b 8 ok an % — AME RICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, EDITORS JAMES D. ann E. S. DANA, anv B.. SILLIMAN. ASSOCIATE EDITORS Proressors ASA GRAY, JOSIAH P. COOKE, anp JOHN TROWBRIDGE, or Campriner, Prorgssors H. A. NEWTON anp A. E, VERRILL, or New Haven, Proressor GEORGE F, BARKER, or Putiapetpata. THIRD SERIES, VOL. XXVI.—[WHOLE NUMBER, CXXVI.] Nos. 151--156. JULY TO DECEMBER, 1883. WITH FOUR PLATES. NEW HAVEN, CONN.: J. D. & E. 8. DANA. 1883. MIS90UR! BOTANICAL GARDEN LIBRARY bitte BS ee be CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXVI. NUMBER CLL. P. Art. I—Genesis of Metalliferous Veins ; by Jos. LeConrx, 1 i —Evolution of the American Trotting Horse; by F. E. HER, “TH —Baming of Lignite in situ; by C. A. War 24 IV.—Par morphic Origin of the Havibiende of ‘the Crystal- line Hooks of the Northwestern States ; ; by R. D. Invine, 27 V.—The ee and Waterville Meteorites ; by M. E. W ADSWORT SA is cay uk ee aes eee ee 32 VI. + Sige method of correcting the weight of a body | for the Buoyancy of the ewer out. when the Volume is unknown; by J. P. Cooxx,...-...- 8 VIL.—Recent investigations paged ee the Southern bound- ary of the Glaciated Area of Ohio; by G. F. Wrieut,. 44 ss Pid aca of the Specitic Heat of Water; by G,. A. ’ SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics. —Variability of the Law of Definite LS ons, Bour- LEROW, 63.—Platinized Magnesium as a Reducing Agent, Bano: ‘New Syn- LeGier: Curved te gratings, R. T. Guazeprook: Regeneratiye theory of Solar action, E. H. Cook, 67. hase of Pressure on age setting b oy #4 of ice: ectro-technische Bibliothek, 6 2,—Dinosaurian of the Laramie or Lignitic Group: typ anc Historical and Geological Society: Sapphire from gene @. F. Kunz, 75.—Exp note ying oti ing “ eng — W. Cross: Minerals of New South Wales, A 76. Botany and i. Mbonogripiia Festucarum Europzea’ - BE. HacKeEu: Atlas — de la Flora des Environs de Pari Sa eetaconne St. PrerRe: Com- : pale : notations, F. v fa uoeame 4a —Dredgings of the Steamer “ Blake,” 7S. merican Journal of Science and Arts > Note ee leis athe alleged Earthquake of Sept. 7, at Caraccas, A. ERNST, 79.—Royal Society ec hance sles + meee at i Sie saci ot Hane a iv CONTENTS. NUMBER CLI. Page Arr, [X.—Principal Characters of American Jurassic Dino- saurs. Part VI: Restoration of Brontosaurus, (with plate 1); by O. ©. Mansa,.... = 4. ‘ X.—Evolution of the American “'Trotting-Horse ; by < sie MSS hie ath ee we a oaks a og eta Ws ey ee eee 86 XII. — Glacial Markings of Unusual Forms in the Laurentian Suis ¢ 0 ae. A OREWE, (oo ooo et oe XIII. Response to the Remarks of Messrs, Wachsmuth and pringer on _ iy a Glyptocrinus and Reteocrinus ; ee, te eee PMR a us XIV.—Present Status of the Eccentricity Theory of mere Remo s DY WN. ds eee oes oe ese XV —Commingling of ancient Faunal and modern Fioval s in the Laramie Group; by C. A. Waurrr,----- -- 1 Nine on — cet Plants from Northern China ; eet atid-J. BT eomeeins ooo sees oss ae - 128 XVIII.—Supposed Human Pocepents recently found in Nevada; by O. C. Marsu, 139 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics Contributions from the Chemical paring sk of Harvard College during the Academical bed ae 83, 141.—Electricity due to evapora- tion, 145.—Constant of Dielectricity: Conservation of Solar Energy, 146.— Metal ig a coe in Vacuo: Carbonic ay in air helps in condensing watery vapor, Scaccui, 147.—Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, E. Mascart and J. JOUBERT, 148. Geology and Mineralogy.—Elevated Coral Reefs a Cuba, W. O. Crossy, 148.— gre motion, 149. Piggy es cold, 8. V. Woo: : Contributions to the History Lak ee TLBERT, 150. —Ching, ¥ _F, von RICHTHOFEN, 152. D. Irving’s paper the P. wig 8 neg origin of the hornblende of the crystalline teak of the Wachwasiers Sta Ae men 'g wortH: Earthquakes of Septembe r 7, cig! bie Central yer 155. —Brief notices of some seseniiy ie described wie erals, Miscellan Scientific gy a A. visit to yer E, Haoken, 157.—Hand- buch der or Kilimatolegin J. HANN: Manual of Taxidermy, a complete guide in collecting ma ne Birds aaa Mammals, j. C. MaYn. _ 158.— in 1880 b. Coast Survey Steamer Blake, T. Lyman: Royal Beckett: Professorship of Chemistry in the University of Virginia: “American Asso- ciation, 15 Obituary.—Sir EDWARD SaBINE, WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE, 160. - CONTENTS. Vv NUMBER CLIIL. Art, XITX.—Existence in chai chars 59 of a Dry Zone, om ase by A Growers Se ce a Fee 161 - eee ee SSeS awash ec ee he eae eis - 167 XXI. Analyses of two varieties of Lithiophilite; by S. L. PENPIBEE SEOs eo as eb la patie Gowen 176 XXIL Be of Sound.—I. The Energy and — of Damping of a Tuning Fork; by C. K. Wrap, --..-- 177 XXIIT.—The as of Rocks geologically medeasdare by RE ae re a 190 XXIV, —Mr. Giasebrook’ Paper on the Aberration of Con- ave Gratings; by H. A. Rownann,.- 2.2.22... 222 214 XXV. —Stibnite ori Japan; by . S. Dan MAS st ee ey 214 XXVI.—Voleanoes of Northern California, Oregon and ‘Washington Territory ; by A. Hacue and J. P. Ippines, 222 XXVII —Cassiterite, Spodumene and Beryl in the Bla ck ore Dakota; W. Fr. BieRe oka roel 235 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. rey and tae Pd pe nae of Prout, GERBER, 236.—Modified form of V. Meyer's Vapor d a. enki. Scuwarz: New Tellurium oxide, and on a new reaction of Tellurium, Divers and Sarmosk, 237.—Production of Sul- phides by pressure, SPRING, 238. anoubie Orthophosphates of Barium, DEScuuL- TEN: Saponin, Stir 39.—New organic acid in the juice of the Beet Root, Von LippMann, 240.—Silicie Ethers of the Phenols, Martini and WEBER, 241. Geology and Mineralogy.—Exploration of parts of bh ps2 Idaho and Monta SHERIDAN, GREGORY and ee 241.—Thermal Springs of the Talento woe frie by A. C. 2.—Cause of the iroreg "Period, by 8. V. —Deep-sea taceon ‘atone Nodules, 2 ines and Zoology.—Genera Plantarum ad Exemplaria imprimis in herbariis Kewensibus servata definita, BENTHAM and Hooker, 245.—Itinera Principum S. Coburgi: Notice beeches sur i. Joseph Decaisne, par owas Bor- NET, 247. Miscella entific Intelligence. ery exits 0 Meteorite : amet delivered to . the Saline of the Baltimore and Ohio a a ageeicon : The Iroquois Book of Rites, H. HALE: American yl ation, . vi CONTENTS. NUMBER CLIV. Page Art. XXIX.—Some iy th a points in Geological Cli- to Professor Newcomb, Mr. Hill and 24 ; by ROLL, XXX.—Minerals of the "Cryolite group recently found in Colorado; by W. Cross and W. F. Hittesrann,.. -- -- XXXII. —Origin and Hade of Normal Faults; by W. J. ONIN Biers oe ee ad beige din u so dos thal XXXII.—Sensitiveness of the Kye to Slight Differences of Slory Uy BO. Feinek Jey 055 oo es a eet 2 XX XIIL—Injury sustained by the Eye of a Trilobite at the time of the Moulting of the Shell; by C. D. Watcort,. 302 XXXIV. sg of the Rocks in Central Noe York; by 8. G. . 303 We TERIA, et oa oe _ RAR. —Physiological Optics ; by T, W. Backuovss, . ib 8S SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, sae and Physics. Beal ceage ected of the Law of Definite Proportion J. P. Cooke, 310.—Spectrum of Beryllium, Harriey, 316.—Relation betaeee the Density and the Lele of ‘the en in different t Allotropic states, MULLER-ERzBaAcH, 317.—Behavior of Nascent Hydrogen in presence o of Light epee CINE, 320, ~ethod of 5 dieing the ems : New Seis Geology and Botany. eee Origin of the Hornblende ve the pps western States, — Irvine, 321 Peco of ‘the United Sta 322.—C Siewert o American Botany, S. Watson, 323. yoniieasol of Flowers, H. penn 3 Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—American Association for the Advancement of Science at Minneapolis, 325.—British Association, 332 Obituary.—J. REINHARD BLuM; W TLLIAM A. Norton, 332. CONTENTS. vil NUMBER CLV. Art. XXXVI.—Spectroscopic Notes; by C. A. Youne,-- 3 XXXVIL oe Iron from near Dalt Georgia; by UP AL Ds liga oases a eee Os was one XXXVIIL. EN otis of Corundum Gems in the Himalaya région of India; by U, U.: Saerann; Spijoos.322 2s. 3 XXXIX.—Phenomena of the Glacial aan Champlain periods about the mouth of the Connecticut valley—that is, in the New Haven region; by J. D. ppt Wipes eee ge 333 ton, Whitfield Co., 336 XL.—Variety of Descloizite ‘from Mexico; ; by S. L. Penrrerp, ca C. XLI—Hybocrinus, oy doing ie: by ACHSMuTH and F. Sprin 365 Wa XLII. oe Maine: of the Aniescan Trotting Horse se; > by W. H. XLUL alunovery of Utica Slate Graptolites on the west side of the Hudson; by H. Bo ok ar SEAS aes 3 “aaa .—Becraft’s Mountain ; by W. M. Davis V.—Nonconformity at Rondou t, N. Y.; by W. M. Davis, 389 Ba y XLVI.—Notice of Agricultural, se and Chemical results of experiments on the aa herbage of Per- manent Méadow; by D. P. Pennattow, ...-..------ 395 VIL—Mr. Backhouse’s Beeiabois on ’ Physiological . 399 pices by Wi dc: Brava oi oe ccoecupentew nck won . SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chem Physics. Rareonges at bo ag Hartiey, 401.—Some Reactions of Tellerice, Demargay, 402.—Caucasian Ozocerites, BEILSTEIN an 3.—Fermentation of Cellulose, poo Splitting of Inactive Mandelic acid into two Isomers, both optically active, Lawko tion which Carbon exists in Steel, AB d DEE — idole = of great RING, ste c pd of large index of refraction. and of . ROHR : Ass tion of a Solar Electric Potential, W. St 108. dane peprre double gh seat ey’ in some isometric ake BRAUwUNS, 4 of i ama oe along the no of the a gon Railway, CAMPBELL and UFFNE Intelligence.—British Association at Southport, 412.— ‘iscellaneous Scienti prance ice ; C. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey for 1881, 413. ioc oehe ag SurTH, 414; Wits A. Norton, OswaLp HEER, Obituary. JOACHIM meeaaeee, 416, ase vill CONTENTS. NUMBER CLVI. Art. XLVIII.—Some points in Botanical Nomenclature ; view of “ Nouvelles Remarques sur la Nomenc clature ponaeh par M. Alph. de Candolle,” Geneva, 1883 ; SA aed —Pre-Carboniferous Strata in the Grand Cafion of the Colorado, Arizona; by C. D, Waxcorr Fx Conwibutians to Meteorology; by Kuss Loose. With ‘lates, I, SAARI UN ei ay ing oer arg gree ae LL—A Brief Study of Vesta; by M. W. Harrineron,. ---- 461 LIL—New Form of Bienineé Cell, and some Electrical dis- coveries made by its use; by C. E. Frirts, --....----- 465 ene "ola Ischian Harthquake of July 28, 1883 ; by C. G. RWG, A, So es we ee ee 473 + SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—A method a heat radiation from the luminous and actinic radiations, VAN AsscHE, 476.—Telluric oxygen lines, EGOROFF: A new capillary electrometer, yrs Hall’s phenomenon, Rieu, 477.—Note on the rises theory, J. CRoLL, 478. Geology and Ss History.—Geology of the Comstock Lode and the Washoe District, G. EOKER, 479.—U. S. Geological Survey: Field Work in the Great Basin, 492. —Vol. VII of the Geology and Paleontology of Illinois: , C: otes on — sare Topaz locality, R. T. Cross, 484 34.—Jeremejeffite and Tichwaldite, 485.—Mineralogical Notes, EH. CLAASSEN: Phytogeogenesis, O. Kunze, 486.— on ee of t ey Phzenogamous and Vascular Cryptogamous Plants of Worcester Massachusetts, J. Jackson, 487. ~~ Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Ice of Greenland and the antarctic, J. CROLL, . This equation admits hi direct integration as follows: Sz ds i rf _ or performing the ere operations Us—L)=U(s,—L)+6T,-sT or putting the absolute term equal to A i(s—L)=A—0T fo (Oe or finally for the primitive function s=L+e4"T , (4) : gee nee . Ee Solan SES ETERS ES RS GP al pea tna ea RRA as Tuer lei eae F. E.. Nipher—Evolution of American Trotting Horse. 23 where e is the Naperian base, and where A is the value of Us—L) at any arbitrary zero in time, T being,estimated in years from the same zero. The following table contains the common logarithms of s—L for the corresponding -dates, and these two variables are also plotted in figure 2. Year, s—L | log (s—L) T (s—L) cale. diff. 1854:0 53 1724 =~ 66 527 —0'3 1857°4 51 1°706 26 50°8 —0-2 1861-0 49 1:690 + 10 48°9 —01 1864:7 47 1672 + 47 47-0 0-0 1869-0 45 1°653 + 9:0 44°8 —01 1872°6 43 1°633 126 43°1 +01 1878-3 41 1°613 +183 40°5 —0°5 1881-0 39 1591 21°0 39°3 +03 2. 1850 1860 1870 1880 Year. _ds : log (S—L) aT ++... eee Ar ae — ape 0°6 0°5 0-4 1°65 1:60 133 135 137 139 141 143. «*# Estimating T from the year 1860 and taking common log- hegiane we obtain, by graphical methods, from the plotted ine * Jog (s—L)=1°694—0-0047T (5) Substituting in this equation the values of T, and re-calculating the values of s--I as given in the fifth column of the table, it 48 seen that the greatest difference between the calculated and observed values of s, for any date of the table is half a second, which corresponds to an error of about a year in the date for a given speed. The differences in the final column show that a readjustment of the constants in eq. (5) would make the agree- ment better, but at present it is hardly worth the trouble, as the values would not be materially changed. By making s—L=1 in (5) we have » 1°694—0°0047T=0 or T=860 which is the number of years after 1860 when the. 24 C. A. White—Burning of Lignite in situ. time of the trotting horse will be reduced to within one second of the limiting value. It will be understood of course that it is not claimed that the numerical values here determined are at all precise. In all probability the true value, L, is somewhat larger than 92 seconds, and may possibly be as great as 100. This value can probably be determined with considerable accuracy in the course of ten years. It is, however, quite clear that the limit- ing speeds of trotting and of running horses, can differ at most by only a very few seconds. Art. UL—The Burning of Lignite in situ; by CHARLES A. WHITE. [Published in advance by permission il the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. ] mapa ae those portions of Colorado, Wyoming, Mon- and ota which are occupied by the Laramie Group, one aprsis nfreas: that portions of its strata which are ex- posed in the eae and buttes have a conspicuous brick-red color. Upon close examination of at least a large part of these reddened strata it is evident that they originally bore the buff, aude or yellowish colors of their associated strata, and that they have received their present red color from the same source that bricks do, namely, from heat. Also scattered upon the slopes and among the debris where these reddened strata exist, there are frequently to be seen masses of slag, such in appear- ance as results from furnace fires or from the consumption of impure coal. Much of it is plainly seen to consist of partially fused rock, and masses are common which have the appearance of true volcanic lava; to which source indeed many persons have believed them due. r. Hayden made mention of these phenomena in his re- rts a others have done the same to some extent; but probably the fullest and best description of them that has ever been published was given by Mr. J. A, Allen in the Proceed- ings of the Boston Society of Natural History, volume xvi, pages 246-262. rofessor James D. Dana has also some important remarks upon the subject in his Mineralogy (1880), page 763; but my object in again calling attention to this subject is to make so some suggestions as to the one of these fires and the time within which they have taken place. During my examination of the Laramie Group in North- eastern Montana last summer I had good opportunities for C. A. White—Burning of Lignite in situ. 25 making observations upon the phenomena connected with the burning out of lignite beds there. In that portion of Montana which is traversed by the lower portion of Yellowstone River, the Laramie Group contains several distinct beds of lignite which oceur at irregular intervals, ranging from near the base of the group to its summit. These lignite beds vary from mere carbonaceous seams to five or six feet or more in thick- ness. Practical tests that have been made of the product of many of the beds show it to be readily combustible, but it is not so durable and serviceable a fuel as could be desired. In all that région, not only in the valleys but upon the uplands, the Laramie strata have by erosion become abundantly ex- posed in the bluffs and bad-lands in and near the valleys, and also in the knolls and gullies upon the upland surfaces. Beds of lignite are frequently brought to view in the larger of these ‘exposures and traces of them are also occasionally seen upon the grassy upland surfaces. Although the beds have been red at hundreds of places it is only in a few places that those which are now exposed are seen to have so suffered near their present exposures, In several instances, however, I was able to trace within a short distance, a bed of lignite from a point where it was un- changed and associated with yellowish and carbonaceous sandy shales and sandstones both Set ang near by presented a like appearance with that which as just been described, and where the fire had been long here being no question as to the fact of the burning of these lignite beds beneath the surface, I endeavored to learn how the ignition had taken place, and when the beds began to be ‘burned out. There seems to be only two ways in which their ignition could have been accomplished. One is by spon- heous combustion and the other by contact at exposed places of prairie fires, or fires caused by human agency. hile 26 C. A. White—Burning of Lignite mm situ. forest fires may sometimes have resulted from lightning, it is ~ not thought probable that a bed of lignite za situ could be thus ignited. I believe that in a great majority of the cases ignition has taken place spontaneously, like that which is often seen in progress in the piles of refuse coal that collect about the mouths of coal mines; and yet it is probable that in some cases the firing has: been caused by the burning of grass and other vegetation upon the adjacent surface, caused by human PA ithedate as already stated, beds of lignite are _ burning at a few localities, there is evidence that of the m ny thou- sands of cases of such burnings that are known ie have oc- curred, a large part of them are very ancient, probably more ancient than the artificial introduction of fire upon the conti- nent. The great erosion that the strata of the Laramie Group have: everywhere suffered, even in regions where they have been fittle. disturbed, has already been referred to.. Upon the up- Jands of the region examined by me last summer numerous. buttes and knolls occur upon the vary summits of which are little patches of the heat-reddened shales, and the slopes of which are strewn with the slag of former lignite-fires. These are evidently the only remaining traces of beds of lignite that once existed at or above the horizon of the tops of these knolls. urthermore, on the upland surfaces more or less distant from such knolls, one often meets with masses of the well-known slag which ‘could have been transported there by no known agency, but which have doubtiess settled down from the horizon where they were produced by burning sent as the surface was afterward lowered by erosion. These examples do not occur where erosion has been sont rapid, hoe on the con- trary they are where the minimum rate of erosion has occurred. Such examples seem to prove conclusively the great an- tiquity of — of these lignite-fires, and if, as is supposed, these fires took place by spontaneous combustion as La beds. of lignite became by erosion daisy ap. ex Oo atmo- spheric influence, there is no necessity for considering ihe limit. of their antiquity with reference tae uman agency in the pro- duction of fire. Indeed, taking this view of the matter there appears to be no reason why the earliest of these fires in the Laramie lignites may not have occurred as early as, if not earlier than, later Tertiary time. LR. D. Irving—Hornblende of the Northwestern States. 27 Art. IV.—On the Paramorphic Origin of the Hornblende of the Crystalline Rocks of the Northwestern States; by R. D. Irvine. among the three general classes of (1) crystalline schists, (2) granites and syenites, and (3) greenstones—the last term being used to cover all the basic massive rocks. and true mica-schists (biotite-schists) also occur. During the last three years I have examined a large number coln and western Marathon counties, augite-gneisses and augite- Schists are prominent rocks. Even in the miea-gneisses, when- ever hornblende appears as an accessory, augite is met with also.| The hornblende of all these schists is the more common * Geology of Wisconsin, iv, p. 617. : x Crystalline Rocks of the Wisconsin Valley,” by R. D. Irving and C. R. nhise. ogy in, i 27-704. Geology of Wisconsin, iii, pp. 92-99. Geology of Wisconsin, iv, pp. 692-696, 702-707. Geology of Wisconsin, iv, pp. 628, 631-635, 640-642. 28 R. D. Irving—Origin of the Hornblende of the variety, yielding greenish sections, but it shows all gradations from the fibrous forms generally regarded as characteristic of patie to sang non-fibrous, strongly cleaved, and deeply col- ored cryst. The first to notice augite in any of the northwestern crystal- line schists was Dr. A. Wichman, who in the third volume of the Geology of Wisconsin announces its occurrence, in a va- riety near to sahlite, in the hornblende-schists of the Huronian of the Menominee and Marquette regions of Wisconsin and Michigan.* He also noted its occurrence in a few sections of gneiss and mica-schist. Kalkowsky, however, had already made the same observation on certain European gneisses and mica-schists.t Shortly after the appearance of Wichman’s publications I studied the Flambeau River schists above men- tioned and found them to be identical with those described by him from the Menominee region, save that in some sections the augite assumes a greater importance. My suspicions were then aroused that all the hornblende of sins, rocks might be but a paramorphic product of the augite, and when, somewhat later, I came in conjunction with my assistant Mr. ‘Vanhise to study a suite of specimens ek a large area in the Worscan Valley, I was on the ou ook for evidence on this pot We soon a ene my tna patinndantly confirmed, or not only did we find augite occurring almost universally in the hornblendic gneisses and schists of this region, and even wholly replacing the hornblende, as above stated, but a num- ber of sections were observed in which the augite distinctly occurs as cores to the bamblente which is at times fibrous like uralite, but oftener is without fibrous character. Granites and Syenites.$~—The granites of this region are in considerable part merely dependencies of the gneisses, but irreg- pecs —_ of massive granite, plainly of an eruptive nature, ei r ese are sometimes mica-granites, but are also o Mest is 3s Nearly all sections ts studied of the latter kind of granite show augite as well as hornblende, and frequently in the shape of cores to the se ecg which appears not only of the uralitic and ordinary green varieties, but also in the kind known as basaltic, which yields shasaidaie dark-brown, very deeply absorptive sections. A prominent instance of a granite containing hornblende is the coarse-grained rock of Big Bull Falls on the Wisconsin River. The following is quoted from a summary description of the * Geology of Wisconsin, iii, pp. 606, 620, er ete. i Min. Mitt! ttheilungen, 1875, p. 4 ¢ These terms, as also those applied to the lies tocks below, are on in ac- cordance with the Rosenbusch nomenclature. Orystalline Rocks of the Northwestern States. 29 microscopic characters of this granite, prepared, after the study a number of thin sections, by Mr. Vanhise. ‘These rocks are all very much alike in their chief charac- , arently primary are the large integral grains filling interstices between the other ingredients; but in found, not only with a single core of diallage to each crystal, ut with several or many spots of the original mineral. *Geol, of Wis., iv, p. 662. +G. W. Hawes has described and figured a similar relation between augite and ge hornblende, in the Lithology of New Hampshire, pp. 57, 206; and Plate 30 R&R. D. Irving—Origin of the Hornblende of the where described them under the name of augite-syenite.* In most sections of these rocks quartz is present, and in the more | distinctly granite-like kinds may be of a primary nature, but most of it is plainly secondary, or at all events has been deposited after the crystallization and solidification of the rest of the rock. The augite of these rocks is always in very subordinate quan- tity; it is nearly always very much altered, the more ordinary ate of iets being to a mass of nearly opaque ferric xide. some cases, however, the change has been to a true bigetditeiicle or uralite. Greenstones.—The greenstones of the region in question may be divided as to their mineralogical composition into the mie groups of peridotite, gabbro, diabase and diorite; and a their geological relations, into the three groups of eas. ' Huronian and Keweenawan greenstones, All four of the forms of greenstone mentioned are met with intersecting the older gneisses, much the most common being the diabases. The peridotites, since they never have been found to carry hornblende,do not need to be considered here. Hornblende has, however, been met with in the gabbros and in every case yet studied it is plainly derived from augite or dial- lage.t The diabases include both olivine-free and olivinitic kinds, the sections so far as examined being usually free from hornblende, but whenever this mineral occurs it is always plainly altered augite. The diorites are not common, the only sections thus far examined coming from Rib River in the west- ern part of Marathon county, Wisconsin.§ (N. W. 4, Sec. 26, T. 29, R.5 EH.) These represent a coarse- rained rock which | may be seen macroscopically to be compose essentially of dark- green lustrous hornblendes, 8h derge- sized feldspars which often show striations. In a tbin n, however, a large number of the hornblendes are seen to gant cores of augite or diallage, often several cores in a single individual. e greenstones or basic massive rocks of the Huronian have been studied microscopically in the Marquette and Meno- minee regions by Wichman.| I have myself studied them in the Penokee region of northern Wisconsin, and in the Thunder Bay, Pigeon River region of the north shore of Lake nupeae * Third Annual Report of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey, p. so the “ Copper- dag | ta of Lake Superior,” vol. v, Monographie ie - the rock is in the ayes composed of feldspars, usually more or less corroded b quartz. It grades through semi-porphyritic kinds, which might per erhaps be. called grantio.porphyry, into true stash eres But I am reluctant to coin a new me" + The term Laurentian is here used provisionally only to cover those gacteess and rg which seem sone: ag ‘uae the Huroni Geol. of Wis., iv, pp. 701, § Geol. of Wis. . iv, pp. 698, 699. Geol. of Wis., iii, pp. 618, array. Crystalline Rocks of the Northwestern States. 31 where they occur on a grand scale in what has been called by Hunt the ‘‘Animikie Group.” This group has been. described by Logan, Bell and others as the lower part of the Copper-bear- ing series, and by Hunt as much newer than the latter series, but it is plainly, as I have elsewhere tried to show,* the exact equivalent of the Huronian of the Penokee region, and of the most important, occurring not only in dike-form, but also in ae SLs origin for the hornblende was entertained. So ar as later investigations have progressed the indications are that the hornblende of these rocks also is secondary. he greenstones of the Animikie group are displayed in a magnificent way along the shores of Thunder Bay, and inland to the west and north from there, occurring both in dikes and in great interbedded sheets. These greenstones include several varieties of gabbro and several of diabase, which I have else- where described.| Hornblende is not often met with in sections of these rocks, but when occurring seems always to be beyond ‘question secondary. The Keweenawan greenstones include several varieties of ‘each gabbro and diabase. I have described them in detail elsewhere.{ Hornblende on the whole is unusual in any of these rocks, but when it occurs it is almost invariably uralite ; that is, plainly secondary to augite. In the sections of one— unusual variety of gabbro met with in Ashland County, Wis- ‘consin, which I have described as hornblende-gabbro,** in place ‘of the ordinary uralite, or in addition to it, there occurs a deep * Third Annual Report of the Director of the U. S. Geol. Survey, pp. 159-163. Also “ Copper-Bearing Rocks of Lake Superior,” pp. 367-386. + These interbedded diabases of the Huronian have been described by Brooks “and others as metamorphic, but there can I think be no question as to their eruptive origin. ¢ Geol. of Wis., iv, p. 607. ; Geol. of Wis., iii, p. 628. r of the U. S. Geological Survey, pp. 157-163; also, more completely in my memoir on the ee ok Rocks of op. ei ** Copper-Bearing Rocks of Lake Superior, pp. 56-58. 32 M. E. Wadsworth—Bishopville Meteorite. brown intensely absorptive basaltic hornblende. Pumpelly first described this rock in the third volume of the Geology of Wisconsin, under the name of augite-diorite,* this name being given because he regarded the hornblende as primary and the rock as intermediate between diabase and diorite. In the same volume I suggested that the hornblende was secondary and that the rock was merely an altered gabbro.t This opinion I find sustained by a re-examination of Pumpelly’s sections, and by the study of a number of new sections. The hornblende is found in every stage of growth from an augite crystal, with a slight border of hornblende, to a completed crystal without trace of augite. Thus, after an examination of about a thodsind thin sec- tions representing the crystalline schists, acid eruptives and basic eruptives of a region some four hundred miles in length y in width, and of three distinct geological systems, I have found no hornblende that is not either clearly, or very probably, secondary to augite. February 1, 1883. ArT. V.—The Bishopville and Waterville Meteorites; by M. E. ADSWORTH. 1. The Bishopville Meteorite. THE meteorite which fell at Bishopville, South Carolina, March, 1843, has been regarded as an interesting and peculiar one. Professor C. U. Shepard in 1846 (this Journal, II, se 380-381), desmnbed from it, under the name of chladnite mineral which he regarded as a tersilicate of magnesia, cad. Pe forming over two-thirds of the stone. e color was snow- white, rarely tinged with gray. Luster pearly to vitreous, trans- lucent. H. 6—6°5 ; sp. gr. 3°116. Fuses without difficulty ‘before the blowpipe to a white enamel. He further describes as apatoid some very rare, small, yellow, semi-transparent grains, having a hardness of 55. A third mineral which he name todolite was of a pale smalt-blue color, vitreous luster, brittle. Hardness 55-6. Fuses easily with boiling intoa blebby, color- less glass. This was found only in a small quantity. Later, Shepard gave a fuller account of this stone, holding that it cetmmnal chladnite ninety per cent, anorthite six per cent, nickeliferous iron two per cent, and two per cent of mag- | netic pyrites, schreibersite, comet iodolite and apatoid. The chladnite was analyzed and the results will be given below. (Ibid., 1848, IT, vi, 411-414). * p. 36. + p. 170. M. E. Wadsworth—Bishopville Meteorite. _ 33 The stone was next investigated by W. Sartorius von Wal- tershausen. He described it as chiefly made up of a white sili- ceous mineral forming a finely crystalline mass, with here and there little points showing metallic luster, also grains of mag- netite and brown oxide of iron. The hardness of the white mineral was given as six, and the specific gravity as 3:039. His analysis is given below. His results indicated that the former he found to be monoclinic and related to wollastonite in ea preety, © color, texture, hardness and crystalline form (Ann. Chem. Pharm., 1851, Ixxix, 369-370). Later Professor J. Lawrence Smith ¢ stated that from some of his investigations “ chladnite is likely to prove a pyroxene” (this Journal, 1855, I, xix, 168); and in time he published a furthe r discussion giving an analysis which will be found below. Asa conclusion from his results he said of chladnite: ‘It is identical in composition with Hnsiatite of Kenngott” (ibid., 1864, xxxvili, 225, 226). Harlier than Smith’s Jast paper, some investigations were made upon this meteorite by Professors Carl Rammelsberg and Gus- tav Rose. The former held that the yellowish-brown and bluish-gray particles (the apatoid and iodolite 6f Shepard) arose from the oxidation of the nickeliferous iron or the alteration of the pyrrhotite. The analysis of Rammelsberg is here given in connection with those of Shepard, ped.cdirer-oe and Smith. Rammelsberg. mith Waltershausen. Shepard. 2 7-57 60°12 59°8 67-140 70°41 Al,.03, 2°72 ne oes 1-478 oot Fe.0s, 1°25 0-30 “50 1°706 sig gO, 34°80 39°45. 39°22 27-115 28°25 CaO 0-66 Ca : 1818 Na,0, 114 O44 0°74 ay, 1°39 20, 0°70 trace trace ie frye Logs, 0°80 Oe em ke ok Li,0, es trace trace ae 8.0, ia ae can 0-671 cue MnO, 0°20 ya trace orate Total, 99°79 100°61 100-29 99-928 100:05 Rose’s examination showed that the chladnite fused before the blowpipe only on the edges to a white enamel (Abhandl. Berlin. Acad., 1863, pp. 117-122). Rammelsber rg, in ues con- found in the stone (ibid., 1 1870, pp. 121-123 _ Through the courtesy of Mr. lean Cummings and the Cura- tor of the Boston Society of Natural ice have been Per: Am. Jour. ada Serres, Vou. XXVI, No. 151.—Jutx, 1888, 34 M. FE. Wadsworth—Bishopville Meteorite. The portion examined is a grayish-white mass resembling, as Shepard remarked, a grayish-white granite (albitic), with brown and black spots. Under the microscope it is seen to be com- osed of an entirely —— mass of enstatite, augite, feld- spar, olivine, pyrrhotite and i e structure is essentially granitic, and it appears to Gees to the gabbro (norite) variety of the basalts as defined by myself in “Science” for March 9th, The enstatite is clear and transparent. It shows a longi- tudinal cleavage parallel to the line of extinction, and in some specimens this is crossed by acleavage at right angles, It also has a cleavage which is often, well marke and breaks the mineral into rhombic forms with angles, as Nae determined by several measurements, of 73° and 107°. The principal cleavage is parallel to the ‘longer diacoial of these rhombs. It is this rhombic cleavage, probably, which has led observers to behave that chladnite crystallized in the mono- clinic or triclinic systems. he enstatite is found to contain many glass oe with oy aa outlines, the planes being poplar ie 8 usual in This material, besides forming inclusions in the glass, is in len- ticular and irregular rounded grains in the enstatite itself. It sometimes extends in a series of grains across the entire ensta- tite mass and at others is in isolated forms. These inclusions microscopically are seen to be composed of a center of nickel- iferous iron or pyrrhotite, surrounded by a band of dark material, chromite or magnetite possibly. These ferruginous materials are in many cases surrounded by a yellowish-brown staining of iron which sometimes extends over a considerable portion of the mass and along the fissures. Along one plane in the en- statite numerous vacuum or vapor cavities were observed. The inclusions are seen to be crossed and cut by the cleavage and fissure planes of the enstatite, showing that they were of seo origin to the fissures. he feldspar stands next in abundance to the enstatite and is in irregular masses held in its interspaces. It is water-clear, and almost invisible by common transmitted light, Much of it is seen to be plagioclastic; but the twinning bands are so exceedingly fine and the polarization colors so bright it does not as a rule show well this character, except with high powers and when the mineral is near the point = extinction. The M. E. Wadsworth—Bishopville Meteorite. 35 quartz. These glass inclusions are of various dimensions an many contain a small bubble. Some microlites were also seen. In the feldspar at one end of a section the enstatite was found in minute crystals extending outward from a center forming stellate or rosette-like forms. The structure is like that observed in terrestrial rocks in minerals formed from alteration or solution. This apparently might have been pro- duced in this case, either by the rapid crystallization of enstatite material of a liquid feldspathic mass, or by secondary alteration through water action on the rock itself. The absence of any other signs of alteration, except in the ferruginous materials, seems to negative the latter supposition. The ferruginous ene these masses are like olivine, they are referred to that n This stone in its mineralogical composition, its structure, bubble-bearing glass-inclusions, and microlites is like terrestrial 36 M. EF. Wadsworth— Waterville Meteorite. rock a name as a rock species, but in accordance with the prin- ciples of his classification he prefers to regard it as belonging to the gabbro variety (norite) of basalt; for he holds to the essen- tial unity of the universe and sees no necessity of employing different names according as the rock comes from above or elow. From the description of the mineral constituents of this meteorite it would seem that regarding the presence of the feldspar, Messrs. Shepard and Waltershausen were correct while Rammelsberg was not. This shows the inability of the ablest mineralogical] chemists to draw correct conclusions regarding the mineral constituents even of an unaltered rock. The trouble appears to reside with the instrument employed— that is, with a defect in the method. Chladnite ought no longer to be regarded as enstatite of the purest kind as stated in most mineralogies but rather as a mineral aggregate of which enstatite, feldspar and augite are the principal constituents. While these observations give an approximate solution of the Bishopville meteorite puzzle of twenty-seven years stand- ing, it would be well if some one having larger amounts of this meteorite at their disposal could make a chemical analysis of it as a whole, and also analyze the minerals by the modern micro- scopic—specific gravity—chemical method.* 2. The Waterville Meteorite.+ At about midnight, sometime in Sept., 1826, a meteor was seen to pass over Waterville, Maine, by Captain Josiah Crosby of thattown. Itcame from the southeast and passed in a curved line with a regular motion towards the earth. A moment after * Read before the Boston Society of Natural History, April 4th, 1883; Science, — 1883, i, 31 a + Briefly mentioned in Scienge, 1883, i, 377. Me E Weenies Waterville Meteorite. 37 The stone was presented by Mr. Crosby to Virgil D. Parris, and by him to Professor G. W. Keely of Waterville College (now Colby University). A portion of the specimen was given by Professor Keely to‘Professor C. U. Shepard, who published an account of it in this Journal (1848, II, vi, 414, 415), from which account sufficient has been taken to render this paper intelligible to those who have not access to Professor Shepard’s original publication. His analysis gave the following results: SiO, Al,05 FeO MgO CaO Total. 70-00 18°50 8-00 2°59 1:90= 100-99 _It was regarded by Shepard as a doubtful meteorite, and in his later catalogues has been omitted. . My attention was espe- cially called to it from the description and analysis indicating that it belonged, if a meteorite, to a group of which only one authentic specimen is known (Igast), although several doubtful ones exist. It was then a matter of importance to ascertain whether it was a meteorite or not; and if one tu ascertain its microscopic characters. On inquiry of my friend and colleague _ Professor C. E. Hamlin, I learned that the main mass of the Specimen was presented to the cabinet of Colby University by Professor Keely in 1871. Through the kind offices of Profes- sor Hamlin, who is now a trastee of that college, the specimen was placed in my hands for microscopic examination. It is a small triangular cinder-like mass, cellular, laminated, and on the fresh fracture of an ash gray color. The laminated ap- , pearance is produced by a series of flattened cells surrounded by a black vitreous mass. The original surfaces are coated with a gray, red-brown and bluish-black crust formed by fusion. The formerly upper portion of the mass, when examinéd under a lens, is seen to be worn and polished, as siliceous rocks are apt vegetable character can readily be distinguished. The specimen then when picked up by Captain Crosby could g ‘tabi partially buried in the soil, and of course could not have €n a portion of the meteor which he saw. It remains then agencies. The section showed a fluidal structure parallel to it. A few quartz grains 38 J. P Cooke—Buoyancy of the Atmosphere. which were cracked and fissured were seen. Near the fissures quartz showed evident signs of having been exposed to ine terial. The sections show not the slightest trace of characters belong- ing to any meteorite that has yet been examined microscopically either by myself or by others, so far as can be ascertained by their published descriptions. Tt is apparently a slag and most probably derived from the earthern- -ware manufactory at some earlier date. No blame attaches to Mr. Crosby, for ee undoubtedly acted to the best of his knowledge in making his observations and statements ; and it will be notes that bis remark, that it lay upon the surface while the grass was untouched, was opposed to its mers origin and in accord with the results of m examinatio Cambridge, a. April 14th, 1883. ArT. VI.—A Simpie Method of Correcting the see le of a Body for the Buoyancy of the Atmosphere when the Volume is un- known; by JostaH Parsons COOKE. (Conti bateans from the Chemical Laboratory of Harvard College.) Ir is a familiar fact that in the usual method of accurate weighing the buoyancy of the atmosphere produces a sensible effect whenever the volume of - load differs materially from that of the equipoise. But, as in all ordinary processes of chemical analysis the analyst deals solely with relative weights, the presence : a perfectly dry atmosphere does not influence his results, unless the conditions of temperature and pressure have changed between the successive weighings: and even then the ge is insignificant in most cases. Still when the volume the sont of the air under the standard ccnalieaiie as well as the temperature and pressure at the moment of the ‘several ob- J. P. Cooke—Buoyancy of the Atmosphere. 39 servations; and since the calculations are somewhat complex, and the required data not always readily obtained, the formulas are seldom applied unless the volume of the load is quite large. Moreover in these formulas the effect of each factor can not weight. It is assumed that the air of the balance-case is dry ; and with one of Becker’s balances I have not been able to trace any ° effect on the weight of a glass vessel from variations of hygro- metric condition when two open dishes of sulphuric acid (three Inches in diameter) were kept in the case, which has a volume of about 37 cubic decimeters. Under such conditions the only causes which sensibly modify the weight of a small glass vessel (like a closed potash bulb-tube) are the variations of tempera- ture and pressure. The relative effect of these two variables will appear from the following considerations, which suggested the method I am to describe. If we assume thirty inches as the standard of barometric pressure it is obvious that the variation of each tenth of an Inch from this standard will determine a change of ,i,th in one inch. On the other hand the balances in our chemical laboratories are liable to rapid variations of temperature which Often exceed twenty degrees, the equivalent of two inches. Hence of the two variables the temperature is by far the more important. f we select the two standards of temperature and tension 40 J. P. Cooke—Buoyancy of the Atmosphere. here assumed, we can easily correct for temperature by simply adding to the observed height of the barometer (in tenths of an inch) the difference between 27°C. and the temperature ob- served. Of course the correction becomes negative if the tem- perature exceeds 27°C. Having thus eliminated the effect of temperature we can (after taking a few weighings under as great a variation of temperature and pressure as we can com- mand) easily find the difference in weight which corresponds to a variation of one-tenth of an inch in the barometer, an thus obtain a constant for the vessel (or other object weighed) by means of which we can rapidly reduce the weights to the standard of thirty inches barometric pressure, having previ- ously reduced them to the standard of 27° C. for temperature. The weights, having now been corrected for buoyancy, can be compared, and although the standards may be as unusual in their association, as is one of them in its value, they are as legitimate as any others and will be found in practice more t -convenien To apply this method we simply leave the load equipoised on the balance, shifting the rider with the varying weight, and noting the corresponding temperatures and pressures, until a sufficient difference has been observed; and a difference corre- sponding to 20° C., or two inches of mercury, is adequate in most cases. ‘The process corresponds to calibrating a flask, and the constant, once obtained, can be afterwards used for the same vessel, unless the weight of its contents is materially altered. The following examples will show the application of the method. In each case the load was a closed absorption-tube of pecu- larly irregular construction, but not much larger in volume than those generally used in organic analysis. We give in the accompanying tables: first, the date; secondly, the observed weight; thirdly, the temperature of the balance-case; and, fourthly, the height of the barometer at the time of weighing. These are the observed data. In the fifth column we give the reduced heights of the barometer for 27° C., and these values are obtained by simply subtracting the observed temperatures from 27°, and adding the remainders to the observed baro- metric heights. Below the tables we print in each case the largest weight observed over the least weight observed, and on the same lines the corresponding reduced barometric heights. Dividing, now, the difference of weight in milligrams by the difference of height in tenths of an inch we obtain the value last given, which we then called the “constant.” With this constant we can readily reduce all the weights to the common standard of thirty inches, and this we do by multiplying the difference between 300 and the reduced barometric heights by J. P. Cooke—Buoyancy of the Atmosphere. 41 this constant, and adding or subtracting the product, as the case may be, to or from the observed weights. First Series. No. 1883. Weight. 0. Hy H. reduced. Result. 1 May 1 87°5304 17° 304°0 314°0 87-5346 2 May 2 : 304°2 314°2 87-5346 May 2 87°5314 19°5 03°2 310°7 87°5346 4 May 3 87°5322 301°0 308-0 87-5346 5 May 4 87°53205 20°5 301°9 308°4 875346 6 May 4 21 302°5 808°5 87-5346 7 May 6 8775316 18 300°8 309°8 87-5345 8 May 7 87°5320 19 300°0 308°0 875344 9 May 8 87-5328 19°5 298°9 306°4 87-5347 10 May 9 8753245 302°2 307-2 87°5346 11 May 11 299°5 304°5 87 5346 12 May Il 87°5333 19°5 296°2 303°7 87-5344 1 May 19 87°5317 303°5 309°5 87-5346 14 May 21 15345 ~*~ 98 296°2 300-2 87°5346 15 May 22 87°5336 22° palo | Bae 303-0 8775345 Greatest weight, 87-5345 Barometer, 300°2 Smallest weight, 87-5303 ts 314°2 Differences, 14:0 42 Constant = 4°2 m. g. + 14:0 = 0°3 m. g. ceedingly hot weather when the temperature was rapidly chang- ing; and it was evident that the insignificant differences remain- Ing arose from the circumstance that the thermometer was not nearly so sensitive as the air in the balance-case, following the change of temperature of the air after a considerable interval of time. It was curious to notice the slight increase of weight, 42 J. P. Cooke—Buoyancy of the Atmosphere. caused by the radiation of the body while weighing, followed only after some time by a rise of the very sensitive thermometer mployed, and this effect was obtained in weighing a vessel which displaced only about 75 cubic centimeters of air. Second Series. No. 1883 Weight. OF bak H. reduced. Result. 1 May 29 T3447 23°6 2971'S 3011 451 2 May 30 87°3432 23.2 302°0 305°8 87°3451 K 87°3437 24°5 301°8 304°3 87°3451 4 May 31 87°3444 23°8 298°8 302°0 87:3450 5 une 87°3429 2°8 302°4 306°6 87°3450 6 June l 87°3432 23°75 302'4 305°65 87°3450 7 June 2 87°3419 305'°2 9°6 873451 8 June 3 873420 21°95 304'5. 309°55 87°3450 9 June 3 87°3427 23°16 303°8 307°6 87°2451 10 June 4 87°3441 3011 Sue's 8773451 di dune. 6 7344 26°0 304 302°4 87°346] 12° June's 7-344 26°3 300°6 3801°3 87°3450 13 une 6 87°34435 25°55 300°75 302°2 87°3451 14 June 7 87°3452 26°7 > 299°0 299°3 87°3450 15 June 8 87°3464 29°4 297°9 295°5 87:3450: Greatest weight, 87°3464 Barometer, 295°5 Smallest weight, 87°3419 . 309°6 Differences, 45 14°1 Constant = 4°65 m. g.+14°1 = 0°319 m. g.* The limits in the accuracy of the method here described are obvious; but it will be noticed that the accuracy of the method is exactly proportional to the requirement. The greater the volume of the load, and hence the greater the effect of uoy- ancy, the more Bee can the Semana be found, 2 load is large it becomes necessary to measure the temperature and pressure with great precision, and to protect the balance from radiation and from all causes of rapid change of tempera- ture. It was a great satisfaction to ihe writer to find that by so simple means the panels weight of glass vessels of consid- erable size may be determined with accuracy to the tenth of a milligram, an secitracy a is fully equal to that of the * In combining Bie the extreme weights we must obviously take nok that neither of them is a affected by any gagrses Sle rors; and a e cer- tain value of the constant would ae obtained ates ing all the observations after well known naked ‘his complication Bronte is seldom necessary. a a — hang render the final coailie irregular, and lead to a rediscussion of observ: - J. P. Cooke—Buoyancy of the Atmosphere. 43 ceeded that. of the weights by about 75 cubic centimeters. With this difference of volume we have a variation of ;3,ths of a milligram in weight for a difference of =\th of an inch of mercury in tension, or one centigrade degree in temperature. Hence with a difference in volume of one hundred cubic centi- effect in any given case. If the difference of volume amounts to 2,500 cubic centimeters, then a difference of =)44;th of an inch in the barometer, or of z4,;th of a degree in the ther- mometer, would cause a variation of ;,th of a milligram in the weight. So also a variation in the intensity of gravity amounting to only sy4,,5th of the whole amount would pro- duce a similar effect, and a sensible variation would follow any marked change in the purity of the air. Hence the balance might be used to detect exceedingly minute changes in any one of these variables, provided the others could be exactly con- trolled; and, although, with our better methods, these applica- tions of the balance may be of no practical value; yet the con- siderations, here adduced, will serve to show how sensitive the instrument is to the slightest changes in the density of the atmosphere when loaded with vessels of large volume. The best method of controlling the weight in such cases is that adopted by Regnault in his classical work on the density of suspended from the pans by means of platinum wires, which : hang freely through holes in the base of the instrument. 44 G. F. Wright—Glaciated Area of Ohio. Art. Vil.—Recent Investigations concerning the Southern bound- ary of the Glaciated Area of Ohio; by G. F. A Paper read before the Boston Society of Natural History, March 7, 1883, by Professor G. Frederick Wright, of Oberlin, O. PRELIMINARY WORK. In the autumn of 1880, and the summer of 1881, eg Jersey. I had also, fron the first, been familiar with the gla- cial accumulations along the southern shore of New England, especially those near Wood’s Holl, which Mr. Clarence King GENERAL REMARKS. The accompanying map of Ohio shows the ouudary line explored by me during the summer of 1882. This does not, as some may have surmised, represent merely a line which i have traversed, but a line which I have zigzagged, and along which I have fixed with certainty the glacial boundary upon nearly every mile of its course. I believe that in nearly every township I have been far enough south of the line here marked to make it sure that I was “beyond the limit of glaciation. Down to this line the marks of glaciation are everywhere abundant and unmistakable; south of it the absence of glacial marks is equally striking. The average depth of the glacial - deposit over the area in Ohio north of this boundary line is estimated by Mr. E. W. Claypole = Proceedings of A. A, A. , vol. xxx, p. 151), to be fifty-six feet. No one at all familiar wth the region will be Fy isposed to think this estimate exaggerate The glaciated area of Obio cousists of a rolling surface essen- tially like the prairies farther west, except that it was original] covered by timber. The pre- glacial channels have nearly all been buried out of sight, and it is rare that the rocks anywhere iy G. F. Wright—Glaciated Area of Ohio. 45 from the north. It is not unusual to find, many feet below the surface, granite from Canada, Corniferous limestone, and frag- ments of sandstone, all striated, and intimately mixed together in the paste formed by the grinding up of the Erie shales. 7, od —~ - a YZ. Fe} RP a ies ee + if rae Rca ots 7 2 ? Scpidtusky eee yl on ; : ; Ree casa ae si 1 Sie \ ® ee ‘ ' x J r* C.\ : 7¢ i cifilicothe a ee 1 ba a r 18x11x8 feet out of ground. Another, near Lancaster, in Fairfield county, is 18X12x6 feet out of ground. Granite Upon the southern side of the boundary line which we have indicated, the whole face of the country immediately changes its aspect; till suddenly ceases to occur; no scratched stones are to be found; granite bowlders and other transported rocks disappear, except in the valleys of the streams. Over the whole of this unglaciated area the streams flow in narrow chan- nels cut through the horizontal strata of the coal measures and of the Waverley sandstone to a depth of from three hundred to five hundred feet, and are everywhere lined by terraces of 46 G. F. Wright—Glaciated Area of Ohio. ravel which are far above the present high-water mark. The hio River, from far below Cincinnati to the head waters of the Alleghany and Monongahela Rivers, a distance of more than fifteen hundred miles, occupies a narrow pre-glacial val- ley, and was the great distributer of the drift brought into it by the streams from the north which all along emerged during the Glacial period from the ice-front, and which in some places approached to within a few miles of the river. Upon the high- lands in this unglaciated region the soil is shallow, and consists _ of the remnants of the rocks in place which have been disinte- grated by sub-aerial agencies. The contrast between the gla- ciated and the unglaciated areas of Ohio appears upon the aed of the Annual Crop Report. According to the Report or September, 1882, the average production of wheat per acre in the glaciated area, reckoned by counties, is in many cases twice as great asin the unglaciated. The average production per acre in the whole glaciated area is about fourteen bushels, and in the unglaciated, nine bushels. e southern margin of the glaciated area of Ohio is not everywhere marked by such a relative excess of accumulation of glaciated material as is found through Cape Cod, on the county, twelve miles north of the Ohio River, and continues nearly west to the middle of Stark county where it turns more to the south, crossing the northern part of Holmes county, to the northeast corner of Knox, where it turns at right angles to the south, running through the eastern part of Knox and Lick- ing counties, the western part of Perry, turning here so as to pass through Lancaster in Fairfield county; touching the western edge of Hocking and entering Ross at Adelphi, in the northeast corner. Here it turns to the west, crossing the Scioto Valley a few miles north of Chillicothe, and emerging from the county at its southwest corner, proceeding thence through the southeastern corner of Highland, the northwestern of Adams, reaching the Ohio River in the southern part of Brown county, near Higginsport. Cincinnati was completely enveloped by ice during the Glacial period, and extensive glacial deposits exist in the northern part of Campbell and Boone counties, Ky., and near Aurora, in Dearborn county, Ind. G. F. Wright—Glaciated Area of Ohio. 47 MoreE DETAILED ACCOUNT. Through Columbiana county as in the adjoining counties of Pennsylvania, south of the heavy deposits of till there is a fringe from one to three miles wide. Over this margin there are scattered evidences of glacial action, consisting of granite bowlders and patches of till here and there upon the highlands, at an elevation of from three hundred to five hundred feet above the Ohio River. North of this fringe the till is continuous and everywhere of great depth. At Palestine, on the eastern edge of the county, and at New Alexundria, near the western side, wells are reported in the till fifty feet deep. New Alexandria is upon the highest land in that part of the country, and the glacial deposits are marked in moderate degree by the knobs and kettle-holes characteristic of the moraine upon the south shore of New England. A mile or two west of Canton, in Stark county, the accumulations of glaciated material are upon a scale equal to anything upon Cape Cod. The northern part of Holmes county is covered with till which is everywhere of great depth, and in numerous places near the margin displays, though in a moderate degree, the familiar inequalities of the New England moraine. After the southern deflection in Knox county, the glaciated region is entered near Danville, from the east, on the Columbus, Mount Vernon, and Akron Railroad, through a cutin till a quarter of a mile long, and from thirty to forty feet in depth. At the old village of Danville near by, upon a neighboring hill, wells are reported as descending more than a hundred feet before reaching the bottom ‘of the till. Through Licking county, both north and south of Newark, the depth of the glacial envelope is great up to a short distance of its eastern edge. At the old reservoir in Perry county, the distinct features of a moraine come out. The hill upon which Thornville is built is a mass of glaciated material in which wells descend from thirty to fifty feet without striking rock. This is upon the highest land of the vicinity. The reservoir itself seems to be in a great kettle-hole or moraine basin. All through Fairfield county, the glacial accumulation is of a great depth down to a very short distance of its margin. But per- haps the most remarkable of all the portions of this line in Ohio is that running from Adelphi, in the northeast corner of Ross county, to the Scioto River. The accumulation at Adelphi is more than two hundred feet, and continues at this height for many miles westward. Riding along upon its uneven summit, one finds the surface strewn with granite bowlders, and sees stretching off to the northwest the magnificent aud fertile plains of Pickaway county, while close to the south of him, yet sepa- rated by a distinct interval, are the cliffs of Waverley sandstone, rising two hundred or three hundred feet higher, which here 48 G. F. Wright—Glaciated Area of Ohio. and onward to the south pretty closely approach the boundary of the glaciated region. Through the southeastern corner of Highland county and the northwesterii of Adams, the terminal accumulation is less marked than in Ross county ; still the boundary of the glaciated region is easily determined. It ap- proaches the river in the vicinity of Ripley and Higginsport in Brown county, and crosses it from Clermont county, so as to enter Kentucky a half mile north of the line between Camp- bell and Pendleton counties. Cincinnati was, as I have said, covered with ice during a portion of the Glacial period. . There is an undoubted deposit of till, at the railroad station at Wal- nut Hills, nearly 400 feet above the river. At North Bend the tunnel of the sera ep Cincinnati and LaFayette ~ road, leading from the Ohio to the Miami, is tee i an acc mulation of till which rises 300 feet above the ri But the most interesting fact of all is, that te ice extended across the Ohio River into Campbell , Kenton, and Boone coun- ties, Ky., leaving granite bowlders and deposits of till upon the hilltops more than five hundred feet above the river. The glacial boundary first crosses the Ohio River twenty-five miles above Cincinnati, entering Kentucky near the southwestern corner of Campbell goes nearly opposite Pt. Pleasant, in Clermont count ill, containing granite bowlders and scratched pebbles, covers the hills in the vicinity of Carthage, Campbell county, and continues, to a greater or less extent, south along the ridge road as far as Flag’s Spring. Here all signs of glacia- tion suddenly disappear. At Flag’s Spring occurs an extensive deposit of water-worn pebbles which have been cemented to- ee! by lime. The pebbles are themselves mostly of lime. he deposit is in a valley tributary to Twelve Mile Creek (which runs to the north), and rises from twenty to thirty feet above the present valley. It resembles in nearly every respect the post-glacial conglomerate known as “Split Rock,” at the mouth of Woolper Creek, about twenty-five miles below Cincinnati, where the glacial boundary recrosses the Ohio, and enters Indi- ana near Aurora. Whether there are granite pebbles in the conglomerate at Flag’s Spring I am unable to say, owing to the haste with which I was compelled to examine it. at Woolper Creek, granitic pebbles in small quantity form a constituent element of the conglomerate. One was observed which is two feet in diameter. The limestone pebbles in this conglomerate are frequently three or four feetin diameter. As pointed out forty years ago by Prof. Locke, and noticed later by Dr. Sutton, this conglomerate at Woolper Creek is not confined to the immediate vicinity of the Ohio; though there it rises more than one hundred feet above low water mark. The conglomerate is conspicuously developed on the summit of G. F. Wright—Glaciated Area of Ohio. 49 the hills for three or four miles southeast, and four or five. hun- dred feet above the river, and here, as at Flag’s Spring, on the other side of Cincinnati, the formation marks the true glacial boundary. It would seem, however, that the ice nowhere ex- tended into Kentucky more than four or five miles from the river. Near Burlington, in Boone county, on one of the tribu- taries to Gunpowder Creek, which flows to the south, and whose source is between five hundred and six hundred feet above the river, there is a noticeable collection of granitic bowlders mark- ing the southern extent of the ice. Fifteen or twenty of these, from one to three feet in diameter, were counted in a small space. Three or four of these were composed of a metamorphic con- glomerate containing jasper pebbles peculiar to the eastern shore of Lake sub-glacial channel was kept open. It would scarcely seem possible that this was the case at Cincinnati; for the trough of | the Ohio is considerably wider than that of the Upper Alle- ghany, and not far from fifty miles of the Ohio: Valley, border- ing Campbell, Kenton, and Boone counties, Ky., must have been covered by glacial ice. Probably, fora short time, the ice - at Cincinnati formed an obstruction to the channel. But what was the course of its overflow I am not prepared to say. The obstruction must have been at least five hundred or six hun- dred feet in depth, this being the height of the watershed be- tween the Licking River in Kentucky and the Ohio River on either side. Such an obstruction would set back the water of the Ohio far up into the valleys of the Alleghany and the Mo- nongahela, submerging the site of Pittsburg three hundred feet. (The low water mark at Cincinnati is 441 feet above the sea, that of Pittsburg 715 feet.) It remains to be seen how much light this may shed upon the terraces which mark the Ohio and its tributaries in Western Pennsylvania. TERRACES, . facts connected with each stream mentioned. streams in their course through the glaciated area have much more gentle current, and much less distinct valleys, than in the unglaciated area, and the point where a stream emerges from a glaciated area is pretty sure to be marked by terraces of excep- tional height, ad exceptionally coarse in their composition, _ Am. Jour. Sor.—Tarep Sunres, Vou. XXVI, No. 151.—Juy, 1883. Bee 50 G. F. Wright—Glaciated Area of Ohio. 1. Big Beaver Creek, in sim d Socclm emerges from the gla- ciated re ion at Chewtown, in wrence county. ere, the terrace is, according to White, 160 ‘feet above the level of the stream, and is strewn with granitic boulders. At the junction of this stream with the Oh 10, fifteen or twenty miles below, the terraces are remarkable and instructive. The highest is from 280 to 300 feet above the Ohio River. The towns of Beaver above the level of the Ohio. The composition of that part of this terrace occupying the angle upon which Beaver City is built, and down stream from the junction, differs remarkably from that upon which Rochester is built, on the angle up stream from the junction. In the angle below the siintion the terrace is composed of rounded pebbles of quartzite, gneiss and gran- ite, many of them even near the surface being a foot or two in diameter. In the angle abice the junction, granitic sega are exceedingly rare, and pebbles of any kind more - than two or three inches in diameter are scarce. The ex- planation | is evident. To use Prof. Dana’s term when speak- ing of the Connecticut River (see this Soucnal Dec., 1881, . 466), the Ohio is the great distributer, and the Beaver is here the principal contributor, of drift material. The Ohio ’ does not itself have direct access to bowlders which have been transported by glacial ice. The drainage basin of the Beaver is, however, icin with glacial débris; and, as the granitic Passing now in order ‘from east to west, — more important terraces of the various streams of Ohio as they emerge - the glaciated area, are as follows: the measurements unless otherwise indicated, were made with a hand level, and in most cases the uncertainty can scarcely be more than a few inches: 2. The Middle Fork of Little Beaver emerges from the glaciated area at New Lisbon. The terrace here shows no distinct stratifi- cation bbles from 10 to 15 inches in ‘diameter are numerous ; the heft above the river at railroad station is 36 feet ; and it extends, with some interruptions, five miles down the river to near Elkton, but at a diminished height. These terraces are extensively mined for kidney iron ore. Granitic pebbles are bundant. At Teegarden, five miles above, the channel is nar- rower ; the terrace, 48 feet; material, very coarse, some of the pebbles being four feet in diameter. 8. Hast Branch of Sandy Oreek.—This is a branch of the Tus- carawas, which empties into the Muskingum. At Hast Roches- G. F. Wright—Glaciated Area of Ohio. 51 On the west side of the city the terrace rises in successive stages to more than eighty feet, and the surface grows more and more uneven, until about two miles back from the creek, it emerges into an enormous kame running nearly north and south and known as “ Buck’s Ridge.” This ridge is identical in its structure with the kames of New England. Where it is in- tersected by the Fort Wayneand Chicago R. R., the kame rises eighty-five feet above the plain, is coarsely stratified, contains — es many granitic pebbles, one of which, 21$ feet higher than the railroad, measured 55 X 46X18 inches. There were large spaces in which no stratification appeared. Pebbles upon the summit from two to five inches in diameter are numerous. e section exposed shows a base of 570 feet, with an altitude of 85 feet. The slope upon the east side, towards Canton, varies from 18° to 25°, on the west sideit is a little more gentle. An extensive sandy plain full of gentle swells and ridges stretches to the westward, while the space toward Canton is occupied by the — . more nearly level terrace. 150 yards north of the section just described begins a series of enormous dry kettle-holes, whose : fe rims are upon a level with the top of the kame. One measured _ 300X200 feet, was 40 feet deep, with sides sloping inward 24°. A granitic bowlder in one of these measured 51 x 25 x 31 a inches. This series of kettle-holes stretches northward, and connects with a line of glacial lakes extending to Akron, which occupies a pass on the watershed between the valley of — ope ahoga and that of the Tuscarawas. u of Canton one mile and a half, and just below the a a Junction of the two branches of the Nimishillen, there aretwo well-marked terraces, the first of which is much the broader, oe 52 G. F. Wright—Glaciated Area of Ohio. and is but thirty-eight feet above the stream. The upper ter- race upon the east side is seventy-four feet Rate the stream, and on the west side seventy-nine feet. The pebbles in the upper terrace are a mixture of granite and local rock, many of them a foot in diameter; one granite pebble measured more than two feet. The Tuscarawas River emerges from the glaciated region two miles above Bolivar, on the boundary between Stark and Tuscarawas counties. Here upon the north side of the river (which makes an immense ox-bow opening to the south), is an enormous kame-like accumulation, very coarse where exposed near the summit, and running for a mile or more parallel with the river (nearly east and west), and bearing upon its bae numerous granitic bowlders. The terrace from which this kame rises is thirty-six feet above the river, and the kame itself rises 154 feet. The ox-bow is occupied ‘by a gravel deposit whose surface is Ati cane feet above the river. From this ‘point down, the stream occupies a narrower valley, with dimin- ishing terraces, but at Zoar, five miles below, wells sunk thirty feet are still in gravel. Above the ox-bow, and upon the west. side of the river, a terrace Baty -one feet in height continues fora mile or more without change. 6. ar Oreek, another tributary of the Epa weihs a preg ie from the glaciated area at Beech City, a few miles west of Bol- ivar. Extensive kame-like deposits mark the phic “a the railroad for several miles north of this point. One and a half miles below Beech City, towards Deardoff’s Mills, the accumu- lations of gravel in the valley are immense. The valley is me about one mile wide. The gravel is Srequendly thrown of which are from twenty to thirty feet aboye the general level. Below this point, as seen from the cars, the gravel deposits seem gradually to diminish and become of finer material. Below New Comerstown much of the way the valley is bor- dered with a terrace of fine gravel from fifteen to twenty feet high. At Coshocton, where the Killbuck and Tuscarawas rivers unite, the terrace is noteworthy for its extent, but there valley is about one half mile wide. Pebbles from one to three inches in diameter are abundant, and are largely granitic, At Zanesville the ene seems narrower, but there is no percepti- ble increase of terra A glance at the map will show that from Zoar station nm Zanesville the river is nearly parallel with the glacial boundary, and from fifteen to twenty miles _ distant, and is constantly ere tributaries whose headwa- ters are in the glaciated region ¢ G. F. Wright—Glaciated Area of Ohio. 53 the flood plain. Three miles farther south, at Oxford, there is Streams meet, there is a gravel deposit two miles or more in di- ameter about twenty-five feet above the flood plain. On the east side of this plain, near the junction of Martin’s Creek and the Killbuck, there is a kame-like accumulation extending one- eighth of a mile northwest by southeast. The surface is very much broken, displaying many kettle-holes. A railroad cut- ting through it shows some scratched stones in the material, some distance above the rime be a terrace which rises 107 > feet above the river, and is compos Sive deposits of rather fine gravel. 9. Th : e Licking River emerges from the glaciated region at . | Newark. Three forks unite here to form the main stream, and as usual in such places there is an extensive gravel plain Stretching inward. This plain is about twenty feet above the river. The city is built upon it, and it was a favorite resort for __ the mound builders. For a mile and a half below the city, the _ river as it enters the narrower channel is bordered on the north a f. ; largely of coarse granitic nee pebbles. This terrace also extends for a half mile below the : Junction. At Gann station, eight miles below, there are exten- 54 G. F. Wright—Glaciated Area of Ohio. by a terrace, which, at the cemetery, is 108 feet above the river. ra terrace upon the south bank opposite the city is but sixty “10. Jonathan Creek is a tributary of the Muskingum, rising in Thorn township, Perry county, near sa eastern end o Licking Summit reservoir. e valle which it runs af- forded an important outlet to the Aasatad region. It is about a mile wide, and kame-like ridges of gravel, from fifteen to ee feet in ne extend for a mile or more down the val- another creek, whose headwaters are near Somerset, and out: side of the glaciated region where terraces and all other signs of drift are altogether absent. The Hocking River issues from the glaciated area at Lancaster. I did not examine the present valley of the stream outlet. Gravel is specially abundant where small tributaries have come in from the glaciated region just to the north. At the mouth of Raccoon Creek, near Berne station, gravel depos- its rise Se hills sixty feet. 12. The Scioto Fiver occupies a much broader valley than any of the preceding, and is much the largest stream issuing from the glaciated region before reaching the Ohio. The gla- cial boundary crosses it a few miles above Chillicothe, and the terraces from Circleville down are worthy of close study ; but 1 must confine myself to the gravel deposits near the glacial boundary. In the southern part of section 29, Green township, three miles east of the river, there are enormous kames risin (according to barometer) 150 feet above the general level, ba: running in a north and south direction.~ The material of this kame is rather fine, and consists principally of limestone peb- bles. Above this point the plain is very broad and extensive ; below this, the valley contracts toa width not over two miles, and is bounded upon either side by pre pon sandstone hills, ee rise 500 or 600 feet above the valley. On goin these kames to the river, westward, chive broad parallel ridges are encountered, each one in order ‘toward the river extending sore south. The second one of these rises abruptly to a G. F. Wright—Glaciated Area of Ohio. 55 height of 48 feet above the flood plain. Kame-like ridges also appear upon the west side of the river, near the southeastern corner of Union township. 13. Paint Creek.—Professor Orton (Second Geological Survey of Ohio, vol. ii, pp. 653-655), briefly describes one of the most interesting results of glacial action, occurring upon Paint Creek, about 5 miles west of Chillicothe (see map). Paint Creek to the southward, cut through precipitous cliffs. This post — glacial gorge is about three miles long, 300 feet in depth, ane not over 200 feet wideat the bottom. Immense kames stretch — across the old valley from the North Fork, especially near Cat ail Run. Some of them are at least 200 feet above the - poet flood plain of the creek. Near the summit of these mes pebbles two feet through are interstratified with coarse sand, and granitic bowlders three feet in diameter rest upon their summits. A few rods above the junction of Cat ail Run is a gravel deposit facing Paint Creek and 140 feet high, enclosing immense kettle-holes. For four or peed ' miles up Paint Creek there continues to be a terrace from 4 56 G. F. Wright—Glaciated Area of Ohio. to 150 feet above the stream. It is pretty clear that the ice did not extend into this portion of the valley; but it certainly surmounted the hills to the north, and all the small streams coming down from them must have been gorged with water from the melting ice. At Bainbridge, twelve miles southwest, on the creek the terrace is twenty feet above the flood plain, and contains great number of pebbles four or five inches through, and occasionally a granite bowlder four feet through. 14. hio River does not havea continuous terrace. ‘The towns of Ripley, Higginsport and New Richmond, above Cin- cinnati, are built upon gravel deposits that are about sixty feet above low-water mark. 1ese towns were all flooded in Janu- ary last. The upper portion of the old part of Cincinnati is, however, upon a glacial terrace that is about sixty feet higher. The junction of the Miami with the Ohio below Cincinnati, is characterized by gravel deposits of enormous extent. The val- ley is here from three to four miles wide, and above Aurora, near Lawrenceburg, is bordered upon the west by a terrace whose surface is seventy-eight feet above the flood plain of the river, upon which Lawrenceburg is built, and 112 feet above low- water mark. The terrace is here from one-fourth to three- fourths of a mile in width. The gravel deposit upon the Ken- ce CONCLUSION. It is not best at present to speculate too freely upon these facts. Hach of these tributaries to the Ohio should be care- _ fully studied through its entire course, and much remains to be done upon the Ohio itself. Enough, however, appears to give new interest to the whole question of the glacial period, and to raise the hope that the amount of erosion afforded b the streams of the interior will afford some additional evidence concerning the date of the close of the glacial period in Amer- ica. The full report of my last summer’s work, with more de- tailed maps, will be published by the Cleveland Historical Society, whose friends have borne my expense in the field. G. A. Liebig—Specific Heat of Water. 57 Art. VITI.—On the Variation of the Specific Heat of Water ; by G. A. Lixzsie, Student of Physics in the Johns Hopkins University. Unt the year 1877 it was generally believed by Hinlag ea: f increased regularly from 0° to of temperature, but decreased from 0° to a minimum at about 30°. In 1882, F. Neesen,t of Berlin, investigated the sub- ject, deducing the variation of the specific heat of water from the specific heat of platinum, which he had previously determined ; and although his results are not quantitatively the same as Rowland’s they are so qualitatively, i. e. they show that the specific heat of water decreases from 0° to a minimurn somewhere near 30°. Owing to the general interest and im- portance of these conclusions, I have, at the instance of Pro- fessor Rowland, undertaken during the last few months a new series of experiments. The apparatus used was that devised and employed by him in his researches, and the method of procedure was also as nearly as possible identical with his. The two thermometers (Nos. 108,947 and 108,954) necessary for the work were made by Hicks, and graduated in mil-— limeters. They were carefully calibrated and compared with made of English glass are characterized by this roperty. aa “4 od can be had * Mech. Equiv. of Heat, Proc. Am. Academy Sciences, 1880. : a8 + Ann. Physik u. Chemie, neue Folge, vol. xviii, 1883. oe These—Nos. 6.163 and 7,832—were made by Baudin, and had frequently been Compared with the air thermometer. No. 6,163 was used by Professor Row- land in his before-mentioned research re 58 G. A. Iiebig—Specifie Heat of Water. and the eae, was held in place by three vulcanite strips to prevent conduction to the jacket. Although when experi- menting at low temperatures the vessel B was useless, still it was often kept in place and the water from the melting ice allowed to flow through it before entering the calorimeter. In no case did the temperature of the water from the ice, when in the vessel B, differ appreciably from zero. The opening into the stop- -cock was always covered with fine wire gauze to pre- -vent Lay nae of ice from being carried into the calorimeter wi he flowing water. The calorimeter was made of very thin siaetey and lightly plated with nickel; three orifices on the top permitted the sr pe of the vulcanite spout and the two thermometers. The weight of the calorimeter was 888°5 grams and its calorific ca eis 35-4 grams. During the course of-the investigation, the stirrer H having been broken n, it was neces- sary, in order to repair it, to unsolder and afterwards resolder the top of the calorimeter. In this way the weight of the calorimeter increased four grams. Bat as the increase was due entirely to solder, nothing elie having been removed or added, the new capacity was readily determined. Thus, assuming sol- der to be composed of equal parts of tin and lead, its specific heat between 0° and 40° w ould be about °048, therefor re “043 X 4 == 172 or ‘2 must be added to ar ne value of the capacity, mak- ing 35°6 and the weight 392° grams. The method of =r pesiaonces was as follows: the vessel A having been filled with broken ice, the thermometers were im- mersed therein and after about ten or twelve minutes their zero G. A. Inebig—Specific Heat of Water. 59 r A into the calorimeter, and the other thermometer having been placed in the latter, the flow of water was discontinued, and readings of both thermometers taken every minute as be- Let W be the weight of the calorimeter alone. ‘ Let W, be the weight of the calorimeter + water before adding water from vessel A. : Let W,, be the weight of the calorimeter + water after adding water from vessel A. i ¢ = temperature of calorimeter before, ¢, = temperature of mixture. == temperature of water in vessel A. Then with the proper corrections (W,—W)(¢—2) xsp. heat between ¢ and ¢, =constant, then (W,—W,)(¢,,—t) Xsp. heat between ¢, and ¢, sp. heat between ¢, and ¢, (W,—W)(é,—4) sp. heat between ¢, and ¢” (W,,—W,)(¢,,—¢, W = with added solder 392°5; W, = 1574°8; W,, = 2419°9. Zero readings of thermometer 108,947 were "35 “38 ‘38 Zero readings of thermometer 108,954 were 00 00 “00 60 G. A. Liebig—Specific Heat of Water. Readings on Thermometer. Cc a Time. In ealorimeter. In vessel A. 243°39 0°00 43 242°95 0°00 44 242°50 0°00 45 242°05 0°00 In calorimeter. 462 143°50 140°60 47% 143°60 140°68 48% 143°70 140°74 Water running from time 45% to 463, therefore temperature of water in calorimeter at the instant of mixing is that at time 45% or 241°75 and the temperature of mixture ‘the mean of 140°53 a 143°40, now . 241°75 corrected +--019 for zero and + 046 for stem = 33°507 143-40 corrected +°019 for zero and — 004 for stem = 19°741 t 140°53 corrected 0°00 for zero and — 004 for stem = 19°729 W — W=1574'8—392'5 + 35° as 1 | ¢, —t=33°507 — 19°735 W. —W = 2419°9—1574841°1 t,—t,=19°735—0 hence sp. heat 0°—19° _(1574"8—392°5 + 35°6 + 1:1) (33-507 — 19-735) ap. heat 19°—33° ———(2419°9—16748411)19735 The temperatures throughout are on the absolute scale. The results are given in a more concise form in Table E. In this table the first two columns give the weight of the calorimeter and senna water before and after the addition of water from the reservoir A. The next eight, of which four are devoted to ihemnomelar 108,947 and four to 108,954, are eg ne by the readings, temperature of surrounding air, correction for pro- trading stem and reduced temperature (absolute scale). In =1°0034 ture, occupy the lower row. The ratios of the specific heats between the assigned limits will be found in the last two col- umns, one of which is taken up by Rowland’s figures. Although it was attempted to make the limits coincide with Rowlaha's still in many cases this was impracticable and blanks have in consequence been left in three or four places. Where the temperature intervals are te a it will be seen that there is great similarity in the resu It may be interesting to further se nant these values with those which can be computed from the tables given in Pro- fessor Rowland’s paper on the mechanical eda of heat. The specific heat varids directly as the mechanical equiva- lent; it is therefore only necessary to plot a curve with the G. A. Liebig—Specifie Heat of Water. z900-T= 21% $£00-Ta eee Sht-ee | Zoot 90-991 | €81-€2 | Zoo+ OL-891 wun te<04 EZ—-0 | 00-0 000 0-28 | 00-0 L6E-9€ | P9O+ | 0.4% |. E2092 HM | 90816 | L-8sPt “TESTS Vp agg.ta eee] 968-81 | L00— 09-FET | 918-81 | LoO— 0%-LET [ey Soe 61-0 | 00-0 000 0-82 | 00-0 190-08 | 120+ | 0.8% | 92-112 ey | ¢-1eez | g.9r9T L9o0-T= OE BY og. LET 18] st9.08 | s00— 80-LFI | 499-02 | g00— 86-6F1 peur ; 81-0 12-0 | 00-0 000 0-€2 | 00.0 COL-I€ | ceot | 0.88 | ¢9.22 Teruy | g.1pe2 | §-LL91 PORE eet A eeog tise 2) OBR tS oll SL-691 | ¥98-€2 | O10+ _ | TR-BAt wea ; %2—0 | 00-0 000 0-28 | 00-0 969-08 | PEO+ | 0.08 | 09-02% IBIGT | L-E2S | 8-HE8T 6900-1 = 2e— 18) 49.7 2892] oen6t | F00— €9-0F1 | IFL-61 | ¥FOO— OF-8F1 jeu 12-0 0Z—0 | 00-0 000 0-22 | 00-0 LOS-e£ | 9604+ | O22 | on.1¥2 My | 6-61FZ | 8-FLgT r966. =28— 88) 904, 82-2) igre | Foot 00-3LT | 8FLPS | FOOt 00-S41 [eur 62—1% Vo—T1G) 90F-6% | OLO+ | OF@ | 09-602 | 6E6-02 | FOO— | 0.6% | 00.¢91 renmy | T4962 | 1-1L61 egos. =8O— FE) 8, eel cepae | F00+ OO-FLE | Lr-Fe | HOOF | 00-441 feuny tE—08 ve—Te) B98-0E | OLO+ | O68 | OF-918 | 820.12 | POO— | 0€¢ | 00.241 emuy | 1.9193 | GLI See eg el eee eX Be ae 193-L2 | 910+ 9-161 [euly a Lo—9¢) Iea.1E | PeOt+ | 0.28 | GL-bas | 19-92 | GOOt+ | 0.22 | 00.¢81 HTT | F-Fe9% | .1Z61 €700-T= 8818 pony. 88-18! 26-02 | ¥00- LL-6#I | 9€6-:08 | FoO— 00-291 Teuls 1Z—0 1Z—0 | 00-0 000 0-€% | 00-0 609-82 | LIO+ | 0.8% | 02-902 Temmy | ¢.89ee | -Le81 4200-12641 9T00-1=See ie Fras ae 8LE-LT 900— 68-221 peu LI—-0 LI-0 | 00-0. | 000 0-18 | 00-0 F10-6G | GOO+ | O-1% | 91-691 THIOL | F-9L96 | 9.601% moet eee | e500. Tae ee] SL8-B6 4 000 96-291 | 68-22 | 000 ¥0-991 Teay ZZ—0 | 00-0 000 0-23 | 00-0 G96-62 | 620+ | 0.8% | SF-912 THU] | 9.829% | 9.4108 won---- - | geo9.7 4 8Y sone L00— 86-16 oSL-§1 L00— 92-001 |» yeutg : €I—-0 | 00-0 000 Ool&| 00-0 LE6-91 | 900— | 0.1%] 9%-€2T emmy} 61681 | £.6091 “pus[Moy “SIQ9FT “92ny,dmay, “012994300 | ‘Irv | ‘Suypeoy | -oany,dmey, |-aorro02209 | av “saqpeoy ‘10uV *e1070Gf ‘s7eeq OgIVeds 94] Jo sopIe4 poonpay | *J0}9W1IO[BO UT SpABAIOIE “Vy 198804 Uy 184 ‘o6'gor Ao,0UI0ULION, “AJOMPAOTVO Uy LFE‘SOL Jo}euLOULIAY “AOJOWITLOTRD Jo! INSTA dita NS NN Sa es Sele Pe Sek ere ay ‘| QI 62 G. A. Liebig—Specijic Heat of Water. values of the mechanical equivalent (given in table LIII) at different temperatures as ordinates and temperatures as ab- scisse. en measuring off ordinates as averages between the required limits, and dividing one by tbe other, the ratios of the “ren heats between the same degrees of temperature will be obta TaBLE II. SEC OTRT UTS. d eOR BOS TSIDY ). owtand: Neesen, Liebig. 0—14 oye 1:0046 Sere cea A 1:0030 pars 1:0056 10027 oes 1:0015 a5 10067 10024 1:0079 Se ae 1:0063 1:0025 1:0099 igus ad 10065 1:0067 10111 1:0057 19— 30 eas 1:0066 1:0062 as 1-0053 oat 10064 oe ey 1-0051 — 1-0060 1:0045 1:0358 1:0032 a 1:0059 ae ee 10043 sans | 10068 oak tees 1-0034 as 1-0058 bees gee 10045 a 10013 9983 ‘9794 ‘9980 =a 10012 pus re 9989 20-36 1-0007 "9954 eee mo Sete 32—38 pts : pig oe gee A glance at table II will show how these compare with the results of other determinations. It will be remarked that, although i in no case do the figures (with the exception of Nee- sen’s) differ very greatly among themselves, s til, there is a re- mar vis discrepancy in the indications of ais ition of the minim The values deduced from the mechanical equiva- lent ange place the minimum at about 80°, while those obtained from direct SS as aig! place it at about Chemistry and Physics. 63 Baltimore, May 16, 1883. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. : I. CHEMISTRY AND Puysics. 1. On the Variability of the Law of Definite Proportions.— A year or more ago, Schutzenberger announced that in analyzing some hydrocarbons, the sum of the carbon and hydrogen was 101 for 100 parts material; the result under other conditions being normal. BovurLErow has called attention to this anomaly, as illustrating views he has held for three years. 1e result can be accounted for by supposing (1) that the absolute quantity of ponderable matter has increased, that which we call energy being transformed into that which we call matter; or (2) the quantity of matter remaining the same, its weight has increased; neither of which hypotheses are admissible; or (3) that the weight of the substance has not varied but its chemical value has changed. If when the classic researches of Stas are taken into the account. Hence he has undertaken a series of experiments to test it. fixed the absolute constancy of atomic weights, it is true, but | ay be other conditions: ition of bodies will vary. : that the atomic weights cannot be expressed in whole numbers; _ 64 Scientifie T Oe but who can say, in the present state of science, that the hypothe- sis of Prout does not rest on a more or less solid foundation ? Other experimental laws, as for example, that "of Boyle and Mar- question be to deny the absolute a of Stony _ weights. fw : the: mass of matter; on the contrary, the mass may e the same. woke the energy increase, as when the velocity increases. Why may not the same thing take Bene for ehemmioal energy, although confined within certain narrow limits? At first it appears pica eS parts e. carbon (or rather 31°92 for 11-97); it will be a combina- — tion of carbon and ox gen in which the ae, Somat el of the constituents may vary, for instance, between the 8 12:32 an 11°8:32, But will these varieties of carbon dioxide constitute 5 —- ob o oO i) ‘eal ~ O et Bg @ 4 (=) — oO S N29 @ Dm g o 8 7S =| fo) re) 4 ® ° = tS remaining wished ee “all cases since the relative iidanligee of chemical energy acting on the side of each element remain the same in spite of the changes in the mass of the carriers of this Afeoe the presentation of the above paper to the Chemical Soci- ety of Paris by Wurtz, ScuuTzeNBERGER gave his views on the subject, aera’ the facts which led hin to the conclusion that the law of definite proportions was not absolute as generally sup- osed. poste rding to his analyses, a body such as water ma vary in composition between very narrow limits, the differences not sensibly affecting its fae orga Between these limits , there is a ratio pga apatite o the maximum stability which in the ¢ Chemistry and Physics. 65 products could escape. (2) When diamond is burned at a high temperature in pure oxygen, the carbon dioxide formed has oxidiz- ing properties which it does not possess when produced by the com- dark red heat; while one equivalent of hydrogen removes at the same temperature only 7:96. If the equivalent of O be 8, then known weight of zinc in HCl) and the water formed, the ratio differs granular CuO over a length of 80 cm. heated to redness, the ratio mperature, 7°90 to 7°93; if contains more oxygen than that produced by oxidizing the lower — 66 Scientific Intelligence. oxide. MnO, prepared by calcining the nitrate contains more oxygen than the formula requires. Ferric oxide obtained from gives for lead an atomic weight of 207°2; while that obtained by calcining the carbonate in nitrogen, contains less oxygen. The same differences are observed with cadmium, pe and Sophy oxide.— Bull. Soc. Ch., Il, xxxix, 257, 263, Mch. 1 2. On Platinized Magnesium as a Reducing ‘Avent —Baio called attention to the fact that magnesium, which has vaintely no action upon pure water, decomposes this liquid rapidly wit the evolution of hydrogen ‘and the e production of magnesium oe e drate, on the addition of a few drops of rdatinie chloride. therefore recommends platinized magnesium as a reducing agent. 1883, 3. On a New Synthesis of Anthracene.—In the hope of produc ing an isomeric tetraphenylethane, Anscatrz and Enrzp studied the action of aluminum chloride upon Geirabioniae ‘of acetylene dissolved in benzene. From the products of the reac- tion, a hydrocarbon was easily isolated, Pome se soluble in the ordinary solvents, which instead of the expected tetraphenyleth- ane proved to be anthracene. The reaction may be represented as follows :— So ae OE ORS: | CH: AAR Br a Hy: xe H=C,H, See C,H,+(HBr), The importance ms this apnthenia is evident. In the first place it affords the first experimental evidence for the assumption gener- ally made that the middle carbon atoms in anthracene are directly united. And in the second, it is the first aluminum chloride reac- tion in which a single ; heeenn? molecule gives up two hyaione) atoms to unite with a eee residue.— Ber. Be Se hi Ges., xvi, 623, Apri ‘ n the Preparation ‘of Acetol from Sugar. hoor is “the alcohol ‘of acetone. EmMERtine and Locxs have prepared it ee both dextrose aia eschatiane: Anhydrous dextrose is fused in retort and half its weight of caustic potash added in small piso With active evolution of empyreumatic fumes, a liquid distilled over which hires Fehling’s solution in the cold. On fractioning, a combustible liquid was obtained boiling at 80°. But the dehy- drating ties ‘ difficult ; so that the presence of the acetol was ‘ Chemistry and Physics. 67 proved: Ist, by oxides “ie chromic acid mick gave acetic nd carbonic acids; and 2d, reducing copper oxide with i Saccharose also yields’ acetol o this treatment.— Ber. es — Ges., xvi, eli April, 18 e Product of ‘the slow Combustion of Buher. «The seiulearly: penetrating odor produced by the slow combustion of er has been examined by Lucier. From 150 to 200. c. of ether, 25 to 30 c. «. ag the crude product was obtained. This exposed for ten days over sulphuric acid gave crystals in rhom- bic prisms resembling ice flowers, soluble in water, alcohol, ether and chloroform, fosing at 51°, — in ees and ee phase in the light of a given seat A reachin nga any poi of the diffracted spectrum will never exceed A/4, the di remain unaltered, the definition aN the brightness of the spec- trum will both be i increased.” With lenses of focal length which | are indicated, paintngre shows that a plane grating ruled on glass, would in certain cases give more light for oer Pie eck than a concave grating. Phil Mag., J une, 1883, 41 7. Regenerative theory of Solar action.—Under this title ‘Ver Ernest H. Coox criti sion ciples theory of solar en ergy. No found that it contained staal me same opal ned quantity of oxygen as that collected at the same time in Paris, runner analyzed the air Solccwd % yh ee and at the bottom of the Faulhorn and found the s e proportions of oxygen and nitro- ge Frankland has fae: that the composition of air u altitudes of 14,000 feet is constant. There is, therefore, no ter- restrial evidence of the separation of the constituents of the atmos- = which the theory supposes. Again the evidence for the t theory deduced from the e composition of meteorites is not conclu- Sive. In “certain meteorites a very la arge paar of carbon dioxide is Pina eeBE bs larger than exists in our @ tmosphere. ssed through an | atmosphere very rich in carbon dioxide. F. Mohr has shown that 68 Scientific Intelligence. a a large proportion of water is contained in the porous structure of meteorites, and he and Prof. Smith have also detected es air of carbonaceous substances in ae odies. hen meteor is raised to a high temperature by coming into nthe with our orm meteorite would thus enclose gases at a high pressure. Since all the planets are also immersed in the supposed atmosphere—of Dr. Siemens, an erial current should form constantly in the northern hemisphere from the northeast, and in the southern from the southeast. These currents wou e opposed to the “return trades.” Mr. Cook discusses the dissociation effects in the atmos- phere of the sun, and finds that the oo of the gases pro- jected into space would be very different from that supposed Dr. Siemens. The s ectroscopy of the pve moreover affords no evidence of Dr. Siemens’ hypothesis.— Phil. Mag., June, — Bi 400-405. 8. Lffect of Pressure on the melting point of ice. Thee ment of Bottomley, which apparently oe the fact char ih in- creased pressure lowers the freezing point of water, is well-know A wire weighted at both ends is thrown over a cake of ice saa cuts through it. The ice melts beneath the wire and freezes pis creased pressure lowers the freezing point. A silk wire, weighted to the same amount as a metallic wire, will not cut ae a 9° of ic pha eh 293 | i 12 V, Die galvanischen Batterier Accumulatoren und Thermo- oa en, eine Beschreibung der hydro- und thermo-elektrischen Stromquellen mit bent igice! Reocksicht ~~ die Bediirfnisse der raxis von W. Ph. Hauck. 320 pp. 1 XI, Die elektrischen Beuacbiears 4elage en mit besonderer Bercksicht pa, ri ihrer ee ne dargestellt von Dr. banitzky. 240 pp. 12mo.—The first volume of this bine series of works on the cent applications - 5 proraaay was noticed in the February number, and the special’ design of the series was there alluded to. The four volu i te gs ntly re-_ ceived cover some of the most important of the topics, and their scope will be gathered fon the titles which are given above in full. Geology and Mineralogy. 69 whe “individual volumes are small, and yet they Sere a megs amount of information compress sed into a small s space. For exam- ple the volume on the Electrical Light, after the discussgon of the theory of the incandescent and are light and the division of the electrical current, the different kinds of lamps are described under five heads: first, the incandescence lights based upon imperfect the are light ich are regulated by an electro-magnet; fourth, the electrical candl h, the lamps with inclined carbons Unde e five heads, some 80 forms of lamps are described, and in so far as the space allows, satisfactory discussion of these subjects II. GroLtogy anp MINERALOGY. Geological unification.—The Swiss “Comité @ unification Bibiogaen of which Prof. Renevier is President, held its third Meeting at Berne, on the 9th of April last, and was occupied with a discussion of questions submitted to c ‘in a circular 0- fessor Capellini of Bologna, President of the last Congress. These questions are a3 be acted upon at the meeting at Zurich in August next. The points of widest interest are the fo owing : In the ahi for the chart of Europe, which has 27 strati- graphical subdivisions, the committee proposes to have the number of divisions of the Cretsecous made three instead of two, and the Permian to have but one in place of two. The Gault and Ceno- monian make the middle Cretaceous. 2) The uniting of the Rhetian to the Lias is recommended, to which in its rocks and fossils it is allied. In Switzerland the Rhe- tian is the first marine sles group after the Triassic which is ordinarily without fos (4) The oe of the Flysch from the Eocene and its union with the Oligocene would be impossible in the larger part of the rt es Alps. ~ The "Wessenalitec beds are often interstratified with e Flysch. (5) The Silurian group with its three divisions, of which the lower aoa * o the Cambrian, should be r epresented on the map by a single tee. of three different shades , as recommended recently by Professor Hebert before the Geolo ogical Society of ance, in a paper aiming to prove that the Cambrian should be responds to Barrande’s three Silurian faunas, the first, secon and third. [This recommendation heir ith reference to the Silurian accords with the its in North America. A separation of ned ambrian from the Silurian, hae What is above proposed, is 70 Scientific Intelligence. not er by any sufficient paleontological or stratigraphical evi The ‘Ons boniferous also: should have its three subdivisions, ee Culm —. the Carboniferous and Permian; an nd s also t soir is recommended for the a an olive rit for the Devonian, and brown for the Siluri (7) The term Series should be used for the higstingt subdivision, and Group for the third in grade. Group was ty for the higher at Bologna (see this J ape ae rip 151, 2). he committee considered also er points. a regards five shades of yellow for the Tertiary as more than be made dis- tinct, and recommends four. keypernchoce andes I may add that it has been recently found 4 in abundance among the voleanic rocks of Southern Colorado. Also, that the hypersthene has bee seg isolated from ee typical “augite? -andesites of ey viz: from Bagonya, Bath, and from the Tokajer Berg. The analyses of these hee sthenes, although not yet ready for ca bisaniont, show them to be and preclude the possibility of an admixture of eK, in the substance analyzed. . The rals of New South Wales ; by ARCHIBALD Liv- also a report by Harrie Wood on the Mineral Products of New South sr and ie on the Geology of ig Soh Wate by C. inson; also a catalogue of works, rs, etc., on the Geology, Paleontolog and Mineralogy of Apotex and T'asma- nia by R. Ether he aes d Robert Logan Jack. The paper by Pr cheer ieee seitadion a description of the minerals of the a y; arranged i in order, bisa numerous analyses; a list of the ral localities is also give e occurrence of gold in New South Wales is described with especial fullness; some interesting facts are given in regard to the finding of large nuggets, in which al Botany and Zoology. | tT III. Botany anp ZooLoey. Monographia Festucarum ee oe E. Hacket. Gravel and Berlin. Th. Fischer, 1882, pp. 216, tab. 4. 8vo.—A noteworthy monograph, by an Austrian osehaues (in the Geen nasium at St. Poelten, Austria) who has already made bis ere as an —— logist. The first part of the work, in German, morphological and histological ; and to this belong the ‘excellent i has Seven, ete. estuca rubra, L., the type of the extravaginales, : rejoices in on subspecies, po of which ran to seven varieties, and some of the varieties run to as many subvarieties. Very thorough - work —— ied much better for the student, as — of these rhe to oa: rank of 4 As Ge. ak 2. Atlas de la Flora des Environs de Paris, par « MM i Cosson et GerMAIN DE Sauer Pr RE.—This second edition vis ere lished by Masson, 1882, in 8vo), ‘conipeiogs 659 figures on 47 cop- — per-plates ; the older plates, as is oe were by on e of the authors and b y Riocreux; the five new ones are by Cus A... are admirable ; — to this edition two pages of eter press are. = to each pla ne : Conpendeien, Flore Atlantice, par E. Cosson.—This Flock A 78 Scientific Intelligence. of the Barbary States (of Lunisia and Morocco as well as Algeria), to which Dr. Cosson has devoted so many years of labor, is now getting forward. The first half of the first volume, issued i 1881, with elaborate maps, is devoted to History and Geo ae Under the first head is a full account of all the botanists who have collected in the Barbary States, or have written upon their botany,—beginning with Tra escant, in 1620, and, among the rest, giving a very interesting account of the Berber Ibrahim, and of the Rabbi NV ardochee, who have ee helped in the knowledge of the botany of Morocco, collecting where no Euro- pean could roan oe the head of he gage is a full gazetteer of the names of places and stati a geographical ae ography, an ogi sketch of the Gres ‘the cartography, eee fee Flore Atlantica, m the same author, Fasc. a, with 25 plates, in imp. 4to, a appeared last autumn. The plates are capital bodega, from ‘drawings by Cusin. They illustrate new Ranunculacee, Papaveracee and Cruciferw, and are accom- panied by 32 pages of letter-press of the same size. With all this in progress, the indefatigable author is again in the field of oes ration in Algeria. 5. Systematic Census of Australian Plants, with Githoo ae Literary, and baa Ml ca nnotations ; by Baron FERDINAND yor Jy . Government Botanist for the Colony of Vic- asculare es. Melbourne, 1882 152, 4to.— place of publication, eeunecal distribution in Australia; and with much fuller references » the The Bains. for the genera than ume, page, and rag reat pains are also taken to trace psi names to their original. hen such names have come dow from the herbalists or from the ancients, they are cited aoa: * Clematis, Linné, gen. pl. 163 (1737) from VEcluse (1576).” one, Tou rt, inst. scl. herb. 275, t. 147 (1700), “from Hippocrates, Theophrastos and Dicneoriies? Useful emer 4 certainly, me would say in a good degree wasted upon catalogue of this kind. And why “ Linné,” after a fashion of the French zoologists? Linn. or Linnaeus is surely to be preferred. t seems to us that more is lost than is gained by the intercala- tion of the monochlamydeous orders among the Polypetale; but whatever our theoretical opinion, considering that the Flora ” Aus- agers and the new Genera Plantarum are just completed upon the ordinary model, we should have spared the Australian stu- e deat the trouble which the present work is likely to give him in _ this regard. On the same egrounie we would have held Chori- Miscellaneous Intelligence. 79 petale ete i Hatin and still more Calycee and Acalycec, in abeyance. All this is, in a good degree, a matter of taste and Sendai, in respect to fo which a botanist who has done and is do- ing so much, so single-handed, and so disinterestedly for the ire on the Aus er continent, bars be allowed to have dicain much an own way, subject, of course, to differences of opin “aig sat indie oe the Steanier “ Blake.” — The Bulletin ot Abe Museum of Comparative Zoology, Vol. X, No. 5, is occupied wit a Report on the Fishes, by G. Brown Goode and Tarleton H. Bean. April, 1883. IV. MiscELLANEOUS ScIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. American Journal of Science and Arts.—In a notice of the desea of Professor Kirtland in volume xv of this Journal (1878), the remark was made that he was the last of its i ato sub- eater Dr. Isaac Lea, of Philadelphia, vee recently se copies of his early correspondence with Professor Silliman, in with a list of subscribers—all members of the Academy of Nat- ural Sciences—which he obtained for him before the first number was issued. As the facts have more than a private interest, we here publish the list of names obtained by Dr. Lea, in response to Professor Silliman’s scien to him, dated New Haven, April 3, 1818—which reads as follow “Sir: Will you pardon Abe liberty I take in se trina your kind countenance and favor for the Journal and your contribu- tions to its pages, provide sa the plan meets your approbation (Signed) Very respectfully, your much obliged SmLuiMa n account of the plan accompanied the letter—in nearly the form in wera it was afterward published in the first number of the Journ The Sint i subscribers is as follows: Isaac Le R. E. Grierirs, Epwarp CLARK, G. ORD C. D. Metes, ; Wm. McCrvre JACOB PEIRCE, Wm. Mason Waites Sam HAZARD. T. : Aa AINES, Joan P. WETHERILL, ISAIAH LUEINS, ‘ R. M. Patterson. r. Lea is now in his 92d year (having been born in March of 1792) and is still young in his zeal for science and scientific work. He remarks in his recent letter, that he was informed by Professor Silliman that the reception of ‘the list of names was the turning i he thought that if a person ‘whom he did not ae with him; now personally took so much interest in the proposed sl Soa he would have enough so to —- — 2. Note on the Fart rthqua a. st, Professor of Mavieat History, iP tccmet a Carace (communisated in a letter dated Caraccas, May 22d, 1883, ee os = q araceas; by : ee 80 Miscellaneous Intelligence. In Mr. C. G. Rockwood’s te on American earthquakes, pub- lished in this Journal, vol. xxv (May), pages 353 to 360, there is under September 7 of 1882, a reference to the earthquake which — that day the Isthmus of Panama. It is added that, “at ecas where the most violent shock oceurred at 2.20 A. 2 is that not even the slightest tremor was felt at Caraccas, and all the reported loss, notwithstanding the apparent statistical exacti- tude of the report, is fortunately a mere story. It was only on wok in oo. but the “6 _ severe earthquakes” manila w; Mr. Rockwood, are n 8. Royal Soe ciety of te South Wales.—The annual ee of the Royal Society of New South Wales was held Ma number of new members ec play the year was 41, makin the total number of ordinary on the roll to dite, 486. At the Council meeting held « A sere ecember, it was unani- mously resolved to award the Clarke Memorial Medal for the year 1883 to Baron Peniand” von Mueller, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., Government Botanist, Melbourne. At the same meeting the ouncil awarded the prize of £25 which had been offered for the st communication upon the “influence of Australian climates — and pastures upon the growth of wool” to Dr. Ross, M.L.A., Molon , and the prize for the one upon “ The e Aborigines of ~_ Sou _ing the year the rivigaas held ten meetings at which twelve vs paper el nig r monthly meetings: ah sum expended upon the library dur- the year was £422. 12. 10, . t the annual meeting ‘ons Louis Pasteur was ‘ananimously elected an Honorary m of the Society to fill the vacancy | ee Beh the death of the raed ae eae arwin 4, Explorations in the region of the Gulf Strea eam off the e ern coast of the dias States. aa ie rtant det r ag wt aubjet illustrated _by m ps and sections by Protas TE is In progress in “ RBetance It co tance in vesitier 16 tht re con- tinued in number 19. China. ven ee gms rss und darauf Ls eww Studien, von Fer- DINAND FREIHERRN Vol, EV. eontological Part. pp. 288, with - — and is por ing voted 1883 (Dietrioh “aoe Handbuch der ow years von Dr. Julius Hann. 764 pp. 8vo. Stuttgart, 1883 (J. Engelhorn Electricity and Magnetism, es E. Mascart, Prof. Collége de France, and Di- rector of the Central Metrolog. Bureau, and J. Jouserr, Prof. Coll. Rollin ; trans- lated by E. Atkinson, Prof. Exper. Sci. in the Staff ‘College. Vol. I, General Phenomena and Theory. 654 pp. 8vo ore 1883 (Thos. De La Rue & Co.). ; .. Man Sabeieoynce f A Complete Guide in Collecting and Preserving ge 3 and Mammals by C. J. Maynard. 112 pp. pte illustrated. Boston, 1983. (8. EL. “A Visit to Ceylon, by Ernst Ernst Haeckel; translated 7 or a cela 3 fs a 3 (8. E. Cassino & Co.). i, Plate |. AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XXVI, 1883. IIIA ‘aZIS [BAN\VU TPOYSIO-000 ‘SUBJY ‘SASTAOXA SAUAVSOLNOUG JO UO0T}B109803 o Sammnaes GORE, / 15 | poe Sop, sae 7, fee C* S< od AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. [THIRD SERIES.} Art. IX.—Principal Characters of American Jurassic Dinosaurs. Part VI: pect Ppote! if Brontosaurus, (with plate I); by Professor O. C. MAR In the previous articles of this series, a writer nt given the more important characters of the order Saur A volume on this group is now in pre Seaton, ‘end the Thastbe tions (90 Pace are nearly completed. One of these is a resto- ration of Brontosaurus, which has so many points of interest that a reduced figure is here presented. Several new charac- ters of this group are added, some of which will be of interest to comparative anatomists. RESTORATION OF BRONTOSAURUS, (Plate L) Nearly all the bones here represented belonged to a single individual, which when alive was nearly or quite fifty feet in length. The position here given was mainly determined by a careful adjustment of these remains. That the animal at times assumed a more erect position than here represented is probable, but ae eg on the posterior limbs alone was pong Bs ele head was remarkably small. The neck was considering i yeons | end and was the eho Spin of the versbral ool e body was quite short, and the abdominal cavity at seer size. The legs and feet were et and the bones all solid. The feet were plantigrade, *This Journal, a Nov. 1878 ; xvii, 86, Jan. 1879; xxi, 417, May, 1881; and xxiii, aL Jan. 1 Am. Jour, sexe 2 die Serres, Vor. XXVI, No. 152,—Aveust, 1883. 82 0. C. Marsh— Restoration of Brontosaurus. and each foot-print must have been about a square yard in extent. The tail was large, and nearly all the bones solid. The diminutive head will first attract attention, as it smaller in A a to the body than in any vertebrate hitherto known. ‘The entire skull is less in diameter or actual weight than the foieesh or fifth cervical vertebra. careful estimate of the size of Brontosaurus, as here re- stored, shows that when living the animal must have weighed more than twenty tons. The very small head and brain, and slender neural cord, indicate a stupid, slow moving reptile. The beast was wholly without offensive or defensive weapons, or dermal armature. In habits, Brontosaurus was more or less amphibious, and its food was probably aquatic plants or other succulent veg- etation. The remains are usually found in localities where the animals had evidently become mire Am e new points in the skull of the Sauropoda recently determined are the following : PiruiTary Fossa. In Morosaurus, the pituitary fossa is comparatively shallow, much like that in the crocodile, and many birds, being con- nected with the under surface of the skull by the two usual expanding below, communicates “aaa a wide transverse orifice with the changes cavity. The arterial foramina are here canals ng 8 covered over with bone, an open just within ng Baa Spsthe Bongs. ~ n two ea of the Sauropoda, (Morosaurus and Bronto- sar) and probably in all members of this order, there is a pair of small bones connected with the skull which have not ar nee coe observed in any vertebrates. These bones, which may be called the post-occipital bones, were found in position in one specimen, and with the skull in several others, When in O. C. Marsh— Restoration of Brontosaurus. 83 place, they are attached to the occiput just above the foramen magnum, and extend backward and outward, overlapping the lateral pieces of the atlas, thus protecting the spinal cord at this point, which would otherwise be much exposed. These bones are short, flattened, and slightly curved, resem- bling somewhat a’ riblet. e anterior end is thickened and rugose for attachment to a roughened surface on the exoccipital, just above and outside the foramen magnum. The shaft is flattened from above downward, and gradually converges to a thin posterior end. In Morosaurus grandis, these bones are about 65 mm. in length, and 30 along the surface which joins the occi- put. They correspond in position to the muscle in mammals known as the rectus capitis posticus minor. _ in the existing Cormorants (@raculus) a single slender bone IS articulated to the occiput on the median line. is, 10wever, does not correspond to the bones here described. To distinguish it from the post-occipitals, it may be called the nuchal bone. STAPES WANTING, In the skull of Morosaurus in which the post-occipital bones were found in position and the other bones at the base of the skull were undisturbed, a careful search was made for the stapes, but no indication of it was found. Its absence in this Specimen, so well preserved, would indicate that it was wanting in this genus, if not in the other Sauropoda. CoLUMELLA PRESENT. Hyor BONES. There are two pairs of hyoid bones in the Sauropoda. They are elongated, souks: and somewhat curved. In Lrontosaurus excelsus, they are 210 and 130 mm. in length respectively. tened arched processes, which meet with the squamosals at their outer ends. There is no parietal foramen. The Squamosals lie upon the par-occipital processes. They have a 84 O. 0. Marsh—Restoration of Brontosaurus. Tur VERTEBRA. There are twenty-seven precaudal vertebrae in Brontosaurus, of which the first twelve bear pleurapophyses, or hatchet bones, united to the centra, and may hence be called true cervicals. Of the remaining twelve which bear free ribs, the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth have the surface for the articulation of the head of the rib on the centrum, below the neural suture. - All the precaudal vertebree have large cavities in the centrum, communicating exteriorly with the surface by means of large lateral foramina. This cavernous structure of the vertebre Post-METAPOPHYSES. On the last two or three cervical vertebrae of Brontosaurus, O. C. Marsh—Restoration of Brontosaurus. 85 Fatat Drnosaurs. Remains of a very small dinosaur were found in immediate relation with the type specimen of Morosaurus grandis. These remains, which consist of a complete femur, the larger portion of both.humeri, and several vertebra, show no essential differ- ences from the large specimens except in size, and indicate an animal of perhaps seven feet in length, and little more than two feet in height. The imperfect ossification of these bones indi- cates that the animal was very young, and it seems probable that it was foetal. The only other similar case known in the Dinosauria is the apparent embryo observed by the writer in Compsognathus.* CLASSIFICATION, The various genera of the Sauropoda, and in fact of the Dinosauria in general, cannot at present be distinguished by the detached teeth. In one form, however, the teeth are quite peculiar, and the dentition appears to offer generic characters. genus. Later investigations indicate that they belong to the Sauropoda, and there is some evidence that they are the teeth of Diplodocus. The main characters of the order Sauropoda, and of the two families now known to belong to it, are as follows: Order Savuropopa. Herbivorous. verse processes. Family Adantosauride. Anterior vertebre opisthoccelian. Ischia directed downward, with extremities meeting on median line. Anterior caudals with lateral cavities. A pituitary canal. * U * . Anterior caudals solid, Pituitary fossa only. Yale College, New Haven, July 12th, 1883. * This Journal, xxii, 340, November, 1881. 86 Lf. E. Nipher—LKvolution of American Trotting- Horse. ArT. X.—The Evolution of the Americun Trotting-Horse; by RANCIS H. NIPHER. SINCE my paper in the July number of this Journal was written, I have calculated the constants in the differential equa- tion by mathematical methods, and have obtained a result differmg slightly from that given in the July number. The most probable value for the minimum time of trotting a mile turns out to be 91 seconds, instead of 93 seconds as was obtained by graphical methods. The final equation is log (s—91) = 1-703—0-0046 T, where s is the time (in seconds) of trotting a mile, and T is esti- mated in years from 1860. This equation does not give essentially different results from the former one, the only point of interest being in the new value for the limiting time. The probable error of this value is not over four seconds, and it is not likely that the running horse will beat his present record by five seconds, so that it is very probable that the trotter will finally surpass the running orse. 7 This conclusion does not rest solely on mathematical evi- dence. The trotter carries his body more steadily—with less of rise and fall—than the runner, and it seems very reasonable that this should result to the advantage of the trotter, when the pro- cess of developing and adjusting his muscles and chest shall have been sufficiently carried on, so that the contest between the two animals shall have been reduced to a matter of muscular capacity. It is well known that some herds of wild horses on the Texas H. A. Rowland—Concawe Gratings for Optical Purposes. 87 Art. XI.—On Concave Gratings for Optical Purposes ;* by Henry A. Row ann, Professor of Physics, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. GENERAL T'HEORY. HAVING recently completed a very successful machine for ruling gratings, my attention was naturally called to the effect of irregularity in the form and position of the lines and the form of the surface on the definition of the grating. Mr. C. S. Peirce has recently shown, in the American Journal of Mathe- matics, that a periodic error in the ruling produces what have been called ghosts in the spectrum. At first I attempted to calculate the effect of other irregularities by the ordinary method of integration, but the results obtained were not com- mensurate with thelabor. I then sought for a simpler method. around the radiant point satisfies the condition for waves of all Society of London in November last, the paper being in my in its presen shape at that tim s I wished to make some additions, for which I have not yet had time, I did not then publish it. I w i r to See an article on this subject, which had been presented to the hysical Society and was n the Philosophical Magazine. The article contains no ore than an extension of my remarks at the Physical ty and formula simi- lar to those in pa s I have not before this published anything except 88 H. A. Rowland— Concave Gratings for Optical Purposes. the solution holds for ony one wave-length and so white light will be drawn out into a spectrum. Hence we have the im- Bortant conclusion that a rectoneally: perfect grating for one position of the slit and eyepiece can be ruled on any surface, at or otherwise. This is an extremely celal practical conclusion and explains many facts which have been observed in the use of gratings. For we see that errors of the dividing engine can be counterbalanced by errors in the flatness of the plate, so that a bad dividing engine may now and then gme 6 a grating which is good in one spectrum but not in all. An we often find that one spectrum is better than another. Far: thermore Professor Young has observed that he could often improve the definition of a grating by slightly bending the plate on which it was ruled. From the above theorem we see that if a plate is ruled in circles whose radius is r sin and whose distance apart is view the spectrum in that particular position of the ate: Had the wave surfaces been cylindrical instead of spherical the lines would have been straight instead of circular, but at the above distances apart. In this case the spectrum would have been brought to a focus, but would have been diffused in the direction of the lines. In the same way we can conclude that in flat gratings any departure from a straight line has the effeet of causing the dust in the a Rate the spectrum to have differ- ent foci, a fact sometimes o We also see that, if the departure from equal spaces is small, or, in other words, the distance r is great, the lines must be ruled at distances apart ei sheres by (1-2 in order to bring the light to a focus at the angle # and distance r, c being a constant and « the distance from some point on the plate. If » changes sign, then r must change in sign. Hence we see that the effect of a linear error in the spacing is to make the focus on one Side shorter and the other side longer than the normal amount. Professor Peirce has measured some of Mr. Rutherfurd’s gratings and found that the fe incfeased in passing along the grating, and he also found that the foci of symmetrical spectra were different. But this is the ee attempt to connect the two, The definition of a grating may thus be very good even elas the error of run of the screw is consider- able, provided it is linear. ae + ke.) H. A. Rowland—Concave Gratings for Optical Purposes. $9 CONCAVE GRATINGS. Let us now take the special case of lines ruled on a spherical surface. And let us not confine ourselves to light coming back to the same point, but let the light return to another point, let the codrdinates of the radiant point and focal point be y=0, =—a and y=0, z=-+a, and let the center of the sphere whose radius is p be at 2’, y’. Let r be the distance from the radiant point to the point a, y, and let R be that from the focal point to z, y. Let us then write 2b=R+re. Where c is equal to +1 according as the reflected or transmit- ted ray is used. Should we increase } by equal quantities and draw the ellipsoids or hyperboloids so indicated, we could use these surfaces in the same way as the wave surfaces above. The intersections of these surfaces with any other surface form what are known as Huyghen’s zones. By actually drawing these zones on the surface, we form a grating which will dif- fract the light of a certain wave-length to the given focal point. For the particular problem in hand, we need only work in the plane x, y for the present. Let s be an element of the curve of intersection of the given surface with the plane z, y. Then our preseat problem is to nd the width of Huyghen’s zones on the surface, that is ds in terms of db, The equation of the circle is (e—2')’+ (y—y')"="" and of the ellipse or hyperbola R+re=26 or a’) a +0'y'=8' (BP —a’) in which ¢ has disappeared | ns a 3. de _y—y ds=/ dx +dy’; ay sree dz | (Ba!) e—¥ ZS | bia (ty +a) }db dy | — (a) 22 4 by =) {2b'—(a*+y' +a’) }db _ oo 2b°— (a? +4" +a") . | ab Pa) (yy) 2—F ey This equation gives us the proper distance of the rulings on the surface, and if we could get a dividing engine to rule according to this formula the problem of bringing the spectrum to a 90 H. A. Rowland— Concave Gratings for Optical Purposes. focus without telescopes would be solved. But an ordinary dividing engine rules equal spaces and so we shall further in- vestigate the question whether there is any part of the circle where the spaces are equal. We can then write Wa And the differential of this with regard to an arc of the circle must be zero. Differentiating and reducing by the equations daz: y—y ab dys xa” dy —C (x—2’) we have , p 2ab (y—y’) —2yb (x—a')—F [60°—(a* + y*+a")] ' +0} y-Y)LO—2*)(y-y) Py] —(e—2)[ (0a?) 20-2) 2b : +f fey) —y (e—e)] | =0. It is more simple to express this result in terms of R, 7, p and the angles between them. Let y be the angle between p andr, and » that between p and R. Let us also put : : ie 2 Let f, 7 and 6 also represent the angles made by 7, R and is oe with the line joining the source of light and focus, and let : a= and ¢é _utY att. eee a Then we have __Reosyt+reossf Rsiny+rsinf _rcosi—Reosy : eae 2 Secs YS ae aan aii 2 (0'—a’) (y—y')° + 0(e—a)'=p'(6—a sin* 8) b’—a’=Rr cos’ a sin Wy icone a: cos? BE Sa ot Ga : maT . a ... R=b——x; r=b+—% cos sin y sin Rr . 2=6 rent —o coat eo = —- sin 7 cos @ cos a sin a@ cos a@ b bRrp By (y—y) +2 (B—a") (ea!) = 2b°—(a*+y'?+a’)=Rr (cos 4 +cos Vv) HT. A. Rowland— Concave Gratings for Optical Purposes. 91 ie MP (sin M+sin v) a (b*—a") (y—y') —B*y (e«—2#') = ~ sinxu+sin vy cos asin € 2a cos d6=r cos u—R cos v 2a sin d=r sin u—R sin vy. On substituting these values and reducing, we find x. 2Rrcos a cos € pt=—, — r cos’ v+Reos’ Whence the focal length is pR cos’ 2R cos a cos €—p cos’ v For the transmitted beam, change the sign oe o Supposing ?, Rand » to remain constant and r and pz to , this equa- tion will then give the line on bina all the palin and the central image are brought to a By far the most interesting case is tobias hy making r=pcosu R=pcos vy, since these values satisfy the equation. The line of foci is then a circle with a radius equal to one-half p. Hence if a r= * A more simple solution is the following ; must be constant in the direction in which the dividing engine rules. If the —- engine rules in the direction of the axis, y, the differential of this with respect to y must be zero. But we can also bese! e the reciprocal of this quantity and so we can write for the equation of con Taking a circle as our curve we can write (a—a’* +(y—y’P=p* and (2—2? + (y—y"”P=R? poe toe aa a(R = ~y a SF Fg yy (SE) So d d(R+r) —a!! ¢—2/" —2”")(y—y”) @-7\y-¥") ae ee Rat te eee) + (xa— —0)| nits eer} t =o aking o=0, y=20, y’=0, 2’ =p — =t- a Se =0, 2 Ae COB M+COSY- 2Rr cos a cos € p= Rr Fost y+ Room «roost y+ Roose 92 H. A. Rowland— Concave Gratings for Optical Purposes. source of light exist on this circle, the reflected image and all the spectra will be brought to a focus on the same circle. Thus if we attach the slit, the eye-piece and the grating to the three radii of the circle, however we move them, we shall always have some spectrum in the focus of the eye-piece. But in some positions the line of foci is so oblique to the direction of the light that only one line of the spectrum can be seen well at any one time. The best position of the eye-piece as far as we consider this fact is thus the one opposite to the grat- ing and at its center of curvature. In this position the line of foci is perpendicular to the direction of the light, and we shall show presently that the spectrum is normal at this point what- ever the position of the slit, provided it is on the circle. Fig. 1 represents this case; A is the slit, C is the eye-piece, and B is the grating with its center of curvature at C. In this case all the conditions are satisfied by fixing the grating and eye-piece to the bar whose ends rest on carriages moving on the rails AB and AC at right angles to each other; when desired, the radius AD may be put in to hold everything steady, but this has been found practically unnecessary. _ he proper formulz for this case are as follows. If 2 is the wave-length and w the distance apart of the lines of the grating from center to center, then we have LAN. any Oo . 3 ‘where N is the order of the spectrum. Bea bien ‘ Now in the given case p is constant and so NA is proportional to the line AC. Or, for any given spectrum, the wave-length is proportional to that line. - 3 H. A. Rowland—Concave Gratings for Optical Purposes. 93 If a micrometer is fixed at C wecan consider the case as follows: Bi MN prick ig ? dX w F (Tea arma. If D is the distance the cross-hairs of the micrometer move forward for one division of the head, we can write for the point C pene p and for the same point sis zero. Hence Fy ihe Np But this is independent of » and we thus arrive at the impor- tant fact that the value of a division of the micrometer is always the same for the same spectrum and can always be determined with sufficient accuracy from the dimensions of the apparatus and number of lines on the grating, as well as by observation of the spectrum. Furthermore, this proves that the spectrum is normal at this pene and to the same scale in the same spectrum. Hence we ave only to photograph the spectrum to obtain the normal Spectrum and a centimeter for any of the photographs always represents the same increase of wave-length. t is to be specially noted that this theorem is rigidly true Whether the adjustments are correct or not, provided only that the micrometer is on the line drawn perpendicularly from the center of the grating, even if it is not at the center of curvature. 94 H. A. Rowland—UConcave Gratings for Optical Purposes. and so by micrometric measurements the relative wave-lengths are readily determined. Hence, rowing the absolute wave- length of one line, the whole spectrum can be measured. Pro- fessor Peirce has determined the absolute wave- Tatigek of one line with great care and I am now measuring the coincidences. This method is greatly more accurate than any hitherto known, as by a mere eye inspection, the relative wave-length can often be judged to i part in 20,000 and with a micrometer to 1 in 1,000,000. Again, in dealing with the invisible portion of the spectrum, the focus can be obtaine by examining the super- imposed spectrum. Captain Abney, by using a concave mirror in the place of telescopes, has been enabled to use this method for obtaining the focus in photographing the ultra red rays of the spectrum. It is also to be noted that this theorem of the normal spectrum applies also to the flat grating used with telescopes and to either reflecting or transmitting gratings; but in these cases only a small portion of the spectrum can be use as no lens can be made perfectly achromatic. And so, as the distance of the micrometer bas constantly to be changed when one passes along the spectrum, its constant does not remain constant but varies in an irregular manner. But it would be possible to fix the grating, one objective and the camera rigidly on a bar, and then focus by moving the slit or the other objec- tive. In this case the spectrum would be rigidly normal, but would probably be in focus for only a small length and the adjustment of the focus would not be automatic. ut nothing can exceed the beauty and simplicity of the concave grating when mounted on a movable bar such as I haye described and illustrated in Fig. 1. Having selected the grating which we wish to use, we ecpiren it in its plate- neh and put the proper collimating eye-piece in place. Wet carefully adjust the focus by altering pie length of D until ee cross-hairs are at the exact center of curvature of the grating. On moving the bar the whole series of spectra are then in exact focus, and the value of a division of the micrometer is a known quantity for that goto grating, The wooden wa the distance AC. We can thus set the instrument to any par- ticular wave-length we may wish to study, or even determine the wave-length to at least one part in five thousand by a sim- ple reading. ~ By having a variety of scales, one for each s = trum, we can immediately see what lines are superimpos each other and identify them accordingly when we are peasant ing their relative wave-length. On now replacing the eye-piece by a camera, we are in a position to photograph the spectrum with the greatest ease. We put in the sensitive plate, either H. A. Rowland—Concave Gratings for Optical Purposes. 95 of the circular are of the grating: the hele is whether any The condition for theoretical perfection is that C shall remain constant for all portions of the mirror. I shall therefore inves- angles and y, and », the angles referred to the center of the muror. The condition is that . ote cay i sen sin “4+sin v = bone be a constant for all parts of the surface of the grating. et us then develop sin p and sin» in terms of #4, ¥, and the a 0 between the radii drawn to the center of the grating to the* point under consideration. Let 6 be the angle etween Rand R,. Then we can write immediately psin u=psin “, cos 6’ +R, sin 6’—p cos HW, sin 6” sin “=sin , cos 6 | 1+ R, A tan 6’ p sin ff, where Aix poe Fo = : 96 H. A. Rowland—Concave Gratings for Optical Purposes. Developing the value of cos 0’ in terms of 6, we have ae Ay, P08 My | na cos 6 =cos 6 } 143] 1+ Pr | _ p-sin wf 20) 14. 0} oR, be +A(1 +) Jo + &e. As the cases we are to consider are those where A is small, it will be sufficient to write »_ PCOS ft, tan 6’= R, 6. Whence we have sin u=sin pz, cos 6 | 1+ cot 4, A645 1 + ogre Ie ras pcos He) _ psin M, 2P\ | os t Se cot j., (142s oor (1+4 (1450) é + &e. We can write the value of sin» from symmetry. But we have 9 _. : Fe = Sin MH +sin v. In this formula, dd can be considered as a constant depending on the wave-length of light, ete., and ds as the width apart of the lines on the grating. The dividing engine rules lines on the curved surface according to the formula 2 # 00s 6 (sin uw, +sin v,). But this is the second approximation to the true theoretical ruling. And this ruling will not only be approximately cor- rect, but exact when all the terms of the series except the first vanish. In the case where the slit and focus are on the circle of radius 4p, as in the automatic arrangement described above, we have A=O and the second and third terms of the series - disappear, and we can write since we have : R r —2=cos #, and -=cos v, p p 1 sin utanu,+siny, ofan gs +e.) | 2 Pes 6(sin MM 9 tsin La ‘' sin “@,+sin v ds But in the partir arrangement we also have y,=0, and so the formula becom db : ; 1 2 5 mae 6 (sin 4, +8in v,) | we tan pu, 0° + &e. t To find the greatest departure from theoretical perfection, @ must refer to the edge of the grating. In the gratings which H. A. Rowland—Concave Gratings for Optical Purposes. 97 Tam now making, p is about 260 inches and the width of the grating about 54 inches. Hence d= i00 approximately and the series becomes 1 tan 4. 1 ~ 2,000,000 Hence the greatest departure from the theoretical ruling, even when tan #,=2, is 1 in 1,000,000. Now the distance apart of the components of the 1474 line is somewhat nearly one forty-thousandth of the wave-length and I scarcely suppose that any line has been divided by the best spectroscope in the world whose components are less than one-third of this distance apart. Hence we see that the departure of the ruling from theoretical perfection is of little consequence until we are able to divide lines twenty times as fine as the 1474 line. Even in that case, since the error of ruling varies as 6°, the greater portion of the grating would be ruled correctly. * T have recently discovered that each component of the D line is double prob- fron the partial reversal of the line as we nearly always see it in the flame Am. Jour, 9p emmers Series, Vou. XXVI, No. 152.—Aveust, 1883. 98 H. A. Rowland—Concave Gratings for Optical Purposes. spectrum. Again* it is found impossible to obtain interference ‘between two rays whose paths differ by much more than 50,000 wave-lengths: All the methods of determining the limits seem to point to about the 150,000th of the wave-length as the smallest distance at which the two lines can be separated in the solar spectrum by even a spectroscope of infinite power. As we can now nearly approach this limit I am strongly of the opinion that we have nearly reached the limit of resolving power, and that we can never hope to see very many more lines in the spectrum than can be seen at, present, either by means of prisms or gratings. It is not to be supposed, however, that the average wave- length of the line is not more definite than this, for we can easily point the cross hairs to the center of the line to perhaps 1 in 1,000,000 of the wave-length. The most exact method of detecting the coincidences of a line of a metal with one in the solar spectrum would thus be to take micrometric measure- ments first on one and then on the other; but I suppose it would take several readings to make the determination to 1 in 1,000,000. Since writing the above I have greatly improved my appa- ratus and can now photograph 150 lines between the Hl and K lines, including many whose wave-length does not differ more than 1 in about 80,000. I have also photographed the 1474 and b, and 6,, widely double, and also E just perceptibly double. With the eye much more can be seen, but I must say that I have not yet seen many signs of reaching a limit. The lines yet appear as fine and sharp as with a lower power. If my grating is assumed to be perfect, in the third spectrum | should be able to divide lines whose wave-lengths differed, in about 150,000, though not to photograph them. The E line has components, about 45},5th of the wave-length apart. I believe I can resolve lines much closer than this, say 1 in 100,000 at least. Hence the idea of a limit has not yet been proved. However as some of the lines of the spectrum are much wider than others we should not expect any definite limit, but a grad- ual falling off as we increase our power. At first, in the short wave-lengths at least, the number of lines is nearly proportional to the resolving power, but this law should fail as we ap- proached the limit. * This method of determining the limit has been suggested to me by Prof. Cc. S. Hastings, of this University - E. Andrews—Glacial Markings of unusual forms. 99 * r Art. XII.—Glacial Markings of Unusual Forms in the Lauren- tian Hills ;* by KE>MuND ANDREWS, M.D., LL.D. T'wo summer vacations spent in camps and canoes where the Laurentian Hills skirt the northeast shore of Lake Huron have brought to my notice some glacial phenomena of very unusual _ sorms, are mostly white quartzite and gneiss, and are everywhere cov- ered with glacial markings, which are often of peculiar forms. North and northeast of Grand Manitoulin Island, the Cloche Mountains stretch east and west about thirty miles along the coast. ‘These mountains are of white quartzite and the strata are nearly perpendicular, with their striz parallel to the range, that is, east and west. They are covered everywhere with Striations, which, owing to the intense hardness of the material, retain their forms with beautiful distinctness. CURVED STRL&. * Read before the Chicago Academy of Sciences, 100 E. Andrews—Glacial Markings of unusual forms. of giant grooves, some of which reach a depth of six feet, and are twenty feet across. These markings run southward, round- ing slightly over the summit of the range and down its slopes, until they reach the crests of its southern precipices where they terminate abruptly, as it were, sailing away into the air and not forming any grooves down its face. Sixty miles southeast of the Cloche gap and off the mouth of French River, there lies, outside of the general insular belt, a beautiful cluster of wooded i slets, the Bustard Isles. e group consists of about two binditiend great roches moutonneés, upon which sufficient vegetable mold has accumulated to sup- port a thick growth of trees. Wherever a Ae has been washed away ‘by the waves the strize come to v Fig. 2 was se aeshed from a sample of curved markings near one of my camps on the north side of the group. The sketch represents about fifteen feet of the length of inence of rock in the direc- tion of X to turn the ice. In fact the islet was highest on the side toward which the ice turned at the first not fh The compass mark is oe but not precisely co Fig. 3 is copied from my notes of observation on strise ion’ at Negaunee, in ‘ahiaed Michigan. A knob of rock uncov- ered by iron miners was of such material that it showed on its irregular surface the finest markings, even to hair lines. There EL. Andrews—Glacial Markings of unusual forms. 101 were upon this rock some curves which were evidently deflec- tions caused by knobs and bosses on its surface, as for instance at Z. While other markings were erratic and curved without obvious cause, as though the ice had been swayed by swirling currents as the waters moved about it. The most of the glaci- ation was in the direction shown by the horizontal lines. The curved lines in the figure were selected from hundreds of others on a surface of about two rods square. They were gen- ane short, and some of the curves were of less than one foot radius. SERRATED STRL#. Behind the Cloche Mountains the Spanish River runs west- ward into Lake Huron. A branch of this stream, called the Sable, coming down from the hills on the north, presents near its mouth five cataracts within a distance of eight miles. At the lowest of the falls the river runs through a sort of rock flume, having upon both sides walls about forty feet in height, not quite vertical but with a slight inclination away from the Stream. ‘These cliffs are smooth and striated in every part par- allel to the stream. At the falls, which are only a few feet in height, the striz on curve with the descent, and also later- A ally with a bend of the cliff. On the /\/\/\A/\WA\ Walls of the gorge are to be seen a B few examples of the marks A and B, — amwsesm< Fig. 4 and the mark A is serrated, . the serrations being perhaps twelve ~~“ Cc inches high. Tt is not easy to explain >R_P PPP the cause of these strie in a perfectly Satisfactory manner, but it would seem that ice must have been driven through the flume with a rocking motion so that the widers on its lateral margins were cau to take a zigzag course, scoring the walls in a corresponding form, In B, fig. 4, 102 F. Andrews—Glacial Markings of unusual forms. is represented ‘a section of certain marks produced in the same manner as those cuts of a stone planing engine where the tool trembles or vibrates in the grasp of the machine so as to cuta finely serrated groove. In. the specimens found the serrations were about one-quarter of a centimeter from crest to crest. It is possible that the regular vibrations thus recorded on the rocks had some fixed mathematical relation to the velocity of the ice, which might possibly be determined by calculation or experiment. New INDEX OF THE DIRECTION oF MOTION. Scoop Marks. These are singular phenomena and very difficult of explana tion. They are of two varieties, the striated and the unstria- . Fig. 5 is+a diagram intend to illustrate a typical form of the ——— striated variety. The marks consist saceeialguiisliiialeiaamae till FBZ Sz wilt. They run nearly in the direc- ee eens iy : ra tion of the general striation of the = ——— flo had been inserted into == the rock and had cut out enoug of its substance to. make a sm and rather shallow concave channel. The end toward the east, or northeast from whence the drift action came, is abrupt, sharply-defined, and although the. angle of junction with E. Andrews—Glacial Markings of unusual forms. 108 and more shallow, disap- pearing finally and vaguely — we ai mil) A\\| i! Wh \ 1 any crevice-vein or visible : irregularity in the rock face. ——————_— ‘to account for its excavation at that spot. These channels often differ pretty widely in direction from the adjacent stria- tion, and the end nearest the northeast commences as a round Mos nomena, like fig. 6. but evidently are appendages to adjacent knobs and projections of rock. The type of such cases 1s rep- 104 EF. Andrews—Glacial Markings of unusual forms. resented in fig. 7, which is a diagram of the plan of numerous specimens seen along the eastern shore from Killarney to Parry 7 Sound, a distance of a le Wyre a one hundred miles ge Dp, boss or knob of rock meats aa “Dr. ing above the general gla- Ma a p< “Ip ——FE—._ ciated surface in an oval form iis in fact, a roche moutonneé. The sp i about four feet high, fifteen = wide and thirty long; butall — sizes and irregular forms are common. ‘The observed spe- arr as the stri# approach and rise upon the surface of the kno they are nance to the right and left and sweep over it in an oblique course. This sort of curved deflection, partly over and partly oe obstacles is common to the whole coast, so that in many places almost all the striw are curved by the influence of the knobby surfaces of the gneiss and quartzite. TT are two unstriated scoop-marks having a length of about ten feet and a width of twelve inches. They begin vaguely near to each other, but not in contact, close to the northeast of the drift agencies in some fied determined the presence and direction of these scoop-ma The great belt of fifty-two saben islands, above pared to, varies from three to fifteen miles in width and is about hundred and fifty miles iong. Beginning at the St. Marie River it first outlines the north channel by the great Manitoulin group, and thence, passing southeast through Frazer Bay, con- finues along the whole east coast of Georgian Bay and termi: S. A. Miller—Glyptocrinus and Reteocrinus. 105 nates near Collingwood. Near the main land the islands are mostly metamorphic with a very distorted stratification, but a few of those on the lakeward border of the belt are of Silurian limestone with the strata dipping gently away from the nearest metamorphic hills. This almost untrodden solitude, which has lain forgotten by the crowds of summer pleasure seekers, is well worthy of a visit by the lover of nature. The magnificent panoramas of the island-belt as viewed from the summits of the and Killarney ranges are unique and in themselves well worth the journey to the region. Fortunately they are as yet almost unknown to sight-seers and still remain in their original fresh- ness and silence. Art. XIII.—Response to the Remarks of Messrs. Wachsmuth and Springer on the genera Glyptocrinus and Reteocrinus; by S. A. MILLER. _IN response to the remarks of tke distinguished paleontolo- gists, Messrs. Wachsmuth and Springer, on the genera Glypto- crinus and feteocrinus, in the April No. of this Journal, p. 255, I would say, that the first issue joined, between us, is one of law and not of fact and may be stated as follows: In 1858, Can. Org. Rem., Decade 4, p. 63, Prof. Billings de- fined the genus Reteocrinus and the species Releocrinus stella- ris from the Trenton Group, at Ottawa, Canada, and also, with much doubt referred another species to the same genus. In 1866, in advance sheets of the 24th Rep. N. Y. St. Mus. Nat. Hist. p. 206, Prof. Hall defined the species Glyptocrinus Nealli, from the upper part of the Hudson River Group, at Lebanon, Ohio. In 1881, Revision of the Palwocrinoidea, pt. 2, p. 191, Messrs, Wachsmuth and Springer reconstructed the genus Reteo- crinus, with Glyptocrinus Nealli as the type, and, in their remarks _ above referred to (p. 264), they defend their right to retain a generic name and substitute any species as the type of the genus (always of course having a good specimen from which to ascertain the characters). If, they say, ‘It happens, that the true characters of the group are better and more comprehen- Sively expressed in some other species than the one first de- scribed, there is, in our opinion, not the least objection to adopt- Ing it as the type of the genus thus rectified.” They think their practice, in this respect, fully justified, and aver they intend to adhere to it, and say they find “ other good authori- ties do the same thing.” 7 he question is, Can a subsequent author revise a genus and 106) 8. A. Miller—Glyptocrinus and Reteocrinus. substitute as its type a species unknown to the original author of the generic name, or not included by him, among his types of the genus, or not, itself, originally made or intended to be made the t I deny that the subsequent author has any such _ privilege, under the laws and rules of science, and affirm that no matter how learned the naturalist, how eminent the scientist, or inhe- rently able and accurate the diagnosis may be, such work is an absolute nullity. The issue is then, as before remarked, one of law, and the importance of determining it is not co onfined, in its scope, to the genera under consideration, nor to paleontology, but extends ban le Natural History. If I am right and shoul e to convince Messrs. Wachsmuth and Springer, that such is the: case, there is no doubt, they would, notwithstanding pre- vious opinions, follow the law, because they are not only learned paleontologists but devotees of science. I will quote from the rules for rendering the nomenclature of Zoology uniform and permanent adopted at the 12th meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1842. and is, therefore, devoid of all authority. If those persons were to object. to such names of men as ong, Little, Armstrong S. A. Miller—Glyptocrinus and Rédécrinué. 10T osed, ought as a general principle to be permanently retained o this consideration we ought to add, the injustice of erasing how much the permission of such a practice opens a door to obscure pretenders for dragging themselves into notice at the expense of original.observers.” 5 name originally given by the founder of a group, or the describer of a species, should be permanently retained to the exclusion of all subsequent synonyms.” A - s the num of known species which form the ground- work of zoological science is always increasing, and our knowl- extensive. It th comes necessary to subdivide the contents f old groups, and t ake their definitions continually more restricted rrying out this process, it is an act of justice to i h all which is sound in its nomenclature should remain unaltered amid the additions which are continually being made to it.” “A generic name, when once established, should never be can- celled in any subsequent subdivision of the group, but retained in a restricted sense for one of the constituent portions.” : ‘When a genus is subdivided into other genera, the original name should be retained for that portion of it which exhibits in the greatest degree its essential characters as at first de ned. Authors frequently indicate this by selecting some one species as a fixed point of reference, which they term, the ‘type of the genus.’ When they omit doing so, it may still in many cases be | correctly inferred that the first species mentioned on their list, if found accurately to agree with their definition, was regard y them as the t pe. A specific name or its ey de will also often serve to point out the particular species, which implica- tion must be regarded as the original type 0 genus. In suc 5 its typical signification, even when later authors have done oth- erwise,” ; “The generic name should always be retained for that portion ee oneal genus which was considered typical by the author. am 108 S. A. Miller—Glyptocrinus and Reteocrinus. and imposing a new name on the three-toed group which Swainson had called Picumnus.” “When no type is indicated, then the original name 18. ito be kept for that subsequent subdivision which first received it ‘“* When the evidence as to the original type of a genus is not perfectly pre and indisputable, then the person who first pr vides the genus may affix the original name to any portion of it at his discretion, and no later author has a right to si stoe that name to any par rt of the original genus.’ en an author ep the law of: priority, by giving a new name to a genus which has been properly defined and named already, the only penalty which can be attached to this act of negligence or injustice is to expel the name so introduced from the pale of science.’ “When two authors define and name the same genus, both making it exactly of the same extent, the later name should be canceled in toto, and not retained in a ‘modified sense,’ “No special rule is fag eae for the cases in which the later of two generic names is so defined as to be less extensive in significa- tion than the earlier, Yor if the later includes the type of the “earlier genus, it would be canceled by the operation of the rule that the generic name should always be retained for that portion of the original genus which was Seca typical by the author.’ “Tf the later name be so defined as to be equal in extent to two or more previously published genera, it must be canceled, in toto. “A genus compounded of two or more previously peepee: genera, whose characters are now deemed insufficient, shoul retain the name of one of them. If these po net generic names differ in date, the oldest one should be the one adopted.” The committee on zoological nomenclature, consisting of Wm. H. Dall, who was assisted by Dr. Asa Gray, appointed by the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1876, reported to the Nashville meeting in 1877. Upon the subject ‘of names to be preserved in writing, dividing or modi- fying the limits of existing groups, the committee said : “§1L. A change in the diagnostic characters, or a revision which carries with it the exclusion of certain elements of a group, or the inclusion of new ate does not authorize the change of the name or names gro “SLL When a gr vid Bes or “genus is sate into two or more groups, the o riginal : name t be preserved and given to one of the principal divisions. The division including the. typical species of the primitive genus, if any type been specified, or the . is to be pre- S.A. Miller—Glyptocrinus and Reteocrinus. 109 which retains the larger number of species should retain the old name (DC.), but the latter cannot be applied to a restricted group containing none of the species referred to the primitive group by its author at the time when it was described or when he enumerated the species contained in it.” given when the genus was originally described? No 387. Doubtful 2. Yes 5. No answer 1.” I will cite only one more authority. Professor Meek in dis- cussing the type of the genus Straparollus says: : “It seems to us, however, that if the name Huomphalus is to _ be retained at all, we should apply it to the forms for which it was originally proposed, and that we have no right to transfer it to another type, because Sowerby subsequently, in another place, refers this other type to his genus Huomphalus.”—Geol. Surv. Ill. vol. ii, p. 158. The rule that a subsequent author cannot revise a genus and substitute as its type a species different from that relied upon essor Hall, mistaking the type of the genus Metzia, proposed and defined the genus Rhynchospira ; afterward ascertaining that Aynchospira was a synonym for Retzia, he abandoned it and roposed Lhynchotreta for the form which he had originally . and the reason is obvious. . If they can substitute another than the original species as the type of a genus, I can substitute yet another, and you can another, and so we destroy all fiaity in 110 S. A. Miller—Glyptocrinus and Reteocrinus. the type and designated characters, throw the science into confusion, and seriously impair the value and reliability of generic characters, besides losing all interest in the original work of the author who established the genus. The conclusion is inevitable that, as a matter of law or rule of science, Glyptocrinus Nealli cannot be made the type of the genus feeteocrinus, and the diagnosis must be canceled an stricken from the pale of science. or are we in accord in respect to the value of the genus Reteocrinus, nor as to the relationship existing between it and Glyptocrinus Nealli, for I regard the latter as having a closer affinity to Glyptocrinus decadactylus than it has to Reteocrinus stellaris, though it may fairly be regarded as holding an inter- mediate position. I have had the pleasure of seeing the orig- inal specimen represented by fig. 4a, pl. 9, of Decade 4, which is the type of the genus Reteocrinus, and from recollection think the figure is a correct representation of it. Now let us com- pare it with G. Nealli ; of course the comparison can only be made with the azygous side and the column. G. Neall.—Column sharply pentagonal and composed of alternating thin and thicker pieces. : &. stellaris—Column round and composed of very thin plates. G, Nealli.—Basal plates very small, presenting a low triangu- lar face on the exterior (though minutely truncated at the lat- eral angles) and not interfering with the pentalobate character, as viewed from below, in following the depressions in the col- umn across the central .part and greatest height of the basals and beyond the lower lateral sides of the subradials. &. stellaris.—Basals large, presenting an hexagonal face on the exterior and bearing a strong bow-shaped ridge with sinus or concave side upward, not in contact with the margins, ex- cept where it meets corresponding ridges on the succeeding plates above; the remaining portions of these plates depressed from }$ to $ of a line. No pentalobate character in the central eda of these plates, but deep depressions at their lower lateral sides. G. Nealli.—Subradials about as wide as long, except the on on the azygous side which is a little longer than wide, and eack bearing a semicylindrical three-rayed ridge, highest in the c tral part and sending one arm below to meet the angles of the column and one to each of the adjoining radials to meet corre- sponding semicylindrical ridges, except the subradial, on the gous side, which bears an additional depressed semicylindri- eal ridge extending upward to the superior truncated side. RB. stellaris.—Subradials very large, longer than wide, and each bearing a more than semicylindrical double-bifureated or four-rayed ridge, two of the ridges on each uniting with the S.A. Miller—Glyptocrinus and Reteoerinus. 111 concave ridges on the basals below and two uniting with sim- ilar ridges on the primary radials above. The subradial on the azygous side bears a fifth or additional ridge extending up- ward from the middle of the concave side of the upper bifur- eating ridges to the superior truncated side or middle of the azygous interradius. The depressions between these plates or the height of these ridges is 2 of a line. Nealii.—Primary radials three in each series, except in the left posterior ray, which has only two. These plates are slightly longer than wide, the first and third, or in the left pos- terior ray the first and second, are pentagonal and of* almost pr free, and scarcely differ from the free arm — the second third an axillary is soldered in with the interradials to the top of the body s. . stellaris.—Secondary radials, four to six in each series very gradually diminishing in size, without any evidence of a lateral division from either plate. - Nealli.—Azy gous interradial area covered by fifty or sixty Plates, very unequal in size, the middle row being decidedly arger and more prominent than the others, so as to forma ridge up the middle, while the other smaller and less prominent vault and with which they unite. A. stellaris.—Azygous interradial area covered by a large number of plates, probably one hundred or more, very unequal in size, the middle row being decidedly larger and more prom- 112 SL A. Miller—Glyptocrinus and Reteocrinus. plates in this row, however, do not rapidly diminish in size and fade out in their distinctive character before reaching the top of the vault; on the contrary they are longer than the pri- mary radials, four of them reach nearly as high as the last of the secondary radials, and while the specimen is not preserved above this, enough is disclosed to the paleontologist to show, that this series continued up the face of a proboscis that ex- tended may be as far or farther than the arms and the pinnules. If we look at the general aspect and form of G. Nealli and B&. stellaris there is as little resemblance as we have found in the more particular comparison. G. Nealli has a pentalobate obco- noidal calyx and large flowing arms and pinnules. A. stellaris has a saucer-shaped calyx below, it is elongated in the region of the primary radials and has small or diminutive arms an pinnules. Indeed there is no striking resemblance between the two species, except in the depressed interradial areas covered by numerous plates, but even this resemblance is not continued in the upward extension of the azygous interradial area. _ Therefore, notwithstanding the learning and usually skillful judgment of Messrs. Wachsmuth and Springer in regard to fossils belonging to this class, fortified as it is by the opinion of my young friend Walter R. Billings and by Professor A. G. _ Wetherby, and the confidence with which these authors assert, that “The question of the generic identity of G. Neaili and allied forms with Reteocrinus, may be considered at rest,” I be- lieve, and express the opinion without hesitation, that they are not congeneric, and that Reteocrinus stellaris is so far removed from Glyptocrinus Nealli that it is doubtful whether they should even be classified in the same family. Messrs. Wachsmuth and Springer call attention to the fact that in describing Glyptocrinus Pattersoni I said it differed from other species of Glyptocrinus in having only ten arms; there was a thoughtless omission on my part to except Glypto- crinus Baeri; but they say Glyptocrinus Nealli and Glypiocrinus cognatus, which I had described only a year before, have only ten arms. is is to me incomprehensible, for Glyptocrinus Nealli was described by Hall and again by Meek (Ohio Pal., vol. i, p. 35) as a species bearing twenty arms, and I have seen the type, and have examined more than a hundred specimens each having twenty arms and never saw a specimen without that number. As to Glyptocrinus cognatus, the number of arms was unknown, at the time the species was described, but I sup- e it to have had either twenty or twenty-four. I have now belare me three specimens so nearly allied to it that it is hard to point out specific differences. Each of them show the arms and each have twenty-four. ‘ I do not desire to be understood as saying that it is either W. J, MceGee—Theory of Glacial Climate. 118 inexpedient or improper to separate the species now arranged under Glyptocrinus and distribute them in two or three genera; no satisfactory work, however, has yet been done in that direc- tion; and if Glyptocrinus Nealli, G. Baeri, G. subglobosus and G. fimbriatus are thrown in one section, then I am free to say it is better that all shall remain under the present generic name. point out their differences in structure would too grea ly lengthen this article. It may be done in another communi- n. ArT. XIV.—On the Present Status of the Eccentricity Theory of Glacial Climate; by W. J. McGur. : THE recent appearance of an important treatise, in which Croll’s theory of secular variations in terrestrial climate is given a prominent place,’ has elicited some adverse criticis of that theory, by different reviewers, which can only re- garded as embodying the current objections to the adoption of the eccentricity theory in general. in addition to an indefinite general argument such as might equally be brought to bear against any intricate and — comprehensive theory involving principles falling within the domains of diverse nascent branches of science, Gilbert* urges three definite and specific objections against the theory: i. “If it is true, then epochs of cold must have occurred with considerable frequency through the entire period repre- sented by the stratified rocks; and iceberg drift, if no other traces, should have been entombed at numerous horizons. It hot attached, the phenomena appear to indicate local and not general glaciation. ooh © If the hypothesis is true, the cold of the Glacial epoch must have been many times interrupted by intervals of excep- tional warmth; but little has been dite to the evidence adduced by Croll for such an interruption, and in America, where there 1S NOW great activity in the investigation of glacial phenomena, ~ 1“ Text Book of Geology,” os Geikie, 1882, 21-29. ? Nature, xxvii, 262. ae our. Sor.—Tarmp Seares, Vou. XXVI, No. 152.—Ave@usr, 1883. * 114 W. J. MeGee—Theory of Glacial CVimate. the evidence of a single inter-glacial period is cumulative and overwhelming, while there is no indication whatever of more than one. 3. If the hypothesis is true, submergence in polar and tempe- rate regions should have been coincident with glacial expan- sion, and emergence coincident with glacial retreat, but the Quaternary history of Great Britain, as drawn in the new text- book, includes two periods of maximum ice-extension, separa- ted by a period of submergence.” The editor of the American Naturalist* insists 1, that the “hypothetical stoppage of the Gulf Stream to account for the glacial climate of Northern Europe is not warranted by pale- a and ignoring, as they do, all of the eccentricity theory except in phases of the entire theory to which they are apparently de- _ signed to apply. To the writer these conditions do not appear to be fulfilled; and since the eccentricity theory, as now em- braced by numerous students, has been specially framed to meet the difficulties urged by the reviewers, it appears to him necessary that the failure of the criticisms should be impressed upon readers of current geological literature. So long ago as 1878, LeConte* showed that if the cold of the Quaternary were the joint result of eccentricity, precession, and secular refrigeration, it may have culminated in glacial condi- tions but once. More recently the subject has been admirably discussed by Wallace, in a treatise which has not yet received adequate attention on this side of the Atlantic.” It is there . Mag., x, 80. and Life,” 1881, Chs, vii, 1x. 3 xvii, 177-8. ‘4 Geol. Mag 5 “Elements of Geology,” Ist ed., 549. ® “Islan . W. J. MceGee—Theory of Glacial Climate. 115 established that, as long ago suggested by Lyell, continental configuration must exercise an important influence on the ac- ously shown, quantitatively, by the writer." Since, however, these investigations have been alike neglected in the recent , {Elements of Geology,” 2d ed., 1882, 578. Die Vergletscherung der Deutschen Alpen,” 1882, 452 vail ; and for this 0" Tsland Life,” 122 11 Geol. Mag., vi, 1879, 418. 12 Of “ . , \ A aximum Synchronous Glaciation,” Proce. dv. Sci., xxix, ee 1880, 447 et seq. CE “Forms of Water,” 1877, 154. 14“ Tgland Life,” Ch. rx. . ‘Climate and Time,” Am, ed., 1815, Ch. ¥; Geol. Mag., vi, 1879, 480; Geikie’s Text Book, 1882, 27; and elsewhere. Since the term “ inter-glacial” was used in a definite and restricted sense by Croll, it, seems desirable that some other expression should be employed to denote iods, d 116 W. J. MeGee—Theory of Glacial Climate. mgr In the preps n theory, per se, then, all save the immediate effects of increased eccentricity, under condi- et similar to those saa known to obtain; must be elimi- nated ; and on these further premises may the mode and rate of iee-accumulation be sou n the north-frigid zone ‘the existing ice-fields are to all ap- pearances permanent; whence annual addition to them from congealed precipitation and loss from melting, flow of ice and water, and the liberation of bergs are practically equal. The annual precipitation can only be approximately estimated. If on the last edition of Loomis’ rain chart’ the precipitation on land areas be the means of the values represented by the several tints employed, the average for the year at N. lat. 68° is 13°3 inches. Toward the pole it must be paiekally less: it is, 1n- ed, sometimes so little in northern Greenland that Bessels thought the glaciers there must be but remnants of those formed during past ages.” The mean (and the measure of melting) for the whole year certainly cannot exceed 10 inches. Neglecting trivial amounts from diverse sources, the heat reaching the frigid zone is derived (1) from vapor-laden winds, and (2) from direct solar accession. Now that received from the first of these sources is indeterminate; but that from the second is alone sufficient to liquefy 399 inches (83°26 feet)” annually. Actually not more (and probably far less) than zy of this melting can take place, and it is hence manifest that m computing the ‘effects of rae ii the actual and not the theoretical values of annual addition and loss must be em- loyed.” The source of the preter eae need not here be con- sidered in detail. For convenience, and since no appreciable error will be intro- duced thereby, the foregoing — for precipitation and melt- ing, and their equality, may be assumed normal—i. e., such as would obtain were the solstices eddidiaant from the apsides. Different investigators hate shown that the immediate result of increased eccentricity ri soaatrcie with precession) must This Journal, xxv, January, 1 17 Cited by Woeikof, oo of eo Globe,” Smithsonian Contrib. Knowl., 268, weet Bigibs 1876), 6 “ Maximuni ‘Synchronous Glaciation,” ae cit., 473. in force, and greate agence must be sheeted re: the agencies contemplated in the ecce: eory. 19 Tp the discussion already alluded to (*+On the Superficial Deposits of the Mis- sissippi neat Geol. uae vi, 1879, 418) the theoretical rate of et was used as is 8 for an estimate of the maximum removal of ice during an inter- and the laste is accordingly far too large. W. SJ. MeGee—Theory of Glacial Climate. 117 be the inauguration of five glaciation-factors, of which two are direct and three indirect. These are, (1) diminution of mean ranted. It must therefore suffice to assume for all a probable value ;* and it will assuredly do no violence to the most con- servative opinions (especially in view of the considerable influ- ence shown to be exerted by the first factor) to assume that the united agency of the five factors is such as to counterbalance the lessened solar distance in summer, and render the combined factors effective in the sum of the excess of winter-season above period, accordingly, the annual accumulation of ice was $3 X10, or -185 inch, and within which the total accumulation was equal to -185 13,000, or 2405 inches (200 feet) Toward the equator actual and possible annual precipitation and liquefaction progressively increase, the first four glaciation- ay The writer, “A Contribution to Croll’s Theory,” this Journal, xxii, 1881, 437. Hill, “ Evaporation and Eccentricity,” Geol. Mag., viii, 1881, 481; this Jour- nal, xxiii, 1882, 61. Croll, * Climate and Time,” 1875, 58; Geikie’s Text Book,” 1882, 25. cit. 1, 60; op. cit. 2, 26. t it be clearly understood that such an assumption is not made as an attempt to demonstrate the validity of the eccentricity theory by any process of defective reasoning; the only demonstration worthy of the name, now admissible, would be an approximate evaluation of the glaciation-factors, severally and jointly, at _ various latitude of the zone over which they are efficient. Such an investigation = i d req prose- Presents no serious difficulty aside from the time and labor requi oo. 36 “Climate and Time,” 320. 118 W. J. McGee—Theory of Glacial Climate. factors progressively lose in relative efficiency, the fifth increases, the share of heat derived from warmer latitudes diminishes, and the periodicity of solar accession becomes more equable, whereby loss through radiation is accelerated. From this complex of diverse and antagonistic elements only the most vague estimates of the relative rates of addition and loss in higher and lower latitudes could be directly deduced without exhaustive analysis and computation ; but it is certain that the annual addition to the ice-sheet could never exceed the precipitation, while it is obvious that the annual loss must fail of the addition; whence the foregoing value, if doubled or tripled, and certainly if quad- rupled, would be ample for the whole glaciated area of the northern hemisphere. n the initial development of an ice-sheet, would then reach maxi- mum efficiency. The enormous dissipation of heat by icy sur- faces is seldom adequately appreciated: after a light snow-fall equal to but a fraction of an inch of ice, in the upper Mississippi valley, the temperature falls from freezing-point to zero, and the snow is not even softened by a day’s uninterrupted sunshine demonstrably sufficient to melt an inch and three-quarters of ice; the névé-fields of the Savoyan Alps receive enough solar energy in a year to melt 54 feet of ice, yet the actual superficial liquefaction must be trivial; an earlier paragraph indicates that less than a fortieth of the theoretical melting actually occurs in the frigid zones; the solar accession in the frigid zone in sum- mer is considerably greater than at the equator, as Meech has calculated,” yet the liquefaction annually effected there would be effected in a week were the available energy utilized in such work; it appears susceptible of mathematic proof that if the water of the earth were converted into a mantle of ice uniformly % “Relative Intensity of the Light and Heat of the Sun,” Smiths, Contrib. Knowl., 85, 1855 (=vol. ix, 1856), 18, pl. L W. J. McGee—Theory of Glacial Climate. 119 annual precipitation, or of the combined values of the glaciation- factors, be excessive, the computed rate of ice-accumulation is too rapid; while if they be defective, the importance and effi- ciency of eccentricity as an element in glacial climate has been underestimated. The foregoing results sustain the opinion of Wallace and others as already stated, and show that (presumably) the weightiest objection of the recent reviewers is invalid. _The third objection of the first reviewer is based on a subor- dinate side-question springing indirectly from the Crollian the- ory, which may or may not in any way affect the fundamental principles of the theory; for the question as to what physical effect a given mass of ice will exert on the earth’s center of gravity and on the position of the ocean is wholly independent of the question as to the reason of Quaternary ice-accumulation ; and the validity of the eccentricity theory, per se, is accordingly in no way affected by the verity of the phenomena adduced. _ Again, the tripartite sequence of Quaternary deposits described in the text-book (glacial—aqueous—glacial) does not appear to € so thoroughly understood and so clearly drawn, and the consensus of opinion concerning it so uniform, as to allay the suspicion that the aqueous beds may be analogous to those everywhere deposited during and immediately after the with- — rawal of the second ice-sheet. This objection, therefore, is also invalid. In his first objection the second reviewer overlooks the fact (upon which the writer has already had occasion to insist)* that the hypothetical deflection of the Gulf Stream, in the manner contemplated by Croll, is an effect of glaciation, and, if a cause cas at all, only a secondary one. Hence if the glaciation-factors alone are capable of inaugurating a glacial period, the assistance of this element is not essential ; and if they are not alone capa- le of producing such an effect, the whole theory fails. This objection, too is accordingly incompetent. With no desire to underestimate the actual difficulties of the | eccentricity theory, or to detract one iota from the laudable caution displayed in such general criticism as that of the first reviewer, a word may be added with reference to the deprecia- tory tone of the class of critics represented by the third reviewer. ntricate and far-reaching’ as the theory is, encroaching as it oes upon different branches of science, involving as 1t must elements seldom codrdinated by individual specialists, 1t requires for its thorough comprehension a range of preliminary study *8 “ Croll’s ‘Climate and Time’” (review), Popular Science Monthly, xvi, 1880, 819, 120 CC. A. White—Floral Types in the Laramie Group. which few geologists van afford to bestow upon it; and as with special investigations generally, so in this case, the men who have not made such study are prone to ignore or disparage both the investigation and its results. It assuredly speaks strongly for the respectability, and equally makes for the probability of the theory, that nearly every geologist whose writings show that he thoroughly comprehends it is disposed to regard it as some- thing more than a vague hypothesis, and that those wlio un- derstand its principles best are most ready to teach it as a tentative but probable geologic and cosmogonic doctrine. Never more, and seldom as much, may be said of the narrower speculations of empirical geology. Salt Lake City, Utah, April 15th, 1883. ArT. XV.—On the Commingling of ancient Faunal and modern Floral Types in the Laramie Group ; by CHARLES A. WHITE. ' [Published in advance by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey.] ee of Dakota, to which Dr. Hayden gave the name of Fort them has, qu Dr. Hayden at the same time and from the same localities, col- C. A. White—Floral Types in the Laramie Group. 121 lected many invertebrate fossils which were afterward described remains, among which were those of Dinosaurs. Mr. Clarence King, accepting the conclusions of Dr. Newberry as to the Miocene Tertiary age of the plants here referred to, and those of Professor Cope as to the Cretaceous age of the Dinosaurs, expressed the opinion that the strata from which the former were obtained were distinct from those of the latter and of much later geological age. The following paragraph is quoted from his volume I, of the U. S. Geological Survey of the 40th. Parallel, p. 353: ‘‘The relations of conformity or nonconformity etween the plant-bearing beds of Fort Union, and the Dinosau- — rian beds are not given, and there is reason to believe that the plant beds represent a horizon of the great White River Mio- cene series which underlies the Pliocene over so large a part of the Great plains. * * * * I apprehend that the plant-horizon at Fort Union will be found to be nothing but the northward extension of the White River Miocene.” My reason for refer- Ting especially to this statement of Mr. King is that it occupies a place in the leading volume of one of the larger series of . 5S. Government geological publications, and it is therefore (although he distinctly states that he has never visited the region in question), liable to mislead those who have not per- Sonally studied the geology of that region, if it should pass unchallenged. During the summer of 1882 I gave especial study to the geology of the region about Fort Union, extending up the Yel- lowstone Valley, and including all the localities from which Dr. Hayden obtained the fossil plants here referred to. The result of that study has been to ascertain that only one forma- tion, namely, the characteristic Fort Union Group, which is nothing more or less than a part of the great Laramie Group, Oecupies that whole region. That is, with the exception of one or two small exposures of the Fox Hills Cretaceous Group, Upon which the Laramie strata rest conformably, no other than — x t num and Missouri, including many of Dr. Hayden’s localities, I collected fossil plants, shells and vertebrate remains. the mollusean shells are those which belong to characteristic * In the last May number of this Journal I gave an account of a small deposit which I found on the top of a butte about 100 miles south of Fort Union, w may be of later age than the Laramie Group; but in that deposit only a few fos- : sil fishes were found, and it is several hundre d feet above the fossil plant horizon. 122) OC. A. White—Floral Types in the Laramie Group. them as identified by myself, cemnraye them with the type specimens or other authentic examples Unio sate Meek & Hayden. Viviparus peepee M. & H. Unio senectus White. Viviparus Leidy & H. Corinda mactriformis M.& Viviparus retus Se Thaumastus linneformis M. rs H. Viviparus Tleai | M. & H. Pitparee oaks M. & H. Professor EK. D. Cope, who has examined the vertebrate remains which I collected with the foregoing mollusca, recog- nizes the former as belonging mostly to the same species which he had previously obtained from that peony and he gives me _ the oe ee. determinations of them Di sstensiawee 0 specie OSAUTUS. wie species. Ghalontins: three s species. (Trionyx, Emys and Pereyra Ganoids, one species. (Clastes.) Mr. Lester F. Ward, who has charge of ae fossil plants of the U. 8. Geological "Survey, and who is making a special study of those of the Laramie Group, has given me a list of 35 species which he has identified to his entire satisfaction with species heretofore published. The larger part of these are spe- cies which Dr. Newberry published, as before mentioned. From that list I select the uerien species named below for the purpose of illustrating the subject of this article: PARTIAL LIST OF hase PLANTS OBTAINED FROM THE LARAMIE STRATA THE YELLOWSTONE VALLEY.* Yellowstone valley. European. Other Laramie localities. Equisetum arcticum Heer. Miocene, Spitzbergen. Sequoia Langsdorffit Heer. " . Black Buttes, Sout’rn Wy. Phragmites Giningensis A. y Switzerland. s s Gymnogramma Haydenti Lesqx. Golden Colorado. ge ~— Heer. ‘ Switzerl’d & Green’ld. ericana Walt. “divin rae ; Corylus rostrata Ait. (liv- Platanus Guillelme Gépp. . Greenland. [den, Colorado. Magnolia tenuinervis Lesq’x. BI’k Buttes, Wy. and Gol- Eleodendron Helveticum eer. e Europe. eae Gandini — ce “ Juglans rugosa Lesq ‘Black Buttes, S. Wyom’g. Juglans biltnica sole * : : Trapa microphylla Lesq’x. Point of Rocks, 8. Wy. Three important facts are shown by this partial list of the fossil plants from the Laramie strata of the Yellowstone valley. * The other “eee of plants found associated with these are, as before stated, e types, but they are omitted from this list because, so far as lly classification, os of recognized Mioce nee the are are concerned, reference is made especia S_S. Newberry—Fossil Plants from Northern China. 128 Chelonians, all co-existed with Dinosaurs. It is not to be denied, if there were any inducement to do so, that the Dinosaurian remains are found toward the base of the Laramie Group, in the Yellowstone valley, and that the prin- cipal horizon of the fossil plants is somewhat above that of the Dinosaurs there. But all the plants of the foregoing list have been found associated together, and some of them also exten below the upper known limit there of the Dinosaurs. Some of the other vertebrate remains herein named are found associated Art. XVL—VNotes on some Fossil Plants from Northern China ; by J. S. NEWBERRY. oe Mr. ArNotp Hacue recently placed in my hands a small — collection of fossil plants brought by him from China. They proved to be interesting, and with his permission I present — briefly the results of my examination of them. he circumstances under which they were found, so far as known, are given in the subjoined notes of Mr. Hague which accompanied them : : 124 JS. Newberry— Fossil Plants from Northern China. *<'This collection of plants came from the coal basin of the Pin- hsu-hoo, in the southern peninsula of Mantchuria, on the east side of the Gulf of askance. and about one hundred pret northeast of the open port of Niu-chwang. Iam told that at times there transporting coal. This coal field has long been known to for- eigners through the Chinese as a possible source of workable coal. As long ago as 1863 Professor Pumpelly iain that the Lian- tung coals should be examined by American or European experts before opening the mines at ere beat which he tah personally visited and reported upon favor So far as I know no piclagian has visited the district except Baron y. Richthofen, who regarded the formation as of Paleozoic age, although I believe he found no fossils From my own observations while traveling through the prov- inces of Chihte and Shansi, and from various sources of informa- tion, I believe by far the greater part of the coal basins of North China are of Paleozoic age, although the well-known districts west and northwest of Pekin have been shown to be of Mesozoic a "The estimates of the great area and value of the coal and iron deposits of North China, which have been made by Professor Pumpelly and Baron Richthofen, are, I think, by no mean unwarranted. _ There can be no question but that the coal and iron of China will ate to be of immense value in the material development of the country so soon as she decides to adopt railways and foreign engineering methods.’ On unpacking the collection I discovered that the plants were of Carboniferous age and that most of them belonged to species common in the rocks of Europe and North America. Of the ten species which can be Sanieaieied, one is a Pecop- leris too imperfect for determination (probably P. unita Brgt.), and two others, a Lonchopteris me an Archcopteris, present The complete list of species ts as follows: Annularia longifolia Brgt. Sphenophyllum oblongifolum Germar. Calamites Suckowii Bret. Cordaites borassifolius igs Lepidodendron pies ee Sternb. Sigilaria Brardi B Pecopteris Cyathea ste Pecopteris, unita ? Bret. pps ret aoe ¢ Lonchopteris, teris, N. sp.? JS. Newberry—Fossil Plants from Northern China. 125 The Archeopteris indicates that the coal with which these plants were associated belongs near the base of the Coal-meas- ures, as this genus does not rise above that horizon. The species of Lonchopteris and Archeopteris are best repre- sented in the collection, and the former is very well shown. In general aspect it is not unlike the figures given by Brong- niart of his Z. rugosa, (Veg. Foss., p. 868, tab. 181, figs. 1, 2, 3), but the pinnules are smaller and the reticulation much more open. In the latter respect it is more like Z. Bauwrii Andr., L. Eschweilerianus Andr., and L. conjugata Goepp., sp. (Neurop- teris conjujata Goepp.), but it has narrower, more pointed and curved pinnules than either. ; Should a larger number of specimens show that these are constant characters it will be necessary to regard this as a new Species which may be fittingly named after Mr. Hague, Lon- chopteris Hagueana. The Archwopteris mentioned is a very graceful and well-marked species of the genus, having obovate or spatulate pinnules, of which the upper extremities are often crenulate or fimbriate. It is less robust than the type forms of - Hibernica Forbes, sp., and the pinnules are more symmetri- cal. It is about the size of A. Jacksoni Dwn,, but bas less crowded, more elongate, and more regularly ovate or spatulate world, and P. Hmmonsi, which occurs in North Carolina, all of which seem to represent the | tae ch pper Trias or rel las.“ Subsequently (in 1868), M. Ad. Brongniart exam- China, vol. iv, p 264), with some su ions i rd to their generic and spe- ‘ IV, ' ggestions in regard to generic ane cific relations which would hardly haye been made had these distinguished paleontologists had access to the specimens on which I based my cc waving examined these fossils I take occasion to offer here a few additional notes ‘pon ‘ Sphenopieris orientalis certaivly belongs to the same genus with the ferns now ; nd Th. jana Hi oui Podoza i uF ¢ Lhanicopsis as suggested by Heer. This is shown by its nervation, and _ fact that the pinnules are pinnately set on a rachis and are not fasciculate asin — e ed mites lanceolatus is that plant and not — @ - 53 7 126 S.S. Newberry—Fossil Plants from Northern Chana. : and gave a list of them in the Bull. de la Soc. Geol. de France, 3d Series, vol. ii, 408. They included some of the species collected by Pumpelly, and were considered by M. Brongniart to represent the Upper Trias and Lower Jura. More recently Baron v. Richthofen obtained ee plants from various parts of China, and these have been descr y A. Schenk in vol. iv of Richthofen’s China. They repre- sent two distinct es one Carboniferous and the other Mesozoic. The former were found in the districts of Shansi and Hunan. pte were Cheers Pecopteris cyathea, P. unita, Annularia longifolia Brgt., A. maxima Schenk, Sphenophyilum Richthofen obtained a group of Mesozoic plants, among which M. Schenk recognized Pecopteris Whithyensis, Podozam ites lan- ceolatus, and other species which led him to refer the strata containing them to the Brown Jura. It is known to most geologists that the extensive coal basins of India, from which fossil plants have been described by Oldham and Morris and Dr. Feistmantel, are all of Mesozoic age. The same is true of the coals of Tonking, Cochin China, from which a considerable number of fossil plants have been obtained by the French expeditions and described by M. RB. Zeiler in the Annales des Mines, October, 1882. It would seem. proven, therefore, ar ie coal basins of China ( (in which the coal is very largely converted to anthracite by local metamorphism), belong to two great geological sys- tems, one, as indicated by the plants collected by Baron Rich- thofen and Mr. Hague, the equivalent of the Coal-measures—and _ probably the entire range of the Coal-measures of Europe and Coal-measures in Europe and nee but identical or closely allied species, cannot fail to interest both geologists and botanists; the first, by the confirmation they afford of the clas- sification ‘adopted for the stratified rocks, based on the fossils they contain; the latter, from the evidence they furnish of Pheenicopsis. Tazxites spatulatus N. is the leaf of a conifer, and not of a cycad, as inferred by Heer. It has but a single nerve, the median, which is meune an traverses its entire length, and has a wedge-shaped base terminating in a isted petiole. The publication of Heer’s important paper on the Grenadin of Eastern Siberia has given significance to certain specimens in Pumpelly’s collec- tion and has enabled me to add to the list of species Baiera angustiloba Heer peek near to B. Munsteriana), Pherucopsis longifolia Heer, and Czekanowskia rigida. | * J. 8. Newberry—Fossil Plants from Northern China. 127 Asia. And yet, in the interval between the deposition of the Coal-measures and the Triassic rocks the whole flora of the globe was revolutionized. Before the Bunter was laid down Lepidodendron, Sigillaria, Annularia, Sphenophyllum, Cordaites, and indeed all the characteristic forms of the coal flora had dis- able to report the facts with a good degree of fulness; but the Causes which inspired the revolutions ai have taken place in plant life, and the processes by which these great changes have been effected seem to be as inscrutable as ever. 128 DeCandolles Origin of Cultivated Plants. Art. XVIL.— Review of DeCandolle's Origin of Ciebiiel Plants ; with Annotations upon certain American Species; by ASA Gray and J. HAMMOND TRUMBULL. ‘In concluding, after some Bngayertes delay, our observa- tions upon DeCandolle’s L' Origine des Plantes Oultivées, it may not be improper to state that, as we learn, the work was planned upon a somewhat larger seale, which was reduced to suit the requirements of the publis er. This accounts for the omission of certain articles which would otherwise have found place Parr III. _ _Lycopersicum esculentum, Tomato.—We have only to note an oversight in respect oF » Mexican cultivation of the Mala Peruviana, as it was named by some botanists of the 16th century. DeCandolle petete to Humboldt’s statement that the cultivation of this esculent was ancient in Mexico, but adds that there is no peethir of it in the earliest work on the plants of ere hase : Hernandez, Historia. But Hernandez (ed. 1651, p. 295, ) ) ‘actually has a chapter ‘De Zomaii, seu Sathoes acinosa vel Solano, and describes several sorts under their Mexican na Persea arabia, Alligator Pear of the English, ?Avocat of the French; a singular corruption of a native name, as De Candolle remarks, which had no more to do with an alligator _ huiil, corrupted by the Spaniards into Aguacate, Avogade, etc. Champlain, who saw it in Mexico in 1599 or 1600, calls the uk find only one writer in the 16th century who Fiebly the indi- cating a Peruvian origin—namely, Anguillara, whose isaties re De Simplicibus” was first printed, in Italian, at Venice, 1661. On his authority the name “ Poma viana” is in d, i nymy, by C. Bauhin, in his an on atthioli, 1598 (p. en stettensis (attributed to Besler), pub- “ Bystettensis is the pel authority cited for “‘ Mala Peruviana” in the work to which M. DeCandolle refers—the Historia Stirpiwm, steshiied to J. Bauhin, but pub- — long — = death (in 1551), with large addi: ns by his son-in-law Cherler, by Chabrae a Graffenreid. Guillandinus, af Padua, in a treatise “De , pubyi ” 1572, 1 ed the “ gas natle mecracheerariorieng as a species of Pomum - Amoris or Solan: ev ebabiors and, earlier, Matthioli had senceibed it (Comment. & in Dioscor., ed. 1559, p. 537) a as a “kind. of Mala insana” [Solanum melongena], ss which-was “begin ning to be imported” into Italy, and which was “ popularly called Pomi d’oro, that is, Mala aurea,’ : J have Se the Tomato with another of the —— es me ng ntroduced at abo me period—the Thorn Eee Ue eee Soe which Gulandinas rete named “ Mala ee es "French ie DeCandolles Origin of Cultivated Plants. 129 fruit Accotates and Acoyates; Voy. to the W. Indies [Hakluyt Soc., 1859], p. 28. Oviedo described “the wild pear-tree of the main land,” in 1526. It grew “in the province of Castillo del Oro (Panama), in the sierras of Capira and the country of the cacique of Juanaga,” etc. In the revision of his first work, in 1535, he adds, that he had, some years before, seen these trees cultivated by the Indians in Nicaragua (Hist. gen. y nat., lib. ix, ec. 22). It was still a tree of “Terra firma”—not yet introduced into the Islands. Clusius saw it in a garden in Valencia—“ said to be brought from America”—thirty-five years earlier than the date (1601) mentioned by DeCandolle. He described the “Persea” in the first edition of his Historia rariorum Stirpium, 1576 (lib. i, c. 2), published five years after his journey in Spain. Passiflora.—This genus is wholly omitted by DeCandolle; unaccountably so, considering how much Granadillas have been cultivated and prized in tropical countries. A note on the subject may not be out of place, as a species was cultivated by our own Indians. As to early history and aboriginal nomenclature, Monardes Sweet, and too sweet, in the opinion of some.” Lery (1557-8 does not appear to have found it in Brazil, but it was common but this seems to have been adopted from the Tupi—for in that language Mburucuia denotes the “ fruit of a vine. 130 DeCandolle’s Origin of Cultivated Plants. cocks—pleasant, wholesome — —among “things which are naturally in Virginia.” Strachey (Zravatle into Virginia, 72, 119) describes the ‘fruit valed by the natives a marac cock, which me Indians plant,” ete. Ithough no see earrers ss fruit of the spontaneous plant is os eaten in the southern Atlantic States; and its popular name, May -pop, is Shots ae last stage of ‘the Tupi original. Now our Passiflora — nata is so like P. edulis (well known in cultivation), the home of which is in Brazil,* that botanists have been mabe clearly to distinguish the a except by the fact that ours, dying down to the ground at approach of winter, remains herbaceous. It occurs in a rather narrow geographical range; and Dr. Masters, in his elaborate study of the order (Zrans. Linn. Soc., XXvii, 641 ; ; see also Flora Brasiliensis), says that “ being so far separate from the remainder of its allies of the same subgenus, [it] may be considered as an outlier.” Altogether we may infer that ihe fruit and the name were sa ge derived from the same South American source. nana.—The author concludes, as did Robert Brown, that Dakin and Plantain are varieties of one species; also that this species is of the Old World; that in all probability it was not known in the West Indies when discovered by Columbus; but that in respect to the western side of North America, there is ‘some evidence which is not easily ruled out, especially the statement of Garcilasso that the Peruvians had the banana before the con- leaves. This is discredited because the author found beans in the same tombs, “ et que ‘la féve est certainement de |’ancien monde.” But if Stevenson wrote beans, without doubt he meant the seeds of Phaseolus, not of Faba. It would rather seem that the Banana, like the Sweet Potato and Cocoa-nut had early been transported over the Pacific. Phaseolus vulgaris, Kidney Bean.—Three weeks after his first landing in the new world Columbus saw, near Nuevitas in Cuba, “fields planted with “ fawones and fabas very different from those of Spain,” and two days afterwards, following the north coast of Cuba, he again found “land well cultivated with these Secoes and habas much unlike ours.” “ Faxones” or ‘ jexoes” were—as Navarrete sat Colec. i, 200, 208,—‘‘ the _ same as /rejoles or judias,” Spanish names for kidney beans, which the Portuguese call Fezjaos. "Oviedo (1525-35) speaks of * Not Mexico, although indeed said to have been brought from “ wae Spain to the garden of the Farnese palace, in Rome, as early as ene It i Hest bated the name of Maracot—with excellent com psa the plant, gow flower, d the yah team Tobias Aldinus, in Harior. urnesiani (Rome, 1625), DeCandolle’s Origin of Cultivated Plants. 131 the “fésoles, as the Spaniards call them, of which there, are many kinds in the [West] Indias.” These ésoles, he says (lib. vii, c. 18) ‘are called by Pliny fagivoles: in Aragon we call them judias, and the seeds of those of Spain and of this country are properly the same.” The natives of Hispaniola raise these fésoles, but they are much more abundant on the main land, especially in New Spain and Nicaragua. “I have, in the Jacques Cartier, the discoverer of the St. Lawrence, on his first voyage, 1534, found that, the Indians near the mouth of that river on the Bay of Gaspé had abundance of maize, and had “ beans (febues) which they name Sahu,” or (as spelled in the vocabulary printed with his Discours du Voyage) Sahe.* The Brf Recit of his second voyage, 1535-6, mentions the use of corn and beans by the Indians of the St. Lawrence—“ bled Jebues & poix, desquels ilz ont assez” (f. 24). Father Sagard in his History of Canada and in the account of his journey to the country of the Hurons, 1625, mentions the * The langua i dialect of the Huron-Iroquois group, and on alla tes sie coud dex tae ouch it) in the Mohawk osahe-ta ‘fésoles” of Bruyas (17th century) and the Onondaga ousahéta and hésaheta ‘ poix, féve” (Shea’s Onondaga Dictionary). 132 DeCandolle’s Origin of Cultivated Plants. cultivation and use of “‘fezolles” by the Indians. The Hurons used in their succotash (neintahouy) “a third or a quarter part of their fezoles, called ogaressa” (Grand Voyage, 83, 188). Lescarbot, 1608, says that the Indians of Maine, like those of Virginia and Florida, plant their corn in hills, “ and between the kernels of corn, they plant beans marked ( ‘fives riolées) with various colors, which are very delicate; these, because they are not so high as the corn, grow very well among it” (Hist. Nouv. France, ed. 1612, p. 835; see also, p. 744). The relation of the voyage of Captains Amidas and Barlow to Virginia, 1584, mentions pease, melons, etc., at Roanoke Island, but does not name beans; but Harriot t, ‘whe ore i) 7H res) ioe) Loney wm i] a 9 a) es , Ps) =| eg g a. = om a Cs el — i) = fa) — S "Ss o cy ae © —— co ° — =} acterizing other large islands of the ocean; (4) In the actual reefs and islands of the Feejee group (see the map of the Islands in the writer’s Corals and Coral Islands), all the conditions, from the first stage to that of the almost completed atoll, are well illustrated, one island having only a single peak of rock within the lagoon, not topth of the whole area, which a little more of subsidence would put beneath the waters and leave the lagoon wholly free. 3. D. D 2. Glacier Motion.—In a paper by W. R. Browne on glacier motion, read before the Royal Society in June, 1882 (and pub- lished.in Nature, June 5), the author rejects all theories except that of Canon Moseley, which attributes it to change of temperature, and likens the motion to the creeping of a lead plate down a sloping surface. At the close of his paper the author publishes the following Greenland notes by Dr. Rae. “When in Greenland, in the autumn of 1866, I was ice-bound at the head of one of the fiords, and slept a couple of nights at an Eskimo’s house. A glacier about half a mile distant was then in full activity, the movement of which might, I believe, have been as visible to the eye as it certainly was audible to the ear. ly own idea is that Arctic glaciers must have a downward Motion more or less during the whole year, summer and winter. I believe the alternation of heat and éold—or, I should rather say, of temperature—would of itself. cause motion, especially uear the upper surface. . * ¢ 150 Scientific Intelligence. We know that ice two or three feet or more thick contracts very considerably in a few hours by a ae fall of fifteen or twenty degrees of temperature. I have found cracks in Lake Winnipeg three or four feet wide, betied by this cause during a single night, almost poppe our sledge j journey. This gap soon freezes up. Then the weather gets milder, the ice expands, and with the new additional foiantion is too large for the lake, and is forced up into ridges. This process goes on at every ‘cold snap,” nagar with milder weather. Now supposing a glacier for ten or more feet - its depth. contracts by cold, as lake ice is known to do, it will get a series of cracks probably in its longest axis, say from inland seaward; the first suowdrift will ‘fill up these cracks or some o ce ina this filling up will to some ex- tent perform tl ©) as the freezing “of the cracks in the the glacier, but as this expansion would naturally tend downhill, instead of up, the whole motion would be downwards. But even the cracks I mention did not take place, the contraction by cold would pull the ice downhill, not up, while the expansion by increase of temperature would tend to push the glacier downhill, so that these opposite actions would produce similar effects in rae the glacier, or such part of it as could be acted upon by external temperature, downwards. I may also add that when a crack, however slight, is formed b contraction, the eae is admitted into the body 0 of the glacier, ” will be vonbinbornd that Professor Agassiz’s theory of glacier isthe makes the dilatation arising from the freezing of the water that descends into the glacier the chief cause of motion. In his Geological Sketches, published in 1866 (p. 280), he states hat other causes of motion have acted, but rstill urges that dilatation of the mass resulting from ‘the freezing of infiltrated water was an important means. 3. Glacial cold. ie? the Geological Magazine for July, Mr. S. . Woop reviews bricfly the facts with regard to the ice of the ice period, and the views as to glacial cold, and apne the opinion he had ebony: Lobes that the period was “due neither to a change in the earth’s — a to any rataaon in the eccentricity of the earth’s or orbit t, nor to any change in the distri- bution of land and water, but to a acied: in the heat-emitting power of the sun.’ ; Couebulions to the History of Lake Bonneville ; by G. K. Gusert. Ann, Rep. U. 8. Geol. Survey, 1880-81, pp. Lies , with plates and maps.—This paper is an abstract of Mr. full but yet ri birceera Report on Lake Bonneville. Haslier contributions by him on the lake and its outlet are contained in volumes xv (1878) ial xix (1880) of this Journal. The present paper relates prominently to climatic changes which the phases ee the lake indicate ; the mequality in change of level undergone _ / Geology and Mineralogy. 151 about the lake-area, which want of horizontality in the terraces evinces, and the orographic movements that occasioned it ; and the region. Mr. Gilbert observes that the highest water-line about Lake Bonneville (the flooded Great Salt Lake and other Utah lakes combined) is 1000 feet above the level of Great Salt Lake; and “over every fvot of the intervening profile can be traced evidence of the action of waves.” This 1000-foot terrace is called the Bonneville shore-line; and another, which is espe- cially conspicuous, at a level of 400 feet, is called t The remarkable terraced features of the region, shore-line, rid being about 100 feet below those at intermediate points (at les. Mr. Gilbert deduces from the observations that an increase in elevation of the Wasatch Mountains may be still in progress. ne latest movement is indicated y the character of the erosion ; that the eroded slopes are not a result of subaerial action, _ . are characterized by the peculiar sculpture of waves; that the vos Salt Lake have not since been even 50 feet higher than they are at present. He adds that this uplift is therefore so recent ‘as to leave no reasonable suspicion that its growth has now ceased.” € memoir closes with the following “ summary :” (1) The climatic episode of which Lake Bonneville was the expression consisted of two humid maxima, separated by an in- terval of extreme aridity. The second maximum was the more Pronounced ; the first the longer. ‘ ~ time elapsed since the close of the Bonneville epoch has been briefer than the epoch; and the two together are incom- parably briefer than such a geologic period as the Tertiary. 9 3) ‘The period of voleanie activity in the Great Basin, which Bonneville Epoch, and presumably have not yet ceased. (5) The Wasatch Range, the greatest mountain mass of Utah, has recently increased in Ftaht, and presumably is still growing. © x 152 Scientific Intelligence. 5, China; by Ferprsanp Fretuerrn von Ricurnoren. Vol. IV. Berlin, 1883.—The fourth volume of Baron von fen’s great work on China has just appeared, and is published in the same luxurious style with its predecessors. ormns paleontological part of the work and consists of descriptions and iscassivns of the fossils obtained from different parts of China, “i ces inen roi various authors: 1, Cambrian trilobites, by Wil- helm Dam Cambrian Siac ionaa. by Emanuel prntleg- 3, sine il Crpes Silurian fossils, by the same anthor; 4, r Silurian corals, by Lir idstrom; 5, Deveiien oats of 80 satieweaton China, by EK. Kayser; 6, Devonian and Carbonifer- ous fossils of Tshau-tién, by E. Kayser ; 7, Carboniferous Fora- Carboniferous fauna of Lo-ping, by E. Kayser; 9, Carboniferous pag aete J ee plants, 11, Tertiary plants of Southern China, Il by These memoirs are illustrated by 54 bsbierogty plate In looking through this volume no one will fail to be i man essed with the remarkable resemblance and to a lar ge degree identity of the fossils brought by Richthofen from China with those which are most characteristic of the formations holding the same relative a ? alman ; Angelin, Davidson, Brongniart, Géppert, Heer and Shee For exa ample: in twelve species of Productus, sagpret ated as occurring in the Chinese Carboniferous rocks, only one is Heduriba by Kayser as distinctly new. The Ca sonikstols. ut neuili Murch. (8. disjunctus Day. i one overgrown Aulop tubeformis Goldf., another ear trying Crania obsoleta, Spircrbis akon la and Cornulites. epithonia, all described by Goldtuss m European re the eight Orthides two only are exclusive ly Chin Among the Carboniferous brachiopods arly all are dential with ours, the first plate nee represents dibs ing composed of Retzia compressa Meek, Athyris globu- laris Phill., Spiniger lineatus and 8. glaber Martin. On the next plate are represented Streptorynchus erenistria, world-wide in its distribution, our Meekella striato-costata Cox ap elnamene: hastata Sowb. On the next with Orthis Pecostt are several figures of Syntrielasma hemiplicata Hall sic, he hei tasted ” Hall, Seacemaes’ s Salt Lake Report), ur peculiar fossil. ar Pomel review of the Deyonian fauna is given by Kayser — ~ Geology and Mineralogy. 153 on page 98, from which it appears that of the twenty-eight described species only six are peculiar to China and of these only two, Nucleospira Takwenensis and Orthis Richthofeni, are dis- tinetly different from any found elsewhere; the other four Chinese species having representatives in Europe or America, to which they are so closely allied that they may perhaps be only varieties. _ On page 199, Kayser begins a still more interesting and suggest- ive review of the Carboniferous fauna, in which he enumerates 55 Species, only ten of which are considered as new. But two new generic names appear in the list, one a coral, Richthofenia, first obtained from India, and the other a fish tooth, Leptodus, allied to—if indeed it is generically distinct from—Deltodus cingulatus N. and W. from Illinois. Figures of Cambrian trilobites occupy two plates. These are wonderfully like the illustrations of the Primordial fauna given by ngelin from Sweden, Hall from New York and Walcott from Nevada, and evidently represent essentially the same group of organisms. It has been urged that our representation of the Primordial fauna is too fragmentary to permit generalization in regard to its zoological character and affinities. But we have now gathered d widely sepa- rated localities affords demonstrative evidence that they typify s he has assigned new generic names; for example, to the trilobite Sah YPY. : two trilobites from Utah described by Hall, in King’s Fortieth ceps and D.? gothicus. Similar trilobites, and sped belonging to the Same genus, have been found by Walcott in : the material representing large organisms of complicated structure * 154 Scientific Intelligence. is fragmentary, and to the fragments more significance is some- times given than is warranted ; still a sufficient number of well- eat interest. The fossil plants were collected from twelve localitige and ae hee three geological horizovs, the Carboniferous, Juras- sic and Tertiary. The Uavbouitorsus species amount to about 40, of which perhaps 30 are sufficiently complete to be satisfactorily identified. Of these, nearly all the most distinctly marked are identical with European Gai tenatacons species or are very closely allied to them; such as Calamites gigus, Annularia longifolia, Neuropteris Jlexnosa, Cyatheites arborescens, sos Haale Se Ging a lai variety of S. emarginatum), Stigmaria Jicoides, Cordaites of, PS _ palis, ete. beats the new species: i dessa hed is a large Annaula- ria with v numerous and contiguous leave a iio Herr Schenk on given the name of 4. maxima ; bat which Zeiller (= A. longifolia Brgt.) (Annales des Mines, Oct., 18 82). Three species of Archewopteris are noticed, for which Geinitz’s antici- pated name ae is retained. thease one, “ P. lanceolata Schenk,” figured on page 218, is probably a group of the abnor- mal folioles which constitute the summit of the pinne in some - eet Neuropteris, as N. cordata Brgt. and N. Rogersorum imbal The most striking of all the coal plants is a large ovoid leaf © like that of a Magnolia ene Schenk _ called Megane: e name is preoecupied, having been given by Dawson in 1871 | to some lar "ge Paints agro with forking pinnee, and further illus- trated by Andrews in the Paleontology of Ohio, Vol. I T plant is of ida interest, and it is to be hoped that Herr Schenk Sean choose a new name for it, and that pe eves and relations mo en Pecctbarld Whitbyensis), A. peel i a and Pods mites jen latus. They are considered as indicating a Jurassic age for all of the strata which weaugy them; of this, however, there may be a qu rie since forms identical with, or allied to, many of those described have oi obtained from the Rhetic beds in other bares of the world. If, however, the Rheetic is to be considered as the base of the Jurassic system, and not Triassic—a view whic is gaining ground in Europe—there can be no objection made to this conclusion. _ The only thing which requires nag among the Jurassic plants is the large frond figured on Pla , Fig. = , regarded by Herr Schenk as Rea but which sls the characteristic rec- Geology and Mineralogy. 155 tangular nervation of the genus. The principal yerves are dichoto- mously forked, and it seems. more likely that the fragment repre- sents a new species of Dictyophylhun. A notice of this elegant volume would be incomplete without reference = the exhaustive study by Schwager of the Carbonifer- ous Foraminifera of Chins. and Japan. ese form “ Fusulina t the former the old name of dina is retained, and the spheroidal ones are made to aise a new genus, for which the name Schwagerina is moapiet by Moller. These are illustrated by four plates and nearly a hundred pi dag many of which are highly magnified sections, which will be useful for co mparisons with Nummulites and with the bepeaunt “organic ee of Koz06n. NEWBER . Note on Professor R. D. Irving’s paper on rae Parcapenshis origin of the hornblende of the crystalline rocks of the North- f. \ western States; by . Wansworts. (Communicated.)— Since Professor Irving’s paper in the Jul number of this ie appears to impky that no one si r ichmann has ev studied microscopically the rocks of the Marquette district, sae no one except himself advocated fg: sees origin of the horn- blende in the “ greenstones,” or the eruptive origin ‘of the diabases, a ssa statement of the facts is cewae y. 8s. KE. Wright published, in 1873, descriptions of the micro- acapio characters of a suite of Marquette rocks ;* while a more extended study by myself was published i in 1880.4 In my. work the secondar y origin of the hornblende in the “ greenstones” was distinetly advocated and the rocks classified prigi st o- ‘The olivine- -bearing character of part of the diabases was then first pointed out, and the supposed serpentine of Presque Isle was first ow e a peridotite of is lherzolite variety ; also the tra- chytic and rhyolitic nature of the Keweenaw felsites, since nis cated by Irving. The ae pene of the diabases as held by : vee genie oe and Whitney was also clearly proved by figures and see ince we agree on these points and since a copy of m my p lished paper was sent him at his special request, it is dificult to understand d why Professor Irving should ignore my work, and publish the same Views as original with himself. Cambridge, Mass,, July 10, 1883. a gt Sage of September 7, pe in Central America— A letter from Mr. A. Ernst, of Caraceas, in the July number of na Teueoad calls attention to an error in my last Notice of nerican Earthquakes (p. 357, ¥ 1883). He states that _ fay earthquake was not felt at een as stated y me. The st * Geol. Mich., 1873, ii, eariee ¢ Bull. Mus, Comp. Zool., 1880, vii, est FL e pp. 31, 3 39, 42, 46, 70, 156 Scientific Intelligence. ment was made.on the authority of an article in the Atlantic Monthly (March, 1883, p. mul er enn the personal ia feta of the . (H. D. Warner), in an earthquake occurring - 2.20 a.M., September 7. The year was oe given, but it was natural inierenee that it referred to the shock felt in adjeneie districts at 3.20 a.m., September 7, 1882. On re again at the article I see that it might refer to some previous year, and I presume that is the fact. Probably Mr. Hae could tell that year it was. correction needed to the notice on page 357 will then be to eruse = reference to Ecuador and Vene Sea ane opportunity to say wat that, as my notes are essa nil oe d largely upon newspaper notices, which are not slvays reliable, I shall be glad to receive corrections to my pub- lished lists from any persons who,may have better information; reliable notes sent me in advance. y permanent address is as C. G. Rockwoop, Jr., Princeton, N. J., U.S. A July 13, 1883. 8. Brief notices of some recently described minerals.—Emp LirE: Described by Igelstrém as occurring in radiated pe fibrous aggregates of very minute but well-formed oleae. he 128° to 130°; the e planes oe (Z), 120 (4-2), 130 (é- 3), 010 (i); o cleavage, serleet parallel 01 e optic axes lie in the brachy- diagonal section, the scuts positive bisectrix ae to the shorter titers! axis, 2V=85°. Hardness, about 6. Color, white, becoming ni es on exposure to the air from oxidation of the- iron. Infusible, and does not decrepitate, ste very slightly, if at all, attacked by ac acids. Two analyses gav Side Al,O3 MgO, CaO, FeO H.O i 51°70 31°52 4°60 12:18=100 2. 47°86 33°60 o10 12:84==100 These pares the author corrects for the 16 p. c. gangue intermixed, and obta "eb. Al,Os; MgO, CaO, FeO H,O We 1. 62-3 30°56 34 13°8 pi 48°8 S33 os 14°6 The mineral is essentially a hydrous silicate of alumina, but owing to the impurity of the material analyzed the exact compo- sition must be regarded as very doubtful. It occurs mixed with eyanite and in cavities in schistose damourite and in quartz ; from the Horrsjéberg, Wermland, Sweden.—- Budi. Soe. Min., v1, 40, 1883. : IcerstRéwrre, Su.rpexeirE and MANGANHEDENBERGITE are manganese minerals, described by Mats Weibuil, from Vester- be ee,’ in the Norrbirke parish, Sweden. Igelstrémite occurs Miscellaneous Intelligence. | 157 in grayish-black crystalline masses of irregular texture, some- times almost homogeneous, and again mixed with a carbonate of lime and manganese, and magnetite. Cleavage in two direc- tions, making an angle of 131° with each other, and a third, indistinct, at right angles. Specific gravity, 4:17. Luster, vitre- ous to greasy. Translucent with yellowish color. An analysis SiO. FeO MnO Mgo 3°01 CaCO; 29°94 46°88 18°83 1°14=99°80 it having the ratio of Fe: Mn=2:}. e same mineral has b been used by Heddle ; ‘see 3d Append. Syst. Min., p. 99. Silfbergite is a honey-yellow mineral resembling actinolite. It occurs in bladed crystals and crystalline aggregates showing two prismatic cleavages like hornblende, also in nearly compact masses, Luster, vi 4 , 5°5, and specific gravity 3446. Translucent, slightly dichroic. An analysis gave— Sid, FeO MnO MgO CaO ign (3) 4883 30-49 8:34 8°39 174 0-44 98-23 Sid, FeO MnO Cad MgO Na,0, K,0 48-29 24°01 6°47 17°69 2-83 0-22=99°51 Together with the above minerals three other manganesian Species are described, a manganese garnet, & carbonate of lime and manganese, and wad.— Geol. For. Forh., vi, 499, 1883. . III. Miscennangous Screntriric INTELLIGENCE. 1. A visit to Ceylon, by Ernst Hacxet. Translated by Clara Bell. 338 p aes ston, 1883, (S. E. Cassino & Co.) 8 view in his journeyings, His deseriptions—which embrace all kinds of subjects that suggest themselves to an observing travel- er, and much that only one with an eye quickened by science would see—are always excellent and often amusing. he trop 158 Miscellaneous Intelligence. cal forests and landscapes, and the coral and other scenery of the waters, gave him great pleasure, and the reader derives much of tive one in all respects, and not the least so for the portraiture it gives through its pages of the nee fyrmane ty 2. Handbuch der Klimatologie ; r. Jotius Hawn, Direk- tor der met. Zentralanstalt, und / dab ane an der Univ. in Wien, etc. 764 pp. 8vo. Stu uttgart, 1883: (J. Engelhorn). — This volume is one of the series constitueng. the Bibliothek Geo- everal eminent collaborators. It is ¢ Salaabile work, giving in cto act form a large amount of Sitovmution in regard. to the cli- mates of the different parts of the earth, It opens with an intro- duction devoted to a ses epee of the various climatic elements ; at clouds and fog, winds, atmospheric pressure, evaporation, and composition of the air. The work proper is divided into two parts, the first containing a discussion of general ppmerteg considered under the two heads of the solar climate, or the cli- mate of the earth as Tabsesiltiied simply by the shane “of solar radiation and the character of the earth’s atmosphere. The sec- ond head is oye physical climate, or the actual terrestrial climate as influenced by the modifying causes of the varied character of the earth’s surface, of land and water with the accompanying cur- rents of air and sea, and the unequal altitudes of different parts of the earth above the sea surface. Under the second head the characteristics of land and sea climates on the one hand and of the mountain climate on the other, are discussed at length. This portion of the work, See sip about. one-sixth of the whole, fluence of ocean currents on the climate, of ip hres chains upon the precipitation of rain or snow are some the topies which e sed, special climatology or the description of the climate of the different parts of the earth, first for tropical regions, then for the temperate zones, and finally for polar regions. The considerable space, upwards s of 500 pages, given to this portion of the 8 ubject — allows the author to present the climatic peculiarities of the various regions in considerable — ha whether the reader is interested in the gold coast of Afri Alaska, or the Sandwich Islands, — will find here a good paenertiea of the results of past pbaervatio tio 3. Pesrasce of a a veseh sea aie in collecting and mals ; .C. Maynarp. 112 pp. preserving Birds Man by J ee — with ifinstraaians Beak 1883. (S. E. Cassino & Co.)— f Miscellaneous Intelligence. | 159 ly pages. The . work takes up, in order, the subjects of collecting by trapping, be hed . . . * ° Dp skins—under which head varying directions are given according Birds are first considered, pp. 227-286, with 8 plates. Cambridge, May, 1883. - 5. Koyal' Society.—Professor Huxley has been elected Presi- dent of the Royal Society, in place of Mr. Spottiswoode, deceased. 6. Professorship of Chemistry in the University of Virginta.— e Virginia. American Association, to be held at Minneapolis, will open on the youn ‘Ith of August, under the presidency of Professor C. A. Young, of Princeton. A list of the officers of\ the meeting is given in volume xxiv of this Journal on page 30 e rooms of the rates, and other information of value to the members, rs, can obtained. An illustrated guide to the city of Minneapolis will be distributed to the members. press packages containing apparatus, specimens, maps, books and other articles designed for use in the meetings of the Associa- All matters relating to membership, the presentation of papers, Payment of assessments, etc., and business to come before the Association will be attended to by the Permanent Secretary at in, Mass., up to August 8th; and after this date, until the ; adjournment, at the N comes House, Minneapolis. Professor Put- 160 Miscellaneous Intelligence. nam reports that by the peneee oy of General William Lilly, the Nashville volume of the Proceedings has been reprinted, and by the liberality of shashes mente the St. Louis volume is now being reprinted, while the several smaller gifts of a number of Te will be held until a sufficient sum is subscribed to reprint volum The copies of volume 24 are now nearly exhausted and ake: subscriptions to the reprinting fund are greatly de- sired. Copies of 2, 24 and 27 will be received in exchange for other volumes, or for peeksiinuts at the rate of a dollar a volume. Members can ‘complete their sets of Proceedings at the rate of one dollar a volume, if ten or more yolumes are ordered at one Sa he en volumes the price is Age 50 a co The quarto e n Fossil Butterflies by S. H. Seudder, printed by the souakion “of +g Elizabeth Thompson, is furnished by the Associa- tion at $2.0 ; the Gb pcr a - American Geologists “and Rataraliees 8vo, 1843, at $3.00 ac iberal arrangements are made for the Aechnton at Minne- “tent 08 it is confidently expected that the meeting will be a arge on OBITUARY. Sir Epwarp Sazrine, K.C.B., died on the 25th of June, 1m his 95th | ear, General Sabine’s fn me is known in scien nee mo pot with If and Gautier, the connection between unusual magnetic Bac abascen and large deeli nation, and the year or time of “maxi- mum sun spots. His election to the Royal Society took place in 1818, when in his 30th year. In 1821, he received from it the Copley medal ; in 1849, the Royal medal, In 1861 he was elected President of the Royal Society, which position he held for ten years. In 1869 he was made K.C.B. The Colonial Observa- tories owed their oxjtenen. to the efforts of General Sabine, a were for many years opr his control—From a Mogragihdoal notice in ere of July 5t WwW M Sporriswoopk, "President of the Royal Society, em- ine mathematician and physicist, and a scholar also in jricntal on other languages, died on the 27th of June, He was buried in Westminster Abbey. Mr. Spottiswoode was born in don, Jan. 11, 1825, but was of Scottish fam mily. His earliest mathematica work, ‘“* Meditationes nana tena appeared when he enty-two years old. After 1870 his attention was « divided spa physics and agree gen A complete list of his papers i is contained in Nature of April 26. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. [THIRD SERIES.] ABT, AIX On the Existence in both Hemispheres of a Dry Zone, and its cause; by ARNOLD GuYoT. (Read before the National Academy of Science, Nov., 1882.) the causes of these extraordinary variations. _ One of the general laws already recognized is that the quan- tity of rain, on the whole, decreases with the temperature, that is, from the equatorial belt toward the poles. This was to WwW xperiences a remarkable interruption a little beyond either tropic, where the quantity of rain is ee to a _ It we find the Jour. Scr.—Tarep Senies, Vor. XXVI, No. 153.—Surr., 1888. 162 A. Guyot—Dry Zones in both Hemispheres. abundant summer rains of the tropical climate, and on the —in my Physical Geography, page 90—that these dry, parched tracts form two belts around the globe; two dry Zones, on both sides of the tropics, containing most of the so-called deserts of the world, in which the regime of the rains, as well as their. quantity, differs from that of the neighboring climatic regions. As this fact, however, does not seem to have been fully recog- nized, perhaps for the want of a sufficient development, I beg leave to again call the attention of the Academy to it, and to indicate in a few words, what I believe to be the cause to which this remarkable phenomenon may be referred. The Northern zone of dry lands extends in width from about 24° to 82° N. lat. (See Loomis’s map of rains, in this Journal, vol. xxv, January, 1888). In the New World it be- gins at the west with the peninsula of Lower California ; thence passing through Arizona, New Mexico and Western Texas. In all these lands, extending for nearly a thousand miles from west to east, the annual fall of rain remains below ten inches, and goes down to two and three inches, while in some years the rain fails entirely. Farther east, in the same latitudes, local causes, to be mentioned hereafter, give abundant rains to the valley of the Mississippi and Florida. n the Old World the dry zone oceupies the very center of the Great Sahara, where the absence of rain is nearly complete on a length of 3,200 miles, and is considerably increased in width. Thence it crosses the central part of Arabia on 4 line of 1300 miles, passes through the dry plateau of Hastern Persia and Beloochistan, and reaches, beyond the Indus, the desert of Thurr, after a course of another one thousand miles, making together a tract of 5,500 miles of dry lands. Farther east, as in the New World, local causes bring, in the same latitudes, abundant rains which mask the influence of the general cause of dryness, as it will presently be shown. In the Southern hemisphere the dry zone is strongly marked on the west slope of the Andes. It is well known that ail the coast of Peru from Punta Parina 6° 8. L.to N. Chili 30° S. L. is a rainless region; but it would be a mistake to believe that the atmosphere is wanting in moisture in all that extensive district. All along the Peruvian coast, though owing to speci circumstances, no condensation takes place near the seashore sufficient to produce rain, the thick winter fog, called the A. Guyot—Dry Zones in both Hemispheres. 168 “Garua, furnishes moisture enough to render all hills and pas- tures green with verdure. In the latitude of the dry zone, however, from 20° to 80° S. lat., in the desert of Atacama, about the tropic of Capricorn the atmosphere is not only rain- less but perfectly dry. Even on the coast of Chili, Copiapo, 27° S. lat., receives only 0°32 inch of rain, La Serena in Chili 0°5 inches. In the same lat. on the east of the Andes the plains of the Pampas are subject to great droughts. ’ e gran-seco (great drought) of nearly three years duration, which took place in this century, is still remembered as having cost the life of millions of cattle which came to die along the few river courses which had retained some water; leaving their bones accumulated just as the fossil bones of the Quaternary mam- mals are now found in the Pampas. Tn the same latitudes in Africa the Kalahari Desert extends over the whole western half of the continent an cae Australia the dry zone passes from west to east through the very center of the continent between the summer rains of the tropics and the winter rains of the more southern latitudes, with the exception of a narrow strip of the eastern coast which is watered by the winds from the sea; condensing rather scanty eo irregular rains-on the Blue Mountains and the Australian ps ‘The existence in each hemisphere of a dry zone in the sub- tropical latitudes may thus be considered as a fact for which a cause must be found. On the other hand it is true that both in the northern and southern hemispheres notable interruptions are found, and it is to be remarked that they are all on the eastern side of the continents. In America from eastern Texas along the gulf to Florida the latitude of the dry zone has an abundance of rains. In the Old World from the Sind desert near the Indus through both Indian peninsulas and Southern China, the lands in the latitudes of the dry zone are still more plentifully watered. In the southern hemisphere the eastern half of South America and South Africa and the eastern coast of Australia, though moderately supplied, are not wanting in rain, especially near the sea. This apparent anomaly also has to be accounted for. a _ As among the causes which govern the aqueous precipita- tion the course of the winds occupies the first place, I am inclined to think that a close consideration of the normal move- ment of the atmosphere in the latitudes of the dry zones will “account for the above mentioned facts. _ ys (hese winds belong to two classes. In the first are those which form a part of the general circulation of the atmosphere, resulting from the spherical form of the globe. In the other “are itis mainly due to the relative distribution of continents 164 A. Guyot—Dry Zones in both Hemispheres. and oceans and participating therefore in the nature of the mon- soons. ‘To the first, I believe, the scarcity of rain in the dry zones must be attributed; to the others the abundance of rain in the well-watered portions of the same zones, which inter- rupt the continuity of the dry lands. of the atmosphere vast masses of air which overflow on sides toward the temperate zones, causing an accumulation of air about the 30th degree of latitude, enhanced still more by the decrease of the areas poleward. This accumulation is. shown by the existence of a belt of high barometric pressure, which there reaches the maximum known on the surface of the trades and the southwesterly winds characteristic of the tem- perate zones. e part, however, which each of these bodies. of winds plays in the condensation of rains is very unlike; the first brings drought; the second is the principal source of the rains of the temperate latitudes. t may, at first sight, appear singular that these two branches of the same aerial current should have so different an effect on — ~ A. Guyot—Dry Zones in both Hemispheres. 165 laws of the general circulation of the win it be so it is evident that modifications in that system will affect the position of the dry zones. e southern zone, for Instance, is somewhat nearer the tropic for the reason that the middle, or central line, of the belt of calms is on the north of the equator, removing the whole system of trades and anti- trades toward the north, an effect due, no doubt, to the pre- dominant extent of the land masses in the N. Hemisphere. Though this cause of dryness in these particular latitudes may be considered as by far the most efficient, secondary causes are not wanting which intensify locally the phenomenon, or give it a greater extension. It is to be noted that most of these phenomenon, only due to local causes, but it depends upon the ds. clear sky, with diminished density of the air, becomes strongly heated, keeping the air on the plateau warmer than the air at favors in these subtropical latitudes an accumulation of heat Which adds another element of dryness, and which tends to — merease the breadth of the dry zone. : The rains, often quite abundant, which fall in the portions of the subtropical zones situated on the east side of the great land masses and which have been indicated above as notable 166 A. Guyot—Dry Zones in both Hemispheres. of diminishing from the coast toward the interior, rather in- creases to a distance of a thousand miles from the sea-shore. G. F. Becker—Temperature and Glaciation. 167 Art. XX.—On the Relations of Temperature to Glaciation ; by GEORGE F. BECKER. _THE theory of a Glacial period has always presented great difficulties. Agassiz acknowledged their existence from the question, a lower temperature was requisite. This view has recently been sustained by Mr. G. K. Gilbert in opposition to the arguments presented by Prof. Whitney. Since it is evi- dent that the question cannot be settled without further discus- Sion, it is probably desirable to consider it from as many points or view as possible. Of these one will be here presented. If the sun and earth are members of a system now under- going a uniform loss of heat, it appears certain that the forma- ion of glaciers must be limited to a distinct period in the earth’s history. So long as the temperature nowhere sank, the earth’s surface would preclude the formation of glacial ice, for the rate of evaporation diminishes more rapidly than the temperature, The entire quantity of water existing in satu- rated aqueous vapor at a temperature of minus 20° C. is a little less than would be precipitated from aqueous vapor of a temper- . The present time lies between the ex- treme periods indicated, and it is known by observation that glaciers are in process of formation. It is certain, therefore, 168 G. F. Becker—Temperature and Glaciation. The formation of glaciers must be confined, under otherwise equal conditions, to areas lying between certain isotherms. If a mountain is supposed to rise in a tropical country to an indefinite height, a temperature will prevail at its foot too high to allow of the formation of ice, and its peak may be supposed to stand at an elevation where the cold is too great to permit of any considerable precipitation. Dr. Tyndall has drawn atten- tion to this fact and pointed out that, were the mountains high enough, there would be an upper as well as a lower snow line. this basin takes place in the form of the glacial stream, which descends to a lower level until a temperature is reached at and evaporation reéstablish the equilibrium between dissipa- tion and solid precipitation. As observations show that both * According to Sir W. Thomson’s experiments, and Prof. Clausius’s computations (Clausius’ Mech. Warmetheorie, i, 172), a pressure of one atmosphere depresses the melting point of ice 0:00733°C. It follows that a pressure of about a ton per square inch, or many thousarid feet of snow, would be required to reduce the temperature of fusion 1°. G. F. Becker—Temperature and Glaciation. 169 prevail at great elevations during the winter months. A _por- tion of the snow thus removed from the higher parts of the snow belt will lodge at lower levels in névé basins, and the snow falling upon these basins from the clouds at temperatures considerably below the mean will also in part be swept away, and not contribute to the mass of névé. The actual precipita- tion on a névé field is, therefore, not an accurate gauge of the frozen water which it receives. While both snow and rain, or melted ice, are essential constit- uents of the névé, it is evident that the formation of the glacial ice will not be most rapid at the extreme lower edge of the snow belt, for if the heat received is more than sufficient to raise the frozen water to the temperature at which regelation is most easy, the excess of heat will produce further liquefaction, and diminish the accumulation. This, therefore, will be most rapid, and the resulting glaciers largest neither at the upper nor the lower limit of the snow belt, and, other conditions remain- Ing equal, it appears certain that the maximum accumulation will take place along a certain isothermal line, the temperature of which will not in general be very far removed from zero, though its precise temperature will depend upon local cireum- Stances, such as the average humidity; the shelter from the direct rays of the sun, the distribution of moisture through the year, etc. - As has already been seen, the formation of glaciers is de- pendent upon topographical, as well as meteorological condi- tions. In order therefore to institute a comparison between Sunshine and the strength of the winds to be the same at the two periods, then during the warmer epoch the maximum ten- F d ; 170 G. F. Becker—Temperature and Glaciation. by topographical conditions, ete.. The higher the temperature of any locality, however, the more rapidly the thermometer is found to fall as neighboring mountains are ascended. e rate ? that it does not extend over the snow belt. If so, the diminu- more powerful during the warm period than at the later date, and consequently ice and snow exposed to the sunshine would melt more rapidly. Neither would the conditions at sea level be the same. Not merely would more heat be em- ployed in evaporating water from the ocean during the warmer period, but the temperature of the ocean itself would be increased, especially near the surface, but also throughout the whole depth of shallow seas. As is well known, the rate of evaporation depends primarily upon the temperature of the surface of the water, and it follows immediately from the for- mulas which state the observed relations between temperature and tension of aqueous vapor, that the more intense the radia- tion from the sun, the greater will be the proportion of the heat employed in the evaporation of water. Appeal to obser- vation shows that the operation of this law is not substantially obstructed by the action of any other of a contrary tendency. The heat received from the sun upon a square mile of the earth’s surface, in latitude 45°, allowing for the absorption of the atmosphere, must be somewhat more than one half of the amount received upon an equal area at the equator, while the average rainfall of latitude 45° is only one-third of that at the equator. The rate of evaporation of still water in the two * See Loomis’s Meteorology, p. 40; Report of Chief Signal Officer, 1876, p. 348; and Professional papers Signal Service, I, Isothermal Lines of the U. 8. G. F. Becker—Temperature and Glaciation. 171 belt. Experience, therefore, amply justifies the statement that. Cooler era more than in proportion to the intensity of solar radiation. Teached its upper edge. The maximum development of gla- fiers on this slope must have occurred when what been called the ma ike coincided with its upper edge, and Since that time the magnitude of the glaciers upon the slope must have been constantly diminishing. * It is of i i ly are referred to, i. e. that a Single pds wetted oN pg hp pe Arig basin. In Point of fact a large glacier frequently drains many névé basins at various alti- uch a glacier on the hypothetical slope might remain of constant magni- tude during a long period of time, the i saad of accumulation in lower névé Dn basins compensating for the diminution in higher ones. 172 G. F. Becker—Temperature and Glaciation. glaciers cannot in fact have occurred when the glacial isotherm touched the top of the highest mountain peak; for though the meteorological conditions were eminently favorable, insufficient space was afforded for the accumulation of névé. As the iso- therm descended the slope of the mountains, the topographical condition became more favorable, while the meteorological ten- period of maximum glaciation. It is by no means to be in- out the year, and in spite, too, of an active circulation of alr Glacial ice even accumulates in artificial openings in localities far removed from any mountain glacier. The bottom of the Dannemora iron mine, for example, an immense open pit some 500 feet deep, is covered with ice to a depth of many feet G. F. Becker—Temperature and Glaciation. 173 greater extent than is possible in the deep gorges in the White Mountains, the Adirondacks and elsewhere, in which ice is ‘nearly or quite permanent. Such occurrences make it clear that the direct heat of the sun is of the first importance in the dissipation of glacial ice or névé. certain amount of névé is not melted but evaporated. Indeed, according to Professor Whitney, the snow on the south- ern side of Mt. Shasta diminishes in volume almost exclusively from this cause, but a fixed amount of heat employed in dissipa- tion by evaporation must produce a far smaller effect in the reduction of accumulated névé, than if it were employed in merely melting the snow or ice, for evaporation can go on rap- idly only in dry air; and since the air is an extremely poor con- ductor, and has a low specific heat, most of the latent heat ab- sorbed in volatilization of the water must be withdrawn from the underlying snow, and will thus counteract the tendency to melting. Indeed, since it is said to be possible to freeze water by evaporation and radiation from its own surface under favor- able atmospheric conditions, at temperatures much above the reezing point, it is @ prior’ probable that in a very dry atmos- ing. The melting effect of rain is no doubt very considerable, though as a certain quantity of water appears to be essential to glaciers. The melting effect of rain upou snow can readily be calculated if the temperatures of the two substances are known. “Tf that of the rain is plus 5° and that of the snow minus 5°, the melting of a weight of snow equal to one sixteenth part of fact of greater precipitation probably involved more cloudy Weather or a shorter exposure of the ice to sunshine. * 174 G. F. Becker—T. “mperature and Glaciation. Hitherto it has been assumed that the warming of the sea, the evaporation and the precipitation, leading to the formation of a particular glacier take place under a sun heat of equal intensity, as would happen if there were no ocean currents and all these processes went on in the same latitude. Were this the case the lines of maximum glacier formation would first touch the earth as infinitesimal circles at the poles, and would thence move toward the equator remaining parallel to it. At any given period, maximum glaciation would be an event of the past throughout those portions of the globe lying north of the northern glacial isotherm and south of the southern one, while between them it would not have been reached. ID, Distance. 10? x | |Eres.per.s.| 19-8 x Ut 3-7 62 |°195| 1200 8300 | 50 ft. - 70 220 | °20 4400 7600 {100 * Ut: 2°5 "7 | °085 650 280 }200 ‘ ? 3°8 178 | 09 1605 SIO: |3CO * Sol, 16 51 | ‘12 610 260 {200 ‘ Ut, 2°0 160: }-1% 255 110 {200 “ Sol, 15 170 | °30 5100 2200 |200 “* Ut; 72 63 | °26 1640 710 |200 “ The Ut, fork was mounted before a resonance box, and fitted to be driven by an electro magnet; Ut,, Sol, and Ut, were mounted on boxes of the usual form open at one end; the Sol, and Ut, were open at both ends. The Ut, was heard much better in front of the box than behind, but as there were four observers, and those ‘before and behind thé box exchanged __ places, any error from this difference is eliminated; no difference. was detected with the other forks. Two in-door experiments may be given: the Ut, was taken - near one end of a long hallway, and, being turned in various directions, the amplitude was noted when the sound ceased to a listener about 50 ft. away; here we cannot apply the law of inverse squares; the best thing is to assume that all the energy passes through every transverse section of the hall, although we know that some was absorbed by the end wall, and some escaped by a stairway : 2Vx=190 and area =19 m*? .-. S<100000 x 1078. eo Again -the Ut, fork was heard about 2m. distant when the amplitude was less than jj, ; as the fork was near a wall, assume that the energy passed out through a quarter of a sphere; and OC. K. Wead—Intensity of Sound. 189 as the ear was at a point of maximum loudness, assume that the energy per second at that point is four times that due to a uni- form distribution of the energy : io: BON -8. table VI gives S=30010-8. _Some experiments were made bearing on the question of the division of the energy as already referred to; they indicate that with the Ut, fork only about /; of the total energy is used for the sound-wave; but the observations are too few to determine whether the theory used in their discussion is valid or not; so this matter must be deferred till another time. The only other experiments that I know of with which to compare the values of S in table VI are three in number, from which I have computed the values of S as follows: Tépler and Boltzman,* closed organ pipe, n=182 S= 10000 x 10°® Rayleigh,} open pipe, n=2730 S= 4500 x 10% Allard,t bells, steam syren, etc., at sea, n from 400 to 1500_-.-- S=nx 43x10 4 Following Rayleigh’s formula we get the maximum velocity of the air particles at the limit of hearing, thus: v?=S+4ap, where a= the velocity of sound =34000 cm. and p=0013= ir v2=S+2 Inn=V/S+80n. The smallest value of x to be obtained from table VI is 7010-8 em. for Ut, The formula computed from Allard’s data would give | for n=512, 2=31x10-8 cm. Rayleigh found for n=2730, *=8:110-8 cm. But the fuller discussion of these matters must be postponed to another part of this paper. * Pogg. Ann., cxli, 321, 1870, t Proc. Roy. Soc., xxvi, 248, 1877. i ‘ ; } Comptes Rendus, xev, 1062, 1862. I have not seen his longer memoir. 4 190 T. S. Hunt—The Decay of Rocks. Art. XXIII. rhe: Decay of Rocks Geologically Considered ; by T. Srerry Hunt, LL.D., FBS. [Read before the National Academy of Sciences at Washington, April 17, 1883.] ConTENTS OF SEcTIONS.—1, 2, The supposed relation of rock-decay to climate ; ; ios Whitney, Pumpelly and Dawson on decay of limestones ; 10, su vaérial proeens 11, 12, Its antiquity and its relation to glacial erosion; 13, Decay in the Blue idge; Hunt, Burbank; 14, 15, Chemical significance of a 6 of aluminous sili- cates; 16, Analyses of decomposed feldspars; 17, 18, The question in relation to eozoie roc s; 19, Bowlders in crystalline schists 20, 21, Decayed gneiss of Hoosac Mountain; 22, Of the South Mountain, Penn; 23, At Atlanta, Ga.; density of decayed ‘rocks; 24-26, Deipritoriii vies 35 its decay; iron and copper _ ores; 27-30, Limonites of the Appalachian bong tertiary limonites (foot-note); 31-34, Lesley, Jackson, Frazer and Lyman on limonites; 35, : B. Rogers on formation and segregation of siderite; 31, 38, imonites from serpelune of or. pone 39, Pumpelly on decay of gt esas aighen ie in ee its ; 40 isse i Winchell and Irving; 41, Rock-decay ZA Sweden and % eee ae 42, Post-Cam- brian decay of i igneous rocks; 44, 45, Decay of auriferous gravels in sage wre influence of carbonic acid; 46, Sli ght oS in F oekaki cial times; effec changes of temperature y eoccenitey 47-49, Pumpelly on the geological pelagions of Fock-decay ; 50-52, Studies of Reusch j in Corsica: 53, Conclusions. § 1. The subject of the decay of rocks has not yet received pic geologists all the attention which it merits, and there still in ee an some points in its history. Professor _ northern regions are supposed him to retard the action of atmospheric waters, regarded as the chemical agent of this pro- cess of decay.” These views, implying that the process is one nelonging | to the present time, are accepted b Professor Storer, who writes of the ‘‘ more active and ihorouah -going disintegra- tion which occurs” in these southern region § 2. That the Seer in the northern hemisphere of a man- tle of softened material from the decay in situ of crystalline _ rocks is more onros at the oe of these 1 ie i than in high latitudes, where it is often entirely absent, is a iliar : et but it will, I think, be made evident that cireuelat climatic Gs 1 "Science, for February 16, 1883, p. 29. -? Bernay’s Hand-book of Reese 1878, p. 199. eae T. 8. Hunt—The Decay of Rocks. 191 decomposition. A memoir, by Fournet, published in 1834,* gives many facts regarding the early observations on rock-decay. Its rvations of Pallas, w Siberia (1768-1774), noticed hills “that seemed composed of 7 * these was due to original concentric structure, was rejected by Fournet. : masses rest upon each other, decayed matter filling the inter- stices.* In 1825, T. W. Webster noticed the same example, the decayed greenstone.’ . Again, in 1858, W. P. Blake ce described the production at rounded masses both of sandstone lar locks, separated by joints admitting water to all si es, “att OVEr, the , California, lying on an uneven surface of the same rock, : ue to the manner in which the rock decomposes, and not to © * Ann. de Ch. et de Phys. [2] v, 225-256, * Mem. Amer. Acad. Sciences, Ist Series, iv, 201.- 5 Boston Journ. Philos, and Arts, ii, 285. 192 T. 8. Hunt—The Decay of Rocks. abrasion.” Like Fournet, of rejects the notion of an original concentric structure in the ro § 6. Hartt, in 1870, pede the well-known examples of rock-decay found in Brazil, and called such rounded masses of rock as we have just described “ bowlders of decomposition.” He moreover noted that the process of decay was there Seales to the supposed glacial action, which had worked over the _ material of the previously decomposed rocks.’ | Lyell alee dps in 1849, had pointed out that the Tertiary clays and sands of the southern United States have been derived from the waste of the previously decayed crystalline rocks of the region ;* and as we have seen, the ante- ‘Tertiary age of the decay in Auvergne had long before been recognized. he account given by Professor Charles Upham Shepard, in 1837, of the origin and mode of occurrence of the porcelain- clays of western Connecticut is remarkable for its exactness and perspicuity. That at New Milford is described as occur- our author says, “« “11 forms a vein many feet in width, cut- vein of clay is described as occurring in the town of Cornwall, and as including frequent crystals of black tourmaline; the feldspar also being incompletely decomposed.° As showing that the process of arene decay is not con fined to silicated rock s, it may be noted that J. D. Whitney described in 1862, the existence in the lead-region of Wisconsin of a layer of red clay and sand, mixed with chert, sometimes thirty feet in thickness, which ‘he showed to be a ae ne ‘souri, where sak fis pete deo sometimes attain a thick- § Geol. Recon. of California, pp. 146, 2 : Facog Results of a Journey in sbeaail pp. 28 “573. Lyell: A Second Visit to the United Sta 28, : Boncerd: Report of ee Survey of Counsel (1837), pp. 73-75. 18 Geology of Wisconsin, i, 121 T. 8S. Hunt—The Decay of Rocks. 193 ness of 120 feet.” This process is evidently due to a simple solution of the carbonates of lime and magnesia in meteoric aters, $9. A similar decay is conspicuous along the outerop of the Auroral limestones and their associated schists in the Appa- lachian valley, as will be noticed farther on, in $27, and may also be seen at several points in the Trenton limestone and the Utica shale of the St. Lawrence valley. One of these localities, described by Dr. J. W. Dawson, is at Les Eboulemens, on the north shore of the St. Lawrence, below Quebec. ere, at t southwest base of the high Laurentide hills, the Post-pliocene clays, enclosing marine shells and large gneiss bowlders, are found resting upon a mass of Utica slate, deprived of its calea- Teous matter, and so soft as to be readily mistaken for the newer clays of the region but for its stratification and its organic remains. This, according to Dawson, had been changed to a great depth by sub-aérial action previous to the period of 10. It may be said that with the exception of Darwin, who had observed the decay of rocks in Brazil and conjectured that the process might have been sub-marine, all observers have cor- - rectly regarded it as sub-aérial. The chemistry of the process was discussed, among others, by Fournet in the paper already cited, and later by Delesse in 1853; also very fully by Kbel- men, who considered the question of rock-decay in its relations to the atmosphere, in two memoirs in 1845 and 1847." The same subject was further considered at some length by the present writer in 1880." Ae ea ne $11. Having thus briefly indicated some of the points in its to this, as we have seen, it had been recognized that the process of rock-decay had been in operation not only in pre-glacial — ut in pre-Tertiary times, and that the resulting material had en the source of Tertiary clays and sands, and even, in certain cases, of glacial drift and bowlders. Py $12. In a review of Hartt’s volume on Brazil, in 1870, the present writer said: “The great wasting and wearing-away of crystalline rocks in former geological periods, of which we have : ,, Geological Survey of Missouri; Iron Ores and Coal Fields, p. 8. ee * Dawson: Notes on the Post-pliocene Geology of Canada; from Canadian Naturalist, vol. vi, 1872. - . z Bull. Soc. Geol. de France, x, 256. Annales des Mines [4], vii, and xiii, This Journal, xix, 349; see also his Chem. and Geol. Essays, p. 100 Jour, rye Series, VoL. XXVI, No. 153,—SeEpr., 1883. 194 T. 8S. Hunt—The Decay of Rocks. abundant evidence, is less difficult to understand, when we Jearn that rocks as hard as those of our New York Highlands become [are] even in our own time, under certain conditions so softened as to offer little more resistance to the eroding action of a torrent than an ordinary gravel-bed." Subsequently, in an account of some observations made in North Carolina among the rocks of the Blue Ridge, and presented to the Boston removed by erosion during successive ages, culminating in the Glacial period at the close of the Pliocene, since which time the chemical decomposition of the surface has been insignificant. From the products of this sub-aérial decay it was then main- tained has been derived a great part of the sediments alike of Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic times. The permeable nature rocks has been “a necessary preliminary to glacial and erosive action, which removed already softened materials.”"* Such erosion and denudation would, in accordance with this view, consist in 18 The Nation, New York, Dec. 1, 1870. ' Pproe. Boston Soc. Nat. History, Oct. 15, 1873, and this Journal, vii, 60; also Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Science for 1874, p. 39; and Hunt, Chem. and Geol. Essays, pp. 10, 250. . 18 Harper’s Annual Record of Science, etc., for 1873, p. xlviii, + ‘ T. S. Hunt—The Decay of Rocks. — 195 ® Essays, I have pointed out the important part played by th protoxyd-bases liberated by the, sub-aérial decay of feldspathic and hornblendic rocks. Starting from the conception of a. primitive terrestrial crust consisting wholly of crystalline sili- cated rocks, we are forced to find in such a process of decay the source of all limestones and dolomites, which are derived from the carbonates of li : re )e} i=) o s. ) =] r=) oo] Qu 2 fone ial = a (o>) re) i) beg J o = © fa or o mn th =) -y = i) for Qu cS =. =) 09 : et Es @ Qu er) 8 ~ * the former which is seen when silicates like orthoclase and albite are compared with micas like muscovite, and with sili- cates like cyanite, pyrophyllite and staurolite. The conclusion — was then reached that ‘the chemical and mineralogical consti- tution of different systems of rocks must vary with their — antiquity,” and that “it now remains to find in their compara: tive study a guide to their respective ages;” in which connec- tion a comparison was then attempted between the older gneisses and the newer crystalline schists. A further applica-~ — tion of this principle was essayed in 1878, when the progres- 196 T. S. Hunt—The Decay of Rocks. sive elimination of the alkalies from the aluminiferous rocks of the eozoic groups was shown by comparing the mineralogical composition of the Laurentian with the Huronian, Montalban and Taconian crystalline schists.” $16. It should here be noted that decayed feldspars, ie 0 when these are reduced to the condition of clays, have not, most cases, lost the whole of their alkalies. This is well ines trated in a series of analyses by Mr. E. T. Sweet, of the kaolin- ized granitic gneisses of Wisconsin, to be noticed farther on From these analyses it appears that the levigated clays from these decayed rocks still hold, in repeated examples, from two- to three- hundredths or more of alkalies, the potash pre- dominatin 17. It would follow from the considerations advanced above, that the decay of crystalline rocks is an indispensable preliminary to the formation of limestone, and that the earliest silicated rock must have contained no carbonates whatever. There are many reasons for doubting whether this veritable primary system is known to us, but it will be remembered that at the base of the Laurentian, as seen on the Ottawa River, there is a vast and unknown thickness of red and vray granitoid hornblendic gneiss, apparently destitute of limestones, an underlying the great series of somewhat similar gneisses inter- stratified with limestones wale graphite, iron-oxyds an S Regs which were, as early as 1847, reas by the Cana- ian geological survey as “a separate group of metamorphic strata,” characterized by these lithological aitlcne aaa Logan, however, supposed the two groups to be conformable, and they were in 1854 both included under the common name of Lauren- tian (afterwards the Lower Laurentian of Logan in a subsequent review of the subject in 1878, I designated the lower as the | Ottawa group, and the upper group as the Grenville series.“ It was this latter group which had been carefully studied and mapped by Logan and his assistants, and as served as the type of the Laurentian system. I have since, in a paper read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, in 1879,* noticed the probable-non- conformability of this Laurentian system with the underlying or pre-Laurentian gneiss, and the possible relations of the latter to the fundamental or Lewisian gneiss of Scotland, = the Bojian gneiss of Bavaria. 2 Second phanie Survey of Pa.; Azoic Rocks, Rep. B, p. 2 38 See for on the Min eral Resources of Wineobis Proc. Amer.. Inst. M. Helin vol. oe at 305. For ae analyses, see Geo. H. Cook, Geol. : Survey of New J only rt on Clays, 18 24 Azoic oe 64, 148, pete _ %The pre-Cam ins Rocks 0 f Europe and America compared. Amer. Jour. Sci., xix, pp. aie, 275, 281; also Geol. Mag., Jan. 1882, p. 38, and Bull. Soc. Géol. de France, x, 26. T. S. Hunt—The Decay of Rocks. — 197 § 18. The existence, in the Laurentian series, of limestones, not less than that of iron-ores and of graphite, pointing to the existence of land and of vegetation during the deposition of the Laurentian, forces us to conclude to a process of sub-aérial decay of the more ancient gneisses in that far-off period. Such a pro- cess must have been continued in later times to give the mate- rials for the aluminiferous sediments of the newer eozoic examining with Dr. Credner a large collection of these, which Consist chiefly of types of various kinds of paces ee those of the Laurentian series as seen in North America an tu the Alps. These Saxon mica-schists, with their associated gneisses passing into granulites or leptynites, have all the char- acteristics of the Montalban or newer gneissic series of North America and of the Alps, to which I have elsewhere com red ; them in two communications” wherein are noticed the above- Mentioned conglomerates, which had been previously studied m-much detail by Sauer” in 1879. No one who. sees these accumulations of rounded masses of gneiss and other crystalline rocks entering into conglomerates at the various horizons above — os named, can fail to be struck with their close resemblance with = = Pe se 5, Ceol. Magazine, Jan. 1882, p. 39, and Bull. Soc. Géol. de France, x, 26. Zeitschrift f. d. ges. Naturwiss, Band lii. 198 T. 8. Hunt—The Decay of Rocks. those which are to be found either in the glacial or other mod- ern deposits, or lying in situ as undecaye rounded masses in the midst of decomposed rocks. It is difficult to resist the con- clusion that these rounded masses of the eozoic ages must have been formed under conditions not unlike those which gave rise to their more modern representatives. 20. The various considerations above presented thus led the writer in 1878 to assign to the beginning of the process of rock-decay an antiquity compared with which the time that has elapsed since the drift-period is to be regarded as of short duration. It was, however, then suggested ‘by him that a cli- mate and atmospheric conditions unlike those of modern times might have favored the process in 98 earlier ages. © Further evidence was soon forthcoming both of the former spread of this tay over northern regions and of its great antiquity. 4 I was callec to examine the condition of the great ‘sinuel then recently opened through the Hoosac Mountain in western Massa hae my report on which was published by the General Court of the State ;” while a note on the observa- tions therein made which havea beari ing on the present inquiry, Was presented to. the American Institute of Mining Engineers. in on er, 1874, A . As there explained, the gneissic rock of Hoosac moun- tain, oe the west end of the tunnel, 700 feet above the sea, is - face anil w were partial at 1,000 feet, where it is 230 feet below; . while farther in, at 1,200 feet, an included bed of Le pReiie fiat the fsa estone. It was evident that thie reat mass. of decayed gneiss at the western base of Hoosac Mountain is a a portion of a once wide-spread mantle of similar materials __ #1 House Document No. 9, 1875. 32 Proc, Amer. Inst. M. E Rogier, iii, 187. T. 8. Hunt—The Decay of Rocks. 199 which has escaped the action that denuded ani striated the sur- face of the other parts of the mountain. Numerous examples of similar remaining portions of decayed feldspathic rock have been observed farther southward, s in northwestern Connecticut (described in § 7), and among the Laurentian rocks of the South Mountain in Pennsylvania, n another example in the same region, about two miles south “bowlders of decomposition,” from t to twelve inches in diameter, consisting of undecayed gneiss, the laminated struc- ture which was clearly continuous wi at seen in the since noticed the decay of the Montalban rocks near Atlanta in eorgia, where, with local exceptions of undecaye areas (as aaa ay 1. 5 p. 250.5 200 T. 8. Hunt—The Decay of Rocks. construction, such as the walls of rude chimneys, but at the surface it readily disintegrates, yielding a strong red soil, often used as a brick-clay. e decayed mica-schists of the Mont- alban series, which still praia their micaceous. aspect, hese been called hydro-mica Lyrae though distinct from those of the Taconian, with w they have been confounde 24. The posits were eae as in each case in d oak of the Montalban group—the newer gneisses and mica-schists—and as constitut- ing veins or lenticular masses of posterior origin, consisting essentially of pyrite, pyrrhotine and chalcopyrite. The agent which kaolinized the enclosing rocks, also oxidized the sul- phurets, removing the acisnes iat the copper, and converting the residue into limonite, which, in a vertical lode in Ashe Co., N. C., was found to extend to depths of from forty to seventy feet. Beneath the oxidized portion is found in all cases the ie anged pyritous mass, seldom carrying more than four r five hundredths of copper. The limonites thus generated were for some years smelted for iron, both in Virginia and in Tennessee, before they were discovered to be gossans at the out- crops of cupriferous rites-lodes. etween the unchanged bytes and the limonite there is often found in favorable con- itions an accumulation known as black ore, consisting of im- perfectly crystalline sulphurets, rich in copper, and sometimes approaching to bornite in composition, occasionally with red oxide and native copper, the whole doubtless reduced from the oxidized and dissolved copper brought from above § 25. The crystalline EHozoic roe cks of various ages in 1 the more — parts of the continent contain, as is well known, of cupriferous pyritous ores, both in veins and beds which, ie the enclosing strata, are undecayed, wre that the process of oxidation, ihe that of kaolinization, has a very gradual one, going back to remote ages. We have ie from the observations in the nonuiers: United States that the Ox- Proc, Amer. Inst. M. Engineers, ii, 123, and this Journal, vi,.305; see also : Chom and Geol. Saavik pp. 217, 250. i T. S. Hunt—The Decay of Rocks. 201 and we should expect to find it separated on reduction as rich sulphides, or as native copper. In accordance with this view, it was said in an essay on The Geognostical Relations of the The farther extension of this view to the Mesozoic sandstones of Connecticut, New Jersey and Pennsylvania, well oo. as 13°64 (13°37) «4. Ay ee ans ¥ ae. 33°14 33.22 nue 32°30 86°31 Loss as oxygen, 13°69 100-00 The mean of all the results under analyses I-IV is as follows: Al 22°17 Ca 17°28 Mg O1T Na 04 H,.0 13°46 33°18 86°74 Loss as oxygen, 13°26 100°00 After subtracting from the fluorine an equivalent for the calcium, magnesium and sodium, and combining the remainder with aluminium, there remains of the latter 14:44 per cent, re- quiring 12°65 per cent oxygen, instead of 13:26 per cent found y difference. The atomic values appear as follows, after sub- Stituting for magnesium and sodium, an equivalent of calcium : Al 22°17 + 274 0°809 Ca 17-98 + 40:0 449 33°18 + 19° 1-746 H,0 13°46 + 18° 0°748 t 1-539 3°285 0 12°65 + 16° 0-791 The result is unsatisfactory, the ratio of Ca: Al being as 1: 1-78 instead of 1:2. In none of the material analyzed was the slightest trace of kaolinization to be observed, nor any closest scrutiny, it became desirable to ascertain what change 294 W. J. McGee—Origin and Hade of Normal Faults. would be effected in the ratio above given by subtracting enough calcium to make the ratio Ca: Al as 1:2 and an equiv- alent amount of fluorine. The atomic values then become: Al 0-809 2:00 Ca 0°404 1-00 F 1°656 ) 9. 7-91 HO 1°539 ts i which agree quite as well for the formula CaAl,(F, OH), as those obtained by Brandl. If instead of the mean of all the analyses, the figures of II alone are taken for calculations similar to the above, the result is the same, even a little more closely approximating to the ratio 2:1:8. _ The observation made by Brandl, that below 260° C. no loss in weight occurs, was found to apply here, provided the expo- sure to this degree of temperature is short. If continued for many hours a slight but sensible loss is observed. Denver, Colorado, June, 1883. Art. XXXI—On the Origin and Hade of Normal Faults; by W. J. McGur.* sidered. Let contiguous areas of a homogeneous rigid tract resting on a mobile sub-stratum (which may be either the gaseous, fluid or a differential radial strain culmin- ating in the plane of coincidence of the unstable areas. * Read before the Iowa Academy of Science, May 31st, 1883. Os W. J. McGee—Origin and Hade of Normal Faults. 295 : Now manifestly, before fracture supervene- the strain will be distributed over a considerable horizontal zone, and will be propagated vertically through the tract; whence the resultant of stresses at any point in the plane of imminent faulting will bisect a parallelogram similar to that whose base and perpen- dicular are respectively the width of the stressed zone and the thickness of the homogeneous tract. Make such parallelogram equilateral; denote base and perpendicular by 2n and 2m respectively; and let BO be the depressed side. The strain will then be resolved into stresses of opposite sign acting in the directions of the diagonals. : _If now fracture relieve tensile strain only, it will occur at right angles to the tension-diagonal AC, or in BD; and the fault will hade to the up-throw. Such indeed is the direction actually taken by ice-stream crevasses (to which the diagram will equally apply) as shown by Hopkins;* for in slowly moving ice the crushing strength must be nearly nd and the compressive-elasticity infinite, while tensile stress probably in- creases rigidity and brittleness, and thus diminishes the tensile elasticity.+ And were the antithesis of ice existent its fracture Denoting these in their order by ¢, ¢, ¢' and c’, the values (x? and exe’ are obtained for the moments of fracture orthogonally s € readily computed. ae If the case be modified by the introduction of initial tan- gential stress, such stress will operate through mO with inten- sity 2, and tend to produce fracture in nO. If the stress be tensile it must be less than a, and will at once relieve BD and Strain AC proportionally to its intensity by the cosine of the angle formed by its direction and that of the latter diagonal, and thus (denoting such angle by @) reduce a by ¢ cos On; when the expression for hade will become tan y=(n—a—7 cos On)m, * Tans. C; Cte Cpe t Vide ting mind cate heat any peste Thr 1, 2; Proc. A. A. A. S,, XXix, 1880, 497, 296 W. J. MeGee—Origin and Hade of Normal Faults. and the hade will ever diverge from the normal. Conversely, if the stress be compressive the relation will become tan y= d the hade will ever approach the nor- mal; but if it become normal the tendency to movement will be (n—a+7 cos On)m or tan x=(n—b—7 cos On)m as the case may be, an d dragged fault or flexure will be engendered ; since the devel- opment of normal faults demands that the lateral extent of the faulted tract shall increase from T to T+(tan xd) where h is angle of hade and d the vertical displacement. (The case in which tangential thrust is predominant, and the tendency hence toward ordinary reversed faults, complex fold- ing and tumefaction, falls beyond the scope of this discussion.) It thus appears that the general disposition of differential radial strain, either singly or combined with tangential strains, is to form reversed faults. ; Let the case be farther modified by the introduction of sim- ple vertical stress apart from those due to the unstable equilib- rium. ere the stress tensile, its effect would be analogous to that of tangential tension; but since general vertical tension without predominant tangential thrust is inconceivable (whence the sum of tensile vertical stresses is always in defect), and since local vertical tension must equally react on adjacent couches, the effect of such stress is nugatory. But if the stress be compressive it will equally relieve AC and strain BD, and thus diminish 4; and since within the crushing strength of the ma- terial of the tract there is no limit to this stress, b will be re- duced to b—v cos 6m, where v is such vertical stress, and | the h noashm)m: Y¥v OUVUeyire } ¥ ag original expression for bade will beco (n when the fault may hade strongly to the down-throw. The natural case favorable to profound faulting arises 1» such an unstable tract as has been assumed within which exist vertical stresses due to its own weight and sufficient initial ee AC will progressively increase downward until the crushes strength of the material is reached ; whence the fault due to onan strain must originate with normal hade in a deep-seated hypoged c , and (since rupture if each couche will throw the strain on the next higher) must be upward with progres- _e propag i sively diminishing hade, which may eventually become nothing or even reversed ; while below the couche of origin the fracture W. SJ. MeGee—Origin and Hade of Normal Faults. 297 must give place to plastic flexure. The full expression for moment of fracture and angle of hade in this case is tan 2= (n—b—v cos #m-+icos On)m; and since the several factors may be approximately evaluated it follows that the regimen of faults formed under given conditions, and conversely the conditions giving rise to faults of known regimen, are roughly deter- Below the couche of origin the substance of the tract must be in the condition of ice in a Brahma press or of lead in a pipe machine; and for the purposes of the present discussion, e. In profound faulting, such as is here considered, minor de- partures of the plane of fracture from the plane of maximum stress may be neglected, since (1) the irregularities would be relatively slight, and since (2) incipient movement would tend to eliminate all such irregularities. Fractures of the origin and character here contemplated may be denominated Normal Faults of the First Order. Let a homogeneous rigid tract be subjected to simple ver- tical compressive stress due to its own weight. Within the limits of its elasticity, resulting vertical compression will be relieved by lateral extension; but beyond such limits lateral Stress will be in defect, and fracture may occur in each prism o the stratum of imminent crushing just as if it were independ- ent and unsupported laterally. Now as shown by Hodgkinson,* fracture in crushed prisms of crystalline texture occurs diago- nally to the direction of stress and separates the prism into shing may develop a series of diagonal fractures each bi- Secting a prism of height equal to the thickness of the stratum * Cited by Rankine, “ Civil Engineering,” 4th ed., 1865, 235. Au. Jour. Sct.—Tarap Sunres, Vou. XXVI, No. 154.—Oor., 1883. 298 W. SJ. McGee—Origin and Hade of Normal Fauits. Let a homogeneous rigid tract resting on a mobile substra- weakness will become faults of normal hade. As in faults of the first order, beneath the couche in which pressure equals crushing strength fracture will give place to flexure; and, since the behavior of any yielding stratum will simulate that of the mobile substratum, if there be alternations of rigid and yield- ing strata, or if all strata be imperfectly rigid, the throw will increase toward the surface. Dislocations of this character may be designated Normal Faults of the Third Order. The principles involved in their development were long ago pointed out by Hopkins,* and are now too generally recognized to require thorough analysis. Except in the last case the influence of joints in determin- ing the regimen of faults may be neglected; for joints are known to be superficial, while faults are deep-seate Since the movements contemplated in the second case must be confined to strata of limited thickness, while in the third case the assumption of profound initial fractures or’ planes of weakness is unwarranted, the grander faults of the globe must be referred to other causes; and since differential radial strain is an adequate cause, while the phenomena of profound nor- mal faults are collectively such as differential radial strain tends to produce, the hypothesis that these faults are due to such strains is warranted, and is here enounced. : If the hypothesis be valid, it will afford the means of codrdi- nating faults and flexures ; it will at once sustain the suggestion of Gilbert} that Appalachian flexures and Cordilleran fractures are but diverse manifestations of identical movements, and ren- der the amount of denudation which the former region has suffered roughly determinate ; it will go far toward demonstra- ting that, whatever be the condition of its interior, the terres- trial crust is—as already indicated by Duttont{—in hydrostatic uilibrium; and it will afford a new vantage-point from which many of the complex problems of orology and terres- trial physics may be approac . Salt Lake City, Utah, March 23d, 1883. * “ Researches in Physical Geology,” Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 1842, i, 53. +‘U. 8. Geog. and Geol. Surveys West of the 106th Meridian,” I, ’ 1875, 62. ne t Notice of Fisher's “ Physics of the Earth’s Crust,” this Journal, xxiii, 1882, 288. B. O. Peirce—Sensitiveness of the Eye to Color. 299 Art. XXXIT—On the Sensitiveness of the Eye to Slight Differ- ences of Color; by BENJAMIN OsGoop PEIRCE, JR. AUBERT has shown* by his experiments with revolving ’ discs that the eye is able to detect the change produced by the addition of 1 part ofswhite light to 360 parts of colored light, and that perceptible changes in hue can be brought about by adding to light of any color less than 1 per cent of light of a ifferent color. He infers from this that a normal eye could distinguish at least one thousand different hues in the solar Spectrum. At the suggestion of Professor Wolcott Gibbs, I have made a few experiments to test the sensitiveness of the eyes of differ- ent people to slight changes of wave-length in different parts of the spectrum. For this purpose, a long, thin sheet of vulcanite was inserted lengthwise into the collimator of a large spectroscope so as to divide the tube into an upper and a lower half. The lower part of the tube received light from a fixed slit, the upper part fom a movable slit of the same width, which could be set exactly over the other, or displaced to the right or to the left. The amount of displacement was determined by means of a steel scale fastened to the upper slit and moving with it past a fixed zero point. The light from the collimator fell upon a Rutherfurd diffraction-grating of about 17,000 lines to the inch, and the resulting spectra were then thrown, one above the other, into the observing telescope. A blackened, metallic _ diaphragm, out of which two narrow slits had been cut in the Same vertical line, was placed in the eye-piece of the telescope, So that when the two collimator slits were even the observer Saw merely two narrow strips (one over the other) of the same colored light on a black field. When the movable collimator slit was displaced, the color of the observer’s lower strip was changed without changing its position in the field, and the object of the experiments was to see how small a displacement could be infallibly detected and named in direction by the observer. The width of the collimator slit was about 25°, and the slit in the eye-piece diaphragm was nearly of the gd were SIZE of the collimator slits as seen through the telescope. 300 B. O. Peirce—Sensitiveness of the Eye to Color. In no case was the seh able to detect any difference between the colors of the two edges of a strip; each strip _ seemed to be of one color saa It was necessary to regulate very carefully the Argand burner used as a source of light, for the least difference in the intensities of the two spectra made the strip of the brighter seem to the phere yellower than the corresponding strip i) the other spectrum. This error, due to the “color of bright- _ ness,""* was most apparent in observations gt at the extremi- ties of the spectrum, i. e. in the red and the v A displacement of the movable collimator it ‘amounting to : 1 scale desis corresponded to 4 minutes of arc, or to a differ- oe ence in Reniscstlee of -0000013™™ eS rver sat in a darkened room and directed the tele- | _ scope fe that part of the spectrum in which the observations were to be made. After an assistant had placed the movable - collimator slit even with the other, and the observer had seen to it that under these circumstances the strips of light in the _ eye-piece seemed just alike—as they should—the observer took his eye away from the instrument, and the. assistant displaced the movable collimator slit and asked the observer to look into : the telescope and to tell him, from the colors of the strips, in wh n — with the fixed slit. If the displacement was very large, _ : ‘slit i se order to match the colors of the strips; if in successive trials the displacements were made smaller and Sadatler a place was reached where the colors of the strips did not seem well © rver was able to tell immediately how to move the : : matched to the observer, but where he could no longer say _ 2h ase as in which direction the movable slit had been a first somewhat irrega ile y 4 os ails were invariably obtain same person, even though the experiments were sepa te oy days or weeks, and that certain features were eens on to all the series obtained with the cle evita observers : The la largest acement needed (except at the ends. of the trum) b, y any of the observers corresponded to difference mgth of the midd] e of the two strips of about *000000" B. O. Peirce —Sensitiveness of the Eye to Color. 301 libly detect corresponded to a difference in wave-length of only 0000005™". This last is rather remarkable, for although no one could see any difference between the colors of the edges of either of the strips, a displacement which made the color of the middle of one strip the same as that of an edge of the other Sometimes made the two strips distinguishable. There was a singular uniformity in the performance of differ- ent eyes as judged by the average of these displacements for the whole visible spectrum. Perhaps smaller differences might have been detected if the strips had been narrower, but the work proved to be so trying to the eyes that I thought it best not to experiment further. - From a series of observations made by a number of different persons and extending over several months, two or three gen- eral conclusions may be drawn. ‘To make these evident, I have plotted a curve by laying off over different places in the spec- trum ordinates obtained by averaging in each case the least 000005™™. aie Tn all cases the eye was most sensitive to changes in a color Cases the eye was more sensitive to changes in the color corres~ ponding to the F line than to changes in colors lying half-way between 5 and F one oe In many cases, though not in all, the eye was less sensitive to changes in’a red near the C line than to a somewhat darker red beyond the Lithium line. In the darker colors at theends of the spectrum it was, of course, very hard to distinguish small a differences, — : _ In addition to these general features there were in most of the curves obtained by plotting the results of the ae _ Observers lesser maxima and minima which showed pecu camiecant : 302 C. D. Walcott—Injury to a Trilobite at time of Moulting. Cambridae, Aug., 18 Arr. XXXUL.—Jnjury sustained by the Eye of a Trilobite at the _ time of the Moulting of the Shell; by CHARLES D. Watcorr. oe ILLI1AM P. Rust, of Trenton Falls, N. Y., called my re attention some time since to the eyes of a small but very perfect ee imen of Jilenus crassicauda, from the Trenton limestone, s “that he bas in his beautiful collection of Trenton fossils. hig oe ohed ener via out while he pi aera. oe This is shown by the peculiar growth of the shell about the aperture formerly occupied by the visual surface of the eye. The mar- gins are turned in, rounded and Seniresier and the size of the sbral lobe materially lessened. An injury to the visual eo surface would scarcely produce this effect if the shell was hard. Tf slightly injured before the moulting of the shell, the separa- ce tion would be imperfect and the visual surface carried away ees , the old shell would leave a cavity around whieh the new shell _ would form as in the eye before us. _if injured befor’ the new - shell had hardened, that effect might b the prob- mi + eho abilities are that the loss of the visual. surface niacin me _ Among the thousands of louie that have passed sheoust _ my hands in which the eyes were preserv ed, I have never no- _ticed any distortion or injury that occurred during the life of the oe In a few instances, the. shell of the pyentian, of - Y nee of | eture that — : appears fo to ‘have occurred bie the life of she. sateen but h very unsatisfactory. To Mr. Rust’s skill in work- 2S bed and also in detecting the char- indebted for some eS vulting of S. G. Williams—Dip of the Rocks in New York. B03 ART. XXXIV.—Dip of the Rocks in Central New York; by Professor S. G. WILLIAMS. of 804. S& G. Williams—Dip of the Rocks in New York. the Tully has been submerged for more than four miles, it rises — again from the lake and makes an arch of 4°4 miles span and 160 feet in extreme height, descending to the south at the rate of 80 feet to the mile and northward 67 feet per mile. On the opposite side of the lake, the limestone immediately north of the arch is nowhere fully submerged, but after continuing nearly horizontal for about three miles, rises into an arch of over six miles span, the highest observed point of which is 235 feet : southwesterly. From the same point southeastward to the most — southern exposure in the Owasco valley, there is a descent of _ 810 feet in nine miles, or 34 feet per mile. Some not very — 0 feet per mile § that this is less tl f the Tully from OtROY ae es Pots I must confirm T. W. Backhouse—Physiological Optics. 805 Pickett’s Hill, in Fabius, Onondaga county, shows the Tully about 1680 feet above the sea. A second station, over a mile east of DeRuyter village, Madison county, is distant from the first six and a half miles in 2 southeasterly direction and is about 260 feet lower, a dip of 40 feet per mile. The third station, near the village of Gaslen % in Cortland county, is also six and a half miles from the first, a little west of south, and is about 365 feet lower, being a dip of 56 feet per mile. Hence it Sani seem that the he of the strata increases cae pontcens ron were ota oe scale from an accurate map lo Ca Lake made by the Engineer Department of Cornell — : and are doubtless correct. The remaining distances taken by scale from Asher and Adams’ Atlas of New York, , verified i comparison with a large map of New York and Gieiticn: ee tas donee tases io ¥., Aug. 3. —=—=. T eoas XXXY. — Physio Dptiesj by THoMas Warn | : — are some points in Mr. W. Titoee Stores oe published in this Journal, to which I take exception, though — 2 € papers go to disprove Brewster's theory that the mode : et judg gment of distance in binocular Phong it ae Lh optic _ -“SBte, interpreted by means of triangulation. venss — eS Objections to this dics seem to me to ea untenable. _ I gather that he LeConte’s theory as insufficient, though he - bec ly accepts it I shall proceed to criticize some of Stevens's: = "Vol. xxiii, p. 291.—He discards the theory of vissal Tines and of corresponding retinal points, and substitutes that of asso- ; - cia uscular action. But if this be the true one, must : oe Pets first a. derived from observation of the intersection | i a tadertand the theory of corresponding Points to ee th i Drain causes each point. etina to appear to cormncide — @ point on the other, se Coil aa 3 306 T. W. Backhouse—Physiological Optics. learned if based on some anatomical or mathematical fact than if there were no such basis to go upon; and therefore it seems to me that there must be such a basis, and that it is conse- quently very improbable that the theory of corresponding points can be incorrect. Nevertheless, the facts he gives in volume xxiv, page 241, etc., and page 331, etc., perhaps point tance pretty well not otherwise. ‘ that there must always be th : focus of the phantom surface m elto the _ Wall, this is only true as long as it is judged to be at the dis- — = {tice calculated by triang | 3 ji to | | sie ‘s a’ a as _the elasticity of Stevens's (a | Se T. W. Backhouse—Physiological Optics. | Brig esand Brews- _ ter’s), I have not had much success; it is therefore onl. | _ position that these observers focussed their eyes” _ Wall. The effect of this would be that while the _ cles would tell them the image was at the true di 308 T. W. Backhouse—Physiological Optics. way that the stick comes between one eye and one part of the pattern, and between the other eye and a corresponding part of _ the pattern is really of an indefinite character, with all its out- _ with a large optic angle, there was a slight appearance of curv- atu “ge straight lines on tha wall, conven to the point of _ sight; but, on the other hand, in two cases I su | the: were concave to the point of sight. This appearance of curva- ture in the straight lines was sometimes connected with an — appearance of curvature of surface, and sometimes with a flat surface. I cannot account for the illusion, which did not fol- low any perceptible law; it may perhaps have been caused — _ by the patterns used. os SS _ The largest optic angle I could observe with was 45° (dis- tance of phantom 3-4 inches). Stevens does not say how large an angle is necessary to produce the effect of a convex surface, so it may be that my want of any decided success 18 owing to not having compassed a large enough angle. ee n these experiments the nearest point at which I could see an object in perfect focus was 45 Shieh (optic angle 31°°0), and _ if my theory is correct it may be that the suspicion of convex” _ ity with large optic angles is owing to the stick not being 2 oe focus ; i. e., to its being impossible for me to obtain a focal ad- _ justment corresponding to the axial adjustment, though itis _ very probable that the strain on the ciliary muscles in endeav- coring to bring it- into focus is sufficient to prevent the judg- ment of distance by means of the optic angle from being mate rarpe that through the ciliary muscles. ge a r the phantom wall and the s about over T. W. Backhouse—Physiological Optics. 809 is also moved till it is apparently placed exactly in the plane of the phantom, I have found that it is then exactly i id. th ctly parallel with the real wall. At least, in eight independent observations and eG 3 have not access to Rogers’s paper on the combination of © _ Points differing in latitude, but 1 apprehend this can be effec- a ted only by moving the optic axis of one eye higher up than — that of the other, so that the images of the two points still fall — the rresponding points of the retina. As I have just shown, — _ Se experiment here described does not bear on the subject, — dincover : oe ut how can you be sure that a given oxide, sulphide, ae ¢hloride, iycaabis or iodide does not ~~ a similar co a of a lower or higher order? How ean you be sure that eit er - Le _ these compounds does not contain a went amount of oxide? — is such pr geet as these that are the chief source of aos tainty, and they cause variations of composition precisely sim _ lar to those discussed above. By referring to the examples cited on gd 65 of = volume | it will be found that they are. for the t part, if no © a suspicion of e of this ind, cod: Chemistry and Physics. = 315 ee _ It may then well be a ked what proof can we have of purity pe purity. In the writer’s own experience poneeaies cy of results has_ frequently meant nothing bat constancy of impurity, and the illu- Sion caused by coine idences so-called has been forced a ef least squares, results of sae weight determtunbious made ies different chemical processes. ‘The writer undertook such a discus- PS sion, as stated in his early memoir on the relations of the atomic De eights, above referred to, but abandoned it simply because acei- u quite tors in the roblem. No useful conclusion can be < rent — of results, each e ssible of pro rebel a s __ st now 08 question is still cael : oan is Poca criterion — -. pore and definite compound? the only explicit answer that can _ : Siven i is that a substance obtained ae oad ete 316 Scientifie Intelligence. It is surprising how few substances fulfill the conditions re- quired in an accurate atomic weight determination, rarely more than one compound of each elementary substance ; and for some mmon e one. After the process has once been worked out, the actual ana- — lytical work is degen nave accomplished and the accidental errors involved are comparatively small; and when the constant errors have all a eliminated t S detinitonise of the results is hb : the writer, while his earlier work.on crystalline alloys left an im- pression of the possible oo (under saben conditions) baleened. a result we should expect if a variation were petit dle and as was predicted in the memoirs that have been so often _ cited. On the ennorins * the writer has found that when ee i it, and until the requisite facts have been cata bliaied: thats is ne sufficient ground for a positive opinion. But, although it mus be admitted that the atomic theory is the only basis on which : _ consistent philosophy of chemistry can at present be built, the writer must confess that he i is rather drawn to bent view of nature namical ge 2 He aT ese PF oOPeORaRy « as ede which regards the atomic theory as only a oe exp dient for representing: the facts os chemistry to the — 2. On the Spectrum of B —The position of Heol yiliom FS os the elements still remains : doubtful. Nilson and Petterson it as a tr riad with an atomic gan of 13°8 sac a 475 toed Chemistry and Physics = s1T 2 Es analogy with those of aluminum and indium; thongh if a ee the spect yi, in accordance with the periodic law, would r chloride prepared from pure oxide. No lines belonging to other elements were seen in the spectrum except two tags faint ones of calcium from the hydrochloric acid used, spectra og produced with a prism and also with a Rathod grating the ,460 lines to the inch, and were photieceohed with a camera, lens of oe as also that of the collimator tube, was 36 i _ petites or the aluminum Deasge , all of which are members of | they are exveed- oe re led t to the conclusion that berpilinay 3 + dyad series of elements of which in all barium are ho mice ary! calcium, strontium and m. - Soc., » xiii, 316, June, 1883, oe é between the Density od the prea hag of S ypie states.—M jiiter—-ErzBacn sos necessary connection be- pthc ' ete it follows that in the ease | is aiiteren “ ee ces aes hes ore i 4 7 ens Ser He 5 Scientific Intelligence. eties, In the case of sulphur, the — form has a density of © : of 1 7 and the amorphous 1°92; now the latter is the more vendily a by nitric acid and siete wigs, combines bey: nascent hydrogen more readily, and is more active in forming — eed Se trithionic acid, as Berthelot has shown. Amorphous red selena according to S$ chaffgotsch, has a density of 4:26, the vitreous - activity. In the case of phosphorus, however, the result is well- marked. Common hosphorus has a density of 12100 (210 ity are son > ohcepnike even reducing ¢ copper, silver and lead fraad ne their s solutions. Carbon I as diamond has a density of 3°5, while the Hee 600° t to 800°; : anal that saat at oop ate Le os oe ‘a — of 2-00, and inflames at 1200°. Similar phenomena are — eee with the various s forms of silicon, boron, arsenic and tin. — se does the chemism increase with the density. The author, therefore Se that the activity of the chemical pro- ess stands in direct relation to the increase in density which sakes place pasted sits ieal union. —Liebig’s Ann., eer, 113, a : ee a — 1883, . On the behavior of ascent —_* in ce of ‘Oxy: . 748.—TRAUBE | has given his n the production of : Bice roxide which differ adnay fron those of ig oll example, water acts on zine at ordinary te tem- oe ernie of oxygen, zine hydrate (not zine oxide) is 2 4 a togel ler er with, = = oo to the equ = Fo SHH +O-=Z0(01) tH.0e | Le | Chemistry and Physica, = BAQ ae Just as in presence of platinum sponge, hydrogen peroxide = blues: potassium iodide and starch and guaiacum tincture, and _ becomes gradually decolorized by the action of the H,O,, a clear proof that the oxidation is not due to the direct action of the pal. tum-hydrogen. Traube therefore comes to the conclus: ; palladium-hydrogen does not evolve active hydroge act 320 Scientific Intelligence. paper by means of potash’ water-glass to which a little oxide at . - lead was added. A pile of 7,000 of the lead plates one square : centimeter in section could be ¢ harged so as to exhibit strong polarization. A certain septs: of moisture must be commun cated to ie piles. The sup aoe of lead cs Ae a electro: inciple of sagt or nnalen, 1883, — 1 PP. i eee _ tric attractions and repulsions between the particles of the fluid. ee. (1) Experiments show a fluctuation - the value of the index = _ of refraction which is due to the electric force. no (2 -) A Heaters lone dukatien. of the electric pressure (3.) The phenomena of the change of the index of refraction show = the electric pressure has no analogy with hydrostatic pressu (4.) These changes i in the index indicate ——* in hydrostatic pressure in the interior of the fluid which are caused by the elec- 48 to hang a coil, of which the constants are known, in a sufi _ @lently intense and uniform magnetic field and find the —— . of th the oscillatory motion produced by the induction. The au ves that d corrections would be, in oe S Tespects, simpler then the method seme by Weber.— Phil. seu 1883, PR. 144— ee essor Ewine, of Tokio, pe oe 0. A ne ism —Profe a proposes the ae 2 of pagers 3 : A commo _ at Ho oe eeresigie pig ald ire. The i instrument has not, b been tested in an oe eee teers, ie 26, — = a : 322 Scientific Intelligence. to imply therein “that no one except Dr. Wichmann has ever studied microscopically the rocks of the Marquette district, and no one except myself advocated the secondary origin of the horn- = =] @® ct ey ta) 9 i io] n ot ° S ® n I do not understand, but in reply I have 1 ‘etry that the ae was ever intended to contain any such implications; nor ca be construed, so far as I can see, to contain the The writer of the note also says that I have advocated, without acknowledgment, his previously published views as to the “tra- chytic and rhyolitic nature of the Keweenaw felsites.” To this I bart to reply that I have never held the view which he attributes the Keweenaw certain extent in their general characters, these rocks cuiten a8 to the — SS trachytes and rhyolites, but I have never held t any of these ancient rocks are lithologically he ehinry rhyolites and — tes, a the D a second ort of the Director of the U. ae of Presq’ Isle I do not understand—as eu ahs we wc so far as I know, directly or indirectly referring = tot ne ° Finally, i in reply to the general summing charge of the writer of the note, Ihave merely to deny that I have ever published as original with myself any of his previously peroneal views. —_ s 2. Gxonce 5 pe Phe Gren wes of the United States + being 2 e yynopsis of the Tribes and Genera, A Descrip ell as by predilection, Dr. Vasey is particularly intere : rami: ce ak studied them ele: ‘sssionaly availing ; Bentham’s recent elab of the order in the lantaruam, eaggh ara now given, in English, a icon characters of the 1 ra_known to Geology and Botany. | 393 at Washington, so that it may be in the hands of all our casis, to oo > will be a seasonable and considerable hel Ae Ge’ SrRENo Watson: Contributions to American Botan ny. Ad. iteact nat Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. xviii, issued August 15, 1883).—A year ago, in the seventeenth volume of the American Academy’ s Proceedings, Mr. tions, half of which was occupied with the determination of the Polypetale of Dr. Edward Palmer’s collection in northern Mexico and the adjacent part of Texas. This account is completed in the paper now before us, of which it —— about one hundred pages. The new Co ompositee are enumerated, but acs characters oe are given in a later-published paper by pete r hand, her oo, - are a goodly number of new species, some of perc . intere ae Diphelodes — and O. cardiophylla Gray, published in _Hemsi. ‘Biol. Centr. Am., are certainly very remarkable, as repre- and sometimes plane wings of the nutlets; so that they - ‘ : Sealy es seem to belong to oo m rather than to fe, = wracaryum, = ag Net tisqguama Engel a pabtiahed | in the Gariener’ rs icle with wrong foliage (that” of P. Ayaouhutte e) is here correctly : characteri zed. : _ Spiranthes of Richard i is —, on page 159 to Sperone, ae This, although six times repeated, is gone : accidental, and © by oi means i — as a correctio n of Kichard’s latinizath . ine it genera of Litiaoee f vie Vong ae first of the pe ube tri — Anthericece, the second verging ae the —— ~ Tradescantia lesan eh one ‘bel Pade in Eee nor tthe er } 9 on, é Soo se Sa nized 324 Scientific Intelligence. As to Dr. Palmer’s ee not only are his plants nearly all determined, but also those of a considerable collection made by cited i in considerable part. A small collection sent by Professor Dugés from farther south (Guanajuato) is also reported on. that _ two Contributions — parts x and xi—are of very ‘great sae ortance in the study of the botany of the northern ‘States "of Mexico, a district which is becoming m ore and more open to. American explorers. r. Palmer’s A sonar collections, and those of his forerunner Dr. Gregg, were made in Leon and Coahuila. Chihuahua is now a ‘acommable: and to _ the western part of that State, and to adjacent Sonora, which ae may be reached in time, we look for the _ interesting se accessions to the botany of the Mexican fronti _ 4, Professor Herman Miurer. The Fertilization of Flower translated and edited by D’Arcy W. Tuompson, B.A., et ae a preface by Cuartes Darwin. With illustrations. London: Maemillan & Co. 1883, pp. 669, 8vo.—The original German lition was of the year 1873, and in this new one edited as well lish and ssp oe sae a larg e mass is author’s recent last. A ‘aieaks and we e judge a aerate loss, for though e be- lieve he was not young, he cannot have been old. His carliost published png isi of which we have record rs not date back of is own y gto date of 1869. Meanwhile, by his most laborious and patient observations, by his great acuteness in interpretation and research, and by his studies of the modifications of insects in rela- 1 in our day eee “the Knight-Darwin law,” and the | tion to flowers, no less than those of flowers to insects, he had ich ws : : rad Spren-— e about one hundred years ago, resuscitated and more — s death, is restored to Germany mainly by nd and Herman a oe | ee on the Taconic ¢ yer the fossils in its being no reference to pike recent a Miscellaneous Intelligence. 325 many things upon which one would wish to reesei and there is one little omission. “The observations of Darwin (1861), and Asa Gray (1862),” are referred to through the bibliography, but without noting that the first did not antici ate, and that the sec- nd di ici in thi Jou rnaj, Miiller’s later — discovery of the mode of phage of Cypripe ium, in 1868, which he dese ries on page 3 The curious modification of the ed. A. G. Minneapatis. —The eicetina of the t Minn sine : der the presidency of Professor C. A. eee of Princeton, saed o in Wednesday, August 22d. The number of members _ present was lar ree but Pope than re Montreal and Boston, for - obvious ‘r reason that the place was less cent: or workers Science os were a generously treated by the citizens of Minnea eapol is. The sections which had the largest number of papers were the geological and archeological, an oe geological subject which absorbed the most time and attention ese that of the phenom ena of the Glacial era and later Quaterna: a "The “unsolved a problems” ame teen’ is e cue 8 witho much labored or much eo ne beyo _ What is contai ined i in pre expression of an opinion. Hor exar the best fact on the oo the stated, Taconic Range, and their SS = containing fossils that are not “u in,” found | _ Vermont and in Dutchess germ New York, ¢ a the good f i nthe sae Profesor Rows i 326 Miscellaneous Intelligence. low state of pure science in the country may possibly be attrib- uted to the youth of the country; but a direct tax to prevent the growth of our country in that se ie cannot be looked upon as other than a deep disgrace.” In the science of chivas ‘“‘no books y must have them, not on ly i in die college library but on his own shelves, and must pay the government of this country to allow im to use a portion of his small salary to buy that which is to do good to the whole country.” ‘One would think that books in foreign languages might be admitted free; but to please the alf-dozen or so workmen who reprint German books, not scien- tific, our beey intercourse with that country is cut off.” Professor W. A. Rogers, vice-President of the Section of Mathematies and Astronomy, treated in bi able address of the erman survey of the Northern Heavy The address of Ps vice-President “of he Geological Section, Professor C. H. Hrrencock, was on “the Early History of the North ae Continent.” Professor Hitchcock presented views with reference to origin and su — of the early Ddetoamge Mato and the occurrence of ma “oval” tsoleted Archeean areas in eastern North America, pes put forth his latest conclusions as to the igneous derivation of the Laurentian areas, arrived at after a visit to the volcanic Hawaiian Islands, he hold- ng, ses other words, that “the first land consisted of voleanic islan A lecture was detivernd also by Professor E. D. Corse before the association in general session, ee ~ evidence for evolution in the history of the’ extinct mamm t was a valuable discourse by one who had, to a very there: a athered his own facts. He observes that sitice 1860 the number o kno own g Ness ey species of mammals has increased from 250 to ne arly 2000. ie aditrens are published in full in Science, numbers 27 0 3 n the subject of the Quaternary the following are some of the facta presented. o ooremgec G. F. Wricur treated of the southern limit of the estab 2 sive first, credit to earlier investigators, and speaking of rofessor Upham as the first to survey the whole of the part of the line vhicl lies between Cape Cod and Denia bi and Pro- fessors Cook and Smock, that across New Jersey. The historical facts presented are given in this Journal in various notices and in papers by Mr. Upham, Professor Smock, Professor Wright, Professor Chamberlin and others. Professor Wright added the _ mew Counties and follows the line between the latter and Brown 5 Cotinty to the northeast corner of Brown; then turns southwest Miscellaneous Intelligence. 327 to the northeast corner of Monroe; then bears northward for ten miles to near Martinsville, in Morgan County; then passes west and south, diagonally, through Owen and Green Counties, and to Knox in Harrison township, in Knox County. Professor CHAMBERLIN, who also early surveyed the line from Long Island westward, presented an important paper on “ the Ter- minal moraines of the second Glacial epoch.” - ‘ gh i Wright as to the existence, in the Glacial era, of an ice-dam 500 to 600 feet high across the Ohio valley at Cincinnati. The five sev- eral terraces at Morgantown are 30, 75,175, 200 and 275 reet he valley in the Ice Age in which he gaye his reasons for holding that the existence of the great flooded Winnipeg lake — Lake d ed by the drainage; during the later Gla- cial epoch the till only partially blocked up the river-course alon Ing drift, but later, when the waters carried little drift materia], Ing. He holds also that the water of Lake Superior may have been held back in a similar way, at a level about 500 feet above its oo ; 1m the currents of the ice of the last Glacial epoch in eastern - 328 Miscellaneous Intelligence. the excavating agent of the basins of the Great Lakes. He also _—, with a good array of facts, on the reality of the age of ice, oe vhs extension - the great northern eg er by Professor G. H. Stronz, “On the Kame rivers of Maine, » was read by Protussor Upham, in which the origin of kame deposits was discussed, whether a or sub-glacial, and favoring the former view. He made the important statement that in Maine no southward motion in oe: glacier would have been possible after the ice had thinned down to 500 feet on account of transverse ranges of hills. Professor Upham read a paper by Miss F, E. Bassrrt, of Min- west of St. Paul, in the village of Little Falls, Morrison County. Recently similar discoveries have been made in the same region by Miss Babbitt in beds of the terraces below the upper. Many hundreds of chips were found in a small area, none Worn, although the stony material of the terrace was well rounded; and every freshet turned out other specimens, The s oma come from a tha Ay layer, a few inches thick, 12 to 15 feet below the top the ce. In the goes which 1 Gow the reading of the paper, Pro- fessor F. W. Putnam stated that some of the specimens exhibited in illustration of the paper were unquestionably of human work- manship. Other papers on related subjects are those of W. J. McGee, ‘On the formation of Glacial Cafions”; of Jutius PoHLMAN, “On the history of the Niagara River”; of W. McApams, “On the less and glacial clays of Alton, Hlinois. he following is a list of the papers accepted for reading at the sessions of the Association : List of Papers accepted for Reading. Section A, Mathematics and ad Epwarp 8. Hotpren: The sores solar eclipse of May 6, oGERS: A new method of investigating the re ure corrections 0 meridian circle ; se to cashier method of producing a dark-field illumination of lines ruled — E. The « ‘ales of direction and positio 8. C. Cx Sta : Results of tests with the sinatensar in time and latitude; a of ght variations of Sawyer’s variables. J. B, Eastman: Internal contacts in transits of inferior planets. r G. W. Hovey; Physical phenomena on the planet Jupiter; The rotation of omes. J. JANSSEN: French observations of the total eclipse of May 6th, 1883. 0. S. Westcotr: Some hitherto Loop fog + properties of squares. E. F. Sawyer: On the © light variatio: Monocerotis, Miscellaneous Intelligence. 329 Ep@ar chamamel Orbit of the great some of “i J. K. Rexs: Observations on ad “ a made at y secre College, New York City: Description of n sie tory wr Columbia Colle: Woopwarpb: Descriptive ‘geometry aoalie to the general allipeota, : Wess:. Conic sections in Ceeucibive geometry; Descriptive geomet- tical treatment of surfaces of the second — ; The kinematics of rotary pumps, C. A. Young: Some observations on 8. D. P. Topp: acrncinieg of observing soliness s of Jupiter’s satelli SaMveL Emerson: Standard time-pointer and a time pomre “aia; System of igebraic geometry. J. M. BATCHELDER: Tidal observations on soundings distant from shore. Section B, Physics. W. A. Rogers: Definiti cara of the relation: Imperial yard +3°37030— a meter of the archiv eg Morse: On the tials tins of the Sun’s rays for warming and ventilating me 8. Can : The magnetophone, or begs modification of the magnetic field ah the rotation of a a metallic dis Dou : The static telephone. r E. sang cares survey of Missouri; Plan for a state weather service. at T. C. Menpennaty: A method of dist toating weather forecasts by means of ways. P. R. Hort: The tornado at es May 18, 1883. J. H. Frick: The tornado o C. Itts: Ona capi for discoveries rece by it . T. Eppy: On the "einetie theory of the specific heat of solids; a kinetic theory “mh f melting and boiling; An extension of the theorem of the virial to rotary oscillat: r : A method for the calibration of a galvanometer; A method of ety the ¢ center of gravity of a mass; Two forms of apparatus for Boyle’s law; A new he iostat. — Hart: Natural snow-balls or snow roller Gustavus fancier Remarks on the tracings of self- re nagen instruments and “a sitted of the S. S. indications for Iowa in June ied July, 1883. sche Serine cell, and some remarkable electrical Section C, Chemistry. R. B. Warper: Suggestions for computing the speed of chemical reactions. — oc W. ppmoges and ©, K. McGee: On the sub-aqneous dissociation of certain OC. F. Mapery and H. H. Ss ~aaggaccl On gamma-dichlordibromopropionic and gamma-dichlorbromacryli¢ a MaBery and Ra sono qe On the formation and constitution of chlor- dibromacrylic aci - Ma at and G. M. Patmer: On drama rao ag acid. Witzy: American patton and their adulteratio no Ricnanns0¥: The composition of American whois and corn; Sotol, Makes: a pn E. poe — months of lysimeter record at the New York Agri- cultural Experiment Statio W. H. Szamen: New are of burettes. C. Lzo Megs: Estimation of carbon and nitrogen in organic compounds. Section D, Mechanical Science. ak A. Rogers: A method of testing long plane —_— applicable to the igoment of planer-beds, lathe- beds, heavy shafting, ete . H. Taursron: The c omar and dynamic efficiencies of the steam-engine Centrifugal action in turbine 2la 330 Miscellaneous Intelligence. R. Baker: A comparison of terra-cotta lumber with some other building mates ARD: Descri = aout applied to the general ellipsoid; Veloaty “3 fhe +a ston of a crank e : Improvements in sieetic machines; Regularity of flow in double- corners rota pumps. Section E, Geology and Geography. ee Wy. ean sori of explorations of the glacial boundary between New eg and MIllin TG: Omit The terminal moraine west sf tis AR Upuam: The Minnesota valley in the © ages — in the cur= rents of the ice of the last Glacial epoch in eastern uiuas EO TE: Relation of the glacial dam at Cincinnati ro the terraces on the iver “poke = its tributaries. N. e comparative strength of Minnesota and New England granites; Clay pebbles, with an exhibition of specimens from Princetown, Min- J. W. Dawson: On Rhizocarps in the Paleozoic period. James HaLu: On the microscopic structure of the test of fossil Brachiopoda. _W. J. McoGue: On Glacial canyons. Junius Pontman: The life-history o of the Niagara River. H. C. Bourton and A. A. Juni The singing beach of Manchester, Mass. fo io TIFFANY: The ‘civivalent of the New York water-lime group developed ieoeaee Owen: The Earth’s orographic framework: its seismology and geology; The “Continental Type” or normal orography and geology of continents. cod, eee ‘belts rtebrate from the St. Louis limestone; Animal remains est the Loess — Glacial Serbs G. H. Stone: The kam of Main ED. Daxa: shoe hig gate eo New England against the iceberg theory of the J. 8. NewBerry: On the eroding power of ice; The ancient glaciation of North America, its extent, character and teachings; On the genesis and classifica tion of mineral veins. T. Srerry Hunt: se Pre-Cambrian rocks of the Alps; On the serpentine. of Staten Island, New Yor JAMES MACFARLANE: The “ earthquake” at New Madrid, Mo., in 1811, probably - not an earthqua W. Cha LAYPOLE : On the Hamilton sandstone of middle Pennsylvania; On @ large Crustacean from the Catskill group, of Penn aoreet a; On Rensselaeria and 4 fossil fish pany the Hamilton group of Pennsylva as 3 £: On the structure of the skull in ‘Diclonis mirabilis, a Laramie Dinosaurian; On the Trituberculate type of superior molar, and the origin of the = . f°) ts oF : and assoc ; Maine; Colore a ecreaittes and sea laptaiee crystals from a new American ee A note on the finding of two American beryls; Andatcalie from a new American ity ; “On a white, garnet from near Hull, Canada. Section F, Biology. W. G. Fartow: Relations of certain forms of Alge to disagreeable tastes and odors; The spread of epidemic diseases in plan D. 8. Ketticotr: Psephenus Lecontei; on He external anatomy of ig larva. E. L. Sturtevant: Parallelism of structure of maize and sorghum kernels; Influence of position on seed; Agricultural botany. _D, P. PENHALLOW: Relation of root and leaf areas; Corn. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 331 oe: CLAYPOLE: ote on the present condition of the box huckleberry, Vac- m brachycerum, cated county, Pennsylvania; Notes on the potato beetle ay Hessian fly for 1 C. P. Harr Conauious automatis E g. Morse: airing a a its ohaanen in Pliocene and prehistoric times; On a new plan ved museu oe GAG ms: Pharyngeat respiration in the soft-shelled turtule, Aspidonectes spinifer. W.R. DupLey: An abnormal ek Habenaria hyperborea; Origin of the Flora of Sod central New York lake regio i. MURTFELDT: Periodic ‘ty of vonigee ene de ow LAND: The appli ara of nitro wee ir to produce Anzes- n exper ‘thesia, ‘with clinies on animals TER : Te lsgwace o a dan moe es W. J. Beat: Leaves of the Gramine closed sheaths. J.C. “ARTHUR: si supposed poisonous pe ees in the: rye ee Syren ge Josepu F. James: The 2 spt: of the Composite in the n syste B. G. Wiper and S. H. Gage: On the use of vaseline hg pasate the ‘loss of Herpert Ossorn: Note on Phytoptid E. S. Ba =a A fact ot upon fie evolution of the genus Cypripedium. 0. V. Ritey: The Psyllide of the United States; Some recent discoveries hang to Fhivllexe arr: Observations on ee poe. Section H, Anthropology. F, W. Purnam: An abnornal human skull from a stone grave in Tennessee; A hew ee for Seating skulls, by BE. KE. Chick. ote Osage war customs. NIE A. SmitH: Accidents or mode sides of ie ear in the Fg religious structures com llages in prehistoric times; An : . of the emblematic ie Bude ‘Cac genre by effigies; Effigies guard- Ing the es pees pis ye place 0. T. Maso: ray co lleetion at Wash ington 8. Mons: “Kitchen of the East; Methods’of arrow release; In-door games of the Japan hae Mc roe The great mounds of Cah , HARLES Wartusser: Metrical standards me the Mound Builders by the method OF even diviso Jonn Camponiz: The Mound Builders no gorse : E. P. Wzst: Personal observations of the ri River mounds from Omaha to St, Louis Galehiarnt from = greene eal bagels Their invariable association with the Loess and Terrace format C. FLeTcHEer: So cratons mt the laws and privileges of the 8S Gens in jndian socie mmbalic port form: Miss AB ef os stiges of Glacial mr me central Minnesota. J. v. Rabe A shnaiiaelis of the sciences. Section I, Economie Science and Statistics. pth Wri f a self-insurance. C. 8. Mixr on: TI . ae a i: cbated red population of the United States. H. 0. Hoy ie: Oyster ee waters, with a map of the grounds. Specimens of — 332 Miscellaneous Intelligence. ©. W. Suiney: The German carp and its introduction into the United States. E. T. Cox: Cable cars for city passenger traffic. EpGak FrRispie: Building associations C. V. Rite tion against leaf-feeding insects. - ; J. R. Dopee: Enhancement of values in agriculture by reason of non-agricultural population. T. E. Jerrerson: A néw system for the treatment of sewer gas. The next meeting of the Association will be held in Philadel- phia, Professor J. P. Lestey 1 year. i i S @ = fr) oO e ig") DQ = por) ie) = oP i) i) ~~ ° ge Su 5 & v ° Oo” wm wR bas ae ic] - BRIDGE, Cambridge, Mass., of Physics (B); J. W. Laneiey Ann Arbor, of Chemistry (C); R. H. Tuursron, Hoboken, of Mechanical Science (D); N. H. Wiycuert, of Geology and Geography (E); E. D. Cops, of Biology (F); T. G. Wormuey, of Histology and Microscopy (G); EK. S. Morse, of 4 count of the great value of the papers, will call forth the hearty | thanks of all interested in the progress of science. Hydraulic Tables for the Calculation of the thee seo through Sewers, Pipes and Conduits, based on Kutter’s formula, , by J. P. Flynn, Civil Engineer. 136 pp. l6émo. New "Yor k, 1883 (D. Van Nos Phyt ogeogenesis. Die vorweltliche Paiaiidialoan a bear und -der 4 pp. Leipzig Pflanzen in mdr gna dargestellt von Dr. Otto Kunze. (Paul Frohberg). Report of the Mineral Resources of the United States for 1882 and 7 first six none of 1883, by Albert Williams, Jr., U. S. Geological Survey. 814 pp. 8¥° A pag agh of the Geology of the erage Lode and the Aye hoe District, by Grorcr-F. Becker. Extr. fro m the Ann. Re ep. U. 8 Geol. Survey, 1880-81. pp. 293-330, with colored maps. ashin Geologic. al Surv cette of Illinois, pn es Wathen, State Geologist. Vol. VIL. 374 tes. May, 1 Lehrbuch der ve A grease pees der Wirbelthiere auf Grundl yore Entwicklungsgeschichte, by Prof. Dr. R. Widersheim. 2nd part (and last) — 908 pp., June, 1883 (Gustav Fischer). oe ; s Lawrence Smit Ane J. Lawrence Smith died at his residence in Louisville, Kea ucky, on the 12th of October. © s born near Charleston, South Carolina, on = 16th of Decem- eee 1818, and was therefore in his 65th . He was a grad- uate of the Univ ersity of Virginia and of shes ‘Medics al ie of Charleston. After leavin years in Europe and roagie ct Paris, pursuing studies ce ‘ i fiat Miscellaneous Intelligence. 415 on the subject i in sees country. The emery mines of Turkey gave him a new subject for research; and his report on them is the first full dete “of the geological character and mineralogy of n emery region that had appeal ared. Besides a careful chemical by publ lication in the pa des Savants étrangers Dr. Smith afterward studied the emery of Chester, Massachusetts, in which he confir gets and extended his previous observations on the mineral and its mode of occurrence and mineral associates. Dr. Smith published also a chemical report on the Thermal eave of Asia Minor. American mineralogy owes very much to Dr. Smith for his care- ful ey aaa moons: the earlier of which were carried on eeimatly bag Professor Brush; and the science of Chemistry In many ways, and especially for the method proposed by him and since adived generally, for the determination of the alkalies in silicates, any ingenious appliances were proposed by Dr. His papers givin chemical ee physical investigations of different meteoric stones and irons are very numerous zane have advanced Srey this de- — partment of science. It was the topic of his last paper, which appeared in this Journal in Ake une of the present year. Dr, Sul . published in 1873 a volume containing a collection of his pa to that date, ae out of the 400 pages, 100 are devoted to his a6 on meteor es. batlcreins of meteorites “_ ‘that also of minerals was given b him two years since to th olytechnic Society of Louisville. He was a 1 —— scientific sagas ag foreign ee in his adopted city says justly of him: “Eminent in his profession, he was more than eminent in his home. He was a rate, Salis but he was a man of affairs, a man of convic- tions, a man among men, who, though absorbed in scientific pursuits, took a sincere and pr rofound interest in public questions and events. He had not an enemy on earth, despite = poate y and transparency of his opinions, and he goes to r leaving the people with whom he was so long identified to mourn the loss of a citizen of whom all were proud and whom ever ybody loved and honored. 416 Miscellaneous Intelligence. m. A. Norton.—The death of Professor Norton, of the Shef- field ‘Scientific School in Yale College, is announced on page 332 of this volame. As the principal portion of his contributions to statement of their character and extent. =a earliest memoir was in the 46th volume of the first series, and was on the mode of forma- tion of tails of comets. The manner of ation of a solar repulsion in producing the comets’ tails was developed at length. Some of the ideas, though original with Professor Norton, had been antici- pated by. Olbers and Bessel. A series of papers followed upon the relations between the distribution of heat on the earth and the “Sane eine of terrestrial magnetism. From these he was led on to further discussion of magnetic action over the earth, and of like action, as he argued, in the body of the sun and in the formation of the comas and tails of comets. These papers included especially an elaborate discussion of the famous comet of 185 After this followed a series of papers on molecular physics, in which, Hoarding from a few elementary onan he arran nged Professor of Natural and ees etal Philoso y resigned from the army, and accepted a similar position 1m the whos ep of the City of New Yo rward con nected with Delaware College at laware, first Professor and then as President, and subsequently with Brown University at Providence, Rhode nd, as Professor of Natural » Philosophy and Civil Engineering. Since 1852 he has been Pro- fessor of Engin eres in the Sheffield Scientific School, and oe Sci 1873 a member of the National Academy o ences. “t mencing his we at the Sheffield Scientific School pe consisted of but two professors besides’ himself, he » contribute largely, by his "taithtel labors and excellent judgment, to its Seeeibpnaen and success, i] swaLp Herr, the distinguished author of works on foss hati: and the most prominent of srehoees er “3 aaa 7 died at Lausanne on the 27th of Septe ie pero BarRAnDE, the eminent oP et died in Octo- at Prague, in his 84th year, ¥ AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. [THIRD SERIES.] Arr. XVLIII.—Some points in Botanical Nomenclature; a Re- view of “Nouvelles Remarques sur la Nomenclature Botanique, par M. Alph. de Candolle,” Geneva, 1883; by AsA GRAY. SIXTEEN years have passed since M. de Candolle laid before the International Botanical Congress held at Paris, August 16-26, 1867, a body of Laws of Botanical Nomenclature, which he had drawn up for consideration by that assembly. The code was discussed by a special committee, afterward by the Congress in full session, some modifications introduced, and it was then all but unanimously voted, “ by about one hun dred botanists of all countries: “That these Laws, as adopted y this Assembly, shall be recommended as the best guide for omenclature in the Vegetable Kingdom.” The adopted Code, With an extended Commentary, was published by DeCandolle early in the autumn of the same year; and an English Trans- a made by the lamented Dr. Weddell, appeared early in — The “ Laws,” but without the more voluminous ex- planatory commentary, were reprinted from the English trans- lation in this Journal in July of that year, occupying only twelve pages; and some remarks and suggestions by the present writer were appended. As was then said, the code did hot make, but rather declare, the common law of botanists. It announced principles, systematically and perspicuously, and Indicated their application in leading cases; but many prac- tical questions, as well as conflicts of rules in particular in- Stances, which would inevitably come up, were necessarily left Am. Jour, _ Serigs, Vou. XX VI, No. 156.—Deo., 1883. , 418 A. Gray—Botanical Nomenclature. to be settled when they arose. No’ small discussion upon cer- tain details has in fact ensued, in which our author, naturally such as the nomenclature of organs (which he had treated in his recent Phylographie), the nomenclature of fossils, and the when old genera are combined or reconstituted; also some matters of orthography and punctuation are briefly considered. Finally, in a third part, the Laws adopted by the Paris Congress are reprinted, with the suggested eae The alterations and additions are printed in italic type, so that they may differences between these rules and those of the botanica code A. Gray—Botanical Nomenclature. 419 rom it. The same idea dominates in the Report made by Douville, chairman of a committee of the Geological Congress at Bologna in 1881, and which concerned itself with nomen- clature in paleontology. This report insists that ‘The law of priority being fundamental in nomenclature, it appears to be necessary to apply it with all possible generality and to sup- press derogations and exceptions to this law... . . ontradic- tion between the signification of a name and the characters of 4 genus or species is no sufficient reason for changing such hame,” ete, on. We take up in the author’s order the points which we Wish to specify or to comment on. Article 6 of the code declares that “scientific names should in Latin. When taken from another language, a Latin ter- ° 420 A. Gray—Botanical Nomenclature. mination is given to them, except in some cases sanctioned by oa .” Here our author asks, “but what Latin?” He con- - eludes that the Latin of Linnzeus should be the model. It is the classical language of botany, and is much more precise than the Latin of antiquity, in which very many words bear two, threé, or half a dozen senses, either in the same or in different ages; while in the technical language of botany each word has but one meaning, and each idea or object is expressed by a single term. DeCandolle elaborated this point in his Phyto- graphy, to which he refers for illustrations; and he returns to together, or it may even mean any homologue of the ordinary leaf. . 15. but one valid designation, the most ancient, whether adopted i i i vided it be con- sistent with the essential rules of nomenclature.” DeCandolle now adds an article 15"*, which is purely explanatory, but has is:—‘The designa- . name by which we are to call it. dency which is often shown to mix up the question of name Linnzus rendered a great service, and we should be careful to | expressed separately. If this rule is neglected, we may be is into attempts to express in the name, or with the name, the agar eee = = 2 ao? PU rae © eat eens Oe Peake ates wep” 5. sara A ee ce. A. Gray—Botanical Nomenclature. 421 789. Cohorts and Tribes from A. P. DeCandolle’s Systema, 1818. Subgenera begin with R. Brown, in 1810, according to our author. There are a few instances (without the name) in the Holl is 1 botanists as to this point of departure; and the fact that the specific phrase of earlier authors is occasionally of a single adjective does not militate against it. Galega vulgaris, Lappa major and Trifolium agrarium of the old herbalists were in good binomial form ; but the adjectives are phrases, not specific names. Generic names bring in a question of interpretation and usage. ority, Linneeus, Genera Plantarum, ed. 1 Il agree, or should agree, that no anterior name has right of priority to a Linnean name to a name adopted by Linnzxus. or respects generic names adopted by him, are we to follow Lin- neeus or are we not? He says, “ Tournefortius primus charac- teres genericos ex lege artis condidit.” And in the Genera Plan- * Or may be essentially false from the beginning. One of our common Maples has two names, Acer dasycarpum and A. eriocarpum, both signifying that the fruit is woolly, whereas it is perfectly glabrous; only the ovaries are woolly. Yet oo has ever proposed to change the received name,—which is re- able. On p. 58 DeCandolle has collected nineteen synonyms of the name Crypto- gamia, all of later date, and specified the objections which may be brought against each of them, besides that of want of priority. 422 A. Gray—Botanical Nomenclature. tarum: “Ipsi non immerito inventionis gloriam cirea genera concedere debeam,”—and so he uniformly accredits to Tourne- © fort the generic names adopted from him; and the same as to “ Plumerius,... Vaillantius, Dillenius,.... Michelius et pauci alii,” “qui ejus vestigia presserunt.” DeCandolle remarks that ‘Tournefort had the merit which Linnzeus ascribes, but that ‘he kept a good many adjective names for genera (Acetosa, Bermudiana, ete.).” Since Linneeus did not adopt these, they are out of the present question. Moreover, not to speak here of a score or two of really adjective generic names, Linnzus himself adopted two which Tournefort had discarded, Mirabilis and Impatiens, and deliberately made another, Gloriosa, in place of a proper name, Methonica, of a sort which, though not of the best, is now regarded as next to the best. But it is completely understood that Linngeus is not to be corrected; so Gloriosa, Impatiens, ete., remain. Are we equally to follow Linnzus 1n regard to names which he adopted from Tournefort and a few later authors, some of them his own contemporaries? If so, we shall continue to write Salicornia Tourn., Corispermum A. Juss., Olea Tourn., Justicia Houst., Dianthera Gronov., Lycopus Tourn., Linnea Gronov. The practice of the leading botanists has been essentially uniform in this respect, from Jussieu down to DeCandolle, father and son, even to the latest volume of the Monographia, published during the current year. It seems perfectly clear, therefore—although we believe the question 18 not raised in this revision—that such genera are expected still _ but restored by modern botanists (such as Fagopyrum) are i be cited “Tourn.,” it follows that only in a restricted sense do No change of rule 15 seems actually required to bring i a unison with the almost universal practice in citation. We have — . * . A. Gray—Botanical Nomenclature. 423 only to understand that genera adopted by Linneus from Tour- nefort, etc., and so accredited, should continue to be thus cited ; that the date 1737 (Linn. Genera, ed. 1), is, indeed, the point of departure from which to reckon priority, yet that botanical genera began with Tournefort; so that Tourmefortian genera which are accepted date from the year 1700. That is the limit fixed by Linnzeus, and it definitely excludes the herbalists and the ancients, whose writings may be consulted for historical elucidation, but not as authority for names. Upon articles 21 and 22, which give rules for the names of orders and other supra-generic groups, our author offers no new remarks. We venture to offer two. It*being the general rule that acee is the proper termination for ordinal names which take their appellation from a typical genus, it is desir- Re nearly unpronounceable words of four or five consecutive vowels, or, when the diphthongs are printed in separate letters, e. Of these— according to a prevalent fashion, one or two more. the dipththongs written out—Sawraujeae, Spiraeeae, Catesbaeeae, Jaumeeae, Thymeleeae, and Moraeeae are the worst instances, and would justify any infraction of rules.+ The last and one of the worst would have been avoided by writing the ordinal name Jridacee, when that of the tribe would have been Jridec. Names are to be spoken as well as read, and botanists who * Crucifere, Leguminose, Umbellifere, Composite, Labiate, and the like, are LO exception to the rule, rightly stated, as they are not named from typical genera. We shall not have any more of them, but the old ones in use are among _ + Far better to write Spireacew, with DeCandolle. The use of this termina- tion for tribal names need not be objected to by those who take little pains to use It for orders. And those of us who are careful so to employ it, would prefer i occasional use for tribes and suborders to the concatenation of vowels, which it 18 not easy to write and almost impossible to pronounce. Some quite unnecessary tribal names in acew, suc ernoniacee and Hupatoriacee, adopted by De- Candolle from Lessing, are kept up, although exceptional. * 494. A. Gray—Botanical Nomenclature. have to teach think more of these things than those who only write At the head of his remarks upon generic names (art. 25, et seq.), our author commends to other naturalists the very clear directions given. in the rules for Zoological Nomenclature, edited by Dall, for rendering Greek letters into Latin in the construction of generic and specific names. He notes, bow- so of many others. One of the actual recommendations is “ Eviter les noms adjectifs.” This in Weddell’s version is translated, ‘To avoid adjective nouns:” doubtless a wrong translation. Adjective nouns we take to be substantives which are directly formed from adjectives. Not many such are likely to be made for genera; but if such good ones can be constructed as_ those we already have in Nigella, Amarella, Flaveria, Chlora, Rubia, Leucas and Hyptis, they will not be objected to. Clearly the recommendation is to avoid adjective names for genera. That as Arenaria, Stellaria, Utricularia, Dentaria, Asperula, Angelica, Trientalis, Pedicularis, Digitalis, and trom the Greek such as Polycarpon. Amphicarpum and Mitracarpum, are recent names of this kind. To conform the rule to the fact it were better 00 state that: generic names are either substantives or adjectives which may be used as substantives, the latter, mostly femimine in gender. Angelica is understood to be Planta Angelica, San- gumaria, Planta sanguinaria, ete. . _ It is recommended “To avoid making choice of names used in zoology. But it has become nearly impossible to follow this advice, nor is it now thought to be important. * A. Gray— Botanical Nomenclature. 425 Article 83 is suppressed. It was no more than a statement of the custom that personal names for species were to be nouns in the genitive (e.g. Clusi?) when the person commemorated was, a discoverer, describer, or an illustrator of the species, but were in adjective form (e. g. Clustana) when the name was merely complimentary. The rule sometimes worked awk- Pickeringia, a species of this genus which, mistaken by Nuttall for A new one, had been named Pickeringia ; Rudbeckia Heliop- sidis, a Rudbeckia facie Heliopsidis, from its resemblance to a Art. 36 consists of a series of recommendations for the for- es. Its fifth subarticle we tay refer to in another connection, viz: along with Art. 48. The recommendation to ‘‘Name no species after one who has neither discovered, nor described, nor figured, nor studied it in any way,” should be respected ; yet there are occasions for de- parting from it, especially in case of new species in very large genera. Excellent and sometimes needful is the advice to “avoid names designating little known or very limited local- ities.” We are obliged to cite—happily as a synonym— “ Helenium Seminariense,” published by a professor who thought he had discovered a new species of Helenium in the vicinity of the “seminary,” in one of our Southern States, where he taught botany. . Article 40, suggested that names of varieties originated in Cultivation, and still more half-breeds and sports (so important 426 - A. Gray— Botanical Nomenclature. for horticulturists to distinguish), should have only fancy-names, generally vernacular, and in some form as different as possible .from the Latin specific names of botany,—names which, when needful, may be appended to the botanical name of the A a when that is known, e. g. “ Pelargonium zonale, Mrs. Pollock.” This has been seconded by the editor of the Gardeners’ Chronicle and other judicious experts, and is slowly making its way. ‘ Article 42, treating of the conditions of publicity, is the sub- ject of additional remarks. The rule is, that ‘‘ Publication con- sists in the sale or the distribution among the public of printed matter, plates, or autographs. It consists, likewise, in the sale or distribution, among the leading public collections, of num- bered specimens, accompanied by printed or autograph tickets, bearing the date of the sale or distribution.” DeCandolle now ay oO purpose, very often does not. Patadtasaialy an insufficient or even a misleading description—and we have many such to deal with—claims the same right of priority that a good one does. It is well, therefore, that publication by sufficient distribution of named specimens should be recognized. But the remark 18 true that, in fact, very few distributed collections fulfill all the requirements of Article 42 Article 47, sect. 2, recommends botanists “To publish no name without clearly indicating whether it is that of an order A. Gray—Botanical Nomenclature. 427 tion of mode of citation of authority. . The governing principle for citation of authorship, etc., is well declared by DeCandolle: ‘Never make an author say that which he does not say.” It is difficult to go wrong when this principle is kept in mind, and when it is also understood that the appended name of an author, or its abbreviation, makes no part of the name of the plant, but is only the initial portion of its bibliography. Those who take a different view seem to have fallen into it by failing to distinguish strictly between name and history, and especially by mixing the history of a preceding with the statement of an actual ‘name. single example may illustrate this. When we write “ Mathiola tristis Brown,’ ive the name of a certain kind of Stock and the original authority for it; and we may, when needful, complete the citation by adding the name of the book, with the volume and page, where it was first published. If, with some, we write ‘Mathiola trist’s Linn.,” we make an untrue statement. Lin- heeus had a wholly different genus Mathiola, and no M. tristis. If we add “sp.” and somewhere explain its import to be that ve latter half of the name was given by Linneus, the other ae acee? The proper exposition is in place in a Genera Plantarum ; t would have been better if Bentham and Hooker had critically attended to ‘it i dlicher, 428 A. Gray— Botanical Nomenclature. knew the plant, and also for that of the author who transferred it to Mathiola. If, with others, we write ‘“ Mathiola tristts Linn. (Cheiranthus),” or ‘“Mathiola tristis Linn. (sub Cheirantho),” our longer phrase still wants the essential part of the citation. I, to secure this, we write “Mathiola tristis Linn. (Chetranthus Brown),” our name, if it may be so called, now extended to five words and two signs in print, or of seven words when (Cheiranthus tristis Linn.),” that is, into name and synonym, with respective authorities. This is clear and literally truthful ; the injection of the synonymy into the name is neither. Lin- nus reformed nomenclature by freeing the name from the descriptive phrase. The school in question would deform it by rebuilding, in another way (as DeCandolle observes), ante-Lin- nan phrases, only making them historical instead of descriptive. he practice of appending the authority to the name when- e ecies is mentioned has been so strictly and pedan- tically adhered to, that many take the former to be a part of the name. To obviate this impression, it might be well to treat the names of common plants as we do those of genera; that 1, to omit the reference to authorship in cases where there 1s nO particular need for it. Not, however, so as to cause any confu- sion with the cases referred to in the following paragraph: ‘When a botanist proposes a new name.... it is 1 I- ble for him to cite an author; consequently the absence of nn Martius, etc., followed this course. It is then a useless com plication of many modern naturalists to append muzhi, nobis, 5P- nov., gen. nov., etc., toa new name. A large majority of species, genera, and families were published without these wholly per sonal indications.” This is good as a general rule; but the gen. nov. and an indication of the order or tribe are often needful. No new comments are made upon article 49, probably be- cause the practice of botanists generally is conformed to it The article reads, ‘An alteration of the constituent characters, or of the circumscription of a group, does not warrant the quo- tation of another author than the one that first published the name. .... When the alteration is considerable, the words mutatis char., or pro parte, or excl. syn., excl. sp., etc., are a ’ etc. The translation would have been better worded “does not warrant the quotation of another author ¢n place of the one that first published the name.” For, in. fact, the addition of the reforming author’s name to the citation is often warran and helpful, sometimes is almost a necessity, in the case of A. Gray—Botanical Nomenclature. 429 genera. It appears that R. Brown began, in an oblique way, the practice objected to, and for which there is often a plausible excuse; and the elder DeCandolle sometimes followed it. It was only when the practice was systematically carried out by one or two authors, that the consequences became apparent— for few genera or species have now their Linnean limits or sig- nification—and the new rule was practically proved to be a necessity. mong the recommendations contained in Article 86 was the restriction, ‘‘ or unless the author has not in advance approved the publication.” This does not alter the case, except for liv- lng authors: their approval ought to be obtained or counted on: and in respect to authors no longer living a botanist takes vhic Ing by Nuttall of new Umbelliyere to the elder DeCandolle When elaborating that order for the Prodromus, is a mark and not unusual instance. For this is a practice that need not be discouraged. Any small inconvenience that may arise m obscure or local periodicals. And they are more likely to have proper characters assigned to them, instead of vague descrip- tions, by incompetent or unpracticed hands, such as often try a botanist’s patience. Article 50 treats of the mode of dealing with such names as 430 A. Gray—Botanical Nomenclature. the above-mentioned after they have been published, 1. e. “names published from a private document, an herbarium, a non-distributed collection, etc.” It declares that such names ‘fare individualized (Fr. precisés) by the addition of the name of the author who publishes them, notwithstanding the con- trary indication that he may have given.” This is found to mean that, although the elder DeCandolle gives us ‘‘ Hulophus Nutt.,” as the name of a genus communicated by Nuttall, with a specimen, for the purpose of its being so published in the fourth volume of the Prodromus, yet subsequent writers, look- ing only to the werk it was published in, are to cite it as Eulophus DC. And that the genus which Linnzus published as ‘‘Linneea, authore Clariss. Dr. Gronovio,” we are to cite as Lannea Linn. is is not only quite’contrary to the regular practice of botanists from Linnzeus down to DeCandolle and later, but is also contrary to the golden rule of citation, already referred to, never to make an author say something different from or opposed to that which he does say. Appreciating this, the author of the code has now recast Article 50, so as to read, ‘“‘ When an inedited name has been published [by another botanist], in attributing it to its author, those who afterwards mention it ought to add the name of the ’ person who published it; for example, Leptocaulis Nutt. in DC. ; Oxalis lineata Gillies in Hook.” aff This is reasonable, and in the first instance such names will almost of necessity be so cited, must always be so cited when work, volume, ete., are specified. But, DeCandolle remarks that the addition will soon vanish, for instance, that the “ Cynoglosum ciliatum Douglas, Mss.,” published by Lehmann in Pugillus, etc., and in Hooker’s Flora Boreali:Americana, will soon come to be quoted simply as “ Cynoglossum ciliatum Dougl.,” that is, just as other names are quoted. And why not? Because, it is said, the name dating only from the publication, 1b is necessary to know when and where this vicarious publication was effected. For this ‘‘ Nutt. in DC.” may fairly serve, nearly, all names published by DeCandolle being contained in the £0 dromus. Not so, however, with “Gillies in Hook.” Sir Wee Hooker published very widely, in periodicals, in the, Botamica Magazine, and in numerous independent works. In such cases the double citation gives little help. The experienced botanist may know where to look; the inexperienced mus turn to indexes at once; for both these must be the final and the usual resort; and in them the double has little if any advantage over the single citation. Moreover, if this principle is fully applied, the number of double-cited names may be 1n- conveniently numerous. The first volume of Torrey and Gray’s Flora of North America abounds in species and genera hte A. Gray—Botanical Nomenclature. 431 published by them for Nuttall. If these have all to be per- manently quoted “ Nutt. in Torr. & Gray,” why not also the many species published, say by Bentham in DeCandolle’s Pro- dromus, in the Flora Brasiliensis, etc., and even the species published by Brown in the second edition of the Hortus Kew- ensis, and elsewhere? On the whole it seems probable that these double citations will be used only in first or in early quo- tations, or in special instances; that it will not be deemed necessary to retain them when the names become settled In Floras or general works, except in the bibliography or full reference ; when, of course the ‘Leptocaulis inermis Nutt., m DC. Coll. Mem. , x. 10, et Prodr, v. 107,” will fall appear. But so long as the abbreviated citation of author and publisher together is requisite, the mode of citation recom- mended by DeCandolle is the one to be employed A quite different case is that of citing, as authority for a genus or species, the name of a botanist which is not upon the record. There is reason to believe that L. C. Bicued edited edition, it is because he claimed them in his lifetime, rather than because they have been collected and republished under his name singe his death. Only confusion will come from the admission of hypothetical constructive authorship. The old rule that, what does not appear is no better than non-existent, must apply to all such eases. In the comments upon article 52, the duty of abbreviatin authors’ names in the normal way is insisted on, and the ba practice of doing so by leaving out the vowels is deprecated. — Micha. for Michaux, which is partially shortened in this way, was a necessity on account of the ancient botanist Micheli. But 7m. for Crouan is intolerable. Such a name need not be abbre- viated at all. Monosyllabic names should rarely if ever be eur- tailed. R. Br. has so long been used for Robert Brown that it may continue to be used, although Brown is better. In the other form, it may be counted among the few cases in which tnitial letters are used instead of the first syllable and first ‘Consonant of the second,—cases which should: probably be restricted to the Z. for Linnzeus, DC. for DeCandolle, H. BK. for Humboldt, Bonpland, and Kunth. We are not sure that DeCandolle would favor the latter. 432 A. Gray— Botanical Nomenclature. _ ch oO 2a pa] =) Po. ct es io) io2] © 4 ig pe fe) pS 9 r @ cr ° o @ 5 = 5S ct bs] ~ =) @ a 5S ° sp = _ ov = af ta oh i) pa = =I oS certain faults. As already mentioned, the tendency among working naturalists is to preserve names in spite of faults; dictionaries], and ‘so is to be preserved under the law of priority. There is little danger that the reform of Saint-Lager will prevail. There is some danger that the reaction will so stiffen the rule of priority as to forbid the correction of obvious mistakes. See, for instance, the form in which Article 60 1s now recast by DeCandolle: ‘A generic name should subsist just as it was made, although a purely typographical error may be corrected. The termination of a Latin specific name may be changed .to bring it into accordance with its generic name. From this it would seem that a slip of the pen and a mistaken orthography of a man’s name may not be corrected. We trust that, when the change would not sensibly affect the place of S name in an index, such obvious corrections as of Wisteria to Wistaria may prevail. We may assume that the error was typo graphical; for Dr. Wistar was at the time too well known 1m Philadelphia for Nuttall to have been ignorant of the ortho- graphy of the name. The correction of Balduina into Baldwunda brings it into accordance with the rule that personal names used for genera should be written as near as may be with the original orthography of the person’s name. “Astragalus aboriginorum — 18 neither a typographical nor a clerical error. It is @ hard tule that forbids us to write “aboriginum,” still retaining Rich- son’s name as authority. . S Botanists may take more kindly to the rule when applied A. Gray—Botanical Nomenclature. 433 to such names as leocharis and Aplopappus, in the formation of which the Greek aspirate was neglected. e cannot wel suppose this to have been a typographical or a clerical oversight | on the ground that the right of priority, like that of a certain Ing, is super grammaticum,—while the remainder have written Heieocharis and Hapiopappus ; whence some confusion in the indexes. The requirement to preserve the original form of DeCandolle has a note on Diclytra of Borckhausen, changed into Dielytra to make it conformable to a conjectured meaning, and then into Dicentra that it might agree with the etymology given by Borckhausen himself: he gives it as a ease in which an excess of erudition has loaded the genus with three names in place of one; and he concludes, as do we, that we think it should now be maintained, although it might have been left in the original form. Moreover, the doctrine that names must not be mended and that sense is unimportant, however good and’ needful, is so recent that it must not be too rigidly applied to long-standing cases. is consideration should not be wholly overlooked in the case of old and long-established genera, especially those of humerous species, for which some obscure older name has come to light. Since it is impossible to make rules for the Infraction of a rule, such cases must be left to sound discretion. n our opinion such discretion would forbid the transference of the name Stylidium from Swartz’s genus to Marlea, and the revival of Labillardiére’s transient first Candollea for Swartz’s Stylidium. ‘ The fourth section of article 60, which enjoined the rejection “of names formed by the combination of two languages,” is now suppressed. Nothing is put in its place; but let us hope that we shall not be driven to the acceptance of the specific hame “acuticarpum” which one of our fellow-botanists has recently perpetrated. Although hybrid names are to be avoided, yet, as DeCandolle remarks, they cannot consistently Am. Jour, oe Senirs, Vor, XXVI, No. 156,—Dec., 1883. 434 A. Gray— Botanical Nomenclature. be outlawed by people who accept centimetre, decimetre, beau- rocracy, terminology, and the like, nor by botanists who raise no objection to ranunculoides, scirpoides, linnceoides, bauhiniordes, et Cs. Names of identical meaning but of different orthography, as our author insists, may well enough co-exist. In a vast genus it might be neither inconvenient nor harmful to maintain species named respectively fluviorum, fluvialis, and fluviatilis, at least if they belonged to different parts of the world. 'e pass to some brief annotations upon the second part of the publication before us, which deals with questions not taken up by the Congress of 1867. : The first topic is that of the nomenclature of organs, which was treated with some fulness in the Phytographie. The re- mark is here repeated that the greater part of the so-called names of organs are only terms, that is, names indicative of the condition of organs or parts of the plant. For some of these substantive names are necessary or highly convenient, yet WwW phytotomists will at present heed the counsels of the phytogra- phers in this matter. Yet the latter may insist that estab- lished names used in descriptive botany shall not be displac on the pretence of getting more appropriate ones. For I stance, the long-recognized name testa for the outer seed-coat 18 to be discarded because, forsooth, this covering is not always or even not generally a shell, or of the texture of earthen ware. As well ask the French to discard the word ¢ée (or testeh because the human head, or the skull which gave the name, does not really resemble a brick or an earthen pot. The second is upon the nomenclature of fossils. And the rale is that they are named according to laws which apply oe ing plants. The Bologna congress of paleontologists on that, to secure priority for specific names of fossils, they shou be not only described but figured. DeCandolle, after consulta- long as a large part of the names of fossil plants are merely tentative and provisional, we should be content with a gener approximation to the received rules in botany. Ae The nomenclature of groups inferior to species (varie sub-varieties, variations and sub-variations) is considered ; bu no new rules are proposed ; nor is the question of sub-species aiscussed. pe a _ Although it is not exactly a matter of nomenclature, we A. Gray—Botanical Nomenclature. 435 should have liked that our author had considered the two Without system. A. P. DeCandolle used the initial capital Systematically for all three, and even for Alpina when used esignate a plant of the Alps. His example has generally been followed until recently ; and this is in accordance with the Custom of the English language. ‘To the objection that it is con- trary to,the customs of the Latin language, our author replies at Some length, substantially as follows. He finds that in the matter of orthography, etc., classical writers distinguish nine phases or perlods of the Latin language, of which the most classical is the Seventh period, that of Augustus; that there is no foundation in classical Latin for either punctuation (the points distinguishing Words, not phrases), or accentuation by signs, and that the dis- tinction between capitals and smal] letters was made since the ark ages, by scholars whom a purist of our day might tax With ignorance of the proper way of writing Latin; that the 436 A. Gray—Botanical Nomenclature. and the naturalists; and that these have happily modified genera, without an explanation under each species.” | This is illustrated by the supposed case of three genera, combined into one, each of which has a species lanceolata; by the case of a A fatal objection to the principle of names by implication is that all such names, if they are existent, must be in‘ exed Bd transcribe under Senecio the specific names pertaining to all the genera which Bentham has referred to that already pit no small matter, and a part of the work will prove superfl 0. D. Waleott—Pre- Carboniferous Strata in Arizona, 437 —as we suppose to be the case—some of these genera, such as Cacalia, ought to be maintained. But that is only the beginning. more recent author, Baillon, has reduced the genera of Com- posite nearly one half. For example, to Helenium he has referred Gaillardia, Actinella, Cephalophora, etc.; to Tagetes he has re- ferred Dysodia, Nicoletta, Hymenatherum and others; to Helian- thus a greater number of genera, most of them prolific in species. Tn all probability, most of these reductions will not be approved. Yet, if the principle of constructive naming is adopted, the Nomenclator must burden its columns with these hosts of inchoate specific names of Baillon, either as received names or as synonyms. It is plain that the principle referred to, besides \ts incongruity with the leading ideas of received nomenclature, breaks down with its own weight. There are, nevertheless, taking arguments in its favor, which need not here be reca- pitulated ; and the common system has its disadvantages and liability to abuse. Yet it appears to be the only workable system. As already intimated, the right assignment of specific Names in reconstructed genera requires particular knowledge and careful investigation. And the botanist who reconstructs genera should himself adjust and state the specific names as tas he can. — Ant. XLIX.—Pre-Carboniferous Strata in the Grand Cation of the Colorado, Arizona; by CHarLes D. Waxcort, of the U. S. Geological Survey. Durine the month of November, 1882, the Director of the Survey had constructed, under his immediate supervision, a horse trail from the brink of a lateral cafion on the east face of the Kaibab Plateau, Arizona, down to the more level cafion of Nun-ko-weap Valley 3,000 feet below. Hncamped in the snow, often concealed for days in the driving frozen mist and whirling snow, the party gradually overcame the appar- ently insurmountable obstacles in the way, and, Nov. camp was formed in the supposed “inaccessible” depths of the head of the Grand Cafion, a day of reconnoissance and rest. Then the director headed his party of faithful, energetic men and left the writer, who, through illness, had been unable to share in the building of the trail, with three men and outtfit far as could be reached south. Seventy-two days of constant Work gave some of the information wished, a portion of which 438 C.D. Walcott—Pre-Carboniferous Strata m Arizona. One of the strongest topographical features of the Kaibab. division of the Grand Cafion of the Colorado and the lateral cafions opening into it is formed by the basal member of the Carboniferous group, the massive Red Wall limestone of Gil- bert. Breaking abruptly off at the foot of the terraced slope of the Lower Aubrey sandstone, a sheer cliff of from 800 feet at the head of the Grand Cafion, to 1,000 feet at the mouth of the Kanab Cafion, is entirely formed of this limestone. Fre- quently several hundred feet are added to the cliff by the abruptly breaking away of the thin Devonian series and the massive Upper Tonto (Cambrian) beds beneath. In the field work of 1879 a line of demarcation was estab- lished at the base of the Red Wall limestone, and the presence of the Devonian between it and the Tonto group of Gilbert definitely determined on both stratigraphic and paleontologic evidence. A plane of unconformity by erosion, not dip, was found between the Carboniferous and Devonian, and also a strongly marked fauna compared with that of the Tonto be- neath and Carboniferous above.* This horizon was traced, during the winter of 1882-3, from the most northern exposure in Marble Cafion, where the base of the Red Wall limestone first rises above the river-bed, to @ point in the Grand Cafion south of Vishnu’s Temple. rom the known structure of the cafion walls, this line is undoubtedly, present the entire length of the cafion to its termination at the rand Wash. It is known in and at the mouth of the Kanab Cafion, and Mr. Gilbert’s section indicates its presence at the In the Kanab Cafion a strong line of erosion was observed e the base of the Devonian. Usually this is very slight an * This Journal, IIT, 1880, vol. xx, p. 221. C. D. Walcott—Pre- Carboniferous Strata in Arizona. 489 No traces of the Silurian groups have been discovered. At the head of Nun-ko-weap valley, where the Devonian is absent, species of the genera Lingulepis and Orepicephalus were found Within two feet of the base of the Red Wall limestone. On examining the few imperfect fossils, collected in 1879 in the anab cation, on which the strata just beneath the Devonian Were referred provisionally to the Calciferous horizon, they were found to be generically identical with species from strata lower down in the Tonto that are the geologic equivalents of the Potsdam sandstone of the Mississippi valley. i. e Tonto is the first of Powell’s great plateau system of formations. Of Upper Cambrian age, it terminates below that ereat series of comformable deposits that extend upwar through over 14,000 feet of strata to the Tertiary Pink Cliffs of Southern Utah. It occupies an important position in the to- Careous and sandy: strata, the Red Wall cliff is kept clear of debris and undermined so as to preserve its mural face above a - The latter is wonderfully persistent for a cliff not over 800 feet in height. Winding in and out, here a bold head- land, there notched by a narrow, profound cafion, a mural precipice in range for a mile or more, then forming a symmet- niecally curved point around which the contours sweep in grace- Potsdam sandstone horizon of Central N evada, the Mississippi valley and Saratoga county,* New York The base line of the Tonto is quite uniform and rests uncon- formably on the varied strata beneath ; here and there a knoll, Point or ridge is seen on the Pre-Tonto surface that rises nearly through the massive Tonto sandstones that were deposit against and over them, the sea breaking off, and burying with the drifting sand, fragments of the rocky islauds. _* The Pot a of Saratoga county occurs in a massive bedded magnesian limestone and will be described later. The genera Ptychaspis, Orepicephalus, Dicellocephalus, ete., are well represented, 440 CO. D. Walcott—Pre-Carboniferous Strata in Arizona. The great unconformity beneath the Tonto has been described by Professor J. W. Powell, who examined it in his boat trips down through the Grand Cafion, and by Captain C. E. Dutton, who viewed it from the summit of the Kaibab Pla- teau, five milesaway. Professor Powell estimated the strata be- neath the Tonto and above the Archean at 10,000 feet, and as this is all cut across the unconformity is very great. A detailed study adds to the thickness of the strata; it shows that the orig- inal summit of the Pre-Tonto group had undoubtedly been cut away more or less before the deposition of the Tonto group; that the plane of erosion cut deeply into the Archean, and that besides the 13,000 feet of strata, that have been planed off, of which the record is found in the section preserved, there character of the sediments. The lower, the Grand Cafion group, is made up of an immense mass of sandstones and interbedded greenstones exposed directly on the Grand Cafion, and the upper, the Chuar group (a name given by Professor Powell), is a series of sandy and clay shales in the interbedded sandstones and limestones that are exposed in the inner cafion valleys between the Kaibab Plateau and the six great buttes forming the west side of the lower portion of Marble Cafion. The summit of the Chuar group is, as now known, In a little synclinal on the divide between Nun-ko-weap and Kwa-gunt 8. . At first a.rough sandstone, it gives way below to sandy and thin argillaceous shales with interbedded sandstones and lime- stones, 285 feet of limestone occurring in 5,170 feet of sedi- ts stones resting on a massive belt of greenstones 1,000 to Le feet in thickness ; this belt is broken up into eight principa ows by partings of sandstone deposited between the flows. accumulated on the upturned and eroded edges of the Archean, the few layers of limestone and the one flow of lava, 150! in thickness near the base, scarcely serving to break the great sandstone series. The Archean, where the section terminales, consists of thin-bedded quartzites broken by intrusive velns © * For position of these valleys see Atl f 5 rtiary History of the Grand Cafion, 1882. y as of Dutton’s Tertiary C. D. Waleott—Pre- Carboniferous Strata in Arizona. 441 a flesh-colored granite, the layers of quartzite standing nearly vertical. ; _ The Pre-Tonto series is a remarkable one considering its geologic age. In the Chuar group limestones and shales suc- ceed each other with lithologic characters similar to the Tren- ton limestone and Utica shale. The parti-colored shales, in one belt 700 feet thick, recall the friable Permian clays. In fact there is no more evidence of metamorphism throughout the 12,000 feet of conformable beds than there is in the evenly bedded strata of the Trias and Cretaceous groups of Southern Utah. Ripple marks and mud cracks abound in many hori- zons, but not a trace of a fucoid or a molluscan or annelid trail was observed. But for the discovery of a small Discinoid triangularis and an obscure Stromatopora-like group of forms, the two and one-half months’ search for fossils in these groups would have been without result. They serve, however, to retain the group within the Cambrian and also point to a fauna that must be searched for elsewhere, as they alone could Scarcely have been the only representatives of the life in the sea at that time. As now known, the Grand Cafion and Chuar groups may be referred to the lower Cambrian. Their stratigraphic position 1S essentially the same as that of the Keweenawan group of Wisconsin. Both series were originally deposited over the _ underlying Archean unconformably. Both were subsequently elevated, eroded, and buried beneath sediments that in each case uncomformably overlie them and also contain a fauna strikingly similar. : Professor Chamberlain, when speaking of the interval be- tween the elevation of the Keweenawan series and the eposi- hon of the Potsdam, suggests that, in part, at least, the Acadian period of the Atlantic border represents a portion of the work of the interval.* With relation to the interval between the elevation of the Grand Cafion groups and the deposition of the Tonto there is a section in the Eureka District of Central Nevada which passes rom the Tonto or Potsdam horizon down through 3,000 feet of conformably bedded limestones before reaching the Olenellus ‘horizon. The latter in turn is underlaid conformably by a great belt of quartzite as far down as the section was exposed, These beds appear to have been those deposited in the Nevada sea during the period of land surface over the Grand Cafion area, and if the Keweenawan series correspond to the Grand Caiion group in time, as they certainly appear to do in geologic position, we would consider the interval of erosion before the * Geology of Wisconsin, vol. i, p. 94, 1883, 442K. Loomis—Barometrie Gradient in great storms. Potsdam as the time of the deposition of the great belt of strata represented by the Pre-Potsdam Olenellus horizon of Nevada and Lake Champlain. The older St. Johns and Brain- tree horizons being correlated, in part at least, with the Grand Cafion and Keweenawan series. n the Grand Cafion the series is unmetamorphosed, fossil- iferous and but slightly disturbed. In Wisconsin the 1,000 t. Johns, N. B.; the Olenellus horizon of Nevada, Vermont, New York, and Newfoundland, and the Potsdam series of Wis- consin, New York, Canada, ete., as forming the Cambrian age in America, as now known, a subject that will be treated more in. detail at some future time. In this arrangement the Lower Art. L. — Contributions to Meteorology; by Eu1as Loomis, Professor of Natural Philosophy in Yale College. Nine teenth paper, with three plates. [Read before the National Academy of Sciences, Washington, April 17, 1883.] The Barometric Gradient in great storms. In his Meteorological Researches for the use of the Coast Pilot, Part Il. Mr. Ferrel giyes the following formula for the barometric gradient, ° Ce 107674 (2n cos y+ Sl (1) cos¢(1+°004¢%) P a where G denotes the barometric gradient in millimeters pet dere gree of a great circle, or 60 geographic miles, ; E.. Loomis— Barometric Gradient in great storms. 443 he nm = *00014585. ied : - y =the polar distance of the station, or the complement of the latitude. ¢ = the inclination of the wind’s direction to the isobars. $ = the velocity of the wind in meters per second. r =the distance from the center of the low area expressed in meters. ¢ =the temperature of the air in centigrade degrees. P = the pressure of the atmosphere in millimeters. P’ = 760 millimeters. side upon which the winds were strongest and the gradients were the steepest. I recorded also the wind’s velocity between the nearest isobar, and the state of the thermometer. I re- corded the latitude of the low center, and the diameter of the _first isobar, except in those cases in which its magnitude was apparently due to the lack of observations from that vicinity. hese measurements extended from the lowest isobar up to the isobars irregular. The latitude of the center of high pres- ed; and if the isobars were tolerably regular, the diameter of the highest isobar was measured. Several of the charts show the isobar 715™; there are more which have the isobar 720™; and a large number show the isobar 725™™. 444 EF. Loomis—Barometric Gradient m great storms. The gradients can generally be measured satisfactorily from the lowest isobar up to the isobar 775 or 780. In order to ex- tend the comparison still further, I selected the cases in which the barometer was highest and the isobars were tolerably sym- metrical, and measured the distance between the isobars, con- tinuing the measurements downward until the winds became feeble and the isobars irregular. For the convenience of those who may wish to examine a few of the most remarkable cases, without being compelled to search through the entire series of charts I will give the following examples: For Low Barometer. For High Barometer. 1875; Jan. .-12. 1875, Dee. 30. Dec... 21. A sy 22. 1876, Jan. 1. 1876, Jan. 22. eae f March 9. Hila: LO, The following table exhibits the average results for the Atlantic Ocean deduced from an examination of 81 cases treated in the manner already described. * TABLE I.—ATLANTIC OCEAN. - \ f - : " ~ ” py ais if Isobars. | Dee’ | nia. sepooty: Misn.| centes, _—— He| @ 14” 1 0.|¢ ie Es: Deg.| Deg. | Deg. | Myr’m.| Deg. 13 nite 715 to 720/1°199/4°17/3°35|15°90/25°4| +2-07| 2°489| 276°6/58-0| 3°12 1-06 2°75)4°25 20 “ 725|1-292/3-87|3-40|16-21|/26°5| 2°17] 3-735] 415-0/57°6/2°91| [378/253 39 725 * %30/1°348/3°7113°39/ 16-14) 27°9 2°17) 5°055| 561°7/57-2| 2°76 3°59) 2°39 37 “ 735)/1°389/3-60|3°38) 16-08) 29°9 2°19| 6-423) 713°7|/56°8| 2°70 35 1/2°30 dy 735 “ 740|1-420/3-52/3°39116-14/31-9| 2°34| 7°828| 869°8/56-4|2°70| __|3°51/2°25)3°4 40 * 745/1:449/3°45/3-41|16°27/33-°3 2°69| 9°262/1029°1)55°9| 2°71 3°52) 2°23 ood 745 “ 750/1°484/3°37|3-41|16°27|33-7| 3-16} 10°729)1192°1/55°5| 2°69 3°50) 2°20 3" 750 ‘+ 755/1°543/3°2413-34/15-84/34°1| 3°52 /12°242/1360°2| 55-0) 2°60) 3°38)2°12 de 755 “ 760/1°613/3°10/3°16/14°73/34°8 3°84./13°820)1535°5| 54:5| 2°40) 3+12/1°95/3 onl. Ue 760 “ 765/1°695/2°95/2°77/12°69|36°9| + 1°63/13°835/1537°2/54°0|1-90/2°01 2°73 1°61 ae 765 ‘ %70|1-818/2-75/2°39\10°95140°'T|— 3°99/12°079)1342°1)53°4) 1°77)1 8'7\2°54| 1°42 fie 770 “ 775|1-976|2°53|2-14| 9-80|44-4|— 9°01|10-182|1131-3| 52-9) 1-71|1°81)/2-46)1-29)2°%0 775 ‘* 780\2-165/2°31\1'89| 8°67/47°9|—13°65| 8-111) 901°2)52°2)1°64)1°74 2°37\ 1°16 2 ‘ 780 “ 785)2°370/2°1111°70| 7-82'50°6|/—18-09| 5°844| 648-°7/51 5) 1°57/1°68|2°28 1°07 3 785 790|2°604/1-99/1-52) 7-02/52°1|—22°40| 3°35%| 373°0|50°7)1-42)1°58)2°15 org7\1 ‘ oe ine ing values; column 4th shows the average velocity of the e L. Loomis—Barometric Gradient in great storms. 445 duced to their equivalent values in miles per hour by means of the table prepared under the direction of the Council of the London Meteorological Society and published in 1881. Ac- cording to this table the values of the numbers employed in the English scale (0-12) are as follows: M , Foree.} per head. Mean. |} Force. jer hear: Mean. ||Force. oe te: Mean. 0 0 to 5 2°56 5 26 to 30 28°0 10 61 to 69 65°0 1 6. +10 8-0 6 Shs) SSG nea 0 2 B04 Te 2 re Rae 9 13°0 7 31) a4 40°5 12 | Above 80 90°0 3 16,..%) 20 1870 8 45° 52 8" 4 SL SG 23°0 9 ba" ‘GO 56°5 The average values of the numbers upon the scale 0-6 are hence determined to be as follows: Miles Metres Miles Metres Force. per hour. per second. ||/Force. per hour. per second. 1 10°5 4°69 4 44°5 19°89 2 20°5 9°16 5 60°75 27°16 3 30°75 13°15 6 82°5 36°88 the distance from the center of the high area. The average diameter of the first isobar about the low center was 3°78 de- grees; and the average diameter of the first isobar about the high center was 4°11 degrees. The distances in column 9th are expressed in myriameters. The average latitude of the centers of low barometer employed in constructing this table is 58°°8; and the average latitude of the centers of high barom- eter is 49°-7, In computing the gradient for the different heights of the barometer, it was assumed that in going from Proportional to the distance passed over. Upon this principle were computed the numbers in column 10th which represent 446 FE. Loomis—Barometric Gradient in great storms. tive. The numbers in column 12th denote the gradients com- puted by using only the first term of the formula. The mode of obtaining the other columns will be explained hereafter. This table readily suggests several important conclusions, but I will defer considering them until I have obtained the corre- sponding results for the United States. : The lower part of Plate I gives a graphic representation of the numbers in the preceding table. At the center of low of high pressure where the barometer stands at 792™. e ceding shows the corresponding gradients from the low center to the high center. The distance from the low center to the high center is 29°31 degrees. The entire figure represents @ length of 58°62 degrees, or 4,045 English miles. In order to obtain the average elements of the violent storms of the United States, I employed the Weather Maps of the Signal Service. I have a complete set of the tri-daily weather from Nov., 1871, to the close of 1880; and I have also one daily map from the beginning of 1881 to the present time, making in the aggregate about 11,000 maps. isobars on these maps show much greater irregularities than those upon Hoffmeyer’s charts for the Atlantic Ocean. This difference may be ascribed in part to the greater number of observations, and the attempt to inv the isobars so as to be consistent with all the observations; but a large part of the difference appears to be due to local disturbing influences which are more nume rous over a continent than over the ocean. In order to obtain suitable data for testing Ferrel’s formula, we must in some way eliminate the influence of these local disturbing causes. If we should take an indiscriminate average of the gradients, wind Sal E. Loomis—Baromeirie Gradient in great storms. 447 of those who may wish to examine some of the most remark- able cases I give the following list. For Low Barometer. For High Barometer. 1874, Nov. 22.3/1876, Dec. 29.3||1872, Dec. 26.2/1879, Feb. 26.1 mo SB 188, GR ete. Jan. 164 March 13.3 1875, Jan. 2, “994 “ 5.2 Dec. 21.3 March 15.2}1879, Jan. 2.3 be OT \e: 6 oa Nov. 11.1 «“ et “ 98.) “933 ES Lo, 5 Bae w 3.2|{1875, Nov. 28211880, Jan. 30.1 mepailale | « 3.3||1876, Nov. 30.3 Feb. 19.2 : * 29.3 us ee Dee. ee by 19.3 1876, Jan. 9.2 i we” | | Feb, 2.1 ¢ . -96.211187%, Feb. .13.1 ieee: 48°47 40°1 27:5 6°72 pa Seas 475 317 27°1 6°98 i, 29 46:7 387°9 25°4 6°75 xr 50 46°8 379 25°4 6'T6 93 sd 2 45°2 36°1 24°5 5°84 Xi 31 45°5 37-0 26°2 6°85 19 xn 41 45'3 35°8 24°8 6°92 98 xn <8 47°6 36°5 26°6 q-12 1 58 48°3 36°9 26°7 7-15 26 xi. «565 507 39°2 30°2 7°25 25 Xi 27 52°0 40°7 31°2 7-20 In the first column are given the Ann Arbor sidereal times of the middle of the set of observations on the three 1€8. from entrance on the wedge to extinction. Argelander give as the magnitude of the first comparison star 5°38 and 0 second 8°8. If we adopt these magnitudes and assume that th stars do not vary during the course of the observations, U can easily determine the magnitude of the asteroid at the of observation. As the magnitude of the star and the ced extinction in the wedge change as the logarithm of the hight : : they can be sot rhgy directly. The fifth column was fo by the proportion * W. M. Harrington—Brief Study of Vesta. 468 where mM, Mg, Ms, an of extinction of 2164, 2163 and Vesta respectively. The change the later hours as the stars approached the horizon—as it should do. The errors arising from this source would be large if we all) the record gives no evidence of its being less trustworthy than the others. On the contrary, Vesta was at that time in the best position for comparison, and I had already had some practice in comparing her with a single star. Her faintness at that time was so great as to strike my attention before putting the wedge on my instrument. But leaving that out, the observations show a maximum at about XV" on the 18th, one 18th. In general, Vesta is brighter on the 17th than on the 16th, while as she was leaving opposition she should have been slightly fainter if her light is not variable. The series of observations on the 16th and 17th were taken With the hopes of finding some periodicity which might lead to some determination of Vesta’s rotation on her axis, but Without entire success. _ : A few remarks as to Vesta’s albedo may not be out of place. Several attempts have been made to measure her diameter, and though the measures are inharmonious, they agree among themselves better than do the different measures of other aste- roids—as Ceres and Pallas. The mean of the measures of Schréter, Madler, Secchi, Tacchini and Millosevich, reduced to Vesta’s mean distance from the Sun, as given by Houzeau (Vade-mecum, p. 687), I find to be 0°49. Employing this, using Zdllner’s formula for computing albedo (Phot. Unter- suchungen, page 159), and giving Vesta a purely geometrical phase, I find her albedo to be about 0°1.or much like that of the Moon and Mercury. This suggests that she has somethin of the physical condition of the Moon, which is also a by her size. We may note, however, that if her angular diame- 464 W. MM. Harvingion—Brief Study of Vesta. , ter at mean distance from the Sun is 0°49, her diameter in miles must be not inconsiderable. In fact, a simple calculation — shows that with this angular diameter the diameter is about justified on general principles. The albedo of Saturn is peculiar and is approached only by that of Neptune. The asteroids are much more likely to be like their nearest neighbors, Jupiter or Mars. Considering their small size, however, and remembering how important a part the size plays in the process of cooling, causing presence or absence of clouds, water, etc., we may i sider it more probable that these bodies resemble those other small bodies, the Moon and Mercury. As a result of my observations and of the other considerations just mentioned, we may, I think, conclude that the present state of knowledge renders the following conclusions probable: — 1. Vesta is a body upwards of 500 miles in diameter. 2. She is like the moon in her albedo and therefore probably like her in lacking an appreciable atmosphere and water. 8. To account for the irregularities of her light, we may pre sume that she has a very rough surface and rotates on oedowip The time of rotation can not be guessed at, but the rapidity 0 the changes in her light indicates that it is short. : 4, What is true of Vesta is likely to be true, mutatis mulan- dis, of the other asteroids. : Subsequent observation may modify these conclusions Oe rially, or may prove that the asteroids are even more dissimila Ann Arbor, Michigan, Oct. 10, 1883. OC. E. Fritts—New Form of Selenium Cell. 465 Art. LI.—On a New Form of Selenium Cell, and some Elee- trical Discoveries made by its use; by CHARLES E. Frirrs, of New York City. In the following pages I give, in a condensed form, the chief results brought out in a paper presented by me to the merican Association for the Advancement of Science, at the meeting at Minneapolis in August last. = The new form of selenium cell which I have devised has the following features: : st. Its resistance can readily be made as low as desired. Some cells have been made having a resistance as low as nine ohms. But I have generally used those measuring between 500 and 5,000 ohms. out previously going through the annealing process. Yet bot are supposed to be absolutely chemically pure selenium. The conclusion is that commercial selenium is a mixture, consist- ted light. The granular or crystalline form also varies,—being Am. Jour. Scr.—Turrp Srrtes, Vou. XXVI, No. 156.—Dxc., 1883. 30 466 © C. BE. Fritts—New Form of Selenium Cell. sometimes of a very light lead color, at others a very dark gray, a violet, a purple, a dull gold color, and occasionally a ese colors are caused by h “ eat. I have tried many different metals and substances as bases His measurements of this cell are given in table A, annexed * find several of them my pi re easuring a new series of selenium cells of my form bye far more sensitive to light than any of those mentione Rx ‘the American Association. for the Advancement of Scienee. n to put them on record. Their i ex h s tivity Brass cell No. 24, measured Sept. 4th, showed twenty-five times the conduc ark, and brass cell No. 23, showed about thirty “63 t n the dark exact ratio being 29°63 to 1. . me cells again to-day, together with several others, ye the results given in the following table. All the cells were m ap a ; : asured “ e, and with 23 nché battery, except No 23 and 8. The time was between Tests oF SELENIUM CELLS IN LIGHT AND DARK. Selenium ceil.| Battery. In dark. Sunlight. Ratio. 5 No. 24. | 23 cells. | 32,500 ohms. | 1,300 ohms. | 25° to 1 | Sept. 4 ae 24. |93 “ | 48500 “ | 1100 * | 4409to1} “ & | 23. |10 “ 1,600 « 64 * «| 99-68 tol | * Ss 2 23, |10 “ 1,510 “ ’ $02 tol |< 25. |23 “ | 15,000 « re. HOE oto 22. |93 « 1,5 “ 80. * | Wi tol ys 22. ied 2,030 Xy a a as 156 tol eo 6. 123 © 5,040 170 a9°05 ol | Bas 2,400 * 50 “= «1:16 se ee 10. |98 © | 60, *. 13600... | 166 tod Mee Ge i 1 oes 1,790“ 250 * TL. wl) yi) Gg 8, “| 90,000. ~| 1000 .* -[ 30° tot] = ee T have a number of others not yet tried, which may give even greater ig not astonishing that the electrical resistance of a substance sho But is it C. E. Fritts—New Form of Selenium Cell. 467 for inspection and trial by the members of the association, was then described. ' As the result of some thousands of tests and measurements. made by me, I have reached the following new conclusions : Ast. The electrical resistance of a cell changes enormously with different battery powers. There does not appear to be any invariable law governing this change, but each cell seems to have its individual character in this respect. In most cases the Tent increases, One cell cited measured, with one Leclanché element, 14,000 ohms; with 5 elements, 9,900 ohms; with 10 elements, 7,600 ohms; with 23 elements, 4,600 ohms. Another - measured, with 23 elements, 3,600 ohms; with 10 elements, 8,000 ohms; with 5 elements, 10,000 ohms. In other cases, ° but less frequently, the resistance increases as the battery power increases. ‘These changes may be produced in either direction, and as often as desired.* 2d. I have discovered that simply reversing the direction of the current through a cell can make its resistance, in some cases, as much as ten or fifteen times as high as before, even though that increase should amount to millions of ohms. Some instances the change may be even greater, in others not so much, but it is seldom less than twice as much, or as two to one. When the original direction of the current is restored, the resistance also returns, and these effects can be repeated any number of times. The cell is sensitive to light in both cases, but is generally more sensitive when the current enters thé selenium at the same surface which the light is acting upon. Instances of such changes were given, and several hypothe- Ses were considered, but none were thought to satisfactorily account for this phenomenon.t+ forty-four times as much in the dark as in the sunlight? [also wish to record cell whose resistance becomes greater in the light and less in the dark,—being, so fur as I know, the first instance of rare ins a oes on up to a certain battery power, and any further increase of intensity in the current causes a fall in the resistance,—so that a change from that battery power in either direction would produce the same change in the resistance of the cell. + The foregoing changes are not always in the same direction. That is to say, if the cell has a certain resistance, with the positive pole of the battery connected to a certain electrode of the cell, the resistance will i in ed by connecting the negative pole of the battery to that electrode, an t ses it I be I have b ere reversing the direction of the curren no change in the resistance of t And, ll more Singular, I have had two cells which reversed their action while experi- mented with,—so that the electrode which offered the highest resistance to the positi ve current at first, afterwards offe e lower resistance to it, ange having e in the connections or conditions. e selenium or the cell Seemed to have been jm some way permanently affected by the action of the cur- rent flowing through it. The cause of this change has not been ascertained. 468 C. E., Fritts—New Form of Selenium Cell. After some speculations as to whether the foregoing actions are properties of selenium, or are produced by the arrangement of selenium in contact with substances so widely separated from it in the electrical scale, I observed that it is at least evi- dent that the peculiar construction of my cells causes these actions to be manifested many times more powerfully by them than by cells of other forms, and then inquired: If it be -possi- e, by such simple ‘means as are employed in my cells, to obtain these results, may not means be found to still further facilitate these manifestations, and so intensify and exaggerate the results,—and even to obtain others yet unthought of, and possibly still more surprising 8d. Still I have found that the kind of battery employed has a great deal to do with the performance of the cell. Take 1ron cell No. 1 as exemplifying this. This plate is one of the best, having given.a change of &8 per cent, has been used in ‘almost every conceivable way, and always proved good. Yet on re _ sensitiveness. “1 Brass cell No. 6, which has given 85 and 88 per cent cme Leclanché battery, appeared to be almost worthless with the bichromate cells, showing but little sensitiveness to light,—™ one measurement, none at all; and in another, its resistance was actually less in dark than in light,—the figures being 2 and 750 ohms, respectively. But on putting it with the a clanché, its action changed, it became fairly sensitive to. light, and behaved more like its old self. ai Brass cell No. 12 alsé failed with the bichromate battery C. L. Fritts—New Form of Selenium Cell. 469 and became entirely insensitive to light, showing no change whatever between light and dark. rass cel] No. 5, he connected with the bichromate bat- tery, refused from the first to show any sensitiveness at all. - Its resistance varied continually, from high to low, and up again,—most of the time changing too rapidly to admit of get- ting any measurement. Changing the battery power from 12 cells to 24, 48, and 96 cells made no difference,—it still refused to respond to light, although reversing the current varied the — resistance considerably. When one cell of the Leclanché eatery was substituted, it started at 10,100 ohms in dark, 5,700 ohms in light, —nearly 44 per cent decrease in light. Doabtless —, cells would have shown the same action, had there been time to test them, but these are sufficient to excite one’s surprise. re before stated, the bichromate batteries had « about the same surface in the liquid as the lanché. But t here a promising field for experiment, in testing the eariiee omie of battery already known, or even devising some new form especially adapted to the needs and peculiarities of bedi cells ? . The effect of intermittent currents, and of rapidly alter- ming currents, is usually very slight and may be disregarded B nges, e the ce See from many thousands of ohms to almost nothing, and at others they raise it from next to nothing up among the thousands. I have not been able to ascertain any connection hiteecn conditions and results, but the effects are certainly remarkable. They are not due to my mode of arrang- ing the parts of the cells, for the same thing occurs with other forms, as for example: Experiment 1. The large “ strip” cell measured, in the dark, 1,600 ohms. “Tried intermittent current. N eedle erratic, — final lly settles at 2,600 ohms.” This experiment was with 22 cells of Leclanché. On trying the same experiment on an- * 470 C. FE. Fritts—New Form of Selenium Cell. other day, no effect was produced, although the conditions were the same, so far as I could detect. Experiment 2. Double cell No. 1, measured 50,000 ohms. Put on an automatic reversing apparatus (arranged to both break circuit and reverse the current about 300 times per minute), with 22 cells of Leclanché, for three minutes. The cell then measured, under the same conditions as before, only 30,000 ohms. A repetition of this treatment produced no " further effect. The change, produced as described, was perma- nent. The action of both intermittent and alternating currents upon selenium are worthy of careful study, for under certain conditions they are capable of effecting great changes in its resistance, which might be utilized for practical purposes if those conditions were understood. so 5th. Very moderate changes of temperature (say 10° to 50 Fahr.), can sometimes change the resistance of a selenium cell hundreds or even thousands of ohms in a few seconds, an think that this phenomenon has not been observed by others. Experiment 1. Brass cell No. 6 measured, with gold anode, 23 cells Leclanché, in dark, 3,500 ohms. It was laid with its back upon an iron block warmed to about 100° Fahr., when its resistance fell almost instantly to 2,900 ohms, being a fall of 600 ohms. ; Experiment 2. The same cell, in the same conditions at an- other time, measured 8,600 ohms. On putting the hot block — under it, it fell to 2,400 ohms; in 30 seconds more it fell to 2,000 ohms; in another 80 seconds, to 1,850 ohms; in two minutes more to 1,600 ohms. By this time the block was but slightly warm. Experiment 8. A cold block (i. e., not heated), was then put under the cell, when it rose at once to 1,920 ohms; in 30 sec- onds more, to 2,000 ohms; and continued to rise rapidly to 3,010 ohms. On repeating experiments 2 and 3, similar results stantly, and that the withdrawal of so little heat can produce @ change in the opposite direction, almost as great and a is one of some importance, and has not been published before, - e ; ae so far as I am aware. C. EL Fritts—New Form of Selenium Cell. 471 sank rapidly to 22,000 ohms. The same experiment, with double cell No. 2, the mate to No. 1, produced ‘hardly any effect. When the “strip” cell was tried in the same way, it more strikingly by cells of my form than by those heretofore made. But why it occurs with some cells and not with others, has not been ascertained. - The sensitiveness to light is greater when the cell is cold. ew form of Selenium.—Since the foregoing paragraphs were written, I have been trying some experiments long con- templated, and have succeeded in producing colorless, trans- parent selenium. tis well known that vitreous selenium when very thin be- comes translucent and has a beautiful ruby red color. The new form of selenium just discovered by me has no color, but looks like a thin coating of glass, through which the yellow brass base is clearly seen,—even the fine scratches and marks left in the hrass from the polishing being as distinct as if the metal were bare. The mode of obtaining it is such as to one-half square inch of surface, had a resistance of only three ohms. It was found to be affected by light very little, if at all. As circumstances compel me, much against my will, to devote most of my time to a widely different branch of science, Ido not wish to stand in the way of those who would work out these subjects more rapidly, and therefore offer my results for their consideration, and Jeave further researches to be carried out by any desiring to do so who may have more time and better facilities than myself for theoretical inves- tigations. 472 C. FE. Fritts—New Form of Selenium Cell. : TABLE A. SELENIUM CELL, TESTED BY DR. WERNER SIEMENS. Selenium in Relative Conductivities. Resistance in Ohms. Fs Deflection. | Ratio. fie a dicgh ete pats 32° ee 10,070,000 “i Diffnaod daylight_ 110° 34 2, '930, 000 ge Seaueds 180° 5°6 qy cae 000 WHUDNG os scus 470° 14°8 ,000 TABLE B. SELENIUM CELL, TESTED BY THE AUTHOR. esistance in Ohms. | Test | Test fig! Test Test | Test | Test Brass Cell, No. 16. | xo°1,| No 2 No. 4. | No. 6. | No. 6.| No. 7. Dark | 210° | 210°. Tae 110° an 219° Sot Diffused daylight _.| 49° | 14: | 53- | 13: | 110° | 90° Per cent of change.| 766] 93:3| 688] 881| 47-6! 58-9 ai __ Note-—A_ paper on “The Action of Light on Selenium,” by Baresi W. G. Adams, F.R.S., and Mr. R. E. Day, in Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. xxv, p. 118, contains the following statements : st. That on reversing the direction of the current through selenium the “resistance was always found to be different from that previously obtained.” As I have shown, the resistance is not a were ifferent. 2d. ‘The first current through the selenium, if a strong one, causes a permanent ‘set’ of the molecules, in’ consequence 0 which the passage of the current during the remainder of the experiments is more resisted in that direction than it is when alrea times in the opposite direction, sometimes there is no get” at all, and in two cases the “set” changed and was reversed during the yhared a aig of the cells. 3d. site occurs in other cases, and in still other instances the in- crease or a . resistance stops at a certain battery poweh and is then rev It will be seen 7 that their experiments and results were eD- tirely different from mine, except on the three foregoing points. As to them, so far as the above quotations agree with my . salts, eas investigators are entitled to the credit of first — 1SCco : ver New York City, Aug. 28, 1883. C. G. Rockwood, Jr.—Ischian Earthquake. 473 Art. LIIL—The Ischian Earthquake of July 28, 1888; by _C. G. Rocxwoop, JRr., Princeton, N. J. responds in geological character, as does also the smaller island of Procida lying between Ischia and the mainland. Ischia about three miles broad. In the center of the island rises and for over five hundred years has been nearly silent. last emission of lava from its flanks occurred in 1302, since which time the voleanic activity has been shown only by hot springs and steam jets, and not infrequent earthquakes, the last notable one having occuared March 4, 1881. - Ischia is noted for its thermal springs, which with the pleas- ant climate make it a favorite summer resort, and during the Season the town of Casamicciola is usually crowded with Strangers. Other towns are Ischia on the east coast, Forio on the west and Lacco Ameno on the north. Before the earthquake, which wrought so much damage in this beautiful island on July 28, 1883, there had been some in- dications of unusual subterranean activity; some of the hot springs had shown abnormal variations of temperature, but it 18 doubtful whether to an extent greater than at other times when no earthquake followed ;—there had been a number of slight earthquake shocks in different parts of the island,—and the instruments in the seismological observatories at Naples and Rome w mistakable indications of an approaching earthquake were observed in Casamicciola, but were concealed from the public so far as possible, for fear of alarming the summer visitors and so diminishing the gains of the hotel keepers. These indica- tions, beginning from a fortnight before the great earthquake shock, gradually increased in intensity and frequency, an Professor di Rossi of Rome said afterward that if there had been in Ischia any system of observation, by which at the time he could have been informed of all these phenomena, ‘the would not have hesitated an instant in | abet out the immi- nent danger of an impending seismic dis Casamicciola. But in the absence of observations in Ischia, re in increased motion. It is said also that un-— turbance” menacing’ - _ 474 C. G. Rockwood, Jr.—Ischian Earthquake. the indications of the instruments on the mainland were inter- preted as being fulfilled by the earthquake of July 25th in e Calabria. On July 27, however, the unusual noises before no- - ticed at the Solfatara of Albano had increased to an alarming extent, and numerous slight shocks were felt at Vesuvius and vicinity, indicating that the seismic disturbance was not yet over. The violent shock came about 9.25 Pp. M. on Saturday, July 28, and the greatest damage was done at Casamicciola and vicinity. This town, built on two small hills on the nort slope of Epomeo, was entirely destroyed, only one or two houses being left standing. A performance was in progress at the theatre, and when the building collapsed at the shock many were buried in its ruins. Lacco Ameno, on the coast about three miles northwest from Casamicciola, was also mostly de- stroyed and Forio was greatly damaged. The town of Ischia, on the east coast, was severely shaken, but without suffering very much damage. But the villages of Fontana and Serrara, situated in the interior of the island, and indeed within the old crater, were great sufferers, as was also Barano more to the south. Two large land-slips were caused on the north slope of Epomeo, but no true fissures were®found anywhere, and no ie changes of level. he first accounts of the killed and wounded were largely exaggerated, the number of killed being stated as 4000, 000V, 8000 and even 18,000. The numbers given by the official com- mission (Sept. 26) were 1990 killed and 874 wounded. Many perished beneath the ruins of fallen walls, and some were res eued from such a death after having been thus entombed for longer or shorter periods; in one case several persons were taken out of the ruins alive nearly a week after the catastrophe. e shocks were at first vertical, then undulatory, and lasted about fifteen seconds. The direction of the vibration 18 variously stated by different observers. n endeavoring to trace this earthquake to its cause, we must not overlook the connection of this locality with the Vesuvian voleanie district. It will be desirable also to state briefly location of the hot springs and stufas or steam jets, for whie the island is noted. As we follow then the northern coas Fornello and Fontana near Ischia, stufas and thermal springs at Ot n + C. G. Rockwood, J'.—Ischian Earthquake. 475 line of cleavage, from whence come these manifestations of subterranean activity. He also traces another line similarly completely destroyed. In view of these facts L. Baldacci states his conclusions thus: “That the residual volcanic activity of the island is manifested along two principal fissures, one a curve with its convexity to the north, from the baths of Ischia to Forio, the other directed approximately north-northwest and south-southeast between Lacco Ameno and the stufas of Testaccio; and that the place where Casamicciola stood is upon the intersection of these two lines and, therefore, at the very focus of seismic activity and that it always has been and always will be the locality most liable to be devastated by earthquakes.” But other facts also point in the same direction. H. J. John- ston-Lavis has drawn the isoseismal lines about the focus and these isoseismal ellipses is nearly in the line of Baldacci’s north and south fissure. Johnston-Lavis states his conclusion thus: To conclude, then, it seems to be pretty clearly made out as probable, that this earthquake shock had its origin and cause in a rupture taking place along an old volcanic fissure, directed roughly north and south, and extending radially in or under 476 | Scientific Intelligence. the northern slope of Epomeo; and that the cause of the in- creased tension resulting in this rupture is to be referred to the residual voleanic activity which this island shares with the adjacent mainland rather than to any merely local subsidence. Palmieri has advanced the opinion that the local violence of the shocks might be due to the collapse of subterranean cavi- ties not very far below the surface. But it would seem likely. that any subsidence of sufficient magnitude to cause the surface destruction, seen at Casamicciola, and to give rise to vibrations felt by instruments so far away as Rome, must have been attended also by surface fissures and changes of level, none of which were observed. After the disastrous earthquake of July 28, slight shocks continued to occur, at first daily, and afterward at longer inter- vals, even as late as September 23d. In preparing this notice free use has been made of the corre- spondence published in various journals and newspapers both . of America and Europe, but the writer is especially indebted to articles contributed by Ch. Vélain to La Nature (August 18, 1888); by H. J. Jobnston-Lavis to Nature (Sept. 6, 1883), and by L. Baldacci to the Boll. R. Com. Geol. (translated in Science, Sept. 21, 1883.) SCIENTIFIC. IN TELLIGEROS: I. CHEMISTRY AND PuysIcs. The | selenium is immediately covered with a thin plate of glass called tint. Seen through the spectroscope, the light is comprised be- tween the A line and the C line. The double line B and the nu merous small lines @ are readily seen, but the D lines can not observed. ere is, so to speak, radiation of the sodium lines. Chemistry and Physics. ATT convert all the radiations into obscure radiations. One can utilize this specific property of selenium in analyzing the heat rays; also m a photographic chamber; in the use of the opthalmoscope, and generally in the analysis of the radiation of the sun and the stars. — Comptes Rendus, No. xvi, 15 October, 1883, pp. 838-840, 4% 2. Telluric Oxygen lines—M. Ecororr has shown that the lines A and B of the solar spectrum are due to the oxygen’in the earth’s atmosphere. He employed a tube twenty meters long closed at both ends by glass plates; filled this tube with dry oxy- gen under a pressure of fifteen atmospheres; observed the light from an oxy-hydrogen flame and found that the lines due’to the absorption of the oxygen were identical with A and B in the solar Spectrum. The theory that these lines are due to a cosmical hy- drocarbon gas diffused through space is controverted by the ex- periments of M. Egoroff, who found that several kinds of hydro- carbon gas gave no bands or lines of the character of A and B.— Comptes Rendus, 27 August, 1883, pp. 555-557. oe: 3. A new Capillary Electrometer.—M. A. Curvet has devised a modification of Lippmann’s Electrometer which can be readily constructed and which will show a difference of potential from a volt. Two flasks with lateral orifices on the ence of potential can be intercalated between the ends of P and The heights of the mereury and water in the flasks A and B are such that P and N being connected by a metal wire, the sur- faces of separation of the two liquids is in the region of the eap- illary portion of the larger end of the thermometer tube. Let a be the angle of the cone which is tangent to the surface of the tube at the point where the meniscus is formed; a is small angle. Let a be the capillary depression and r the radius of the tube. Then ¢@=— where M is dependent upon the difference of poten- tial intercalated between P and N. The movement of the menis- cus is observed with an eye piece. By means of a manometer at- tachment differences of potential can be compared by the method of Lippmann.— Comptes Rendus pp. 669-672, 17 September, 1883. a. ¢. 4. Haill?s Phenomenon.—M. Aug. Righi modifies the form of thin plate used by Dr. Hall; instead of a cruciform plate it has any shape whatsoever and carries three electrodes. The current - 478 Scientific Intelligence. of the needle shows that the equi-potential lines are turned in the opposite direction from the magnetizing current—for gold and A planet will not move round the sun unless it be constantly acted upon b a force deflecting it from thé straight path. A grindstone will bal ye. oe anced by centripetal force. My difficulty is to understand what tendency of the rotating material of the vortex-atom is controlled the exterior incompressible liquid. But it is also stated h : the motion of the atom is concerned this liquid is a perfect void. Now, if this liquid can offer no resistance to the passage of the in : Geology and Natural History. 479 balances this centrifugal force must be equally enormous. ‘Then if this perfect fluid outside the vortex-atom can exert this enor- _™mous force on the revolving material without being itself pos- “petal of motion, then there doe S not seem = be any necessity void would be formed in wee which is impossible in a liquid that already occupies all space.” The incompressibility of the sur- rounding fluid s surely cannot be a reason why portions of the prevent portions of the.revolving atom from flying away, it would equally prevent the whole atom from doing so, but ac hing to motion of the atom. _ When une atom moves it is assumed that i; GEOLOGY AND NATURAL HIsTorRY. ba ted a the emai Lode and the Washoe District ‘ by Grorce F. , U. 8. Geological Survey, CLarE NCE Kina, Dircosk: ons oe ; Ato, with many plates, and an Atlas of 21 sheets in double folio, containing maps and underground sec- tions of the region—Mr. Becker’s Report, after some introduc- tory sac treats exclusively of the geology of the Co mstock | lode, and is a work of great value. Some’ of its facts and results are here riety presen nted. 000,007 The rocks of” the region (arranging them gone. - the pre- dominant feldspar in their constitution as made out by Mr. ecker) are as follows (1) Having nie _Feldapar portion chiefly orthoclase: Granit small area near the Red Jacket mine; guartz porphyry {ace of Zirkel), having a oo fluidal aes Se ing 480 Scientific Intelligence. quartz-porphyry, diorites, and rarely in the andesite; some horn- deduced is as follows: Quartz-porphyry, earlier diabase, later diabase, earlier hornblende-andesite, augite-andesite, later horn- blende-andesite, basalt. The most abundant rocks are the ande- sites. The microscopic character of several of the rocks is illus- . trated on four plates of sections. : The “ propylite” of von Richthofen was proved to be an al- tered ek The rocks adjoining the lode are altered to great depths, and re often me- the iron coming from one of the iron-bearing silicates mong the results of weathering, freezing is stated to t une times conchoidal chips from the angles of andesite blocks to The quartz porphyry is deeply decomposed, and its porous struct- ure is said to be “perhaps due to the unequal contraction of the quartz and feldspar in cooling.” : . he changes along the lode are attributed to waters holding carbonic acid or alkaline sulphides, or other mineral ingrediony The conclusion is drawn, based on assays, of the rocks, agnee to be not altogether satisfactory, that the diabase, making t east wall of the vein (and now exposed for a length of 8,000 fee _ and gathered in the ores of the : _ tecks, “carbonates and alkaline sulphides would be formed, an — # Geology and Natural History. 481 these are solvents for quartz and sulphides of the heavy metals. s of the mi ; d to “should be confined to the neighborhood of this contact,” and “should this rock narrow to a mere dike between diorite walls, ”? is temperature and pressure, they w ave t decomposing and carrying powers; nothing as to whether the wall of the great re may no ave contained metalliferous veins rate of about 3° F, for each additional hundred feet. “On the 3,000-foot level” —to which depth the country is honey-combed with passages—“ floods of water have entered the mines at 170° F.,” hot enough to cook food. The equation deduced from the facts gives for a temperature of 212° F. a depth of 5,200 feet; and “a boiling heat is likely to be struck at any time after passing the 4,000-foot level,” and in all probability short of 5,000 feet. The facts show that the source of the heat “can hardly be less than two miles from the surface, and is probably four, in short at apne 4 volcanic distance. In the Sutro tunnel “the rise of temperature as the lode was approached is best expressed by a geometric ratio,” showing that the heat is derived from the lode, the moist- re or aqueous vapor present enabling the rocks to conduct heat. Am. Jour, a Series, VoL. XXVI, No. 156.—Dec., 1883. 482 Scientific Intelligence. a, as the preceding ideal section illustrates. The question as to feldspar-decomposition (resulting in the making of kaolin) being the source of the heat, as urged by Church, is discussed, and made the subject of careful experiments by Dr.- ; the conclusion reached is that the amount of heat thus derived is infinitesimal, or not enough to be detected by an appa- ratus sufficiently delicate to register 0°001° C. Further it is shown that the so-called. clay or kaolin is chiefly pulverized. rock of the as ig During the past season the professional corps has consis- ted of sell, assistant geologist ; ohnson, topographer ; and Ensign J. B, Bernadon, U. 8. N., general assistant r. Th. worth Call of David City, Nebraska, is not permanently connec accompanied the field parties for a short time. Mr. Gilbert spent a month with Mr. Call in the basins of Humboldt and Pyram no Bas : topographic sketches of certain local features, especially of ance moraines. The Survey has determined to discontinue . of the most northern lakes is practically complete, but it has bere ound impracticable to carry the work southward at present, °% Geology and Natural History. 483 account of the great draft on the energies of the Survey rai tal to the recent extension of its field. A genetics ak has been noticed in this Journal. The Third Ann sal Report will contain a elniaingyy essay, by Mr. Russell, on Take Lahontan, and the Fourth, a brief description of the district north of Lake Lahontan, where there was a group of smaller lakes. These are now in type, and the preparation of the final memoirs is well ad- Vol. ViT oF the Geology and beige te Tllinois. Ev duae VII of the series of Reports on the Geology and Paleontology of Illinois, A. H THEN, State geologist, has recently been issued he first part, Mr. ‘then, treats of the development of the coal resources of the State since the pub- lication of the last volume in 1875, and covers 62 pages. Th remainder of the volume, over 300 pages, is paleontological. Over Sixty species of fossil fis ker are described by O. St. Jon and A. H now 196. Two more vo sue Sentai fo str > ie y plates each, will op peewee to complete the paleont soey The series reports, if bots of pope York are ex n the recent formation o sn stals of Cerussite.—M. Lacro orx has described the occurrence of several copper minerals in connection with pieces of Roman money found among some rul e coins, as found, adhered to ss other, being cemented ne by | carbonate of copper ; between each the degree of alteration whi e coin had cerussi in mammillary crystalline groups, of a ntondeemalbeh eg color ; the cuprite formed red cubes up to 1°" i distines soa The composition of the coins was 0 tained, as follows: Cu 79°76, Pb 16°26, Sn 3°97=99°99. Somewhat similar observations have been made by Daubrée on revent minerals occurring at Bourbonne-les-Bains, but in the latter case the cerussite was formed directly from fragments of lead, and not as pled at 1 expense of the lead in the coin alloy. —Bull. Soe. in., Vi, 175. 5. Votunes I and II of the Reports on the Geology of Wisconsin have drapes been issued. ey are volumes of grea geological i importance. Scientific Intelligence. 473, of the last volume of this Journal, the observation that glacial strie occurred on Locust Mountain, south of the glacier imit, is cited from remarks by Prof. Lesley in the geological report o . I. C. White. We learn from Prof. H. C. Lewis, that he has made a special examination of the region and finds that the supposed glacial striz are not of glacial origin. 7. The Pre-Carboniferous — Strata in Arizona; by C. == D. Watcorr.—The follow- Carboniferous. Devonian. Tonto Group. of the Pre-Tonto groups == is shown. 8. Notes on a new Topaz Locality ; by Rev. R. T. Eee Cross, Denver, Colorado. 22 ——In the October number & of the Journal for 1882, 2 Messrs. C. W. Cross and Massive Tonto Lava beds. Chuar and Grand Cafion Groups. en good ones, and perhaps twice that number of phe- - nacites. ing the summer of 1883, Mr. Walter B. Smith, Archean. for minerals in the foot- . hills twenty-five miles north of Pike’s Peak, a region largely destitute of ores and hence not much traversed by proepeme ors, when he found, near Platte Mountain, a “pocket ° topaz crystals. After digging more less for a month he c Geology and Natural History. 485 which appear on the fragment. nother fragment, weighing two and a half ounces, is perfectly limpid and coloriess. The 1 weighs four ounces. It is of a light straw color and is perfectly clear, having no flaw in it. The passing probably into 4-2), 4-2, and 3-7. 9. Jeremejefite and Hichwaldite-—The chemical characters of saad 478). The crystalline form of the species has since been escribed b ebsky. An optical examination as con- rmed the observation of Jeremejef, made in 1869 upon the sam crystals, which were then supposed t beryl, viz: that only the the crystals. study of the crystalline form has convinced same chemical substance is known to appear in both the hexagonal and orthorhombic (or monoclinic) forms ; the observations of Pro- fessor Cooke on the iodides of antimony are to the point.— Ber. _ Ak, Berlin, June 14,.1883. 486 Scientific Intelligence. 10. Mineralogical Notes ; by E. Cuaassen. (Communicated). a two parts by a narrow depression. It seems probable that the planes of the original crystal, in this and other cases, were met and that the concavity and other irregularities observed are due to subsequent growth of the crystal over this nucleus. 2) On Magnetite-crystals in Hematite—Small perfect thas of magnetite are found imbedded in a compact hematite 0 metallic luster, brought from the Lake Superior Iron ae on Vanadium and Titanium in Magnetite in the nee Chaffey ore.—This magnetic .iron occurs near Newboro, Cana and contains q, per cent of vanadic acid and 9} per cent of wee acid. The vanadie acid was determined in a quantity a sh pounds of pulverized and finely bolted ore, and separate a barium resp. ammonium vanadate. Era 11. Phytogeogenesis: Die vorweltliche Entwickelung der ‘id. vegetation down to a comparatively late period— mainly down even to the Tertiary—was aquatic and marine ee _ vegetation of the Carboniferous period, the Lepidodendra and othe higher cryptogams, formed floating islands of vegetation, Geology and Natural History. 487 Stigmaria roots floating on the Sabon in matted masses, their stems rising like masts into the air. As the ocean grew salter this Carboniferous vegetation todk ‘ the strand; and then, o: subsequently, the vegetation of the world was in eril and verged to extinction, as may be seen from the fact that there were 2500 species of coal pla nts, and only 150 in later periods. It would t ‘eryptogamic vegetation to the land before the continents were prepared to receive it; but finally, when the atmosphere had acquired from the bicarbonated ocean snfficient carbonic acid and the rocks had worn down into soil, terrestrial vegetation was created nor imported from rids; but the primordial cells were forme by a kind of mechanical precipitation, in a way which Traube’s artificial cells explain. Life arose from certain catalytic processes in carbo-hydrates: only some one of these, with tannin or something of the sort which may precipitate it from a solution, nisi to be necessary to cell-formation and growth, and consequently for propagation by division. Sexua ar opaga- tion in the first instance was probably a morbid process, a sort of diseased action 0 or three primordial organic carbo- peeretss needful to life originated from certain wren earbo- brea of the earth, and these, from interplanetar unze is a botanical writer of no small pretension fs: Teacutag. and is fond of treating his topics speculatively. It may suffice to call attention to his volume, which is replete with suggestion. G. a _o@ @ 12. Catalogue of the Phanogamous etn Vascular Crypto, ga- mous Plants of Worcester Co., Massachusetis ; by Joseru Jacks on. Worcester. Published — by the Woke er Natural History raiser st pp. 48, 8vo. ee Worcester County extends across the Sta m North to South. On its southern or Rhode Island opal pg is allied by its Pet to Southern New Eng ads on its northern or New Hampshire margin it is allied to ep ew England. It lies at altitudes varying from 200 feet to 2,500 feet above the sea level. Only one point, Mount W achusett, sash the latter height. . It is athickly wooded region, with y kinds of valuable timber trees, such as the babies te pine, w white ash, white oak, hickory, chestnut, rock maple,” A faithful list’ of the plants of such a . ypical slice of New England, besides its local uses, is interestiug and instructive, as iving a fair idea of New England vegetation apart from the influence of the sea on the one hand and the alpine and subalpine 488 Miscellaneous Intelligence. be regretted from our point of view. One likes to see the native as mon in cultivation.” III. Miscettanrgous Screntiric INTELLIGENCE. 1. The Ice of Greenland and the Antarctic.—Dr. James Crot has a paper, in the Philosophical Magazine for November, opposing the view that the universal ice-covering of Greenland is a consequence of the elevation of the land. He states that no in the margin. He also accepts as most probable the opinion, long since expressed by Giesecke, and more recently by Dr. Brown, that th together by ice. - Croll also argues that the Greenland condition is probably that of the Antarctic—a collection of rather low islands “ bound together by a continuous sheet of ice,” as Sir Wyville Thomson as said, covering a space of about 4,500,000 square miles. 18 conclusion as to its little elevation is stated to follow from the low and even top, and the stracture, of the Antarctic ice-barrier. Its horizontal stratification-bands indicate, by their number and the thickness of the mass, a long period of annual deposition of snows; and also that the barrier is probably removed hundreds of miles from the region of dispersion, especially since there are none of the usual marks of a former glacier-condition, such a$ iords. The occupy thirty 0°, and hence be only zyth of a ‘ Miscellaneous Intelligence. 489 Hence relative thickness is an indication of distance traveled, and for the past 10,000 or 15,000 years,” we, one at top is not twenty years old, and of short distance of trav From such facts Dr. Croll argues that the ice ot the Antarctic ice-barrier moved off from a low and even land-surface, and that this kind of surface pape 3 the Ga gahiee: continent.” On the ground that the moist winds flow in all directions toward the south pole, and that the latitudinal eateiit diminishes poleward, it is urged that the loss b recipitation on going pe oleward does ng t oreover the region of the pole should be ever ‘filling with ice, however small the precipitat Dr. Croll regards the recent Sbservations of Nordenskiéld as. confirmatory of his views on Arctic and Antarctic ice-regions. 2. National Academy of Sciences—At the meeting of the poetees held at New Haven, November 13-16, 1883, Professor O. C. Marsh, Erecinet, the following papers were presented : A, Granam Bett: Upon the Ee es a deaf variety of the human race - A. Young, E. S. Hotpen and C. S. Hastines: On the Solar eclipse of May | 6th, 1883. ASAPH pout Notes on the mass of Satur H. CHITTENDEN: On some new selaniry cleavage forms of albuminous. matter, By ov ation. n the use of the dint OF ” in Physics; vin the theory of errors of ubdertation and probable re: O. RMAN: re regase in the measures of Venus’s diameter as derived during transit across the S By in 1. LOOMI he od sie of barometric observations to sea-level. S. Ww. iq ns H. A. Rowianp: On a new photograph of the Solar Spec J. D. Dana: On the stratified drift or terrace form eas oy the New Haven g i ls. s ‘ : Preliminary notice of phospho-vanadates, arsenio- Shenker and antimonio-vanadates ; On the probable existence of new acids of pho B, SinumMan: oo on the mineralogy and lithology of the Bodie “healog Dis- ery of eos soar On the ancient glaciation of North America. + We POW. y: J. : Note’ upon the physical aspects of the higher members of the T. Strerry Hunt: The Aetaikie rocks of Lake Superior. O, ©. Mars: On the affinities of the eucaatiae Reptiles. 490 | Miscellaneous Intelligence. : 3. Signal Service Professional Papers.—The following papers have been issued by the Signal Service. No. VIII. The motions of fluids and solids on the earth’s surface, by Professor Wu. FEr- REL, reprinted with notes by Frank Waldo.—No. IX. Charts and ‘Tables showing geographical distribution of rain-fall in the United States, based on observations from the establishment of the Mete- orological Bureau of the Signal Service, in 1870 to January, 1881, by H. H. C. Dunwoopy, Ist Lieut. 4th Artillery, acting signal officer.—No. XI. Meteorological and Physical Observations on the East Coast of British America, by O. T. Sazrman.—No.’ XI. Popular Essays on the Movements of the Atmosphere, by Pro- ri] fessor Wa. FERREL. OBITUARY. several papers on Botany and Zoology. Doctor LeConte’s labors in science were devoted especially to the Coleoptera, in whic department he made very large collections, and was high authority. He is the author also of some mineralogical a rica Leonarp D. Garx.—Dr. Leonard D. Gale died in Washington on October 22, in his eighty-fourth year. He was graduated from the College of Physicians and Surgeons, in New York City, in 1830, and was soon afterward employed as Assistant Professor of Chemistry in that institution. His name is connected with chemical papers in this Journal for 1831 and 1832. Later he was_ Professor of Chemistry in the New York College of Pharmacy, and Professor of Chemistry, Geology, and Mineralogy 1? the University of New York. While holding the latter position, 1» 1834, he rendered important aid to his fellow-Professor, S. F. B. Morse, in the perfection of the electric telegraph, bringing to er knowledge the discoveries of Professor Henry, the application © which to the Morse machine assured its success. In 1838, Gale made a geological survey of New York island, and a report of his work is published in the New York Geological Report (4to, 1843) of Professor Mather. From 1846 to 1857 he bebe an Examiner of Patents, having charge of the Department © Chemistry, and was afterward for many years engaged 1n the practice of patent law in Washington. } INDEX TO VOLUME XXVIL* Academy, National, New Haven meet- in Acetol, from s sugar, 66. Acid, carbonic, in air, 147 roandeli¢ firms paramandelie, 404. te ‘of, 1 Agni, ‘A. " Tortugas ri Florida reefs, wend Ke oe , deep-sea magnesian lime- Pi eda states, density and chemism of elements in n differe nt, 317 American en of Science and Arts, 1818, in Association American, Minneapolis meet- ing, 159, 8, 325. Briti tish, on 412 Andrews, E., glacial repens in the Laurentian Hills, 9 haved ae 2 i ights, relations ‘of, 236. B oe 7. W,, physiological optics, Bari, double orthophosphates of, 239. Barker, G. F., beds: d of the law of te proportion chemical abstracts, os, 236, 316,401, say event iad gradient in great storms, definite Becker, G. F., cgeain and glaciation, 479. Bentham, G., Genera rar 245. i depp spectrin ae e, dredgings of Blak Soaks’ Wee. eet’ pe Dakota, 235. Booth, es Utica slate graptolites, 380. Borneo et, E, Notice =—— sur J. Decaisne Geology of the Comstock Lode, 414, Croll, J. vort nas in ratreaar age 130. Bean in cultivation, 130. i a7, Browne, W. R., glacier motion, 149. Bruce, A diy ‘brains of Tertiary mam- mals, 7 pempee Survey in a 411. Carbonic pat in air. wl i 143. otes, 486. Climate of the dry zones, Come 161, o under GEOLOGY. Clouds, carbonic acid in formation of, 14’. Coa Coast Survey Report, 413. Color, Jesclvenses of eye to, Peirce, 299. E. H., regenerative theory of solar action. 67. ‘ooke, J. P, rrection of ~— for buoyancy of the ne 9 the oe ro defini onan 310. Cope, E. D., Repti of the Laramie, ral reefs, see GEOLOGY Cosson, K., — de la Flora des En- s de ge mpen aa Florze Atlantice, 77. Illustrationes Flore Atlantica, 78. 1 climatology, 249. ry, 478. Greenland and antarctic ice, 488. O., elevated coral reefs of w topaz locality, 484. be triclinic ape 76. pibide Fr ee om Colorado, * The tote contains*the general heads Botany, GEOLOGY, MINERALS, pe ‘and under each the titles of Articles referring thereto aré mentioned. ras 492 eine na = oo pee oe iy 214. logical n eg z D, geolo Saal “unlieaton, 69. arog cal notes, 14 8, 408. ai phenomena over the New , 341. «dey Be eraft’s Mountain, 381. nonconformity at Rondout, N. Y., nce 8 W., Unsolved Problems in Geol DeCandola oh Origin of Cultivated come ~ g, D. A. Geology ote ee) as Neg hen ‘410 E ea reported, at Caraccas, 79, at Is yee Rockwood, 473. Electrical acc tor, new, 319. rents, _apparatis for determina- tion of Foucaul Electri sone Ane ws evaporation, 145. Hall’s phenomenon, : see also ' ricity. _ Hlectrometer, new capillary, 477. pdirvbaddsolache pagar k, 68. t, A., earthquak = ara 79. Ether, slow combustion of, 67. Ethers, seca % Soe phenols 241, aan — of, to color, Peirce, vo tigress seal to, Walcott, 302, Iso Optic F Foot-prints, supposed human, Marsh,139. Forwood, W. H., g Ngeied action in Yellow- stone Pa rk, 2 i etc., see ae sr £., new fetes of selenium cell, Geological Congress, 410. GEoLoaIcA Pe ORTS AND SURVEYS— Georgia, a Territories, 243, 4 nited Sta 6 120, 150, 271, saesteninie etc, 241, INDEX. “Andesite of California, ete., 225 ocrinus, Wachsmuth and Springer, 36 5. Basalt of wees too, ete., 225. Becraft’s mountain, Davis, 381. of Terti “pti mamm mals, WXs potanceniectabedy restoration of, Marsh, China, a of, 123, 152. Clim i: ctal climate. Coal claties ; Colorado are n, eee pre ta in, Walcott, 437, a Comstock lode, Bec ker, 4 ake grimy Valley, pie phenomena ; , Da Coral ~~ ot Guba, elevated, 148. of the Laramie, Cope, 75, Eye of trilobite, pee Waicott, 302. Faults, origin and hade of, Ie Gee, 294. Florida reefs, Agassiz, Fock print: supposed pa Marsh, Fossil plants of ee 153. f the Laram Geysersof Yellowstone Park, 241, eck Glacial climate, theory of. f, Becker 61; Croll, 249, oe MeGee, 113; Wood, deposits - ae 328. ) nnsylvania, 321. man in Mi eet 328. markings of wiatend forms, An- drews, 99. re boom e 0 phen ah Cerne atpa 4 o Min sota Valley ort New ates hese Dana, | 341, Ohio, W fie ae rh strize supposed, i Locust Mt. 483. ite Mts., ete. 350. Glacier, southern limit of, 44, 326- ] , Miller, slate, Booth Great Salt Lake oe Gilber Homblende-rocks, of the Northwester2 States, Irving, 27, 321; Wadswort Hybocrinus, Wachsmuth and Springer, origin of, 3 Rewesuaw rocks, a, "155, 321. INDEX. 493 GEOLO at radiations, isolation of, 476. Lake B eville, Gildert, fatheus see BOTANY. ; teramie,. pao: ingled ae *, White, ies oo J. * Maere Survey Report, 413. a ner from, Cope, 75. sof “high specific te nr Davis, Thermal Seng s of Yellowstone park, Tote injury ree - ats Sesto 302. y limestone, dip of, iams, 303, Unifeation proposed bye committee, i of N under’ pains Gra mn oratory for opted purposes, 87 Gray, vs jane notices, 77, 245, 322, Sascy s Origin of Cultivated cal nomenclature, 417. G ti Gulf Bien, explorations in the region Gio A. on the dry zones, 161. moit of Louis i i 2 Hackel, E., Monographie Festuearum Euro pearum, Heckel E E., A Visit to Ceylon, 80, a ague, A., ‘yO canoes of northern Cali bog etc., 222 e, H., Ir uois Book of Rites, 248, Hall’s phenomenon, Han Handbuch der Klimatologie, 0, 158 Rca M. W., a brief study of Ves- Hartshorn, G., T., chemical contributions, Hayden, F. V., Geological Report, 243, H. B, mical contributions, 141. intr nd, W. F. eryolite from Colorado, Hos ve J. D., Genera Plantarum, 245. eg evolution i n' ee otting, Nipher, ; Pickerin: Hunt ?. 'S, the aouy Hr rocks, unti ington, ., chemical ati tions, 145. Hydrogen, nascent, in presence of oxy- I Ice, ert of pressure on melting point of, 6 ig Glac oe ngs, e Ay rolemoes of northern Cali- rtide of pe eb and barium, 406, et = D., re of the north- 1, 331; , AT Itinera Principum 8. Coburgi, 247. J see C. L., chemical contributions, Ji acon, J. ye tig of Plants of Wor- r Co., Pomel _ chemical contributions, Joubert, J., Electricity and Magnetism, 80, 148, Kinnicut, L. P., chemical contributions, Knight, S. H., boiling point of sulphur, Kunz, oC F., sapphire from Mexico, 75. Kunze, Oy, Phytogeogenesis, 414, 486, L coe, R. D., Paleozoic Fossil Insects, 75. pe w of definite proportions, variability LeCinie aa genesis of metalliferous Taiowiren to the employés of the Balti- more and Ohio R. R., 248. Lekene, 403. Liebig, G. A., specific heat of water, 57. 494 soe lectro-magnetic theory of, 320. te, see GEOLOGY. Lierstige, ee Minerals of New South Wales, Loeb, M., median contributions, 142. Loomis E, contributions to meteorology, Lyman, T., Ophiuroidea of the Blake Eescattins, 169. M Mabery, C. F., chemical contributions, 1 Magnesium, platinized, as a reducing agen Magnetism and hardness of steel, 320. Mars oo C., restoration of Brontosau- rus, 81. st eae sed human foot-prints, 139. arraey, E., Electricity and Magnetism, 80, 1 Maynard, J. C., Manual of Taxidermy, 80, 158 McGee, W., notice of — of the German Alps, theory of glacial cients 113, 244. origin and hade of normal ‘faults 294, Glaciation A. E., gate) ag capt 141, iron, Georgia, Shepard, 3 Mathotties of Bishopville and Wetorville, classification of, 411, vere? aad contributions to, Loomis, saat metal, in vacuo 147. Miller, 8. A., Glyptocrinus ee Reteo- hla 105 Set ae peor toid, 3 Beryl natty Dakota, Blake, 2 Cassiterite from Dakota, Blake, 235. ndum gems, Shepard, 339. Cryolite, Cross and Hillebrand, Phe ot . me Penfield, 3 ichwal Empholie, ‘tos. Gearktite Cross and Hillebrand, 284. Hematite, 486. Tgelstromie 156. bce ae Shepard, 336. rt eo 485. = Riese, Laie 176. Magnetite INDEX. MINFRALS— mag me mge a le 156, eons Pachnolite, Cross an Hillebr 276. Pro resi Cross ba poten: 288, Pyrite Pan ‘ Arpaia 76, Richellite, 4 Sapphire irom Mexico, 75. Silfbergite, 1 Spo ncn from Dakota, en 236. apan, Dana, 2 ThoeveensBe: 279 Topaz aan Golora, 484, Tritochor g th mo ¥., > Oneal of Australian Plants Miiller, H., Wesitlastion of Flowers, 324. N Nef, J. . N., chemical contributions, L ew South Wales, Royal Society es $0. my ssil ants from Richthofen’s “china her, ee = ant jution af a trotting foaes 0 OBITUAR Baran. vonsters 416. Blum hard, 332. Gale, iconard m 490. Heer, Oswald, Taconte, Toba 490. rton, William yu 332, 416. ae Sir nib ard, 160. mith, J ce, 414. Spo otti isw: bieerta Williaa 160. Ohio, — a of, Wright, of eoenniatig, fe 2% hm, a ethod so physlologioal, 299, 305, Oxygen lines, telluri 417. Cuohetttie, Daan, 408: Palmer, G. M., chemical contributions, Peale, A. C., grey springs of Yellow- stone Park, 243, 410. “és sensitiveness of the eye to color. P Penck, A., The Sigsulon of the German Alps, not. aro Penfield, S. L., analyses of lithiophilite, — 176. Descloizite from Mexico, 361. INDEX. Penhallow, D. P., herbage of permanent meadow, 395. digg R, Parser ic er — Peters, H. F, discovery a pena, 236. a evolution of the trot- ~ GEO. n C aes , Bu illetin Prout’s - ae euanatin A "6S Pyroxene, triclinic, Cross, 76. R sonst double, in some isometric Report is Rio Negro aca 410. LOGICAL Richthofen, BF, he China, ‘80, 152. Rocks, ae ae Rockwood, C. G., Fasten ‘iibtcditie the Ischian Rreeaidag ats he wee Ai pages ste for op- tion Address, 325. nee Sten oande on concave grat- Rl, Survey in Georgia, att. Saponin, 239. Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Travels of Princes f, 247. Seismometer, n ew, 3 Selenium cell, new form of, Fritts, 465. iy ee orice iron from Pe um gem 8 in India, Sheridan, *y (3 "xplorations i in Wyom: ng, © Semmes’ 1 theo the sun, 67, 146. ae bevics. peor sional papers, 490, Sound, intensity ¢ a 7 rh Spectra, infra r co 8 ors Spectroscopic votes Young, 3 er, F, eeocri mieal contribu’ utions, , W. L., Backhouse’s physiological | Stevens optics, 399. 495 sulphides, es juagenca of Py, Prenearys 238. a Aeroter Sun seks ntial of, ie " oxygen ee in spectrum, telluric, ATT. Siemens’ theory of the, 67, 146. spectroscopic notes on, Young, 883; x Tellurium sec new, 237, reactions of, 402. ashes 1 coraaA a e GEO bridge, J., Sista gov i 67, 146, is 406, 416. Trumbull, J. i, tte iaaeh Origin of Cultivated Plants, Tuning forks, ea ttn on, Wead, 177. Turmeric, chemistry of, 141. U Upham, W., Lake Agassiz, 327. Vv te bse are tiboage AM 144, msity apparatus Vasey G., Grasses of nd United States, 322. Veins, genesisof metalliferous, Le Conte, 1. Vesta, a bai study ? Harrington 461. Voleanoes, see under (3 EOLOG Vortennsens theory, Croll, 418, WwW Lge G;, or gp tila es 365. meteorites of sag me Water. sai heat ot Lie big, 5 ys intensity of sound, 177. Weight, correction of, for buoyancy of the atmosphere, ooke, 38. aot C. A., burning of lignite in situ, * commingling of types in the Lara- mie group, 496 INDEX. White, I. C., terraces of western Penn-| Wright, G. F., glaciated area of Ohio, 4 sylvania, 327, southern limit of the glacier, ag Whitfield, R. P, Utica slate graptolites, Widersheim, Ris ee ee der verglei- : - chenden Anatomie Y bse age: nh — mean of the Toons, ‘ G., corundum gems in India, ne ee ee Young, C. A., spectroscopic notes, 333. Wood, S.V., cause of the GYacial period, Wik 0. P., vapor densities Z Worthen: A, Illinois Geological 1 Re- port, 414, 4 Zones, dry, Guyot, 161. ERRATA, e Fege 171, line 4 from bottom, add at the end of the sentence, except the violin famil Bese 179, line 1 from top, for 2Vh, read 2V,,. ge ic. — (3), all the coefficients shoul be 2. Equation (14), all the sigs eee Page 9 : 17 ae etic: for These ae read ee familiar. Line 8 from bottom, after i insert a comma, and dele Page 185, line 14 from top, after velocity ig of t the tip "of the prong. 3, Page te Figure 5 represe nis a crystal ‘of allanite, and — inserted by mistake. Page 279, line 18 f top, pyramids, read fragmen Page , line 4 from top, before i bts dele t Page 290, line 17 from bot omposition, “read deposition, Page 306, line 12 from bottom, insert vol. xxiii at the beginning of the line. Page 307, line 11 from bottom, tie — read locus PLATEIL _ OOL ERR BRR RR & BN ae SAG) sis shA nahi me 2 S 8 BR2BRRR ‘BAROMETRIC GRADIENT > 962 O62 ° 8 iy gs & EE & "a aA 9 es EN a4 3 SAIN GNSS CON saga P i) ORM OF F LATE II. 4 ae OS | aes By Ge Nye" Vee Ss LUIZ Ox KLIK Se oe s%@ ozs