. Verrill—Marine Fauna off New England Coast.

Acanthogorgia armata V., 640 fath., and Paramuricea borealis

rom 284 fath.; the former, when living, was bright orange;
the latter was pale salmon. Of those previously taken, one of
the most negara was Pennatula borealis, obtained in 192,
817 and 640 fath. The largest one, from 317 fath., was 215
inches high and 5:25 broad.

Of Pycnogonida, we took some large and interesting forms,
including two examples of Colossendeis colossea Wilson, station
1123, in a Ate lies of which the larger was 19°5 inches
across; C. macer a W., from 3817 fath. ; and several of
Nymphon ‘Striimit, oye 234 to 640 fath.

Crustacea* were much less abundant than in previous bee
but large numbers of large shrimp, Pandalus leptocerus an

ropinguus occurred, the “latter inhabiting the deeper waters,

158 to 640 fath. Cancer borealis was frequent in 90 to 194
fath. Among the more interesting species were Geryon quin-
quedens, taken in considerable numbers and of la rge size, at
stations 1140 to 1148, in 322 to 452 fath.: Lithodes maia, at
station 1125, in 291 fath.; Pentacheles sculptus Smith, one large,
at station i140, in 374 fath. ; Ceraphilus Agassiz o several
times, in 291 to 640 fath. ; Sabinea princeps S., stations 1140
and 1148, in 874 to 452 fath. ; ; Boreomysis tridens, in 851 fath. ;
Hippolyte Liljeborgit, frequent in 144 to 640 fath. ; Janira
spinosa Harger, in 640 fath.; Aséacilla granulata (Sars) H.,
291 to 640 fath.

any of the other species formerly taken also occurred.
Several new species were also added to the fauna; among these
are two fine species allied to Munida.

Of Cephalopods, besides the usual forms, we took one new
species,+ belonging to the genus Abralia of Gray, a genus not
known from the American coast before. A living specimen of
the Argonaula argo was caught in a dip-net, while By One, at.

* The eg a of 1880 were Battin and described by Prof. 8. I. Sm
in Proe. N nan pp- 413-4 1880; some of sy of 1881 are setaded
him in his re n the o lake Crustacea,” Bulletin Mus. Comp. Zool., pp.
1-108, (16 ieay. Saik 1882. The more difficult siete here enumerated, ‘have

ith.

+ Abralia megalops, sp. nov. Small, eyes large; caudal fin, about two-thirds as
long as the mantle, and much broader than 1 ong, transversely elliptical ; sia -
3d pairs of arms equal ; dorsal a little shorter; ventrals shortest. Sessi ms
with two rows of hooks, which are repla y small suckers on the distal 1 third ;
tentacular clubs with two alternating rows of Sooke and with marginal suckers
distally, on each side, alternating with the "wna ho oks, and with proximal and
terminal groups of sma aller suckers. Color pale, with numerous small dark brown
chromatophores to ve, larger and more crowded on the head and bases of arms;
lower side with several larger, round, ge woeegbcner A Renae purplish brown spots
and with minute pies between them. Length of-mantle, 15™"; diameter of body,
T= + length of a, 11™"; breadth aoe fins, 18™™; eer iy oF he ad, te diam-
eter of eye, 45™"; length of Nig arms, ; length of second pair, Lame ; of
third pair, 14mm "0 of tentacular arms, 25° of ventral arms, 10™". Probably
this specimen is young. Deacened from ek ol,

A. E. Verrill—Marine Fauna off New England Coast. 365

the surface, by Dr. Kite, surgeon. This was taken about 100
miles south of the eastern end of Long Island. We took a fine
large specimen of Hledone verrucosa V., in about 700 faihotis
(sta. 1123) ; and the second kno Mat oat of the a Rossia

interest. Among these is a fine new species of Trophon,* ae

70 fathoms, and four species of Chitonide, of which one fro
fathoms, represents an Australian genus, Placophora,+ sit

before known in the Atlantic. The oth er three are ag

mendicaria, 317 fathoms; Leptochiton alveolus, in 291 640
at cae and what appears to be the true Zrachydermon exara-
dus O. Sars) in 194 fathoms. Chorvstes ees was a

al
aire in old skates’ eggs, in 640 fathoms, and in the same situ-
ation we found Coceulina Beanii and Addisonia paradoxa Dall.
The latter was taken several times, in 89 to 640 fathoms.

fine living specimen of Dolium Bairdii was taken in 192 fath-
oms. Two livin g specimens of Mytilimeria flecuosat occurred
in 349 fathoms, associated with Pecchiolia gemma V., also living;

* Trophon Lintoni Verrill & Smith. Shell stout, rough, with ‘six very conv
Somewhat shouldered whorls, crossed by about nine very prominent, thic : obtuse
, : vin

lim"; length of canal and body-whorl, 19"; length of apert 15°5™™; its
bre i T5™™", Station 1118. Named in honor of Professor ae Thiios: of our

Pi acophora (Euplacophora) aie V. & Smith. Broad ovate, with the mar-
ginal membrane very broadly anded in front, and covered with fine spinules,

ye ' SUE) e an
slight rounded median ca , surface uniformly granulous and faintl
Stooved ; inserted ed narrow, she about 30 Soreguilar denticles ; middle
I i eir lateral are: r
a

al gro
Tansverse lines of growth, Co sty b The ogg
alco 32™™ long; breadth, 2605 eng of ‘sell, Qimm; breadth of ae ise,
i ‘bt
Tam arin to Mr. . Dall for the Persie determination vd this species.
$The animal of this shell, in alcohol, has a small and short anal tube, sur-
Tounded by. mall papillz, and a very much larger incurrent ori ae occupying @

]
; There is a slender, translucent byssus. The hi “pep aoe is seaport
hed by a distinct ossicle, placed “te Pte more fe _ vate

366 A. E. Verrill—Marine Fauna off New England Coast.

a fresh valve of Pholadomya arata, in 108 fathoms; Asxinopsis
orbiculata G, O. Sars, in 202 fathoms; Modiolaria polita V. &S.,
in 321 fathoms. In trawl-wings, station 1141, 389 fathoms, we
took four examples of Clione papilionacea Pallas, associated
with a lving specimen of Cavolina longzrostris

The southern species of Pteropods were comparatively scarce
this season, and the very large species of Salpa, so sls paar
hitherto, was only met t with once, this year, but the small s
cies (S. Cabot?) occurred in large numbers, and with it avert
very brilliant species of Saphirina were taken.

Evidence of great destruction of life last winter.

One of the most peculiar facts, connected with our dredging
this season, was the scarcity or total absence of many of the
species, especially of Crustacea, that were taken in the two
previous seasons, in essentially the same localities and depths,

in vast numbers,—several thousands at a time. mong such
species were Huprognatha rastellifera, Catapagurus ee Pon-
tophilus brevirostris, and a species of Munida. The la r, which

$ not seen at all this season. An attempt to catch the “ tile-
fish ” (Lopholatilus) by means of a long trawl-line, on essen-
tially the same ground where eighty were caught, on one occa-
sion, last year, resulted in a total failure this year. It is prob-
able, therefore, that the finding of vast numbers of dead tile-
fishes floating at the surface, in this region, last winter, as was
reported by many vessels, was connected with a wholesale
destruction of the life at the bottom, along the shallower part
of this belt (in 70 to 150 fathoms), where the southern forms of
life and higher temperatures (48° to 50°) are found. This great
destruction of life was probably caused by a very severe storm
that occurred in this region, at that time, which, by agitating
i bottom-water, forced outward the very cold water that,
en in summer, occupies the great area of shallower sea, in
pis than 60 fathoms, along the coast, and thus caused a sudden
lowering of the temperature along this narrow warm zone where
the tile-fish and the crustacea referred to were formerly found.
As the warm belt is here narrow, even in Summer, and is not
only bordered on its inner edge, but is sa underlaid by much
colder water, it is evident that even a moderate agitation and
mixing up of the warm and cold water might, in winter, reduce
the temperature so much as to practically obliterate the warm
belt, at the bottom. But a severe storm, such as the one
referred to, might even cause such a variation in the position
and flow of the tidal and other currents as to cause a direct
flow of the cold inshore waters to temporarily occupy this op
pushing outward the Gulf Stream water. The result would b

A. FE. Verrill—Marine Fauna off New England Coast. 367

the same, in either case, and could not fail to be destructive to
snch species as find here nearly their extreme northern limits.
In order to test this question more fully, Professor Baird also
employed a fishing vessel, the ‘Josie Reeves,” to go to the
es and fish systematically and extensively for the tile-fish.
n her first trip, ending September 25, she did not find any
“tile-fish,” but took another food-fish (Scorpena dactyloptera),
known on the European coast, and first taken by us, in 1880.

Adiitions to the fauna of Vineyard Sound ; Surface dredgings.

During the intervals between the Gulf-Stream trips, shore
collecting and a large amount of surface dredging, both by da
and night, were done in the vicinity of Wood’s Holl, by means
of the two steam launches belonging to the Fish Commission.
In the surface-dredging, Mr. Emerton took the most active
part. The surface work was very productive this season, not
Only affording a vast number of larval forms of Crustacea,
Echinodermata, Annelida, Mollusca, ete., but also a large

when containing eggs. The males of a much larger species,
the A. ornatus (Procerea ornata V., 1873, stem-form), were also
abundant; the much larger females, which are transversely
banded with red, were taken in smaller numbers. I], bu
very remarkable, new species (A. mérabilis),* first discovered

* Autolytus mirabilis V., Trans. Conn. Acad., iv, pl. 13, figs. 8-10. Stem-form
long and slender. Antenne, tentacular cirri, first pair dorsal cirri, and caudal
Curl : .

ng and slender, 4-6 times the dy; median antenna
and first al cirrus longest; seco orsal cirri twice the brea “
others varying in le gth, but mostly longer tha eadt, dy; two long,
Narrow epaulets, extending from the head back to third body-segment. Stoma
large g; pharynx slender, with one flexure. denticulate at the end, The
Most anterior formation of the sexual young takes pl ehi fiftieth

ce beh the
Segment; in one individual (see fig. 8, loc. cit.) six female individuals follow one

with a well developed head, four eyes, and long antennz. Some detached females,
bearing eggs, have, owever, no more than 16 to 20 segments.

s
Tor larger; three antenn nearly equal, long and slender. three or four times
the breadth of the head; caudal cirri, when fully developed, about as long as the
: ; dorsal cirri slender, longer than breadth o: ly. Length, 3 to 3-5™".
Color, when containing eggs, dark olive-brown; after eggs are laid, pale greenish ;

368 A. £. Verrill—Marine Fauna off New England Coast.

by us in 1881, was not uncommon, but only the females were
taken at the surface. The stem-form occurred among hydroids
and ascidians at moderate ‘depths. This species is remarkable
for the large number of sexual individuals that may be devel-
oping, simultaneously, from the stem-form. It is not uncom-
mon to find it carrying five or six sexual individuals, in
various stages, one behind another

very singular Syllidian,* of calli only the sexual forms
are known, was taken several times at the surface, in the even-
ing. We also took these in 1880 and 1881. They have proba-
bly been detached from a very different stem-form. The genus
is allied to pete a Mgn., but the head is entirely destitute of
antenne. It has four large eyes and swims atl epehees

Odontosyllis hicthere V., of both sexes, was very commo

the surface nets all through ae and to Sept. 15th, ‘put
mainly in the evening. With the latter a she te and more
delicate species usually occurred, but in less abundance. This
belongs to the genus Husyllist and has been known to me for
a number of years
eyes dark bro Wood's Holl, surface, evening, Aug. 2 to Sept. 18, 1882;
off Gay Head with a ak a 1881. Description from life.

* Tetra agiene Grube, 1 3. Sexual forms: Head distinct, with four large obs
but with n ats ae ges. Segments behind the head similar, all bea
large porapodi, with long. setze, a long dorsal cirrus, and a smaller Sata

entral c audal cirri shel long, eo ager orm.

“Tetra “gene “agile V., sp. n Trans. Con cad., iv, pl. 25, fig. 10. Rather
large stout, head broader has. ‘long, g Srrownt or even emarginate in
front, constricted a i mage? eyes large with front lens round, the two

ith gi ae slender a oe sete
segmen more or less moniliform, slender, tapered, about four times as long
as the oradth of the head; caudal cirri similar to dorsal; ventral cirri slende*,

7 6 row
about 257"; rail te 20™, Taken in the evenin ng, at the surface, near
eens Sept., ; Wood’s Holl, yess 4, 1881, and from Aug. 5 to Sept.
1882. Deseripi ion n fom life.
seen is

sma
with a circle of ae soft p al pate 13); in front of the tv Stomach large,
oblong; intestine with a fe r of short, rounded, lateral oicen at the end of the
stomach. The edie a and upper tentacular cirri are 3 to 6 times as long
as the breadth of the body pres antennz and lower tentacular cirri shorter ;

a four larger ones nearly equal, the anterior a little larger and wider apart,
ear the ides of the head; the minute frontal eyes are near the inner bases of

A. E. Verrill—Marine Fauna off New England Coast. 369

Another interesting new species, which was taken at the sur-
face, both this year and last, appears to belong to nes genus
Syllides.* Among the less common forms of Syllidz were
Se pe with an oblong, blade-shaped terminal article, obtuse and

sa od bidenta te at tip.

Sexual ind ividuals have, ws fascicles of long capillary sete, beginning on the
gaa Sebcerbus segmen

Nt

or translucent bluish one, pinkish or purplish Mahe or oe and more
od less purplish brown or blue- “Bray y vy the aides of the body and more decidedly
m the bases of the parapodia ; white; pharynx and on ch pale brown;

fiat ine brown or olive-green, constricted between the segments; eggs showin ng
ain 5 SL pe brown bod 8 dar

t

8-12 fath., among Fas he a an nd "Amorecium po eriie ‘Allied to A be pets

Webs., which geet ried eee to Busyllis. Described from life.
* Syllides setosa rans. Conn. Acad., 4. figs. 11. lle. Body
not very dlender, with hak 50 segments and large ana Head changeable,
sient rah obtusely neatene “ subtruncate in front, rounded laterally, ciosely
nited to segment. Palpi_ short, often not visible from above; below

wo me

are distinctly clavate, with narrow bases and obtuse, swollen, iecabeer
wrinkled tips. Anterior dorsal cirri wie: ip snseity more or on avate,
With a distinct basal joint aud numerous annulations, becoming more orked dis-
ally; they are as long as the antenne. or longer, and about eines: ph icht the

ut are a ary irregularly; the longest are more than four times as |
the breadth of th segments e ventral cirri are slender, tapered h a dis-
Unct oblo nal article; they arise far out on the parapodia a ject be
ond the setigerous lobe, but thi s long as the dorsals, anteriorly.
posteriorly they are relatively longer. The p odia ure very e midd
on oO ody, with a swollen base and long setigerous lo rri
three ; lateral ones very long. transversely annulated, tapered, acute, often coiled
Spirally ; media small and sl s 8, t \ h

long. narrow terminal blade. bidentate at the tip; simple long sete begin singly

on the eighth or ninth setigerous segment ; fascicles - omar sete appear

on the eighteenth, in our largest example. Pha ark colored, large
stout, : :

“

8 j x are dark brown. Bunches of capil-
ty setee begin on the tenth body-segment. Length about 3™™

Am. Jour. pa 2 Series, VOL. XXIV, No. 143.—Novemser, 1882
4

370 A. FE. Verrill—Marine Fauna off New England Coast.

Grubea Websteri V.,* Spherosyllis, ee So de ae longiceps V.,
etc. The Nereis megalops V., bot the heteronereis-form
(Nectonereis) and in the nereis- i (W. alacris V.), frequently
occurred in our night excursions, and in September the young
of this species of all sizes, from those with only six or eight
segments, up to those that were 10™ or more in length, oc-
eurred abundantly at the surface. These young are very

over the surface. very interesting new species, Acrocirrus
Leidyi V.,+ belonging to a genus hitherto not recorded from our
coast, was taken at the surface several times this year, and also
in 1881. Podarke obscura V. was often abundant at the sur-
face, as well as in the soft mud, among eel-grass, in the harbor.
Among other surface Annelida were Cirrhinereis phosphorea V.
and ©. fragilis, and a species of pepeesiae probably identical
with P. tenuzs (Sprophanes woiits V., 1880). This was also taken
from the harbor mud, in shallow water, nae year. When perfect
it has four pairs of ills, all fringed on one side, (Tr. Conn. Acad.,
iv, pl. xix, fig. 7). A singular larval form, probably belonging
to this species, occurred once (September 9) at the surface.
mong the various larval forms of Annelids we were fortu-
nate in obtaining a very large number of ed aco pergamen-
* Grubea Websteri V., sp. nov., nda Conn. Acad., saan 24, figs. 6-8. Small,
slender, whitish, with about 33 segments. Three antenne, both pairs of tentac-
ular cirri, dor sal and caudal cirri ri Cuailan in one ion fusiform, thickest below
the middle, dorsal and acute, not differing much in ze nor in leng th, but the
n

with a rather feat ; h edge,
with the tip a bidentate, and not very slender; So car sexual
_ yi saroos present) on the ninth setigerous segment, and continue on thir-

enteen The eggs and — are carried on these sats aa
coaty oan to each segment. Some ex “agit (op. tk oh 25, fig. 2) similar in
other respects, have no sexual sete and on eae Wo eggs to a heer Three to
eight hind segments are without sexual sete and eggs. o 4mm, Sur-
face, Newport, R. I, me od Wood’s Holl, Mass., July 28 eo init 12, 1881,
1882. De cried from life.

+ Ac . nov., Trans. Conn. Acad., iv, pl. 19,
slender, with disti nts covered with small papille. Head changeable,
usually rounded, obtuse; eyes four, the front pair minute; hind pair larger
and wider gf rom , >in usually clavate antennze on front of head, near
together. A pair of large, clavate cirri on first four carga like the an-
tenn, but “sare the lent ip a or four times the breadth of body. Ventra
se rved ] i

Color dark ties i o dark brown; cirri and antennse paler green wi yellow
tips. Length, 10 to 15™™; diameter of largest, about 1™. Wood's ee sur-
face, evening, peeine 2 to ‘September 9, 1881 and 1882. Described from li

A. E. Verrill—Marine Fauna off New England Coast. 371

taceus, in various stages, from very young ones up to those
baving the adult characters distinctly developed. Of these Mr.
Emerton made an excellent series of drawings. The adults of
this interesting species were dug from the sand just below low-
water mark, at Naushon I.,* by our. party. The largest of
these had U-shaped tubes, 28 to 31 inches in length and over
an inch in diameter in the middle. In each tube there was
usually a crab (Pinnixa chetopterana St.), associated with the
worm. These tubes show, very beautifully, the way in which

face.

From the sands of Naushon, at Hadley Harbor, our party
also procured several living examples of an European shell,
Tellimya (or Montacuta) ferruginosa, not before found on our
coast. It was associated, at low-water mark, with living speci-
mens of M. bidentata and another species of the family Kelliade,

naregion that has been so thoroughly dredged in past years
as Vineyard Sound, it was not to be expected that many new
forms would be found, unless among the more minute species,
or in those groups not hitherto studied on our coast. Yet one
new Planarian,+ of large size and with conspicuous colors, was

_ taken, as well as various undescribed Rhabdoccela and Annelida.

* This Species was first discovered at this place in 1880 by Mr. Chas. Webster
and Mr, Vinal N. Edwards, from whom I received specimens at that time.

+ Stylochopsis zebra V., sp. nov. Body broad-elliptical, rather thick, or some-
what swollen. Tentacles small, near the front end, bearing several small ocelli ;
> oan of small dorsal eyes in front of tentacles; minute, marginal ocelli, along
the front edges. Color brown and pale yellow or whitish, in narrow, alternating,

nsverse stripes, which run directly across in the middle, but become more and

L

»

372 W. EF. Hidden—Minerals from North Carolina.

Art. XLI.—WNotes on some North Curolina Minerals; by W.
EARL N.

[Continued from vol. xxii, p. 25.]

Breryu.—The accompanying figures represent the form of a
remarkable crystal of beryl found some years since in Alex-
ander county, North Carolina, It was found lying loose in
the surface soil, on the land known as the Pendergrass land,
which adjoins to the east that of the “ Emerald and Hiddenite
Mining Company.” Soon after its discovery it went into the

yet retains it. It is of nearly faultless transparency, with only
a slight aquamarine tint. Al] its planes are brilliantly polished.
It is about 1™ long and 30™™ in diameter.

The large development on tbis crystal of the rare planes
38-$ and 4-4 is unprecedented in mineralogical records. The
work now going on in this new mineral region brings to light
occasionally crystals of emerald and of beryl, exhibiting this
same development of rare planes, but with the basal plane [0]
very much larger in proportion. ~

CoLUMBITE.—The mineral thought to be eschynite from

W. E. Hidden—Minerals from North Carolina. 378

mine, N. C., with results differing widely from those of Dr.
J. L. Smith. The material for this analysis was obtained at
the locality by the writer. The analyses by both Mallett and
Smith are given below:

Mallett. Smith.
rans hae oe 47°09 54°12
Sn, + WO 21
GOs ee 13°46 24°10
REE Par 1:40 t

DiO + ba isa ee 4-00
ie gage cape a ee 153 5°58
UO ae a ee 15°15 9°53
eho c ics seed Oe Se 7-09 “21
MnO ae eo ae “08
HO ea 9°55 5°70
99°67 99°58

Titanium was carefully sought for by Mallett but none was
found; it is essential to true euxenite. ‘I incline to the opinion
of Professor Mallett, who, in a late letter to me, stated he ha
concluded that this so-called “euxenite” was only altered sa-
marskite. Its intimate association with samarskite, its uncrys-

FErGusontte.—Through the kindness of Professor Mallett
Tam enabled to give an analysis of the fergusonite from the
new locality discovered by the writer in Burke county, N. C.
Where it was found to exist quite abundantly in the placers
of the Brindletown gold district. The occurring form is a
very acute octahedron, with the basal and hemihedral planes.
Color, brown-black and crystals mostly covered with a gray
Crust, the faces hardly smooth. Sp. gr. 5°87 (Smith).

Mallett. Smith
MUO. os Oe 43°78 48°12
5
78,0 eo ee 4°08
On. + WO... ‘76
gg; Cte. co eee ee 87°21 40°20
RE Bee ear 66
POs + Tay0, 2 ae ae
¢ 3 ee ge ae eae ae gy ay pL eal egh nm e ep ae eer a if
“bp BeOS ee 1°81 2°76
BO ee 65
BLO oo 1°62 1°50
99°87 98°38

Prof. Mallett states further: “That it is useless to attempt
any separation of the earths grouped under the head of yttria

374 W. EE. Hidden—Minerals from North Carolina.

(in an analysis made on a few grams of material) so long as
competent chemists, working on many pounds of material, have
not only not found any means of accurate separation, but are not
even agreed as to the independent existence and number of the
ed.”

This Burke county fergusonite is thought to be identical
with Shepard’s “rutherfordite,” described from the same locality
many years ago on a very small amount of material.

ALLANITE.—I have lately identified this mineral at two new
localities in North Carolina, i. e. at the emerald locality in
Al

centage of La,O,, viz: 14 per cent. From the second-name

locality the crystals are of unusually perfect form for allanite,
and contain over 8 per cent of yttria. Some of the crystals were
2™ long and over 1™ in thickness. They were all more or less
covered with a thin reddish-gray crust due to alteration. Some

Mallett. Norway

3 Ee es ee 39°03 33°60
oe oe 14°33 12°58
OS Pe Gia eae a ane esac 8°20 20°83
go a eee ee 4°56
Fees ee oe ae 13°48
MS So eer Se ers trace, Na,.0+K,0= °62
ME? Se ees eu a ee 1°60
OA eae ee 17°47 9°59
BO aos a 2°78 3°34
99°95 100°20

The relatively small proportion of cerium, writes Professor
Mallett, and larger amount of yttrium, is remarkable, though
paralleled by a Norway orthite. “The oxygen ratio is essentially
that of allanite and orthite.

Stony Point, N. C., Sept. 11, 1882.

B. Silliman—Iron Ove of Mexico. 375

Art. XLII.—Martite of the Cerro de Mercado, or Iron Mountain,
of Durango, Mexico, and certain tron ores of Sinaloa; by B.
SILLIMAN.

1. Cerro de Mercado.

th
hematite, and left no reasonable doubt that the whole mass
Was martite.

Fortunately, Mr. John Birkinbine, Engineer, of Philadelphia,
had t i i North’s collec-

he goodness, about the time I received Mr. Nort
hi

which stands the city of Durango, about one and a half
miles to the north of the city. This hill is one mile long, a
third of a mile wide, and from four hundred to six hundred
feet high. Mr. Birkinbine does not confirm the statement of
Some observers that this deposit is a solid mass of iron ore.
The surface of the hill, indeed, everywhere exposes masses of
ore, which appear to be derived from one or more immense
beds, or veins, of specular iron standing nearly vertical, the
fragments of which form a talus on the slopes of the mountain
and conceal completely the enclosing walls of rock. From sam-
ples of the country rock which I find in Mr. North’s collection,
these walls are of purple porphyry. Mr. Birkinbine finds

ain which accompanies Mr. Birkinbine’s paper is by his
Courtesy reproduced herewith.
n

the smaller lustrous and quite black. There are no isolated
crystals like those found in the original locality described by
“pix and Martius, and mentioned, with other Brazilian locali-

Tron Mountain of Durango.

B. Silliman—Iron Ore of Mexico. 377

logical Survey of Pennsylvania, being a commercial sample of
the whole ore mass and not presenting fairly the constitution of
the pure mineral. This “ sample’’ gave the following results,
12;

maenetic oxide of 00... .. ore eee 2°071
Mere Niide 20 ee ee T7571
Manin otide fo ee ay ee 113
Bani acd a ee a 710
«ca Gs Ret LMR Rae Cae cern ci RUS Wee Rees oie Vi Sberiaihs 5°050

| EESTI SHATTER NEG eet RAE rae 364
mulpntirig api. rs oi iy ee
POOROOTIG: Seth ns oe ee ee 3-041
NS a i a i ee ae 4-760
Loss on ignition (WOleT C60) co neh ease eee
Wodelermined (AIO. ett.) ...--------<---s2-- 17124
100°00

corresponding to metallic iron 55°8 per cent. A purer specimen
of the mineral gave separately 62°775 per cent metallic iron.
he powder of this ore is attracted by the magnet, but frag-

ments of the size of grains of wheat are not affected by a mag-
het of moderate power.

this enormous mass of valuable iron ore, thanks to the near
*pproach of the railway system of Mexico, is now likely to
become of commercial importance.

2. Sinaloa iron ores.

In this connection it is interesting to note the chemical com-
Position of certain other ores of iron from the State of Sinaloa
in Mexico, also placed at my disposition by Mr. North. The
analyses were made in the Iron Masters’ Laboratory, Philadel-
phia, by Mr. Blodget Britton. In these the transformation of
Magnetite into martite, has proceeded only so far as to leave still
about one-third of the original magnetite unchanged. Naturally
these samples are more sensibly affected by the magnet. They
are from Tepuche, Bescuino and Cosolu.

* This Journal, III, xxiii, p. 373.

378 B. Sitliman—Lron Ore of Mexico.

Names of Iron Mines.

Composition. Tepuche. Bescuino. Cosolu,
|
Metallic iron 65°08 66°75 67°25
Oxygen with the iron -------....-. 26°98 27°85 28-01
Water 1:26 1°87 1
ilica 5°08 2°68 2°46
Phosphorie acid 146 “075 225
Bunn en Ce CO a ese none none none
Titanic acid__- none none none
Manganese 08 trace trace
TINO TST nO 2 2 1°374 “TT5 "995
‘ 100°000 100°000 100.000
HORPIO OMINO Ls ee eae 8 65°88 72°82 71°82
MERION ON108 ois. Lea ee 26°18 21°68 23°44
Phosphorus with 100 metallic iron -- “099 047 123

A few notes on the localities of these three iron deposits are

of interest in this connection.
epuche is near the town of this name on the Rio de Humaya,

ten or twelve miles west of the city of Culiacan. The iron occurs
in porphyry resembling that of the Cerro de Mercado. It is a
massive ore showing no crystalline forms, and occurs in blocks
of a cubic yard and less, scattered along the apparent outcrop
of a bed which shows again on another hill one-quarter of a
mile off. It is cut by a strong stream of water 436 feet below
the top of the ridge, the sides of the gulley being strewn wit
blocks and debris of this ore. Good lime exists abundantly
within one and a half miles of this locality which is also on the
line of the Sinaloa and Durango Railroad, in a country abound-
ing in various hard woods and covered with dense underbrush,
up to an elevation of about 1000 feet above sea level. Above
this level and,up to 5,000 or 6,000 feet, pines and other Conifers
come in place of the hard woods. :

Bescuino.—Little is known of this locality, which was not per-
sonally explored by Mr. North. It is reported to be a hill of
400 to 500 feet in elevation, less abundantly timbered than
Tepuche. It is nearly due east from Culiacan, about twenty
miles

Cosolu.—The ore at this locality was all in loose masses;
none was found in place. The summit of the hill on which it
was found is 270 feet above the bottom of a dry arroyo. The
surrounding rocks are calcareous. As Cosolu is an old mining
region abounding in low grade veins of gold and silver; timber
and wood for fuel is not found within 30 or 40 miles.

The question of the renovation of forests on the Gulf slopes

of Sinaloa is one of much interest. In reply to my inquiry,
Mr. North says: “I do not believe the hard woods can be of

a
eet)
Be
6

Trowbridge and Penrose—The Thomson Effect. . 379

rapid growth, but I think it safe to say that they will grow
again, and in fact old clearings are seen covered with trees of
second growth.”

8
year, it reached the quantity (estimated) of inches. It is
remarkable that across the Gulf of California, namely, in the
peninsula of Lower California, the rain-fall seldom reaches four
inches, *

= ee ae

Arr. XLITL—Contributions from the Physical Laboratory of
Harvard College. The Thomson Effect; by JOHN TROWBRIDGE
and CHARLES BINGHAM PENROSE.

Sik Wintiam Tomson + first discovered that when an
electrical current passes through a piece of metal, the ends of
Which are of different temperatures, it carries heat with it; the
direction depending upon the character of the metal and the
direction of the current. This phenomenon is known as the

omson Effect. Le Roux { subsequently verified Thomson’s

menting with pure metals. We have therefore thought it.
would be valuable to test the effect in as pure a metal as we
could obtain by electrolysis. We have also extended Le Roux’s
table by the addition of the effect in nickel, which Thomson
Was unable to obtain, and also in carbon. An endeavor has.
been made to ascertain if the effect is reversible, and also to

The str
millimeters in thickness, was placed with its flat surface hori-
zontal. One face of a thermopile was placed at a fixed point.
on the surface of the nickel, separated from it by a thin piece
of mica. A weight pressed upon the other surface. The ther-
mopile was connected with a Thomson’s reflecting galvanome-

ter of six ohms resistance. The two extremities of the strip of

es first passing through a key so that the direction of the

wir
current could be reversed. One end of the nickel was kept at

Read before the Geog. Soc. of the Pacific, Nov., 1881. San Francisco, 1882.
+ Phil. Trans., 1856, vol. iii, p. 661.
¢ Ann. de Chim. et Phys. 1867 [4], vol. x, p. 258.

380 Trowbridge and Penrose—The Thomson Effect.

the temperature of the air, 15° C.; the other at a constant red
heat by means of a Bunsen burner. . The metal was heated in

was passing from cold to hot. e small numbers show which
deflections in each pair were taken first.

C—H. H-C. 2
Defiections taken every 14 minute. | Defiections taken every 14 minute.

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
4°] 40 4:3 44 3°3 4°0 3°6 3°8 AL
6°3 64 6°5 64 64 5°0 6°2 54 59 6°0
es %°2 v5 70 U2 5°8 67 6°2 6°5 7:0
7-4 76 ‘Ca . 1 af far 65 72

From this table it is obvious that more heat is evolved by a
constant current per unit time in passing from the cold to the
hot end of the nickel, than in passing in the opposite direction.
The Thomson Effect in pure nickel is consequently negative ;
i. e., heat is absorbed by a current in passing from hot to cold,
and evolved in passing from cold to hot. The above results
Mis confirmed by many similar experiments, as will be seen

ater.

It was next determined to find whether the Thomson Effect

was arranged exactly as before. Column I of the accompany-

ing table gives the deflections. One end of the nickel was now

placed in melting ice. After one hour it reached a condition of

thermal equilibrium, and the current from the Grove cells was

_ passed alternately in opposite directions. The deflections are
given in IJ and III.

: Trowbridge and Penrose—The Thomson Effect. 381

If the deflections in II and III are subtracted from the cor-
responding deflections in I, we get the amount of deflection
due to the Thomson Effect. It will be observed that all the
deflections in II are less than those in I, and those in III are
greater, as they obviously should be. The only inaceuracy in

I. ‘ Li.
Deflections taken | Dediocnus ellocabne it ee IlI—I.
every }¢ minute. | every 4g minute. | every 4¢ minute.
18 1:8 2-0 0°0 0-1
2°6 2°4 2°8 0-2 0°2
2°9 2°65 3°15 0°25 0°25
3°] 2°95 3°25 0°35 0-15

this determination is due to the fact that we neglected the
alteration in electrical resistance of the nickel due to the slight

face was in contact with the second pole of the magnet.

meably set-up bichromate of potash cells, with plates of large
1Ze.

the nickel, with and without the circuit of the magnet being
made. The deflections of the galvanometer were exactly the

un
It is unfortunate that the strength of the field could not be

382 Trowbridge and Penrose—The Thomson Liffect.

accurately obtained, as the batteries had been running about
thirty minutes by the time the experiment was completed.

The field, however, was very much stronger—as shown by —
rough tests—than in another experiment where the minimum
value was found to be 184 times the vertical intensity of the

given in the left hand table.

Mean difference=0°97

C—H H—C Differences C—H H—C Differences
deflections deflections between the deflections deflections between the
takenevery taken every | corresponding || taken every | taken every corresponding
minnte. minute. deflections. minute. minute. deflections.
130.2 3 13:0 = 10 145 1 133... 3 1:2
12°3 1 13°71 2 0°8 14°3 2 iso's t 10
Zt 1 13°4 2 Bar| 14°3 1 13°4 of 9
Ito) =? 1G 0°8 168 c<% iss? 15

Mean difference=1715

The strip of nickel was now substituted for the copper,
everything else remaining exactly the same. One end of the
nickel was heated, and the thermopile was placed on such a
spot that the galvanometer gave a deflection of 35 centimeters.

The same current was passed as above. The results are
given in the right hand table. Let d= the mean difference
in first table, and d’= that in the second, d and d’ are then pro-
portional to the elevation of temperature of the part of the bars
under the pile, on account of the Thomson Effect. Let a= co-
efficient of Thomson Effect, that is, ¢ is such a quantity that
od represents the heat absorbed per unit current per unit time
in passing from section at temperature @ to section at tempera-
ture 6+d6. The heat evolved in unit section when the tem-
perature is increased by $¢d.K is$Kd SD. Where K is a con-
stant depending on the galvanometer, S is the specific heat,
and D the density of the metal. If we consider the. Thomson
Effect to be constant under the pile, and @ and 6’ to represent

Trowbridge and Penrose—The Thomson Fffect. 383

the temperatures of the ends of the space covered by the pile
we have: :

o (0-0) =KSSD
and the similar expression for nickel :
o(0—0) =K YS D,
o_@ 8 D, :
: ae ee. 8 2
Equation I then gives the relative value of the coefficient of
the Thomson Effect at any temperature 6.
S=095 § ='los D=s9 D=s3 d=0°97 d'=1'15
,
dle oY te O 1 S50.
o
In Le Roux’s table ¢=2.°. o’/=2°50, o and a’ are, however,
of opposite sign. Introducing nickel Le Roux’s table becomes:

«

Sb 64 Hey 3)
i ae 9 | Bio SI
fs Bee Gi Arg 25
Ag 6 Pt > 46
Cu ys Ni 3°35
Al -0'1
Ss 0°1

on. If the two strips of carbon were exactly the same in all
their physical properties, and the contacts with the faces of
the thermopile were the same on each side, the latter deflections
would evidently be entirely eliminated.

384. Trowbridge and Penrose—The Thomson Effect.

Two carpenters’ pencils were split longitudinally, the lend

being left in one-half of the wood. ey were then tightly
bound, parallel, peas each face of the thermopile, and insu-
lated from n pieces of mica. seen care was taken

air. Thet upper ond were i eotnnalty connected ik the wires
from a battery of three Grove cells were placed in the vessels of
mercury. The thermopile was connected with a reflecting gal-
vanometer of six ohms resistance

W hen the system had reached a condition of sera ean
rium, the current from the battery was passed, e obse
tions were made. The vessels of mercury and the siesoned
pencils are oS ad ny ta ab he current entered
alternatel "a" apd} "the deflections of the galvanometer
being ‘aoe in each case, every half minute. The deflections
showed that the pencil ‘‘a” was warmer than ‘‘b,” but the dif-

experiments. ‘The small numbers at top show which column
of each pair was taken first

First Experiment. Second Eaperiment.
Current enters Current enters proportional ‘current enters Current enters | proportional
2 1 1 2
21°0 20°8 0:2 20°8 20°2 0
34°5 82°74 2°] 34:7 32°8 1:9
1 1 2
21°2 21°0 0°2 19°6 18°2 as
34°5 ao 0, 15 310 29°3 1 he )
i 37-0 34°2 2°8
21°4 20°6 0°8
34°3 32°8 15 19°8 18°0 18
2 I 31.8 29°2 2°6
21-7 21°6 0-1 373 34°0 3°3
36°0 843 4 ‘
4 400 | 4 20°0 18°8 12
32°6 30°4 2°2
23-0 21°7 1°3 38°7 35°7 3°0
8-2 35-0 3°2 1
45°5 41°2 | 43 21:0 19°8 1°2
2 | 33°8 313 2°5
23°5 23-0 0°5 39°8 363 3°5
39-0 37-0 | 29 2
45°8 43°8 2°0 20°0 19°0 10
; 32°2 29°8 2-4.
37°4 24:3 3°]

a
7

te
i
:
:
:

Trowbridge and Penrose—The Thomson Effect. 385

From this table it appears that the Thomson Effect in ordi-
nary graphite is negative; that is, heat is apparently evolved
when the current passes from cold to hot, or the negative cur-
rent carries heat with it. The differences in the last columns
are obviously proportional to four times the Thomson Effect—
assuming that the effect is reversible. It also appears from the
table that the effect increases as the temperature increases,
which is in accordance with Tait’s assumption.

These experiments were repeated with the graphite from

_ other kinds of pencils, but in no case was the effect nearly as

marked as in Faber’s. Even in the case of Faber’s pencils
many trials were made before satisfactory results were obtained.
Equations representing the thermal condition of a bar when
acting as a conductor of heat and electricity may be deduced
as follows: One end of the bar is supposed to be maintained at
4 constant temperature, the other at that of the air, and the
electric current is supposed to be constant. For simplicity we
will assume that the specific electrical resistance of the bar is
constant throughout, i. e. is independent of slight differences of
temperature.
_ The quantity of heat, H, evolved by the current in time 41,
in the section of the bar Séx—S being the area of a section—is
represented by
H = ?RSoz. 6t I

«= distance of the section from heated end. If we assume

uence we can consider that the heat evolved by the current is
partly used in raising the temperature of the section Sdz, and
that all the rest escapes from the surface by radiation.
he Thomson Effect is, at present, purposely neglected
The bar is supposed to have reached a permanent condition
48 regards conduction before the current was passed. be
the temperature of the section of the bar we are considering
before the current passes. Let h = the exterior conductivity
or velocity of cooling.
Let p = the rise of temperature above 6 when the current
passes,
uming Newton’s law of cooling, the heat radiated on
account of the rise of temperature p is proportional to ph, and
the quantity radiated from the section in time d¢, from the
Same cause, is
H, = philda. 6t II
1 = the periphery of the bar.
Am. Jour. ta Series, VoL. XXIV, No. 143.—Novemser, 1882.

386 Trowbridge and Penrose—The Thomson Effect.

In time d¢ the increase of temperature p becomes p+dp, anid
the heat developed in the section by this increment is
H, = CSDdz. dp Il
As we saw that the heat of the current was expended only
in the ways represented by II and III, we have
H = ps i +H, ; IV
If we now consider the influence of the Thomson Effect, we
simply add that a certain quantity of heat is absorbed or
evolved by the current in the section Séx—distinct from that
represented by I, R.
If o = the coefficient of the Thomson Effect, the heat ab-
sorbed or evolved due to this effect is, in time d¢,
H, = Io060. dt ¥
The effect being proportional to the current, and o being de-
fined as such a quantity that o84 represents the heat absorbed,
or evolved, in passing from a point at temperature 0 to 0+09,
per unit current per unit time. Introducing this effect in IV,
ie H = HH, +H, +H, VI
As the total value of the excess of heat—due to the current—
in the section can be considered as made up of these quantities.
Substituting the values in VI from I, II, III, V, and transposing
plho«. dt = I2RSdex. dt—CSDda. dp—Io60. dt
— 2RS—csp2? 169%
phi = I?RS CSD—. Io—

or at the limit :—
ap.
dt ~ CSD
This equation gives the rate at which the temperature rises
when the current passes, and will approximately apply to the
preceding experiments.
When the temperature of the bar becomes permanent,

dd Vil
2
[1 RS phi Io—

dp _
di a O
and VII becomes
RS ohh tee
I?RS—pAl Io7 =0
= [ rRS—10% ha vill

giving the excess of temperature due to the current in the per-
manent condition of the bar.
The values in VIII are all easily determined except and h.

The differential coefficient = —the rate of change of temperature

Chemistry and Physics. 387

due to conduction along the bar—can readily be found by ex-
periment; or deduced by analysis, as in the case of an infinite
square bar where

Oot aS" and: a = —ake™.
dee
As p may easily be determined by experiment, the equation
can be used to determine o as
5 ERS—phl
es 2? IX
da

If Tait’s assumption that ¢ = MT, where M is some constant
and T the absolute temperature, is true, we might obtain two
values of ¢, for two points of the bar, the temperature of which
was known, eliminate A from the two equations, and thus ob-
tain a value for M. If we performed the same operation for
two other points, we should get another value for M, and could
verify Tait’s assumption if this value was equal to the preceding.

The sources of error in the preceding investigation are due to
assuming Newton's law of cooling, to neglecting: the change of
electrical resistance due to a change of temperature, and to
partly neglecting the change of thermal conductivity due to
the same cause.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.

Sau -

Singault and others. Two important memoirs have been lately

published upon this subject which show that the value above

Mae is very considerably too high. The first of these is by
E

_ €nee gave the barium which had been converted into carbonate.

388 Scientific Intelligence.

On the scale of the experiments an error of an entire cubic centi-
meter in the amount of CO, is of comparative unimportance, since
it represents onl aay Of the whole. The experiments were
made at a field station about 8 kilometers from Dieppe at an alti-
tude of 96 meters above the sea. Here one of the aspirators was.
permanently installed while the other was transported from place
to place. Three series of experiments were made with the former
<a The first extended from September 9, 1872, to August
, 1873, 92 experiments. The second from June 17 to Novem-
ie 14, 1879, 91 enim ges The third from June 19 to August
h

28, 1880, 37 experiments. The ere are given in tabular form,
the final mean ae given as follow

Volume of 2 Carbon dioxide at Carbon dioxide in
Number Number of air at 0° and 7 0° and 760 100,000
of series. experiments. in liters. in cubic cent. yolumes of air.
Series 1 532-906 56° 42
Series 2 pS 527°539 157-1 29-77
Series 3 ay 513-717 152°5 29°68
Mean of 220 expts. 524°720 155°5 29°62

The aspirator contained as a mean 678°294 grams of dry air at 0*
and 760mm, This contained 0°307 gram CO, ; ; giving by weight
4°52 parts of CO, in 10,000 of air as “the mean of the 220 ex peri-
ments. The absolute maximum observed hs 35°18 volumes in
100,000, observed July 23, 1880; the absolute minimum 27°43,

O, than during the day. Cloudy weather and fog increase the

O,, clear weather diminishes it. It is less in summer than in
winter. Mii the second aspirating apparatus, a series of 27 ex-
periments were made in a grove of young trees and gave 29°17
volumes CO, j in 100,000 of air. Air taken near a vigorous growth
of clover red with flowers, i in the month of June, eames 28°98
volumes CO, Air taken 3 dm. above the ground in a field of
barley mixed with spe in July, gave “98-29 as CO,,.
Since during the same periods, the CO, in the air at the field sta-
tion was 29°02, 29°15 and 29°33 volumes, the reduction uns the

>
being 35°16 ne oe 27th January, 1879, and the minimum 29:13
on May 31,
The ea Ae is by Ménrzand Avpin. They determined
the sin dio xide by absorbing it by pumice stone moistened
with potassium hydrate; the gas being subsequently set free : and
its volume aR By means of a oe eh o 300 liters.

” hese Prnar t peg were prepared i previously in in
sufficient number, being drawn to a point at e
till wanted. After the absorption they were “eae ad and the

Chemistry and Physics. 389

CO, was determined at leisure. Two stations for the lower levels
were used, one at the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers in Paris,

periments in the open plain of Vincennes, the amount of

amean was found to be 2°84 volumes in 10,000 of air. Within
the court of the oS Agronomique, as a mean of 12 experi-
ments 2°98 volum nd in Paris, as a mean of 30 experiments,
3°19 volumes. For elle higher levels, the Pie du Midi was selected,
situated in the Pyrenees “and 2 877 meters above the sea. As a
Mean of 14 siiec ation made from the 9th to the 14th of Au-
gust, 1881, the amount of CO, was found to be 2°86 volumes in
10,000; thus showing the uniformity of the diffusion of carbon
dioxide gas in the atmo sphere.

In a note upon these researches, Dumas gives an excellent sum-
mary of them as well as those of Schulze and Sc chleesing, the lat-
ter upon the preservation of the balance by the dissociation of the

ydro-calcium carbonate in the water of the sea whenever the
CO, in the air falls below its normal value. Sehintee found the
CO, for 1869 to be 2°8668 volumes, for 1870 to be 2°9052 volumes
and for the first half of 1871 to be 3°0126 volumes in 10,00C of
air—Ann, Chim. Phys., V, xxvi, 145, 222, 254, June, 1882.

2. On a Basie Copper Sulphate.—StT¥EINMANN has ae ee a
basic copper sulphate by heating a cold saturated solution of blue
vitriol for about thirty minutes to the temperature of 240° to 250°
Ina close vessel. Crystalline crusts of a green color are deposited,
ose aeake in water but soluble in acids, On analysis, the salt gave
68°0-69°2 CuO, 23-1 SO, and 7°8-7-9 water; corresponding to the
“ae (Cu), (SO,), (H, O), which requires. 69-0 of CuO, 23°2 of
80, ot water.—Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges. 7 XY, net fe une,

used as standards of comparison. At first the magnetic seamed
effect, of unit-lengths of the liquids was deternaee but the
results seemed to. bear little or no brat to t the shane
‘Composition gt the bodies examined. Moreover ,no useful result
could be expected from the monshne se difteccuc obtained from
ne substances ; ee as the pros series is ascended,

like that of rotation, is bas ed t upon it. Since, however, unit-
lengths of y apors contain equal numbers of eesti the exam-

390 Scientific Intelligence.

ination of vapors would give results free from this objection.
The apparatus required to determine the magnetic rotatory power
of gases is bulky and complicated. By multiplying the observed
rotation of the liquid, however, by its mo olecular weight, and
dividing the product by the mae an accurate molecular vale
is obtained. This, divided by a similar value given by the
standard, yields a constant which the antior calls the “ molec
coeflicient of magnetic pag tgn Taking water as unity, the
numbers calculated in this way show very clearly the dependence

fa. xo) aie Taking De la Rive’s and ae

112 between Bary ia amyl alcohols. The molecular rotatory
power of amylene was found to be 5°87; Hale since s CH,

magnetic rotations; the cibtesulad rotatory power of amyl alcohol
being 5°95, and that of amylene hydrate being 5°81. Perkin
finds that ethylidene chloride gives a lower number than ethylene
Cinder Further results are promised.—/, Chem. Soc., ae
uly, 1882. .

4. On the Vapor density of Chlorine peroxide. cs ae aid
+ Rig pela have determined experimentally the ila ie aig: of
ee ci sap with a view up yo its molecular formula The

was ared by gently heating a mixture of oxalic acid,

ground stopper, and oe delivers tube connected by a ground

e
capacity closed at both ends with ae cocks, and immersed in

constantly and its tem Satire se aps ae? by pen Te
When the liquid had nearly all evaporated, the lower cock of the

weighing tube was first closed, and then the upper, the tempera-
ture of the water and the barometric pressure being noted. e

PRS CERI whee eee =e a, Oe Gane Reh SE eee os IRs bee COSTS ay Ut ees aOR Ree ye eau,
z sie Sa aR eBS hoy it saa Soa

Chemistry and Physies. 391

tube was then removed and weighed. The constants of the tube
having been previously determined, the new weight after making
the necessary reductions, gave the density at 10°7° C. and

33°64 and from ClO. is 67°29. Hence the authors conclude that
there is no ground for the assumption that molecules of the com-
position ClO, have any actual existence.— Liebig’s Ann., cexiii,

118, June, 1882. ; G. FB
5. On Perchloric acid.—Brrtuetor has made a study of per-
chloric acid with special reference to its thermo-chemical relations.
H and

HCO (H,O » The first of these he has obtained crystallized by
Placing the liquid acid containing a few per cent of water in

mo iy

obtained melting about 15°, having the above composition and
possessing so strong an attraction for water 1 i
White fumes in the air, When the liquid acid, HCIO,, is dissolved
in 100 times its weight of water at 19°, it evolves 20°3 calories ;
’n enormous quantity surpassing that given by any other acid
own. This result explains the remarkable difference which
Exists between this acid when diluted with water, in which condi-

Solved; and therefore they appear to be but a little more active
than the dilute acid. The heat of formation of liquid 10,
(from HC] ga

Also for the readiness with which the former is decomposed.

Again, in the decomposition of the perchlorates, KCIO, solid
li sorb i

Slum chlorate into perchlorate by heat is exothermic. Ammonium
perchlorate should be explosive, since NH,CIO, solid =Cl+0,+

392 Scientific Intelligence.

N+(H,0), liquid, evolving oe 83 calories; or if the resulting water
be in vapor 38°3 calories. act, when melted, this salt becomes
incandescent, taking the she eroidal. form, the. brilliant globule

the production of a yellowish flame; resembling somewhat ammo-
nium nitrate in its action— Bull. Soe. Ch., Il, xxxviii, 1, en
2.

Diffusion of Gases.—K. W atrz concludes from his ‘okaae
vations that the diffusion coefficient for the free diffusion of two
gases into each other, is not a constant. It decreases after the
beginning of the diffusion, j in a given section, and soon reaches for
any given section a nt limit. The change of this limiting
value from one section to another is pba! to the distances
of the sections from the free surface of the diffusion vessels.—

Ann. der Physik und Chemie, No. 10, 1889, fh 201-236. J. T.

7. Diamagnetism of Bismuth in absolute measure,—V arious

gee vers differ in regard to the diamagnetism of bismuth. H. A.
TTINGSHAUSEN has made a new determination of it by four dif-

Seat methods, and has obtained the mean value of 4=13°9910-°.

—Ann. der Physik und Chemie, No. 10, 1882, 272-305. J.T.

8 essure of Saturated Mercury Vapor. —The results of Reg-
nault and of later observers differ. Hagen has lately made some
determinations, which in turn are scrutinized by H. Herrz. The
latter finds results which are smaller than those of Regnault, but
approximate to those of the latter with increasing temperature, and
nearly coincide with them at 220°, They are, however, greater
eg Hagen’s above 80°, coincide very nearly with his between

0° and 100°, and are smaller below 80°. The pressure of
Ls vapor at the ordinary ee of the air is less than
one thousandth of a millimeter.—Ann. der Physik und ci aphasy
No. 10, 1882, pp. 193-200.

9. The Microphone. —In a paper on the recent progress in Pel
tueng read at sed Southampton meeting of the British Associa-
tion WV. H. Preece referred to the theory that the action of
the Rcariniio} is d ue to the effect of heat which is generated by a
current of piocecy passing between points of carbon which are
at variable distai theory appeared to him to be the true
one. Carbon is Tuckidiveble and infusible, is a Ror conductor,
and has its resistance lowered when heated. Thes e properties
make it especially suitable for microphones. The resistance of
microphones is very variable. Theory demands that a carbon
transmitter should have ne eh ig possible resistance, but this is
not true in practice, Theory also asserts that the resistance of
the secondary coil of the fades coil should be equal to that of
the line it works, but sora esi the reverse. The conditions
due to heat in the microphone and to self-induction in the induc-
tion coil are apparently too pornphe ne to be brought yet jee the
region of mathematical analysis. ors Sept. 21, 1882. J.

10. Telegraphy without a Cuble-—Mr. W. H. Preece nocutly
tried the following experiment. ‘ Paste metal plates were im-

a

Chemistry and Physics. 393

mersed in the sea at Portsmouth and Ryde, six miles apart, and
at Hurst Castle and Sconce point, one mile apart. The Ports-
mouth and Hurst Castle plates were connected by a wire passing

Clation, to present, leaves in doubt. It will be understood then
that the references here are to his published memoirs only, and
not to what we have just heard.

The solar spectrum is so commonly supposed to have been
Mapped with completeness, that the statement that much more
le

The whole spectrum, visible and invisible, is powerfully affected —

by the selective absorption of our atmosphere, and that of the
Sun; and we must first observe that could we get outside our

ent spectrum, and could we afterward remove the solar atmos-
phere also, we should have yet a third, different from either. The
charts exhibited, show :—

later, e other curves then indicate :— :

2d. The distribution of energy before absorption by our own
atmosphere,

3d. This distribution at the photosphere of the sun.

394 Scientific Intelligence.

The extent of the field, newly studied, is shown by this draw-
ing (chart exhibited). Between H in the extreme violet, and A
in the farthest red, lies the visible spectrum, with which we are
iliar, i ngth being about 4,000 of Angstrém’s units. If,
then, 4,000 represent the length of the visible spectrum, the chart
shows that ah region below extends through 24,000 more, and so.

much as this as lies — ow wave-length, 12 ,000, 1 think, is now
iia pied for the first tim

We have to A= 12, 000, relatively complete photographs pub-
lished by Capt. Abney, but, excepting some very slight indications.
by Lamansky, Desains, and Mouton, no further guide.

Deviations being proportionate to abscissee, and measured solar
energies to ordinates, we have here (1) the distribution of energy

2

parts, one 2 of these will sorventionih to the Jetble, and three to
the invisible or ultra-red part. he total energy, at the ultra
violet end, is so small then as to be here altogether negligable.

We observe that (owing to the aoa si haseerapris by the
prism) the maximum ordinate representing t eat in the pris-
matic spectrum is, as observed by Tyndall, below the red, while
upon the normal scale this maximum ordinate is found in the
orange.

I would next ask your attention to the fact that in either
spectrum, below A= 12,000 are most extraordinary depressions

in i e

visible spectrum offers no parallel. As to se agent producing
these shiap gaps, which so strikingly interrupt the continuity ©

the curve, as you see, in one place, cut it sbinptetely 4 in two.
I have as yet obtained no conclusive evidence. Knowing th

great absorption of water va n this lowest region, as we
already do, from the observations of Tyndall, it would, @ prior?,
seem not unreasonable to look to it as the cau On the other
hand ve vadeusarrp fees hoe fro on to sunset,
making successive me bdiiaibe. “ai as the sinking sun

goes, they might be rather thought to solar. But my own
eans of investigation are not so well adapted to decide this im-
ortant point as those of tibet Sb 2 to which we may yet

e rea for our final con
m led from a capes of Cape Abney’ s photographs of the

feiion between A= 8,000 and A= 12,000 to think that these gaps
are produced by vs Aggregation of finer lines, which can
discriminated by the camera, an instrument, which, where it can

all, is far | more sensitive than the bolometer ; while the
latter, I think. has on the other hand some advantage in affording

aN ee
r pero ‘
eee aa + ohne ae rae eae Meee
eee cee ieee ee.) ye Ste ag =

He
ie

Oe Ne ate mae eo pln ci ee eke Fie Sm Be ele eee Ti a eet ey ee a Le km g | eas Bee eee oe i ee
pukese tee Z SRE esis ais sha in ely ies s

Chemistry and Physics. 395.

direct ane trustworthy measures of the amount of energy inhering
In eac

son why the extent of this great region has been so.
ingly underestimated is the deceptively small Space into.
ich e the

rs to be c¢
ism. To discriminate between these crowded rays I have
een driven to the invention of a special instrument. The
bolometer, which I have here, is an instrument depending upon
eeepc ‘which I need not explain at hs a since all present
may be presumed to be familiar with the success which has before
attended their application in another field, in the hands of the
President of this Association.

litany, of New York, into sheets, which as determined by the
kindness of a atig Rood, reach the surprising saees of less.
M40 yshyp Of an English inch (I have also iron d to shay
‘nch), and from this platinum a strip is cut 7}, of an inch wide.
This minute strip, for rming one arm of a Wheatstone’s bridge,
and “ perfectly shielded ey m air currents, is accurately
centered, by means of a compound microscope, in this ape
turned cylinder, and the cylinder itself is exactly directed by t
arms of this Y,

The attached galyanonicter responds readily to changes of

° Fahr.

temperature of much less than a Since it is one and.
the same solar energy, whose ger hig we call “light” or
“ heat,” herpes to the medium which interprets them, what is

“light” to the eye is “heat” to hh bolometer, and what is seen.
as a dark lin a ey the eye is felt as a cold line by the eprint in-
strument. Acc cordingly if lines analogous to the dark “ Frau

hofer lines” exist in this invisible region ache will appear (i 1 I

Strip of platina is moved along in the fests part o
trum till the galvanometer indicates that all but infitesinal
change of temperature caused by its contact with such

ork, will be seen, is necessarily ae

Slow ; it is in fact a long groping in the dark, and it demands.

extreme patience, A portion of its results are now before you.
most tedious part of the whole geet has been the

“serdar say of the ae Tt will be remembered ar

all of which thet are teuan to me appear to be here fou erro-.
heous by the test of direct experiment ; at least in the case of the
Prism pethier es employed.

been greatly aided in this part of the work by t

- remarkable concave gratings lately constructed by Pictionas

396 Scientific Intelligence.

Rowland of Baltimore, one of which I have the pleasure of
showing you

The spectra formed by this fall upon a screen in which is a
fine slit, only permitting nearly homogeneous rays to pass, and
these, which may contain the rays of as man ny as four overlapping
spectra are next passed through a rock-salt o dla prism plied
with its refracting edge parallel to the grating lines. This sorts
out the different narrow spectral images, without danger of over-

lapping, and after their passage through the prism we find them — 4

again and fix their position by means of the bolometer, which for
this purpose is attached to a special kind of spectror meter, where
its platinum thread replaces the reticule of the ordinary telescope
This is very difficult work, especially in the lowermost spectrum
where I have spent over two weeks of consecutive labor in fixing
a single wave-length.

The final result is I think worth the trouble however, for as
you see here, we are now able to fix with approximate precision,
and by direct experiment, the wave-length of every prismatic
spectral ray. The terminal ray of the solar spectrum, I
presence has been certainly felt by the bolometer, ave-
length of about 28,000 (or is nearly two octaves below the ee great
A” of Frauenhoter).

iaieuts of i iabraai sem fee been eda. 5 aon ed for.

study of lamp-black absor ption, I should add in gaatieatian, is
not quite complete, I have found it quite transparent to certain
infra-red ays and it is very possible that there may be some

gs n view of the increased attention that is doubtless soon to be
given to ee most interesting but strangely neglected region, and
which, by photography and other methods, is certain to be ft uly

only that I sea prese t it.
All that has reon is aparece to the main ise al on

w ;
tepeated at an altitude of 13,000 feet, Bipot my vr return I made
a special investigation upon the selective absorption of the sun’s
: ag ipibe with results which I can now only allude to.

Oe ae oS ste onan, ACS are ea

. Abticipated in a com

Chemistry and Physics. 397

By such observations, but by methods too elaborate for present
description, we can pass from the curve of energy actually ob-
served, to that which would be seen, if the observer were stationed
wholly above the earth’s atmosphere, and freed from the effect of
Its absorption.

The salient and remarkable result is the growth of the blue end
of the spectrum, and I would remark that while it has been long
known from the researches of Lockyer, Crova and others, that

phere to view it.

ut even were we placed outside the earth’s atmosphere, that
surrounding the sun itself would still remain and exert absorp-
1 a

b

trum, at the fount of that energy, in the sun itself. There is a

surprising similarity you will notice, in the character of the solar

and telluric absorptions, and one which we could hardly have
anticipated @ priori.

Here too, violet has been absorbed enormously more than the

green, and the green than the red, and so on, the difference being

f he solar

progressive increase of the energy toward the shorter wave-
lengths. This conclusion, which, I ma i

munication published in the Comptes Rendus
of the Institute of France as long since as 1875, is now fully con-
firmed, and I may mention that it is so also by direct photometric
methods, not here given.

f then we ask how the solar photosphere would appear to the
eye, could we see it without absorption, these figures appear to
show conclusively that it would be dlue. ot to rely on
assumption, however, we have by various methods at Allegheny,
Teproduced this color.

398 Scientific Intelligence.

s (to iene roughly the principles used), taking three
Maxwell’s disc red, green and blue, so as to reproduce white,

Sines , 80 as to give the proportion of ins green sit blue which
would be seen ine and obtain by their revolution a tint which
must approximately represent that at the phermspherd, and which
is most similar to that of a blue near Frauenhofer’s ‘ F.’

The conclusion then is that while all radiations emanate from
the solar surface, including red and infra-red, in greater degree
than we receive them, that the blue end is so ‘enormously greater
in proportion, that the proper color of the , as seen at the
photosphere, is blue—not only “ blueish,” pat. positively and
distinctly blue; a statement which I have ‘hot ventured to make
from any conjecture, or on any less cause Bee on the sole arouied
ot long continued experiments, which, commenced some seven
years since, have within the past two ne: Serchintibily tended to
the present conclusion

The mass of observations on which it rests must be reserved for

prized aaa of laying before them this indication of meth-
ods and results

TI. GroLtogy AND Narurau History.

1. Contributions to Mineralogy ; ue F. A. Genta. — Dr.
Genth has recently published some new observations bearing upon

mine, Madison "yeaa . C., corundum is found in white and

masses enveloping a variety of a delicate pink color. This corun-
dum is often more or less completely changed to a massive
greenish black spinel of a fine granular structure, but rarely
showing octahedral — in the compact mass. The spinel
SaamnyEn, shows scales prochlorite into which it finally

asses; an analysis yikes to have essentially the composition
(Ms, Fe)A Al,O,. The Soka ace from Shimersville, san (see p.

156), is also in part altered to spinel; the crystals contain numer-.

spars elses of menaccanite. (2) Cor sicdicns altered pes
A new locality has been found in Towns County,
@) pri iier to " felds par and mica (damourite). Cases of the
probable alteration of corundum into feldspar have been observed
at Unionville, and at the Black Horse Farm near Media, Penn.
At the Presley ee Haywood County, N. C., feldspar and mic
lave been observed together as alteration products ; the large
crystals of nse of a grayish-blue color contain patches ‘of

Se Sipe

;
a
i
4

Geology and Natural History. 399

white, cleavable feldspar often surrounded by mica, in other cases
a small nucleus the original mineral is surrounded by an

ing of albite, muscovite and seattered remnants of grayish-blue
corundum; large (one foot in diameter) crystals of corundum
occur at i

Ford, Burke Count . C., consist of brown corundum with
thin shell (5mm.) of fine fibrous radiating white fibrolite, (6)

, consisted of a nucleus of pink corundum with pale blue
cyanite crystallized about it and presumably having resulted from
its alteration; in another specimen from Wilkes County, N. C.,
the cyanite was still further altered to mica.

_ Dr. Genth also mentions cases of the alteration of orthoclase
into albite from Upper Avondale, Delaware County; of tale into
anthophyllite from Castle Rock, Delaware County, Penn. ; of tale
pseudomorph after magnetite from Dublin, Harford County, Md. ;

analyses are given of the various products of alteration men-
io 5 ;

Aa Bp Be
2. Anthracite in Sonora, Mexico.—Professor E. T. Cox, in an
account of his observations in the Western States, presented to
the American Association at Montreal, stated that near the Zaqui
River, 120 miles east of Guaymus, anthracite of excellent quality

“

of true Carboniferous age upper bed is 6 to 7 feet thick,
the lower 1: nd the associated rocks are siliceous shales and
Coarse breccia conglomerates dipping 35° to the eastward e

£ D. oO
Close to the anthracite are beds of lava and also quartz lodes,
Some of them rich in silver ores.

400 Scientific Intelligence.

3. Manual of Blowpipe Analysis, Qualitative and Quantita-
tive, with a complete System of Determinative Mineralogy ; bt
CornwaLt. 308 pp. 8vo. New York, 1882. (D. Vai
Nostrand). —Thi s volume includes the general range of topics or-
dinarily iabsened under the head of Blowpipe Analysis. It is
characterized by the excellent fullness and clearness rh which
the directions for manipulation and the statement of the various
reactions are given, and will consequently be found biny of use
by the sSrentcocome
w family of Rugose Corgis, and description of the
| Secine Gyalopliytium, Aulophyllum and Clisiophyllum, by James
Tomson, F.G.S. Proc. Phil. Soc. of Glasgow.—A valu netbon
paper reviewing the history and characters of the genera men-
tioned, and instituting the family Diplocyathophyllida, based
partly on the double cup, presented in a longitudinal section at
ies superior extremity of the corallum
Ti pemioente Two pamphlets before us are spe-
disdiy to be commended, v
The Culture and Mawupenent o. our Native Forests a devel-
opment as Timber or Ornamental Wood. By H. W. 8. CLEVE-
LAND. Published by the author, at Chicago (97 Wastiipios st.).
16 pages, 8vo.—It is “an Essay, read by invitation to a committee
nd espace Legislature, oe to the National Forestry
Ses s at Cincinnati.” Of this essay an “ eminent botanist and
tr ct in Tilinois” writes: “ I do not know when I have rea

outgrowth of practical observation and experience. It is retresh-
ing “to read anything which so readily commends itself to soun
judgment and plain common sense.” We think so too.

Not ;

River Valleys in Illinois and Indiana. By Roserr Rmeway.
—-A _pamphiet of 50 papes, extract from the Proceedings of the
U. 8. National Museum; very interesting statistics relative to
trees of a district peculiarly rich and luxuriant in its native forest
growth.
And now, at this moment, we receive the first number of
The American Journal of Forestry, edited by Franxuin B.
Hoven, Ph.D., Chief of the Forestry Division, U.S. Depart tment
of Agnowiee (Cincinnati: Clar 0. $3 per annum), com-
mencved with much spirit by a gentleman fest has devoted a great
part of his life to this subject, t, and is the m t prolific eb “upon
it. To this opening number he soutsibutes an article on “ The
Forestry of the Future.” Profess sor Spalding of Ann Ane writes
on “Forestry in Michigan.” Dr. Wander on Larch-wood, and
Mr. H. C. Putnam on “ Forest Fires,” which, we are glad . see,
are preventable by proper regul: tions. 7 o
amilien Podostemucere. Studier af Dr. Eve. W pnaiend
VI Af handling.—Warming has now brought out oft second part
of his studies of Podostemacee, the first part having been devoted
mainly to our Podostemon ceratophyllum. The present part, just

Astronomy. 401

issued, treats of the organs of vegetation of Hos angen aw ae
1 azil, and two species of Diercea from Ceylon;
fructification of Podostemon, Mni niopsis, Dicrea and oe Navid,
ith 9 plates. The letter-press is in een sh; but an abstract
and the detailed explanation of the plates are added in French.
Dr. Warming has removed to Stockholm, where he is ing Be
fessor of botany in the High-school.
rofessor G. L. Go oopaLE, of Harvard University, tar re-

turned from his year’s absence in Europe, mainly devoted to a
study of Botanical habe tab and Gardens, and has east
his work at Cambridge

8. Bulletin of the v. S. Geological and Geogr ada re
of the Territories, F. V. Hayp EN, Geologist-in-charge. Vo
No. 3. 598 pp. BVO. Washington, 1882.—This Bulletia: st pe
of the series,—a very valuable series to science—contains the fol-
ares papers : Preliminary lists of the works and papers relat-
ing to the orders of Cete and Sirenia, by Jorn A. ALLEN, pp.
397-563; New Moths with F artial catalogue of Noctuxw, by A.
R. Grorr; New Moths, principally collected in igi we

°. n the Young Stages of Osseous sibrolend by sere 8
Agassiz, Part iii, with 20 plates, Jul 882. From the
ceedings of the American Academy of Arts ae Sciences, vol. xvit

Ill. Astronomy.

A Method for Observing Artificial Transits; by J.
heirs (Communicated by the author.)—As many astron-
omers who intend to observe the one transit of Venus have
neither the time nor means for making the er gee arrange-
ments to practice on artificial transits, the simple method here
proposed may be adva ees em ployed. Instead of obsery-
ing an artificial sun ind plan t plaeed at a distance of several
thousand feet from the BBever I would suggest that the real

ar iis, el and the planet Venus to be represented by a

"The relative motion of the sun and Venus can then be pro-
duced by so adjusting the rate of the driving clock that the
angular motion of the telescope on ne hour axis shall go the
diural motion of the y seventeen seconds of time per
hour, In this way, as the stincupbolib disturbances of be sun’s
limb are real, a near approach to the phenomena observed during
an actual transit will result. If a light shade-glass is employed,
the opaque disk will be seen before it comes into apparent con-
tact with the sun. The observer can, however, by an exercise of
the will, confine his whole attention to the sun’s lim

y using a heavier shade-glass the disk will not be seen until it

Am. Jour, oC —Tutrp Series, Vou. XXIV, No, 143.—NovEMBER, 1882.

402 Seientifie Intelligence.

is projected against the image of the sun. The angular diameter
enus at the time of transit being about 65”, the diameter of
the opaque disk should be 65*/sin 1’ = 0-00031+/, J being the
focal length of the telescope used. The position angle of the
point of contact can be changed at will by simply moving the
telescope in declination
se Arbor, Mich., Oct. 9, 1882,

2. Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard Col-
lege. Vol. xiii, Part I. MWicrometric Measurements, made with
the Equatorial Telescope of fifteen inches aperture during the
years 1866-1881, under the direction of Joszera and
Epwarp ©, PickeRrine, successive Directors of the Obiarvatee y:

metric, The results are given under the heads: ae Stars;
ite Satellites of Saturn, Uyaeue and Neptun ; Satellites of
Mars, 1877 and 1879; Asteroids ; Comets; Deiter tions. The
a on Double Stars were mostly made & nder the direc-
tion of Professor pues but to Ss are added a few others
made by Professors W. C. and G. P. Bond, oe by the

o of Mr. L. Wa
scat Along with he results of micrometric measurements of

3. On the Pi sropraphie Spectrum of Comet ( Wells) I, 1882;
by Wired Hveearss. (From t ee Proceedings of the "Ro oya al
3

one hour and a qua A spe ‘Ursee aay di was
taken through the ihe half of the iait, for comparis
e photograph shows a strong continuous s sutra extending

Tam not able to distinguish the Fraunhofer lines. In this comet,
therefore, at this time, the original light, zivive a continuous
spectrum, must have been much Reauder relatively to the sunlight
reflected than was the case in the comet of last year. It shoul
be stated that the greater faintness of the present comet made 1t
necessary to use a more open slit, which would cause the Fraun-
hofer lines to be less distinct ; but the lines G, H and K are to be
clearly seen in the star’s spec ctrum taken under the same conditions.
Eye observations by several observers on the visible spectrum

Astronomy. 403

T
- Comet of last year.* Iam not able to see the cyanogen group in
the ultra-violet beginning at wave-length 3883, nor are the other
two groups between G and / and between / and H to be detected.
_ The continuous spectrum which extends from below F to a
litte distance beyond H contains at least five brighter s aces,

groups. e fainter groups
ate suspected to be present, but they are too indistinct to admit
measurement.

ment and ending of each group to permit of more than a meas-
t of each bright space.

‘warms of meteors differ from each other, and the meteorites
Which come down to us differ greatly in their chemical constitu-

Observatory buildings and instruments; a catalogne of 195 stars
observed at Detroit by Mr. Scheeberle, and reduced at the Wash-
burn Observatory; a list of 27 new nebule; a list of 60 new
double stars discovered by Mr. Holden; a list of 88 new double
Stars discovered by Mr. Burnham at the Observatory; measures
by Mr. Burnham of 152 selected double stars; observations of 84
red stars and a list of 27 new red stars; observations of the great
Comet of 1881. The assumed position of the meridian circle of the
Servatory is:
North latitude, 48° 4' 36-64. Longitude, 89° 24’ 28'"31.

5. Washington Observations for 1878. Appendix IL.—The
longitude of the meridian circle of the John C. Green School of

lence, at Princeton, J., was determined by H. M. Paul of the
U.S.N. Observatory, and Professor Young; the result being that
It 1s 0" 9™ 34-538 east of the central dome of the U. 8S. N. Observa-
_ tory at Washington, D. C.

* Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. xxxiii, p. 1.

404 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

IV. MisceLLANEovus ScrienTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

A new inethod of measuring Heights by means of the Ba-
rometer; by G. K. Grrerr. (U.S. Geological Survey, J. W.
Powell, Director. Extract from the Annual Repor rt for 1880-81).
—Mr. Gilbert has made a very important contribution to the
subject of practical hypsom a — developed a new method
of measuring differences of altitude by the barometer, which
though somewhat limited in its sects iy gives under favorable
conditions results which are decide edly more accurate than those
obtained by the methods now in use. The following notice will

be made to the original memoir whieh leaves little to be desired
in this respect. Mr. Gilbert devotes the opening thirty pages of
his memoir to a general discussion of the problem of determin-
ing differences of altitude by means of the barometer, describing
the principal methods now employed, and the various disturbing
conditions of temperature, humidity and so on, ead the devices
for the elimination of errors due to them. This discussion brings
out very fully and clearly the unavoidable difficulties “with which
ordinary hypsometric methods are beset, and prepares the way
for the presentation of the new method propose

This method is briefly, as follows. Two base stations are chosen,

wh own difference in vertical height (“vertical base line,”
eactees by the spirit-level) is as great, and whose horizontal
distance is as small, as practicable; and at ery frequent obser-
vations of the barometer are made during the ; so similar
observations are taken at the third station. ae alfitude is to be

e
humidity are required. The readings, corrected for index error
and temperature of the mercury, are collected in groups of three,
coincident for the two base stations and the new station. From
these the shy Seg oe height (A’) of the new station, and that

of the base line (B’) are calculated as usual, but without the
ordinary corrections, that is, assuming that the air is dry and at
a uniform temperature o of 32°F, Then if the known true height
of the base line is B, the true height (A) of the new station is
given by
a4 ()
BD fh
For, the weight (W) of the air column oO the two base
stations, determined by the barometer, is equal to the product of
the mean density (d@) of the column, multiplied bg the height (2)
and by a constant factor (7)
W=dBE (2)

Also, as B’ is the approximate height of the same column, on the

assumption that its mean Beeve (@) is that which would exist
if the air were wats and at 32° F,

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 405

W=d' BE (3)
And from (2) and (3) 4 =.

The ratio of the approximate height (B’) to the true height (B)
of the base line is t . measure of the temporary condi-
tion of the column of the base line with respect to density.
Similarly the corresponding ratio of the approximate height (A’)
to the true height (A) of the new station measures the same con-
dition as regards density, for the colamn between the new station
and the lower base station, and hence follows equation (1).
In equation (1) it is assumed that the temporary condition of

C (log J — log w) and @ (log 7 — log n)
where C is a constant. Substituting these values in equation (1)
we obtain
— log 7—log n
log d—log w
This expression would give the required height, if the distribu-
tion of aqueous vapor were uniform and the air column were uni-
form in temperature. s this is not true, however, a thermic
correction must be introduced allowing for the effect of tempera-
ture and aqueous vapor, and this is obtained as follows: The
mean thermic density of the air column, between the new station
and lower base station, is assumed to be equal to that of the
Stratum midway between the two, the altitude of which is

Similarly the mean thermic density of the column be-

2
tween the two base stations is assumed equal to that of a stratum
Whose height is hs me The vertical space between these two

midway strata is
Vik Retin, Do Bes
2 Oe one eee Pes

2 2

406 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

The difference between the two mean densities will be found by
multiplying the number of units in this vertical space by the
thermic density for each unit of vertical space. The rate of
thermic increase being assumed to be uniform from the Pyne

upward, it may be supposed that at some height (call it = its
total amount pecones, equal to the density at the gaat and

becomes unity when expressed in terms of the iitial density.
The thermic increase of ‘quilt for each unit of vertical space is

then expressed by 1 + — or > and the expression for the differ-
ence between the mean pares densities becomes
B-—-A 2 B-A

2 de et
This denotes the fraction by which the thermic increase of density
affects the relative densities of B and A; it sa expresses the
fraction by which the deduced altitude A is affected by the
thermic variation of density. The correction is Ahatefo ore

A eae)

The original assumption of CE of temperature and
poner made the density too great, and = ees the height
mall. Hence the full formula should read

7 log I—log n A(B—A)
~ log /—log u e D.
This formula may be readily modified to corre yes to the case
where the peeves es of the three stations (L<N< U) is not
that assumed ab

The constant "Di in the above equation must be determined ex-

Pe

perimentally. As stated, Dp is the increment of thermic density

; a, : ‘
for an ascent of a unit of space, and = — is the vertical distance

at which the total increment is ait D is therefore to be ex-
pressed in the same linear units as A and B and is a function of

which only the average value can be obtained, The author pro-
poses to ascertain its value by applying the formula to the com-
putation of altitudes already known, and then deducing the value
of DP which will give the best average result. This method was
applied to the case of observations taken by the California Geo-
logical Survey at ma bee Colfax and Summit, extending over
a series of nearly three years; is to observations given by
Riihlmann for three stations on the Miesing taken during a
week in August, 1857. It was found that a wide variation in the

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 407

magnitude of the increment existed, both for different hours of

the « day and for different seasons of the year. The average value

coe is 490,000 feet (or 149,349 meters), so that the “foubuls
eads

log /—log n | A(B—A)
log 7—log u 490,000 °

The variation in the force of gravity is neglected on the ground
that its variation affects the air column to be measured and the
standard column (base line) in nearly equal een so that its
influence is approximately eliminated.

Mr. Gilbert has made an extended series of comparative tests
between the new method and those now in general use, for the

A (in feet) =B

tion of the new metho a¢ sheoe e are obviousl a but it
is believed that it bi Died prove applicable to the st a
bart of the work done in the country during the years imme
ately to come, in cases wit the more accurate method hy ‘4h use
of the theodolite and allied instruments is out of the question. For
the practical application of the oe a table: is given, from which
ie value of the thermic term 490,00 ? ‘, can be immediately ob-
tained. An ingenious graphic table is also added to take the
Place of the other, which allows the determination of the same
value without the labor of a double inter polation, otherwise often
neces

2. Profess ional Papers of the Signal Service. No, 4. Re oe
of the Toreadule tes May 29 and 30, 1879, in Nebras

Missouri and Iowa; by J. P. Fixtay. No. 7. he iow
f Six Hundred Parundoed ? 3; by J. P. Finzay.
he first ¢ these papers is a monograph of 116 pages, and con-

tains 29 maps and numerous other illustrations it thirteen vcs
does that patna on the days and in the States named.
Second is a catalogue of six hundred tornadoes that have oceurr oa
in the United States since 1794. By far the larger portion are,

Owever, comprised in the last —< Classified by months,
these tornadoes occurred as follow

January, 7, April, 97. J ae 90. October, 15.
February, 21. May, 81. August, 47. November, 22.
March, 37. Taek 112. September, 50. December, 9.

408 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

The paper is uimaeniad by suggestions of pnabicile of investi-
gation and a statement of peculiarities of tornado clouds and sug-
gestions for avoiding their violence. e numbers occurring in
different States are tabulated, and a ord os the fre-
quency of tornadoes is constructed therefr

ese papers will probably be more sata: for the collections of
facts contained in them than’ for the conclusions which the col-
lector has himself deduced. Thus, in constructing the chart
frequency in different Toealivies the numbers for different States
and Territories seem to be used without any correction for the
size of the States, the period during which the observations can
be presumed to have been made, or the facilities for securing
reports of tornadoes that have occurred. The map is specially
shaded to represent the two tornadoes of Vermont and the one of
Rhode Island os the thirty-five of New York State, and the
one tornado of t ndian Territory and one of Arizona against
the sixty-two of Naas as.

3. The Elements of Forestry, designed to afford information
concerning the planting and care of Forest Trees — ornament or
profit, and giving suggestions upon the creation and care of
woodlands: with the view of securing the greatest ‘Veneft for the
longest time, particularly adapted to the wants and conditions of
the United Stat tes, by FRANKLIN Hoven, Ph.D., wate of

orestry Division, U. 8. Dept. of Agriculture Member 0
American Philosophical oa A etc. 382 pp. 8vo. Ginctaaacy
1882. (Robert Clarke & Co.)

The ae one Record for 1878, edited by Wm, Whitaker and W. H. Dalton.
496 pp. London. 1882. (Taylor & Francis.

The daevens evidences of Organic Evolution, by G. J. Romanes, F.R.S. Na-
ture Series. 88 pp. 12mo. London. 1882. (Macmillan & Co.)

Synopsis of the Classification of the Animal Kingdom, by H. Alleyne Nichol-
son, Prof. ie — Aberdeen. 130 pp. 8vo, with many illustrations. Edin-
burgh and 1882. (W > Pps ae actus A very convenient syn-
opsis for the potent well illustr:

Repo: n examination of the ‘chink Columbia River and the Territory in its
vicinity in September and tebe, 1881, to determine its navigability and adapta-
bility to steamboat transportation. Made ne direction of the Commanding Gen-
eral of the Dept. of the Columbia, by Lieut. T. W. Symons, Corps of Engineers
U.S. A. Chief iuiiover of the Dept. of hie Columbia, 134 pp. large 8vo, with
26 maps. Washington. 1882. Se no document No, 186.

Annual ide Mog the he of the Northern and Northwestern Lakes, in
charge of C. B tock, Major of Engineers, Brevet Br i esinnGanersl U8, ;&
ch Tr of abe Annual Bepert of the Chief of Engineers for 1881. Wash-

cacti Microscopy, a George E. Davis. 335 pp, 8vo, with a colored plate.

ace. 1882 (David Bo

Lehrbuch der Vargaienden Anatomie der Wirbelthiere auf Gruniege: der
Prveatth setae ro bearbeitet von Dr. Robert Wiedersheim, & ofes in
Friburg, I. B. Erster Theil. 476 pp. 8vo. Jena. 1882. (Gustav

Acephalés: Etudes locales et comparatives, Extrait du Systéme Silurien -
Centre de la Bohéme. vol. vi. By betes Fares 536 pp. 8yvo, with |
plates. 1881. Paris, Rue de l'Odéon. No,

Mémoires sur les Terrains Crétacé : Tertaire, préparés par feu André Dumont,
pour ~ a la by mabe de la Car ologique de la rt cae fins M,
Mour Tom 6 iv, Terrains Doesnt Seat Partie. Bruxelles, 188

Se ee

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AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

[THIRD SERIES,]

Art. XLIV.-——Terraces and Beaches about Lake Ontario; by J.
W. Spencer, B.A.Sc., Ph.D., F.G.S., State University of
Missouri, Columbia, Mo. (Late Vice-President of King’s Col-
lege, Windsor, Nova Scotia). With Plates VI and VIL

[Read before the Montreal Meeting of the American Association for;the Advance- °*

ment of Science, |
THE extreme western end of Lake Ontario is separated by

Burlington Beach from the open waters of the lake, and forms

Burlington Bay, having a length of about five miles, and a

width of four miles at the eastern end, from which place it

radually narrows to less than half a mile, at the western end.
his triangular bay is bounded on two sides by the Niagara
escarpment rising from four to five hundred feet above the lake.

At a short distance westward of the bay, the two faces of the

escarpment suddenly approach to within about two miles of

each other, and thence extend parallel to each other for several
miles, having formed the boundaries of a grand ancient river
valley, through which the waters of the Lake Erie basin flowed,

—Treceiving, as a tributary, the Grand River, which drained the

principal portion of the high lands of the peninsula of western

Ontario,—in Pre-glacial times. This ancient valley is deeply

filled with drift deposits, as described in a former paper read

before the Association. Interglacial and modern streams have

excavated deep valleys in the soft drift deposits producing a

very broken country throughout the whole Dundas valley, as

Tepresented on Plate VI. Along the sides of the escarpments,
Am. Jour. a Bs Serres, Vou. XXIV, No. 144.—Dzcemsrr, 1882,

410 J. W. Spencer—Terraces about Lake Ontario.

and in some of the hillocks, fragments of ancient beaches and
terraces remain.

The eastern portion of the Dundas valley is occupied by a
marsh, which is separated from Burlington Bay by “ Burlington

Heights ”—a ridge which rises abruptly from the waters (of the
same level) on both sides, to a height of from 108 to 116 feet,
with the breadth on the snmmit of only a few hundred feet.
Burlington Beach, which separates the bay from the lake is the
counterpart of the ‘‘ Heights” and rises eight feet above the
water. It is not usually more than a quarter of a mile wide.
Burlington Bay is excavated out of Erie clay and is 78 feet
at its greatest depth.

After this topographical description, let us now consider the
elevation of the beaches and terraces, and their composition.
(See Plates VI and VII.)

1. The lowest beach is that forming the present lake margin
and rising to a height of eight or ten feet above its surface, of
which Burlington Beach is a portion. It is composed wholly of
sand and pebbles (mostly flattened) derived from the ruins of
various rocks of the Hudson River formation, with a few small
crystalline pebbles. The pebbles are often full of characteris-
tic Hudson River fossils. Sometimes the rounded slabs meas-
ure more than a foot in length, though usually much less.
At the western end of the lake the present beach does not con-
tain any pebbles of the Niagara formation. The nearest expos-
ures of the component rocks are more than twenty miles away
to the northward,

2. The next terrace is 70 (to 80) feet above the lake, and
consists of sand,—or, in the Dundas valley, where it forms a
conspicuous flat terrace, it is composed of thin-bedded loose
arenaceous clay, with some fine gravel along the margin. This
terrace in the Dundas valley is the remnant of the deposits of
Saugeen clay.

3. The most conspicuous of all the terraces is that at 116
feet above the lake, of which “ Burlington Heights” is a por-
tion. Its composition is precisely of the nature of Burlington
Beach, and on a succeeding page, the structure will be more
fully noticed in studying its origin, along with that of Burling-
ton Beach.

4. The upper portion of an isolated conical hill, rising to 180
feet on the southern side of Dundas, is composed of stratified
fine gravel, probably of the Hudson River formation, but with
large stones and semi-angular slabs (sometimes a foot and a half
long) composed of Niagara dolomites and other rocks of that
formation.

5. On the northern side of the town of Dundas there is an
old beach with the sand and fine gravel exposed from 224 to
261 feet above the lake.

ieee

J. W. Spencer—Terraces about Lake Ontario. 411

6. Higher up, on the side of the escarpment north of the
town (at the mouth of Glen Spencer), and not distant from the
last beach, there are still the fragmentary remains of stratified
gravel and sand rising to 335 feet above the lake. This de-
posit probably reached higher at a former time, but has been
removed from the steep side of the so-called “ mountain.” It
is composed of a mixture of Niagara and Hudson River pebbles
and sand, with a few crystalline pebbles. Farther up the Dun-
das valley and near Ancaster, this same beach is represented in
fragments on some of the hills. But there they are composed
more largely of fine materials of Hudson River age, with only.
slabs of Niagara rocks (being farther removed from the escarp-
ment),

7. Westward of Ancaster village, and near the watershed
between the present Dundas valley (at an estimated height of
440 feet above the lake), there is another beach composed
largely of Hudson River pebbles, and showing much oblique
bedding, dipping at 23 degrees to the southeastward. Farther
Southeastward we again find an old beach at the same elevation
adjacent to the Grand River.

. On top of the Niagara escarpment, just north of the village
of Waterdown, there is a beach of very fine gravel at a height
of about 500 feet above Lake Ontario.

From the study of the beaches in the Dundas valley there
appears to have been simply a gradual recession of the water
With comparatively few SEIS changes of level—the most
sudden being between the deposit of the terrace at 116 feet
above, and that at the present lake level.

Between Toronto and Lake Simcoe, Mr. Thomas Roy, in
1837, measured beaches at 110, 210, 282, 810, 346, 402, 422,
002, 558, 626, 682, 734, 764 feet respectively above Lake On-
tario. In addition to these gravel beaches, others at 600 feet,
and, on descending toward Georgian Bay (along the Northern
Railway) at 520, 388 and 354 feet, have been measured. Along
the Toronto, Grey and Bruce Railway, which extends in a
direction north of west from Toronto to the highest portions

the peninsula of Ontario, and crossing the “ Artemesia
Gravel” ridges, there are a number of conspicuous beds of
sand and gravel, which follow contour lines more or less closely.
The elevations of some of the most conspicuous of these de-
posits were furnished by the kindness of Edmund Wragge, Exq.,
Chief Engineer of the Railway. They are at 160, 280, 370,
710, 990, 1120, 1340 feet respectively above Lake Ontuario.
After passing the summit of the road, at 146% feet above the
lake, there are extensive gravel beds at 1310 feet, and from
1000 to 697 feet above the same datum, along the main line,
and along the western branch at 1299, 1130, 1050, 870, 850

412 J. W. Spencer— Terraces about Lake Ontario.

and 830 feet above Lake Ontario. Near Owen Sound there
are others at 546, 496 and 466 feet above Lake Ontario.

Along the Great Western Railway, adjacent to the valley of
St. David’s (near the Niagara River), there are stratified sands
and gravels (of Hudson River epoch) from 383 to 250 feet above

In New York State, eastward of Lockport, the lake ridges
rise from 158 to 190 feet above the lake (Hall). On the south-
eastern margin of the lake basin there are old beaches at 400
feet, and at the north end of Skaneateles Lake, at about 625
feet above Lake Ontario, there are still others. But the col-
lected records of the New York terraces are too fragmentary
for general comparison.

In the appended table the reader will be immediately impressed
with the relationship existing between the beaches at the various
elevations which surround the lake, and the continuity of the
slow recession of the waters. The higher beaches, of course, refer
to the time when the waters of all the Great Lakes were united
in one body. In Michigan there are beaches at 1350 feet above
Lake Ontario. Near Petits Ecrits, Lake Superior, beaches at
398, 408, 458, 592, 627, 635 and 699 feet above Lake Ontario
were measured by the Geological Survey of Canada.

Again to the southwestward of Lake Erie, Messrs. Gilbert
and Winchell measured beaches or ridges at 65-90, 165, 195,
220, 850-408, 386-490 feet above Lake Hrie.

he belt of the Artemesia gravel may approximately be rep-
resented by the contour line of 1250 feet above the sea, but
extending southward of this line to somewhat beyond the con-
tour of 950 feet. It is thus described by Dr. Bell: “This great
belt of gravel has a general parallelism with the Niagara escarp-
ment and follows the highest ground of the peninsula. The
materials composing it consist principally of the ruins of the
Guelph formation, on which the greater part lies, except to-
ward the southern extremity, where the Niagara formation 1s
largely represented. Pebbles of Laurentian and Huronian
r e everywhere mixed with the others, and sometimes
form a considerable proportion, while rounded fragments from
the harder beds of the Hudson River formation occur locally in
some abundance.” (These Jast rocks are derived from lower
levels.) ‘The gravel is all well rounded and generally coarse.
It often constitutes what might properly be called ‘cobble
stones,’ being loose and free from any admixture of clay; and
it is distinctly stratified. Well worn boulders of Guelph, Lau-
rentian and Huronian rocks are disseminated through the whole
mass.” In a few places this gravel overlies blue Hrie clay.
From the eastern side of the Artemesia gravel ridges, there
extends a long comparatively narrow ridge for about 100 miles

FS eh. TR Oe a Ee ee nce ee BL Ng ee ce ee aE aed
-

to near the Trent River, known as “Oak Ridg

J. W. Spencer—Terraces about Lake Ontario. 418

e.” Its most

conspicuous portion may be represented by the contour line of
feet above Lake Ontario, although the highest portion rises

to 893 feet.

Its height is from 200 to 300 feet above the broad

TABLE OF ELEVATIONS OF TERRACES, BEACHES AND RIDGEs.

Elevations in feet above Mean Tide.

> cmt of la
{On Bighlande ¢ of Michigan.
, Grey & belong Railway.

Al

ong oe

Along W.,

Beach, al
rel

G.&B
so of the Pomehin on Mackinac

Zac as e ee ; 5 =
ei ace | gee.) Bae PF we | See
gee (GEC) Ex | Bg | 88 | Sees] § | Se | see
eyo | 833| ag | e888 | Bo | A28 , | $8o- | 388
gs° | 888 | we | wake | O82 | oe32 i ES | F892 | wes
ase | Sha] 58 | 8586 | 38 | S823 | 22 | Bets | 896
4 a 4 4 z ou 4 4 4
1709* | .... | 1700+
587
1557
1546
1377
1367
1297
1247
hs ae eee sa as 1117
Tt Too ee 1063 to
1) as eee gt 959
S61 fe Ud ene era oo nae 981 to
990 | ray: 944 ae 946 oe 923
882 uae ae 900
Oe eae aes as 14 872 me
847 g4a8 |... 839]
806512. pers 793 is ar 793
167 com cae ee my 768
47 749 137 SS Woe Apa 738 748
MC) toot. ee base 713 705
669
49 8, peerage te 655 ae 663 to| 660
6339 {|---| 635 : oes 645 647 j 638
x 601 7 toe 583(?)
582 593
557
S96 527
508 to | ___- ES PEAS) eat 8 rea: oe er 505
a EEE A0G08 a sey fee 479
Po as ite a, Pee e ee 448
427 Bes ee oy pe) Ge 437 to
407 Se Oe oe ae ; 432
ance Pee mn rs ee thes apie £06 1 a
aes 327 a pelea pets os eo eee Coo 325
255 to )
tf

“{ Adjacent to St. David's Valley.
** Along Whitby Br. of Midland

Railway. —
++ Along Midland Railway.

414.0 SJ. W. Spencer—Terraces about Lake Ontario.

rock-bottomed trough which extends from the Georgian Bay
to the eastern portion of Lake Ontario. The descending por-
tion of this ridge may be represented by a contour of 250 feet
above Lake Ontario, to which it approaches at Scarboro Heights.
The composition of the whole thickness to lake level (more
than 300 feet) is here shown and consists mostly of stratified
sand and clay, with two intercalated beds of boulder-bearing

There is a resemblance between the Artemesia ridges aud
the so-called Kettle Moraines of Wisconsin, Coteau des Prairies
and Coteau de Missouri, There is a general parallelism be-
tween these ridges. The Artemesia gravel reaches 1700 feet
above the sea-——a height as great as portions of Coteau des
Prairies.

From the structure of both the “Artemesia Gravel” and ‘Oak
Ridge,” there is no evidence of their being of morainic charac-
ter. The deposits of the Artemesia gravel are simply around
the high rocky floor of this portion of the country, and mark
the recession of the waters in more or less perfect contour lines,
with most of the material of local origin.

Whatever barriers may have separated the lake region from
the sea, there seems no doubt that the whole area was sub-
merged beneath the sea level to at least 1700 feet, for no glacial
lake could account for the high level beaches. From the char-
acter of the deposits there appears to have been but little float-
ing ice—perhaps not much more than the ice-fringes of the
present day. The highlands south of the lakes do not rise to
any such height as to permit a small amount of floating ice to
barricade them to the height of several hundred feet.

As the continent was rising, the waters of this inland lake
had many channels communicating with the exterior sea, across
Ohio and New York, besides that by way of the St. Lawrence.
However, local oscillations probably played an important part,
but to what extent cannot yet be well determined. s

Below 1200 feet above sea level of to-day, the principal old
outlets are by the valley of Cayuga Lake, at 1015 feet; by
Seneca Lake valley, at 865 feet; by the Mohawk River, at 434
feet, and by the present St. Lawrence River, at 247 feet above
mean tide. In Ohio, Dr. Newberry enumerates various other
outlets at 936, 968, 909, 910 and 940 feet above present ocean
level.

There is a remarkable connection between these old outlets
and the beaches which rise a few feet above them, in that they
are conspicuous and are most widespread.

Many of the transported bowlders of crystalline rocks may
have been carried by the floating ice of the great lake of the
time; but the explanation of the Hudson River pebbles and

J. W. Spencer—Terraces about Lake Ontario. 415

- slabs, which are observed in the old beaches, higher than these
original sources, can be best accounted for by the theory that
they were carried upward by the coast-ice during the time
when the continent was undergoing subsidence, and were re-
arranged by the waves and shore ice of a later perio

Let us now return to the lower water margins of Lake On-
tario, represented by “ Burlington Heights” and ‘“‘ Burlington
Beach,” which are almost wholly composed of Hudson River
pebbles. The former of these ridges is 116 feet and the latter
eight feet above the lake. Both of these beaches, of the same

above the present water, the Dundas valley formed one contin-
uous basin with the lake bed. But at that time, as now, only
the extensions of Lake Ontario forming bays were frozen over
in winter. The Dundas valley, being a confined arm, was

formation. A small portion of the shore material may have
been derived from the ruin of former beaches at higher levels.

416 JS. LeConte—Apparent Attractions and Repulsions

In conclusion, it may be said that the country covered with
‘‘Artemesia Gravel” gives no evidence of any morainic origin
of the deposits, but rising from the great subsidence of the

of local and general oscillations of the continent, for we see
that the above fragmentary lists of elevations show a close
relation between the different beaches, which would doubtless
be further borne out, were the me&surements more complete,
and made with a view of arriving at true scientific results.

Art. XLV.—Apparent Attractions and Repulsions of Small
Floating Bodies ; by JOHN LECONTE.

ALTHOUGH the apparent attractions and repulsions of small
floating bodies is one of the most familiar phenomena, and one
of the earliest to which the physical theory of capillarity was

* “ Mémoires de l’Acad. de Sciences” for 1787, p. 506 et seq.
+“ Phil. Trans.” for 1805, p. 65 et seq. On the “ Cohesion of Liquids.” ‘
“Mécanique Céleste,” tome iv. ‘Supplément au Livre x,” “Sur ‘LAction
Capillaire.” (1806.)—Also, “Supplément a la Théorie de L’Action Capillaire.
(1807.) ee
§ “ Principia Generalia Theorie Figure Fluidorum in Statu Aiquilibrii.” Got-

| ‘“ Nouvelle Théorie de L’Action Capillaire.” Paris, 1831.

of Small Floating Bodies. 417

liquid, which gives origin to a tensile elastic reaction resulting
in the development of a force tending to elevate or depress the
liquid according as its terminal surface adjacent to the solid is
concave or convex. The actual existence of such an elastic

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atmosphere is practically eliminated from their equations ;—so
i duce the

nomena. Hence, we find that many first-class physicists, such
as Lamé, Desains, Jamin, Everett,| and others, introduce the

Paris, 18
“Phil. Mag.,” TV, xxxviii, p. 81, and vol. xli, pp. 245, 370, 454; V,
Vol. v, pp. 321, 415, and vol. vii, p. 301.
3 Laplace ‘* Mécanique Céleste,” tome iv. “*Supplément au livre x.”—Article 11,
p. 41 e -— Poisson, op. cit. supra, articles 81-85, pp. 162-11:

t :

| Lamé, “Cours de Physique,” 2d Ed., Paris, 1840, tome i, p. 188 et seq. Article

143.—Desains, “ Traité De Physique.” Paris, 1857, tome i, pp. 603-606,—Jamin.
; 9 ;

“Cours De C) m

lation of Deschanel’s “Traité Elémentaire de Physique.” N. Y., 1880. Part I
Pp. 136. Article 97, D.—Péclet in his “ Traité De Physique,” (4th

tome i, p. 158, Article 224), leaves out the pressure of the atmosphere, and ascribes
the motions exclusively to negative and positive hydrostatic pressures.

418 J. LeConte—Apparent Attractions and Repulsions

pressure of the atmosphere as a fundamental element into their
explanations of these motions. Indeed, Laplace himself seems
to have been impressed with the apparent conflict between
theory and experiment: for, after giving the result in relation

vacuo. Moreover, from this point of view, he is liable to lose
sight of the real physical cause of all capillary phenomena,
viz :—the reaction of the tense superficial film of the liquid,—
the true and efficient cause of the disturbance of hydrostatic
pressure. It seems to me, that by referring the motions of
such bodies directly to the action of this tensile superficial film,
a fundamental principle in the physical theory of capillarity 1s
secured in the mind of the student; while the resulting dis-
turbances of hydrostatic equilibrium are not primary facts,
but secondary consequences of the more fundamental cause.
he general explanation, which I am about to offer of the
“ Apparent Attractions and Repulsions of small Floating
odies,” is so simple and obvious a deduction from the funda-
mental Laws of Capillary Action, as expounded by Laplace
and Poisson, that it is difficult to bring myself to believe, that
it has hitherto escaped the attention of physicists. Neverthe-
less, I have not, thus far, been able to find it in any of the

* “ Mécanique Céleste,” ‘‘Supplément au Livre X,” article 11, p. 44.

of Small Floating Bodies. 419

ORDINARY POPULAR EXPLANATIONS.

Case 1. When both bodies are Hag ane: d. In this case (fig. 1,
A, B, and A’ B’), when the two bodies are brought so near
that bate intervening concave meniscuses join each other, the
bodies are drawn -— by the weight of the column of the

as

liquid m, elevated above es. +e a b, acting like a loaded
cord secured to each of the

Case 2. When both behing: are gun moistened. In this case
(fig. 2, A, B, and A’ B’), when the two bodies are brought so
near that’ the intervening convex meniscuses unite, e and g are

more depressed than d and J; consequently the two bates are
pushed toward each other, by the greater exterior hydrostatic
pressure exercised by the portions dh and fe.

2.

Case 3. When one body is moistened and the other ts not mois-
tened. In this ease (fig. 83, A, B, and A’ B’), if the moistened
body B or B’, were alone, the concave meniscus would be
elevated to o; in like manner, if the non-moistened body A or
A,’ were alone, the convex meniscus would be depressed to 7.
Now, if the two bodies are brou ught so near that their menis-
_ uses join each other, the intervening liquid surface will take

420 J. LeConte—Apparent Attractions and Repulsions

an intermediate position nk. Hence, the point n will be below
the point 0; and the point & will be above the pointr. It is
therefore assumed, that the moistened body B or B’, will be
drawn away from ‘A or A’ , by the excess of the weight of the

3.

CaN

exterior above the interior meniscus, due to the difference of
eight o n or o’ n’: In like manner, the non- moistened body A

or A’, will be pushe d away from or B’, by the excess of

interior hydrostatic pressure due to the difference of level kr.
ence, there is apparent mutual repulsion.

Defects of the foregoing explanations.—Leaving out of con-
sideration those physicists who have adopted. more or less com-
pletely, the mathematical methods of Laplace and of Poisson,
the foregoing seem to be the generally-received popular expla-
nations of this class of capillary phenomena. %!
given by Brewster, Daguin, Silliman, Snell, and other sonpete
on elementary physics; and are essentially identical with the
explanations originally proposed by Monge.* e most cur-
sory pray cane will serve to show their unsatisfactoriness.

In the first place, each case requires a special explanation :
there is no common physical principle codrdinating the three
cases under consideration. Thus, in case 1, the weight of the
intervening elevated column of liquid draws the bodies to-
gether, without reference to the modification of hydrostatic
pressure due to the elevation. On the other hand, in case 2,
the bodies are pushed together by the excess of the exterior
hydrostatic pressures. Finally, in case 3, it will be noticed,

ter, “Eneye. Britannica,” 8th ed., article “Hyd amet trai

lim.

rticle 242, pp. 192 ‘ .
1870, article 229, pp. ree! Also, Kimball’s 3d Revised Ed., N. Y, 1882,
article 202, p. 135.—Monge, ‘ Mém. de I’Acad.,” cit. ante. Of the above, Daguin
gives the most explicit and clear statement of these explanations.

4
a
32

Sd

of Small Floating Bodies. 421

that the excess of hydrostatic pressure due to the difference of
height equivalent to 0 v oro’ n’, is made a pulling force, urging
B or B’ to the right; while the excess of hydrostatic pressure
due to the difference height equivalent to &r, is made a pushing
force urging A or A’ to the left. Now, why this difference in
the direction of action of the excess of hydrostatic pressures?

hy not regard the excess of pressure on the right of B or B’,
(equivalent on or on’), as a pushing force urging B or B’
towards A or A’?—a result which is evidently at variance with
experiments.

Same radius of curvature on all sides, each of the floating
bodies is in equilibrium under its action. But when brought
So near that their meniscuses join each other, the radius of cur-
vature of the united intervening concave meniscus at m, (fig.
1), is less than that of the exterior concave meniscuses at a and
, and its superior tension acts upon both bodies toward a com-
mon center of concavity at 5. Hence, by virtue of the smaller
radius of curvature of the intervening tense film, the interior
forces prevail, and the two bodies are drawn together.

ASE 2. Fig. 2. The same explanation applies to this case.
The common or united intervening convex meniscus being

422 J. LeVonte—Apparent Attractions and Repulsions

attached to the bodies at e and g (fig. 2), has a smaller
radius of curvature than the exterior convex meniscuses at d
and f Hence, in this case, likewise, by virtue of the smaller
radius of curvature of the intervening contractile elastic film,
the interior forces necessarily prevail, and the two bodies are
drawn together.

union, as kn, must have a radius of curvature greater than
that of either of the exterior meniscuses at e and o’. ence,
by virtue of the smaller radius of curvature of the exterior
tense elastic films at ¢ and o’, the exterior capillary forces must
prevail, and the two bodies are drawn apart, by the superior
tensile reactions directed toward the centers of concavity at 3
and at 4, (fig. 3).

It will be noticed that in the preceding explanations of this
class of capillary phenomena, ave referred the apparent
attractions and repulsions exclusively to the elastic reactions
of the tense surface film, whose form is modified by the prox-
imity of the partly immersed solid bodies. For the reasons

it has been urged, that when an isolated vertical plate that bas
its two parallel faces of different substances is partly immerse

in the liquid, under such conditions that the radii of curvature
of the meniscuses on the opposite faces are unequal,—there
should result a difference of pressure; so that such an isolated
body floating on an indefinite surface of a liquid, would, under
the mutual action of the fluid and solid, sabe on a horizontal
and perpetual motion of translation. There are obvious me-
chanical difficulties in the way of the admission of such a
result ; for, as suggested by Poisson, in such a movement, the
center of gravity of the entire system is not displaced. La-
place seemed to think that there would be some difference of

3 ee iit

Pee a eee OS et
3 jij. tea

Fo Ne ee

of Small Floating Bodies. 498

pressure in such cases, but that it would be so small that it
might be neglected.* It is evident that, however small it
mig

shows that his own modified theory does not lead to this
mechanical difficulty; for it indicates that under the foregoing
conditions, the horizontal pressures on the opposite faces ex-
actly counterbalance each other, so that the floating solid can
have no motion of translation.{ In like manner, Dupré in his
admirable researches on ‘Molecular Actions,” investigates this
anomalous deduction from Laplace’s theory, indicating the in-
completeness of the latter, dnd showing, that Poisson is correct
in the conclusion that the horizontal molecular forces exactly
balance one another.§

Notwithstanding the @ priori mechanical impossibility of an

; f :

the conditions above designated, I made my

4 , to the two
faces, and attaching a leaden sinker (w),

horizontal. Now, Dr. Young insisted that, according to La-
Place’s theory, the horizontal molecular pressures on the oppo-
Site faces being unequal, the composite plate should be drawn
in the direction of the center of concavity of the meniscus on
the glass face, and thus cause the entire system to take on a
Motion of translation toward the right. The arrangement
represented in fig. 4 was so sensitive that it was difficult to
avoid the influence of slight currents of air; nevertheless,
there were no indications of the action of unbalanced forces on
* “Supplément a la Théorie de I’ Action Capillaire,” p. 43.
+ Poisson, op. eit. ante. icle 128, p. 265.
Poisson, op. cit. ante. Articles 85 et 96, pp. 172 et 194.
Dupré, op. cit. ante. Chap. ix, p. 396-400.

424 J. LeConte—Apparent Attractions and Repulsions, ete.

the floating apparatus. Hence, the idea that such a system
would take on a horizontal and perpetual motion under the
action of molecular forces, is not only inconsistent with funda-
mental mechanical principles, but is contradicted by direct ex-
greompiea for, no motion takes place in such a com posite

oreover, it seems to me, that according to any theory of

superficial film, it is clear, that the tensile reaction of the
bounding film, which envelops such a floating ies aa padi
must necessarily be exactly the same in all parts of its perim
eter; so that, it is impossible for the forces et to capillary
soaps: = disturb the equilibrium of such a body while float-
ing i e liquid, so long as its “component plates are main-
ened o a fixed distance apart. It is obvious, that the tensile
reaction can only tend to press ere Ee together ; it cannot
produce a motion of translation. s almost needless to add
that in the cases previously peg Rosa verse the floating solids
were separated and movable, the conditions of equilibrium
were disturbed by the modifications = the interfering menis-
cuses due to their proximity; and these conditions of equi-
librium could only be realized by shite weedeat or by reces-
oon beyond the reach of disturbing influence

t is, likewise, evident, that in cases 1 ony 2 the interfering
and ae ah united bounding films tend, in each case, to as-
sume a minimum perimeter, which is only secured when the
two bodies are act in ‘contact. In the composite te

bodies are brought so near to one another that the interfering
meniscuses form a common enveloping film, the principle of
minimum bounding perimeter prevails, and the verification of
apparent repulsion fails ; for the two bodies are drawn together
as in cases 1 and 2. The fact that in such cases, floating bodies
apparently repel one another at a certain distance, ‘put on
nearer approach, apparently attract, is noticed both by Laplace
and by Poisson, as a deduction from their res ~ reg theories
of ae and was experimentally verified by the Abbé
Haiiy an ers

Fina om may be proper to add, that the reaction of the
surface Chess of. liquids always tends to reduce the surface to

*TIt is searcely necessary to add that the — and perplexing capillary mo-
tions due to the roan sow in the surface tensions of aca liquids or of the
same liquid in different states, are here excluded ‘thane ob msideration. _ curio awe
motions of — tiataied masses of camphor, when sedtias « on the surface

rm water, come under this ~~ gory. These phenomena haye foie pone

studied by Tomlinson and other,

sa a aia ae or

(

B. F. Koons— High Terraces of Eastern Connecticut. 425

meniscuses, in tending by virtue of its elastic reaction to be-
come a minimum, draws the two floating bodies together. The
same is true of case 8, provided the floating bodies are brought
in such proximity that a common bounding perimeter is pro-
duced by the interfering meniscuses. But when the proximity
is not sufficient to secure this condition, the disturbance of
equilibrium due to this interference results, as we have seen,
in the recession of the floating bodies. For in the latter case

Berkeley, California, October 10, 1882.

Art. XLVI.—High Terraces. of the Rivers of Eastern Connecti-
cut ; by Professor B. F. Koons, Storrs Agricultural School,
Mansfield, Ct.

did, to Norwich) are:

z This principle is very elegantly deduced by the great geometer Gauss, by the
application of the principle of mutual velocities. He shows that the condition of
capillary equilibrium is that the expression for the force function shall be a
Minimum, (Vide op. cit. ante.)

Am. Jour. ar ai ssc Series, VoL. XXIV, No. 144.—DEcremser, 1882.

426 B. F. Koons—High Terraces of Eastern Connecticut.

5°5 miles above the mouth of the river,.__.-______- 50 ft.
8° ac “ce “ss De ai ie aa ghee Ste is) as 68 cc
10°5 it “ ac eed cate eat Hee RTS "5 73
13°5 “cc oe ‘¢ Agee NIT OSs Coa nate ee 88 “
15° ‘ec 74 se ag PR Sou ae Le Mita 0 ee
16° og . 2 v3 oe me oe ne

twenty miles long and has its origin at Willimantic. where it
is formed by the union of the Natchaug from the northeast and
the Willimantic River from the northwest.

As pointed out by Professor Dana there was an ice dam at.
Norwich during the melting of the glacier of the Champlain
period. Taking up the work where he left off, I, aeeompanied
by Arthur Hubbard, one of my pupils, have attempted to
make out the heights of the high terraces on the Shotucket alld and
its tributaries, above modern flood plain, and also, at those
points where the New London pase “ayes follows the
river, the height above mean tide at

the kindness of Mr. G. W. Bentley: Genctah Superintend:
ent of the railroad, such parts of the surveys of the road as
would assist me in securing the latter measurements were
placed at my disposal. Likewise the surveys of the New York
& New England Railroad assisted me to one measurement on
the Natchaug.

As a result of my investigations I found that the heights on
the Shetucket are:

(1) 2° miles above Norwich, 94°5 ft. Above mean tide at N. London, ---- ft.
' 3°5 “ ia 81° ae os “a bé eee

3} 6-5 “6 be g4- + ti te “ yaaa
( ) “Bh 6 THe ‘ “er te canned “
(5) 10°75 “69 Te “ a eee
(6) 13° “ 60 ‘ te “ ae oye ee
(7135 & “ 107-5 —, “ wet
(8) 15: 6 “ 107- * “ “ “ 945°.“
ie “ 98°5 - - se 249°5 '

On the Natechaug:
(10) In the city of Willimantic, 86 ft. Above mean tide at N. London, 250-2 ft.
a “e ‘

(11) 2°65 miles above Willimantic, 69 “ # ee
(12) 6° ob ob 50 “ ‘

“ ae “ee ica
oc

(13) 6° “a “ 46 “e te ae dé jinparrae’
On the Hope River, a tributary of the Natchaug:
(14) °5 mile above its mouth,...58 ft. Above mean tide at N. London, .--- ft.

On the Willimantic River:
15) 7 miles above Willimantic, 86 ft. Above mean tide at New London, 354 ft,
8 “ “ 84 * ‘“ % “ 364 *

7) 10 “ “a 60 * “ “ “ 876 *

B. F. Koons—High Terraces of Eastern Connecticut. 427

At stations one and two the terraces are well defined on both

the entrance to the gorge, was subsequently buried by the
Stones, sand and gravel, brought down upon the floating ice,
and finally melted leaving this depression. Thé
mile above this are very fine, composed principally of clay and
sand, while at station eight, a mile and a half above, they are
considerably coarser, and at station nine coarser still. If an
obstruction existed within the pass, then the waters above would
be checked in their flow and would drop their coarse material
far up stream and their finer lower down, and the floating ice
would carry its material into the pack at the head of the pass;
and this is just the condition we have here, and that too with-
out the aid of any considerable side streams to produce it.

All these facts, together with the great difference in the
height of the terraces above and below the narrows, seem to
indicate that this was the location of an ice-dam.

428 J. D. Dana—Southward Discharge of Lake Winnipeg.

Station eight is on the east side of the river, and one-half °

mile below South Windham, and here again, and also at station
nine and those above on the Natchaug, the floods were gener-
ally very widely spread, forming great areas of level plains
which extend far back from the streams, even to Mansfield
Center, four miles north of the city of Willimantic.

Unlike the region just mentioned, the Willimantic River lies -

in a very narrow valley with the lines of hills on either side
close to the stream, so that the waters swept everything out of
the valley, and nothing but doubtful remains of high terrace-
deposits are found till we get to Hagleville, seven miles above
its mouth, and at but few points above this were we able to
determine the height of the floods,

Agricultural School, Mansfield, Conn., Oct. 7th, 1882.

Art. XLVII.—WNote on the former Southward Discharge of Lake
Winnipeg; by J. D. Dana.

THE most remarkable of the changes that are known to have
occurred in the water-courses of North America is that in the
discharge of Lake Winnipeg from a former southward course by
the Minnesota Channel and Mississippi to its modern discharge
into Hudson’s Bay, first announced and sustained by General G.
K. Warren, in a report of 1867 published in the Report of the
U.S Engineers for the year 1868 (pp. 8307-814), after levelings
along these rivers, by order of the government, in 1866 an
1867. The question was more fully illustrated by General
Warren in “an Essay concerning important physical features
exhibited in the Valley of the Minnesota River and upon their
signification,” submitted to the Chief of Engineers in 1874 and
published in the Report for 1875 (pp. 885-402); and afterward,
further discussed by him in his paper on the Bridging of the
Upper Mississippi, in the Report for 1878 (pp. 909 to 926) with
a reproduction of some of the maps of the essay of 1874. The
last of the above-mentioned papers, excepting its closing details

as to sections across the valleys, is reproduced in this Journal ;

on pages 417-431, vol. xvi, 1878, along with its eight maps
and pilates.

In the first of his papers, that of January, 1867, General
Warren, after mentioning thé evidences that “Lake Winnipeg
was oncé continuous southward over the central portion of the
Red River of the North, and had its outlet down the Minnesota,
and not down the Nelson to Hudson’s Bay” (p. 307), considers
the origin of the former hydrographical conditions. He speaks
of the possibility of an ice-barrier on the north in the Glacial

4

J.D. Dana—Southward Discharge of Lake Winnipeg. 429.

era; but he sets this idea aside, and argues for an actual change
of land-level, and makes the southward discharge to have ended

ver. A map of the iarge Winnipeg Lake—larger he observes

ihe same view is presented at more length in the paper of
1874 (Report for 1875), along with a wider discussion of the
acts, and a review of the writings of previous travelers who
had recognized the lake-like features of the region.

presented again in 1875 by Mr. George M. Dawson, in his ex-
cellent Report on the Geology of the region in the vicinity of
; the 49th Parallel, with a recognition of General Warren’s paper,
ut with the statement that the inference was an independent
7 one, In explanation, he says (pp. 258, 254) that “by the flow
_ Of a large volume of water in this direction, the excavation of
“3 ions of the Winnipeg group of lakes and the great valley
the : : ; :
‘
i
4
H

“ homenon only similar to that which is known to have taken
place with the Great Lakes of the St. Lawrence.”

that of a change of level, by Professor N. H. Winchell in

4 Minnesota Report for 1877, who there observes, in his explana-

_ on, that the lake, having first appeared at the south or Minne-

_ Sta end, “grew toward the north as fast as the retreating ice-

: sheet made way for it.’ In the Minnesota Report for 1879,

the same view is urged, with more detail, by Mr. Warren
am, :

—-Uph

y | The ‘Red River of the North, rising in Lake Traverse,
__WS northward along the west side of Minnesota for 225 miles,
_ Crosses then the 49th parallel, and continues on the same course

430 J.D. Dana—Southward Discharge of Lake Winnipeg.

for 90 miles to Lake Winnipeg; i ¥ haloes from Lake Trav-
erse to Lake Winnipeg being 315 m

. The Minnesota, rising to the wiieied of Lake Traverse,
enters its valley within two miles of it and flows south, through
Big Stone Lake, to the Mississippi at Minneapolis.

3. The valley of Red River, after narrowing much, is still 46
miles wide on the 49th parallel, and, for a long distance south
of this parallel, it has an average width of 30 miles (Gen. War-
ren’s map and G. M. Dawson’s statement); toward Lake Trav-
erse it narrows rapidly, is a mile wide along this lake, the sides
rising abruptly from the eerie of the lake ; beyond this lake,
southward, it continues on, one to two miles wide, as the valley
of the Minnesota River ; and, where it joins the Mississippi, the
valley has four times the width of the Mississippi valley abov
the ee te Warren).

4. All now agree that the wide part of the valley which
stretches sorted rom Lake Traverse is lake-bottom prairie,
that it was adopted by the Red River, not made by it
(Da aed and that the part south of this lake, is, as General
Warren first showed, the deserted highway of ‘the outflowing
river and lake.

5. The Red River lake-bottom reed is bordered much of
the way by abrupt sides rising 100 to 200 feet to the top of a
terrace-plain or plateau; and, “similarly, the Minnesota channel
has sides usually 100 to "150 feet in height.

6. Heights above the sea-level :

\

(B. C. means Boundary Camenagtass ER)
e-bottom 2. Bordering

bao rairi rie. plateau.
Near 45° 30’ N., between saat Say Lake and 970 1,120
Lake Traverse Ae nen B Pe ea wie
‘Near 47° N., and N ad, 900 ‘ its = aa
e
On oe e 49th’ parallel cee Poubiie aa ee ye 784 (B.C.) Fast si ae aes
be :% ike nipeg, ...- 740

Height of lake ie (about a mouth of Red
River, a great marsh), 710 fee

The heights on Minnesota River are (Winchell’s Report) :

Surface of mates plateau near Big Stone Lake, ...-.....--- 1,125
nkato, 145 miles south, 975
a Sh: akopee, 50 miles northeast, .. .--- Geese ee 925
At junction with the Mississippi, _..-_.--..----- 800 to 820
* The height of the oe - the A pen is 1048 feet (B. C.); of the divide be-
tween it and the near-by h of Ros iver, a westward-flowing tributary of
Red River along the Pelton conte about 1078 feet (Dawson); edge of

plateau where it looks down on the lake-b :ttom about Pembina, 90 feet less (B. C.);
and hence about 988 feet; Pembina Mountain, on the west side, 210 feet above
the lake-bottom apie and hence 784+ 210-- -994 feet above the sea-level. Red
River as it flows in its channel is 20 to 60 feet below the surface of the lake-
bottom prairie ; ae faabine, about 50 feet (Warren).

Sohne iy testy

ee Le NS gages Sian es Sire ap ee

J.D. Dana—Southward Discharge of Lake Winnipeg. 431

7. The slope of the lake-bottom prairie is northward, toward
Lake Winnipeg; and, from the 49th parallel, according to
Dawson, it is nearly six inches per mile; the mean slope from
Moorhead in Minnesota, 150 miles south of the 49th parallel, is
little less than one foot per mile.

he slope of the bordering plateau northward from Lake
Traverse to Lake Winnipeg, 315 miles, is about one foot per
mile; for 1,125—810=815. ‘

The slope of the bordering plateau along the Minnesota from
Big Stone Lake to Mankato (145 m.) is southward and about
one foot per mile; for 1,125—975=150.

- The material of the lake-bottom, where examined by Mr.
Dawson, is mostly yellowish clayey earth or loess, containing
calcareous matter enough to effervesce freely with acids; the
Upper portion is rarely so coarse as to be called sand, though
sometimes an arenaceous clayey material; that of the border is
also somewhat arenaceous, The depth of this lake-bottom de-
posit is generally 40 feet or more over the central portions, bu
it thins toward the sides, This point is illustrated in the pla e
facing p. 248 in Dawson’s Report... He represents the loess as
overlying stratified drift and bowlder clay. The surface of the
prairie rises somewhat toward the sides; but whether the de-
pression is more than would result from the drying (and conse-
quent contraction) of so much wet loam after the disappearance
of the lake, is not ascertained. It is rare to find anything like
pebbly areas or pebbles over it.

The outline of the lake-bottom prairie has the appearance
of being, so far as it extends, the outline of the great Winnipeg
ake, and is so recognized by Warren, Dawson and others.

0. The material of the bordering high plateau along both
the Red River portion and the Minnesota is coarse gravel and
sand; much of it unstratified till, much, more or less stratified ;
and upper surface is often pebbly or stony, with occasional

widers.

Roseau River, for 25 miles east of the western edge of the
Plateau, says Dawson (p. 214), has cut deeply into the plateau
formation so as to have high bluff sides; and the sections show
alternating beds of clay, sand and gravel characterized by “cur-
rent bedding ;” one of them having stratified arenaceous clay

elow, then coarse gravel, then sand, and then gravel as the top
beneath the soil; another “ typical one” consisting of hard-
compacted clay below, partly stratified, then a thin pebbly bed,
then sand, then the upper gravel. These are given by Mr.
, 4wson as examples of the constitution of what he calls the

Drift Plateau of Eastern Manitoba and Northern Minnesota.”
He says of the great “ High-level Plateau” that it is frequently

regular in detail, covered with banks and ridges of sand and

432 J.D. Dana—Southward Discharge of Lake Winnipeg.

gravel of the nature of “ kames,” but, on the whole, remarkably
uniform; on the 49th parallel it rises gently eastward toward
the Lake of the Woods, 90 feet in the 77 miles. On the upper
part of the Minnesota the deposits are largely the Glacial drift
(General Warren, and Professor Winchell), with also portions
that are bedded.

Conclusion.—Taking the accounts of the region from which
we have cited to be correct, we have the deduction forced upon
us that Winnipeg Lake did not lose its discharge into Hudson’s
Bay and become the great lake with southward discharge, be-
cause of a barrier of ice or of any other kind. For if so, if
there had been no great change of slope over the region, the
shores of the great lake should be approximately horizontal,
to its outlet at Lake Traverse, and if horizontal, they would
have a height in the vicinity of the present Winnipeg of 260
feet above the lake, supposing the waters just up to the Lake
Traverse level, and 300 feet if the water at this place of dis-
charge was merely 40 feet deep. Instead of this condition, the
observed shore line has nearly the present general slope of the sur-
ace; and, further, the slope of the lake-botiom prairie is not much
different from that of the bordering plateau on either side.

We have thence the conclusion, since the present outline of

earth’s center of gravity sufficient to change the slope of the
surface a foot a mile, or half a foot, cannot be reasonably
entertained,

may infer also, from the near correspondence between
the northward slope of the lake-bottom prairie and that of the
bordering plateaus, that the prairie and plateaus were affected
alike by the conditions as to level. And we may deduce from
the regularity of the slope, that the conditions as to level
affected equally the region from Lake Traverse to Lake Win-
nipeg, and beyond doubt also to a much greater undetermined
distance northward.

This conclusion bears so profoundly on questions as to the
condition of the earth’s interior, and the origin of changes of
level over the earth’s surface, that it is greatly to be desired
that further investigations should place the facts beyond all

ubt.

Admitting that the facts are correctly given, they appear to
point to the following succession of events: ;
he fact that the lake deposits are underlaid by unstratified

drift, shows that before the era of the great lake the glacier

S. P. Thompson—Resistance of Carbon. 433:

had moved southwestward over the region, and deposition of
moraine material had taken place. The high-level prairie
either side of the lake region and of the Minnesota valley is
made largely of this unstratified drift; but the generally level
surface in the part toward the lake region and valley, and the
stratification in much of the material, are evidence that the
ood from the melting glacier covered and levelled it, and
stratified its bedded deposits ; the coarseness of these deposits,
and the large size of the valley of discharge, that the flood

The application of a new name, Lake Agassiz, to the flooded
Lake Winnipeg, proposed by Mr. Upham because of its alleged
relation to the retreating ice-sheet, tends to obscure the great

istorical facts in the case. All desire to honor Professor
gassiz, and no one more so than the writer; and still the
hame that most deserves honor in connection with the devel-
opments in Central North America is that of General G. K.
Warren. But rather than use either, it is better to let the
accepted name, Lake Winnipeg, be the name for past, as it is
for present, time.

Art. XLVIIL—WNote on the Alleged Change in the Resistance
of Carbon due to Change of Pressure; by Stuvanus P.
THoMpson, Professor of Experimental Physies in University
College, Bristol.

In the July number of this Journal, Professor T. C. Menden-
hall has described some experiments upon the change of resist-
ance in a disk of prepared lamp-black, such as is used in Kdi-
Son's tasimeter. At the close of bis communication Professor
Mendenhall ventures, “ without knowing anything about the
nature of these experiments,” to call in question the researches
made by Professor W. F. Barrett, by Mr. Herbert Tomlinson,

434 S. P. Thompson—Resistance of Carbon.

not to any change in the specific resistance of carbon, but to

a little later by Mr. Conrad W. Cooke. In short, with the
exception of Professor Mendenhall, all who have investigated

works had been removed for the purpose of his experiments, in
which pressure was applied through a slender brass rod placed
in a vertical position upon the center of ‘the upper contact
piece.” What this upper contact-piece was he does not say.
No information is given of the nature of the contacts above
and below. No attempt to distinguish between the resistance
at the contacts and the resistance of the carbon disk was made;
nor does the memoir show that any care was taken to ensure
either perfection or constancy of contact. Under these circum-

pared lamp-black, there was a perfect contact maintained dur-
' ing the variations of pressure by covering both surfaces of the
button with mercury; and in some of the other cases amalga-
mated copper contacts, and electroplated contacts have been
employed. I venture to predict that if Professor Mendenhall
will repeat his experiment, ensuring at the outset by one or
other of these precautions that the disk of carbon shall have
uniform and constant contacts during the experiment, he will
find a very different result from that which he has announced.
The very interesting observation which he has made that the
influence of time makes itself felt when pressure is applied but
not when pressure is removed, furnishes another argument In
favor of the views held by the majority of experimenters on
this question.

Another point worthy of note is this. Observers have more
than once suspected that in carbon there is the peculiarity that
the resistance—the true resistance of carbon itself—varies un
der different electromotive forces. The point is certainly worth
investigating. Professor Mendenhall does not state what elec-
tromotive force was employed in his investigatigns.

E. 8. Holden— Nucleus of the Comet of 1882. 435

Art. XLIX.— Figure of the Nucleus vA the br ight Comet of 1882
(Gould); by Epwarp 8S. Hop

ALTHOUGH this comet presented a beautiful spectacle, when
seen with the naked eye, I have been disappointed at the small
amount of work which. T have ben able to do in the way of
accurate observation. I give herewith the only two good
sketches which I have been able to make. The aperture em-
ployed was 15 inches and the power was 145 diameters.

1882, Oct. 13. 1882, Oct. 17.
1882, October 13. (See the figure.) The nucleus is curved
as in the drawing. It consists of three masses. I am sure of

a break at a; tolerably sure of pe break at 6, and I suspect a
break at ¢, but I am not certain o

1882, October 14. The night is very poor. (In general the
appearances of last night are confirmed, ) The nucleus is about

1889 , October 17. (See the figure.) There are three masses,
plainly separated. B is farther north than the line A— C
There is a pe division between each pair of masses.
awe C are nearly in the parallel. The brush of light from
the mass A toward the east, comes from the south side of A, as
it is drawn. From the east end of A to the west end of the
brush of light, is about 15”
1882, October 18. ‘The ‘dark space bewteen A and B is
about 10’’; it is as wide as A itself, and wider than on October

C is certainly seen as a putes arate mass; A and B are
bright and stellar in appe arenes, more so than on October 17.
C' is, however, fainter than then. The dark axis of the tail

extends quite up to the coma.

1882, October 19. Clo udy. The nucleus is seen as before.
A and B are seen, as also the dark space between them. C is
Not seen, but this is probably on account of the unsteady air.

I regret that my opportunity did not allow me to make any
further sketches of value.

Washburn Observa tory, University oo Wisconsin,

Madison, November 3, 18

436. 8. Haughton—Eccentricity of the Earth's Orbit.

Art. L.—On Eccentricity and Perthelion Longitude of the Earth's
Orbit as a cause of change of Climate. From the Presidential
Address before the Geological Society of Dublin, by Rey.
SAMUEL HavuGurton, in February, 1882.

ANOTHER astronomical cause of change in geological climate
was proposed by Adhemar, and afterward worked out more
fully by Croll, J. Murphy and Wallace.

‘his is the secular variation in climate depending on the
eccentricity and perihelion longitude of the earth's orbit.

The change depending on the position of the perihelion is
completed in about 21,000 years; while that depending on the
eccentricity requires much more time to pass through its course.
In fact, astronomers have proved that the eccentricity of the
earth’s orbit may have been +/;th instead of 41;th, as at present ;
but are unable to say how long ago the maximum eccentricity
occurred.

Adhemar, Croll and J. Murphy deduce from this astronomi-
cal cause the alternate glaciation of the northern and southern
hemispheres every 21,000 years, which glaciation is more or
less severe in proportion as the eccentricity during the perihe-
lion period is greater or less. Mr. Croll, however, places the
glaciation of a hemisphere in the time when its winter solstice
is in aphelion; whereas Mr. J. Murphy places the glaciation of
a hemisphere in the time when its winter solstice is in peri-
helion,

I have given a mathematical demonstration of the form of
this secular inequality in climate,* which may be thus ex-
pressed without the use of mathematical symbols :—

The mean annual temperature of any place varies as the eccen-
tricity of the earth's orbit, and as the range of temperature from
summer to winter jointly.

Of these two factors of climate, viz: eccentricity and range
of temperature, the first is astronomical and the second terres-
trial, depending on distribution of land and water, on ocean
currents and prevailing winds.

Ii we suppose the terrestrial factor to be the same, while the
eccentricity attains its maximum, the greatest possible change
in mean annual temperature for any place on the earth’s sur-
face turns out to be less than 5° F.; and in order to produce 2
sensible effect upon climate, we must suppose that the annual
range (terrestrial factor) must vary also by variation in the dis-

* Proceedings of the Royal Society, 19th February, 1881.

+ ©, « ep, where 0,= mean annual temperature; ¢=eccentricity of earth’s
orbit; p= annual range of temperature at place.

? Ean oi
ie poe a et) eds

S. Haughton—Eccentricity of the Earth’s Orbit. 437

tribution of land and water. ‘This is of course possible; but
such a variation must follow its own development, and be quite
independent of eccentricity or perihelion. _

I shall allow, however, the advocates of this theory permis-

. e as my first example the present climate of Discovery
Harbor, Grinnell Land, close to the Miocene Plant-beds :—

July temperature, +37°-2 F.; mean annual temperature, —1°°7
F.; January temperature, —40°-6 F.; annual range, 77°°8 F.

I have elsewnere* shown that the July temperature of Dis-
covery Harbor, during Miocene times, was probably higher
than 63°-7 F.; that is to say, 26° F. higher than its present
amount. This would require, at the time of maximum eccen-
tricity, an annual range of temperature greater than 120°-7 F.+

e foregoing amounts to a demonstration, that a change in
the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit from th to yth would
not produce in Grinnell Land the summer temperature necessary
to ripen its Miocene fruits, unless it were accompanied by such
a redistribution of land and water as would raise the annual
Tange of temperature from 77°°8 F. to 120°°7 F.; that is to say,
increase the already great range by more than half its present
amount.

I have no hesitation in saying that (with the present quantity
of sun-heat) this amounts to an impossibility.

reatest range of annual heat now found in N. America
occurs at Melville Island, where we have—

July temperature, +42°°35 F.; January temperature, —36°°40

-; range, 78°°75 F.

The greatest known annual range of temperature occurs (as
we might expect) in the northeastern part of Europasia. Ob-
servations taken at Jakutsk for seventeen years give the follow-
Ing results—

July temperature, +62°-15 F.; January temperature, —43°°82
F.; range, 105°-97 F.

This shows that even a redistribution of land and water,
replacing N. America by a continent like Europasia, would
still leave the annual range of temperature 16°-73 F. short of

* Lectures on Physical Geography, p. 321.
ép
t+ For 5 +5 > 63°°7+1°'7>65°-4 F.; therefore, when ¢= /y, p must be greater
than 120°-7 F., and if e=,), p must be greater than 128°-7 F.

438 8. Haughton—Kccentricity of the Earth’s Orbit.

whiat the Miocene vegetation of Grinnell Land requires. This
is a Reductio ad absurdum of the changes of geological climate
produced by the secular esau of the eccentricity and peri-
helion longitude of the earth’s or

Similar “arguments ag ee a Tied to the other well-known
Miocene Plant-beds of the high northern Atlantic latitudes.

. For a second example, in Miocene times, Speizbergen must

have had a July temperature greater than 64°-4 ¥.* Its present
climate is—

July temperature, +37°°2 F.; annual FeDperANre, +16°°5 F.;
January temperature, —4°°2 F.; range, 41°°4 F.

It is easy to see that the annual range of temperature in
Miocene times in Spitzbergen must have exceeded 88°-4 F.+ at
the time of maximum eccentricity, in order to account for the
fruits ripened there in summer,

This, although not an impossible case, like the former case
of Grinnell Land, is yet quite incredible; for we have to im-
agine a redistribution of land and water such as would more
than double the annual range of temperature in Spitzbergen, or
raise it from 41°-4 F. to 88° 4 F.

8. The Miocene Plant-beds of Disco, on the west coast of
Greenland, furnish a third proof that change of eccentricity of
the earth’s orbit is not sufficient 10 account ale former geologi-
cal climates. The present climate of Disco is

uly temperature, +44°:1 F.; January Bee ee npacag —4°9 F.5
annual temperature, +19°°6 F.; range, 4

The probable Miocene July temperature of Disco was greater
than 72°33 F.t From Me is it follows, that the annual range of
temperature at Disco in Miocene times must have exceeded
97°°2 F., when the pi of the earth’s orbit was a maxi-
mum.§

* Lectures on Physical Geography, p. 332.

+ For °(1+2)>64°-4—16°5 >47°°9 F. This gives, when e=yy, p=88°'4 F.

} Lectures on Physical Geography, p. 340.

§ For £(1 +e) > 72°3—19°6 > 52°47 F.; p(1+e)>106°-4 F.; and, when
e=xqy, p> 9T' 3 F.

-
4
:
a
:

B. W. Frazier—Axinite from Bethlehem, Penn. 489

Art. LL—On Crystals of Awinite from a locality near Beth-
lehem, Pennsylvania, with some remarks upon the analogies
between the yeh forms of Axinite and of Datolite ; by B.

FRAZIER

THE crystals of axinite described in this paper were found in
the heap of débris surrounding an abandoned pit, which had been
sunk in exploring for ore on a farm in Northampton County,
Pennsylvania, about three miles north of Bethlehem.

The locality was discovered by Professor F. Prime, Jr., of
the second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, and was brought
by him to the notice of the late Professor cepper, who
doterthibed the mineral to be axinite, and who secured a num-
ber of specimens of it. The pthread es the mineral as
axinite, was made also, independently, F. A. Genth, the
mineralogist of the Survey. Upon the banned of Professor
Reepper’s collection of minerals by the Lehigh University, the
specimens of axinite collected by him from this locality became
the property of the University, and have furnished the material
for this investigation. The instrument which has been em-
ployed in the meastirements is a goniometer made on the Bab-
= system by R. Fuess of Berlin, and imported for the Uni-

rsity. A description of this form of goniometer is Ady by
Websky i in the Zeitsehrift fiir Krystallographie, vol. iv, p. 546.

The crystals occur in a rock containing crystalline posal loudih
apparently mixed intimately with axinite, se traversed by
humerous narrow veins of axinite. In some of these veins the
axinite is mixed with asbestus. Probably cing to this associ-
ation the axinite itself sometimes assumes a fibrous structure.
Wherever in the veins a free surface is exposed, it is thickly
covered with nadaetolt crystals of axinite, irregularly crowded
together. Some of the crystals are colorless, others and the
crystalline vanety which fills the veins have a pale brown
color. The color in some cases is chiefly superficial from the
presence of a thin, brown incrustation hati occurs sometimes
in minute globular concretions, sometimes in dendritic forms.
The luster of the crystals varies from dull fo highly brilliant.

he crystals have the usual poe axe-like shape, whic
originally suggested to Haiiy the na e of the mineral. The
planes occurring in the zone p, J, u * and especially the planes
pand u, have the greatest development, and these planes are

* Here and 158 shibrimtee in this paper the letters used to designate the planes of
axinite are those adopted by v. Rath in his moose on the crystallization of
axinite in Pogg. a vol. exxviii, pp. 20 and 227. For those planes which have

been discovered since the date of that paper the letters eerat by their discov-
erers ar d,

440 B. W. Frazier—Axinite from Bethlehem, Penn.

aeons striated parallel to their mutual intersections, especially
in the neighborhood of /. ext in importance is the zone p, 7,
mM, planes r a z being auch atk developed. After these
the zone p, s, x, is the most prominen

The crystals are in general small, v ie from a fraction of
a millimeter to several centimeters in length. The larger erys-

Taste [.
SATS NE “ERS SRT Ais a ne tae ge Se eB
No. 4.| No. 5.| No. 6. | No. | No. 8. + Rath,

oop GO 29S) oy. at 60°29

GOBTS Ob BOB i cus ue ho oe .-| as t 65°59

of Sa Pig ae aee Ue) Wet lie) he sels po eiet

.. | 41°16$} 41°15$| ot ot sf Re 41°94

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ee 263}

be ca, a os28 - ae te at 68°24

RegKe & Sertsee*sesstsi s e 4s easesegosearser sess

BRIR eS FoR %osvas Bis, as PRSRAMTS LEC Zs S® 8S e Faery
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B. W. Frazier—Awinite from Bethlehem, Penn. 441

tals have usually dull, uneven surfaces, and are not fitted for
accurate measurements. Some of the smaller ones, however,
have smooth, brilliant lakes: and admit of quite ata
measurements, The crystals are implanted in such am
om the planes surrounding only one extremity of the axis is of
e, p, l, u, are developed. Adopting v. Rath’s suggestion, we
will consider the crystal upright when it is held so that, « being
above s, wu lies to the right of s. Most of the crystals examined
Were in a reverse
me irregularities noticed by Shae | in se
aryetals of axinite, have been rinae dice in al
planes are frequently curved, giv several Heal images of
the signal, Spon t. they Wovisic slightly from the zones in
which they should lie; and the results of measurement of an-
gles eat bases giving sharp, clear reflections, and nena
ently fulfilling all conditions of regularity, differ in some ¢
considerably from the results of calculation, the diftetendes: ri
ae the pemenie errors of observation.
I of the cases where there were several reflections
m a Glenb the reat as measured by the brightest only is
recorded in the subjoined table. In other cases of multiple
reflection, where the decision was doubtful, all the measure-
ments are
The Seine planes wie observed on the cuyaiye which
Were examined, viz: p, 1, u, v,w; 7, 2, Mm, € 2,
39; 9. In table I the res sy of some of the Soanvehenee
are given, Only those angles are recorded which were meas-
“sind ebrenr planes admitting of tolerably accurate measure-
men

m
z

Tl

Fig. 1 represeits a crystal in the reversed. position, which
seems to be the prevailing one in crystals from this locality.
ig. 2 represents a crystal in an upright position. Both crys-
tals are drawn with the axis of the zone 7p, J, w, as vertical
Am. Jour. Scr, eel a4 Series, VOL. XXIV, No. 144.—DEcEMBER, 188’.

442 B. W. Frazier—Axinite from Bethlehem, Penn.

Taste II.
aoeen
respond-
ing to Nau-
that cho-} Miller. | mann. DesCloizeaux. Schrauf. y. Rath.
sen b Dana,
Dana _ for
Datolite.
I u-t| v~ wet =—ul unl
p 100 010 110 m 110 e802 301 p
v 010 100 010 |g’ 010 M 110 131 v
m 001 001 001 A 112 m 110 131 m
h 320 130 319 2h 310 113 732 h
i 110 120 100 | h’ 100 112 531 U
pg | 560 510 | he | 810 335 | 13.5.2] B
h? 0 230 310} AP H 223 861 h®
a 230 | 340 210 . 210 334 11.9.1 | @
2 2.
a® |11.18.0| 9.11.0] 11.7.0} n® | 1n70! & 9.9.11 | 31522] a
u 120 110 110 t 110 111 110 u
w 120 110 130 29 130 Ill 132 |. w
mn 081 201 041 132 130 191 lt
y (41 101 021 y 132 100 161 y
b o4 101 021 b 112 010 010 b
ts O21 |(#)102 011 B 122 310 111 f
g 04 03 023 356 210 232 g
o 601 031 331 111 113 732 ¢
T 401 021 231 d 112 112 531 T
r 201 011 111 001 111 110 | +r
e 201 oll ope] @ | ini Ill ihe 46
oD 805 045 445 ec? + Lid6 554 | 13.151} L
2 101 012 112 o* 114 221 461 %
$ 441 121 201 | ff 112 101 100 | «
d 441 21 241 132 oil 231 d
a 131 241 352 101 102 o
t 81 231 371 131 133 594 t
p 681 231 371 41 313 112 p
k 481 221 261 152 132 131 k
x 241 lll 111 cy 11 201 401 x
n 241 Il] 131 e oll 021 61 n
c 241 Lil 13] z 12) ¥. 7201 001 ¢
é 121 112 132 B? 114 131 130 é
0 121 112 132 364 BIL 134 0
wy 243 113 133 233 | 421 265 v
v rpg + isi | yon | sil. | 532 | »
q 281 211 151 éb 131 | 311 134 gq
c 285 215 155 355 | 731 332 ¢
6 161 312 172 154 | 151 321 0
i 641 131 311 0” 101 | 203 801 i
e 321 132 352 134 | 133 792 €
E 12.4.3 | 163 68 356 133 762 Fy
T 16.4.3 | 183 | 8.10.3 576 | 124 321 T

Dana’s symbols for ee Higa of Table II (in the position adopted by him and

Naumann) are the follow

p, 1; », 4; m, 0; h, a e it; B, 4-5’; h®, 4-3; a, 4-27; hi, ity’; u, 1’;

a3; Hy 4-0; yy 2-0"; b, 2-4; FAV; 9. $0 ;.o 3; 7, 23 %1
Qi; d, 4-3; 0, 4-3; t, 1-3; p, -1-4; hy 6-3; 2, V7; m, 8-3; 6, -3-3; 4, 3-35 %

5 -1; L, 4; % 43%

-3-3; y-1-3; v, 3-3'; q, ~5-5; 4 -15; 6, 4-7; i, 3-3; & ‘3; é, a4; Ty 1p,

3
;

<p ee es

B. W. Frazier—Awinite from Bethlehem, Penn. 448

axis, that of the zone p, m, r, as macrodiagonal axis, and that
of the zone y, m, b, as faahpedingorid axis. is position has
been chosen to facilitate the comparison with datolite, which
will be made in this paper.
lanes were observed on some of the crystals, but un-

peels their nature was not such as to admit of measure-

ments sufficiently accurate for their determination.

In examining these crystals I have been struck with the
tesernblance between them and crystals of datolite, which I

ill now endeavor to make manifest. If we take for the
Sevitallog rable axes of -asinite those adopted in the 3 gion
and choose / for the fundamental, right hemi-prism and z f
the upper hemi- macrodome, 12, the other planes will have ioe
parameters given in the first t column of table IL In this table
all the forms, hitherto published as definitely established, are
given with their parameters in this new position, and, for con-
venience of reference, with their parameters in the positions
a by Miller, Naumann, DesCioizeaux, Schrauf and v.

The values for this new position, of the angles between the
axes and between the axial planes and of the lengths of the
axes, as calculated from the measurements of v. Rath, are the
followin ng:

b:c= a= 81° 5659” O:i%= A= 82° 09748”
1

ii eas 8 =e Ol OY oa7 O: t= B= 90° 0a" 287

a:b = y= 102° 52’ 14” it: % = C = 102° 44” 18”

|
a&:B:¢= 1: 1756003; 048742
The corresponding values for datolite, in the position adopted
by Dana, are
B = 90° 067 B = 90° 06’
&:B:¢=1: 15712: 0°49695
The axis @ is here the clinodiagonal axis
There is quite a close correspondence i in the axial peng of
the two minerals, but the considerable ivergences in two of

between similar planes. To facilitate such a comparison I
have el table III. Under the column headed datolite,
the letters and angles are those given by E. S. Dana in his
article on the crystallization of datolite in Tschermak’s Min.

itt, 1874, No.1. As for each hemi-pyramid, prism and
clinodome of the monoclinic system there are two correspond-
ing forms in the triclinic, not making the same angles with the
axial planes, I have added a second column of angles under

444 B. W. Frazier—Awinite from Bethlehem, Penn.

axinite in which are carried out the angles for those simple

orms of axinite which correspond to simple forms of datolite,

and the averages of the angles made with an axial plane by

the two simple forms of axinite corresponding to but one
]

simple form of datolite,

Taste III.
| Datolite. Axinite.
=f =) .

100: 010 a:b 90° piv Gas oes yi Os Fie
100: 001 a:c 89 54’ pm 8 +89 56
010: 001 bre 9 vim 9750 97 50
100: 110 : pit 54
100: 110 : eben ati j wanting t

* 100: 120 ; (piu 44 28
rates a: oO 51 51 iviw 60 aa 52 28
120: 120 0: 0° 103 42 u:w 104 58 104 58
001: 101 ci u 26. 25 M:& 26 20 26 20
001: 20 Cia 44 47 mT 44 41 44 41
001: 201 a 44 53 m:eé 44 45 44 45
001: 021 m:f 4 49
001: 021 t pee! RO } wanting
001: 041 : m:y 58
oot oat cheat veseerniite + med 7 13¢ 82 0%
041: 041 2m 108-23 y:b 104 11 104 11
001: 441 ; Sm:s 72 12 q 8
ort tC ie 0 uy
001: 441 : \m:o 36)
001 : 441 § is ie ze wanting =f
100: 441) \p: 33 18 1%
100: 441 stig OEY ected o2 oe 1
100 : 441 Tp 41 09
100 : 441 § whi eal ice wanting F
001: 241 : 4m: 65 Ol AG
Miiaut. Rees BO aes
100 : 241) §{p:a% 49 25) 95
100: 241 se pin 67 26 a

A comparison of the angles in this second column under
axinite with those in the column under datolite will show &

present, but those which do occur have approximately the

positions which such a law of symmetry would assign to them.

B.W. Frazier—Awinite from Bethlehem, Penn. 445

Table III would lead one to infer that there must be some
similarity in habit between axinite and datolite. Further com-
parison will confirm this conclusion. In an examination of the
published descriptions of crystals of axinite from various local-
ities I have found twenty forms, viz: p, v, m, 4, u, wv. y, b, fF, 9,
7, ¢, 2, 8, d, x, n, ¢, 0, 0, mentioned as occurring in three or
_ more localities. Of these all but one (c) correspond to forms
_ cccurring in datolite, and fifteen of them correspond to forms
- ¢ommon to the crystals of datolite from all of the four local-
ities given by Dana in his article, cited above. Of the forty-
two simple forms yet discovered in axinite, twenty-eight corre-
spond to forms occurring in datolite. Conversely all of the
eleven simple forms of datolite mentioned as common to all
the localities given (equivalent to sixteen simple forms of
axinite) are represented, partly or wholly, by corresponding forms
of axinite, and ten of these forms of datolite are represented by
frequently occurring planes of axinite. As datolite crystals are
far richer in planes than those of axinite, there must be many
forms in the former inineral which are not represented by cor-
responding forms of the latter. From what has been adduced,

iowever, it is clear that, so far as regards the commonly oceur-
ring forms of the two minerals, there is a close correspondence
between them in habit as well as in angles.

Calamine is another mineral showing analogies in its crystals
to those of datolite. The similarity between the crystalline
forms of these two minerals seems to have been observed by
Miller. This I infer from his having chosen positions for both
minerals which would bring out the resemblance between them,
and from his having placed datolite in his edition of Phillips’
Mineralogy immediately after smithsonite, by which name he
calls Brongniart’s calamine. I am not aware of any express
Statement of such a resemblance by him or any other mineralo-
gist. The similarity will be made sufficiently plain by a com-
parison of the following angles between corresponding planes
of the two minerals, taken from the work just quoted—

Sat pees Calamine. Datolite. Beat eed
010: 011 58° 20' 57° 43’ 010: 021
001: 101 25° 464’ 26° 34’ 001:101
100: 110 51° 564’ 51° $8’ 100: 120
001: 211 48° 54’ 49° 47' 001 : 221
100: 411 31° 19’ 30° 36’ 100; 421.

Miller’s fundamental pyramid, i (111), for datolite is D.na’s
clino-pyramid 22 (121). The fourth column gives the parame-
ters of the planes in question, if referred to Dana’s fundamental
form for datolite.

446 B. W. Frazier—Awinite from Bethlehem, Penn.

The lengths of the axes for calamine in a position and with
a fundamental form similar to those adopted by Dana for dato-
lite are—

a:b: ree 1: 1°5564 : 0°47657.

There does not seem to be as great a similarity in habit be-
tween calamine and datolite as there is between axinite and
datolite.

With regard to the chemical composition of these minerals, a
quite evident analogy appears to exist between the formulas of
calamine and of datolite.

rom an experiment of Herr Fock in Groth’s laboratory it.
appears that calamine contains no water of crystallization, as it
remained unchanged at a temperature of 340° C., and yielded
water only at a red heat. Groth therefore classes it among the
basic silicates with a quantivalent ratio of 8:2.* The empirical
formula of calamine is H,Zn,SiO,. That of datolite is HBCaSiO,
with the same quantivaleént ratio.

With regard to axinite the analogy is by no means so clear.
Rammelsberg’s formula for it is R ff

2

‘ oy Cm i, 32
make it a unisilicate. It appears to me unlikely, however, that.

* Tabellarische Uebersicht der Mineralien, 2d ed., p. 84.

A. EF. Verriti—Marine Fauna off New England Coast. 447

datolite. When it is definitely known what are the minerals
composing the datolite group, and after a careful survey of the
crystalline: forms of all the members of that group, it may be
advisable to sacrifice some of these advantages, for the sake of
bringing axinite into line with the others. Until such an occa-
sion arises, the general adoption of Miller’s position is, in my
Opinion, to be recommended by the considerations just given.
n drawing crystals of axinite in Miller’s position it will be well
to make his brachy-diagonal axial plane the plane of projection,
as has been done in the accompanying figures. An inspection
of the figures will show that this position is not ill adapted for
the representation of the commonly occurring planes, and for
conveying a clear idea of the general shape of the crystal.
Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa., November 4th, 1882.

el

Art. LIl.—Notice of the remarkable Marine Fauna occupying
the outer banks off the Southern Coast of New England, No. 8 ;
by A. E. Verritn. (Brief Contributions to Zoology from
the Museum of Yale College: No. LIV.)

[Published by permission of Professor S. F. Baird, U. 8. Commissioner of Fish
and Fisheries. ]

imestone-nodules.

A List of most of the stations occupied this season by the
U.S. Fish Commission steamer “ Fish Hawk” has been given
im a previous article. After that article was in type, another
tmp was made to the Gulf Stream slope by the Fish Hawk. A
list of these additional stations is now given, together with
those occupied by the “Josie Reeves,” while fishing for the
“tile-fish.” In the lists the general character of the bottom is
indicated, as well as the depth and temperature.

_ A detailed description of the materials covering the bottom,
in this region, cannot be given, at this time, but certain facts,
observed by us, are of sufficient geological interest to justify a

rief notice. At several localities, but especially at stations
1121, 1122 and 1124, in 234, 351 and 640 fathoms, respectively,
we dredged fragments and nodular masses, or concretions, of a
peculiar caleareous rock, evidently of deep-sea origin, and doubt-
less formed at or near the places where it was obtained. These
Specimens varied in size from a few inches in diameter up to
one irregular nodular or coneretionary mass, taken at station
1124, in 640 fathoms, which was 29 inches long, 14 broad, and
6 thick, with all parts well rounded. This probably weighed 60
pounds or more. The masses differ much in appearance, color,
texture, and fineness of grain, but they are all composed of

Nature and origin of the sediments. Oceurrence of fossiliferous
Limes

448 A. EF. Verrill—Marine Fauna off New England Coast.

grains of siliceous sand, often very fine, cemented by more or
less abundant calcareous matter. In some, the grains of sand
are large enough to be easily seen by the naked eye, and small
quartz pebbles often occur in them, but in others the sand-
grains are so fine that-a microscopic examination is needed to
distinguish them. ‘These fine-grained varieties of the rock are
often exceedingly compact, heavy, hard and tough, usually
grayish or greenish in color. ‘They usually weather brown,
from the presence of iron (probably as carbonate). The sand
consists mainly of rounded grains of quartz, with some feldspar,
mica, garnet and magnetite. It is like the loose sand dredged
from the bottom in the same region. The calcareous cementing
material seems to have been derived mainly from the shells of
foraminifera abundantly disseminated through the sand, just as
we find the recent foraminifera, in the same region. In some
cases I was able to identify distinct casts of foraminifera, in the
rock. In some pieces of the rock distinct fossil shells were

The age of these rocks may, however, be as great as the pleis-

is coast.
‘hroughout the Gulf-stream slope examined by us, the
bottom, in 70 to 300 fathoms, 60 to 120 miles from the shore,

fathoms, The sand, however, is often so fine as to resemble
mud, and is frequently so reported, when the preliminary
soundings are made and recorded. In many instances, even In
our deepest dredgings (over 700 fathoms), and throughout the
belt examined, we have taken numerous pebbles and small
rounded boulders, of all sizes, up to several pounds in weight,
consisting of granite, syenite, mica-schist, ete. These are
sometimes abundant and covered with Actinie, etc. Probably

A, E. Verrill— Marine Fauna off New England Coast. 449

these have been recently floated out to this region, while frozen
into the shore-ice, in winter and spring, from our shores and
rivers, and dropped i in this region, where the ice melts rapidly
under the influence of the warmer Gulf-stream water. Possibly
much of the sand, especially the coarser portions, may have
been transported by the same agency. Another way, generally .
overlooked, in hick fine beach-sand may be transported long
distances, is by reason of its floating on the surface of the water
after it has been exposed to the air on the beaches and dried.
The rising tide always carries off a certain amount of fine dry
sand floating in this way. In our fine towing-nets we always
take more or less fine siliceous sand, which evidently was
floating on the surface, even at considerable distances from the
shore.

The prevalence of fine sand, along the Gulf-stream pity in
this region, and the remarkable absence of actual mu clay
deposits indicate that there is here, at the bottom, sufficient

to 150 fathom Such materi are probably carried along till
they evedtGatly sink into the greater depths nearer the base of
the slope, or beyond, in the ocean basin itself, where the currents
are less active. It is probable that such a movement of the

water may be partly due to tidal currents, as well as to the actual
northward flow of the Gulf Stream, which is here slow, even at
the —— It is not probable, however, that’ the bottom

solidated materials by the removal or wearing away of the latter.
The existence of actual currents sufficiently powerful to directly
effect such erosion is hardly supposable. I believe, however,
that such a result may be due directly to the habits ‘of certain
fishes and crustacea that so abound on these bottoms. Many
fishes, like the “hake” (Phycis), of which two species are
common here, have the habit of rooting in the mud, like pigs,
. so food, which consists largely of Annelida ‘and other
a be ptient fully demonstrate that the western edge of the Gulf Stream

is sihaes the than it has hitherto been located on the charts
as is i is nearer the coast than in winter, but this doubtless applies
strictly to the swrface-water. r researches show that t

if the Gulf Leu vt did not flow along ie area, at the bottom, both in winter and
ummer. But it is evident that bssaeatee. any 0 agp species require is not a ver.

high, but a nearly uniform tempera Such an equable temperature cannot
exiat in in this region except under the ak pe constant influence of the Gulf

450 A. E. Verrill—Marine Fauna off New England Coast.

especially, burrow actively into the mud or sand, tail first, and

ade)
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ea
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om
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ao
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et |
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icc te in the and in traps. Many crabs and
allied forms are active ete wers. Such ‘Hapa by stirring
up the bottom-sediments continually, woul ve the currents
a chance to carry away the finer and lighter Sica leaving
the coarser behin

In many localities, in the region under consideration, there
are great quantities ‘of dead shells, both broken and entire.
A small proportion of the bivalves have been drilled by car-
nivorous gastropods, but there are large numbers that show no
injury whatever. There is no doubt, in my mind, but that

ese have, for the most part, served as food for the star- fishes,
so abundant on these grounds, and from which I have often
taken entire shells, of many kinds, including pteropods. Many
fishes, like the cod, haddock, hake, etc., “have the habit of
swallowing shells entire, and after digesting the contents, they
disgorge the uninjured shells, and such fishes abound here.

cient to break most of the bivalve shells. Although I to

so that both fishes and crabs have doubtless helped to accumu-
late the broken shells that are very often scattered epaenent?
over the bottom, both in deep and in shallow water. Such

if they were not attacked by ‘boring ere and annelids.

shallower waters the most destructive species is C. sulphurea
(Desor), which burrows in S phetie and limestone when young,
but later grows into large, rounded, sulphur-yellow masses,

*T have observed that, when in aquaria, many different species of on larger
— > such as the crabs, Libinia emarginata, Cancer irroratus, Panopeus Say?,
s menas, Platyoni

s
collect in sr surface-nets. en a mass of such materials is thrown into an
aquarium containing these crustacea they seize and devour it with great aviuity.

iis ee ae oie

A. FE. Verrill— Marine Fauna off New England Coast. 451

Echini are very fond of fish-bones, which they rapidly consume.
Relics of man and his works are of extremely rare occurrence,

fas, of the stata of man, or even of the existence of the
commonest fishes and cetaceans inhabiting the same waters.

Additional Stations occupied in 1882.

I Temp’rature.
=] ae reelveecare oenonen er)
Stat. Locality. 3 Bottom. Date.! oot) Sur. | Hour:
a tom. | face.
Off Martha’s Vineyard.
Sch. ‘‘ Josie Reeves.”
W. Long. Sept.
1145/40°03700"; 70°28700"/135 fine sand 20
1146|40 02 00; 70 41 00 140 fine sand 21
1147/40 01 00; 70 54.00 |125) _._..... 22
1148/29 54 00; 71 22 00/110) hard sand, sponges| 23
1149 hard sand, sponges
Off Martha's Vineyard.
Hawk.” Oct.
1150/39 00"; 70°37700"|140 sand 4 | 47° | 62° | 635 am.
1151/39 58 30; 70 37 00 125 sand A) 48 62") 46
1152}39 58 00; 70 35 00 115) sand 4 | 48 | 62 ler .
1153/39 54 00; 70 37 00 193! wa mud 4 | 44 | 62°510 x
11 8 55:21; 70 39-00 |193 mud 4 62°5 1? 10 P.M.
115539 562 00; 70 30 00! Is64lv'y fine sand, softm.! 4 | 40 | 63 | 4

Nore.—In the last article of this series, I referred to the adoption of steel wire
rope, since 1880, for dredging on the Fish Hawk, need ry, Riga gr Ct
our work. This great improvement, first introduced by Lieut. Com. C Sigsbee,

452 W. J. Beal—Cross-breeding Indian Corn.

‘on the Coast purses steamer Blake, in 1877-8, was suggested by Mr. A. Agassiz,
who ee it during that cruise, and also on subsequ er ones on the Blake, when
commanded by Lieut, Bartlett. Its introduction ae’ 1 e has been described by
Mr. Agassiz in his reports, and also, # n detail, by Captam Bionbeo: in his extended

work on Deep Sea Bounding on d Dredging. Our ar rangements, on the Fish Hawk,
for reeling in the wire rope were unlike those on ihe Blake, for we used only one
drum, with 1000 fathoms of rope on it. The use . steel wire for sounding goes
back to an ein ge than - commonly suppose was extensively used by
Lieut. J. C. GaBi Nn, e schooner Preney, in his survey the Gulf
Stream in hae. rs e Maury’s Winds and Currents of the Sea, p. 56, 1851). Im-
i oa improvements have since then been m ein t ed reels for weds it in, by
Sir Wm. Thomson, Captain Sigsbee, and other

Art. LIT. — Heperiments in Cross-breeding. Indian Corn with
Jlowers of the same variety, the seed of which was raised one
hundred miles away; by Professor W. J. BEAL.

In 1878 I reported some experiments in cross-breeding, made
with Indian corn and with beans. The advantage shown by the
crossing of corn with corn, the seed of which was grown some
miles away, over that not so crossed was as 151 exceeds 100,
and in the case of black wax beans it was as 236 exceeds 100.

In 1879 and 1880, a similar experiment was made with
Indian corn gh eee that seed from crossed stock produced
corn excelling that raised from uncrossed seed as 109 oo ex-
ceeds 100, or nearly ten per cent in favor of crossed stoc

In the spring of 1881, I obtained two lots of white flint corn;
one from Oakland County, the other from Allegan County,
about 100 miles apart. These places are in the same latitude
in Michigan. The corn from Oakland had been ico for ten
years on one farm; that from Allegan six years in the same
neigh borhood. In one patch of alternate rows of Oakland and
Allegan corn, all of the Allegan corn was castrated by palling

tration has been found to cause the ears to grow larger than
they otherwise would grow. Still, with castration in favor of
the Allegan corn, it did not produce ears which were so large
or evenly developed as did the corn Flag Oakland County.
The Oakland County seed corn was the better of the two.

Owing to an accident, we failed to a any pure ales
seed in 1881. The “crossed corn” in 1882 was only compared
with si Oakland seed raised last year at this place.

n the spring of 1882, on good even soil, three rows of
“crossed seed” were planted in rows alternating with three
rows of pure Oakland Cone seed of 1881. By an oversight,
each row of each lot was not kept separate. The pure seed in
the cob nearly dried, yielded 57h pounds. The “crossed seed
yielded 694 pounds. In other words, the crossed stock exceeded
the pure stock of the best parent nearly as 121 exceeds 100.

Charles Darwin. 453

CHARLES DARWIN.

[Biographical notice by Dr. Asa Gray. From the ee tad pe the American
cademy of Arts and Sciences, volume xvii, May, 1882.]

CHARLES DaRwIN died on the 19th of April last, a few
months after the completion of his 78d year; and on the 26th,
the mortal remains of the most celebrated man of science of the
nineteenth century were laid in Westminster Abbey, near to
these of Newton.

He was born at Shrewsbury, Feb. 12, 1809, and was named
Charles Robert Darwin. But the middle appellation was omit-
ted from his ordinary signature and from the title-pages of the
volumes which, within the last twenty-five years, have given
Such great renown to an already distinguished name. His
grandfather, Dr. Erasmus Darwin, — who died seven years
before his distinguished grandson was born,—was one of the
most notable and original men of his age; and his father, also
a physician, was a person of very marked character and ability.
His maternal grandfather was Josiah Wedgwood, who, begin-
hing as an artisan potter, produced the celebrated Wedgwood
ware, and became a Fellow of the Royal Society and a man of
much scientific mark. he importance of heritability, which
is an essential part of Darwinism, would seem to have had a
significant illustration in the person of its great expounder.
He was educated at the Shrewsbury Grammar School and at
Edinburgh University, where, following the example of his
grandfather, he stadied for two sessions, having the medical
profession in view, and where, at the close of the year 1826, he
made his first contribution to natural history in two papers
(one of them on the ova of Flastra). Soon finding the medical
profession not to his liking, he proceeded to the University of
Cambridge, entering Christ’s College, and took his bachelor’s
degree in 1831; that of M.A. in 1837, after his return from
South America,

454 Charles Darwin.

It is said that Darwin was a keen fox-hunter in his youth,—
not a bad pursuit for the cultivation of the observing powers.
There is good authority for the statement—though it has
nowhere been made in print—that at Cambridge he was dis-
posed at one time to make the Church his profession, following
the example of Buckland and of his teacher, Sedgwick. But
in 1831, just as he was taking his bachelor’s degree, Captain
Fitzroy offered to receive into his own cabin any naturalist who
was disposed to accompany him in the Beagle’s surveying
voyage round the world. Mr. Darwin volunteered his services
without salary, with the condition only that he should have the
disposal of his own collections. And this expedition of nearly
five years—from the latter part of September, 1831, to the close
of October, 1836—not only fixed the course and character of
the young naturalist’s life-work, but opened to his mind its
principal problems and suggested the now familiar solution of
them. For be brought back with him to England a conviction
that the existing species of animals and plants are the modified
descendants of earlier forms, and that the internecine struggle
for life in which these modifiable forms must have been engaged
would scientifically explain the changes. The noteworthy point
is that both the conclusion and the explanation were the legit-
imate outcome of real scientific investigation. It isan equally
noteworthy fact, and a characteristic of Darwin’s mind, that
these pregnant ideas were elaborated for more than twenty
years before he gave them to the world. Offering fruit so well
ripened upon the bough, commending the conclusions he had
so thoroughly matured by the presentation of very various lines
of facts, and of reasonings close to the facts, unmixed wit
figments and @ priori conceptions, it is not so surprising that
his own convictions should at the close of the next twenty
years be generally shared by scientific men. It is certainly
gratifying that he should have lived to see it, and also have
outlived most of the obloquy and dread which the promulga-
tion of these opinions aroused.

Mr. Darwin lived a very quiet and uneventful life. In 1839
he married his cousin, Emma Wedgwood, who with five sons
and two daughters survives him;-he made his home on the
border of the little hamlet of Down, in Kent,—‘a plain but

Charles Darwin. 455

comfortable brick house in a few acres of pleasure-ground, a
pleasantly old-fashioned air about it, with a sense of peace and
silence ;” and here, attended by every blessing except that of
vigorous health, he lived the secluded but busy life which best
suited his chosen pursuits and the simplicity of his character.
He was seldom seen even at scientific meetings, and never in
general society; but he could welcome his friends and fellow-
workers to his own house, where he was the most charming of
hosts,

At his home, without distraction and as continuously as his
bodily powers would permit, Mr. Darwin gave himself to his work.
At least ten of his scientific papers, of greater or less extent,
had appeared in the three years between his return to England
and his marriage; and in the latter year (1839) he published
the book by which he became popularly known, viz: the
“Journal of Researches into the Natural History wid Geology
of the Countries visited during the Voyage of the Beagle,”
which has been pronounced “the most entertaining book of
genuine travels ever written,” and it certainly is one of the
most instructive. His work on ‘Coral Reefs” appeared in
1842, but the substance had been communicated to the Geologi-
cal Society soon after his return to England; his papers on “ Vol-
canie Islands,” on the “ Distribution of Erratic Boulders and
Contemporaneous Unstratified Deposits in South America,” on
the “ Fine Dust which falls on Vessels in the Atlantic Ocean,”
and some other geological as well as zoological researches, were
published previously to 1851. Between that year and 1855 he
brought out his most considerable contributions to systematic
zoology, his monugraphs on the Cirripedia and the Fossil
Lepadide.

We come to the first publication of what is now known as
Darwinism. It consists of a sketch of the doctrine of Natural
Selection, which was drawn up in the year 1839, and copied
and communicated to Messrs. Lyell and Hooker in 1844, being
a part of the manuscript of a chapter in his “ Origin of Species ;”
also of a private letter addressed to the writer of this memorial

in October, 1857,—the publication of which (in the Journal of

the Proceedings of the Linnean Society, Zoological Part, iii,
45-53, issued in the summer of 1858) was caused Hele the recep-

456 Charles Darwin.

tion by Darwin himself of a letter from Mr. Wallace, inclosing
a brief and strikingly similar essay on the same subject, entitled
“On the Tendency of Varieties to depart indefinitely from the
Original Type.” Mr. Darwin’s action upon the reception of
this rival essay was characteristic. His own work was not yet
ready, and the fact that it bad been for years in preparation
was known only to the persons above mentioned. He proposed
to have the paper of Mr. Wallace (who was then in the
Moluceas) published at once, in anticipation of his own leis-
urely prepariug volume; and it was only under the solicitation
of his friends cognizant of the case that his own early sketch
and the corroboratory letter were printed along with it.

The precursory essays of Darwin and Wallace, published in
the Proceedings of a scientific society, can hardly have been
read except by a narrow circle of naturalists. Most thoughtful
investigating naturalists were then in a measure prepared for
them. But toward the close of the following year (in the
autumn of 1859) appeared the volume “On the Origin of
Species by means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of
Favored Races in the Struggle for Life,” the first and most
notable of that series of duodecimos which have been read and
discussed in almost every cultured Janguage, and which within
the lifetime of their author have changed the face and in some
respect the character of natural history,—indeed have almost

‘as deeply affected many other lines of investigation and
thought.

In this Academy, where the rise and progress of Darwinian
evolution have been attentively marked and its bearings criti-
cally discussed, and at this date, when the derivative origin of
animal and vegetable species is the accepted belief of all of us
who study them, it would be superfluous to give any explana-
tory account of these now familiar writings ; nor, indeed, would ?
the pages which we are accustomed to consecrate to the memory
of our recently deceased Associates allow of it. Let us note In
passing that the succeeding volumes of the series may be
ranked in two classes, one of which is much more widely
known than the other. One class is of those which follow up
the argument for the origination of species through descent
with modification, or which widen its base and illustrate the

Charles Darwin. 457

modus operandi of Natural Selection. Such are the two
volumes on ‘ Domesticated Animals and Cultivated Plants,”
illustrating Variation, Inheritance, Reversion, Interbreeding,

c.; the volume on the ‘Descent of Man, and Selection in
Relation to Sex,”—which extended the hypothesis to its Jogi-
cal limits,—and that “On the Expression of the Emotions in
Man and the Lower Animals,” published in 1872, which may
be regarded as the last of this series. Since then Mr. Darwin
appears to have turned from the highest to the lower forms of
life, and to have entered upon the laborious cultivation of new
and special fields of investigation, which, although prosecuted
on the lines of his doctrine and vivified by its ideas, might
seem to be only incidentally connected with the general argu-
ment. But it will be found that all these lines are convergent.
Nor were these altogether new studies. The germ of the three
volumes upon the Relation of Insects to Flowers and its far-
reaching consequences, is a little paper, published in the year
1858, “On the Agency of Bees in the Fertilization of Papilio-
naceous Flowers, and on the Crossing of Kidney Beans;” the
first edition of the volume on “The various Contrivances by
which Orchids are Fertilized by Insects” appeared in 1862, thus
forming the second volume of the whole series; and the two
volumes “On the Effects of Cross- and Self-Fertilization in the
Vegetable Kingdom,” and “The Different Forms of Flowers
on Plants of the same Species,” which, along with the new
edition of “The Fertilization of Orchids,” were all published in
1876 and 1877, originated in two or three remarkable papers
Contributed to the Journal of the Linnean Society in 1862 and
1863, but are supplemented by additional and protracted ex-
periments. The volume on “Insectivorous Plants,” and the
Noteworthy conclusions in respect to the fundamental unity,
and therefore common source, of vegetable and animal life,
grew out of an observation which the author made in the sum-
mer of 1860, when he “ was surprised by finding how large a
number of insects were canght by the leaves of the common
Sun-dew (Drosera rotundifolia), on a heath in Sussex.” Almost
€verybody had noticed this; and one German botanist (Roth),
just a hundred years ago, had observed and described the
movement of the leaf in consequence of the capture. But noth-
_ Am, Jour. — Series, VoL. XXIV, No. 144,—DEcEMBER, 1882.

458 Charles Darwin.

ing came of it, or of what had been as long known of our
Dionea, beyond a vague wonderment, until Mr. Darwin took
up the subject for experimental investigation. The precursor
of his volume on “The Movements and Habits of Climbing
Plants,” published in 1875, as well as of the recent and larger

olume on “ The Power of Movement in Plants,” 1880, was an
essay published in the Journal of the Linnean Society in 1865;
and this was instigated by an accidental but capital observation
made by a correspondent, in whose hands it was sterile; but it
became wonderfully fertile when touched by Darwin’s genius.*
His latest volume, on “The Formation of Vegetable Mould
through the Action of Worms,” is a development, after long
years, of a paper which he read before the Geological Society
of London in 1837.

These subsidiary volumes are less widely known than those
of the other class; but they are of no less interest, and they are
very characteristic of the author’s genius and methods,—char-
acteristic also of his laboriousness. For the amount of pro-
louged observation, watchful care, and tedious experiment they
have demanded is as remarkable as the skill in devising simple
and effectual modes of investigation is admirable. That he
should have had the courage to undertake and the patience to
carry on new inquiries of this kind after he had reached his
threescore and ten years of age, and after he had attained an
unparalleled breadth of influence and wealth of fame, speaks
much for his energy and for his devotion to knowledge for its
own sake. Indeed, having directed the flow of scientific
thought into the new channel he had opened, along which the

Darwin’s quickness in divining the meaning of seemingly unimportant
things, is illustrated in his study of Dionea. Noting that the trap upon irritation
closes at first imperfectly, leaving some room within and a series of small inter-
stices between the crossed spines, but after a time, if there is prey within, shuts
down close, he at once inferred that this was a provisicn for allowing small in-
sects to escape, and for retainin figs those large enough to make the long pro-
cess of digestion Nog To test the surmise, he asked a correspondent
to visit the habita Dionea at the proper season, and to ascertain by the ex-
amination of a me ye of the traps in action whether any below a certain
considerable size were to be found in them. e result confirmed the inference.
A comparatively trivial eis a ae cae oe of Darwin’s confidence in
the principle of utility, and a good example of Mah truth of the dictum, which °
was by some thought odd when first made, namely, that Darwin had restored

teleology to natural history, from which the study of Horvat had dissevered it.

Charles Darwin. 459

current set quicker and stronger than he could have expected,
he seems to have taken up with fresh delight studies which he
had marked out in early years, or topics which from time to
time had struck his acute attention. To these he gave himself,
quite to the last, with all the spirit and curiosity of youth.
Evidently all this amount of work was done for the pure love
of it; it was all done methodically, with clear and definite aim,
without haste, but withont intermission.

It would confidently be supposed that in this case genius
and industry were seconded by leisure and bodily vigor. For-
tunately Darwin’s means euvabled him to control the disposition
of his time. But the voyage of the Beagle, which was so
advantageous to science, ruined his health. A sort of chronic
sea-sickness, under which all his work abroad was performed,
harassed him ever afterwards, The days in which he could give
two hours to investigation or writing were counted as good ones,
and for much of his life even these were largely outnumbered
by days in which nothing could be attempted. Only by great
care and the simplest habits was he able to secure even a mod-
erate amount of comfortable existence. But in this respect his
later years were the best ones, and therefore the busiest. In
them also he had most valuable filial aid. There was nothing
to cause much anxiety until his seventy-third birthday had
passed, or to excite alarm until the week before his death.

It may without exaggeration be said that no scientific man,
certainly no naturalist, ever made an impression at once so
deep, so wide, and so immediate. The name of Linnzus might
Suggest comparison; but readers and pupils of Linnzus over a
century ago were to those of Darwin as tens are to thousands,
and the scientific as well as the popular interest of the subjects
considered were somewhat in the same ratio. Humboldt, who,
like Darwin, began with research in travel, and to whom the
longest of lives, vigorous health, and the best opportunities
_ were allotted, essayed similar themes in a more ambitious spirit,
_ enjoyed equal or greater renown, but made no deep impression
_ Upon the thought of his own day or of ours. As one criterion

of celebrity, it may be noted that no other author we know o
ever gave rise in his own active lifetime to a special depart-

-Mmentof bibliography. Dante-literature and Shakespeare-litera-

460 Charles Darwin.

ture are the growth of centuries; but Darwinismus had filled
shelves and alcoves and teeming catalogues while the unremit-
ting author was still supplying new and ever novel subjects for ©
comment. The technical term which he chose for a designa-
tion of his theory, and several of the phrases originated in ex-
planation of it only twenty-five years ago, have already been
engrafted into his mother tongue, and even into other lan-
guages, aud are turned to use in common as well as in philo-
sophical discourse, without sense of strangeness.

Wonderful indeed is the difference between the reception
accorded to Darwin and that met with by his predecessor, La-
marck. But a good deal has happened since Lamarck’s day ;
wide fields of evidence were open to Darwin which were wholly
unknown to his forerunner; and the time had come when the
subject of the origin and connection of living forms could be
taken up as a research rather than as a speculation. Philoso-
phizers on evolution have not been rare; but Darwin was not
one of them. He was a scientific investigator,—a philosopher,
if you please, but one of the type of Galileo. Indeed very
much what Galileo was to physical science in his time, Darwin
is to biological science in ours. This without reference to the
fact that the writings of both conflicted with religious prepos-
sessions; and that the Darwinian theory, legitimately con-
sidered, bids fair to be placed in this respect upon the same
footing with the Copernican system.

An English poet wrote that he awoke one morning and
found himself famous. When this happened to Darwin, it was
a genuine surprise. Although he had addressed himself simply
to scientific men, and had no thought of arguing his case before
a popular tribunal, yet “The Origin of Species” was too read-
able a book upon too sensitive a topic to escape general peru-
sal; and this, indeed, must in some sort have been anticipated.
But the avidity with which the volume was taken up, and the
eagerness of popular discussion which ensued, were viewed by
the author,—as his letters at the time testify,—with a sense
of amused wonder at an unexpected and probably transient
notoriety.

The theory he had developed was presented by a working:
naturalist to his fellows, with confident belief that it would

Charles Darwin. 461

sooner or later win acceptance from the younger and more
observant of these. The reason why these moderate expecta-
tions were much and so soon exceeded are not far to seek,
though they were not then obvious to the world: in general.
Although mere speculations were mostly discountenanced by
the investigating naturalists of that day, yet their work and
their thoughts were, consciously or unconsciously, tending in
the direction of evolution. Even those who manfully rowed
against the current were more or less carried along with it, and
some of them unwittingly contributed to its force. Most of
them in their practical studies had worked up to, or were
nearly approaching, the question of the relation of the past
inhabitants of the earth to the present, and of the present to
one another, in such wise as to suggest inevitably that, some-
how or other, descent with modification was eventually to be
the explanation. This was the natural outcome of the line of
thought of which Lyell early became the cautious and fair-
minded expositor, and with which he reconstructed theoretical
geology. If Lyeli had known as much at first hand of botany.
or zoology as he knew of geology, it is probable that his cele-
brated chapter on the permanence of species in the “ Principles”
would have been reconsidered before the work had passed to
tle ninth edition in 1853. He was convinced species went out
of existence one by one, through natural causes, and that they
¢ame in one by one, bearing the impress of their immediate
predecessors ; but he saw no way to connect the two through
Natural operations. Nor, in fact, had any of the evolutionists
been able to assign real causes capable of leading on such
variations as are of well-known occurrence to wider and specific
or generic differences. Just here came Darwin. When upon
the spot he had perceived that the animals of the Galapagos
must be modified forms derived from the adjacent continent,
and he soon after worked out the doctrine of natural selection.
This supplied what was wanting for the condensation of opin-
ions and beliefs, and the collocation of rapidly accumulating
facts, into a consistent and workable scientific theory, under a
principle which unquestionably could directly explain much,
‘and might indirectly explain more.

It is not merely that Darwin originated and applied a new

462 Charles Darwin.

principle. Not to speak of Wallace, his contemporary, who
came to it later, his countryman, Dr. Wells, as Mr, Darwin
points out, “distinctly recognizes the principle of natural selec-
tion, and this is the first recognition which has been indicated ;
but he applied it only to the races of men, and to certain char-
acters alone.” Darwin, like the rest of the world, was unaware
of this anticipation until he was prepariug the fourth edition of
his “Origin of Species,” in 1866, when he promptly called
attention to it, perhaps magnifying its importance. However
this be, Darwin appears to have been first and alone in appre-
hending and working out the results which necessarily come
from the interaction of the surrounding agencies and conditions
under which plants and animals exist, including, of course,
their actions upon each other. Personifying the ensemble of
these and the consequences,—namely, the survival only of the
fittest in the struggle for life—under the term of Natural Selec-
tion, Mr. Darwin with the instinct of genius divined, and with
the ability of a master worked out its pregnant and far-reach-
ing applications. He not only saw its strong points, but he
foresaw its limitations, indicated most of the objections in ad-
vance of his opponents, weighed them with judicial mind, and
where he could not obviate them, seemed never disposed to
underrate their force. Although naturally disposed to make
the most of his theory, he distinguished between what he could
refer to known causes and what thus far is not referrible to
them. Consequently, he kept clear of that common confusion
of thought which supposes that natural selection originates the
variations which it selects. He believed, and he has shown it
to be probable, that external conditions induce the actions and
changes in the living plant or animal which may lead on to the
difference between one species and another; but he did not.
maintain that they produced the changes, or were sufficient
scientifically to explain them. Unlike most of his contem-
poraries in this respect, he appears to have been thoroughly
penetrated by the idea that the whole physiological action of
the plant or animal is a response of the living organism to the
action of the surroundings. _ :
The judicial fairness and openness of Darwin’s mind, bis
penetration and sagacity, his wonderful power of eliciting the

Charles Darwin. 463

meaning of things which had escaped questioning by their very
commonness, and of discerning the great significance of causes
and interactions which had been disregarded on account of
their supposed insignificance, his method of reasoning close to
the facts and in contact with the solid ground of nature, his
aptness in devising fruitful and conclusive experiments, and in
prosecuting nice researches with simple but effectual appliances,
and the whole rare combination of qualities which made him
Jacile princeps in biological investigation,—all these gifts are so
conspicuously manifest in his published writings, and are so
fully appreciated, that there is no need to celebrate them in an
obituary memorial. The writings also display in no small
degree the spirit of the man, and to this nota little of their
persuasiveness is due. His desire to ascertain the truth, and to
present it purely to his readers, is everywhere apparent. Con-
spicuous, also, is the absence of all trace of controversy and of
everything like pretension; and this is remarkable, considering
how censure and how praise were heaped upon him without
stint. He does not teach didactically, but takes the reader
along with him as his companion in observation and in experi-
ment. And in the same spirit, instead of showing pique to an
Opponent, he seems always to regard him as a helper in his
search for the truth. Those privileged to know him well will
_ Certify that he was one of the most kindly and charming, un-
affected, simple-hearted, and lovable of men.

How far and how long the Darwinian theory will hold good,
the future will determine. Bat in its essential elements, apart
from @ priori philosophizing, with which its author had nothing
to do, it is an advance from which it is evidently impossible to
recede. As has been said of the theory of the Conservation of
Energy, so of this: “The proof of this great generalization,
like that of all other generalizations, lies mainly in the fact
that the evidence in its favor is continually augmenting, while
that against it is continually diminishing, as the progress of
Science reveals to us more and more of the workings of the
Universe,”

[The outlines of a portion of this memorial, written on the day of Mr. Darwin’s
funeral, were printed in “The Literary World” of May 6.]

464 Screntifie Intelligence.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. CHEMISTRY AND Puysics.

1. On Reciprocal gerne of Liquids.— ALEXmEF¥ has studied
the reciprocal actions of liquids and has discovered that while
their mutual solubility 3 increases with the temperature, yet for
certain liquids the solubility decreases up to a certain limit as the
temperature rises, and then increases again; so that there exists
a minimum of solubility, corresponding to the maximum of solv-
bility in certain solids. Again, when phenol and water are
mixed two layers are formed; the lower is a solution of phenol
in water, the upper a solution of water in phenol. The solubility
of these liquids i in each wore increases continually until a wee
temperature is reached ° ‘for phenol melting at 36°, 68° for
pure Feeney | Soul fee mix in all proportions. Aniine and

temperatures. The a iihoe shows the eatatite between solids

water and salicylic acid in tubes and heating these to tempera-
tures above 100°. On cooling the limpid liquid, ne turbidity
appears at 100°. The first trace shows itself at 91°, the con-
tents of each tube separating suddenly into two layers, these
becoming turbid independently, as the cooling goes on. The
curve which represents the results obtained is quite analogous to
that given by aniline, and shows that, between certain limits of
temperature, there exists true reciprocal solutions of water and
liquid salicylic acid. This marked difference in solubility be-
tween the solid in the liquid salicylic acid, the author regards as
a case of true physical isomerism and he is ‘occupied with its further
investigation.— Bull, Soc. Ch., I, xxxviii, 145, Aug., 18 aye!

2. On ye case trerinecaden he aire proving Berthollet’s ab of
partition.—Brt as described the following experiments
in saieute eerie as arene yr of the law of Berthollet that when

e
by their mutual reaction, (1) Equal volumes of cold saturated
solutions of cobalt chloride, CoCl,, (H,O), and nickel sulphate
NiSO,, (H,O), are mixed and allowed to evaporate SS
The crystals obtained contain both metals, but com wit

sulphuric acid on (2) Solutions of copper sulphate pe talk
chlo mixed together, deposit crystals wine-red in color, con-
sisting principally of sulphates of both metals, but containing
a chlor ( opper sulphate solution and one 0
potassium dichromate, when mixed, deposit first bright green
asi containing both metals glee see! as od Mae Then.
crystals in various intermediate stages, yellow-green, green and

blue-green ; ae finally a dark-brown deliquescent mass, becom-

so ice aaa

Chemistry and Physics. 465

ing crystalline over sulphuric acid, consisting of both metals
combined with chromic acid, essenti ially, . Berl. Hite Ges.,
XV, 1840, Oct.

1882.

n the Oxidation of Carbonous eee by Oxygen ao Pal-

liven Hapdio ogen.—The fact observed by Baumann, that in

presence of oxygen, hydrogen-palladium oxidized carbonous oxide

to carbon dioxide, was explained by him by supposing that
h

TravusE has piomeda tod another theory of the action which is
se poascaiom He supposes two distinct eine processes to
0 cessively. First by the action of oxygen and water on
the Wdecee petadiane hydrogen peroxide is formed. This, in
presence of the palladium itself, oxidizes the carbonous oxide to
carbon dioxide. Hydrogen peroxide alone does not oxidize car-
bonous oxide; but in presence of palladium free from hydrogen,
it does it readily, Hydrogen-palladium behaves in the same way
oward carbonous oxide, therefore, as it is known to do toward
potassium iodide.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., XV, 2325, iets Be?

4. On Silicon Sulphides. —By passing carbon denice. over
silicon, Colson obtained two ¢ wads tg te? to ae he Bron buted
respectively the formulas SiS and SiSO. Sasarrer has investi-

gated the ph ion more in detail and comes to a different onele-

cec center which are beautiful white needles of
silicon deulphide SiS,. Boapad this ring the tube is covered
wi t powder orange-yellow in color. The brown sub-

proba bly of the iaulphide 8 SiS, and amso hae ehetie. a conclu-
Sion confirmed by the oa that by the side of the r ing is a crys-

he
treated with water, the heat evolved is greater than that given
y the disulphide. Hence the author concludes that a lower sul-
phide is present formed with less heat ; ghee of eo eee
81,5,.— ars 1. Soc. Ch., I, xxxviii, 153, Aug
Constitution of Bleachi: ing isa phe: theories
| e

lithium hydrate and has obtained a compou ery cea to
chloride of lime. The hydrate, with the sddition. of one or two
per cent of water, was submitted to the action of chitin and

466 Scientific Intelligence.

absorbed, in one experiment 63°49 and in another 71:5 per cent of
its we eight. The reaction is: (LiIOH), + Cl, = LiCl + LiOCl +
(LiOH),+H,0. Analysis of the product confirmed this equation,
the active chlorine being 31°17 and 38°06 per cent in the two

same time with chlorine and the radical of hypochlorous acid.
Hence Odling’s formula is inapplicable. Moreover, lithium il
ride ready formed is present in the lithium bleaching powder
to the decomposability of bleaching powder by carbon dioxide, the
author treated a mixture of calcium chloride and hydrate, in a
drying - tube, vie with hypochlorous oxide gas alone and then

ith a mixture of this gas and carbon dioxide. As soon as the
latter gas atv in the tube the color and odor of chlorine were
per ceived, the chlorine falling from 64°66 per cent to 17:09, after
the admission of the CO.. The carbon dioxide decomposes the
hypochlorite and the free bpecohienoes oxide in 2 aks ata wa an
excess of CO,, decom aero the metallic chloride : on, me nar
Ca0,CO + Ci,O ; and CaCl, + Cl,0 +CO,= Ca0,C “the
aecahiated. is thes bleaching ore yee simply a at “of cal-
cium ail meagan? calcium chloride and calcium phbehie ai operas
Ann. eit p 354, Sept., 188

6 @ Preparation of Lead perowide. —Lead peroxide is
usually ‘ptoeaesd, a either by treating minium with nitric or acetic
acid, or by pesnunenar lead acetate with sodium carbonate and
passing chlorine gas through the mixture. FrHrMann has mae
posed another m ethod, which consists in decomposing a concen-
trated solution a lead chloride at 50° or 60° C. with a solution
of chloride of lime. The latter solution is added until the filtrate
shows no brown aahie on farther addition. The precipitated Lee
oxide is filtered off, well washed, and kept for use.
almost black powder and is completely pure. The chloride i is
— to the acetate.— Ber. Berl. Chem, Ges., xv, atte: PAR

this chemist has st tndied the new bo aay more sae Niliy bee

y mee of the woes color of this first member of a ie “sett
odies, the authors have called the series azaurolic acid.
ot preparation of ethyl-azaurolic acid, two grams ienylaitvolis

Bs
i
ae
i
3

Chemistry and Physics. 467

acid was suspended in 10 ¢. c. water, cooled with ice, and 45
grams of a ten per cent sodium amalgam gradually added with

canted from the mereury, and decomposed carefully with sul-
phuric acid. A mass of fine matted yellow needles was pre-
cipitated, which were freed from mother-liquor on the filter-pump,,
and recrystallized from hot alcohol. Fiery orange-red brilliant
prisms were thus obtained, which were soluble in hot alcohol,
difficultly so in ether and nearly insoluble in water. On analysis
ula ropyl- and methyl-azaurolic
. the action of hydrogen chloride,
of concentrated ammonia, of sodium- algam, and even of heat,
upon ethyl-azaurolic acid, a new substance, in colorless brilliant,
transparent prismatic crystals is obtained, which fuses at 161°°5
Without decomposition and which afforded on analysis the formula
“,N,0, It has the characters of a weak amido-acid and the
authors call it ethyl-leukazon. The authors discuss its constitu-
tion and propose for ethyl-azaurolic acid the formu]
CH. SH
3 NO (OH —N=N—CH] Ny.
—Lieb. Ann., cexiv, 328, Sept., 1882. G, F. B.
8. On Indophenol and Solid Violet—Koxrcuin and Wirt have
Seneralized a reaction observed with resorcin by Meldola in 1879,
y acting on nitrosodimethylaniline with phenols or vaphthols.
By oxidizing with potassium dichromate or sodium hypochlorite
a mixture of a-naphthol and of amidodimethylaniline, combined
with soda, a new coloring matter called indophenol has been pro-
duced. It is insoluble in water; but like indigo, it can be re-

oS x 2

mineral acids destroy it. reacting with tannin, gallic acid,
catechin, upon nitrosodimethylaniline, hot, ECHLIN has pre

used. It forms beautiful salts, that with aniline being in small
Sreen crystals, It dyes silk and wool violet and resists light and
all reagents, On cotton it needs chromium as a mordant. ‘The

ad
Contrary, resists boiling soap and dissolves in sulphuric acid with
a bluish green color. These two colors appear to be of great

II, xxxviii, 160,
Aug., 1882, G. F. B.

468 Seventifie Intelligence.

9. On Soluble Alizarin-Blue.—Alizarin-blue has received but
limited application because of its insolubility. Brunox has dis-
covered that its compound with bisulphites is easily soluble, and
in connection with GraxrBeE has examined the character of the
combination. The soluble blue is in the form of a reddish-brown
powder, showing transparent prisms under the microscope. — It
cin be heated to 150° without change. The shades of color it
gives are equal to those produced by the best indigo and it re-
sists light, soap, ba! chlorine ge en aig Upon analysis
the compound was found to be composed of one molecule of
nlizarin-blue and two of the bislphite, We ee NO,+( seni SOs)
— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xv, 1788 G.

10. On the amount of Carbon Dicwide in Atmosphere —

. Rister has recently made some observations to deter-
mine the amount of carbon dioxide in the atm oapkals, which are
interesting in connection with the results of Reiset, and of Miintz .

ments were made in the author’s garden at Caléves near Nyon,
between the hours of 10 a. Mm. and 2p. «, The method ey eae

was that of Pettenkofer, with some slight sda Mentions. A vessel
of five or six baie capacity, accurately guaged, is filled with ite
air to be analyzed by means of an aspirator furnished with a long
glass tube. The Gerben: Rioxide in aN bottle is absorbed by agi-
tation with a known volume of pure baryta water, previously
titered, introduced into it. A few drops of tincture of tumeric is
added ‘and then a solution of as oxalic acid from a burette,
until the baryta water is saturated. The tincture of tumeric
allows of determining the point of saturation more exactly than
the gl neric Pe er of M. Pettenkofer. From the Guentsy of

mpl

Biren dioxide corresponding to it is plone: and from ‘this
that which has already been fixed by the baryta is deduced.
The mean value obtained was 3:035, the minimum 2°530, the maxi-
mum 3492, The monthly,:means obtained are as follows:

Volumes in 10,000.

872. Monthly mean. Monthly maximum. Monthly minimum.
pipt oc ee 2°998 3-492 the 9th. 2°616 the 2d.
September. ---_- 3°020 "123 “ 12th oe
October ...-)....2°953 3°067 * 25th. 2:903 “ 20th.
November --. . .-3°043 $204 © 16th Seer 1
December ----.. 3°058 3-216 “ ith 2°919 “ 17th
January ...-....3°016 3°094 “ 29th 2-889 “ 30th.
February _... --- 3°045 3°196 “ 28th 2°820 ‘ 20th.
PASTOR: oc 3°088 3°239 “ 26th. 2914 “ 20th
DP oo cde eee 3°053 Sot "1st 2861 “ 28th.
ES ee en 3°139 3°326 “ 8d. 2°880 “ 25th
MUNG os eas 3°062 $316 -*- 8th. 2653 “ 22d
duly. adel 9044. #128. “« ish 2°665 “ 7th.

General mean _- 3-035 — Bibl. Univ., Sept., 1882.

Chemistry and Physics. 469

11. Solubility of Carbon dioxide in cia under high bier sie

* E MORLEWs Sk1 has comstericted an mi s (C. R. xciv, 954) it

In tubes with an interior diameter ‘of 10 to 127", With he
has established the following laws as to the solubility of carbon
dioxide in water. 1. The t BL ispernture remaining constant, the

coefficient of saturation ¢. the quantity of gas (in cubic centi-
meters at 0° and under - i.
le.c. water deen Tess pidly es the pressure, while approach:
ing a a certain lim 2. The pressure remaining constant, the coe
vege increases whee ‘the temperature diminishes. For sxuaiple
0° the values of’ the coefficient for different pressures are :—
Gabe: (in atmospheres), 1 5. 10 15 20 25 30
Coefficient of saturation, 1797 865 1603 21°95 2665 30°55 33-74
The author Bane on to say that under the son iow realized
the gas forms a hydrate. If pean dioxide at 0° is subjected
shige with water to a st nt pressure the he not ab-
orbed becomes liquid and two detines liquids are obtained. If
the pressure diminishes the CO, volatilizes and returns to its
primitive state. But if the CO, is compressed almost to the

CO,+8 H,O. The formation of this hydrate bears an important
relation to the laws oe berion’ of carbon dioxide given above.
eb ales de ate

upon the slit ear of the spectroscope an image of the Be se
Inserted between the Nicol prisms. It seemed to me that the
remarkably well-defined absorption bands afforded with certain
“a ;

im

ha persons fail to bebe expert operators with the sacharo-
meter because incapable of distinguishing changes from the tran-
Sition tint so nicely as a close ae ing of the scale requires. Any

470 Scientifie Intelligence.

Bee Oe can read with at least fair scourags eed with great rapidity
as fol

Adjant. a Schiebler sacharometer to zero, and insert before the
eye-plece a pocket spectroscope, with the slit horizontal or at
a a to the line bisecting the chromatic field.

ing then in the spectroscope and focussing both the eye-

pieos ‘of the sacharometer and that of the epeserOnODS, two verti-
cally dispersed parallel spectra will be seen separat ya well-
defined black line which is the image of the line A aan mentioned.

he spectra will "asale ordinary white-light spectra except that
a narrow, deep black absorption band will appear crossing both
-of them in the neighborhood of the D line.

The least turn of the reading screw will destroy the coincidence
of the two absorption bands, one moving upward and the other

wnward, and a sufficient revolution of the reading screw will
cause one to pass ae of its spectrum entirely into the ultra red,
-and the other into the ultra blue, both spectra continuing other-
se eeesnred unchanged.

To determine the percentage of a sample of sugar by this
method artes the two o absorption bands to coineidence and insert
the tube of sugar solution, which will throw the bands out of
coincidence precisely as if the screw had been considerably turned.
Bring the bands to coincide again by means of the reading screw
and the Agcons will give the percentage dui .

se ive ed, be t no confusion need be thy caused if the two

surrounded by a belt, varying in pecans from 1 to 1} mile, from
which the sound appears to be entirely absent ; thus, in moving
directly from a station the sound is yor ee for the distance of a
mile, is then lost for about the same distance, after es it is
again distinctly heard a long time.” Dr. Tynda say

For a loug time pans I have thought that this Saeisidaassne of
the sound was due to the interference, with the direct waves, 0
waves reflected Bon ale surface of the sea. This explanation 18
capable of very accurate ie asa meh cog Placing, for
instance, a sensitive flame at a distance of three or four feet from
a sounding reed, the flame ceiiibies he usual agitation. Lifting
a light plank between the flame and reed, a position is easily
attained wie the sound, reflected from the plank, increases the
flame’s agitation. Lifting t the plank, cautiously, still higher, 4
level is attained, reflection from which completely stills the flame.

Chemistry and Physies. 471

By sightly raising or lowering the plank, or by its entire removal,
t more agi itated. he fe se aepeniinents a high
“pitched reed was used, so that it asy to b
motion of ae plank the ‘aan of half a ad Mis requisite
for interference.

In General Duane’s case, a fairly smooth sea would be required
for the reflection ; while the position of the zone of ce would
be determined by the height of the signal on the one hand and
the height of the observer on the other above the arises of the
sea. The position would also, me course, pam on the pitch of
the note of the whistle— Pr 8.

da

mn the middle distance no str ly illuminated as well as dark
clouds. In one ease Is aed senarkably w ell, but in another
plate the foreground was goo ut the sun was completely
reversed. The negative image ” was clear glass and the sun

printed black, Wihcs shield have been a noua in the strong
lights became a positive. Again, by exposing a plate to the
cadmium spectrum, che whole of the m etaltic lines were rendered
“gant but with a flatness and want of spit the hares of

ion i t a xcept

comparative exposures, which I have ainaye employed, it would
- impossible to say whether a reversal was due to an absorbed

tay or an oyver-exposed plate. M,. Cornu has sheet all oe
roup of rays in the magnesium spectrum may b
quintuple or sextuple, sonore to the increased iGtenaiey of F ehe
Spark employed. This is precisely what might happen if one
reversal by over-exposure pice followed by a second. Such
reversals might be looked for under the conditions of the
Stronger spark, the exposure of He late were not shortened,
because the first and third of the four lines are stronger than the
other two, and they would therefore be the first an id second to
suffer reversal. The reversal would ve the lines in two, an
hence produce the appearance of a sextuple group. In order to
ascertain whether this might readily occur in the magnesium

oS

472 Scientific Intelligence.

of the lines was caused by a reversal de pe was the result of
absorption of the central soriden of the ray or ra In the two
photographs obtained by the longest siatene es, eupesially3 in the
last, the triplet 6’ between K and L became a qt 1adruple gr oup by
reason of the most refrangible line being split into two by a
reversal, the cause of which was nothing more than over-exposure.
In the quadruple ue previously mentioned the lines were totally
reversed or all. This subject of reversal by vhivesed

aid
spectra. Especially is this duatea bie Se n gelatine or ot ry
plates containing organic matter are in use.—Proc. Ro ae grits
XXXIV,

15. Thermal Conductivity of Minerals and Rocks.—M. Tuouet
has undertaken a series of experiments having as their object
the determination of the thermal > eomneunplen of minerals and
the more important rocks. The investigations have a bearing
upon certain general problems in regard to the genesis of eruptive
rocks, which the author proposes to discuss in subsequent memoirs.
The method employed is in this respect novel, that instead of the
exact measurement of the temperature at the same instant at
points situated at peti ah ee from the source of heat,

renistanee of a aihéeal or rock, the time required ae the passage
of a quantity of heat represented by 34° &. , from a constant source
of 160° C., through a thickness of 0°01"; this thermal resistance
is obviously rehuen proportional to the conductivity ve the sub-
stance in

As a source of heat a sition, bao res of forged iron was
- taken, having a surface of 0°11" 0°77" and 0°55™ in height; its
weight w s 3:8 kilos. A diss isedi erewied into the shee!

of the block. The iron rested upon a plate of cast iron placed on
an iron tripod; a Bunsen burner bi placed below; the whole is
enclosed in a case of wood. It was found possible by suitable
precautions to maintain the iron sleek at any required temperature,
and to keep it constant at this point during a considerable
ashen of experiments. The substance to be aepevinented upon
s in the form of a parallelopiped, the bases perfectly plane and
parallel, with square surfaces of 0-03", and the thicknesses respec
tively of about 015", 010" and -006™ in the three experiments.

Geology and Natural History. 473

Toeliminate the variable effect of the surfaces in contact, the two
ases were covered with tin foil, and the four lateral faces were
painted over with a layer of white lead, so that they should have
the same emissive and absorptive powers. For the fusible ma-

0°, 160°,
noted when each little s al pa melted ; various precautions were

The substances experimented upon were glass, iron, anhydrite,
and the exact weight, surface and Dick itacs of the block taken was |

times, the other of the thicknesses and times. The results show
that the method employed is capable of giving very accurate deter-

minations and those obtained agree very closely with the values
obtained by M. agarde on theoretical considerations.—Ann
Chem. Phys., V, xxvi.

II. GreoLtoecy anp Naturat History.

1. Oscillation of Land in the Glacial period—In the Geo-
logical Magazine for September and October, Mr. T. F. Jamieson
discusses the question of the origin of the changes of level in the
Glacial and eae a era. He sh ows, by reference to facts from
reat Britain and Europe, that they cannot be accounted for b
any pein iicludinig Croll’s, which makes them simply a change
in water-level. e states, in nM daeenee to the view sustained
n

4 submergence of coast da Lise and different for
different localities, acon iake to the height and position of the ice,
—the following facts : that shell-beds near Dublin are 1200 feet

attractive force ;” that there are “shell beds in Wales at 1350 feet,

and no Marvel re petgeg! Sts in the valley of the Thames only
200 miles off; that there are subsidences of land over the
neering of mena that cannot be thus explained. He further

It is at least questionable whether in point of fact they do. The
attraction cal a Meer axhs as Stee ae the oo at various
ac nd that

Am. Jour. eae eed Serres, VoL. XXIV, No. 144.—DzE

474 Scientific Intelligence.

the attraction of the Himalayas ye bs chase itself Se to
obser vation at places quite close to
oe examination of the tables given 1 by Mr. Buchan in the

high masses of land in drawing the ocean toward them has been
greatly overestimated by the authors to whom Dr. Penck appeals.
For these tables certainly lend no countenance to the notion that
the sea-level i is subject to the great inequalities of levels which he
assumes.

Mr. Jamieson adopts the opinion, and argues for it at length,
that the subsidence was due to the weight of the superincumbent
ice, the effect of wish would be slowly produced and slowly and
es only partly recovered from.

Bulletin of the American Museum of Hip History
(Central Park, New York), Vol. I, No. 3. On the Fauna of the
| Lower Ca arboniferous limestones ‘of Spergen it, ects ey
RP. War Pages 39-98, 8vo, and plates 6, 7,
Oct. 20, 1882. othe papers that have thus far appeared in the
Bulletin of the American Museum are all by the paleontologist
useum, Mr. R. P. itfield, and this last is the fifth.

‘@
o~)

species (Trane Bieny Institute, vol. iv), was not illustrated at
figures. Mr. Wh ee, excellent figures, 180 in all, are drawn
from Professor Hall’s type-specimens, now the property of the
useum. Professor Hall concluded from the odlitie structure of
some of the beds, the profusion of gasteropods, and the worn
character of many ‘of the shells, that the water in which the spe-
cies lived at Spergen Hill was very shallow. Some unfavorable
conditions existed, since, a s Mr. Whitfield urges, he shells are
smallest where the in ndividuale are most abundant, ,as Hall
also had stated, many of them grow in other jonatities fe at
Bloomington, in ie same State) to a larger size. The beds
were referred by Hall (and now by Whitfield) to the Warsaw
division of the Bie cinonifacta: although waa mid some spe-
cies of we Keokuk, St. Louis and up limeston
jake hitfield’s paper in No. 2 of the Museum ‘Bulletin, is on
Vance megasomu and “the peraee in form of its offspring
Me ‘oduced by unfavorable conditions of life.”
. American Pulwozoie Fossils, of S. A, Mirier, of Cincin-
— Ohio.— —A second edition of Mr. Miller’s valuable work, the

this Journal, is promised by the author in January. It will con-
tain a Supplem ment of about 90 pages in connection with the orig-
inal work. Its price will be three dollars, me pai

4, A new jossil Pseudoscorpion.—Dr. "i. B Geinitz, of Dres-
den, has described a new Pseudoscorpion of large size, from the

Geology and Natural History. 475

Coal-measures of Zwickau, in po “ Zeitschrift der Deutschen
Geologischen Gesellschaft” for 1 It is named after its dis-
coverer, Professor Kreischer, Moolachiet Wiedei. <A fine plate
accompanies the memoir
eozoie Cockroaches. —Descriptions and figures of Fito-
< ooh ried var. Stelzneri, EF. ? carbonaria and Oryctoblat-
Dr. J.

tina oblonga, by . Dei chmiiller, are contained in Isis
*) of 1882, They are from Weissig, near wes IInitz
6. ta ~ sop of pateaahinte in boca! aK G. Cur.

Indication of crystalline ja pee a hinctalins shining.

Columbie acid ae
Tantalie acid Peas Th Rie yea 2 ene ORAS
unpatie sere he eee pre)

Stannic men ee ee ae

Tetrinht oxtdepiti0 2 oe ek 14°34
Cerium oxidest__.. ES ee
Pahinui Oxide (UUs) 22237) ors ees 10°75
Maipanods oxide oS oe ae ‘51
Ferrous o Wt eB See A) A. See
rie te Be Oe ee ee 5°38
Miapwenta) OC Oo ere ae so
OUARH 25 eae ae 39
a. ae A "2a
Widdrindg! 62 SO Se trace
Water). (oS 208 ea a 2°24
99°04

Ing with sulphuric acid, ds Fgh exclusion of alls . decolorized
’n amount of potassium permanganate corresponding to 4°79 per

cent ferrous oxide. e water was expe ed by ignition and col-

ineralogical Notes by A, Wei ay —Weisbach describes
eee of apatite from Ehrenfriedersdorf, which besides the pyra-
‘Mid } show also another pyramid approximatel determi as
7y-$; the terminal angle measured 179° 18’. e same author
Shows that the supposed new mineral lautite of oe aie 155)
* Apparently for the greater part, if not almost entirely, columbie aci
+ The presence or absence of other members of this group was not atest Fed

476 Scientific Intelligence.

is a mixture of metallic arsenic with a sulpho-arsenite of copper
probably near tennantite. According to an analysis by Iwaya
the mineral winklerite (Breithaupt) has the composition sino!
deducting pak ee amounting to50 per cent) NiO 25-2,
CoO 46°2,0 8° ° H,O 20-6; the calculated formula is R,O,+2H,O
or Co,Ni 0,+ 0.

A lem ore uranium ochre from Johanngeorgenstadt ana-
lyzed by arses is called wranopilite by Weisbach, and the form-
ula CaU,, Si, O,, +25 H,O given for it. The impurity of the material
examined makes the composition doubtfu . Min., ii, 1882.

8. Rezbanyite, a supposed new mineral. oe. ZEL {on given the
named rezbanyite (previously used by Hermann in another sense)
for a new sulpho-bismuthite of lead, identified at Rezbanya, Hun-
gary. It is a light lead-gray mineral of metallic luster and black
streak. Hardness 2°5-3, specific gravity 6-09-6°38. After deduct-
ing 4°64 per cent chaleopyrite, 5 per cent calcite, an analysis gave
S 17°85, Bi 59-08, Pb 19°80, Ag 1:89, Cu 1°71, Zn tr. =100°33.
For this the formula 4 PbS+5 Bi 25, is calculated. Other analyses.
give eaagerresngrinie similar results, t the variation is so great

that the composition must be ponents still doubtful. The

sisanaly: epee for danburite, viz., on the oe in ennasces,
Switzerland. It is described by C. Hintze as occurrin g in trans-

arent crystals in habit resembling topaz, like that from Russell,
N. Se tT e measured angles are almost identical with those
obtained on the American mineral; the observed planes are also

of the crystals differ from those of Russell in 1 habit. In optical
relations the crystals of the two localities are nearly the same.

It is suggested that the undetermined mineral called hessenbergite
Syst. Min., 5th ed., p. fae may perhaps be identical with

10. Wurtzite from Mites: —Mr. Ricnarp Pearce has re-
cently discovered the rare mineral wurtzite at the “ Original
Butte Mine, > Butte, Montana, It occurs in small erystals of the

his health gave way, in Under the circumstances, it could
hardly be expected to . Sreuune wholly up to date, nor that the

4
iy
4

Geology and Natural History. 477

additions should always be as critically correct as some of them
are curious. But the volume is full of valuable infor anage

G.
12, Description Ke new Cephalopoda ; by T. he Kenn. 8vo,
. 4,2 plates. Trans. New Zealand Inst., vol. —The
species described are jdevtols Pacifica, Avohitenthi Perv yea
Steenstrupia Stockii, all trom New Zea 0
figured. ey are vigantic species closely Lorine ny the New:
foundland forms of Architeuthis, ‘The A, Verrilli had a very
stout body and small caudal fin; length of head and body,
9 feet 1 inch; of body, 74 feet; third pair sessile arms, 10 feet
5 inches; ot ther arms, 9 feet; “circumference of body, 9 feet 2
inches; tentacular arms, 25 feet, or about three times the length
of the bod . It was cast ashore, June 6, 1880. It seems to be a
ong Architeuthis, The “ Steenstrupia” is a longer and more slen-
der species, with the arms relativel ee heeragd and shorter.
Length of head and body, !1 feet 1 inch; of body, 9 feet 2 inches ;
sessile arms, 4 feet 3 inches; circu fiiones ot body, 7 feet 2
inches. The tentacular arms had lost their clubs. The shell der
lanceolote, 11 inches broad, with a small terminal hood; beak a
in Architeu this. There are no characters given sufficient to ac
rate this species from Architeuthis, to which I should refer it with-

out much hesitation, though the tentacular clubs, if known, might

show some di es. At any rate, the name, Steenstrupia, can-
not be retained, for it was given to a genus of Acalephs many
years ago. In proportions, A. Stockii bears more

form
meeeitibinnes to the small Evie b: Ommastrephes and Loligo than
do the other large species hitherto discovered. The existence of
two species of the colossal squids at New Zealand is a disco shee
of great interest.
13, New ete spiders a ates y einer tt by 5 i.

Emerton. 8y Ped Be with 24 ] Acad.
Sci., vol. vi, O ee ae this. ater very little agree
work has been published on our spiders, since the early paper
of Hentz. T tr monograph, now published r
Emerton, marks, ore, an era in the literature of this subject.
In it 134 species are eseribin d and well figured. these a large

number pnvara) are new. Five new genera are also estab-
lished. The plates are excellent, and are crowded with figures

of structural details, drawn by the author himself, bebe is well-

known as a zoological ae and reproduced in fac-simile by side
pares photo-lithogra
4. A Monograph - ‘he British Spongiada, vol. iv; by ‘be
. B

a J.S. Bowrersank, edited, with additions, by the Rev. A. M.
Norman. 8vo, pp. 267, 17 plates. Ray Society, pee aa
This final volume contain ption many recently dis-
covered species; additional information abo any previously
known; a classified list of British species; t dis-
nities a Nese ogue of works and papers on Sponges; with a
memoir of Dr. Bowerbank by C. Tyler. The volume is, este

478 Scientific Intelligence.’

15. Lehrbuch ae vergleichenden Anatomie der Wirbelthiere,;
by Rosperr Wiepersurm., ler. Theil. Gustav Fischer, Jena, 1882.

cal text books.
16. Synopsis of the ( lassification of the Animal Kingdom ; ae
Henry ALLEYNE NIcHOLsoNn. 8Vvo, pp. 131, cuts 106. (W. Black-
wood & Sons.) panne and London , 1882. —In this work a
systematic arrangement of the names of ‘the higher divisions are
given, including the principal families in most of the groups. oO
characters or definitions are given, except brief ones for the sub-
kingdoms. A list of a few of the principal works on each cr
is added. The figures are, for the most part, good, and a
are original, Very few working zoologists will be able to accept
this classification, as a whole, but it will prove a useful to
man several groups (e. g. the Canines and the birds), the
classitation adopted is deeidedly antiquated.
e Vertebrates of the Fats idites Region; by C. H. es
a Chapters 1 and 2, pp. 1 to 106. (Trans, Linnean Soc., New
York. October, 1882. \—This ne includes a general introduction,
in which an account of the topography, climate, botany and other
eatures are given. The remainder of the work is devoted to the
carnivorous mammals. The author has brought together a large
amount of useful information concerning the zoological characters
and habits of the yelp discussed, and has presented his _
in a very readable m
18. The Coues Cheek List © ae American Birds ; oF
Exuior Cours. Second ees. large 8vo, pp. 105. stes &
Lauriat, Boston, 1882. — ccordin ng to ie title page, this edi-
tion has been “: revised to ues and entirely rewritten, under the
direction of the author, with a dictionary pet she etymology, orthog-
see fe and ere of the scientific names, the ¢ mnperaeee of

ten of those then cake ed are now heawt out. The work is wel
eo eri on ee dies id aud will undoubtedly prove of great | use

tace

lian Pet br pa ee 1882.—This useful work contains donevite

tions of al the genera and species known from Australia. The
introductory chapter is devoted to an account of the sore

i csaekens of the Malacostraca. v.

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 479

naa MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

1. The Gulf Hai ni ae the investigations of the Steamer
Brake; by Comman . R. Barrett, U.S.N., Assistant in
the Coast and Geodetic Survey. (Bulletin No. 2, of the Ameri-
can Geographical Society).-The very important results brought
out in this paper were obtained in connection with the explora-
tions of the Gulf Stream in the Coast Survey Steamer “ Blake,’
and are published by permission of the Superintendent of the
Coast Survey. The following are the chief points:

(a) Soundings over the area. On a line from little Bahama
Bank, at Memor y Rock, in 4 fathoms, to Florida, a distance of 48

follows: 294, 347, 395, 439, 416, 341, 250, 176, 95, 31 fathoms.
Other lines of soundings were made to the Nera s far as Cur-
rituck, N. C., 85 miles north of ape Hatteras ; a it is stated
that « wheteee Tines arossed. exactly the same Ww
tained to a fathom.” These lines were thirteen in number, and
the stelle respecting them are given in a table affixed to the
memo

ith reference to the general results, the author remarks: ‘“‘ The
work of the season gives very interesting data in regard to the
ss features of the bottom of the ocean over which the Sak

off on its eastern edge t to over 2 ,000 fathom ms.”

“The soundings in the full strength of the current were all
taken with the 60-pound shot sinkers, each being detached on
reaching bottom. The time allowed for the sinker to reach the
bottom was less than one minute to each one pee? aula in
depth. Most of the soundings on each side of the , when
not in the current, were taken with a fel gees lead o on ie sound-
ing wire, the lead ‘being reeled back each tim

tf b) Velocity ¢ of sf current between Wiese) yf “Rock and Florida.

Section is 429,526,240 square feet; and, assuming the mean

480 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

velocity at 3 miles, the delivery would be 51,028,905,312,000
gallons per hour.” “To the northward of the Bahama Banks,
and to the eastward of the stream, there was a slight current set-
ting southeast. We found the direction of the current in the
stream very much affected by the wind, sometimes inclining it to
the east, then to the west.

6c hh

the 100-fathom curve, setting southwest. When our trawl was
dragging on the bottom the vessel headed northeast, and drifted
over two miles an hour southwest. I found this southwest current
off Charleston, and between Charleston and Cape Fear every time
last summer that I crossed the stream, but I did not find it at any
other point.

“A very striking example of the influence of the wind on the
current was experienced by us off Cape Lookout. We were in
mid-stream, with the current setting well to the northward, when
a fresh gale came on from the N.W. The current was turned
almost due east, and for twelve and a half hours we had a cur-
rent of 4:9 knots per hour E.by N. The vessel was heading
west all this time, under full steam and foresail.

* At such points where we anchored off the coast in from 20 to
60 fathoms, the current cans gave a set to the northward of about
1°7 knots. Near the coast the set of the current depends entirely
on the direction of the wind.”

rock, This bare portion was very hard, and the sharp edge of
the brass cylinder came up indented and defaced. From Jupiter

the whole width of the stream. The Pteropod ooze extended
only to Charleston. To the northward of that point the bottom
cimens were Globigerina ooze, of a dark greenish color. _
“In the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico the bottom is al-
ways Pteropod ooze. These Pteropods are brought along by the
Gulf Stream. Sir Wyville Thomson reported most of the North-
ern Atlantic bed to be Globigerina ooze, and as far as off the
George’s Banks the Blake always found this latter. The fact of
finding this ooze off Hatteras, and its gradual diminution, and at
last its total absence to the southward, would tend to show the

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 481

limit of the Arctic current. Tke Globigerina were not found
anywhere on the plateau to the southward of Charleston. The
Gulf Stream has for its western bank the 100-fathom curve. It
has a depth of 400 fathoms as far as Charleston, where it is re-

)
Seem to me to throw very important light on the circulation.

does not extend along our coast below Hatteras; but at this point
the Arctic current, with its colder and heavier waters, in follow-
Ing its bank the 1,600-fathom curve meets the Gulf Stream and
goes under it, following the outside of the plateau toward the
equator. In addition, the few temperatures that were obtained
at the bottom confirm the same fact.”

Sea-temperatures.—At the anchorage near Memory Rock
the surface and bottom temperature was 78° F. On th

-3 It rose to 83° over the middle of the stream, and fell to 80°
for the last 18 miles. The bottom temperatures, corresponding
: flea ¢

Stream into warm and cold bands (as announced in the Report
on the Gulf Stream published by Professor Bache in 1861), the
temperature at surface was taken at every mile on all the lines,
and also at five fathoms beneath it. On this point Commander
Bartlett says:

any bifurcation of the stream before reaching Cape Hatteras,
At this point I ran out only a few lines, but there were indica-
tions of warm and cold bands.” As to the average surface tem-
perature of the stream he states that along the axis it rarely ex-
ceeded 83° F. in June and July. On one or two occasions at
noon in a calm, the thermometer read as high as 86°, and once,

89°; but, at five fathoms, it did not range above the average of
> 813°,

.

of the ‘Ohallenser > Reports I have only received one paper, and
that, too, from a foreign author, viz: Professor Dr. F. E. Schulze,
of Gratz, who kindly sent me one of the ‘extra copies’ of his con-
tribution on Hupectella aspergillum, although at my own cost
and labor I had long since published descriptions and illustrations

482 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

of all the sponges i on board H.MLS. ‘ Porcupine’ from the
Atlantic sea-bed in

Captain C, E. ihe tl cast 8 Report on the Tertiary History of
the Grand Cation District, oy eaee on page 81, is now ready for
distribution by the Director of the U. 8. Geological Survey. Price
$10.50. The statute catablishing the Survey requires the Jouve,
of 3000 copies of its Memoirs, aa the distribution of them only
by payment of cash, or by exchan A new statute, placing 200
copies of each out of the 3,000 in aie hands of its author for.
grat ieee distribution, would be greatly for the good of American

4, Nacional Academy of Sciences.—At the meeting of the
Academy, held in ei. York City in November, the following
titles of papers were entered for eters:

Exias Loomis: Mean annual rain-fal

Tra armies On white cpamictetion ‘Effect of magnetism on chemical action ;
On sinapic acid.

J. WILLA me ) Gipps: On the general equations of optics, as derived from the
electro-magnetic theory of light.

GEOR On an improved syne “a standard Daniell cell.

Wotcotr GIBBs: ne complex inorganic a

CHarLes A. YouxG: On a modified form Not ‘solar eye-piece for use with large
apertures; On the total solar eclipse of Ma,

SAMUEL ER: On Triassic (?) nts oo the Rocky Mounta

©. H. F. Perers: Explanations on presenting a copy of the first ten aiiers
of the author’s celestial igh te sts of errors in star catalogues; Remar

O. N. Roop: On a method of pet ng the laws of contrast quantitatively

BECKER (by invitation): On the heat of the Comstock lode ; Topograpb-

ical effects of faults and landslides
C. F, CHANDLER: Preparation of eyanin from chinoli ote
apt Gitu: On the place of the or ieee in the sy:
Ou the neues in both h ‘patie by a ceae dry zone.
tT. Srerry Hunt: On so-called eru nies serpen
a spherometer for ealvetadte ‘the radii of curvature of

R: On
lenses of any Pep bh ; On a graphical method of representing the errors of a
ig On a simple experi rimental papegroisens of Ohm’s law.
KE. D. one: Ox the fauna of the Puerco Eocene; Da the Permian genus.
a BENE 1s.

S. Newserry: On the physical conditions under which coal was formed ;.
on the sido ges = re carbonaceous matter
E. VE : Physical and FS ecla character of the sea bottom off our
casi. sapetially pili the Gulf
xe ©. PICKERING: Codperation in sobewsind variable stars; The meridian pho-

ry W. Wnigar: On a form of kathetometer and comparat
microscopic structure of some of ‘ha Brachiopoda with

reference = bahia generic Felatio ns
8. : On the logic of relatives On the nb a of the figure of
sta

eat earth Sci raratons of gravity ; Ptolemy’s catalogue o
. ©. MarsH: On the supposed "lela foot-prints recently soo in Nevada.
OBITUARY,

Dr. Henry Draper, the eminent experimental physicist, Profes
sor of Chemistry in the University of New York, died on the 2 26th
of November, at the age of forty-five. A biographical notice of
Dr. Draper i de ie rred to another number.

:
i

INDEX TO VOLUME XXIV.*

Abbott, H. L., Report oe Pgacuas for th
Defense of ree ie

Aca cademy, Conne cticut, cae: , 159, 477.
Natio wee i rk m meeting, "482,
St. Loui Botanica of, 319.

143.

Acid, byponitron
lorie, 301,
grin i ea 466
vee err. Young Stages of Osseous
5,
Air-thermome

8.
oe wire cow diate coti 72.
_ Ash of PS A
Associati via ty Americ 1, 157
Brit os real ese a
ritis sontben ton meetin ng, 310.
Australia, supposed subterranean drain-
age of, 295.

B
Baird, 8. F., Report of U.S. Fish Com-
Mission, 3
ll, » Geology of India
Bark ker, G iis spemnen! Sree 56,
14], 225, 387, 4
Barom etric ais ase new method
for, Gilbert, 404.
FF leas at high stations, Hazen,

Daa, a W., cross-breeding of Indian

Berthelot perchloric acid, 391,

Berthollet’s law, proofs of, 464

Bismuth, diamapaonien of, 392.

Bleaching aig | constitution of, 465.
to of Natural History, Me-
moirs of, "035

Bora

Conifers, female flowers of, 233.
othrix infect:

ca, Gray, 3
an Corn, er oaetroting Beal,

* This Ind 4

as

Botany—
Saprolegnia of salmon disease, 74.
Seeds, vitality of, 297.
stilaginese, Woronin, es
ee further under GEO
Bowerbank, J.S., British meta SE ne
sans the Littrow form of s

Brick 8, geo nang

Briosi, G., on an i “a some vegetable
embryos, noticed,

Bromine, roar es of, 142.

C
U, R. £., of Des Moines, 202.
Capiliari¢y ee sash floating bodies, Le-

‘onte, 416
Carbon, atomic vice of, 225
resis nder pressure, Men-
on, 433.
arbon-dioxide of atmosphere. 387, 468.

» 46
rrela tion of ter-

of steel and iro
Ts recent —s in. i
Chlorine peroxi r density of, 390.
a romium, deurciobin: of,
oda ‘M, ci cirriped from the Devon-

nal m
Cheesman, Le Ee va * afte et of sr Nar on
magne

Pio ee Flore = la Gironde, 72.
Clay, Mil aukee, 1
Clevela
noti
Climate avd ‘centricity of earth’s orbit,
Haugh
Clock-beats, arrangement for transmit-
her, 5

64 on Tree Culture,

., Life in Oia i

Colors n decreasi ng light,

* pees £

, GEOLOGY MINERALOGY, OBITUARY, ZOOL
, ’ :
+ + +44 a

OGY: and nna Wa laa

484

Comet I, 1882, photog. spectrum of, 402.

Copper sulphate, basic, 389.
or wall, - B,, Manual of Blowpipe
Analysis, 400.
Coues, E.. Check List of Birds, 478.
Cross, W., staal of Table Mountain,

so aan ew

om Pike’s Fagor 281.

Oey aatiseatinn. -experiments, 46 64,

D
sy nas = Alaska cree ih i pn 67.
on cn xander

cota x es
Dana, J. D. ton 8 gs of the
rai Canton

the Cobasetcnt River from

melting Of glacier, 98.
the sh 8s of. California, 152.

stan Ie ae 291.
southward discharge of Lake Win-

ipeg,
Darwin memorial fund, 159, 239
Daru stresses in the earth
from the ‘weight of continents, 256.
is, W. M., est pti of Connecti-
ces and Ne ie Jers

wson,
Derby, O. A: the diamond in Brazil, 34,
Diamond, see Gro

Diffraction prastega, 6
Dixon, A., the ash of epiphytes 2
Dunnington, P. P., minerals from Price
C ed Virginia, ars

C. E., tiary history of the
Grand ja ph $1, 482.

E
Earth, stresses in, Darwin
temperature of the ‘hemispheres,
Ferr
$aith oon ‘system, evolution of, Haugh-
ton, 335.
Eaton, D. C., botanical notice, 156.
Eclipse of 1882, 6
Edison’s tasimeter Me ndenhall,
Bettie Bel ag absorption of, by oe at-
mos e, 287.

side pe by, Stevens, 241.
Electrical tension of mercury, 61.

units, 6
eee seeds taht 145

the equivalence: of a chemical

am, 286.
+ caegas of, 310.
effect, Trowbridge and
ae —— “379.

INDEX.

Emerson, B. K., the hoary dyke and
its Th oeaik 195,
Emerton, J eee Bnglend Theridi-
AT
Emm SY 26 Seg and Mining
ensine fi of Leadville,
pe mde G., female nda of Conif-

ee in North America, 72.
Engler, A. Bniekeluogegeschichte der
Paanaaay
Etheridge, R.. ‘Address before the Geo-
logical Society, 230.

Farlow, W. G., botanical notice, 73.

Ferrel, W., relative — of the

eres, 89.

ee noticed, 407.
t, 320.

eco electricity of, 1 re
Floa Pog ya S, attractions and repul-
ep , Le Von 16.
Fog-signals soma zones near, 4
at A., structure and poral et
nie dee
Scarh see GEOLO
Fraz WS Cialis near Bethlehem,
Peake: neat

G
Gardiner, 2 = — of New York

State Sur
Gas, inentrope ‘curve of, Nipher, 138.
ases, mle tus for liquefying, 143.
diffus of, 3

och re “Beclogieal Sketches, 153.
enth, F. ‘A. contributions to mineral-
er gy, 398.

Geological Record for 1878, 408.

Gr

EOLOGICAL REPORTS AND SURVEYS—
azil, 153.

Nort Ries Tacit Railroad, 239.
Territories,

United ecole Yoh 81,129, ote 404,482.
West of 100 oth meridian, 1

Genleguss Society, Ameri “i 69.

GEOLOGY
Alaska, 1 Tertiary of, Dall, 6
Ammon ~ oC hots Tejon ou of
Californ
Antheoite | in hon. Mexico, 399.
Bituminous matter in Ohio shales,
I

Cirriped, n ew Devonian, Clarke, 55.
Climate eeuien er Haughton,436.
es, palzeozo

Cockroac
Colorado Cafion, Tertiary of, Dutton,8 i,

INDEX. -

GEOLoGY—
Connecticut Maid glacial flood of,

Deerfiel Se 2 be 270, 349.
soporte in brent Der

Erian flora of the % ae ead Daw-
Gou

son,
Feroe Islands, 1

Fossils i = meta rphic rocks, 1]
of th se Gee and any ae
ages oot of Con alley, Dana, 98.

aines, ‘terminal, Chamberlain,
" period, oscillation of land in the,
Glaciers, structure and movement of,

Mhiets structure,
arin scheria, a Nite cesciacilies

Lake basins, ep mtie 2p hee
Lake. Ontario, terra
ec en.

of, D nics aa
Leadville, mines of, Emmons, 64.
Lignitic, age of the, 1

a —s APs
of Can:

Limestone, cae of Indiana, 293.

meee ge

Gilbert, G. K., jointed structure, 50.

Meteorologica Argentina, 301.

Resultados nt Observatorio Na-
cional Argentin
ay, lora 0: °'N orth America, 321.

Contributions to rth American

al fag 8.
Charles Dar
_ otal sae a “4 156, 296, 400,

Galt cise. investigations of, 447, 479.

Hall, J., Fauna of the Niagara of Cen-

tral Indi ana, 2
Corals of the Ni jagara and Upper

ee 295.
Har

Nis reversal of the metallic
471.

ea
tines i in photographs of spectra,
Haswell, W. A

., Catalogue of Australian
rctehieds tacea, 478,
‘aughton, S., evolution of the earth-

gh
moon system,
inflne

of Des Moines, McGee, 202. nce of eccentricity of the
n, anti of, Dawkins, 314. earth’s orbit on pointy 436.
Marsupials, new fossil, Cope, 295. ts dg n, F. V., Bulletin of Survey, 401
astodon New Jersey, 294. af , barometric pressure at
Myriapods, fo - beg tes 161 ae stations, 105.
New England coast, Verrill, 447. Hearing, binaural, 144.
ew a piece and fossils Heat, propagation of in rock, 154, 472.
as Niet nm, A., Tertiary deposits of the

Atlantic slope, 2 8
nummulitic deposits in Florida, 294.

Oil, origin ine ; affmann, Canada Samar; , 275.
hoecynodon, Scott and Osborn, 223 fidden, W. E., N.C fen minerals, 372.
a, affini Scudder, 161, | Hillebrand, W. F., m na of Table
Plumulites Devonieus, Clarke, 55. Mountain, Color; an
ocks, nomenclature of crystalline, minerals from Pike’ af k, 28],
Jackson, tack itcheock, R., Synopsis Ng the Fresh-

water Rhizopods , ABT:

al conductivity of, Sa Mey
of the olden, E. S., nucleus of comet of 1882;

therm
Raisdatone. sands
You

Schists, ts, propagation of heat in, 154. Nebula of baie 302,
“anne Scotica, Whiteaves, 278.| Hough, F American Journal of
Hill limestones, Whitfield, Fore

Elements of hades stry, 4

Stresses within the op Darwin. 256, | Houzeau, Ke c, Bibogephie générale

ees: system meee < ma, 291. de l’Astronomie, 7
sg lesa Spencer, Hovey, H. C., belebrated American
ae Caverns 8,

y (e & @ the salmon disease, 74,

of East’n C ticut, Koons, 425. | Hual:
Tertiary of Alaska, Dail, bl

the Atlantic slope, 2
—— ogee As of cine soso and New | Jgles

I
Swedish gid 232.
Jersey, 3 ee 6
Win gotten Le Conte, 23.

om, L. L,
edopheral and solid viol
Iron ore of Mexico, Silliman, 375.

486 INDEX.

eteorites, supposed organisms in, 71.
orology, contribution

M
pric 8 to, Loomis
4 = ir thermometer, 92.

Jackson, A. W., art age ca of massive
cr ystalline 1 rocks, helson, A.

J — change ie level i in the Glacial Miorophone, the,

Miller, 8. og shane Paleozoic Fos-

Tanne, propagation of heat in schis- wil a4
I

Jones, ie E * "Catalogue of Foraminifera,

K
gia h J. H., origin of jointed struc-

Kin he 'g., Production of mo a
ae in ue United Stat
k. i Conkelnaones yr Ts
Kaight's New Mechanica peigergen i ie
Koo h terraces of East
beecotions FP.

L
ey, S. ee ie eae and skylight at

e, Joh tractions re) repulsions
of sal floa wheel bodies, 4
Le Conte, Joseph, Sete B28 vein-for-
mation, 23,
nhard, A v., Mineralogy of Mis-
souri, 71.
. W. G., the spectro-polariscope
in sugar analysis, 469,
Lewis, H. C., helvite from Virginia, 155.
Light’ and electricity, 1
ee also Po wrod

recent Oe as in
chemistr try, 312.

Loomis, E., ooRAUd to meteor-
ology, 1

M
sc reps pole, electrostatic: dimensions

of,
Magneto of “sh Psat) of hardening
, Cheesman
Man, BAe ae Deis 314.
itish . of, 317.
of Des Moines, 202.
43.

= vapor tension of, 144, 287, 392.
oy Mens rriam, ©. H., Vertebra rates of the Adi-
— rondack Re. egion,

‘lit
(xi rent 350, obs. 439,

PESSSSSSSSPPEPE EEE EE
=ie) ce S a

lite, Emer. 355.
alcite, 183, 349, "302, 354,
ot hee 356, 35
hal Emers
hlrophait, Emerson, 276.
obaltomenite, 71

arstdo Emerson, 351.

nite, Emerson, 3 351.
raha
elvite, 15D.
ematite, son, 355.

Eimer.
eulandite Emerson, 357.
etre
i eee son, 3
varobiaeke, 70.
aolin, Bere 349, 357

me ort, 70.
: Pe

ari, "Siiman S16

oyadmen nt Rae S

te, te, Emerson, : 358, 356.
regon, 155.

*henacite, 282.

son, 350, 355.

_ MINERALS—

Prehnite, Emerson, 270, 354.
Brotochlorite, ga
-Pyri bea erson, ota
Qua i teaaeadn
grat ns in sscsdaeetie Young, 47.
476.

Selenite, y nee 351, 354.
Silica,
artificial forms of, 230.

Siliciophite,
Sphalerite, Emerson, 350.
tent oe son, , 355.
Spinel,
Stilbite, ‘ners 356, 357.
ag

, 282,
ane Emerson, 355.
le ~~ ninite, Hidden, 37 vA

nopilite, 476.
Uranotalt, 70.

155:

Zircon, 284,
Zoisite, 398,

N
Newberr Origin and Relations
of the Vitae: Minerals, 232.
seine South ay Journal of Royal
ocie

ety of, 3
Nicholson, H mes Pray rpiecs: of the

a 155.
wher, F. E., rrangement for trans-
mitting ‘dock beate
isentropic curve for perfect as, 138.
Nitrogen sulphide, 57. r

0
OzituaRY—

Balfour, M. F.,
Darwin, Charles, 453
Desor, ge iia 240
Draper, H mry, 482.
Hawes, G. Ww, — 159,
Hayes, A. A.,
Liouville, J., 520.
Marsh. Geo.
Plantamour, E., 320

gers, W. B.,

Warren, Gen.

eae G.K
se Sree tory, escant College, Annals

a fs 8. Nayal, observations for 1878,
Washburn, publications of, 403.

INDEX.

487

_ Pierre Stevens, ir 331,
us matter in Ohio
“blacks shales
Osbor F, Orthocynodon from the

sien Arion Gate of, 56.
liquefaction of, 57.

Peir Sy C. S., oscillation of pendulums,
Penfi, S. Z., composition of monazite,

Baas irregularities of the, 175, 254.
Penrose, C. B, the Thomson effect, 3 379.
Polarization, rotatory,

etic and

of a
Publications, distribution of government,
481.

mi

Rain areas, Loomis,
pag tata a ., Native ‘roe of the Lower

pe he 8 2B metalliferous vein-forma-
tion,

Scheberle, J. M., method for observing
oil transits, 401.
it, W. B., Orthocynodon from the
Tecoone 223,
Scudder, “s H., types of ancient myria-
pods.
Nomenclator Zoologicus, 157.
tomy of Diurnal Litionees.

haae Moree | of, 290.
Selwyn, Ss Geological Survey of
vn

a pendulum study, 175.

Siem nue "0. Wr. promi address, 310.

oe Service, professional papers of,
8, 407.

Silica, cr oe of, 230, 290.
poset sulphides
iman, B., iron o Bot Mexico, 375.
Smith, J Dictionary of Popular Names
of Plants, 4
Smith, a a ecagoda of the Blake Ex-
pedition, 235.
Smithsonian Institution, Report, 78.

Peay
S
5
=

in sugar an cae

488

_ Spectroscope. na Pr asi form of, 60.

Spectrum cae wee
of pernitric gent
solar, at ‘igh attnes, 393.

Spencer, J. and beaches
about Lake Gataria io. ‘0,

Steel, hardening of,
tevens, W. L.., EE optics, 241,
331.

Stevenson, J. J., Geological Examina-
tions in Colorado and N. Me exico, 149.

Sugar analysis, the spectro-polariscope
in, 4

Sun, structur re 0

Sunlight, at high cra 393.

Ye

Tasimeter, Edison’s, 43, 433.
Telegraphy without a cable, 3
Temperature, begin e, of oe hemi-
spheres, Ferrel,
Thermometers, ner ae of, 63.
a on calibrating thermometers, 63.
ompson, S. P., resistance of carbon,

Thomson effect, see Electricity.
Thomson, J., New Family of Rugose

rsa i 400.
son, W., on thet ae 316,
Tides, in the sea and the earth, 316.
Tietjen, vei i Siiates Jahn nl 235.

Trowbrid
286, 392,
the Sate effect, 3
omg G., denn ee So Minera-

é, J., physical aca 61, 144,

nye ra on fog-signals, 470.

eene gras; L. M., Our Native Ferns
their Als, 156.
Calta, electrica

Urea, frenaformation. 2 60, 227.

INDEX.

Vy
Vein-formation, biobalistabous EoGmtx

Venue. transit of, 2
Verr il, A. om eee — of the outer
banks, 3 44%,
logical vtiaoap ATT.
vau. see Opt:

WwW
Warming, E., Familien Podostemacex,
0

Watson, 8., Contributions to American
sie ny, 2 “ae
eisbach, A., eralogical notes, 475.
vice C. _e “Carboniferous Invertebrate
ossils of New Mexico, 149.
biti S agg F, Siphonotret Scotica in
h a formation, 2
Hete sabe from the Strait
of Juan - Fuea, 2
Whitfield, R. P., Lower Carboniferous
limestones of Spergen Hill, 474
im, R., Anatomie der Wirbel-

Woronin, Beira zur Kentniss der Usti-
lagineen,

Wright. G. F, Studies in Science and
Religion, 7 77.

Young, A. A., crystalline forms in the
sands of the Potsdam sandstone, 47.

Zz
Zoo.
Cophaitopeda of New Zealand, 477.
Fauna of the outer banks, Verrill, 360,
447,

Heteropora, recent, Whiteaves, 279.
Invertebrates, geen Verrill, 360,447.
Salmon disease,

Spiders, New "Kagland, Emerton, 477.
Sponges, British, 4
See further under GroLoey.

ERRATA.

Page 239, line 15, for Hazen read Hagen.

Page
Northam

The itiodes of the ephemeris
page 301 is Greenwich Mean Time.
the

Ne Sth line from foot, for Amherst College read Smith College,

of the Comet of September, 1882, given on
The sah pee of the Comet at the time of
observation of Sept. 19°1 was assumed as its unit.

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