4 j i QAI j : t , m 7 f THE A PERG f -i PLE GIS FD AMERICAN NATURALIST, POPULAR ILLUSTRATED MAGAZINE NATURAL HISTORY. EDITED BY A. S. PACKARD, JR., E. S. MORSE, A. HYATT AND F. W. PUTNAM. VOLUME Ill. IZ 7/ 7 2 SALEM, MASS. ~ PEABODY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. 1870. MISSOURI BOTANICAL : GARDEN LIBRARY CONTENTS OF VOL. III. ' Page. SHELL Money. By R. E. C. Stearns, . ° ‘ ONE . 1 THE BOTANY oF CENTRAL ate By E. L. Greene, . i 5 TuE CHIMNEY SwaLLow. By Augustus Fowler, . 8 THE STRUCTURE OF THE PITCHER PLANT. By J. G. Hunt, M. D. : With Illustrations, . 13 THE COMPRESSED poo OR EE, By William Wood, M.D. Ilustrated, ; $ , H SaLT AND FRESH-WATER Prius By E. S. Morse. m a hata: 21 ved SENSES OF SIGHT AND SMELL. By Hon. J. D. 28 E FAUNA OF MONTANA E te By J. G. Cooper, M. D. Dad from p. 600, Vol. ID, á 81, 73, 124 AN AFTERNOON IN Xrcataoon By William H. Dall, j 85 Tue ABORIGINAL MounD BUILDERS OF TENNESSEE. By Dr. Joseph Jones, THE Foss aero OF Kw JERSEY. y. Prof. E. p. Copa: (Concluded from Vol. I, p. 30.) With a plate, Insects INJURIOUS TO THE PoraTo. By Henry Shimer, M. D. Illustrated, : 3 91 NEW Sisia OF Hie FROM THE SUMM Wie ivite Mountains. By Prof. F. V. eiad Fiustratad, Í : . 113 Tue Sanp Martin. By Augustus Fowler. * » 116 THE WHITE-FOOTED OR DEER MOUSE. By Hot. i D. ‘Caton, : Do THe FLORA OF PALESTINE AND SYRIA. By Rev. George E. Post, IM- Tue FLOWERS OF EARLY SPRING. By. Rev. J. W. Chickering, jr., 128 Tue FRESH-WATER AQUARIUM. By C. B. Brigham, 131, 207, 373 di on TAXIDERMY. By Charles A. Walker. run I lira * 36, 189, 481 MN By William E. “Endicott. Hei: 4 * v s 169 Tue Mute Deer. By W. J. Hays. With a plate. i 180 THE NATURALIST IN CALIFORNIA. By J. G. Cooper, M. Bs : 182, 470 A "Fanm. By E. Dexter. lliwstrated, > o ew ^90 SEA-SIDE DuiNorseY rewer, M. D., : : 1 295 Notes o: GONAUT. By : 36 i . H. Dall, ON THE Phir HABITS OF CRUSTACEA. By Prof. A. E. Verrill. Illustrated, . . - * 239 IV CONTENTS OF VOL. III. THE HALIOTIS, OR PEARLY EAR-SHELL. sd Robert E. C. Stearns. Illustrated, 250 CHAPTER ON Cotia Tana By Lucie L. Hartt, Tileri, 257 SOMETHING ABOUT rtis By Rev. Samuel Lockwood, EE 261 SHELL DREDGING. . S. voee peas phi a ere 269 RAMBLES IN E piod E. C. Stearns 1, 349, 397, 455 MONSTROSITIES AMONG "agus. By A. Coolidge, M. = “Pies rated, i ; : 288 THE Cow Widens By T. Martin dude. 291 NOTES ON THE FAUNA OF THE UPPER Misscviir. By zi G. Cooper, M. D., è 294 THE Toca OF THE Vistos F THE Shes, AND OF THE CLovps. By Prof. G. Hinrichs. J. aed 299 ON THE PRESERVATION OF ÉwrOMOLOGIDAE Cist Sek Toin L. LeConte, M. D., 807 A TRUE Droit OF A PET a D. Ry Robert Ridgewex . " WHAT Is A Desmip? = Prof. Arthur Mead Edwards. With a plate, 313 SEA-SIDE insu Ann WHAT LIVED IN THEM. Ari Dr. Elliott Coues, U. S. A., : . 337 THE SAGE BRUSH. By W.W W. Bai EU. x 856 THE Drivers. By G. A. bees sg D. Iliustrate by a ; 360 A CHAPTER ON Mires. By Dr. A. S. Pa ackard, jr. Illustrated. With a plate, . š : : 864 Tue RED-TAILED Howe By Dr. William Wood; . . . : ; 898 THE SYLVA or MONTANA. By J. G. Cooper, M. D, . : : 405 THE GOLDEN-WINGED WOoODPECKER. By Augustus Fowler, : 499 NATURAL CARVINGS. By Prof. A. M. Edwards. With a plate, . 497 SPONGES. By Bryce M. Wright, jr. Illustrated, . 449 OTES ON SOME OF THE RARER BIRDS or Massacnuserts. By J. A. Allen, f 505, 568, 631 more FISHING IN THE in emu By Mos. d. Ly . 519 THE Ea ay fos. By Ass M. Bannister, 522 OUR COMMON FRESH-WATER SHELLS. By E. S. Morse Fee trated. e two plates, 530, 648 THE VrRGINIA PARTRIDGE. By ioonus Ponies... » A T 25 BAR Tun Great A AUK. By Prof. James Orton. Illustrated, 539 By Prof. A. M. Bdskw. With a plate, . i 561 THE LINGERING ADMIRERS OF E gies By Prof, Cleland; (From Popular Science Review.) . E 586 .THE CLAPPER RAIL. By Dr. Elliott Oa U. S. k ` ` 600 . Skates 'Ecas AND Younc. By F. W. Putnam. Illustrated, ~ ida, p.332. A Remarkable New jobs ack p. 332. The Swedish North Polar Expedition of 1868, p.332. Note on the “Blowing” of Whales, p. 333. The Mottled Owl again, p. 334. Parasites of Ascidians, p. 383. gu rador Duck, p. 388. Winter Birds of New York, p. 384. Preparation o irds' Eggs, p. 884. On Es Early ae bs aiti dios ca Sa p. 385. aeae (Pulex ds’ Eggs, p. 387. Hab- f Ea è D. its of Earth-worms, p. ra mG ae T. Asclepias pollen, p. 988. Another ble Egg, p. 389. The Kingfisher in Winter, p. 389. Externally and Internally Parasitic Acari, p. 389. Ornithological, p. 390. Regeneration of Li mbs, p. 390. The Maryland Marmot (Arctomys Gmel.), p. 390. The Salt Lake Ephydra, p. 391. The Spider and is ‘Mud-wasp, p.391. Variation of Bluebirds’ Eggs, p. 3891. A PistgtC rog .. Echinoderm, p. 495. NN Pn 497. Coral Snakes, CONTENTS OF VOL. III. vii p.497. The Black Vulture in Maine, p. 498. Does with Horns, p. 548. The Egg of the Great Auk (Alca ipsis y; p.550. The Cow Bunting, p. 550. The House Fly, p. 550. A Singing Mouse, p. 551. Natural Selection, a Purple Martin, p. 554. The Capture of Centronyx Bairdii at Ipswich, p. 554. Prolific Snakes, p. 555. The Haliotis or Pearly Ear Shell, p. 555. Cow Devouring the Placenta, p. 555. The Worm Eating Warbler, p. 556. h Verte . British Isles, p. 614. The Kingfisher’s Nest, p. 615. Spectrum of the Fire-fly, p. 615. Occurrence of an American Land Snail in England, p. 669. Answer to ** Zoologicus," p. 670. z GroLoGY. — Kjækkenmæddings in Iowa, p. 54. Rheumatism in Pre- historic times;'p . 55. Fossil Plants from Greenland, p. 55. The Earliest Plant, p. 55. Prehistoric Pictures of the Cave Horse in France, p. 109. The Plains of Kansas, p. 162. Fossil Jelly-fishes, p.279. New Species of Fossil Horse in Mexico, p. 392. The Eozoon in Essex County, p. 498. Fossil premor p. 616. Evidences of the Gulf Stream in High Lati- tudes, p. 6 Microscopy. — Ameeboid Movements in Eggs, p. 110. The Molecular Origin of Infusoria, p. 110. Chicago Microscopic Club, p. 111. A New E ipe of Preparing Specimens of Filamentous Algæ for the Microscope, . 164. Type-plate of Diatoms, p. 222. Method of Preserving Anim "Add for fine dissection, p. 498. MISCELLANEOUS. sete Library for sale, p. 503. Death of B. D. Walsh, p. 615. Museum of Comparative Zoology, p. 670. Professor Agassiz, p. 670. pest x Michael Sars, p. 670. PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. — Historical Society of Passaic, N. J., p. 56. American Association for the Advancement e Science, pp. 223, 835, 435, 499. The Worcester Lyceum and Natural History Associa- tion, p. vem Conchological Section, Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, p. 556. Chicago Academy of Sciences, p. 557. peo TO CORRESPONDENTS. — Pages 56, 111, 167, 223, 280, 336, 392, 448, 503, 560, 616, 672. Booxs Recetvep. — Pages 56, 112, 224, 336, 448, 504, 560, 616, 672. Con AND ERRATA. — Pages viii, 392, 448, 647. List oF PLATES AND CUTS, p. viii. List or CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME I, p. 673, fii Grossanr, p. 675, 676. INDEX, p. 677. viii ILLUSTRATIONS. LIST OF PLATES. Plate . Page P Page 1. Salt and fresh water Clams, eight . The Development of Insects, nine gures, . : 5 i : ; figures, 493 2. Fossil Reptiles of New Jersey, . 84| 9. nr Common Fresh Water Shells, The Mule-dee 180 wenty-two figures, . : . 530 4. [mes dredging s thirty three figures, 269 | 10. lect of an Exogenous and En- mids, n fig 323 dogenous Plant, two figures, . s Mites, aven -Érores: : $ * 36i 11. Our Commo n Fresh-water — . Polycistina, five figures, zc a MEI adque: figures 651 LIST OF WOOD-CUTS. No. Page ! No. Page 1. Pitcher Plant, 24445, A Cottle fish, 66. eo) > 391 2to4, Anatomy of the "Pitcher plant, 46. Front and side view of a aes three figures, . 15-16 iwo figures, 274 5. The Compressed Burbot, or Eel z to 49. Monstrosities of Trout, 989-290 Pout, 17 | 50 to 59. Lilies of the NEN Roc ks 6. Parasitic tb re in the brain of a and a uds, bird, six fi 42 | 60. The Driver Ant 361 T. ere cement lof Paraeitio Worms 61. eut Oe a Tick (Ixodes albipic- e brain of a bird, six figures, 42 tus), four figures, . 365 zT Tee. of a M Myriapod (Pauropus). 45 |62. A Mite (Nothrus ovivorus), . 866 to 22. Insects AMAN to T Po- 63. Sugar Mite, i * . 911 tato, twenty-four figures 99 | 64. Demodex foll 23 to 27. TAPAS. ; j . 103-104 | 65 to 71. Early stages 3 of Brachiopods 28. New species of Hare from the 72 to 75. Metamorphosis of Crabs, Wind River Mountain, '. 11376. A Sponge (Euplectella ERA 452 29 to 32. Figures illustrating "Taxider- - |77. Figure illustrating Taxidermy, . 484 my, twelve res, 138-144 | 78 to 82. Fresh water snells — to- 32 to 35. Case Worms, five figures, my of same 160-161|83. Great Auk (Alea impennis), . 541 Botaurus lentiginosus (a Biitern), 169 | 85 to 96. Skate's Esg and Develop: 37, 38. Figures illustrating ment of the Ska 7-630 Fi Aora% 97 wan: M amiar v r^ genera Plan 39, 40. lan of fish hatching grounds, 2. a, Physa, — — an- house v is, 41, 2. Paresiae Crustacea, 245-248 101. Textularian Shell KIA. x neon gi -— Animal of Bs a 102. Coccolith, : 08 Uv NEM , nara TO Vou HI, — Page 3, line 19, for “was” read “were.” Line 26, for “ be- Sica gg ua Page 32, line 4, from bottom, mark out the “?” after Seiurus pecia n e l4, for “N. W.” read “ Arizona.” Page 34, mark out ins 28, and ter te Word Oscines,” and substitute th ee ee is a magnificent singer in spring.” Page 35, line 10, after “Vireo olivaceus,” mark out iha CE a aiam onietim S Page 35, line 17, for “Y, gilvus ead FS sonii Baird.” Page 105, line 2, from bottom, for “RAYMOND” read * HAYMOND." Page Fresh-water P. “tiny” read “limy.” Piato 10 1s markod Piate 9 Dy mista, "D Gum IE AMERICAN NATURALIST. Vol. III. —MARCH, 1869, — No. 1. coc (9 de 9 exo SHELL-MONEY. BY R. E. C. STEARNS. To THE numismatist the love of money is not fraught with evil; his love is not the worship of Mammon or the miser’s greed, but rather the ardor of the philosopher or the enthusiasm of the naturalist; he glorifies his coins, not for their commercial value, but for their antiquity or historical associations. As he ponders over his collection, a panorama of past centuries unrolls before him; he sees a long proces- sion of great events, the rise and fall of nations and of men whose emblems and effigies, embossed upon their money, have outlived the national life. More eloquent than written history are these speechless coins. Though silent, they tell of epochs in the lives of the nations they represent, and of eras in the history of the human race. Notwithstanding the importance of money from an historical point of view, it is not probable that its invention was due to any other cause than commercial necessity ; although coins for money are the offspring of civilization, yet the conven- ience of some medium, less bulky and more durable than or- dinary merchandise, by which the differences occurring in transactions of trade or barter may be adjusted, has bdi recognized by barbarous tribes as well as by civilized people. Act of Congress, in the year 1869, the PEABODY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, in the Vie Cl Oloo of the Discs Court othe of Massachusetts. 1 » AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. (1) 2 SHELL-MONEY. The knowledge and use of peculiar narcotics and alcoholic beverages by portions of the human race, both civilized and barbarous, unacquainted with and widely separated from each other is a well-known fact. Analogous to this is the use of some form of money or a medium in trade by isolated and remote tribes. The earlier coins of ancient Rome appear rude and gro- tesque when placed side by side with the exquisitely wrought coins and medals of Napoleon the First. But what a degree of civilization and knowledge of the arts do they proclaim when compared with the barbarism of those wild tribes of Africa and America, whose utter ignorance of the arts has led them to use as a substitute for metallic money, the shells of the ocean ! Mr. J. K. Lord, naturalist to the British North American Boundary Commission, during the years 1858-62, mentions the use of shells as money by the natives of the North-west coast of America, as follows: “It is somewhat curious that these shells (Dentalia) should have been employed as money by the Indians of North-western America ; that is, by the native tribes inhabit- ing Vancouver's Island, Queen Charlotte’s Island and the main-land coast from the Straits of Fuca to Sitka. Since the introduction of blankets by the Hudson Bay Company . the use of these shells, as a medium of purchase, has to a great extent died out, the blankets having become the money, as it were, or the means by which everything is now | reckoned and paid for by the savage. A slave, a canoe or a squaw, is worth in these days so many blankets; but it used. to be so many strings of Dentalia." .— Mr. W. H. Dall, who has recently returned from Alaska, and whose opportunities for observation have been ample, informs me that the Dentalia are used by the native Alaskans, and that the furs purchased of the Indians by the fur com- panies, or their agents and traders, are still, at least in part SHELL-MONEY. 3 the facts that the larger European species of Dentalia are imported especially for this trade, and I have myself seen in the faney goods stores in San Francisco, strings of these shells displayed for sale with beads and other Indian goods. It is undoubtedly true, as stated by Mr. Lord, that the use of shell-money has, in a great measure, ceased at the points he mentions, as the increased number of white traders and visitors at the principal towns on the coast, as far north as Sitka, has somewhat familiarized the natives with the manners and customs of civilized people, which their natural shrewdness would lead them to adopt so far as it might be to their advantage. As proof of the "cuteness" of the "untutored savage" in this latter respect, it may be interesting to state that at or about the time of the purchase by and transfer to the United States of the territory of Russian America, attended as it was by the visit of a considerable number of adventurers and others at Sitka, the prices of venison and other game, was, in the language of traffic, so far “marked up” that gold or its equivalent, to the amount of one dollar a piece was charged for salmon, a most exorbitant price, not justitied by any greatly increased demand, or by any unusual scarcity of this wonderfully abundant fish in that country. In the year 1861, during a visit of a month's duration upon the coast of California, at Crescent City,in Del Norte County, I found that in barter between themselves, the Indians used for money the shells of Dentalium pretiosum Sowerby, a spe- cies that is found all along the North-west coast of America and which, either the shells or the shell-money, is called by the Indians, if I remember correctly, Alli-ko-cheek (orthography not warranted correct), and the longer the shells the greater the value, which was reckoned by measuring the shells by the joints. I am quite sure that the same species were used by the Indians who live in the Klamath River country in the next county to the south, and who get their name from the river, being known as the Klamath Indians. 4 SHELL-MONEY. Aside from the use of Dentalium pretiosum as money, I saw at Crescent City a medicine man belonging to some of the tribes of the neighborhood, who had perforated the griz- zly partition which separates the nostrils, and having thrust into the hole thus made two of these shells, point to point, one from each side, for half the length of the shells, per- fected this nasal ornamentation by thrusting the feathers of some wild fowl into each of the hollow shells, producing an effect somewhat resembling a mustache. At Bodiga, much farther to the south on the coast of Cali- fornia, and near the old Russian settlement in Sonoma County, a place visited by me in the month of June, 1867, I was informed by some of the residents that the Indians of that neighborhood, living, however, somewhat back from the coast, used pieces of the bivalve shell known as Saxido- mus gracilis* for money, but why they should use this shell instead of the lustrous and pearly Haliotis rufescens, which is fully as abundant, it is impossible to discover. e use of shells or pieces of shell by the aborigines of America, was well known and recorded years ago. By reference to the Massachusetts Historical Collections, it will be seen that the early settlers of New England found that shells, or strings of shells, were used by the Indians, r money and ornament, and were called by them Wompompeage or Wampum. ` The natives of some of the islands of the Indo-Pacific region use the shells of Litorina obesa, and they also make very pretty work by evenly fastening these shells to pieces of bark, which, when made, they use for personal ornament. In other of the islands, I have been informed that the banded variety of Nerita polita is used for the same purposes. Cyprea annulus is used by the Asiatic islanders to adorn their dress, to weight their fishing nets, and for barter. S mens of it were found py Layard in the ruins of Nim- roud.¢ o * Tapes gracilis Gould. — ¢ Woodward's Manual, second edition, p. 233 THE BOTANY OF CENTRAL ILLINOIS. 5 The money cowry, Cypræa moneta, a native of the Pacific and Eastern seas, is used as money in Hindostan and many parts of Africa. They are chiefly brought from the Mal- dives, and are an article of trade at Bombay. Many tons weight are annually imported to this country (Great Brit- ain), and again exported for barter with the native tribes of Western Africa. In the year 1848 sixty tons were imported into Liverpool, and in 1849 nearly three hundred tons were brought to the same port. * Reeve mentions in the second volume of the " Conchologia Systematica," that "a gentleman residing some time since at Cuttack, is said to have paid for the erection of his bungalow entirely in these cowries ( C. moneto). The building cost him about 4000 rupees sicca (£400 sterling), and as sixty-four of these shells are equivalent in value to one ‘pice,’ and sixty-four ‘pice’ to a rupee sicca, he paid for it with above sixteen millions of these shells.” It will be seen, therefore, that shells have been and are still used as money by a considerable portion of the human race, and it would be quite difficult to point out any other natural production that would be more appropriate or con- venient, when size, shape and substance, are considered. The money of the wild tribes of America, Africa and Asia, one may look for in vain in the drawers of the coin collector. It must be sought for in the museums of natural history, or the cabinets of the conchologist. THE BOTANY OF CENTRAL ILLINOIS. BY E. L. GREENE. Iw a region of extensive prairies, the monotonous uni- formity of the landscape affords none of the conditions for a flora rich in species. Although the soil of these vast * Datedia Thtntt fNat 1 History. n. 192. : J JE 6 THE BOTANY OF CENTRAL ILLINOIS. natural meadows is of almost unparalleled fertility, and its vegetation is always abundant and of luxuriant growth, the number of species is small. While many of the natural families of plants are wholly wanting, and other large ones but feebly represented, two or three elt the most part clothe the prairies. These are the Composite, the Cyperaces and the Graminee ; or, to use plain English, the compound flow- ers, the sedges and the grasses. Let us take a glance at our prairie herbal and notice some of the blanks. First, we find the whole order of the Ra- nunculacee represented only by Anemone Pensylvanica and A. cylindrica, if we except Ranunculus Purshii, an aquatic rarely found in ponds on low prairies. Of the pretty family of violets we find only Viola cucullata, and that only occa- sionally in the low moist places. Passing to the heath tribe (Ericaeæ), one of the most delightful natural orders in all our North American flora, we find not one growing on the prairies of Illinois. And even if we leave the prairie and search the woods and river bluffs ever so — we still find none. The Indian Pipestem (Monotropa uniflora) will be found rarely in low woods, and is the only species of the order which the writer has observed during two years of botanical research in this section of the country. There is another still more interesting family,the Orchids. Of these only three are found on the prairies, namely : the White-flowered Ladies’ Slipper (Cypripedium candidum), a Spiranthes of doubtful species, and the so-called Prairie Orchis (Platanthera leucophea). Why the last mentioned plant has received the popular name of Prairie Orchis we can- not conjecture, for it looks, when growing on the prairie, like a half starved and homesick foreigner to one who has seen its luxuriant growth by hundreds in the tamarack marshes of Wisconsin. “Well,” says some New England friend, “your Illinois prairie must be a rather dry field for a botanist in May or dude n sie ak M Urs UU RECO gi $ THE BOTANY OF CENTRAL ILLINOIS. 7 June. These families of plants which you have mentioned as nearly absent from your flora are the very ones which fur- nish our spring with all her glories.” And we must admit that the loss from our vernal list of the Kalmias, Azaleas, and less gorgeous but more lovely members of the same family is almost an irreparable one; nevertheless if our bo- tanical confrére of the East will favor us with a visit next spring we will gladly satisfy him that we are not without our share of vernal beauties. Although the composites are more especially the flowers of the prairie, and we are obliged to wait for the intense rays of the summer sun to call them forth, yet there are a few charming ones among them, the brilliant Phlox maculata, which is, as it deserves to be, a fre- quent tenant of the gardens at the East, also the pretty Hous- tonia purpurea, equally as long as its congener of the New England meadows, H. cerulea. But we shall not take our guest to the prairie for our first excursion. We shall prefer a visit to yonder belt of timber, which we see a few miles in the distance. There we shall doubtless find a running stream with shady bank, and beyond a tract of what is called in western parlance “bottom land,” which is simply an open plain, slightly elevated above the low banks of the stream, surrounded by and sometimes cov- ered with timber, and which has a flora different from that of the prairie. From the moment we enter the timber we find a profusion of flowers. Scattered over all the shaded slopes grows the graceful but odd looking Dicentra cucullaria. We say odd looking, because the shape of the flower is so remarkably similar to the outline of a common house fly. Nestling close beside some decaying log we may, perhaps, find Dicentra Canadensis with its pure white heart-shaped flowers, not less interesting than its more common sister species. Yonder we see an extensive patch of Mertensia Virginica, which with- its nodding clusters of richest blue presents a picture of sur- 8 THE CHIMNEY SWALLOW. Raising their heads above the foliage of that miniaturé grove of wild mandrakes are a few specimens of the Yellow Ladies' Slipper ( Cypripedium pubescens) , and below them in stature, but of superior beauty, we find the Showy Orchis (Orchis spectabilis). In the groves of the "river bottom" are to be found our New England violets and buttercups, and other species of the same genera which are peculiarly Western, and with them are Phloxes, Erythroniums and other plants equally worthy to be mentioned, but their names would occupy too much space. The elegant Collinsia verna must, however, not be omitted, nor the flaming Red-bud, which is now clothed only with its garlands of purple flowers, and rivals in its dazzling splendor some of ‘our choicest exotics. In August the prairies put on their gold and purple when the Rudbeckias, Helianthuses, Silphiums and other allied genera, appear in flower in about eighteen different species, all having purplish or purple disks and yellow rays. In con- trast with these, the purple Cone-flower, Echinacea, displays its long drooping purple rays, and more showy than these are the long purple racemes of several species of Liatris. Suc- ceeding these come the Asters and Eupatoriums of different hues, and the Solidagos or Golden-rods and kindred cómpos- ites of about twenty-five species. Finally in November the Geradias and Gentians close the season of botanizing on the prairies of Illinois. THE CHIMNEY SWALLOW. BY AUGUSTUS FOWLER. _ Tus bird arrives at the eastern part of Massachusetts usually between the twenty-fifth of May and the first of June, departing for the South in the latter part of August. Not arriving until the season has far advanced, it is, conse- quently, the last of the family of swallows to visit its breed- THE CHIMNEY SWALLOW. 9 ing place. After their arrival they visit some unoccupied chimney or hollow tree, which a great number use as a tem- porary residence during stormy weather, and to roost in. In this as it were aimless gathering-place, they do not long remain, but soon begin to select their companions, and at such times they may be seen high in the air, especially in the middle of an extremely warm day, chasing each other in circles upon extended wings, but without that quick vibrating motion they employ when in pursuit of their prey, uttering the while their peculiar notes; their choice of mates being made they commence building their nests. They are usually placed in a chimney, in which a number of pairs breed, for they colonize the same place to the number of three or four pairs, and sometimes to fifty pairs, more or less. The nest is constructed in a singular manner: it is made of small dry twigs, broken from some dead branch of a tree by the bird flying swiftly against it, and then carried to the spot and fastened to it with a strong viscid substance supplied by their large salivary glands. Each stick is laid near the other and some crosswise, and there glued by the bird until the nest is finished, which is done by spreading over the entire surface of it, as well as the sides of the wall to which it is attached, a coat of the same tenacious gum. It resembles a shelf, containing only a small cavity to receive the eggs, and lacks the soft lining that characterizes the nests of other species of swallows. In the month of May (1868) a chimney was taken down in the village called Putnamville, in Danvers. It was a large chimney connected with a shoe factory, that had not been used for four or five years. During the time of its disuse a large colony of chimney swallows occupied it to breed in. I had a good opportunity to examine their nests, to take their dimensions, etc., and not one of the many which I saw (and the number of nests were upwards of two hundred) were “lined with a few feathers and straws.” Although their visit is short, they raise two broods in the AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. III. 2 10 THE CHIMNEY SWALLOW. season. The first nest being built, the female lays usually four pure white eggs, which measure thirteen-sixteenths of an inch in length, by seven-sixteenths of an inch in breadth, and is assisted by the male in the process of incubation. A few days after the young appear, the male takes them in charge, while the female builds again, as she is seen in the last of June obtaining materials to build or to repair another nest, and thus we see young birds in the same chimney of a different size and age; it therefore requires all the energies of the parent birds to supply their offspring with a suffi- ciency of food, and claims their labor through the day and a greater part of the night. Some species of the family of finches conduct their family affairs in like manner. Mr. Audubon, in speaking of the habits of the song-spar- row, remarks: “among the many wonders unveiled to us by the study of nature, there is one which long known to me, is not the less a marvel at the present moment. I have never been able to conceive why a bird which produces more than one brood in a season, should abandon its first nest to con- struct a new one, as is the case of the present species ; while other birds, such as the osprey and various species of swal- lows, rear many broods in the flrst nest which they have made, which they return to after their long annual migra- tions, repair and render fit for the habitation of the young brood to be produced.” “There is another fact which ren- ders the question still more difficult to be solved. I have generally found the nests of these sparrows cleaner and more perfect after the brood raised in them have made their de- parture, than the nests of other vigi of bizdi mentioned above, are on such occasions, —a ¢ stance render it unnecessary for the SAVMBONENIA to Minis its nest." The first nest of the sparrow is oceupied by the first inecli and are tended by the male, while the female sparrow has built a second nest and is setting, and by the time the first brood is cast off by him, to care for themselves, he finds THE CHIMNEY SWALLOW. 11 another brood ready for his care; thus all the season is occu- pied by them in building nests, in incubation, and in rearing their young, until the moulting season arrives, which is about the twrenty-fifth of August. The pigeon family breed in a similar manner, except that the young are fed from the crop of the male, and it is truly a greater wonder in nature, that there should exist a sympathy between the male pigeon and his offspring, and that at their appearance his crop should undergo so great a change. The rapacious birds return annually to their old nests, and by repairing them, make them suitable receptacles for their eggs. There is an unfitness in the structure of birds of prey hid makes it inconvenient for them to build a nest with the facility of some other families of birds. The white-headed eagle selects some dead branch of a tree, and by hooking her bill on it, with her weight breaks it off. In its descent, she swoops and grasping it with her claws carries it away to make her nest; she pounces upon bunches of hay, sods of earth or any heap of rubbish, and carries it to the already accumulated heap of such substances. There is no artistic skill displayed ‘in its construction; the top of it is merely a horizontal plane, with a shallow cavity to receive her eggs. Some families in this order of birds build better nests, but they show the same unhandy and awkward way in doing it, and there are some species of other families in this order which build no nest. There are other birds, also, such as the swallows, whose forms are ill-adapted for good nest builders; with small feet and short weak legs it is toilsome for them to gather mate- rial for a nest from off the ground. Now observe all those birds whose structure is similar to that of the swallow family. Not one species of the family Caprimulgide builds a nest. The whippoorwill lays her eggs on the ground in the woods: the night-hawk on the naked rock, or the bare ground in open pastures. Look at the belted kingfisher, whose form is similar to the above mentioned birds; how ill-adapted he is to gather materials from the ground to form a nest. Al- 12 THE CHIMNEY SWALLOW. though a bird of strong pinion, yet deprive him of the use of his wings, and place him on the land, and he is almost helpless. In the different species of the Picide, or Woodpecker family, are as many instances that the structure of birds de- termine whether those of certain forms build a nest or not, and if they do, they return to it annually to render it fit for a home for themselves and family during the breeding season. It is a tedious task for the chimney swallow to procure the material for its nest; it requires energy, skill and strength to perform the work. Flying with force, they grasp the point of the twig with their bill, and often try several times before they succeed in breaking it off. The female visits her former breeding place, and examines her nest; if it needs repairs, she adds more twigs and gum to it, and it is all right again. Thirty years ago this species of swallow was rarely found breeding in Essex County; now many pairs breed in almost every village where they find an unoccupied chimney. The Chimney Swallow (Cypselus pelasgius) does not pos- sess the easy and graceful motion when on the wing that is shown by the Barn Swallow (Hirundo rustica) in his flight, but moving more swiftly and vigorously, they must destroy an innumerable number of insects in a season. It not unfre- — quently happens that their nest is dislodged from its place, and falls in consequence of rain or damp weather. When | such accidents happen, the whole brood is precipitated to the bottom of the chimney. If its members are of sufficient age 1 and strength, they will climb up again and remain clinging to its sides, until fledged and able to care for themselves. There are occurrences happening to them which are of greater moment. Sometimes having selected a flue in the 1 PHP aed leading to the bedroom, and having there brought orth their numerous young, and their cares — sat aee so as to require their labors in the night, the rushing whirring noise of their flight as they pass up and as: THE STRUCTURE OF THE PITCHER PLANT. 13 down the flue may so disturb the nervous sleeper that he is determined to be rid of such an annoyance; he accordingly prepares in the habitation of these birds a fire of straw ; the parents of the unfledged young flee in dismay, and rise above their smoking tenement and wheel about in terror, then dive down near its top as though they would rescue their suffo- cating brood from a death so awful. At last their courage gone they turn and soar away above the scene, while their young drop one by one in the fire below, and the parental feelings of the old birds induce them to linger about their desolate home for many days. To obviate this inhuman practice, a board placed on the top of the chimney before they commence breeding is all that is necessary. THE STRUCTURE OF THE PITCHER PLANT. BY J. G. HUNT, M.D. re * High among the mountains, Nepenthe's pitchers weep. Asnour twenty species of the genus Nepenthes are known to botanists, and while some are natives of swamps in Africa and China, most of the species are found on Mount Kinau Ballou, in the Island of Borneo, growing at an eleva- tion of from three to eight thousand facts above the sea. The species whose minute anatomy we partially describe, is the Nepenthes distillatoria, found growing in China and at the Cape of Good Hope. This plant often attains the length of ten or twelve feet, generally lying prostrate, or partially supported by other plants. It bathes its roots in the hot swamps near the coast, but cannot lift its flowers very high in the sunshine, because its branching stem which bears many long and partly clasping leaves, and also its precious 14 THE STRUCTURE OF THE PITCHER PLANT. burthen of watercups, is too feeble to support the weight. Seldom does the stem exceed two inches in diameter, Meist d long and flexible like a rope. : Now, as all readers of the Narv- RALIST may not be botanists, we will | state that the plants in question bear i on the ends of their leaves peculiar = appendages not unlike pitchers in form, and hence they are commonly known as pitcher-plants. Like the pitchers we use for domestic pur- poses, they are often colored with many gorgeous tints, and fashioned into graceful shapes, often with a capacity to hold more than a quart of liquid. As nature is seldom out- done by art, these forest cups have __ the ability to fill themselves, thus differing in an important respect from the pitchers we use. E For a long time it has been a question where this liquid came - from, and our knowledge of the © subject is still too limited to say - from what part of the plant it is — poured out, though 7 is probable . Fig. 1. cide this question, certainly, would require close observation on the liv- ing pitchers, and that would be very . difficult, bond in their early stages of growth they are tightly closed by the curious lids at the top, and in the young . state excretion is most rapid and copious. Fig. 1 is an accurate drawing made (half size) from a pitcher that had ee ee show . THE STRUCTURE OF THE PITCHER PLANT. 15 its venation, and the position of both sets of glands. Minute dots, commencing at the bottom and extending to high-water mark,* represent the position and number of one series of Fig.2. glands, all on the inside of the Z pitcher. The under side of the lid also is covered with similar glands, having among them, how- ever, numerous stomata. Fig. 2 shows a camera lucida drawing (magnified eighty diam- f OU TV eters) of these glands, also ren- dnd iut piti so that their anatomy may be seen at óne view. They are depressed below the inner surface of the pitcher, and have, extending over nearly half the diameter of each, a projection of the epider- Fig. 3. mis like many little roofs, so that a stream of water poured in at the top would reach the bottom of the pitcher without touching a gland. The fine reticulation marking the surface of each, is caused by the ends of long columnar cells making up the gland structure, and these columnar cells rest on others of larger size, shown in the drawing. All the parts just described are best seen by a perpendicular section (Fig. 3, magnified one hundred and sixty diameters), and it may also be ob- served that each gland lies imme- diately over large isolated and spiral cells, which have no vascular connection with the ordinary spiral structure of the plant. In.a description, without illustrations, of this series of glands, published in the "Edinburgh New Philosophical *Crgssing the middle of the pitcher; the dots are omitted in the figure. 16 THE STRUCTURE OF THE PITCHER PLANT. Journal" for 1832 and 1833, by Treviranus, he says the cuticle does not cover the glandular surface ; it is, however, very easy to demonstrate that it is reflected down over each gland, and whatever liquid is excreted must filter through this cuticular covering before it falls into the pitcher. By referring again to Fig. 1, it will be seen that a thick- ened margin or frill surrounds nearly the entire top of the pitcher. Now, embedded in this fleshy frill, lie many elon- gated, cylindrical glands, like guns on a fortification, all opening on its inner side by minute ducts which lead up to Fig. 4. the glands. The size of these very peculiar organs varies, as shown in Fig. 4 (magnified eighty diameters), and some- times they are united at the ends, though this can be re- garded only as a curious malfor- mation. The drawing shows the union of the ducts with each gland, and also their cellular structure, better than many side view of one of these glands, we see it is somewhat erescentic in shape; the orifice of the duct is apparent, and also the position of the gland with respect to the epidermis which covers the frill. This second series of organs lies embedded in a tissue, made up chiefly of large, isolated, spiral cells, developed to a degree not found probably in any other plant. Treviranus seems not to have been aware of these upper glands in Nepenthes, nor have we seen them noticed by any authority before. In describing the structures alluded to in this paper, we have used the term gland for want of a better one, but we do not therefore assume any speciality of function. This is a point about which we are ignorant. The structure of an organ will not enable us to predict its function, though it THE COMPRESSED BURBOT OR EEL-POUT. 17 may afford rational ground for guess-work. Will not some one having the opportunity make observations on these sin- gular organs in the living plant, in order to settle their func- tion? We know not anywhere else in the vegetable kingdom organs more apparently set apart for a special purpose, and yet we are in doubt about their meaning. Our native Sarracenia growing abundantly in swamps. with its cups, often the graves of drowned flies, is also called a pitcher plant, but differs widely in structure and habit from the Nepenthes. We allude to it now only to express our intention, if opportunity should offer, to illustrate its singu- lar structure, as well as that of others of these remarkable plants, which nature. seems to have appointed to set their traps among the swamps, but for what purpose, perhaps, we are not ready to explain. We have been assisted in illustrating this paper by Miss Mary Peart and Miss Emma Walter, and the drawings were made from specimens in our possession. THE COMPRESSED BURBOT OR EEL-POUT.* BY WILLIAM WOOD, M. D. Or the genus Lota, there are several species. The Eng- lish Burbolt (Burbot), as described by Yarrell in his work on British fishes, and by Couch, belongs to this genus, yet prob- ably is a different species from any in our lakes and rivers. Couch says, “the Burbolt (Burbot) is the only one of the extensive family of the codfishes which has its residence in fresh water, where it is distinguished by exhibiting some of pe * Lota compressa Lesueur, AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. III. 3 18 THE COMPRESSED BURBOT OR EEL-POUT. the manners of the eel, by which it ae obtained the name of the eel-pout.” ` In this country, according to DeKay, we have three spe- cies: the Plain Burbot (Lota inornata) which is rare, the Spotted Burbot (Zota maculosa) which is abundant in our lakes, and the Compressed Burbot (Lota compressa) which is very rare.* DeKay, when he published the Fauna of New York, in the Natural History of that State, says, “the only two specimens described are from the Connecticut River and its tributaries. I know it only through the descriptions of Lesueur and Storer.” This species was first described by Lesueur from a speci- men taken at Northampton, Mass. The second description was by Dr. D. Humphreys Storer, of Boston, from a speci- men taken in the Ashuelot River. In his report on the Fishes of Massachusetts, page 134, published in 1839, he says, “the only specimen I have been able to see was sent me from Keene, N. H., taken in the Ashuelot River.” In the Catalogue of the Fishes of Connecticut, by Rev. James H. Lindsley, in the American Journal of Science and Arts (Vol. 47, page 71) he says, "I obtained a fine specimen (Lota com- pressa), taken a few years since in New Canaan, Conn.” In Dr. Storer’s article on the fishes of Massachusetts, published in the Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sci- ences (new series, Vol. 6, part second, page 360, published in 1858) he says, “the one from which this description was taken, was brought from the Connecticut River by Thomas M. Brewer, M. D., of Boston." If Dr. Storer refers to two specimens in his reports of 1839 and 1858, we have four. specimens described; if to but one, only three specimens have ever been described so far as I can learn. "The specimen which I have before me was taken in Scantic _ *all | these ' species haro been considered by Pr: €Ó— in his Catalogue of Fishes with the European Burbot. Lota maculata an L. inornata are undoubtedly synonyms, but until farther comparisons ia iada d are inclined, with with Dr. Wood, to leave L. compressa as a distinct (scien, nnd. Miet to. question, ihe uniting of the European and American mpecies = THE COMPRESSED BURBOT OR EEL-POUT. 19 River, a tributary of the Connecticut, about four miles from East Windsor Hill, May 22, 1868, and was brought to me in a tub of water, which gave me a good opportunity to examine it in its natural state. There was one taken in the Farming- ton River, some six miles from this place, in an eel-pot a few years since, and was kept alive for several weeks. The description given by Dr. Storer, in the two reports referred to, is so full that but little which is new can be added. The length of those described by Lesueur and Storer, were six and eight inches; by Lindsley, eleven and a quarter inches. The one before me is eleven inches long. Color.—The back and sides are yellowish brown, with irregular patches of a darker color, marked somewhat like our pickerel, only a shade darker; the gill covers and snout are dark brown, the belly is of a light color in place of the yel- lowish on the sides; the first dorsal fin is lighter than the body ; the second dorsal and caudal fins are dark at the base, yellowish in the middle, with the edge margined with black or dark brown; the anal fin is siiil marked, though a little lighter ; the black margin is not as wide as on the dorsal. Description. —'The body is shaped very much like an eel, being cylindrical; the abdomen rather more prominent than in'the eel. The head measures one and three-quarter inches in length and is compressed above. The sides begin to be compressed at the tip of the pectorals, and continue to be more so until it terminates in the caudal fin, which appears like a membranous continuation of the body; the tail fin is fan shaped, and measures one and a half inches in length at its longest point. The first dorsal is quite small, and is two inches from the head. The second dorsal is situated a quarter of an inch back of the first dorsal, and terminates at the base of the tail, and is rounded at its posterior extrem- ity. The anal fin commences an eighth of an inch lower down than the dorsal, and terminates in the same manner. The ventral fins measure seven-eighths of an inch in length, and are composed of two free rays, one ray measuring five- 20 THE COMPRESSED BURBOT OR EEL-POUT. eighths, the other one-fourth of an inch. ‘These free rays are used by the fish as feelers, in the same way as the barbel on the chin. The pectoral fins measure one and an eighth inches in length, and have one very minute free ray. On the chin is one barbel half an inch in length. The nostrils are double; from the back of the anterior nostril is a minute barbel. The eyes are circular, and three-quarters of an inch apart. Both upper and lower jaws are armed with minute teeth. The whole surface is covered with exceedingly small eup-shaped scales, which are not plainly visible except by the aid of a magnifying glass. In the description given by Lesueur, Storer, Lindsley and DeKay, no mention is made of the free rays of the ven- tral fins. They are as distinct and noticeable as the barbel on the chin, and more so when swimming. It is thought by some that Lota compressa and Lota macu- losa are identical. I am not sufficiently versed in ichthyol- ogy to be a dictator or judge in the matter, yet the habits and dimensions of the two are so dissimilar as to lead me to suppose that they are two distinct species. The Lota macu- losa is two feet in length at maturity. The largest Lota com- pressa ever known was the one described hy Lindsley, — eleven and a quarter inches. The Lota compressa probably visits the salt water, as it is taken in ascending the Connec- ticut or its tributaries in the spring of the year, in company with fish from the salt water ascending to spawn. So few have been taken that it may not be wise to be positive in this assertion, yet I have no doubt, in my own mind, that it is a fact. Four have been taken to my knowledge within six miles of my office, within a few years, and all have been taken in the spring. Three of them were taken in company with the Lamprey eel (Petromyzon Americanus), in pots set for them, and the fourth (the one in my possession) was caught in a fine net with a promiseuous collection of fish. The Spotted Berbat, on the contrary, lives exclusively in fresh water. SALT AND FRESH-WATER CLAMS. 21° As I have called the attention of the fishermen in this vicinity to the rarity of this fish, I shall probably get speci- mens that would otherwise have been thrown away, and hope to gain farther information respecting this uncommon species. SALT AND FRESH-WATER CLAMS. : BY EDWARD S. MORSE. WE choose these two animals for description since they are accessible to all. The inland student may rake from the pond or river the fresh-water clam, or mussel, in quantities, while the sea-side student has only to step into the market and order the salt-water clam by the bushel. In presenting such descriptions for study, it is always best to cite as examples those forms which are most abundant, so that whatever statements are made can be quickly verified by an examination of the object described. A general knowledge once attained of the common animals, prepares one to enter farther into the study of zoólogy. and enables him, through the facts already garnered, to use his informa- tion in the proseeution of new investigations. We commence, then, with the description of an animal, about which little has been said except in books professedly scientific; an animal, however, long and well known from the cheap and excellent food it affords, and from its no less importance in providing bait for our fishing fleets. That the daintiness of the clam for food was known to the aborigines of this country, is well attested by the huge piles of broken clam shells scattered along our eastern coast, and now buried beneath a foot or more of soil. Mingled with these piles the arehzologist reaps a rich harvest of In- dian relics, such as implements made of bone, fragments of pottery, ete.* These are the only evidences of by-gone -*In the NATURALIST, Vol. I, p. 561, Prof. J. hd rg describes the contents of some of these beds, with illustrations of the various relics 22 SALT AND FRESH-WATER CLAMS. tribes which have left their records in the remains of their feasts. 4 From an old book published in London in 1636, entitled "New England's Prospect," etc., it would appear that the squaw performed the hard work then, as now, and that, 1 unimpeded with trailing skirt, she waded over the mud-flats | in search of clams for her indolent master. From this book we make the following extract, more quaint than elegant, describing the “kinds of shell-fish.” “The luscious lobster, with the crab-fish raw, e brinnish oyster, mussel, perriwigge, Whereby her lazy husband's guts she cramms.” The shells also came in good use as table utensils, and from a work published about the year 1676, entitled "New England's Crisis," by Benjamin Thomson, the prologue com- mences thus: “The times wherein Old Pompion was a saint, When men fared hardly, yet without complaint, On vilest cates, the dainty Indian maize Was eat with clamp shells out of wooden trays.” Thus much for its historical interest ; and now let us at once enter into an examination of the animal itself. A clam, as we find it in the market, does not certainly. present a — very inviting appearance. The two bluish white shells hold within an unintelligible yellowish mass, while projecting ; from one end is a wrinkled blackish lump, that upon being irritated withdraws within the shell, throwing out at the same time a stream of water, the shells meanwhile shutting together tightly. To appreciate the natural appearance of the animal, we must place it in its natural element — the sea- water. Be sure and get a dish long enough for its first stretch. A shallow pan twelve or fifteen inches in length will be sufficient. Having filled the pan with fresh sea- water and immersed our clam in it, we wait patiently, or leave it for a while, perhaps half a day; but finally the 5 w SALT AND FRESH-WATER CLAMS. 23 blackened tube, improperly called the “head,” gradually pro- trudes beyond the margins of the shell. Slowly extending, it attains the length of three or four inches, and now we notice that this organ has two openings at the end, beautifully fringed with appendages like little feelers, and mottled with the richest brown. And this tube, then, is really a double tube leading to the body of the clam. Notice carefully the opening and you will see a current of water pouring in at one of them, and as steadily flowing out of the other. These currents are produced by the tremulous motion of innumer- able minute hairs, or cilia, which line the interior of the animal. The clam has no power to seek its food, being confined to its burrow in the sand or mud. Its food consists of minute particles of organic matter floating in the water, and thus it is through the medium of the ingoing current of water, that nourishment is carried to it. While the water conveys food to the mouth, it is also charged with oxygen to revivify the blood; for the clam has blood, and a heart, and vessels to circulate it. What admirable uses do we see already in the so-called head of the clam. Lying buried as it is to a con- siderable depth in the mud, these tubes are thrust to the surface to conduct the pure water laden with nourishment for the stomach and gills. The water, as it passes out through the other tube, carries with it all excrementitious matter and other waste from the body. : In the “Annals and Magazine of Natural History,” Messrs. Alder and Hancock describe the appearance of these cur- rents. From their account we extract the following: “We lately have had an opportunity of observing Mya arenaria in its native haunts, and watched the play of its siphonal cur- . rents under very favorable circumstances. This species, at the mouth of the Tyne, buries itself to a depth of six or eight inches in a stiffish clay, mixed with shingle; and in shallow pools left by the tide the tubes may be seen just level with the surface of the muddy bottom in full action. " i 24 SALT AND FRESH-WATER CLAMS. The mud lies closely packed against the walls of the tubes, so that nothing is seen but the expanded lips of the siphonal orifices fringed with numerous tentacles. When it happens that the surface of the water is only a little above these ori- fices, a strong current can be distinctly seen to boil up from the anal siphon, and another, with a constant steady flow, to set into the branchial one.” 1 On plate 1, fig. 2, is represented a clam in its natural position in the mud, showing the extent to which the tubes, or siphons, can be extended; and in Fig. 1 a clam is repre- sented with one of the shells —the left shell—removed. As we remove the shell, we are forced to separate two muscles which hold the shells, or valves, as they are called, together. The valves are forced apart by an elastic substance that oc- cupies the little tongue-shaped tooth of the shell near the hinge, and in order to keep the valve together, the clam has to exert a constant force by contracting the muscles. The moment the muscles relax, the elastie substance forces the valves apart, acting as a piece of India-rubber would act if placed within the hinge of a door, and the door closed against it. Fig. 4, plate 1, represents a section of the valves of a clam, showing the elastic substance, L, and the transverse muscle, M. Having opened the clam, we find lining the shells within a thin membrane called the mantle. Its border which fol- lows the edges of the shell, is thickened and united, except a small slit through which the so-called foot projects. This organ has the power of excavating a hole in the mud. Ac- cording to one writer, it assumes a variety of shapes while digging: “now a dibble or spade, a trepan or pointed grav- ing tool, a hook, a sharp wedge.” . The abdomen occupies the centre line of the body, and forms the principal edible portion of the clam. It contains the ovary and liver, —the liver being recognized by its dark color. (For the different parts see plate 1, and explanation | of the plate.) The mouth of the clam is directly under the - SALT AND FRESH-WATER CLAMS. 25 forward transverse muscle. It will be seen by the position of the mouth, that the so-called head of the clam is not the head at all. One may call it the tail with more propriety, though it is simply two tubes united together, projecting from behind for the purposes before mentioned. On each side of the mouth are a pair of lappets or palpi; these prob- ably assist in directing the minute currents of food into the mouth. The mouth opens almost directly into an irregularly shaped stomach. The intestine, after several turns in the abdomen, passes along the back, going directly through the heart, and terminates above the posterior muscle. Fig. 7, plate 1, represents the heart as seen from above. This con- sists of a ventricle (v) and two aurieles (A), one on each side, which takes the blood from the gills. The gills are two in number, and hang from below the back, on each side of the abdomen. The thickened portion of the base of the tubes, commonly called the shoulder, are muscles to draw in the tubes. Space will not allow us to enter farther into the anatomy of the clam. We may add, however, that nearly all bivalves are organized in a similar way. We give a transverse section of a fresh-water mussel to show the vari- ous organs. (See the plate and explanation.) The clam is used for food in Europe, Asia and America. Jeffrey says, “it forms one of the numerous articles of Chinese diet, being brought to market after having been boiled for a long time, and cooked with a seasoning of which onions are a base. The people call it Tsega.” Fabricius states that in Greenland the clam is eaten by the walrus, Arctic fox, and birds. In the fresh-water clam, instead of two long tubes covered by one sheath as in the sea-clam, we have two short tubes, one only being separate, the other merging into the mantle, which is open throughout; though by reference to the plate it will be seen that the tubes bear a general resemblance to those of the sea-clam. In the fresh-water clam the elastic substance opening the shells is outside, and pulls them apart when the AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. III. 4 26 SALT AND FRESH-WATER CLAMS. muscles relax (Pl. 1, fig: 5). While the sea-clam lies buried in the mud, head downward, with but little power of loco- motion, the fresh-water clam has the faculty of moving through the mud or sand in which it lies partially embedded. Fig. 6, plate 1, represents the natural attitude of the Unio, or fresh-water clam. It will be seen that the tubes are above the level of the sand. The foot is very large, and with it the Unio is enabled to move along slowly, the shell wedging its way through the sand, leaving a groove or fur- row along the river bottom, and often the collector takes advantage of these tracks in finding them. But little is known regarding the development of the sea- clam, or Mya, as it is technically termed, but it is similar to ` that of the Unio. In these the eggs issue from the ovaries, and find their way into the cavities of the outer gills. "There they develop until they are furnished with a little triangular shell, large enough to be recognized by the unassisted eye. At this stage they are discharged by thousands into the 1 water, and are left to take care of themselves. It has been ascertained that they attach themselves by a little thread to the river bottom, thus preventing them from being swept away, though it is probable that not one in a hundred ever reaches maturity, as fishes and other aquatic animals feed upon them. Fig. 8, plate 1, represents the shell of the young Unio. Many of the common fresh-water clams produce pearls, [ though the black mussel, with a white pearly interior, often- times produces pearls of considerable clearness. These pearls getting in between the mantle and shell.. This irritates the -animal, and this irritation causes the animal to deposit upon the partiele layer after layer of pearl. In China, the natives taking advantage of their knowledge of the way in which pearls are formed, have shown their ingenuity by making flat lead castings of their little idols. These they insert in a species of fresh-water clam, by first wedging the shells - a aa a a ig a Liesl z American Naturalist. Vol. HL PL. L Fig. 1. if : i SV i. iN iub m o — t, HAMM III | AGNES j W r ge A ea MM | ] | l i SIBI ETHER mu SALT AND FRESH-WATER CLAMS. zt apart, and then slipping the idols in between the mantle and the shell. After a lapse of time they collect the shells and open them, and adhering to the interior of the shells they find the little lead images coated with a layer of pearl; these are neatly cut out from the shell, and are worn as charms. It is a matter of wonder that some enterprising Yankee has not had recourse to this, as a novel mode in getting up shirt studs and sleeve buttons. All these shells increase in size by depositing lime around the margin of the shells, and the concentric lines upon the outside of these shells indicate successive periods of growth and repose. For additional information regarding another species of bivalve, the salt-water mussel, the reader is referred to Vol. II, p. 243, of this Magazine. EXPLANATION OF PLATE I. Fig. 1. preme. Mya arenaria, with the left valve removed. m, heart, Z5 ntestine; G, gills; P, palpi; M, mouth; AN, anterior trans- verse muscle, a anterior adductor. Po, posterior adductor; F, pening in the mantle for foot; v, vent. O, hi re Muros the clam with its back uppermost, and the anterior end turned to the left. Fig. 2. gus in its natural position in the mud, head downward, the tubes extended to the surface of the mud. F, foot; v, ventricle; a, auricle; G, gills; antle; s, shell Fig. 4. Transverse section of — showing ew position of the spring to shell. M, muscle; L, ligam Fig. 5. Tini section of Tato, showing ie postion of the spring to , muscle; L, ligamen Fig. 6. Fresh-water clam, Unio complanatus, in its dii position, crawl- ing. The anterior end is depressed, and the foot is seen thrust out Fig. 7. Heart of clam seen from above. v,ventricle; aa, auricle; G G, line ills of gills. Fig. 8. Young of Unio. THE SENSES OF SIGHT AND SMELL OF THE WILD TURKEY AND THE COMMON DEER. BY J. D. CATON. Ir is claimed for the wild turkey that it has the quickest 4 and most accurate sight of any known animal. It is a say- ing among old hunters that it can detect the human eye looking through a knot-hole from the inside of a hollow tree. I once observed an incident illustrative of its remark- — : able power of sight, and tending to show that its apprehen- * E sion of scent is correspondingly dull. In December, 1847, I was hunting deer on the Vermilion 1 River, and had been following one from daylight till three o'elock in the afternoon, over the breaks and bluffs of the - Vermilion River, through six inches of dry hard snow, ~ almost as difficult to walk in as dry corn-meal. When near | the foot of the bluff, not far below the mouth of Deer Park, some distance off, I saw a flock of wild turkeys crossing the — river on the ice, and coming directly towards me. My am- | bition immediately fell from a deer to a turkey. I concealed . myself in a very dense thicket of underbrush, and soon heard — the turkeys approaching with that contented quit, quit, in — which they frequently give expression to a happy sense of se- curity. My pointer, which was as good at following a deer as a grouse, stood at my feet without moving a muscle, though his eyes shone like balls of fire when he scented the turkeys and heard them pass by. They passed, I should judge by — . the noise, not more than fifty or sixty feet from me, with- - out taking the least alarm. About fifty yards distant there — was a bare spot of considerable extent, near the brow of the bluff to which their course would evidently take them, where Il promised myself a sure shot. I rested my gun against a small tree that I ie: make no perceptible motion before — (28) VUES THE SENSES OF SIGHT AND SMELL. 29 firing. All but my head and arms was concealed by the bushes, even from the elevated position where I expected they would come in sight, and from an observation on a level with myself I was entirely concealed. I thus stood, anx- iously listening to the birds, and so was enabled to notice | their progress, and thus determine at what moment to expect their appearance in the open space. The first that appeared was the head and neck of the old cock that led the flock. It seemed as if he raised his head for the express purpose of looking at me, for the instant his head appeared he stared fixedly towards me, and gave the loud quick note of alarm. In a second or two he took wing, followed by the rest of the flock. I still think he was in a little doubt, else he would not have remained an instant after seeing me, and when he did fly, instead of going directly away, he passed near enough over me to satisfy his doubts. The eyes of the turkey are so situated as to embrace within the range of vision a very large field. Here we see the sight was very quick if not absolutely certain. Although they had passed very near us, the sense of smell had given them no intimation of our presence. While I stood there, my gun still resting against the tree, deeply chagrined at what I supposed the last chance for game that day, for I was too much fatigued to track farther, I heard the brush crack, and in an instant the largest buck with the largest horns I ever saw, stopped not more than thirty or forty feet from me. While I could distinctly make out his form,the bushes were too thick to allow the hope that I could reach him with a bullet. My only chance was to wait till he should pursue his course, which would bring him through a short space where the bushes were lower, and I might get a shot on the bound when his body would be above them. He stared at me some seconds, as if something told him of danger; but at length he seemed to become re- assured, and bounded along in his original course as if he was in somewhat of a hurry, but not in manifest alarm. As 30 THE SENSES OF SIGHT AND SMELL. I anticipated, on his third or fourth bound he gave me a chance, and I fired as he was descending. His heels flew -into the air with a snap as if his hoofs would fly off, and he ‘fell all in a heap. There was something in the size of the deer and of his horns, the way in which his hind legs, as quick as lightening, stretched almost perpendicularly in the air, and the mode of his falling, which produced a thrill of delight which I have never before or since experienced. I reloaded as quickly as possible and approached the spot 3 where he fell. The first sight told what was the matter. He a 4 had raised himself on his forefeet, and was looking fiercely — around for an enemy, every hair on his shoulders and neck 5 | ^ standing forward, and his eyes glaring with the ferocity of a " demon. All behind his shoulders appeared quite inanimate — and as wilted as a rag. His backbone was severed just * - behind his shoulders. It took another shot in the head to — - induce him to let me bleed him. By the time this was done, — a little old man, with a rifle on his shoulder, made his way d 1 through the bushes to where I stood, and looked at my trophy in a most disconsolate way. At length he remarked, — without taking the least notice of my salutation, “Well, you have got him.” To this manifest truth I assented, and asked him to help slue the deer around that he might bleed the better, as he was rather heavy for one to handle. "Excuse me," said he, "I have been following that rascal ever since daylight. I am a good way from home with no time to spare;" and away he hurried before I had time to offer to divide the venison with him. Probably that is not the only instance in which one has lost a supper by.being in too great haste. See ee eT aN Te ee ag Eee ee Oe ee Y ERN : USC E E AE CE RS Although the deer had his attention arrested by the scent, . and in full view of my entire form, and of the dog standing at my feet, yet from not seeing the least motion, he could not make us out. w THE FAUNA OF MONTANA TERRITORY. BY J. G. COOPER, M. D. (Continued from page 600, Vol. II.) II. BIRDS. RicHuanpsow's Pewee ( Contopus Richardsonii). Frycatcners (Empidonax pusillus, obscurus, and mini- mus). These being the species found at Fort Bridges, I Suppose one or more of them to have been among the small flycatchers I saw in the mountains. They were exvaedingly shy, and though I shot one or two I did not find them, as they fell or hid among thick bushes. SWALNSON’S THRUSH (Turdus Swainsonii). I heard the low call note of this bird in the early morning and evening throughout the mountains, but rarely saw it, as it was very shy ind watehful,— more so than T. ustulatus on the west coast. Its note and habits were otherwise similar, but I . heard no song from it on account of the late season. They were migrating south in September, and common at Cœur d'Alene Mission up to the 22d. Near Fort Colville I also saw this or T. ustulatus still later. Rosin Tarvusu (T. migratorius). Not abundant, but seen all along the route except in the dense forests. Milk river I found a nest, with eggs, built in a split trunk of a half fallen tree. OngEGON Rosin (T. nevius). I found this beautiful thrush . common near the summit of the Coeur d'Alene Mountains about September 10th, frequenting the exceedingly dark and damp spruce forests, which seemed to be its favorite summer residence as at the mouth of the Columbia river. I was surprised to find many of them about Fort Vancouver as early as October 28th, where I did not see them in 1853 until December. There had been an uncommonly early fall ep 32 THE FAUNA OF MONTANA TERRITORY. of snow’ on the Cascade Mountains, which probably drove . them down. E j Eastern BLUEBIRD ( Sialia sialis). I noticed this species at the mouth of Milk river, and as this is within sight of the first range of mountains, their base may be considered as its western limit. I saw it also near Fort Laramie in 1857. 4 ARCTIC BLUEBIRD (S. arctica). I saw a few of this species 3 on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains only, and at a J 1 high elevation. I have no doubt, however, of its also fre- 4 quenting some parts of the western slopes, and. Nuttall says © that he saw it at Fort Vancouver in the winter. It is more 3 shy and silent than either of the other species. 5 Western BLUEBIRD (S. Mexicana). None of the West- a ern Bluebird were seen until reaching Spokan river, north —.— and west of which it is found wherever there are trees, shun- ning only the dense forest. : P Rupy-crownep Wren (Regulus calendula) and Gouben- 1 CROWNED WREN (RH. satrapa). Seen in small nnmbers E 1 throughout the Rocky Mountains. : 8 .WarER OuzzL (Hydrobata Mexicana). I was surprised to find this Ouzel scarce in the Rocky Mountains, having seen none myself, and only one being observed by Capt. Floyd Jones, whose attention was attracted by its peculiar ~ habits. This was just east of the Cour d’Alefie Pass. E | Maceruurvray’s WARBLER (Geothlypis Macgillivrayi). — Young birds and old ones in fall plumage were common all , across the Rocky Mountains, even near the summits, but I D saw none in the dense forests of the Coeur d'Alene Range, 3 which they seem to avoid as they do those of the Coast a _ Range in Washington Territory. 4 _ Water TunusH (Seiurus Noveboracensis? No. 70). Hell Gate river, August 24th.* Though smaller than the average, this specimen agrees closely with some in Baird's Report from Pennsylvania and Florida. I found it pretty common in the *Length,5.75; extent,925; wing, 2.87; Iris and bill, brown; lower mandible and feet - THE FAUNA OF MONTANA TERRITORY. 93 Rocky Mountains, as far west as the Cœur d’Alefie Range, and I noticed no difference in its habits or in its single call- note of this season, from those of eastern specimens. . I did not notice it along the Missouri, nor did Dr. Hayden collect it above Vermilion river, near the Iowa line. AUDUBON's WARBLER (Dendroica Audubonii). This was the only bird of the genus I saw. It was very common throughout the mountains, and I have found it in every por- tion of the country west of them, even where there was scarcely a bush to be seen. Repstart (Setophaga ruticilla). The Redstart was one of the commonest birds in the Missouri bottom-lands, and I found several of its nests between Fort Union and Milk. river, in June. It continued pretty common as far west as the Cœur d'Alene Range. Western TawacER (Pyranga Ludoviciana). Less com- mon than near the coast, but reaching the east base of the Rocky Mountains, though not seen down the Missouri river. The specimen preserved is larger than any measurements recorded by Baird. Barn Swarrow (Hirundo horreorum). The Barn Swal- low occurs in small numbers entirely across the Great Plains of Nebraska, but seems to limit its summer residence to tracts where it can find caves in which to build, as I saw no sign of its nests about the trading posts, where the more abundant Cliff Swallow has full possession of every available position for a nest.. I saw the former, however, near Fort Benton in July, and in some parts of the Rocky Mountains afterwards. ` Curr Swarrow (H. lunifrons). Swarms of this species occurred at every suitable cliff along the Missouri, and across the Rocky Mountains fo Coeur d'Aleüe Mission, where they remained until September 18th. Swarrow (H. bicolor or thalassina?). I saw a flock of one or the other species flying over Bitterroot river, about September 1st, and remarked them because I had not seen . AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. mm. 5 ^ 34 THE FAUNA OF MONTANA TERRITORY. any species for several days in that thick-wooded valley (near the crossing), and supposed all the Swallows had gone South. Though both of these probably inhabit that region, I am not sure that those seen were of either species, as they had a strange look, and flew too high to be shot or closely observed. They were white beneath, with the tail a little forked, and may possibly have been Bank Swallows. Cepar Biro (Ampelis cedrorum). The Cedar Birds were very abundant in the open pine woods of the main Rocky . Mountains, and evidently had nests in August, as they were | scattered, and. commonly seen searching for insects among the pine foliage, etc. Also common at Cour d’Alefie Mis- .sion. I saw nothing of the larger Waxwing, which I have - since found as far South as Fort Mohave, N. W., January - . 10th, 1861. TowxsEND's FrycaTCHER (Myiadestes Townsendit). Y saw —— only the specimen preserved, which I shot at the eastern ; base of the pass over the Cœur d'Aleüe Mountains. It was | there pursuing insects from bush to bush in a small prairie | or "opening," silent, and in every respect resembling the - Pewee and other birds of that family in habits. I have re- - marked the same of Phainopepla nitens of Southern Califor- nia, a bird closely related to this, and in habits very unlike _ the Waxwings, at least in winter. The Shrikes, however, — resemble these birds more than the Waxwings or the Vireos, | with which Baird associates them. The tarsal scales would . remove both, and the Waxwings also, from the order of | OscrNEs, and I never heard them sing. (No. 103 is in plu- — mage apparently young, and undescribed.) 3 Sarie ( Collyrio exeubitorokdes ot elegans?). Both in . 1853 and this year, I saw Shrikes on the Columbia Plain in . October, which seemed to me to be quite different from C. borealis, and to resemble C. excubitoroides which abounds through the plains of Nebraska and across Oregon to Cali- _ fornia. They were so wild that I could not get near them, ; MK EE cer. ste resembled the latter. CO. aat mW AN AFTERNOON IN NICARAGUA. 35 was furnished to Swainson by the Hudson Bay Company, and was most probably therefore killed north of the Colum- bia river. No specimen exactly like it has been lately obtained. NORTHERN SHRIKE (C. borealis). shot a specimen, the only one I saw, at Fort Dalles, October 15th,— early in the season for it to appear even in that latitude. It was savagely attacking Jays and Magpies, driving them before it, but it did not kill any birds while I übedcved it. Vinko (Vireo olivaceus? V. Bartramii Swainson?). I found this species quite common from the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains to that of the Bitterroot Range, and in habits found it exactly like the eastern olivaceus. As it is larger than that mentioned by Swainson, his specimen was very probably, as Baird suggests, of the next species, espec- ially since this is found unchanged at Fort Bridges, Utah. WannBLING Vireo ( V. gilvus). Rather less common than the preceding in the Rocky Mountains, though very common west of the Cascade Range. I noticed nothing new in its habits. — To be continued. AN AFTERNOON IN NICARAGUA. BY WILLIAM H. DALL. Waen the agent of the Central American Transit Company announced to us, that on account of the low water, we might be detained a day or two at Greytown, we did not consider ourselves unfortunate by any means. A collecting party was quickly organized, and, after partaking of fried plan- tains and “tortillas,” with a cup of coffee from the hands of a señorita very much the color of the beverage just men- tioned, each one started out prepared to make the best of the six hours of daylight remaining, by dispersing into the bushes in search of specimens of all kinds. Previous, how- 36 AN AFTERNOON IN NICARAGUA. ever, to our departure, a person showed us a bottle of whis- key, which he asserted contained the most poisonous reptile extant. On examination it proved to be a specimen of a very beautiful snake, banded with red, black, white and cream-color, and of a genus (Elaps? euryxanthus Ken.) which is perfectly harmless. In vain we pointed out the : jaws, totally destitute of fangs, and almost toothless, and i were again assured that it was the far-famed “coral snake,” of which the bite was inevitably followed by a bloody sweat, - and death in most awful agonies. Not wishing to waste time in discussing the point, we separated, each striking - -.into the heavy growth of bushes back of the town, or follow- ing the sandy beach to the entrance of the lagoon, now no longer a harbor. I pushed into the jungle by a narrow foot-path winding | among the trees, which, with the vines and even the grasses, | appeared each one to vie with all others in the production of 3 hooks, thorns and prickles. The mosquitoes, too, were by ; no means idle. The path soon brought me tothe edge of - a small lagoon, surrounded with trees and vines, dg pre- senting a most beautiful scene. Here and there on the sunny — side a a log, were small lizards with their sides brightly banded with metallic blue or green, chestnut and black. Everything was quiet, but a mellow humming told of insect life hovering among the green leaves. | The most noticeable among the many plants which were E growing in the water, was a gigantic Sagittaria, rising above - the water six or eight feet; its beautiful pointed leaves and - white flowers bearing a great similarity to the common . Arrow-head of the Massachusetts ponds. Rich crimson | orchids were to be seen growing in the branches of the — higher trees; but, after considerable exertion, having dis- lodged one of them, I was disappointed by finding it coarse — | and noniine. on a nearer inspection. Leaves of a nymph- plant, like oi yel Mrs but no flowers, were - AN AFTERNOON IN NICARAGUA. ri The mosquitoes soon put an end to my pleasure in survey- ing the beauty of this secluded spot, and I made my way with some difficulty between the wild pineapples, which, bearing no edible fruit, add a positive evil to their deficiency of good, by pushing in every direction fheir sharp, saw-like, and inflexible leaves. Reaching an open spot I saw a beautiful bird balancing himself on a slender twig, and occasionally uttering a plain- tive note, of no great melody, but far from disagreeable, as is the case with many tropical birds. His body was a rich chestnut brown, and the underside of the tail of a bright golden hue. A lucky shot added him to my collection. It was the Inca Bird ( Ostenops Montezuma) ; the “Oro-pendula” or Golden-tail of the Spaniards. Another moment and a flash of fire seemed to pass from one bough to another; my gun was brought into requisition again, and I brought down a fine male Fire Bird (Ramphoceles passerina), probably one of the most beautiful of American birds. The body is of the most brilliant scarlet, and the wings and tail jet glossy black. Others of our party obtained another species (2. icteronata) almost equally beautiful, where the most brilliant yellow on the rump and back takes the place of scarlet; while still another (FR. sanguinolenta) glories in a dress of the richest velvety maroon. It was growing rather dark in the dense thicket, and I retraced my steps towards the beach. On my way I added several other interesting birds (Momoti) to my collection, and one, a dark-colored, sad-looking bird, which proved the greatest prize of all, being a new species, afterwards described by Mr. Lawrence as Spermophila badiiventris. Reaching the edge of the wood, I found a small brook be- tween me and the sand. The banks being low, were cov- ered for several rods on the farther side, with a succulent plant of the order Portulacacew, with round leaves about half an inch in diameter. I noticed little well-beaten paths, about one inch wide, running all through this bed of green, before mentioned, there was at least a bushel of these dae 38 AN AFTERNOON IN NICARAGUA. and stopped to discover if possible what made them. Some 7 were wider than others, and on one of these I soon discov- ^. ered a foraging party of ants. They were of two species, 7 one being a rather small black ant, with weak jaws or nip- pers, and the other’ nearly twice that size, each bearing a < formidable pair of prolonged mandibles or jaws, and as near as I could see there were no two with jaws of exactly the same size or shape. The small ones were evidently slaves. They were marched between two rows of scouts, and if a — slave attempted to pass the line, he was speedily seized and | put back, not very gently, into his place. I watched their motions with a great deal of interest. The “soldiers,” after searching till satisfied for a rich succulent leaf, bit it off and gave it to a slave, who immediately marched off with it in a contrary direction to the main body. Following the train for a rod or two, I came to the brook just where it had made an abrupt bend, with an eddy in it. Here the banks were rather high, a moderately brisk sea-breeze was coming from - the shore, and just here a small tree about two inches in diameter had fallen across the brook. On this pole were myriads of ants going in different directions. Those above, - each with a leaf in his mouth, were crossing to the wooded - side. Those on the underside were empty-handed (or mouthed), and were coming from the woods. Here I no- r ticed a curious thing. The leaf, being larger by far than its” bearer, acted as a sort of sail to catch the wind, and I saw - many an unfortunate slave-ant, after struggling with all its | might to save its precious load, finally Jet it go in self- defence, and immediately join the excursionists on the lower side of the pole, going back for another leaf. In the eddy which had been blown away from their bearers.* "The red light of the setting sun warned me to be stirring . homeward; and, picking up a few Apple-snails (Ampullariæ), : 2j det alked 1 iis s vict own. POPE for a moment to to i REVIEWS. 39 turn over a bit of plank in search of land shells, to my great delight, there lay snugly coiled up, one of the famous “coral snakes!” Taking his head between my finger and thumb, I let him coil around my wrist, and made the best of my way to the office of the Railroad Survey, determined to prove the harmless nature of the pretty little creature. Upon produ- cing it, however, two of my English friends disappeared through the window, and the one before mentioned reaching the loft over head, in a great hurry, seized an empty bottle (there were plenty of them there), and adjured me in forci- ble language to depart and take the snake with me, on pain of several things too disagreeable to mention. Doubting the efficacy of argument in the premises, I consigned the snake to an alcohol tank, and took the story to the supper table, where it afforded us a fund of amusement for the evening, and was by no means the most disagreeable remi- niscence of my afternoon in Greytown. REVIEWS. —— M Óoe—— IN THE East INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO.*—The object of Prof. Scd s travels was the collection a a set of shells from the island of Amboina and its immediate neighborhood th m to have fully succeeded, and thanks to his energy and perseverance, we now have in this country a full suite of the species first described by Rumphius. The present volume merely states this object and describes the mode of its attainment. Otherwise it is a diary of the author’s daily experience among these tropical islands, in which mountains, lakes, rivers, plants and animals, incidents and accidents, are all described as they happened. The coast tribes are said to be of a mild disposition, but those of th interior mountainous parts of the different islands, wild and savage; in some cases cannibals. The ethnological characteristics of the different e gi he: eniri a sb sometimes accompanied by photographs and drawings of great “AU Mai náiivas (Malays, of Java) are remarkably short in stature, the in the East Indian Archipelago. By Albert S. Bickmore, M. A. 8vo, pp. 553. Rip otitis QVI OL. Rak = 40 REVIEWS. ~ men averaging not more than five feet three inches in height. The head is somewhat lozenge-shapėd, the cheek bones high and prominent, the mouth wide and the nose short, — not flat as in negroes, or prominent as in Europeans." ‘‘The men have but a few straggling hairs for ei and these they generally ~~ out with a pair of iron tweezers. The hai of the head in both sexes is lank, coarse, wie worn long.” The ten kinds of trees and their pides are graphically described, and the. draw- ings which illustrate them are dise di especially that of the Bam- — boo. We have space to quote but one or two of the more interesting 3 passages, since these travels extend to many islands, each of which arein turn described; while their political are the iere of their peo- ple, agriculture, and geological featu of the countries, all pass in re- view. T island of Java: ** Above one thousand feet, palms, bananas, and papiliona- ceous plants become fewer, and are replaced by the lofty fig or ‘ waringin,’ which, with its high top and long branches, rivals the magnificent palms of the sea-shore.” Liquid amber, and the cotton-wood, also phar and bers. ‘Over this and melastomas are more abundant here.” “ Above six thousand feet are Rubiaces, heaths, and cone- editing. trees,” succeeded by the zone of small ferns, lichens, and m 3 Java is the Cuba of the Mk Tini. **Tn each there is a great central 4 the pene sey borders on a small sea. This shore is low, but the south- | ` ern coast, on the margin of the wide Indian Ocean, is high and bold, in docena n the rule that the higher elevations are opposite the- greater oceans : The islands of Lontar, Pulo Pisang, and Pulo Capal, are described as. the remnants of the wall of a sunken crater, the length of which was escribed, Mr. Bickmore nearly losing his life in the attempt. The grave of Rumphius, marked by a small square pillar, is still in existence, and was found and described by the author. The many observations and facts viteh the author has brought to- gether, would have been made more available, and more valuable to the Scientist, if the work had been less diffuse. The number of pages might . have been lessened without decease from its popular character, or the £m freshness and bea bestity of many of the descriptions of the fruits and natu e A bass Sti this pamphlet the author describes what he claims to be **a new system of bee keeping, adapted to the habits and character- istics of haa a box with descriptions of, and directions for mana seping. By D. I. Adair. tesi ro pp. 74. REVIEWS. 41 ging bees in the section bee-hive. embracing also improved methods of artificial swarming, whereby the business of bee keeping is rendered subject, we should judge it to be for the interest of every bee keeper to own this little manual, ^ to learn the merits of the section bee-hive de- scribed and figured i THE EXTINCT FLORA or NORTH AMERICA.* — This pamphlet is the cli- max of the late controversy between Messrs. Meek and Hayden on the one side, and Profs. Marcou and Heer on the other. This controversy made us acquainted with the fact that the familiar forms of the poplar, oak, sassafras, willow, etc., lived in the Cretaceous period; and in the present pamphlet the author, who was also one of the first to assert this truth, re- views the main points of the evidence, and brings forward a numerous list continent. **Possibly these genera may hereafter be isse in the plant- S of Kansas, Nebraska, and New Mexico, but as yet we have no inti- mation of their existence, and there is nothing now wn in the Creta- ceous flora of that region which gives it a tropical or even sub-tropical character." *Tt will be remembered that this vegetation grew upon a broad continental surface, of those c the isothermal lines should be cu well happen, arenes: p we shall find the palms and cinnamons restricted to tbe w margin of the Cretaceous continent. It will be seen by ma notes now: given of the Tertiary pci of our continent, tha, at a later date, p eous plants are — t cinnamons l to b tirely psam a the Tertiary flora M we central part of the continent, w ile on the west coast bo and cinnamons lived during the gn rel period as far north the so line. wa have therefore negative ew vidence from he facts, though it may be reversed at ; day far- ther observations, that tl Y keds was somewhat warmer than at the beginning of the Cretaceous period, and that during both the same relative differences of climate prevailed between the central and western portions that day.” iyd WORMS IN THE BRAIN OF A Brgp.f— One of the most ob- Scure subjects in zoólogy is the history and development of animal para- pes and especially those which take up their abode in the brain of differ- nt animals. Prof. Wyman has detected a species of “round worm” in the brain of seventeen out of nineteen specimens of the Anhinga (Snake-bird Um EO vi tps k he Cretaceous and a ae Strata. By Prof. sip goonies of Columbia College, New rig 8vo, pp. 76. fOn a Thread-worm —€— the Brain of the Snake-bird.” By Jeffries Wyman, M. D. ] "M DEN, "the Boston Society of Natural History, October 7, 1 1868). Syo, ENAH diim i’ pp. 7. AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. Im. 6 42 REVIEWS. or Water-turkey) shot in Florida, thus proving that ‘‘their presence in d the cranial cavity might be called the normal condition of this bird.” The E author — that 4 y been found Pe the brain or its membranes in man and tinis: but far less frequen tly t lian in the other regions of the body. The number of species thus far observed bs ferae smak ma a chtety ee, to - genera TEA; Fi wein Tri- china, and Diplosto wholly 3 -e-eeasasennssasess eese: (QU St strongylus papillosus Die- | sing,” were found in every. 2 antepi coiled up on the of the cerebrellum | (rig. 1), their number va- eggs (a e 5, is only one-half ast as the female, and the € of its body, Fig. 6, is al 4 orm is viviparous, the you 6,0. As they descend lower down in the oviduct, they straighten themselves, 7 as at d and e, until they beco e REVIEWS. 43 outwardly to some other animal, or the water, and then back to another Anhinga, is wholly unknown.” SCIENTIFIC OPINION.* — A weekly journal showing the progress of sci- ence in all its departments, is a most welcome publication. It is edited with great ability, and its kite poet deserve especial notice for their plain speaking and candor. No other journal known to us reports so promptly and fully the Proceedings of Scientifie Societies, especially the German and French. Both this and the Paris Cosmos, a favorite ex- change with us, will doubtless have a wide circulation in America, as science is atiaintu ng such proportions that we on this side of the water must receive weekly scientific intelligence from Euro FAUNA OF THE GULF-STREAM AT GREAT DEPTHS.t|— This is the con- tinuation of a similar paper by the same author previously reviewed. The utmost depth reached with the dredge was 517 fathoms, or 3102 feet, or over 1000 feet beyond the late researches near Spitzbergen. The bot- tom has been divided into three regions, extending in zones around the e depth of 90 fathoms; 2d, From 90 to 250 or 350 fathoms; 3d, The bottom of the channel which does not much exceed 500 fathoms. The first region is barren, and covered only by dead and broken shells, Sapien: that the Th us ecu sa the tubes of Serpuls, the interstices filled up by Foraminif- æ, and smoothed over by the Nullipores. It is supposed by the author d this sth eventually thicken until the water is shallow enough for the Astreans and Madrepores to begin their work of founding a new barrier similar to the x reefs. This limestone is filled with recent fossils, furnished in great part by the animals now living on the bottom, but **a few contribute by sinking after death from the higher regions of the su- perincumbent water (teeth of fishes and shells of Pteropods), and others are brought by currents from littoral regions (bones of the Manatee, and fragments of littoral plants). All the branches of the animal kiagdoni, so far as their marine carnivorous orders are concerned, are abundantly represented in this region, but it is destitute of plants. The third region is sparsely inhabited by a few Mollusks, Radiates, and Crustaceans, but the peculiar animal is the microscopical Globigerine e 1 of smaller size than allied forms of the littoral zone. “The only excep- tion is an Echinus, which is nearly of the average size, and an Actinia. * Scientific Opinion. AW dof ific P t d Abroad. Part, December; II. January, 1869. 4to. Monthly Parts, 1s .6d. London, 1869. 4to,3 columns. t Bulletin of the Museum of Zoology, No.7. Contributions to the Fauna of the Gulf-stream at at great depths. (Second series.) By L. F. Pourtales, Ass't U. S. Coast Survey. 44 REVIEWS. The prevailing colors are white, pink, — sometimes playing into orange, — and a pale green. Blue was only seen in a small incrusting sponge. sea animals have generally well- hebes eyes, larger if anything than ` those of their congeners of shallow wa : THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ILLINOIS.* — Prof. Worthen announces — that the M system attains a maximum of 2500 feet in this - State, and contains ten seams of coal, six of them in the É, d à whois series is exposed in the banks of die Tllinois, which cuts dit í across these beds for more than a hundred miles from north-east est. to bé 1 à very serious mistake in Prof. Owen's estimate of the thickness c Sandstone," in the Kentucky section, are identical. If this series of coal seams between the latter and the former, do not overlie the in the same geological horizon. ‘The product of our coal mines for the past year (1867) according to the most reliable statistics, is fully 1500000 tons." ‘There is, perhaps, no other area of equal extent in the United They are Alexander, Union, Jackson , Perry, Jersey, Greene, Scott, Was ington, Clinton, Marion, Jefferson, Coat, and La Salle Counties. REVIEWS. 45 allied to the Scorpions, and one whose affinity is doubtful. The species i a m, the hairs on the body being longitudinally striated, and, ac- To to Dr. Packard, RAMIS. those o odite E ANCESTRY OF INSECTS; FOSSIL INSECTS AND ENS ;IN Inurors.* rof Haeckel, of Jena, has been speculating as to the acis iim of the articulates. He considers the ancestral form of kr crustacea as a gm like itieatuPh; resembling the larval or zoéa-stag: the crab. As to the ancestor of the air-breathing, terrestrial ME (inseets, peal and eerie’); he propos es the eres that it was a zoéa which, Sone a ge of ula (including the ea Iasoni S; 5. eplders and my elspa a must bare been "ORE and aquatic, and when the type became terrestrial we (still speculating) would imagine a form somewhat Fig. 1. like the young d (Fig. 1) discovered by Sir John Lubbock in England, which combines in a remarkable degree the ai of E ps in Sete and the sig aeo wingless insects, such a , Podura Som such forms may e e rues lir diaced late in ue neris Phi for the interesting discoveries of fossil insects in and an uthus?), closely resembling a species now living in California; to- gether with another scorpion-like animal, Mazonia Woodiana; while the Devonian insects des uns from ue coe 4 Mr. tiges are nearly as Dr.D highly organized as our grasshop d May-fi r. Dawson has also discovered a S dk developed prm CXlobius) w the Lower Coal Measures of Nova Scotia; so ust go back the Silurian dap ge prototype, of insects. As to the be. Crustacean being a rm, have we not among the earliest known Crustaceans, the Trilo- ds (Paradowides) and several allied forms of lov Silurian age, whose larval form was, undoubtedly, more or less worm-like, as are certain de- graded marine Pill-bugs ( Bopyrus) of the present pee. Messrs. Meek and Worthen describe ee Shrimps CAnthropalemon) and Sand-fleas, in the Lower Coal Measu f Illinois, associated with a large Eurypterus, being a gigantic eas toit ;& Trilobite (Euproops Dane) resembling our * The Pal»ontology of Illinois. Articulate Fossils of the Coal Measures. vereinen of the Report o of the Illinois State Survey.) By Messrs, Meek, Worthen and Scudde: tember, 1868. 8vo. 46 REVIEWS. Horse-shoe Crab; and several insects are described by Mr. Scudder under of a land-plant in the lower Silurian rocks of Sweden, it seems premature to even guess as to the ancestry of either these or their living represen- tatives. Tur Book or BIRDS AND THE Book or Bkasrs.* — From an examina- tion of their contents we do not hesitate to say that they form a valuable addition to our popularseienee literature. The engravings are numer- ous and well e. The subject is treated in a clear and interesting man- ner, and with ila typography and binding, form elegant volumes for the young. to interest the young, wes induce them to observe the habits of insects d form collections of the RA OF NORTH AMERICA.Í— The American En- tomological Society, didi has issued six volumes of Proceedings, and ha: entered on the second volume of Transactions, all beautifully illustrated, and indispensable to the study of our insects, and we may add, publish remarkably cheap, is reed Bebe in Eme a list of our Butterflies and oths, by Messrs. Gro d Robinson. 'The present Part embraces the species of Sphinges, pert the iyi: Zygænidæ, and the Bomb; cids, or Silk-worm cepi d pne of Mexico. 'The catalogue gives d ties of London, Paris, Ber! Vienna content e$ aie a = mem es ical emacs ries sats to 8000 copes each month gona di aé 1 MU EM M e. inde 0*4. Dank AP T. sas DMaatite "Esos e af itai. pesca opone oe Clarke & Co. 12mo. ; . 1Cecil's Book of Insects. By Selim H. Peabody, M. A. Chicago: Clark & Co., 1868. With | eleven full-page illustrations, 12mo, pp. "hai af ds KAADS M laser Mais. ee m Part Philadelphia: American Entomological Society. September, 1868. 8vo, pp. REVIEWS. i 47 eerste for want of means. The Society in a circular recentlf issued, asks the pecuniary aid of all interested in scienc citizens $- siis ace, who have already didi so ees for science, will not let one of its most useful institutions of learning suffer for want of i funds ken for in the present i on for the society seeks for a mere pittance, such as a few of the wealthy men of that well-to-do city could easily grant. We hope all our shtok PAA will lend their aid to a soci- E which has done so much for the furtherance of their favorite study, at least by subscribing to its Transactions, which are published at $3 a year. CATALOGUE OF NORTH AMERICAN GRASSHOPPERS.*—A very carefully prepared list of all iis Orthoptera of our country. The author states in the preface that the arrangement, both of genera and species, is a purely alphabetical one. **'The list is not in any sense a synonymical one, involving the expression of personal views, but a hand-book for the stu- dent, in which is collected every reference to any species of orthoptera stated to have been found on the continent of North America, or in the West Iudies, —a groundwork upon which he may erect a superstructure of his own." Mr. Scudder is also preparing a monograph of the orthoptera for publication by the Smithsonian Institution, and desires specimens of this neglected group of insects. new arrangement of the families, and a more natural one than has been offered before, is appended. THE PROGRESS OF ZOOLOGY IN 1867.1 — To the American student these yearly volumes are an indispensable aid. They contain lists of every pa- per or work relating to zoólogy, with a brief analysis of their contents. ow any working naturalist, without a large library at hand, such as Scarcely one institution in this country affords, can do without these ports, t see. “The fourth volume of the Record forms a systematic guide-book to about 36,400 pages of the zoólogical literature € (with the Sas of a very small part) within the year 1867. n reached in any preceding year, and corres- tien to an increase in ne post of authors; an un y great activ- ity appears to have prevailed in the study of Mammals, Birds, Mollusks, d ptera." $ d o "The publisher, Mr. Van Voorst, deserves the thanks of zoólogists the world over, for the liberal spirit he has manifested in undertaking the pub- lication of a work which he prints at a considerable pecuniary sacrifice. The British Association, however, made a sip of $500 for the present volume and the succeeding one. The volume issued in three parts, viz.:that of Mid gebget of Entomology, and "= Mollusks, Crustaceans and Lower Animals, so that the specialist can at a cheap rate supply him- self with a report on his own branch. * Catalogue of the Orthoptera of N to 1867. Prepared for n by Samuel k ‘Seudder. ‘Washington: Smithsonian Institution, Oct., 1868. Pu pp. 89. t The Record of Zoological Li nema Vol. IV; Edited by A. C. L. G. Gunther, M. D., ete. gogan vas Voorst. 1868. 8vo, pp. £78, . The volume, or the separate parts, can be fur- PP pere NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. BOTANY. DOUBLE FLOWERED SARRACENIA. —In the summer of 1867, I found a specimen of the Sarracenia purpurea, double, in East Hampton, Mass. In the summer of 1868, I found a specimen of the Geranium maculatum, with all the parts of the flower of a pure white. — E. S. MLLER, Wading River, . ZOOLOGY. THE BREEDING HABITS OF BIRDS are subject to so great variation England,” says they excavate a "winding hole.” Mr. Fowler and Mr : Endicott, in the NATURA thus implying that this is the invariable, or even general form? One of the nests which I have found had the bottom covered with _ I have in my collection a set of Long-eared Owls' eggs, six in number. I have nat h Prt "n Tue ah, ‘ h ta find LO à E Io bird's depart fi it of the spe : c. 3. " - NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 49 the eggs is yellowish-white, marked with reddish brown spots. Usually the last ones of the litter are without spots, and of a lighter color; a fe larger round spots appear to be laid on the surface of the shell and raised above it.” To this I would say that I have seen a great many eggs of the grouse, but only a few were marked as thus described. And while the description is true to a certain extent, it may be questioned whether it is agn to **typical specimens.” v the 29th of April, 1865, I found a tof the grouse, containing nine eggs of a pure white color, with the Erion of a few stains, which were m removed by the application of e 3d of May, 1866, I took three eggs from the nest of a Marsh. hawk here was no appearance of spots upon them. As I had seen the birds about the place for two weeks, selecting a'spot and building their nest, I feel sure that this was the first litter. But last spring I obtained six eggs from a nest, and all were marked with numerous light brown es. thus proving that the marsh-hawk does sometimes occupy an old nest. — C. M. JONES. Tar Ho WREN.— The mischievousness of the House Wren ( Trog- lodytes edon Verrill) is well known. The following incident came under i Observation a short time since, A pair of Martins had taken posses- ov sence of the martins, and coolly picked up their eggs one by one, P rm them out, and dropped them to the ground below. While engaged in impudent business, the martins returned, and while going in at one ve the entrances of the box, the daring marauders darted out at the other, and alighting on a tree near by chattered noisily, apparently in great glee. The martins, jy that their nest had been despoiled, abandoned the box, which was n duly taken possession of by the wrens, who reared two broods P, piss hopefuls during the summer, the first about the beginning of June, the second the latter part of July. — M. S. HILL, East Liverpool, O. DESTRUCTIVENESS THE LARVA OF THE GO: BEETLE. previous numbers of go ada URALIST, I ventured the inne = ena Goldsmith Beetle ( Cotatpa — was not likely ever to prove a serious pest to the agriculturist. As respects the insect in its beetle —- per- haps this may prove correct; mte ch P as that opinion may have related to the larva of this insect it mus retracted, as a positive observation lately made must settle this — slit When on a visit in September last to the farm of a celebrated straw- berry grower, in — County, N. J., my attention was directed to certain large patches badly thinned out by, as the phrase went, ‘the worm.” The plants were dead on the surface and easily pulled up, the roots being eaten off below. It was observable that the fields which pre- AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. III. 7 50 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. sented the worst appearance were all of the same kind of plant; that ` reni as Wilson's Albany Seedling. porate this there were nine other . rieties under culture: Barne's moth, Schanck's Excelsior, the — ereen Triomphe de Gand, CH Seedling, the Juc Konan aa us Early Scarlet, and Brooklyn Scarlet. While the Wils cond to none of these as a prolific fruit-bearer, yet it fell bati heil in vigorous plant growth. ence, while every kind was more or less af- e tiguous to those of the other varieties. While all suffered more or less, the chief injury befell the Wilson’s, of which not less than two acres were irretrievably ruined. ? examination turned up the depredator, who was none other than . the larva of the Goldsmith Beetle, now engaged in the first one of its - allotted three summer campaigns of mischief. 'These grubs were from — the — deposited in June, in the well tilled and clean soil, which, I have sai captured. The black grub of the spring, which is such a pest, attacking almost indiscriminately the early tender plants, inflicts its injuries chiefly in the night, the exception being that of dull and cloudy days. The night’s mischief done it descends into concealment at early dawn. Knowing this 1 the wise farmer is in search of it at an early hour, ere the warmth of the presence. It is my belief that this devastation might have been spared by an outlay of from $20 to $30 for labor, of which, under proper direction, much could have been done by children. Therein would have been saved a strawberry — - the ensuing summer, paa scarcely less than $2500 with all their mischief, had not more than a third of their ultimate size; hence their real ravenousness is yet to come. Besides what a prospect of increase of numbers, should even a moderate share of them reach l'ail OF à tree At a distance of six fect it ap- NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 51 peared the size of a pigeon's egg. As soon as it observed me it stopped. Approaching it gradually I could see it crouch, evidently aware that it and made a strike to empale the body and missed it. What was my aston- ishment when I beheld a mass of life uniformly BA ups vila the spi- der; it was all alive. I knocked the spider from the t beneath; the jar seemed to shake from its abdomen eng I soon saw were young spiders, as the rock was black with the young ones for a space of six inches in diameter around the old spider. The parent spider did not attempt to run but crouched, and the young began to gather upon her body again. I made a successful hit, and stuck the pin where it held, and the moment it was inserted into the spider’s body, the young left at once and dispersed upon the rock. I soon perceived the floating webs passing from the rock to spears of grass on which spiders were quite thick. I should say, at a pure guess, that there were two hundred young spiders, but from the long legs they spread out, they seemed even more numerous. I next noticed spiders upon my coat, hat and collar, and ex- perimented myself with the spider p gem out the floating web. When about six to ten feet from the rock, I saw in the sunlight two webs float- ing aside of each other, about one dur apart. I saw that the terminus of these webs were but a short distance from my face, and at each end a spider. They moved slowly before the wind, and I watched them for Several feet, mounting upwards until lost to view.— [Several species of the genus Lycosa are known to ‘inte the | habit of carrying their young about with them.— Eps.] THE CATTLE Tick.—The perfect insect found in Texas, gorged with blood and ready to give birth to its young, is much like Fig. 1e of the Moose Tick (NATURALIST, Vol. II, p. 559). They drop from the cattle in the woods, and more frequently along the cattle paths. How long before they appear as “seed ticks" I do not know. It was a prevalent notion among the people that they burst open, nearly the whole interior being composed of the young. These, probably, soon after birth, ascend to the When taken off by one they soon commence grein and in three or four days, I should think, gorge themselves and fall off. They are then, except as to size, much like the full-grown pides insect. emi long a time is required for them to become depleted, or to regain their flattened form, I do not know; but when ready for a new meal or a new formation (now called Linee ticks"), they again bushes, but not in clusters; or they crawl over fallen leaves and attach themselves again to animals as chance may me. They again gorge themselves an fall off as before, to become lean a second time. A third time they fasten to horses, cattle, hogs, dogs, man, and other animals. This seems to be their last time, and, when full, they fall off and become converted to seed ticks. This was the common belief, and may be more or defecti m a2 ee unted only twelve. Van Beneden | 52 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. In Cuba I started from St. Jago, with two horses, to go to Havana. Before I had travelled half the journey one of the horses became infested — with ticks, the other had none or few. Every day while resting at noon wira knife I scraped off all - ticks I could see or feel. Notwithstand [ horses fed. Around the larger ticks were generally found one or mo ssi ones, sometimes many of the latter. I have seen something of eil kind in the coast prairies of Texas. Are they viviparous? I never ob- . above mentioned ticks of Cuba were those of the savanna rather than of the timbered parts. — CHARLES WRIGHT. S FOR POLLEN FoR Honky Bkks.— My bees carry into ing her eggs, iud strong swarms are ready to come out on the bleak Shores of Lake Erie by the middle of May, — an occurrence often n happen- ing with me since I began to thus feed them, in 1860, but not happening when the meal is withheld. Unbolted rye flour, and also ground linseed or oil-cake may be substituted, but the best rye meal is preferred by the bees, and is perhaps the cheapest. A handful of clean straw should be placed in an open box, standing in the middle of the apiary, and the meal Should be scattered over the Straw; otherwise many of the bees will get fatally swamped in the meal.—J. P. KIRTLAND. East Roe j kport, O. epredator enter the small hive, drag out the queen, and fly away with her to the woods. — JARED P. Kim’ — VARIATI ION IN THE pense OF WHaLES.— M. Van Bambeke has. rally unli e greater individual differences than usual in other vertebrate animals, and a great number of individuals are necessary for the establishment of spe- . There are, however, some naturalists for whom any modification, mweer small it may be, suffices for the creation of new species. The Tursio ibed by M. Van Bambeke, has thirteen ribs on one side, and fourteen on the other, like the skeleton of the he Mysticetus, at Brussels. In another Tursio, of Heligoland, V. Van Beneden has found thirteen, and in NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 53 has seen a Globiceps with ten ribs, and another with eleven; a Narwhale with tits thirteen or fourteen ribs. As to the number of vertebra, it is true that they do not vary with age, but they vary in number in the same species. y Balenoptera rostrata Fabr., so remarkable for its forty-eight vertebre, sometimes has forty-nine, and he has seen at Ber- gen, a skeleton of a male and of a female, both from the coast of N arway, of which one had only forty-five vertebræ, and the other forty-nine. Mr. Flower has counted fifty, and Lacépède has mentioned forty-six as occur- ring in the same species. — Cosmos EGGS OF YAMA MAI SILK-woRM FOR SALE.—I have received from England, on sale, a number of eggs of Attacus Yama mai, which I am now ready to deliver. The price of Yama mai eggs is ten for 30 cents, or thirty-five for $1. Picked eggs direct from Japan.— W. V. ANDREWS, 136 Charlton street, New York. E OF LIVING FISH FROM SOUTH OF THE EQUATOR TO EuRoPE.— Mr. Moore has succeeded in importing into Liverpool from the itive: Plata, the first living fish (a fresh-water Aa that has been received from the south of the Equator. Dr. E. right has also brought to Paris living specimens of the only fresh-water Cyprinoid of the Secheylles iiia Scientific Opinion, Decem DEEP SEA DREDGING. — Dr. E. P. Wright has sree in 480 fathoms, off the coast of Portugal, living specimens of the Glass Sponge (Hyalo- nema Lusitanicum). Until first discovered by Prof. Bocaga, of Lisbon, it had only been known from Japan. At this great depth, also, lives a shark (Centroscymnus celolepis Bocage Cap.), a small fish (Chiasmodon niger Johnson), and an Isis-like coral (Keratoisis Grayii Wright).— Annals and Magazine of Natural History, December, 1868 MarsvupiaL Docs. — Of all mammals there is perhaps not one existing which is so truly teres so deeply significant of the history of the development and geographical distribution of mammals, as the marsupial dog. There are two Tasmanian species of this genus, Thylacinus, one of which is called the greyhound, and e"; other the bull-dog tiger.— Quarterly Journal of Science, January, 18 THE BELTED KINGFISHER AGAIN.—I notice in the CRI NIIS so many conflicting statements relative to the nesting of the Belted Kingfisher, reeding of ell known bird. In Southern Illinoi is resi- dent, and usually begins incubation a the middle of April. I have f numerous nests, all similarly located, viz., in the of som Stream, or ravine, frequently far from any stream affording - a supply of food. On one occasion I found its excavation in the cut of a rail- road, at least a mile from the river. t excavations that I xd found varied in length from three to as much as nine feet, but more generally 54 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. about six feet. Frequently the excavation makes a rather abrupt bend, in the form of an elbow, but I have often found it straight to the end. I believe the termination is a little higher than the entrance. The “nest was always in a sort of oven-shaped chamber, near the end, the bottom being a little lower than the floor of the tunnel.” I have never found any - elaborate nest, the eggs in a majority of cases lying on the bare earth. On two occasions, however, I have found a bed of broken fragments of craw- |. fish shells, and fish-bones; but never to my knowledge any sticks or © eri sexes incubate, as I have caught both male and female upon the eggs.— ROBERT RIDGEWAY. GEOLOGY. No other shells besides Unios were found, although a few others may yet be discovered. Very few other kinds are to be found in the river near there. e bones of the deer are common among the shells, the nari lways being split open. Pieces of the carapace and other bones of the fresh-water turtle were also found. Among the implements found by the slight excavation mentioned, are one hatchet of greenish hornblendie rock, some flint arrow-heads and sharp-edged flints, probably _ used for skinning animals, and fragments of crude pottery. Some frag- ments of the'latter bear evidence of having been bürnt in contact with mara * marrow NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 55 organic matter, and were probably broken and spoiled while being used for cooking purposes. Fragments of charcoal were frequently found scat- tered through the mass tery is composed of common clayey earth intermixed with while soft in a loose fabric or netting, probably of twisted bark fibres, the twist of the thread being easily distinguished The examination of this Ie accumulation has been very slight, but it is proposed to resume it next s HITE RHEUMATISM IN PREHISTORIC TIMES. — At the last Aci: of the Patho- logical Society of London, Mr. Bush exhibited some specimens of patho- logical fossils. He exhibited a bone of a fossil rhinoceros which had been afflicted with rheumatism. He also exhibited a bone of a cave-bear, with hibernated; and another bone, of the same species of bear, which had been the seat of an osseous tumor. — Cosmos. Disease also pcdes among the dno of the de ceri formation PER aly of Mosasaurus, which has a bidon Matia nal disloca- n of the ramus of the mandible. It has an Mita behind the mid- og which has lateral and some vertical motion. Disease is more common among the lower animals than is usually sup-: posed. Prof. J. Leidy has exhibited to the Philadelphia Academy of Nat- ural Sciences, pus globules from an abscess in the muscle of an oyster. — EDITORS. Fosst PLANTS FROM GREENLAND.— Mr. Whymper has brought from the peat: formation in Greenland, 137 species, of which forty-six are common the European deposits of the Miocene Tertiary. Among the Noe: are the cones of the magnolia, and the flowers and fruit of the chestnut. — Cosmos. THE EARLIEST PLant.—The discovery of Eozoón in the Touientito rocks of Canada was of great interest. One of the most important dis- coveries recently made in paleontological science is analogous with it. equivalents of our Longmynd rocks. A peculiar interest attaches to this discovery, inasmuch as it carries back the appearance or itia vege- — upon the earth’s’ through a f time, no land- having previously ini known older than the Dose Ludlow beds. The psu fossils now discovered appear w s UM stems and long parallel-veined leaves of mewhat allied to the grasses and rushes of the present day. These plants apparently grew on the margin of shallow waters, and were buried in sand and silt, hodie it is probable that several species, and even genera, may occur in the sandstone blocks which have been examined. They are provisionally in- 56 PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES, ETC. cluded in a single species, to which the name of Eophyton SEMPER has been given. Eophyton, therefore, stands by the side of Eozoón,—the one being, in the present state of our knowledge, the earliest Stare plant, as the other is the earliest animal organism. — Quarterly Journal of Science. PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. Hisro L Society OF Passaic, N. J. — This active society was or- ganized seh 28th, 1867, and held its first field meeting July 15th, 1868, when glacial marks were discovered upon the rocks near Little Falls, run- ning in a south- -easterly direction. ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. Dome Camp Grant, near Richmond, Va.—The smaller of your plants is Selaginella ue tow is Hypnum tamariscinum. Both are found widely Aistributed through the he United States. — J. . A., Augusta, Me. — Your insect boxes should be made as pem air-tight as pos- sible to be insect proof. The cover ra shut down upon an in md om so that an invading insect will have to make rns in order to get fairly yr the box. The inside should be daubed with serena e camphor, wrapped in paper with pin holes, should be pinned to the bottom of the . M., Cold Springs, N. Y.— Agassiz’s * Methods f Study " is a good introduci w Book for barianers in Zoölogy, and may be read with Tenney's “ Zoolo for Schools,” Clark's ** Mind in Nature," and A epe and God ld’s “ Principles of Zoólo: . H. E., Co: Mi urgh, W. Va. he worm sae apep AN X» is two feet yl and the largest one we ever n a gigantic VE y. 96 dius) Compare the account of the Gordius-like worm np. 4l. Also see Bg ot on different species of inas dieman aen nd also on other plants, includir t cotton DP vpn tend Ind.— The fern is ME iei Merten t i Bae cred frond). y good s mens of the aquatic plants T we RE have named say beg a T set under asw bere corresponding to those on the seem, ou keep O. C. M.. New Haven, and on — Your pay mt meer a he Chicago XC of the American Association for the A eile ru Cof Science, should E sent to — E. We — Salem, Mass., quite soon, to be in time for printing.- —F. W.P. ——ÓM Á—— "BOOKS a gos iPs Books of Natural Hist P- acis Book of Insects; ook of Birds; ues dA. Woo seh MONACA NAN Clark Co. Es ia upon Woo a niversal on hl Reports of the U. 8. Comitlesloners.) VN andes velie by db ia: - ished by the National Association Wool Catalogue of the Orthoptera i f North orth America described previous to 1861 jui for the Smithsonian Institution by S. H. Scudder. M MAE 8v0, pp. 89. i fic Opinion (Weekly). December, 1868. London, so Che, American. Agricultural An nual. New York: Orange Judd & Co. 12mo. 1809. — o Americ se i & Co. Emo. 189. — uu Jam AMERICAN NATURALIST. Vol. III. — APRIL, 1869. — No. 2. coc G3 (94e DD o THE ABORIGINAL MOUND BUILDERS OF TENNESSEE, BY DR. JOSEPH JONES. Wuen the first Anglo-American pioneers, about the mid- dle of the last century, explored the country east and north of the Tennessee River, the territory between the Ohio and Tennessee Rivers was a vast unoccupied wilderness. The rich valleys, hills and plains of Tennessee and Kentucky were crowded with a dense growth of forest trees and canes, and formed an extensive park, held permanently only by the beasts of the forest, and abounding with immense herds of buffalo, flocks of wild turkeys, droves of deer and innumer- able bears. The nearest permanent Indian settlements were on the Sciota and Miami on the north, and on the waters of the Little Tennessee on the south; and from these points the warriors of the Miami Confederacy of the north, and the Choctaws, Chickasaws and Cherokees of the south issued to engage in hunting and war, in this great central theatre. At this period, by common agreement of all the surrounding tribes, this section of country, which, for its fertile soil, nu- merous rivers and abundant supply of fish and game, was admirably adapted to the settlement of savage tribes, ap- peared to have been reserved from permanent occupancy. That this country, in common with other portions of the Entered according to Act of Congress. in the year 1869, by the PEABODY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts, 8 AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. III. (57) 98 - THE MOUND BUILDERS OF TENNESSEE. great Valley of the Mississippi, was inhabited in ancient times by a comparatively dense population, who subsisted by the arts of husbandry, as well as by the chase, is evident | from the numerous depositories of the dead in the caves and - along the banks of the streams in the fertile valleys, and - around the cool springs which abound in this limestone re- gion, and from the imposing monumental remains and exten- sive earthworks. A considerable portion of the city of Nashville has been. built over an extensive Indian graveyard,* which lay along the valley of Lick Branch. A large portion of these graves | have on removed i in the boilding of North Nashville. In. and obtained a small stone hatchet, and another implement - of hard, silicious stone, beautifully polished. This stone implement is supposed to have been used in the dressing of | hides. All around the sulphur spring, traces of the aborigi- | nes are manifest in the form of Gansiinis of large pots and various implements. It is supposed that this salt lick was frequented by the Indians for game and the manufacture of ; salt. Extensive fortifications, several miles in extent, enclosi two systems of mounds and numerous stone graves, lie along the Big oe about sixteen miles below Old Town, at at t rectly across from the sont of Lick Branch and another about one and a half m lower down; another at Cockrill’s Spring, two an miles from the Sulphur Spring; another six d from Nashville on the (iion Pike, and still aries ie at Hayes- ous stone graves are also found on White's Creek, on the Dick Pike, nine i from Nashville, and at Sycamore, twenty-two miles ^r Nashville, on the plantation of Colonel Overton, an and around Springs, and on the plantation of Mr.Scales. Extensive Indian an Rivers, as A plantation of General ‘DeGraffenreid, two and a half miles above Franklin, numerous stone graves are found within an extensive THE MOUND BUILDERS OF TENNESSEE. 59 Mound Bottom and Osborn’s Place. At these extensive for- tifications, which enclose the sites of two ancient cities, are found three pyramidal mounds, about fifty feet in elevation, and each one containing an acre upon its summit, and be- sides these, numerous lesser mounds. Such structures must have required the labor of a considerable population for a series of years; and more especially must the erection of these earth pyramids have been slow and tedious, as the aborigines were without horses or carts, and the immense mass of earth must have been carried by hand in baskets and skins. The old road or trail which connected these two ancient cities can still be discerned in the forest, the well- worn way being in some places a foot or more beneath the general surface. It is evident from these facts that a chain of fortified towns extended in ancient days all along Big Harpeth, and from careful excavations and examinations and comparisons of the crania and relies, we are convinced that they were all erected by the same race. One of the most remarkable aboriginal remains in Tennessee is found in the fork of Duck River, near Manchester, and is known as the Stone Fort. The walls of the fort have been formed of loose rocks and stones gathered from the bed of the river. The gateway of the fort, which opens toward the neck of land between the two branches of the river, is carefully pro- tected by an inner line of works, so constructed that the enemy entering the fort would be received in a blind pouch or bag. Dimetly in front of the gateway of the fort, and ` about half a mile distant, stands a remarkable mound, the structure of which is similar to that of the walls of the fort, being composed of rocks, none of which exceed a foot and a half in diameter. This oblong mound is 600 feet in cireum- ference and forty feet in height, and the labor of collecting and depositing the loose rocks by — must have been con- siderable. It would be impossible for us upon the present occasion to enter into a minute description of the mounds of Tennessee. 60 THE MOUND BUILDERS OF TENNESSEE. They are found upon the Cumberland, Little Tennessee, Big E j Tennessee, French Broad, Elk River, Harpeth, Duck and 3 Stone Rivers. As a general rule these mounds are erected a upon rich alluvial bottoms, and are either surrounded by ex- 1 tensive earthworks, or are located in the neighborhood of — these fortifications, which mark the site of towns. The : mounds vary in number and size, in a measure, with the : extent and richness of the valleys and the size of the earth- , works. The smallest are not more than a few feet in height, | and about thirty feet in diameter, while the largest attain a height of seventy feet, and cover an aere or two of ground. Many of the smaller mounds were used for the burial of the dead, others for the purpose of religious sacrifice and for the 4 were most probably the sites of the temples and council- houses of the aborigines. : The ancient inhabitants of Tennessee also left singular paintings upon the rocks, representing the sun and moon. These paintings occupy the face of perpendicular cliffs on : the Harpeth, Tennessee, French Broad, Duck and Cumber- land Rivers. The paintings are executed with red ochre, upon high, inaccessible walls of rock overhanging the water, and were, without doubt, devoted to sacred purposes, and . were emblematic of the sun, the god of the aborigines. The paintings of the sun on the rocks on Big Harpeth River about three miles below the road which crosses this stream from Nashville to Charlotte, can be seen for a distance of four miles, and it is probable that the worshippers of the sun assembled before this high place for the performance of thei sacred rights. At Buffalo Gap, on the same stream, whe the ancient trail of the buffalo is still distinct, a line of buf- faloes is painted upon the cliff rock which overhangs from above, and is capable of sheltering a thousand men. We have still another evidence of the existence of a nu- . merous population, in the fact that the first settlers found the eavos Sd. kh ku ub ls bin ee THE MOUND BUILDERS OF TENNESSEE. 61 Hay wood relates that in the spring of the year 1811, two human beings were found in a copperas cave, in Warren County, in West Tennessee, about fifteen miles south-west from Sparta, and twenty miles from MeMinnville. One of these persons was a male, the other a female. "They were interred in baskets made of cane, curiously wrought, and evidencing great mechanical skill. They were both dislo- cated at the hip joint, and were placed erect in the baskets, with a covering of cane made to fit the baskets in which they were placed. The flesh of these persons was entire and undecayed, of a brown color, produced by time, the flesh having adhered to the bones and sinews. Around the female, next her body, was placed a well dressed doeskin; next to this was placed a rug, very curiously wrought of the bark of a tree and feathers. The bark seemed to have been formed of small strands well twisted. Around each of these strands feathers were rolled, and the whole woven into cloth of a fine texture, after the manner of our common coarse fabrics. This rug was about three feet wide, and between six and seven feet in length. The whole of the ligaments thus formed of bark were completely eovered by the feathers, forming a body of about one-eighth of an inch in thickness, the feathers extending about one-quarter of an inch in length from the strand to which they were confined. Its appear- ance was highly diversified by green, blue, yellow and black, presenting different shades of color when reflected upon by the light in different positions. The next covering was an undressed deer-skin, around which was rolled in good order a plain shroud manufactured after the same order as the one ornamented with feathers. This article resembled very much in its texture the bags generally used for the purpose of holding coffee, exported from Havana to the United States. The female had in her hand a fan formed of the tail feathers of a turkey, curiously bound with buckskin strings and scar- let colored hair, so as to open and shut readily. The hair of these mummies was still remaining upon their heads, and 62 THE MOUND BUILDERS OF TENNESSEE. was of a yellow caste and very fine texture. De Soto, in. his mareh in 1539 and 1540, saw great numbers of similar — feathered mantles; the Mexicans at the time of the Spanish conquest were clad in similar garments. E | The tribes of Indians inhabiting the immense territory called by the Spaniards, Florida, embracing a country of indefinite extent, bordering upon the Gulf of Mexico, an including a large portion of the Valley of the Mississippi and the present States of Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Missis- sippi, and the middle and western portions of Tennessee, were more highly civilized, and farther advanced than those ` in more northern regions; they were worshippers of the sun, were governed by despotic princes, cultivated the soil, had made some advances in the arts, and their manners, customs and religion all pointed to Mexico as their native country. The population was much greater at the time of the inva- sion of De Soto than it has been at any subsequent period Large armies were frequently arrayed against him. Potosa, Florida, he was furnished with seven hundred bur- den bearers. In Ocute, Georgia, he was supplied with two hundred of these Indian servants, and at Cafeque, in the same State, four thousand more transported the effects of his army. A numerous population was found in the provin of Coofa, and large forces opposed him at Maubila, Chi asa, and Alabama. The invasion of De Soto resulted in the destruction of an immense Indian population in all the te tory through which he passed ; they were not only destroyed in the bloody battles by thousands, but they were worn out. by heavy burdens, and hunted down with bloodhounds. The European diseases, which the natives inherited from the . Spaniards, served also to thin out their population. Again, ihe constant bloody wars in which they were afterwards en- gaged among themselves, and which, to a great extent, grew out of the invasions, still farther reduced their numbers. . The towns were surrounded with walls of earth and pa THE MOUND BUILDERS OF TENNESSEE. 63 ditches were also found in various parts of the country. The most remarkable of the latter was at Pascha, west of the Mississippi. Here a large ditch, "wide enough for two canoes to pass abreast, without the paddles touching,” sur- rounded a walled town. It was cut nine miles longs com- municated with the Mississippi, supplied the uaiiie with fish, and afforded them the privileges of navigation. The natives formed artificial mounds for purposes of bur- ial, worship, habitation and defense. The houses of the chiefs, with but few exceptions, stood upon large and ele- vated artificial mounds. When the Indians of 1540 resolved to build a town, the site of which was usually selected upon low rich land, by the side of some stream, or in the neigh- borhood of a large never-failing spring, they first erected a mound from twenty to fifty feet high, round on the sides but flat on the top. The habitations of the chief and his family were erected upon the summit. At the foot of the eminence a square was marked out around which the principal men placed their houses, and around them the inferior classes erected their wigwams. Some of these mounds had stair- ways upon their sides, and were so steep as to be accessible only by the artificial way. They were thus rendered secure from the attacks of an Indian enemy. Mounds were also erected over the chiefs after their death, whilst others were formed by the slow accumulation of the dead through ages. The aborigines, at the time of De Soto, worshipped the sun, and erected large temples, which were also receptacles of the bones of the dead. The natives worshipped the sun, and entertained great veneration for the moon and certain stars. When the Indian ambassadors crossed the Savannah to meet De Soto, they made three profound bows toward the East, intended for the sun; three toward the West for the moon, and three toward De Soto. Upon the eastern bank of the Mississippi all the Indians approached him with- out uttering a word, and went through precisely the same ceremony, making to DeSoto, however, three bows much 64 THE MOUND BUILDERS OF TENNESSEE. less reverential than those made to the sun and moon. Simi- 7. lar customs prevailed on the west bank of this great river. In the morning every Indian presented himself at the en- trance of his cabin, and extending his hands toward the sun, as his first ray beamed from the eastern horizon, ad- dressed a rude but fervent hymn of adoration to his glory. during the day; and they were particularly careful that his last ray should strike their heads. A remarkable temple was situated in the town of Talmaco, upon the Savannah River, three miles distant from Cutifachi- que, near Silver Bluff. It was more than one hundred feet in length, and fifty feet in width. The walls were high in proportion, and the roof steep and covered with mats of split cane, interwoven so compaetly that they resembled the rush carpeting of the Moors. The roof was covered with shells of various kinds, arranged in an ingenious manner. On the inside beautiful festoons of pearls, plumes and shells extended along the sides down to the floor. The temple was entered by three gates, guarded by gigantie wooden statues, some of which were armed with drawn bows and long pikes, and others with copper hatchets. On the sides of the walls were large benches, in which sat boxes containing the de- ceased chiefs and their families. "Three rows of chests full of valuable pearls occupied the middle of the temple. The fhde of feathers. | Upon the route through Alabama and the neighboring States, De Soto found the temples full of human bones. The large towns contained stone houses, filled with rich and com- fortable clothing, such as mantles of hemp, and fasihers of i every - color a ee . The 1 i £ THE MOUND BUILDERS OF TENNESSEE. 65 of the various barks of trees, and a species of flax inter- woven and dyed of various colors; also, well dressed and painted skins, and garments worn with beautiful feathers. The mantle was thrown over the shoulders with the arm ex- posed. Great men were sometimes, after the manner of the Mexicans, borne upon litters by their subjects, while their heads were shielded from the sun by shades made of feathers or gaudily painted hides. The important conclusion which we draw from these inves- tigations is: That the race which erected the mounds and fortifications of Tennessee was existing and active at the time of the discovery of North America, and possessed the country with a numerous population, even as late as the ex- ploration of De Soto. This conclusion, which is at variance with the theories propounded by various ethnologists of Europe and America, who assign a considerable period to the extinction of the mound builders, will be still farther sustained by the remarkable discovery which we have made during the progress of these investigations, of the cross, em- blems of the Christian religion, and especially of the Trin- ity, the Saviour and the Virgin Mary in the mounds of Ten- nessee. We believe that the preceding conclusion is based upon incontrovertible facts and evidence. We will proceed to consider, in the next place, the mode of burial practiced by the aborigines of Tennessee, as shown by their sacred and sacrificial mounds and stone graves. The ancient race of Tennessee buried their dead in rude stone coffins or sarcophagi, constructed of flat pieces of lime- stone or slaty sandstone, which abounds in Middle Tennes- see. Extensive graveyards are found in Tennessee and Kentucky along the river courses, in the valleys and around the springs, in which the stone coffins lie close to each other. These graves, although justly regarded as rude fabrics, nevertheless exhibit considerable skill in their construction, and are standing memorials of the regard in which the an- cient race held the memory se the dead. AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. HI. 66 THE MOUND BUILDERS OF TENNESSEE. The manner of burial appeared to have been thus: An — excavation of the proper size, according to that of the body — of the dead, was made in the ground, and the bottom care- - fully paved with flat stones. Long flat stones, or slabs of limestone and slaty sandstone, were placed along the sides, and at the head and foot of the grave. The body or skeleton was then placed within the rude coffin, and the top covered with a large flat rock, or with several flat rocks. When a number of coffins were constructed together, the side rocks of the first coffin frequently constituted the side of the sec- ond, and so on. Many of the graves are quite small, only eapable of containing the body of a new-born infant. Many of the short square graves, not more than eighteen inches, or two feet in length, contain the bones of adults piled to- gether, the head being surrounded by, or resting upon the . arm and leg bones. This class of graves, containing the bones of adults packed in a small space, was probably con- structed at the general burying festival, or contained the re- mains of the dead which had been transported from a great distance. In a small mound, about forty-five feet in diameter, and about twelve feet in height, which I opened, about ten miles from Nashville, on the banks of a small stream and spring; and which contained perhaps one hundred skeletons, the stone graves, especially towards the centre of the mound, . were placed one upon the other, forming in the highest part of the mound three or four ranges. The oldest and lowest graves were of the small square variety, while those near or upon the summit, were of the natural length and width of the skeleton within. : | mound, as in other burial places, i in the small ; equare. stone graves, the bones were frequently found broken, and while some graves contained only a portion of an entire — others contained fragments of two or more skele- together. The small mound now under con- on, which was one of the most perfect in its construc- THE MOUND BUILDERS OF TENNESSEE. 61 tion, the lids of the upper sarcophagi being so arranged as to form an .even-rounded, shelving rock surface, was situated upon the western slope of a beautiful hill covered with the magnificent growth of the native forest. The remains of an old Indian fortification were still evident, surrounding an extensive encampment and several other mounds. Ina large and carefully constructed stone tomb, the lid of which was formed of a flat rock, over seven feet in length, and three feet wide, I exhumed the bones of what was supposed to have been an ancient Indian chief who had passed his hun- dred summers. The skeleton was about seven feet in length, and the huge jaws had lost every vestige of teeth, the alveo- lar processes being entirely absorbed. The hill upon which the residence of Col. Overton stands, about nine miles from Nashville, was in ancient times cov- ered with a flourishing Indian village. The circular depres- sions of their wigwams are still visible. The aborigines appeared to have been attracted to this locality by the noble spring which bursts out at the foot of the hill. Thousands of bones were exhumed in excavating the cellar of the family mansion. The crest and south-eastern slope of the hill are covered with stone graves, many of which have been opened by curiosity hunters. A large number are concealed by the rank growth of weeds and grass. Those which I examined — -aat this locality were all constructed upon the same plan. Here, as elsewhere, the graves were of various sizes, from that just sufficient to enclose the remains of a little child, up to the long stone coffin of eight feet. Some have supposed that these little graves enclosed a race of pigmies, but upon careful examination of many, at various localities, we dis- covered that they were simply the graves of the young; for we found the teeth in all stages of development, from the toothless child, through the period of dentition, up to the appearance of the wisdom teeth. Some of the small graves contained the bones of small animals, apparently of dogs, rabbits, squirrels and wild cats, and of birds, such as the wild - 68 THE MOUND BUILDERS OF TENNESSEE. turkey. These animals were buried with the children. Some of the burial mounds were evidently used also for 3 sacred and religious purposes, and were held in high venera- tion as the resting place of royal families. Thus, in a small mound which I explored, about one hundred feet in diame- berland River, opposite the city of Nashville, and just across from the mouth of Lick Branch, at the foot of a large mound, which had been apparently used as a residence, I discovetetil the following interesting remains: In the centre of the mound, about three feet from its sur- face, I uncovered a large sacrificial vase, or altar, forty-three . inehes in diameter, composed of a mixture of clay and river shells. The rim of the vase was three inches in height. The entire vessel had been moulded in a large wicker basketi formed of split canes, and the leaves of the cane, the impres- sions of which were plainly visible upon the outer surface. The circle of the vase appeared to be almost mathematically correct. The surface of the altar was covered with a layer of ashes, about one inch in thickness, and these ashes had the appearance and composition of having been derived from the burning of animal matter. The umm and jaw bone of a deer were found resting upon the surface of the altar. The edges of the vase, shik had been broken off, apparently by accident during the performances of the religious ceremonies, were carefully. laid over the layer of ashes, and the whole covered with earth near three feet in thickness, and thus the ashes have been preserved to a remarkable extent from the action of the rains. Stone sarcophagi were ranged around the central altar with the heads of the dead to the centre, and the feet to the cir- S cumference, resembling the radii of a circle. The inner circle of graves was constructed with great care, and all the Indians buried around the altar were ornamented with beads | of various kinds, some of which had been cut out of large He, others out of bone, and others aguin, wore oon. ig ter and’ about ten feet high, on the eastern bank of the Cum- E THE MOUND BUILDERS OF TENNESSEE. 69 posed of an entire sea-shell, punctured, so as to admit of the passage of the thread upon which they were strung. In a most carefully constructed stone sarcophagus with the face looking to the setting sun, a beautiful shell ornament was found resting upon the breast bone. It had a central sun, and the large circle around this curiously divided into three figures or equal parts, with two outer rows of suns (nine suns in the outer row, making twenty-three suns in these two rows), making with the central sun, twenty-four suns in all ; and with stars encircling the suns. This ornament upon its concave figured surface, had been covered with red paint; upon the back the convex plane surface was smooth and plain, with the exception of three crescentie marks. The material of which it is composed was derived from a large flat sea-shell; no fresh water muscle, in any part of the waters of Tennessee and of the surrounding States, could furnish a uniform thickness of flat shell equal to this; and the regularity of its convexity and concavity, as well as the perfection of all its parts, and the uniformity of its thickness everywhere, are proofs that it must have been derived from _a very large shell from the sea coast. This skeleton had around the neck, arms, waist and ankles, numerous beads of various kinds. The smaller beads were all of the small sea- shells. This stone grave had been constructed with such care, that little or no earth had fallen in and the skeleton rested as it were in a perfect vault. The head, which was evidently that’ of a woman, was in a remarkable state of pres- ervation. From the nature of the ornament upon the breast, as well as from the care with whieh the sarcophagus had been con- structed, we judged that this was the priestess of the sun. In the grave of a child, near the right side of the grave of the priestess of the sun, and at the foot of the grave of a giga gantic old Indian, seven feet in length, and of great age, as manifested by the loss of teeth, and the absorption of the alveoli, a curious Paini black idol was exhumed. The fea- 70 THE MOUND BUILDERS OF TENNESSEE. tures of this image resemble those of the Aztec, or ancient — Mexican sculptures. The figure is kneeling, with the hands ~ clasped across the breasts (forming a cross) in the attitude - of prayer. This image is formed of a mixture of black clay - and powdered shells, and is exceedingly hard, with a smooth, — polished surface. The under jaw of the old Indian, whose | grave lay near this idol, was of remarkable size, and had only one long, sharp fang, like the tooth of a wild animal. On the left of the grave of the priestess of the sun lay two other most carefully constructed graves, in one of which nu- merous beads were found, enclosing or encircling various | portions of the skeleton, and in the other a large sea conch. Also two copper ornaments, lying on the side of the head of the skeleton, or rather two round pieces of wood, with a hole in the centre, and covered with a thin layer of copper. Two skeletons, apparently those of a man and woman, were found on the southern slope of the mound near the altar, which had been interred without any stone coffin. In the hand of the woman was a beautiful, light reddish yellow vase, painted with regular black Binnion. Under the head of the male skeleton na a splendid stone hatchet with the entire handle and ring, at the end of the handle, cut out of a compact green chloritic primitive stone. A circle of graves ; extended around the inner circle, which we have described After careful examination, we were forced to the conclusion that this sacred mound was formed at the time of the death of some celebrated chief or chieftess, the representative of the sun; and the more distinguished members of the family were > buried in the inner circle around the altar, where the - nt: around at their feet. | It is probable that this sacred | [ | j | CC RW MER EIER TAMUE TTE THE MOUND BUILDERS OF TENNESSEE. 71 mound marked the site of an ancient temple of the sun, in which the aborigines kept the eternal fire. The sacrifices upon the altar appear, from the bones of the deer, the ant- lers, ete., to have been not human, but animal. That the aborigines of Tennessee were idolaters, is mani- fest from the stone and clay idols, which have been found in various portions of the State, some of which were found in caves, and others upon the summit of high mounds. It is worthy of notice that some of the idols have the fore- head flattened, making an exact line with the nose, and re- sembling in all respects the Toltec heads of Mexico, while others are represented with full round foreheads; and it is still further worthy of notice that the hair of the head of the idols is represented in a very different mode from that in which the nomadic tribes of North American Indians now wear it. In the female idols the hair is gathered into a knot or "waterfall" behind, while in the male idols it is bound into a cue behind, like the hair of the Chinese. These re- markable sculptures in hard sandstone, limestone and por- phyry, eorrespond in features and mode of hair dress with the inhabitants of Central America, at the time of the Span- ish conquest. Herera, in describing the inhabitants of Yucatan, Says: “They flatten their heails and foreheads, their ears were bored, with rings in them, their hair was long like women, and in tresses, with which they made a garland about the head, and a little tail hung behind.” The most important and interesting result in the entire series of investigations is the discovery of undoubted sym- bols of the Catholic religion in the stone graves and mounds of Tennessee. In a stone grave in a small mound within an extensive fortification on the banks of Big Harpeth River, two and a half miles from Franklin, on the plantation of ‘General De Graffenried, four copper crosses were exhumed, resting upon the skull of an old Indian. The copper had stained the bones of the cranium of a deep green color. In 12 THE MOUND BUILDERS OF TENNESSEE. their general outlines two of these crosses presented the | 1 general contour of the human figure. The crosses appear E -~ to have been stamped upon the copper plates with a die. This grave also contained a remarkable vase, fashioned of à light yellow clay and crushed river shells, upon the sides of which were painted in black, three crosses, surrounded with three circles and three crowns. The rounded body the vase was accurately divided into three portions, by the black pigment disposed in three black bands, uniting at the base and neck of the vase, thus leaving three circular spaces upon the rounded sides, which were ornamented with the cen tral cross, an outer circle around each cross, while this cirel was again surmounted by the crown. Each crown had ten prominences or points. The superior portion of the neck — of the vase was arched and so turned as to form the mouth - horizontally. The summit of the vase terminated in a well ‘shaped nipple. In a similar burjal mound within the same enclosure: amongst other most interesting relics, we discovered tw large v vases, marked in a sida manner, with three divisions Sete central crosses, three circles around the crosses, à three crowns. In these large vases the points of the crowns were drawn out so as to peiciuble spikes and thorns, and i one of the vases the ends of the thorns, or those portions which would form the circle of the crown are represented as- if plaited together. Two vases of similar construction were also exhumed, one with the head of a Spaniard, with a hel- met upon the crown. The resemblance of the features to. those of a Spanish Cavalier is wonderful. This small vessel | was used as a paint bowl, and still contains the red ochre. The other black vase is fastened on the summit after th manner of a hood. Another small idol fashioned of white clay, found in Middle Tennessee, painted with the same va pum and dressed l1 to represent ~ THE FAUNA OF MONTANA TERRITORY. 73 said, has the arms crossed upon the breast, in the attitude of prayer, the erown upon the head has three prominences, and the hatchet has three marks upon its head, and the beautiful shell ornament from the same mound has the symbol of the Trinity, both upon the anterior and posterior surfaces. A circular shell ornament, with a well formed crown in the centre, which had been filled with some kind of red pig- ment, was discovered by Colonel Putnam in a stone grave near Nashville. These religious relics are of a great interest in their bear- ing upon the probable date of the mounds and temples and graves in which they are found, and in the proof which they afford, that the inhabitants of America, have, at various times, come in contact with the civilization and religions of Europe, even before the recognized era of the discovery and exploration of the American continent. In several of the crania, the os-Incae, characteristic of the Peruvian skulls, was observed. That this ancient race were descended from the Toltecs, and were probably a branch of the Natchez, is rendered probable, not only from the confor- mation of the crania, but also from the history of this once powerful, but now extinct nation of the Natchez. THE FAUNA OF MONTANA TERRITORY. BY J. G. COOPER, M. D. (Continued from page 35.) Car Bren (Mimus Carolinensis). I was surprised to find the Cat Bird common entirely across the Rocky Mountains to Ceur d'Aleie Mission, almost on the border of the Columbia Plains. It has the usual cry and habits of the species. I thought I saw Oreoscoptes montanus along the Hell Gate River, but may have been mistaken. Rock Wren (Salpinctes obsoletus). I observed this bird NL- — 10 AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. » a 14 THE FAUNA OF MONTANA TERRITORY. occasionally through the main Rocky Mountain chain, to near the crossing of the Bitterroot, but less common than among the cliffs and rocks of the barren plains along their eastern slope. Though neither Dr. Suckley nor zy found it in the western part of Washington Territory, I have no doubt that it frequents parts of the rocky caüons of the Columbia Plain, and Nuttall says that he saw it at the "low- est falls? (Cascades) of the Columbia (Manual, second edi- tion, Vol. I, p. 492). A nest with nine eggs was found in a log cabin below Fort Benton. Winter Wren (Troglodytes hyemalis). Seen only near the summit of the Cœur d’Alefie Mountains, in September. CREEPER (Certhia Mexicana). Rather common, especi- ally in the dark spruce forests of the Cœur d'Alene Range. Habits and note exactly as in the eastern bird (C. Ameri- cana). LonG-BILLED NurHATCH (Sitta aculeata) and ReD-BELLIED Nurnatcn (S. Canadensis). Both common in the Rocky Mountains as in the Cascade Range, but rare in the dense forests. Pigmy NurHaATCH (S. pygmea). Flocks of this little bird were met with at intervals from the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains, in August, to the Spokan River and Fort Colville, frequenting the open woods of pine (Pinus ponder- osa), and were more gregarious, lively and noisy, than the = preceding, constantly chirping like young chickens, and like z them seeking insects more among the leaves than in the. j bark. It has also at times a harsh call much like the others. : NortHern Titmouse (Parus septentrionalis?, var. albe- — scens). I obtained a specimen of this bird on the bank of the Missouri within the mountains, and as it is found at Fort Bridger, have little doubt of its crossing into Washington — Territory, though I did not again recognize it among the - many Pari I saw afterwards. The cries and habits of all | these black-capped species are so nearly similar, that it re- — quires a very near approach to distinguish them. — P THE FAUNA OF MONTANA TERRITORY. 15 WrsrERN Titmouse (P. occidentalis). Common in the Rocky Mountains, associating with the Mountain Titmouse. Mountain TrruovusE (P. montanus). Rather less abun- dant than the last, but alike in habits; call-note rather harsher. Both of my specimens are larger than more west- ern ones. Seen with the last named at Fort Dalles, Oregon. Rurous-BACKkED TrrwOUsE (P. rufescens). I met with this only in the dense forests of the higher Coeur d'Alene Mountains, along with Turdus nevius, Trogl. hyemalis, ete., the same group most common in the similar forests of the Coast Mountains in this Territory. It there seemed to have all the business of Titmice to itself, and in notes is easily distinguishable from any of the preceding, though similar in habits. I saw it nowhere else east of the nobiles. Hornep Lark (Eremophila cornuta). Abundant in the more open prairie districts everywhere. I found many of its nests along the Upper Missouri. Evenine Grospeak (Hesperiphona vespertina). During my residence west of the Cascade Mountains, in 1854, I often heard a call uttered by some bird flying above the tops of the highest trees, and audible for a mile in still weather. I heard the same among and near the Cœur d'Aleie Range, and saw the birds, but too high to distinguish the species. They made the cry only when flying from one tree to an- other, and when feeding among the top branches of the highest trees were so quiet that I never could even see them. I always supposed them to be the Evening Grosbeak, which they resemble in size, and Townsend’s observations of its habits and notes agree iu with these remarks. (Nuttall, Manual, 1840, Vol. I, p. 620). The habits of the Black-headed Grosbeak are quite differ- ent, as it lives commonly among bushes, or near the ground in open woods, and has no such cry. The birds seen may possibly, however, have been Pine Grosbeaks, which belong to the same long-winged group of arboreal finches, and were collected in these mountains in winter by Mr. Hildreth. 16 THE FAUNA OF MONTANA TERRITORY. PunPLE FrwcH (Carpodacus). I saw none throughout - the journey. : YeLLow Bird (Chrysomitris tristis). I saw this bird at the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains, and as it occurs also along the lower Columbia it is probably to be found in summer through nearly the whole territory. Nuttall found its nest on Lewis' (Snake) River. (Vol. I, p. 595). Pine Fıxcu (C. pinus). Common throughout the moun- tains. Rep CnossBiLL ( Curvirostra Americana var. ? Mexicana). Common throughout, and very abundant in the spruce forests of the Ceur d'Alene Mountains, where it is remarkably fa- miliar, feeding and dusting much on the ground, especially about the few log cabins built there. Among large numbers closely observed, I saw very few of the white-winged spe- cies. The male sometimes uttered a few musical notes much in the style of the Yellow Bird ( C. tristis), but louder. The specimen preserved is much larger than those I collected on the west coast in 1853, with the bill also larger, and the pro- portions are even greater yet than those of Strickland’s L- Mexicana, from the City of Mexico. (Baird’s Rep., p. 924). The habits and notes are so universally similar that the va- rious sizes can scarcely indieate more than local varieties; such as occur in nearly all our widely spread species. The bill and feet were, however, black instead of brown. WnurrE-wivGED ChosspiLL (O. leucoptera). The speci- men preserved was shot from a flock of the common kind, on the eastern slope of the Coeur d'Alene Mountains, by Capt. Floyd Jones. 4 CHESTNUT-COLORED Duxwrrsa ( Plectrophanes ornatus). I found this species with fledged young in July, on the plains near Fort Benton, where it evidently breeds. LARGE SAVANNAH Sparrow (Paserculus Sandwichensis)- This specimen I shot on the Spokan Prairie, September 24th, — and saw a few more there and on other parts of the interior — plains of Washington Territory afterwards. From the earli- — | | | | THE FAUNA OF MONTANA TERRITORY. 77 ness of the season, I suspect that it breeds in these regions, migrating to the coast for the winter, where I found it from October to May, in 1854. In habits it resembles the other Savannah Sparrows. Lark Fincx ( Chondestes grammaca). Common near Fort Benton, and occurring in small numbers on the prairies in and west of the Rocky Mountains. WHITE-CROWNED Sparrow ( Zonotrichia Gambelii, or Z. leucophrys?). I found this species only in the Cœur d'Alene Range, from which circumstance I suppose it to be the Z. Gambelii. The young specimen preserved had brown feet, while the adult has them yellow in summer, but brownish in winter. OREGON Snowsrrp (Junco Oregonus). I saw no Snow- birds until September 1st, after which migrating flocks were common. I could only distinguish this species among them, though I saw some of a paler hue about the head, probably from immaturity. Curprine Sparrow (Spizella socialis). Common through- out the journey, and nests were found on the Upper Missouri. Brewer’s Sparrow (S. Brewerii). I found flocks, appa- rently of this species, on the eastern slope of the mountains only, migrating South in August. Two which I shot I took . for the young of S. socialis, and did not preserve them, but I now think they were of this species. They frequented the open pine woods, which the former rarely does, preferring prairies, The distinction of this from S. pallida is like that of young birds of the genus generally, and the lists of specimens given by Baird show that all may have been young birds, judging from the period of the year they were collected in. Western Sone Sparrow (Melospiza rufina). This Song Sparrow was common in the Rocky Mountains, and appeared to me to resemble M. rufina of the Pacific Coast in every respect, BLUE LINNET ( Cyanospiza amæna). I saw this bird on 18 THE FAUNA OF MONTANA TERRITORY. the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, but not among them, though it probably occurs there sparsely. Livconw's Fwon (M. Lincolnii). Rather common in flocks along the Bitterroot River, migrating in September. Arctic Grounp-FIncH (Pipilo detiene). I observed specimens which I supposed to be of this species, entirely across the Rocky Mountains, and preserved one from each side. In habits they resembled the eastern and west coast species, and I observed little difference in their notes at that season from those of P. Oregonus. I also preserved a nest and eges of this ( ?) from along the Missouri River. Bosornrk (Dolichonyx oryzivorus). At several points in the valley of the Bitterroot River, I heard and saw at a dis- tance what I took for the Bobolink, the flight and flying- call exactly resembling that bird’s. At Coeur d’Alefie Mis- sion I again met with it, but could not get near enough to shoot it or determine the species, though they frequented a wheat-field for several mornings. I know no bird likely to be mistaken for it, and having been found at Fort Bridger, a few probably go north to latitude 47° 30’, as they go to latitude 54° east of the mountains, according to Richardson. The Calamospiza, which is common near Fort Benton, I saw no farther west, and its notes and habits are quite different. ow Buntine (Molothrus pecoris). I saw this bird only ence near Fort Benton, but as it abounds along the Platte River and follows trains of wagons, cattle, etc., besides being found at Fort Bridger and Sacramento, Cal., I should be surprised if it did not occur in the present limits of Wash- ington Territory, at least along Snake River, and possibly follow emigration as far as the Cascade Mountains. I seeno - reason whe it should not also emigrate to the open regions north of the Columbia ; and Townsend has it in’ his list/of “Oregon” birds (1834). D-WINGED BLACKBIRD (Agelaius phoeniceus). Common at Cour d'Alene Miot, Fort Colville, and Bitterroot bess 1 4 PSU S ARES Races Ws ak RES DR emi THE FAUNA OF MONTANA TERRITORY. 19 Western Lank (Sturnella neglecta). Found on every prairie throughout the Rocky Mountains. WESTERN GRACKLE ( Scolecophagus cyanocephalus). Com- mon in all marshy meadows of the Rocky Mountains, except at a very high elevation. Raven (Corvus carnivorus). A constant attendant at camp, especially when about to be broken up. Eastern Crow (O. Americanus). At Sun River, east of the Rocky Mountains, I saw several of this species, and noticed no peculiarities as to flocking, note, ete. Western Crow (C. caurinus). The first crows I saw west of the dividing ridge were a distant flock, at sixty miles, and again at a camp about twenty miles above the junction of Hell Gate with the Bitterroot River, where a flock of about one hundred flew over at dusk, probably to- wards a roosting place. Their gregariousness at that season (August 25th), and unusual noise, struck me as peculiar; and on other occasions farther down the valley I saw some, but most of them probably live near the settlements of the St. Mary’s Valley. At Coeur d'Alene Mission I again found large flocks of crows, and on comparing one with the plates and descrip- tions contained in the Natural History of Washington Terri- tory, I found it to agree with C. caurinus in the form of the bill, but to be intermediate between it and C. Americanus in size, though nearest the former. I am inclined to think it was caurinus, but, like several other Rocky Mountain speci- mens collected by me, larger than those of the same species from the coast. Its habits were different from those of C. Americanus, and as it occurs at the Dalles, it could easily cross the intervening country. It cannot, however, be much of a “fish-crow” in these mountains. CLankE's NurcRAckER (Picicorvus Columbianus). I found this bird from the first pine forests east of the Rocky Mountains entirely across, but more rare in the spruce for- ests, as it is in those west of the Cascade Mountains, evi- 80 THE FAUNA OF MONTANA TERRITORY. dently because it feeds chiefly on the seeds of the Yellow Pine (P. ponderosa), which is either wanting or scarce among the spruces. I noticed large flocks flying in very loose order, with a steady, pretty rapid motion like a Jay, not in the least “by jerks, in the manner of a Woodpecker,” as described by Townsend (Nuttall, Manual, 1840, Vol. I, p. 252). BLACK-BILLED Macpre (Pica Hudsonica). No Magpies appeared along the Missouri River in June, until we had entered the “Bad Lands,” where it cuts through the first mountain range, and pine woods began to appear. Thence they continued common throughout the route westward, and on reaching Vancouver, October 30th, I found them for the first time about there. STELLER's Jay (Cyanura Stellerii). I saw no Jays my- self until-we crossed the Bitterroot River, when they became common in the spruce forests. Dr. Suckley, however, found this species at St. Mary’s Valley, in October 1853. CANADA Jay (Perisoreus Canadensis). This bird appeared near the crossing of the Bitterroot, and was also common in the spruce forests of the Cour d'Alene Mountains, these being its favorite summer residence as they are near the coast. ; Bawp-rarLED PiGkoN (Columba fasciata). I saw but one bird, which I think belonged to this species, near Cœur d'Aleüe Mission, at the base of the most western range of mountains. It seems to leave the Rocky Mountains almost entirely to the next species, though a few have been obtained farther south, along their eastern base, by Say and Peale. (Nuttall, Manual, Vol. I, p. 753.*) PassENGER PiGron ( Ectopistes migratoria). The Passen- ger Pigeon, like the Cat-bird, astonished me by its frequency in the Rocky Mountains, as, although I saw no very large flocks, I saw some almost every day until I passed the Spo- Sus Falls, just north of the Columbia Plains, where Lieut. T aser a fact at Kho A. P +} gt, 1 * A ids 4 + : THE FAUNA OF MONTANA TERRITORY. . 81 A. V. Kautz shot two. It thus seems to pass round to the north of that plain, and occasionally to cross the Cascade Range, as mentioned by Dr. Suckley in 1853. Along the Missouri I often saw small flocks, and noticed quite a number of their nests in small trees between Forts Pierre and Berthold. I found one sitting June 7th, and heard that many build farther south, near Sioux City. In the mountains they fed, in August, chiefly on the Ser- vice-berry (Amelanchier alnifolia), which, along the Hell Gate, attains a size and flavor unequalled by any I have seen elsewhere. Dove ( Zenaidura Carolinensis). I did not see this bird anywhere in the mountains, though I found it above Fort Union, on the Missouri. Dusky Grouse (Tetrao obscurus). This Grouse was shot at the very beginning of pine woods on the east base of the Rocky Mountains, and I often killed them afterwards all the way to Fort Colville, but none in very good plumage up to October. FnaxkLIN's Grouse (T. Franklinit). The first specimen met with was shot through the head with a pistol ball, by Lits L; Rs L. Livingston. It is much smaller than num- bers 123 and 124, which were trapped by the Indians near Fort Colville, three weeks later. I did not see any alive myself, büt was told that in winter they are common south to Spokan River, and very stupid, standing by the roadside to be shot, having doubtless descended from the mountains, Where they were unmolested. They are also common in summer near the pass, 5100 feet above the sea, on the Cœur d'Aleie Range. I now believe that two young specimens, one killed in Klickatat Pass, Cascade Mountains, in August 1853, the other near Spokan River, in October 1853, and mentioned in my Report as T. obscurus, "running through the snow," were of this species. In their immature plumage I then supposed the red mark over the eye to be merely a character of the AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. HI. 11 82 . THE FAUNA OF MONTANA TERRITORY. young. The "Small Brown Pheasant” of Lewis & Clark (?) is probably the immature Zagopus leucurus, which inhabits much more Alpine districts than any we traversed. SHARP-TAILED GROUSE (T. Columbianus). This Grouse occurs abundantly at most of the prairie regions passed through, on Sun River, Deer Lodge, Bitterroot (St. Mary’s) and Spokan prairies, probably finding its way down around the valley of Clark’s Fork, and reaches Fort Colville in small numbers. I saw none, however, in the higher prairies of the Rocky Mountains, over 4500 feet above the sea. SaGE-FowL (Centrocercus urophasianus). I saw nothing of the Sage-fowl, which Col. Vaughan, who had a specimen killed near Fort Benton, says is very rare there. None were seen by our party on the Columbia Plains, north of Snake River, where they were common in 1853. RurrEp GROUSE (Bonasa Sabinii var.? umbelloides). I shot several specimens of this Ruffed Grouse from the east base of Mullan’s Pass to Fort Colville, most of which were young or moulting, but showed more or less brown in their plumage, thus connecting the above named variety (?) with the other two forms, which it entirely resembles in habits, "etc. I saw a much grayer one near Fort Colville in 1853. Gray Crane (Grus Canadensis). Only two observed in the Rocky Mountains, and none elsewhere, except a tame one near Fort Colville, which followed our horses for some | distance apparently for the pleasure of a race, running with wings spread until it was passed, then flying ahead and cir- cling round to meet us again. It refused a piece of bread thrown to it. l Brue Heron (Ardea herodias). I did not see this, nor any other species of Heron, west of Fort Benton. Lewis and Clark, as well as Dr. Newberry, speak of seeing White Herons below Snake River. Mouxwrars Prover (Aegialitis montanus). Rare along the east base of the Rocky Mountains, usually about the Prairie-dog villages, and might be expected | to cross the ~ THE FAUNA OF MONTANA TERRITORY. 83 mountains as it does farther south. I do not recollect, how- ever, having seen any of the small waders anywhere in the mountains, though I noticed the Field Plover (Actiturus Bar- tramius) at the eastern base of Mullan's Pass, a bird never yet obtained west of the mountains.* Winsow's Snipe (Scolopax Wilsonii) was seen at Cama, Prairie Creek, on the eastern border of the Columbia Plains, about the end of September. Esqumaux CurLew (Numenius borealis) breeds near Fort Benton, where young were caught in July, still downy, but I have seen no Curlew on the Columbia Plains, though a species is said to abound near Fort Dalles, Oregon, in the spring. Swan (Oygnus Americanus?). Swans were seen in large flocks on the Columbia River, in the Cascade Cañon, as early as October 29th, this year (1860), and their migration - southward seemed generally early. I saw them, however, on lakes of the Columbia Plain about the same time in 1853 Canapa Goose (Bernicla Canadensis). Great numbers of this goose breed along the Missouri, where we saw broods every day from Fort Leavenworth up to Fort Benton. They are said to lay in nests, on trees, probably deserted nests of some other large bird. I saw two at Spokan River, Washington Territory, September 25th, which were proba- bly summer residents there. Marramp (Anas boschas). Common in summer in the valleys of the Rocky Mountains, where it breeds. GrEEN-wincep Tear (JVettion Carolinensis). Common at St. Mary’s Valley in August, and probably breeds in the mountains, : Mountains GonpEN-EYE (Bucephala Islandica?). I saw some dark headed ducks, perhaps this species, which was so long supposed to be peculiar to the Rocky Mountains, lo peo (Gambetta melanoleuca) were obtained by Dr. Suckley at St. Mary's Val- ; in 1853. : 84 THE FOSSIL REPTILES OF NEW JERSEY. high up the Little Blackfoot River, but did not succeed in killing one. SHELDRAKE (Mergus Americanus). I shot a female bird of this species at the highest camp on the Little Blackfoot River, near where it doubtless had raised a brood, as they seek such clear rapid streams for that purpose in the Cascade Mountains. M. serrator, the female of which is so much like this, has probably never been obtained far from the coast. WESTERN GREBE (Podiceps occidentalis). I found this Grebe on the Alkaline lakes of the Columbia Plain, October 8th, about the same time of year that I obtained the first known specimen from near Walla Walla, in 1853. Its breed- ing place may be on the shores of these lakes. —7To be con- cluded. THE FOSSIL REPTILES OF NEW JERSEY. BY PROF. E. D. COPE. (Continued from Vol. I, page 30. WHILE grim and monstrous Dinosaurs ranged the forests and flats of the coast of the Cretaceous sea, and myriads of Gavials basked on the bars and hugged the shores, other races peopled the waters. The gigantic Mosasaurus, the longest of known reptiles, had few rivals in the ocean. These Pythonomorphs were the sea-serpents of that age, and their snaky forms and gaping jaws rest on better evi- dence than he of Nahant can yet produce. Ten species of this group are known from the Gisticeous beds of the United States, of which six have been found in New Jersey. Two others occur in Europe. In relative abundance of individuals, as well as of species, New Jersey is much in advance of any other part of the world where ex- cavations have been made. American Naturalist. Vol iii, Fl. 2. i) S M N 225 ji COPE ON FOSSIL REPTILES OF NEW JERSEY. ND ee a THE FOSSIL REPTILES OF NEW JERSEY. 85 These creatures have been referred to the neighborhood of the Varanide or Lace-lizards, which now haunt the shores of rivers in the tropics and southern regions of the Old World. Cuvier, Owen. and others, have expressed this view, and there has been little dissent from it expressed by paleontologists. They readily constitute, however, a dis- tinct order of reptiles, combining features of serpents, liz- ards, and Plesiosaurians. This is readily understood by the light of the abundant material discovered in various parts of the United States. The lizard-like affinities are, it is true, to the Varanians rather than to any others. 'The Mosasaurus was a long slender reptile, with a pair of powerful paddles in front, a moderately long neck and flat pointed head. The very long tail was flat and deep, like that of a great eel, forming a powerful propeller. The arches of the vertebral column interlocked more extensively than in other reptiles except the snakes, presenting in a prolongation of the front of one, which enters beneath that immediately in advance of it, a rudiment of that extra articulation called the "zygosphenal." In the related genus Clidastes, this structure is as fully developed as in the serpents, so that we can picture to ourselves its well known consequences: their rapid progress through the water by lateral undulations; their lithe motions on land; the rapid stroke; the ready coil; or the elevation of the head and vertebral column, literally a living pillar towering above waves or brush of the shore swamps. While the construc- tion of the skull was as light as that of the serpents, it was, apparently, not so strong. The sutures are more frequently of the squamosal type, and the brain case was not as fully ossified in front. The teeth, too, are less acute, and therefore less adapted for retaining struggling prey : W ile the jaws were longer, the gape was not so extensive as in serpents of the higher groups, for the os quadratum, the sus- pensor of the lower jaw, though equally movable and fast- ened to widely spread supports, was much shorter than in 86 THE FOSSIL REPTILES OF NEW JERSEY. them. But there was a remarkable arrangement to obviate any inconvenience arising from these points. While the branches of the under jaw had no sutural connection, and possessed independent motion, as in all serpents, they had the additional peculiarity, not known elsewhere among verte- brates (except in a few snakes), of a movable articulation a little behind the middle of each. Its direction being ob- lique, the flexure was outwards and a little downwards, greatly expanding the width of the space between them, and allowing their tips to close a little. A loose flexible pouch- like throat would then receive the entire prey, swallowed be- "tween the branches of the jaw; the necessity of holding it long in the teeth, or of passing it between the short quad- rate bones would not exist. Of course the glottis and tongue would be forwards. The physiognomy of the reptile, with apparently dislocated jaws and swollen throat, as he passed a Chimera to his internal laboratory, could scarcely be prepos- sessing. The Clidastes and Macrosaurus were the more slender of these heteroclite beings, while Mosasaurus embraces the most gigantic. The Clidastes iguanavus could not have been shorter than thirty feet, and presented a reduction of the length of the paddles, consistent with its thoroughly serpent- like vertebral column. Macrosaurus validus considerably exceeded this length. Mosasaurus Mitchellii and .M. Missu- riensis propelled sixty feet of length through the waves, while no portion of these have been found to equal the M. maximus, which have recently been exhumed. The reptilian whales of those troublous times, were the Cimoliasaurs and Elasmosaurs. These were the Plesiosaurs of Cretaceous life, and probably had a great range over the earth. Portions of them have been found in England and North America to our far western regions. Cimolinsaurds ced to have resembled Plesiosaurus in general, while us mosaurus added to its type an enormous and flattened tail, relatively a as Jong as that of the Mosasaur, or the modern THE FOSSIL REPTILES OF NEW JERSEY. 81 Iguana, but not so flat as in the former; perhaps it were more as in the Crocodile as to compression, while relatively still longer. But both of these types present one strange feature. The processes which connect the arches of the ver- tebre, are related to each other in directions the reverse of that which prevails among vertebrata generally, being per- haps the same as the zygosphen of the serpent and Clidastes, without the usual aecompaniment. But the more probable explanation is, that they are the usual "zygapophyses" with the articular faces somewhat altered in direction. They are very oblique, turned a little over from the perpendicular, which latter position is sometimes more or less approached by these processes in other animals. The Elasmosaurus orientalis rests on the evidence of but few remains, but these are like those of its better known congener F. platyurus. The vertebre are nearly as large as those of an elephant, and indicate a totally different type of reptile from the Mosasaurus. The bulk was whale-like, the neck long and flexible, while short paddles and the serpent- like tail, sped this most colossal of our sea-saurians on his destructive career. The skull was light, and with a long nar- row, and very flat muzzle; the nostrils or spout-holes were near the orbits; the teeth long and cylindric, and much sharper than those of the Mosasaurus. The most ravenous fish—the Enchodi, or great barracudas of the Cretaceous, were his food, and few we might suppose could escape the plunge from the elevated position whence he scanned the waters for prey. Cimoliasaurus magnus is more abundant in New Jersey. In bulk it was little inferior to the last, but it was apparently abbreviated and depressed behind, and so must have presented a very peculiar form. Precisely what that was and whether. it supported a caudal fluke, we must determine hereafter. Elasmosaurus platyurus was forty-five feet in length. While the crocodiles are most numerous in individuals in the deposits of this period, the turtles exceed them and all 88 THE FOSSIL REPTILES OF NEW JERSEY. other orders in the number of species. "There have been twenty found in the Cretaceous of New Jersey, and three additional ones are known from the Tertiaries of the same State. The Cretaceous turtles may be arranged under four heads, viz., true Emydes or fresh water forms ; Chelydrine Emydes, or snappers; Trionychide or soft shells; and Hy- draspidide, a type now confined to the Southern Hemisphere, which throw the head round the side of the shell, instead of drawing it in. It will be observed that all of these forms occur at the present day in fresh water only, and that true marine turtles are not found in this part of the Cretaceous formation. Add to this the fact that the crocodiles are rather estuary and river animals; that the Dinosaurs are terrestrial ; and that by far the most abundant shells of the same region are oysters and Exogyre, and we have indicated a condition of occasional separation from the high ocean, by seaward bars and islands, or even by occasional considerable strips of dry land. The Emydiform turtles all belong to the genus Adocus of Cope, and were often of the size of our bitte gulf species, but generally of far more massive structure. The snapper- like forms are more numerous; they have been taken to be marine types, and indeed their fore-limbs appear to have been _ more paddle-like than those of the species of our modern rivers. They are represented by nine species, which per- tain to five genera. These forms differ much in the relative union of the shield of the carapace, and its marginal pieces. In the genus Peritresius of Cope, the margin was largely separate, and the shell covered by a thin Td ; in Lytoloma pe the margin was also distinct, except in front and rear; and the carapace was covered by heavier shell-like dermal | plates. Propleura Cope contained one large species— P. sopita, where the margin was broad and flat, and free as in the last, except that it had a broad union with the disc in front. Finally Osteopygis Cope, was solidly knit fore and aft by suture between disc and margin. Of its three species, E o: T ENT sree THE FOSSIL REPTILES OF NEW JERSEY. 89 O. chelydrinus presented sharp points round the circumfer- ence, like a snapping tortoise. O. emarginatus had open notehes between, at the same parts of the margin, and O. platylomus was even. O. emarginatus was the giant of all the snappers and probably commonly reached a length of six feet. An ally, the Zuclastes platyops, whose cranium has been found, presented a broad, massive palatal surface, apparently for crushing, rather than the sharp edges and hooked bill of the raptorial snapper. It may have crushed shells for food. The Lytoloma angusta Cope shows a similar type of jaws. In the Euclastes, the skull measures about a foot in length, and eight inches in width, and accommodated immense temporal muscles, which indicate the power of its bite. More elegance and less strength characterize the Hydra- spid species. Five of these have been described, as follows: Bothremys Cookii Leidy; Prochonias sulcatus Leidy sp.; P. strenuus Cope; P. princeps Cope, and Taphrosphys mo- lops Cope. In the first we have a well protected cranium with small eyes, with the Milesian traits of a broad mouth, a pug-nose, and a stiff upper lip. His form seems to combine the capaci- ties of doing as much injury to others and receiving as little himself as possible. What his shell was we do not know, but we know that he could not draw his head into it, by rea- son of a peculiar structure on the sides of his inner nostril. Of the other genera, the numerous shell fragments tell a similar story. It is only necessary to see whether the pelvis was attached to the lower shell, or plastron, to know whether . the cervical vertebre would form a sigmoid, and be with- drawn into the shell, or a horizontal curve and turn round outside, as a goose rests its head above its wing. Or, if the front part of the plastron only be found, if there be a supplemental plate in the front, we know both the flexure of the neck, the arrangement of the pelvis, and the structure of the nose. TEG is a result of the law of correlation, AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. HI. 90 THE FOSSIL REPTILES OF NEW JERSEY. which holds through long series of forms, but must be care- fully modified for other series, and in some points cannot be read at all. In Prochonias, as in the modern genus of Brazil, Hydro- medusa, the ileum is fastened by a great suture to the shell ‘above, right on the line of junction of two rib bones. But the bones of the front of the carapace, are quite different from those of Hydromedusa. In Taphrosphys the structure is more powerful. The rib bones are united into one, and rise up round the sutural scar, leaving it at the bottom of a deep pit. T. molops was a powerful swimmer, and perhaps what he lost in mass, was gained in speed. The bony shells of both this genus and the last, are sculptured with netted grooves (P. sulcatus and P. strenuus) or ribbed lines (P. princeps, and T. molops), and they were probably covered with a thin skin instead of dermal scales. P. ad inceps was large and massive, equalling some of the snapper B The more beautifully marked “soft-shelled” eine the — Trionyches, are represented by three species. Their posi- tion shows that they lived at an earlier period than in Eu- rope. The Trionyx of our Miocene (7. lima Cope) was large and rough, with narrow sharp ridges. Its remains occur with Dolphins and Porpoises, but it may have been floated or washed from the mouth of a fresh-water stream into such strange company. E The Crocodiles of the modern period are kaote by | the hollow crowns of their teeth, and one genus of the Creta- ceous, Viz., Bottosaurus Agassiz, possesses a similar dentition. Most of the Miocene species of both Europe and America - possess, on the contrary, solid crowns, composed of closely - concentric cones, as we see in Mosasaurus and some other - reptiles. Some of them have been on this account mistaken - for Mosasauroids, but none of the latter are known above - the Cretaceous. In this country the Miocene forms of this — . kind are gavials, of even larger size than those of the Cre- laceous. They belong to the genus Thecachampsa Cope, of INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE POTATO. 91 which T. sericodon was first discovered by Dr. H. C. Wood in Southern New Jersey, and T. sicaria by Philip T. Tyson in Southern Maryland. In both localities their remains are mingled with those of Dolphins and Whales, and their car- cases have all floated together on the ocean currents and tides to their present resting places. In Europe there are some species of the same genus, while allies of the true crocodilian form represent the Plerodon of Meyer. The gavials of the Cretaceous present a similar character of teeth, sd approach remarkably near to the Thecachampse, when we consider the great hiatus between the life of the two great periods in other departments. The gavials of the Miocene differ in but a few important points from the Thoracosauri of the Creta- ceous. The latter were very numerous in — and appear under five specific forms. In the plate accompanying this article, the artist has attempted an ideal representation of a few of the subjects which haunted the shores of our country, when our prairies were the ocean bottom, and our southern and eastern borders were far beneath the Atlantic. Zelaps aquilunguis occupies the foreground on a promontory, where his progress is inter- rupted by the earnest protest of an Elasmosaurus. Mosasau- Tus watches at a distance with much curiosity and little good will, while Osteopygis views at a safe distance the unwonted Spectacle. On the distant shore a pair of the huge Hadro- sauri browse on the vegetation, squatting on their haunches and limbs as on a tripod. Thoracosaurus crawls up the banks with a fish, and is ready to disappear in the thicket. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE POTATO. BY HENRY SHIMER, M. D. Or the several distinet species of potato bugs, the Colo- rado ite pen 10-lineata Say, Fig. 13; a, eggs; b, 92 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE POTATO. young and fully grown larve ; e, pupa; d, beetle ; e, left wing cover, magnified; /, leg, magnified) has chiefly attracted attention at the West during the few years past. It has been very destructive, hence anything bearing upon its habits is Fig. 13. interesting to farmers. Last year they were more numerous in Illinois than at any other time. Whole acres were entirely destroyed by them. The autumn following the early frosts " that killed the potato vines, was one of the finest we ever - enjoyed. This unusually late pleasant weather induced the | pups of the last brood of the Colorado Beetle to mature - and come out of the ground instead of remaining in over - winter, and the lack of food i in the fall, together with the cold |. open winter, contributed greatly to their destruction. From | this one can easily see their assailable points, and devise - means for holding them in check. It is manifest that this can | be done most effectually by the concerted action of the farm- ers of the whole country. I think it needs no argument to — prove that it would be better for the entire North-west, so far - as the Colorado Beetle has extended, to abstain from planting | potatoes for one year, than to be annoyed as they have been - in Iowa and Illinois during the few past years. Or, per haps, it might be as. effectually managed by pon) only eur INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE POTATO. 93 maturing varieties ; planting these early one year, and digging the potatoes in August; then in the following year farmers might plant about the first of July, and take them up after the frost kills the vines. By this course of treatment these potato bugs will be without food during the first fall, and many will perish, while those that remain in the ground over winter will come up in May, and be without food more than a month in the spring, and thus perish. This plan rigidly followed will restrain, if not exterminate the bug. To this argument some may reply that the potato bug will feed on other species of the natural botanical family Solana- cee, such as the tomato, thorn-apple,etc. It is true that they ' will eat of these to some extent, especially the hungry half- grown larve, but I have observed carefully, and never in this region saw the young potato bugs developing from the eggs laid on these plants, though I have occasionally seen eggs on tomato plants. Early in the last spring a sufficient number of mature potato bugs appeared on the potato vines to cause some apprehensions of trouble, though much less than in the pre- ceding year. The larve appeared as usual, and early pota- toes were partially trimmed by them, from which I inferred that the second brood would do a good deal of damage in July and August. About the middle of July I saw potato bugs in Minne- Sota, as far north as St. Paul. They were quite abundant, the larvee stripping the vines as they had done in Illinois last year. I was at home in Illinois in August, and sought for the potato bugs on the same grounds that were entirely over- run by them last year, and found very few. At the last of August, I searched in the potato patch, on these same £rounds, and found but two mature bugs and one small _buneh of eggs. Here is a remarkable and unexpected de- crease of bugs, instead of the usual increase, that makes them . Very destructive in August. How are we to account for it? The various known heteropterous enemies, and Lady-birds, ° ð to climatic causes as the principal means that prevented the often observeđ, and very forcibly this summer, in the exam- *- . reported to the Academy ar] Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. . This same pue away of the pupa I have often noticed | 94 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE POTATO. (Fig. 14, Coccinella 9-notata and pupa; fig. 15, Hippodamia 13-punctata; a, larva; 6, pupa) without doubt destroyed some, but as I could not find them more numerous than usual, Fig. 14. I cannot admit that they were the chief means of this almost perfect extermination of potato 6 ~ bugs. Moreover the larv: in June were suffi- ciently numerous, in propor- tion to the number of beetles A observed in the spring, and yet in July and August the beetles failed to appear as expected. We can only look The weather here was uncommonly hot as well as dry; hence the pups were exposed to the burning dry dust, and this doubtless was the efficient cause of the death of the soft, naked, delicate pups. The only object that they can have in entering the ground to transform, is protection from the hot dry atmosphere of summer and the cold frosts of winter, for they will transform well enough above ground in a paste- _ board box in a room, as I proved in hundreds of examples |. during the series of observations I made on the breeding of these insects in 1865, and reported in the “Practical Ento- mologist.” The ground usually furnishes a cool moist place; but this time it failed to favor them, hence they perished. I have often observed that the pups of various insects - perish from exposure to too much evaporation. The pup? of the various wood-borers however, carefully handled, will not develop so well in a paper box as in the hole they make - in the tree, and many of them dry away entirely ; this I have — -— l spring brood from maturing. | | | ples of the new species of beetle, that I have bred from b the prickly ash tree ; also the three varieties of beetles, bred — from the several borers, or “grubs,” found in the grape-vine, — INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE POTATO. 95 in attempting to breed the Maple Worm (Dryocampa rubi- cunda). The larva retires to some cool moist place beneath a board, stone, or anything it can find on the ground, where it will not be exposed to the dry atmosphere, for the chrysa- lis is naked. Now take this same chrysalis and put it into a dry box, and it most likely will perish, and fail to perfectly develop. Many lepidopterous larve protect themselves with an impervious cocoon where they are exposed to atmospherie vicissitudes. This, I believe, is not only to protect them from the rain, if it is at all for this purpose, as entomolo- gists often suppose, but to protect them from the far more injurious influence of evaporation during the long time they take no liquid nourishment. It is for this purpose also that the Cecidomyian larva cements its spun cocoon with a gummy fluid, as I have shown in the "Transactions of the American Entomological Society," for October, 1867. We therefore find here another example of climatic causes, pro- ducing disease and death among insects in a wholesale man- ner. Entomological writers usually represent cannibal insects as the most efficient means in nature for the extermination of injurious insects, and in the reports of State Entomolo- gists we occasionally find them speaking in glowing terms of the power that man can exert in cóntrolling injurious insects. While we may not despise these measures of protection, es- pecially the former—for without the Ichneumon fly, the Syr- phus fly, the Coccinelle, etc., we would doubtless be overrun 9 by swarms of caterpillars, plant-lice, and other noxious depre- dators—let us not forget the great truth, that climatie . causes, producing death by epidemie diseases and various other means, are infinitely in advance of most other natural means of exterminating noxious insects (for my extended views and observations on this topic, see an address before the Northern Illinois Horticultural Society, and published in the first volume of the Transactions of that body, and my sport of a remarkable epidemic disease observed among 96 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE POTATO. Chinch-bugs, in the Proceedings of: the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, for May, 1867). Fig. 16. In the case of the Chinch-bug, the conditions favoring its development and health are entirely the reverse. It was during the unusually wet weather of 1865 that the great epidemic referred to prevailed, and at the same time the — Fig.17. Colorado potato bug flourished and mul- tiplied as favorably as it could desire ; but this year was one favorable to the development of the Chinch-bugs, and true to nature, they have increased so that a few can be found again. Since I observed this failure of development among the potato bugs, I have looked carefully for them in this ( Car- roll) and parts of the adjoining counties, and seldom find a patch with any bugs. At this date the early frosts have ; : already killed the potato vines, hence their autumnal supply of food be- ing cut off we may expect a still more complete destruc- | tion of the bugs if the next autumn should be nearly as pleasant as the last. Of the Blistering Beetles (Oantharidw), I have observed this year the Striped Cantharis (Lytta vittata Fabr., Fig 16) unusually abundant, and quite injurious to potato vines, beet leaves, etc. The Margined Cantharis ( Cantharis mar- _ ginata Oliver, Fig. 17) were also moderately abundant, in- juring beets most. I also observed some of the Ash-colored - Cantharis (Lytta cinerea Fabr., Fig. 18, a, male), and the black Cantharis (Lytta murina Leconte, Fig. 18, b) on potatoes and beets. A species of Oil Beetle ( Melo? angusti- collis, Fig. 19) was also abundant, eating potatoes, beets, etc.,and injuring tomato fruit very much. Farmers all about INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE POTATO. 97 this region have complained bitterly of a “new long potato bug,” alluding to these Cantharides, having forgotten in the midst of the injuries caused by the Colo- Fig. 19. rado potato bugs for several years, that these blistering beetles had ever injured potato vines. The reports coming in | from localities all around me were “that these Cantha- rides were much more injurious than ~ the Colorado bugs; that potatoes were greatly injured, and beet crops entirely ruined in many instances; and this accords with my obser- vations about home. These Cantharides are not very particular about the choice of food. Although they doubtless prefer the potato, beet, golden-rod, etc., yet sooner than be without food, they will devour almost any kind of vegetable that comes in their way. I have seen the Ash-colored Cantharis doing well on - locust leaves; also on common red field clover, etc., and have lately, for a wonder, seen the Black Cantharis feasting on the leaves of a common noxious weed, sometimes called lamb’s quarters, pig-weed, etc. (Chenopodium album Linn.), for injurious insects are almost sure to eat the useful vege- tation in preference to weeds. After thus observing the workings of nature’s plans, Iam convinced that she will in due time take care of the Colorado potato bug, as she has of the Cantharides during all past time. Nore. — Since communicating the above, I spent two weeks last autumn in travelling in Eastern and Middle Iowa, and learned some dang. the most reliable being ario out of the history of the good potato crop, as evinced by the — in the digging seas "Po tatoes at Mount Carroll, IN., pua 50 e a bushel; at Span ile, Joe Davis County, Ill., 50 cents; at Rock gus Ill, 60 to A cents. In South Amenon, 30 to 35 cents; at Marengo, 50 cents; State Centre, 30 to 35 cents ; Grundy County, 25 to 30 cents; and thus sedie ranged all along Wherever I went. The Colorado potato beetle had been very injurious. AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. III. | 98 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE POTATO. All through these places for several years farmers all were discouraged with attempting to raise potatoes, and therefore did not plant largely ; some abandoned the crop in disgust. e above figures I obtained from par- ties buying and selling, and learned from them that potatoes were abun- ant. I invariably inquired of farmers regarding the Colorado potato beetle. all knew it very well, but explained the cause of its diminution, by supposing that it had passed by them, travelling north and east; forget- ting that insects travel in dasti of food and breeding grounds, and not to make m money, see the country or their friends, or for any other pleasure, as does the human animal. They all knew that the bugs were plenty in the sod but not in midsummer and autumn. As this peculiar phe- noted at my home, I am persuaded that it was due to the same cause, in a slight degree to insect enemies, but chiefly to climatic causes, i. e., the hot dry weather. now convinced beyond a doubt, that the dryness of the summer was the only efficient restraining cause, although my friends Messrs. Fig. 20. Wal M and Riley differ entirely from this view. the “American Entomologist,” (Vol.I, ut 2 and 2) where they figure quite a host of the enemies of the Colorado po- tato bug, some of which are inserted in the present article, but do not even notice the great climatic enemy that worked so faith- fully and effectually everywhere during the past summer. i AME S with much gratitude the small part of the work done by these **bug foes," and I hope that the editors ont Miei will excuse a passing review. Lady-birds doubtless eat the eggs of some potato bug, but many such reports came to my ears through farmers and Fig.21. agriculturists and were not at all reliable. fortunately, as I have observed, Lady-birds i devour Lady-bird's eges about as frequently as any other eggs, and none but entomologists ob- serve the pulido. hence I seldom notice such reports, at least in print, without personal in- - vestigation. di Many-banded Robber (Har- @ b e pactor cinctus Fabr., Fig. 20) will not do much work, for, although they box with young Colorado potato bugs, as I have a thus prov- ing that they must have other and better food. very same, enue may be true (reasoning from analogy) of ti aa principal heterop- terous enemy, the Spined Soldier-bug (Arma spinosa Dallas, Fig. eer a, : its beak; c, the beak of the — s Say, which closely resem- INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE POTATO. 99 bles the Arma). This, however, I never have subjected to the crucial test of boxing up with the beetle, but have never seen it feeding on them in e idea entered my head when I saw the potato bugs so scarce, and the Sister beetles, especially the es ing one, so very abundant on our pota- toes. To test it, I put a few Striped Blister-beetles into a breeding jar, With one small bunch of potato bug eggs (all I could find) and a potato gist," on this Subject, I failed to find anything of this kind MD since then I have not searched for it. 'Their pa- per is full of ‘peas a to the practical man does not give very much Substantial encouragement except in recommending the old-fashioned tedious way of picking the bugs by hand, as in reality this is about all man can do. Before closing this ob dong note, allow me to place among the list of insect enemies a Philonthus which is undescribed, according to Mr. Walsh, who received the specimen from me. This specimen, in the sum- mer of 1865, I found as an intruder in one of my breeding boxes, containing number of Colorado potato bug larve. When found, it had virg mp Mh all the larvæ, just as a pera or mink will kill more chickens than it needs for food. This insect was a medium sized member of the pest Staphylinide, a hice ens bids: It was black, with short wing-cases. flerce and powerful insect, individually, is the most terrible enemy of the Colorado potato bug extant among insects, and I hope that some day it will be honored with the name of the Prairie State, with credit for an efficient worker. NOTE. — Cuts 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21 and 22, are from the * American Entomologist." REVIEWS. HE PAMPAS AND ANDES.*— When one considers that this pedestrian feat was performed by Mr. Bishop when only seventeen years old, unaided : by influential friends, having no money, and no knowledge of the lan- guage, and for a time sustaining himself by his own labor, one must confess an admiration for the boy's pluck. A perusal of the book shows how one will brave a thousand dangers when impelled by a love of nature. physical ea of the country, etc. me errors which have found peri Mes into our text books are corrected. We € for instance, that ace as Uraguay is known in South America. The province, no tics called Uraguay on our maps, is properly inea Banda ‘Oriental e Burrowing owl of South America. As an account has already been given in the NATURALIST of the Burrowing owl of the West, we subjoin Mr. Bishop's aecount of the companion species in South America: * Į first met with this owl on the —— of the River San — i the Banda certae one hun- dred and air miles west of Mon Sip where a few pairs were observed devouring mice and insects during the daytime. From the river, travelling westward thirty sido x "e not meet a single individual, but after Sere DL as Vacas, and coming upon a sandy w cov- ered with seatte es and low bushes, I again met with several. * Upon the pampas of the Argentine Remibiie they are found in great numbers, from a few med) oe M aa on toe. Parana, latitude 32? 56' south, to the vicinity of San Luis, where + ^ LS 3 4 i lains of it lives i ith the dizeacha, "The habits of this 3. 1 he prairies of western North lage But this is not strictly correct, for o one writer says of id d: northern species, *we have evidenee t resort to one burrow;’ and Say remarks that the were either common, —- — egets of the ise papam or that our owl was the sole oceupan ant of a ired by the right of conquest.’ In this respe iffy ri jaar who ie in per- fect harmony with the bizcaha, and during the day, while inc latter is sleeping, a pair of these bird: f the bu w, and at the iis t strange sow be it near or distan tl ti ui or upon the mound E re reci the mide When man approaches, both birds bove him in the air, and keep pea their alarm note, with irides dilated, until he ] passes, when they quietly settle down grass, or return to their former place, the daytime, but at sunset tl cha and owls leave their holes, and search fr fod the young ofthe Former oe ee ee hem. They do not associate companies, there oes nd at nigh NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 101 “ In describing the North American burrowing owl, a writer says that the species ‘ suddenly disappears in the early part of August,’ and the ‘species is strictly diurnal.’ “The Athene canicularia has not these habits. It does not disappear during any part of the year, and it is both nocturnal and diurnal, for though I did not observe it preying by day on the pampas, I noticed that it fed at all hours of the day and night on the north shore of the Plata. in the R da die fal»? ONE THOUSAND OBJECTS FOR THE MicnRoscoPE.*— This is an exceed- zu useful little work for the beginner in microscopy. It has twelve of figures, with explanations in the text, and although the figures are none of the best, they are better than the price of the book would seem to justify. A GUIDE TO THE STUDY or INsECTS.f— The Fifth part completes the account of the butterflies, and describes the more typical moths, as far as the family of Geometrids. It contains two plates, a full-page illustration, and sixty woodcuts. The ‘ Guide” will contain ten plates, and be com- pleted in five more parts, the tenth part to contain an Entomological Cal- endar, a Glossary of Entomological terms, and a copious Index THE RECORD OF AMERICAN ENTOMOLOGY, 1869.— A sufficient number of subscriptions have been received to warrant its publication, but as the book will be larger than at first thought, the price will be raised to $1.00. Original subscribers at 75 cents, will receive their ** Record" without extra charge. (The name has been changed from Annual to Record). PPLETON'S ILLUSTRATED ALMANAC FOR 1869.1 — A pleasing feature of this annual is twelve cuts, illustrating the game-birds of this country, characteristic of each month. NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. BOTANY. BOTANICAL Norzs.—In the autumn of 1867 I collected on the shore of Lake Erie, near North East, Pa., a very marked variety of Scirpus sylva- ticus Linn., var. atrovirens?. Instead of spreading rays bearing the heads et Not the result of a dwarfing of the plants, for they were of a very robust habit, two to three feet high, with wide leaves and a stout culm. Ipro- Pose calling it var. sychnocephala if not already named. I found them One Thousand Objects for the Microscope. By M: C. Cooke. 12mo. London, 1869. ls. ta Guide to the S $e of Insects, and a de tise on those Injurious and Beneficial to Crops, For the use of Colleges, Farm Schools and Agriculturists. By A. S. Packard, jun, Parts 1-5. Cents each. To be published in ten parts. Published by the author, Salem, Mass - tAppleton’s Illustrated Almanac, 1869, For sale by H. A. Brown & Co., 3 School st., Boston. 102 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. ms a at feet from the edge of the water. Is this form found in other ep pa eae from the same rootstock (I think) in two successive years, two specimens of xri erythrocarpum Mx., with pistillate flow- ers and nine petals. e extra petals took the place of the stamens, and . were colored like the others, e were somewhat smaller in size.— —S.N. OWLES, Otisco, N. Y. HE CEDARS OF LEBANON.— Dr. Hooker makes the following interest- ing communication to a recent number of the ** Gardeners’ Chronicle" :— “The Rev. M. Tristam, F. L. S., informs me of a most interesting discov- ery lately made in the Lebanon, viz., of several extensive groves of cedar trees, by Mr. Jessup, an American missionary, a friend d his own, to whom he pointed out the probable localities in the interi Of these there are five, three of great extent, east of ‘Ain Zabalteh,’ in aes southern Lebanon. This grove lately bestes 10000 trees, and had been pur- chased by a barbarous Sheikh, from the more barbarous (?) Turkish gov- The sand trees were destroyed in the attempt. One of the trees measured fifteen feet in diameter, and the forest is full of young trees, springing up with great vigor. He also found two'small groves on the eastern ga of Lebanon, overlooking the Buka'a, above El Medeuk; and two other large groves containing many thousand trees, one above ElBaruk, and another near Ma'asiv, where the trees are very large and equal to any others; all are being destroyed for firewood. Still another grove has been discov- ered near Duma, in the western slope of Lebanon, near the one discovered by Mr. Tristram himself. This gives ten distinct localities in the Leba- non, to the south of the originally discovered nd including it. Ehren had already discovered one on the north of that locality, en thence northwards the chain is unexplored by voyager or naturalist." Quarterly Journal of Science, London. ZOÓLOGY. 1 THE Crow a Birp or Prey.—In confirmation of what Mr. Naumann has stated in regard to the crow as a ‘‘bird of prey,” Mr. H. G. Bruckart, of Silver Spring, Lancaster County, stated before the Linnean Society, — of Lancaster City, at its samay lude. that in his neighborhood it is. not an unco ecially not in the spring of the year, when they have had a winter's fast, and hens take their young broods abroad. Indeed he has known them to venture into barn-yards, à carry off young chickens. We know that the corvine appetite craves the eggs of other fowls, and d characteristic is only a farther advance in ara We have a formidable **Crow Roost” on the Cones- ogo, ii die abont d miles south of Tacit City, but with g, Mut nue yet learned that they **tease sheep near NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 103 home." 'The bo PS upon whose farm the ‘‘roost” is located, says they rise up every morning, and after forming four divisions, the one flies east, another west, another north, and another south, returning again in the evening. About the same number fly in these same directions, and about the same hours every day.— S. S. RATH How TO COLLECT Myrrapops. — The pi nón — from the late Newport of England, was written to his frien LE D ER of the same country. The latter had volunteered the services of Dr. T. W. Har- iet with whom he had formed a close intimacy during his sojourn in this ountry, in collecting material to aid Mr. Newport in his studies upon the Myrlapo ds. M Ir. Ne T ort MM one of the highest authorities in this group. miliar form, the more important directions o call attention to cb interesting anima hose who wish to study ceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of UP UM and in the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 10 UPPER SOUTHWICK STREET, 1 CAMBRIDGE TERRACE, Dec. 22, 1842. My Dear Sm :— In ac Corde with your suggestion, I now send you a few observations respecting those Myriapods which I so much desire to possess. You are aware that I should be delighted to obtain any speci- mens of ET from the United States, and that the localities being e i would make them much more valuable. I would suggest that in- oo of ie dos specimens, the whole be preserved Fig. 24. in strong spirit, as a great many may be stowed away in that manner without receiving any injury, and can afterwards be dried, if Aen td as specimens for the cabinet. As far as my own wishes are concerned, f would much prefer all Baca es in spirit, and shoul be greatly obliged by having as many specimens, even T. can € these families, owing to the great hardness and impenetrability of their tezument, do not preserve well, unless the spirit can be made to enter their interior. I would suggest, therefore, h e true Juli [Fig. 24, Julus multistriatus Walsh] and the Cermatia, - Shield-bearers, be once or twice pierced’ with a strong needle in the middle and posterior parts of the body, to allow the spirit to send They would then be well preserved and fit for an exami- of their interior anatomy, which is my object in obtaining many specimens of the same species. If I unders tood 2 Penny, the Cerma- tia are very common in America. Iam exceedingly glad, as I cannot yet 104 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. obtain any of these specimens for dissection. I am not aware whether any of the large eggs the proper Spherotheride of Brandt, are found in America, as I should expect they might be. These would be very eii ble. You are quite aware that young and immature specimens are often found more easily, and in greater numbers, than the full grown and more perfect | specimens. This is especially the case with the Myria- poda, which often swarm in the immature state. under the rotten bark of trees or felled timber. ow these very young specimens, of all species, are too much neglected by naturalists, and I am ket desirous of obtaining them. I would recommend that a large quantity of the very smallest do [Fig. 25, Scolopocryptops 6- -spi- nosa Say; from Iowa], Scutigeridz or Cermatia, Polydes- mide, Cryptops, and Juli be collected. If your rig.26 iend Mr. Harris co I should feel greatly obliged. The state in which these species are most interesting to me is when they do not exceed one-fourth or one-half of an inch in length. My usual: mode of collecting the young Lithobii, of this coun- try, is to have one or two phial bottles filled with rectified spirits of wine, and when I see any of the little mortals run- ning ved and about to give one 7eg bail, just to wet my fin- Fig. 27 r with saliva and place it upon then, when, ot course, they adhere to it and washed Off by placing my finger on the mouth of the phial and shaking the spirit against it; or by washing the finger in the spirit itself. If your friend, by each other, but the it Leg eo may be preserved alive, singly, in wooden boxes, with moistened earth, for several Weeks, especially = the earth be impregnated w animal matter. I should be very glad to obtain the Polydes- ij is mus Virginiensis of Drury (Fontaria Virginiensis of Gray): EX. and all of these species may be placed together in tin oF wooden boxes, without injuring each other, if, ees with some vege- . . table mould, rotten leaves, or bark. As a general rule, all the true Chi- r pre may be placed together, but the Gate ake with the exception . of the | Geophili, destroy each other. The Geophili [Fig. 27, lesen in bottles with vegetabl le mou : Pd roen bark eninge month he phial with a piece of paaie) NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 105 which keeps the specimen secure, and at the same time admits suflicient air for respiration. In this way I have preserved Geophili in the s phial in Juli for many months, and it is better than closing the coe withac my dear sir, I have now given you a pretty good list of my Serban but I would also, just add, that a collection of Scorpions and halangidz would be equally acceptable. Of these things, as well as of the Myriapods, I would suggest that the very smallest, as well as the very largest specimens of the same species, be collected and preserved in the me way in spirit. In all cases, if the weather. be warm, the spirit should be changed when the specimens have been in it for about a month, otherwise they may become rotten and unfit for dissection, With many thanks for your kindness, I remain, dear Yours, did lly, E. DouBLEDAY, Esq. GEORGE NEWPORT. ON THE DRUMMING OF THE RUFFED GROUSE.*—4A writer in ** Harper's Magazine" for October, in an article which he heads **Our neighbors the male nip beats his wings against his sides and the 7og with consider- able for Itisa teda thing that a writer eee seems to be familiar with birds Should make such a statement. He is not singular, however, in this mat- e € produce the hollow sound which the bird produces. I have not access to Audubon's works, and do not know his opinion. So good an observer as he was is not likely to be mistaken in the matter, and I should like to know his une ion.t Writer in Harper is mistaken when he says the grouse drums while Strutting, red a turkey. He stands perfectly still and erect, stretching himself as high as possible, and produces the drumming sound by striki ng This is the truth and the whole matter.— Dr. Rurus RAYMOND, ville. Ind. emare to the Smithsonian Institution. f Audubon, 216 of Vol. I of his Ornithological Biography, says, “The drumming is Performed in ge following manner: The male bird, standing erect on a prostrate decayed trunk, raises the feathers of its body in the manner of a turkey-cock, draws its head towards its tail, erecting the feathers of the latter at the same time, me raising = ie around the neck, suffers its wings to droo 1 when the p. and struts about on the log. bird draws the wi hers elose to its body, and stretching Heel On, beats its sides With its wings, in the such rapidity of Motion, after a few of the first s strokes, as t in th unlike the vk 9f distant thunder," AMER, an reg Ton HI. 14 106 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. HATCHING OF THE SEVENTEEN-YEAR CICADA.— With reference to the — eggs and young of the Seventeen-year Cicada, your correspondent from Haverford College, Philadelphia, is not the only one who has failed to produce the young, by keeping branches containing eggs in their studios. I so failed in 1834 and 1851, and indeed I have never heard that any one has succeeded in that way, who has kept them for any great length of time. In the brood of 1868, the first Cicadas appeared here in a body, on the evening of the 2d day of June. The first pair in coitu, I observed on the 21st, and the first female femi on the 26th of the same month. The first young were excluded on the 5th of August. All these dates are SER T and chestnut twigs containing eggs, and stuck the ends into a bottle con- taining water, and set it in a broad shallow dish also filled with water, the whole remaining out of iod exposed to the weather, whatever it might be. The young continued to drop out on the water in the dish, for a full week, after the date above mentioned. I could breed no Cieadas from branches that were dead and on which the leaves were withered, — the palm of my hand. The eyes of the young Cicadas are seen thro the egg-skin before it is broken. — S. S. RATHVON, Lancaster. PREPARATION OF Brgp's Eees. — The season for sani eggs has - now commenced, and it may be of interest to those engaged in odlogy | to holes, one at each end, or two holes in the side, as seen in the drawing 0B — p.487, Vol. II. Now, agg desire the egg blown with only one hole, and that on the side. This is the only way now adopted by our best col | move the contents of the egg. If the hole is a little larger than the point . of the blowpipe, the inside passes out around the instrument. If the . aperture is no MaDe tees SE Ig, M di Nr tu ie ont NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 107 withdrawing the pipe, à part of the contents will follow, eani : repeat- the process several times you can empty the shell. n fill the after a time, which make the egg worthle It was while I was blow- ing a box of about one Moran eggs of wie Tern (Sterna Wilsoni) that Mr. Ellsworth suggested to me a new invention for blowing them. The result is, I can now prepare one hundred eggs in less time than I formerly could ten, and much better, doing all the work with my hands that heretofore has been a severe tax upon my lungs. I will not now describe the instrument, but will say, in brief, that it is invaluable to the odlogist. I would not part with mine for ten times the cost ($3.10) if I umen llsworth, of East Windsor Hill, Connecticut, will supply them. — Wm. Woop, East Windsor Hill, Conn. E VISION OF FISHES AND AMPHIBIOUS Reptites.—M. F. Plateau has advanced the theory **that these animals can see distinctly in the air, and that their distance of distinct vision must be nearly the same in this leged species, such as the Eel, the Chironectes, and the Climbing Perch, have hardly any need for combining the faculty of seeing distinctly in water with that of seeing distinctly in the air, this double faculty is evi- dently indispensable to the Amphibia.” — Annals and Magazine of Natural. History. LIGHT OF Brgps. — Will you inform us how sailing birds remain sus- pended in the air? Last summer while standing with Prof. Mudge, on the high bluff of the Kaw, opposite ae Kansas, a large bird, sup- posed to be Cathartes aura, rose fro opposite margin of the river, and accomplished a spiral flight at os over rg minutes duration, supposed to more than five hundred feet in height, and a mile in linear extent, against a wind blowing about «three" on the Smithsonian scale, without - his wings but once, and that was apparently to preserve his bal "s following suggestions have been made: 1. Birds in sailing do not rise above the initial Lees but use their wings as parachutes, like the l. e turkey about three 108 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. of 1039 Fahr. by the heat of the bird, fills E quills, hollow bones and cavities of the body, and buoys it up. Shoot a hawk or buzzard while sailing, and down he tumbles from his airy iei Does his body cool as soon as that? Not one of'these suggestions seems to be sufficient. Do they when combined? , Will you please enlighten us?—Joun D. Parker, Topeka, Kansas. Drep-sEA DREDGING NORTH OF ScorLAND — Drs. W. B. Carpenter and rane to the Farce banks has “obtained evidence of the existence, of a degraded or starved out E. of animal life, but of a ri me varied fauna, including elevated as well as humble types, at a depth of 530 fathoms.” ‘* Their heres tere have conclusively established the existence of a temperature as low as over a considerable area of sea bottom, where the depth was 500 fathoms and upwards, notwithstanding that the surface-temperature varied little from 529." They argue at there is a stratum of sea water with a temperature of 32°, or even 28°, and the existence of such strata even in equatorial regions, has been regarded by high scientific authorities as proving the existence of deep currents, bringing cold water from polar regions to replace the warmer the equatorial er the polar regions, as well as to make good the immense loss which is ges Pe usn place by evaporation from thé —— surface of sitis seas." “The examination which Prof. Huxley has our last dredging at the depth of 650 fathoms, has afforded him a remark- able confirmation of the conclusion he announced at the recent meeting of the British Association, that the Coccoliths and Coccospheres are em- bedded in a living expanse of protoplasmic substance, to which they bear A the same relation as the spicules L sponges or of Radiolaria do to the soft parts of those animals. Thus it would seem that the whole mass of ud is penetrated by a living orgs of a type even lower, because — less definite, than that of sponges and Rhizopods; and to this organism Prof. Huxley has given the name of (suni dan This calcareous mu composed partly of these bodies and partly of living Globigerine, has been compared to the great chalk formation, and the reporters thus com- pare the animals found living in it with the marine fauna of the Crete ‘a ceous period : — de “Among Mollusca we have two Terebratulids, of which one at least (Terebratulina caput- serpentis) may cranium) may b ded fr another of the nin types of that family s so. abundant in the Chalk. "Among Beh a dred we tare Cae nlc AI erinus. th tribe, which flourished in the Oolitic period, and which was until lately supposed to have had its last representative in the Bourgetticrinus of the Chalk. Among zoophytes, the Oculina we met with i a living state seems generically allied to a Cretaceous type (0. explanata of Michelin), and t the remarkab wegedaem em | sponges, whieh not gt aa that - enters largely into ee een es calcareous mud wherein they are © embeds 1s pre-eminently « (Wabliheimid —— NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 109 tematie examination of the remarkable formation at present in progress would place in a still ied light the Mj iil of its fauna to that of the Cretaceous period; since the speci- mens which our few dredgefuls contained can only be considered as a mere sample of the varied. forme of animal life Which this part of the ocean bottom sustains, —its * Urschleim ’ whole.” The kors Mid e is. ip: sea forms found in the Mediterranean: RB bivalve and peer eos molluses, as well as soophyten, can kerer « depths even ex- et iil 2i à M. Alphonse ov Kwarda (hichi Goes hor t ive the att rea rs since for repairs ketch tiving polyparies and molluses were Mitecbod: PR portio ons gn it whieh had been nb rg o a depth of from 1093 to 1577 fathoms. Of these, some had been previously consid- le yid i bes or bas been altogether unknown, w whilst others were only known in a fossil state, as g tertiaries of the Mediterranean basin.” — Scient ntifie Opinion Honey BEES KILLED BY POLLEN.—In an article in the NATURALIST for February on * Honey-bees killed by Silk-weed Pollen," you say ‘‘we have never before heard of an insect actually losing its life from this cause." In 1860 my attention was called to the same fact; many hives had their over one hundred pollen masses attached to the claws and legs. When the claws are thus fettered, the bee cannot climb upon the combs nor col- lect honey, and is soon expelled from the hive and must die. The unfet- tered bees tumble them out with little ceremony. As the common silk- weed (milk-weed we call it here) needs insect aid ü free its pollen flo S the pollen masses are attached to a cleft gland. en the insect visits the ower to secure its honey, of which there is an abundance, it must step or the gland to reach the nectary, and a hair or claw entering the cleft comes fast. 'To free itself the insect must pull out the gland with the pollen attached or remain and die; and the latter is really the fate of many small flies and moths. — J. KIRKPATRICK, Cleveland, Ohio. LINGULA FOUND LIVING IN CaLrFORNIA.— Mr. Tryon announced that Dr. W. Newcomb had dredged at Monterey, California, one living speci- men of Lingula albida Sowb., which is probably the northern limit of the Toten, = not in accordance with the general rule of distribution. — sn the Conchological Section of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Fla GEOLOGY. Prenistoric Picrures or THE CAVE Horse rw FRANCE.— Prof. Owen States that outlines of the head of different rd of the cave horse when alive, neatly cut on the smooth surface uu rib of the same Mecum have been discovered by the Vicomte de Lastic St. Jal, in 1863, in his cavern at Bruniquel, under circumstances nd pere showed the Im to have been done by one of the tribe of men inhabiting the cavern, vei Men the wild horses of that locality and period for food.— Scientific H6 -. NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. MICROSCOPY. AM«OBOID MOVEMENTS IN EGGs.— Prof. E. Van Beneden, in some very “rao researches on the development of the eggs of the lower crus- tacea, states that there is no vitelline membrane in the egg as it lies in the ovary. He proves it, first, by the amceboid movements already known of other eggs, and which he has observed to be particularly active in these instances; secondly, by the very Nri: fact, of his own discov- ery, that the eggs at this Mods like the Infusoria, swallow, so to speak, globules of carmine. The same fact has been recorded with regard to the white blood vorpnsdtón iit other young cells.”—Schwann, in peer Opinion. THe MOLECULAR ORIGIN ‘OF Inrusorra.— The doctrine of Heterogeny, or spontaneous generation, seems to be slowly gaining adherents. Prof. e s declared in favor of it, and Dr. J. H. Bennett, the eminent petiole: of TORE perorare it in the KOPONI Science Review" n ate an hese mol u Burdach, and the proligerous pellicle of Pouchet. These molecules en- large, and may be seen here and there strongly adhering together in twos and fours, so as to form a little chain." They continue to unite until they form a short staff, or filament — bacterium. These bacteria become longer by uniting with others, and have a serpentine oven whereby hese bodi S begin to move wit ing motion, dependent upon a Lb e cilium attached " one it: th tremities — Mo s. Ina day or two er cilia are produced, the corpuscle enlarges, is nucleated, and swims through the fluid : ried forms y u molecular mass, dependent on the temperature, season of year, ex- sunlight, and nature of the infusion, all having independent movements. They have been denominated , Paramecia, Vorti- — Kolpo , Trachelius," ete., ete. da, Kerone, Glau ns that the Mioleeutar mass, instead of being transformed into ani- nudae. gives origin to minute fungi," such as Torula, Penicillium, et “In all these cases no kind of animalcule, or fungus, is ever seen tO - originate from preéxisting cells or larger _— but always from m cules,” ‘That the infusoria originate and loped in the molecular pelli- | cle which floats on the surface of putrefying or fermenting liquid s, has - : been admitted by all who have gitur watched that pellicle uk the CORRESPONDENCE. 111 microscope, more especially by Kutzing, Pineau, Nicolet, Pouchet, Jolly water, as the numerous experiments by Po cn Meunier, etc., have e discussions in the Fiench anions v Sciences for the last eight wi ë infusoria, animal and vegetable, “originate in oleo-albuminous molecules, which are formed in organic fluids, and which, floating to the surface, at ur the molecules by their coalescence, produce the lower forms of vegetable and animal life. CuicaGo Microscopic CLUB. m have received the Constitution and vara of this new society, and the Proceedings of the meeting hel January 26th, when Prof. Freer ee d human blood cells showing the cell as a bi-concave disc, with a nucleus appearing as a prominence in the centre; most microscopists having denied the existence of a nucleus in the e human blood disc ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. A. J. O., Morristown.— We would be much obliged for specimens of sheep ticks and their eggs and dui with notes on their habits. ou xtern y: worms, such as the tape-worms and the “round worms.” ides e ay be co Med in in v eges of ker oe eek | alcohol, and sent by mail in a strong pasteboard box, or roll Barone, any one ever found t e bed-bug in swallow's nests; "they occur thus in » Otiseo, N. Y.— Alo making your insect case as nearly air-tight as possible, place’ camphor In à paper with pin holes or smear the box with creosote, or keep ben- In constant A seanda i the box. Beetles may be care ba yr a solution of cor- sublimate pr: s to in the nig tyra ‘Above all, watch carer for Suet made b» rs devouring Insects, wi which falls e bottom of the case Containing them, by whic may detect their presence in the ad THE DATE PaLM.—In answer to a correspondent who enquires whether datos om ae grew so low that a man can pick and eat them as he walks under the tree, we answ 112 BOOKS RECEIVED. that dates are ripened even when the tree is so young that the clusters ma easily be Uem cete denm the ground, but the mE DE he ae would most effectually preve y one from walking under nE ne — € ird — down fro th. base of "the leaves, and e pre be ed by a man on hone back. The nan Rire Separately on "the "cluster and the nm Ocess goes on for some weeks. The date-palm is b shade pe and not a pleasant tree to walk under, as the dead and borse lezva Bán ng and project at various angles, and even where these are trimmed away, the stem remains rough sis piny.—WM. T. ee J. S., New Albany, Ind.— Your specimen is a portion of a growth of some sort suberose, or corky fungus, such as grows pira of the dead or living, but dra and hae bark of Bris g sg Us a A P iic bes find on macerating a bit of it, of a e, an i Poar “kind can » fond fiequot tly botten the layer o Ay sd er of the solid by its pu va yon is Toy destroyed, wn t D tanists as pvo lin rylostroma h signifying pin aes ag,” the second * woody-bed,” or bed fü the wood. It other name given : s Tode, Xylostroma iganteum, or the up woody bed," ous may be found in r of the rd eech, ete., b in this country and in Europe. There are xy oer species of Rac dium, some of which from resemblance, pers called ** Mouseskin,” and the like amas CORRECTIONS. — Mr. Dall desires us to correct his statement in the March NATU- Lol of Ee “no snake of the genus Elaps is poisonous,” as some of the species are om et pt . Cope writes us that the dislocation in the jaw of the ally of mosasaurus (mentioned on page 55) i is Neo rre and not the result of an accident,—our own infer- es were incorrect. — ~ oe BOOKS RECEIVED. Practical Floriculture; A Guide to the Successive Cultivation of Florists Pu Amateur and Professional Florist. By P.Henderson. Illustrated. New York: Orange i $1.50. Library of Education. S ht ing Education. By John Locke. New York: J. W. Bilérmeber & C 32mo, pp: 192. 15 cents. The Pampas a s — A roig Miles Walk across South America. By N. A. Bis pow remp a & Shepard. 1869. 0, pp. 310. The d of Zottgia Literature, m Vol. IV. Edited by A. C. L. Günther. Filed pe John Van Voorst. 8vo, pp. 678. ific Opinion Weekly) for January, 1869. London. rnal for the Popular Diffusion of Natural Science. Edited age diss C. F. Lüt- ken, and Eug. Warming. Series iii Vol. I, Part 1. Copenhagen, 1 Archiv für Anthropologie. Vol. II, Part 3. eris d 1868. jm iary 6,1869. Paris. 8vo. Ca aturalist and Geologist. Second perit. Vol. m, Nos. 14. The Field. December 19— February 20. London. Journal of Travel yp — History. Wol.I, No.4. London. $vo. Land and Water. Nov — February 8. . — Science iorum decis 1869. €— Quarterly Journal of Science. January, 1869. Journal. February, March, d “Washington, "i C. $2 2.00 ayear. . Bulletin of the National Association of Wool Manufacturers. ., 1869. Boston. 8v0. . Le Naturaliste Ca , Bulletin des Recherches, se rap- nadien. oaii sx a P Histoire — du Canada. Tom. I, No. 2. Janvier 3, February, 186% 8vo, PP 25, 29 00a y jf Fisheries for the year ending January 1, 1869. Boston, 1869. vo, pp. .m. : ume. ntomologist. February 15. Vol.I, No.7. Toronto. M American Entomologist. March, 1869. St. Louis: R. P. Studley & Co. $1.00 OMe Phciiend Objects for the Microscope. By M. C. Cooke. With five hundred me London, 1869. 12mo. | Price $1.00. L. GEL IH AMERICAN NATURALIST. Vol. III. — MAY, 1869.— No. 3. ECC RC: 424 2 ID A NEW SPECIES OF HARE FROM THE SUMMIT OF WIND RIVER MOUNTAINS. BY PROF. F. V. HAYDEN. Ix the summer of 1860, the U. S. Exploring Expedition under the command of Capt. William F. Raynolds, U.S. A., Entered accordi gress, in the year 1869, by the PEABODY ACADEMY bia SCIENCE, in the Clerk's fcc. pu tne District Court of the District of ie L 1 AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. III. 114 A NEW SPECIES OF HARE. erossed over the Wind River Mountains into the valley of the Columbia River. 'The writer was connected with that expedition as Geologist and Naturalist. May 30th, we camped at the foot of the eastern slope of the mountains, at the source of Wind River. It was a beautiful locality, and at this time the spring had fully come. Myriads of flowers covered the valley, and the trees and shrubs were clothed with foliage of the peculiar bright green color character- istic of this mountain scenery. On the north side of this valley were the rugged basaltic ridges of the western end of the Big Horn Range, where it united itself with the Wind River Range, and on our left were the forest-covered, gently descending slopes of the Wind River Range. Fine springs issued from the sides of the mountains everywhere, and all the little branches were full of trout. ij On the morning of May 31st, we ascended the eastern slope, and gradually the vegetation dwindled down in size, so that it presented an Alpine character, and before reaching the summit, we were pushing our way through ten or fifteen feet of snow. Upon the summits of these mountains quite large areas are’ covered with perpetual snow, portions of whieh melt away in midsummer. Every few moments the clouds dropped down rain or snow, and then the sun shone out as bright as ever. We were obliged to spend several days on the summit of these mountains. So far as I could as- certain the fauna on the west side of the Wind River Moun- tains is quite distinet from that on the eastern side. One day I noticed a group of singular tracks on the snow which seemed different from any I had ever observed in the West, and they appeared to belong to an enormous species of hare. Descending the western slope about a third of the way from the summit, we saw a number of these animals in the little patches of pine forests, and succeeded in capturing several of them, old and young. I saw at once that it was a species not previously observed by me, and most probably undescribed. The following is a brief description of this hare : : LI A NEW SPECIES OF HARE. 115 Lepus Bairdii Hayden, Baird's hare. — Summer dress : General color gray, glossed behind, especially on the rump, with sooty black; feet and tail, and the edges of the eats white, the latter not darker at tip. Nape sooty. In winter pure white. Length to base of tail about sixteen inches (tail mutilated). Ear three inches high ; hind feet six inches long. This interesting new species of Alpine hare, as far as our Observations extend, is confined to the Wind River Moun- tains, where it is by no means rare, and forms a charac- teristic feature of the landscape, its unusually broad feet expanding with each step, forming a set of veritable snow- shoes, enabling it to pass rapidly over the surface of the snow without sinking. It is readily distinguished from Townsend's Hare, or the Missouri Jackass Rabbit by its smaller size, much shorter ears, and different colors. It is considerably larger than L. sylvaticus and artemisia, with disproportionately large feet and sooty nape, being neither chestnut nor reddish. In some respects it resembles Lepus campestris of the Hudson Bay country, which, however, is more like Z. sylvaticus, although much grayer, and like L. Bairdii, with a sooty nape. It is, perhaps, with the true Polar Hare ( Lepus glacialis) that it is to be compared the most properly. Its summer dress is much the same, but it is much smaller, and lacks the black tips of the ears. The hind feet are, however, of nearly the same size. This hare seems to be restricted to a comparatively small. area on the summits of these mountains, near Fremont's Peak, about longitude 1109, and latitude 439, so far as our present knowledge extends; and its natural habitat appears be among the perpetual snows, from which it descends at pleasure to the little open spots on the slope for its food. If it were widely distributed it could not so long have eluded € observations of so many travellers who have erossed these Mountains before and since 1860. But at this immediate locality it appeared to be abundant. It subsists on grass, but is very fond of the bark, buds and leaves of small 116 THE SAND MARTIN. shrubs, especially the pine buds. Its meat is very white and tender, affording the most delicate food for the traveller. For tenderness and fineness of fibre, the meat of this hare not only differs from, but surpasses all others of the West. It holds a similar position among the hares that the Dusky Grouse does among the Western Grouse; both have white and very delicate meat, and prefer to obtain their food from the pine shrubs. Descending the western slope of the mountains into the valley of the Snake Fork, we were again surrounded with all the indications of spring. The trees were clothed with fresh green foliage, and myriads of flowers were in bloom, and all signs of winter had passed away. In the course of a single day one may ascend to the region of perpetual snow, and descend again to that of spring and summer. ipis ad) THE SAND MARTIN. BY AUGUSTUS FOWLER. , THe Sand Martins (Hirundo riparia) visit their accus- tomed breeding-places in Essex County, Massachusetts, usually the first week in May, in companies sometimes to the number of fifty pairs. They select the bank of some — river, or the sides of any large excavation, in which they — dig a hole from one to three feet below the surface of the ground in a straight, horizontal direction. The holes are usually from two to three feet in length, and often within 2 few inches of each other; the entrance and passage-way t9 | the nest being of an elliptic form. They prefer the most - perpendieular banks, with a stratum of sandy loam below . the soil. They live together in the most social manner, and | | unlike the White-bellied Swallow (Hirundo bicolor) are sel- | dom seen to quarrel with each other. If at any time one of them should, in digging his hole, intrude upon the passage f THE SAND MARTIN. 117 of another already excavated, he leaves it and begins a new one in some other place. After having completed their burrow they deposit at its farther extremity a small quan- tity of soft dried grass, so adjusted that the largest part of the material is placed towards the passage-way, and then line it with a few large white downy feathers. I say white feathers, because I have always observed they prefer the whitest they can get for the purpose ; it shows a proper taste in the birds, a fit symbol of their innocence, and I shou be surprised to find a swallow’s nest of this species lined with black or even dark-colored feathers. In the nest thus formed the female deposits from four to six eggs, which are pure white, with a very thin transparent shell; they are six-eighths of an inch in length, and one-half of an inch in breadth. Nature has not bestowed on this bird that graceful motion when on the wing that the Barn Swallow exhibits, but she has given it the most amiable disposition of all our swallows. I have noticed an instance of the sense and reflection of these birds, for if reason did not influence them in their oper- ations, it seems as if there never was evidence of its exist- ence in animals. There is in the town of Beverly a bank, formed by the removal of clay for the purpose of making bricks, which is every season occupied by twenty or thirty pairs of these birds. Above the clay there is a stratum of sandy loam, from two to three feet in depth; in this they burrow from two to three feet. There is likewise in the town of Danvers a bank which swallows occupy, in which the layer of loam is mixed with gravel or small stones. They excavate this bank to the length of five, seven and even nine feet. For two or three seasons it was undermined. Why should there be such a difference in the length of the burrows made by the same species of birds, in situations not more than a mile distant from each other? In one bank, after examining a number of their holes where the earth was of a fine sandy loam, easily perforated, it was noticed that 118 THE SAND MARTIN. from the entrance to the extremity, the burrows did not exceed three feet in length, while in the other bank, with harder loam to work in, one burrow was found which was nine feet in length ; and after examining six different holes, of nearly the same length, it appeared that these little birds had sufficient reason for extending their labors so far in the earth ; in every instance where they met with a spot of loam, free from stones, they finished their burrows; if they met a stony soil they showed great care for the welfare of their eggs or young in avoiding a catastrophe so great as would befall their treasures if by accident a stone should fall upon them; for this reason they excavate to the great depth above referred to. As with man so it seems with them; reason appears to teach them what effects certain causes will pro- duce; hence the care they exhibit in depositing their eggs in a place free from danger of harm. ; After they arrive at their breeding-places, they seem to spend a few days in consultation with regard to the organi- zation of their little colony ; at such times numbers of them lE acq dct DE: pecie Ic EE will be seen clinging to the bank, keeping up a low twitter- | ing, while others may be seen circling and wheeling around with much apparent joy, passing each other with that grace- fulness and ease that are characteristic of no other birds ex- cept those belonging to the swallow family, not however without a friendly greeting in a low chatter, with .a little variance of cadence. No party of beavers are more regular, or swarm of bees more formal, than are the colonies of these birds. In watching their operations, while some were perforating the bank and others leaving it, in search for or returning . with materials to construet their nests, it is noticeable that at a given signal, a short time before sunset, they quit their labors simultaneously, and in a few moments not an indi- vidual is seen near the bank, but over some pond, or field, or high in the air hunting their food. And when the colony returned it was in the same manner, all in company; they — THE WHITE-FOOTED OR DEER MOUSE. 119 would then hover awhile about the bank, and one after an- other dive into their burrows and disappear for the night. Another interesting period in the life of this bird is when their young begin to fly. No mother looks upon the first steps of her child with more interest and pleasure than do these birds seemingly upon the first flight of their offspring. For a few days the young appear at the entrance of their burrow, watching the old birds in their flight as they pass and repass, and stopping now and then to leave them food, and are at last induced to leave the bank and try their wings, when they are followed by their parents until they are safely perched upon some object, to receive in a chattering way, their praise and congratulation for the success in their first attempt in flying. The young are fed for a few days upon the wing, and when abandoned to seek their own food may be seen in pairs or small parties, two or three miles from the place of their nativity, skimming over the fields and pastures. Their food consists entirely of insects. Among the festal days observed by the Greeks, there was one called *the Welcome of the Swallows," when the chil- dren would march through the streets with garlands of roses and with musie to receive presents, and as this swallow is one of those interesting "guests of summer" which always Visits us, and as there is not even a suspicion that he is harmful to man, let us welcome him. THE WHITE-FOOTED OR DEER MOUSE. BY J. D. CATON. Tuts species of the Mus family has been noted for two characteristics, not confined to it alone but still rare. One is that it is an active tree-climber, and very frequently makes its nest upon or in trees, sometimes at a considerable distance from the ground; and the other is its mode of transporting 120 THE WHITE-FOOTED OR DEER MOUSE. its young, which, as usually observed, is by the latter ad- hering to the teat of the mother, who drags them along in her flight from danger. In October last I observed a bunch of sticks and twigs in a thorn bush, about thirty inches from the ground, about the size of one's head and rounded on top, with no appearance of ever having been occupied by a bird. When the axe-man struck the root of the tree, a White-footed Mouse ( Mus leu- copus) rushed from the nest with two of her young family, fully half-grown, attached to her. She coursed up and down the limbs, and from one limb to another, dragging her heavy load after her. Occasionally both would drop down on either side of the limb along which she was dragging them. Some- times when she would reach a lateral branch, the young hanging its whole length below it, she would yank the infant with a force truly surprising, which must have been a severe test upon the hold of the little one. — Two observations interested me particularly: First, the young were not adhering to the teat, which has been sup- posed to be the universal habit of this mouse, but were ad- hering to the outside of the thighs. In this observation I do not think I could have been mistaken, as I was struck with this peculiarity, and stood within a yard of them, and she stopped in plain view several times in apparent doubt as to which way to go, and once on a limb about an inch in diam- — eter, and with one of the young hanging down on either side, which gave me the best possible lindos for an accurate observation. The young, though large enough to have fled much faster than the mother éould drag them, ‘made no effort to assist in the flight, but contented themselves with pas- - sively hanging on. Second, the young were of a dull blue 3 or lead dolis, darker than the common house-mouse, and showing no white on the feet, belly or sides, which is always — | observable in the adult. $ _. My desire to secure them as specimens was overcome by - my sympathy for the afflicted mother, and I allowed them to E FLORA OF PALESTINE AND SYRIA. 121 escape. This was done after having once retreated to the nest, and left it again upon a new alae, when she run out upon a limb as fap as she could, and jumped to the ground, a distance of full four feet, the young still adhering to her. I did not, as I should have done, examine the internal arrangement of the nest. If she had taken possession of an abandoned bird’s nest, she had completed the structure by adding to it till the top presented a full convex form. THE FLORA OF PALESTINE AND SYRIA. BY REV. GEORGE E. POST. Paestine and Syria embrace four distinct botanical re- gions: I. The sea-coast plain and lower slopes of the hills, with the deeper valleys, which run far into the heart of- Lebanon and the hill country of Galilee. The climate of this region is subtropical, and fosters the development of the banana, the palm, the sugar-cane and the orange. In this region frost is almost unknown, snow is quite rare, being seen only once in ten or fifteen years, and the hot sun of summer pour- ing on a soil made humid by irrigations, develops a luxu- riant vegetable life. : II. The mountain sides, from 1000 to 4000 feet above the sea, with the valley of Cole Syria, and the plain of the Orontes. Here the flora changes. The palm will no longer flourish. The banana refuses to fruit. The orange and the lemon cease to be productive, and their place is taken by the oak and the willow, and the pine and the maple. The olive and the mulberry are equally productive in this and the foregoing region, but in this form almost the only orchards, While on the plain they share the attention of the farmer with the before mentioned trees. In this region wheat and AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. III. 16 1299 FLORA OF PALESTINE AND SYRIA. barley flourish, and the vine attains the most perfect devel- opment. The herbaceous flora of these two regions is simi- lar in type, except that as we rise on the mountain sides the Tetragontheca and Stachys, and Squill and Pancratium of the plains begin to yield to the thorny mountain species of Astragalus, and Tragacanth, and Eupigium, and the aro- matic Origanums and Teucriums. III. A third region comprises a small part of Cole Syria, near the head waters of the Litany and Orontes, with the plain east of Damascus and Hums. The soil of this region . is thin, being fit only for the production of grasses and thorny herbs, the scanty pasture of the Arab's flocks and herds. Here grow Centaurea dumulosa, and Delphinium anthoroides, and many Astragali and other Leguminose, while not a solitary tree, or even shrub, enlivens the dreary landscape. It is the type of those great waterless plains, which, for a short space, interrupted by the fertile district of Mesopotamia, extend eastward through Persia to the great desert of Cobi. IV. The fourth of these regions is from the height of 4000 feet on Lebanon and Hermon, to their snow clad summits. Here the scanty remains of their once extensive forests of cedar and oak, and pine, end at an elevation of 6000 feet above the sea, and for the remaining 4000 feet of naked rock, we have left such treelets as the Cotoneaster, and Pru- nus prostratas, and Daphne oleoides, while the herbaceous flora is represented in the lower regions by Astragalus lana- tus, Alyssum montanum, and Ranunculus demissus and Viola ebracteolata, and higher up by hemispherical bogs of a species of Astragalus, Onobrychys tragacanthus and Acantho- limon Libanoticum, while on the extreme summit of Lebanon we find Ucia canescens, and of Hermon, Pyrethrum densum. A fifth region might be enumerated, viz., the -plain about Jericho, in which, owing to the depth of its surface below the sea, about 1300 feet, and the reflected glare of the sun from the mountains and surface of the Dead Sea, the heat | FLORA OF PALESTINE AND SYRIA. 123 mounts to equatorial degrees, and a flora is found resembling that of Lower India. More than twenty species are found here and around Engedi, which are not found again until we eross the Himalayas. Thus it will be seen, that while on the summit of Lebanon there is a plant, Oxygia reniformis, belonging to the Arctic flora, in the valley of the Dead Sea we have representatives of the vegetation of the torrid zone, and this in the midst of a region with a temperate climate, by a special arrangement, seemingly designed to extend the range of human thought and observation within limits almost mierocosmical. For while on any high mountain in the tropies we may have the near con- Junction of these diverse forms of vegetable life thus answer- ing the ends of variety and comparison, yet the general sur- face of the country in such cases would be torrid, and hence ill-adapted to the development of a hardy independent race, such as inhabited the mountains of Palestine and Syria. In the Holy Land, however, the end is gained by sinking a small section down to a tropical level, leaving the rest of the country more favorably situated for the support of vigorous life, and the development of individuality of national char- acter. A single observation more is in place here. It is that in Syria all plants necessary to life, or conducive to health, are either indigenous or flourish under cultivation in the open air, and that the indigenous materia medica supplies types of all the leading groups of remedies used in the healing art. This Statement is illustrated by the fact that in the gardens of Syria grow the potato, bean in all its varieties, Indian corn, ®gg-plant, squash, pumpkin, artichoke, cucumber, onion, tomato, turnip, cabbage, cauliflower, spinach, carrot, beet, and many other vegetables, and the lemon, orange, citron, Pomegranate, apricot, plum (in all varieties), peach, apple, cherry, blackberry, mulberry, banana, fig, date, grape, and other kinds of fruit; the walnut, pistachio, filbert, almond and other nuts; the squill, castor oil plant, elaterium, scam- 124 THE FAUNA OF MONTANA TERRITORY. mony, colocynth, salep, acacia, galls, poppy, Conium macu- latum, aloe, various Euphorbias, madder and many other medicinal and economical plants. THE FAUNA OF MONTANA TERRITORY. BY J. G COOPER, M.D. (Concluded from page 84.) III. REPTILES. Horned Toan ( Tapaya Douglassii Gir.). A single speci- men was obtained at Fort Benton. Though found on the Columbia Plains this species does not seem to cross the mountains at this point, but probably does so by the head of Snake River. RATTLESNAKE (Crotalus confluentus Say, possibly also C. Lucifer B. and G.). I saw but two rattlesnakes in the Rocky Mountains, which were on a prairie along Hell Gate River. Expecting to find more I did not preserve them, but as speci- mens were probably obtained by Lieut. Mullan, I mention the localities of this and other reptiles which I did not preserve. All kinds were very scarce in the mountains, and this, which is so abundant along the Platte, is rather rare near Fort Ben- ton. I mention this as the species seen on the west slope because the Bitterroot Mountains are a far greater obstacle to — the migration of the O. Lucifer eastward, than the main divide | is to that of this, and I killed some of C. confluentus, proba- — bly, as high as 5000 feet above the sea on the east slope. 3 Pine Sware (Pituophis). I also got a Pine Snake at Fort — Benton. E Green Racer ( Boscanion vetustus B. and G., or B. flaw- | ventris?). I saw one dead specimen of this snake along Hel . . Gate River in August. a WANDERING GARTERSNAKE ( Eutainia vagrans B. and G.) | Rather common along Hell Gate and Bitterroot River. 4a THE FAUNA OF MONTANA TERRITORY. 125 Toap (Bufo Columbiensis B. and G.?). A large toad was occasionally observed along the Hell Gate and Bitterroot Valleys, but was not very common. SrorrEp Froe (Rana halecina Kalm). I saw this frog on the Missouri among the mountains, which it probably crosses, being found at Fort Dalles by Dr. Suckley. IV. FISHES. Lewis’ Trout (Salmo Lewisii Girard). This fine trout abounds in the headwaters of the Missouri, up to their sources on the eastern slope of the mountains, and a few were taken at and near Fort Benton by the soldiers, all of them large ones. They bite readily at almost any artificial fly ; also at in- sects, meat, pork, and even leaves and flowers, after they had been tempted with grasshoppers. Officers and men, nearly all who were not on duty, would crowd to the banks of the beautiful mountain streams, and catch as many as the whole command of three hundred men could eat every day, and with tackle of all kinds, from a rude stick with a piece of common twine and a large hook, to the most refined outfit of the genuine trout-fisher. The form differs very much from the figure given in Dr. Girard’s Report, and in the Natural History of Washington Territory, being, as the specimens show, much more elongated, like most other species. I also took specimens of small size across, to compare with those on the western slope, and am very doubtful whether these can be considered a distinct species, though a comparison of larger specimens may prove them to be so. If distinct, the trout of the western slope is exceedingly near S. Lewisii. It is equally abundant down to the crossing of the Bitterroot, but less so in the streams on both sides of the Cœur d'Alene Range, probably from their excessively shallow and rapid current. I saw no difference, however, in those taken at Cœur d’Alene Mission from those of the Little Blackfoot. The differences noticed between these and those of the Missouri were as follows :— Evidently fatter and in better 126 THE FAUNA OF MONTANA TERRITORY. condition, from which, I suppose, arose the deeper tint and greater extent of the rosy tint on their side and belly; back paler olive; spots fewer and chiefly near the tail, where they assumed a more stellate arrangement, but this was not con- stant. Very young specimens, four to five inches long, were barred on the sides. I saw none so small on the east slope. No. 61, Little Blackfoot River, August 17th. No. 69, near crossing of Bitterroot River, September 2nd. Length, 14.75 inch; olive, below silvery with rosy tints towards sides; spots black; operculum, etc., bronze gilt; chin-mark orange. Salmo sp.—A single specimen of a species of trout was caught by Lieut. A. V. Kautz, U.S. A., on September 25th, just below the ferry across the Spokan River, at Antoine Plant’s. Its very dark hue corresponds to the color of the stream, which is often the case in fish of the same species found in different localities, but it otherwise differs very much from the preceding. There is a high fall of the river below this point not passed by the salmon, so that this species cannot be a hybrid with them or anadromous either. No. 121, dried skin; colors when fresh were very dark olive above; belly dull white (no rosy marks) ; chin-mark reddish purple ; oper- culum coppery, with a deep purple tint, this continuing as 4 broad streak along lateral line. Form of head very obtuse.* SUCKLEY’s SALMONTROUT (S. Suckleyi Cooper, nov. sp-): *Besides Salmo Lewisii, the following fish were caught at and near Fort Benton, most of ge probably, do not go above the falls: PIKE PERCH (Stizostedion boreus Gir.). Not very co CATFISH. Pimelodus olivaceus Gir. was the only ca Perg seen above Fort Union, below which P. ailurus Gir. is common. It is excellent eating, preferred by many to ‚trout, which cannot be said of other c. atfish RIVER SUCKER (Acomus lacta. rius Gir.). Common and =y Pega eating. MISSOURI KER. ( Catostomus Suckleyi Gir.). Not very com NEBRASKA DACE communis Gir.). Abundant below. Fort Benton, but MISSOURI HERRING vases no Lesu.. Common, and bites sharply like 8 trout, giving zood sport, but SHOYEL-NOSED STURGEON tae platirhynchus Baird). Several were | caught near Fort Bento 802 Sp.). waitin pike was cut before I saw it, and I only got the head, : which I gave to Mr. Hil Hildreth t to send to Washington oe also in the Roc Rocky Mountains a xpo itam of Whitefish ( Coregonus?), à Cot- 2 tod 1oy E E a 3 P E sar , Which ARRA i er: P "VE 3 € probably still undeseribed, but d eet s A: *. 41. - S ded THE FAUNA OF MONTANA TERRITORY. 127 Salmontrout of the Kalispelm or Lake Pend d’Oreille ; Suck- ley, Report on Natural History of Washington Territory, un- der S. Gibbsii(?).* The first of this splendid salmontrout we met with were at the mouth of St. Regis Borgia creek, which flows down the east slope of the Cœur d’Alefie Range, and joins the Bitterroot, where the road crosses and leaves that river. The large specimen was brought to camp by Indians. An old mountaineer who keeps the ferry, said that they could be caught with a hook baited with a small fish, but these two had evidently been speared. We saw several of them in this stream, but all refused to bite at a fly or any common bait. Those caught in the Cour d’Aleiie, on the west slope, seemed to be identical, and I preserved a small one (No. 110, in alcohol). No. 95 was evidently about spawning, the ova being as large as peas, like those of the large salmon. Its colors were pale olive above, with irregu- ius greenish patches; sides yellowish, beneath silvery white ; fins and tail tinged with red; spots on back carmine, large and few; tail a little emarginate; length 294 inches. The other was slightly smaller, otherwise like this. No. 110, young, was darker above, and colors brighter. Sarmon (Salmo canis Suckley). Below the forks of the Spokan, the Indians were catching myriads of this sal- mon, and. curing even those washed ashore, in their ex- hausted, diseased condition, without scales, and presenting all the appearances described in our report of 1853, rela- ting to the salmon of the D Columbia. orth Dr.C that he did not have the book at hand, and was not sure that the specimen he refers to was mentioned by Dr. Suckley v under S. Gibbsii. As we cannot find a reference to the locality given under S. paragraph by Dr. a E ~ ee ee EIEE PERPEN S Gibbsii, we think that Dr. Cooper intended to to the following Suckley under Salmo spectabilis Gir. (Nat. Hist. of Washington Territo Oregon, E In Lake P. sheet of water formed in the second chain of Ori the Rocky Mountains by a dilatation of the Clark River, of much the same size, shape, rent character as Lake Geneva in Switzerland, I — seen a very hand Species of red-spottedlake trout. The spots along the flanks are of the size pian d peas, id are of a be autiful rose color. The length of the adult mawn twenty inches. Its fi arched.” Much valuable and interesting information relating to the Salmonidze „of the northwestern His 9f America is contained in Dr. Suckley's a on tory of Washington Territory, etc.— EDITORS THE FLOWERS OF EARLY SPRING. BY REV. J. W. CHICKERING, JR. THERE is perhaps a nearly equal charm about the notes of the first robin, and the sight of the first Mayflower. It will be the object of this article to enumerate, with a few notes upon each, some of our earlier floral visitors, in wood and meadow, in New England. The list opens, not very attractively, with a plant well known to all, under the mal-odorous name of Skunk Cab- bage (Symplocarpus fetidus), but whose flower is by no means so familiar,save to the observing botanist, and even he must be on the alert to obtain this first gift of Flora, in full perfection of color and aroma. Early in April, or even in March, almost before the ice is fairly melted, may be found in low marshy ground, this flower, clumsy in form, repulsive and snaky in color, dark purple with yellowish blotches, and disgusting in odor; soon to be followed by the clump of large fleshy leaves, conspicuous during the rest of the sum- mer. Like Stramonium, and most other noxious and um- sightly weeds, it has been tried as a remedy for asthma, and with about as much effect. DEI In very pleasing contrast comes next Epigæa repens, or a it is sometimes miscalled Trailing Arbutus, better and more 4 appropriately known throughout New England as the May- ower. This, among the very earliest, is also the choicest gift that Flora has in this latitude to offer us, alike for its beauty of : form and color, its delicious fragrance, and its charming - habit of peeping out, almost from the edge of the retreating | snowdrifts. To find the first bunch of Mayflowers is 1 ambition of many a boy and girl, as well as not a few child- — ren of larger growth. The finest specimens ever seen bY | the writer were from a mountain in Camden, Maine. It has (128) "n | THE FLOWERS OF EARLY SPRING. 129 also been used as a medicinal agent, but with no better nor worse results than many others. It is a true wild flower, resisting all attempts at domestication. Closely associated with this is found the Hepatica, in its two forms of triloba and acutiloba, one with rounded, the other with pointed leaves, probably merely varieties. The little clump of flowers pushes its way through the ground, often in advance of the leaves, and with the varying shades of pink, blue and white, seen in different plants, is a welcome addition to our spring bouquet, though lacking the fragrance of the Mayfiower. About this same time the southern aspect of rocky hill- sides begins to whiten, with the cheerful, though not spe- cially graceful or showy flowers of the Early Saxifrage (Saxifraga Virginiensis), and in forest marshes the incon- spicuous little Golden Saxifrage, with a name longer than itself ( Chrysosplenium Americanum). Soon in the meadows the carpet of living green is embroidered with the golden flowers of Caltha palustris or the English Marsh Marigold, improperly called Cowslip, and whether correctly or not, associated with creamy milk and yellow butter, while a lit- tle later are seen in the morning sun, the white stars of the Bloodroot ( Sanguinaria Canadensis), as fragile as they are beautiful, generally lasting but for a day. Its orange-colored juice is much used in medicine as an emetic, an expecto- rant, and a liniment. This plant readily bears transplant- ing, increases in size under cultivation, and becomes one of the most attractive ornaments of the early flower border. In some parts of the country is found a somewhat similar flower, the Twin-leaf, or Rheumatism Root (Jefersonia di- phylla), also well repaying cultivation. Meanwhile the pastures are beginning to whiten (last year remarkably) with the modest little Houstonia, or Innocence ( Oldenlandia cerulea), while a host of violets are making their appearance. Viola blanda, a wee, white, sweet-scented Species, in the woods ; cucullata, with its large blue flowers at AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. III. 130 THE FLOWERS OF EARLY SPRING. and hood-shaped leaves, with their curious palmate variety ; rotundifolia, with yellow flowers and shiny leaves; and on the hillsides and in the pastures the widely varying sagittata. Claytonia Virginica, well named Spring Beauty, must not be neglected in its moist and generally shady bed. Along streams in open woodlands, we may find the Spring Cress ( Outen rhomboidea), with large, white flowers; and just shooting up its green stalk, its first cousin the Win- ter Cress (Barbarea vulgaris). Nor should the floral efforts of trees and shrubs be disre- garded. Among the earliest indications of spring the Hazel- nut (Corylus rostrata) shakes its long catkins along the roadsides, before any signs of swelling leaf-buds are visible, while the Willows (Salix), whose name is legion, begin to burst their warm wintry covering. The Savin (Juniperus Virginiana) is covered with its curious little flowers. The Hemlock (Abies Canadensis) is early in flower, as also the American Yew (Taxus baccata). All these require close examination to detect their inflorescence, but well repay it- The two maples, Acer dasycarpum (the Silver Maple) and Acer rubrum (the Red Maple), hang out their showy pen- dants very early. The Sweet Gale (Myrica Gale), along the edges of swamps, and the Sweet Fern ( Comptonia asple nifolia), whose dried leaves are the basis of juvenile at- tempts at smoking, are now in flower; and Dirca palustris, well named Leather-wood from the marvellous toughness of its bark, such that it is frequently used in default of leather or twine in repairing broken harnesses or sleds, hangs out its little yellow bells in advance of any leaves. We close the list with the fragrant Sassafras (S. ofici- nale), well known by its aromatic bark and curiously lobed leaves, not so well by its early clusters of yellow flowers, somewhat resembling those of the Sugar-maple; and the ‘Spice-wood, or Fevr hud (Benzoin odoriferum), also highly aromatic, and possessing, like the Sassafras, medicinal value as an aromatic stimulant. Such are the earliest flowers, THE FRESH-WATER AQUARIUM. 131 which in forest, field or fen, invite the search of the botanist and the lover of nature. Perhaps subsequent articles may give some notes upon the flowers of later spring, summer and autumn, with a floral calendar, and possibly an enumeration of some plants and shrubs well worthy of a place in garden or shrubbery, but hitherto neglected. If this shall sueceed in leading any to a closer study of nature's beauty, and the goodness and glory of the Creator, its object will be answered. THE FRESH-WATER AQUARIUM. BY C. B. BRIGHAM. Tue art of preserving water animals alive and in good condition, as pets or as objects of study, is not of recent date; but the principles of what is now commonly known as the aquarium, were not until lately brought into general notice. The Romans had their tanks of game fish, the English and French gardeners their vessels for the growth of tender water-lilies or other valuable aquatic plants, yet the happy thought of uniting the two, — fishes and plants, — so that the one should balance the other, each aiding in the others support, making withal a collection of such propor- tions as to be conveniently kept indoors, is the production of comparatively late years. Dr. Johnstone, of Liverpool, has the reputation of having been the first to apply practically the principles of the aqua- rium; he made experiments with the Corallina officinalis, Starfish, Conferve, and some small plants of the Ulva latis- sima, and found that they flourished for eight weeks without being disturbed; this led him to try some fresh-water fishes and larve, and they succeeded even better than the salt- Water specimens. Since then Gosse, Hibberd, Warington 132 THE FRESH-WATER AQUARIUM. and others of England, and the late Mr. Cotting, of Boston, have done much towards forwarding the interests of the aquarium. The whole secret of the success of the aquarium lies in the exactness with which we imitate nature in arrang- ing and disposing our collections ; but let us understand first of all that what is meant by the term an aquarium is a col- lection of water plants and animals, so arranged in suitable ratio that it shall be perfectly self-supporting. We do not expect, then, that the water will have to be changed until after long periods, if at all; the plants and animals should flourish as well as if in their native locality. How then is this balance of forces to be attained? This leads us to examine the philosophy of the aquarium, which is simply this: The element in water which the fishes live on by breathing is free oxygen, which, as the water is fanned through the gills or lungs of the fish, comes in contact with the walls of its vessels, and arterializes the blood; all water contains a certain amount of this oxygen, sufficient to keep a fish alive for a short time, but if no means are taken to create a fresh supply, it will become exhausted sooner or later, and an escape of carbonic acid will render the water poisonous to the fish. In plants on the other hand we have an agent taking up the carbonic acid in the water, and re- solving it into carbon and oxygen, the former of which it - converts into its substance, while it expels the latter from every part of its tissue, especially from the leaves in the form of minute bubbles, plainly seen in healthy plants, and so often compared to drops of quicksilver in appearance. It is true that plants absorb oxygen also as fishes do, but they give out so much more than they absorb, that this is of slight account. Another oxygen producing agent, as was shown by Liebig, is to be found in the almost microscopic forms of animal life which abound in water which has stood for some time eX- posed to the air. These animaleule seem to form another link in the chain which binds together all kinds of animal - THE FRESH-WATER AQUARIUM. 133 life of higher or lower order, however apparently diverse they may be. This extra supply of oxygen adds greatly to the support of the aquarium, and is no doubt the reason why a large number of fishes can be supported with a seem- ingly small proportion of plants. It would indeed be an interesting experiment to try, were we to place a small fish in a large tank, and see if, from the oxygen of these infu- sorial animalcule alone, life could be sustained. It must be the aim of him who wishes to establish an aqua- rium to see that this balance of plants and fishes is effected, for it is indispensable. Starting then with some idea of what we wish to accomplish, the first inquiry is about the kind of tank we are to use. This is an affair of more than mere fancy, convenience, or economy, for it is important for the growth of many plants that they should have the great- est amount of light possible, and this is especially true with fresh-water plants ; so that where a washbowl or a tub would make an excellent tank for a salt-water collection, the same might fail of success in one with fresh-water. Besides there are many specimens which we wish to examine sideways, and obtain that view which it is not possible to have in nature, namely, that of a vertical section of a pond. The requirements of a good vessel or tank for an aquarial col- lection, are strength and sufficient transparency ; these we have in a moderate degree in the inverted bell-glasses, or cake covers, of confectioners. If, however, the glass be- comes cracked and broken from any cause, and it is surpris- ing how easily it is broken, the whole collection of specimens is in great danger of being lost, especially if the accident happen in the night-time. Another disadvantage which the cake covers have is, that through them the specimens are sometimes magnified, and irregularly too, so that what has been put into the tank as a very small and finely shaped fish, in an instant becomes a giant more or less deformed. This kind of tank is the usual one adopted by those who are making an aquarial collection for the first time, and it 134 THE FRESH-WATER AQUARIUM. answers many purposes admirably; it is sufficiently trans- parent, moderately strong, and quite cheap. One having a diameter of twelve and a half inches, with a depth of eight inches, and of good thickness, can be bought for two dollars and a half; the knob on the top will prevent its standing steadily, and to obviate this difficulty a stand can easily be turned from a block of wood, with a hole cut in the centre large enough to admit the knob, and allow the bottom of the glass to rest upon it as a support. If properly taken care. of, a tank of this sort will last for years, and be a great comfort to its possessor, but an untimely accident will before long induce him to try something more substantial. - Perhaps the best tank for the aquarium in use is what is ealled a rectangular tank, having the four sides of glass, and the base of some hard material such as stone, iron or wood. The glass is held in place, and supported at the four corners by as many pillars of iron or wood, which are held together on top by strips of a similar material connecting them. Of the three materials for the base and pillars, iron is by far the best for a fresh-water tank, if we can have but one material alone; it is lighter than stone, and the little it rusts from time to time does not amount to anything; the water does not ooze through it as it does through some kinds of stone, and it does not warp, as wood is so apt to do if the tank is left without water for a length of time. To prevent rusting a layer of cement may be spread on the bottom of the tank inside, and a plate of thick strong glass placed upon it; and in the same way a narrow strip of glass‘can be cemented to each of the pillars, so that the iron shall be prevented from coming in contact with the water at every point. A tank, . having a base of slate and pillars of iron protected by glass, as just explained, is the best kind of a tank to own, as it can be used for either salt or fresh water as we require. The shape of a tank, too, is of some importance, that of a double cube being the best for this reason, that it allows more of a clear surface on the long sides for inspection after the rock- THE FRESH-WATER AQUARIUM. 135 work and plants are introduced, than a tank whose shape is square; it also gives a better chance for the light to strike upon every point inside. The facilities for procuring tanks already made are so great nowadays, that while once it was an object to know how to construct a tank for one’s self, now one has only to make a choice from several patterns. The most important thing to look after in selecting a tank, next to its material and shape, is the kind of cement which has been used ; all sorts of putty are to be rejected as worthless; if we cannot be sure that the cement is good and not injurious to fishes, a few weeks trial, or even less, will convince us of its value. Another point to be attended to, is that the cement be quite hard before the tank is filled with water, as there are some kinds of cement used that never harden; of course, in these cases there is danger of having a leaky tank to contend with. Of the other kinds of tanks, either those made wholly of clay, or of glass, or those with one side at an angle of 50° with the base, so as to form a beach, after the pattern of the Warington tank, or those with all the sides of slate, in imitation of a rock pool, or those of an oval or hexagonal shape, each has its advocates. Some tanks have been lately made in New York, with the base and pillars of a composi- tion which is silver-plated ; they are wonderfully light and beautiful, but there seem to be doubts as to their durability. More or less ornament can be displayed on the pillars and base of the tank, according to the taste of the owner, but it Seems as if simplicity and neatness were full as requisite here as elsewhere, and that the ornament of the tank should be the collection inside. As to the size of the tank, it very much depends on the place one has to put it in. se three sizes I have found from experience very useful i No. 1, Length, 18 in. ; depth, 103 in; width, 12 in. No. 2, Length, 24 in. ; depth, 14 in. ; width, 144 in- No. 3, Length, 28 in. ; depth, 134 in. ; width, 13 In- Number three is, perhaps, the best size of all, and it is by 136 HINTS ON TAXIDERMY. far the prettiest shape. Tanks can be purchased, generally, at the bird or plant stores of large cities; the prices range from six dollars upwards. Sometimes a stand for the tank is made in connection with it, or of a similar material. It is well to remember in selecting a stand, the enormous weight which it will have to bear when the tank is filled with stones and water.— To be continued. HINTS ON TAXIDERMY. BY C. A. WALKER. Equ t for the travelling collector.—The travelling- collector should equip himself with a double-barrelled gun (and a rifle when large animals are sought for), ammunition, including shot for small birds and mammals (numbers 2, 6, 8, and 10,—the latter should never be omitted) ; dissecting instruments, scissors, needles and thread, preservative drugs and preparations, and alcohol about 80 per cent. in strength ; tin cans of various sizes for containing alcoholic specimens, since glass bottles and jars are liable to be broken during transportation; cotton and tow for stuffing the skins of birds and mammals; fishing lines and hooks, casting net, à seine for catching fishes in small streams, the two ends of which should be secured to long wooden handles, which is held in the hands of two persons upon opposite banks; in this position it can be drawn both up and down the.stream. He should also carry with him a geological hammer and steel chisels for collecting fossils and rock specimens, and small pocket vials and cork-lined boxes for insects. atives. — Common powdered arsenic should be em- ployed for skins to be mounted at once, instead of arsenical soap, as it has a tendency to dry them quickly. It may be _ oca dry, or mixed with alcohol until it is of the consist- —— HINTS ON TAXIDERMY. ` 137 ency of syrup; in the former case it should be dusted upon the skin by means of a small sieve; in the latter it is neces- sary to apply it with a brush. Arsenical soap should be used only upon skins which are intended to be kept for a long time before being mounted. It is composed of the following ingredients: powdered arsenic $ lb., camphor 14 lb., salts of tartar 3 oz., powdered lime 1 oz., bar soap $ lb. The soap should be cut into very fine slices, put into a tin dish with warm water, and stirred over a moderate fire until thoroughly dissolved ; the powdered lime and salts of tartar should then be added and mixed with the soap. The prep- aration should next be removed from the fire, the pow- dered arsenic, and lastly the camphor (powdered and dis- solved in a little alcohol) added, stirring the mixture all the while. The whole should have the consistency of flour paste; if it be too thick add a little water, taking care not to hold it over the fire after the camphor has been added, as heat will cause the latter to evaporate speedily. After cooling it place it in a jar with a brush passing through the stopper, and label the jar "poison." In extreme cases when the above preparations cannot be obtained, the skin should be rubbed with salt or with alum, or filled with spices and strong smelling herbs. These are by no means a sub- stitute for arsenic, and are to be used only when the latter cannot be obtained. The skins of large animals should be soaked in a solution of alum, arsenic and salt, or in weak arseniated alcohol for several days. Directions for preliminary work. — When a specimen has been killed the mouth should be opened, cleaned and filled With cotton or tow; the nostrils and vent, and any wounds should be treated in the same way to prevent blood or other Secretions from exuding. It is essential to remove the skin as soon as possible after death. Should this be inconvenient, the internal organs should be taken out and the cavity filled with powdered charcoal if it can be had, if not, salt should e used. Previous to removing the skin, an accurate meas- AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. III. 18 138 HINTS ON TAXIDERMY. urement should be taken of the subject in the manner in- dicated below.* The color and general character of the hair, as well as any change of the same at different seasons of the year, the sex, and any other peculiarity known should be carefully written Fig. 29.f y Np Ay Hi JP: down and eee Skins should never be packed for transportation until thoroughly dry; they should then be placed in a box containing plenty of camphor, having its sides and joints perfectly closed with pitch to prevent the invasion of insects. It is well to saturate the inside of the box with benzine before placing the skins within. Never allow a box containing skins to be placed in any damp place Busronent and materials used.— Of instruments and materials useful to the taxidermist in mounting mammals; birds, fishes and reptiles, the following are needed : A scalpel "The following are the general measurements which should be taken of a quadru- Total length; n nose to occiput; nose to eye; nose to ear; nose to end of tail; length RN and width root to, end of dati tail from root to end of h length of the nasi joints of the forelegs; length of the different joints of the hind ion of Fig. ; lumbar do. ; g, sacral do; h, caudal do; i, scapula; b, humerus; J, radius; n, ulna; ™ carpal bones ; o, metacarpal bones; p, pelvis; r, femur; s, fibula; f, tibia; u, tarsal bones; v, metatarsal bones; w, p HINTS ON TAXIDERMY. 139 (Fig. 30, a); a pair of pincers for bending wire (c) ; a pair of wire cutters (5) ; a pair of small forceps for stuffing the necks of small birds and mammals and arranging feathers (e); a pair of larger ones, at least fifteen inches long, for stuffing the necks of large birds and mammals (4) ; a pair of dissecting scissors for cutting flesh and ligaments during the process of skinning (d) ; another larger and stronger pair for cutting tow; a large knitting needle inserted into a handle and sharpened at the end, for perforating the tarsi of birds previous to the insertion of the wires (7) ; a tin sieve with a cover for dusting powdered arsenic upon the skin (g) ; a wide- Fig. 30. mouthed jar, with a brush passing through the stopper, for holding arsenical soap (f); tow for stuffing small birds and mammals (the finest quality being used for filling the necks) ; also hay, dried moss, etc., for those of larger size; needles for sewing up incisions; thread for winding; a large fish- hook with the barb filed off, for suspending specimens while skinning them. Annealed iron wire of various sizes, TRES ing from 10 to 26, —No. 10 being used for supporting large Specimens, No. 26 for humming birds, warblers, etc. A - file of medium coarseness for pointing wire; a set of Aiken's 140 HINTS ON TAXIDERMY. tools, containing various sizes of bradawls; a small gouge, chisels, etc., will be found very useful. Method of skinning a mammal.— When an animal is ready for skinning, the mouth, nostrils and shot holes, should be filled with cotton or tow. Place the animal upon its back, take the scalpel in the right hand and with the left separate the hair to the right and left in a line from the front of the pubis quite down to the vent, so that the skin beneath can be plainly seen. Make a longitudinal incision along the course, directed in as straight a line as possible, taking care not to cut so deep as to expose the intestines. The ski should then be turned back on either side with the aid of the scalpel, working downward toward the back. When the thigh has been laid bare sever it from the pelvis at its junc- tion with the femur or thigh bone. Layers of cotton or tow should, from time to time, be placed between the skin and body, as it will prevent the hair from being soiled. This operation should be repeated with the other side. Next the intestinal canal should be cut off a little way above the anus, and the tail separated close to the body. The skin should then be loosened from the back and breast until the forelegs are visible. Sever these at the shoulder joint or the base . of the humerus. Remove the skin from the neck and the back part of the skull will appear. In skinning over the - skull, care should be taken to sever the ears as close to it as possible; also not to injure the eyelids or cut too close - to the lips. The carcass should next be separated from the — skull at the first vertebrze, or the junction of the skull and — neck. The next operation is to remove the tongue, eye © and all the muscles attached to the head. Through an ope? — ing in the occipital bone, carefully clean out the brain. Next | the legs should be skinned quite down to the claws of the © feet, removing all muscles, but leaving the ligaments and . tendons of the knees. The hind legs should undergo the | same operation. Lastly, skin the tail as far back as the - _ first three joints of the vertebre, and to this stump fixa | HINTS ON TAXIDERMY. 141 stout cord, which should be fastened to a hook or other pro- jecting object on the wall. A strong piece of wood is then prepared, flat, and sharpened upon both edges. This should be introduced: between the skin and the vertebre, and by working it around the latter, the attachments will be severed and the vertebre within can be easily pulled from the envel- oping skin. In skinning the tail of the beaver an incision should be made upon the under side, running lengthwise from the base to the tip. The skin should then be loosened, beginning upon either side of the incision, until the flesh is entirely free, when it can be removed, the arsenic added, the skin restored to position, and the incision sewed up. The foregoing method is practiced only upon the smaller quadrupeds; with the larger mammalia a different course is pursued. An incision is made from beneath the under jaw, in a straight line to the anus ; transverse cuts are also made, running down the inside of both fore and hind legs. These being made upon the inner side will render the seams less conspicuous after the specimen has been mounted. To de- tach the hoofs, place them upon a stone and strike them repeatedly with a mallet; they will soon loosen and can be separated from the bone. After the operation of skinning has been completed, every part of the skin should be a- nointed thoroughly with arsenical soap. Turpentine applied to the nostrils and lips will prevent the approach of noxious insects. When the skin is too large for the application of the soap, it should be thoroughly saturated with a solution of "alum and water." The different bones left in the skin should all be thoroughly anointed with the preservative, and the eye-sockets and cavity of the brain filled with cotton or cut tow before replacing the skull in its natural position. If the animal be not too large the carcass should be pre- Served, as it will greatly aid the operator in his work of modelling a body. If immersed in alcohol, it can be kept any length of time. : To mount the skin; for instance that of a squirrel. — First 142 HINTS ON TAXIDERMY. provide yourself with tow, cotton, thread and twine; also, the stuffing forceps, a pair of pincers, file and wire cutters. With the aid of the forceps supply the various muscles of the face and head, by inserting cotton both through the mouth and eyelids. Take annealed wire of the proper size, and eut from the coil six pieces: No. 1, two or three inches longer than the total length of the body; Nos. 2 and 3 for the forelegs; Nos. 4 and 5 for the hind legs; each of these should be two, or even three inches longer than the limbs they are to support; No. 6, for a support to the tail, of the same proportionate length as the others. With a large pair of scissors, cut fine a quantity of tow, and with this, and the aid of the long forceps, stuff the neck to its natural dimensions. "Taking wire No. 1, bend in it four small rings, the distance between the two outer representing the length of the body taken from the skin (Fig. 31, a), leaving one long end for a support to the head and neck (5). Mould tow about that part containing the rings, and by winding it down with thread, form an artificial body, resembling in form and size the natural one Fig. 31. taken from the skin. Sharpen the project- ing end to a fine point with the file, and insert it up through the cut tow in the neck, and thence through the skull; the skin should then be pulled over the body. Wires Nos. 2 and 3 should then be placed in position, by inserting them through the soles of the feet, up within the skin of the leg, and through the body of tow, until they ap- pear upon the opposite side. With the pincers bend over the end of each, forming a hook; the wires must then be pulled backwards, thus festoning the hooks firmly into the body. The loose skin of the limbs should then be stuffed with cut tow, taking care to imitate the muscles of the living subject. Nos. 4 id 5 can be fixed in position after the same manner, except if the animal is to rest entirely upon its tarsi (as in ee eee an ote eee Tet Ee! T F. N MMe Tee c E HINTS ON TAXIDERMY. 143 the case with the squirrel when feeding), then the wire must be inserted at the tarsal joint instead of the sole of the foot. If any depressions appear in the skin they must be stuffed out with the cut tow. Wire No. 6 should now be inserted at the tip of the tail, and forced down within the skin, hooking it into the body in the same manner as the leg wires. Stuff the tail to its proper dimensions, with cut tow, and carefully sew up the incision along the abdomen. Having prepared a board about three-quarters of an inch thick, pierce in it two holes at a proper distance apart for the reception of the leg wires (four holes would be needed if the animal were to stand upon all extremities) ; these must be drawn through upon the under side until the feet of the specimen rest close upon the upper surface, then they should be clinched, taking care that the wire does not protrude above the surface of the board as it renders the support unsteady. The different joints of the limbs can now be imitated by bending the wire at the proper points ; also, a curve can be given to the back, and the tail can be set into proper position by simply bending the wires into the re- quired shape. The eyes should now be placed in their position, a little putty having been previously inserted within the eyelid to serve as a cement. Care should be taken in arranging the eyelid, for the expression depends altogether upon this point. Clip off any superfluous wire which may extend above the head with the wire cutters. The specimen should then be placed in some locality free from moisture and allowed to dry thoroughly, when it is complete for the cabinet. | In mounting quadrupeds of large size the following for- mula should be pursued :—Procure a bar of wood, an inch thick and two inches broad, of a length equal to the dis- tance between the shoulders and thighs; this should be placed within the skin, three holes having been previously made at one end, and two in the other, with a gimlet, for the reception of the various wires. This is used as a 144 HINTS ON TAXIDERMY. substitute for the central wire or body support. Having sharpened a piece of wire large enough to firmly support the specimen, force it down through the skull and neck, passing it through the gimlet hole at a (Fig. 32) ; when it appears on the under side bend the end into the form of a hook with the pineers, and drive it firmly into the wood. Next, the foreleg wires, well sharpened, should be foreed up through the soles of the feet, and fixed into the bar of wood at b and c, in the same manner as the head support. Do the same Fig. 32. with the hind leg wires, fastening them at the lower part of the bar, as at d and e. Lastly, the tail support should be placed in position, fastening it to the wooden bar at the point f. This completes the framework. A quantity of hay or moss should now be proeured, and it is of the utmost importance that it should be thoroughly dry, otherwise the specimen is liable to mould. Commence filling the neck, keeping the wire in the centre of the material, and stuff downward to the forelegs; these should then be restored to form, taking care to imitate the muscles of the shoulder. In working down the body place the hay or moss betwee? the bar of wood and the skin to avoid all stiff appearance; always place the stuffing material evenly within the skin, and never use pressure, as a fresh skin can be easily eX- panded far beyond its natural dimensions. Having reached the hind legs, imitate faithfully, by stuffing, all the natural muscles. When this part has been completed, sew up the various incisions; attention should be paid to separating the ERU REIS Qul T NOR NUES LA TT AR TERES DE ERES UR RO E ETA HINTS ON TAXIDERMY. 145 hairs, and not to take any of them in along with the thread. Imitate the joints of the limbs by bending the wire at the proper points, and place the specimen upon the board, draw the wires through the holes with the pincers, and clinch them upon the under side. The specimen will then assume an erect position. The orifices of the eyes, mouth and ears, should be filled with cotton saturated with the preservative, and the artificial eyes put in while the eyelids are yet plia- ble. The lips can be secured in their proper position by means of pins, and the nostrils distended to their natural size, with pellets of cotton inserted within. In the larger mammalia the orifices of the head should always be a- nointed with spirits of turpentine. If any irregularities ap- pear in the skin, they must be pressed down and modelled into shape with the hand. The muscles of the various parts of the body can be exactly imitated by making casts of plaster of Paris, and fitting them within the skin in lieu of other stuffing material. Those gigantic beasts which roam about the forests of tropical countries, such as the elephant, giraffe, etc., have to be mounted upon wooden models. Perhaps the method cannot be better illustrated than by giving an account of the manner in which an elephant was mounted at the Jardin du Roi, at Paris, as related by Capt. Thomas Brown, F.L.S., in his work entitled “The Taxidermist’s Manual :” “The dead elephant being extended on the ground, the dimensions Were all taken and correctly noted at the time. M. Lassaigne, cab maker to the establishment, invented a large rule for that purpose, which th: an inch in thickness. This metal is much better adapted than any other iiir Constructed, of its natural size. The elephant was placed upon its back by means of four-corded pulleys fastened to the platform. An incision, in the form of a double cross, was then made in the lower side, the central reaching from the mouth to the anus; the two cuts were made from the left leg, on both sides, to the opposite right legs. The trunk was AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. III. 146 HINTS ON TAXIDERMY. longitudinally opened on its under side; the soles of the feet were now taken out to within an inch of their edge, and the nails allowed to remain attached to the skin. This was effected by the aid of a chisel and mallet, and was one of the most difficult operations of the whole. Several per- necessary to effect it. When removed ihe carcass, the skin was weighed, and found to be five hundred and seven ws pounds. It was extended on the ground, so that the cutaneous muscles of the head and other parts might be cut away from its interior. id skin was then put into a tub, and covered six inches deep with water which had been satu- rated with alum. The model which was to fill the skin was made as per- the head in plaster, as also a fore and hind leg. This structure was made of linden wood, and so ingeniously constructed by M. Lassaigne, that almost the whole parts could be separated. He opened a panel on one side of the body, whereby he yi himself into its interior, so that model being completed, the alum water, in which the skin had been all the time immersed, was now taken out and made boiling hot, and in that culty. But judge of their own mortification when it was found that the model was rather too large. To diminish the woodwork they foresaw would them that the best thing to be done under these awkward circumstances was to take off the skin again, and reduce its thickness with knives; they removed all the internal thickenings which came in their way. In this operation five men were occupied for four days, during which time they cut out one hundred and ninety-four pounds weight off the internal surface. During this process the skin had dried, and required again to be immersed in cold soft water; after allowing it to remain twenty-four hours to soak, it was then put on the model, and found to cover it completely; the ed. were brought together and secured with wire rg deeply driven home; and large brads. Except at the edges, the nails and brads were only driven in half way, to keep the skin down to the Pee sinuosities and hollows until dry, when they were again all pulled out. The alum with admirable and well executed contrivance here adopted, a specimen has been mounted with all the penam * og which, with a little atten- M may resist for ages the influence [To be S eui ^ T | | i — eo THE ORIGIN or GENERA.*-~In this essay the author does not consider that generic and Specific characters are identical. He pic animals into numerous series, Spsetto, eei an a so on, in which the lower members m th cific series. ‘The lo west or most generalized terms or genera of a number of allied series, will stand w each other in a relation of exact parallelism. That is, if we trace each seriesof a number, up to its lowest or most gener- ro. genus, the latter ligako will form a series similar in kind to each € characters which define it as a iia Cases of exact parallelism spring flair d in advance of those possessed b redeces TO. pe here points out a parallel between tha er osmani of the individual and of the genus of great interest and nov ne or change would be ever approaching." “As the development of the in- nq so the development of the pem nus. We may add so the develop- of the whole of organized beings sorde ating that as a rule animals exhibit in course of supina cer- tain specific, before they do generic, characters, the author says: ‘‘ Apart rom any question of origin, so soon as a species should pee a new generic character, it ceases, of course, ü be specifically the sa as iris individuals which have not assumed it. If supposed poets in be, however, a test of specific difference, we shall then have to contend with the paradox of the sme species belonging to two different enera at one and the same time.” Several instances then are brought forward to prove the proposition “that the nearest it pacts of adjacent ra are more nearly allied in specific characters than the most diverse s Enae By Prof. E. D. Cope. Philadelphia. E 148 REVIEWS. the saait characteristics of the original genus are reduced to a larval but th development, though more slowly, and finally reduces its original charac- teristics also to a larval See and acquires in the adult state differ- ent characteristics from the first series. is, with other confirmatory ER VEN] renders it probable that generic changes may simultaneously take place in a number of species without the loss of their specifle characteristics, and in the same way genera may be simultaneously transferred from one suborder ts another without the loss of their generic characteristics. The development of generic char- acteristics thus appears to be governed by a law which is not dependent h given in six propositions, from which we quote the two given below I. Species have developed from preéxistent species by an inherent ten- dency to variation, and have been preserved in given directions and re- pressed in others, by the operation of the law of Natural Selection: p e 5 e z ps ec ri o iz] "3 ler} is e o i=} ic) e d: g m 5 e Uu o i e = m o e E o B o "i Ld B e "1 Z © "i e un the same law. AN ILLUSTRATED WORK ON THE BUTTERFLIES OF eget oe pae m Mr. Samuel H. Scudder will Seats during the coming w ral careful study; their geographical esiste undue both in and out of New oe England, will be largely discussed, and the book virtually form à manual for all the Northern United States; it wi i generously illustrated by colored fres] imer eggs: larve and pupse, for illustration and study. Without such assistance it would be impossible, in a single summer, to obtain all the requisite mate- d e Full credit will be given in the book for every item of assistance - — The success with which Mr. Saunders, of Canada, has reared butter- flies in their earlier stages, ought to susto our friends to similar - REVIEWS. 149 what plant the butterfly seems to affect; the young larve are fed upon it, and, in many instances, successfully reared. As careful descriptions of these larve and pups cannot be prepared without many specimens, and as we have so little accurate knowledge of the earlier stages of our native butterflies, € friends need not fea to send Mr. Scudder all the specimens they can find. If possible, pens should be sent alive, so as to secure good colored drawings of each s cies; the larvae e be Morena: by fresh, moistened leaves of iheli food plant for n the journey, ge forwarded by mail in small, light, but strong boxes (tin is preferable), to S. H. Scudder, Boston Soci- ety of Natural History, Berkeley street, Boston, inge marked in a peers Insects. This latter precaution is necessary, because, in case of a tempo- rary absence from the city, Mr. Scudder will leave AAN to have boxes thus marked, sent at once to his artist. The specimens should be accom- panied by the name and address of the sender, and, when known, the name of the insect and of the plant on which it feeds. When it does not seem practicable to forward them alive, they may be sent in small bottles of glycerine, or in a mixture of one part pure carbolic acid (Squibb’s prepara- tion), and twenty-four parts water. In this case also they should be sent at once and by mail, that the colors may be seen before they fade. When . neither of these methods is possible, spirits may be used, but the colors will soon be lost. If any one obtains a numberof eggs and is able to raise them, it would be best to forward, from time to time, two or three speci- mens both of the eggs and chrysalids, and the same number of each moult of the larva; the butterfly which has laid the eggs should always be pre- served, and forwarded with the larve, etc., for satisfactory Ug nd If any one is in doubt about the food plant of some insect which he found, it would be best to vie a letter of enquiry to Mr. Scudder, ot will be e glad to answer any. ques "- pening the earlier stages of those insects which are very rare in New common with them. Any assistance that sind can render d, but him will be most gratefully received. Tur KıNGFISHERS.— A monograph of this beautiful family of Birds is now being published by Mr. R. B. Sharpe, of tħe Zoölogical Society of Lon- don. It will be issued in twelve to fourteen parts, imperial 8vo, each part to contain eight beautifully colored lithographic plates. All the speri 150 REVIEWS. of Kingfishers known (about one Ups will us hec gm and figured, and Dr. Murie will furnish a chap on the a my and osteology of ke family. Only two hundred Prost of the dk s be printed: three parts are already issued. The price to subscribers will be about $5.00 a part, delivered in this country. The work is worthy of support by the orni- thologists of this country, and we should be happy to take subscriptions for the author. The price will be advanced one-fifth after the work is out. BULLETIN OF THE ESSEX IwsTITUTE.*— This new publication of the Institute is one of the results of the changes that have taken place owing o the formation of the Peabody Academy of Science, and the transfer of the Scientific Museum of the Institute to the charge of the Academy. In great part the ** Bulletin" will take the place of the ** Proceedings an Communications" of the Institute, which will be discontinued pui. the ead > to the month of January, 1869, at which date the ** Bulletin" Me ences. The « Bulletin" will contain an account of the proceedings at each meet- ing of the Institute, and the lists of donations, etc., made to the library of the Institute, and to the Museums of both the Institute and the Acad- emy. It will also contain short lists of the deficiencies in the library of the Institute, and of duplicate books offered for sale and exchange, but longer historical papers will be printed as heretofore in the *« Historical Collections," and the purely scientific communications will be offered to the cademy for publication in its Memoirs. It will thus be emat that the * Bulletin” will take the place of the “Proceedings,” w. e Memoi of the — will correspond to the former ** ovnentadeadions ” of the Institu The pis number of the ** Bulletin"? contains, among other a ocean, which, as the coast rose, had been so lifted as to appe which contained guano on its summit at the time of its uprising. He also alluded to the fact that the droppings of birds would be quite inadequate — to supply the vast amount of t guano found, and that such droppings were yerepe distinct from 1 The first and second snivicis. of the ** Bulletin" contain obituary notices of our "em associate, Horace Mann, and of the distinguished ornitholo- gist, John Cassin. E OY 36 Gy E i Svo 16 020 pages. Issued monthiy. eh ews: Subseription $1.00 a yeat« REVIEWS. 151 THE C ES OF NORTH AMERICA.* — Another of the useful ento- mological works issued by the Smithsonian Institution, is Baron Osten Sacken's elaborate Monograph of the North American Tipulidæ (or Crane- flies), with short palpi, comprising the smaller species of the family; the true Tipulids comprising the well-known crane-flies so abundant in our gardens and flelds. 'This work, destined, we judge, to be a classic in patent) is one of the most important works on insects published during the past year in any language. It will be noted at greater length in the “Record of American Entomology” soon to be published. VISION OF THE LARGE, STYLATED, FossORIAL CRICKETS. € the Pu number of the Memoirs of the an Academy of Science,t Mr. S. H. Scudder has brought under review all t e species of the sea crick- ets known to him, with the tions of the smaller forms. e de- scriptions of the species are carefully prepared, and each description is accompanied with a full table of measurements of several specimens. The plate contains a full-sized figure of Gryllotalpa australis, from New Hol- land, a species never before figured; sre thirty-seven details of forelegs and wing-covers of the different s spec The author has prefaced his own aa with a full list of the various writers on the group, with remarks on the species mentioned by each. The Mole Crickets which are paei with but two dactyls on the fore tibia, he places together as forming a new genus, to which ien gives the name of Scapteri scus, while for those having four dactyls, he tains the old generic name of Gryllotalpa. THE Noxious Insects or Missourt.t—This first report of the State Miiéntictógtet i is exceedingly creditable both to the author and the State which has so liberally fostered the study of economical entomology. Farmers and gardeners throughout the country will find it a very readable ook, and entomologists will glean many new facts from its pages. The chapter on Cutworm s, Bark-lice, the Plum-curculio, the Seventeen-year Me. the S nike cid and the Bot-fly of the sheep, are of especial vi did that the State of Missouri has acknowledged the value of the ` Study of practical entomology, by the appropriation of $3000 to pay the Salary of the Entomologist for the present year. In such a liberal provi- * Mon. hs of t IV. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Col- i gg ka Dipikir W E ( et eas a. Jan., 1869, Svo, pp. 345,4 4 pistes, t Imperial Svo, 32 pases and steel plate; tinted paper. Salem: Essex Institute Press. 869. Price $ "rfe daos rt Mire Y. Ble, State Entomologist Jerson City 190- P Sro. pp. 10, wit wo colored 152 REVIEWS. sion for the diffusion of See oe knowledge, Missouri not only leads all the States in the Union, but shows that she regards it as an rei cal measure to induce sears farmer ot be his own entomologis GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF INsEcrs.*—The sixth number of this work is out, and contains accounts (not before Dubiéhod; of the transforma- tions of twelve moths injurious to fruits, etc., mostly illustrated, besides ? t G pite Henn forty different objects, an Mid fit y-seven cuts in the text. We should here state that the Penthina vitivorana feeds exclusively on the rape seed; it rolls up the leaf when about to transform, but doe s not feed upon it. Lines eight and nine from the bottom, on page 336, may therefore be deled. LE NATURALISTE CANADIEN.f —A capital journal for the popularization of natural history among the French Canadians. It is edited with much Spirit, and we trust that its success is already assured. oroGY.— M. C. Dareste has given us in the ** Annales des Sciences actos” a résumé of his remarkable discoveries, from which we trans- late a few paragraphs as nearly word for word as possible **T at first sought to obtain moustrasitter, as Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire had cause to which I had not at first attended; that is to - of the manner in which the eggs were heated in one of the artificial *couvenses,' W: have served for my perdis ents. I have therefore, tentei aban- doned the use of varnish, and the vertical position, in order to employ when the allantois is formed ** when the neêds of respiration imperiously demand greater quantity of air." “I arrive now at ve results which de- pend upon the mode of warming the eggs in one of my artificial b brood- warming the culminating point of the egg, the point which the cicatrix — always occupies at the end of the development, a peint of the egg situated | at a certain distance from the preceding one be heated, the development ÎS _ : _* Published at Salem, Mass., by A. S. Packard, jr. Fifty cents a part. To be published in ten fLe Naturaliste Canadienne. Bu ; portant a rhitoeo naturelle du Canada oat woe, ee quebec basate ; REVIEWS. 153 disturbed, and an anomalism is always produced, which manifests itself in the form of the blastoderm at first, and then in that of the vascular area. In fact, under these unusual esie the kenne of the cicatrix in ulm at, n in the opposite region. On this account (Il en résulte qui) the blasto- derm at first, and then the vascular area assumes an elliptical form, and the embryo is produced in one of the foci of the ellipse; while in its nor- malstate the embryo occupies the centre of a perfectly circular blasto- erm and vascular area. This result is very distinct, so distinct that allowing for the primitive dps (^Torenatin" of the embryo, and giving to the egg a certain position with respect to the source of heat, this excess of develo of a part of uie tikino may opm directed where it is desirable, peni to the left or the right of the embryo, either above its head or at its caudal extremity." *"The embryos which appear in the blastoderms thus formed are very that Seed of life when the embii is reduced (reduit) toa amissa. embryo, which it submits to constant pressure. From this there results a certain number = deviations and atrophies in the regions of the body submitted to pressur D e e which has nci hitherto considered inexplicable, results from an arrest in development of the caudal hood of the amnios ne. ch forces the posterior members, at the moment of their appearance, to reverse pee backwards, to come in contact with each other by oan exter- edges, and to unite themselves in this universal positio sq mete a a has in the beginning hydropsy of the vesicles whic the State of the encephalic organs. ropsy is found equally in the amnios, and sometimes, indeed, in the whole thickn which then — a general oedema, - result of a peculiar s state AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. III. 154 REVIEWS. blood which is completely colorless, and contains only very few globules. The want of globules in the blood has its rise e an arrest of develop- = of the vascular area, which is only very imperfectly furnished with nals, and which sonda the blood globules mpi in the isles of Woif (iles de Wolf). ‘ The inversion of the viscera results from the unequal development of of the cardiac arch more to the I of the embryo than the returning 9: the embryo (heart) upon the left s During inversion, the left cardiac blastema develops itself more rr id right, from which results the in- curvation of the cardiac arch to the left of the embryo, and the return e same upon the right side. The existence of two hearts, an anom- may ine er Gas indicated, the left region of the vascular area is more develope e right, and when, also, the temperature of the centre where w bation is effected, is relatively low. I have otherwise accumulated nu rous indications which will soon permit me, according to all nee to produce at will other anomalies. * I have made, also, many experiments in order to study the manner in which pe ae is carried on at temperatures above and below the nor- mal temperature of incubation. The high temperatures accelerate its progress, and — that diminution of stature which constitutes Nan- ismus. The low temperatures, on the contrary, considerably retard the th progress of development, a and do not permit the embryo to exist (depas- : ser) beyond a certain “Tt is also a Pein AREA Muro of my studies that = explain the absence of certain monstrosities in ce species by the differences . which these species present in their evolution. Thus the M of amnios appears to preserve the fishes from a great number of deformi- ties; the absence of the amnios and that of the cane vesicle equa mmunity.” appear to give to th NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. BOTANY. LAKE SUPERIOR PLANTS COMPARED WITH EASTERN SPECIMENS.— Not long ago my attention was called by a friend, a distinguished botanist at the East, to the remarkably large and robust development of some of my Lake Superior specimens, as compared with the same species of plants found in the New England States. This is particularly observable in the plants of the earlier part of the season, where one would be led least to expeet it. Among the most remarkable are the Carices, most of which are in full perfection by the early summer. Of these I would specify the reddens a few out of many, as worthy of note in the above res- pect:— Carex Backii Boot, C. varia Muhl., in its erae iege C. Hough borealis Roem. and Schul.), in flower early in June was over two feet high, the leaves, stalk, panicle and its component proportionately large. This fragrant grass the Indian women e into baskets and fancy articles, which they dispose of to travellers. Kaeh cristata Pers., are also worthy of mention as singularly luxuriant. Triticum violaceum Hornem., I found on the no rthern shore of the lake, on the few gravel beaches, where it attained a height of over four feet, having an extraor- dinarily robust culm. The grain was well formed by the latter part of and a M that our common Wheat (Triticum vulgare Linn.) is of the same us. The ndis amount of snow which falls in the region of Lake le and lies upon the land, a great warm blanket several feet thick, un turbed by the variable temperature which affects other um i — is unknown there, eff ectually protects the soil from all fros h marked influence on the vegetation. The snow remains till us and d it disappears the ground has not the delay of getting thawed out as else- where. I have rises found snowdrifts in the woods from one a ed, a counterbalancing the shortness of the summer. Violets, which I found in May ( Viola blanda Willd., V. Selkirkii Pursh., ete.), had evidently been blossoming during the winter, which corroborates what an old pe of 156 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. Lake Superior told me, viz., that ri time during the winter violets could be obtained by digging away the snow. Adenocaulon bicolor Hook., I found in June, three feet high, in full ada. and having almost a tropi- cus Hook., twined its elegant wreaths of cream-colored or pale-yellow flowers in graceful profusion. Instances irpo be multiplied did space permit.— HENRY GILLMAN, Detroit, Mich ZOÓLOGY. FOR PRESERVING NATURAL COLORS OF MARINE ANIMALS — While collecting on the coast of Maine last summer umerou t the present time I have a large lot of specimens which have the colors perfectly preserved and nearly as brilliant as in life. Among these are many kinds of Crustacea, such as Shrimp and Prawns (Hippolyte, e gon, Palemon, Mysis, etc.), Amphipods and Entomos straca; also many species of Starfishes, Worms, Sea-anemones (Alcyonium, Ascidians, puc The dered and Citatos are particularly satisfactory. The internal pa well preserved as the colors, and in these animals the form is not bad by cont Aut as it is apt to be in soft bodied ane either by aleohol or glycerine. The only precaution taken was to very heavy glycerine, and 5 keep up the strength by transferring de can be used again for the flrst bath. In many cases the specimens, espec- ially Crustacea, were killed by immersing them for a few minutes in strong alcohol, which aids greatly in the extraction of water, but usually s the delicate kinds to an opaque, dull white color, but this opacity disappears when they are put in glycerine, and the real colors again appear. Many colors, however, quickly fade or turn red in alcohol, So that such specimens must be put at once into glycerine. Green shades usually turn red almost instantly in alcohol. Specimens of various Lepi- -dopterous larve were also well preserved in the same manner. __ The expense is usually regarded as an objection to the use of glycerine. The best and strongest can be bought at about $1 per pound, but recently have been able to obtain a very dense and colorless article at 42 cents per pound, which is entirely satisfactory. As there is no loss by evapo- ration, the specimens will keep when once well preserved, if merely cov- ered se The expense for small and medium sized specimens is not re than for alcohol. — A. E. VERRILL, Yale College. Does THE Pune DOG MSN AF ANY x Watua? — Eralslecdog towns on the Plains ar m any water that can be dis- - covered on. the surface, It is the end belief among those who are a NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 157 familiar with the habits of the prairie-dog, that he does not require any ; more water than is contained in the grass roots on which he feeds. Gen. i Marcy, in his ‘“ Army Life on the Border,” expresses this belief. When the grass is growing, and the roots are tender and full of sap, it is easy hi > ow sufficient moisture could be contained in the food of the prairie-dog to replace what must be lost in respiration, etc., and to carry on the pro- cess of digestion during the months of September, October and Novem- grows on the highlands where the prairie-dog villages are commonly found), becomes completely dried down to the roots, while the roots, being but two or three inches underground, become hard and ri Tame prairie-dogs are frequently seen to drink water. My belief in rie- dog town there are a suffi- Appearance of being lived in by a family. The excrement of the dogs does not lie around them i in such abundance, and the grass near has not been so extensively rooted up for The prevailing belief among frontiersmen, that prairie-dogs, gae ps nakes and prairie owls all live together on friendly terms, in the s hole, is Folie a mistake. It is founded upon the fact that rattlesnakes and dogs have been seen to come out of the same hole. such instances had, pro bably, been after a young dog for dinner. pues Prairie owl probably finds his food around oC | and makes his home in deserted holes.— GronGE M. STERNBER Breepinc Hanrrs or SALAMANDERS AND F ere | still s Sreat deficiency in our information concerning the breeding habits of n ought to make an effort to supply this spring. Careful observations made Upon any of our frogs, recording the Fi appearance, the time and place of laying the eggs, the form and appearance of the egg-clusters and how 158 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. attached, the duration of the laying period, etc., are all worthy of record, as is also the history of the development of the young, but specimens very Species of which the habits are noted should be preserved in Concerning the breeding habits of our Salueunders little is known. Mr. Putnam and others have eas the eggs of the Red-backed Salamander, which are laid under rotten wood, etc., in moist places, and are cared for by the mother, wed also broods he young when hatc he young very quickly loose their external gills, and pass rapidi through the tadpole state. Prof. Baird observed a species of Desmogna- thus which wrapped the eggs around its body, and remained in a moist place until they were hatched. Our common Desmognathus fuscus, Or Painted. Salamander, was observed by me in Maine, where it lives under stones in cold brooks and springs. It attaches its large ivory-white eggs in patches upon the under sides of stones. The young retain their exter- nal gills until they are guid full grown, and at least three inches long in 1863 and '64, where they were found attached in rounded masses, two or three inches in diameter, and resembling frogs' eggs, on the stems of seen in this position, it is probable that it commences breeding very early in the spring. Under sexual excitement the colors and appearance ar. considerably. The hind legs of the male become much swollen, and a black callosity forms on the inner sides, which aids in giving firm- ness to his grasp. These characters soon pass away after the eggs are laid. In salamanders and frogs the eggs and the milt are discharged simultaneously, and the eggs are fertilized in the water. So far as I now as been published concerning the eggs or Ment habits of any of our other species, several of which are very common. — A. E. VERRILL, Yale College. . Tur Brreg BrrrEN. — Two or three years ago a student, Mr. William Stone, while on an excursion to Mt. Carmel, a few miles from New Haven, caught a large Black Snake (Bascanion constrictor), and brought it home — living and uninjured, except that it was partially suffocated from having — ^ been carried by the neck. In consequence of this, probably, it (eer sick soon afterwards, and vomited a fine specim men of the Cop E h APT Toe ai Page ^a ur NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 159 Ancistrodon contortrix B. and G.), about two feet long, verd Leoni per- fect, except that the head showed signs of incipient digestion. Soon afterward this was ise by a good sized frog, agire ian farther ad- vanced in digestio How the Black dn managed to capture the Copperhead bipes being bitten is quite a Cong Possibly he took the Copperhead at a disad- vantage, while was busily engaged in swallowing the frog and so swallowed both din and frog together. — I TE LEEA DI SOM ROUEN Lad e CITATION OF AUTHORITIES. — Without intending to discuss a question which has caused much controversy, I call attention to the fact that after ascertain who first stated in 5 the fact known to all,of a given species of described Mya be eing a Unio Mr. Prime in his earliest paper on Pisidium (since corrected), cited Gould for P. dubium (Cyclas dubium of Say), with the synonym P. a ruptum Hald. (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., July, 1841), the latter being the first = ge n -a ze in c © c 5 - = o = ec B w% ün Lud B E T e=: i=] ga t1 5 = o las] 3 B = td £ m g O 5 E B e ^ 5% Pisidium abruptum of July was corrected in October, in the words dium abruptum is not distinct from P. dubium Say,” which, under this rule, gives me a citation to which I would not have been nii had I not Abpea a blunder Some authors cite Prof. Baird for the Bluebird (a Linnéan species, Sia- lia satis (Pacific R. R. Reports, Vol. 9, p. 222, October, 1858); but if the es is not eed it is mine, because I mentioned it fifteen years pre- posed that “the name of the author of a species, or genus, or family, Shall remain forever attached thereto, and shall be considered a part of the said specific, generic, or family name.”—S. S. H THE LOGGERHEAD SuriKe.—In the September and February numbers of the NATURALIST rien are asked about the Butcher Birds return- ing to its empaled prey. As I have lived South, I have never seen à Butcher Bird, and so € oe nothing as to its habits, but as for its South- ern brother, the Loggerhead Shrike (Collyrio Ludovicianus), I have often Watched it return to the prey which it has killed and hung on thorns. e Shake h had been more than half pe Sitting sir behind some tin near by, I determined to keep watch, but had not remained there 160 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. long, when the shrike flew to the tree, and after eating off a small piece, again flew away. I saw this repeated next day, but by this time watched several times, he did not return to it. Since then I have often seen them return to lizards and tree toads which they had empaled. — H. S. GEebNEY, Potsdam, N. Y. Case WonMs.— Every dabbler in pools is nM with the singular Caddis or Case-worms, which walk over the bottom like moving sticks, or à mass of animated sawdust, or minute peb ipm when the Be is Fig. 32. composed of either of those substances. The most puz- zling form is that which we here fete (Fig. 32), rdi from a correspondent in the Middle States. It is a species of Helicopsyche, and was by s conchologists (I. Lea, Transactions American En asain ponar 1834, p. 101) thought to be a fresh-water shell (Valvata). It is extremely interesting as repeating among the aquatic neuropterous larvæ the form of the snail- peo terrestrial larva of Psyche helix, a moth. arding these cases, Dr. Hagen writes us as follows: « Phryganeid cases iie those sent, are described by me in the d Entro E Zeitung, 1864, p. 130, as Helicopsyche gine Hagen, from a specimen Tê- ceived from the collections of Prof. Dunker, ae Valvata arenifera Lea, North America. The Valvata drenifirà Lea, from Tennessee, berland River, near Nashville, seems different, and my specimens de- scribed (Zeitung, p. 129, No. 8) from Mexico, are perhaps identical. ** H. glabra is mentioned in a ‘Note on Certain a larva-sacks, de- scribed as species of Valvata” (from Troy, N. Y.) by Th. Bland, Lye- Nat. Hist., New York, Vol. 8, p. 144, and the case Mt the parts O broken imago were identified by me and described in the Entomologist's Monthly Magazine, Vol. II, p. 252, and Stettin Entomologische Zeitung, 1866, p. 244. 'The cases are identical with my raae glabra, and the imago with my rages —e Synopsis of North American Neu- e lum of the case. The description of the larva would be very interesting Perhaps you will find an a animal, to judge from its manner of living in.a trochiform sack. I think this would be the first asymmetrical larva among the hexapodous insects * Among the described Am eag Phryganeidæ, I have no doubt that Notidobia lutea Hagen, pertains to Helicopsyche. Brauer has described ned pet an asymmetrical posture would be observed in the living larv : , 1865, p. 205, Ihave given 4 ist i : of the described American -molluscan apenteey pertaining to the Helicop- — NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 161 syches, I remarked that Frauenfeld (Wiener Zoologisch-Botanischen ven but 1864, p. 623) proves that Paludina lustrica Say, is a mollusk, a not a msi as supposed by me from a specimen in the óollectin celebrated conchologist, Prof. Dunker." e also figure (Fig. 33) an itte form found near Port- land, Maine, by Rev. E. C. Bolles. The larva builds a thin long conical sandy tube, sant between two ‘‘needles” of the We do not know the adult form. Fig. 34 80, we suppos is the Limnophilus satis a dial Stedt, a very abundant species in the arctic regions. The imago of the Caddis-fly has a rounded body, with moderately broad, parallel veined wings, which small moths. The females lay their eggs in usus. | masses on aquatic plants, above or beneath the sur | face of the water. e larve are found erates! in the bottom of ponds, in cylindrical cases of grass or stems E reeds, or bits of sticks, sand, minute shells, etc. They assume different forms, sometimes a long, conical shape, or imitating snail shells. The larva lines the interior with | Silk, and by bristles on the side of the body and a pair of anal hooks - E ; ia its body sonans to the sides of the case while it Lr He it over : ie eat large quantities =i id Seco and inn bae while many are herb us the larger ones eating whole waves that have been submerged, while the er ones leave the veins entir t to change to pups, the larve close up 2 mouth of the case with a net-work like State for the passage of the water for seul When about to leave the pupa state they crawl up stems of plants, or the smaller species use their light cases as rafts to rest upon as their wings are dryin Neuronia semifasciata (Fig. 35) is our largest species, and is takon away from damp places; but the smaller species are only taken on leaves of bushes and herbage by streams and pate: They run swiftly, but fly with eg difficulty. The species are numerous. We should be greatly gibus specimens of the Helicopsyche. —A- S.P NATURALIST, VOL. III. 162 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. GEOLOGY. THE PLAINS or Kawsas.— Six companies of the 10th U. S. cavalry marched from Fort Riley, Kansas, on the 15th of April, 1868, under orders to encamp for the summer near Fort Wallace. The route is along the line of the Union Pacific Railroad, eastern division, which is now completed to be thirty miles of Fort Wallace. This is known as the Smoky Hill R te s very generally I that the plains are level prairies ee those of Illinois; but this is not so. By the plains, frontiersmen th . country wise of the s RR to the base of the Rocky Mois Along the line of the Smoky Hill River, the country is rolling and con- with the Republican, and two hundred miles from the Missouri River. The soil in the river valley is deep and rich, as is also that of the nu- merous creeks flowing into it. The bluffs are mostly unsuited for cultiva- . tion, being formed of gravel and clay, covered with a soil but a few inches thick. The buffalo grass, with which the high ground is covered, does ot grow more than three or four inches high, but is very sweet and nu- comes covered and shaded by grasses of more luxuriant growth, and as fited, and there will be a more equitable fall of rain throughout the year. Very little rain falls from July to March, and a large proportion of that is carried off within a few etel by the numerous creeks, which are dry at other times in the dry seaso Timber is only found on re plains along creeks and in ravines, where it is protected from prairie fires by the abrupt banks which are bare of grass in consequence of the constant falling away of the earth along their steep sides. The principal varieties of timber about Fort Harker are will Ti you go westw until eihar the iaaii, where it TIREN quite abundant, pine and cedar taking the place of oak and other hard wood. One of n earliest flowers is the Prairie-pea (Astragalus Mexicanus): The fruit is about the size of a green gage plum, and is very abundant, m fleshy bod being the part eaten. It tastes like the pod of the common a, but when cooked is insipid and rarely eaten. A wild Hyacinth is ania in the lowlands, and the Poppy-mallow (Malva Papaver), which 4 little later im the season is found in extensive beds, with its purple blos- soms and dark green leaves, forms one of the most brilliant figures in the DUX. 3 AUS XE. ge LL CONARI ELI ME nir AIL Fir E du cere ndo REEL E m uen EE c Mr m riae 2A IE deum NOTER n ECT TEL I SEMPER A NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 163 prairie carpet. 'The blue flowers of the Spiderwort are scattered over the bluffs, and a variety of Sida, with rose white flowers, form bright patches on the buff alo wallows. mee the steep banks of the creeks and nth Poppy (Argemone) looks now like a common thistle, but in July it will put forth its large pure white blossoms. The rock about Fort Harker is a sandstone of the Cretaceous period. It varies from a soft white stone, that may be broken up into sand by the hand, to a hard dark red stone, according to the amount of oxide of iron it contains. Where it has the right proportion of iron it is easily worked and makes an excellent building stone. The quarters at Fort Harker are built of it. While the quarry was being worked a large number of im- pressions of leaves of trees of existing species were found, the willow and oak most abundantly. Near the mouth of Wilson’s Creek, twenty-two miles west of Harker, is a bed of lignite, which is being worked by a atii is ira im à stratum = limestone, filled with a large fossil conchi- n to me. At Big Creek, near Fort Hays, we found antelope sr het ME and beri buffalo calves have been caught and are being raised on cow's milk. They soon become quite tame along the creek, aud numerous trees, recently cut down by sharp teeth, Show that they are still plentiful. A variety of wild mustard found here in damp places, makes excellent variety of Penstemon (P. grandiflora and P. Digitalis) are found at Fort Harker later; and two varieties of Allium, the flowers of one, if crushed, giving out a — fragrance, while the stem, if crushed, emits a strong odor of garlic; and also Castilleja sessiliflora, Ellisia Nyctelæa, and rock day passing NE a swarm of grasshoppers, extending about two ; e This rock at a little distance looks like an immense old castle in ruins. It is ninety-one feet high, and about three hundred rcumference. It is composed of a bluish, friable, argillaceous shale about one third of the 164 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. way up, and above this of a light yellow compact marl. It was evidently, at one time, continuous with some bluffs of the same character a mile south of it. The 30th we encamped at Monument Station, which re- ceives its name from a number of columns of the same character as Castle Rock. There is a company of Infantry stationed here under command of Brevet. Lt. Col. Cunningham. As I rode up in front of Col. Cunning- ri long and is well preserved. The Colonel has already dug out sixty verte- re. He estimates the length of the reptile at thirty feet. He was lying in a stratum of brick-red clay, below which is the shale and above the marl, which is described as forming Castle Rock. By hunting in the same locality I succeeded in finding a large number of shark's teeth, and the tooth of a Saurian. On the day following I found a place where the shale I have spoken of was uncovered, and on its surface picked up a quantity broken up, but still sufficiently preserved to show that some unfortunate Saurian had been buried there. Between this place and Fort Wallace I obtained numerous specimens of fishes’ vertebre, and three vertebra of & smaller Saurian. I am informed by Ass’t Surgeon Turner, U. S. N., that he has forwarded to the Museum of the Academy of Natural Sciences, at Philadelphia, a son perfect specimen of a Saurian, which he estimates to l a as, built of a nae yao marl, which may be readily sawed into blocks with a common hand-saw. A ett of Spanish Dagger ( Yucca) is very abun- dant here, and is now in bloom, as is also the Mammilaria macromeris, which has a beautiful rose colored blossom, and the prickly-pear is begin- ning to put forth its large yellow blossoms We have in camp three young antelopes caught upon the march. They have become quite tame. The black-tailed deer is found in this vicinity, which is about as far east as it ranges. I have slighted the centipedes and the rattlesnakes, but it is not because they are scarce. One of the officers shook a large centipede from his boot the other morning, and nearly every one can produce a handful of rattles as proof that rattle- es are becoming scarce. — Dn. G. M. STERNBERG, U. MICROSCOPY. = NEW PROCESS OF THE MICROSCO: esigua valuable information, of a practical character, is to be found in books professing to treat of the subject of preparing and mounting specimens of the lower families of Algæ, so as to exhibit in a satisfactory PREPARING SPECIMENS 0 TOUS AL PE.— The working oeste well kuone how little , " N 1 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 165 manner the characters which distinguish them in a generic or specific mann other branches of microscopic manipulation, as there are really many valuable hints to be found in the books descriptive of preparing woods, bones and other hard tissues, and the subject of injecting has received much attention, so that the labors of the student are very materially of experimenting, and, as consequence, discovering for himself. As the Students of the lower perit of plants are at the present time some- what numerous, the result has, of course, been the development of many extremely valuable processes tending to simplify their study; but it is to not be DAES these gentlemen have, reaa sut to publish. It cannot be denied that this mode of action is wrong, and that no one has a right to withhold the etie he may possess on such points. For my part I have taken every opportunity of publishing, or oe making known, any little point in manipulative microscopy which I have e of value, and which I have thought would in any way be of use to o For years I have been engaged in the study of the lower families ot Algæ, more especially the Diatomaces, and for the purpose of elimina- ting their characters, I have at different times experimented upon the o bled at an y future time to exhibit them in the best manner for showing eous loriez of Diatomacez from guano, al modes era preparing and mounting for the — these organisms It is now udis n to make known a pro have contrived by fervi, can be preserved and mounted so as to show many of their charac- sacrificed However, it is in my opinion the best process that has been as yet made Public, and even if it is of no other value, I trust it will have th 2 awing from others records of their modes of manipulation, so imas chers after truth, like myself, may learn something of value to in their investigations. It is well known that the Desmidie and the filamentous Alge, generally ana growing in fresh water, have never been preserved in a satisfactory lanner, and this has arisen from the fact that their cell-walls are - Posed of a substance of a perishable matter, and will not, like tbat of the acer, which is siliceous, bear boiling in corrosive liquids so as to the always readily decomposable cell-contents, and leave the object clean and transparent, while the Diatomacee, after such treatment aS boiling in acid can be mounted in Canada balsam , by means of which 166 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. they are presented in such a state that the finest ii of their sili- ceous epidermis can be observed, and they are the same time held within a preservative substance which does not d of eai move- ment and consequent danger of fracture; the Desmidiæ and t amen- tous Algæ in general cannot be enia so,and several means d been devised to keep them, all of which have been to a certain extent unsat- isfactory. Besides there are some Diatomacesz which grow in chains, as the Fragillaria, the frustules of which are united by means of a sub- stance that will not bear the contact of acid necessary to remove the cell- contents; and again there are others, as the Gomphonema, which are attached to submerged substances by means of a flexible stalk called a stipe, which would dissolve under the same circumstances. Such Diato- maces have been generally merely placed in a cell formed of «ement or other suitable substance, and preserved in a preservative solution con- sisting either of pure distilled water, or water containing creosote, cam- phor, or other substance possessing antiseptic properties. And the plan has been followed with the filamentous Desmidie and other Alg®, or the same effect is brought about by the colored matter generally ac juriste gatherings of such organisms. Y en is essentially as follows: Supposing I have a gathe ering Heiss Pri for the most part of a filamentous Desmid, as Desmidium Swartzii, which is a common species around New York city at certain s of the year, I place a small quantity of it in a test tube, and pout ing manner. Those, however, who have not the NON doing S0; or do not desire to prepare their own solution, can use t old by the pothecaries under the name of *Labarraque's Solution - Mi uar of D " which is, however, rather weaker than it is best often to use. solution I make by adding to the water a large excess of the co chloride of lime of the shops, which is fresh and has not stood for 2 time in an open vessel exposed to the air, by means of which much of it becomes decomposed and useless for this purpose. After stirring well, and then allowing such a mixture to stand for a short time, until all that will not dissolve falls to the bottom, I pour off the clear liquid and add to it a concentrated solution of carbonate of soda, the common “+ washing onde." uat This is my solution of chloride of soda. The Alga is now boiled for 3 few minutes in the solution, but not so violently or for such a length. of time as to break up the filaments, and then well and thoroughly was! with pure filtered or distilled water. It can thereafter be preserved in weak spirits, or. what I have found still better, water to which 2 few 3m i du oy t Ee h- Et CORRESPONDENCE. 167 | drops of creosote have been added. Thus the growth of fungi is pre- vented, which would otherwise mar the appearance of the object very materially. ` To mount such bleached specimens, I proceed as follows. Those which have been set aside in creosote water may be, of course, put up permanently in that liquid, but those which have been preserved in spirits, I prefer to mount in creosote. A cell is procured of any suitable substance, as black : varnish, gold size, marine glue, or other cement which will withstand the action of wer, and a fragment of the Alga being placed in it in the usual and found it to answer admirably. The camphor water I make by using distilled water, and just before placing on the cover, putting in a grain of gum camphor, which then remains in the cell, and if near the edge does not mar the appearance of the object in any way. Specimens can also be mounted in the glycerine-jelly of Mr. Lawrence, which preservative I find da or rather a modification of it, I shall at some future time have more to say.— ARTHUR Map Epwarps, New York. ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. J.T. » Tabor Iowa.—The Land and Fresh-water Shells of the United States, by Binney, Prime an d Tryon, published c the Smithsonian Institution, will be the. most modern of Istae Lea, of Pi a SOM ioma of aia M „are — nn MEM Pe writings ade e way to to make good collections of f your “native animals and prue “and inen exchange them n. ith other part We announce such desires to Albion, Wis. — as Ophio, lossum ü does seem to differ “Your specine d. d onsiderod a rni vulgatum, nor rae $ retieulations differ in any way th. perceive, on compar with British hs ew England forms. Kever Aries seen either a description or aut : with any cert, o eng webs collected By Eror, € - Mi Southern vari ege Style o rekona dus O eo reticulatum is but a joe ge dd ; and Ls is the spe qucd d tamea n reri ead iti blo TUM. moment ze- i any plant w > comes priv observatio B.F. L. ue "How Sedo e spiders live without ; Concordvill oU x owe n we eus y that t adul spiders spiders, like ann M € Mgr after Thatehin without food, we do not E cts UE twenty days young of the Moose tick lived nearly a month with- the “ Ameri- màe Tarantula aida eich cs TEE E s, though the Editors of har Tima geo i Entomologist? ne oroar anon M we cannibals, the females 168 CORRESPONDENCE. after their love Ne with ineir partners, frequently Diag upon them and devour- ing them. The ** Guide to b Study of Insects? will — chapters on the Arachnida and d with numerous illustrations. xbury.— The field lies before you at iow tide. The best ke yon haye are "thane exposed to you a meure. It will p impossible o F yout to dy all until you have mastered some of the leading mol es of zoóülogy. he best Ayes to commence is to select some ded is 3 37 "à e mo M ex an eoe all th species Doge pe < udy them th IL shits. Work P» tiently o ye ar; be su ei 2 Ps MP us vig gin If you choose the pad ied Gould 8 Invertebrata [ the bent d only guid a T. edition, of which will be out soon, in connection with Woo —À D: of the "Mollu sca. 12mo, Lon- don. Should you study the radiates, feeit side Studies, published by Ticknor & Fields, is the best for reference. As forthe oce and worms, their descriptions &re scattered through many publications, especially the Jo urnal, Proceedings and Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History. H. G., Detroit, Mich.— The specimens boring the hic ex 2 a pictus in the eden pupa and gis pry d c ge de also foun mn friends, as the season opens, remember that we want specimens of the Cotton Dall hich can be sent in oxes R. S., Waverly; N In order to € to your die à as to the locality where the stone used find the Indians for making arro — was ——— it will first be a io die species of mineral you nom oads made of, as seve minerals were i E use for the Pa pose T uon wheads, waar ete. were undoubtedly ‘made from minerals only ping Prem in "localities far distan t from the spot where the manufactured articles were found. The hornstone (a mottled dra colored stone), which was in veers re on use for arrowheads, etc., has generally been supposed to have been taken t. Kineo, on Moosehead e, in diay but that it also occurs in other vases: is idet from the fact that Prof. Wyman has m cabinet a stone which h he picked up ata a gravel el bank i in Cam’ bridge, i entical with the ral from M himen ogee of jaspe f occur in L x and Saugus, ie sas BE, hasta for verna ia od Dr. e ^d TEREX ad oec i of 1 the "Portland Society of Natural History, Vol. I, p. 165 s Su e Proceedin ings pads but "pee mes Viene men not yet been em tothis v interesting " subject to enable o onet e the ali he min re ised. ve zn specimens "NW. x) E, “Dorchester, — — The shells wine a spring are Pisidium variabile. — SCIE —Our subscribers February 15th) should ii e received their copies of een nce Geol by this time. M -— c i P grec informs us, a$ be have notice from € ter ced — puelle ow — receive subscriptio for the ** Gossip” a Mid. e A. 8. J., Iowa fes ~Lectres on a oe oi e Anatom and F Ph iology of V brate Animals. " FISHES. By Richard Owen. Soudan, 1 ongman, Brown, Green & Longman. -H B, Riches nd, Va.— Li ott & Co. , of Philade hia, have published an an E trated work on the Birds of aue Americ: ca, b Baird, in & Lawrence. Bu. 4to, with one Mandro oead plates. Price Atlas sold tope for hu ilroad Baird's Report on the Birds of No rth America (hiath tema of ii eis ies Surveys) is now the standard work on Aen Ornithol re cop of either works. — Cooke’s Fern Book, SEVERAL CORRESPONDENTS have asked qu i eof Carbolic acid estions as a substitute for alcohol, etc., to which we answer va en Ao Aa acid in water alone will not preserve animals, but! pure Glycerine, with a very small amount of Car acid (say about three or four of acid to 2 oz. of Glycerine) answers admirably fo. some ge ena nnn t preserving most animals is alcohol is ction of animals put in into alco ho l (com complained of by some correspondents) e by the alco be put into weak alcohol at first (not over five sapka nee cent.), and a fi - be tra ! about Ali veta por . A very article for p i tissues of animals, and for soft. B bo indoor larve, etc., can be after a few expe ,of Glycerine, of the l, a very portion of Carbolic acid. TE AMERICAN NATURALIST. Vol. III.—JUNE, 1869.—No. 4. ece TORI OD o BITTERNS. BY WILLIAM E. ENDICOTT. persons are repelled by scientific nomenclature. Let not such, however, turi away from this artiele when I say that the name of the genus I write of is Botaurus, for the English term "bittern" is the same word, only in a dit- Fig. 36.* i i ferent shape, and comes from the Latin Botaurus (i. e., boa- . * * * tus taurinus), through the French butor, or Spanish bitor. Botaurus, butor, bitor or bittern, it is all one, and means et $ » $ bull-voiced.” The popular local names the bird has re * Botaurus lentiginosus Stephens; from Tenney’s Zoölogy- — — — — Entered accordin, i : th - 1869, by the PEABODY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, in the Clerk's Office of the Disiriet Court of the Distriet of Massachusetts. AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. III. 22 (169) 170 BITTERNS. ceived are nearly all from the same characteristic: these are Stake-driver, applied to our own bird, and Mire-drum, Bull of the Bog, Butter-bump and Bog-blutter (7. e., bleater), ap- plied to the European species. Australia is a land of anomalies; a kingfisher lives there which avoids the water, dwells in arid wastes, living on lizards and snakes, and has his home in a tree; and possibly some unknown species of bittern may belong there which flutters about the upland fields and lives on seeds, and will be held in high repute as a warbler when he shall, hereafter, be found, and will be kept in a gilded cage with a cuttle-fish bone. That would indeed be a sight worth going half-way, around the world to see. I dare prophesy, however, that that island’s vast unknown interior will produce no such wonder, but that all unknown bitterns will be found to agree in character with the known. What that character is, how it differs from our supposed songster, let us now consider. The prophets use its name in foretelling desolation. Says Isaiah, of Babylon, "I will make it a possession for the bit- tern ;” and Zephaniah says of Ninevah, "The cormorant and the bittern shall lodge in the upper lintels of it.” Hear also what Mudie, who was not a prophet, says of the European species. “It hears not the whistle of the ploughman not the sound of the mattock; and the tinkle of the sheep bell or the lowing of the ox (although the latter bears so much resemblance to its hollow and dismal voice that it has given foundation for the name) is a signal for it to be gone. Places which scatter blight and giler over every herb more deli- cate than a sias: ; which are the pasture of those loathsome things which wriggle in the ooze, or crawl and swim in the putrid and mantling waters; places which shed murrain over the quadrupeds, or “chills which eat the tlesh off their bones; places from which even the raven, lover of disease and bat- tener upon all that expires miserably and exhausted, keeps aloof (for ‘the reek o' the rotten fen’ is loathsome even to him), are the chosen habitation, the only loved home of the BITTERNS. 171 bittern. He is a bird of the confines, beyond which we can imagine nothing but utter ruin.” This picture is, I think, somewhat overdrawn; moreover, no naturalist ought to speak of the waste places of Nature in that disapproving way. We might pardon a mere col- lector for writing so of bogs and wilds, he knows no better; to him, a natural history store, where he may buy his eggs, his shells, his bird-skins, or his sea-mosses, is preferable to the swamps he must struggle through, the thickets he must thread, the plains he must traverse, and the sandy or muddy sea-beaches he must frequent if he would be a student of Nature. Dry feet, untired limbs, clothes and flesh untorn by briar and bramble, are not for the naturalist at all hours, nor should he complain ; a new plant, a rare mollusk, a bird till now unseen, an egg till now unknown, repay such trials as these; and, if he find no such prize, his tramp, like vir- tue, is its own reward. That there is something about the fowl, of which Mudie thus speaks, that appeals strongly to the imagination is not to be denied; but the bird is, nev- ertheless, a reputable bird, although he is the one which ignorant peasants in the old countries know by the name of "night raven," believing that disaster or death must needs follow when they have heard his voice booming over the fens on à warm cloudy night, as they staggered their drunken Way home from the ale-house. Terrible as the voice sounds to their dull senses, it is sweetest music to the bittern's mate, sitting among the grasses below him, or with him circling the sky just under the cloud. On this side of the Atlantic we have no superstitious fear of the fowl, and do not think the swamps accursed by his Presence. He is a lovely bird in unprejudiced, discrimi- nating eyes; he has no gaudy colors, but his blacks, his browns and yellows, of many shades, all of them pleasing, are so blended as to produce a beautiful, harmonious effect. He loves waste places, for they furnish him safety and food ; Safety, because his enemy, man, is fond of a dry foot ; and Tez BITTERNS. food, for frogs and snails and snakes and mice, all prime delicacies with our hermit, abound there, and, with an occa- sional minnow, supply all his wants. And yet his safety is not perfect, for the prying naturalist, for whom mud and water have no terrors, sometimes comes across his home and family; and the wanton gunner, starting him up from his fishing and frogging, never spares him, but shoots him at sight; and what man, with an arm and a leg broken and body pierced with a dozen bullets will make as good a fight as does our bird when the destroyer goes to pick him up? As long as life is in his wrangled body, he never ceases to lunge and thrust at his murderer's eyes with his spear-like bill, scorning to yield to either pain or fear. He comes to us from Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies (the European species winters in Africa) early in the spring (I bought one, freshly killed, in the latter part of March, 1868, though that was very early indeed), and probably takes up his beds in the same swamp which last year he frequented. The "tinkle of the sheep bell" does not banish the bold bird; he and his mate live in their five or ten acres the whole summer through, although just out- side their bushy quagmire the white-shirted haymakers may ` whet their seythes and shout to their horses, and the loco- motive with his thundering train may go tearing by almost every hour in the day. It seems that the raven avoids the bittern's domains, because he don't like the "reek o' the rot- ten fen." Very well, let him stay away if he likes, the beau- tiful yellow-throats and swamp-sparrows, and, if there is 2 rotten stump, the chickadees, make his place good and more than good. With their company and with surroundings of - burple-liossomed Kalmia, glossy-leaved Smilax and pink Calopogon, quiet cedars, nodding sedges, and rustling res Old Sooty's absence will be little mourned. me speak of finding the bittern breeding in colonies in . trees. Good observers say so, and I beliéke them; but I think that all such cases are owing to accidental circum- BITTERNS. 178 stances, such as the inundation of their marshes. Certain it is that I have never found them so associated. “Le butor,” says M. Holandre, “est trés sauvage, farouche, solitaire.” One tiger's den to a jungle, one eyry to a mountain, and one pair of bitterns to a bog seems to be the rule. In the place where I have found them, there is retired feeding ground for a thousand, dense cedar swamps exten- sive enough for as many nests if they only chose to congre- gate, like their social cousins, the herons; and yet two by two they live, their next neighbors nobody knows how far away,—not in the same swamp at any rate; and on the ground, the bare ground, they lay their four or five eggs, among low laurel, tufts of grass, or, as in the case of the first nest I ever found, at the foot of a swamp huckleberry (from which the four callow young, unable yet to stand, tried to drive me away by repeated tumbling charges, mena- cing me by clumping their soft mandibles, and by sending angry hisses from their wide-yawning, yellow throats). I have been surprised to find the general uncertainty which pervades ornithological works, upon the subject of the color of the bittern’s eggs. These really are of a dark ` drab color in the case of our own bird as well as of the European; in fact I could find no distinguishing marks between these two species when examining a large number of both, which I was enabled to do by the kindness of Mr. Samuels. I have not been able to find any variation in the color of those of our species, though I have inspected eggs from all parts of the Union. Hear now what a few of the authorities say: Audubon declares that he never found the ittern’s nest, nor, apparently, did he ever see its eges, for he says nothing of them. Nuttall writes, "the bittern is said to lay cinereous green eggs.” Wilson, “they breed at Hud- Son's Bay in swamps, and lay four cinereous green eggs, we are informed." Richardson, "they lay, according to Mr. Hutchins, four eges of a cinereous green color." La- tham, "breeds at Hudson's Bay, and lays four cinereous 174 BITTERNS. green eggs.” Peabody, “eggs of a green color.” Thomp- son, “six eggs, of a dark, b ae. clay color.” Find- ing the venerated authorities determined that the eggs should have green on them of some shade or other, I made a fresh examination, thinking I might have been mistaken. I studied | them long and carefully in every light, and gave them full consideration, but it was all in vain. I did once think I had detected a glaneing greenish reflection, but found the color came from a window blind. I have stated that the eggs of ; the American and the European species are just alike. Let | us see what European authors say: Selby says, pale green; Bewick, greenish white ; Fleming, olive green; a writer for the Lenton Tract Society, pale Sich ads: ; Mudie, green- ` ish brown; Albin, whitish, inclining to ashy or green; La- . tham, pale ash-green; Goodrich, pale green; M. Holandre, blanc-verdátre; Nauman and Buhle give a figure much too dark. It is hard to be obliged to say of so many well known : men that their statements are unreliable; but seeing is be- — lieving, and the truth is the truth, and the color is as I have : said. Mr. Samuels gives the true state of the case with ud to our bird, and Yarrell in regard to the European. species, and Hewitson and Atkinson, the former of whom ` borrowed the specimen he figures from Mr. ‘Yarrell, both give accurately colored plates. When writers will say such things of the European kind, we need not be surprised, | however incredulous, when Latham tells us that a Cayenin E species lays “round whitish eggs, spotted with green." Be- sides all these errors, the author of the article “Bittern,” in the “New American Cyclopedia,” says that the bird “builds in trees, like the herons, ordinarily rearing two young,” 4 5 statement about as incorrect as it could be. Mudie speaks. 3 as follows of the European bittern’s voice: “Anon a burst of savage laughter breaks upon you, gratingly loud, and so unwonted and odd that it sounds as if the voices of a bull and a horse were combined; the former breaking down his bellow to suit the neigh of the latter in mocking you from BITTERNS. 175 the sky." “When the bittern booms and bleats overhead one certainly feels as if the earth were shaking.” Gold- smith’s description of the bittern’s voice is one of his most pleasing passages. Many of the poets speak of the bird’s strange voice, and even in the time of Thompson (Thomp- son of the Seasons) it was thought that the bill was thrust into the mud in making it. Chaucer speaks as follows in The Wife of Bath’s Tale : “ And as a bitore bumbleth in the mire, She laid hire mouth into the water doun, Bewray me not, thou water, with thy soun’, Quod she, ‘ to the I tell it, and no mo Min husbond hath long asses eres tw Another notion was that the bill was put inside a reed to increase the sound; the truth is, of course, that the bird uses no means to produce its bellow but its own organs of voice. Our own bittern has no such roar, but, as its name in most parts of the country denotes, makes a noise yery much like driving a stake with an axe. It has also a hollow croak at the moment of alarm. These remarks apply to the American and European spe- cies; the geographical range of the former is from latitude 60° north, to Central America and the West Indies, having never been found, I believe, south of latitude 10° north. It is of rare occurrence west of the Rocky Mountains, though hot uncommon in other parts of the United States. Many specimens of this bird have been shot in the British Isles, particularly in Ireland. The first recorded capture was in Devonshire, England, in October, 1804; the prize was by some regarded as a new species. All such specimens have been killed in the fall, so that there can be no doubt that they were blown out to sea in their autumnal migration. ; : The European species has a wider range. Selby says it 18 confined to Europe, but such is not the case; it occurs, though rarely, in Norway, Russia and Siberia, up to latitude 65° north, and is found breeding at the Cape of Good Hope, inlatitude 35° south. In the other direction it extends from 176 | BITTERNS. the Atlantic to the River Lena, in Siberia, and is found, though sparingly, in Hindostan. It is very rare in the Brit- ish Islands, owing, probably, to drainage of bogs; so rare in fact, that some naturalists have thought it worth their while to give date and plaee of the killing of all specimens they have seen. In England it is said to breed only in Lincoln- shire, Cambridgeshire and Norfolk. In old times the bittern was held in high esteem for the sport it afforded when pur- sued by trained faleons. Both birds would mount in spirals, oftentimes out of sight; the bittern straining every nerve to keep above the hawk, the hawk doing his best to rise above the bittern so as to make the fatal pounce. The bittern, being of weaker flight, rarely escaped, but often in his death involved his enemy's ; for as the cruel falcon came down with rushing wings, exulting in his fierce soul, the bittern, in his dire extremity, thrusting up his sharp beak, empaled the triumphant savage, and both came tumbling from the clouds together, striking the earth with a thump which drove the last breath from both. A lesson to tyrants not to push the weak to despair. On account of its furnishing such excellent sport to the humane of former times, rigorous laws for its protection were passed in the reign of Henry VIII, and of Edward VI, which imposed a fine of eight pence and a year’s imprison- ment for every egg taken or destroyed. There was something like protection. The long hind claw was a most excellent toothpick, for, besides its functions as such, it had, if the wisdom of our ancestors was infallible, the highly merito- rious property of preserving the teeth from decay. It ap- pears, moreover, that the fowl had then the power of display- ing a brilliant light from the centre of its breast, which attracted fish to it in great shoals, so that the satisfying of its hunger took but a small part of the night, and much time — 1 was left for other pursuits, one of the most cheerful of which was to soar above the hovel of the British ploughman or hedger or ditcher, and rouse him from his lethargic sleep - BITTERNS. 177 or struggling nightmare with a doleful noise, portending certain death to Hodge, or Joan, or some one else; and this predietion was always fulfilled to the letter, for in the course of the next twelve months some one was sure to die in that county or the next. The flesh of the prophet, however, was very good, provided his skin was stripped off before cooking, that it might not impart a muddy odor and taste. Thus it will be seen that our bird was a strange compound of good and evil, besides having some magical properties which weighed on neither side; but the march of centuries, which has changed everything for good or ill has had its effect upon the bittern. He can no longer preserve our teeth, nor ean he cast a murrain upon our cattle, nor even foretell somebody's death; even his magical light is gone, and he is now a quiet obscure fellow, doing man neither good nor ill, and asking only to be let alone. As to the bitterns of less civilized countries, their manners and cus- toms have never been described at much length, but they appear not to differ much from the American and European species, except that the lineated bittern of Cayenne is said by Latham to be capable of domestication, and to be then an excellent mouser. The bitterns are all much mottled in plumage, and may be divided by this mottling into three groups, viz. : First, The Rayed Bitterns, in which the mottling takes the form of longitudinal streaks, especially on the breast, in which group are the Botaurus stellaris (i. e., the starry) of Europe and Africa; B. lentiginosus (i. e., the freckled) of North Amer- ica, and B. pæciloptila (variegated feather) of Australia ; this last is now thought to be identical with B. Australis. Sec- ond, the Spotted Bitterns, such as Tigrisoma tigrina (tiger- bodied, tiger-like) of Cayenne, and the Javan B. limnophi- lax (pool-guard, a name which reminds one of Hood's lines : “The moping heron, motionless and stiff, on a stone, as silently an o y: To AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. III. 178 BITTERNS. Third, the Pencilled Bitterns, such as Tigrisoma melanolo- pha (black necked) of Ceylon and Burmah, and probably of the Malay peninsula; Zebrilus undulatus (wavy) of Gui- ana, and Tig. Braziliensis, whose name denotes its habitat. This last is the most beautiful of the family, its back being black, thickly and delicately pencilled with white and rufous ; primaries, dark slate; crown, clear bright, and nape clear dark rufous. In front alone does the bird resemble our own, and even there the colors are brighter and more clearly de- ` fined. No part of ornithological research is more fascinating than the study of feathers; the more we examine them the more we must be lost in admiration of their beauty. I have never seen more beautiful feathers than those of the American Bittern. The ones I am at present examining, though they have been plucked from the bird more than a year, retain a beautiful gloss, hardly inferior to that they wore in life. Both webs of the primaries, and the anterior one of the secondaries, have a lovely bloom of a most delicate ashy blue. There is a very regular gradation in texture, colora- tion, position of the shaft in the vane, and in most particu- lars of shape, from the first primary to the last tertial, the : former being very dense, strong, of a clear unflecked slaty : blue, with but one or two mere hairs of down; end acutely angled, with the shaft very near the anterior edge ; the latter very loose in texture, so weak that a mere touch serves to tear its fibres apart; in color slaty brown, most finely marked with wavy lines of rusty brown, and not only very downy three-fourths of the distance to the tip, but furnished with a very soft accessory plume, three inches long and two . wide: the tip widely rounded, and the shaft at the very centre. Besides these differences, there is also observable a certain indefinite youthfulness, if I may so express it, 0 color, which distinguishes the tertials from the secondaries ; and the secondaries again have an immature, diffident ap- . pearance of texture, as compared with the primaries. No T Ree een REP Na oor R PDA NETT LA -* qur. MENS T a. ANA wor: AME XLI. ws gen ree E pr ua M 2 i » BITTERNS. 179 words can express the extreme delicacy and downy softness of some of the body feathers, particularly those of the lower part of the breast, one of which now before me measures 3% inches in length, and 37% in breadth. Our species, like the European, has a black-lead colored patch on the sides of its neck, the feathers of which are very unlike common ones, being little more than shafts with parallel hairs arranged along their sides. I have given no close descriptions of the various species, because, though such may serve to identify a bird in the hand, they seldom give any vivid idea of an unseen one in the bush. As to size I may remark that B. Braziliensis is the largest species, and Zebrilus undulatus the smallest, standing less than half as high as our bird. here is a series of small waders found, one or more spe- cies in every country, called "small bittern," “ least bittern," etc., which I leave out, because I believe they are much nearer the herons, for the following reasons: The bitterns are all thickly mottled; the herons are colored in spaces of clear color,— so are most of the “little bitterns.” The char- acteristic color of the bitterns is brown of different shades; of the herons, different shades of ash,—as is the case with most of the “little bitterns.” The bittern’s feathers stand out so that the bird, particularly about the neck, looks thick and even clumsy; the heron’s feathers are so arranged as to give an elegant look to the wearer of them,—so are the “little bittern’s.” The bittern's egg is of the color I have said; the heron’s is of a clear, light green,—so is the "little bittern's." In fact the night-herons b a much greater resemblance to the bitterns than do the small series we have been speaking In conclusion, I would say that I have endeavored to — make this article correct throughout, but that it is very likely that it has its errors and omissions. I shall be glad to have the former corrected, and the latter supplied. THE MULE DEER. BY W. J. HAYS. Tur Mule Deer* (Plate 3) was first mentioned by Lewis and Clark in the report of their journey up the Missouri River. They gave it the name of Mule Deer on account of the length of its ears; the length of the ear, however, varies with individuals. I have one head which I procured on the Upper Missouri, the ears*of which measure nine inches from the head, and one from the Platte with ears only seven inches in length; these measurements are from adult males. The description of Mr. Say gives ten inches. Mr. Say first de- scribed it and gave it the name of Cervus macrotis. This deer is much coarser and less graceful than the Cer- vus Virginianus; its limbs are thicker and longer, although it does not vary much in weight from the largest of the com- mon deer found in the Adirondack Mountains. The color in summer is a dull grayish brown, and in win- ter a silvery gray on the body, a line of black on the back and on the breast between the fore legs; the legs are a bright brownish yellow, the upper part of the inside white. The forehead is covered with dark brown hair extending down to a line a little below the eyes. The upper lip and chin are white; there is a band of dark brown running into black, extending from the nostril to the edge of the upper lip. The black band is not so well defined on the lower jaw as in the common deer. The inside of the thighs up to the tail is white; there is also a slight indication of white under the neck. The belly is a yellowish brown, almost as bright as EURE or Mule Deer, Lowlé and Clark. Cervus asirites, Wat PR United Hd ges I p. 245. Cerf Mullet, Desmarest, Mammalogie, p. 43. Jump- ing Deer, Umfreville, ea in Bay, p.104. Great-eared Deer, Griffith's atl King- dom, vol. IV, p. 133. Tego macrotis Say, Long’s Ex., vol. I, p.254. Cervus macrotis, lan’s Fauna, p Cervus macrotus Sabine, Frankiln’s Johs. p. ot 607. Certus macrotis, imagate Natural History, vol Iv, p. 133. Cervus macrotis Peale, Philadel- phia Advocate of Science, August, 1834. . (180). TSSEMETEMT Sum Ea Vol. IH. PI. 3. American Naturalist. T RC ane Sees vo: VO eas EL w AORE EN E= pen, We. THE MULE DEER. 181 the color on the legs. The tail is seven inches in length, round, and covered with short white hair, like the tail of a pointer dog; the extreme tip, for about an inch, has black hair of about two inches in length. The tail is carried pen- dant, and not erect, in running. The metatarsal gland (which in the common deer is about an inch long) is six inches in length and fringed with hair two inches in length. The ears have a line of brownish black on the edge, and are lined with long whitish hair. The horns spread wider, some measuring twenty-four inches be- tween the tips in front, but otherwise have the general form of those of the common deer, but the points are bifurcated ; and sometimes have as many as three and four branches. The hoofs are black, and not so sharp or pointed as the com- mon deer, resembling more in form the hoofs of the Wapiti. This description is made from specimens in my possession and from those that I have seen on the Plains, and differs somewhat from that of Prof. Baird. I am inclined to think that his description of the hoof was made from a specimen that had become dry and contracted at the base, or else of a young animal. This deer is found from the north of New Mexico to the Saskatchewan, and from the Missouri to the Cascade Moun- tains. Its flesh is very fine eating, esteemed by many supe- rior to that of the common deer. DIMENSIONS. Total length from ti TT T p of nose aa: " bes: i * to tip of tail, . We I th, AP I E High xi ahy nos S Length of tail, KT f pelvis, . 8 6 suborbital eun. š 1 Girth beat, praesent 8 4 s“ hate gla 6 Girth o of neck, e 110 m Length of fore -- from d gland, ko s of hoof to olecra 20 Length of fore ek ico MA : read it e les ph hoot | hind hoof, - 3 T Greatest — of fore hoof, 1i | Length of : n hind hoof, . 14 1 Width a aha. 8 an: of false hoof, . - THE NATURALIST IN CALIFORNIA. BY J. G. COOPER, M. D. Los Angelos Plains.—ln December, 1860, I found my- self at Los Angelos, under orders to report at Fort Mojave, Colorado Valley, as soon as practicable. I therefore started on the fourth, in company with a train of wagons going with supplies to the Fort, mounted on a mule, and well supplied with material for collecting in that little known region. The southern part of California, even near the coast, was still brown and barren looking from the effects of the long dry season, although some rain had fallen for a month past. There is very little tree ‘growth except along the streams, and most of these sink in the dry season before reaching the sea, so that the nearly level plain bordering the coast for à width of twenty-five miles has a desolate appearance, though it is densely covered with herbage, and in spring puts on à garb of the most beautiful green, varied with myriads of pretty flowers. Already the lower grounds along the river bed are commencing to revive, and flocks of geese (Anser hyperboreus and Bernicla Gambelii) begin to enliven the scene; the Kill-deer ( ZEgialitis vociferus), a constant resi- dent where water is permanent, and occasionally flocks of other waders are seen. But the route leads away from the haunts of these semi- aquatic migrants, over the driest part of the plain towards Cajon Pass, and although animals of all kinds are less abun- dant there now than in the moist spots, they are more dis- tinet from those of the Atlantic States. Ground Squirr rels hilus Beecheyi) abound, their villages occupying every little elevation, and the squirrels dietis son. which do : not hibernate here, may be seen running in all directions or sitting erect near their burrows, and allowing a very near ap- PME that they can escape under ground from any THE NATURALIST IN CALIFORNIA. 183 enemy. But occasionally a Squirrel Hawk ( Archibuteo ferru- gineus) is seen sitting on the ground devouring one of these audacious burrowers. The White-headed Eagle and various smaller hawks, are also on the watch for these and any other small animals they can catch, such as Gophers ( Thomomys umbrinus), Jumping-mice (Dipodomys agilis and Perogna- thus parvus), Wood-mice (Hesperomys Sonoriensis), Hares (Lepus Californicus and -Audubonii), besides such birds as fall in their way. About the gardens are the omnipresent House Finch ( Car- podacus frontalis), the Black Pewee (Sayornis nigricans), Raven and Western Crow ( Corvus carnivorus and caurinus). The Western Flicker ( Colaptes Mexicanus) was the only one of its tribe observed in this nearly woodless plain. Large flocks of Gambel's Finch ( Zonotrichia Gambelii), and other species, flitted among the hedges, while the Golden-crowned Wren and Audubon's Warbler were the only insectivorous species that could glean a subsistance at this season among the dry willows. The Song Sparrow (Melospiza Heermannit) like its eastern representative enlivens the early morning with an occasional song, while the Rock Wren (Salpinctes obsoletus) and Cactus Wren (Campylorhynchus brunneica- pillus) chirrup loudly from the tiled roof or dense thickets. Flocks of Quails (Lophortyx Californicus) become common aS we get farther from the town, and the little Burrowing Owl (Athene cunicularia) is often seen sitting sleepily at the mouth of an old squirrel burrow. Meadow Larks and Horned Larks, as well as the little Pipit, are so numerous _ in places on the bare plains as to almost darken the air when _ they fly, and the curious Mountain Plover (Podasocys mon- | A nus) run in scattered flocks over the driest tracts, or wheel 9 swift columns around the sportsman, their white under- . ats Sometimes shining like snow-flakes as they turn like their more aquatic cousins of the seashore. LE Thus it will appear that these plains have a great variety " animals, even as seen in a hasty journey and at a bad 184 THE NATURALIST IN CALIFORNIA. season, but nothing very peculiar to this part of the State occurred. Two fine specimens of the Red-tailed Black Hawk (Buteo calurus) would not allow of a very near approach, and the first specimen collected was a Cassin's Kingbird (Tyrannus vociferans), which I could scarcely believe a win- ter resident, although I have since found it to be so, even as far north as Santa Cruz, while its closely allied relative, the T. verticalis, leaves the State entirely in winter. Approaching the mountains at Cajon Pass, extensive thick- ets of shrubbery, with occasional low trees, give promise of a new and more varied fauna in the spring, but at this sea- son few animals were seen besides those mentioned. A Coyote (Canis latrans) dogged our steps in hopes of some scraps to be left at camp, and at night the dismal barking howl of these animals was our constant serenade. Nests of the Wood-rat ( Neotoma Mexicana) were common, consist- ing of twigs, bark, etc., piled up three or four feet high among the bushes. Hares became so numerous that I saw more than twenty during the day while riding along the road, and a new bird appeared in pairs, or small families, running on the ground with much the appearance of Snow-birds. This was Bell’s Finch (Poospiza Bellii), one of the more southern group. I also shot a black-tailed Gnat Catcher (Polioptila melanura), the most peculiar of the three allied species found in this State, which was hopping among the low bushes, scolding like a wren. The weather here was warm and pleasant by day, but frosty at night. Insects were scarce, and I searched in vain for mollusca, though several fine snails are found on the neighboring mountains where limestone abounds. As I am, however, only giving my observations on that particular journey, I omit for the present to mention these and many higher animals, which I have since found to be inhabitants of the same region. - Large groups of Live Oak (Quercus agrifolia), seen at a THE NATURALIST IN CALIFORNIA. 185 distance only, surrounding San Gabriel and San Bernardino, would no doubt yield many birds and other animals not observed along the route traversed. Cajon Pass. — The pass is entered quite abruptly from the plains by a picturesque cañon, usually narrow and rocky, through which flows a dashing mountain stream, clear and cold, but not observed to contain fish. Along its bauks grow Live Oaks, Buttonwoods (Platanus Mexicanus), and various Willows, while a few Pines (Pinus Sabiniana?), Firs (Abies Douglassii) and Nut Pines (P. monophyllus) strag- gle down from the neighboring mountains. The slopes of the nearest mountains are, however, covered chiefly with low shrubs. Among these the loud ringing trill of the Wren Titmouse (Chamæa fasciata) was the chief bird-music at this season. Other birds observed were a flock of Pigeons (Columba Jasciata?), Lawrence’s Goldfinch ( Chrysomitris Lawrencii) , and the Western Bluebird (Sialia Mexicana), none of which frequent the bare plains below. Just below the summit, where we camped December 7th, I shot the first seen of the Shining Flycatcher (Phainopepla nitens), a spe- ĉies rare west of these mountains, and peculiar enough to attract. attention from its habit of flying upward from a bush to a great height, in a zigzag manner, in pursuit of insects, somewhat like Pewees, which it much resembles otherwise. I have heard of the Mountain Quail ( Oreortyx pictus) as oc- curring in this spot. The Pass being only about 4000 feet above the sea, and the mountains around it low and nearly treeless, does not offer so good a field for a collector as Would be the San Bernardino range, which rises over 8600 feet forty miles south-east of here, and is covered high up With heavy coniferous and oak timber. The light coating of’ snow which greeted our eyes on the summit the morning of December 8th, is an index of the greatest cold ever ex- Perienced here, though the summits of the highest moun- tains in sight are often white in patches the entire summer. As we are now about to enter on a new natural region, _ AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. III. 24 186 THE NATURALIST IN CALIFORNIA. that of the interior deserts, I may as well digress -a little from the line of travel to mention some other land animals I have observed west of this range, and north of latitude 34° 30’, a region which I have called the “Southern coast- slope” of California, extending north-east and south-west for about one hundred and forty miles, and fifty in breadth. Besides the mammalia mentioned, the Coast Fox ( Vulpes littoralis), if really distinct from the Gray, does not occur northward. Deer (Cervus Columbianus and C. Mexica- . nus?) are not uncommon, and some small feline animals (Felis eyra?) with long tails, are said to occur. The Jaguar (F. onca) has been reported, but all other mammals except Skunks (Mephitis occidentalis and M. bicolor) are rare. The Couguar (Felis concolor), Grizzly Bear ( Ursus hori- bilis), Raccoon (Procyon Hernandezii), Badger (Taxidea Americana), Wild Cat (Lynx rufus), Gray Squirrel ( Sciu- rus leporinus), Antelope (Antilocapra Americana) and Moun- tain Sheep (Ovis montana) oceur more or less abundantly in various stations on the mountains or plains, but most of them are limited to particular spots, and are more abundant in other parts of the State. The most peculiar birds not yet mentioned are the Con- traband Hawk (Buteo zonocercus), which I found but once near San Diego, in February; the Rock Swift ( Panyptila melanoleuca), a few of which breed in some cliffs near the same place; the Texan Nighthawk (Chordeiles Texensis), à summer visitor, the Little Vireo ( Vireo pusillus) and Hooded Oriole (Icterus: cucullatus), also migratory ; the Long-tailed Mocking-bird (Mimus caudatus) and Long-billed Sparrow (Ammodromus rostratus), the latter confined to the seashore. These, as well as the White-bellied Auk (Brachyramphus hy- J, have not been found farther north, though the land im species mostly oceur farther east. Altogether I have noticed forty-eight species of mammals, and two hundred and forty- : eight. of birds, in this region. Of the birds thirty-two are D summer Fon thirty-two winter, and mes rest resident. Be E e BERE RE COS RERO REN UESTRO eae EP que Tto CERA RNC SERIE PEDE E MMS UE TREAT TO NIU THE NATURALIST IN CALIFORNIA. 187 *Of reptiles I found twenty-eight species and six of batra- chians, a few of the former are not known northward, viz., Hallowell’s Rattlesnake (Crotalus Hallowelli nom. prov.), the Coppery Whipsnake (Drymobius testaceus), and Couch's Gartersnake (Hutainia Couchii). Two species of Ger- rhonotus (G. Webbii and G. olivaceus) are also reported as only from these mountains, and I found two other undeter- mined lizards on the seacoast and Claueute Island. The fishes are few in the fresh water, and as yet undetermined. On my return to the coast, just six months later, I found the summer fauna of this region in full development. The Rock Swifts flew high over the mountains with harsh croak- ing notes; the Vireos and Orioles sung sweetly in the high trees; the Mocking Bird, and many others, enlivened the shrubbery or chaparal, and at evening the Nighthawks flew swiftly about our camps. Humming Birds of various species had nests on the trees, of which I unfortunately upset one and broke the eggs before I saw it. Brilliant flowers abounded, and though the dry season was commencing in ` the plains, the mountains were so inviting that I much re- Sretted my inability to spend a month or two there before going to the military post at San Diego. The Desert. —The whole country between the mountains and the Colorado Valley may be called desert, although only that part near thé mouth of the river is called so on the maps, being nearly level and almost as barren of vegetation as the sea-beach. The route to Fort Mojave passes over an ‘Undulating country, destitute of trees except on the summit of the San Francisco Mountains, where it rises over 5000 feet above the sea. The lower tracts consist of salt or alka- line flats, sand-hills or bare rocks, while the higher support : only a scanty and useless vegetation. Junipers (J. occiden- : P) and Nut-pines cover a few of the highest points, while 8 little lower the Yucca tree ( Y. baccata) forms extensive Stoves. Many species of Cactacese, and other desert plants, form the most. characteristic vegetation elsewhere. — 188 THE NATURALIST IN CALIFORNIA. In such a region the higher animals cannot be expected to abound, and those found are chiefly stragglers from more favored tracts, but still there are some of much interest. De- scending the eastern slope we find Harris’s Squirrel ( Sper- mophilus Harrisii) scarce at'this cold season, but common on our return in June. This little animal has much the ap- pearance and habits of Tamias, but is nearly white. I saw also tracks of the Sage Fowl (Centrocercus urophasianus) corresponding in color with the granite rocks among which it lives, and have seen a specimen killed near here. : "The only peculiar bird known is Leconte’s Mock-thrush (Harporhynchus Leconte’), which is also of a pale grayish brown, like a faded specimen of the coast species (H. redi- vivus), but is admirably colored for concealment among the thorny bushes growing on the sand-hills it inhabits. Both of these animals having dark colored representatives in less barren regions, offer excellent instances of the influence of “natural selection,” but have some peculiarities not to be explained by the influence of the climate and country they inhabit. The road for nearly one hundred miles eastward follows the Mojave River, which, being permanent for half that dis- tance, and supplying moisture to a narrow tract of bottom- land, forms a sort of oasis in the desert, cultivable, and with its upper parts lined with trees and shrubs. Some of the vommon Californian birds were rather frequent here, but I found none of interest at that season. On returning in June I found here the Purple-throat Humming Bird, the Little Vireo, and various other summer species. Fresh water shells of the genera Lymnea, Physa and Planorbis occurred, also two species of Succinea, in the more elevated cool parts "e .. of the valley. It is in the class of reptiles, and especially lizards, that the fauna of the desert excels. Although none were visiblo . in December, and I had not time to collect many on my re- turn in June, I have ascertained that seventeen species have HINTS ON TAXIDERMY. |. 189 been obtained chiefly in this region by various naturalists, principally those of the Mexican Boundary and Pacific Rail- road Surveys. One which they seem to have overlooked, although the most remarkable, perhaps, because inhabiting such a desert region, I described, after my return, as Agas- sizs Land-tortoise (Xerobates Agassizii). In size it is about equal to the species of the Gulf Coast, but differs in color and other particulars. The Indians hunt for them on the mountains among cacti and other fleshy-leaved plants, on which they probably feed, rarely or never descending to the valleys. A Water-turtle (Actinemys marmorata) also lives in the Mojave River. One small Cyprinoid fish (Al- gansea formosa) has been found by Dr. Heermann in this stream. Towards the sink, or “Soda Lake,” which rarely contains water, the sand becomes very dry and almost bare of vege- tation. A few trees (Chilopsis linearis) of small size grow there, and among them I saw a flock of the Arctic Bluebird (Stalia arctica). The only other bird of interest seen east of this was the pretty Black-throated Finch (Poospiza bilin- eata), which is pretty common in the shrubby tracts. HINTS ON TAXIDERMY. BY C. A. WALKER. [Continued from page 146.] The method of collecting, preserving, and mounting birds. The first specimen procured, however “imperfect, should al- - . Ways be preserved until a better one can be obtained. As ‘Soon as a bird has been killed, the following directions . Should be carefully observed. Fill the mouth, throat, nos- "i ls and vent with cotton; also any shot holes which may us discovered. If there is any fresh blood upon the feathers, 190 HINTS ON TAXIDERMY. sprinkle the spots with dust, sand, powdered chalk, or any other similar substances. These precautions being observed, all stains caused Py blood or internal secretions will be pre- vented. A paper tunnel UM now be made in the same manner as those used by grocers, the bird placed in it with the head towards the point, and the upper part folded over and fixed in this position by means of a pin, taking eare not to injure the tail feathers by bending or displacing them. The parcel should then be placed in a box, sufficiently large to accommo- date it without crowding, and the remaining space filled with grass, paper, or any substance more easily obtained; this will prevent the specimen from being injured by friction. In our own portion of the country during the colder seasons, also in the more northern latitudes, a bird may be allowed to remain (in extreme cases) forty-eight hours before the oper- ation of skinning is undertaken, but half the time is a safer rule. In the summér season it may be permitted to lie until the blood has coagulated and the limbs have stiffened ; but in all tropical countries the operation cannot be effected with too great dispatch. If the specimen is allowed to remain any length of time beyond that above stated, the feathers about the head and abdomen are apt to fall off, thus render- ing it more difficult to remove the skin; and the specimen often becomes unfit for preservation. Before skinning à bird, particular attention should be given to the color of the eyes, bill and legs, because these parts are liable to lose their tints after life is extinct, the color of the feathers upon the various parts of the body. Measurements should also - . be taken after the following manner, in feet, inches and frac- tions of an inch: Total length from the tip of tie bili to the end of the tail, ? li" neck being stretched out in a straight line; length of the primary quills of the wing; total length of the bill, meas- n. uring either from the feathers on the forehead, following the * curve of the tne down to the tip, or from the angle of alt | Jer a E aa a a Ss Cue M D o EM A Mao O Cu A a oS, eA et Be ig R gc ua a a aa e e MES NOU PEST OUR ETE eS de BN Ee err P PNE Warte c HINTS ON TAXIDERMY. 191 the mouth in a straight line to the tip; the length of the tail feathers from the extremity to their insertion in the coccyx, together with their number; the length of the tarsus, from the centre of the metatarsal and tarsal joints ; length of toes ; length and general character of the nails; the distance be- tween the tips of the wings when spread out to their full extent. It should be next observed whether it be male or female, young or adult; also, any change of plumage in winter or summer; the common name given it in the locality where it was collected ; the exact date when it was killed, and every fact which can be ascertained concerning its habits. "The sex of the specimen may be ascertained after the opera- tion of skinning has been completed, by making an incision In the side, near the vertebre, and exposing the inner surface of the ‘small of the back. The generative organs will be. : found tightly bound to this region (nearly opposite to the last ribs), and separating it from the intestines. The testicles "f of the male are two spheroidal or ellipsoidal whitish bodies, Varying from the size of a pin head to that of a hazel-nut, ac- cording to the season. The ovaries of the female, consisting of a flattened mass of spheres, variable in size with the sea- Son, will be found in the same region.”* Allof the above statements should be plainly written upon slips of parchment or pasteboard, with ink, and attached to the corresponding Specimen, or recorded in a blank book, with a number cor- responding to the one attached to the specimen. When practicable, nests and eggs should be preserved With the birds to which they belong, and all information Concerning dates and places where they were found. Draw- "ns of specimens will also be useful, both in mounting and cs - * source of reference. Many may consider the above “rections, or at least a-greater portion of them, of not much _ portance, but if they are carefully observed and prac- | teed, the value of the collection will be greatly enhanced, since such information is of the utmost importance in scien- a is, ee itn etm * Report of the Smithsonian Institution. 193 HINTS ON TAXIDERMY. tific researches. Even should they not be destined for these purposes, the amateur will find his collection rendered far more interesting and instructive. The collector should be provided with a light double- barrelled gun, the best of powder, and shot of various sizes, No. 10 being used for killing small birds, as it is least injurious to the plumage. Humming Birds should be killed with dust shot. Early in the morning and after sun- set are the best periods of the day for procuring birds. If the collector be in any tropical country, he should choose early dawn for his excursions, on account of the coolness of the air. It is also the time when the birds are seen and heard in greatest numbers. Birds in tropical countries are generally so tame, that they can be easily approached and with little skill; a sufficient number can be killed in the space of two or three hours, to occupy the collector during the remainder of the day. It is a good rule never to kill more specimens than can be pesce during the day. In some parts of tropieal America, Humming Dirds, Creepers, and other small birds are shot with blow-pipes by the na- tives, and they are killed in this manner without the least injury to their plumage. Many are also caught by means of birdlime, and in springes, and specimens ouied by these means are the best for preservation. The method of skinning a bird. — One of the most impor- tant points of taxidermy, is a correct knowledge of the method of skinning a bird, so that when the operation is finished, the skin may be as perfect as possible and free from all stains. Itis impossible for any one to mount a speci- men neatly and artistically, from a soiled or mutilated skin. There are many instances, however, in which it may be nec- . essary to mount poor skins from their rarity; these should ` never be rejected, for a specimen badly stuffed is better than none at all, and will answer until a more perfect one can be obtained. There: are two things essential to success, ViZ. and : ; and a good store of both will enable HINTS ON TAXIDERMY. 193 one to perform the operation with ease and dispatch. Cure should always be taken not to stretch the skin, in order that its natural dimensions may be preserved. fore proceeding to work, provide yourself with a cup of Indian-meal, cotton, needle and thread, scalpel and pre- servative. In the first place examine the bird, and if any spots of -blood be discovered, sprinkle them with Indian- meal, and rub it back and forth with the fingers, supplying fresh meal from time to time; this will remove it entirely. If the blood be dry, apply a little warm water with a sponge, ; and wash the spot gently. In this manner I have cleaned : the entire breast of a bird stained with blood. If any of the feathers are bent, they may be restored to position by immersing them in warm water. Remove the cotton from > the mouth, nostrils and vent, and replace it with fresh stuf- 3 fing. A piece of small but strong twine should now be passed from one nostril through the other on the opposite side, and bringing the ends downward tie them beneath the lower mandible, leaving them a little longer than the neck of the bird. This will aid the operator in turning the head back to its natural position after the operation of skinning has been finished. Now take an accurate measurement from the tip of the bill to: the end of the tail; also the, girth of the body behind the wings. The bird is then ready for the operation. Placing it upon its back with the tail turned to- wards your right hand, with the left separate the feathers m the lower extremity of the breastbone, quite down to the vent, laying them to the right and left so that the skin neath is visible. Place the scalpel upon the lower tip of the breastbone and cut the skin from this point in a straight | line to the vent, taking care not to sever the thin muscular tissue Which covers the intestines ; should this have become Accidentally cut, thereby exposing the intestines, remove them at once, that they may not soil the feathers. The skin must now be separated from the flesh on either side of the Incision by passing the flat portion of the scalpel handle be- n 25 : AMER, NATURALIST, VOL. III. 194 HINTS ON TAXIDERMY. tween the skin and the body. It will be found that some birds have the skin bound much closer to the flesh than others by means of small ligaments; these must be severed with the scalpel. When the skin'is loosened from its attach- ments quite down to the back, and the thigh laid bare, the latter should then be pressed inward and the skin turned back, in order that the leg may be separated from the body at the second joint, or the junetion of the tibia with the fib- ula. Repeat the operation with the other side. Next, the rump, or that part into which the tail feathers are fixed, should be severed from the body at the junction of the last dorsal vertebra with the coccyx, taking eare not to cut the skin upon the back. Should blood at any time be discov- ` ered, absorb it with Indian-meal, and the oily matter pro- ceeding from the fat (which is to be especially avoided in all the marine species) may be absorbed with a little pow- dered chalk. If the bird is a large one, it may be now suspended by means of a large fish-hook with the barb filed off, and attached to a strong cord, which will aid greatly in removing the remaining part of the skin; but if it is à small one, it should be placed upright upon its breast, with the head lying backward. In this position the skin should be removed from the back and breast, by using the back of the scalpel as stated before, until the wings are reached upon both sides. These are to be severed from the body at the shoulder-joint. It will be found to be much easier to unjoint them by cutting beneath instead of above the joint. The neck having been reached, must be turned out until the back part of the skull is laid bare. Having sepa- rated the cervical vertebre, or the vertebre of the neck, ; date to the head, remove the ear by separating the thin skin _ by which it is bound to the ear-socket, being cautious not — to injure it by tearing or cutting. By close examination it will be seen that the eyelid is bound to the edge of the . Sócket by a thin skin; this should be completely “severed, _ thereby ere the lid from its attachments. The eyes To SO ee kee sag eer URP Aa ee eae ES Sr E TEE SS IER CNET re HINTS ON TAXIDERMY. 195 may then be removed by passing the blade of the scalpel beneath the ball and severing the optic nerve, endeavoring not to burst the former, as the humors contained within would then ooze out, and flowing through the eyelids, soil the feathers upon the head. Next cut away the tongue, together with the flesh beneath the mandibles and upon the various parts of the head, and through an opening made in the lower part of the skull carefully remove the brain. It is well to remark here that the heads of some birds are so large in comparison with the neck, as to render it impossible for the head to be turned out in the ordinary way without stretching the skin. In this case the vertebre of the neck should be separated close to the skull, the body taken out sad laid aside, and the head pulled back into its natural position. An incision is then made through the skin upon the back of the head, large enough to permit the passage of the skull, and. this Should then be cleaned in the same man- . her as stated above. Ducks, woodpeckers, flamingoes, ma- caws, ete., come under this rule. After the preservative has been applied to every part, and the cavities of the brain and eye filled with cotton, restore it to position, being care- il to sew up the incision neatly. The wings should next be turned out, exposing two joints. The humerus may then be removed, but the double bone, consisting of the radius and the ulna, should be earefully cleaned and allowed to remain. Many taxidermists prefer to have all the bones left in their Places. This, I think, should be a rule in preparing dried skins, as the wings retain their position better; but when * skin is to be mounted at once, I remove the humerus, and ie then find it much easier to set them. It is also a practice with many, in lieu of turning the wings, to make a longitudi- m Joints, and through this to remove the flesh. Lastly, Me legs should be skinned, removing all the flesh, and leav- ang in the fibula or thigh bone. If the skin is to be mounted ' Once, anoint it thoroughly with powdered arsenic ap- hal incision beneath the wing, running the length of the two - * 196 . HINTS ON TAXIDERMY. plied with the sifter; but if not, use the arsenical soap, because it can then be softened more readily when required for mounting. Fill the eye-sockets and cavity of the skull with cotton. Restore the leg and wing bones to position. To accomplish the latter, take hold of the tips of each, aud pulling them from each other, they will easily slip into place. In turning the head back, take hold of the twine whieh is fastened to the bill, pulling it gently and steadily, working with the fingers when necessary, taking great care not to stretch or tear the skin of the neck. Smooth the feathers upon the various parts of the skin, and the speci- men is ready for mounting. ; The method of mounting a bird. —Having furnished your- self with tow, cotton, needle and thread, annealed iron wire of a size proportionate to that of the bird to be mounted, and the necessary instruments, including the large and small forceps, file, pincers, wire cutters, scissors, etc., proceed to cut fine a quantity of tow sufficient to fill the neck. With the long forceps seize a small bunch of this and insert it up through the neck and deposit it under the bill; in this man- ner fill from beneath the lower mandible down to the breast taking care not to insert too much stuffing or to place it un- evenly. Next cut three pieces of wire; one a third longer than the total length of the body, for the main support, the other two three inches longer than the united length of the tarsus and fibula, for the leg supports; also four smaller - ones five inches in length, for setting the wings and winding purposes. Sharpen each of these with the file to a fine point. Take the longest piece and bend in it three small . rings, the distance between the two outer ones representing the length of the carcass of the bird, leaving one long an a one short end, in the same manner as recommended in stuf- -fing small quadrupeds. Tow should be wound about the . end containing the rings, and moulded into the natural form - MEN bod the body. This being completed, place the longest pro ing end within the skin at the base of the neck stuffing: — "HINTS ON TAXIDERMY. 197 anl holding the head of the bird in the left hand, letting the skin hang down, with the right, insert it up through the cut tow within the neck, and thence through the top of the skull. Care must be taken not to push too hard, for by so doing you may displace the stuffing, but rather twirl the wire between the thumb and forefinger, when it will be found to penetrate easily. The skin must then be drawn over the artificial body, and the leg wires placed in position. The latter is done by placing the pointed end upon the sole of the foot, and forcing it up through the tar- WT sus, between the skin and the bone, until the point has reached the first joint. The leg bones should then be turned out again, when the wire . will appear as in Fig. 37 a, w. It should then i j be forced up a little above the top of the fibula, B ^ and cotton wound about both. This should be made to re- semble the form of the flesh, which has been removed, and bound about with thread to prevent it from slipping (Fig. 315,1). The whole may then be turned back into its proper place. Now hold the protruding point against the side of the artificial body, about midway between the extremities, and force the wire through transversely, until it appears upon the opposite side, care being taken not to penetrate the skin: The end should be bent into the form of a hook, when, by taking hold of the protruding wire at the sole of the foot, and pulling it towards yourself, the hook will be firmly fastened _ de o the body. The incision should now be closed up, by bringing the edges of the skin together,and made fast in this Position with common pins; with ducks and larger birds it necessary to sew up the lips of the incision. The legs are next brought towards each other, bending the wires close to 3 body until they are parallel. The joint of the fibula and tarsus Should also be imitated. The bird is now ready to | Place upon a pedestal. All perching and climbing species uld be mounted upon stands formed like the letter T; the "s skin; f, fibula; w, wire; 1, artificial leg. 198 - HINTS ON TAXIDERMY. waders, swimmers, and all other species which frequent the land or water, ought to be placed upon flat pieces of board. ii d The neck ean now be bent into position, and the head directed either to the front or side, according to the taste of the operator. The wings are next raised up, and placed against the sides of the body, in the same position as when the bird was living, and fastened in place by means of the short wires foreed through the shoulder into the body (Fig. 38,5). The tail is supported by means of a wire inserted beneath the tail feathers and passed into the body (e). In placing birds in certain positions, it is necessary to spread the tail feathers. This may be accomplished in a variety of ways. First, by running a small pointed wire through the shaft of every feather; this method, however, is not applicable to very small birds. Another is to take 3 — piece of cardboard, somewhat longer than the width of the tail spread out to its full extent, and cut a horizontal slit in it of the required length; the feathers are inserted in the slit, and are retained in whatever position they have been placed. "This method is practiced only upon small birds. A third method is to take a piece of wire of small size and bend it double, pressing the bent end firmly together with the pincers; the tail feathers are then arranged between the two, that is with one wire above and tho other beneath them. The two loose ends are then brought together and twisted to prevent them from springing apart; also to hold the feathers more firmly (Fig. 38, £). The latter method is applicable . to birds of any size. The two remaining short wires should . next be inserted into the body, one upon the back just below the curve of the neck, the other above the rump (c and d)- ue These are used for convenience in winding, and can be re- . Moved after the specimen is dry. The intei should be 3 v— eh C C : AOE ras NC NE nt; b, wing support; e, tail support; /, tail spreader- HINTS ON TAXIDERMY. 199 placed eaeh in its proper place by means of the small for- ceps. If the eyes are not sufficiently plump a little cotton can be inserted through the eyelids, with a small quantity of putty, by which the glass eyes will be more firmly fixed ; the latter operation should receive much care, the eye should have its natural fulness, and the eyelids should be well rounded. The bird should then be bound with thread, wound about the various protruding wires. This operation is done to keep the feathers in plaee until they are firmly fixed. A bird should not be allowed to dry too quickly, as the skin is then liable to shrink, but it should be placed in some dry place, not too warm, where the skin can gradu- ally stiffen. When dry remove the thread, pull out the wires upon the back, and with the wire cutters, clip off the remainder close to the body. ‘To insure success, the taxi- dermist should have a correct knowledge of the habits of birds, that he may place his subject in a position character- istic of the species. The measures previously taken will aid im securing accuracy of form. Taxidermists, as a general thing, are apt to overstuff their Specimens, and the beginner should strive to avoid this. There are several attitudes assumed by birds in the living State, Which can be copied with advantage. To represent a bird in the flying position, its wings should be extended as für as possible, the tail placed horizontal and well expanded, the neck stretched forward and the legs drawn up close to " breast, with the toes closed. The wings may be spread _ by means of pointed wires inserted from the inside of the Cy» Up through the wings beneath the skin, as far as the epus, or fore arm. The wire can also be inserted from the outside near the joint of the carpus, and be foreed down the Wing between the skin and the bone, and thence trans- versely through the artificial body, into which it is fastened ee moins of ahook. These wires should be inserted before as leg "Wires are placed in position, and hooked into the “cial body, as in the former case. An interesting -— 200 HINTS ON TAXIDERMY. tude is when a bird is about to take flight. In this position the body should incline forward, and the wings be slightly raised ; this can be aecomplished by means of external wires placed beneath them, which are allowed to remain until the bird is dry. The moment of alarm is a striking position. To express this, the one foot must be stretched forward aud the other drawn up near the body, and considerably bent. The body must be thrown to one side, with the wing on that side much elevated and spread out, while the other is placed lower and less diffuse; the tail must be expanded, thrown down at the point, and much arched; the neck should be stretched upward, and the head inclined towards the foot, which is drawn up; the eyelid should also be well rounded. The eagle can be placed in the position of seizing its prey, with wings and tail expanded, head thrown backward and crest erect, gazing upward. The vulture should have droop- ing wings to portray its sluggish habits. Such descriptions are endless, and indeed needless to a student of nature in its various details. Remarks upon preparing, relaxing, and mounting dried skins. —The bird should be skinned in the ordinary manner, leaving all the bones of wings in their places, and the skin thoroughly anointed with arsenical soap. The neck should. then be stuffed with chopped tow or cotton to its natural dimensions. The upper points of the humeri should be tied together at a distance from each other equal to that of the same when fixed in their sockets, otherwise the distance between the shoulder joints. The skin should next be filled with cotton or tow, and the incision sewed up, the legs turned inwards, crossed, and tied in this position, with à — label attached containing descriptions. 1 One of the most efficacious methods of relaxing dried _ skins, is that employed by the ingenious Mr. Bullock. A box is made of convenient size, the top of which is free to lift on and off, without hinges or fastenings. The sides, toP bottom within are lined with a coating of plaster of HINTS ON TAXIDERMY. 201 Paris, two or three inches thick. When any skins are to be relaxed, fill the box with water, and in this condition allow it to stand over night; in the morning any water remaining can be poured off, and the skins placed within. The lid of the box, being grooved, will shut close, and the wooden sides will prevent evaporation from going on. The box should be set in some damp situation. In twenty-four or forty-eight hours the skins will be sufficiently soft and pliant for mount- ing. It is necessary before placing the skins within the box, to render the feet and the bill pliable, that these parts should be enclosed in dampened rags or tow. Before moistening, the body should be opened and the inside stuffing taken out With the forceps. Another method is to fill the skin (the former stuffing having been previously removed) with cot- ton or rags saturated with water, enveloping it with a damp cloth, having wrapped the bill and feet as above stated. The former is preferable, as the latter does not relax all the parts equally. In some cases, however, especially with those of the aquatic families, it is necessary to prepare them after the latter plan, and in this condition to place them in the box described above. The general method pursued in mounting dried skins is the same as that practiced upon fresh specimens. Difficulty 18 often experienced in placing the leg wires in position from the dry and shrivelled condition of the tarsi; this may be overcome by perforating them with the awl used for that purpose (recommended in the former article upon mamma- lia) previous to inserting the wires. With many of the skins of South American birds, prepared by the natives, a proper adjustment of the wings:is found to be impossible. In this Case it is necessary to cut them off close to the body, and fix them anew. In replacing the wings the scapulars should be carefully arranged to effectually conceal the joining of the _ Wings. Any feathers disarranged in the operation should be _ Properly adjusted with the small forceps.— To be continued. AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IH. 26 A FISH FARM. BY E. DEXTER. Fig. 39.* Tue Fish-hatching establishment at West Barnstable was begun in the spring of 1868. The experiments have as yet been confined mostly to trout, of which we have hatched this year some 60000, as well as 2000 salmon ova w hich were procured in New Brunswick by the State Commissioners of Fisheries, by whom they were presented to us. As the pro- cess of hatching goes on during the transport of the eggs in wet moss, we lost several by pe hatching on the way iu the cars. The place selected for building the ponds to contain the parent trout, was a swampy piece of land at the head of a brook of considerable size, running into the salt water after a course of a mile and a half or two miles, and containing half dozen or more pure springs, the waters of which formed enin ATION OF FIG , X, X, springs. a, a, a, drains. C, hate shing hot D, represents a series sót ponas for young fish. E, E, pawning ways. b,b sanam troughs. pex hc two ponds ; E, E, E, are fo — | ropresented by —— d lines, on ika right c ponds represen roposed s tank is also placed at this point, rers by the X on ie left of this series of propo* ponds. (202) ——— ———— A FISH FARM. 203 the fountain head of the stream. Two ponds have thus far been made by excavation, each about forty feet long by twenty feet wide, and from three to four and a half feet deep. They are connected together, the same water being used for both ponds. The supply of water is about eighteen square inches, and is taken from tanks made of plank, vary- ing in size from ten to fifteen feet in length, and from four to ten feet in breadth, sunk in the soft mud at the points where the springs came to the surface, and as deep as was hecessary to reach the substratum of sand, which was gen- erally about five feet. These ‘tanks have no bottom planks, and the water wells up through the sand at the bottom, form- ing reservoirs of living water of even temperature, summer and winter, and not subject to freshet or variation in quan- tity. The temperature of the springs varies but little from 48° throughout the year. There are now about seven hundred parent trout in the two ponds, ranging from three-quarters of a pound to three Pounds in weight. It is calculated that the first pond will sustain over 2000 fish of the larger size, while in the second three times that number of smaller fish will thrive. This is allowing one large fish or three of the smaller size to the cubic foot. They.are fed daily with live minnows and shrimp caught 9n the adjacent salt marshes, or, when they cannot be con- veniently obtained, with chopped liver, the roe of codfish, ete. The ponds are stoned, and one of them which was built in low wet land, is cemented on each side of the stones. Having learned by former experience that trout will spawn in the pond, and the ova: thus be lost if its bottom is sandy °F gravelly, we covered the bottom, where its nature seemed to invite the fish to this operation, with flat stones, thus obviating the difficulty so far as we have observed. Aquatic - Plants, mosses, etc., were introduced and now cover the bot- tom, not only providing a large amount of food in the form x Crustacea, snails, ete., but also supplying to the water - 204 A FISH FARM. the necessary chemical elements which are being constantly exhausted by the respiration of the fish. The water enters each pond through a plank trough, the sides of which are sunk nearly to the level of the ground. These troughs are fifty feet long and three and a half feet wide, and are filled to the depth of six inches with coarse gravel, over which there are six inches of water flowing with a slight eurrent'to the ponds. As it is the habit of the trout to soni shallow running streams to spawn, they eagerly re- sort to these spawning ways when ready, and are taken by closing the bottom of the way, and driving the fish into à bag net at its entrance into the pond. They are then re- moved in tubs of water to the hatching house, for the pur- pose of taking the ova from the female and impregnating them with the milt of the male fish. The modus operandi is as follows : The female fish is grasped with one hand by the back and shoulders, the vent being held under the sur- face of the water in a tin pan or other vessel partly filled, while with the other hand the abdomen is gently rubbed or pressed toward the vent. If the ova are mature and ready to be shed, a slight pressure is sufficient to extrude them. The same operation is then gone through with the male; if his milt is mature, it will ow i in a small quantity into the vessel. A few drops are sufficient to impregnate thousands of eggs. The milt and the ova are then gently stirred to- gether, and allowed to remain undisturbed for five or ten minutes. The water is then poured off, new water is gently admitted to wash the eggs, and they are n to be placed in the hatching troughs. It may be as well to state here that the spawning time ` for trout is from October till March, the principal spawning months being November and December. It is generally cal- culated that a trout weighing one pound will produce 1000 eggs ; the larger and smaller ones in the same general pro- portion. 4I Nds known, however, during the past season. 3 trout of less than half a pound in weight, to deliver 1000 eggs by actual count, A FISH FARM. 205 The first requisite now is a supply of pure spring water for hatehing the eggs,— neither too warm nor too cold. From 45° to 509 is the best. Every degree warmer or colder will make from six to eight days difference in the time of hatching. From 37° to 54° is considered the limit within which to hatch trout. By a calculation in Mr. Nor- ris’ book (“American Fish Culture”), it will take one hun- dred and sixty-five days with water at 37°, and thirty-two days with water at 54°. The hatching house in the establishment we have spoken of is a wooden building twenty feet long by twelve feet Fig. 40. wide, into which water is admitted about three feet above the level of the floor, from springs immediately in the rear, enclosed in sunken tanks as before described, and covered So as to be out of reach of cold or heat. To enable the water to be brought in at this height from the floor, the house is sunk three feet in the ground, and the boards are covered with a heavy coat of pitch inside and out, to a point Above the level of the surrounding ground to prevent their rotting. The amount of water now used in the house is What will flow through two faucets, one inch in diameter, with a moderate pressure. This is led in the first instance Into a straining trough (Fig. 40, a), running across the width of the building, where it passes through flannel strainers (4) to insure its purity. It then flows into a distributing trough (^), which is parallel to the straining trough and a few inches lower, from which, by means of faucets, it is let on to the hatching troughs in such quantity as may be best. 206 A FISH FARM. The hatching troughs (Fig. 40, e) are placed at right an- gles to the others, and are sixteen feet long, fifteen inches wide, and eight inches deep, and are six in number with cov- ers upon hinges, the top of them being about fifteen inches from the floor. They are lined with slate, one-half of an inch thick, upon the sides and bottom, with transverse sub- divisions; every two feet made of the same material and two inches in height. A fungus growth, very detrimental to the ova, is unavoidable when wood only is used. The bottom of the troughs is covered with about one inch of moder- ately fine gravel, and over it flows a constant stream of screened spring water about an inch deep, the lower end of the trough being depressed two inches. On this gravel the impregnated ova are placed in a single layer. In about three weeks the eyes can be seen in the impregnated eggs, appearing simply as two black specks; the blood-vessels of the future fish may also be seen, and from this time its de- velopment may be traced daily in the shell. With the tem- perature of the water at 489, we may look for the hatching of the ova from the forty-fifth to the fiftieth day. A trout just hatehed is about three-eighths of an inch in length, and has attached to it an umbilical sac of several times its own bulk, which sustains the young fish for about forty days, when it is absorbed. The young fish may now be let out into the waters it is desired to stock. They will thrive if placed in a brook even at this early age, such waters sup- plying an abundance of minute particles of food. If reared in confinement, however, they must be fed with raw liver chopped to the consistency of blood and mixed with water, with the yolk of eggs grated very fine and treated in the same way, or thin sour curds. The latter food is perhaps the best as it sinks more slowly, and trout seize their food tn transitu, paying little attention to it after it reaches the . We have sought only to give guch a general description of a fish breeding establishment, and of the habits and treat- CEPS SUE ESE VOI er ee NUS ema FESTUM ER DS ee et RT PEE r | 3 CEPS Iur Rea SINIT TET THE FRESH-WATER AQUARIUM. - 207 ment of the fish, as would give some idea of the practical parts of the art of pisciculture. There are many details con- nected with the subject which we have not touched upon. They can be found very thoroughly treated of in any of the modern works on pisciculture, of which Norris’ “American Fish Culture” is the latest and most practical. In the above all general considerations have been avoided. It would, perhaps, have been as well to have stated that the arguments in favor of artificial hatching of eggs is based on the small proportion of them that are hatched when deposi- ted in a stream, by the fish following the course of nature, and the very large proportion when hatched by artificial arrangement. The many enemies of fish spawn (other fish, water insects, birds, rats, not to speak of sediment, fresh- ets, ice, etc., etc.) reduce the number of the eggs sadly. It been calculated by English pisciculturalists that nót one salmon reaches the proper size for the table out of every t ousand eges deposited in the stream. As the salmon migrates to the sea when weighing only a few ounces, it e would, however, be more subject to casualty than the trout. THE FRESH-WATER AQUARIUM. BY C. B. BRIGHAM. (Continued from page 136.) We have seen that the aquarium is to be distinguished from the common fish-globe by its self-supporting character. We have examined in a general way the philosophy of the "quatium and concluded that the rectangular tank was the most useful one to have. Let us now look for a situation tor the tank before the specimens are placed within it R I5 desirable that the sun should shine upon the tank for at . 7 an hour during the day ; an eastern or southern aspect 208 THE FRESH-WATER AQUARIUM. then is the best for this purpose. This is especially true in the winter time, while in summer a northern aspect would be preferred, as the water in the aquarium is apt to be over- heated by the sun during the hot months. One trouble which arises from too much sun is this: that the small green plants of conferva grow very rapidly upon the qium and stones, obstructing Nm view of the inside of the pite and rendering the stones very hard to clean when taken out. These confervee do not injure the water at all; they even give out oxygen as other plants, and it seems as if it werea provision of nature,that they should render the glass opaque so as to protect the inmates of the tank from injury. This confervoid growth is not essential to the welfare of the tank if it is péunely stocked with other plants, and it is desira- ble to have as little as possible of it. To effect this, a wide screen, or a simple sheet of brown paper, so placed as to shut out the sunlight from the tank will answer the purpose; or by pulling the window shade down when the sun shines upon the tank; or, what is best, by placing a row of plants with full foliage between the tank and the window, we have other means of obviating the difficulty. Whether the sun shines upon the tank or not, a fresh-water aquarium should have all the daylight it can get, both for its own welfare and for our own convenience in examination. lam convinced that this is correct from my own experience, although Mr. Hibberd, a good authority on aquarial matters, says to the contrary : "A full flood of daylight is more harm than. good, a frequency of sunshine destructive, and the ten- ants of an aquarium are seen to better advantage in a vessel d from above only." Before any specimens are intro- ned. into the tank, it should be thoroughly washed out and the glass cleaned on all sides, as this is the only time When it can be done to advantage. "We are sure then that no im- purity of any kind will thus far hinder the success of the aquarium. The tank then is ready for the rock-work. This rock-work is useful: first, as a shelter for the animals, some THE FRESH-WATER AQUARIUM. 209 of them being averse to the light if it is strong; second, as à means of concealing the sediment which, without doing any material injury, so mars the beauty of an aquarium; third, as a means for anchoring in their proper place the plants we put in; fourth, and lastly, to make the effect of the aquarium more like nature. It is generally thought that most water-plants, to do well in an aquarium, must have soil to grow in as well as land- plants, and that a layer of earth or sand must be spread over the bottom of the tank for the roots; this is found by ex- perience to be a mistake. No earth nor sand is required for the plants which grow best in the aquarium. Either is Very apt to spoil the water after remaining in contact with it a short time. Coarse sand is, to be sure, sometimes used When we have animals in the tank whose nature it is to bur- TOW, but even then only in a small quantity placed near a corner of the tank. Some of the small lilies grow better if. they have a cubic inch of peat attached to their roots. This " small quantity does not injure the water, however long it may remain in it, and. is often very useful. In general, however, if the plants are placed right side up, among small stones about the size of a fresh pea, they will grow to any extent, seldom throwing out roots of any kind. e want, then, a layer of small stones on the bottom, about an inch in thickness; this will be sufficient to bury the ends of the plants in, and to conceal all the sediment which may collect, at the same time giving depth enough for the Mussels to burrow in. The stones used with tar for the tops of houses are about the right size for this layer, and. on the - top of it some larger stones about the size of an almond may be seattered here and there. As to the color of the stones this may add greatly to the effect. If we can have the patience to pick out for ourselves the white and varie- ated stones from the beaches, we shall be amply repaid by their appearance in water. White stones give a brighter look to the inside of the tank than dark-colored ones, and AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. III. 27 : 210 THE FRESH-WATER AQUARIUM. they show off the green plants much better; but they also show the green confervoid growths growing upon them much sooner than dark stones, and are much harder to clean after they have once become green. This difficulty of cleaning can be remedied by bering two sets of stones, one being buried in damp sand while the other is in use. Were the beautiful stones of almost fabulous brilliancy which cover the San Mateo beach, near San Francisco, as common on our shores, we should have a famous groundwork for the aqua- rium. After the layer of small stones has been evenly spread upon the bottom of the tank, we may arrange the rock-work in the centre in the following way, which seems to be a good one, because by it we avoid using cement, which makes a tank look altogether too artificial, and we get a strong piece of work giving sufficient shelter to the animals, and one that will not be likely to fall down and injure the glass of the tank. It consists, essentially, of a series of three stone bridges, the one above being smaller than the one below. If the tank is small one or two bridges may be all sufficient. -We take then two or more pieces of stone, having very rough edges so as to look more natural, and place them about a foot apart if the tank will admit of such a width, making a height of about two inches. Upon the tops of these pillars of support we place a thin flat stone, largé enough to rest firmly on them, and even lap over an inch or so on each side; then upon this flat stone we place the pillars of another bridge, having the next flat stone somewhat smaller than the other, and so on until we have made so many bridges that the top one will just rest upon the surface of the water. The distance between these flat stones may vary according to the fancy of the builder. The top stone makes a little Saad; and gives a chance for such animals as tritons and turtles to come out and sun them- selves or take the air. Another use which this top stone may be put to is this,—to support a small collection of kn plants, making a great ornament to the aquarium. Dei ane NEEE pees ae ee ers Meningie Fe MAP THE FRESH-WATER AQUARIUM. 211 Many of the fern-like mosses found growing on the rocks in damp places in the woods, or the swamp cowslips or vio- lets, or the delicate plants of sundew (Drosera rotundifolia), or some of the kinds of arrowheads (Sagittaria), do per- fectly well if planted in a very small quantity of soil upon this top stone. Our native pitcher plant (Sarracenia pur- purea), and the red cardinal plant (Lobelia cardinalis), seem especially adapted for this purpose. If we take the former plant up in the fall and keep it growing upon the top stone until March, it will then begin to throw out its buds, and, before long, blossom most curiously. The latter plant seems to do best when taken up with the buds just appear- ing, and it will last long enough in flower to repay one for all the trouble of transplanting it. Various other means of beautifying the top stone may be adopted. If we wish a smali collection of tropical ferns, and have room enough, we may cover them with a glass shade and have a diminutive Wardian-case, forming a part of the aquarium. t is the custom with many to make a mound of marine- shells, or of coral, in the centre of the tank; besides being dangerous to the water from the difficulty of getting them perfectly clean, they seem quite out of place, not only be- Cause they are foreign to fresh water, but because it seems that the aquarium should be a place for living, not for dead Specimens. It is far better to avoid putting in any shells, Wever beautiful they may be in the cabinet. Having com- pleted the rock-work, and washed every stone carefully as it '5 put in, the plants are next to be attended to. In fresh- Water plants we have for the most part to deal with the dif- . ferent shades of green, while in salt-water plants the colors are varied and brilliant. ^ There is, however, this advantage T fresh-water plants, that almost all of them will grow well CONS properly managed aquarium, while only the very green ones of the salt-water plants are likely to flourish under the “ame conditions. One great drawback to the growth of .. "quarial plants is the change of the water from a higher to a 212 ; REVIEWS. lower temperature, or the reverse. It is also sometimes found difficult to grow several kinds in one tank success- fully. ` The common water-cress (Nasturtium officinale), for example, found mostly in cold springs and their brooks, will do well with water starwort (Callitriche verna), a plant growing in a similar situation, if the water in the tank is kept at a low temperature; but at a moderately high one grows long and rank, and finally decays. So again many plants which grow in brooks or rivers, and had become aceustomed to be constantly moved by a current, when placed in the still water of an aquarium inevitably mould away.— To be continued. REVIEWS. ———9Oo.——— E BUTTERFLIES OF New ENGLAND. — The notice in our last number of Mr. Scudder's promised work on New England Butterflies, has already brought many welcome responses. A number of living butterflies have been sent in cotton wool, and although a day upon their journey, were received alive and in good condition; those who live near Boston might try this method, but we think that most persons would be interested in raising the larve themselves. In attempting to obtain eggs for this pur- pose, it js better not to select the freshest butterflies, as their eggs Will often prove undeveloped, or at least unimpregnated. It should also be remembered that the males usually appear about a week before the fe- made about a fortnight after the species is first observed. The following butterflies can be experimented upon by the time these lines meet the reader's eye pid oleracea, rape and Protodice; Colias Philodice ; AN thocaris Genutia ; Chrysophanus Americanus; Lycena Lucia and Comyntas Thecla Anbar na, Niphon, Augustus and Henrici; Argynnis Bellona ; ui, Huntera and Atalanta; Vanessa Milberti and interroga- ia Massasoit, Quadaquina, Pocahontas, Metea and others. qo = he: he following species, the earlier stages of Witch ase unknown, probably on the plants specified : — Anthocaris Genutia on cruciferous plants; peris Lucia on buckthorn; Thecla Auburniana on smilax; T. Niphon on pine; 7. Augustus and Henrici on vaccinium; Argynnis Bellona on vio- lets or or raspberry ; and the different species of Hesperia on poplar; scrub Aat EL REVIEWS. 115 and iiaii mass of learning and research, and has established, I conclusions advocated by Dr. Smitt will be finally adopted, is a question am not qualified to discuss. Prof. Andersson has described a new grass (Colpodium Malmgreni). Dr. Cleve has reviewed the Diatomaces, and r. Lindberg the mosses of Spitzberg, while Prof. Heer* has reprae the fossil (miocene) plants of Spitzber g and Walrussia, and D ind- stróm has analyzed some of the rocks of Spitzberg. But b itid these efforts of a more Special character have been made the sitire en- deavors characteristic of the pupils of Linneeus, to clear up the fauna, flora, and mineral wealth of Sweden itself. I cannot here enumerate all rs relating to this subject, but will only state that you will find several local faunas and floras, as well as special or local lists of "ome classes of plants or animals, i. e., of the fishes of Finmarken, with m " a us cite the iovis of Prof. remitir “Characteristics of Annulata” collected during the voyage of the ** Eugenie,” a sort of prodromus of the elabora qoe nibus to be given in the report of that son published ed a Prof. Kinberg has also published a "e on the “ Origin of the second cervical Vertebra torii in Mammals, through the fusion together of two Vertebrge n Mammalia, generally, the odontoid process is separated epistrop ostical review of the Hemiptera (Reduviade, Hyd ete.) will, I do not doubt, add to the author's high reputation for accu- racy and acumen, and might the more be recommended to the attention of American entomologists, since many American bugs are reviewed in Papers, which, written in Latin, are quite accessible to men of all “A more detailed account is to be found in Prof. Heer's great work. “ Flora fossilis Arctica,” dependent Mt Prineipatly on materials emia together | by Santon sage vian travellers and natural- cu 216 REVIEWS. nations. Dr. Ljungman’s descriptions of new Ophiuride, and his useful synopsis of all the known genera and species, with several new forms of both categories should next be noticed. Also Prof. Lovén`s description f a new genus (or subgenus?) of Crinoids of the, Antedon tribe (Phanoge- nia typica) from India. His description of Leskia mirabilis, confirming the presence of the valvulate peristome and oe ascribed to this curious interesting analogy with the Cystidex, idend e some very valuidi observations upon the structure of this ancient type (vide the nepos FA > Japanese Glass-ropes had epee been erroneously represented as if down.t (T of Natural History. s Dr. Lindstróm has described a new spe- cies in ie brachiopodous genus Trimerella, from the Silurian limestone of zeba and added some important features to the knowledge of this singular ge He has also continued his valuable metn on the a ‘aside of that island, with the description of a and sup- posed true coral ( Calocystis cribraria), of the tribe bue. ony, from that remote epoch, and a new operculated species of Cysti Num. Dr. 1 phylloid corals had apparently widened the gap between these ancient * Pseudo-corals" (Anthozoa rugosa and tabulata), and the true corals o later epochs, but the recent discoveries by Dr. Duncan of some presumed transitional forms between both types, and the striking analogy pointed inds à fE acters thinie he formerly eaten: Finally I ‘shall cite Dr. Thorell’s in- teresting note on Aranea lobata Pallas, demonstrating its identity with Argiope sericea Oliv. (translated in the ** Annals"); also Prof. Elias Fries — ad synonymiam Hieraciorum. r. Raupach's notes on pe earth- quake at St. Pill. November 18, and December 11, 1867 r. Lin gus "Interesting PESSE penne? ~ popular belief a ws and sheep (also | antelopes) have the dse peee of cenis their own after- ipe: Prof. Steenberg's suggestions on the applicability of lichens t grape-sugar and alcohol, might perhaps also be of im- iiem o ec Mr. E. Billings, in the “Canadian Naturalist and Geologist,” : rime. fariner knowlege of the “Hyalonema,” from Santa Cruz, mentioned some years e Ya as existing in the i be very Section of Acad. Nat. ‘Science, Phila., Oct. 5, — cat.—EDs. REVIEWS. 217 portance to other northern countries, where lichens are abundant; and Mr. v. Post's observations on the so-termed “ giant-kettles” (kettle- Shaped excavations in rocks, with whorl-like or spiral striations, evi- dently produced by water-whorls turning stones around along with them) as drawing their origin from the waters rushing vertically down through local cracks in glaciers (the so-termed ‘‘ moulins ”) throw farther light on the great glacial epoch and the monuments it left behind; no doubt also North America will furnish numerous instances of the phenomena interpreted so successfully by Mr. v. Post. ough we are now connected by railways with the Swedish capital, I must confess that the last volume of the “ Transactions of the Royal new' series, or that for 1865-66; it would therefore strictly fall behind the limits of this review; but as it bears the year 1867 on the foot of the title page, I presume that some of its parts have been published so late a y £ One hundred and five species are described in this work by the learned author, who through many years made this genus his favorite study, and whose well deserved reputation will recommend his work to the atten- tion of all botanists, as being that of the first authority on the subject. Mr. Zetterstedt has examined the flora of Smaland (a province of Swe- n). To Durir and Nordenskjold we owe contributions to the geogra- While Nordenskjold has published a geological description of it (with charts and profiles), and Lindstróm has described its Triassic and Juras- sic fossils. Of the contents of the later volumes, if such have appeared, t h thing has been published during the biennium, and the same must be Said of Sundevall’s unfinished “Birds of Sweden.” You will find in it plates), containing also an elaborate synopsis of all known genera f “Whal Whales,” among which the author distin- ess than ten generic subdivi As the memoir is written 218 REVIEWS. Dr. Cleve has contributed a monograph of the Swedish Zygnemacee (a tribe of confervoid Algz), illustrated by ten beautiful plates; seven gen- era and twenty-five species are described, and they appear (I am 0 course not competent to judge) to be treated of with that care and ability that one.is accustomed to find in the countrymen of Linnzus. As all de- " scriptions are > translated into Latin, the paper will cay be esee to al. The versity of Lund has published two volumes of “Act a Uni- versitatis genome for 1866 and ’67. Dr. Olss Stee in full aula the Cestoidea and Trematoda, eating by — in Scandinavian fishes; he scrutinized no less than specimens of fishes, belonging to seventy- six species, and pua tifty-six species of fully- EERE parasitic Platy- mintha. Diagnoses of all the species are given in Eatin, and five plates Iofosoris; a line of research in which little or nothing has been done in Scandinavia since the time of O. Fr. Müller. Dr. Lyttkens has described s ster), with two plates, and in future parts will treat of the integument, etc., of Lithodes, Gádchr and Pagurus. Prof. Wahlgrén has described nd fi h some valuable additions to the knowledge of its y. pecies is the greater one of th ecies commonly confounded under the collec- tive name of ** Orthagoriscus mola,” and the only one hitherto observed on the American shores of the Atlantic; while the smaller species (M. Retzii) is only found on the European side of , M. nasus, "o is des no means un on; the Petru ug characters were pointe y Prof. Steenstrup and myself in Agardh has nly in fact, only the metamorphosed leaf); also some interesting researches on the history of the Scandinavian flora; based principally on its geo- graphical distribution (with two charts). He points out the vestiges of three cinta È e., that of the Arctic flora, which towards the close of the glacial iberia; the eastern and north- eastern (Altaic) element, which at a later time, en the glacial epoch and before the appearance of the Fagus sylvestris, wandered into Europe glacial phenomena in Southern Sweden, illustrated by a very in- aart, showing the disetion of the e ice-tracks. Dr. Lundgrén MESSA pM M a ue a RECESSO Eu I soe. stop Se aria te REVIEWS. 219 has undertaken the critical determination and description of the petrifac- tions of the recently discovered Faxe-limestone in Scan — while Dr. Tórnkrist has studied the geological structure and chronol layer in Scandinavia, and of its rare and highly enigmatical fossil remains, closes this very creditable series of scientific contributions published by our sister University. Among the papers published in the ‘‘Botaniske Notiser,” 1867 and ’68 (edited by Prof. Th. Fries, at Upsala), I must cite Prof. Andersson's, on abies should be onere noticed by botanists and cep EHE n every volume of this highly esteemed journal, a complete annual list * given of all eie papers published in Sweden, Norway and Den waa hot but believe that Prof. Erdmann’s synopsis of the results arrived at, and the researches carried out in Sweden, must be of great importance the geologists of all northern countries where similar a occur. The topic of “The Glacial Epoch in Northern Europe” has also been ! treated of in a more popular manner by Dr. Paykull, in a ane ie mph- et. 9f the Royal Society of Géteborg). Though the fourth part had been Printed as early as 1863, it was not, I believe, circulated before the last year, and I shall therefore gin» a review of the differe : arine Mol nt chapters: “a List llusca observed in the brackish water of Géteborg, and in _ the estuary of the Góta-elf;" “a Monograph of the Syrphici (a family of 220 REVIEWS. Diptera) of Scandinavia and Finland”; **a Review of the Scandina- vian Petromyzontide,” in which the author Es a new terminology of the teeth of these fishes, divides the old gen etromyzon into Lam- petra (marina Linn.) and Petromyzon ( eodd dual and E and cites for the first time P. Omalii B., as found in Scandinavia. The neri of Heckel and Kner, he holds to be distinct from that of Mi ees sea a list of Fishes, Crustacea 2 Mollusca, new to the Scandinavian fauna, i. e., Scomber grex Mitchell?, Scopelus Krüyeri (n. sp.), Accipenser iss nes Sp.); — tenuicornis (n. sp.), Vanbenedenia Mets (a new genus and species, with figures of a crustacean parasitic on Chi- mæra, bus Puis ien. hed to the apex of the dorsal spine), pence tumt- dula (n. x JL Turbonilla umbilicaris (n. sp.), Trophon Morchii (n. sp-); à N mnca limo on Limnc ic me the author unites a series of fo c nly regarded as distinct species (L. Balthica, L limosa, Bennetti, succinea, vulgaris, ovata, peregra), but forming in fact unin up f varieties, no t derived from the different ex rnal agencies and local circumstances that have affected their life and external fo arks on Monstrosities occasioned by a Sygna- thus typhie, with a double caudal fin; onog the Hirudinec of imals. The same active zoólogist has also published, in French, & Monographie illustrée d'une Ballinoptére fronde le 2° Oct., 1866, sur la identa Su cote occ e de Sué It is well printed and illustrated by à series of photographs, but not of that scientific importance which might have en anti at n the other hand y be argued that the authors skin, . in such a state that it gives a faithful ropseumtution of the ani- mal’s appearance, deserves to be fully acknowledged, the more as his health suffered by this gigantic work, and the expense was not repaid by the exhibition of a ** Malmo Whale," at Stockholm and elsewhere. Phe species Malm describes as new (M. De but it has been noticed by Messrs. Flower and Reinhardt to be most likely the Balenoptera Sibbatdti Gray. The same author has also contributed some notes on ts me ton Of B: ig Rp to the ** Proceedings of the Macs Swedish Academy." From Finland — that last outpost of Scandinavian civilization towards : nace South —I hav s rine een, as you ou will learn from a Fe by Prof. Fljelt, «On the . Contributions d People of Yiiénd.: No. * E bla Dy n the Society of Science at ce i ae dn deed “ Geological Observations on the South-weste | is Scientiarum Fennice (vol. aes P ro > NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 221 Miklin has published an elaborate monograph of the Strongylium-tribe (heteromerous Coleoptera), with four plates. An interesting biography ef the late Prof. Nordenskjold, the celebrated mineralogist and geologist, is also cea in the same volume. In the * Proceedings of the Finnish pus Society of Science" Prof. Luther has p MM smaller botani- ; cal papers, i. e., ** On a New Species of Pimelia ( P. vividula) and Musschea (M. pallescens)" ; ; and ** On an abnormal fA ciento in “punta etc. NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. BOTANY. EW FRaGARIA. — The Fragaria which I venture, after a careful ex- Mr. F. Mack. Only o Lar survived the journey. From that origi- Hated the extensive "plantatio of J. P. Whiting & Co., of Detroit, who 9f the genus which bears its achene es, or carpels, superficially on the re- de and is Tape rm from all its congeners by its dichotomous m and racemose flow. dg justice to Henry eina Esq., the active and meritorious botanist first indicated its claims to specific rank, as well as in token of my vam SOBRE for pue : prea for it the name of Fragaria Gillmani ; and I characterizé it t pis intone Deu dichotomo. foliis ternatis, foliolis petiolatis, = aphroditis racemosis, carpellibus —Ó libus. I annex a detailed description furnished by Mr. Gillman: dag a Psi ca than the leaves, dichotomous, racemose, many-flowered, b "we: pedu liate leaf variously situated from below the middle to the summi le, Which i3 clothed w ith a spreading or deflexed “ir bescence, more silky, EN ften cleft or > the roundish much Smaller t ‘than the Fruit drooping, l int segments, s ovato Janceolate Wat where. erior which nón rus: pagi cuc; ors arte fragrant; achenia numerous, Jer coniu for, grateflly sone mb-acid, singularly T 2292 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. superficial (not sunk in pits), closely — ee surface of the berry, which is pro- kun se sly from June to November. pagating very rapidly by stolons of also by side stools or offshoots bond ihe central crown, which are tuberous at cantly separated. Height of plant twelve to fifteen inches. Perennial; May to November. —[G. W. CLINTON, Buffalo. ZOOLOGY. w SALAMANDER. — Prof. E. D. Cope informs us that he has just dis- Pria an inter ipie genus of Aen nders from Mexico. It differs from Sperlerpes, in having the parietal and palatine bones unossified, and the inner nares Medie bite the orbits. The phenygoid teeth are in one f The tail is as long as the head and body together. The total length is only two inches. It has a pale dorsal band and black sides. A female specimen contained eggs one line in diameter. He has called the species, which is a new generic type, Thorius pennatribus BREEDING OF Rare Birps. -Mr. G. A. Boardman, of Milltown, Me. ing birds in the spring of 1868 :—Gos-hawk, Canada Jay, White- winged Crossbill, Pine Finch, and the Pine Grosbeak. TENNESSEE WARBLER.— In the June (1868) Naruraist, Mr. Tri pp i his interesting sedi: visis that this warbler is not found in nie England, or only as a straggler. With us it is one of our very common. twentieth of May, A few remain through the season. — G. A. BOARDMAN; PrncHiNG oF Witson’s SNIPE. — In the August (1868) NATURALIST you ask if, ud Mr. Pope, any one has observed Wilson's Snipe on trees? This is not an uncommon habit of the bird, when you are taking its nest or catching its young; but I have never observed it at any other time. Of our sixteen species p ducks, I have observed the same thing in all but two, when trying to catch their young. — G. A. B. MICROSCOPY. YPE-PLATE OF DraTOMs.— Möller of Wedel, Holstein, has accom- plished the most Vieira feat of modern manipulation, with the ex- ssor of two. “The diatoms (four hundred species in all), arranged by genera and species, form groups of one hundred, set with the most : try, and the whole occupies a space of about ceo of an inch. Each slide is a cabinet, —a collection in Ít- self, s accompanied by a catalogue of its contents. This one is called the "Type Plate, and cost $40.00. The ‘Test Plate,’ non ss operator, contains, set in one row with the most perfect tn Mn order of difficulty.” PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. ——Ó——— AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF ScIENCE.— The Eighteenth Meeting of the Association -— be held in SALEM, commenc- n cess, aud a large attendance from all parts of the ears is peir An interesting feature of the meeting is anticipated in the posed microscopical gathering, and a large room will be spe ditidiv advo i the display of Microscopes, and all that pertains thereto. The Local Com- mittee respectfully requests all persons having first- ols instruments, em to the meeting, and also apta apparatus as they have found useful in their manipulation. Agents and makers of verior are requested to bring specimens of their Foris manufactures. n the afternoon of the first day of the meeting, the Association will be E invited to assist in the dedication of the Museum of the Peabody Academy 2 of Science. The Rooms of the Ersex Institute and of the Academy, also those of other institutions of the c ity, will be open during the meeting. the County Court Houses which furt nish most ample accommodation for the different sections and committees. The office of the Local Commit- tee will be at the new Court House, where members will be conducted immediately on their arrival in the city. A circular giving all necessary information relating to the meeting, be sent to any one requesting it, on application to the Local Secre- ty. The volume of Proceedings for the Chicago meeting is now nearly ined and will be ready for delivery at this meeting. rson wishing to join the Association can report his name to any of the Be es. The entrance fee is $5, and the annual assessment is $3, including the price of the yearly volume of Proceedings. rther information relating to the Association can be had by address- ing the Local Secretary, F. W. Purxam, Salem, Mase . ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. ‘not: ; Tabor, Tarrant Co., Iowa.— The i re the casts of the crinoid stems Ml a mpressio € fossil in the rock, from which the pebbles were were originally br brokenof. — — kfield, s sent were undoubtedly the fungus nnm of the ren Bug ag (Lachinost lerna usca), -— has been described and d agured : ent Repo the Insects of Missouri injurious kopat s 4 Albany "e m TOU n anks E e are ire seve , iie po gree were apte ie -— ti ks for them. (223) 224 BOOKS RECEIVED. A. H. G., Plymouth, Ind.— Parasitic worms, in various stages of development, are commonly’ found in fishes, and it is most probable that every Hed gran: P several distinct kinds of parasitic worms living eit M in e intesti ines b liver e p. 2 W. C. C., Ithaca, N. Y. — The Milleped is F —Ó.»— — ORRECTIONS. — Dr. Cooper, of San Francisco (who did not see the proofs of his ari e on * The Fauna of Montana Territory"), writes us to make the following cor- rection ol. II, p. 530, line 22, for Mauvaise Territory, read Mauvaises Terres. On p.534 line e tor r Washington Territory, ua Bigs are Tes. On p. 535, line 14, for Bat, On p. 597, last line but one, for Ma ege ead Manual. nd ili, - 32, dele the query ( ?) den "Sei ave ensis. On p. 34, line 14, for . W., rea Arizona. On p.3 €—— A FLYCATOHER, m ark out last two lines of paragraph after yH — OSCINE NES, and in ** Yet this bind. is a magnificent singer in spring.” On e 10, Vireo Vir ii Y. Bartramii Swainson? should read ines olivaceus. 35, line 17, for V. gilvus re. - y. forse Baird. On p. 16, Mosasaurus are not metrical; in the same way, one of those of Klasmosaurus is vertical and one lateral. The tail of [leo pine is not continuous with what ought to be tail, but is made body."— E. D. COP: — M Qos— — BOOKS RECEIVED. Seventeenth Lene a: of the Directors of the New York Ophthalmic Hospital, 1868. New York, 1 8vo A B eiat to A Pega of Human Milk. By T.F. Allen, M. D. Albany, 1868. 8vo, pp. 11. Action of Anesthetics on the Blood Corpuscles. By J. H. McQuillen, M. D. Philadel- me 1899. 8vo, pp. 7 and Presh-water Shells of North America. PartI. Pulmonata pane By W. G. peus and T. Bland. 8vo, 1868. Smithsonian scorer 2 Washington, D. Flora of Alaska. By J.T, Rothrock, M.D. 8vo, pp. 30. Smithsonian fusdidiód, "1968. Washburn’s § Co’s Amateur Cultivators’ Guide to rabie and K aut Garden; con- taining a Descriptive List of two thousand varieties of Flower and Ve le Seeds; a a List. of French Hybrid Gladiolus raised and imported by Washburn gi ye Busty ass. Illustrated. 8vo, pp. 152. The peat Note vienes Marc h, geri 1869. London. 4d.a number. Small 4to. Chemical New: ork. n. Observations on the genus enr together with Descriptions of New Species in the Family Unionide, i New Species of the Melanide and Paludine. By Isaac - Lea, LL.D. 4to, with eat lc plates. Philadelphia, 1869. From the Journal of the Academy of ^ pen Sciences, Vol. xii Hardwicke’s Sci . March p April, 185. London The Butterflies of epa America. By W.H. Edwards, Philadelphia. Part 3, $2,50- i Opinion, Parts iv, span ; Api 1889. London. eei Canadien, No. v, March, No. v, April, 1869 . 8vo. a American Bee Journal. Apri des W ashington: S. Wagner. The Canadian Naturatist and Geologist. New Series, Vol. iii, hs gone 1808. NO. 6, December, 1868. 8vo, $3.00, - in the Milit dnd: Anthvopologioat Statistics of American Soldiers. By B. A. Gould, Ph. Dr. Actuary to the U. S. Sanitary Commission. New York, 138 hcc yin Er Dust JI of Life. By Prof. T. H. Huxley. Yale Courant Office. 8vo, pp- 2+ on the Culture of the Japanese Silk-worm, Bombyx Yama-mai, in 1867-68, în md. he iecore deli Colchester (Eng.), 1869. bie ge 1s. gold. Canadian | Vol. i, Nos. 8,9. March, April, 1869. Svo. Toronto, u ee SE AMERICAN NATURALIST. > Vol. III.—JULY, 1869.—No. 5. SEA-SIDE ORNITHOLOGY. BY T. M. BREWER, M. D. Tre ornithology of our New England seaboard at the present day is very far from presenting either the interest, the variety or the sources of excitement, which, even within a single generation, were, from Long Island to Grand 1 Menan, features so characteristic. If we go back yet far- ; ther, though only to a period within the recollection of that Very respectable individual, “the oldest inhabitant," the Changes from that recent period to what is now witnessed are yet more remarkable, and make our present poverty both striking and painful. Then wild-ducks are said to have nested on the outer Brewsters. Then, probably, the now exterminated Alca impennis was a bird of New England, as Was at some period, probably more distant, one of Mas- Sachusetts also. Then all our salt marshes and our low- lands near the sea swarmed, during the spring and autumn Months, with plover, snipe, godwit, tatler, curlew, wading birds of various forms and plumage. Then all of our estuaries, inlets, coves, bays, rivers and creeks along the entire coast, abounded in sea-fowl during „the entire Year, the only difference being that at certain seasons of the year, the resident species were driven by the ice and Eo eee oM LP I ee ee oe s EE DARE EMIT E P IMS UNT rex. MES E 1 Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Soven in the dng to Act of Congress, in the year 190, by the PeanoDy ACADEMY OF | AMER: NATURALIST, VOL. III. 29 (225) 226 SEA-SIDE ORNITHOLOGY. the severity of the winter to more open waters, where their numbers were immensely reinforced by myriads of sea-dueks from more northern seas, and which are so ab- surdly designated by fishermen and gunners as “Coots.” The numbers of these wild-ducks, of various kinds, off our entire coast, according to tradition, appear to have been well-nigh fabulous. Then, too, all the islands along the en- tire coast abounded with several varieties of gulls and terns, some of which are no longer to be met with, and all in very greatly diminished numbers. Now how changed the whole scene! Wild-ducks no longer breed on any portion of our entire coast. The ex- .ceptions are so very few that they only prove the too gen- eral rule. Here and there a few remote uninhabited islands aside from the haunts of fishermen, and remote from the tracks of commerce, afford to a solitary species of gull, and to the decimated terns a precarious retreat, where, late in the season, a few succeed in rearing their young, and thus in postponing the day of the final extermination of their race. For, so long as the Solons of our General Court encourage; by their fapislation, their unchecked and wholesale destruc- tion, the day cannot be far distant when these graceful and harmless birds will have become wholly, as they are now almost, a “bright vision of the past.” Thus, with the increase of population along the coast during the warmer months, when the portions least fre- düeuted at other times swarm with pleasure-seekers, and with the ceaseless activity with which every island is ran- sacked by the insatiate "toilers of the sea," the distinctive characteristics of our maritime ornithology has become very nearly destroyed. So many blanks and gaps now mar its symmetry, and dwarf its once fair proportions, that the sub- ~ ject loses nearly all the claims it would have presented half | a century ago. In seer v of what is left to us of the sea-side ornithol- New ] Paea, four or five groups sugges egest themselves. SEA-SIDE ORNITHOLOGY. 291 as still distinctive features. These are: the birds of prey chiefly found about the sea-coast; the smaller land-birds that are also maritime in their partialities ; shore-birds or waders ; sea-birds or swimmers ; and occasional and winter visitants. As we do not propose to prepare such an article as Prof. Lowell would call “nothing if not a catalogue,” and our limits do not permit an exhaustive sketch, we shall only briefly speak of those we regard as the most distinguishing characteristics of our seaboard, mentioning only a few that best typify these general divisions. The birds of prey that seem to belong to our seaboard are not many, either in their variety of species or in the number of the individuals. Even the Fish-hawk, so marked à feature on the sea-coast of New Jersey, finds our rocky shores an uncongenial or an unprofitable field, and is seldom ` Seen from Cape Cod to Cape Elizabeth. A few occur on both shores of Long Island Sound. From thence until we come to the mouth of the Kennebec, they are entirely wanting. The same is very nearly true of the White-headed Eagle. On the coast of Maine both of these birds abound, and their large and conspicuous nests, surmounting the tops of the loftiest pines, often in full view of the highway, are a notice- able feature in the landscape. | the latter part of the summer and in the early fall, when the southward flight of many of the small birds has begun, the Barred Owls station themselves in ambush on the Coast and among the inner islands, as if to forestall the gun- . hers, who show them no mercy if they chance to meet them. Their noiseless flight and their inconspicuous plumage, so closely assimilating with the sandy dunes and rocky wastes, favor their success as marauders, and also their immunity from their rival hunters. The flight of the smaller waders _ and the young of the terns are their chief attraction at these times to the sea-shore. Less than twenty years ago our shores abounded, in spring and fall, with the Rough-legged Buzzard. They frequented - 228 SEA-SIDE ORNITHOLOGY. the marshes and the edges of ponds in the lowlands near the sea, rarely going more thane a mile or two inland. They ap- peared to Mini by preference, for frogs, field-mice, and the smaller quadrupeds, and, more rarely, the smaller birds. For some unexplained reason their visits are now compara- tively very rare. The Black-hawk, by some supposed to be only a darker race of this species, and once occasionally to be met with, is now unknown. .. The Great-footed Falcon, though by no means confined to our coast, is yet a conspicuous feature to the sea-side when- ever or wherever there are sea-fowl to attract him. ‘But, with the ever inereasing diminution of these attractions, this faleon now only pays us angel visits, except on the eastern coast of Maine. In enumerating the conspicuous and characteristic fea- tures of our coast scenery, the crow must not be forgotten. Wherever muscles or clams can be dug at low water, or wherever a storm has thrown upon the shore an unusual aceumulation of garbage, we find these sagacious wreckers on the alert, eager to gather their full share of the flotson or jetson, as the case may be. Among our sea-side visitors, this invaluable but unpopular race are among the first to come, and the last of the migratory birds to leave our coast, and a few remain all winter. The entire family of swallows, except the Purple Martin, are eminently sea-side birds ; and most so, the White-bellied. In the eastern portions of Maine, and in all the islands of the Bay of Fundy, the abundance of this swallow is very remarkable. In Massachusetts they are far more abundant near the coast than in the interior. The Barn Swallow has * . been educated into resorting to the use of sheds, barns, ches, and eaves of houses for a nesting-place, yet we can n . remember when the rocks of Newport and Nahant were p their primitive and natural breeding-places. The Cliff Swal- , since 1809, hare. herome: more and more abundant i Martin has ever been content | to SEA-SIDE ORNITHOLOGY. 229 occupy every convenient cliff, or river bank, or ocean front, in whose suitable soil it could exeavate its necessary channel to a nest-hole. Along the shores of Connectieut and Rhode Island, and occasionally on those of our own State, two interesting little Ammodrami, the sharp-tailed, and the sea-side Finches, —so called, in our poverty of terms to properly designate Amer- ican forms having only a remote resemblance to that which they are intended to represent, —are species peculiarly char- > acteristic of the sea-shore and peculiar to our own continent, there being two Atlantic and one Pacific varieties. Their elongated and slender bills distinguishing them from all other American sparrows, their long legs extending in the stuffed specimen beyond their tail feathers, their short lat- eral elaws, their rounded wings and wedge-shaped tails com- posed of stiff lanceolate feathers, are all features eminently characteristic of sea-side life, and such as typify, only in a more marked degree, the true shore-birds. In fact in their habits they are not very unlike the true wader in many re- speets. Like them they feed upon marine insects and the smaller crustacea, keeping about the waters edge, walking upon the floating weeds and other substances raised by the tide, preferring this mode of life to a more inland residence, and only resorting to the uplands to feed upon grass and other seed when food fails them at the water's edge. They Were once quite common on our northern shores, but, so far as the writer knows, a large proportion have disappeared, with other summer shore-birds, probably driven away by the gunners and pleasure-seekers who now frequent their former haunts. I have met with none, north of New Bedford, since 1840, although here and there in a few localities a few are yet to be found, as for instance, in the marshes of Charles River. Closely allied to the ammodrami is the Swamp Sparrow, common to the lowlands of the sea-side, but not peculiar to | them, and equally abundant in the lowlands of the interior, _#S far west as Wisconsin. It is found along our entire coast, 1 t : j i j 230 SEA-SIDE ORNITHOLOGY. and is hardly distinguishable in its habits from the sea-side sparrows. The Savannah Sparrow, though only occasionally found breeding so far to the south as Massachusetts, is evi- dently a sea-sider, preferring the open dunes in the vicinity of the sea, and feeding chiefly on the grass and other seeds found in these wild and uncultivated places. Among the islands on the eoast of Maine, as well as on the uplands bor- dering the sea-shore, it is a very abundant species. It nests in sunken places in the ground, often on the edges of cliffs, under cover of a projecting portion of the bank. In their habits they resemble the Song Sparrow, and their notes, though thinner and not so sweet, have many points of re- nent blanest Another land bird, as yet quite rare and but little known, the Yellow-bellied Flycatcher,* so far as observed, is a bird affecting the sea-side. In the low marshy woods near Halifax, on the islands of Grand Menan over the water's edge, and on the banks of the St. Croix, in New Brunswick, these flycatehers have been observed and their nests ob- tained. That it is not exclusively a bird of the sea-shore would appear from the fact that it has been also obtained at the same season on the western shore of Lake Michigan. If found during summer on any part of our coast this side of Eastport, is as yet not ascertained. The Belted Kingfisher, though chiefly an inland bird, and often found breeding in the interior, remote from any water, is still to be mentioned as one of the birds which, under favor- able circumstances, enlivens the sea-side with his presence, his curious piseatorial habits, and his loud and rattling notes. Leaving now the land forms that are characteristic of, or . are found near the sea-shore, we pass to those water birds that may still be regarded as belonging to the maritime por- . tions of New England. Of the Herons, five at least are | summer residents near our sea-coast, breed within the x Tune as is also the Z piri MM. A. Allen informs species of this genus. SEA-SIDE ORNITHOLOGY. 231 marshy woodlands that skirt the ocean, and fish along the edges of creeks, in the more shallow water and pools of the marshes, or in the flats left bare by the receding tide. These are the Green, the Night, and the great Blue Herons, the Least and the Common Bittern. Three others, the smaller Blue Heron, the Snowy Egret, and the larger White Egret, in the calm weather of midsummer, are occasionally tempted to visit our coast. They are, however, only vagrant and adventurous individuals, and their visits are rare, acci- dental, and irregular. Nor are our resident species very abundant. The absence of large tracts of low swampy woods near the seaboard is not favorable to their protection or increase among us. In the marshes and low swampy islands near the coast, occur in more.or less abundance the Common Sora or Caro- lina Rail, the Virginia Rail, the American Coot, and the Florida Gallinule. The last two are not common, but both I am persuaded breeds with us, the evidence of which will sooner or later be made to appear by the actual discovery of their nests and eggs. The young of both have been ob- tained in our marshes in midsummer, and the Florida Galli- nule has also been obtained near Boston in midwinter. Of the true plovers only one, the Piping Plover ( ZEgialites melodus), is common to our sea-beaches during the breeding Season. The Killdeer is found only in a few inland locali- ties. The Golden, the Black-bellied, and the Ring Plover, are only spring and autumn visitants to our coast; and Wil- son's Plover, if found at all, is only a vagrant wanderer that has been tempted to stray into a strange region. It does not belong to our coast, and if ever, is very rarely found. Once numerous on the beaches of Nantasket and Chelsea, n but now nearly or quite driven from them, the Piping Plover 18 still found along the coast of Maine and in the less fre- quented portions of our own shore, and is one of their most interesting features. It is met with on the entire Atlantic coast, from Florida to the St. Lawrence, and is nowhere 283 SEA-SIDE ORNITHOLOGY. more common than in the least frequented portions of Cape Cod. Although living in pairs, they are also a very social bird, and where undisturbed, several pairs usually select the same locality and live in friendly companionship, uniting in the fall with their young, in small flocks of twenty or thirty. They are found exclusively on sandy shores and low islands, and are never met with inland. They nest directly on the sand, relying directly upon their resemblance to it in the color of their plumage for their own safety and that of their eggs. Their young can run with remarkable celerity the moment they appear. -At the approach of danger, or at the sound of an alarm-note from their parent, they will squat, in the most amusing manner, upon the sand, as still and motionless as so many little gray pebbles, and will almost suffer you to tread upon them before they will move. In the meanwhile the mother bird will be resorting to every imagi- nable form of lameness, or pretence of wounded disability, to draw you away from her young fledglings. The common Spotted Sandpiper, though. equally abaid throughout the interior, and found wode there is any lowland, must also be mentioned as among our sea-side spe- cies. In many of its habits it strongly resembles our com- mon plover, differing chiefly in its peculiar flight, the tilting motions of its tail and body, and its sonorous outcries of peet-weet, peet-weet. The Turnstone is, with us, only a rare and occasional visi- tant, coming in semiannual migrations, but never giving us more than a transient visit. The Oyster-catcher, a Southern coast-bird and belonging chiefly to the regions south of Cape May, occasionally wanders as far north as Marshfield, and is entitled to this passing mention as one of the very remark- able forms, which, though very rare, are a very striking feature when present in the seaboard ornithology. We pass, with mere mention, the Woodcock, the Upland ; Plover, and the Solitary Tattler, as properly upland and inland Mirac atis the whole family of Fs bias or Sand- SEA-SIDE ORNITHOLOGY. ` 283 pipers, Tatlers and Snipe, all of which are only autumnal and vernal visitants of the sea-coast. The time was when these constituted a much more marked feature of the maritime region than they now present, when the marshy grouud, at certain seasons, seemed all alive with their countless flocks. But in these respects the times are sadly altered, never, in all probability to be improved. One species only deserves special mention, alike for its peculiar habits and its excep- tional character. The Willet, the only representative of the genus Symphemia, is found along our entire coast, as far to the north, certainly, as Halifax, N. S., where I have met with it breeding, finding its nest and eggs. Mr. Audubon was mistaken when he stated it was never met with east of Boston. It is a very shy and wary bird. Even when breed- ing it is usually very quiet when its nest is approached, until the eges are about to hatch, or after the young have appeared. Then it becomes as remarkable for its clamor, and vociferates its loud cries of pill-will-will-willeté with great emphasis and distinctness. The Willet breeds in the sandy marshes of Nantucket and its neighboring islands, constructing a well-made nest of woven wire-grass, and the eggs, quite large for the bird, are sharply pointed at one end, and are always placed with this end turned towards the centre of the nest. After the close,of the breeding season they resume their shy and silent habits, and are sometimes own among sportsmen as “humilities.” Their eggs, when fresh, are esteemed a great luxury where they are sufficiently common to be well known, as near Norfolk, Va. Of the sea-fowl that now spend the warm season on our . Sea-coast, the list is not large and but little need be said. ague traditions are all that now assure us that some six or Seven species of sea-ducks once bred among the islands of Massachusetts. Except the Dusky Duck, which is an occa- Sonal exception, none of these now remain with us; only at the extreme eastern portions of Maine, the Eider Duck and the Red-breasted Merganser continue to construct their ex- AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IIL. | 234 SEA-SIDE ORNITHOLOGY. posed and often plundered nests. The Cormorants, two species of which once nested on our rocky cliffs, have long since left us. The Herring Gulls have all been driven as far east as Passamaquoddy. Only the Black-headed Gull, a Southern and somewhat rare species, and four varieties of Terns still breed on the islands off our coast. This gull (Xema atricilla) was formerly quite abundant along our en- tire New England coast, as far east as the Penobscot. Itis now chiefly found on a few islands off Connecticut, near Nantucket, and on the coast of Maine, near St. George. It visits our coast late in May or early in June, and leaves us early in the fall, upon the first appearance of cool weather. Some twenty-nine or thirty years since two or three pairs were still breeding on Egg Rock, near Nahant, in company with the Wilson's Tern, but long since they have entirely disappeared. This gull, when its nest is disturbed, is very demonstrative in its protests, and its loud outcries of Aá-Aá- há, resembling loud peals of derisive laughter, are very re- markable : anda even startling in their singularity. The Least Tern, the Aetio Tern, Wilson's Tern, and the Roseate Tern, still breed on our coast, and, except the last, along the entire coast of New England. The Roseate is chiefly eonfined to the neighborhood of Nantucket, and the southern coast of Connecticut. It once bred on islands near Beverly. The eggs of all these species are much sought for by the Gabi: ad as they are rarely permitted to rear their young, the day of their final extermination cannot be far distant. 5 After midsummer our waters are visited for a few weeks by two species of Petrels, or Mother Carey's Chickens ( Tha- lassidroma Wilsonii and T. Leachii). They are outsiders = altogether, never visiting the land except during the breed- ‘ing season. Where the former breed is still shrouded in . mystery. They appear in our waters early in August, but ; here they come foe or where they remain eleven months r, "nobod My mentions for Dias knows." . SEA-SIDE ORNITHOLOGY. 235 other species, Leach's Petrel, breeds off the coast on nearly all the islands from Cape Elizabeth to Newfoundland, ap- pearing in May and leaving in September. Later in the season the open waters are visited by flocks of ducks, most of them known to the fishermen as “Coots.” There are twelve or fifteen varieties, more or less common, which our exhausted space will not permit us to enumerate. umerous as these may at certain seasons seem to be, they come now in decimated numbers, and are so severely hunted on their feeding grounds that but very few remain with us to spend the winter in our waters. In midwinter the outer waters of our coast are frequented by several remarkable forms of sea-birds, combining several of the peculiarities of the albatros, the gull, and the petrel, and presenting a very singular and striking union of the more noticeable characteristics of each. They never appear with us near the land. They can therefore be only observed at a season of the year least favorable for marine explora- tions. Our knowledge of them must be therefore largely derived from the observations of unscientific persons who meet them in their winter fishery. They are classed by Mr. Lawrence in the tribe of Longipennes. Three belong to the family of Procellaridæ, namely, the Fulmar or Fulmar Pe- trel, and at least two species of Shearwater Puffins. Others, called Skua Gulls, or Jagers, are placed among the Laridæ. Their habits are, however, as well as their forms, very dif- ferent from those of the true Gulls. Four species of these Jagers, in company with several species of Gulls, spend their Winter off our coast, and are to be met with there at no other time. The study of their habits, no doubt replete with as much of interest as of novelty, is still reserved for those Students of science for whom the difficulties and the dangers Of their investigations may give an added claim to their un- Certaking. Certainly we know of no species of our Atlantic COast-birds whose history is so much involved in doubt, or : Which promise more of interest in their investigations. NOTES ON THE ARGONAUT. BY W. H. DALL. Tue Argonaut, or Paper-sailor, is familiar to all who live in seaports; its elegant form and delicate texture making it deservedly a favorite ornament for table or mantel; and cer- tainly nothing can be more exquisite than a perfect specimen of one of the larger species. It is of a snowy whiteness, with delieate undulating ridges, and the keel ornamented . with a regular series of conical projections or tubercles, whieh near the spire are lightly touched with black. Per- haps its greatest charm is its perfect symmetry, in which it is only equalled by the pearly Nautilus which, however, it far surpasses in its sculpture, fragility and purity. The Argonaut shell is formed, curiously enough, by the females only ; ; as among more highly organized beings some- times, the gentler sex outshine their brothers in the splendor of their apparel, and the extent it occupies. Unlike many, however, the Argonaut toils not, neither does she spin. Folding her arms about her, in her earliest infancy, she is speedily arrayed in all her glory, and has not shown any discontent at the old fashions since the time of Aristotle. These animals are true cuttle-fish of the eight armed type- The male Argonaut is an insignificant shell-less creature, fond of retirement, solitary and rarely seen. When the tender - passion seizes him, as he rocks on some sunny wavelet,* far from female society, he does not go in search of a wife, but with Spartan courage, detaches one of his eight hands (or arms) and consigns it to the deep, in the Hone that some tender hearted cultivsddat of the other sex will fall in with it and take it under her protection. Thus for a long time . the male Argonaut was unknown, the arm (which does not s Sie when detached, but lives an viec Magie E life) THE ARGONAUT. 237 was, when found in the gill-chamber of the female, supposed to be a parasite, and was called Hecto-cotylus. The shelly matter is secreted by the first pair, or dorsal arms, which are broadly expanded towards the ends, and also by the sides of thé body, which are more closely con- nected with the shell than many naturalists have supposed. But there are no true muscular attachments as in other mol- lusea, of the animal to the shell. I have seen fine specimens of Argonauta in the cabinet of Mr. Arnold, of Worcester, collected by himself; showing where the shell had been broken and repaired, the new layer in some places having been deposited by the sides of the body from the inside of the shell, and in others by the expanded arms from the outside. The anterior edges of these arms, however, seem to possess alone the power of secreting calcareous matter, as the fractures toward the spire were repaired with a deposit more membranous or horny than shelly. The cuttle was, in more modern times, long supposed to have stolen its shell from some mollusk resembling Cari- naria, known as the glassy Nautilus. The shell of Carinaria I5 very similar, taken by itself, to that of Argonauta strait- ened out, but it serves a totally different purpose. The Argonaut, separated from its shell, was described by Rati- nesque as Todarus, he having described at the same time one 9f the large naked euttles, as Ocythoé. According to his own account, his description being short and careless, the two were confounded. He says that the Sicilian fishermen call the Argonaut “todaru”; that the apex of the shell is blackened by a dark liquor which it emits, although it has E ink-bag of the Sepias; and that the eolor of the eggs .. 18 black, : : The animal was well known to the ancients as the inhabi- tant of its own shell, though they described it with poetical 7 fancy, as sailing in pleasant weather on the surface, usmg its broad arms as sails, and the others as oars, and when the 238 THE ARGONAUT. sky became overcast, storm threatened or high wind arose, as drawing in its sails and seeking safety beneath the waves. It was the original “Nautilus,” the pearly Nautilus being un- known to them. The Argonaut swims rapidly by ejecting water through its siphon,—a large tube quite distinct from the mouth. This tube is placed just above the keel of the shell, and the large broad arms are always closely applied to the shell, though they can be slightly contracted. If the animal is removed from its shell, it cannot get into it again. It proba- bly cannot form a new one for reasons already mentioned. Deprived of its protection, it beats itself about blindly till it dies. The eggs have been said to be deposited inside of the spire. I think that this is a mistake. In the specimens I have seen, they are agglutinated to the outside of the apex, inside of the last whorl, as S by M. Rang. (See Woodward's Manual, fig. 3 I believe the Peru Hr are of limited distribution. Some extend over larger-areas than others, particularly the Pacifie Species. But it is probable that when our knowledge of the subject is increased by a greater number of observations, we shall find that these beautiful creatures have their boun- daries, outside of whieh they may rarely or never be found. Many species have been confounded, as the shells all closely resemble one another. Argonauta argo has been reported from the Mediterranean, to which it is strictly confined; from the Indian Ocean, Philippines, and even from Califor- nia! For the last species I have proposed the specific name of Pacifica, as a comparison with Mediterranean specimens shows that, aside from the question of distribution, the shells _ differ. As an example of the probably limited distribution . of these mollusea, I note as follows : .. Tn 1849, M. Noury, captain of a French frigate, obtained anew and very distinct and beautiful Argonaut, from the — whaling gom off the coast of Peru, i in Lat. 10° south. It. PARASITIC HABITS OF CRUSTACEA. 239 was described by M. Lorois in the “Révue et Mag. de Zoolo- gie," in 1852, as A. Nouryi. Mr. Conrad, in his monograph of the genus, mentions that Capt. O. Swain, of Nantucket, in 1850, obtained a number of this species in the same vicin- ity. They were observed on the surface of the water on a perfectly calm day, when the sun was very hot. They ap- peared in large numbers, in one group at first, and then dis- persed in smaller groups of twos and threes, moving with great rapidity over the surface. Approaching them with great caution, a number were secured. A year or two ago Capt. Dow, well known as an indefatigable collector, sent to the Smithsonian Institution two fine specimens captured in Lat. 10° south, Long. 90° west, almost the same spot whence they were originally obtained by M. Noury. So far as I am able to ascertain they have not been elsewhere detected. In one of them the ova, of a red color and very small, were agglu- tinated to the outside of the spire, as previously noted. It is pleasant to add that our first detailed account of the Argonaut and its development, was published by a lady; Madame Power, who made her observations in the Mediter- Tanean, having a sort of marine enclosure made, where she Kept these animals and observed their habits from life. ON THE PARASITIC HABITS OF CRUSTACEA. BY A. E. VERRILL. Taere are few subjects pertaining to the study of animals more eurious and interesting than the various phenomena Connected with the parasitism of certain species upon others. This subject is also one that has many important practical bearings, since our worst crop-destroying insects are kept in check mainly by insect parasites, feeding either on the eggs, ug larvee, or the mature insect. Our domestic animals also. 240 PARASITIC HABITS OF CRUSTACEA. and most quadrupeds, birds and fishes used as food, are afflicted, and often suffer greatly from parasitic insects, crus- tacea and worms; and even man himself is likewise the prey of numerous parasites, both external and internal, some of which, like the Trichina spiralis, often cause painful dis- eases and even death. But the subject has also a pecüliar interest, when philosophically considered in connection with the varied phenomena of life and the theories of the origin of species. But at the present time it is our purpose merely to call attention to some curious facts concerning the habits of Crustacea, hoping that it may induce the readers of the Narurauisr to study more carefully the habits of this class, which, in this respect, is still very imperfectly known. It is certainly singular that a very great majority of all animal parasites belong to the Articulate division of the ani- mal kingdom, while very few are found among the Radiates, Mollusea, and Vertebrates. e three great classes of Articulates each have numerous parasitic representatives. The external parasites of land animals are mostly Insects, and their internal parasites are Worms; but the external parasites of aquatic animals are mostly Crustacea, while their internal parasites are both Crustacea and Worms. The class of Crustacea is naturally divided into three great groups, or subclasses. The highest, known as Decapods, have five pair of legs, hence their name, which signifies ten- footed. The lobsters and crabs are good examples. The next great group have seven pair ot legs, or are fourteen- wey hence their name Tefradecapods. The pill-bugs and sow-bugs are familiar land species. The lowest division, - : known as Entomostraca, have fewer mouth organs, and the . legs are irregular in number and position, while the abdomen has no appendages and often amounts to a mere spine, as in the Limulus, or “Horseshoe Crab,” which is a huge repre- : D essei of the gown dle most of the other species are ee idi Ttc TASTE PARASITIC HABITS OF CRUSTACEA. 241 Although many of the Entomostraca, like Cyclops, Cy- pris, etc., are active and free swimming little creatures, Which swarm in our ditehes and ponds during summer, there are a great many forms that are true parasites, and infest fishes and other aquatic animals. These are mostly low and degraded species, in which the females become enormously developed, as compared with the minute males, and take on very singular shapes, losing, in many eases, by the progress of growth, all resemblance to their original form. In fact in some cases when mature they would scarcely be taken for Crustacea at all, had not their development been ob- served. Among these singular forms are a great number of genera which adhere to the external surface of fishes, and others to the gills and the membranes of the mouth. Lernea, and allied genera, are common upon various: marine fishes. Penella, with its long quill-like body, lives on fishes. Cla- vella, which has also a very elongated form, lives upon the halibut; Trebius and Pandarus infest sharks, ete. ; Caligus has numerous species which live on various marine fishes, and Argulus is common upon fresh-water fishes, and is also found on tadpoles. Prof. Dana, who many years ago care- fully studied a species of Caligus* that lives upon the cod, states that it does not suck the blood, as had been supposed, and thinks that it feeds upon the mucus, as its mouth-parts are well adapted for that purpose. But Lernea, Penella, and their allies, adhere only by their proboscis, which is embedded in the skin, and often barbed with hooks, and Probably serves to suck the blood. Some forms of Ento- Mostraca allied to these, are internal parasites of serpents. A very singular genus called Splanchnotrophus, lives as true internal parasites in various naked marine mollusca, on the British coasts. 9. brevipes infests Doto coronata and olis rufibranchialis, while 8. gracilis is found in Doris pilosa and Idalia aspera. Since some of these mollusca : inhabit also the coast of New England, we may expect to *C. Americanus Dana. American Journal of Science, Vol. 34, p. 225. AMER, NATURALIST, VOL. III. 31 242 PARASITIC HABITS OF CRUSTACEA. find these or similar parasites. The male lives free in the visceral cavity, but the female is much larger and stationary, and as the ovaries develop, the clusters of eggs and tip of the abdomen project through the integuments of its victim. Another Entomostracan genus; Doridicola, contains small active species which are external parasites on the gills of similar mollusca The Tetradecapods are not so often parasitic as the Ento- mostraca, yet many curious parasites of fishes, etc., belong to this division. The Isopod order, including the pill-bugs, and many aquatic species having a similar depressed form, contains more parasitic species than does the Amphipod order, which includes the compressed species. Among the parasitic Isopods we find some curious species which live parasitically in the mouth of fishes, usually ad- hering firmly to the roof of the mouth by means of their numerous strong and sharp claws, and in that situation often grow so large as to almost entirely fill the mouth, causing no doubt a great amount of suffering to the helpless fish, and, perhaps, eventually its death by starvation. Such are the habits of certain species of Livoneca and allied genera, while other similar species live upon the exterior and in the gill-cavity, both of marine and fresh-water fishes. I have recently found an allied form in the stomach of a toad-fish from Florida, where it appeared to be truly parasitic. It was nearly an inch long and half as wide. Nerocila, Anilo- era, and Cymothoa, are allied genera, including numerous species, all of which are parasitic on or in fishes. These genera have a more or less, oval or oblong, broad, stout, depressed body, with short crooked legs housib, armed with sharp claws. Some of these species become three inches long and nearly an inch broad, and must be very annoying. . Another related group of Isopods includes Bopyrus and = with allied genera, which are parasitic on other Crus- a oe aro a, and have the ordinary dau J AM. : m e EN - i er a per W | PARASITIC HABITS OF CRUSTACEA. 943 Isopod form, but the female by excessive growth becomes five or six times as large, deformed in shape, and firmly adherent in the gill-cavity of its host, where it produces a deformity and enlargement of the carapax, looking like a large tumor. Jone thoracicus infests a species of Calianassa ; Bopyrus squillarum victimizes a species of Squilla; and B. Hippolites infests various northern species of Hippolyte. It was observed last season by Mr. S. J. Smith and the author, at Eastport, Me., on H. Sowerbyi. Several other species are known having similar habits. Among the Amphipods we find Themisto and Hyperia, parasitic on the large jelly-fishes of our coast, especially Cyanea and Aurelia. Hyperia is very common, and may be known by its large head and eyes and swollen body, which is usually of a dull reddish color. .They live and breed in cavities that they themselves form in the disk of the jelly-fishes, by eating away its soft substance. They also live among the mouth-folds and ovarial lobes, often in large numbers and of ali sizes; but they occasionally leave their victim for a time and swim freely in the water. Mr. Smith has reared our native species by feeding them on fragments of jelly-fishes, and ascertained that they undergo considerable changes, the antennz becoming shorter at suc- cessive moults, showing that some of the nominal species, on the length of these organs, are merely stages of growth of one species. Several other parasitic Amphipods Were observed by Mr. Smith and the writer, at Eastport. One small species with bright golden eyes lived in the in- terior of Modiolaria levigata. Another pretty, pale-pink, smooth, red-eyed species was found repeatedly living par- asitically in the stomach of our large Red Sea-anemone (U; rticina crassicornis), but was seldom seen until the Urti- |. Gina had been placed in alcohol, when several would often come forth and move about for a short time, but occa- Stonally they were observed to come forth voluntarily, and after Swimming about for some time would suddenly dart 244 PARASITIC HABITS OF CRUSTACEA. into the mouth again, as if for protection! Nor did they seem to suffer any harm when caught and held for a long time in the grasp of the large tentacles of the anemone, as often happened, but when finally released were as lively as ever, and quite as willing to voluntarily enter the mouth. And yet the tentacles of Urticina are covered with myriads of powerful stinging organs, by means of which it can almost instantly kill various other larger crustacea, mollusca, fishes, ete., which are also quickly digested in its capacious stom- ach. The immunity that this species of Amphipod enjoys is evidently similar to that of Hyperia, which revels among and consumes the very powerfully armed, stinging tentacles of Cyanea, which so quickly kill most other small marine animals, and even severely sting the human skin. A pink- colored species of Anonyx was observed in immense num- bers upon and in a species of sponge, upon which it appears to be parasitic, at least while young. The various species, of Caprella, remarkable for their long slender bodies and legs, and their curious looping gait, recalling the motion of Geometrid larve, appear to be parasitic on Hydroids and sponges. The Whale-louse (Cyamius) is allied to these, but has a short and broad body, with stout legs and claws, by which it clings to the skin in the manner of Cymothoa and other fish-lice. e Decapod Crustacea afford, however, some still more curious instances, though they are seldom true parasites, if by this term we designate parasites that obtain their food at the expense of another by sucking its blood or absorbing its digested nutriment. But among the Decapods we find many species that are parasitic in or on other animals for the sake of shelter and protection, while in other cases there are such singular associations formed between two or more . different species, that it becomes difficult to tell which is the host and which the parasite, or whether it may not be an arrangement for mutual benefit. Most persons have no . doubt seen the little crab, with a smooth, rounded body, PARASITIC HABITS OF CRUSTACEA. 245 that lives in the interior of the shell between the gills of the oyster, and is often cooked with that excellent bivalve. This is the Pinnotheres ostreum (Fig. 41), and is doubtless para- sitic in the oyster merely for the sake Fig. 41. of shelter, and probably does not in- jure the oyster unless by the irrita- tion that its motions might cause. But it is doubtless an unweleome guest, though the ancients had a notion that à similar species inhabiting the Pinna ENS as a sort of sen- tinel by giving notice of danger, and thus warned the Pinna when to close. Hence its name, which signifies Pinna-guar- dian. Another species, P. maculatum, lives in mussels ( Mytilus) upon our coast. Another lives at Panama in a species of Lithodomus, a shell allied to Mytilus, but which is itself parasitic, and lives in holes which it excavates in other shells and corals. "There are many other species of Pinnotheres, and allied genera, having similar habits. One fine species * lives in the Pearl Oyster (Margaritophora fimbriata) of the Bay of Panama. It often shares its secure pearly retreat with a curious slender fish, and with two other genera of Crustacea, very different from itself, resembling Seen or miniature lobsters in form. The most common of these is a new species-of Pontonia,f a genus previously known to be Pee Se pee) gti vu Dto CREDENS MM * Dignoll k , sp. nov., female. Body co covered with a very short and lose pubescence e, looking very ie like ating of mud. Carapax quite thiek and vic considerably broader than long, and strongly convex ; and gastric regions by v pair, where the daetyius is very long, almost straight, ite posterior pair the dactyli are long, straight, slender and pube 1 Pontonia ma arita Smi oet d smooth ; Smith, g and all the appendages k rg sp. nov. Body hace mad sbsder & thé up: naked. Cara: pex very broad, depressed a slender spine on the at the base of the antenne. Eyes small, the MON dir d the lla of the he antennule short, the inner ones . Anterior legs slen- er; the outer ones of about the same length, st 246 PARASITIC HABITS OF CRUSTACEA. parasitic in the shell of Tridacna, of the East Indies, and in the large Pinna of South Carolina. Another genus, Pinnixia, allied to Pinnotheres, has two Carolina species. P. cylin- drica Say,lives in the tubular burrow of a large worm, Arenjcola cristata; the other, P. Cheetopterana St., lives in the strong tube of another large worm, Cheetopterus per- | gamentaceus St. Another allied form, remarkable for its nearly globose body and hairy legs, Pinnaxodes Chilensis Smith (Fabia Chilensis Dana), lives upon the coast of Peru and Chili in the shell of a small species of Sea-urchin (.Zu- ryechinus imbecillis Verrill), which it causes to grow out of shape. It appears to enter the anal opening when quite small, and retaining its position until fully grown, causes the intestine to dilate into a sort of cyst, and the anal area and upper part of the shell to become deformed. When fully grown it often fills nearly a third of the body of its host, and yet has but a small external orifice, out of which it probably cannot come, but the male, being much smaller, may readily enter. From the fact that nearly all the speci- mens of this Sea-urchin found thrown upon the beach, amounting to over one hundred, had this parasite, it is prob- able that it eventually weakens or kills its host by the irrita- tion it produces. Another very singular genus, Harpalocarcinus marsupi- alis St., lives among the branches of Pocillipora ccespitosa, at the Hawaiian Islands, and by its constant motions while remaining in one spot causes the coral to grow up around itself so as to form as perfect and secure a residence as could be desired, while openings are left to admit water and food. I have observed similar cavities on Pocillipora elongata “ashton small, about half as long as the carpus; legs of the second pair stout, the hands somewhat unequal ana much than the carapax, much swollen, fingers compressed, their inner edges sharp, the dactylus — and with a rud tooth in ng legs 2d propodus; succeedi ede qut cylindrical, the dactyli very short and perdon ehsa , the terminal pis culus strongly curved, and a shorter one very much hooked at its base. Abdomen Small the first six segments slightly exceeding in length the length of the carapax. GI c p M ne Ses D D MEUM MS M E CEA Rc c Un E s ae pedea dip a umi ecu terum PARASITIC HABITS OF CRUSTACEA. 247 from Ceylon, which are probably made by another species of the same genus. The genera Trapezia and Tetralia include small, smooth and polished, usually bright-colored crabs, which live free among the branches of Pocillipora and Ma- drepora. For this mode of life they are well adapted, both by their smooth, flat bodies, and by their peculiar feet, which are blunt at the end and furnished with sharp stiff spines to aid them in climbing among the coral branches. Domecia hispida has the same habits. The Hermit or Soldier Crabs, are interesting in their habits, and well known to all sea-side naturalists. They always occupy the dead shell of some spiral Gasteropod, which they carry about on their backs, and into which they retreat when alarmed, holding it firmly by means of the long, spirally-curved abdomen, and by its hook-like appen- ages. But some species are apparently not satisfied with even this protection, and consequently induce certain species of Sea-anemones to dwell upon the shell they inhabit. The beautiful Sea-anemones belonging to the genera, Adamsia and Calliactis, are rarely found except in this situation. Adamsia maculata, of the European coast, attaches itself to the shell occupied by Zupagurus Prideauzii, near the inner lip, and spreads out its base laterally on each side until the lobes thus formed meet around the aperture and coalesce so as to form a complete ring, through which the crab emerges and retreats. The base of this Adamsia also has the unusual Power of secreting a thin but firm pellicle, by which it ex- tends the edges of the aperture of the shell, thus giving the crab more room, as it grows larger, and obviating the ne- cessity of changing the shell, as other less-favored hermits Are obliged to do. Several specimens of Calliactis usually occupy the same shell, and are not known to be capable of extending its aperture. All the species are very beautifully Colored, and inhabit tropical seas. In the West Indies C. ; bicolor and C. tricolor are common, and one species occurs at Florida, while C. variegata occurs at Panama. i$ sol 248 PARASITIC HABITS OF CRUSTACEA. has the same habit, and occurs on the Carolina coasts, On our own shores the shells occupied by Hermit Crabs are usually completely covered by a beautiful little pinkish Hydroid (Hydractinia polyclina Agassiz), which at times extends the lip of the shell by its basal expansions. A still more curious instance of this kind is afforded by the Gem- maria Americana Verrill* (Fig. 42), a Zoanthoid polyp, allied to the Sea-anemones, but capable of > budding from basal expansions, CESTA x by which means it completely SV covers shells occupied by Zupa- urus pubescens. After thus covering the shell, it is not only capable of extending the aperture by its own growth, but has the power of entirely dissolving and absorbing the substance of the shell so that no trace of it ean be found, though the form is perfectly preserved by the some- what rigid membrane of the polyp. This species has been found in deep water, off the coast of New Jersey, and in Massachusetts Bay. Another still more remarkable case occurs in the China Sea. A Hermit Crab (Diogenes Edwardsii St.) found there has upon the outside of the large claw a circular, smooth space, upon which there is always found a small Sea-anemone (Sagartia Paguri Verrill). This appears to be an associa- tion for life, since very young crabs carry a very minute Sagartia, no larger than a pin’s head, and large crabs have a large Sargartia. In this case when the crab retreats into its shell and folds down the large claw over the aperture, the Sargartia would appear to be attached within the aper ture, and thus conceal and perhaps protect the crab. In all these and other similar cases, the advantage of association is doubtless mutual, for while the Sea-anemones, by means of their outspread tentacles, armed with stinging organs; of which fishes and other voracious animals have a wholesome i z cut : A RA ir i a PERDER "a.i a 45. ) J 49 ,r"Uo PARASITIC HABITS OF CRUSTACEA. 249 dread, serve to protect the crab, the latter can more effect- ually travel about and seek food, and while tearing its prey into small pieces, many choice bits doubtless fall to the lot of its companion. There is another group allied to the Hermits, the species of which often carry a valve of some bivalve shell upon the back for protection. At Florida and in the West Indies, Hypoconcha arcuata St., is found carrying a valve of Venus, or some similar shell, while at Panama H. Panamensis Smith* carries a valve of Pecten ventricosus, holding it on by means of the two posterior pair of legs, which are bent up over the back, aided by the posterior part of the body, which fits into the cavity below the hinge. An allied genus contains a species found from Florida to Brazil, Dromidia Antillensis, which carries upon its back, according to Dr. Stimpson, either a compound Ascidian or a Zoanthoid Polyp, . but all the specimens in the Museum of Yale College carry x à peculiar fleshy sponge, which fits upon and entirely covers the back, but is held in position by the four posterior legs. A peculiar genus of crabs, Dorippe, found on the coast of China, though not very nearly related to the two preceding, agrees with them in having the carapax broad and depressed, and in having the two posterior pairs of legs twisted up over the back, as if to hold on a bivalve shell, which may be their usual habit; but one of the species, D. facchino, was dredged at Hong Kong, carrying upon its back a beautiful Sea-anemone, Cancrisocia expansa St.,[ which completely Covers the back of the crab, and, like Adamsia, secretes from its base a thin, firm pellicle, to which it adheres, and by which the crab holds it in position with his four posterior OS MEN * Hypoconcha Panamensis Smith, sp. nov. Allied to H. arcuata Stimp. The carap howey. er, is narrower, the ualling the breadth; the anterior margin not £0 id arcuate, and its edge broken by a marked median wn vnd eoiehes at the insertion of the antennæ; the projection in the anterior PAn e orion - * th enaces 250 THE HALIOTIS, OR PEARLY EAR-SHELL. legs. It appears that when very young the crab holds over its back a minute bit of shell or gravel upon which the Ane- mone lodges, and afterwards, by expanding its basal pellicle as the crab grows, provides it with a permanent protection. This Anemone was never found except upon the crab’s back, and the crab was not found without it. A very different crab found at Panama, Hepatella amica Smith,* carries upon its back Sagartia carcinophila Verrill, but in this case the con- nection is probably less intimate, and not so permanent. THE HALIOTIS, OR PEARLY EAR-SHELL. BY ROBERT E. C. STEARNS. THERE is a family of Mollusea whose beautiful shells are frequently seen ornamenting the parlor mantel or centre table, the admiration of all on account of the brilliant colors and iridescence of their pearly interiors. These shells are popularly called Sea-ears, but the scien- tific name is Haliotis, from the Gfeek Aalios, marine, and otis, ear. In the different countries where these shells are found, there are local names by which they are known. In California the people call them A eranu- MGE us middle of the cardiac region, the rest of the carapax moot e lateral 1 THE HALIOTIS, OR PEARLY EAR-SHELL. 251 man-shell of old English writers ; ‘ Orméer’ (contracted from oreille-de-mer) of the French, ‘Lapa burra’ of the Portu- guese, ' Orecchiale’ of the Italians, and ‘ Patella reale’ of the Sicilians.” The Cherbourg fish-women call it, according to Jeffreys, "S? ieu" (six yeux), from an idea that the orifices in the shells are real eyelets or peep-holes. The shells of Haliotis are, through ignorance, frequently confounded with those of the Meleagrina margaritifera, or pearl-bearing oyster, which is the true mother-of-pearl shell, from which are obtained the beautiful pearls used in the manufacture of various articles of jewelry. The Melea- grine are bivalves, their shelly covering being composed of two pieces or valves, as is the case with the common oyster, scallop and clam, while the Haliotis has an univalve shell, complete in one piece or valve, without joint or hinge. The Haliotides belong to the class Gasteropoda (gaster, belly, pous, feet), which comprises species of Mollusks that are characterized by their creeping upon, or by means of a muscular expansion of the body, called a foot. They belong to the order of Scutibranchiata (scutum, a shield, branchie, gills), the gills, or lung, being protected by a shield of shelly or calcareous matter. The shells of Haliotis, how- ever, resemble, in general outline, the form of the human. far; several of the species, of which Fig. 43. às many as eighty are known, are rough externally though brilliant within. . The shell of Haliotis (Fig. 43) may be compared to a flattened Turbo, or top-shell, with small apex whorls and A disproportionately large body or basal whorl, depressed, largely open, and having but a slightly elevated spire, com- Posed of but few whorls. Again, as regards form, it holds the same position in comparison with Turbo that Concholepas | does to Purpura, Sigaretus to Natica, and to follow the anal- * ogies into the Geophila, Vitrina to the more closely whorled trochiform land species. 252 THE HALIOTIS, OR PEARLY EAR-SHELL. The animal (Fig. 44; a, tentacle; 5, eyes; c, holes in the shell for the passage of the tentacles, d and f; e, foot) adheres to the rock like the Patellas and Fissurellas. To the latter genus it is somewhat allied through its anatomy ; the arrangement of the teeth upon the lingual ribbon is said to be like that of Trochus. Cuvier found that every indi- | vidual he examined had an ovary, and therefore concluded Fig. 44. € e that the Haliotides were hermaphrodites.* Swainson con- sidered them as occupying a position among the phytopha- gous, or vegetable eating gasteropods, analogous to the Volutide among the Zoophaga, or carnivorous mollusks; the analogy hone partieularly apparent by a comparison of Haliotis with the Melo group of the Volutes. The chief peculiarity of these animals is, that their shells are perforated with a regular series of holes for the passage *In July, 1867, specimens of the shells py Haliotis, aray Monterey, were receiv ed by me, which combined the raider the two very distinct species, H. rufescens and racherodii, to à remarkable degree. These. dien ul forms are of ext eed- ingly rare occurrence, a he great n r of specimens tha ve examined, I ave been u —— obtain additional tuere ms. The specimens referred to 1m ressed me eing hybrids, : If fident that farther investigation will COT roborate ie Meri n that species of Haliotis will oc casionally cro (Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences, Vol. iii, p. 361.) THE HALIOTIS, OR PEARLY EAR-SHELL. 253 of the sea-water to the respiratory organs, analogous to the single vertical and nearly central hole in the shell of Fissu- rella. The holes in Haliotis are placed in a row nearly equi- distant from centre to centre, upon the left side of the shell, parallel with the columellar lip, and being required only in that part of the shell which covers the branchial cavity, those nearest the apex are closed or grow up as the animal advances in growth. The holes furnish a passage for slender tentaeular filaments which the animal can protrude at pleas- ure; the hole or notch for the passage of the anal siphon is situated at the posterior margin of the shell. The animal of Haliotis, according to P. P. Carpenter, “has two gills and two auricles, instead of one, as in the top-shells.” Its head is blunt and terminates in a short muzzle, with two subulate tentacles and two stout eye peduncles at their bases. Upon the upper extremity of the foot it has a rudimentary opercu- ligerous lobe, but no operculum. The foot is very large, rounded at the ends and fringed with thread-like tentaculæ, Which, when the animal is protruded from the shell, below the surface of the water, are gently swayed with a some- what vibratory motion. ‘The muscular attachment, instead of being horseshoe shaped as in ordinary univalves, is round and central, as in the oyster." (Carpenter. ) _In adult shells in many of the species, the roughened por- tion of the interior indicates the area of the muscular at- tachment, while in young specimens the impression of the muscle is not shown. The Haliotides are sedentary in their habits, as one would Suppose, being both vegetarians and conservatives, and though capable of locomotion, they move but little and quite slowly; their structure, as seen in the powerful mus- cular foot, shows it is made for adhesion. They attach themselves to the rocks with the greatest tenacity, and E have often found it exceedingly difficult to remove them, : using a stout trowel, of a shape similar to the kind Used by bricklayers. — | 254 THE HALIOTIS, OR PEARLY EAR-SHELL. The animal of Haliotis is exceedingly tenacious of life. I have frequently removed it from the shell by means of a sharp knife, and by throwing it, minus the shell, back into the water, it would at once descend and place itself in its normal position upon a rock, to which it would adhere with apparently as much tenacity as before it was deprived of its shelly covering. "The brilliant and highly colored interior of these shells producing sometimes an iridescent effect, has been attributed by Sir David Brewster, Dr. Carpenter, and others, to minute stri, or grooves, on the surface of the nacre, which alter- nate with others of animal membrane. The color is pro- duced by the nature of the laminz, which decompose the light in consequence of the interference caused by the re- flection from two sides of each film, as may be seen in soap- bubbles. The nacreous lamine, when magnified, indicate a minute cellular structure. The cells are of a long oval form, and their short diameter is not above 445 of an inch.” (Jef- freys.) The animal of Haliotis is mentioned by Atheneus as being exceedingly nutritious but indigestible. ‘The mari- time negroes of Senegal esteemed one species a great deli- cacy. . . . H. tuberculata is habitually eaten by the poor in the north of France and our Channel Isles, where it 15 occasionally cooked and served at the tables of the rich. It requires a good deal of beating and stewing to make it ten- der." (Jeflreys.) In New Zealand the animal of H. iris is eaten by the natives, and is called “Mutton-fish.” Another species 1$ eaten in Japan. In California the animals of the two most abundant species, H. rufescens and H. C'racherodii, are fre- quently eaten by the Americans residing along the coast, and are a common article of food with the Chinese, who collect them in large quantities at Monterey, and other favorable localities north and south of that place, remove the animals — from the shells, and dry the former for future use or for ex- - port to their native country. EY THE HALIOTIS, OR PEARLY EAR-SHELL. 255 The shells are also shipped from San Francisco to China and Europe in considerable quantities. In the former coun- try they are used for inlaying in connection with the lacquer- work for which the Chinese are so famous, while in Europe they are used in the arts, and many are polished and treated with acid, to be returned to the United States and sold for card receivers or ornamental objects. Their beauty has not escaped the eye of the savage, as pieces of the shells are worked into a variety of forms and worn to ornament the person, by the Indians of north-west America. They are also esteemed by the Indians living in the interior of the continent. My friend, Dr. Edward Pal- mer, recently informed me that when he was in the Indian Territory he saw a horse purchased with an Abalone shell. They are still held in esteem, but are not so highly prized as formerly. Jeffreys says that in some parts of Guernsey the ormer was used for the purpose of frightening the small birds from the Standing corn; three or four shells are strung loosely together and suspended from the top of a pole, so as to make a clatter when moved by the wind. Formerly they Were used there to ornament the plastered exteriors of cot- tages, the plaster being studded with them. In some places in California I have seen the shells of Haliotis rufescens suspended beside a sink, or placed upon a toilet-stand for holding the soap. They are quite conven- lent to the collector for holding or carrying smaller speci- mens in while searching along the shore, a purpose for which I have frequently used them. Sometimes the naturalist is Wellrepaid by the examination of the back of large speci- mens of the roughly sculptured species; for, besides the . Miniature forest of marine vegetation, corallines, alge, ete., Which furnish an abiding place for diatoms and other minute forms, in the crevices of the shell can be found numerous * Small species of mollusca that would otherwise be seldom obtained. 256 THE HALIOTIS, OR PEARLY EAR-SHELL. * The value of the exports of the Haliotis or Abalone shells from San Francisco was, in the year 1866, $14,440, being 1697 sacks, each of two bushels capacity; and in the year 1867 the export had increased to 3713 sacks, worth $36,090. Jeffreys, in remarking upon the sale of the European spe- cies, H. tuberculata, says that the importation into England of the Meleagrine, or true mother-of-pearl shells, from the South Seas, has interfered with the sale of the "ormer" at Guernsey, although he was informed that one merchant . . . purchased from four to nine tons annually, paying seven shillings and sixpence per hundred weight, equal to about thirty-seven and one-half dollars per ton, American gold. The geographical distribution of the Haliotides is widely extended ; it is remarkable however that not a single species is found upon either coast of South America, or upon the east coast of North America, while no less than five or six species* are found on the west coast of North America, be- tween the Gulf of California, northerly to, and including 4 part of Alaska. Species are also found in Japan, China, Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, and many of the smaller islands of the Indo-Pacific waters; the Canary Islands, Africa at the Cape of Good Hope, and the Atlantic Coast of Europe. The length of this paper prevents my treating at this time of the uses made of the Haliotis shells in the arts by civil- ized peoples, or the purposes to which they are applied by the ruder races of mankind. id CAD ER *Of these five or six species, H. splendens Reeve, is found at San Diego and the islands off the coast; H. corrugata Gray, Santa Barbara to San Diego and Catalina Island; H. rufescens Swainson, from Mendocino County, southerly, to San Nicholas Island; H. Kamschatkana Jonas, from Monterey, northerly to Alaska, also in Japan; H. Cracherodii Leach, from Farallone e S the Islands off the entrance an Bay, southerly to San Diego; and H. Californiensis Swainson, a doubtful species upon islands (and the outer ?) of Lower Cal s latter is regarded by many as a variety ii. eral specimens in my collection. Tias om fre to lh Boles, vili A CHAPTER ON CUTTLE-FISHES.* BY LUCIE L. HARTT. Fig. 45. Ir was during my first visit to Brazil, that one day, while busily engaged in examining a reef at a little town on the coast called Guarapary, my eye fell on an object in a shallow tide-pool, packed away in the crevice of the reef, which ex- Cited my curiosity. I could see nothing but a pair of very bright eyes; but, concluding that the eyes had an owner, I termined very rashly to secure him. I had been handling corals and seemed to have forgotten that all the inhabitants Of the sea are not harmless. I put my hand down very quietly só as not to ruffle the water, when, suddenly, to my surprise, it was seized with a pressure far too ardent to be agreeable, and I was held fast. I tugged hard to get away, but this uncivil individual, whoever he was, evidently had as strong a hold on the rocks as he had on my hand, and Was not easily to be persuaded to let go of either. - At last, however, he became convinced that he must choose between NER A SS Ce te ee ee ron i *The facts herein narrated were drawn from one of my note-books, and scis am experience of mine. The story is told in the first p | actual xpe y 0. F. HARTT. AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. III. 33 (257) 258 A CHAPTER ON CUTTLE-FISHES. us, and so let go his hold upon the rocks, and I found cling- ing to my right hand, by his long arms, a large octopod cuttle-fish, resembling the one figured at the head of this article, and I began to suspect that I had caught a Tartar. His long arms were wound around my hand, and these arms, by the way, were covered with rows of suckers, somewhat like those with which boys lift stones, and escape from them was almost impossible. I knew that this fellow's sucking propensities were not his worst ones, for these cuttle-fishes are furnished with sharp jaws, and they know how to use them too, so I attempted to get rid of him. But the rascal, disengaging one slimy arm, wound it about my left hand also, and I was a helpless prisoner. In vain I struggled to free myself,—he only clasped me the tighter. In vain shouted to my companion,—he had wandered out of hear- ing. I was momentarily expecting to be bitten, when the " bicho" suddenly chahged his mind. I was never able to discover whether he was smitten with remorse and retired with amiable intentions, or whether he only yielded to the force of circumstances. At any rate he suddenly relin- quished his hold upon my hands and dropped to the sand. Then raising himself on his long limsy arms, he stalked away towards the water, making such a comical figure, that in spite of my fright I indulged in a hearty laugh. He looked like a huge "and a very tipsy spider, staggering away on his exceedingly long legs. The cuttle-fish belongs to the Mollusks, a branch of the animal kingdom distingniched for its members being built on the oe of a sac, and to which Mr. Hyatt has spplied the more appropriate name of Saccata. The cuttle-fishes ri distinguished from all the other Mollusks, such as sn cime: etc., by having a large head, a pair of large eyes, ail a mouth furnished with a pair of jaws, around which are ar- ranged in a circle, eight or ten arms furnished with suckers. In the common cuttle-fish or squid of our coast, the body, "which is long and narrow, is wrapped in a muscular cloak A CHAPTER ON CUTTLE-FISHES. 259 or mantle, like a bag fitting tightly tothe back but loose in front. It is closed up to the neck, where it is open like a loosely fitting overcoat, buttoned up to the throat. Attached to its throat, by the middle, is a short tube open at both ends.. This tube, or siphon as it is called, is fastened to its throat, and can be moved about-in any direction. The animal breathes by means of gills, which are attached to the front of the body inside the cloak and look like the ruffles of a shirt bosom. By means of these gills the air con- tained in the water is breathed, and they answer the same purpose for the cuttle-fish that our lungs do for us. n order to swim, the animal swells out the cloak in front So that the water flows in between it and the body. Then it closes the cloak tightly about the neck so that the only way the water can get out is through the siphon. Then it con- tracts very forcibly its coat, which, it must be remembered, is a part of the animal, and the water is driven out in a jet from the siphon under the throat, and the body is propelled in the opposite direction; that is, backward like a rocket through the water. This siphon is flexible like a water-hose, and can be bent so as to direct the stream not only forward, but sidewise and backward, so that the animal can move in almost any direction, or turn somersets with perfect ease, . and so rapidly do some cuttle-fishes swim that they are able to make long leaps out of the water. Usually, however, the animal swims backward, with its long arms trailing behind. Our common cuttle-fish of this coast has, in addition to its eight arms, two long slender tentacles which may be with- drawn into the body. The tail is pointed, and furnished With a fin on each side. The Octopods, to which the Brazilian cuttle-fish (Fig. 45) belongs, have round purse-like bodies, and eight arms united yy the base with a web, and they swim by opening and shut- ting their arms like an umbrella ; in this mode of swimming ay resemble the jelly-fishes. . Ae paper Nautilus is nothing in the world but a female 260 A CHAPTER ON CUTTLE-FISHES. cuttle-fish that builds a shell. There was a very pretty story told of her habits, by Aristotle, the old Greek naturalist, which every one believed until quite lately. He said that she rode on the top of the waves, seated in her boat-like shell, and spreading her broad arms to the winds for sails. But unfortunately the story has no foundation in fact. She either crawls about on the bottom of the sea, or swims quite like any other cuttle-fish, shell foremost, only occasionally coming to the surface. Strangely enough she holds the two broad hand-like extremities of the arms against her body, and it is the inside of these arms that secrete the paper-like shell, which is only a sort of cradle for her eggs. Not so with the pearly Nautilus, which is furnished with a beautiful, coiled up, pearly shell, formed on the outside of the animal. 'This shell is divided into numerous chambers, and the ani- mal living in the outer one builds a partition across the back part of it as the shell grows. Cuttle-fishes are sometimes used for food by the Brazil- ians, and different species may be seen in the markets where one frequently finds them still alive. Sometimes, 8$ he stoops to examine one, its body is suddenly suffused with a deep pinkish glow. Before he has time to recover from his surprise this color fades, and a beautiful blue takes its place as rapidly as a blush sometimes suffuses a delicate cheek. The blue, perhaps, is succeeded by a green, and then the whole body becomes pink again. One can hardly conceive anything more beautiful than this rapid play of colors, which is produced by the successive distention of sets of little sacks containing fluids of different colors, which are situated under the skin. The cuttle-fish is also furnished with a bag containing 4 inky fluid, which, when the animal is attacked or pursued, it ejects into the water, thus completely blinding its adver- sary and effectually covering its retreat. It is from this fluid that the color sepia is made. Beside carrying an ink- .. bottle, some species of cuttle-fish are provided with a long» SOMETHING ABOUT CRABS. 261 delicate, horny pen, which forms a sort of stiffener to the back. In some species the pen is hard, thick and broad, and the euttle-fish bone of commerce is a pen of this kind. The species found in our waters is very small, and not at all dangerous, being barely large enough to draw blood from the hand; but in the tropical seas they are very large, pow- erful and dangerous. The cuttle-fish is the original of Victor Hugo's devil- fish, so vividly described in the "Toilers of the Sea.” If the devil-fish were a beneficent creation, I should be sorry to destroy your faith in it; but as it is, I believe it will be rather a relief than otherwise to know that in some important respects, Victor Hugo’s story of it is a fable. The Kraken was a mythical cuttle-fish of fabulous size. SOMETHING ABOUT CRABS. BY REV. SAMUEL LOCKWOOD. WELL do we remember our boyish sport catching crabs. A stout string, a piece of fresh offal, a hand-net, and another _ boy with us and a good place on an anchored raft,—then for fun. The meat was dropped to the bottom ; the cancerous varmint took hold, and kept hold; then we slowly drew the bait up, and, when within a few inches of the surface, chum adroitly slipped the seoop-net under. But would'nt "spider- legs" run up the sides of the net! It needed all our alert- hess to secure the prey. What a luxury those crab dinners ! But what was that pleasure compared to the delight of our riper years, when we made the acquaintance of the inner life of these entertaining people, Lupa, Libinia, Pagurus, and . others. We have spent many health-giving days with them at the “watering-places,” and many hours in the drawing- 262 SOMETHING ABOUT CRABS. room, they affording us abundant refined entertainment in return for our aquarian hospitality. A wonderful thing, so considered, is told in the court journals of the Empress Eugenie on publie days; how that she appears in sumptuous array, and then will disappear, and in an incredibly short space of time reappear in an en- tire and elaborate change of dress. Her admirers gaze as if it were magical. But suspended from the ceiling of the boudoir, garment within garment is the awaiting suit. The Empress has but to doff, and then to don, while many zeal- ous and tasteful fingers are busy all around —a little read- justment of her coiffure, and presto! all is done! and the changed creature is again among her astonished admirers. But suppose an old knight could put off as one unbroken suit his iron encasement, with not so much as the unlacing of his gear, and then on the nonce should appear in a new suit of mail of high finish and faultless fit, — would not this man in iron beat my dame in silk? And yet the knightly and the queenly feat are nowhere when we instance the ex- uviation and redressing of Mrs. Lupa dicantha, the common edible crab. During the first year of its life, this crab puts off its hard shelly encasing several times. That is to say, when a youngster, it requires several new suits. After t n first year until it gains the fully matured age, an annual suit suffices. When fully grown, its case is permanent. We knew some years ago an old crabber, wholly illiterate, but whose intelligence was above the average. He had ^" crabbed for the market many years. Often when supplying OUT family with fish, has he been closely questioned by us about the crabs, and always have his statements tallied one with another. In our notes occur the following in the fisherman's own words : —"I hev ketched soft crabs for market many ? year. The crab sheds every year, chiefly in early summer. At that time the he one is mighty kind to his mate. When she shows signs of shedding, the he one comes along and gits on the she one's back, quite tenderly-like, and entirely SOMETHING ABOUT CRABS. 263 protects her from all enemies, whether of fishes, or of their own kind. She is now getting ready to shed, and is called a shedder. Soon the back begins to burst nigh to the tail. She is then called a buster. The he one is then very anxious to find a good place for her, either by digging a hole in the sand or mud, or else looking up a good cover under some sea-weed. Here he brings her, all the time hovering nigh, and doing battle for her if anything comes along. She now —and it only takes a few minutes—withdraws from the old shell. And she comes out perfect, every part, even to the inside of the hairs, eyes and long feelers, almost like the whiskers of a cat. At the first tide she is fat, and the shell is soft, just like a thin skin. She is then called a soft shell, and it's the first-tiders that bring the high price. At the second tide she is perfectly watery and transparent, and is called a buckler; but she is not worth much then. At the third tide she is again a hard shell, just as she always was, only bigger." "Have you seen all this with your own eyes?" we asked. "Lor, sir, yes, hundreds and hundreds of times." For the sake of contrast with these observations of an illiterate man, let us give the gist of an entertaining passage from Gosse : 5 "Peering into a hole I saw a fine large crab. Though he made vigorous efforts to hold fast to the angles of his cave, I pulled him out, and carried him home. I noticed that there came out with him the claw of a crab of a similar size, but quite soft, which I supposed might have been carried . in there by my gentleman to eat, or accidentally washed in. After I had got him out—it was a male—I looked in and Saw another at the bottom of the hole. Arrived at home I discovered that I had left my pocket-knife at the mouth of the crab-hole. I returned, the crab had not moved. 1 drew ìt out, as I had done the others. But lo! it was a soft crab, the shell being of the consistence of wet parchment. It was 4 female, too, without any sign of spawn, and had lost one 264 SOMETHING ABOUT CRABS. claw. I carefully put the helpless creature into the hole again. “What then are we to infer from this association? Do the common crabs live in pairs? And does one keep guard at the mouth of the cavern while its consort is undergoing its change of skin? If this is the case it is a pretty trait of cancrine sagacity, and one not unworthy of their acute in- stinct and sagacity in other respects. I have no doubt that the claw of its mate was unintentionally torn off in its efforts to grasp some hold when resisting my tugs in dragging him See, then, the beautiful parallel—the simple remark of the illiterate observer, and the learned queries of the prac- tised naturalist. Not a little interest have we felt in an individual known to us as the “Sea Spider,” or "Spider Crab." Wishing to make a good introduction for our friend, and as some who have no desire to know Mrs. John Smith might perhaps feel flattered if presented to the lady of Johannes Smythius, Esq., so we would say, that by Spider Crab, we mean no less a person- age than Libinia canaliculata. She is regarded by some as a pest on the oyster beds, and is accused of eating the oyster spat or young. How much truth there may be in this is to us unknown. At any rate we have never seen the slightest evidence to sustain the charge. We have regarded her appetencies as omnivorous. But, as our acquaintance has been chiefly in the drawing-room, it may be that there her tastes became fastidious. One peculiarity of habit is all that we have time to describe. The Spider Crab will grow . as large as one’s hand. A pet that we had a long time was only an inch wide across the shell. We must tell the truth, and say that her aspect was not the most tidy or eve? cleanly. Her back looked much as if she had taken a glue bath, and then, like a chicken, a dust bath afterwards. Through this agglutinous coat sundry small sharp spines appear. She does not covet society, and so withdraws t° SOMETHING ABOUT CRABS. 265 a cozy grotto, whose walls are green with the tender little fronds of the young sea-lettuce, the Ulva latissima, and the delicately crimped ribbon leaves of the Znieromorpha intes- tinalis. It did not please us much to see the pert Libinia, with her nippers like little shears, snipping off the velvet lining of the cave. Being indulgent we did not interfere, but left her to her own enjoyment. When we returned, out came Mrs. Libinia in full dress to greet us. On every spine of her uncouth carapace was a green ribbon, —all gracefully waving as she strutted in the open grounds of the establish- ment. What a sight to look at! And what a lesson in ani- mal psychology! What was the mental process? Was it a device, —"a moving grove," like Macduff’s, in order to de- veive its prey? If so, what intelligence! Or, was it her vanity? Done just for the looks of the thing! If so, what inexplicable caprice! This fact we have seen; and an intel- ligent aquarist friend assures us he has seen it a number of times. The English naturalists tell the same of their Sea Spider (Maia squinado). And one of them (Harper) even makes us almost believe that when this humor is upon it, it will even dance, or at least exercise a certain rythmic move- ment at the sound of music. Query; has it that hardihood when it hears the refrain : “They hang both men and women there For the wearing o' the green!” If so, Madame Maia, may your gayety never be your ruin. e can only introduce one more of these curious little _ creatures, and that must be the little Hermit Crab, the Pa- gurus longicarpus, so common on our shores. Though a recluse, for he lives in a vacated sea-shell all alone, yet of hermit gravity he has none. In fact he is constitutionally a funny fellow. This crab has his two hands, or claws, greatly larger than the others; and of these, the right one . 1$ much stouter than the left. The next three pairs of claws i behind are tipped with simple hooks, which having & con- iderable leverage power, are really efficient grapnels with AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. III. 34 266 SOMETHING ABOUT CRABS. which to pull himself along when he travels, carrying his house on his back; while the claws of the fifth or last pair are very diminutive, and yet have a beautiful structural relation, as they enable the animal to perform the small amount of movement needed by the body inside the shell. Behind all these limbs the body is entirely naked, hence the necessity of an empty sea-shell with which to cover it. On the extreme end of the naked body is an apparatus for tak- ing firm. hold of the little column in the upper part of the 8 ell. There is a queer monkey-like deny in the looks of the Little Hermit. "We had in our aquarium one of rather large. size, and which occupied a shell of the required capacity. Of this specimen we were very proud. The shell on its upper part was ashen white, with a fine colony of Hydrac- tinia, like tiny sea-daisies. And mystic beings they were; for by that strange law of parthenogenesis, they were the great- grandparents of those huge and splendid creatures, the gorgeous Acalephs! We had also a little Hermit in à small Vassa obsoleta. And what about this young scape- grace, whom we soon almost wished obsolete? On he came, and climbed right up into this pretty parterre, and having secured himself with his grapnels on top of his neighbor’s house, most deliberately, now with the right claw, and now with the left, he pulled off my weesome pets, stowing them into his ugly mug with a movement so regular, that it seemed almost rythmical, and yet so cruelly comical, that it made me most laughably mad. But the Hermit grows, while the sea-shell which he occu- pies does not. Hence like many bipeds, he has his "first of May." So he goes house-hunting. This must be under- stood literally. He finds a shell. Willit do? First then is it really "to let." He will “inquire within." This he does, if not the most courteously, very feelingly. Satisfied on this point, the next question is, will the house suit. He turns it over, then turns it around. You see the weight of * SOMETHING ABOUT CRABS. 267 one’s house is quite an item in the reckoning to him who has to carry it on his back. One inspection more. How is it inside? Is it entirely empty, and is it of the right size? Up goes one of the long slender limbs of the second pair, and the interior is thoroughly explored. All right! Just the house he is after. His mind is now made up to move. Look at him! Quick! or you'll miss it! Out comes the body from the old house, and pop it goes into the new one! The resolution to move was taken, the surrender of the old house was made, and the occupancy of the new was effected, and all within a fraction of a second of time. Sometimes this matter goes on less pleasantly. Two house-hunters may find the same tenement. Should both desire it then comes the tug of war. Live together they neither can, nor will. The affair is settled by a battle, in which the stronger usually proves his claim right by the Carlyleian logic and morals, viz., might. Quite often from these encounters a terrible mutilation results. To us it is a sad sight to see the Little Hermit, when “his time has come,” and he knows it; that is when Pagurus must die. However droll his career may have been, the Little Hermit is grave then. And what a strange fact it is! Who can explain it? The poor little fellow comes out of his house to die! Yes, in order to die. To us humans home is the only right place to die in. But for Pagurus home has no attraction at this solemn time. Is it because he feels encoffined that he comes out, that “his feet may be in a wide place?” Poor fellow, with a sad look and melan- choly movement, he of his own will quits the house for which he fought so well. Those antenne, or feelers, that often stood out so provokingly, and were so often poked : Into everybody’s business, now in a feeling manner lie prone and harmless. The eyes have lost their pertness.. There lies the houseless Hermit on that mossy rock, stone dead! ... The human side of these lowly creatures, as unfolded by Close observation of their habits, is much better understood 268 SOMETHING ABOUT CRABS. in England than with us. Our naturalists seem to be chiefly aoranled with the study of structure. When their habits are better understood we shall doubtless learn something which as yet are only known of foreign species. One of these we would instance in closing. The Hermit, as its name imparts, loves solitude so far as the occupancy of its shell is concerned. There is an English species, Prideaux' Hermit, that seems to take Patrick's view of seclusion: "Its very nice to be all alone by one's self, especially if one has his sweetheart with him." So this Hermit believes in having for a companion the dressy Cloak- let Actinia; nor will he live without her. And if form and color be considered, remarkably recherche is this Sea-ane- mone. Her form adapts her to surround the shell mouth like a frill, while her disk is of waxy white, and the rest is elegantly varied with reddish-brown, rose-purple and scarlet. This gorgeous creature adheres around the entrance of the Horis ahell, so that his lookout is from a mantel richer than any field of cloth-of-gold. But when the Hermit has outgrown his house, and maving-day. comes, does he leave his "beautifol though helpless companion? No, a better gal- - lantry is his. He causes her to loose her long adherence to ` the shell’s mouth, and to cleave to the vodenide of his tho- rax. In this way he carries her with him to their new home. And what then? Most tenderly he places her in position, and holds her there until a good adhesion of the base takes effect, when she witt her prateotor, is snugly domiciled again. These facts are given in pleasant detail by Gosse, from whom we quote the following : *Is there not here much more than what our modern das . jologists are prone to call automatic movements, the results of reflex sensorial action? The more I study the lower animals, the more firmly am I persuaded of the existence in them of psychieal faculties, such as consciousness, intelli- gence, will and choice! and that, even in those forms in which as yet no nervous centers have been detected.” American Naturalist. MORSE ON SHELL DREDGING. SHELL DREDGING. 269 Thus ends our history of these cancrine crustacea, as the naturalists call them, namely, the crabs. Our hope has been that the reader does not regard it as crusty, cancer-ous, or crabbed. SHELL DREDGING. BY EDWARD S. MORSE. A srRONG arm and an immunity from sea-sickness are among the important requisites of a good dredger. To one who has pulled up a well-filled dredge from fifteen or twenty fathoms, the necessity of a strong arm is obvious, especially if this act has been attended with the not unusual accompa- niments of a rough sea, and a cold breeze which stiffens the fingers while grasping the wet rope. Onecan only pity those Who are sea-sick, for they are helpless. In dredging one oftentimes enjoys the keenest pleasure, attended with the greatest bodily discomforts. The miseries we will not mention. The delights come when the contents of the dredge are sifted, and there lies before you the only treasures of the deep; treasures that can be obtained in no other way. It is true that many deep-water species of shells are obtained from the stomachs of the haddock, cod and other fishes, particularly from the haddock, which seems to live principally on mollusks. Specimens procured from this Source are generally impaired by the action of the juices of the stomach. The beauty of dredging consists in getting the objects in their living condition ; and then you may keep them alive in sea-water for some time, and see them crawl about and watch their singular ways. A dredge should not be too large, perhaps sixteen inches . Across the mouth. The frame. is made of a flat bar of iron, . @inch in width and an eighth of an inch in thickness, one . *dge of which should be hammered sharp and turned out, to : i 210 SHELL DREDGING. form the scraping edge, as represented in the cut at the close of this article. The other edge must be drilled with small holes an inch apart, to which a stout cloth bag is to be sewed. It is well to have the sides of the bag made of netting so that the water may drain from it quickly. The iron shanks are to be fastened to the dredge, as shown in the figure. A dredge of this shape, however it falls, when drawn slowly along, is sure to scrape up the mud. It is well to have for a rope a good strong one of manila- hemp, and this should be well secured to the dredge. It is necessary to have the length of the rope more than twice the depth you intend to dredge in; thus, if you were to dredge in ten fathoms, you should be provided with at least twenty-five fathoms of rope, as it is necessary to give the dredge sufficient "slack" in order that it may drag properly. Should the dredge meet with any obstacle, it can generally be liberated by retracing the track passed over, dragging the dredge in an opposite direction. It is well to add that a row-boat is best to dredge from, that is for light dredges, as you want to move very slowly through the water. A fine sieve is necessary to sift out the mud, a few pails in which to empty the contents of the dredge, and some large-mouthed vials in which to save the animals alive. — After a little experience in dredging you will notice that certain species live on certain "bottoms." Thus, if your dredge comes up filled with mud, you must sift the mu carefully, and from it you will find certain forms different from those you may dredge from a sandy bottom. It is well to examine your sieve often, that the smaller species may not be washed away. Sometimes the dredge will come UP filled with stones; do not throw these away in disgust, but examine each stone carefully, and clinging to them you will find several species of shells found in no other way. One species, called Cemoria Noachina (Pl. 4, figs. 2, 3), is like. | & very small limpet, with a little hole in its top from which . radiate little ribs, giving the shell a very elegant appearance SHELL DREDGING. 271 s under the magnifier. Then there are certain- species of shells (Chiton, Pl. 4, fig. 1) which cling to the stones, limpet- like, but instead of having a shell of one piece covering their back, the shell is composed of eight transverse pieces, one lapping over the other. When detached from the rock they often roll up like a pill-bug. On the eastern coast of Maine there is one large species which can be taken from the rocks at low-water mark. The species dredged in Mas- sachusetts Bay are generally small; one or two of them are brightly colored with shades of red. s Two other species called Velutina (PI. 4, figs. 4, 5) are often found adhering to the rocks brought up in this man- ner. By far the most beautiful and interesting animals are contained in the little cells which often cover the rocks from deep water. They are arranged in little patches like mats, some species making a perfectly circular figure, others cov- ering the rocks in irregular patches. These belong to the lowest group of mollusks, and are called Polyzoa. Under the microscope the mass is seen composed of little cells, arranged like the stones in a pavement. Each one of these cells has a little opening protected by a small lid, which opens to allow the animal within to protrude a tuft of minute feelers. It would require too long a time to show the affin- ity of these animals to the clam and oyster, yet they are among the lowest forms of this group. There are many Species on our coast, some of which have been described as hew, others are similar to British species. We figure on Plate 4 several species of shells one is likely to dredge on our New England coast, though representing but a small portion of the species that may be found, ‘nd we may mention here, with propriety, that the State of Massachusetts—with that liberality that has always char- acterized the acts of its legislature—has now in preparation .* new edition of *Gould's Report on the Invertebrate ani- mals of the State," This book, when published, will contain - . “arefully engraved figures of all the species of shells found 272 SHELL DREDGING. within its limits, and the marine species alone (containing all the animals that belong to the branch of mollusca, though many have no hard calcareous shells) number three hundred and sixteen. Several of these are cuttle-fishes, and there are many mollusks which have no shells, the branehism or gills being’ naked; hence they are called Nudibranchia. They comprise the most beautiful animals in the branch of Mollusca, for certain species are very brilliantly colored. The species figured on the plate are among the few that the collector is likely to bring up while dredging in our bays and inlets, in depths of from ten to fifteen fathoms. Should he be ambitious to throw his dredge into depths of fifty or one hundred fathoms, many other species will be secured that he could not get in water of less depth. The outlines given will be found sufficiently accurate to enable the collector to identify the species represented. Fig. 1 represents Chiton albus ; the shell is not quite half an inch in length; it is generally a dead white color. Figs. 4 and 5 represent Velutina haliotoides and V. zonata, the latter dif- fering from the former in having a more solid shell, and in having the shell marked with bands of brown. Fig- 6 is the Natica immaculata, a pure white shell of the size repre sented; very common. Fig. 13 represents another species, Natica clausa; color from a white to a dark reddish brown. The little lid that closes the aperture of most marine shells is in this species white and shelly, and not of the horny consistency characterizing the opereula of most shells in our region. ` Pandora trilineata (Fig. 24) is easily distinguished by its white pearly color, and the manner in which the valves are pressed together. Lyonsia hyalina (Fig. 20) has a vety fragile translucent shell eovered with radiating wrinkles. — Thyasira Gouldii (Fig. 18) has a delicate white shell, along” one margin of which is a deep fold. The shell of Astarte — . castanea (Fig. 22) is quite solid, and chestnut-colored. It _ is found abundantly in Provincetown harbor at low wa - Astarte sulcata (Fig. 25) is known by its strongly marked - - SHELL DREDGING. 278 J concentric ridges., The color in young specimens is very = light-brown; in old ones the shell is of a brownish olive | color. Cardita borealis (Fig. 28) has a brownish shell with the ribs crenulated. Cardium pinnulatum (Fig. 33) has a dingy white shell, ornamented with about twenty-five ribs, each of which has a series of little scales. Yoldia limatula (Fig. 30) has a beautifully polished shell, of a light green color. The hinge is complicated by a number of long sharp teeth, so closely interlocked, that it is difficult to separate the valves without breaking them. Tellina tenera (Fig. 31) has a white iridescent shell. Nucula tenuis (Fig. 27) is smooth and green in color. Nucula delphinodonta (Fig. 29) is brownish green. All the Nuculas have the same peculiar hinge of numerous interlocking teeth. Crenella glandula (Fig. 26) has a brownish yellow shell, marked with minute radiating lines. Terebratulina | septentrionalis (Fig. 32), though apparently related to the other bivalves, is widely different from them and belongs to another order; the shell is secured to the bottom, generally on stones, by a fleshy peduncle which passes through a hole in the upper valve. Dentalium striolatum (Fig. 9) has a shell like a long curved tapering tube. Scalaria Grænlandica (Fig. 12) has a shell that looks more like a tropical species than a denizen of our . cold northern waters. The shell is very attractive, with its turreted spire banded by prominent ribs. It is related to the foreign species, commonly called the "Wentle trap," . Which formerly brought fabulous prices among shell collec- tors. Margarita undulata (Fig. 16) is one of our most i beautiful marine shells. The color of the shell when fresh genus, Margarita cinerea (Fig. 17), is ashy white. There zd Several species on the coast, a | is bluish white. Turritella erosa (Fig. 11) has a pale brown shell, and Odostomia producta (Fig. 10) has a light brown- AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. III. ell. Bela harpularia (Fig. 7) is brownish in color, 214 SHELL DREDGING. . and Bela turricula (Fig. 8) is thin and pure white. Trito- nium pygmeum (Fig. 14) is yellowish white. Admete viri- - dula (Fig. 15) is white. Trichotropis borealis (Fig. 21) is yellowish in color. Aporrhais occidentalis (Fig. 19) is one - of the most singular shells that we have. It is rare on our- coast, but is common towards Newfoundland. We must bear in mind that the species mentioned are a few among the many that most likely will be collected in dredging on our coast, Dredge. EXPLANATION OF PLATE I Fig. 1. Chiton albus Linn. Fig. 18 aiia Gouldii Phil.* : i inn.* . Aporrhais occidentalis Beck. REVIEWS. SUCCES a a ASQ REVIEW or SCANDINAVIAN NATURAL History LITERATURE IN 1867-8. E By Dr. C. F. Lütken. — As an appendix to my former report I beg leave a to insert a review of some Norwegian papers recently received, viz., the University programme of the University of Christiania, for 1868, by Prof. Sars, and the volume, for 1867, of the Proceedings of the Society of Sci- ee of the Norwegian Metropolis, the first named of which is of unusual Scientific importance and interest. Among the many valuable works with which Prof. Sars has enriched Science, his last, * Mémoires pour servir à la Connaissance des Crinoides vi- F ption. memoir is written entirely in eb and it will therefore, perhaps, be thought superfluous to give an : | the ba, is in fact a Rhizo- and perha: ll, however, if the identity should be farther proved, retain its eu the West Indian Sea-lily was, without any sufficient reasons, re- to th m "e s ad Se SURE gh im nm 3 1 Aan , 1 hionv Let Mon Specimen has a length of eighty millimetres, the largest - oTt of which belongs to the stalk, which attains a length of from twelve Y millimetres, and consists of from twenty-two to sixty-seven Gu = not specifically distinct from the Norwegian aae 216 REVIEWS. joints. These joints are distinguished by two points of structure; first, that two articulated, branched ** radicles," or ‘‘ cirri,” branch off from the distal extremity of the third to the thirty-second lower joints, and from the very end of the lowest, attaching the stem to various marine objects, stalked **pentacrinoid" stage of Antedon (Alecto, Comatula). There appears, however, to be no voluntary mobility in the stalk, and the pur- pose of this structure is, probably, only to give it a greater passive flexi- bility, the lines of articulations alternating regularly at angles approach- ing to the right angle. The upper joints are the youngest, shorter and thinner, with the exception of the very uppermost (to whic h the basals ealed); it is e, obconical, and serves, as in somite Apio- crinus, etc., as the base of the calyx, d by the fourth, fifth, s or seventh series of **Radialia," three in each. Of seventy-five spec ché and seven h the soft The third qr radii were found in fifteen, five in Mem -three, six in fifteen, wo specimens; the radii are only connected together throug peristome. s The first *radiale" is not visible from without. adiale" wearing on every second joint a ‘‘pinnula” (six to sev , rarer eight, on either side, consisting of eleven to twelve, rarely fifteen joints). The mouth is central, the anal opening short, eccentric, interradial; the peristome of the disc is soft, but strengthened by small, microscopi (from four to seven) perforated plates; five of these are greater than others, and occupy the angles of the mouth; they are the “oral plates” of the pentacrinoid Antedon, disappearing at an early period in the adult. The mouth is provided with twenty (sixteen to twenty-eight) — longer and shorter, radial and interradial, pinnate, partly studded W . “vesicles,” so ik of Antedon, are nowh o! double series of scale-like plates closes the furrows, when the tentac | are withdrawn. ere are no ^ pinnules ovales." Inas mee nbranched rd of the men also confirms the fossil ticrinus had simple, recent NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 277 h ting its general accordance with that of Antedon. The second part of the i memoir and its two last plates are devoted to the development of Antedon Sarsii, differing in several interesting particulars from that of A. rosa- ceus, as elucidated by Wyville Thomson and Carpenter. The reader who te sity of Christiania, enablin ng him to devote himself almost exclusively to i scientific pursuits, without being disturbed by the professional duties ineumbent on most other scientific men, as curators of museums, lec- though in a somewhat advanced age, continues his scientific work, as Well as the enlightened liberality of the Representation who did not hesi- tate to give an unusual position to a man capable of doing eg unusual work. ; In the ** Proceedings of the Academy of Christiania,” for 1867, of which = Twas formerly only capable of giving an incomplete report, you will find sid iean series coilected by Dr. Packard, in Mai kon fe Sates of twenty-nine species, twenty-one of which are ody dea the Norw wegian formations, while of the rest three or four kno , acia C di, Wn from this i of the Atlantic, neither in the fossil nor the recent ineata,* Thra onra aa Aporrhais ialah iis are not NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. _ HO. ZOOLOGY. Finner Wuate.—The Academy of Natural Sciences has just ed the perfect skeleton of a whale from the coast of Maryland. It * finner, of the genus Sibbaldius Gray, and is half-grown sit orny retica, a circumpolar species.—A. S. P. . 278 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. seven feet in length. It is quite distinct from all known species, but is nearest S. laticeps. Its characters are found in the nasal and phenygoid nes, and in the cervical vertebra, etc. I call it S. tectirostris. Two cervicals only have complete lateral canals; the nasals are short, wide, concave in front, except a e keel in ‘the middle line above, and in front.—Epwarp D. Corr, Philadeip THE CORAL SNAKE.—In the March number of the NATURALIST, pages 36 and 39, Mr. Dall has given an amusing (?) account us mp bravado in handling a snake, reputed to be very poisonous by the natives of Nicara- gua, and called the ‘coral snake,” which Mr. Dall calls Pei euryxzan- repel Ken.,” and says it is ‘‘ perfectly PERRAS It is well known that the genus Elaps, which includes a large number of species in tropical coun- F all of them banded with bright colors, is ag tin allied to the noto- rious asp and viper of the old world, and that, like those deadly species, it is provided with grooved poison fangs, which are, however, quite Ela We ha Elaps, both from the East Indies and tropical America, under the name f “coral snake,” and with memoranda stating the deadly character of its bite. Now since Mr. Dall does not appear to know whether his “coral snake" is an Elaps or not, his foolhardiness in handling a snake having such à bling Elaps as to be indistinguishable by external appearances, but Mr. Dall has not partis that his snake was of this sort, and by placing it in ** Elaps?," would indicate the contrary. It may, therefore, safely be said that the only sensible course for stran- gers to follow, be they naturalists or others, is to avoid unnecessarily exposing themselves to the bites of serpents reputed venomous by the — natives of d countries.— A. E. VERRILL, Yale College. NORTH ATL DnEbGING ExPEDITION.— The Royal Society bas Tirip to kiep pienes for the use of a steamer in order to continue the investigations so ably commenced by Dr. Carpenter and Prof. Wyvi Thompson; and the “Porcupine” has been placed at their disposal. The expedition will take place about the middle of May, and the deep water, from 1100 to 1300 fathoms, near the Rockall Bank, will be the first €x- plored, and afterwards the sea bottom lying off the outer Hebrides € the Shetland Isles. — Annals e ina History. ARING OF CraBs.— We do not yet thoroughly understand how they ; [Crustacea] see, smell, or hear; nor are e entomologists "o agreed aS to the m or the -antenne. This interesting SU as offers most promising field for study, and I ed particulary call the attention of entomologis sts to hs dires e memoir, by Hensen, 0B the stacea. Hensen has shown that the — Hp] otolithes in fhe open auditory Bact of shrimps are foreign. : He proved es animal itself. NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 279 | this very ingeniously by placing a shrimp in filtered water without any sand, but with crystals of uric acid. Three hours after the animal had moulted, he found that the sacs SHADE ma S ose around them remain perfectly still.— Sir J Lubbock in Scientific Opin LE IN WiNTER.— On February 4th, a large Box Turtle (Cistudo Viéyiston) was unearthed while digging in the barn-yard, and ught in, and is at present an inmate of the family, — on mild days travelling over the carpets at a pretty good rate of speed, and at other times bh E in dark corners and genomes furniture. Sometimes he is missi ing à grand turtle hunt ensu We have consulted White's « bore: " and have hopes of nix n an ‘‘old family tortoise” out of this one. He is a convenient pet now, not requiring to be fed, and js gry from an inadvertent footstep by his armor.— MRs. V. W., ye .. A Doz wirn Honxs.— A oung man recently shot a deer of splendid proportions, and carrying a beautiful pair of antlers, each with four ein ches. It proved to be a doe, and hundreds have since seen it who ! st a ts sex, none whom ever before saw a doe with such a neck and horns. It lies daily in front of the door next to my office, ette TE p bid from Barnum. Can you inform me whether this is a new fac Matural history or not?—L. P. HATCH, Saiar Min [We have never heard of a female deer assuming ue characters of à x. before, but it is well established that female birds, living to old age, = ge for the bright plumage lod full trail of the isis b bird. N. Vic ~“