AMERICAN NATURALIST, ell AN ILLUSTRATED MAGAZINE NATURAL Eitpee ¥. EDITED BY ~~ A.S. PACKARD, Jr, ano EDWARD D. COPE. es : ASSOCIATE EDITORS: PROF. C. E. BESSEY, DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY. ProF. C. V. RILEY, DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY. Pror. O. T. MASON, DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY. Pror. H. CARVILL LEWIS, DEPARTMENT OF MINERALOGY, ~ ELLIS H. YARNALL, DEP. OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS. Dr. R. H. WARD, DEPARTMENT OF MICROSCOPY. VOLUME XVI. CONTENTS. | The Blind Cave Fishes and their Allien... EEE Gog da a RPI ok a a ge s a Qe £ ste. The 1 s s P Develop- Stages TOE oet ee T 6 The Heterogony of Gralis: dake EPE RTA De a a cs 48 Forests—Their Influence u upon Climate pe Rainfall. . Soe 7. aoa miris zo RNT Glacial Manis: tm: Labrador s 6 os daaa a a E BE ES 30 The Siphonophores. (1V.— Anatomy and Development of Doiph yet) ge oe wt ee Oe ee ee Ce ee Pee Se Remarks on the FS OM and Tertiary Flora of the Western EON Ss pa Se bs a a lh cae oe -Leo Lesguereuze. cs socos W - Structure and Ovarian Incubation of Gambésin ‘entail: a fon Mi ee sose. $ O eee a Note on a few ‘ed the © Useful Prats: of Nore fapa Pee. OF FAR ei eS Habits of Butterflie 4 eRe. Eitur. s e Se u Te The Tertiary Pana of the Ceritrat Reston of the United hee ent COPE ie Ce ee iMerhi ek I ee ae ae Ne ee E A aic Schiecphy: te H. F. Det On Certain Aboriginal Implements rel Naps loin š California Robert E. C. Stea hie Barbados . Acorvtoing Baa, oe ty California Wiedpiaaes 2 oes tions ns on some American forms of Chara coronata . Eas of N ares ae 5 FE OS Re ee ee Ee CS a ke a a Western Sn: i eu st on the Awe. from the iina a rch Geen Bugene N. S Ringueberg . WE Prentiss, see S n ee 7s oie or a ee ee f ise American n Tehthyolrgy i in k iv Contents. Progress of Invertebrate Palzontology in the United States for Ole Wear 1000 oo a cpm bee os arene GA MO is io a ke B87 Number of Bones at present known ii in the Pectoral and Pel. ME LANAUE EON d PRETOS aw 6. ie how te eee, ble 8 ee a AE ooa ie e V A Pilgr ; rimage to Teotihuac AAO E he WETA pee eae piece’: « Sees The Falmonoic hits oF Nein ; Gee Pe er É T, Jr wa E E eir Relations to Life. ai oie ee heer Ls WAF Pile 908 Meee Oe kiia Bic Seca E ete te ag epee 6 5 aha Eprrors’ TABLE. ie Insanity, 33; ese and Art, 123; Lewis H. Morgan, 124; Tariff on specimens and 125; The Philadelphia POE E y, 125; Spitzka’s Erdene 125; The Equivalents of ppar n. 224; Effort and Use in‘ Evolution, 311; Charles R. Darwin, 487; Sexual Selec- tion in Man, 490; Tax on Books coming through the Foreign Mails, 576; The Philadelphia adem : i i ties, 995; T he es Skull, 897, 995; Admission of Women to our Universities, 994; Ad- ministration of Uni 5 Recent LITERATURE, methane s The a 35; ean Fifth Report on the Injurious Insects of Illinois, 39 ; Walcott the Organiza on of Trilobites, 40; Recent Books and Pamphlets, 41 ; fetes fe Habit and Saieta ce, 125: e tha pert net e Man in America, 128; Miss Ormerod’s Manual of Inju- _ rious Insects, 129; Recent Books and Pamphlets, 130; Balfour’s lanare Embryology, 227 ; ; - Gils piim PROE in a bii for the years 1879 and 1880, 229 ; Thorell’s Spiders of ae Papua, 230; The Distribution of Nor th American Fresh-water Mollusca mpn Zittel’s ee ’s How to Dissect a Chelonia , 232; Pack- Cay belo The E of Amphioxus Beh Hatschek, 313 ; Tro! ES s Catalogue 4 Recent and Fossil Mammal ; Bettany’s Pra 1 Botany, 315 ; _ Balfour’s Doain Embry es (second notice), pe : : il tt’s Seal iai ee Alaska, 317°. come Books and Pamphlets Zoological. Record : Fhe 88>, 391; aig th UN, a 0,391; Mark’s ee Fecundation an a Begeebestion of Limax, s Nes , 392; Recent Books and Pamphlets, 393 ; Volcanoes, 492; Brinon s ‘Bible sb Pakia d and E 496; Chaung Text Books, No. 22, Biblical paid 498 ; Darwin’s Formation of Vegetable Mold through the action of Worms, 499; The Microscope in Medicine, by Lionel S. Beale, M. B., +996 sects of the Farm and Pardee, 9 cok? Geikie’s Phy sical been A 999; U. S. Fish Commission t for 1 1879, 1000 ; Recent Books and Pamphlets, Generar Nores. “Botany. —Mimicry i in Fungi, 42; Simblum rubescens pate in Iowa, 42; hd Apara Stem for Laboratory Study, 43; The Abundance of Fresh-water r Algæ, 4 _ rangement of Se pepee 43; Papeete and Plant Growth, ire Bania m 47; ; An tet ke Fiai cal V: alue of Trichomes, 132; “The “hea of Fi on TA neral Index to the Jou Jou al of Botany, t: HE Contents. v worts of North rga 506; Modern Botany and Mr. Darwin, 507; Botanical Notes, 508; An Active Desmid, The Coffee-leaf Fungus one of the Uredinez, 584; Popularizing Crypto- gamic Botany, R. ; A normal Spathes of Symplocarpus, Ellis’ North Americ : e redineæ, 671; Allen’s Characeæ Americanæ Exsiccatæ, 672 ed Figures of the larger Fungi, 673; The Scarcity of Alder Catkins, 673; Botanical Notes, 673; on Mistle- toes, 732; Differences in Radial Thickness in Tree Trunks, 735; A climbing Polypodium, 736 ; Some new species of Sphzriaceous Fungi, 809; New Fungi by J. B is, 810; Pacific Coast ray’s ‘‘ Contributions to North America ny,” 812; A Botanical Excursion to Mt. Mansfield and Smuggler’s Notch, gor; Botanical Notes, 906; New Species of Nort American Fungi, roor; Cut-leaved Beech, 1004 ; bent of Water in Forest Destruction, 1004 ; On the Hetercecism of the Uredinez, 1005 ; Note on Gerardia Tas, TA ations on ape species of Planarians parasitic’‘on Limulus, 48; The Circulation ; Viviparous Chirodota, 51; A marine Planarian and its Habitation, 52; Eye of. Planarians, pe The Structure and ‘Affinities of the Hippopotamus, 53; Verrillia blakei or Halipteris blakei, 55 ; Discoveries of the U. S. Fis e sout of New England, 56; Does the Crow Blackbird eat Crayfish ? 57; Wild birds racing with the Cars, 58; nett in Dew, 59; Zoological Notes, 59; Isthe Human Skull becoming Thinner ? 136; Habits of the Fi Mes a Seer’ the Higdon pens 137; Habits of the Menopoma, 139; TheS w pest in Australia, 140; Occurrence of t ossum in Central New York, 141; The claw on the *‘ index ”’ finger of the Cathartide, r41; A new Distomum Parasi h = of aps, 142; AN nore on the egg Pa so Planarjans Sopa on Limulus, 142; N species, I Reviv: val 433 of Tardigrades after Desiccation, 146; Variati tion in Mais oria fishies. 147; oe m the Sterlet, 147; Zoological Notes, 148; Nesting Habits of the Horned Lark, 240; Notes me ater C i airs Zoological Notes, 245; The Sammie of the Frog, 323; aeg of the ve Puppy, 935: 2 first Cais Eel caught, ae Wild Gecse as Pests, 326; Zoological Not Note on x pA vere of certain Mollusks, 400; The European Hou: i mat Elm Y., 403; Ala RG ae on the Florida coast, 40 ee living on F , 403; Zones of f Life in the Ocean, 405 ; Steller’s Manatee ical Notes, 407; The asses of Life, 509; Is Man the highest Animal? 511 512; Preliminary Classification of y Brain of Crustacea, 588; The Colori ; Professor E. A, Birge on the first Zòea man of Pinnot theres ostreum latceinaccta a new species of I oe Crustacean p cal Notes, 594; The Diria of M. ma ras, "oe ; Nomencla o lephi ecent P 4 740; Simroth’ i Neva System and L y in F rance, 741; Dev arara Bip Tr States, 909; Gavarret on Astigmatism, 929 929; W. Leche mologies of the T 910; Earl: Eronga of the Clam ot: Anatomy ridge, gri; Zoological ies gta; ; A new genus and species of the sam famii 7 nidæ, 1 Food of the Nestlings of Turdus migratorius, 1007; More Complain 1008 apes Prolific Garter Snake, ere The Spotted Spreading Adder ies ind Space 1009; The Pat fai Par, ian phylloides Csokor à paseatu insects’ in California, 410 ; Sare cophaga lineata destructive to locusts in the Dardanelles, Dorsal | ion of Allorhin ich’ Contents. wary, 65; On some curious methods of; Pupation among the GEM dæ, 149; nsects inju- 2 tof N, A.C dz by Dr. Mayr d of the larva o ee anf Entomological Notes, 330; rie habits of Microcentrus n’s t as orohia PREIE “ta = 409 ; for the protection of insect collections, 409 rado, abi Egg-plant, 678; Notes on Miriga. ind $ Par ha tiik exist in the Bee? 680; Are Honey-bees Carnivorous? 681 ; The Honey-bee bene of Flesh, 681; The “ Overflow Bugs ” in I rob California, 681; Insects and Drouth, 745; Probable Sound PEON in Sphingid ies 45; Clo- ver Insects, 746; Is Cyrtoneura a Parasite or AEN r, 746; Habits of Polycaon confertus M Lec., 747; Dinoderus pusillus as a Museum Pest, 74 ; Myrmecophious Coleoptera; 747; Dis- Chrysopa, ; Moths attracted by falling Water, 826; A new museum Pest, 826; Fleas sr L ite ore 826; The Buckeye Leaf-stem Borer, 913; Defoliation of nits trees : ocampa senatoria in Perry county, Pa., 914; Efficacy of Chalcid Egg-parasites, Biology of poser pilosus Thoms., 915; Species of Otiorhynchide Injurious i ping ; Plants, 915; iaherad tare tisori Locust Eggs in n aia i pro] A new Rice era borer; Genus-grinding, rorg; Effect of Pyreth brassicae, rors fae agati in Washington Territory, 1016; ‘The Ariay- worm in 1882, 1017; The Wheetantk ific slope, 1017; Dese: honor, ro18; Important saan on Cynipide, 1018; Remarkable itn caused by a Beetle, 1018 ; Location of Taste in Insects, 1019 ; hiss: of In- sects in Gases, 1019. thropo pay Review of recent — on Anthropology. 66 ; + Amboopoloey. i in Japan, 70 t M ao Su xico, 79; Mr. Morgan’s last work, 153; The Ca. endar Stone, 154; Stone fas found te 154; The American Antiquarian, 1 u- tions and e; 155; Rec Popu orks, 155; Anth l in Great Britain, 156; Trenton gravels, 252; entities of New Mexico and Arizona, 252; Asiatic Tribes in North America, 252; Anthro: pology in France, 253 ; Correction, 153; The Maye ete Gods, 331; ee tern ] à be | shiy iaee county, Ohio, 332; The Anthropological Institute of Great Britain, 332; 333 ; Charney on the age of Palanque, 412; Major dey = pasis Report, 413; Labort s Origin of Civilization, 414; ge borigines swedged or cast? 415; Anthropology in ee + Dr, Rau’s Soak onto to > Antheplony, 516; “The books of Chilan Balam, 517 The relation of history t : Darwin and An- o Anthropology, thropology, 518: psa Sigs Germany, 519; Roping in pri Ploi 519; g well- merited Honor, 600; A Correction, 600; The Washington spt Lectures, 600; Ethn ography „of the Philippines, 682; The + Rae Eont, ” 683; The Archzological iie of America, 683 ; Cist Graves in Ohio, 684; Special Collections in a new National cis m, 684; nguages of the Een States, 749 ; Geiger’s Deve lopment of the Hum aap 3 olone! $ nson’s Collection s from the = Pub, meo ogy, £26; erals. “lite 2 and Chodsaie, psi Rio, 526; Cros s — Minerals and Rocks, s26; 69 os. inerological Notes, eM Artificia "mae of Sulphuric Acid, 756; A dimorphous form of Tin, 757; The = properties of 836; Salt water in Sulphur Crystals, 837! The dispe mae : peti s a reye. 838; Mineralogical Crys ae: Contents. vii 72; New forms of Coryphodontidz, 73 ; An anthropomorphous Lemur, 73; The Archæan Rocks Insects of the A 1 olorado, 159; The future ahn iie 160; Marsh on the aurs ke o 33 foxi, 256; Russian Sauropt erygia, (256; aoe pei of sy 2565 Geological News, 257; New characters of th ; Mes Oxyena, 334; The rachi- tomous an » 334; Ma hi on he Dinosauria, Poni preis News, 335; A second gen 3 Eocene PI igrici, 416; Tw w gen of the Puerco Eocene, 417; “ Mud tacea from the Devonian of New York, 754; White’s Contributions to-Mesozoic and Tertiary Paleontology, 754; Whitfield’s new species of Fossils from Qbio,:755; Davis on the: Little Mountains east of the Catskills, 755; Geological ae 755; Mammalia in the Laramie Forma- tion, 830; A new form of Tzniodonta, 831; The Periptychidz,: 832 ; ‘Some new forms from the Pustes Eocene, 833; set Neni, s834; jpa of the Origin of: the ‘Loess; Rec 920; The ent Discoveries of Fossil , Nev: ; Origin and Mode of Formation of Saline Mineral Waters, 923; The so-called eee, aches yry, 925; Permian Vertebrata, 925; Geological News, 925; A fossil Croatian Whale (Mesocetus agrami), 10273: Origin sof the rairies, pa Davis’ Classification of Lake Basins, 1028 ; Collett’s Geology Indiana for 1881, 1028; new'genera of gs se ir the Wasatch soa 1029 ; ‘White ne ous Taverte ah Fossils of New Mexico ; Geological News Mine. logy. — APE mati Sb, mR Lim e crystals in. a oii 75 rikal $: Vanadi i rite, | 164; Helvite from grg county, Misa a, 337; A new Manganese mineral, 338 ; Galena with ee octahedral cleavage, 338; The tion of sulphur in coal, 338; Spiral figures in crystals, 339; ae silver, 339 ; Some Vigis: a. 340; New minerals, 340; Mineralogical Notes, 341; , 421; Hieratite, a new mineral, 423; Monazite from Virginia, 423; Some eh otish minerals, “n eran Leucoxite and Titanomorphite, 424; New in- » 425; Minera al Notes, ; Two new guano minerals, 524; Uranothallite, 25; Chio- “e: Smal ; The San ds of the Desert of Formation of Sulphur in bee or of Paris, 757; Mineralogical Notes, 758; Chrome 5 line, 835; .Paraffi fine in Lava, w Localities, 835; A d che ical Pyroxene a Poot pole, 836; New Minerals, 836; Diabantite-vermiculite, Chromat e of nio a ed viii Contents. ae 168; Dr. Lenz on the Sahara ; Arctic ag agi 259; pko in poe 2 r, 427; Alaska Schuver, 53r ; The new Polar Stations, 532; The Chukches and t Sivo, 612 ; Geo; l Not 12; African Exploration, 758; The Circumpolar Stations, 761 eof th Crew of the 838; Afri Exploration, 839; Deep- xplorat n 840; Ascent of Deg Cook, 840; Afghanistan, 840; De Brazza’s Explorations on the t o; B t and the Congo, 928 Stearns’ Expedition to Labrador, 930; Proceedings of the Geographical yoni “of Bs Enk PE 1034;- Sya e and Wissman, 1039; African EEE DREY Pee Mic —A P for iil ; Arresta- tion of EE iag 170; The Acme microscopes, 261 ; American Society of. ue, 344; Bauscl.’s homogeneous immersion objectives, sane Lehigh Valley Microscopical Society, cope, cture 347; Pig t Films, 347; Blood stains on steel, 347; The new Trichin ; of the cotton fiber, 431; Practical microscopy, 432; Measu f microscopic ap ė, 532; A new j al, 533; Summer School of Biology, 533; Micro-chemistry, 614 ; tector for ar Objects, 931; Taylor's Freezing Microtome, 1040; Relationof Aperture and Power, ; Visi- bility of Fine Rulings, 1042 ; Cutting Sections of Coal, 1043; ‘The House-fly asa carrier of Con- 1044 t Microscopical Papers, 1044, _ Serentiric News, 85, 171, 261, 347, 433, $33, 618, 603, 764, 842, 931, 1045. PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC AERES 87, 174, 263, 349, 437, 535, 621, 695, 843, 932, 1046, Seiecrep A S » 88. 176, 264, 352, 440. “WOaVAAVT NI ONINVIG TVIOVT*) ‘Il ALY Id THE AMERICAN .NATURALIST. VoL. xvi. — JANUARY, 1882.— No. 1. THE BLIND CAVE FISHES.AND THEIR ALLIES. BY S. A. FORBES. AN unusual interest attaches to everything relating to the blind fishes of the caves, partiy because of their peculiar depriva- tion and the compensation for it afforded by the development of special sensory structures more. useful to them in their subterran- ean situation than eyes would be, and partly because the origin of their peculiarities has proved an inviting subject of speculation and discussion with reference to the doctrine of natural selection. In the careful papers of Mr. F. W. Putnam, especially, we find accurate descriptions of the genera and species, and a clear state- ment of opposing views respecting the derivation of these little fishes. A strict evolutionist passes, pees. too lasy.. from the idea of the unbroken, rayless night in which the blind fishes live and seem to have lived for ages, to that of their atrophied eyes and highly developed’ epidermal organs of sense—connecting these at once as cause and effect on ‘the. strength of his general meo, d be ES as papers written, one nine and the other seven years. ago, Mr. nam presented, ‘partly in criticism of previously published ex- planations of Mr. Cope, facts and considerations which seemed to him to break the force of the argument based by evolutionists upon the peculiar adaptation of the blind fishes to their surroundings, — peeps the’ lušii that’ the darknes of their situ- Na = emy of Science for 1871. Dose the Baty 5 T biis 1874, pp. 222-225. - ae n. Mag. Nat. ee a 1871 : a aa i TURALIST, January, 1872. Annual Report of the e Peabody Acad- oe 5. ce 3s é: e é‘ 33 | a e 4: “ce r A “cc 4 | 4.8 c 28 « 2. t 5 ebres A8 t s Bei lY f é “g venl 44“ 2.8 2. IT. sses Cea a e a oN we x ie on Seta Beets nena oi tie Pe * ag t ve tel WirisigescsccuesVeuteiceel ke ae ey WO Se Cre EE E aa A san ek 5. ae 3:2 é 2.4 (3 P E TAE E E PEN T E R, Bk S + MR Ri 42, C e r r E E E a e E E eer E r r 4. ne 2.8 oe 2. + 43 ae i t..... 4. ve 2.8 * 2. ud 44, E E Ie o d ae rw 45.0. ieee oe i j 4:2 2.0: at tr 4.5 cé 3- bad à P S e AN A ee 4.6 ie 5 2.6 es Q. i 8 “ce a se t te = ee : ri se ees ie a Com tie 1882. | The Heterogony of Oxalis violacea. 15 TABLE II.—OXALIs VIOLACEA. Measurements of Stamens and Pistils from Short styled Flowers. Flower Numbers. | Pistils. ‘Long Stamens. Short Stamens. r SA e EDET we we 6 A reeset | 3. mm. | 5.1 mm 4. mm. Sa ey ene sesope yis on Gerea tY | Saki ht EON Bene el Oe es Ee VST OS Bee 3 FC See Bee SERRE Re et Rich RAE estes | ginn PSE ahs REE OL PIA Be P Pot Eee Bee 4 aed k SET deis Eak ceric ee 25 « oe ae é Tairas oaa N Fo aM e a A E hogg A 48 “ 3.6 s EEE SEV we E EE Bet eas a ees = 8 PRR ee ees sks sd shee bs Phe det r La De Pers eee ae ve et a ea 4. fd Pasi a vee FeV bce Clee 24 “ A a 4 E AR Pee ree ee Re OR N Pt aah sa raat {SE SUR eres ere yee oe ae qe“ EEE E E A ES eae mds ae oS 180555 ae ieee Ee S a EME oe TE 17- 2. “ec 5. “e 3.8 é A E roses A ee . ee Bete 1D eee ee iO E CS aba se ae A 4gs Ore a aa e aN a5, + ee i the oI 3. ce 5-5 ad 4.5 “ce cs PSS GR, ad SS a ae aA A a ae 46 s aac tS AIRE SS IRE ae avivens Big ol rE n i C2 ie el eee ee re ae B00. Git Be Be yee enue sy vo ERA aoon. re A Te TI oe an E nes a4 A ae eo * AT er Beene ee mae Ds A 8 so wW 28, 2.5 “ec 5. s 4. cé a a e ee eo 5 heer a eee a Sr ae ue Seid Though both stamens and pistils vary in length, as might, in- deed, be expected from the fact that the flowers are by no means of uniform size,a glance at the tables and appended diagram shows that, as a rule, the styles of either form are intermediate in length between the two sets of stamens belonging to the other __ form; while the difference between the stigmas and the nearest set of anthers is, in either, greater than that between the stamens _ themselves, both differences being nearly constant for both long and short-styled flowers. Gils This is slightly different from the usual arrangement of the — parts in trimorphic species, as may be seen by comparing Figs. 1 and 2, representing the species under consideration, with Figs. 3, - : 4 and 5, after Hildebrand, representing the trimorphic_ Q. gracilis, — That the long stamens of the pe ii flowers, and the sho ort? ~ stamens of the short-styled flowers stand at differ = as may be most clearly seen by comparing the lines diagram—and not at the sam: 16 The Heterogony of Oxalis violacea. [January, some importance. In trimorphic plants too, the pollen grains from the two sets of stamens of a given flower commonly differ == ee wT oe EEE z zi: pmpa be ees ft ji Y if LA Ty z aa Wee i BEP Ee TE: e (9. d ARR MA OU TA O A DR KE 5 Oe San es amn ERER E HEN 7 = Z Tt + Y7 1 ae NY i! Ay á RS t Ñ Ba Za a 5B W TE ji t y. Ee SO i a g f x T r t ji li 7 7 f 1 4 x 7 7 = I fi i "i Í ne ise. Baa 2 E a? Ci ae 1 1 Sig ri ‘ta A i U7 UW T T ile T t T T ii waan x x y iY i WE ri ANZ at 7 SEE EEE EER i 1 = Ant ono kee me fs Se AU PIE RS aw TOG OOR MEN Cd E a: se Ea E = vas y L Co e l = ae ea = m. = emcsenateia ij Se RS Se NOY DA abd E oe pze AE S282 Be te m a f rt et 2S Oe Da aS E BEE] aa T 7 Y K PY i T {2B AE BR EN ay ao LE ELLIS I T E RA el A T LE AR TE be ally à T T ji a A SA OE T T CEE TO A ELET | ST, GE A A RN ae E ji F AGD Se dB GE D a i y ms OR Da | ji Po Lt ee tr rt at et Pt ee TL tr ee a i r E CR E E ADE SRA N Cg ZE E SEE SgS PA Wh AR AA W ER a AA D AR P ME AEN DA e A e o na = Se SBER NS SN SS SS SP SRED SOUS SEEN EE ES eee ; Hte alal; dish dp dedsdcaardy ded hale be hctz bobs hols htss kaar Í > À Diagram showing the relative lengths of stamens and pistils in eighty-one flowers of Oxatis violacea ; from Tables 1 and 11. The unbroken lines connect coördinates represeliting measurements of long-styled flowers; the dotted lines connect those for short-styled flowers. æ, the long stamens; 4, the short stamens; c, the styles. The : heavy line marked o represents the base of the corolla; the other transverse lines representing millemeters and fractions. : noticeably in size, but the following measurements of pollen from three flowers of each sort do not show this difference : TABLE III.—OXALIS VIOLACEA. Measurements of Pollen from Long-styled Flowers. Flower Numbers | | Long Stamens. | Short Stamens, , | 440.X% 24 P. | 44 xX 24 i 2 a aa* > 2a 44 “ « 24 “* ET | 44“ % T 1882. ] The Heterogony of Oxalis violacea. 17 TABLE IV.—OXALIs VIOLACEA, ti Measurements of Pollen from Short-styled Flowers. Flower Numbers, | Long Stamens. | Short Stamens. EOL T T 50.. X 28 F, 48 H. X 27 P 2 pee’ erek 50-4) 3 Be gae D 34 POO S E E POOR a aer oi 48“ x 28 * These grains were measured dry, immediately after removal from newly gathered flowers. It will be seen that those from both sets of stamens in any flower, are nearly equal in diameter ; while, as is usual in heterogonous plants, those from the short- styled flowers are larger than those from the long-styled. Fic. 3. Fic. 4. . Fic. > Fic, 3.—Long-styled flower of Q. gracilis, Fic. 4.—Mid-styled re io set the Same. Fic, 5 Php, meee flower Tof the same, The calyx and corolla removed in every cas The facts indicated appear, so far as they go, to point 10 ae dimorphism rather than trimorphism in this species ; although “ ne with truly trimorphic plants, one or even two of the forms may occasionally be absent from a given district. Concerning the local occurrence of but two forms of trimorphic plants, Mr. Dar- win? says: “Fritz Müller formerly believed that a species of Oxalis, which is so abundant in St. Catharina that it borders the _ Toads for miles, was dimorphic instead of trimorphic. — Although - _ the pistils and stamens vary greatly in length, as was evident in _ Some specimens sent to me, yet the plants « can be divided into he es sets, » according to the apb: of these Ei, A large yr 18 -The Heterogony of Oxalis violacea. [January, portion of the anthers are of a white color and quite destitute of pollen; others which are pale yellow contain many bad with +< some good grains; and others again which are bright yellow have apparently sound pollen; but he has never succeeded in finding any fruit. on this species. The stamens in some of the flowers are partially «converted into petals. Fritz Müller after reading my description * * :*¥ of the illegitimate offspring of various heterostyled species, suspects that these plants of Oxalis may be the variable and sterile offspring of a single form of Some trimorphic species, perhaps accidentally introduced into the district, which has since been propagated asexually.” A case somewhat similar to that of Oxalis violacea about Madison, is afforded by a Brazilian species of Pontederia, of which Fritz Müller! found only long and short-styled flowers. -An important difference, however, is found in the measurements of the pollen from the different sets of stamens of a given flower; for “the pollen grains distended with water from the longer stamens of the short-styled form are to those from the shorter stamens of the same form as 100 to 87 in diameter, as deduced from ten meas- urements ofeach kind. * * * Moreover, the longer stamens of the long-styled form of Pontederia, and the shorter ones of the short-styled form are placed it in a proper position for fertilizing ‘the stigma of a mid-styled form.” “ With respect to the absence of the mid-styled form in the case of the Pontederia which grows wild in Southern Brazil,” Mr. Dar- win adds, “this would probably follow if only two forms had been originally introduced there; for, as we shall hereafter see from the observations of Hildebrand, Fritz Miller and myself, when one form of Oxalis is fertilized exclusively by either of the other two forms, the offspring generally belong to the two parent- forms.” . Whether in O. violacea we are dealing with a case of this sort, or whether the species is dimorphic, can only be definitely decided by the examination of many specimens collected over as large a range of territory as possible, and it is to be hoped that those who have the opportunity will make observations of this sort. Meantime it seems not improbable that the plant is dimorphic ; and although dimorphic species are as yet unknown in this genus, _ 4 1 Jenaische Zeitschr., VI, 1871, p. 74, fide Darwin. 1. c., p. 184. 21. c., p. 185. cf, also p, 212. Se Pi e - ining the literature of the subject, it is ond that me balance of - e ER R an 21, itis P 357 yee 1882.] Forests—their Influence upon Climate and Rainfall. 19 so far as I am aware, the occurrence of both homogone and tri- morphic species gives some reason for looking for still others which are dimorphic. In writing this I am perfectly aware that Hildebrand" has examined a few herbarium specimens of O, vio- lacea, finding eight long-styled, three short-styled, and one mid- styled plant in the twelve specimens examined. The constant lack of correspondence in our specimens between the sets of stamens which should correspond, howéver, leads one to wonder if a mistake may not have been made, especially since a slight discrepancy exists between the numbers cited and the summary, in the paragraph cited. Both the long and short-styled flowers are visited by small bees in considerable numbers, the more common being Nomada bisignata, Ceratina dupla, Augochlora pura, an Osmia, and several species of Halictus. These irisects are attracted by the nectar which is secreted, apparently, by the papillose bases of the petals, and which is protected from rain, &c., by pubescence on the styles in the long-styled flowers, and on the filaments in the other form. As a result of these visits, some flowers of both kinds produce capsules, which are by no means uncommon, although by far the greater number fall away without bearing any fruit. Tat sVe FORESTS—THEIR INFLUENCE UPON CLIMATE AND RAINFALL. BY J. M. ANDERS, M.D., PH.D. HAT there exists some sort of relation betwixt forests and conditions of climate, perhaps most observers would be ready to concede. Many attempts have been made to explain how forests affect atmospheric states, but there is great diversity of- opinion — on the subject, and, indeed, the question to-day remains some- what involved in obscurity. As every one knows, there wasa time when forests were considered almost inexhaustible. It is : also a well-known fact that the destructive hand of man began, | centuries ago, to fell rapidly these abundant forests, and changes- o of climate and fertility of the soil have, in numerous regions, | oS been attributed solely to this denudation of the land. On exam- 20 Forests—their Influence upon Climate and Rainfall. (January, argument and opinion is decidedly on the side of the baneful effects of the destruction of forest growth, the testimony of some of the best scientific minds of different ages being very strong on this point. It is but fair to say, however, that not a few observers of note deny any effects of woods on the moisture and other conditions of the atmosphere; and even stranger still, it has been declared that the climate of the Western States has, if anything, been im- proved by the denudation of forests; but this assertion rests, we think, on too slender evidence to be entitled to credence. It may be safely assumed that forests favorably affect the meteoro- logical conditions. Our subject presents many difficulties owing chiefly to the fact that numerous causative elements enter into the question, some of which are of a conflicting tendency, and though a question so confessedly intricate may perhaps never be susceptible of solution, nevertheless any new light on the sub- ject, however faint the ray, must be considered welcome. One of the ways in which forests are usually considered to exert an influence over the climate, is by obstructing the free passage of wind currents. This is an element of the question which is, perhaps, better established than any other, but is of too great importance to be disposed of in a summary manner. It is evident that trees are well adapted to break the force of the wind; the branches, and particularly the leaves, on account of their im- mense numbers and close proximity, serve as efficient barriers, and the trunk holds up the bushy top and defies the tempest, while roots in turn are continually extending their grip on mother earth in order to support the trunk. And it can be readily under- stood that the particles not checked by the first row of trees to the windward, would have their force diminished and be promptly checked by the trees to the rear. In this wise belts or clumps of trees afford shelter to the leeward of them from the chilly, or even frigid blasts, which are known in many localities to be very unfavorable to the maturation of fruit-crops and harvests. Of little less importance, perhaps, is their effect in protecting from the: drying winds -of summer, which are frequently the cause of — blighted crops and other mischief, due to their power to- enhance’ — evaporation from vegetation and from the soil during the dry sea- son. For this reason woods are also needed even on our coast. The sea breezes as they strike the land become warmed, their 1882.] Forests—their Influence upon Climate and Rainfall. 2 capacity for moisture is thereby increased, and naturally absorb with avidity the earth’s moisture and produce a drying effect. It is plain to be seen then, that woods by intercepting cold currents and drying winds, mitigate extremes—rendering summer less sul- try and winter less severe, though they may not materially affect the mean temperature. In like manner they must tend to obviate the injurious consequences of cold spring and autumn winds, and thereby relatively lengthen the warm season or term of vegetable development. This is a highly important office, since some crops are slow in maturing. The experiment has been tried extensively in France of plant- ing trees in belts one hundred meters apart, and with marked benefit to the climate, and there are some good reasons for be- lieving that a similar experiment in various places in our own country, would prove equally advantageous. It has been observed many times that fruit grown in the city surpasses in quality and size that grown in the country, and this is ascribable to the more effectual shelter in the former place. The wind as it courses over an open country conveys with it a variable quantity of moisture, which, though usually invisible, is always present in the atmosphere, which is likewise arrested by the forest. Now what becomes of this moisture? The air is forced up by the side of the woods to the tops of the trees just as in the case of a low mountainous elevation, and owing to the © attraction between its particles and the constant vis æ tergo caused by fresh currents from behind, the volume does not stop here but rises higher. When the temperature of the air above is lower than that in the forest, as is sometimes the case when storms pre- vail, then there would also be an upward current from the tree tops. It is usually considered that in this manner forests in- | crease the aggregate general rainfall, viz., by causing ascending : ‘currents to sufficiently high regions for the moisture to be con- — densed into clouds and rain, and this has been held by some to be the only way in which they influence precipitation. Meteoro- | logical science has, however, established the fact that rain is go erally formed from one to two miles above the’ surface of the a . earth, and it would scarce be possible ` that an obstruction no higher than an ordinary forest could, per se, be capable of raising the vapor-laden air to this extent and could not actually increase eo On the geer d, when forests ar n el 22 Forests—their Influence upon Climate and Rainfall. (January, vated ridges or mountains of moderate elevation, they may have. the effect of extending the influence of the latter a step further in producing an upward current to the cooler regions, or condensing area, and in this manner greatly assist local precipitation. It is now a settled fact that high mountains augment the rainfall in them- selves or even to some little distance from their bases. The Alps of Switzerland are known to modify and greatly influence the course of storms. We repeat it then, that forests resemble high altitudes as regards their mechanical action in affecting the rainfall, but owing to their meagre height, can scarce be said to have any influence (mechanically) over this phenomenon except they are situated upon the latter, in which case their action may tell con- siderably. Forests do, however, affect local precipitation through certain vital functions, as will be seen by and by. No other influence which. forests exert upon atmospheric con- ditions can claim so large a share of importance as that exercised on its humidity. The explanation of their effect on this meteor- ological element is to be found mainly in a study of some of the organic processes carried on by trees, but to a slight extent also to a mechanical action. The evaporation from the soil is inter- fered with by the vegetable canopy above, which prevents, in a great measure, the sun’s rays from reaching the earth and heat- ` ing it so as to facilitate evaporation. Again, by forming a more or less perfect screen interposed between sky and earth, forests in a measure intercept the dew and lighter rains, allowing but a por- tion of this moisture to reach the earth. Z? has been estimated that the evaporation from the soil of the Sorest ts rather more than one-third as great as that from open soil, but this lessened surface evaporation is much more than compensated Jor by transpiration of the forest, as will be indicated by the results of our investigations. The question of the influence of the organic functions of plants on the humidity of the air, is one of paramount importance and great philosophic interest. Whatever effect plants have through these processes must be due either to the exhalations of moisture from the leaves (transpiration) or to the absorption of moisture by the leaves. The latter idea, as formerly taught and until recently held by most authorities, is now most probably shown to be erro- neous. According to the researches of Unger! the theory of the absorption of the watery vapor by the leaves is untenable? _ My _ 1 Wilhelm der Baden und der wald, p. 19, quoted by Marsh, _ : i ; ' * The writer regrets that the details of these experiments are not accessible, As 1882.| Forests—their Influence upon Climate and Rainfall. 23 own.observations tend to confirm the conclusions of Unger. A growing pot plant (geranium) in a thrifty condition was experi- mented with. The whole of the pot was covered with a double layer of oiled silk, and the free portion accurately adjusted. around the base of the stem, on which it was tied with elastic cord. Thus prepared, no evaporation could take place from the soil in the pot, and what is of more importance still, no moisture ` could be thus supplied to the roots excepting that which was contained in the soil in the pot. The plant was now placed under a glass case which was situated over a shallow box in which there was about four inches of soil which was kept saturated so that the evaporation from it kept the air of the glass chamber quite moist. The whole arrangement was placed near a window with a southern exposure, the plant catching the rays of the sun for about five hours of the day in clear weather. In this situation the plant remained quiescent or dormant so far as any visible growth or development was concerned, for about two weeks, when it began to look languid and the margins of the leaves be- gan to change in color and to show slight signs of failing nutrition, The explanation of this apparently long state of hybernation in the plant is simple. The air in the case being too moist to allow of scarce any transpiration, the plant retained the moisture in the pot for purposes of nutrition only, and since the plant most prob- ably grew but little during that period, there was quite sufficient water in the pot for its uses for so long a time. At the end of the two weeks the plant was taken out of the glass case and placed in a sick chamber with the same exposure, in which three dozen other thrifty plants were situated. The oil silk was allowed to remain on and no water was supplied to the roots of the plant. The atmosphere of the chamber was noticeably moist to the : senses, though agreeable. Here the sun’s rays had an opportu- nity of exciting the plant to transpire actively, and, as a conse- quence, in a few days nutritive change became very decided, leaf after leaf drying until at the end of another fortnight only a couple much withered leaves were left on the plant. Now this experiment is not sufficiently conclusive to assure. uo that absorption of moisture by the leaves is impossible ; but it : . Certainly must show to the satisfaction of every one that aot = a sufficient water can be taken in through them to carry o on the ale functions of the plant, and renders it xtren robable the oy source > of moisture to the plar 24 Forests—their Influence upon Climate and Rainfall, (January; On the other hand actual observation has shown that transpi- ration is carried on with almost incredible activity—the rate at which aqueous vapor is given off by plants being more than one and a quarter ounces per square foot of leaf surface for twelve diur- nal hours.) Let the reader reflect upon the vast expanse of leaf surface of a single tree giving off vapor at this rate, and then let him consider the number of trees in a forest of only a few acres, the number being variously estimated at from 150 to 600, and multiplying these two factors he will be able to form some ap- proximate idea of the enormous amount of aqueous vapor sup- plied to our atmosphere in the most acceptable form. During the past summer I have instituted a series of experi- ments with the view of determining the amount of water vapor- ized from known areas of leaf surface, land surface and water under similar circumstances, in order that a more nearly correct estimate of evaporation from these various sources might be made. A pot plant having one square foot of leaf surface was centi prepared — in the manner previously described—so as to pre- vent any evaporation from the pot in whiċh it was growing. Another glazed pot was filled with soil (a light clay loam) so as to expose a surface area of only twenty-four square inches, the pot being about the same size as that containing the plant, and the depths of the pot very nearly six inches. The plant was sufficiently watered to keep it in a thrifty condition, while the earth in the plantless pot was kept generally well saturated. Both were equally exposed to the outer air. The evaporation from earth and plant was now tested simultaneously by weighing the two pots at stated intervals, and it was found that the mean evaporation was, in fair weather, nearly equal for the two sources, with a slight preponderance on the side of the soil. For fourteen - Consecutive days of clear and partly cloudy weather, the mean transpiration from the plant was a little over one and a quarter ounces, and the evaporation from the soil one and a third ounces, This would place the rates of evaporation of equal areas of leaf and land surface, under like circumstances of exposure, at about six to one in favor of the soil, that is to say, one square foot of soil will evaporate six times as much as one square foot of leaf sur- 1 : “Le Tampian. $ of Plants,” AMERICAN NATURALIST for March, S 5. the, À author. 1882.] Forests—their Influence upon Climate and Rainfall. 25 face. This will appear quite plain when it is remembered. that the extent of the leaf surface was six times as great as that of the soil, and that the total diurnal evaporation was so nearly equal from the two sources. These experiments were several times; repeated, and with about similar results. Now if it were known how many times greater the leaf surface of a great forest than the land on which it was situated, it might: with ease be computed what is the relative evaporation from a forest. and an equal area of oven country. From personal. observation’ and computation, we think it safe to assume that the leaf surface of a wood is at least twelve times greater than the ground on which it stands, so that at the above rate the transpiration from the forest would still be nearly twice as great as the evaporation. from an equal area of free soil. It should be mentioned also that the evaporation from the earth in this case was under the most favorable circumstances, and the state of the ground as regards moisture was very like that of the open earth directly after a moderate rain. It was found by testing to be nearly equal to that given off by a similar area of water! It would appear cer- tain, then, from these investigations, that more water is emitted to the atmosphere from a forest than from an equal body of water, and in this there is a confirmation of the experiments of Wil- liams who computed that the evaporation from a wood was one- third more than an equal space covered with water? It is well known that at times, during the warm season more particularly, we have no rain for several weeks, so that the mean general sur- face evaporation is probably not by any means as great as would be indicated by these figures—for it was found that by allowing the soil in the pot to become even moderately dry, the amount evap- orated would fall far short of what it was when keeping the soil well watered. On the other hand we have good reasons for be- _ lieving that the true rate at which forests give out aqueous vapor is, at all events, not over estimated in these researches. In the Le first place the trees are at all times supplied with a more abundant -a Supply of moisture for transpiration — owing partly to power which the roots have to attract moisture from every direction ; . — partly to the retention of the rainfall in their network to be in due as 1 The same methods were seed as in the experiments with the soil v plant: os —? Agricultural Report | for 1865, p ro Inia the methods employec > m ranr are not- iven. 26 Forests—their Influence upon Climate and Rainfall, (January, season absorbed by the myriad root hairs, and partly also to the circumstance that the vegetable mold usually carpeting the soil of the forest is well qualified to soak up water and prevent its running off too rapidly through superficial channels. The humbler specimens of vegetation also have an effect, as is conclusively shown by the following experiment: A pot with artificially prepared soil, similar to that used in the above experi- ments, was used. Another vessel of tie same size and weight in which grass (Poa annua) about four inches high was growing, was also employed: Now it was found by repeated testing that from the pot containing the grass the evaporation exceeded that of the pot having only soil. The rates in ounces would be about five to four for the grass and soil respectively. From all these investigations the writer is able to confirm his former investigations in regard to transpiration,’ and in these ex- periments it was particularly observed that while the evaporation from the soil was greatly influenced by temperature and the de- gree of humidity—for the mean temperature and dew point were both noted in all these experiments—transpiration was excited to a greater degree by the direct rays of the sun. Froin the data just obtained it would seem safe to infer that when the percentage of woodland is fair (25 to 30 per cent.) at least twelve inches of water is transpired in the course of a sea- son in mild or temperate climates, or, in other words, twelve inches of the total annual terrestrial evaporation. All this vast amount of water is transpired in about six months, or during the vegetative period. Under these circumstances an equivalent of nearly half the rainfall during the warm season may be accounted for by the transpiration. These are striking facts, and tell in in- disputable terms of the happy effect of plant life upon the humid- ity of our atmosphere, as this substance in due proportion is very essential to an equable and salubrious climate. Were it not that the atmosphere was properly moistened so as to intercept noc- turnal radiation from the earth, our cereals and other products of husbandry as well as vegetation generally, would greatly sale not be entirely destroyed by the resulting frost. It is also a noteworthy fact that the exhalation of moisture from the vast surface presented by the leaves is nearly constant _ even during long droughts; and when streams and ee waters a Tae of Plants, AMERICAN NATURALIST des Mie 1878. ; oS a an elevation as above i 1882.] Forests—their Influence upon Climate and Rainfall, : 27 have dried up, evaporation from the soil outside the woods has almost ceased, transpiration continues unremittingly to furnish atmospheric moisture in order to keep as nearly as possible a uni- form proportion of this important substance in the air. What an harmonious adaptation of means to an end does nature exhibit here—plant life atomizing tons and tons of watery vapor into the surrounding medium, even during time of drought, and this same vapor in turn protecting luxuriant vegetation from the evil conse- quences of terrestrial radiation. Moist air during winter tends to moderate extreme cold, during the summer, on the contrary, it tends to cool the draughts, hence forests by moistening the air in summer give us cool and delightful breezes; another means by which forests affect extremes of temperature. This brings us face to face with the old question, do forests, apart from their mechanical action, to any extent affect the. rain- fall? Be it remembered that the total annual evaporation and rainfall bear a constant relation. We do not claim for forests that they influence in any degree the general course of storms, for the latter are governed by other and more general forces. May not forests, however, influence the local distribution of rains and dews, and within certain limits and periods of time, the amount of pre- cipitation? We have seen that during the spring and summer the amount of water yielded to the atmosphere is very nearly equivalent to half the rainfall, even at Philadelphia. Now, grant- ing that our premises are correct, it will be conceded that a part, at least, of the water atomized to the atmosphere by a wood, is most likely returned to the surrounding country in the form of rain or heavy mists. Where is this moisture given to the air by trees condensed into rain, and how produced? It has already been stated that’ rain is usually formed from one to two miles above the surface of the earth, hence it follows that forests located — n ridges, besides strongly favoring the ascent of vapor- laden currents bya mechanical effect as already pointed out, may also have their own moisture readily condensed, owing to their altitude as well as in the manner to be presently described. It will also be remembered that in considering the mechanical action ee of forests, it has been stated that when not situated upon ponte - ridges they are incapable of raising the vapor-laden currents a ciently high to be condensed into rain, and this is prai there s is a notable exception to the. rule that 3 rain is prodig at so 28 Forests—their [nfluence upon Climate and Rainfall. | January, The demonstrable variation in temperature of the moist air of the woods and the currents outside, and the mingling of these, doubtless reduce the temperature sufficiently to cause local pre- cipitation. At first sight it might appear impossible that this could result in anything so tangible as rain, but we must examine this question carefully. During the warm season the temperature of the air in the forest is lower than that of the air outside, which is due in a measure to the trees intercepting the rays of the sun, causing shade, which has a cooling effect, and partly also as pointed out by Pettenkofer (Pop. Sci. Monthly for Feb., 1878), to ‘the slight draught which is always caused by shade in the open air. Every one who has ever passed from the open air on a hot mid-summer day to within the borders of a forest, must have experienced with a relish the refreshing influence of the shade. Again, the temperature of the trees of a forest, and even their tops, is found to be lower than the air in the forest. This fact is easily explained: the rapid evaporation of watery vapor from the leaves, as shown by our researches, renders the action of the solar rays neutral, and their temperature is somewhat reduced, The observation has been made (according to Pettenkofer) that the trunks of trees breast high, even at the hottest time of day, are 5° Centigrade cooler than the air of the forest. Ebermayer speaks of the temperature of the trees in a forest as being always lower than the air of the forest. As already indicated by the present researches, forests moisten the air over, in and to some extent around themselves. Now in the light of these facts may we not be pardoned for concluding that warm currents sweeping over a country and striking the cool, moist air in and above the forest, and mingling with it would havé a portion, at least, of the contained’ moisture condensed into gentle showers, extending their beneficent influence to neighbor- ing fields? Again, let some stray current come along of a lower temperature than the air of the forest, and the moist air over the forest would readily be condensed, since it is a well-known fact that a moist air discharges its vapor more readily in the form of rain than a dryer atmosphere. We have now seen how trees can cause local rains ; it will also be observed that the rain is formed chiefly above the forest, though it may be through the influence of winds that it falls to the- earth for some distance around. By _ -inereasing the frequency ie ar rains, Gp a to ao 1882.] Forests—their Influence upon Climate and Rainfall. 29 drought, which is of ultimate importance to the farmers’ crops and vegetation in general. It will be seen that all our deductions have been drawn largely from the known facts from observations. The experiments of L. Fantiat and A. Sartiaux (Translation of a communication to the French Academy of Sciences, Pop. Sci. Monthly for June, 1875), which have come to the notice of the writer since the above has been written, are of great value as well as interest. Space is wanting to give at any length the experi- ments of these authors. They say: “ We now made the follow- ing observations in the heart of the forest of Helatte, which em- braces 5000 hectares of land. At the height of about six meters (say twenty feet) above a group of oaks and hornbeans eight or nine meters high, we placed a pluviometer, pscychrometer, maxi- mum and minimum thermometers, and an evaporometer, so as to ascertain at that point the amount of rainfall, the degree of satu- ration of the air, and the rate of temperature and evaporation. In open air at a distance of only 300 meters from the forest, and at the same-height above the ground as in the former case, we placed similar instruments under the same conditions. With regard to the rainfall and degree of saturation, the observations for six months showed the total rainfall to be 192.50" in the forest and 177.™™ in the open air, difference in favor of the forest, 15.50". The degree of humidity for the open air showed a mean of 61.7, and in the forest 63°, difference in favor of the forest, 1.3°.” These investigations are, in a measure confirmatory of my own. Forests produce abundant dews. The ‘formation of dew T dependent on two conditions, the radiation from objects near the earth and a certain proportion of moisture in the air. Just asin — the case of the production of rain, the moister the air the more. readily is dew formet, it requiring a less reduction of tempera- ture, hence when the moistened atmosphere in the vicinity of a forest comes in contact with the night air, dew i in, ndance is the result. Having shown that the temperature their leaves and the atmosphere in the woods i degrees lower than the air without, it bce 8 be inferred , mee dew i 1S = - 2 ar A the forest, a a when t tł _ there are but slight breezes, ea to fields and aes 30 Glacial Marks in Labrador. [ January the part of forests not by any means to be despised, since heavy dews are often very refreshing in their effect upon vegetation, and doubtless add to the fertility of the soil in many instances. It is an observation worthy of note, too, that in some parts of the globe nearly all the moisture that reaches the earth is in the form of dew, e. g., Egypt and Arabia. It should be recollected that the action of forests, in every aspect considered, is more or less local in character. It follows, therefore, that the local distribution of woods is of the utmost importance. Our investigations likewise show the necessity for forest culture in regions where a proper proportion (from twenty- five to thirty per cent.) does not exist for their real benefit to the climate, while on the other hand they exhibit with equal force the folly of the ravages of the woodman’s axe in destroying our — primitive forests. E GLACIAL MARKS IN LABRADOR. BY A. S. PACKARD, JR. HE engraving’ illustrating this article, brings out ewig some of the characteristic features of the scenery of the coast of Labrador. In the foreground the rocky shore of the Horsechops, as the deep fiord is called, which is situated far up on the eastern coast of Labrador, has been ground down, smoothed and polished by the great mass of land ice which formerly filled Hamilton bay and moved slowly down from the table-land in the interior, and whose ice front must have presented to the sea a wall, perhaps 500 to 1000 feet high, at the end of which was probably a sub- marine bank or terminal moraine like those known to exist at the present day on the coast of Greenland and Spitzbergen. Across the fiord on the shores of the- bay, which rise abruptly in great rocky terraces—also a characteristic feature of Labrador and Arctic 1 landscapes—may be seen scattered snow banks, which oti aces may live on until the early snows in September give e them a renewal of life, so that their existence may become perennia ! From a pink kindly presente 1 1882. | Glacial Marks in Labrador. 31 In this inhospitable, rigid climate, where: the Arctic current passing out of Baffin’s bay presses against the coast, bearing on its surface an almost continuous expanse of floe ice, forming a belt perhaps 500 to 1000 miles long by from fifty to sometimes one hun- dred miles wide, the temperature of the Labrador coast north of Belle isle is kept down to the average annual of 32° Fahrenheit, so that the climate of the more exposed parts of the coast of Lab- rador, particularly the capes and islands, is nearly identical with that of Southern Greenland. Indeed, many of the insects, the birds and mammals, as well as the flowers, are the same as those of Greenland. At the head of the bays and fiords, where the soil is protected from the chilling influences of the damp easterly winds which blow inland over the belt of floe ice fringing the coast, the spruces attain a growth some twenty and thirty feet in height, and the flora and fauna is, in general, more like that of the region lying near the limit of trees in the interior of British America. On the left side of the foreground is a hut of some squalid fisherman’s family, built of hewn spruce logs, banked up on the Sides and with the roof partially covered with sods from the wet peaty soil. Judging from the houses of the Labrador fishermen we have entered, the interior is as dark and dismal, as forbidding and comfortless as can well be imagined, though this is not true of many of the homes of the Labrador folk. Now the question arises, why may not this smooth, polished rock-surface have been made so by the floating ice borne down by the strong Labrador polar current, which flows past the coast at the rate of three or four knots an hour? That it had been ~ done by land ice moving down the bay from the interior, we have been able to prove by our observations at “Indian Tickle,” a deep, narrow fiord separated by a point of land from the northern — side of Hamilton bay, or Invuctoke inlet. A “tickle,” to use the language of the Labradorian, is any deep, narrow bay, just wide - enough to admit of a vessel’s passing through it. The shores of- the Indian tickle presented much the same appearance, for here — the Domino quartzite, very smoothly worn and polished, in places Capped by trap overflows, runs under the water to the depth of about thirty feet, forming a polished and smooth bottom to the harbor. The marks we observed, and which proved conclusively a pee een Cer apy ae) about twenty. ae a mn et = oben I have observed on a shoulder of rock 32 Glacial Marks in Labrador. [January, feet above the water’s edge, and below the line of lichens, which are probably kept at a distance by the sea spray. Here on the polished and smooth shore, somewhat like that represented in Plate 111, we observed a number of remarkable lunoid furrows (Fig. 1). These crescent-shaped depressions ran at exactly right angles to the course of the bay, and were from five to fourteen inches broad by three to nine inches long, and the depression was deepened in ae hollow of the curve, for | NY N 1 VAN (y BES ty yen U N Da Cy orion pe i > Ni g ee AZ Joe US Yy oN raat / Fic. 1.—Glacial lunoid furrows at Indian Tickle, Labrador. about an inch. Their inner, or concave, edge pointed south-west, . the bay running ina general S. W. and N. E. direction. They, were scattered irregularly over a surface twenty feet square. Where several followed in a line, two large ones were often suc- ceeded by a couple one-quarter as large, or vice versa, Also at Tub island on the southern side of Hamilton bay, similar mark-, ings, though less distinct, occurred about the same distance ON: the sea, and on a similar polished quartzite. ` These marks agree precisely with a numbe: 1882. | Editors Table. tee 33 Mount Baldface, in the White mountains, which is 3600 feet high, and at other points in the White mountains, where I could ob- serve the course of the ancient glaciers by trains of boulders and also by glacial grooves. These peculiar lunoid furrows are evi- dently made by rounded boulders freezing into the bottom of the glacier; the stone being thus frozen solidly into the ice, serves as a rude gouge, wearing out a crescent-shaped depression. The succession of several such furrows appears to be the result of the stone’s slipping from the ice and turning over and becoming frozen in again during the advancing and receding motions of the glacier. The presence, then, of these furrows is good evidence that the ice moved down the bay seaward. They could not have been made by floe ice, as the polar current flows along the coast at right angles to the direction of the bay, while it also appears that similar marks are abundant on the summits of some of the White mountain peaks. Ina future paper I shall have more to say of glacial phenomena in Labrador. EDITORS’ TABLE. EDITORS: A. S. PACKARD, JR., AND E. D. COPE. The intelligent press of the country is gradually adopting the position taken by the NATURALIST, in its August number, on the question of the insanity of Guiteau, the murderer of Presi- dent Garfield. This is, that whether legally insane or not, the mental condition of the prisoner falls within the boundary-line of insanity. This was simply an adaptation of the well known views of Herbert Spencer and Dr. Maudsley. It is to be hoped that a full i investigation of Guiteau’s case will lead to an important modi- fication of the legal definition of insanity, and of the laws relative to the treatment of insane criminals. In the first place, the pres- ent definition, which only admits insanity where the criminal is unable to judge = he Onee of an act, is certainly erro- — neous. Persons act with deliberate design, a ARMORIO Vitu = and ae forethought. ‘It duld be a safe, though not a perfect : ee aia insanity, to describe it as a state of uaa ay 34 Editors’ Table, [January, the actor. Here the question of the ignorance of consequences is restricted to its legitimate field, the instinct of self-preservation, through which the rational faculty has originated. It is another way of stating that the emotional or sentimental elements of character have so far overcome the rational as to cause the com- mission of self-destructive acts. Under this definition an act of violence committed in savage society would not indicate insanity, while the same act committed in civilized society, where means of detection and poarhinent abound, would be properly regarded as that of an insane per In such a eatin Cien are those who disregard the rights of person and property with a reasonable expectation of advancing their own interests thereby. Benevolence is not an indication of insanity, for it is only a reflection of self-interest over others, and is often an expression of the most elevated form of self-interest _ True reformers aep of the insane enthusiasts, are at best useless and impracticable. But that the one class graduates into the other, is incontestible. In the imposition of bodily restraint on the insane, reference will of course be had to the quality of the act, precisely as in the case of the sane. The nature of the act being established, the question now standing in the statutes as to the capacity of the criminal to comprehend the consequences of his acts, would well be considered. He who, with deliberate intent, violates the rights of person and property, is more dangerous to the com- munity, than he who does so as-an incidental effect of his aberra- tions. The punishment of the former, should be like that of the sane criminal, designed to protect society in two ways ; firstly by re- straining the criminal himself from inflicting further i injury; and secondly, by furnishing persons in the community of similar men- tal constitution with reasons for believing that it is contrary to their interests to commit like acts. In this way the law would furnish such insane with motives which would produce a change in the balance of the mind, the result being sanity. The punishment of death is as proper in such cases as in that of sane criminals of corresponding grade. The death penalty might even be necessary in the case of that lower grade of the insane who do not understand consequences. In this case the only object sought is the protection of the community, for motives are less operative with these than with the higher class of the insane. © either, the question of moral responsibility is omitted from con sideration, as being beyond the range of human —C. s The numbers of the AMERICAN Nanas r 188 C.— issued on the following dates: January, Dec fine 1880; : 1882.] Recent Literature. 35 February, January 25, 1881; March, February 24; April, March 25; May, April 16; June, May 19; July, June 22; August, July 27; September, August 23; October, September 23; November, October 28; December, December 3. :0: RECENT LITERATURE. Mivart’s Tue Cat.!—The principle underlying the method of modern scientific, particularly biological study, is to examine one animal thoroughly, in order to lay the foundation for further ad- vanced and more comparative studies. So we have books de- voted wholly to the anatomy of a few common animals, typical forms, as the frog, the butterfly, or asin the present work, the cat. The tendency is thus to extreme analytical and special views, and such books should be of course used with the under- standing that the student will never make a broad, philosophical naturalist unless his studies be made comparative. But it is bet- ter to thoroughly know all that can be learned from one kind of cat, than to have a superficial knowledge of cats in general, or mammals at large. Cats are very unequally distributed, and! there is always a superfluity of material in our cities, so that the incipient medical student need not lack for material for dissection Preliminary to his laboratory practice on the human cadaver. For this class of students this book is all important, while it is also designed for use in colleges and higher schools, or those be- ginning the study of zodlogy, as an introduction to the study of vertebrate animals. After describing clearly and simply, with the aid of abundant and most excellent wood engravings, the skeleton, muscles, or- gans of alimentation, circulation, respiration and secretion, of reproduction, the nérvous system, with the physiology of these Organs in sufficient detail, a full and adequate account is given of the cat’s development. uh This important subject appears to be well treated, and is, in. part, the result of the author’s own observations, a number of the diagrams and illustrations having been prepared for this work. These chapters occupy about two-thirds of the book, and are Succeeded by chapters on the psychology of the cat, and on the different kinds of cats ; while the work closes with essays on the Cat’s place in nature, the cat’s “ hexicology,” or its relations to- the world about it and to fossil cats, and finally, Professor Mivart Sives us his opinions as to the pedigree and origin of the cat. In his discussion of the nature of the cat’s mind, the young student will be liable to be unduly biassed by Mr. Mivart’s dog- 1 The Cat. An introducti ; À backboned Animals, especially Mam-- =. By Sr. Ghindh Mirani BRD RS. With 200 Illustrations. New i ork, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1881. 8vo. p. 557- $350 -36 Recent Literature. [January, matic method of teaching a subject which needs great candor and liberality of thought, as there is a great difference of opinion among naturalists concerning the subject of animal psychology, and the student should, at the outset, know that the entire sub- ject is unsettled, and that there are two predominant schools of thought. If he knows this, and that-the matter may eventually be somewhat understood by future work, he will, perhaps, be led to make for himself new discoveries and observations on the habits and mental traits of animals, and gain clearer views of the entire field of comparative psychology. To make the ex cathedra statement that instinct is a ‘‘special faculty,” or “a power of blindly performing appropriate complex acts, by seemingly volun- tary actions in response to felt stimuli,” and then in footnotes to - attack what he deems the.“ very singular views” of Mr. Herbert Spencer and Mr. Lewes, as if they were alone in attempting to reason out the probable origin of instinctive acts; this, we con- tend, savors of dogmatism and onesidedness, and it seems to us that in an educational book of this sort both the old and the new views should be given to the student, who is supposed to have arrived at years of discretion, and to be able, in a degree, to judge for himself between conflicting theories. Mr. Mivart also insists, as if it were a matter of course, that an animal “is really the theatre of some unifying power which syn- thesizes its varied activities, dominates its forces, and is a princi- ple of individuation.. There would seem to be here present, a vital force or principle which ae no organ except that of the en- tire body within which it resides,” etc. Now considering that a large number of biologists do not adhere to the old notion ofa “vital force,” we think the author should have stated both views fairly, giving in his adherence to whichever he may prefer. With the remaining portions of this chapter we agree, and the discus- sion concerning the nature of the cat’s mind is a clear and inter- esting one. Our domestic cat is probably a descendant of the old domestic cat of Egypt, which is mentioned in inscriptions as early as 1684 B.C., and was certainly domesticated in Egypt 1300 years before Christ. From Egypt the cat must have been introduced into Greece, while a fresco painting of a domestic cat was found on the wall of a Pompeiian house; although the late Professor Rol- leston has suggested that the domestic cat „of the Greeks was the white-breasted marten. The domestic cat is probably the descen- dant of the Egyptiga 1 cat (Felis maniculata), a native of Northern Africa. . It is a pity that among the excellent drawings of different spe- cies of cats given us. p a is. atu , a good representation of the — Egyptian cat should n | - In this chapter tie” different kinds of cats are moetet d and many of them illustrated in an excellent way, among them t 1882. } Recent Literature. 37 “iy ep “ih ariel tretti: My SSS Fics. 1, 2.—External form of Wild Cat and figure of the Skeleton, showing the re- lations of the latter to the external form. 38 Recent Literature. [January, wild cat of Europe, and the northern lynx, of which the North American Felis canadensis, F. rufa and F. maculata are considered as varieties. ere are, in Mivart’s opinion, fifty species of living cats, but he thinks that some of these may turn out to be mere varieties, and some forms regarded in this book as varieties, may possibly prove to be really distinct species, especially when we consider the South American spotted cats, the ocelots and margays, as well as the smaller cats of China and neighboring regions. The fossil species are then considered, especially those from the Tertiaries of France and North America, made known to us by Gervais, Filhol, Cope and Leidy In the discussion on the cat’s place in nature, after a too long Fic. 3. ee ati Lynx, var. Felis maculata. effort to show that the cat is not a plant, but an animal and a car- nivorous one, the author reasons by exclusion, and shows, what nobody will dispute, that the cat’s place in nature is as “ a mem- ber of the typical genus of the typical family of carnivorous pla- cental mamm nals,” mammals being what our author somewhat clumsily terms “the suck-giving, tied-brained class of back-boned animals. The fourteenth chapter is on “ the cat’s hexicology.” The gen- tle reader is here informe: that this is not a new organ or quality of the cat, but simply is a word coined by the author and substi- tuted for what seems to us a much better expression, the study of the environment. The study of all the “ complex relations to time, space, physical forces, 2 organisms, and to surr ounding con- ditions generally, constitute the science of hexicology.” But if 1882. ] Recent Literature, 39 the author is so far constrained, from motives of prudence in dealing with scientific names to the uninitiated as to use “ back- boned animals ” for vertebrates, and the term “suck-giving ” for mammalian, why does he take away the layman’s breath by pro-. posing the term /exicology, when we are only just getting used to the much better term environment ? But notwithstanding the formidable name at the head of the chapter, the essay itself is quite interesting, and serves to intro- duce us to the more valuable and interesting one on the pedigree and origin of the cat. In this essay all that has been learned of the cat’s structure and development, and of cats and carnivora in general, is brought to bear upon the question of the origin of the species, and family, and order. In answer to these questions, the author, adopting the results of French and American palzon- tologists, states his belief that the cat has originated from the cheetah, and the Felide in general from some Viverrine animal, while the carnivora may have descended from Arctocyon, the oldest Tertiary mammal, and contrary to the views of some, our author derives the carnivora from the insectivora, rather than the marsupials. As to the method of evolution, Mivart stands out from most other English evolutionists as a believer in sudden or saltatory evolution as well as slow, gradual development of spe- cies, his views in a general way agreeing with those of several American writers on this subject. This last chapter is certainly an able and interesting discussion, and the entire volume is the work of an expert comparative anatomist, and of a strong, able, facile writer. Tuomas’ FIFTH REPORT ON THE INJURIOUS INSECTs OF ILLINOIS. —In its typographical appearance, as well as general usefulness to the farmer or gardener, and interest to the entomologist, this report appears to us to be somewhat in advance of its predeces- 40 Recent Literature. [January, fly is most abundant in rather wet and moderately warm seasons ; while warmth appears to be the chief element in developing the Aphides or plant lice, some species being more favored by a humid atmosphere, while others develop more rapidly in a dry season. “ The cut-worms are developed more abundantly in such seasons as increase the army-worms, which in their normal habits are but cut- worms, massing in armies and migrating being really an abnor- mal condition in their history. Observation shows, as heretofore stated, that, as a general rule, those species which occasionally develop in such vast numbers require for this purpose two con- secutive seasons, though the character of the seasons for the dif- ferent species differ somewhat. That is to say, those which bring out one species are not the ones which bring out another. As examples of the correctness of this statement I have only to refer to the migratory locusts, the chinch bug, as heretofore shown, the Hessian fly, the army-worm, etc. The locust and the chinch bug require the same kind of seasons, that is, two successive dry years, the latter warm as well as dry ; consequently, when two such seasons prevail generally over the Northwest, both species: are apt to appear, as was the case in 1874. But the case is differ- ent with the army-worm, This requires a dry summer and fall, and I am inclined to believe also a dry winter, followed by a cool. and rather damp and cloudy spring. The two most noted years of its appearance in this State were 1861 and 1875, each of which followed a preceding dry year, but in neither case was the year in which it appeared warm, 1861 being one of average tempera- ture, and 1875 rather cold. The latter, which is the only one for which we have the records of the different seasons, was more than usually damp in the spring and summer.” Some meteoro- logical tables are given in illustration. These chapters are followed by a descriptive catalogue of larva; that of the caterpillars of butterflies being compiled by Miss Net-. tie Middleton, that of the Sphingide, Ægeridæ and Bombycide. by Mr. John Marten, while a chapter giving original notes on caterpillars is contributed by M. D. W. Coquillet. The Report closes with a reprint of Bulletin 4 of the U. S. Entomological Commission on the Hessian fly, by A. S. Packard, Jr. WALCOTT ON THE ORGANIZATION OF TRILOBITES.'—In this essay Mr. Walcott brings together the results of much patient labor in preparing sections and studying them with a view to settle the vexed question as to the nature of the limbs of the trilobite. The results are as follows: No antennz have been discovered ; but " four pairs of manducatory jaws, formed by the basal joints of the four anterior pairs of a dages,” which “have a general structure similar to the cephalic legs of Limulus and Eurypterus.” 1 The Trilobite: New and old evidence relating to its organization Br ED 3: WALCOTT. Bulletin of the Museum of Comperetity Dogi at Harvard ollege, i Vol. vin, No. 10. Cambridge, March, 1881. opoe = 1882.] Recent Literature. 41° Mr. Walcott also feels “justified in stating that there is a series of jointed legs extending from the cephalic shield beneath the thorax and pygidium to the posterior segment of the latter ; that, as far as known, they were ambulatory, and formed of six or seven joints ; that to the basal joint there was attached an epipo- dite and branchia ; and that, from the proof we now have, there is little doubt but that the appendages beneath the pygidium did not vary essentially from those of the thoracic region. ey may have terminated in a slender filament, or filaments, as bie three joints have been seen in any one appendage.” We con- gratulate the author on the success of his long-continued efforts and well-directed labors; he has fully demonstrated that Trilo- bites have slender jointed limbs on the general plan of those of Limulus, and not phyllopodous ones; while he has also shown that the branchiz were also attached to certain of these limbs, though we may not be satisfied with his interpretation of the nature of these gills, and wait for further light on this extremely difficult point. His restoration of a Trilobite will be useful, although it does not seem entirely natural, but yet may express the results of Mr. Walcott’s work thus far. He has settled, how- ever, in an admirable way, the general nature of the appendages of the Trilobite, and is entitled to the thanks of paleontologists. RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. PR agra ere Bemerkungen vorzugsweise üher Stiike des pig ae dria Museums in Bremen. Von Dr. J. G. Fischer, in amburg. Mit 3 Tafeln do Abbi Guage. 8vo, pp. 16, 4 plates, boards: Bremen, 1881. From the author. Musée Teyler. Catalogue Systematique de la Collection o a TS Par T. 8vo 8. Haar C. Winkler. Quatrième Supplément. Roy. 8vo, pp. 3 lem, 1881. From the author a Revue 1¢ Scientifique, va = rone et de L'étranger, Revue des Cours Scien- ara (3° Serie) Sage : MM. Antoine Breguet et Charles Richet. Paris, Octobre 29, 1881. om the iei Notice sur les Pism Tertiaires d Céreste (Basses-Alpes). Par M. H. E. Sauv. age. 8vo, Ppp. 22, 4 plates. Extrait = Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France. 3° serie, t. VIII, seance du 21 Juin, p aris, 1881, From the author. Value of Degrees Baumé given re different authors. Compiled m C. F. Chand- ler Pe F.G. Wiechman. ` 1881. From the authors South America—Brazil. Bolivia. Madeira and Mamet Ratleoss By Dr. rae a Coates. 1851, From the author. Proceedings of the United org National ee kh PP- 16. esha: Government Printing Office Proceedings of the Aca demy o A va Sciences ra Philadelphia. 8vo, pp- 48. Philadelphia, 1881. From the : Fae Honey Ants of = diraki ers the Gods, and the Occident Ants of the Ameri- By Henry adhe aaa D.D. 8vo, pp. 180, 13 plates, bound, ie delphia, pa panda the a ti Whi On certai etaceous yar from Arkansas and: Colors. By C. te 8vo, pp. A * piate. Ext. from Proc. Na t. Mus., 1881. Washington 1881. From the au Extra Census Bulletin. The areas of the, United Sites, the several Sates ud Territories, and and their puia Dr He t, E. M. 4to, pp. 20, _ mment Printing ton, 1 42. General Notes. [January, Pace rae g a rey ed .Evolntion of Thought. By Joseph LeConte. 8vo, pp. 1881. om the a athe kaá of] p eRe By George H. Stone. 8vo, pp. 38, map. 1880. From the author Me di Electricity. By S. V. Clevenger, M.D. 8vo, pp. 16, cuts. Reprint from me sabiini Medical Journal and Examiner, Nov. 1881. Chicago, 1881. From the uthor. 0. GENERAL NOTES. BOTANY .! Mimicry IN Fuxcı.—“ Instances of mimicry are not rare amongst fungi. They are more frequently attractive than protec- tive mimicries, They may be of vegetable, of animal, or of ex- crementitious substances, either as regards external appearance, or as regards odor. The main object of these mimicries is the attrac- tion of insects, the advantages of which to plants are: (1), either fertilization of hymenomycetous spores by co-specific spermatia rom other individuals, or by the transportation of spores from the hymenium of one fungus to that of another, or perhaps increased germinative energy to the spores is obtained by the admixture of other co-specific spores without the element of sexuality; (2), the oe of the me spores by insects as well as by the larger mals.” — Grevillea peee RUBESCENS GERARD, IN IowA.—Two years ago W. R. Gerard described and figured a new species of fungus in the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. It was discovered on Long Island, and was found to be a species of Simblum, a genus of the Phalloidei, the Stink-horn family. No species of Simblum had previously been known to exist outside of the tropics, S. peri- phragmoides occurring in the Mauritius islands, S. gracile in Ceylon, S. flavescens in Java, S. pilidiatum and S. spluardcephalum in South America. Such being the distribution of the know species, it must be regarded as remarkable that one should pé found in North America, and Mr. Gerard was justified in ques- tioning whether his specimens might not have grown from spores: or mycelium brought in ballast from the tropics, especially as we understand they were found at no great distance from “ ballast dumpings.” This question is settled, however, by its discovery in Central Iowa in Detobe er of the past year. A dozen or more plants were found ina field by C. L. Spencer, a student in the Agricultural College. Good specimens were secured and placed in alcohol for study in the laboratory. In only one particular do the Iowa speci- mens disagree with the description given by Mr. Gerard. To our plant Schlechtendal’s remark as to the odor of an allied species i does apply very forcibly, for it certainly does “ stink fürchterlich 1 Edited by Pror. C. E. Bessey, Ames, Iowa. 1882. | Botany. 43 Tue ASPARAGUS STEM FoR LABORATORY Stupy.—This plant affords as interesting and instructive an example of the stem of Monocotyledons as the now generally used pumpkin stem does ' of the Dicotyledons. It is so common that every botanical labora- tory can be supplied with it, and its early appearance, and long- continued growth make it possible to secure fresh specimens during many months of the year. The new shoots, such as are sold in the markets, if placed in alcohol afford good material for study, although we have found it a better plan to make all the sections we wanted of fresh stems and then to preserve these sec- tions in alcohol. Thus some cross and longitudinal sections of the very young stems we made early last year are still in most excellent condition for study. Not the least interesting feature of _ the asparagus stem is its provision for increasing its diameter by the subsequent formation of fibro-vascular bundles in a sub-corti- cal meristem zone. This will afford material for much careful study on the part of students in the laboratory. THE ABUNDANCE OF FRESH-WATER ALG#.—The excessively wet autumn in Central Iowa caused an unusual growth of fresh- water Algæ. Every pond and ditch was filled with Spirogyra, Zygnema, Vaucheria, etc., until the first of November. Usually our waters are nearly barren of these growths so late in the Season, but this year the continued wet weather, instead of the usual drouth, favored their development. The same causes doubt- less produced the unusually large amount of autumn blooming of our spring flowers which was noticeable at the same time. THE SYSTEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF THE THALLOPHYTES.—If we except England and America, where a morbid conservatism seems to prevail, there has been a great deal of-activity recently among botanists with reference to a better arrangement of the plants lying-in the great region below the mosses, and to which. Endlicher gave the name of the Thallophyta. Thus Cohn, in 1872, published in Hedwigia, an outline of a classification, in which the old groups Algæ, Fungi and Lichenes were no longer maintained in their integrity. Shortly afterwards (in 1873) F ischer proposed an arrangement which bears a striking similar- ity to Sachs’. These two are briefly given in our “ Botany for High Schools and Colleges,” and need not be repeated here. Sachs’ now famous arrangement was published in the fourth edi- tion of his Lehrduch, which appeared in 1874. This bas- Somewhat modified by various authors, notably by Professor A. W. Bennett, who, in 1880, proposed to restore the groups (classes) Algz and Fungi, subdividing them, however, into sub-classes by making use of Sachs’ structural characters. This was republished in the Naturatist for January, 1881. : Bary, in January of the _ Botanische Zeitung a scheme of a a esent year, published in the 44 General Notes. [January, Thallophytes, involving some interesting points. In this seven classes, viz: the Cyanophycezx, Chlorophycez, Conjugate, Phæo- ' phyceæ, Fungi, Myxomycetes and Rhodophycee, are recognized. These classes are regarded as genetic groups, which often include plants of very different structural rank. The Cyanophycez are thus all Agamz, while the Chlorophycee are, for the greater part, Isogamæ, with three of its five branches extending into the Oodgame, and one into the Carposporeæ. Phaophycee originating in the Isogamæ, extend into the Odgame; similarly the Fungi, which have their origin in the Oögamæ extend into the Carpospore. The Conjugate are all Isogamæ, the Myxomycetes all Oogame, and the Rhodophycee all Carpospore. Thus it is seen that De Bary has attempted to retain the integrity of the groups which European algologists have generally recognized, and at the same time to make use of Sachs’ structural classification. It may be understood from the following diagram: g . 3 w rae i ` ots . N fos on ae Pe oo: 3 = S i . By See oO, X Aea à 8 eset ome O -R . . . AT . . . 2] ‘ ` 9 : Myx. 8 a fa ° Hei a Es — A) & S ° AE U ; ; rm : ; 8 ĝu b í CONJUGATA. = ed + ` E Bla a ie es a g i : : : x CH LOR OPHYC E Æ. S . . . . . . CVAN GL UY CE =. Š E = By X Cohn’s later attempt was sketched in the June NaruraLIsT of the past year, and, Caruel’s in the October number. We have now another (Bot. Zeitung. Aug. 12, 1881) by Christoph Gobi, cura- tor of the Herbarium of the University of St. Petersburg. This last bears a close resemblance to De Bary’s in that Sachs’ system is preserved for indicating structural rank; thus we have the Agamz (Protophyta of Sachs), Isogamz (Zygosporez of Sachs), - Oogamz (Odsporez of Sachs) and the Carposporez ; further, the genetic series (or classes) include plants of different structural 2 rank, the Cyanophycee being mostly Agamez with a doubtful _ higher representation, the Rhodophycee all Carposporee, the _ 1882. | -+ Botany. À 45 Chlorophyceæ and Fungi, each including the four structural forms, and the Phæophyceæ some Agamæ, Isogamæ and Oögamæ. The Saccharomycetes and Myxomycetes are outlying groups, respectively, of the agamic and isogamic Fungi. The following diagram will serve for comparison with the preceding one: En . 2 n % ʻ v % . s bs ~ ` 3) g x . pa g . eo g oO oo > v S a a Q o v g S Ld A < è to} 3 ° o S . ee v 5 s ae S om i x —— ve &} G : LY ak3 4 a i . g 8 7 u = ? a is) x 8 a - bo is oO . 1 ¿ z : S o ry ý * . > i fu e . . o z i" “ . : 5 ; e es : . -S ~ & "Hos VARRED AR 3 eee y o A g eek k 5 ? > r a x S i : : w & P > to E U., g . z ° o 2o . [o] 2 om = v br š E=] . v cS pe i ~ . = vo ro) _ . A i, i & = if e] o O = i Ao Š i v . P3 . . A . H ee T One - PuæoP. Funct. E - a J . ee ps © (3) Red E! k PN . = cs ° £ Èd A ° oO — io = z © n ťi w 5’ ‘ = CYANOPHYCES CHLOROPHYCE&. Gobi, after remarking upon the inappropriateness of the name Thallophyta, and the difficulty of fixing upon such characters as will set off distinctly the plants of this group from those of all others, suggests the new name of Glceophyte, from the slimy nature of most of the species. We trust that this new name will not be adopted, for while there can be no exception taken to Gobi’s criticisms upon the use of the term Thallophyta, the real — difficulty lies in the attempt to combine in one great group, plants which have too many structural differences. In our opinion, the Thallophytes include several distinct grand divisions of the vege- table kingdom, just as the Cormophytes do, Old names generally — - live long after their usefulness has ceased, as witness Cryptogam, = Endogen, Exogen, and in zodlogy the term Invertebrata, and 46 General Notes. [January, It is significant that in all these recent attempts at a methodical disposition of these plants, the lichens do not appear as a distinct class, but are placed with the Ascomycetes (fungi), being regarded by most as an order of this class. This indicates the pretty gen- eral acceptance of Schwendener’s views as to the nature of lichens, or, at the least, of some very considerable modification of the old view. There are hopeful indications of a gradual settling down upon nearly the lines of demarkation first roughly drawn by Sachs. It may be that Sachs’ names will not be retained, and, indeed, it may be questioned whether some of the more recently suggested ones are not preferable. However, we prefer Protophyta to Agame, while Isogamz and Oögamæ are certainly not much preferable to Zygosporee and Oosporee. -Zygophyta, Oophyta and Carpophyta would be better in many respects than any yet suggested. The Slime Moulds (Myxomycetes) sadly puzzle the botanists, Their old position near the puff-balls (in the Carposporez) they have hopelessly lost, while their right to a place in the Oosporee (De Bary) or the Zygosporez (Sachs and Gobi) is exceedingly doubtful. We agree with Fischer, Bennet and Caruel in placing them in or near the Protophyta. In view of Saville Kent’s recent endeavor to show the animal nature of Slime Moulds, it may not e amiss to repeat here the remark made by us two years ago, “Tt is by no means an improbable hypothesis that in the Myxo- mycetes we have the zerrestrial phase and in the Monera the aquatic phase of a common group of organisms. The Myxomy- cetes are not Monera, but they are moneran in their structure, and probably also in their affinities, All the differences between the Myxomycetes and a Moner like Protomyxa, for example, are probably referable to the terrestrial habit of the former as con- trasted with the aquatic habit of the latter.’ (‘ Botany for High Schools and Colleges,” p. 207, foot-note.) In Bennett, De Bary and Gobi’s systems the greatest emphasis is placed upon what may be called genetic relationship, as dis- tinguished from structural relationship. That some account must be taken of genetic relationship in any system of classification needs no argument in these days, but this must not be to the ex- clusion of structure, and evident structural affinities, lest the prime object of all classification be defeated —C. Æ. Bessey, ELECTRIC LIGHT AND PLANT Growra.—Dr. Siemens’ interest- ing experiments with plants grown in electric light promise to be of great value not only to the student of vegetable physiology, but to the farmer and gardener as well. It seems to be pretty certain that in continuous light plants grow much more than when dark- = ness alternates with light. Dr. Siemens is, indeed, led to ask _ whether the darkness of the night does not present a “difficulty to 1882. ] Botany. 47 plant life which had to be met,” by a special development, instead of affording a period of needed rest. In fact, it begins to look as if the old notion of the need of rest by a plant would have to be abandoned, or at least very greatly modified. One of the most suggestive things brought out in these experiments is the blight- ing effect of the light from the naked electric light. Plants so ex- posed became shriveled and scorched, while those situated nearer to the light, but having a sheet of glass interposed, were not so affected. Botanicat Notes.—In Professor Parker’s lecture on “ Biology as an academical study,” published in ature, there is a most ex- cellent denunciation of the teaching of botany and zoology as mere classificatory sciences, and a strong plea for the “ laboratory method,” which he properly urges for not only the college but for the high school also. “What,” says he, “ would be thought of a mathematical teacher who relied entirely on lectures, and never dreamed of insisting that his pupils should apply what he had taught by working out examples for themselves? Or what of a teacher of art who ignored the necessity of making his stu- dents draw or paint? Every one sees the necessity of practical, and the uselessness of exclusively theoretical teaching in these in-. stances, yet the fact ıs generally ignored that the case is precisely the same with scientific subjects.” good service has been rendered by the editor of the American Monthly Microscopical Journal in the publication in his journal of the Rev. W. Johnson’s “Introduction to the study of lichens.” Several wood-cuts help to make the matter so clear that the beginner need have no trouble in taking up the study of these very interesting plants. ——Mr. W. H. Leggett has seen reasons for suspecting cleisto- gamy in the common purslane (Portulaca oleracea), and asks in the October Torrey Bulletin for confirmation or disproof. As showing the incomplete state of our knowledge of the plants of the world, it is Significant that seven new species of British lichens are described in ink coun for September. If species are discover- able at that rate in country which has been so diligently worked by collectors, wha may we not look for. in the world at large! ———Wm. Trelease has been studying the nectar glands upon the leaves of Populus, and finds that they appear as a rule only on the first half dozen leaves of each shoot in early spring. After a long Series of careful examinations, the results of which he records in the November Botanical Gazette, he concludes that these glands are protective indirectly by attracting ants, ichneumonids and lady-birds, which in turn serve to keep off many harmful insects — and larger animals.——From a study of the flora of Madagascar. J. G. Bake ventures in the Journal of Botany to estimate the number of species of flowering plants alone at from four to five : | thousand, a remarkably high number when we consider the limited _ tea covered by it, viz: 228,573 square miles, or a little m * 48. - General Notes. - [January, than three-fourths the size of the State of Texas. Macchiati in the October Nusvo Giornale. Botanico Italiano enumerates the orchids of Sardinia, forty-six species in all. n the same journal, Professor Passerini continues his enumeration of the fungi of Parma, No less than thirty-two species of Peronosporeæ occur in the Parmensian flora. The re-issue of the third series of the well-known Botanical Magazine is announced, by the pub- lishers, L. Reeve & Co., London. A second edition of Eiliott’s “ Hand-book of Landscape Gardening” has appeared from the house of D. M. Dewey & Co., of Rochester. Botanically, its chief interest lies in the numerous very poor colored plates, the pub- lisher has added. It is to be hoped that no horse-chestnut like the one figured in this book ever existed. There can be no ex- cuse for such wretched plates, and for the numerous typographi- cal blunders, which disfigure the work. However, we do not doubt, that the book may be useful to many who wish to improve their grounds. ZOOLOGY. 1882. ] i Zoölogy. 49 and I take the opportunity so offered of putting, my observations ‘upon record, so as to facilitate future studies by others. Graff says the capsules observed by him in- material supplied from the Frankfurt a. M. Aquarium, by Dr: Schmidt, measured about three millimeters long by one and a half wide, which would correspond pretty nearly with the outline of the largest capsule observed by me and represented in Fig. 9. But accord- : ing to him these large capsules contained from two to nine em- ‘bryos, while those observed by me never contained more than one, the presumption, therefore, is, that they belong to distinct species, and that on:this specimen of Limulus, Planaria imuli was not present. All of the capsules were apparently chitinous, and attached by a cylindrical stalk to the surface of the branchial leaflets by a disk-like expansion of the end of the stalk, as represented in SG 4 uF N : ee 1.2 3 4 Capsules and Embryos of the Planaria cf the Horse-shoe Crab; enlarged. Figs. 1-7 and 9. In form the capsules are oval and flattened, lying down flat against the surface of the branchial leaflets with the plane side. The lower side of the capsule is flat, the upper through the branchial structures, So éxtensive was this damage . 50 General Notes. , [January, our parasites need to do in order to get at the juices of their host, is to cut through the lamella next to them and they have an abundant supply of food always at hand. It appears that Van Beneden, the elder, regards them, on the authority of A: Agassiz, as messmates, but from the foregoing recital it would appear that they are more or less truly parasitic in habit. It appears that other crustaceans are infested by planarians, and Professor Leidy has described a parasitic genus, Bdellura. n the specimen of Limulus examined by me there were three well-marked types of egg capsules. The first, represented in Figs. 1-4, enlarged sixteen times, measured about a twelfth of an - inch, or about a tine, in length, and: usually contained from two to four embryos. The branches of the gastric cavity are separate posteriorly in the embryos, but afterward become joined, as shown in Fig. 10, supposed to be the adult of this second form This form has a pair of eye spots developed at a very early period preceding. The capsules measure about one-twenty-fifth of an - | e shown in Fig, 5, but after the young worms have develope somewhat they usually lie along side of each other lengthwise of the capsule. They frequently change positions, however, at this 1882. ] Zoblogy. 51 stage, and it sometimes happens that there is but one embryo in a capsule. The ova of this, like the preceding species are nearly opaque, and the walls of the stomach in like manner are composed of very dark granular protoplasm. The next form of capsule observed, is that represented in Fig. 9, enlarged sixteen times, and is supposed to belong to the adult represented in Fig. 8, enlarged five anda half times. These, as stated before, were never seen to contain more than one embryo, and measure over an eighth of aninchin length. The egg is not so darkly pigmented as in the other forms. The supposed adult of this species, Fig. 8, is apparently without eyes, and the on either side of the median line independent of each other. The peculiar hood-like cephalic extremity may be of the nature of a sucking disk. This last form is milky white in appearance ; the cecal prolongations of the stomach, yellowish. The stomach in the other forms is dark brown, so that the two types of forms may be at once distinguished. o not propose to name the species, as these supposed distinct life histories may, after all. our endeavors to separate them, be only phases of the same thing. Sure points of distinction can only be got by a more thorough study of these interesting types than I have been able to bestow upon them, and I leave them here in the hands of such helminthologists as may be disposed to give the subjects of this notice further attention. I have not seen Dr. Graff's final piper, in which P. muli was to be fully described and illustrated.— Fon A. Ryder. THe CIRCULATION OF SESSILE-EYED Crustacea. — Dr. Yves Delage has published in the Archives de Zoologie expérimen- tale et générale, a superbly illustrated and detailed memoir on the circulation’ of the sessile-eyed Crustacea. The plates are printed in colors, so as to bring out clearly the heart, arteries, venous sinuses and veins; moreover, sections of the body are given, so that the topography of the circulatory system is given in a graphic manner. The memoir is too long for abstract, but it is one of the most valuable contributions of the past year to our knowledge of the Crustacea. The circulation appears to be on much the same plan as in the Decapods. Viviearous Cutropora.—A Brazilian species of this genus of Holothurians, or sea-cucumbers, has been found by Professor H. Ludwig to be viviparous. The genital tubes appear to give rise to both eggs and spermatozoa, the latter being developed in their blind ends and lateral bunches. The young to the number of- sixteen, and all of the same stage of development, were found lying freely in the body-cavity. They had seven tentacles, two of them minute, and in the body-wall were groups of developing or developed calcareous: whee o 2 hs a 52 General Notes. [January, A MARINE PLANARIAN AND ITs HABITATION.—In June, 1881, a very large female specimen of the common horse- shoe crab ( Lim- ulus polyphemus) came into my hands, on the gills of which I observed a number of brown. small bodies like seeds of some plant, together with’ living perg Worms; a dendrocœlous Plana- rian, the Bdelloura candida Girar These worms were of various sizes, the largest (Fig. 1; side), measuring 16™™ in length and about 6™™ in width, by about 1™™ in thickness. They moved slowly and snail-like over the large lamellous gills, their body-margin, especially the anterior portion, having undulating motions, these being respiratory movements. On placing them in alcohol they became considerably wrinkled and contracted. ie larger ones had neither cephalic notches (which occur in some members of this family), nor eye-dots. The dorsal side showed a faint line running along and close to the entire margin. A large round muscular bag occasionally pro- truded® from a little behind the middle of the ventral surface ; this is the pharynx. In alcoholic specimens a second roundish smaller opening could be seen a little be- hind the pharynx, the genital orifice. The alimentary system had about ten or eleven ‘lateral sacs. _ ~The seed-like brown bodies found to- gether with the Planarians, I immediately took for their egg-cases , which proved to Fic ORE is: be correct upon opening some of them 3mm long, extended. oc, whence one or two young Planarians could genital glands: 58) 8 ee plea Een and f oe © eye-dots, which, I presume, in the adult of an adult Planari have degenerated. he pharynx, the genital orifice and even the genital gland (Fig. 1 g) could be recognized. From analogy, T infer the latter to be the male organs, the female glands having _ escaped my observation, since our worm is hermaphroditic. The ~ movements of these young worms were more rapid than in the older ones. The egg-cases were of various sizes, by far the greatest num- ‘ber, however, being 3.50™™ in length (excluding the stem), by 1.50™™ in width, They were plano-convex, the latter exteriorly, _ the former towards the gills, They consisted of a brown, homo- — m ‘Theo, C. Hepp, M.D., Brooklyn, “N af 1 Fro epp, f 2 Identified by Professor A. S. Sye la 3 In alcoholic specimens in i 1882. ] Zoölogy. ` 53 geneous, thick and leathery mass, either ovoid or cup-shaped, some of them having a sort of a lid on their tip. Within many of them were the young Planarians, free, moving about, from one to three individuals in each capsule, in others the same were again enclosed within a similar oval case without stem, and again a -others werę found with their tip broken off and empty. The greater number of them were covered around their tip with bluish (colorless in. Fig, 2,—a, e with a alcoholic specimens) ten-pin-shaped ripen bes saree nee) tubes with | SRE tips, As these eolais wlth E (?) tubes were invariably on or near the around tip; c, ordinary form of tip of the capsules only, they cannot egg-capsule, enclosing three young be taken for parasitic organisms, but Planarians; d, empty egg-capsule . with three empty cases near orifice. may presumably be openings for an exchange of oxygenized water for the enclosed offspring. Those: capsules having no such tubes, probably got them rubbed off through the motions of the gills of the Limulus. A few speci- mens of this Planarian, from three to five millimeters in length, the size usually found only within the capsules, were amongst the larger ones creeping around. These must have just left their pro-. tecting homes.— Carl F. Gissler, Ph.D. THE STRUCTURE AND AFFINITIES OF THE HippopoTamus.—Ina recent illustrated paper, entitled “ Observations upon the Hippo- Potamus,” by Professor H. C. Chapman, published in the Pr oceed- ings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, the author Sives a résumé of what has been published upon the general anat- a8 adult ] dfemale omy of this animal, of which he dissected an a 54 General Notes. [January, of the ordinary Hippopotamus amphibius, which died during the year pastin this country. He figures the brain, alimentary and reproductive systems, and adds much of importance to our knowledge of this great beast. In conclusion, he thus remarks on the natural affinities of the hippopotamus with the Ungulata and other mammals, especially the manatee. “In observing the manatee that lived for several months in the Philadelphia Zoölog- ical Garden, the manner in which it rose to the surface of the water to breathe reminded me often of the hippopotami that I watched in the Zodlogical Garden of London and the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. The slow way in which the animals rise to the surface, the motionless pose of the almost sunken body, the nos- trils often just appearing at the surface, etc., are very much alike in both animals. In speaking of the alimentary canal, I called attention to the stomach of the manatee, which represents that of the hippopotamus in an atrophied condition, while, on the other hand, the stomach of the hippopotamus is intermediate between the peccary and the ruminants. As regards the heart, it will be remembered that in the young hippopotamus, at least, it is bifid, resembling in this respect that of the manatce. The female gen- erative apparatus of the peccary and hippopotamus are almost identical. Again, the sexual vesicles are found in both hippopot- amus and manatee. While the placenta does not appear to me cation of a type common to the pig, peccary, sheep, ox, giraffe, etc., it has also, it seems to me, affinities with that of the manatee. another Sirenian, are constructed on the same pattern as those of the hippopotamus. It is proper to mention, however, that the - same distinguished observer considers the teeth of the manatee __ and the Prorastomus, another extinct Sirenian, to be rather allied 1882. ] Zoölogy. 55 to those of the tapir and Lophiodon; but this qualification does not really invalidate the supposed affinities between the Sirenia and the hippopotamus. For the Artiodactyla and the Perissodac- tyla are probably offshoots of a common stock, and hence we may expect to find in these two groups certain characters common to both, inherited from their Lophiodon and Coryphodon-like ances- tors. The affinities of the teeth of the manatee with those of the tapir—the firstan embryonic Artiodactyle, the second a generalized Perissodactyle—would be examples of the above view. I do not mean to imply that the manatee has necessarily descended directly from the hippopotamus, though extinct intermediate forms may in the future show this to be so, for possibly they may be the de- scendants of a common ancestor. To many such speculations may appear mere waste of time, we being unable, from the nature of the case, td experimentally prove or disprove the truth of the hypothesis advanced. It seems to me, however, that the only explanation of the structure of the living forms and of the petrified remains of the animals referred to in these observations, is the hy- pothesis of there being some generic connection between them.” _ VERRILLIA BLAKEI OR HALIPTERIS BLAKEI.—In the San Fran- cisco Mining and Scientific Press, of August oth, 1873, I pub- lished a “ Description of a new species of Alcyonoid Polyp, which I placed in Cuvier’s genus Pavonaria, and gave to it the specific name of d/akei, in recognition of the courtesy of Dr. James Blake, who kindly furnished the specimens to describe. Subsequently, nine days after the publication of the first description as above, at a meeting of the California Academy of Sciences, held on the 18th ay of August, I removed the species to a new sub-genus which I called Verrillia, in honor of Professor Verrill, of Yale College. e oe, Polypidon linear-elongate, round or ovate in cross section. Axis round, slender, bony; polyps arranged in two unilateral longitudinal series.” ; In Nature for November 6th, 1873, Dr. J. E. Gray, in an article entitled, “On the stick fish (Osteocella septentrionalis), and the- habits of the sea pens,” endeavored to make it appear that his” genus and species, should have precedence, or the names so given by him should stand instead of mine, and gave what he called oe ‘the synonyma ofthese animals,” presenting the sequence of dates e publication of the various papers, to show the priority of his wn. To this communication of Dr. Gray’s I replied in a. paper read © before the California Academy of Sciences on the 16th of March, - 1874, in which I reviewed the claims of Dr. Gray and his genus _ and species Osteocella septentrionalis, and denied the validity there- of, on the ground that “No description sufficiently accurate to be _ _ Worthy of consideration can be made of the axial rods or bones _ alone, of this class of animal forms, nor can species be satisfac- 56 General Notes. [January, torily determited-without ‘the fleshy portion; nor in our present T of knowledge can the microscope determine these points.” n the Zoölogical Record for 1873, Vol. x (pp. 508-9), Dr. Lut- oe editor of the department Coelenterata, uses the following language: “ Its generic identity with the Australian species (type of Osteocella), cannot be established so long as the latter is known only from the axial skeleton. It will be — as the quotation that Dr. Lutken practically sustains my pos My a Ea ere before the Academy, August 18th, 1873, was soon after reprinted in the American Journal of Science and Art, to which Professor Verrill added a foot-note as follows: “A recent examination of a specimen, convinces me that this species is most nearly allied to the Halipteris christi Kölliker (Koren and Dar., sp.), and probably ought to be referred’ to the same genus,” While regretting that the generic title with which I had asso- ciated the name of a justly distinguished naturalist, as well as a personal friend, must yield to precedence, I can only accept his suggestion, and place the species in Kolliker’s genus Halipterus. The allusions herein to the late Dr. Gray are not intended to re- vive any differences of opinion as between that. eminent authority and myself, but are incidentally introduced, being necessary to the continuity of the record of my own connection with the form Herne furnishes the title to this pa as not aware until recently that 3 had not already called the pe ours of the Academy to Professor Verrill’s note, which long- continued sickness in my family, and the pressure, until very re- cently, of official duties caused me to overlook.—R&. £. C. Stearns, Berkely, California, Nov. 9, 1881.. DISCOVERIES oF THE U. S. Fish. COMMISSION ON THE SOUTH-’ ERN Coast. oF NEw EnGianp.—In the American Yournal of Science for October, Professor Verrill records ‘the further discov- eries made the past summer over a region about 42 miles wide, north and south, and 105 miles long, along the 100-fathom line off the southern coast of New England. | It will be remembered that a remarkably rich fauna inhabits this region, which is near the edge of the Gulf stream, and at the edge of the descent to the ocean bottom. This richness in life seems to be due to the fol-: lowing reasons stated by Verrill: This region is subject to the combined effects of the Gulf stream on one side, and the cold northern current on the other, together with the gradual decrease in temperature.in proportion to the depth. It is, therefore, prob- able that, at any given depth below 50 fathoms, the temperature is nearly ‘the same at all seasons of the year. Moreover, there is, -in this region, an active circulation of the water at all times, due- : ~ to the combined currents and tides.. The successive zones of depth represent successively cooler climates, more perfectly here — : 1882. } Zoology. 57 than near the coast. The vast quantities of free-swimming ani- mals continually brought northward by the Gulf stream, and filling the water, both at the surface and bottom, furnish an inex- haustible supply of food for many of the animals inhabiting the bottom, and probably, directly or indirectly to nearly all of them. A very large species of Salpa, often five or six inches long, occurs, both at the surface and close to the bottom, in vast quan- tities. These are eaten by star-fishes, actiniz, etc. Pteropods also frequently occur in the stomachs of star-fishes, while Foram- inifera furnish a large part of the food of many of the mud-dwell- ing species. The fishes, which are very abundant, and of many species, of which the file-fish is the most notable, find a wonder- fully abundant supply of most excellent food in the very numerous Species of crabs, shrimps and other Crustacea, which occur in such vast quantities that, not unfrequently, many thousands of, specimens. of several species are taken in a single haul of the trawl. Cephalopods are also abundant, and are eagerly devoured by the larger fishes, while others prey largely upon the numerous gastropods and bivalves. Many interesting fishes and mollusks were taken, some new to science, and of great interest; among the latter, the most remarkable is a new species of the tropical shell Dolium (D. b.trdit), taken. alive in 202 fathoms. Dolum galea extends northward to North Carolina, _ This. southern form, with a large Marginella, an Avicula, and various other genera, Dors THE Crow Bracksird Eat Crayrisn ?—Proféssor Beal, of the Iowa Agricultural College, asks this question in the No- vember Naruratist; his inquiry having been: prompted ‘by find- ing twenty-six gastroliths, or stomach-stones in a bird’s “gizzard.” The little incident which-I will- here: record, I think -will fairly’ settle this question with an affirmative answer. > Crayfish inhabit many, doubtless most. of the sloughs and wet places on our prairies; but I suppose the species to be identical with that in our, rivers and. streams, though they are sometimes spoken of as. ae “land-crabs.” Outside of where the water covers the. ground,- they dig holes into the soil, and in carrying out the dirt their, holes are frequently built. up like. little chimneys, sometimes five or six inches above the surface. In a dry time they are compelled . _ this way, they do a vast amount of work—generally, 58 General Notes. [ January, the night as they are seldom, if ever, seen so engaged. Passing a slough on the road, where these curious animals live, one day, three or four years ago, I saw a crow blackbird ( Quiscalus pur- pureus), very hard at work in an apparent effort to grasp some object on the ground. Ina moment it flew up and alighted on a fence-post, having in its bill a quite large crayfish. The bird held it by the back, as a boy grasps one in his fingers, to keep clear of the creature’s pinchings claws. The captor had evidently done that sort of thing before, for it manifested none of the awkward- ness of a “new hand” at the business. During the moment which elapsed before the bird flew off with its prey, I could dis- tinctly see the crayfish’s legs and feet in rapid motion, as it was feeling about for some object to grasp, or struggling to escape. The bird seemed to have quite a job in mastering the bundle of claws and legs, but it appeared determined not to abandon its lucky “find.’ I believe this incident may be taken as a very positive answer to Professor Beal’s inquiry, though in regard to the food of any of our birds we need just such crucial tests as those which have been made by Professor Forbes, of Normal, Illinois. As to the presence of such an unusual number of these gastroliths, in the bird’s stomach, it would require close observa- tion to determine whether they were picked up and swallowed as aids to digestion, in grinding up the food; or were left for the sdme purpose after the other portions of the crayfish had passed along into the intestines. But these sagacious and active birds are so often seen walking in the shallow water, that their mission is no doubt the capture of all sorts of ‘small deer” which abide in there, as minnows, crayfish, worms, small frogs, &c. They are wise birds, and they walk about within a few feet of an observer, with a degree of coolness and nonchalance which is as amusing as it is unusual in our feathered visitants. In spring and fall they industriously follow a plow all day long, devouring all sorts of insects, and at such times become exceedingly tame. In fact, their behavior is exactly of that kind to indicate that thev take it for granted that no one desires to hurt them. At all events, that is the case on my farm.—Charles Aldrich, Webster City, Towa, Nov. 10, 1881. Witp Birps RACING WITH THE Cars.—Several times I have noticed wild birds of different species flying along parallel with, and near a railroad train,in such a way as to suggest the idea that they were really trying to distance the iron horse! One day last spring I was coming east from Sioux City, Iowa, on the Illinois Central R. R., when my attention was attracted to a couple of birds which seemed to be making us a trial of | . their speed with the train. They were, as I supposed at the time, our smallest species of hawks—sharp, alert, powerful birds, possessed of a high degree of strength and endurance on the _ wing. They kept steadily on their course a dozen ro ds from m 1882. | Zoölogy. 59 the train, for at least a mile and a half, but the train was too rapid for them, and they finally turned aside and went back in the direction whence they came. A strong head-wind was blowing at the time, and the birds at some moments seemed to sail squarely in its teeth without fluttering a wing. I watched them with much interest, and I did not think I could be mistaken in the belief that they were really trying to beat the train in the race. Horses and dogs frequently race with railroad trains, and possibly the instinct for sport and excitement may also exist in the wild birds.— Charles Aldrich, Webster City, Iowa, Nov. 9, 1881. INFUSORIA IN Dew.—Mr. W. S. Kent states, in his Manual of the Infusoria, that he gathered in a very foggy day in Regent’s Park a quantity of grass saturated with “ dew,” and found in every drop squeezed from the grass great numbers of infusoria of dif- ferent genera, such as Heteromita, Vorticella, etc., with Rotifer vut- garis and other rotifers, and numerous Amcebe,Anguillula, and va- rious diatoms, the collection as a whole being indistinguishable from the ordinary microscopic fauna of a roadside pond. ZooLocicaL Nores.—The practical aspects of zodlogy must be appreciably felt in India, where it is reported that no fewer than 21,990 persons were killed during the year 1880 by snakes and tigers. The annual percentage of loss has increased during the past five years, the number of victims in 1876 not exceeding 19,273. It also appears that the white ant in India costs the government £100,000 a year for repairing wood-work, bridges, etc., caused by its depredations-A_ preliminary report, by P. H. Carpenter, on the Comatule dredged by the U. S. Coast Sur- vey, under the supervision of Mr. A. Agassiz, in the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean sea, and the east coast of the United States, appears in the Bulletin of the Cambridge Museum. The collec- tion embraces forty new species of Comatulz, the number known: to inhabit the Caribbean sea alone being fifty-five; the genus being essentially a shoal-water one. An additional case of supposed _ hybridity in birds is noticed by W. Brewster, in the Bulletin of the Nuttall Ornithological Club, for October. -He thinks that H elminthophaga leucobranchialis and H. lawrencei are hybrids n H . finus and H. chrysoptera. Hitherto it was not known ~ to occur in any American birds, except among grouse and some — of the swimming birds, Among the Passeres Trotter's hybrid swallow, and Ridgway’s case of a supposed hybrid between Helininthophaga pinus and Oporornis formosa, have lately been added. Mr. Brewster thinks there are several additional doubtful _ Species, which “ show strong traces of a hybrid origin.”——In the _ Same journal, A.M. Frazer concludes that, instead of following the land, a large number of species migrate direct from Central _ America to the Mississippi valley, across the Gulf of Mexico, te — the scarcity of these species in Southwestern Texas iS 1S thus. ae 60 General Notes. [January, explained.——A_ néw edition of. Brehm’s Thierleben, with 170 chromo-lithograph plates, is to be issued in 140 weekly parts, at 36 cents each, postpaid. B. Westermann & Co., of New York, are the agents in this country. An annotated list of the birds of Nevada, by W. A. Hoffman, appears in the Bulletin of Hayden’s U. S. Geological Survey, Vol. vi. It is prefaced by remarks on the distribution of vegetation in Nevada, as affecting that of the avi-fauna, and is accompanied by interesting profile views. A . valuable illustrated paper on the comparative anatomy and the his- tology of the brain, and more particularly of the epiphysis cerebri of Plagiostomes, Ganoids and Teleostei, by Dr. T. Th. Catter, gives us some apparently excellent drawings of the brains of Raya clavata, Acanthias vulgata, Galeus canis, Acipenser sturio, Gadus morrhua, Cyclopterus luzzpus, and the common eel, which will be ound very useful to naturalists in this country. The Zo6lo- gischer Anzeiger, for Nov. 14, contains a summary of new re- searches by Salensky, on the embryonal development of Salpa, ` and several articles on the intestinal worms.——Prof. Heckel has gone to Ceylon on a scientific journey ——A new zoological ` station, to serve as a winter laboratory, and as an annex to the sea-side laboratory founded by Lacaze Duthiers at Roscoff, is to be opened at Banyuls-sur-Mer, on the Mediterranean. building, says Nature, will be of considerable size, and the aqua- rium will be lighted by electricity ——An English adaptation of Claus’ “ Handbuch der Zoologie,” by Mr. Adam Sedgwick, of Trinity College, Cambridge, with the addition of 500 to 600 drawings by Prof. Claus himself, is to be published by W: Swan, Sonnenschein & Co., London.——A_ hand-book of Vertebrate es he te: Prof. H. Newell Martin and William A. Moale, low to dissect a Chelonian, is announced as pub- lished ‘ta "Mcemillan & Co. ENTOMOLOGY :.! On Some Curious Merops oF Cwatcip Pupation.—In the course of two years’ study of the Chalcidide, I have met with several anomalies connected with pupation, which seem to be worthy of description, and to which, so far as I can learn, with a sinpie exception; the attention of entomologists has not been c One of the most curious of these instances, and one which, friends to whom I have shown the, specimens, is the case ofa larva of Phoxopteris divisana Walk., an oak-feeding Tortricid, — which has been parasited by an Euplectrus. The species I have, called in MS. E. albitrophis and the method of pupation is so. 2 similar to that of Æ. comstocki, graphically described by Mr. 1 This department i is edited by Pror.. C: V. — Y, Washington, D D. C., to whom- 3 communications, books for notice, etc., should be s 1882. ] Entomology. 61 Schwarz in the January, 1881, number of the NATURALIST, as to need no extended description. The flat, empty skin of the host is united to the leaf by a mesh of coarse silk, in which are placed transversely the seven parasitic pupz, each separated from the others by a silken partition, and protected as by a roof by the skin of the Phoxopteris. Other lepidopterous larve will un- doubtedly be found to be infested by parasites of this interesting genus, and the only wonder is that no observations should have been recorded since the days of Fonscolombe. In early July, while examining the mines of Lthocolletis hama- adryadella, on the white oak at Washington, several mines were found, each of which presented a discolored portion, regularly elliptical in form, 3.5™" long by 2™™ wide, the edge of which was marked by a series of small, regularly placed black dots. Upon removing carefully the separated epidermis of the leaf, the center of the discolored portion was seen to be occupied by a naked Chalcid pupa, not fastened to the leaf in any way, but held in place and protected by a series of minute cylindrical pillars, from twelve to fifteen in number, applied by flattened extremities to the upper and lower surfaces of the mine, and forming a regular ellipse around the pupa. The distances between the pillars were uniform, and the pillars themselves were very constant in size. Their length was about 0.35™. The excrement of Chalcid larvæ, as is well-known, is only voided at the change to pupe, and is usually to be found in a few irregular pellets at the anal end of the body of the pupa. These pillars, however, seem to be clearly excrementitious, and yet must have been formed by the Chalcid larva prior to pupation; but, as the anal end of the ali- mentary canal is only open during the transition to pupa, the material composing the pillars must have been expelled from the mouth of the larva, and shaped while yet moist. The most natural thought which suggests itself as to the object of this pe- culiar disposition of the excrement, is that the pillars by separa- ting the floor and the roof of the mine save the pupa from the of Chrysocharis Först, which I have called in MS. C. singula ris, _ While engaged one day in October in an oak wood, gathering galls with a view of breeding parasites, I found upon the under aa side of a leaf a curious assemblage of small black bodies, resem- bling, as much as anything I could think of, the excrement of some caterpillar. They were shapeless little objects, each mounted ae on end, and at the extremity of each, next the leaf, was a small - ~ ¥acemose cluster of minute light gray globules. Without giving — - : them a careful examination I settled it in my mind that the glob- ~ Ules were the sporidia of some fungus which had settled upon 62 General Notes. [January, the-excremental pellets as a matrix. With this view I stowed the leaf away in a pill-box, purposing to carry it to a mycological friend next day. On the following morning, however, I was greatly surprised to find that from several of my supposed excremental pellets had issued active little Chalcid flies. This of course led to a closer examination, and to the discovery that the supposed pel- lets were the bunchiest, most shapeless, most coarctate Chalcid pupæ I had ever seen. There were twenty-two of them in all, arranged around an irregular oval a centimeter long, the center of which had evidently, from the scattered hairs, once been occu- pied by the caterpillar upon which they had fed. Each pupa was fastened by its anal end to the leaf, and the clusters of light gray globules at the end of each, which I had taken for sporidia were nothing more than the contents of the alimentary canal, ejected before ‘pupation. The surface of the leaf in the center of the oval space, round which the pupæ were clustered, was covered with a thin web of silk, which eee the attachment of the pupæ to the leaf easier and firm From these strange sisjects the adult Chalcids emerge by burst- ing off the upper portion of the pupa skin, leaving the separated part attached only by the sheaths of the posterior legs. The line of fracture extends behind the head and down caudo-ventrally, including the wing and leg sheaths in the separated portion. It has been suggested to me that the apparent want of form which these pupæ show—their extreme coarctation—could be explained on the supposition that the very delicate larval skin was not she at all, but simply contracted closely around the pupa and its mem- bers as it formed. After softening the pupa, however, in various menstrua, the most careful examination showed no trace of such askin. The strange form must rather be laid to some peculiarity in the secretion of the chitine. Since this first experience I have several times ye these in- teresting and sociable-looking little groups of pupæ upon oak leaves. The little mass of excremental globules at ihe end of ost than Shek atiered hairs, which show it to bea bombycid rie The Chalcid i issuing normally from these pupz is a species of the true genus Eulophus ; but one is apt to be misled by the frequent presence of a seco ondary parasite—an Asfichus, The lat- ter, however, instead of issuing in the manner indicated above, makes its exit gat a circular hole, cut usually in the thorax f the pupa. It oreover, a oar Pamares insect than the Eulophus.—/( Zo pe celia juts . Howar ON THE OVIPOSITION OF PRODOXUS DECIPIENS.1—In his paper treating "of this insect, read at the Boston meeting, the author ae AEPS of a paper read by C. V. Riley at the Cincinnati meeting of the TA. ACS: ; Lie o 1882. | Entomology. 63 stated that oviposition had not been observed. He has studied it carefully the past summer, and finds that, as the structure of the ovipositor would indicate, the female stations herself lengthwise with the axis of the stem, usually head upward, and literally saws through the epidermis with an up and down motion, just -such as a carpenter would make in endeavoring to work the tip of an ordi- nary hand saw into the trunk of atree. She never has anything to do with the stigma of the flower, as Pronuba does, and the im- portant and interesting fact is recorded that the eggs of Prodoxus are all inserted while the stem is soft and before the flowers begin to open, 7. e., before Pronuba usually appears. As soon as the flowers begin to open (in Yucca filamentosa, the species upon which the observations were made) the stem has become too hard to permit the female to do her work, and the species has, for the most part, disappeared, only a few belated individuals being sub- sequently found, and these, so far as could be observed, perishing without issue. In experiments made to test the matter, it was found that where a female succeeded in inserting the ovipositor into a stem that had become hard, she perished in the effort to disengage herself, and remained firmly attached to the stem. Crover Insects.—We have received an interesting brochure on the insects of the clover plant by Mr. Lintner, the State Ento- mologist of New York. After an introduction showing by quo- tations from Mr. George Geddes, the importance of the clover crop, especially to the people of New York State, he makes mani- fest the large increase of insect depredators on the plant. He then remarks upon the fact that no notice of clover insects appears in the reports of Dr. Fitch, his predecessor; which fact indicates the Scarcity or the unimportance of the insects affecting the crop in _ Fitch’s time.. He next quotes from Kaltenbach’s PHanzenfeinde _ a list of sixty-six species affecting clover in Europe, and by way of comparison gives a list of our own species which includes thirty-three Lepidoptera, three Coleoptera, three Diptera, five Or- thoptera and two Homoptera, and concludes with a detailed — account of Hylastes trifolii, Cecidomyia leguminicola, C. trifolii and Oscinis trifolii. a It may be safely assumed that the number of species in this country affecting the plant, though not perhaps injuriously, will _ be at least doubled by future observation, and in Coleoptera we — _ feel confident that it will be quintupled. nS a Horn’s. CLASSIFICATION OF THE CARABIDE.—A great deal of the classificatory work done by entomologists is based upon the Study of isclated groups or of more or less restricted local faunas. . Useful as such work may be, yet the complex relationships of forms ; o hig r groups; the codrdination or subordination of characters, . and other important classificatory questions, can be fu Oe: 64 General Notes. [January, nized only by study of a whole family from all parts of the globe, Dr. Geo. H. Horn, whose excellent work on the Silphidz was noticed not long since in these columns (p. 128), has just published in the Transactions of the American Entomological Society (vol. IX, pp. 91-196, plates 111-x), an elaborate paper “On the genera of Carabidz with special reference to the fauna of Boreal America.’ This is the first paper covering the general classification of this large family which has appeared since the publication of Lacor- daire’s first volume of his “ Genera des Coléoptéres” though a number of important papers by LeConte, Schaum and Chaudoir have contributed to our knowledge of the subject. Dr. Horn Haliplidz, Amphizoidz and Pelobiide are considered as families equivalent to the long established ones, viz: Cicindelidæ, Cara- bidz, Dytiscide and Gyrinide. The Pseudomorphide, formerly looked upon as a distinct family, are made to constitute one of the three sub-families (Pseudomorphinz) of Carabide, the two others being the Carabinz and Harpaline, the bulk of the tribes and genera being embraced in the Harpalinz. Tables and full ex- positions of the characters of the tribes of the whole family are then given, accompanied by tables of the genera occurring in our fauna. We cannot, in our limited space, treat of this important paper in detail; but if the student will compare the lucid and in- genious arrangement of the sub-family Harpaline, for instance, as given by Dr, Horn, with the former chaotic arrangements, he will be able to form an idea, not only of the immense amount of labor expended, but also of the excellency of the work. . It is, perhaps, the most important of the several revisions the author has of late _ years given us—all of them so fresh, thorough and original, that it is a veritable pleasure to work by them.—C. V. R Tue BurrerrLY Trees oF Monterey AcArs.—We gave in the July number of this magazine an abstract from a leiki oS of Miss Jennie R. Bush, of San José, Cal., in reference to the so- called butterfly trees, near Monterey, of that State. From speci- mens sent some time ago by Miss Bush, we find that the butterfly - in question is the cosmopolitan Danais archippus, which, as is well known, has a similar habit of congregating in immense num- — bers on trees in the Atlantic States, and does this during winter in the extreme Southeast (vide American Entomologist, Vol. 11, p. 102). It was onthe 27th of February that Miss ‘Bush observed the phenomenon above related. The inference to be drawn from _ the interesting facts is, that the species finds on the Pacific slope, about the latitude 36° 30’, a climate congenial to its hibernation, whereas on the Atlantic side, it has to migrate southward so far as latitude 30°. 1882. | Entomology. 65 INTEREST Fett IN Economic ENTOMOLOGY IN CALIFORNIA.— The Board of State Horticultural Commissioners issued a call for a State Convention of fruit-growers, shippers, packers, nursery- men, and others interested in horticulture in California, to be held at the Senate Chamber, Sacramento, on Tuesday and Wednesday, the 6th and 7th of December, 1881, to commence at 10 o'clock, A. M. of the 6th, for the purpose of consultation and discussion of the most practical means of exterminating the insect pests, now in- festing the orchards and gardens of that State; and such other subjects as may be introduced for the improvement of the fruit- growing industries of California. The Central Pacific Railroad Co. kindly allowed a two-thirds rate of fare from all their Stations in California, to persons attending the convention, and issued instructions to their agents at all points in California, to sell tickets at a two-thirds rate of fare. Osiruaky.—We regret exceedingly to nave to record the death of Joseph Duncan Putnam, president of the Davenport Academy of Natural Science. He died onthe roth of December, at his home in Davenport, in the 27th year of his age, having been born in Jacksonville, Ills., Oct. 18, 1855. From boyhood, Mr. Putnam found fascination in the study of nature, and as he grew older, gave more and more attention to entomology. In 1872 and 1873 he traveled and collected in Colorado and Wyoming, in company with Dr. C. C. Parry. By the people of Davenport he will be most remembered for his unflagging efforts in behalf ofthe Acad- emy of Sciences, which is solargely indebted to him. In ento- mology, his chief work was onthe Coccids, and at the time ofhis — death he was still deeply interested in the family, and in the Solpugidz. Soon after his return from the West, in 1872, he VOL, XVI. —NO. I. 66 General Notes. {January ANTHROPOLOGY .' REVIEW OF RECENT WORKS ON ANTHROPOLOGY.— Anthropology; an Synge to the study of Man and Civilization. By Edw B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S., with illustrations. New York, D. Appleton & Cv., 8. The ancient Bronze Implements, Weapons and Ornaments of Great Britain and Ire- land. By John Evans, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., &c. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1881. 8vo, pp. 509. re ig at or Jaenen of the handiwork in p ‘et and clay of the of the Northern Atlantic seaboard of Am By Charles C. ikon, MD. oe sale "Maks , George A. Bates. Caf, Robert Clarke ; : p. 560. Report upon United thie Geographical Pook west of the 1ooth sees in charge of First Lieut. Geo. M. Wheeler, hae s of Engineers, U. S. A under the direction of Brig . Gen. A. A. Hum Sieu, Chief of Engineers, U. "8A my. Published by authority of the onai the Secretary of War, in PETHA with Acts of Con s of p 23, 1874, and nyien 15, 58750 in seven vol- umes, accompan et ee one topographical and one geological atl l vir— Archzeolo ogy. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1879. [Special Titles, page VII and VH.) ro PP- 497 Anthropology is the application of scientific methods to the study of man—it is the natural history of the human race. In order to appreciate the merits and the defects of a scientific trea- tise, it is first necessary to have a clear conception of the exten- | sion and structure of the subject matter itself. Of anthropology Z the best idea can be conveyed by giving its subdivisions as they : are understood by those most conversant with* the subject, to wit: 1. Hexicology (Mivart).—The study of environment, inorganic, organic and social, in all its relations to our race 2. Anthropogeny (Haeckel)—The discussion of man’s origin : with respect to place, time, zodlogic affinities and primitive con- dition. - 3. Archeology—Prehistoric and classical. The early history of mankind, including modern races still in the stone period. tology of Man.—The investigation of man’s physical nature during its life-history, embracing anatomy, physiology ae anthro- pometry, and compared with the evolution of lower for 5. Comparative Psychology —The study of intelligence among all pereorde beings, and the comparison of the various races of men in this regard. a 6. Glottology.—Research into the origin of language and of the - : various forms which it has assumed. 7. Ethnology.—The neg of the origin and characteristics of Se races of men. The description of races is ethnography. 8. Comparative Technology —An examination of human arts as to their origin and the lines of their elaboration. ss iology.—The study of society in the family, the commu- nity and the organized government. It includes the structure of 1 Edited by Professor Oris T. MASON, I 305 Q. street, N. W., Washington, D. C. 1882. | Anthropology. 67 society, the function of its members as well as their processes and customs. 10. Comparative Religion—The description of humanity in all its attitudes with reference to the soul, a future life, and spiritual beings related to man. jà 11. Anthropological Apparatus —A science so comprehensive must have its instruments of precision, its museums and libraries, and its special works. No treatise upon the subject at large would be complete without an account of these instrumentalities. ith this analysis before us, it is not difficult to gauge the works under review. Tylor’s Anthropology professes to cover the whole field. In this regard it not only enters into compe- tition with older works, such as Waitz’s Anthropology, and Klemm ’s Culturgeschicte, but with more recent publications, such as Peschels’ Races of Men, Topinard’s Anthropologie, and Qua- trefages’ L’Espéce Humaine. Each of these works has great merit, especially in those divisions of the subject wherein the author is a specialist, Peschel is an ethnologist, Topinard and Quatrefages are distinguished anatomists, Tylor has devoted is whole life to linguistics, technology, and comparative religion. In this work of the latter, therefore, we should rea- sonably expect to find the greater space given to these themes. In fact, Hexicology is almost totally neglected; bronze implements is a fit companion to the one just mentioned. 68 General Notes. [January, The introductory chapter reviews the history of bronze in the classical languages and touches upon the mooted question of an antecedent copper age. The rest of the work takes up in detail celts of various forms, chisels, gouges, hammers, sickles, knives, razors, @iggers, spears, halberds, maces, swords, armor, trumpets, bells, pins, ornaments, and vessels. The great interest of the book, however, centers around the two closing chapters, relating to the methods employed by ancient bronze-workers, and the chronology and origin of bronze. The relation of Mr. Evans to modern archzological investigations as a cautious doubter, gives to i his utterances a credibility of the highest order (C; ott has long been known as an ‘indefatigable ae in archeology. For some years he has enjoyed excep- tionable advantages as an associate curator of the Peabody Mu- seum at Cambridge, Mass. Like the work of Dr. Evans, this vol- ume is devoted to a part only of one of the subdivisions of anthro- pology, being restricted in area tothe north-east Atlantic States, and in material, to stone, bone and clay ; but, like Dr. Evans in another respect, the author rambles frequently far from the Atlantic ocean, and even inserts a chapter on copper implements. The illustra- tions, like those in most American archeological works, not ex- cepting some of the publications of the Smithsonian Institution, are, most of them, very poor, indeed. The great merit of the book is its adaptation to a very large class of intelligent people in our coun- try, who are interested in local archeology, and would like to place themselves under the guidance of a skilled workman. For such persons Primitive Industry is valuable, though a little prolix. Practical archeologists will run rapidly over the volume until they come to chapters XXXII and xxx (the latter by Professor “Aa Carvill Lewis), in order to hear Dr. Abbott's latest utter- ances upon the palzolithic implements of the Trenton gravels. This is his own peculiar province, anda subject worthy of the most careful scrutiny. In short, Dr. Abbott finds in the Trenton gravels, at a depth varying from three to forty feet, along-side of and be- neath remains of the mastodon, “ turtle-back” ce elts, The geo- logical age of this deposit is unknown, but the implements are held to be veritable traces of a people who inhabited the northern Atlantic seaboard of America untold centuries prior to the advent of the Indian, or of Indians who reached our shores as far back as the glacial epoch. Volume vit of the United States Geographical Surveys, west of the 1ooth meridian, is a joint pos of F. W. Putnam, C. : C. Abbott, S.S. Haldeman, H. C. Yarrow, H. W. Henshaw, Lucien Carr, and ‘Albert S. Gatschet, in sh esos proportions, how- ever, the greater part of it being the work of Prof. Putnam and Dr. Abbott. Several of the chapters are reproduced from Lieut. Wheeler’s annual reports. Although a child of hope deferred, the imprint dating 1879, its parents have many reasons to be ad 1882. } Anthropology. 69 proud of it. There are 22 plates, including the frontispiece and a map of the coast of Southern California; seventeen of these are heliotypes and very excellent, excepting those representing deep vessels, to which the process is not adapted. The remaining plates, front, XVI, XVII, XVIII, XIX, are beautiful colored litho- graphs, in whose praise too much cannot be said; the dancers in the front, we think, are much too light colored. This method of illustration is very expensive, however, and must be looked upon as the luxury of the science. The cuts, photo-relief drawings, though rude, are most of them, especially those representing rotundity, quite graphic. The great desideratum now is a method of depict- ing a great number of objects correctly at a moderate expense. Now, what is this volume about? The subject is graphically set forth by Dr. Yarrow, on pages 32-47. ` It is the description of a fortunate series of discoveries upon the main land and on the Santa Barbara islands opposite, in Southern California. These sites yielded a large and unique collection of crania and aborigi- nal implements which were subsequently placed in the hands of Prof. F. W. Putnam and his assistants at Cambridge to describe. Some of the chipped flints are of extreme delicacy of form and finish, well shown in the heliotypes but not in the cuts. The sandstone mortars occur in great abundance, are quite symmetri- cal, and some of them are massive; of these the cuts are excellent and the heliotypes bad. The most interesting stone implements are the steatite ollas, nearly spherical, thin-walled cooking vessels, having small opening or mouth. The method of manufacturing these vessels was discovered by Mr. Paul Schumacher (pp. 117- 121). Curious pipes of the same material, resembling very large | cigar-holders, were abundant in the graves, and were eviden yo used by the savage taking a siesta while lying supinely. Next in order come the perforated stones varying greatly in size, form, and consequently in function. Upon this chapter Prof. Putnam has put some excellent work, it is, indeed, one of the best in the vol- ume. The closing chapters of Part 1 relate to implements of wood, shell, and bone, textile fabrics, ornaments and paint beads, contact with Europeans and crania. An appendix to Part I gives a translation of an account of Cabrilla’s voyage, which is a pre- cious addition to the meager stock of early literature relating to - our west coast. Part 11 relates to the Pueblo ruins and the interior tribes, and is made up of a series of short sketches, some of which are reproduc- tions from former reports ; it contains an extended chapter by Pro- fessor Putnam on the implements of stone, and pottery, collected mainly by Dr. H. C. Yarrow; a chapter on the crania collected by the expeditions, written by Mr. Severance and Dr. Yarrow; and an appendix on linguistics, prefaced by a classification of _ Western Indian languages, by Albert S. Gatschet. The forty vo- Cabularies belong to seven stocks: Tinné, Numa, Yuma, Rio 70 General Notes. [ January, Grande Pueblos, Kera Pueblos, Wintun, Santa Barbara, and their area is given with great precision. The volume closes with tables of these 40 vocabularies, 211 words wes and additional notes and lists of very great value. The space assigned to the works just noticed makes it neces- sary to give but a mention to the following meritorious publica- ions: The adage Perma Apg Cemetery; Anthropological Notes. By F. W. Lang- m the Jou ia of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History, Vol. or Beaches, "1881, pp. 237-257. Remarkable change in the ae of the hair from light blonde to black in a patient while under treatment by Pilocarpin. it D. W. Prentiss, AM., M.D. J.B. Lapincsh & Co. ’ Philadelphia, 1881, pp. 15. Visitors’ Guide to the Smithsonian regi Be National Museum, and Fish-Ponds, Edited by William J. Rhees. Judd & Detweiler, Washington, 1881, pp. 72. Indian a of Places, etc., in and on the borders of Connecticut, with interpreta- ions of some of them. By J. Hammond Trumbuli. Brown & Gross, Hartford, 1851. 8vo. pp. 93- The distinguished name of the author as well as the great bene- fit to the future historian to be rendered by the publication of information which must be gathered now or never, are a sufficient guarantee of the lasting value of the last-named work. ANTHROPOLOGY IN JAPAN.—The Transactions of the Asiatic So- ciety of Japan, do x often reach us. Vol. rx, Part 11, contains the following paper. Edkins, Joseph, D.D TRT ERDAN to the History of the Japanese transcription of Chinese penri pp. 107-124. Seales , J. M., Descriptive Notes on the Rosaries (Jiu-Dzu), as used by the different sects of Parnita in Japan, pp. 173-182. Satow, Ernest, Ancient Japanese Rituals, Part 111, pp. 183-211. SNAKE SUPERSTITIONS OF THE PUEBLOS oF NEW Miao When I opened the old Turquoise mine at Bonanza, near snakes of different kinds; also, long, thin red snakes, etc., etc., it, all nesting together. We had four men in the shaft, two men “excavating and two protecting the others from snakes, which crawled about in all directions (this was about eighteen months ago The Pueblo Indians came and protested, saying the mine be- longed to Montezuma. They took the killed snakes most de- voutly, and lamented their fate. An Indian friend of mine told me that the snakes are servants of Montezuma. When an Indian wants to send a message to Montezuma, he catches a rattlesnake and carries it to the mine, being convinced that the bearer of the verbal notice will return — to him one day with an answer. To this may be attributed the fact that certain old mines are filled with sna’ akes. They were BESS Mere by a Fritzgertner, - oe 1882. ] Geclogy and Paleontology. 7I GEOLOGY AND PALÆONTOLOGY. T OLDEST ARTIODACTYLE.—Members of this order have been found in the upper Eocene of N. America (Achenodon), but none have been determined as yet from the American Suessonian or lower Eocene. A species represented by teeth from the Siderolitic beds of Switzerland has been referred to Dichobune (D. compichit Pict); but dental characters alone are not sufficent to distinguish that genus from the Peris- sodactyle Phenacodontide’. Dr. Lemoine found astragali of a small Artiodactyle in the Suessonian of Reims, which he has recently ascribed to his Lophiocherus peroni, which he believes {Proceedings French Assoc. Adv. Sci., Montpelier, 1880) to be a suilline. 1 have reported an astragalus from the Wind river for- mation of Wyoming Territory, which is almost exactly similar to those found by Lemoine. A specimen of Mioclenus brachystomus Cope now to be described, enables me to characterize with some degree of completeness this interesting form, which precedes in time all the known American Artiodactyla. The characters of the tarsus are typically those of the Order Artiodactyla, The astragalus exhibits a distal trochlea which is continuous with the sustentacular facet, and which articulates with both cuboid and navicular bones. i The distal portion of the fibula is free from the tibia, and its shaft becomes very slender, but it is possible that a more perfect speci- men would display it as continuous. Its distal extremity articu- lates with the ascending tuberosity of the calcaneum. The cuboid facet of the latter is.narrow. The cuboid and navicular are dis- tinct from each other and the cuneiforms; the mesocuneiform is shorter than the ectocuneiform, and 7s coössified with it. _ There are probably four metatarsals. The median pair are dis- tinct, but appressed ; their section together, subcircular ; the lateral metatarsals are slender, the external one is wanting, but its facet on the cuboid is very small. These characters are in general similar to those of the genus Dichobune, but Cuvier? does not state whether the cuneiforms are” ` coossified in that genus or not. They are united in Anoplotherium. a Mioclenus differs from Dichobune in the presence of but one internal tubercle of the superior molars, and in the single external tubercle of the superior premolars. Both genera are referable to _ a family to be distinguished from the Axoplothertide by the — ; presence of external digits. This has been already named by Gill the Dichobunide. The genus Lophiocherus is not yet fully char- — acterized, but its inferior true molars are very elongate and have their cusps connected by oblique ridges.—£. D. Cope. oe 1 See AMERICAN NATURALIST, 1881, December. 3 Sage : emens fossiles, v, p. 183. Gaudry Enchainements d. Regne Anin 72 General Notes. [ January, Tue CHARACTERS OF THE T&NIODONTA.—Additional material gives the following results with regard to the affinities of this suborder. There are three allied groups represented by the genera Esthonyx, Tillotherium and Calamodon of the American Eocenes which are equally unlike each other. sthonyx,as I long since showed, is related to the existing Zvimaceus ; very near- ly indeed if-the dentition alone be considered. Its anterior incisor teeth are unusually developed and have, as in Erinaceus, long roots. One pair at least in the lower jaw has enamel on the external face only, and enjoys a considerable period of growth. The genus Tillotherium is (fide Marsh) quite near to Esthonyx. Its molars and premolars are identical in character with those of that genus, the only important difference being found in the incisors. Here, one pair above and one pair below, are faced with enamel in front only, and grow from persistent pulps as in the Rowenta. This character has been included by Marsh in those he ascribes to his “order” of Tillodontia, but as he includes Es¢honyx in that order,’ which does not possess the character, it is not very clear on what the supposed order reposes. The rodent character of the incisors is the only one I know of which distinguishes 77//otherium from the /usectivora. I have an this account retained the 77//odonta as a suborder, and referred Esthonyx to the Insectivora. The 7eniodonta agree with the Tillodonta in the possession of a pair of inferior incisors of rodent character, but it adds several remarkable peculiarities. Chief among these is the character of the inferior canines. In the 7Zz//odon/a they are either wanting, in Erinaceus, according to the Cuvierian diagnosis, or they are insignificant. In Calamodon they are of large size, and though not as long rooted as the second incisors, grow from persistent pulps. They have two enamel faces, the anterior and posterior, the former like the corresponding face of the rodent incisors. The function of the adult crown is that of a eE tooth. This. character distinguishes Ca/amodon as a form as different ieee Tillotherium, as the latter is from Esthonyx. There are, howeve other characters. The external i incisors, wanting in Tillotherium: are here largely developed, and though not growing from persist- ent pulps have but one, an external band-like enamel face. Their function is also that of grinders. The fact that the rodent teeth in the lower jaw are the second incisors, renders it probable that those of the 77i//odonia hold the same position in the jaw. This is to be anticipated from the arrangement in Esthonyx, where the second inferior incisors are much larger than the first and third. The superior dentition of the Tæniodonta is unknown. There are two families, the Ectoganide with two species, and the Cala- modontide with five species.—£. D. Cope. 1 Report of U. S. Geol. Survey 4oth Parallel by Ghee King, Vol. UD 377 1882. | Geology and Paleontology. 73. New Forms oF CorypHopontip&.—The Wasatch beds of the Big Horn basin have yielded several important additions to this family. Of eleven species found, two belong each to a new genus, and one is a novelty of the little-known genus Metalophodon. The characters of the genera of the family may be stated as follows : A I. Two internal cusps of the last supertor molar. All the true molars with a developed posteribr external V ..........4. Manteodon. ne internal lobe of the last superigr molar. a, Last superior molar with posterior external cusp. Anterior two molars with posterior external \/ Ectacodon aga, Last superior molar without external posterior cusp, Anterior two molars with posterior external V. Astragalus transverse, with internal hook ......... Coryphodon. Astragalus subquadrate, without internal hook....... Bathmodon TtFirst superior molar only with posterior external \/......... ..-++Metalophodon. The type of Manteodon is the M. subquadratus, which was about the size of an ox. The characters of its superior molars are more like those of Perissodactyles than are those of the other- Coryphodontide. The type of Ectacodon is the Æ. cinctus, a. species of about the dimensions of the last named. Its last su- I call, in a paper now passing through the press, C.anax. The new Metalophodon is as large asthe Ectacodon cinctus, and has the second true molar more triangular and less oval than in the type M. armatus. The posterior external V of the last molar, is re- duced to a cone. I have called it M. testis—E. D. Cope. ANTHROPOMORPHOUS LEMUR.—The stock from which the ne. agree: with the higher monkeys in having but two premolars, but these Le also are only one lobed. A nearly perfect cranium of a species of Anaptomorphus Cope,. ae Shows that this genus had but two premolars in the superior — but that they are two lobed, asin the Series, as in the /ndrisine, >: ee Simiide and Hominide. Of these two families, the Hominide is’ the one to which Avaptomorphus makes the nearest approach in dental characters. The canine is small with a crown little longer than those of the premolars, and is not separated from the latter : or from the incisors by any appreciable diastema. All but one of ae the Superior incisors are lost from the specimen, but those of the E Sa 74 General Notes. {[ January, lower jaw, which I discovered in 1872, were nearly erect as in man and the Simiidæ, and not procumbent as in most Lemurs. The cerebral hemispheres are remarkably large for an Eocene mammal, extending to between the middles of the orbits; the anterior parts, at least, are smooth. The cerebellum projected beyond the foramen magnum posteriorly, as in Tarsius. The or- bits are large, approaching those of Tarsius, but are not so much walled in by a septum from the temporal fossa as in that genus. The superior molars have only one internal cus The species, which I propose to call Avaptomorphus homuncu- lus, has a wide palate much as in man, and the true molar teeth diminish in size posteriorly. The pterygoid and zygomatic fossz are short and wide, and the petrous bone is large and inflated. The animal was nocturnal in its habits and was the size of a mar- moset. The genus is nearer the hypothetical lemuroid ancestor of man than any yet discovered.—£. D. Cope. CHAN Rocks oF GREAT Britain.—Professor Hull, director of the Geological Survey of Ireland, discriminates two petrographic types in the British Cambrian beds, the one consist- ing of purple sandstones or conglomerates, the other of hard green and purple grits and slates. The former is the “ Caledonian” type, and is found in the north-west Highlands of Scotland. The second is the Hiberno-Cambrian, and characterizes East Ireland and North Wales. Professor Hull thinks these formations were deposited in distinct basins, which were separated by an Archzean ridge of crystalline rock which extended from Scandinavia, through the central Highlands of Scotland to Northwest Ireland. The Caledonian basin was an inland lake, the crystalline rocks of the outer Hebrides forming its western shore. Professor Hull also finds the Laurentian granite in N. W. Ireland overlaid un- conformably by the Lower Silurian quartzite schists and lime- stones.—Geological Magazine A New BRITISH Forka +The name Devono-Silurian is given by Professor E. Hull to a series of cotemporary deposits found in various parts of the British Isles, and to some extent on the continent. He finds them in Devonshire and on the Welsh borders, and probably concealed in Southeast England; also, in the south of Scotland and North and South Ireland. The beds were deposited under estuary or lacustrine conditions, and con- stitute a great group between the Silurian on the one hand, and the Devonian on the other.— Geological Magazine. Recent EXTINCTION oF THE MAstopon.—The existence of the mastodon in North America must have been more recent than commonly supposed. A number of new facts bearing on this subject are to be found in Professor John Collett’s ‘Geological _ Report of Indiana for 1880,” recently issued. Of the thirty indi- _ vidual specimens of the remains of the mastodon (Mastodon gi- ae . nes ) found in Indiana, in almost every case a very opamders 1882. | Geology and Paleontology 75 ble part of the skeleton of each animal proved to be in a greater or less state of decay. The remains have always been discovered in marshes, ponds, or other miry places, indicating at once the cause of the death of the animal and the reason of the preserva- tion of the bones from decay. Spots of ground in this condition are found at the summit of the glacial drift or in “ old beds” of rivers which have adopted a shorter route and lower level; con- sequently, their date does not reach beyond the most recent changes of the earth’s surface. In fact, their existence was so late that the only query is, says Professor Collett: Why did they become extinct? A skeleton was discovered in excavating the bed of the canal a few miles north of Covington, Fountain county, in wet peat. The teeth are in good preservation, and Mr. Perrin Kent states that when the larger bones were cut open the marrow, still preserved, was utilized by the bog-cutters to “ grease” their boots, and that pieces of sperm-like substance, two and a-half inches to three inches in diameter (adipocere) occupied the place of the kidney fat of the monster. During the past summer of 1880 an almost complete skeleton of a mastodon was found six miles north-west from Hoopston, Iroquois county, Illinois, which goes far to settle definitely that it was not only a recent animal, but that it survived until the life and vegetation of to-day pre- vailed. The tusks formed each a full quarter of a circle, were nine feet long, twenty-two inches in circumference at the base, and in their water-soaked condition weighed one hundred and seventy- five pounds. The lower jaw was well preserved, with a full set of magnificent teeth, and is nearly three feet long. The teeth, as usual, were thickly enameled, and weighed each from four to five pounds. The leg-bones, when joined at the knee, made a total: = length of five and a-half feet, indicating that the animal was not less than eleven feet high, and from fifteen to sixteen feet from brow to rump. On inspecting the remains closely, a mass of © fibrous, bark-like material was found between the ribs, filling the _ place of the animal’s stomach. When carefully separated, it proved to be a crushed mass of herbs and grasses, similar to those which still grow in the vicinity. In the same bed of miry claya _ multitude of small fresh-water and land shells were observed and- collected. These were: 1, Pisidium, closely resembling X. abdi- . tum Haldeman; 2, Valvata tricarinata Say; 3, Valvata, resem- bling V. striata; 4, Planorbis parvus Say. These mollusks pre- vail all over the States of Illinois, Indiana and parts of Michigan, and show conclusively that, however other conditions may differ, the animal and vegetable life, and consequently climate, are the Same now as when this mastodon sank in his grave of mire and clay, Ne a Tue Mesozoic oF Vircinta—Professor Fontaine gives a Pretty full account of the geology of the Mesozoic of Virginia, With explanations of its peculiar features. He “ has a very large _ Collection of fine plants, many of them are new, and some 76 General Notes. [January,, exceedingly fine. The collection is a pretty fair representa- tion of the flora of the older Mesozoic, and will throw light on the Mesozoic of North Carolina and Pennsylvania. The secretary communicated the following notes by Professor Fon- taine, made in the same letters: Upon the views of H. C. Lewis, respecting the Saltville valley in Southern Virginia, published in the Proceedings, No. 107, page 155. Mr. Fontaine points out that the little salt and gypsum bearing valley of Salt- ville cannot be “eroded along an anticlinal of Lower Silurian limestone, because the south-east wall hills only are of that age, while north-west wall hills are of the Umbral (Mauch Chunk or Sub-carboniferous) age.” He was the first to find in the lime- stone on that side of the valley an abundance of Umbral fossils in the highly fossiliferous shale beds intercallated between the va- rious limestones. The species are the same as those found near Lewisburg, West Virginia, in the Umbral. The magnesian (Lower Silurian) limestone strata, bounding the valleys on the south-west, show no trace of fossils. The physical aspect of the two formations also differs. Beds of shale and limestone alternate in the hills north-west of the valleys; and some of the limestone is cherty and some of the shales are red. But the south-east hills contain only solid limestone strata. Those on the north-west have a more rounded typography. It is, however, quite true that the stratification is in opposite south-east and north-west directions, gently to the south-east, much steeper to the north-west. The structure is, therefore, anticlinal, and this: fault must run along the south-east edge of the little valley. The explanation is then simple, the Umbral limestone is synclinal, and the red shale formation comes up on both sides of it—with north-west dip in the little valley, with a south-east dip in the valley of the Holston river at the foot of the mountain. A reference to the place in the Michigan salt group in the Palæ- zoic series makes the presence of salt here easily under- stood. The horizon seems to be salt-bearing in other places in Southern Virginia. There is a salt ooze near Max Meadows, at the above geological horizon, The secretary suggested in addi- tion to the underlying Vespertine (Pocono) sandstone is a salt- producing formation on the Ohio river and up country. That the gypsum is an acid reaction upon the eroded out-crops of the limestone, is shown in Proceedings A. P. S., Vol. rx, pp. 34, 1862. —American Philosophical Society, sw dey bog __ has communicated an important memoir on the formation of coal, 1882. ] Mineralogy 77 of which an abstract is given in the October, 1881, Geological Magazine of London.——The Bulletin of the Geological Society ot France for 1881, contains many important memoirs, principally relating to the geology of France, Algiers and Belgium.——An analysis of the structure and age of the formations about Lake hamplain is given in the same periodical, by Professor Marcou. —— Dr. Lemoine has added many important discoveries to those he has previously made in the Lower Eocene near Reims, France. He has procured almost perfect skeletons of the Mammalian gen- era [feteroborus, Pleuraspidotherium, Pachynolophus ; of the bir Gastornis, and the reptile Champsosaurus. He has also discovered a number of the Marsupial family Plagiaulacide, which is probably nearly allied to the Prlodus, described from New Mexico in the November, 1881, NATURALIST. Professor Newberry criticizes -adversely Professor Spencer’s view on the Ancient outlet of Lake Erie, published by the American Philosophical Society. MINERALOGY.' SYSTEMATIC MINERALOGY.—Bauerman. (Appleton & Co., New York, 1881.) The latest number of that excellent series known as the “ Text-books of Science” consists of the first volume of a i 78 General Notes. - [January, lime by heating calcium nitrate. Recently Levalois and REFA have observed in the inner walls of a lime-kiln cubes e 5 centimeters in diameter. The crystals were sharp on thie cae. and had the specific gravity of 3.3. Analysis showed that the crystals were composed of nearly pure anhydrous lime. They dissolved slowly in cold, but energetically in warm acids, giving out considerable heat. The crystals were formed upon the lime- stone walls of the kiln, which, with the exception of a few days, had been kept at a tepenin of 1200°-1300° C. for over two years. NITROBARITE.—Groth? describes a natural nitrate of Baryta from Chili. It occurs as small colorless octahedral crystals, with tetartohedral characters, belonging to the isometric system, Ar- tificial crystals of nitrate of Baryta have a similar form. An ap- propriate mineralogical name for this mineral would be Nitro- barite. VANADIUM MINERALS.—Within the last few years special atten- tion has been directed to the natural occurrence of Vanadium and its compounds. It has been shown that Vanadium, formerly regarded as one of the rarest elements, is of widespread diffusion, and that it almost universally accompanies Titanium in the older geological formations. This fact acquires a cosmical importance when taken in connection with the observation of Lockyer that Vanadium exists with eons, in the innermost portions of the photosphere of the su Among recent fivestipatidie upon Vanadium minerals, those of Rammelsberg? are of great ace hae He gives several new analyses, and after reviewing the Vanadium minerals, gives the following table of the natural vanadates : Simple Vanadate Tee Pb ¥* 0° Half Vanadate ead Md igs from Wicklow and "Wanlockhead þa Third Vanadates Eusynchite ob, Zay Aräoxene ( ie sea (Vv, ai 2 08 anadinite Eha Pb? ee Pucherite Be vs o8 Quarter Vanadates Descloizite (Pb, Zn)* + aq Volborthite (F eS (Cu jes V? OF +. aq Of uncertain composition Psittacinite (Pb, Gra Mottramite (Cu, Pb i Cayo V V2 ou i 2aq Volborthite (Perm) R8 V? O +L 24 aq Websky4 and Urba have investigated the crystalline forms of -Descloizite and Vanadinite. Websky describes pseudomorphs of Vanadinite after Anglesite. 1 Compt. ee 90, 1566, Jue 1880. 2 Zeits. f. Kryst., 1881. VI; 8 On the composition o í Desclowite and ar natural Vanadium Compounds, Mo- natsber. d. k. iss. Berlin, July, 1880, p. rie aaa d. k. Ak. Wiss. Berlin, July, ‘hss, 3 672. Oct, 1880. 5 Zeits. f. Kryst., 1880, p. 353- 1882. | Mineralogy. 79 In America, our knowledge of Vanadium minerals has been largely increased by the important papers of Genth.* Vanadium has been shown by the editor to occur in the Philadelphia gneisses.” More recently Silliman? has announced the discovery of two impor- ‘ tant localities for Vanadium minerals in Arizona. He states that very beautiful and perfect orange-red and yellow crystals of Vanad- inite have been found in that State. He also describes Vanadium minerals which he believes to be Descloizite and Volborthite. Chileite and Mottramite are also suspected. It is to be hoped that a more exact chemical and crystallographic examination may be made upon these interesting minerals. MIcROLITE FROM VIRIGNIA.—Very fine and large crystals of this rare mineral have been found in Amelia Co., Virginia The crystals are octahedrons modified by cubic, dodecahedral and sometimes also trapezohedral planes. Some of these. crystals which have been brought to Philadelphia are several inches in diameter, and we have seen masses of the mineral weighing as. much as thirty pounds; a circumstance rendering the name of the mineral an inappropriate one. The mineral is of a wax yellow or brown color, and has a resinous lustre and conchoidal fracture. Amelia county has become a remarkable mineral locality. It has yielded also Beryl, Fluorite, Columbite, Amethyst, Apatite, and Tourmaline. We have seen a beryl from there which was a perfect hexagon with sharp edges, measuring nine inches in dia- meter by over two and a half feet in length. The interesting va- riety of quartz which occurs in the Amelia county muscovite as Minute circular plates composed of radiating fibres is already known to microscopists as a most beautiful object for the polari- scope. DIADOCHITE, a phosphato-sulphate of iron has been found in — some French anthracite coal mines. It occurs as amorphous ~ brown crusts of resinous lustre. It should be looked for in the coal mines of this country. . VIVIANITE has been produced artificially by fusing a salt of e | iron with bone black. oe RosTERITE is a variety of beryl from Elba, of alight rose red color. It occurs in short hexagonal tables. sare a , URANOTHORITE is a Thorite from the Lake Champlain Wo district, containing much Uranic oxide. m om BEAUXITE, according to Fischer, is a mixture of oxide of iron and red clay : s Proc, Acad. Nat. Sc., Phila., 1880, 256: a Amer, Jour. Sc. xx11. 198. Sep. 1881. ; Dunnington. Amer. Chem, Journ., 111, 2. 130. l Amer. Journ. Sc., July, 1876, p. 32. Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., XVU, 113. 80 General Notes. {| January, BERGAMASKITE.—A variety of amphibole. Lucchetti! describes under this name a variety of hornblende from Italy, which con- tains almost no magnesia. It occurs in green acicular crystals with the following composition: SiO, 36.8 FeO 22.9 FeO; 14.5 Al,03 15.1 CaO 5.1 MgO 0.9 Na,O 4. K,O 0.4. New Bismutu Minerats.—Domeyko’ has described a large num- ‘ber of interesting Bismuth minerals from South America. Among them are Bolivite, an oxysulphide of bismuth (Bi?S? + Bi2O3) and Taznite, a chloro-arseniate and chloro-antimoniate of Bismuth. Bolivite occurs crystallized. Taznite is amorphous and some- times imperfectly fibrous. THE OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF PYROMORPHITE AND MIMETITE.— Jannetez and Michel? in a paper comparing the optical and chemi- -cal properties of pyromorphite and the mimetite find that these minerals can be divided into four types ; (1) pure pyromorphite, uniaxial, (2) pure mimetite, biaxial, (3) mixtures showing pyro- morphite in the centre, surrounded by mimetite, part uniaxial, part — biaxial, (4) groups of crystals having their axes inclined to one another, biaxial appearance. CHALCOCITE ON AN OLD Coin.—Upon some bronze Roman coins found at the bottom of a French lake, Daubree* has observed an incrustation, 2" in thickness, of chalcocite. The chalcocite forms hexagonal plates like the cupreine of Breithaupt. Some chalcopyrite and malachite were also formed. While similar in- crustations are common in thermal springs and mineral waters, the present case is interesting in that the water was cold and pure. Nova Scotia Minerats—Among other minerals found in the trap of Nova Scotia, Gilpin? mentions Chloropheeite, Delessite, Acadialite, Mordenite, Louisite, Ledererite, Gyrolite, Centralla- site, Cyanolite, Steelite, etc. He regards Louisite as a variety of Okenite, and Steelite as a variety of Mordenite. GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS. M. DE Brazza’s JOURNEY FROM THE OGOWE TO THE Conco.— Some further details of M. de Brazza’s journey are given in the Royal Geographical Society’s Proceedings for November, 1881. “ After leaving his station at Francheville in July, 1880, the trav- eler saw the sources of the Passa affluent of the Upper Ogowé, and crossed the River Lekéti (an affluent of the Alima, the Kunia t1 Mem. Ac. Sci. Bologna, 1881, 2, 397. 2 Ann. d. Min., XVIII, 538. 3 Bull. Soc. Min. de France, 1881, 196. Comp. Rend., xctit. 572. Oct., 1881. 5 Proc. and Trans. N. S. Inst. Nat. Sc., v, 283. _ 6 Edited by ELLIS H. YARNALL, Philadelphia. © 1882. | Geography and Travels. gí of Mr. Stanley’s map), which appears to have been misnamed M’pama in the map of his previous journey, by this route reach- ing the navigable portion of the Alima in four days. It is thought probable that the plateau of the Batékés reaches to the right bank of the Upper Ogowé, and is connected with that of the Bayakas, in which, perhaps, the River Ngunié, which joins the Ogowé be- low Lambaréné, takes its rise. The plateau of the Batékés (Achicuyos) separates the Alima from the M'pama (the M’paka of Mr. Stanley), which probably rises in the plateau of the Balalis, flowing direct to the Congo. Leaving the plateau of the Batékés (Achicuyos) by the M’pama, M. de Brazza arrived at the plateau of the Abomas, which is well peopled and very fertile, and separates the M’pama from the Lefini (the River Lawson o Mr. Stanley). On leaving the plateau of the Abomas M. de Brazza was assured that he could reach Stanley Pool on the Con- go in four days, by way of the plateau of the Makokos, but he thought it advisable to change his route, in order to enter into negotiations with the Ubangi tribe, with whom he had had pre- vious difficulties. He afterwards descended the Lefini on a raft to within a day’s journey of its confluence with the Congo. He then marched by land, with only five attendants, in two days, to the Congo, which he reached near to a populous part of the Ubangi country. He was received by tne chief Ngampéi, who is Subject to the Makokos, and arranged with him to make certain Propositions to the Ubangis, Without waiting for the result of this step, he returned to the Lefini, and in two days’ time reached the plateau of Makoko, to whom all the country is subject be- tween the Lefini, the Jué (Zué of Mr. Crudgington, and Gordon Bennett of Mr. Stanley), and the Congo. Makoko assembled ali the chiefs of the Ubangis, from the Alima, the Bakinga (the Li- kuma or Likona of the old maps), and the Ikelemba and through his influence peace was made with M. de Brazza. Makoko then © sent two chiefs down with him by canoe to the spot ceded for the Brazzaville station, near Stanley Pool. Whilst there, M. de Brazza explored the road from the village of N’gamforu, chief of the Abomas, to the River Kunia, across the platea of the Ma- kokos ; and he considers that the principal difficulties to be met _ with on the road from Francheville to Stanley Pool would be the Passage of the Rivers Leketi, M’pama, and Lefini.” eS _ CENTRAL Arrica—The African traveler, Dr. Enim Bey, be- lieves there are three lakes lying to the north of the Victoria” Nyanza. Beatrice Gulf certainly does not belong to the Albert Nyanza, but to a lake south of the Albert. Steamers now go ~ regularly from Dufilé to Mahagé, a station on the west coast of Lake Albert. At the beginning of the present year Mr. J. M. Schuver left Cairo with the intention of traversing Africa from north to south. When last heard from he was on his way to 6 foe VOL. XVI,—wNOo. & 82 General Notes. [ January, Fadasi near the Yabos affluent of the Blue Nile in about E. long. ° 10’ N. lat. 9°. He expected to return to Fazogl and journey through the Galla country after the rainy season was over. In this stage of his great journey Mr. Schuver’s chief objects are stated to be the determination of the sources of the Sobat and the discovery of the lakes, which are believed to exist on the high plateau between the White Nile and Kaffa. Mr. Joseph Thomson has recently been exploring the Loende tributary of the Roouma River. No coal was found. ‘The whole country is thickly covered with forest composed chiefly of India rubber trees. The land rises immediately from the shores of the Indian Ocean to an altitude of three hundred feet, and gradually aneleva- tion of three thousand feét is attained. Mr. Thomson now intends to visit the region lying between the sea and Mount Kilimanjaro and extending from Melinda on the north to Pangani on the south. ——The Missionary Expeditions to Lake Tanganyika continue to be unfortunate. The Algerian Mission at Urundi, near the head of the lake, reports the murder of three of its members and nearly all the missionaries of the London Missionary Society on the west shore of the lake were incapacitated by illness at last accounts. Herr Flegel has succeeded in ascending the Niger to Gomba, but the boatman refused to go on to Say. He proposed to explore Adamawa in search of the sources of the Binué. t. Stanley succeeded in reaching Stanley Pool in the latter part óf July and spent several days there. He confirms the belief expressed by M. de Brazza and the Baptist Missionaries, that the Pool is more than one degree further west than he fixed it in his map The longitude now given is 15° 47’ west from Greenwich. The country on the north bank of the Congo is reported to be exceedingly healthy. The Atheneum says: “The expedition which the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions,despatched to West Africa a little more than a year ago, appears to have made fair progress. The object is to found anextensive American mission on the Bihé plateau asthat field of labor is entirely distinct from those worked by European agencies. The party arrived at Benguela in due course and afterwards took up their abode at Calumbella, twelve miles off, and were delayed there till March 11th, chiefly owing to difficulties about porters, which appear to be as great there as on the eastern side of the continent. Start- ing at last on the day named, they made what is, for African traveling, a rapid march to- Bailunda, accomplishing the two hundred miles in fifteen days. Mr. Bagster and his companions settled here for a month to await the arrival of stores from the coast before moving on to Bihé, some fifty miles distant. In the middle of April it became evident that Mr. Bagster must go to the coast and hurry on matters. He accordingly left his com- panions at Bailunda to study the Ambunda language and re- _ . _ turned to Benguela.” Later intelligence informs us of his having © a -1882.] Geography and Travels. 83 rejoined the party, now settled in camp, some six days march from Bihé. The nights there are cool, the thermometer falling as low as 40° and rising at noon to 85° orgo°. The natives are friendly. The missionaries have made some progress in learning their lan- guage.- r. Pogge and Lieutenant Wissmann were at Malange at the end of last May, and hoped to arrive at Kimbundo in the latter part of June. They started from Loanda in January and as- cended the Kwanza river for some distance. ‘ Arctic Discovery.—The Brothers Krause, sent out by the Bremen Society, have visited the Chukchi peninsula at various’ ` points and intend spending the winter in the north of Alaska. Captain Adams, the well known Arctic whaling captain, has this last summer penetrated as far up Wellington Channel as an expedition has ever been. He then steered down Peel Sound to within a short distance of where the Ærebus and Terror were lost. He also visited Beechey Island and the Gulf of Boothia. From an Eskimo aear Fury and Hecla Straits, Captain Adams heard a story concerning the death of an officer—possibly Lieutenant Crozier, and two seamen of the Franklin expedition. Mr. Leigh Smith’s vessel, the Aira, in which he sailed for Franz Josef Land, has probably been beset by the ice, as she has not been heard from. She was provisioned for fourteen or fifteen months. The Italian Antarctic Expedition has failed for want of funds. Lieutenant Bove has, however, gone to Buenos Ayres, to explore the coast lands of Patagonia and Eastern Tierra del Fuego for the Argentine Government. He will be accompanied by a number of Italian savants in a separate vessel. os INTERNATIONAL PoLAR CONFERENCE.—The Conference was held this year at St. Petersburg. Delegates were present from Den- mark, Norway, Sweden, Russia, Austria-Hungary, France and Holland. Polar stations are to be established at Upernavik by Denmark, at Bosskop, Finland, by Norway, at Jan Mayen by Aus- tria~Hungary, at the mouth of the Lena and Novaya Zemlya by . Russia and in Spitzbergen by Sweden. Observations are to be begun as soon as possible after August 1, 1882, and continued = far as practicable until September 1, 1883. Meteorological and o magnetic phenomena will be observed, hour by hour, and on the Ist and r5th of each month observations will be taken every five rene minutes during the twenty-four hours, and every twenty seconds _ during one hour, which will be previously fixed; mean time at Gottingen being adopted in all cases. It was recommended that observations of the temperature of the soil, of evaporation, of ter- restrial galvanic currents, of atmospheric electricity, etc., be ta ae t was resolved (1) to found, if possible, a special publication to — ring more quickly to the knowledge of the cienu WOOF ee well as of the leaders of the various expeditions, the © eae cate a 84 : General Notes. [January, achieved from time to time, etc. ; (2), to leave behind, where prac- ticable, the buildings and other of the equipments of expeditions likely to be useful to future investigators in the same branches of science, and to take all possible precautions for their preserva- tion; and (3), to endeavor to make arrangement with railway and steamer companies for the reduction of the cost of passages and transport. . (GEOGRAPHICAL News.—The second Geographieal Society in _the United States has been organized at San Francisco, under the title of The Geographical Society of the Pacific. The recent census of India, shows the total population to be 252,000,- 000 fires that have been burning there from time immemorial are not volcanic, but proceed from burning coal. On the sides of the mountain there are caves emitting smoke and sulphurous gas. The question as to the existence of volcanic formations in Centra The ature states that “Mr. James Jackson, ‘ Archiviste- Bibliothécairé’ of the Paris Geographical Society, has published, ina volume of 340 pages, a ‘ Liste Provisoire de Bibliographies Géographiques Spéciales’ The list was undertaken at the instance of the Society, and was printed in some haste, we believe, for the recent Venice Congress. But when we remember that the list is only a bibliographical one, a list of lists, in fact, the accumulation of geographical literature is almost appalling. It because, as he states, the works relating to the countries of that continent are well known and easily accessible. Mr. Jackson gives not only bibliographies proper, but references to works on travel and geography, and to periodicals, journals, and transac- tions, which contain special lists. The divisions of the list are :-— Europe, Asia, Africa, America, Oceanica, Polar regions, Oceans and Hydrography, Peoples and Nations, Voyages, Travelers, and Geographers, and Generalities. By means of the arrangement under each division the methodical table of contents, the index to authors and periodical publications, the work is rendered easily consultable. It reflects the greatest credit on Mr. Jackson's industry and on the enterprise of the Paris Societ ety.” ——A new island has been discovered in lat. 7° 48’ S, long. 82° 48’ W. and 188 miles from Punta Aguja, south of Guayaquil, the nearest land. It appears to be of volcanic origin and is only fifty feet above the sea, in its highest part. It isa mile long and about the same width. In the northern portion of the Chinese pro- — 1882. | Scientific News. 85 vince of Shensi the sand from the desert is seriously encroaching on the country and has already half buried some cities. The high walls which have hitherto kept it out of Yülin will not much longer be of any avail, as the sand is already heaped almost to the top. Clements R. Markham, F. R.S; On the Island of Socotra, by Professor J. Bailey Balfour; Journey to the Imperial Mausolea, East of Peking, by F. S. A. Bourne; Comparative Sketch of what was known of Africa in 1830, with what is known in 1881, by Lieutenant Col. J. A. Grant; Some Results of Fifty Year's Exploration in Africa, by the Rev. Horace Waller; Recent Visit to the Gold Mines of the West Coast of Africa, by Commander V. L. Cameron, R. N. wg iA SCIENTIFIC NEWS. — The first part ofa valuable work by M. Alph. Milne Edwards, on “The Fauna of Austral Regions,” has been presented to the French Academy, The geographical distribution. of birds is chiefly dealt with. It is remarkable (and would hardly have been — expected) that these animals are eminently adapted to reveal the existence and position of the zodlogical centers whence the various species have radiated. The penguins are specially interesting in this respect. They appear to have migrated from a center of pro- duction in the Antarctic islands, near Victoria land, and to have followed the great currents going northwards, reaching the waters of Cape Horn, the Falklands, New Georgia, the Cape of Good Hope, and various islands of the Indian ocean, establishing, in each case, powerful colonies, with (in time) distinctive characters. Another colony, represented by the Spheniscans, starting front the same center, and favored by Humboldt’s current, has gone to © the west of Cape Horn, along the coast of Chili, to Peru and the Gallipagos islands, touching at various points. — The volume on the Vertebrata of the Western Tertiary forma- tions on which Professor Cope has been engaged for several years, — is, we understand, approaching completion. Most of the plates are drawn, and the printing of the text is well advanced. This work will cover much ground, and will furnish much detailed © information on a subject which has of later times excited general — interest. The volume is No. 1v of the Hayden series. Vols will follow. It will give a similar account of the recent discover- ca 86 Scientific News. [January ies in the Permian and Mesozoic formations of the West. Nearly a thousand species of Vertebrata will be described and figured in these volumes. The Hayden series, when completed, will form a monument to Dr. Hayden, who projected it, and will reflect credit on the Government, which has sustained the publication. — Aniong recent publications of the Census Bureau is an ex- tra Census Bulletin containing tables showing the approximate areas of the United States, the several States, and their counties. It'has been prepared by Mr. Henry Gannett, the geographer and special agent of the tenth census. It appears that of several States a number of estimates of area have been in use, differing from one another by thousands of square miles, and none of them perhaps traceable to any authentic source; while many of the results are palpably wrong, being so far from the truth that it is a source of surprise that they were not corrected before. A map defining the gross areas of the States and Territories accompanies this useful Bullet — Mr. Allen Whitman, a native of East Bridgewater, Mass., died recently in St. Paul, Minnesota, aged 45 years. He was a graduate of Harvard, and while one ofthe best classical scholars in the coun- try, was one of the most valuable assistants in the U.S, Ento- ‘mological Commission, having previous to the organization of the Commission, published two valuable reports on the locust as it appeared in Minnesota — The University of Cambridge, England, has conferred the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws upon Professor Thomas Sterry Hunt, LL.D., F.R.S., a native of Connecticut, who was for twenty-five years chemist and mineralogist to the Geological Sur- vey of Canada, and resigned that post in 1872 to accept the Chair of T in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. — Professor W. N. Rice, and Mr. H.L Osborn, in their report as curators of the Museum of Wesleyan University, gives a review of the state of the museum. Many important additions have been made, and the spirit and zeal shown by the curators should re- sult in such pecuniary benefactions as would liberally endow that department. — An autobiographical sketch by Rev. .Titus Coan, entitled, “ Life in Hawaii,” is announced by A. D. F. Randolph & Co. It includes accounts of the eruptions of the volcanoes in the Hawaiian Islands, of which this missionary has been a diligent historian since 1835. — The late John Amory Lowell bequeathed $20,000 to Har- vard College, for the botanical garden, on condition that it be | called the “ Lowell Botanic Garden,” in memory of his grand- 1882.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 87 father, who started the first subscription for the purpose of estab- lishing this department. — Mr. G. H. Darwin in his work on the tidal evolution of the moon has drawn the inference that geological denudation and deposition must have been vastly more active in former times than at present. — Mr. C. S. Nachet, the founder of the well-known French firm of microscope manufacturers, died October 28, at the advanced age of 83. — The Census Bulletin, No. 270, refers to the production of iron ore in the United States, which was 7,971,706 tons; with a valuation of $23,167,007. :0: PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. MIDDLESEX Institute, Oct. 12, 1881.—The President, L. L. Dame, read a paper on “ Botanical Nomenclature,” in the course of which he alluded to the different pronunciations prevailing even among good botanists, and advocated, subjecting all names becoming Latinized to the Latin rules of prounciation without re- gard to the vernacular as the only way of ensuring absolute uni- — formity. In the discussion which followed it was objected that Fiske and Prof. Wm. H. Niles, of Cambridge, Mass.; and Prof. has. A. Young, of Princeton, New Jersey, were elected honor- ary members. _ 3 Pee ge New York Acapemy oF Screncrs, Nov. 14.—Dr. A. A, Jul- | Pe Mis. a paper on the excavation of the bed of the Kaaterskill, ov. 21.—Dr. Louis Elsberg remarked on the cell-doctrine and the bioplasson doctrine. _ Nov. 28.—Commander Cheyne, R. N., delivered a Meeg “ The Discovery of the North Pole penaa kd E „Dec. 5—Dr. A. A. Julien read a paper on the volcanic tufas of Challis, Idaho, J o pon iye renate ee ieee lecture en- , ; Reece: 88 Selected Articles in Scientific Serials. - | January, 1882. Boston Society oF Naturav History, Nov. 16.—Mr. Wil- liam Trelease compared the glands of plants with those of ani- mals. He described the histology and showed the homology of the organs in question. The glands are anomalous in that a deep- lying tissue secretes the fluid, hich reaches the exterior through a distinct break in the epidermis—not a stoma. The secreting tissue is the end of a fibro-vascular bundle, the cambium having produced the active cells, instead of wood cells, the whole being surrounded by a thin bast sheath. He described a number of cases showing the glands to represent undeveloped flowers, as previously indicated by Delpino. Professor D. P. Penhallow then read a paper on the temperature of trees. Dec. 7.-—Professor A. Hyatt described the sponge found in the Boston Water Supply, and Mr. B. H. Van Vleck discussed its — distribution in Farm Pond, and the general condition of the lat- ter; Dr. Wm. F. Whitney showed a skull of an ancient Mexican, with an arrow-head imbedded in the superior nasal fossa. AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL Society, New York, Nov. 25.—Dr. I. I. Hayes? delivered a lecture on the water-ways of New York, considered in relation to the transportation interests of the State, and the commerce of the city. :0: a ARTICLES IN SCIENTIFIC SERIALS. ERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, Dec.—Lower Silurian fossils Coka i ai Northern Maine, by W. W. Dodge. A contribu- tion to Croll’s theory of secular pe iita changes, by W. J. Mc- e. On the relation of the so-called “ Kam p the Connecti- cut River valley to the Terrace formation, by yD . Dana. GrotocicaL MaGcazine, Nov.—Evaporation and eccentricity as co-factors in glacial periods, by E. Hill. The valley system of S. E. England, by S. V. Wood. Sudden extinction of the Mam- moth, by C. Reid, ANNALES DES SCIENCES NATURELLES, Sept., 1881.—Observations on the development and organization of the Proscolex of Bilhar- sla EREET by J. Chatin. Observations on the sexual cells of Hydroids, by A. Weismann. Observations on the functions of the aude appendage of Limuli, by J. de some Rare or new Crustacea of the coast of France, by M. Hesse. Observations on the encystment of 77ichina spiralis, by J. e ZEITSCHRIFT FÜR WISSENSCHAFTLICHE ZOOLOGIK, Nov. 1.—On the developmental history of the ophiuran skeleton , by H. Lud- wig. Contributions to the anatomy and histology of Sipuncu- lus nudus, by J. Andre. Comparative anatomical studies on the brain of bony fishes, with especial reference to the Cyprinoids, by P. Mayser. 1 Since suddenly deceased, Dec 17. THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. VOL. XVI. a FEBRUARY, 1882. — No. 2. THE SIPHONOPHORES. BY J. WALTER FEWKES. (Continued from October number, 1881.) IV.—ANATOMY AND DEVELOPMENT OF DIPHYES. babe Siphonophores which we have thus far considered all agree in this particular, that they have a float attached at one end of the stem to buoy it up in the water. It may, in some genera, be doubtful how far this structure is necessary, or to what extent it is functional, but it is never without representation in any of the Physophoridz. We come now to consider tubular jelly-fishes, which may be looked upon as in many respects the highest! of the Siphonophores. In no member of the group is there a float such as is to be found in Agalma and its allies, while in details of structure their organization is very characteristic, and different from the tubular Medusz already studied. A good representative of these Medusz, whose several genera make up the Diphyidz? is the beautiful genus Diphyes, represented in our waters, as far as explored, by a single species. An account of the anatomy and development of this genus seems a fitting intro- duction to a more extended acquaintance with. the remaining Siphonophores, which embrace some of the most beautiful ani- - mals with which the student of marine life is familiar. e The differences between Diphyes and Agalma seem so great If we consider, however, their anatomy, and the likeness of some of the Diphyi- dæ to the primitive medusa of Agalma, we may place them, as a whole, below the Physophoride. My reasons for placing them higher will be given later in this paper. : * The designation Diphyidz seems to me preferable to Leuckart’s term, Calyco- l phoridæ. The very aberrant genus Hippopodius is the type of a family between be o Physophoridæ and Diphyidæ. bes cree VOL, XVI.—No. m. | 7 90 The Siphonophores [ February, that, at first sight, it is almost impossible to recognize anything in common between them both. A more intimate study, however i ges p; polypite; z, tentacle Hani: a covering- ARTH $ brings out very many resemblances which a casual observation _ had overlooked. 1882. | The Siphonophores. 9I Prominent among all the structures which characterize the Siphonophores, is the axis or stem from which the group is named. In Diphyes this part (s) is very well developed, and in live specimens may be seen trailing behind to a great distance in the water, just as we have seen was the case in the genera of Phy- sophoridæ already mentioned. Along its whole extent we find appendages so fastened that they do not incommode in the least possible manner the direct motion of the animal through the water. In the genus Diphyes it will be noticed that all the organs are especially adapted for rapid motion, and as one watches these graceful tubes, with their appendages, shooting through the sea, the adaptation for this mode of life seems complete. With this thought in mind, one can almost predict the organs of the Phy- sophores which should be missed in Diphyes, and the modifica- tions of their form which would be expected. A float would, if of any size, be a great impediment to the free motion of the jelly-fish. In Diphyes, consequently, it is alto- gether wanting, and other methods are resorted to in order to diminish the specific gravity of the colony. No organ of Diphyes better illustrates the modification and adaptation which has taken place to bring about rapid motion, than those which move the colony, which are here, as in all Siphonophores, the nectocalyces. There are only two of these Swimming-bells, as they are called, and they are very different in outline and general appearance from the swimming-bells of any of the animals which we have yet considered. These bells differ _ also one from the other, in size, shape and anatomy. At one end of the axis of Diphyes, as it floats gracefully ex- _ tended in the water, there are two gelatinous, transparent bodies of somewhat conical shape (ad, p) ; these are the two necto- calyces which, with the exception of one genus, Hippopodius, are ae double thrauchant all the members of the Diphyide.’ The con- nection between the two bells at the extremity of the axis is so strong, that when they are raised from the water they are. not oe broken apart, but the axis, by contraction, is simply drawn up in- to a deep groove in the under side of the bell, while the appen- dages, even when the colony is lifted out of water, remain attached ‘In the genus Monophyes there is but a single nectocalyx. This genus is, in this o respect as well as in other details of structure, very peculiar. I shall speak of it — more at length in —. the different ery of ay okey yg terete has ae many Teer 92 The Siphonoephores. [ February, much more strongly than corresponding structures of Agalma and kindred forms, In this retracted position they are often car- ried, as the animal darts forward in its course through the water. To facilitate that motion by diminishing the resistance of the sur- rounding medium, the method of attachment no less than the form of the bells, contributes. In Agalma the nectocalyces, as we have seen, seem to arise in two rows, with bell openings looking in opposite directions. They are capable of a very limited change of position, and most of the variety of motion which the colony has, is brought about by combination in the action of nectocalyces situated in different regions of the stem, or in a muscular twisting of the axis upon which they are fastened, by which their openings are made to face in different directions. The method is too simple if rapid motion be desired, and ill adapted to that purpose in Diphyes. In Stephanomia variety and rapidity of movement are brought about by multiplication of nectocalyces. Even in this genus the means are inferior to those which we find in Diphyes.’ The swimming-bells of Diphyes are placed one behind the other, so that their longer axes lie in a straight line which falls in the direction of motion. Both bell cavities open in the same way, facing backward as they float in the water. When they act simultaneously the fluid ejected from their cavities by the contrac- tion of the bell walls, presses together on the surrounding me- dium and reinforces each other. There is no action of one bell in opposition to another, as may happen in Agalma. The vol- ume of ejected water is comparatively much larger than in any of the Physophoride. The anterior bell (a4) of the two nectocalyces has a pyramidal shape, and is pointed at the apex opposite the bell opening. If this bell were attached by the same region as the nectocalyx of Agalma, it would seem as if this apical prolongation should also indicate the place of attachment of the stem. In Diphyes, how- ever, this is not the case. The apex of the first bell is not homol- ogous to the apex of the bell of other Medusz, nor does it cor- respond to the point of attachment of the nectocalyx to the stem 1The motion of the Diphyes is sometimes so rapid that the eye cannot follow the animal. The water is driven out of the bell cavity by a single muscular contraction of the bell walls and when the impetus is lost a new contraction follows. The movement of the two nectocalyces is simultaneous. — 1882. | The Siphonophores. 93 of Agalma. The apex of the anterior bell is in reality the pro- longation of the side of the bell, while the true apex has been abnormally twisted out of position, and is found just above the bell opening, near the origin of the stem which seems to hang down between the two nectocalyces. - Nowhere in its structure is the modification, which takes place in the organs of the bell as a result of this abnormal twisting, better shown than in the course of the chymiferous tubes upon the inner walls of the bell cavity. The radial tubes are especially modified in their course by the change in external form which the bell has undergone. The chymiferous tubes of the anterior nectocalyx in Diphyes, consist of a system of four radial vessels placed upon the inner walls of the bell cavity, and a single large tube or cavity extending into one side of the bell walls parallel to the outer surface. The former tubes start from a common junction, and pass radially to the bell margin, while the latter ends blindly about two-thirds the distance between the bell rim and the pointed extremity of the nectocalyx. Both open into the cavity of the stem; the former by a vessel passing from their junction to the stem; the latter more directly through the same tube. The length of the four radial tubes is very unequal, as would naturally be expected if the distortion which we have suggested as having taken place in the anterior bell, has in reality occurred. The two tubes (c) which lie in those parts of the bell which have been enlarged, are therefore naturally much longer than those in the remaining portions of the bell. So small indeed has that side of the nectocalyx which adjoins the posterior bell become, and So enormously has the opposite half been enlarged, that the tubes of One are inconspicuous and with difficulty traced, while those of the other are very prominent on the inner bell walls. At first sight then, we might suppose that there were but two radial ves- sels, while a closer study shows that there are four such tubes as we have seen exists in the nectocalyces of all Siphonophores. At the common junction of these tubes, we must look for the apex of the bell cavity. At that point, about midway in the length of the two bells, the vessels communicate with the stem cavity by means of a short tube, similarly placed to a like vessel - in the nectocalyx of Agalma. Sue There is, however, in the anterior nectocalyx a tube (7) which | 7 94 The Siphonophores. [ February, : has the form of a cavity filled with a spongy mass! of cells, and which seems without representation in the bell of Agalma. This cavity starts from the union of the vessel last mentioned with the stem cavity, and extends through the substance of the bell walls, ending blindly a short distance from its union with the stem. If we look for its homologue in the bells of Agalma, it will be found to exactly correspond in position with the mantel tubes, which are diminutive branches from the vessel which in Agalma con- nects the radial system with the cavity of the axis. This greatly developed mantel tube in the anterior nectocalyx of Diphyes has been called the somatocyst. It is not a float, as far as its homol- ogy goes, although it may, at times, contain globules of oil, which serve to diminish the specific gravity of the animal. The existence of the somatocyst in the bell walls on one side, and not on the other, necessitates a thickening of those lateral walls, which are usually placed uppermost as the medusa floats in the water. The walls on the opposite or lower side are very thin. The thickened upper bell walls, from which the axis hangs, are continued beyond the margin of the bell in order to give a basis of attachment to the stem. This elongation extends over and pro- tects? a portion of the posterior nectocalyx, as shown in the figure. It often happens that the posterior bell is ruptured from its connec- tion with the anterior, and but one nectocalyx, with its attached stem, is found. Such a find is liable to deceive a novice in the study of the tubular medusa. It can be laid down asa law to which there is but one exception as yet known, that all the adult Diphyidz have two nectocalyces in their normal condition. The second or posterior nectocalyx (pġ) differs widely from the anterior in shape and in the character of its chymiferous ves- sels, more particularly in their course through the bell walls. While it has the elongated form of the anterior, the course of the 'The appearance of a “spongy mass,’ which seems to fill the somatocyst of Diphyes, is due to an enlargement of the walls so that the cells seem to fill the whole cavity. D. turgida, described by Gegenbaur, has no somatocyst. (Gegen- baur, Zeit, f. Wiss. Zool., v, 1854, p. 442-448, Taf. 23. Keferstein and Ehlers, Zoologische Beiträge, p. 16 It is to be noticed that the projection of the prolongation of the anterior necto- calyx over the. paer strengthens the union of these two structures. A firm union is necessary in order that in their simultaneous action no movement of one bell on the other should ke place. If such a motion occurs a part of the forward impetus would be lost. Rigidity of the ———— is here very necessary, and Bence the close soldering together of these parts 1882. | The Siphonophores. 95 radial tubes as well as the point of attachment of the bell to the stem, shows that one side of the bell is not abnormally developed at the expense of the other. Its general form is exactly what would take place if an Agalma bell were much elongated in the line of its height, in order to secure a greater capacity for the cavity. The most important variation in shape from the anterior bell, is the formation of two ridges extending the whole length of the under side of the posterior nectocalyx on the side which is opposite that part of the anterior bell which is thickened and bears the somatocyst. These ridges are continued into two prominences beyond the bell opening! In the interval between these two ridges there is a groove in which is lodged the stem when retracted. In some genera, as Abyla, still further means of covering the stem when thus retracted are found, but in Diphyes the groove is without covering. The posterior bell is smaller than the anterior, and is easily detached. Its radial system of vessels communicates with the stem cavity by a small vessel which is destitute of mantel tubes or somatocyst. While the two nectocalyces of Diphyes are the most prominent structures in the animal when alive, and the only organs to be studied in alcoholic specimens, they are by no means the most: important. The active habits of Diphyes has given them this predominance in _ size. There remain many other appendages to the stem yet to be mentioned. i These parts of the colony are fastened regularly along the whole length of the stem to its very extremity. They consist of _ Covering-scales, polypites to which are appended tentacles dotted ~ along their length with tentacular pendants, and clusters of ‘sex- ual bells. Representatives of the bodies called tasters in my account of Agalma do not exist, as far as known, inthe Diphyide. The appendages are not placed irregularly upon the stem, a polypite in one place and a cluster of sexual bells in another, but are found in clusters, separated by short intervals of the stem. Each cluster consists of a covering-scale, a polypite with its ten- 1 The projections formed by the continuation of the ridges on the under side of the | ‘ Posterior nectocalyx probably act as rudders to determine the direction which the animal takes as it moves, or to regulate the angle at which the water leaves the bel > : vity. In some genera of Diphyide, similar structures undoubtedly have this func- _ Yon, and it seems highly probable that the same is true in the projections under the ~ Opening of the posterior bell in Diphyes a A a es ee 96 The Siphonophores. [February, tacle anda clus- ter of sexual bells. In Apo- the single genus Hippopodius. The clusters which were de- scribed in the genus Apolemia, separate from the remainder of lead an indepen- Fic. oe ia. The ewig . *. Ín Figs. 2 and 3 correspon og, oi dent life. This globule; ii sombatbe st ph covering- is also true ina sles polypite ual-bells the Eu doia with tentacle re- ters of the Diph- * erected is shown in the length of the yes colony. For line at the left of the nectocalyx a long time these separated fragments were thought to be new genera, that from a Diphyes had been called Eudoxia, until it was shown by Leuckart that it was in reality only a frag- ment dropped from the stem of a Diphyes. We cannot give a better idea of the charac- teristics of one of these clusters, than by a de- scription of the Eudoxia? found in our waters. It must be remembered that the Eudoxia © form of a Diphyes fragment is seldom reached 1 This Eudoxia seems the same as that figured and described in Hu ay Py Lessoniz. It is here supposed that this Eudoxia is the di phyizoid of Diphyes acumt- nata. The form of the appendages extending backward on the lower surface of the _ posterior nectocalyx are so different in shape in this species and D. tin eri that -the species here figured may be as pin undescribed. 1882. | ally. el The Siphonophores, 97 while attached to the. axis. It is only after separation that the appendages grow toa * form like that which we are about to de- 4 scribe. The Eudoxia discovered by us at Newport, Re IL, al- though probably the same species as that mentioned by Huxley and others, was found one or two seasons before its Diphyes was taken. A separated frag- ment of one of the . 3.—Eudoxia. Letter- Diphyidæ, which in ing the same as Fig. 2. the case of Diphyes is known as Eudoxia, may be called a Diphyi- zoid, and as such it is commonly described. The structure of Eudoxia, or the Diphyizoid of Diphyes is, in a general way, as follows. It is not necessary for me again to more than «remind the reader that in these popular papers finer details of structure are omitted in my descriptions. In general outline Eudoxia (Fig. 2) re- sembles Diphyes. The likeness, however, is only a superficial one, as will be seen later in our consideration. As it floats or swims in the water, those portions of the colony which are prominent are the two gelatinous bell- shaped bodies fastened to each other, end to end, in a manner similar to the two nec- tocalyces of Diphyes. Except in the mode of attachment, however, there is little likeness be- tł either morphologically or function- tw y Of the two transparent campanulate bodies, the anterior (a) is not, in Eudoxia, a nectocalyx, but a thickened, almost con- : 98 The Siphonophores. [ February, ical covering-scale; its surface is convex with one side flattened and the base concave for the lodgment of the sexual bells and retracted tentacle. There are no radial vessels in this covering- scale, and only the central cavity (2) of peculiar cellular appear- ance, representing the somatocyst. At the fundus of this cavity there is generally found an oil globule (og) which it is unneces- sary to say has no morphological relationships with the float of Agalma and its allies. A similar globule is also found at the base of the somatocyst near the point of attachment of the young Eudoxia to the stem of the Diphyes, before the rupture of the fragment took place. The structure of the covering-scale of Eudoxia betrays at once the homology of the central tube of the covering-scales of other Siphonophores, as well as of the somatocyst of the anterior bell of Diphyes. The covering-scale of Eudoxia resembles the ante- rior bell of Diphyes except that it has no radial system of ves- sels and no bell cavity. The somatocyst of the swimming-bell of the Diphyes is represented in its fragment, Eudoxia, by the central cavity (¢) of the large covering-scale. This cavity is in turn the same as the central tube of the covering-scales of all other Siphonophores. When we recollect what has been pointed out above in relation to the homology of the somatocyst to the man- tle vessels in the nectocalyces of Agalma, the true homology of the covering scale and the nectocalyx becomes evident. If this view of the morphology be a correct one, the comparison of the covering-scale with the asymmetrical bell of ‘a hydroid like the genus Hybocodon, is not correct, or at least its medially-placed tube does not correspond with a radial tube in the bell walls of the hydroid medusa. ' The under side or base of the conical covering-scale of Eu- doxia is very concave, and in this recess hang, when retracted, the remaining structures of the animal. The largest (2) of these bodies is a nectocalyx whose outer walls are crossed by four longitudinal ridges, serrated on their edges and continued into projections beyond the bell cavity. Two of these ridges, corre- sponding with those found on the under side of the posterior nectocalyx of Diphyes, are more prominent than the other pair, and enclose a canal in which the polypite, tentacle and sexual bell, lie when retracted. The bell cavity is deep, filling almost the whole interior of the nectocalyx, and along its surface pass 1882. | The Siphonophores. 99 the four radial tubes (x) from common junction at the apex of | the cavity to the bell rim. Their length is about equal, and their course in the bell walls is direct, without division or bifurcation, In the interval between the point of union of the covering-scale and nectocalyx, suspended from the under side of the former, hangs a flask-shaped body (~) which resembles very closely the feeding polyps of Agalma. It contains the stomach, and at its free end is found the mouth. The stomach cavity is in direct commu- nication with the cavity of the covering-scale. From a point near the origin of the polypite there is suspended a long flexible highly contractile tentacle. This tentacle can be wholly re- tracted at the base of the polypite, but when the Eudoxia is in motion, is found reaching far behind the point of suspension, gracefully extending to a great length. In addition to the poly- pite we also find a cluster of bells (g) occupying the interval be- low the covering-scale and its point of attachment to the necto- calyx already mentioned, These bells enclose in their cavities, in place of a proboscis, a globular mass of eggs. It will be seen that the Eudoxia, which I have described, has female! sexual bells only; the male bells I have never been fortunate enough to find. The sexual bells are found in all stages of growth, from a simple bud to a well developed bell hanging from a stout peduncle. The history of the growth of the egg after it is — dropped from the female bell, will be treated of in a special paper on the embryology of Diphyes. : The anatomy of Diphyes seems to me to sustain the homology of the Siphonophores as pointed out in our account of the anat- omy of Agalma. The absence of the float at the extremity of the stem offers. no difficulty to this homology when we recollect that the air bladder itself is only a modified medusa bell, and consequently homologous to the anterior of the two bells of - iphyes, The posterior nectocalyx is homologous to a true necto- oo calyx, while the anterior represents the float of the Physophori- dæ. The axis of Diphyes, as that of Agalma, is homologous — with the proboscis of a Lizzia, and from its sides bud the medu- Soid individuals. There is this very important difference between * According to Gegenbaur, Keferstein and Ehlers, male and female sexual acess coexist on the same Diphyes stem. In the Diphyes which I have studied, that 2 : not Spree male sexual bell of the American form cd Ps ka as i European Diphyidæ e __ Ste (Siphonophoren von Nira, poa. Zoologische Umemnehungen P. 30- 100 The Siphonophores. [ February, the proboscis of Lizzia’and the stem of Diphyes, that while the buds from the former separate without absorption of the stomach walls, the Eudoxia appropriates a section of the Diphyes axis to form essential parts of its body. To my mind there is no difficulty in a comparison of the Eu- doxia with Lizzia! and with the Physophoride. Eudoxia is the adult form of which the Diphyes is the “nurse stage,” so that we have here a true alternation of generation as in other medusz. It is natural, therefore, that the likeness between Eudoxia and Agalma should be a distant one, since the latter genus never passes out of the Diphyes form, or the “nurse” from which the Eudoxia buds. On this account I consider the Physophoride as lower, anatomically and embryologically, than the Diphyide. Like those forms of fixed hydroids, which never drop medusa- shaped buds, and never, therefore, advance out of the fixed “nurse stage,” the Physophoridz never attain as completely developed a form as the Diphyide. They never bud off a gonophore as the medusoid bud is sometimes called, but always remain in the em- bryonic form. As the Diphyes stage is comparable with a stro- bila or a budding Lizzia, the Eudoxia is the completed generation comparable with the adult Lizzia which drops the eggs, or the sexual form. The following table exhibits the corresponding parts of Liz- zia and Eudoxia: Lizzia. EUDOXIA Bell. Coverirg scale (a). Manubrium (proboscis). Feeding polyp (polypite) (2). Nees cr of a bud from the proboscis, Tentacle (7). the bell of which is aborted. Modified medusa bud from the probos- Swimming-bell (4). cis, the proboscis and tentacle of which are lost (aborted), Several buds from the proboscis (young Sexual-bells ( g)- Lizziæ). ; 1 The comparison of Eudoxia to a “ budding Lizzia” was set first forth, substan- tially as given in this article, by Professor McCrady in 1857 (Gymophthalmata of Charleston Harbor, p. 67). Since that date the theory has been urged on embryo- logical grounds, ie ah a mention of McCrady’s suggestion, by Haeckel, fetal and P Metschnikoff, Stud. uber Entwick. d. Medusen u. s.w., Zeit. f. Wiss. Zool xxiv, P. E. Müller, Iag. over Nogle Siphonophorer, Nat. Tidsskrift 3. R. 7. B- Resumé in French). Iam indebted to my friend, the late Mr. G. Winther, for 2 written MS. translation of portions of Miiller’s work, - 1882. | The Siphonophores. IOI If we were to follow precedent in our studies of the Siphono- phores, we must apply to the adult the name Eudoxia instead of the almost universally used Diphyes. It is just as absurd to re- tain the name Diphyes to designate anything but a younger stage in the growth of Eudoxia, as it would be to designate the adult sea-urchin a pluteus, or to retain the word auricularia for the adult starfish. The monogastric form, or the Eudoxia, is the adult; the polygastric, or Diphyes, the larva. There is another point to be considered. If from the embry- onic feature of possessing a long axis, or stem, the relatives of Diphyes are referred to the Siphonophores, is that reference a good one, and would the characters as assigned to the group to which Agalma belongs (Siphonophoræ) hold in descriptions of the adult Diphyid? The Eudoxia has no stem-like structure, which gave the name to the group, although it is a true relative. _The corresponding parts of an Agalma and an Eudoxia are Siven in the table below: AGALMA, EUDOXIA. gen Covering-scale. P oe Nectocalyx. olypite and tentacle. Polypite and tentacle. Covering-scale. Covering-scale. Taster and filament Wanting. = Rp Sexual bells. s or stem of Agalma is reduced in Eudoxia to the oe he axi - polypite condition, and is not distinguishable from this structure. 102 Remarks on the Cretaceous and [ February, REMARKS ON THE CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY FLORA OF THE WESTERN TERRITORIES. BY LEO LESQUEREUX. HE following notes were suggested by two valuable commu- cations to Nature, in the numbers bearing date June 30 and October 6, 1881; the first, that of Dr. J. S. Newberry, tending to show that the flora of the Dakota group, together with that of the Laramie group, are of Cretaceous age; the second, that of J. Starkie Gardner, Esq., of London, contending to the contrary, that both those floras are Tertiary. As there is not any fixed characters admitted as standard points of determination of the age of a fossil flora, phytopalzon- tologists have no means of coming to an understanding on the subject, except by a comparison of the vegetable remains of the divers formations with those of localities whose geological hori- zon has been ascertained. I take here, for comparison with the plants of the Dakota group, the Upper Cretaceous flora of Groenland, Atane; that of Moletin, of Quedlinburg, of the Quader-sandstone of the Hartz and other localities of Germany where this formation, generally considered as Middle Cretaceous, or Cenomanian, has been observed. One hundred and seventy specific forms of plants are now known from the Dakota group; they represent six ferns, one Equisetum, or seven cryptogamous acrogens; seven Cycadez, ten conifers, three monocotyledonous plants; the others, about one hundred and fifty, all dicotyledonous angiosperms. As far as known until now, the flora of Atane, Groenland, is represented in sixty-three species—thirteen ferns, two Cycadez, ten conifers, three monocotyledonous, while thirty-four, or a little more than one-half, are angiosperms. . - The relation of the Atane flora with that of the Dakota group is marked by ten identical species: one fern, two conifers and seven dicotyledonous; while quite as distinct an affinity is demon- strated by allied types of the genera Ficus, Sassafras, Diospyros | and Sapindus. The flora of Quedlinburg is composed of twenty species; four ferns, four conifers, one monocotyledonous, with eleven angio- sperms, a little more than half of the species, Of this group of — 1882. | Tertiary Flora of the Western Territories. 103 plants, the relation to the flora of the Dakota group is shown by only one identical species, a fern, which is also found at Atane and Moletin, while analogy is marked by two species of Myrica and a Proteoides. Moletin, in eighteen species described of its flora, has one fern, four conifers, one monocotyledonous and twelve angiospermous plants, these, therefore, constituting two-thirds of the flora. Though the number is small, the flora is related to that of the Dakota group by identity of one fern, one conifer, both also recognized at Atane, and of two dicotyledonous species. This is a remarkably close relationship indeed, more intimate than that between the Quedlinburg and Moletin floras, and it is positive, for the species indicating it, Gleichenia kurriana, Pinus quenstedti, Aralia formosa and Magnolia speciosa, all described by Heer, are of easily identifiable characters. The quader-sandstone of the Hartz is, by its numerous species of Credneria, related to the no less numerous representatives of the genus Protophyllum of the Dakota group. In the Monde des Plantes, by Saporta, the author, who has had opportunity to compare specimens of plants of the Cenomanian of - Bohemia with those of the more common and characteristic spe- cies of the Dakota group, remarks, p. 202, that the flora of this group presents, if not identical species with those of Bohemia and Moravia, at least a number of equivalent forms. . Mr. Feistmantel says, in a note to Professor Heer} that the lower division of the Cretaceous of Bohemia (Perutzer-Schichten) is Cenomanian. After naming a number of plants found in the sandstone of this formation, he adds that the beds of shale, partly — between, partly above the sandstone, contain remains of plants, ferns, conifers and a mass of dicotyledonous leaves and fresh- — water shells. Of the forty-nine species determined by him, nine —__ are also at Moletin, seven at Niedershoena, while three ferns and conifers are present in the Lower Cretaceous of Groenland, and four in the Upper, that of Atane. Of the same plants the Da- 2 kota group has five, positively identified: Gleichenia kurriana, Pinus quenstedti, Sequoia Reichenbachi, Magnolia speciosa and Ar alia formosa. A sixth might be added, Seguota fastigiata, but. - its identification is less definite, And still with the flora of Nieder- shoena, that of the American Cretaceous is related by one identi- oP Ek Adc, Vol. 1m, p. 3. u eo ae a 104 Remarks on the Cretaceous and [ February, cal species, and the affinity of character of a Pterophyllum, a Cau- linites, a Fagus, two species of Ficus, a Myrica and a Daphnogene. To set aside the evidence derived from the remains of plants indicating synchronism and Cretaceous age of the localities above named, it may be said, as it has been done for the Laramie group, that vegetable remains are not sufficient authority for the determination of the age of a formation. But here the determination of the formation from where the re- mains are derived, has been first made, or later confirmed by the characters of animal remains found ia the intercalated or superposed strata. Heer states that the Moletin formation is positively referable tothe quader-sandstone, Cenomanian, overlying the planer of Reuss referred to the Turonian; and of that of Quedlinburg, he states that it is referable to the lowest zone of the Belemnitella quadrata, which constitutes the lowest stage of the Senonian or Upper Cre- taceous. In the quader-sandstein of the Hartz, from where the Credneria species have been obtained, a large number of animal remains, mostly of invertebrate and fishes, have -been found. Stiehler, in his Beiträge, quotes a long list of these genera and species, all Cretaceous. It is the same with the animal remains found in the strata overlaying the Dakota group in a space of more than two thousand feet. The objection by Mr. Gardner is, that these so-called Creta- ceous animal remains may not or are not generally or specifi- cally identical with those of the Middle Cretaceous of Eng- land. Of this I am unable to judge, But it is said also that the vegetable types of the Dakota group appear too young to represent a Cretaceous formation, for some of them are closely related to plants of the Miocene. This is true, as it will be seen here below; but that cannot be taken into account in the discussion, for the relation is quite as prominent, rather still more marked with species of the present vegetation of North America, where a number of types of the flora of the Dakota group are reproduced in some of the more important and beautiful trees of our forests, This is the more remarkable that the affinity is not at all observable with the plants of the Lower Tertiary or Eocene of the Laramie group. But this refers to the second part of the discussion; before coming to it there are still a few words to say on the present objection. : 1 Beiträge zur Kentniss der Vorweltlichen Flora, 1857. , 1882. | Tertiary Flora of the Western Territories. 105 The Lowest Cretaceous flora of Groenland, that of Come, is composed, as far as known, of seventy-five species, of which forty-two represent Cryptogamous acrogens, ferns, Lycopods and Equisetacez ; nine Cycadez, seventeen conifers, six monocotyle- donous and only one dicotyledonous angiosperm plant. Com- posed as it is, the group has rather the character of a Jurassic than of a Cretaceous flora. It is, however, related with Atane by five identical species, three ferns and two conifers, and also by that first or more ancient dicotyledonous plant, a Populus of the same type as three other forms of this genus described from Atane. What conclusions can be derived from the above? The char- acter of the flora of Come being Jurassic, the formation which it characterizes cannot be considered as Tertiary. Heer thinks even that the true Cretaceous begins with the flora of Atane. But admitting Come as lowest Cretaceous, we may follow the relation of its flora through Atane, not only with the Dakota group, but with all the formations mentioned above from Germany—Qued- linburg, Moletin, the Quader-sandstone and others; and, there- fore, to admit the Dakota group to the Tertiary, it would be ne- cessary to erase from the Cretaceous, as it is constituted, the whole of the formations related to it with Come, or the whole of the formations where angiospermous plants have been found. On the second question considered in the memoirs of Mr, Starkie Gardner and Dr. Newberry, or the relative age of the Cretaceous and Lower Tertiary formations of North America in comparison with those of England, I have to omit the facts derived from animal palaontology. I can only briefly remark on the affinity and disparity of some vegetable types of the Dakota group compared to those of the American Eocene (the so-called Laramie or Lignitic group); of the Miocene of Carbon, and on the relation of the plants of the Lignitic with those of the Eocene of England and France. ari. 2 From what is known until now of the plants of the American _ formations named above, the flora of the Dakota group is, as said _ already, more distinctly related by analogy and identity of species to that of the Miocene than to that of the Lignitic, Except the Close affinity remarked between Cinnamomum Heerti (U. S. Geol. Rept., VI, p. 84, Pl. xxvin, f. 11) and Cinnamomum. affine (same > Rept., vir, Pl. XXXVII, f. 1-5, 7), I do not know of any Cretaceous 8 eae ; XVI.—NO. 11, 106 Remarks on the Cretaceous and [ February, species which can be pointed out as indicating a distinct relation to plants of the Laramie group. Leaves of Cinnamomum have been described by Dr. Newberry from the Orcas island (Descriptions of fossil plants collected by Mr. G. Gibbs) and supposed by the author to be referable, partly at least, to Cinnamomum Heerit, de- scribed first from Vancouver’s island. The author’s remark, that the specimens, though typically allied to Cinnamomum Scheuch- zeri and C. lanceolatum, indicate a larger and thicker leaf, confirms his supposition ; for Cinnamomum Heerit, of which a fine specimen, preserved entire, has been obtained this year in Kansas for the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy of Cambridge, merely differs from C. affine, found at Golden and Carbon, by its more rounded base, both species being represented by leaves equally large and subcoriaceous. This form, therefore, passes to the Miocene through the Eocene without apparent modification. Of smaller leaves described from specimens of the Dakota group as Cinna- momum Scheuchzert, a species of which two fine specimens have been also procured this year in Kansas, none have been seen in the plants of the Lignitic. The ferns of the last group also are without analogy to those published by Heer and myself from the Dakota group. The same can be said of the conifers, except Adzetites dubius, which according to Saporta, has, by the scars left by the base of the leaves upon the stems, some analogy with Cunninghamites, a Cretaceous type. Inthe monocotyledonous, the palms especially, in the angiosperms the types of Populus, Platanus, Quercus, Ficus, Laurus, Viburnum, Rhamnus, Juglans, etc., all appear without relation to any of those of the Dakota group. Per con- tra, when comparing the plants of this Cretaceous formation with those of the Miocene of Carbon, even of the Pliocene of Califor- nia, we find closely allied types, even identity of characters in species of Salix and still more in those of Populus. For exam- ple, between Populus elliptica Newby., Illustr. of species, Pl. 111, f. 1-2, of the Dakota group, and P. cuneaia Newby., ibid., Pl. xv, f. 1-4, of the Union group, no possibile difference is found in the shape, size and nervation of the leaves. In the Cretaceous spe- cies, the borders are a little more distinctly crenate-serrate. But such a difference is of no account in leaves of the same type as the polymorphous Populus arctica, whose borders are entire or undulate, or more or less deeply serrate-crenate. Liriodendron and sassafras, not at all represented in the Laramie, are found in 1882. | Tertiary Flora of the Western Territories. 107 the Miocene, especially in that of Europe, in remarkably similar forms of leaves. Even Liriodendron giganteum of the Dakota group, considering the leaves only, is reproduced in L, tulipifera of the present North American flora. The same observation can be made on Fagus and Quercus, in comparing Fagus polyclada and Quercus primordialis of the Cretaceous, which without rep- resentative in the plants of the Laramie group, have species of similar type in the Miocene and also in the flora of this epoch. The Cretaceous Platanus primeva is comparable to the Miocene P. gulielme, while of the types of Aralia, so remarkaby abun- dant in the Cretaceous of Kansas, two are found at Carbon and Evanston, and none in the Lignitic. Aralia quinguepartita, fig- ured U. S. Geol. Repts., vir, Pl. xv, f. 6, and still from better specimen, Vol. vu (ined.), Pl. vii, f. 4, is reproduced in Arata augustiloba of the Pliocene (gold gravel formation) of California. More of this same kind of analogy could be given, but the above is sufficient to prove that the characters of the flora of the Lara- mie group, or Eocene, greatly differ both from those of the Cre- taceous and of the Miocene of this continent. That they are related, and some of them positively identical with those of the Eocene of Europe, is remarked by Dr. Gardner, who has found in the Eocene of England, among a number of ferns, two species identified in the flora of the Laramie group. The table in the U. S. Geol. Repts., Vol. vii, p. 314, etc., indicates the relation of the plants of the Lignitic with those of different formations and localities as it was known when the volume was published. With the flora of Sezane, for example, the affinity is marked by twenty-one species. Since then a new kind of palm Ludoviopsis, obtained at Golden, indicates affinity to a species of zane, and another that of a finely preserved dicotyledonous leaf, figured in the same volume, Pl. xv, f. 5, is recognized by Saporta as identical to one of his species of the same locality, Sterculia modesta, thus increasing in a remarkable degree, the Evidence of the relation of the flora of the Laramie group with that of the Eocene of Sezane. But the review and discussion of the data concerning the Ter- tiary age of the Lignitic may be now of little importance, as all the Phytopalæontologists who have entered into the discussion, have recognized the Tertiary characters of its flora. For it $S evident that a number of the species described as Mio- 108 Remarks on the Cretaceous, ete. [ February, cene by Dr. Newberry from the Fort Union group, are iden- tical with those abundantly represented at Golden. If this fact has not been acknowledged by the eminent geologist of New York, the cause is most probably due to the mingling of the specimens submitted to him, which, derived from divers localities, were representatives of two formations, but were labeled as from the same locality, as would be, for example, the specimens of Carbon mixed with those of Golden, or those of Washakie mixed with those of Black Butte. A lot of specimens sent to me by the U. S. Geol. Survey, and labeled Point of Rocks, were certainly obtained from the Washakie group, as all represent Miocene spe- cies without analogy to those collected later by Dr. Hayden at Point of Rocks. This supposition only can explain the aggre- gation in the same geological group, of species like Tarodium occidentale, the large palms, Sabal Campbelli, the remarkable leaves of Platanus Haydeni, P. Raynoldst, Tilia antiqua, etc., with such positively Miocene plants as Sequoia Langsdorffi, the forms of Populus allied to P, arctica, even species of our time, Onoclea sensibilis, Corylus Americana, C. rcstrata, etc. All this gives to the Union group an evident Miocene facies, and therefore, from this consideration only, and in substituting Miocene for Tertiary, it would be possible and right to say, that no Miocene plant has been found in the Laramie group. On the identity of some of the species of plants of the Union group with those of the Laramie, there is no possible doubt. The most abundant remains procured at the Raton mountains, by divers explorations, represent Sabal Campbelli; some of the finest specimens procured at Golden are of Platanus Haydeni and P. Raynoldsi. Some large pieces of sandstone, procured at Golden for the Museum of Princeton College, represent both the species figured in the illustrations of Dr. Newberry, Pls. xıx and xx1, And as all the specimens I have described from the collec- tion made by: the Geological Survey of Dr. F. V. Hayden, are now deposited in the National Museum, the determination of the species can be there critically examined. 1882. | Incubation of the Top-Minnow ( Gambusia). 109 STRUCTURE AND OVARIAN INCUBATION OF GAM- BUSIA PATRUELIS, A TOP-MINNOW. BY JOHN A. RYDER. Ne we have taken up our temporary residence at Cherry- stone we have found this interesting genus of cyprinodonts in great abundance in fresh and brackish water streams, also in a fresh water pond in the vicinity, a few miles south of where our station is located. In the latter situation three forms have been collected all of which are in breeding condition—we will not say spawning condition, as they do not, as do most other fishes, commit their ova to the care of the element in which they live, but carry them about in the ovary, where they are impregnated and where they develop in a very remarkable manner. Of the manner of impregnation we know little or nothing, ex- cept the evidence furnished by the conformation of the external genitalia of the two sexes. In the adult male, which measures one and one-eighth of an inch in length, the anal fin is strangely modified into an intromittent organ for the conveyance of the milt into the ovary of the female ; a tubular organ appears to be formed by the three foremost anal rays, but one which is greatly Prolonged and united by a membrane. At the apex these rays are somewhat curved toward each other, and thus form a blunt point, but the foremost one of the three rays is armed for its whole length with ridges at its base and with sharp recurved hooks at its tip, the other two at their tips similarly with hooks, and be- tween their tips are two small fenestra or openings which possibly communicate directly with the sperm duct from the testes. The basal elements of the fin are aggregated into a cylindrical col- umnar truncated bony mass, which is prolonged upward into the Cavity of the air-bladder for the distance of nearly the eighth of an inch ; from it a series of fibrous bands pass to the dorsal and pos- terior wall of the air-bladder to be inserted in the median line. Whether this bony column serves to steady the fin in the act of copulation, or whether it serves to give passage to the sperm duct, is an unsettled question with the writer. The modified anal fin of the male measures a third of an inch in length. Other peculiari- ties of the male are noticeable—for instance, as the more abbrevi- ated air-bladder or space which also occupies a more oblique x = the Forest and Stream, New York, Aug. 18, 1881, with notes and cor- rection 110 Incubation of the Top-Minnow ( Gambusia). (February, position than in the female. The most remarkable difference pre- sented by the male as compared with the female, however, is his inconsiderable weight, which is only 160 milligrammes, while that of the gravid female is 1030 milligrammes, or nearly six and one- half times the weight of the male. The female, as already stated, is larger than the male, and measures one inch and three-fourths in length. The liver lies for the most part on the left side. The intestine makes one turn upon itself in the fore part of the body cavity and passes back along the floor of the abdomen to the vent. The air-bladder occupies two-fifths of the abdominal cavity, and at its posterior end the wolffian duct traverses it vertically, to be enlarged near its outlet into a fusiform urinary bladder of very much the same form as in many embryo fishes. The ovary isa simple, unpaired organ which lies somewhat to the right and extends from the anterior portion of the body cavity to its hinder end, and serves to fill up its lower moiety when fully developed. The ova, when full grown, are each enveloped in a sac or follicle supplied with blood from a median vascular trunk which divides and subdivides as it traverses the ovary lengthwise in a manner similar to that of the stem to which grapes in the bunch are attached. In this way it happens that each egg or ovum has it own independent supply of blood from the general vascular system of the mother, from which the material for the growth and maturation of the egg is derived, and which afterward becomes specialized into a contrivance by which the life of the developing embryo is maintained while undergoing development in their respective follicles in the ovary or egg-bag. The ova develop along the course of the main vessel and its branches, as may be learned upon examining a hardened specimen, where the very immature ovarian eggs are seen to be involved in a mesh- work of connective fibrous tissue, which serves not only to strengthen the vessels but also afterward enters into the structure of the walls of the ovarian sacs or follicles externally. The very immature eggs measure from less than a hundredth of an inch up to a fiftieth, and on up to a twelfth of an inch, when they may be said to be mature. They develop along a nearly median rachis or stalk which extends backward and slightly down- ward, and which gets its blood supply very far forward from the dorsal aorta. The ova, after developing a little way, are each in- closed in a follicle, the Greefian follicle, ovisac, ovarian capsule, 1882. ] Incubation of the Top-Minnow ( Gambusia). IIL membrana granulosa of Von Baer, or membrana cellulosa of Coste. As the egg is matured there is a space developed about it which is said to result from the breaking up of the granular layer of cells covering it. This space is filled with fluid, and in this liquid, which increases in quantity as development proceeds, the embryo top-minnow is constantly bathed. There is no trace whatever in the egg of this fish of an independent egg membrane, as is the case with all known forms which spawn directly into the water, and which is usually, if not in all cases, perforated by one or more micropylar openings or pores for the entrance of the spermatozoon. This fact raises the question whether the egg membrane or sona radiata usually present in the ova of water- spawning fishes is not entirely absent in all the viviparous species. Whether Rathke has recorded anything on this point in his ac- count of the development of Zoarces, the viviparous blenny, I am not able to say at present, as I do not have access to his memoir." Suffice it to say, however, that with very cautious preparation, staining and dissection of the follicles inclosing the ova of Gam- busia, I have completely failed to discover what I could regard as an egg membrane, although personally familiar with the ap- pearance of the coverings of the ova of more than twenty species, embracing fifteen or more families. The zona radiata or covering of the egg in other bony fishes is said to be secreted from the cells lining the follicles and is composed of a gelatinoid substance, and it is often perforated all over by a vast number of extremely fine tubules, called pore canals by their discoverer, Johannes Muel- ler. No such structure existing as a covering for the egg of Gam- busia, we are ina position to ask the question why such an unique condition of affairs should exist in this case? The answer, it would appear to us, is not far to seek. In the case of eggs which ordinarily hatch in water it is necessary that they should be sup- plied with a covering more or less firm and capable of protecting the contained embryo, which in the case of the top-minnow is not _ needed, because the embryo is developed so as to be quite com- petent to take care of itself as a very well organized little fish l Rathke’s description accords pretty closely with my account of the egg follicles of Gambusia given farther on. The narrow, elongate stigma, devoid of vessels, on Neer follicle, spoken of on page 4 of his memoir on Zoarces, probably corresponds see what I have called the follicular foramen. He has described a vascular network in the follicle, a stalk joining it to the vascular rachis and a space around the yelk much — as in Gambusia, oo Ss 112 Incubation of the Top-Minnow.(Gambusia). [¥ebruary, when it leaves the body of its parent. Nature will not waste her powers in an effort to make useless clothes for such of her chil- dren as do not need them; on the contrary, she is constantly utilizing structures economically, and often so as to serve more than one purpose. This is the apparent answer to the query with which we started. The follicles or sacs containing the ova are built up internally of flat, polygonal cells of pavement epithelium, and externally of a network of multipolar, fibrous, connective tissue cells and mi- nute capillary blood vessels, with cellular walls, which radiate in all directions over the follicle from the point where the main arte- rial vessel joins the follicle, and which, together with its accom- panying veins and investment of fibrous tissue, constitutes the stalk by which the follicle and its contained naked ovum is sus- pended to the main arterial trunk and vein. The capillary system ends in a larger venous trunk, which also follows the course of the main median arterial trunk back to the heart by way of the Cu- vierian ducts. The very intricate mesh-work of fine vessels which covers the follicle supplies the developing fish with fresh oxygen, and also serves to carry off the carbonic dioxide in much the same way as the placenta or after-birth performs a similar duty for the young mammal developing in the uterus of its parent. There is this great difference, however, between the fish and the mammal. In the former there is no uterus; the development takes place in the follicle in which the eggs have grown and matured; there is no true placenta, but respiration is effected by a follicular mesh- work of blood vessels, and the interchange of oxygen and carbonic dioxide gases takes place through the intermediation at first of the fluid by which the embryo is surrounded in its follicle, and later when blood vessels and gills have developed in the embryo they, too, become accessories to aid in the oxygenation of its blood. In the mammal there is a uterus; the egg must leave its ovarian follicle ; be conveyed to the uterine cavity before a per- fectly normal development can begin; there is a fully developed _ richly vascular placenta joined to the fœtus, the villi or vascular loops of which are insinuated between those developed on tne maternal surface of the uterine cavity. In both fish and mammal, however, this general likeness remains; that there is no imme-. diate vascular connection between mother and embryo. In both the respiration of the embryo is effected by the transpiration of 1882. | Incubation of the Top-Minnow ( Gambusia). 113 gases through the intermediation of membranes and fluids, oxygen being constantly supplied and carbonic dioxide carried off by means of a specialized portion of the blood system of the mater- nal organism. There is still another difference which distinguishes the develop- ing fish from the mammal, which has not been noticed. The body of the former is built up by a gradual transformation or conver- sion of the substance of the yelk into the various structures which make up its organization. In other words, the young fish obtains no nutrition from its parent; there is merely an incorpo- ration of the stored protoplasm of the yelk sack. Inthe mammal, on the other hand, the embryo receives nourishment through the placental structures, the largest proportion of the embryo is built up from the protoplasm supplied from the blood system of the parent. Judging from the large size of the young of some vivipa- rous fishes, such as in Embiotoca, it is possible that there may be some exceptions to the rule indicated above. Besides the very intricate network of capillary vessels which covers the follicles of the ovary of Gambusia, a large opening of a circular or oval form makes its appearance in the wall of each one at or near the point of attachment of the vascular stalk by which they are supported. This opening appears to increase in size as the young fish develops; whether it is present during the earliest stages of the intrafollicular development of the em- ryo I do not know, as I did not have an opportunity to see those phases. A branch from the main nutritive vessel frequently lies near the margin of the opening, curving around it. Whether this opening serves the same purpose as the micropyle of ova provided with a membrane, would appear very probable, as it is difficult to see in what other manner the milt, which is probably introduced into the ovarian cavity by the male, could reach the ovum through the wall of its follicle. The opening into the fol- licle may be named the follicular foramen. Through it the cavity in which the embryo lies is brought into direct communication with the general ovarian space. We found ourselves unable to determine the species of the form, the structure of which is described above ; none of those described in Jordan’s Manual appear to agree with our species. It may be, as some of us have surmised, that the isolation of the : form on the eastern peninsula of Virginia, for a great length of 114 Incubation of the Top-Minnow (Gambusia). [February, time, may have served to develop specific characters, and that it is undescribed. We leave the determination of the species to the systematic ichthyologists. Thus far our account has dealt only with the structure of the adults and the peculiar contrivances by means of which repro- duction is effected; we will now take up the discussion of the egg and the embryo. The globular vitellus measures about a line in diameter includ- ing the embryonic or germinal portion. The germinal proto- plasm probably occupies a peripheral position covering the nutti- tive or vitelline portion of the egg as a continuous envelope with strands of germinal matter running from it through and among the corpuscles of the vitellus. This peripheral germinal layer, when the egg is ready to be fertilized, migrates toward one pole and assumes a biscuit shape. This is essentially the history of the formation of the germinal disk of the Teleostean egg as worked out independently by Coste, Kupffer and the writer. Little of a trustworthy character is known of the history of the germinative vesicle and spot, which bear the same relation to the egg as the nucleus and nucleolus do to the substance of the cell of the ordinary type. When cleavage of the germinal disk has begun, iż zs the first positive evidence that impregnation has been successful, The disk then begins to spread over the vitellus or yelk and soon acquires the form of a watch glass, with its concave side lying next to the surface of the yelk. Coincident with the lateral expansion of the germinal disk, a thickening appears at one point in its margin which is the first sign of the appearance of the embryo fish. With its still further expansion, the em- bryo is developed more from the margin of the disk toward its center; in this way it happens that the axis of the embryo lies in one of the radii of the disk ; its head toward the center, its tail at the margin. But before the embryo is fairly formed, a space appears under the disk, limited by the thickened rim of the latter, and the em- bryo at one side. This space, the segmentation cavity, zs filed Our original sole of this fish to Zygonectes has proved to be erroneous, the species proves to be Gambusia wees of Baird and Girard. Its discovery north of the mouth of Chesapeake marks the northernmost limit of its miata yet known, most of the members of the genus Te sub-tropical and West ? This cavity is the exact homologue of that in the batrachian ovum. = the fish and bird it is somewhat modified, and no — serves to enable the blastoderm to spread over the yelk as segmentation procee 1882.) Incubation of the Top-Minnow ( Gambusia). 115 with fluid and grows with the growth of the germinal disk, as the latter becomes converted into the blastoderm, and does not disappear until some time after the embryo has left the egg as a young fish ; and then it often remains as a space around the yelk sac for as long as a vestige of the latter remains, as may be seen in the young of Cybium, Parephippus, Gadus, Elacate and Syngnathus. In regard to this point, I hold views entirely different from any other observers, but inasmuch as the writer has had opportuni- ties for the study of the development of a greater number of spe- cies, representing a greater number of families, than any previous investigator, and because the observations are based on material studied without the use of hardening re-agents which either deform or obliterate the segmentation cavity, and also because it was found to be present in all of the forms which were sufficiently well studied, it is believed that it will be found in the developing ova of most or all Teleostean fishes. Should this prove to be the fact, the Teleostean egg will be as distinctly defined in respect to the sum of the developmental characters which it presents, from the developing ova of other vertebrates, as the adult Teleost is from the remaining classes of the sub-kingdom to which it be- longs. The floor of the cavity appears to be formed by the hypo- blast or innermost embryonic layer, while its roof is formed by the epiblast or outermost skin layer. Gradually this blastoderm, which has been derived by cleavage from the germinal disk, grows over the yelk, no part of its epiblast layer being in direct contact with the hypoblast below on account of the presence of the intervening film of fluid, except at its rim. The embryo is also found to be in fixed contact with the yelk. The blastoderm grows at about an equal rate all around its margin; the point where the edges of the blastoderm finally close is almost directly Opposite the site where the germinal disk first appeared ; the clo- sure at last occurs just behind the tail of the embryo where a little crater-like elevation marks the point at which it disappears. The embryo now lies along a meridian of the blastoderm ; its head at the original germinal pole, its tail at the other. The growth of the blastoderm over the yelk is greatly facilitated by the film of fluid contained in the segmentation cavity, over which it can glide as it grows without friction. This view seems to me to be the most rational yet proposed in explanation of the method by which the blastoderm grows Jaterally in all directions 116 Incubation of the Top-Minnow (Gambusia). | February, down over the yelk. In some cases the yelk sac is frequently much absorbed before the outer epiblastic sac begins to collapse. This is the case with Cybium after it leaves the egg, and proves very conclusively that the outer sac is entirely free, laterally and ven- trally, from the inner one containing the yelk. There are two principal methods by which the yelk is absorbed; the one where a more or less extensive net-work of vessels is developed over the surface of the yelk, and through which all, or nearly all, of the blood passes to reach the venous end of the heart; in many cases no such net-work is ever developed, as for instance, in the shad, mackerel cod and bonito. To the former class the young top-minnow belongs. Its yelk is orange-colored and imbedded in it superficially are a great number of refringent oil globules of small size. There appears to be a sinus beneath the head, continuous with the segmentation cavity in which the heart is developed. The body of the young fish lies in a groove or furrow on the surface of the yelk. This is the youngest state in which I have seen Gambusia, and explains why I have given the preceding general account of the development of a young sh. The somites or segments of muscle plates had been devel- oped for some time. The heart, brain, intestine and organs of sense were defined. The next important stage observed, was when the yelk sac was in great part absorbed and the fish nearly ready to hatch, or more properly to leave its follicle and the body of its parent. The ex- traordinary acceleration of development noted in almost every detail of structure, was such as I had never witnessed in any other species of young fish. The bones of the skull, although still cartilaginous, were advanced to a condition not seen in the shad until it has been hatched for three weeks or more. There were intermaxillary elements with teeth; pharyngeal patches of teeth ; the brain was preity well roofed over by the cartilaginous cranium; the branchiosteges were developed in cartilage; the opercles completely covered and concealed the gills, the opercular elements being differentiated ; the gills already bore branchial leaflets ; the neural and haemal arches of the vertebra were being developed in cartilage ; scales covered the sides and back and were developing in pockets of the dermal epithelium ; in fine, all the fins were already developed except the ventrals with the same num- ber of rays as in the adult, and yet the yelk sac was not nearly 1882.] Lucubation of the Top-Minnow ( Gambusia). 117 absorbed. I have never seen in any fish embryos of the same age, an instance where scales were developed or where the fins had approximated their adult condition so nearly as in this case. The only instance known to me at this writing where a continu- ous dorsal and ventral median fin-fold is never developed, is in the case of Syngnathus, where the caudal rays are developed before the dorsal ones. Whether the unpaired fins of Gambusia are or are not derived from such a fold would be an interesting obser- vation. A marked acceleration is also noticeable in the develop- ment of the brain, a study of which, by means of sections, as compared with that of the adult, has furnished me with some valuable clues in following up the development of Teleostean brains in general. To sum up, this fish begins an independent career as far devel- oped as when the shad, cod, mackerel, bonito and many other fishes are from three to six weeks old. By so much it has the advantage over those types in the struggle for existence in that it is ready to feed, to pursue its prey discriminately, as soon as it is born, while the other forms alluded to are comparatively helpless until some time after they have absorbed their yelk sacs, although most of them by that time have acquired mandibular, maxillary or pharyngeal teeth or both. The Fish Commission authorities need never be uneasy about the fate of the top-min- nows ; they will take care of themselves; their species is sure of survival. But our study, it would seem to the writer, has not been in vain, because, even though the fish is too small to be of any practical value, it has taught us that where nature has so effectually provided for the protection of the young fish, she does not require one adult to produce as many embryos. In Gam- busia twenty-five to thirty young is perhaps the limit of produc- tion fora single female; in Apeltes, or the four-spined stickle- back, the male of which is provided, according to my observa- tions, with a spinning apparatus with which he fabricates a nest in which the young are hatched and taken care of, the number of © eggs is from fifteen to twenty. Contrasting these small numbers With 100,000 to 3,000,000, the number of ova easily matured in a Single season by a single female of many anadromous and marine species which have heavy, adhesive or floating eggs, it would appear that the quantity of germs produced by different species | of fishes is in some way proportioned to their chances of survi- i: 118 Incubation of the Top-Minnow (Gambusia). (February, val. Otherwise we are at a loss to explain the enormous fertility of many marine forms ; the astounding fertility of the oyster and clam are other instances illustrating this principle, where ova are matured by the tens of millions, but where barely one out of a million survives so as to attain adult age. Certain adaptations of structure are also plainly noticeable on a comparative study of fish ova. Thus the egg membrane of floating eggs is extremely thin, thinner than that of heavy or adhesive eggs, while the thickest membranes are those provided with external filamentous appendages. The most thinly clad hatch out soonest. May it not be that the thinness of the en- velope of the egg has some relation to the rapidity with which the oxygenation of the egg is effected, and consequently with the rapidity of tissue and embryonic changes? And, finally, who would undertake to say that all of these modifications of the em- bryonic envelope are not such as could be developed by natural selection so as to favor the survival of the greatest number of embryos ? Many other general views of a similar character might be drawn from the material in my possession, but I fear that there has been already too much detail entered into for this note to be of interest to the general reader. Before closing I wish to state that it is the oviduct of the female in some cyprinodonts that is prolonged into a tube at the anterior edge of the anal fin. This difference,as compared with Gambusia, would be useful as a generic character, as suggested by Colonel Marshall McDonald, to whose unselfish, helpful interest I am deeply indebted for assistance in manifold ways, while the in- vestigation of the material was in progress, upon which the fore- going account is based. 1 The only memoir which I have been able to find bearing on the ese of a cyprinodont is that by M. Duvernoy, Sur le develof pement de la Pecilia surinam- ensis, Ann. Sci. Nat., 3 Ser., I. 1844. His account has however been based upon alcoholic material, but shows the remarkable acceleration of development of the embryos the same as in Gambusia. The number of embryos, their arrangement in the ovary, and the position of the ovary itself appear also to be similar. Laboratory of the Experimental Station of the U. S. Fish Commission, Cherrystone, Va., August ro, 1881. 1882.] p Jo n ip y . a ae a thoroughly well written and otra work, and one which will Of all the experts examined during the Guiteau trial, Dr. — ; Well repay perusal even by those who are not prepared to accept o pe conclusions which the author himself asserts rather than en-. — favors to prove. ~ : Pees: -~e writer is a thorough evolutionist in so far as the doctrine a a viann, February, 1881. ; he et as ; ose ott and Intelligence; a series of Essays on the Laws of Life and Mind. By len g UYN Muray. Second Edition Mlustrated. pp- 585- Eaidys. Mient 126 Recent Literature. [February, of evolution applies to organic life. He sees his way clearly for the continued development of life from the simplest protoplasmic protozoan upward to the complex bodily and mental organization of the higher mammals and of man himself. He traces with due precision the differentiation of a nervous system, and the gradual growth therefrom of the powers to which we give the names of consciousness, mind, and intelligence—the latter of which is but the result of consciousness. He perceives, in concert with most American naturalists, the insufficiency of Darwin’s theory of “natural seiection” to account for the origin of the slightest varia- tion, though he admits, with some hesitation and occasional con- tradiction of himself, its efficiency to preserve a beneficial variation when it has once arisen. To refute Darwin he gleans facts and theories from Cope, Mivart, Wallace, and other naturalists, accepts also the aid of the physicists who deny the possibility of the countless millions of years required by the “natural selection” theory; and succeeds in fortifying himself in a position from which it would be difficult indeed for a pure Darwinian to dislodge him. But he dismisses in few words Spencer’s masterly theory of the in- fluence of the total environment upon an organism, and scarcely . notices Cope and Hyatt's proofs of the ease with which new genera can be produced by an acceleration or retardation of the embryological stages of life. Having thrown doubt upon Darwin, he is in a hurry to assert that all evolution is the result of a “ Formative Intelligence” orig- inally impressed upon organic existence from a source outside of them. i -He does not admit the possibility of the evolution of the lowest protoplasmic life from inorganic matter; and still less can he con- ceive of the evolution from simple matter of the molecules of the so-called eiements of the chemist. Upon such subjects as the origin of life the only safe position is that of the agnostic; we do not “know,” we have no “ positive proof,” similar to that which tells us of our own existence, or informs us of the existence of tangible objects. But the agnostic may have his opinion, his Such a statement as that on page 41 of Mr. Murphy’s book— “the notion of any finite thing existing without having been created is more inconceivable—it is absurd,” proves nothing and disproves nothing. We admit that it is inconceivable, it is “too high, we cannot attain unto it,” yet it is simpler than the belief in a Creator who breathed into certain particles of matter __ 1882. | Recent Literature. 127 a “Formative Intelligence,” and then left that intelligence, dis- tributed among a number of organisms struggling for existence, to take care of itself, and to develop into higher life through an ordeal of suffering and in spite of imperfection, disease, and the dying out of individuals and of species; without taking any further interest in the life he had created. Still more is it simpler than to,conceive of an omnipotent, omnipresent, personal, and good God who, after creating life, watches and sustains it, yet permits an evil spirit to exist, and allows pain and disease to mar the beauty of his creation. To conceive of the matter of the universe as capable of evolving conscientiousness is past our mental power, but is the difficulty removed by Having to account also for the origin, existence and habitat of a non-material Creator who beneficently allows a non-material destroyer to play havoc with his creation? On this subject Mr. Murphy does but assert his opinions, his argument really stops with the accumulation of proofs of the coéxistence of intelligence with life—a point in which we cordially agree with him, objecting only to his term “unconscious intelligence,” as applied. to the acts of the lower . animals. In this matter we would go further than Mr. Murphy. Proud man, ignorant of the inner life of the lower animals, finds it difficult to stand outside of his individuality sufficiently to judge fairly of their actions. Our author quotes the building of hex- agonal cells by the-honey-bee as an instance of unconscious in- telligence. We believe, in the light of the numerous observations made by Lubbock, McCook, and others on hymenopterous in- sects, that one or several bees discovered this economical form of cell just as man stumbles, by simply trying, onthe greater part of his discoveries. To account for the perpetuation of the dis- covery when made we have no need to call in “ natural selection,” or any [power more abstruse than that of inter-communication, which is well known to be possessed in a high degree by ants an es. aborted, but foreshadowing that of the vertebrate; the incom- plete medusa buds of some hydroids, anticipatory of the free to lung, foreshadowed in Ganoids and Dipnoans, and carried — . Out in the Batrachia. A teleologist might reasonably query by what Process of reasoning it is provable that these structures, — 128 Recent Literature. [February, transitional though they may appear to us, are not of use to their possessors. But the gradual evolution of astructure not yet become functionally useful, is but a parallel case with the persistence for along period of structure no longer functionally useful. The wonder is rather, when we review the wondrous changes passed through in the life history of an animal or of a plant, from the seed to the tree, from the egg to the free embryo and thence to adult life, that all works so truly as it does, and that variation is not more frequent. The slightest over-development of one organ, or arrest of development of another, caused by the sur- rounding environment or by heredity (the effect of the environ- ment of ancestor's) may change the genus, the change may neither be useful or hurtful, yet its tendency is to continue when com- menced, and it may, in process of time, become functionally use- ful. On the other hand, a useful variation may take place sud- _ denly (as we see in Amblystoma) and a hurtful one is put an end to by the death of the possessor. We commend this book to the notice of our readers. SouTHALL’s PLIOCENE MAN IN AMERICA! The author evidently means well enough in writing this pamphlet, but he appears to ° start with the idea that geology is an exact science, that we know the precise time, even geologically speaking, when the Pliocene epoch ended andthe Quaternary began, and that certain haphazard estimates of the time in years that man has been on the earth made by an accomplished zoologist like Mr. A. R. Wallace, who has, however, published little or nothing original upon paleontology or geology, are of real value. So when ten years ago a “ Mr. Vivian and Mr. A. R. Wallace claimed for [man] an antiquity of 1,000,000 and 500,000 years ” we do not see why Mr. Southall or any other man should in 1881, get into a flurry over the matter, unless he wants to make himself conspicuous as a critic of geologists and geological reasoning in genera]. Confining ourselves to the points of most importance in the query as to the age of Pliocene man, the geologist wants to know the limits of the Pliocene in western Americg. What Whitney calls Pliocene deposits may be contemporary with the incoming of the glacial period in eastern America, or it may be a transition period between the Pliocene and Quarternary period. As we understand it, the age of those lower level gold-bearing sands and gravels is quite uncer- tain, and they may, contrary to Whitney’s opinion, be no older than our eastern boulder clays. Moreover what Mr. Southall overlooks, ~ none of the specimens of human art found on the Pacific coast, in so-called Pliocene deposits, have been taken out either by the hands of or in the presence of a geologist, not even of Professor 1 Pliocene Man in America. By JAMES C. SOUTHALL, bei Thatha thy Victoria Institute, Ce Philosophical Socie pi of Great Britain, with remarks by His rgyll, Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, Principal Dawson, m ` Professor T.McK. Hughes, and others. London, [1881.] 8vo, pp. 30. BESE 1882.] Recent Literature, 129 Whitney himself, and while we may accept nearly all of the statements Whitney makes at second hand, the testimony is of course weakened by this fact. Until, then, geologists who are also palzontologists, which Professor Whitney would not claim to be, have settled the age of our western gold drift, which may turn out to be no older than our eastern glacial drift, we do not see why the layman should not wait until geologists agree in the matter. At any rate the present pamphlet is a confused and hasty statement of conclusions from a mass of indigested and necessarily vague notions of a few geologists, naturalists and historians (the latter most worthy men, but not claiming to know anything about the Pliocene, or any other geological period). We doubt whether one geologist in a hundred thinks man is older than the glacial period, while if well verified facts warranted the conclusion, they would willingly allow that man lived not only through the Pliocene, but began his existence in the Chalk period. The true scientist is willing to follow the lead of facts; critics, such as our author, seem anxious to prejudice good people against geology and geologists, and to. forestall public opinion on ques- tions about which geologists themselves are divided and uncer- tain from the very nature of the evidence with which they are dealing. Perhaps before 1872 Mr. Dawkins would have made the more moderate ones. The pamphlet is only of value as contain- ing remarks of Professors Dawkins, Dawson, Hughes and others, who cannot speak without saying something of interest. Miss Ormerop’s Manuar or Inyurtous Insects. —This is a Well executed compilation from the best and most recent English Sources, and reflects much credit on the judgment and skill of the- authoress. It is devoted to “Food Crops and the Insects that jure them,” “ Forest Trees and the Insects that injure them,” and — finally to “ Fruit Crops and the Insects that injure them.” It — Closes with a glossary, and begins with a brief introduction to entomology, The illustrations are abundant, and their value 1S assured by the fact that they are ‘mostly copied from Curtis and aan Seep of Injurious Insects, with Methods of Prevention es sei bag ' a entomology, oe Crops, Forest Trees, and Fruit, and neh ek Susan petasan a ‘Schein & Rees, LEANOR A. ORMEROD, F.M.S., &c. London, ee = oe - (1881.) ramo., pp. 323. = eee 130 Recent Literature. [ February, Westwood. Miss Ormerod has evidently taken a good deal of pains with the subject of remedies, and here the book. is strong. We have found a number of most useful hints for dealing with forest insects, which are quite new to us. The style is compact and clear, and the book as a whole is an excellent and useful one nus- edi Jahren 1874 und 1875, Bearbeitet von Professor Jod Mik in Wien. From the Verhandl. der K. K. zool, bot. Ges. in Wien, 1881. From the author Praktische Insekten-Kunde. Von Professor Dr. E. L. Taschenberg. Band 1, Einführung in die Insekten-Kunde. Bremen, set Paint pp: 233) Band 11, Die a fe ; Kafer und Hautflügler. - Bremen, 1879. 8vo, Pp. cer aig Die Schmetter- linge. Bremen, 1880. 8vo, pp. Jie Band 1 VD eiflüg Netzflügler und Kaukerfe. Bremen, 1880. 8vo Band v, bie Bava M Fliigellos en O; Pp. ' 227. eat und als Anhang einiges Ungeziefer welches nicht zu den Insekten gehört. Bremen, 1880. Beiuäge zur Kenntniss der EAER i pago ikas. Von Dr. Franz Steindach- s dem xtiv bande der Mathematisch-Naturw Hota sanz chen Classe der Pielinen Akademie der Wiseeioctahen: Wien, 1881. 111, 4to, pp. 18, V plates. the author Ichthyol eee Beiträge (x1). Von Dr. Franz Steindachner. 8vo, pp- 14, plate. Extract from the tx% wagons der Stizb. der k. Akad. Wissensch. 1 Mai- Heft. iee 1881. From the Dr. H. G. Bronn’s Klassen und oe des Thier-Reichs. eee yon C. K. Hoffmann, bees der Medicin und Philosophie in Leiden. Sechster Band, in. Abtheilung Reptilien 22, 23 und 24 Lieferung. 8vo. pp. 89, 21 plates. Leipzig und per 1881. From the author. i Molluscorum ree et Catalogus. Sysiem und Aufzählung Sammtlicher Con- chylien dek Sammlung von Fr. Paetel. Žur Belebun ng des Interesses für Malako- zoologie nac pam Manuscript herausgegeben von Dr. L. W. Schaufuss. Svo, pp. 3 “Dresden, 1869. From the author. ag eye ion D’Histoire Naturelle a Reims. M. Cotteau, Association Française r I’ Avancement des Sciences. Gua de Reims, 1880, 8vo, pp. 8, From Has eey Recherches sur les Ossements Fossiles doum ae Inférieurs des en- virons de Reims, Par ictor Le: a Doc s Sciences, Professeur 4 TECN de Medicin de Reims. 8vo, pp. 56,1 plate. Reims , 1880. From the au Recherches sur L’Organization ja Bindia Par M: Victor Lemoine. Ext. Association Française pour L’Avancement des Sciences, 1880. 8yvo, pp. 30, HI, quarto plate. Reims. 1880. Fr rom the author Petco sur fe Ase Marins de la nicks Actuelle au pan de vue du Syü- M. me des Par M. Léon yem 8vo, pp. 6. ii oe Bulletin ae ras s Société Coleridge de France, 1880. Paris, 1880. From ie au Sur les Colonies dans les roches wrierat = pee du lac wa Par M. Jules Marcou. 8vo, pp. 30. plate 11. du Bulletin de la Societe ‘eolo e vad i gique de France. Paris, 1880. From the au Memoire sur la Disposition des Vertebres Cervicales chez les “bronia Par ae M. Léon Vaillant. 8vo, pp. 106, plates v. Paris, 1880, '` From the au Sur les Raies recueillies dans l'Amazone par M. le Dr. Jo obe: Par M. Léon Vaillant. 8vo. pp. 2. Extrait du Bulletin de la Société Mbeti de Pais. arini Paris, 1880. From the Ministere de Däin i et du Commerce, E positi Ul iverselle Internati on ale Sr ciple 1882. } Recent Literature. 131 de 1878. Groupe viii, Classe 84. Rapport sur les Poissons, cme, et Mol- lusques. Par M. Léon Vaillant. Imprimerie Nationale. Paris, 1880. From the author. Sur un gisement de Rennes aupres de Paris. Par M. Gaudry. 4to, pp. 3. Paris, 1880. From the author Ciel et Terre, ite: eis af og et de or emg No. 1, rer Mars, 1881. 8vo, pp. 2 map. Bruxelles, 1881. chan On Portions oF a Cain and a Jaw in the slab ahi the remains of the Archzopteryx. By John Evans, F.R.S., &c. 8vo, pp. 16, cuts. gobs from the “ Natural History feview, fi 1865. London, 1881, From the author The Scientific Roll and Magazine of Systematic Notes, Conducted by Alexander Ramsay . S. Climate, Vol. 1. 8vo, pp. 22, London, November, 1881. From Aor, On the Stogrphical Distribution of oe oo Mollusks of North faa and the probable causes of their variation. . G, Wetherby, A.M. 8vo pp. 8. From the Fades al of the Cliainnati Sacks he Natural filitory: January, 1881, Chadians; 81. From the author. ; nual Report of the Curator of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Har- oe College to the President and Fellow mra Harvard College for 1880-81. 8vo, Pp Cambridge, 1881. From A. Races “ARS Proceedings of the mr States National Museum. 8vo, pp. 15. Washington; 1881. From the Museu : en of the United ae ek National Museum, 20. On the Zoological Posi- nof Texas. Edward D. Cop vo, pp. 52. Dpjerneni of the Interior. Gov. Printing Office, Wisse 7881, From the Sec. Inter Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Laer g Harvard College, Vol. 111, Nos. t1-14, Ex eplovatidn of Lake Titicaca. By Alexander Agassiz and S. W. Garman. 8vo, pp. 80, plate 11, cuts. Cambridge, eae eae the director. Descriptions sf new fossils from the Lower Silurian ae a bearboniferous rocks of Kentucky. A. G. Wetherby. 8vo, pp. 4, I plate. From the Jou pub das ; seks Sista, of Natural History, July, 1881. Cana, 1881. Ph _ Subc ok oe Fossils a the Lake Ges Mining District of New erid, | with yok grey of new specie By 8vo, pp. 16, plates 11. From S.A rate e Journal of a Cincinnati Society of Nite. History: Ciricianati 1881. From the oo me 12) ence to the Silurian cast of North America. By S. A. Miller. 8vo, pp. 28 | From ‘eee Eaten of the a ncinnati Society of Natural History, Jan., 1882. T or. The i esis and eae of Gold. By J. S. Newberry. 8vo, pp. 14. Re- £ y J. ew rry. > PP R print from the School of Mines Quarterly, November, 1881. New Yorks aa pa the author re the ancient Copper Impl ts hammered or molded into shape? By F. = Wet Putnam, age p. I "R Implements har s City Review of Sciences, December, i ‘1881, Kan sas City, 1881. From the author. , | om Report of the Commissioner of Patents for the Pinon 1880. 4to, pp. 430. S Print. Office, Washington, 1881, From the commis r reat List of Patentees and iS a for the bat year, January to Jupe; ; 188 in In 8vo, pp. 252. Gov k . Office. , Washington, I 1881. From the 882. Per annum, $3.00 sa Monthly, Vol. xm, No. 145: (New Series, Vol- AA eee oe lee 132 : General Notes. [ February, GENERAL NOTES. BOTANY.! AN INSTANCE OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL VALUE OF TRICHOMES.—The tissues of nascent organs are thin-walled, have a relatively large amount of protoplasm; and are gorged with nourishing sap. While in this condition they possess no air passages or cavities, and the stomata are consequently incapable of performing their function —they can no more “breathe” than can an animal with its lungs full of water. This formative period in the life of the tissues, how- ever, is one in which a rapid supply of oxygen is.required to carry on the metastatic changes incident to growth. This need is supplied by greatly increasing the surface of the organ bathed by the air, allowing a greater transfusion of oxygen through the uncuticularized surface walls. The expansion is secured by means of innumerable slender trichomes. These trichomes are thus seen to be a provision for increasing the absorbing surface, to the end that abundant material may be supplied for metastasis. s the tissues mature, the intercellular spaces beneath the stomata with their extensions ramifying throughout the organ become empty of sap and allow of the free circulation of air, while the cuticle becomes nearly or quite impervious. The oxygen- ation of the tissues is then more readily effected through internal communication; the hairs therefore disappear or are replaced by those serving a different purpose.— F. C. Arthur. THE ARRANGEMENT OF FiıBROUS Roots.—A few years ago, in harvesting about fifty bushels of beets of several varieties, my at-. tention was drawn to a peculiarity in the arrangement of the fibrous roots of which till then I had been unaware. While the greater oe part of the beet was nearly or quite bare of rootlets these were very numerous and closely clustered in two vertical bands on op- posite sides of the main root. Each band covered, say, one-tenth of the entire circumference, more or less. Later I observed just — such an arrangement of the rootlets of turnips. But this year I have seen some turnips with the fibers in simple rows as in carrots and parsnips. In these last the rootlets are in vertical (or now _ and then somewhat spiral) rows. The number of rows seems to be always four, but so situated as in some degree to correspond - with the zwo bands in beets and turnips; that is, the rows are nok | exactly equidistant, but are, as it were, arranged i in two pairs on opposite sides of the main root, and yet so nearly equidistant that. it is sometimes difficult to say which two constitute a pair. The intervals between the rows are commonly in the ratio of 5 to 7,0f on across section the lines joining the rows would forma parallelo=: = gram whose sides would be about as 5 to D. The rootlets of carrots differ from those of turnips and beets i in, 1Edited by Pror. C. E. BEssEY, Ames, Iowa. 1882. | Botany. 133 being thickened towards their base and this spreading laterally so as to give the surface of the carrot somewhat the appearance of having rings of growth. Furthermore these fibers instead of spreading out into the ground seem to hug the main root and are turned commonly to one side as ifthe carrot had been twisted in the pulling. Sometimes on the same root they are turned both ways, and generally or always more or less downward. The rootlets of parsnips are distributed much as those of carrots, somewhat thickened at base, but generally much longer and more spreading and branching. They penetrate more deeply into the soil too and hence the difficulty of digging them. The rows of fibers seem to form a longer parallelogram than those of carrots, the sides being about as 4 to 7. The rootlets in curled dock ( Rumex crispus) are plainly in three rows (except in one forked root the larger branch of which had four distinct rows). Swamp dock (R. verticillatus) has the main root much divided, but the fibers of these divisions are mostly in fours, the rows perhaps not quite so regular as the three rows of the curled dock, still plainly to be distinguished. | The roots of evening primrose ( Œnothera biennis) have rather large rootlets very plainly in three vertical rows. I designed to make observations on other roots, but the cold weather has come on and frozen the ground.— Charles Wright, Wethersfield, Conn., Dec. 1881. Tue Royat Garpens at Kew.—From the Gardener's Chronicle we learn that the Report on the progress and condition of the Royal Gardens at Kew, for the year 1880, has just been issued. Pending its receipt, the following will be found of interest. The number of visitors during the year amounted to very nearly three quarters of a million (723,681), the highest number for one day being 61,831. Inthe plant houses of the Botanic Gardens the palms have been entirely re-arranged owing to their crowded condition, In this department more space is urgently needed. The Arboretum suffered much from the frosts and gales of the Winter of 1879-80. Curiously a number of Californian species suffered greatly from the inclemency of the weather; thus Pinus insignis, P. muricata, P. sabiniana and Abies bracteata were all More or less injured. Pinus Elliottii was also injured. ae There are now no less than 220 species and varieties of Oaks Srown in the Arboretum; 24 of Chestnuts, 34 of Beeches. A Catalogue is in preparation “which will give the names of the Principal species and varieties, with their native countries and ms Such a catalogue from such a source can not fail O bE of the highest value to botanists the world over, and its TEP arance will be looked for with interest by all. on M he iMportant economico-botanical collections from the India ~ | a oan at South Kensington were transferred to Kew during. 134° - General Notes. [February, the year 1880. This consisted of an immense quantity of material, from which the Kew authorities selected suites of specimens. Thus of rice alone “there were about two thousand samples, from the most widely distributed districts of India, and weighing in the aggregate about three tons. Every one of these was care- fully examined and compared, and a series was separated show- ing every type of variation to which Indian rice is subject. The amount of this variation in form, color and texture is almost in- conceivable, and the trouble and expense which must have been involved in the accumulation of the specimens, is amply justified by the clearness with which this fact is now brought out. In form the individual rice-grains vary from elongated to ovoid, in texture from translucent to pearl white opacity, in color from white to pink, brown, mottled, and even black.” . In the Herbarium Dr. M. C. Cooke’s services have been secured. He has undertaken the arrangement of the collections of thallophytes, especially of the fungi, “ which, owing to the press of work in keeping the Phanerogams and Ferns constantly worked up, have been somewhat neglected.” This latter announcement will be received with gratification by the many students of fungi in this country and England. A GENERAL INDEX TO THE JOURNAL OF Borany.—James Britten announces a “ General Index to the Yournal of Botany,’ from its beginning to the end of Volume xx, to be published at six shillings (about $1.50) per copy, provided that a sufficient number of subscriptions are received. The importance of this index to all botanists, even in cases where complete sets of the Journal are not possessed, is so great that it is to be hoped that many orders will be sent from this country. Orders should be addressed to West, Newman & Co., 54 Hatton Garden, E. C., London, Eng- land. As Volume xx, will not be completed until the end of the year 1882, the index will not appear for a year or more. : BENTHAM ON GRAMINEZ.—George Bentham read an important paper on the Graminez before the Linnean Society at its meeting November 3, 1881. He recognizes fourteen tribes which he dis- poses under two sub-orders, or families as follows: = A. PANICEÆ. B. POACE. Tribe 1. Ler ii Tribe 7. Phalaridez, “` 2. Maydez. 6 BA tidez, MR pei seu Decine p 4. Tristeginez, AES e ee 5. Zoysiec, "G orideæ, « 6, Andropogoneæ, “12, Festuces “« 13. Hordeze, “« 14. Bambusez. BoranicaL Nores.—A fine full-page cut of a beautiful aroid — (Taccarum Warmingianum Engl.), recently introduced into En- glish gardens from Brazil, is given in a late number of the 1882. } Botany. 135 Gardener's Chronicle. The leaf which is pinnatified, is from two to two and a half feet wide, and is borne upon a thick petiole be- tween three and four feet long. The spathe, fifteen inches long, and borne upon a scape eight inches high, is of a brown coppery tint inside mottled with green, while the spadix is of a pale pink color. It will doubtless prove to bea valuable acquisition to our list of ornamental plants. new parasite upon the iilac in the Gardeners Chronicle. It is evidently one of the Peronosporee, and is named by Mr, Berkeley, Ovularia syringe. The conidia (acrospores) are large and ovoid, and occur singly on the ends of the hyphe which protrude through the stomata. The parasite “produces large brown patches, sometimes occupying almost the whole of the leaf.” Has this yet appeared in this country ? leaf of the giant water lily ( Victoria regia) growing in Lake Nuna in Peru is recorded by Paul Marcoy in the Wiener Tilustrirte Gartenzeitung as having a circumference ot 24 feet 91{ inches, and weighing between 13 and 14 pounds. One of the flowers measured 4 feet 2 inches in circumference, and weighed three and a half pounds. The outer petals were nine inches in length. Dr. Vasey in the December Botanical Gazette describes three new species of grasses, viz: Melica Halt from Colorado and the Great Plains of British (D . lutea and D. glabrata), now rapidly coming into cultivation, = 136 General Notes. [ February, Kuetz. accompany “Notes on British Characee” by H.and J. Groves in the December Yournal of Botany. The two delayed plates illustrating a mnaoi on Cinchona Ledgeriana (from Bolivia), by Henry Trimen in the November Fozirnal of — appear in the December eatin They are excellently done ZOOLOGY. Is THE HUMAN SKULL BECOMING THINNER ?—If the doctrines of evolution are true, and the evidence supporting them is of a con- pea character, questions relating to the operation of the laws by w improvement or degradation results, become of particu- lar ited when applied to the human race, and it is a matter of serious inquiry whether, under the altered conditions of civilization, causes may not be at work which operate to the dis- advantage of the whole organism, by,detracting from the efficiency of a part According to the theory as expounded by Darwin and others, we have the tendency of all organisms to accommodate themselves to their environment, and to adapt themselves to altered circum- stances within certain limits, this principle of adaptation in co- operation with heredity, or the tendency of the offspring to in- herit the characteristics of its progenitors, are made to account for much of the otherwise inexplicable phenomena with which we are surrounded, 5 Now according to this doctrine, an organism is endowed with ability to succeed amid certain surroundings—in the higher verte- brates, for example, we have the framework of bone, with all its beautiful applications of the principles of mechanics, so arranged Spas pe covering, capable of resisting a considerable degree of violence without being fractured, and evidently intended to protect the delicate organ it contains. If we accept the tenets of evolutionists, a race adapted to cer- tain circumstances, will, if those circumstances be altered, become modified in a corresponding degree, and retrogression may result as wellas improvement, and this modification may be confined to acertain part or organ. Let us consider, therefore, what forces have exerted their eels upon this casket of the brain. ‘ First, natural selection in the case of those creatures that en- gaged in fierce combats, would tend to eliminate those individuals — with frail craniums, a and as man comes within the category 9 belligerent creatures, when barbaric warfare, and the dangers of the chase were common occurrences, natural selection would . of course exercise a powerful influence in maintaining a standard) ofcranial strength. Then, too, in the presence of repeated violence, adaptation would undoubtedly provide a suitable armor for this — delicate and important organ. And as it is difficult to conceite = 1882.] Zoölogy. 137 how the weight of its contents or the action of its muscles can exert any considerable influence upon its greater portion in man, the above may be regarded as the principal agencies, for sexual selection is confined to capabilities of an active character, and attributes which are displayed, and would be inoperative upon a hidden part, the function of which is only passive. In civilized man, however, at all events in the higher grades of modern civilization, natural selection may be said to exert no in- fluence in this direction, war-is too infrequent and engages too small a portion of mankind, while the forces with which it deals, are of a nature to alter the whole aspect of the case. And while adaptation undoubtedly operates, particularly among the laboring classes, upon other portions of the frame to maintain their rigidity, it is only in rare instances that the skull is called upon to support any greater pressure than that exerted by the head gear. _It is not to be overlooked in this connection, that among semi- civilized peoples where the facilities for transportation are limited, the head is often made to support considerable weights, and ex- cept where rigid rules of caste prevent the intermarriage of classes, the joint action of adaptation and heredity disseminate the effects of this custom throughout the community. There probably never was a time in the history of the world, when the skull was subjected to so little violence, as since the introduction of modern methods of transportation, and when we recall the fact, that it was but a few centuries ago, that the most advanced nations of the present day were barbaric, it is too soon ` to look for any great change. Yet it is not uncommon to hear of cases of fracture of the skull, which are ascribed to its unusual thinness. May not these be the results of fortuitous codperations of the agencies mentioned ? If the force of the position assumed is accepted, the logical conclusion is that we are approaching a time when the | Cranium will become much thinner, so delicate, in fact, that it will € easily fractured, we may therefore expect a revival of natural selection, and an increase of cases of death from violence to the W. B. Cooper. HABITS OF THE FIERASFER, A BOARDER IN THE SEA-CUCUM- BER.—The Holothurians or sea-cucumbers have been long known by fishermen to harbor a curious fish, to which Cuvier gave ig A : mos s been re- ° procure Holothurians tenanted by the fierasfer, it is necess- a to seek the animals at a certain depth; those living near the Crip of holothurians which are most frequently tenanted, are bus regalis and Holothuria tubulosa, When these animals XVIL—No, 11, es ee . a9, 138 Coe General Notes. [ February, are accumulated in certain quantity in the same tank, the little fishes ere long appear. According to Professor Emery, who has opened hundreds of holothurians in his search, the fierasfer is generally lodged in the cavity of the body. It penetrates first, as we shall see, by the anus into the intestine. Then it migrates into the pulmonary passages, the thin and delicate walls of which soon rupture in consequence, and allow the fish to pass into the peri-intestinal space. When free, the fierasfer ordinarily swims in an oblique posam the head down and the tail curved towards the back. By u dulatory movements of its ventral fin, it moves obliquely B, keeping about the same level, or obliquely in the direction of the axis of the body. It is but a poor swimmer, and when placed in a tank along with other fishes it is soon devoured, being incapable of flight, of defending itself, or of hiding in a medium uninhabit- able by it Swimming with its head downwards, the fierasfer explores the bottom of the water and the bodies lying there, If it comes upon a holothurian, it immediately shows some agitation, examines the object on all sides, and having reached one of the extremities, examines it attentively. If it be the head-extremity, the fish re- turns suddenly, and proceeds to the opposite end, by which the holothurian sucks in and expels the water necessary to its exist- ance. Then commences a curious proceeding. In the time of expiration, when the holothurian is expelling water, the little fish, excited by this mechanical action, applies its snout ‘strenuouly to the anal orifice, then curves back its pointed tail over one side of its body, and by a rapid movement of recoil, introduces the tail into the rectum of the holothurian. This accomplished, the fish raises the anterior part of its body, while its tail remains pinched in the holothurian, and pushes itself further and further in with each movement of suction. After a time the anterior part enters in its turn, and the fish is completely inclosed in its hos Professor Emery has sometimes seen a small fierasfer get into » its position at once, while in other cases the progress of the fish is so slow that the patience of the observer is exhausted. While the general mode of introduction is that described, there may be some modifications. Thus the fierasfer may penetrate head-first, or, victim of a mistake, may endeavor, generally without success, to effect an entrance by the mouth of the holothurian. The fierasfer is not necessarily solitary ; on the “aon ster d it often shares its abode with two or three of its kind. Professor Emery has seen, in the Naples aquarium, seven fierasfers nS | enter the same holothurian, causing their host injuries which proved fatal. It has already been stated that the fierasfer does not remain in the intestine, which is difficultly habitable because of the quantity of sand in it. We have to note, however, that it always remains 1882. | Zoology. 139 near the anus, though which it protrudes its head, from time to time, in search of food. Thus it is not, in any way, either a parasite or a commensal, in the sense attached to these words in natural history—that is to say, it does not live at the expense of the holothurian, either consuming its substance or taking some of the food that animal has amassed for itself. Hence the earlier naturalists who studied the habits of the fish were mistaken in considering it as an example of parasitism by a vertebrate animal. The fierasfer is merely, as Professor Emery puts it, a lodger, or tenant. According to Professor Semper, of Wurtzburg, however, there is on the coast of the Philippine islands, a small fish of the genus Encheliophis, closely allied to fierasfer, which, also living in holo- thurians, feeds on their viscera, and is, therefore, a true parasite, —Lnglish Mechanic. ; HABITS oF THE Menorpoma.—Having recently collected speci- mens of the common Menopoma (M. alleghaniensis) for Professor Ward’s museum in Rochester, N. Y., I give some of my observa- tions on its habits. - All my specimens were caught in the Loyalhanna creek, West- moreland Co., Pa. It is well known to those accustomed to fish in the streams of this region, from its troublesome habit of taking bait placed in the water for nobler game. When thus hooked, its vicious biting and squirming, together with the slime which its skin secretes, render it exceedingly disagreeable to handle. It is often hooked in bottom fishing for catfish, Many anglers cut the hook off, rather than extract it, and the amphibian’s flat head is often rendered still flatter by a lively application of the sports- man’s boot heel. In the early summer when the water is clear, Menopome are often to be seen on the pebbly bottom in considerable numbers. _ Once when fishing with some friends from off a large rock in the Loyalhanna creek, we saw quite a shoal of them moving sluggish- ly about among the stones on the bottom. They would quickly take our hooks baited with a piece of meat ora fish head. In one instance two large ones laid hold of the same bait and were Promptly landed on the rock. Ina few minutes we had a dozen. Acting on the advice of a “native” (which was to drop some i ad fish, &c., near certain rocks under which he insisted the “alligators ” staid) I caught ten large specimens in a single Morning, and ten more a few days later. Those taken were of . They are remarkably tenacious of life. I carried my specimens vee 140 General Notes. [ February, six miles in a bag behind me on horseback, under a blazing hot sun, and kept them five weeks in a tub of water without a morsel to eat, and when I came to put them in alcohol they seemed almost as fresh as ever. During their confinement in the tub, two of the females deposited a large amount of spawn. This spawn was something similar to frog spawn in its general appear- ance, but the mass had not the dark colors of the latter. The ova were exuded in strings and were much farther apart than frog eggs. They. were of a yellow color, while the glutinous mass which connected them had a grayish appearance. The spawn seemed to expand greatly by absorption of water. It lay in the tub among the animals for a week but was not disturbed by them. The Menopona, here called “alligator” and “water dog,” is an exceedingly voracious animal, feeding on fish, worms, crayfish, &c. Some of those taken by me disgorged crayfish shortly after being caught. Its large mouth which literally stretches “from ear to ear,” takes in almost any bait not too large to be swallowed. May it not be a sort of scavenger of the water? It inhabits the Mississippi and Ohio rivers and their tributaries —Chas, H Towns . THe Sparrow PEST IN AUSTRALIA.—Through the kindness of a correspondent I have received an interesting official document showing that Passer domesticus has proved not less obnoxious in Australia than in this country. It is a folio of eleven pages, being the poera ee of a commission appointed by His Excellency, Sir W. F. D: Jervois, Major-General, &c., to inquire into and re- port upon the “‘alleged injuries by sparrows” together with an analysis of correspondenc e and minutes of proceedings of the commissioners, published in September, 1881, at Adelaide by order of the House of Assembly. “The commissioners appointed to inquire into the alleged damages caused by sparrows to horti- culture and agriculture in South Australia, and into remedial measures, and to report thereon, having proof of the evil existing in great force, and over larger districts of country, and being con- vinced that their suppression is urgent before another harvest and fruit season sets in, and before another nesting season (now beginning) shall swell their numbers, beg to present a progress report,” The conta of Pepa ta ig te on the questions of inquiry shows: 1. That the sparrow is established over an immense area in South suerte 2. That sufferers in sucha area “cry for relief from sparrow depredations as if from a pest.” 3, That the sparrows are increasing at an astonishing and alarming rate, their work being “done under conditions despairing to the cultivator, and under conditions that he cannot control ; for the seed is taken out of the ground, the fruit-bud off the tree, ' the sprouting vege- table as fast as it grows, and the fruit ere it is ripe.” 4. The cul- tivated plants attacked are apricots, cherries, figs, apples, grapes, 1882, ] Zoology. 141 peaches, plums, pears, nectarines, loquats, olives—wheat and barley—peas, cabbages, cauliflowers and garden seeds generally. 5. All means of defence have hitherto proved inadequate. 6. The commissioners suggest in addition to the usual means of defence, the tender of rewards for sparrows’ eggs and heads ; the removal of gun-licenses for the season, poisoned water in summer, sulphur fumes under roosts at night, plaster of paris mixed with oatmeal and water. “It is further declared that the united action of all property holders, including the government, zs essential to effective sults,” The state of the case in Australia being no worse than it is in the United States, these sensible and energetic measures contrast favorably with the neglect and indifference we have shown in so practically important a matter, notwithstanding the unceasing protests of all competent judges, chiefly through our long-suffer- ing national good-nature, partly through sickly sentiment, and in some slight degree through the ranting pseudo-zodphily of such persons = Mr. Henry Bergh, for example.—Z//ott Coues, Washing- fon, D. OCCURRENCE OF THE OpossuM IN CENTRAL New York.—Dr. W. H. Gregg of Elmira informs me that an opossum was last spring taken about 6 miles from the city, being the first specimen known to him to have occurred in that locality, which is certainly beyond the usual range of the species as commonly understood, —EL£lhott Coues, Washington, D. C. i THE CLAW ON THE “INDEX” FINGER OF THE CATHARTIDÆ.— DECEMBER 7, 1881. To the Editors of the American Naturalist. Gentlemen :—I read with much interest Dr. Shufeldt’s article in your journal for November last, on the claw on the “index”! of the Cathurtide, to the existence of which he had previously called my attention when I had the pleasure of making his acquaintence in ashingtonlastmonth. Dr.Shufeldt certainly deserves great credit for being the first to detect a structure, which has previously, so am aware, escaped the notice of all observers. I may add that since my return I have been able to confirm the truth of Dr. Shufeldt’s statements on specimens of Cathartes aura and C. atratus in my possession. a w me, as one perhaps more favorably situated than Dr. Shufeldt has been as regards the literature of ornithology, to call my friend’s attention to Nitzsch’s “ Osteographische Beiträge zur Naturgeschichte der Vogel,” published at Leipzig in 1881. In that? he will find an excellent account of the claw and phalanx in question as it exists in many other birds. y “The digit of the Avian manus called “ index ” by Professor Owen is now univers- ally recognized by anatomists as really the pollex. ie * Ueber das Nagelglied der Fliigelfinger, besonders der Daumen.” pp. 89-97. 142 General Notes. [ February, Nitzsch does not seem to have observed it in the Cathartide, but found it in Hataétus albicilla, Tinnunculus alaudarius and some others of the Falconidæ. It is very conspicuous in Pandion, In fact,the occurrence of such a claw is of very frequent occurrence in the class Aves, though by no means universal amongst them. Amongst birds in which it may be well seen, I may mention Struthio and Rhea, Cypselus, Caprimulgus, the Rallide and Parnde. uch a claw must not be confounded, as has been done by some writers, with the long “spurs” covered by epidermic tissues, ormed by outgrowths from the metacarpal elements, of most birds as Parra, Palamedea, Plectropterus, &c. In fact, the two may, as in Parra or Plectropterus, coéxist. Believe me, yours very truly, W.A. : Prosector to the Zoblogical Society of London. A new DistomuM PARASITE IN THE Eac-sacks or Apus.— While opening the egg-sack of an Apus lucasanus from Kansas, my atten- tion was attracted by asmall cylindrical worm-like object attached to the walls of the interior of an egg-sack on the eleventh pair of feet. It is represented by the accompanying fig- ure, which gives enlarged sketches of the sideand under surface. The worm is 1 1% ofa X slender, a little curved and flattened on the concave side. The mouth (7) is situated near the end of the body, and is much smaller than the sucker (s). The anterior This fluke may be called Distomum apodis. This is the first occurrence of any parasite ; on the members of this family (Apodide) pe nan enera a of Phyliopods, and so far as we are aware m, mouth; s, sucker, Much the first instance of the occurrence of any enlarged. parasitic worm in the Phyllopods in general. Living as it does in the ovisack, it can hardly be called an internal parasite.—A. S. Packard, Fr. ADDITIONAL NOTE ON THE EGG CASES OF PLANARIANS ECTOPAR- ASITIC ON Limutus.—In the January number of this journal, by a curious coincidence, Dr. Gissler contributed a note covering in part the same ground as one by myself which appeared in the same issue. I desire to make a correction in regard to the sup- posed air-tubes alluded to by the former as occurring at the tips of ` 1882,] Zoölogy. 143 the egg-capsules. These are in fact nothing more than killed dis- torted protozoa of the genus Epistylis or Zoothamnium, clusters of which I have frequently observed in the living condition on the ends of the egg-capsules in fresh material presenting almost precisely the appearance represented in Fig. 2 dc, of Gissler’s note. ey are present or absent according as opportunity may have been afforded for the protozoans to attach themselves, the oldest capsules and those from which the embryos had escaped, being the ones to which the Vorticellinze had most often affixed themselves. At the time my note was written I did not think it worth while to mention the occurrence of the protozoa which are very common, the stalked forms especially. So numerous are these, in places, that to estimate their occurrence at one hundred per square inch of horizontal surface, we find the population of a square rod to be nearly four millions (more exactly 3,896,800). From what I have seen in the Chesapeake, this estimate, in man localities, would be very low, from which it may be inferred that the importance of the part played by the protozoa in the economy of the world of life is, like that of the earth-worm, not yet appre- ciated at its right value—3. A. Ryder. Notes on SOME FRESH-WATER CRUSTACEA, TOGETHER WITH Descriptions or Two New Species. —Palemon ohionis Smith— Palemon ohionis. Smith, S. I., Freshwater Crustacea, U. S. 640; ( ; - Forbes, S. A., Bulletin Ills. Mus. Nat. Hist., No. 1, 5.) While symmetrical. The biting portions of the two mandibles are alike and tridentate. The triturating process of each is long, and Stands out at right angles to the body of the mandible. That of the left mandible is truncated at nearly right angles; that of the left is quite oblique, so that a dentated edge is presented to the other mandible. Both molar surfaces are tuberculated. 144 _ General Notes. | [ February, Palemonetes exilipes Stimpson.—(Palemonetes exilipes Smith, S. L, loc. cit., 641; Forbes, S. A., loc. cit., 5.) I have collected this species in tributaries of the Tombigbee and Noxubee rivers, in Eastern Mississippi, in the Mississippi river at Memphis, in Pearl river at Jackson, and in the Chickasawha river at Enterprise, Miss. It is now known to occur as far north as Ecorse, Mich., in South Carolina and Florida, in Mississippi and in Illinois. Crangonyx lucifugus, n. sp.—This is a small, rather elongated species, that was obtained from a well in Abingdon, Knox county, Illinois. As befits its subterranean mode of life, it is blind and of a pale color, In length the largest specimens measure about 6™™, Male——Antennulz scarcely one-half as long as the body. The third segment of the peduncle two-thirds as long as the second; this, two-thirds the length of the first. Flagellum consisting of about fourteen segments. The secondary flagellum very short, and with but two segments. Antenne short, only half as long as the antennule. Last two segments of its peduncle elongated. Flagellum consisting of but about five segments, and shorter than the last two segments of the peduncle taken together. econd pair of thoracic legs stouter than the first. Propodite of first pair quadrate, with nearly a right angle between the pal- mar and posterior margins. Palmar surface on each side of the cutting edge, with a row of about six notched and ciliated spines, one or two of which at the posterior angle are larger than the others. The cutting edge is entire. Dactylopodite as long as the palmar margin, and furnished along the. concave edge with a few hairs. Propodite of the second pair of legs ovate in outline, twice as long as broad. The palmar margin curving gradually into the posterior margin. The cutting edge of the palmar surface un- even, and having near the insertion of the dactyl a square projec- tion. The palmar surface also armed with two rows of notche and ciliated spines, five in the inner row, seven in the outer. Dactyl short and stout. gees Two posterior pairs of thoracic legs longest of all and about equal to each other. All the legs are stout and their basal seg- ments squamiform. Postero-lateral angle of first abdominal segment rounded; of second and third, from obtuse-angled to right-angled. First pair of caudal stylets extending a little further back than the second ; these exceeding slightly the third. The peduncle of the first pair somewhat curved, with the concavity above, the rami equal and two-thirds as long as the peduncle. The peduncle of | the second pair little longer than the outer ramus. Inner ramus nearly twice as long as the outer. Third pair of caudal stylets rudimentary, consisting of but a single segment, This somewhat _ 1882. | Zoology. 145 longer than the telson, broadly ovate, two-thirds as broad as long and furnished at the tip with two short spines. Telson a little longer than wide, narrowing a little to the trun- cated tip, which is provided at each postero-lateral angle with a couple of stout spines. Female —In the female the propodite of the anterior pair of feet resembles closely that of the corresponding foot of the male. The palmar margin of the second propodite is less oblique than in the second foot of the male, and does not pass so gradually into the posterior margin. It is also destitute of the jagged edge and the square process of the male foot. There are fewer spines along the margin. One of the spines at the posterior angle is very long and stout. ` This species appears to resemble C. enuis Smith, but is evi- dently different. In that species, as described by Prof. S. I. Smith, the first pair of feet are stouter than the second, and have the pal- Mar margin of the propodite much more oblique. The reverse is true of the species I describe. Nor do I understand from the description of C. ¢enuis that the posterior caudal stylets each consist of asingle segment. There are some minor differences. From C. vitreus, judging from Prof. Cope’s description in AMERICAN NATURALIST, Vol. v1, p. 422, it must differ in the caudal stylets. “Penultimate segment, with a stout limb with two equal styles,” is a statement that will not apply tomy species, whichever the “ pe-_ cach of the two distal segments of the peduncle; the segments of the flagellum with one each, except the terminal three or four, Which have none. These organs in alcoholic specimens resemble, under the microscope, a lanceolate or oblanceolate leaf having a- midrib and parallel veinlets running from this tothe margins. ,.. Topodite of first thoracic foot subquadrate in outline; a very little longer than wide. Palmar surface somewhat oblique, armed 146 General Notes. [February, on each side of the cutting edge with about a dozen notched and ciliated spines. Two or three short, stout and serrated spines at the posterior angle. A number of stiff, slender hairs planted among the spines. Dactylopodite scythe-shaped, bent rather ab- ruptly near the base, then straight, and finally incurved near the tip. Propodite of second foot more elongated than in the first foot, and with a more oblique palmar surface; armed with about fourteen spines along each side of the cutting edge. The first, second, and third abdominal segments have their postero-lateral angles drawn backward into a decided tooth. f the three pairs of caudal stylets, the first extends backward beyond the second; the second beyond the third. The latter consists of a stout peduncle and a single ramus, which is about two-thirds as long as the peduncle and provided with a few slen- der spines. There appears to be no inner ramus, but there is of the peduncle that represents, perhaps, the inner ramus. There is, however, no involution of the integument at the base of this process. Telson elongated, twice as long as broad, the sides nearly parallel. The posterior border is provided with a notch that extends nearly three-fourths of the distance to the bee Each prong is armed at the tip with from three to five spine This species differs from C. eam. more particularly in yothe form of the telson, and in the length of the outer ramus of the posterior stylets as compared with the peduncle. From C. anten- natum Packard (AMERICAN NATURALIST, 1881, p. 880), it differs in the form of the telson, and in the much greater size of the eyes. Found by myself about Ist of April, 1880, in a rivulet flowing down the limestone hills into the Noxubee river, at Macon, Miss. a four specimens were secured, all of which appear to be males. The three species, C. gracilis, C. bifurcus and C. lucifugus present an interesting gradation in the forms of the posterior cau- dal stylets. In the first-named the outer ramus is twice the length of the peduncle, and the inner ramus is present, but rudi- mentary. In C. difurcus the outer ramus is but two-thirds as long as the peduncle, while it is doubtful whether there is anything whatever to represent inner ramus. In C. /ucifugus both the outer and inner rami-are absent, and the peduncle itself is much re- duced.—-( To be Continued). ery Hay, Irvington, Ind. REVIVAL OF TARDIGRADES AFTER Desstccation.— The truth of the occurrence of this phenomenon has been denied by various observers, and the appearances explained by Ehrenberg as due to the development of fresh specimens from eggs left by the animals, which die in the process. Professor Yung, however, considers that his observation of the process, in a single specimen of Mil- nesium, proves the correctness of the old opinion. The specimen was taken from a ditch, contained eighteen’ eggs, and manifested 1882. ] Zo0logy. 147 lively movements. It was left for five hours until quite dry, and all that could be seen of it under 350 diam., was a brown speck under the cover-glass. A drop of water was allowed to run be- neath the latter. Almost immediately after it had reached the remains of the Tardigrade, a fine pellicle was evident, surrounding the brown speck and manifesting the general outlines of the body and ova. The normal wall then appeared, enclosing the contents of the intestine ; the minutest details of the outer skin appeared ; after twenty minutes the mouth with its fingers and tube, the jaws, and the feet were fully developed. Subsequently the parts con- necting the jaws with the cesophagus came into view. No move- ments and no development of the ova were observed in the three hours occupied by these observations, The too close apposition of the cover-glass to the slide being now remedied, the animal was supplied plentifully with water, but, when searched for the next day, could not be found, having probably departed in search of more comfortable quarters, for the algae which had surrounded it were disturbed, and neither the remains of the jaws and skin, ea found after specimens have died, nor eggs, were discov- ered, VARIATION IN ÆQUOREA FORSKALEA.—Professor C. Claus, ac- cording to the Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society of ondon, while giving an account of this Adriatic medusa, takes the opportunity of making some criticisms on Professor Haeckel’s classification of the Æquoridæ. A careful study of this form has shown Claus that it is subject to extreme variation; variations so great as to have led Professor Haeckel to make a number of genera and sub-genera for their reception. It is not possible to abstract a critical paper of this kind, and we must be content to direct attention to the following points. Claus finds that the color varies with age and sex; the young may well be called vitrina, as Gosse called them ; later on blue pigment- granules may appear in the ectoderm, and especially in the gonads of the male, while the female may take on a more or less reddish coloration (the A. violacea of Milne Edwards). The radial canals vary in number from just over fifty to nearly eighty. The form and size of the mouth-lips depend on the state of contraction of the Specimen, on its age, and on the breadth of its umbrella. Alto- gether, according to Professor Claus, Haeckel would seem to have afforded a very interesting proof of the origin of species by variation, ne Sa EVELOPMENT OF THE STERLET.—A résumé of Professor W. e 145 General Notes. [ February, it differs from it in having the chorda dorsalis: derived from the mesoderm, and not from the endoderm. There is no real differ- ence in the mesodermal layer of these two forms, and intermediate stages between the two conditions have been observed in Elas- mobranchs. So, also, the author thinks that the segmentation of the ovum presents a transitional arrangement between the bony fishes and Plagiostomes on the one hand, and the Cyclostomata and Amphibia on the other Zoo.tocicaL Nores.—The view that the Brachiopods are shelled worms, which has been so fully discussed and insisted upon by Professor E. S. Morse, appears to be gaining ground. Drs. O. and R. Hertwig in their lengthy essay on the ccelom theory agree with Gegenbaur that the Brachiopods have little more in com- mon with the molluscs than the possession of a shell, the latter being wholly different from that of ordinary bivalves, and that they have taken their origin from the stem of the worms, especial- ly the Chzetopods. It appears that two shells from Lake Tan- ganyika, in Central Africa, described in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, and, according to a note by Dr. C A. White in Nature, generically identical with the Pyrgulifera humerosa of Meek, from the Laramie group, an extensive brack- ish water formation in western North America; these beds being transitional between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic series. na paper recently read by M. Yung before the French Academy on the influence of the nature of food on sexuality, he states that he fed separate sets of tadpoles with fish, meat, coagulated albumen of hen’s eggs, yellow of eggs, and with a mixed diet. These ali- ments do not appear to have had a very distinct influence on the sex ; but along with M. Born’s experiments, those of M. Yung support the idea that a special diet afforded to young tadpoles from the time of leaving the egg, favors the development of a female genital gland. This is the reverse of that arrived at by Hoffman, who found that deficiency of nourishment resulted in the case of plants, in the production of an excess of males. In a recent memoir entitled “ Metagenesis und Hypogenesis von Aurelia aurita,’ Professor Haeckel by keeping a number of speci- mens in his aquarium, has observed certain phenomena in the mode of reproduction, which deviate from those which usually occur. Besides metagenesis or the ordinary development by alter- nate generation, he observed a direct development which he calls hypogenesis. This is effected by the gastrula developing directly into an Ephyra; the Scyphistoma and Strobila stages being sup- pressed. It remains to be seen whether this abbreviated mode of development occurs ina state ofnature. Two large plates crowded - with figures of generous size render the meaning of the text very clear. Indeed Haeckel’s style is as clear and beautiful as his drawings and we wish all German scientific papers were as easy to read.—A fishing bat which lives in the caves at Mono island, 1882. | Entomology. 149 Trinadad, is described in Mature. These queer creatures catch fish at night in a manner not very clearly made out. Dr. Kobelt, the malacologist, who has visited North Africa and Spain to study the mollusks of the two countries reports, says Nature, that it may be safely assumed that'the connection was not con- fined to the Straits of Gibraltar, but extended at least as far as the meridian of Oran and Cartagena. M. Kunstler has found a flagellate Infusorian very much like Noctiluca living in fresh water. It appears that 38 naturalists worked at the Roscoff sea-side laboratory during 1881 against 27 in 1880. The num- ber of foreigners is eight. he French dredging expedition, in Le Travailleur, under the direction of A. Milne Edwards, has pub- lished a preliminary report. Many crustaceans, and star-fish, such as Brisinga, and other animals were found, these being Atlantic forms new to the Mediterranean. “In general the Medi- terranean is not to be thought a distinct geological province; its inhabitants have probably come from the ocean, and their devel- opment and reproduction have been more active than in their place of origin. Some have been slightly modified. The more we get to know of oceanic productions off the coast of Portu- gal, Spain, Morocco, and Senegal, the more do differences from Mediterr. animals disappear.” ( Nature. ) A species of fluke (Distomum cirrigerum) have been found by G. Zaddach in the crayfish, where they occur as blackish spots on the testes, and in greater numbers in the muscles of the hinder part of the abdomen. The author, says the Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, comes to the somewhat remarkable conclusion that in Dıstomum ‘sostomum, another fluke of the crayfish, the sexually mature forms succeed one another. ENTOMOLOGY.’ On Some Curious METHODS oF PUPATION AMONG THE CHAL- DIDÆ.—( Concluded from the Fanuary number.)—The mines of Lithocolletis fitchella Clem., at Washington, contain oftentimes a _ Most interesting object, which I have never yet seen described. Imagine a short, slender chain of small, closely welded brown dipterous puparia and you will have the exact appearance. Such a chain I have often found in the center of a mine of the Litho- colletis, supported by the silken threads which the larva of the latter always spins prior to pupation, The number of individuals 1TH; : POE department is edited by Pror. C. V. RILEY, Washington, D. C., to whom munications, books for notice, etc., should be sent > : 150 General Notes. {February, no insect of that order having such habits. I thought of the gre- garious habits of Sciara, and wondered if I had not found some new form which carried the larval custom. on into the pupa state. My friends were equally puzzled with myself—none had ever seen such an object before. One day I found that a number of small Chalcids had issued from one of the chains. This, however, did not shake my belief as I considered the Chalcids as simply parasites upon the origi- nal makers of the chain, and I waited with impatience for the real owner. However, more and more of the Chalcids issued, until at last every specimen I had collected, with the exception of those put away in alcohol, had excluded ten or a dozen of the parasites, and I had made up mind that I should have to wait till the next season before solving the problem, the idea never striking me that I had the solution right before my eyes. The next spring I bred froma mine of Gelechia pinifohe Cham., a few specimens of a closely allied Chalcid and, upon opening the mine from which they had issued, I found one of the familiar chains, in which, however, the individual “ puparia ” seemed more fused together, and an examination with a Tolles 1%th showed a delicate membrane surrounding them all. This membrane the compound microscope showed to be the true skin of the Gelechia larva, but so stretched as to leave the sutures perfectly indistin- guishable and to be recognizable only from the spiracles and anal hairs. Now going back to my oak chains I found, of course, the same to be the case; but the skin of the Lithocolletis larva had shrunken down into the crevices so tightly and its surface was so smooth that the resemblance to a string of puparia was perfect. Later I had the opportunity of examining a larva of Anarsia lineatella Zeller, parasited by an allied species, and the same ap- pearance resulted, greatly modified, however, by the larger size of the host and the greater thickness of its skin. I remember see ing somewhere a statement by Dr. Lintner, to the effect that he had bred a very interesting parasite from this Anarsia, and I hazard a guess that this was the species. I saw at once from this last larva that the appearance which had puzzled me so was after all only a modification of a phenomenon often met with in larger larve, the minute size of the Lithocolletis larva and the extreme delicacy of its last skin combining to produce the curious effect. A somewhat similar appearance, caused by an allied parasite in the rather large larva of Gelechia galle-solidaginis, is described by Professor Riley in his First Missouri Report. He calls the para- site popularly “the Inflating Chalcis,” and figures the parasited larva at Fig. 5, Plate 2. Moreover, many attempts which were made last season to carry through the larva of Plusia brassice were frustrated by a congeneric parasite with similar habits. The Plusia larva, up to the time O commencing to spin, appeared quite healthy, although perhaps a 1882. | Entomology. ISI little sluggish. Then suddenly its torpor increased, and through the semi-transparent skin were seen hundreds of small white parasitic larve. In two days atthe most the host was dead, having perhaps partially finished its cocoon, while its entire body was completely packed with the parasitic larve or pupe, each sur- rounded by a cocoon-like cell. A cross section of the host at this stage showed a regular honeycombed structure. After re- maining in the pupa state not longer than twenty days the Chal- cids commenced to emerge by the hundreds. My friend, Mr. Pergande, took the trouble to count the parasites which actually issued from one Plusia larva, and, to our utter astonishment, the number reached 2528! An interesting problem now presents itself as to the nature of the cocoon-like cell surrounding each Chalcid pupa in all these different hosts, from Lithocolletis up to Plusia. In the first place it is no silken cocoon, as is readily shown by the microscopic Structure. Neither is it a membrane secreted from the general surface of the Chalcid’s body, for but a single wall exists between two adjoining pupz. For the same reason it isnot the loosened last larval skin of the parasite. But one hypothesis remains, and that is that it is a morbid or adventitious tissue of the host, and this the histological structure of the cell-wall seems to show, as it is hyaline with a few simple connective tissue fibers running through it. Serious objections can also be brought up against this con- clusion; but it is a point which it will be difficult to absolutely settle without closely watching the actual process of formation. To return to our Lithocolletis parasite. I find the following note in Westwood, showing how even he was puzzled by what seems to have been a very similar object: : “De Geer has figured a minute black species with dirty white legs, which he reared from minute cocoons attached together side by side, found in the burrow of the larva of one of the pear leaf miners. Zhe figure has somewhat the air of an Encyrtus ; but the pupæ are naked in that genus. Can it bea Platygaster? or is it one of the Eulophides as the antennz would seem to imply ?” (In- troduction, Vol. 11, p. 170, foot-note.) he italics are mine and the clause is emphasized from the fact that all the species to which I have referred above belong to the Encyrtid genus Copidosoma, of Ratzeburg, which, at the time Westwood wrote, was still included with Encyrtus. Westwood s New Insects INJURIOUS TO AGRICULTURE! —Almost every year ae appearance of some insect or insects injurious to agriculture, ut Previously unknown in an injurious capacity, has to be if | capa of a paper read at the Cincinnati meeting of the A. A. A. S., by C. V ° 152 General Notes. [ February, corded. The present year (1881) has afforded several striking ex- amples, as Crambus vulgivagellus, which has seriously injured pastures, and Phytonomus punctatus, which has proved destructive to clover in the State of New Yor A new Pyralid has also very generally ravaged the corn plants in the Southern States. These new destructive species may either be (1), recently introduced species from some foreign country; (2), native species hitherto unobserved, or unrecorded, and new in the sense of not being described; (3), native species well known to entomologists, but not previously recorded as injurious. The author argues that in the two last categories, more particu- larly, we frequently have to deal with newly acquired habits, and in the second category with newly acquired characters that in many cases systematists would consider of specific value. In short, he believes, that certain individuals of a species that has hitherto fed in obscurity on some wild plant may take to feeding on a culti- vated plant, and with the change of habit undergo in the course of a few years sufficient change in character to be counted a new species. Increasing and spreading at the rapid rate which the prolificacy of most insects permits, the species finally becomes a st and necessarily attracts the attention of the farmer. The presumption is that it could not at any previous time have done similar injury without attracting similar attention; in fact, that the habit is newly acquired. The author reasons that just as variation in plant life is often sudden, as in the “ sport,” and that new char- acters which may be perpetuated are thus created, so in insects there are comparatively sudden changes, which, under favoring systematists would consider as specific, originate within periods that are very brief compared to those which evolutionists believe to be necessary for the differentiation of specific forms among the higher animals. New Enromo.ocicat PeriopicALs.—We are in receipt of a circular from M. Constant Vanden Branden, Rue de la Made- leine, 69, Bruxelles, Belgium, announcing the monthly publication, beginning with February Ist, 1882, of a “Revue Coléoptéro- logique.” This Review will be divided into five parts: 1. Bibliog- raphy; u. New species described during the past month Ga diagnosis and tee reference); 111. Synonymical remarks ; Necrology (if there be occasion for it); v. Sundry ipia tions (sale of collections and books). Subscription price 10 francs for foreign countries. We have also received the prospectus of the Wener Entomologische Zeitung, a journal to be devoted to general entomology, and to appear in 1882. It will be published “chez le libraire de la cour I. R. et de l'Université Alfred Halder,” and the editorial staff, which consists of Louis Ganglbauer, Francois Low, Josèphe Mik, Edward Reitter and Franz Wachtl, is of a character to guarantee excellence. Price 8 marks, There is also a pros- 1882. | Anthropology. 153 pect of a new entomological journal from Paris, under the auspices of “La Société Francaise d’Entomologie,” a new society which is being talked of among certain members of the Société Ento- mologique de France who find the old society too slow for them. Locust PROBABILITIES FOR 1882.—In a letter from Missoula, Montana, written September 30th, Mr. Lawrence Bruner gave an encouraging report as to locust prospects. Starting from Ogden, Utah, he took the Utah and Northern railway to Melrose, Mon- tana, laying off at various points along the Snake river, and in Southwestern Montana. From Melrose the route lay through the Valleys of the Big Hole, Deer Lodge and Hellgate rivers, all of which are noted as rich agricultural districts. From Missoula, Mr. Bruner went down the Missoula river to its junction with the Flat- head river and thence on to the Spokane farming district. In ref- erence to his observations in Montana, Mr. Bruner states: ‘So far I am led to believe there are no locust eggs east of the Rocky range this season, There were a few locusts in the Hellgate and Missoula valleys, also some in the valley of the Bitter Root. They left toward the west and north. A few eggs were de- posited.” Entomotocicat Notss.—Mr. C. A. Briggs gives in the October number of The Entomologist (London, Eng.) an illustrated account of a hermaphrodite hybrid between Smerinthus ocellatus and Smerinthus populi. r. J. Jenner Wier of Blackheath, S. E., London, has recently studied some large collections of Lepidoptera made by Mr. E. G. Meek in the Outer Hebrides which consist chiefly of gneiss rocks and granite, and which are treeless and rather barren of other vegetation. Out of 56 species he was struck with the coloration in many which deviated from the normal coloring, especially among the Geometridæ which showed the gray color of the gneiss, having varied in the direction of the color of their environment. r. V. R. Perkins records the capture of Heliothis armigera in Sloücestershire, Eng., and remarks on its sitting head-down- wards. ANTHROPOLOGY.! Mr. Morcas’s Last Worx.—It seldom happens that a literary man lives to witness the completion of his labors. In the preface to Vol. 1v., of the Contributions to North American Ethnology, upon the houses and house-life of the American aborigines, Mr. Morgan says: “As it will undoubtedly be my last work, I part with it under some solicitude ; but submit it cheerfully to the in- dulgence of my readers.” After the usual delay of printing, the volume made its appearance just in time to be placed in the author’s hands upon his dying bed. “ He feebly turned the pages, and as feebly murmured, ‘ my book.’” The New York Nation, of De- * Edited by Professor OTIS T. Mason, 1305 Q. street, N. W., Washington, D. C. vV ins ; OL. XVI.—NO. T. rt 154 General Notes. [| February, cember 22, and the Rochester Democrat- Chronicle of Dec. 18, contain brief sketches of the author’s life and labors. The work before us is not altogether new to students of anthro- pology, portions of it having appeared in Johnson’s Cyclopedia, the North American Review, and the first volume published by the Archeological Institute of America. Nevertheless, there is here the added charm of maturer deliberation and a homogen- eous plan. Mr. Morgan’s whole conception of domestic life among our aborigines grew out of his theory of their social or- ganization exhibited in the gens, the phratry, and the tribe. This is made manifest in the various chapters on the law of hospitality, communism in living, usages and customs respecting land and food, modern edifices, ancient structures, and even in those relat- ing to the mound-builders. The volume is profusely embellished and the illustrations are exceptionally fine. The NATURALIST is very hard to please in this respect, and in giving unqualified praise to Vol. 1v., passes no empty compliment to the officers of the Bureau of Ethnology who have superintended the work. THE CALENDAR Stone.—Mr. A. W. Butler, Secretary of the Brookville Society of Natural History, Ind., takes exception to Mr. Palmer’s conclusions respecting the Calendar Stone. r. Butler spent several weeks in the city of Mexico and examined carefully not only the stone itself, but all the surroundings. The sides and upper surface of the stone are beautifully sculptured and the carving is as old as that upon any of the other great remains. Mr. Palmer has also misinterpreted the import of the sculptures. The idea of its having been a millstone is preposter- ous, all grinding having been done with the metate stones. Mr. Palmer also falls into another error respecting the beheading of victims, all authors agreeing that their hearts were cut out and offered to their idols. This may not be zhe “Sacrificial Stone,” but all evidence points in this direction. ; Stone ImaGE Founn IN On10.—Some . workmen, while ex- cavating the foundation of a machine shop at Newark, Ohio, came upon an image of a bear, six inches in height, in a sitting posture. It is made of a soft material found plentifully in the locality. The left paw rests under the ear, thè right paw on the abdomen. Projecting from under the chin is the face of a woman. Below the right paw is the inverted face ofa man. Near the image was a human skeleton and a conch shell. THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN.—With the October number the Antiquarian enters on its fourth volume, and from the indications it is destined to live. Few persons know, however, what a great and unremunerative labor it is to sustain a periodical of this kind. The contents of the present number are as follows: Gratacap, L, P.—Prehistoric man in Europe. (Contind. fr. 1m, No. 4.) Brinton, Dr. Daniel G.—The probable nationality of the Mound-Builders. 1882. | Anthropology. 155 Miller, O. D.—Dr. Brugsch-Bey on the origin of the Egyptians and Egyptian civilization. Smith, Mrs. E. C.—Myths of the Iroquois. Welch, Dr. L. B., and J. M. Richardson.—A description of Prehistoric relics found near Wilmington, Ohio. Avery, Professor John.—Polyandry in India and Thibet. The Correspondence, Editorial comments, Linguistic notes, and Recent Intelligence are by no means the least important part ofthe number. Dr. Brinton’s article, to our taste, is the best con- tribution. A sentence or two will show the drift of the argument, “It would appear that the only resident Indians at the time of the discovery who showed any evidence of mound-building com- parable to that found in the Ohio valley were the Chahta- Musko- ee. I believe that the evidence is sufficient to justify us in accepting this race as the constructors of all those extensive mounds, terraces, platforms, artificial lakes, and circumvallations which are scattered over the Gulf States, Georgia and Florida.” CONTRIBUTIONS HERE AND THERE.—It seems to be an insuper- able difficulty to have all anthropological articles of our country published in one journal. The next best thing is to have one periodical that shall act as a ledger in posting up all items for the student. This the NATURALIST fervently wishes to do, and in this Abbott, Dr. C. C. In the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, Vol. xx1, January 19, 1881, will be found an historical sketch of the discoveries of palaolithic implements in the valley of the Delaware river. Supplementary remarks by Mr. Henry W. Haynes, Mr. G. Frederick Wright, Mr. Lucien Carr, Dr. M. E Wadsworth, and Professor F. W. Putnam are appended, Putnam, Professor F. W. Were ancient copper implements hammered or moulded into shape? Kansas City Rev., Dec. (The author holds that the aborigines did not cast copper.) Ballou, Wm. Hosea. As scientific editor in The American Field, of Chicago, publishes quite frequently notes on anthropology. e Kansas City Review of Science and Industry. The editor, Mr. Thos, S. Case, has done some good archzological work and never fails to give an original article and judicious selections with each number, 3 y _ The Monthly Index to Current Periodical Literature, Proceed- ings of Learned Societies and Government Publications, issued from the office of the American Bookseller, 10 Spruce street, New York, is absolutely indispensable to every student who would keep himself posted upon what is doing in his peculiar field. _ Recent Poputar Works.-—We are called upon to mention the titles of two volumes recently issued not because they contain — anything new upon scientific al p ] gy , but because they show 2 how deeply seated in all thoughtful minds are those questions - 156 General Notes. [ February, which the anthropologist is daily busy with. I refer to Professor J. P. Lesley’s “ Man’s Origin and Destiny sketched from the platform of Physical Sciences,’ published in Boston by George H. Ellis ; and “The League of the Iroquois and other Legends, from the Indian Muse,” issued by S. C. Griggs & Co. of Chicago. The former is the second edition of a course of lectures delivered be- fore the Lowell Institute in the winter of 1865 and 1866. The work has long been before the public and has achieved a perma- nent success. The style is highly poetical, indeed it is at times painfully so. The burden of the argument is nowhere clearly stated, but the theme progresses by a series of surprises, a plan that is agreeable to the audience room, but not to the reader who wishes to digest. It is needless to state that Professor Lesley can tell us nothing new, either of man’s origin or of his destiny. Mr. Hathaway’s poem is an attempt to give in a series of pictures the story of the origin of the Iroquois confederation and especially all that relates to Hayowentha. We hail with delight any and every attempt to preserve in prose or verse the sacred lore of our aborigines. The Bureau of Ethnology at Washington has during the past two years collected a hundred or more new myths, which will be published in the contributions to North American Ethnology. ANTHROPOLOGY IN GREAT Brirain.—Triibner & Co. announce a work to be completed in ten volumes, entitled, “ The Social History of the Races of Mankind.” The 1vth and concluding number of Volume x, of the Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland gives us the following original papers. __ Succeeded one another in the same order in various parts of the World. Milne, John.—The Stone Age in Japan; with notes on Recent Geological changes which have taken place. y —President’s Annual Address. Six pages of President Tylor’s address are devoted to a very flattering review of Yarrow’s “Mortuary Customs,’ and Col. Mallery’s “Introduction to the study of the Sign Language among the North American Indians.” GEOLOGY AND PALAIONTOLOGY. A NEW GENUS OF TILLODONTA—An interesting new form of this sub-order has been found in the Catath/eus beds (probably the Puerco formation) of New Mexico. It differs widely from the two genera hitherto known, Anchippodus and Tillotherium. Owing to the absence of the superior dental series it is not possible to be sure which tooth is the canine. The inferior dental formula 1882. | Geology and Paleontology. 157 may be therefore written, I.2; C.1; Pm. 3; M. 3; or I. 3; C.0;. Peay? Migs orl. aG: te Pmeds ; M. 3. Thich istonadreecdnih incisors are large and rodent- like, growing from persistent pulps; the second are the larger. The third, or canines, are small and probably not gliriform. There is no diastema. The first masels (or canine) has a compressed crown with two cusps placed trans- versely to the jaw axis, and has a complete enamel sheath, and probably two roots. The succeeding tooth is also transverse, and is two-rooted, judging from the alveolus. The first and second true molars are rooted, and the crown consists of two transverse separated crests, each partially divided into two tubercles. On wearing, the grinding surface of each assumes the form of a let- ter B with the convexities anterior. The last inferior molar is in- jured. The rami are short, and the symphysis deep and recurved, This genus may be named Psittacotherium., Psittacotherium multifragum, sp. nov.—The base of the coronoid molars: e ramus is deep and moderately stout. The enamel of the first incisor does not extend below the alveolar border, at the internal and external faces, and does not reach it at the sides. It has a few wrinkles on the anterior face. The anterior enamel face of the second incisor is thrown into shallow longitudinal grooves with more or less numerous irregularities from the low dividing ridges. . There is a deeper groove on each side of the tooth, and there are about a dozen ridges between these on the anterior face. Both cusps of the first premolar are conic, and the external is the larger. The second true molar is a little smaller than the first, hes enamel of the premolars and molars is smooth, and there are no cingula. Probable length of dental series ath diameters of I. 1: an- teroposterior .0120, transverse 0066; diameters I. 2: anteropos- terior -O160, transverse .OII 53 aes Phi i.: anteroposterior 0072, transverse, .0130; diameters of M. 11: anteroposterior .0090, transverse, Sea Length of true molars .0038 ; depth of ramus at M. 11. .0360 The short deep jaws of this animal must have given ita very oes appearance, not unlike that ofa parrot in outline. >F. D. ope A GREAT DEPosIT oF Mup AND Lava.—The Atlantic and Pacific R. R. traverses the Territory of New Mexico westward from the Rio Grande river, north of its center. For a great part of the distance between that river and the Arizona border, it passes over the plateau of the Sierra Madre, which chiefly consists in this region of mesas. The mountain ranges to the north are not in sight from the railroad, and those of the south are visible at a distance. The plateau is a large anticlinal one hundred miles in width, and consists of triassic and jurassic beds. The cretaceous 158 General Notes. [ February, -formations are seen highly inclined, resting upon both the eastern and western flanks. The railroad engineers have availed them- selves of a line of drainage which cuts into the beds, forming a long valley extending east and west. Its water shed is about ten _ miles east of Fort Wingate, the streams on the one side flowing into the Atlantic, and on the other side into the Pacific oceans. They are called respectively the Puerco of the East and the Puerco of the West. Puerco means muddy, and the rivers are well named. The cliffs of jurrassic age on the north side of the valley are nowa thousand feet in height near Fort Wingate, showing the enormous extent of the erosion. They consist everywhere of a soft red argilla- k,andincludealayerof gypsum: This material | Soti beneath the middle part of the block, forming a fulcrum. With advancing erosion below, the lava block tips up, and stands ob- liquely on its edge. Tracts of this kind form most forbidding regions, and are absolutely. impenetrable to any but small ani- mals. Snakes appeared to be abundant in some localities passed by the train—Z. D. Cope. INVERTEBRATE Fossiis FROM THE LAKE VALLEY DISTRICT, NEW Mexico.—Mr. S. A: Miller, of Cincinnati, has identified the follow- ing fossils from the silver-bearing carboniferous limestone of Lake co: . Valley, New Mexi 1882.] Geology and Paleontology. ~ 350 ceras ; two undetermined species of Platycerinus ; three undeter- mined species of Actinoceras. Mr. Miller remarks that the age of the rocks, if all the fossils are from one range, is that of the Upper Burlington or Lower Keokuk, but if of different elevations, they represent these two groups respectively. Some specimens are of interest as showing the nature of the shows clearly that the process is one of replacement of the lime- stone by a fluid holding the metals in solution, and not by injec- tion. This is also demonstrated by the undisturbed condition of the thin bedded limestone where traversed by veins of ore.—A. D. Cope. INSECTS OF THE AMYZON SHALES OF CoLorADO.—In the Bulle- tin of the U. S. Geological Survey of the Territories of Hayden, r. Scudder publishes a review of the geology and palzontol- ogy of the above deposit. He observes: “The insects preserve in the Florissant basin are wonderfully numerous, this single locality having yielded in a single summer more than double the number of specimens which the famous localities at Oeningen, in Bavaria, furnished Heer in thirty years. “ The examination of the immense series of specimens found at Florissant has not gone far enough to yield data sufficiently definite for generalizations of any value, or which might not be altered, or even reversed, on further study. It may, nevertheless, be interesting to give a running note of what has been o erve in assorting the collection, and to make the single comparison with the Oeningen insect fauna which the number of individuals will furnish, “This is indicated by the following table, based ona —— count of the Florissant specimens, but which cannot T astray. Percentage of representation by sachs seta owen Sota param chyMiennpterae sis eissii > seen et sii . ia SURI is ath wad nowy E nce isa ter ie +: 3 PRES i A T ssa < ss ins stb E Hapeaueess a ta Prorat beer, 2s. pees wh wee eke ewe shi se ate cn 7 a ‘a cadee EE tO Cae ; 3 Orthroptera lett e ae Se ol vf lt cinch sire E E w ‘ea “tke, bts | alee eae ae Prec. 4 - Myriapoda....., bh Sad ete widens hie jv eee PSR TS d signe pimped ere eT oe one = ROS LETTE 99.58 L aore ce ATR Ranana eta emma a SE “ The plants, although less abundant than the insects, are cx- ceedingly numerous, several thousand specimens having passed through the hands of Mr. Leo Lesquereux. Of these he has ae io. , General Notes. [February, published thirty-seven species in his Tertiary Flora, about two- fifths of which are considered identical with forms from the Euro- pean Tertiaries. ‘‘ We have in all from ninety to a hundred spe- cies of plants recognized from these Florissant beds, of which half the species belong to the apetalous exogens “ The testimony of the few fishes to the climate of the time, is not unlike that of the plants, suggesting a climate, as Professor Cope informs me, like that at present found in latitude 35° in the United States; while the insects, from which, when they are com- pletely studied, we may certainly draw more definite conclusions, appear from their general ensemble to prove a somewhat warmer climate. White arts are essentially a tropical family, only one or two out of eighty known species occurring north of latitude 40°. In North America only three have been recorded north Francisco. Two species, both belonging to the second sec- tion, are found in the valleys below Florissant, in 39° north lati- tude. Florissant itself is situated 2500 meters above the sea, an the presence of so considerable a number of white ants embedded in its shales, is indicative of a much warmer climate at the time of their entombment than the locality now enjoys. Investigation of other forms increases the weight of this evidence at every step, for nearly all the species (very few, certainly, as yet) which have been carefully studied, are found to be tropical or sub-tropi- cal in nature. As, however, most of those studied have been selected for some striking feature, too much weight should not be given to this evidence.’ This subject will be discussed in a forthcoming volume of the Report of the U. S. Geological Survey of the Territories of Dr. Hayden. The illustrations of this work which we have seen are of unusual excellence. Tue FUTURE OF GEoLOoGY.—Professor Ramsey, in his address before the British Association, said that in the British Islands the art of geological surveying has, he believed, been carried out ina more detailed manner than inany other country i in Europe, a mat- ter which has been rendered comparatively easy by the excellence of the Ordnance Survey maps both on the 1-inch and the 6-inch scales. When the whole country has been mapped geologically little will remain to be done in geological surveying, excepting corrections here and there, PA in the earliest published maps of the Southwest of gland. Palæontological detail may, however, be carried to any seen: and much remains to be done in miscroscopic petrology which now deservedly occupies the attention of many skilled observers. It is difficult to deal with the future of geology. Probably in many of the European formations more may be done in tracing the details of subformations. The same may be said of much of 1882. | : Mineralogy. 161 North America, and for a long series of years a great deal must remain almost untouched in Asia, Africa, South America, and in the islands of the Pacific ocean. If, in the far future, the day should come when such work shall be undertaken, the process of doing so must necessarily be slow, partly for want of proper maps, and possibly in some regions partly for the want of trained geolo- gists. Palzeontologists must always have ample work in the dis- covery and description of new fossils, marine, fresh-water, and truly terrestial ; and besides common stratigraphical geology, geologists have still an ample field before them in working out many o those physical problems which form the trué basis of physical geography in every region of the earth. Of the history of the earth there is a long past, the early chapters of which seem to be lost forever, and we know little of the future except that it appears that “ the stir of this dim spot which men call earth,” as far as geology is concerned, shows “no sign of an end,” MINERALOGY.! PHYTOCOLLITE, A NEW MINERAL FROM SCRANTON, Pa.—This name has been given? to a very curious, jelly-like mineral recently found near the bottom of a peat bog at Scranton, Pa. An excavation for a new court-house had cut through a peat bog, below which was a deposit of glacial till. Near the bottom of the bog, in a carbonaceous mud, or “ swamp muck,” there occur irregular veins, of varying thickness and inclination filled with a black, homo- geneous jelly-like substance, elastic to the touch. This substance or without Ash C 28.989 C 30.971 H 5.172 H 5.526 N 2.456 O+N 63-503 O 56.983 SN Ash 6.400 > 100. 100. yielding the empirical formula Cy) Ha: Ov. : n its mode of occurrence and in general appearance, this sub- stance closely resembles Dopplerite, but differs from that mineral à i Edited by Professor HENRY CARVILL LEWIS, Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila- elphia, to whom communications, papers for review, etc., should be sent, ; H. C. Lewis, Proc, Amer. Philos, Soc., Dec. 2, 1881. 162 General Notes. [February, in burning with flame and in its composition. Another jelly-like substance from a Swiss peat bog, differing both from Dopplerite and from the Scranton mineral has been described by Diecke. It is now proposed to group all these jelly-like minerals, pro- duced by the decomposition of vegetable matter, under the one generic name of P%ytocoliite (gutév, zédka = “ plant-jelly ”) of which the three minerals now known would be varieties. Special interest is attached to these substances, in that they illustrate the first step in the transformation of peat into coal. CossyrITE.—Forstner! has given this name to a hornblendic mineral which abounds in the igneous rocks of the Lipari islands. It occurs in triclinic crystals closely approaching monoclinic forms. It has an easy cleavage in two directions, the included angle being 65° 51’. Spec. grav. 3.75. It has the following composition. SiO? FeO? APO? FeO MnO CuO CaO MgO Na’ KO 43:55 7.07 4.96 32.87 1.98 30 2.01 .86 2 Before the blowpipe it melts readily to a brownish-black glassy slag. It is partially decomposed by acids. It appears to be a variety of iron amphibole. ALASKAITE.—A new sulphide of bismuth and lead from Alaska mine, Colorado, has been described by Dr. G. A. Konig.? It occurs as a pale lead-gray mineral of scaly structure and metallic lustre, which forms a more or less intimate mixture with quartz, barite, chalcopyrite, etc. It is soft, and has a spec. grav. of 6.878. In the closed tube it decrepitates and fuses. On charcoal gives characteristic coatings. It is soluble in sulphuric acid, It has the followi re: ga iting Bi A Cu Fe Zn S Ba 51.35 ie 3 3 5. r 1.43 -20 17.85 2.83 The aii given is (Pb, Zn, Ags, Cu,) S + (Bi Sb)? S*. PsEUDOMORPHS OF COPPER AFTER ARAGONITE.—Domeyko has described some interesting cases of pseudomorphism of copper after aragonite observed in some Bolivian mines. He found hemitropic crystals of aragonite presenting all degrees of trans- formation into metallic copper, and showing every transition from crystals of pure aragonite to those of pure copper. ELECTRICITY DEVELOPED BY THE COMPRESSION OF CRYSTALS.— Jacques and Curie? have shown that by the mere compression of an inclined hemihedral crystal, electricity is developed. They experimented by placing a crystal or a suitable section of it be- tween two sheets of tinfoil insulated on the exterior by plates of 1 Zeits. f. Kryst., V, 1881, p. 348. 2 Zeits. f. Kryst., 1881, VI, 42. 3 Bull. Soc. Min. de France, 1880, 93. Comp. Rend., 1881. 1v, 186, and VIT, 250. 1882. | Mineralogy 163 innin caoutchouc, the tin foil being connected to a galvanometer. By now compressing the crystal in a vise or otherwise, electricity is developed and may be measured by the galvanometer. The electricity developed is the opposite of that produced by heating a crystal,—that is to say, the extremity of the crystal which be- comes positive on heating, becomes negative on compression. On releasing the pressure, electricity of an opposite kind is pro- duced. The authors find that the production of electricity by pressure can only be obtained with hemihedral crystals having inclined faces. By combining a number of such crystals in a pile, they have invented a new apparatus for producing electricity. The amount of electricity developed varies for different minerals. They find, for example, that a section of quartz, cut perpendicular to the main axis, evolves more electricity than a similar section of tourmaline. Note on Gotp.—There is a simple method for the detection of gold in quartz, pyrite, etc., which is not generally described in the mineralogical text-books. It is an adaptation of the well- known amalgamation process, and serves to detect very minute traces of gold. Place the finely powdered and roasted mineral in a test tube, : add water and a single drop of mercury ; close the test tube with } the thumb and shake thoroughly and for some time. Decant the | a a Se ee a ee EE EEE water, add more and decant repeatedly, thus washing the drop of mercury until it is perfectly clean. The drop of mercury contains any gold that may have been present. It is therefore placed in a small porcelain capsule and heated until the mercury is volatilized and the residue of gold is left in the bottom of the capsule. This residue may be tested either by dissolving in aqua regia and ob- taining the purple of Cassius with protochloride of tin, or by taking up with a fragment of moist filter paper, and then fusing to a l globule on charcoal in the blowpipe flame. It is being shown that gold is much more universally distributed than was formerly supposed. It has recently been found in Ful- ton and Saratoga counties, New York, where it occurs in pyrite. It has also been discovered in the gravel of Chester creek, at enni, Delaware county, Penna. In one of the Virginia gold mines wonderful richness is reported, $160,000 worth of pure gold having been taken from a space of three square feet. oe p 4 ; i 4 ey a A New Texrsook or Mineracocy.—The mineralogists of Germany are fortunate in possessing a new and valuable workon mineralogy by Professor G. Tschermak. This work, the first - volume of which has recently appeared, contains a full descrip- tion of the physical, optical and crystallographic characters of minerals, and of the various delicate means of investigation at € command of modern mineralogists. _ Under the head — ee physical mineralogy an account is given of the latest discoveries eR EE er Ee ST PA Re Re ETALE ot Sn ne 164 General Notes. [ February, in elasticity and cohesion. Among the optical characters of minerals described are double refraction, phenomena of thin plates, interference figures, optic axial divergence and method of measurement, determination of the plane of polarization, circular polarization, pleochrism, theoretical explanation of the characters of uniaxial and biaxial crystals, etc. It is to be hoped that this work may be translated into English for the benefit of the many students who feel the need of some such advanced textbook. MINERALOGICAL News. — It is stated that Mt. Mica, Maine, has been purchased by a mining company and is being worked for tourmaline, cassiterite and mica. This locality has yielded a large number of interesting minerals, and has been especially famous for its beautifully colored tourmalines. been found as minute tubular crystals, less than a millimeter in diameter, at Nil St. Vincent, near Brussels. It occurs ina crystal- line schist associated with rutile, tourmaline and zircon. The great beds of nitrate of soda which occur in the desert of Atacama, Chili, have been derived from the decomposition of underlying fel- spathic rocks. Vasite is an altered orthite found near Stock- holm. It has been proved that the jade or nephrite of Siberia, like that of China, is a compact variety of tremolite. An excellent method of separating from one another the minerals composing a rock, is to immerse the crushed rock in a very dense liquid of known specific gravity. The specific gravity of most of the minerals constituting rocks being between 2.2 and 3, it results that by preparing a liquid whose density may be made to vary between those limits, the minerals may be readily separated. Such a liquid is a solution of iodide of mercury in iodide of potassium. A solution of borotungstate of sodium may also be employed, the latter having a specifie gravity of about 3. Native lead has been found in Idaho. ahlunite occurs at McKinney’s Quarry, Germantown, Penna. Vermiculite occurs in Japan. It is in short six sided prisms of a brownish color. When thrown upon hot charcoal, it expands longitudinally to many times its original length, twisting and writhing like a Basalt from the Giants cage recently measured, there were tetragons 3 per cent., pentagons 25 per cent., hexagons 50 per cent., heptagons Ig per cent. ,octagons 2 per cent.—— Microscopic investi- gations have révealed frequent impurities in the diamond, Organic matter, carbon and bubbles of gas are common impurities. Quartz, chlorite, pyrite and hematite have recently been found inclosed in diamonds, Small crystals of topaz have also been seen within diamonds, Cossa has shown that all apatite contains phosphate of cerium, lanthanum and didymium united with phosphate of ‘ OPTE S ee ee ee ae ed a ed ee ee ie ee a a a aa | ee ee a a 1882. ] Geography and Travels. 165 lime, and that there is no such mineral as cryptolite. The rare earths were recognized by means of spectral analysis and are present in all apatite. Their presence in the Canadian apatite has also been proved by chemical analysis. GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS.’ THE JEANNETTE AND THE SEARCH EXPEDITIONS.—A portion of the crew of the Y%eanneffe arrived in two boats at the mouth of - the Lena about the 17th of September last. They report that their vessel was crushed in the ice on June 23, 1881, in N. lat. 77° 15’ E. long. 157°, about one hundred and fifty miles north- east of the New Siberian Islands. It appears that the Jeannette was caught in the pack on October 1, 1879, and drifted with the winds and currents up to the time she was abandoned. From the Report of Captain C. L. Hooper we learn that the . S. revenue steamer Corwin? sailed from St. Michaels on July oth 1881. She reached Herald Island on July 30th, and, a land- ing being effected, a thorough exploration of the island was made. The cliffs which render it almost inaccessible are about 1200 feet high. After much difficulty with the ice Capt. Hooper succeeded in reaching Wrangell Land, off the mouth ofariver. The land- ing was made at about the locality where the supposed Plover Island has generally been designated on the maps and is in latitude 71° 4’ N. and longitude 177° 40’ W. and is the most eastern part of Wrangell Land. It is forty-five miles from Herald sland and in clear weather is in plain sight from it. Wrangell Land was taken possession of in the name of the United States and re-named “New Columbia.” No snow was found in the lowlands or hills though remains of very heavy drifts were ob- served on the distant mountains. The river was named Clark; it was seventy-five yards broad and twelve feet deep. The party proceeded four miles inland and from a high hill traced the course of the river northwards for about forty miles. Over twenty species of Arctic plants were found in bloom. Capt. Hooper believes at the sea between Herald Island and Wrangell Land is almost always closed; the water is shallow and solid ice appears to re- main constantly frozen to the bottom. The Corwin next visited Point Barrow which was found to be clear of ice. She arrived at Plover Bay on August 4th, finding the Golden Fleece there. After an unsuccessful attempt to revisit Herald Island and Wrangell nd the Corwin left the Arctic Sea on September 14th, and reached San Francisco on the 22d of October. The U. S. steamer Rodgers reached Plover Bay about August 14th and arrived at Herald Island on August 24th, where a landing was made. The south coast of Wrangell Land was reached after passing throught about twelve miles of loose ice on ae by ELLIS H. YARNALL, Philadelphia. name of this vessel is Corwin not Thomas Corwin. 166 General Notes. { February, August 25th. The next day a good harbor was found and ex- ploring parties were sent out to examine the interior and the coast line. A mouritain about 2500 feet high was ascended. | Open water was seen in all directions except between the west and south-south-west, in which quarter a high range of mountains seemed to terminate the land. Two parties were sent out in boats, of which one followed the eastern and the northern shores until stopped by ice when the boat had to be abandoned and a return made on the land, while the other boat took the western shore along which it passed until stopped by the samie ice, after passing the most northern point of Wrangell Land, where the position of the other party could be seen. Wrangell Land is thus shown to be an island about sixty miles in length. At the northern end there is a current running to the north-west at about six knots an -hour. The Rodgers anchorage was in N. lat. 70° 57’ W. long. 178° 10’. It is situated to the south and west of Capt. Hooper's landing place at the mouth of Clark River. The Rodgers afterwards reached N. lat. 73° 44’ W. long. 171° 48’ on September 1oth. She expected to winter in St. Lawrence Bay. The U.S. steamer AdMance reached lat. 79° 36’, in the neigh- borhood of Spitzbergen, in September last. Captain Wadleigh found the ice extending far to the eastward and southward of the ordinary limit, and it was also much heavier. The Norwegian walrus hunters, who ordinarily go to Hinlopen Straits and even further on the north coast of Spitzbergen, did not this season get as far to the north and east as the A/kance. Wyde Jans Water on the south-east was full of ice, which extended from Hope Island nearly to’ Cape Petermann, Novaya Zemlya. Captain Wadleigh says that the southerly position of the ice is accounted for by the last very severe winter, and the fact that during July and August the usual southerly winds did not prevail and force the ice northwards. Captain David Gray confirms this report in a letter given in the Royal Geographical Society’s Proceedings, in which he states that the ice for the past two years has been almost stationary, notwithstanding that strong northerly winds prevailed. ‘‘ The absence,” he writes, “of southerly drift can only be accounted for by the lanes of water making amongst the floes being immediately frozen up again with the severe frosts, keeping the ice fixed together, and preventing any large waters being made to force the ice south. The ice has not diminished during the last two summers so fast as usual owing to the frosts covering the lanes and pools of water with bay ice, preventing the wash of the water from cutting into it and washing it away. Close ice melts very slowly; open ice soon disappears.” The Lady Franklin Bay Expedition made the most rapid pas- sage through Melville Bay ever recorded and reached their des- tination one month after leaving St. John’s, N. F. They stopped to take aboard natives, furs and dogs at Godhaven, Rittenbank, _ 1882. ] Geography and Travels. 167 Uppernavik and Proven. Dr. O. Pavy joined the company at Godhaven. They sailed from Uppernavik through the middle passage to Cape York in thirty-six hours, and, though delayed by a fog for thirty-two hours, were only six days and two hours in reaching Lady Franklin Bay. They stopped at Cary Island and visited the depot of provisions placed there by Captain Nares in 1875. They also visited Littleton Island, where they found the English Arctic mail, left by the Pandorain 1876; and the Polaris quarters at Life-boat Cove, where they discovered many relics, including the transit instrument belonging to that unfortunate company. They also stopped at Washington Irving Island and Cape Hawks to inspect depots established by Nares, and landed supplies at Carl Ritter Bay. No heavy ice was met until inside of Cape Lieber, eight miles from their destination. They entered Discovery Harbor on August 11th, and when the Zroteus left Lieutenant Greely had got the house erected and partly framed and three months’ rations of musk cattle secured. About 140 tons of coal were landed from the Proteus. The Proteus reached St. John’s on her return voyage on September roth. _ The Point Barrow party also safely reached their station early in September. The Golden Fleece returned to San Francisco on November 5th. The station is five miles from Point Barrow and 1s called Ooglalamie. The observatory was completed when the Golden Fleece left on September 17th and the main building begun. Early in the spring Lieut. Ray hopes to explore the valley of the Coppermine and afterwards visit Kotzebue Sound where a vessel is to be sent with supplies. Axctic ExpLoration.—In a paper read by Professor George Davidson before the Geographical Society of the Pacific, Plover- Island was described as a low pyramidal rock extending as a cape rom the east end of Wrangell Land and connected by a low neck of swampy land covered with grass. he Russian expedition to the mouth of the Lena, to establish one of the stations agreed upon by the International Polar Con- ference, will go by rail to Nishni Novgerod, thence by sleigh to Perm, by rail to Yekaterineburg, by sleigh to Irkutsk where they are expected to arrive in January and stay until May, to complete their preparations. They will descend the Lena on a barge. Owing to a lack of funds the second Russian station in Novaya Zemlya will not be established at present. oes In a recent work “Die Temperatur Verhältnisse des Russi- schen Reichs ” by Professor Wild of St. Petersburg, the Siberian — pole of cold in winter is transferred from the neighborhood of -akutsk to a point somewhat further north, lying in the Arctic Circle about E. long. 125°. At. this center of maximum cold round which the isotherms lie in fairly regular ovals, the mean temperature in January sinks as low as—54° F., the mean tem- perature at Yakutsk being 11° higher. = n a 168 General Notes. [February, The Atheneum. states that “Captain J. W. Fisher, of the American whaler Legal Tender, reached San Francisco at the end of September from Point Barrow, and he reports that in August the ice barrier was over twenty miles north of the point, and was every day moving further northward. The steam whaler Be/- videre had gone much further to the east than the rest of the whaling fleet in an endeavour to reach the Mackenzie River, about 450 miles east of Point Barrow. On her outward voyage the Legal Tender had on board Drs. Arthur and Aurel Krause, who had been sent out by the Bremen Geographical Society to under- take a journey in the coast districts and islands of Behring Strait and Sea, partly for the purpose of investigating the ethnology and marine zodlogy of Alaska. Capt. Fisher landed them at St. Lawrence Bay where they were to spend a fortnight, and then proceed to East Cape and the Diomede Islands. On returning to St. Lawrence Bay they proposed to work their way down the Siberian coast to Plover Bay. Capt. Fisher states that Mr. W. H. Dall, of the U. S. Coast Survey, has made a great mistake in his reports respecting the current in Bering Strait. During the whole summer a strong current sets northward through the strait and it is only in September or October that northerly winds affect it. Mr. Dall’s observations, he says, extended only over a few days and were made in an eddy current under the lee of the Diomede Islands. Capt. Fisher further reports that off Point Barrow a current of three or four knots an hour sets regularly along the land to the north-east, but it does not extend for fifty miles off the shore.” GEOGRAPHICAL NoTES.—A committee of the Royal Society con- sisting of Sir George Airy, Professor J. Adams and Professor Stokes, appointed to consider what “ might yet be required in order to render the pendulum operations, which have been carried out in connection with the great trigonometrical survey of India, reasonably complete as an important contribution towards the determination of gravity all over the earth,” have reported that it is desirable that “the Indian group of stations, which have already been connected with Kew, should be differentially connected with at least one chain of stations which are so connected with one another, and which have been employed in the determination of the figure of the earth.” They refer to the suggestion made by Professor Peirce of the U. S. Coast Survey, that the same two pendulums that were swung in India should be used first at Kew and then at Washington. They say—“ As Washington is, Or shortly will be, connected differentially with a large chain 0 stations widely distributed in America and elsewhere, we think that the value of the Indian series would be decidedly increased by being connected with one of the American stations, such as — i “i It appears that 5 early as the sixteenth century Washington. plans had been formed by the Spanish for canals in Central — 1 1882. | Microscopy. 169 America between the two seas. A canal via the lake of Nicaragua was projected in 1548. Other explorations were made, for this purpose, in the Isthmus of Tehauntepec and the Isthmus of anama. M. Alphonse Milne Edwards has recently been mak- ing investigations in the waters of the Mediterranean. During the seventy days he was so engaged the greatest depth reached by sounding and dredging was 2600 metres. The bottom was found not devoid of living beings, species of low organization being found between depths of 1068 and 2600 metres. At an average depth of 250 metres the temperature was constant at 13° Cent. This explains the small development of life in the depths of that sea, the muddy bottom and the absence of rocks being also un- favorable to germination. The report also confirms the belief that the Mediterranean is a sea of recent formation. he English missionary Mr. Pearson has recently returned home from Uganda with a large amount of information concerning the country and the Victoria Nyanza. He has surveyed the western shore of the la e, taken many observations, and left a careful meteorological _ journal. He speaks highly of the general accuracy of Mr. Stan- ley’s work and found that nearly all his latitudes were correct. —the reinforcement of laborers for Mr. Stanley, numbering 135, left Zanzibar for the Congo on October 20th. The Belgian contains a valuable paper by Ernest Marno on the Grass Barriers of the Nile. : MICROSCOPY. A Hottow Grass SPHERE AS A CONDENSER FOR MICROSCOPIC ĪLLUMINATION.—A glass globe. filled with water has long been employed by watchmakers and engravers for the purpose of con- densing the light upon their work; it was also used by some of the early microscopists. Ledermiiller, in his “ Mikroskopische Gemiith-und-Augen-Ergézung ” (Microscopic Mind-and-eye-de- lights) 1763, gives a representation of his lamp and condenser ; the latter is a globe without foot or neck, and is supported on the top of a square brass rod by six claws, the lamp being supported in the same way, both of them sliding into square holes at the © Opposite ends of a brass arm fixed ona stand. In the“ Micro- graphia,” Hooke gives a figure of his microscope and accessories, amongst them is a globe condensing the light on the stage of the instrument. This form of condenser was probably used by many — of the old microscopists, but it appears soon to have fallen into — disuse, as it is not mentioned by Adams in his “ Micrographia Illustrata,” 1771, or in his “ Essays on the Microscope,” 1787. Possibly the opticians of the period did not care to introduce so — This department is edited by Dr. R. H. Warp, Troy, N. Y, _ VOL. XVI.—No. II, 12 170 General Notes. [ February, simple and inexpensive a contrivance to their patrons (mine cost one and eightpence). I had looked upon the “ globe condenser” as one of the relics of the past, and not worthy of resuscitation, until a short time ago when watching an artist engraving some fine shading on wood. I was struck with the sharpness and definition of the en- graved lines (about s% inch apart). It at once occurred to me that this kind of illumination would suit the microscope. I there- fore borrowed it and tried it first with a 1% objective (a Ross 75°) upon Pleurosigma angulatum, using oblique light from the mir- ror; the ‘strie came out very distinctly. I then removed the globe, and the striæ vanished and required a more oblique ray to render them again visible. I next tried it on Synedra robusta, and resolved the striz into beads; this I had not been able to do before with this objective. I next tried it with low powers (1% in., I in. and 24 objectives). I first used the %, but forgot to alter the previous position of the mirror, and consequently ob- tained a “ black field;” the object I had placed upon the stage was Haliomma humboldtii; I was surprised at the beautiful effect upon that form. It appeared as though illuminated by intense moonlight with a slight green tinge, and delightfully cool to the č I have since purchased a smaller globe (six inches in diam- eter) than the one I tried; the liquid with which it is filled is a dilute solution of sulphate of copper (about 14 ounce of saturated solution to one pint of water). The mixture must be filtered if ordinary water is used, the intensity of color is, however, some- what a matter of taste. The distance of the globe from the lamp should be about two or three inches ; from the globe to the mirror about eight to twelve inches. As the height of the globe cannot be altered, the necessary adjustments must be made with CC ) the lamp, e: g., if the mirror is at A, the lamp flame BB > must be at C; if at C, the flame must be at A. I have LAA ) just received a letter from a friend to whom I recom- mended the illumination, in which he writes: “I am delighted with the black ground illumination, which is certainly softer and the definition sharper than any I have tried before. Have you tried it with polarized light? I think you would be pleased with it, there is such great softness of tint and such impenetrable posed of field when the prisms are crossed.—F. Kitton in Science Ossip. ARRESTATION OF InFusoRIAL Lıre.— Three years ago I brought with me to the Alps a number of flasks charged with animal and vegetable infusions. The flasks had been boiled from three to five minutes in London, and hermetically sealed during ebul- lition. Two years ago I had sent to me to Switzerland a batc of similar flasks containing other infusions. On my arrival here this year 120 of these flasks lay upon the shelves in my little library. Though eminently putrescible, the animal and vegetable 1882. | Scientific News. 171 juices had remainedas sweet and clear as when they were prepared m London s.* X * I took advantage of the clear weather this year to investigate the action of solar light on the develop- ment of life in these infusions, being prompted thereto by the in- teresting observations brought before the Royal Society by Dr. Downs and Mr. Blunt, in 1877. The sealed ends of the flasks being broken off, they were infected in part by the water of an adjacent brook, and in part by an infusion well charged with or- ganisms. Hung up in rows upon a board, half of the flasks of _ €ach row were securely shaded from the sun, the other half being exposed to the light. In some cases, moreover, flasks were placed in a darkened room within the house, while their companions were exposed in the sunshine outside. The clear result of these experiments, of which a considerable number is made, is that by some constituent or constituents of the solar radiation an influence is exercised inimical to the development of the lowest infusoria. Twenty-four hours usually sufficed to cause the shaded asks to pass from clearness to turbidity, while thrice this time left the exposed ones without sensible damage to their transpa- rency. | This result is not due to mere differences of tempera- ture between the infusions. On many occasions the temperature of the exposed flasks was far more favorable to the develop- ment of life than that of the shaded ones. The energy which in the cases here referred to prevented putrefaction was energy in the radiant form. In no case have I found the flasks ster- ilized by insolation, for, on removing the exposed ones from the open air to a warm kitchen, they infallibly changed from clear ness to turbidity. Four-and-twenty hours were in most cases sufficient to produce this change. Life is, therefore, prevented from developing itself in the infusions as long as they are ex- posed to the solar light, and the paralysis thus produced enables them to pass through the night time without alteration. It is, however, a suspension, not a destruction, of the germinal power, for, as before stated, when placed in a warm room, life was in- variably developed. * * It would also be interesting to €xamine how far insolation may be employed in the preserva- tion of meat from putrefaction—Professor Tyndall before British Association, 1881. me SCIENTIFIC NEWS. — The Annual Report of the Chief Signal Officer for 1881, show that this Bureau was never in more efficient order, nor doing more to promote scientific as well as purely practical interests. For example Gen. Hazen reports that he has endeavored to bring this service into active sympathy and coöperation with the ablest scientific intellects of the country. “In this direction and in response to my request, the Natural Academy of Sciences has appointed an advisory committee of consulting specialists 172 Scientific News. [ February, with which I may confer as occasion demands. I take pleasure in acknowledging this courtesy as showing the establishment of more intimate relations between the scientific interests of the United States and the Signal Service.” A Scientific and Study Division, was established January 27, 1881, for the purpose of scientific research and investigation into the laws of meteorology. Connected with this division are consulting specialists, who are employed as occasion may require. 9 this division also are referred all questions relating to standard measurements, altitudes of signal stations, and the preparation of tables for the reduction and the conversion of meteorological observations. During the past year stations of observation on the habits and ravages of the Rocky Mountain locusts or grasshoppers, were established in those sections that the experience of past years has shown to be most exposed to the ravages of these pests. These stations were at Omaha, Grand Island, North Platte, and Sidney, Nebr. ; Cheyenne, W. T.; Denver, Colorado Springs, and Pueblo, Col.; Ft. Sill, Ind. T.; Ft. Elliott and all other stations on the United States military telegraph lines in northern, central and southern Texas, and those on the Northwestern military telegraph line in Dakota, and Montana. Where civilians were employed in making the observations, their services were voluntary and without compensation, the government bearing the necessary expenses for stationery and telegraphing. It is gratifying to state that not a single report of the ravages of locusts has reached this office, and their presence has been announced only at Grand Island, Nebr. ; Ft. Supply, Ind. T., and Ft. Elliott, Texas, but in no instance has any danger been reported. — In continuance of the biological explorations made by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, M. Alexander Agassiz spent portions of last March and April at the Tortugas and Key West. On the days when the weather was not favorable for work in col- lecting surface animals, Mr. Agassiz cruised among the reefs and examined carefully the topography of the different groups of corals characteristic of the Florida reefs, with reference to the . light they threw on the share the different species of coral have in the formation of the reef, and he has collected data from which he expects to construct a map, showing the position of the differ- ent species of corals within the area occupied by the reef-builders of the Tortugas. It was found that the members of the surface fauna of the Atlantic coast are inhabitants of the surface of the _ Gulf stream, which are driven on the northern shores by the pre- vailing southwesterly winds during the summer and autumn months. Much of this surface work during March and April re- minded him ofsimilar work done at Newport from the end of July until late in September ; but, of course, the number of specimens — a was far greater at the Tortugas. The surface fauna of the Gulf 1882. | Scientific News. 573 stream can undoubtedly be best studied at the Tortugas, though important additions to our knowledge of it have been made at Charleston, S. C., and at Beaufort, N. C., and along the coast of New Jersey, of Rhode Island, and of Southern Massachusetts. It is remarkable that the beautiful purple floating shell (Janthina), which is so common at the Tortugas, should not find its way further north than off Cape Hatteras, in common with other sur- face forms. There are also found at the Tortugas a large number of pelagic crustacez in their larval stages, among them Phyllosoma and the nauplius stage of a Peneus, similar to that observed by Fritz Miller; also multitudes of young Annelids, Molluscs, Actiniz, the planulz of several of the corals, Echinoderm em- bryos, and a host of young pelagic fishes, among which he men- tions the young of the flying fish and Leptocephali. For the study of the young stages of fishes and of Acalephs the Florida reefs present an unrivaled field of observation, but the number of pelagic Foraminifera was unexpectedly small. — A work on the Gymnotus, or electric eel, was presented to the Paris Academy the other day by M. Du Bois-Reymond. It gives the results of recent researches in Venezuela by Dr. Sachs, who went out some five years ago, at the suggestion of the Berlin physiologist, to study the creature in its habitat. Dr. Sachs had not completed the working up of his material for publication when, unhappily, he lost his’life on a glacier in the Tyrol, in 1878. His work has been extended by M. Fritsch, with the aid of numerous specimens and preparations of the fish brought home. Among other things, M. Fritsch has succeeded in proving, with all but certainty, the development of the electric organs from- striated muscles by metamorphosis. Various obscure points have been elucidated. — Mr. Alfred G. Lock, F. R. G. S., of 16 Charing Cross, Lon- don, England, is preparing a book on gold mining, in which he desires to describe every process and every machine of recognized value in use, both in alluvial and quartz mining. He wishes also to treat fully of the mineralogical associations and geographical . occurrence of gold in all parts of the world, and to give maps showing the geographical position of all the gold fields known to exist, the strike of the reefs and the rivers whose lands are known | to be gold bearing. The United States being the greatest gold Producer and its gold saving machinery being the most elaborate, he desires to give it the prominent position in the book which its importance demands. He desires therefore to procure all papers, reports, photographs, or other illustrations of the subject. In all cases the sources of his information will be fully acknowledged. — The Providence Lithograph Company are about to publish the Chautauqua Scientific Diagrams. Series No. I, Geology, to be edited by Professor A. S. Packard, Jr. Price $6. The series willcon- sist of ten chromo-lithographic charts, 33 x 23 inches. The sub- wa Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [February, jects are mostly restorations of Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, _ Mesozoic, Tertiary and Quaternary fossil plants and animals. While the series is designed for popular audiences, they will be found useful in colleges and high schools. — Edward Wethered, F. G. S.. of Hillylands, Weston Park, Bath, England, has become sub-editor of the Geological Record, for America, and he asks the cooperation of all geologists by sending to his address all pamphlets or reports, connected directly or indirectly with the geology of this country. His connections will commence with the volume for 1879, and he says that a great effort will be made to bring it up to the present time. — Dr. John W. Draper, the eminent scientist, and author of Hu- man Physiology, a History of the Intellectual Development of Europe, the History of the Conflict between Religion and Sci- ence, numerous memoirs on chemical and physical subjects, and a History of the American Civil War, died at Hastings-on-the- Hudson, Jan. 4, aged 71. He was born in England, May 5, 1811. — Professor Arch. Geikie, Director of the Geological Survey of Scotland, has just been appointed Director-General of the whole of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and also Director of the Geological Museum, Jermyn street, London. He will there- fore resign his professorship in the University of Edinburgh and make his residence in London. — Dr. Chr. G. A. Giebel, an eminent geologist and author of a work on bird-lice and other insects, died at Halle, Nov. 14. Pro- fessor P. G. Lorentz, a well known German botanist, author of a work on mosses, died at Concepcion, in Uraguay, aged 46. — Robert Mallet, whose researches on earthquakes have made his name well known, died in London, Nov. 5, aged 71. His Earthquake Catalogue was completed, says Nature, with the aid of his son, now Professor J. W. Mallet, of Virginia. — Professor J. E. Hilgard, after a term of service of thirty- four years as assistant, has been appointed Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey; a most fitting appointment. ——:0:—— PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. CALIFORNIA ACADEMY OF Sciences, Nov. 4.—The announce- ment of the generous gift of $20,000 by Charles Crocker, Esq., recorded in the December NATURALIST, was made. A paper by Professor Davidson, on the Transit of Mercury, accompanied with drawings, was then read, and Dr. Robert E. C. Stearns read a paper on “ The Botanical Relations of Physianthus albens: the structure of its flowers and their peculiarities as an insect trap.” He referred to this plant as related to grovps which possess various important economical characters, furnishing peculiarly fertile fields for investigators of pharmaceutical and organic chemistry. Dr. Stearns then exhibited many beautiful specimens of these flowers, each one of which had entrapped an — 1882. | Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 175 insect or moth of some kind, which it held firmly by the proboscis. They are found in many gardens adjoining San Francisco, are hardy and of rapid growth, having a white, sweet-scented flower suitable for ornamental purposes. It came originally from Buenos Ayres and is popularly cailed a moth-trap. It is a species of milk-weed. This plant belongs toa group which is related to the ornamental phloxes, the parasitic dodders, one form of which is destructive to our alfalfa, as it winds its fatal thread and strangles the plant by preventing the upward flow of the sap. The bind- weeds are popularly known by the sweet potato, also by jalap, scammony and other medicinal plants. Other related groups in- clude tobacco, mandrake, potatoes, and egg-plant ; also the olive, the common lilac and flowering ash. In all plants of this group the sap is milky, acrid and bitter; also contains more or less caoutchouc. The roots are diaphoretic, emetic or cathartic. The inner bark yields very strong and fine fiber. One form is known in Ceylon as the cow plant, and yields a palatable sap, which is used by Cingalese as milk. It is supposed that these plants are fertilized by insects, and the insects are caught by their probosces, between the wings of the anthers while seeking for the nectar. Other insects, such as ants, beetles, etc., are often found in the nectary of these flowers, but not as prisoners. The paper was elaborately illustrated by blackboard drawings. _ Dr. Behr and Dr. Gibbons then spoke in further explanation of insect traps, and Dr. Behr read a paper on “ The Part Played by Hawk Moths in the Economy of Nature.” Dr. Arthur Krause and Mr. Aurelius Krause, of the Bremen Geographical Society, who have just returned from explorations in Siberia, were present and promised to address the Academy at a future meeting. r. Dieckmann, of Nicolaeskfy, Amoor river, an entomologist, said tigers were very plenty on the shores ‘of the Okhotsk sea, and were found throughout Siberia with white bears. They have hair five inches long, and are larger than Himalayan tigers. They prey on large herds of reindeer, and remain far north all winter, where snow is four feet deep, never migrating far south. They also eat wild boars. Natives believe the bear to be influenced by the Good God, and tigers by the Evil Spirit. Five natives fre- quently lasso and catch bears alive, but always kill the tigers. He then described the native ceremonies at a bear feast, some of which were quite laughable. oe The matter of some lectures on islands of the South Pacific, by Captain Augustus E. Bruno, was referred to the Council for action, many members desiring to hear from Captain Bruno before his departure East, to lecture before the Peabody Institute, Boston Society of Natural History and other scientific societies. _ Mr. Brooks then made some remarks, giving the late news from the Rodgers, and illustrated her track with an outline of the Coast of Wrangell Island. : ee ae ave 176 Selected Articles in Scientific Serials. [ Feb., 1882. New York AcapeEmy OF Sciences, Dec. 12.—The following papers were read: Additional notes on the geology of Staten Island, by Mr. N. L. Britton. Remarks on the Mammoth cave of Kentucky, by Mr. W. Le Conte Stevens. Dec. 19.—The following papers were read: On a peculiar coal- like transformation of peat, recently discovered at Scranton, Penn., by Professor H. L. Fairchild. On the means of giving accuracy to ventilation by steam, by Professor W. P. Trowbridge. Boston Society oF NATURAL History, Dec. 21, 1881.—Mr. John A. Jeffries spoke on the spurs and claws of birds’ wings, and Mr. S. H. Scudder on Tertiary fossil spiders, especially those of Florissant. f Jan. 4, 1882.—Professor E. S rse compared the shells o New England Kjékkenmdddings with the present forms of the same species, and . H. Hinckley showed some struc- tural differences between our native tadpoles and their bearing on the classification of the species. AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL ata Dec. 21.—Mr. W. E: Griffis lectured on Corea, the hermit nation Jan. 10.—Mr. T By. Myers read a paper entitled, Our acquisi- tion of French territory west ne the Mississippi, in ‘1803. SELECTED ARTICLES | IN SCIENTIFIC SERIALS. BULLETIN OF THE U. S. GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL SUR- VEY OF THE TERRITORIES, Vol. v1, No. 2, Sept. 19, 1881.—Anno- tated list of the birds of Nevada, by W. J. Hoffman. North American moths, with a preliminary catalogue of species of Ha- dena and Polia, by A. R. Grote. The Tertiary lake basin of Florissant, Colorado, by S. H. Scudder. Revision of the genus Sciurus, by E. L. Trouessart. Osteology of the North American Tetraonide, by R. W. Shufeldt. Osteology of Lanius [udovici- . anus excubitorides, by R. W. Shufeldt. Review of the Rodentia the Canide of the Loup Fork Epoch, by E. D. Co ope. On a crayfish from the Lower Tertiary beds of Western Wyoming, by A. S. Packard, Jr. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, Jan., 1882.—Contributions to meteorology: mean annual rainfall for different countries of the globe, by Elias Loomis (map). Post-glacial joints, by G. K. Gil- bert. The connection between the Cretaceous and the recent — Echinid faunz, by A, Agassiz. Classification of the Dinosauria, by O. C. Marsh. GrotocicaL Macazing, Dec., 1881.—Contributions to fossil _ Crustacea, by H. Wie dward. of a system of Radiolaria based on a study of the Challenger 2 Radiolaria, by E. Haeckel. ‘4 : i $ Shee THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. VoL. xvi. — MARCH, 1882.— No. 3. THE TERTIARY FORMATIONS OF THE CENTRAL REGION OF THE UNITED STATES. BY E. D. COPE. HE principal Tertiary formations of the region between the Mississippi river and the Sierra Nevada are the following, as mainly determined by Dr. Hayden: The Puerco, the Wasatch, the Bridger, the Uinta, the White River, the Truckee, the Loup Fork and the Equus beds. Several of these are again distinctly subdi- vided, and in a few instances such divisions have been regarded by authors as of equal importance with those above mentioned ; as, for instance, the Green River portion of the Wasatch. But the evidence of vertebrate paleontology is not as yet clearly favor- able to further primary subdivision than is indicated by the above names. In the following pages I will briefly describe the charac- ter and distribution of these formations. The general history of the succession of the Tertiary lakes of the interior of the North American continent and their deposits has been developed by the labors of various geologists, promi- nent among whom must be mentioned Hayden, Newberry and King. It may be synoptically stated as follows : The Laramie Cretaceous period witnessed a great difference in the topography of the opposite sides of the Rocky Mountain range. To the east were extensive bodies of brackish and nearly fresh water, with limited ocean communication, studded with islands and bordered by forests. On the west side of the range was a broad continent, composed of mostly marine Mesozoic rocks, whose boundaries are not yet well ascertained. Towards the close of the Laramie, the bed of the great eastern sea began- to emerge from the waters, and the continent of the western side of the great range descended. The relations of the two regions. VOL. XVI,—NO. III, 13 178 The Tertiary Formations of the [March, were reversed; the east became the continent, and the west be- came the sea, The latter, receiving the drainage of the surround- ing lands, was a body of fresh water, whose connection with the ocean permitted the entrance of a few marine fishes only. This was the great Wasatch lake, whose deposits extend from the upper waters of the Yellowstone far south into New Mexico and Arizona, between the Rocky mountains on the east and the Wa- satch range on the west. Its absence from the east side of the former range indicates the continental condition of that area at the time. The only locality where the Wasatch deposits are extensively deposited on the Laramie, is in the region interme- diate between the two districts in Wyoming Territory. Here the sediments of the former are seen to have succeeded those of the latter, and to have been coincident with an entire cessation of brack- ish conditions. Elevations of the continent northward and south- ward contracted the area of the great Wasatch sea, and perhaps deepened it, for at this time were deposited the fine limestones and silico-calcareous shales of the Green River epoch. There is no evidence that these beds had a greater eastern extension than that of the parent Wasatch lake. King has given distinct names to these ancient lakes. I think it better to pursue the usual course of using for them the names already given to their depos- its, as involving less strain on the memory; the more as the num- ber of these lakes is being increased by numerous new discoveries. The only known region which it covered west of the Wa- satch range, is represented to-day by the calcareous strata in Cen- tral Utah which I have called the Manti beds. The exact equiv- alency of these is, however, not quite certain. Further contrac- tion reduced this area to perhaps two lake basins, whose deposits now form two isolated tracts in Southern Wyoming, and are known as the Bridger formation. Continued elevation and drainage caused the desiccation of these basins also, leaving only, so far as present knowledge extends, a body of water on the south of the Uinta mountains, in Northeastern Utah. The sediments of this lake form the Uinta formation, which is the latest member of the series now found in the region lying between the Rocky and Wa- satch mountains. About the time that the elevation of the present drainage basin of the Colorado river was completed, a general subsidence of level of the great region east of the Rocky mountains com- 1882. | Central Region of the United States. : 179 menced. Extensive lakes were formed in the depressions of the Laramie and older beds which formed the surface, which were probably connected over a tract extending from near the Missouri river to Eastern Wyoming and Colorado. Near the same time a similar body of fresh water occupied a large part of what is now Central Oregon and certain areas in Northwestern Nevada, accord- ing to King, The sediments now deposited constitute the White River formation, and the faunal distinctions which I have discov- ered to characterize the eastern and western basins have led me to employ for them the subdivisional names of White River beds for the former and Truckee (King) for the latter. It may have been during the early part of this period, or during the Uinta, that there existed two contemporary bodies of water, separated by a wide interval of territory. One of these extended over a considerable tract in Northern Nevada, and deposited a coal bed near Osino. A formation probably the same, has been found by Professor Condon in Central Oregon, underlying the Truckee Miocene beds. The other lake left its sediments near Florissant, in the south park of Colorado. This formation I have named the Amyzon beds,! from a characteristic genus of fishes which is found in it. It has been referred to the Green River formation by King, but in contradiction to the present paleontological evi- dence, as it appears to me. The oscillations of the surface which brought the White River period to a close, are not well understood. Suffice it to say here, that after an interval of time another series of lakes was formed, which have left their deposits at intervals over a wider extent of the continent than have those of any other epoch. These con- stitute the beds of the Loup Fork period, which are found at Many points between the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky moun- tains, from Oregon to New Mexico, and over parts of the Great Plains of Colorado, Kansas, and northward, and in the valleys of the Rocky mountains, King has shown that the beds of this €poch are slightly elevated to the westward, thus proving that the elevation of the Rocky mountains had not entirely ceased at that late day. A probably continuous succession of lakes has existed from this period to the present time in ever-diminishing Numbers. The most important of these later lakes were in the Great basin in Oregon, in Washington and in Nebraska, and their * AMERICAN NATURALIST, May, 1879. 180 The Tertiary Formations of the [ March, deposits enclose the remains of i 9 Benton ; #, Niobrara; /, lignite; /%, Fox hills, 2, Puerco; w, Wasatch; from Lt. Wheeler’s report > Fic. 2.—Section west of the Gallinas mountains, New Mexico, from Gallinas creek to the Eocene plateau. Letter j, Jurassic; 7g, Jurassi gypsum; g, Gallinas creek; æ, Dakota; 4 a fauna entirely distinct from that of the Loup Fork period and of more modern character. They are known as the Equus beds, This fauna was probably contem- poraneous with that which roamed through the forests of the eastern portion of the continent, whose remains are inclosed in the depos- | its of the caves excavated from the ancient limestones. s A more detailed account of the formations is now given, with the names of a few of the character- istic fossils. THE PUERCO, This formation, having fur- nished numerous mammalian fos- sils, is known to belong to the Tertiary rather than the Post-cre- taceous series. It is regarded by Dr. Endlich as a subdivision of the Wasatch, but the characteris- tics of its fauna are so marked as to constitute it a distinct horizon. — z The most southern locality at which it has been observed, the one from which I named it, and where its characters are distinctly displayed, is west of the Jemez : and Nacimiento mountains, in New Mexico, at the sources of the ; Puerco river. At this place its outcrop is about 500 feet in thick- . ness, and has an extent of several _ miles on both sides of the river. From this point the strike is northward, keeping at the distance of a few miles to the eastward of ormation. It contracts in depth to 1882. | Central Region of the United States. the northward, and it extends to the south-west, beyond the over- lying Wasatch beds. It is well developed in Southern Colorado, where Dr. F»M. End- lich! and William H. Holmes, of Dr. Hayden’s Survey, detected it in 1876; Its mineral character is there similar to that seen in New Mexico, and its thickness is much greater. On the Animas river it is 1000 to 1200 feet; on the San Juan river, near the Great Hog Back, 700 feet. The general char- acters of the formation are ex- pressed in the following descrip- tion, extracted from my report to Lieut. G. M. Wheeler? “South of the boundary of the Wasatch, the varied green and gray marls formed the material of the country, forming bad lan tracts of considerable extent and utter barrenness. They formed conical hills and flat meadows, in- tersected by deep arroyos, whose perpendicular walls constituted a ing a peculiar character of this marl when wet. It became slip- pery, resembling soap in consist- ence, so that the hills were climbed with difficulty, and on the levels the horses’ feet sank at every step. The material is so easily transported that the drain- * Annual Report U. S. Geol. Surv. Terrs., 1875, P- 189. ? Loc cit., 247. *Annual Report of Chief of Engineers, 1875, p. 89. Appendix 44. 'uəpáĽvH aq Woy fooIxaW MƏN pUL OprIO[OD jo s1əp10q oy} 1¥ƏU uonoəg—'E ‘OI eaopnu fo 710I! 182 The Tertiary Formations of the [ March, EE eanne are cut to a great depth, and the Puerco river be- on of the supposed fault, by which 4 would be the Figures are the same as in Fig. 5; from Dr. Hayden’s ann, report. Fic. 4.—Section in southern Colorado, showing apparent duplication of strata and locati same as 4’, B the same as 4’, and C the same as C”. mes the receptacle of great quan- tities of slimy looking mud. Its unctuous appearance resembles strongly soft soap, hence the name Puerco, greasy. These soft marls cover a belt of some miles in width, and continue at the foot of another line of sandstone bluffs, which bound the immediate valley of the Puerco to a point eighteen miles below Nacimiento. “The Puerco marls have their principal development at this local- ity. I examined them throughout the forty miles of cutcrop which I cludes silicified fragments of dicot- yledonous and palm trees. On the where some large tree had broken up. At one point east of the river I found the stump of a dicotyled- -onous tree which measured five feet in diameter.” The fauna of this formation is different from that of the other Eocenes in the presence of a sau- rian, Champsosaurus, which is char- acteristic of the Laramie Cretaceous, and a marsupial Mammal ( Ptilodus ) which is a remnant of a type only known otherwise from the Juras- sic. Its characteristic genera are Catathleus, a many-toed hoofed animal, Psittacotherium, a gnawing Tillodont, and various flesh-eaters with primitive teeth. Coryphodon is, so far, unknown, - 1882. ] Central Region of the United States. 183° THE WASATCH. In lithological character, the Wasatch consists of a mixed arenaceo-calcareous marl, alternating with beds of white or rusty sandstone. The more massive beds of sandstone are in New Mexico, Colorado and Wyoming,’at the base of the formation. The marls readily weather into the fantastic forms and cañon labyrinths of bad-land scenery. The marls often contain concre- tionary masses of a highly silicious limestone, which cover the banks and slopes of the bluffs with thousands of angular frag- ments. It is characteristic of this formation that the marls con- tain brightly colored, usually red strata; and in many localities the colors are various, giving the escarpments a brilliantly banded appearance. Petrographically this formation has two divisions, the Wasatch proper and the Green River beds ; the latter name having some- times been given to the entire formation as well as the former. Of the few vertebrate fossils known from the Green River division, some are identical with those of the Wasatch, while at least one genus of fishes is common to the Bridger. The Wasatch beds proper are much more widely distributed than those of the Green River. They appear first in the south in Northwestern New Mexico, and extend thence into the adjacent parts of Colorado, They are exposed ‘over extensive areas of Colorado west of the Rocky mountains, and reappear in South- western Wyoming. They extend along the western portion of the Green River valley, whose northern portion they entirely occupy. On the eastern side of the Wind River mountains it has, according to Hayden, an exposure of from one to five miles in width for a distance of one hundred miles, from the source of the Wind river to the Sweet Water river. North of this point it fills the extensive basin of the Big Horn river to the borders of Montana. It does not occur east of the Rocky Mountain range. The thicknesses given by geologists are the following : Northwestern New Mexico (Cope). Feet. Red-striped marls . 1500 Peace brown bandstome || occ pd ols cases desis enone 1000 . 2500 io San Fuan, Colorado (Holmes). Coarse yellowish Sendin alternating with variegated marls, . 1200 White and Yampa Reservations (Endlich and White). Chiefly yellow and reddish sandstones, alternating with shales .. . 1500 184 The Tertiary Formations of the [ March, Bear River, Wyoming (Hayden). Red banded marls ..... Kae J00 AR A A MRA T TT 5 i. E T E e wey ere 6+ 90.0 b> 800 : ‘ 1500 Wind River Valley (Hayden). Variegated marls and po Ta ie age py A ne Be alg Aart 5000 The Green River division of the Wasatch is much less exten- sively distributed than the Wasatch proper. Its exposures are confined to the valley of Green river, particularly the regions be- tween its affluents both north and south of the Uinta mountains. ` In the Bridger basin it forms a wide rim around the Bridger formation, and is especially developed on Fontanelle creek and on Bitter creek, and the region to the south of it. I here found its thickness to be 1200 feet.! Farther south, in Western Colorado near the Yampa river, Dr. White gives its depth at 1400 feet.” South of this, in Western Colorado, Dr. A. C. Peale? gives the united thickness of this formation and the Wasatch at 7670 feet ; but how much of this is to be referred to the Green River proper we are not informed. It does not appear to exist on the San Juan, according to Endlich and Holmes, and I did not find it in New Mexico. According to King, the deposits of the Green River formation rest unconformably on those of the Wasatch.* He also believes that it has a considerable extent west of the Wasatch mountains, over parts of Utah and Nevada. I have shown that the paleontological evidence is opposed to the identification of these “ Amyzon” beds with the Green River, and that they are probably of later origin. There is, however, a series of calcareous and silico-calcareous beds in Central Utah, in Sevier and San Pete counties, which contain the remains of differ- ent species of vertebrates from those which have been derived from either the Green River or Amyzon beds. These are Croco- dilus sp., Clastes sp., and a fish provisionally referred to Priscacara under the name of P. testudinaria. There is nothing to deter- mine to which of the Eocenes this formations should be referred, 1Annual Report U. S. Geol. Surv., 1873, pp. 436, 437. 2 Annual Report U. S. Geol. Surv., 1876, p. 36. 3 Annual Report, 1874, p. 156. tU. . Survey of the Fortieth Parallel, 1, p. 377. 1882. | Central Region of the United States. 185 but it is tolerably certain that it is to be distinguished from the ees wee ee eee mi ee Fic. 5.—General section in the Yampa district. 186 The Tertiary Formations of the [ March, Amyzon beds. In its petrographic characters it is most like the Greer. River. The writer first referred the Wasatch to the Eocene division of the Tertiary, it having been previously regarded as Miocene. (Proceedings American Philosophical Society, February, 1872.) he vertebrate fauna of the Wasatch is rich, and presents many peculiarities. Prominent among these is the presence of the strange Coryphodontide, which reached a great development at this time. Also the Phenacodontide, and the genus Hyraco- therium. These are the ancestral types of the hoofed mammals, and they were associated with numerous flesh-eaters of partly marsupial character. It is nearly identical with that of the Suessonian of Western Europe, which is at the base of the Eo- cene series. The fullest account of it is that which I have given in the Report of Captain Wheeler of Explorations and Sur- veys west of the rooth meridian, Vol. tv. THE BRIDGER. “ This is one of the more important of the groups among those that, in Western North America, are referred to the Tertiary period, especially as regards the vertebrate remains that have been obtained from its strata. It is most fully and characteristi- cally developed in the region known as the Green River basin, north of the Uinta mountains, only the south-eastern portion of the formation, so far as is now known, extending into North- western Colorado. In its typical localities it is found resting con- formably upon the Green River group, into which it passes with- out a distinct plane of demarkation among the strata. ts molluscan fossil remains correspond closely with those of the Green River group, some of the species being common to both, all indicating a purely fresh condition of the waters in which the strata of both groups were deposited. At the typical locali- ties the group is composed in great part of soft, variegated, bad- land sandstones, a peculiar greenish color often predominating over the others, which are reddish, purple, bluish and gray. Limestone strata, marly and clayey beds, and cherty layers are not uncommon, and grits and gravelly layers sometimes occur.” To the above general remarks of Dr. C. A. White I add, that the material of this formation consists of indurated clays more or. less arenaceous, which display various degrees of hardness. The harder beds are, however, thin, and the intervening strata yield readily to meteoric influences. They are frequently quite arena- 1See AMERICAN NATURALIST, April, 1880. 1882. ] Central Region of the United States. 7 187 ceous, and rather thin beds of conglomerate are not uncommon. The colors that predominate are greenish-gray and brownish- green, with frequent ash-colored beds, The peculiar condition of hardness of most of the strata, render it one of the formations which most generally present the bad-land scenery ; it permits the erosive action of the elements without general breaking down, great numbers of fragments of the strata remaining in spaces between the lines of destructive action. ‘The result is the extraordinary scenery of Black’s Fork, Church Buttes and Mam- moth Buttes, of which mention has been made in various recent publications. The distribution of the Bridger formation is limited, and is, so far as I am aware, restricted to three areas, whose mutual connec- tion is as yet uncertain. Its principal mass is in the Bridger basin, which extends from the northern base of the Uinta moun- tains to the latitude of the mouth of the Big Sandy river north- ward. In this area it reaches a depth, according to King, of 2000 or 2500 feet. A second district is also in Wyoming, and lies east of Green river, between Bitter creek and the northern boundary of Colorado, in what is called by King the Washakie basin. The depth of the formation there reaches 1200 feet! The third region is in Western Colorado, where it loses much of its importance. Dr. C. A. White found it only 100 feet in thickness near the White river? Dr. Peale found it near the Gunnison river, as he discovered vertebrae of Pappichthys,a genus which belongs to this horizon only; but he did not distinguish it from the underlying formations, so that I do not know its thickness at that point. South of this locality it is unknown. As pointed out by Leidy, this period is especially characterized by a peculiar and rich vertebrate fauna. This is of truly Eocene character, as I first showed, but it is distinguished from the Wasatch by various subordinate peculiarities. These are the presence of Dinocerata, and of the leading Perissodactyle genera, Paleosyops and Hyrachyus, together with the absence of many — types, as Coryphodon, Teniodonta, etc. | ‘THE UINTA. : “ Resting directly, but by unconformity of sequence, upon all the Tertiary and Cretaceous groups in the region surrounding the 1 Annual Report U. S. Geol. Surv. Terrs., 1873 (1874), pp. 436-437. ? Annual Report, 1876, p. 36. : Annual Report U. S. Geol. Surv. Terrs., 1874, PP- 157; 158. 188 The Tertiary Formations of m- [March, eastern end of the Uinta Mountain range is another Tertiary sible that this group was deposited continuously, at least in part, with the Bridger group, but at the places where the junction be- tween the two groups has been seen in this region, there is an evident unconformity, both of displacement and erosion. “The group consists of fine and coarse sandstones, with fre- quent layers of gravel, and | pada tg both cherty and calcare- ous layers occur. The sandstones are sometimes firm and regu- larly bedded, and sometimes soft and partaking of the character of bad-land material. The color varies from gray to dull reddish- brown, the former prevailing north of the Uinta mountains and the latter south of them he only invertebrate fossils that are known to have been dis- covered in the strata of this group are some specimens of a Physa, very like a recent species. Therefore, invertebrate palaontology has furnished no evidence of its assumed Tertiary age and lacus- trine conditions of its deposition. Its fresh-water origin, however, seems unquestionable, because of its intra-continental position, its limited extent, and the fact that none but fresh-water deposits are known in this part of the continent that are of later date than the close of the Laramie period.” To these remarks of Dr. White I add, that several species of Vertebrata have been obtained from this formation by Professor Marsh, who has determined from it a few genera of Tertiary and Upper Eocene character. Such are, of Mesodonta, the genus Hyop- sodus and of Ungulata, the Perissodactyle form Amynodon., THE WHITE RIVER. The material of which the beds of this formation are composed in their eastern division, are calcareous clays and marls, alter- nating with a few unimportant strata of light-colored sandstone. They are white and gray, with occasionally a pink and red, and sometimes greenish tinges. The beds of the western deposit in Oregon, consist of a more or less indurated mud, which is, according to King, of trachytic origin, which is rarely hard, and frequently rather soft. Its predominating color is light green, but is frequently olive and light brown. The depth of the formation on the White river of Nebraska is, according to Hayden,! about 150 feet; and on Crow creek, Colorado according to King,? 300 feet. Sixty miles east of Crow creek I estimate its thickness as some- 1 Proceedings Academy, Philada., 1857, p. 153. 2 Report of Geol. Survey of 40th Parallel, 1, 410. Fic. 6.—Scene in the Bad Lands of the White River formation, in Nebraska, From Dr. Hayden, 190 The Tertiary Formations of the [March, what greater. The Truckee beds of Oregon have, according to Marsh, a depth of from 3000 to 4000 feet, and King estimates the deposit exposed in the Hawsoh mountains, Nevada, at 2300 feet. An extensive deposit exposed in the region of the Cajon pass, Southern California, is suspect- ed, by King, to belong to the same horizon. The fauna of this epoch is widely different from that of the Eocene in its more modern char- acteristics. These are the pres- ence of various types of Rodentia, of true Carnivora, of Dicotylide, Elotherium, Oreodontida, Poébre- therium and Rhinocerontide. All the especially Eocene groups are absent, except Leptictide anda few Hyenodontide. These give it a more ancient character than the Miocenes generally, so that it is frequently referred to as “ Oligocene.” SYMBOROOON ‘ wane eee wane =--------OREODON HYPERTRAGULUS DIDELPHYS HYANODON + --------- OREODON PALAEOLAGUS ----~----PELONAX RAMOSUS The following diagram repre- sents without much detail, the section in Eastern Colorado, along the Horse Tail creek, from the Chalk bluffs southward. — At both localities the lower beds carry the bones of the Sota nua < gigantic Menodontide, Meno- A dus in Nebraska, and Symõoro- A a don with Menodus in Colorado. E ž But few other types occur in = 4 this bed in Colorado, the great number of genera and species being found in bed B, in which I did not discover any fragments of Chalicotheriide among a large -*-----PROCAMELUS PROTOHIPPUS MASTODON Fic 7.—N. and S. section on Horse-Tail creek, Northeastern Colorado. LOUP FORK 1E, c p: 4233 Lé; ps 485. 1882. ] Central Region of the United States. IQI quantity of remains of Ungulata, Carnivora, Rodentia, etc. The lithology is as follows: Bed A is a white calcareous soft clay rock, breaking into angular fragments. Bed B has a similar mineral character, with frequently a red color of different obscure shades. Bed Ç is a sandstone of varying persistence. Bed D is a white argillaceous rock like that of bed A. Fossils are less “numerous than in bed B, and included no Symdorodons nor other Menoddniide. ; The eastern area of this formation is the true White River epoch of Hayden; the western deposits form the Truckee epoch of King.. I named this formation the Oregon, but Mr. King’s name is the older and must be retained.! . According to Professor Condon, the Truckee formation of Oregon, on the John Day river, rests unconformably on the lami- nated beds, containing Torodium and fish remains, which, as I have suggested on a previous page, may be an extension of the Amyzon shales. These in turn rest on a formation of hard lami- nated beds, which contain an abundance of Cad/amites, which doubtless belong to the Triassic or Jurassic period. The Truckee beds are, like the true White River, overlaid by the Loup Fork, and this in turn by heavy beds of basalt. The fauna of the Truckee presents some characters which dis- tinguish it from that of the White River. These are, the absence of Hyenodon, Leptictide and Ischyromys,and most of the Meno- dontide, and the presence of several genera of Canide, Nimravide and Rodentia. Many genera, and apparently several species, were common to the two epochs. THE LOUP FORK. This formation has now been studied in many widely-separated localities in the region west of the Mississippi river. It was dis- covered by Dr. Hayden, whose collections furnished the basis of- Dr. Leidy’s determination in 1858.2 It was next observed by myself in Colorado in 1873, and twenty-one species were deter- mined ; and in the following year I identified the Santa Fé marls of New Mexico, already observed by Dr. Hayden, with the same 1 Bulletin U. S. Geol. Surv. Terts., Y, p. 52: *See Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1858, p. 20, and Extinct Mammalia of Dakota and Nebraska. * Bulletin of the U.S. Geol. Surv. Terrs., No. 1, Jan., 1874. 192 ` The Tertiary Formations of the [ March, horizon! Messrs. Hayden and King have discovered it west of the Wasatch range in Utah and Nevada, and Marsh has observed it in Oregon. Messrs, Dana and Grinnell found it occupying the valley of Deep river in Montana, and Professor Mudge any my- self have seen it in Northern and Western Kansas. There is a near lithological resemblance between the: strata at these local- ities, and the fauna presents a common character as distinguished ` from those which preceded and followed it; but Sufficient care has not always been exercised to distinguish its upper members from the Zguus beds above them. The latter contain a distinct fauna.” According to King, about 1500 feet of beds are included in this formation. The water-shed between the South Platte river and the Lodge Pole creek, Colorado, is composed superficially of formations of the Loup Fork epoch, of Hayden. On its southern side is an abrupt descent in the level of the country, which generally pre- sents the character of a line of bluffs varying from 200 to 900 feet in height. This line bends to the eastward, and extends in a nearly east and west direction for at least sixty miles. The upper portion of this line of bluffs and buttes is composed of the Loup Fork sandstone in alternating strata of harder and softer consistency. It is usually of medium hardness, and such beds, where exposed, on both the Lodge Pole and South Platte slopes of the water-shed, appear to be penetrated by numerous tortuous friable silicious rods and stem-like bodies. They resem- ble the roots of the vegetation of a swamp, and such they may : have been, as the stratum is frequently filled with remains of ani- mals which have been buried while it was ina soft state. No better preserved remains of plants were seen. This formation rests on a stratum of white friable argillaceous rock of the White River epoch, as represented in Fig. 7. The lithological characters above described are precisely those presented by the same formation in New Mexico.’ Mr. King employs the name Niobrara for this formation, but Dr. Hayden’s name‘ was introduced many years previously. The 1 Ann. Rep. Chief of Engineers, 1874, 11, p. 603. 2 See Bulletin U. S. Geol. Surv. Terrs., tv, p. 389, and v, p. 47, 3 See Report Lieut. G. M. Wheeler’s Explorations west of rooth Meridian, Vol, IV, p. 283. t See Dana’s Manual of Geology, edit. 1864, p. 511; 1882. ] Central Region of the United States. 193 new name has also the disadvantage of being already in use for a horizon of the Cretaceous, which is well distinguished palzon- tologically. Some genera of Rodentia are common to this formation and the White River ( Steneofiber, Paleolagus), but its fauna is well distinguished by the presence of Camelide with a cannon bone, three-toed horses with cementum in the molars, Antelope with a burr of the horns ( Cosoryx) and Mastodon. I have divided the Loup River formation into two divisions on palzontological grounds,! under the names of the Zicholeptus bed, and the Procamelus bed. The former occurs in the valley of Deep river, Montana, on the White river in Northern Nebraska, and in Western Nebraska, where it has been found by Mr. Hill. Its fauna presents, in Montana, a mixture of fossils of the Procamelus horizon; while in Nebraska, according to Hayden, its typical genera are accompanied by White river Mammalia. In the for- mer region, Hippotherium, Protohippus and Blastomeryx are min-, gled with genera allied to. Leptauchenia and with Merycocherus. In Nebraska, Leptauchenia is said to be accompanied by Jschyro- mys, Paleolagus, Hyracodon and even Oreodon, genera which do. not extend to the Procamelus bed. There is, however, a question in my mind whether this collocation is entirely correct. It is bed D of Hayden’s section in rs Extinct Fauna, Dakota and Nebraska, p. 20. The material of the Zicholeptus ee is a more or less friable argillaceous sand; not so coarse and gritty as the Procamelus bed, nor so dikarecsarciliaccous as the White River. The Procamelus bed is extensively distributed. It is found in Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada and Oregon: THE EQUUS BEDS. I can give little information respecting the depth and strati- _ graphy of the beds of this period as they occur on the plains west of the Mississippi river, for although sections of them as they occur in Nebraska and elsewhere have doubtless been published by authors, their palazontologieal status has not been determined for the localities described. My own knowledge of the deposits is based on localities in California and Oregon. In Nebraska they have probably been confounded with the Loup Fork beds. ppe * Bull, U. S. Geol. Surv. Terrs., v, pp. 50-52; Maen XVi.—Ne, mt, 4 194 The Tertiary Formations, etc. [ March, represent the latest of all the Tertiary lakes, and include a fauna which consists of a mixture of extinct and living species, with a few extinct genera. I have received fossils of this age from Idaho, Washington, Oregon and California. The most important locality in Central Oregon is from thirty to forty miles east of Silver lake.’ The depth of the formation is unknown, but it is probably not great. It consists, first, of loose sand above, which is moved and piled into dunes by the wind; second, of a soft clay bed a few inches in thickness; third, by a bed of sand of one or two feet in depth; then a bed of clay mixed with sand of unknown depth. The middle bed of sand is fossiliferous. In Northern and Middle California the formation is chiefly gravel, and reaches a depth, in F Pio. & Sand hills, Northwestern Nebraski, tun Hayden,” some localities, of several hundred feet. Here, as has been proven by Whitney, it contains human remains, associated with Masto- don, Equus, Auchenia, etc. I have obtained Mylodon from the same gravel. Traces of this fauna are found over the Eastern United States, and occur in deposits in thé caverns excavated in the Lower Silu- rian and Carboniferous limestones, wherever the conditions are suitable. This deposit is a red or orange calcareous mud, varied with strata of stalagmite and gypsum, Remains of the fauna are found in clay deposits along several of the Atlantic rivers, as the Delaware and Potomac, 1See AMERICAN NATURALIST, 1878, p. 125. 1882. ] A Pathogenic Schizophyte of the Hog. 195 It is probable that the formation in the western localities men- tioned is mostly sand, Near Carson City, Nevada, it consists of a light-buff friable calcareous sandstone. This is the Upper Pliocene of King and the Post-pliocene of various writers,. 20% A PATHOGENIC SCHIZOPHYTE OF THE HOGI BY PROFESSOR H. J. DETMERS. agg twenty-five years ago Professors Brauell and Pollender in Dorpat, Russia, made an important discovery, which, though at first not considered as of much significance, soon led to investigations, the results of which have already revolutionized the ztiology of contagious and infectious diseases. Brauell and Pollender, and soon afterwards also Dr. Leisering in Dresden, discovered in the blood of man and beast, affected with anthrax or splenic fever, an infinite number of exceedingly fine, appa- tently solid, almost transparent, straight and motionless, rod- shaped bodies (cf. Virchow’s Archiv. für Pathol., Anat. und Physiol., und fiir Klinische Medicin, x1, 2). They called them Staebchenfoermige Koerper (Bacilli), but left it undecided whether the same bear a casual connection with the morbid process, consti- tute a product of the same, or are merely accidental. Still, find- ing these Bacilli in every fatal case of anthrax, Brauell and Pol- lender considered their presence as something characteristic, and as of great diagnostic and prognostic value. As early as 1860 the relation of these Bacilli to anthrax formed a topic of discus- sion in the annual meeting of the Veterinary Society of the Grand Duchy of Oldenburg. Later investigations, but especially those by Davaine, Koch, Cohn, Pasteur, Toussaint, and more recently by Dr. Hans Buchner, in Munich, have demonstrated be- yond a doubt that these Bacilli, first discovered by Brauell and Pollender of the Imperial Veterinary School of Russia at Dor- pat, and first known as Brauell and Pollender’s staebchenfoermige Koerper, constitute the real and sole cause, and also the infec- tious principle, of that terrible disease known as anthrax or — Milzbrand to the Germans, charbon to the French, and anthrax or splenic fever to the English. About the same time, or soon after Brauell and Pollender published their rae other simi- _ * Read before the Chicago Academy of Sciences. * 196 A Pathogenic Schizophyte of the Hog. [ March, lar microscopic bodies were found, not only in the blood and morbid products in contagious diseases, but also in a great many other things, particularly in putrefying, decomposing, and fer- menting substances, in pus, secretions of wounds, in the mucus of the mouth, etc. AH this, however, is well known,and as I do not intend to give a history of the discoveries in regard to these minute bodies, comprehended under the generic name of Schizo- phytes, nor dwell upon the investigations made by many European and some American scientists for the purpose of ascertaining the true character and the relation of those Schizophytes to conta- gious and so-called zymotic diseases, I will only make one further remark, and then briefly relate what I have seen and ascertained myself. JI mentioned the discovery of Brauell and Pollender as a fit introduction to what I shall have to say, and also for the purpose of correcting certain erroneous statements in American literature, which ascribe the first discovery of Bacillus anthracis to Davaine, and to other French investigators. Fora long time it remained a puzzling question how certain Schizophytes, found in certain diseases in the blood, exudations, and other animal fluids, etc., can constitute the cause‘ and infectious principle of those diseases, while other Schizophytes, apparently identical, or at least very similar in appearance, and of almost universal occur- rence, are known to be perfectly harmless. To illustrate, it will only be necessary to mention the great similarity between Bacillus anthracis and Bacillus subtilis, two of the best known Schizo- phytes. This question has been solved by the researches of Dr. Hans Buchner in Munich (cf. his monography “ Ueber de Experi- mentelle Erzeugung des Milzbrand Contagiums aus den Heupilzen, und ueber die Entstehung des Milzbrandes durch Einathmung, Muenchen, 1880”). Dr. Buchner; by repeated and continued cultivations in solutions of meat extract, with and without an addition of peptone and sugar, succeeded in converting Bacillus anthracis into Bacillus subtilis; 36 generations made the former harmless, and about 1500 gen- erations converted the same into a veritable hay-bacillus or Bacillus subtilis. Vice versa, by continued and repeated cultiva- tions in fresh blood Dr. Buchner also succeeded in changing a harmless Bacillus subtilis into an exceedingly malignant Bacillus anthracis, which, introduced into the organism of a healthy ani- mal by inoculation, in every instance caused sure and speedy 1882. | A Pathogenic Schizophyte of the Hog, 197 death. But as all this is on record, published in works and peri- odicals just as accessible to my readers as to myself, or perhaps more so, as my present residence is in a country town, I shall not dwell upon it any longer. It is now fourteen years ago, when so-called Texas fever was decimating the cattle in Central Illinois, the peculiarities of that disease, the characteristic morbid changes, the long period of in- cubation, and particularly the manner in which the disease was said to be communicated by Texas cattle to native animals, led me to think that some microscopic organism, endowed with life and power of propagation, and subject to changes and metamor- phoses, must constitute the cause and the means of infection. I communicated my views to the Hon. John P. Reynolds, then Secretary of the Illinois State Board of Agriculture, and now Chief Grain Inspector of Chicago. My communication, written -in verypoor English, and coming from an unknown person living in a country town in Northern Illinois, was published in two Chi- cago papers, but did not procure me an opportunity to make an investigation. Still, even if it had, the investigation, very likely, would not have resulted in anything. In the first place, I had neither the means to procure, nor the necessary experience to use, a first-class microscope, and moreover doubt whether, at that time, fourteen years ago, an instrument was in existence in Amer- ica that could have successfully coped with the question. Our first-class homogeneous immersion objectives were not known then. My suggestions to Hon. John P. Reynolds, whether known or unknown to them, I do not know, were partially carried out, or acted upon, by Professor Gamgee and his associates, and by the Commissioners of the State of New York (cf. New York Agri- cultural Report of 1867), but no satisfactory results were obtained. The New York Commissioners even went so far as to send some bile to Professor Hallier in Jena, who, of course, found and culti- vated a great variety of fungi, and left the whole thing in a more confused state than it ever was. At any rate, the whole investi- gation, as far as the etiology of Texas fever is concerned, did not throw much light upon the subject. A little over three years ago I was requested by the late Com- missioner of Agriculture, Hon. Wm. G. Le Duc, to investigate a very fatal disease of swine, known to the farmers as hog cholera, and from the reports of the Department of Agriculture as swine fos o A Pathogenic Schizophyte of the Hog. [ March, plague. I procured a No. 8 Hartnack stand, with three eye- pieces and three Hartnack objectives, a 1 inch,a % inch, and a four-system } inch, with correction and immersion. Of course, such an instrument was not at all what was needed, but it was the best I could get, and, to tell the truth, the best I was then able to handle. It soon revealed the presence of microscopic organisms —Schizophytes, or, if preferred, Microbes or Bacteria—in the morbid products of the disease, and in the blood of the diseased and dead animals, but its definition and its magnifying power, about 800 diameters, were not sufficient to show the character- istics of the Schizophytes, and to distinguish the same under all circumstances from other bacteria similar in size. Consequently I made several, under the circumstances excusable, errors. If the light happened to be very good and well adjusted, a micrococcus chain appeared as a moniliform rod, and if the light was not very good, as I am sorry to say was very often the case, a Micrococcus chain could not be distinguished from a rod-shaped Bacterium or a Bacillus. All this was very much of a drawback; still I became soon convinced that in the morbid products of the disease and in the blood of the diseased and, dead hogs, I had to deal with a’ specific Schizophyte, which does not occur in the blood, etc., of other animals not affected with swine plague, and is entirely different from Bacterium termo, because I observed whenever putrefaction set in, and Bacterium termo made its appearance, my swine plague Schizophytes commenced to disappear, and disappeared in about the same ratio in which Bacterium termo increased in numbers. Being unfortunately not sufficiently familiar with the classification of Schizophytes, and the distinguishing characteristics of micro- cocci, bacteria, bacilli, etc., as laid down by Cohn and others, the inadequacy of my microscope caused me to commit a blunder, for which I have to apologize. Professor Klein in England, in his investigation of swine plague, also found a Schizophyte, which he called a “ Bacillus.’ Not knowing then, as I do now, that his bacillus, seen with better instruments than that at my command, was an intruder, and not at home where found, and having no doubt whatever that he had seen the identical Schizophyte which I saw and found in every case of swine plague, I proposed the name Bacillus suis. As soon as Cohn’s classification of Schizo- phytes fell into my hands I saw my mistake, and endeavored to — 1882. ] A Pathogenic Schizophyte of the Hog. 199 correct the same in my next report to the Commissioner of Agri- culture, two years ago, in as plain language as I can command; but not knowing at that time the spuriousness of Professor Klein’s - bacillus, I did not say anything about it. Still, a colaborer—it will not be necessary to give his name—does not appear to be satisfied, misconstrues my language, and yet insists that I callthe swine-plague Schizophyte a Bacillus suis. But enough of this. It widely differs from a bacillus as defined by Cohn. One of its most characteristic features consists in its forming zodgloea-masses or coccoglia, which, according to Cohn, a bacillus never does. It also does not form straight and motionless rods, nor is its effect directly poisoning, or causing decomposition, like that of Bacillus anthracis, but mostly, if not entirely, brought about in a mechan- ical way, by its mere presence, and by a withdrawal from the animal organism of such elements as are needed for its existence, its metamorphoses, and its propagation. To put it in a few words, it acts.like a veritable parasite. I discarded the name Bacillus as . soon as I discovered. my mistake, and have simply called it Swine- plague Schizophyte or Swine-plague Microbe, leaving it to others, better versed in the classification of Schizophytes, to give it -an appropriate name. About two years ago I obtained the means, a large Beck’s stand and a Tolles’ y homogeneous immersion objective, which enabled me not only to make a more thorough investigation, but also to distinguish, as to shape, form, size, and undergoing-changes, the swine-plague Schizophytes from other Schizophytes classed under the various heads of Micrococci, Bacteria and Bacilli, and par- ticularly from those which invariably make their appearance in all animal fluids and tissues when putrefaction or decomposition is setting in. Still, the amplification to be obtained by eyepiecing without any loss of definition—about 925 to 1000 diameters— proved to be insufficient. Certain characteristics, which I had reason to suppose are existing, and of which I could obtain only occasional glimpses, could not be seen, or were to be seen only in’ an imperfect manner.’ I therefore requested Mr. Tolles to make for my special work an objective which, if possible, would give as good and ap definition with an amplification of 1500 diame- ters as the yy in my possession with 925. Mr. Tolles has nobly responded, and it is but just to say that the objective he made, nominally a yx, but in reality close up to a ty, is not only equal, 200 A Pathogenic Schizophyte of the Hog. [ March, > but in some respects even superior to a magnificent yẹ homoge- neous immersion objective of Zeiss, which I was fortunate enough > to procure last spring. It, the Zeiss objective, is a trifle higher than ayo. These two objectives, the yẹ Tolles, and the ys Zeiss, have been almost exclusively used during the last year. The xz of Tol- les gives, with the No. 2 eyepiece, according to length of tube and collar correction, from 1356 to 1525 diameters. The Swine-plague Schizophytes present themselves in three, and probably in four, or even five, different forms. As to the three different forms I am certain, as to the fourth and possibly fifth I will not be so positive. The form to begin with is that of a very minute spherical body, a micrococcus of O. 7 too. 8 # in diameter. It is invariably present in the blood and blood serum, in all morbid products and exudations, and in such morbid tis- sues as can be conveniently examined with high power objectives Fic, 1.—1, Swine-plague beta one | 2, do. Coccoglia ; b do. Micrococcus-chain —ė, five minutes later than a; 4, arting; 5, do. do. pasted joint with fla- gellum ; 6, He lobacteria with isting spore; 7, blood corpuscles, xX 1525 object- ive: Tolles’ ys homog. immersio ; while fresh. It probably is not necessary to state that the micro- cocci of Swine-plague, being spherical, do not present any char- acteristic difference from other micrococci, occurring in other substances, if the latter happen to be of about the same size as the former. Still, differences can be observed, if the micrococci are kept under the microscope for some time——a few hours—at a suitable temperature. The Swine-plague micrococci soon form ‘zoogloea-masses or aggregate in clusters and become imbed- ed in an apparently viscous substance. While thus imbedded they soon commence to duplicate by growing in two oppo- site directions, and at the same time becoming contracted in ‘the middle. This contraction gradually becomes plainer and plainer, and increases in the same degree in which the micro: _ coccus is growing in length, till finally the latter presents the 1882. ] A Pathogenic Schizophyte of the Hog. 201 appearance of two closely connected spherical bodies without any visible partition, and somewhat resembles the shape of a figure é. At this stage the now bispherical micrococcus’ is about twice as long as its transverse diameter, or measures about 1.5 #. In the interior of each spherical body a somewhat darker sub- stance, or a kind of anucleus can be observed. This duplication, or process of division, which occurs in a large number of micro- cocci at the same time, it seems, finally breaks the glia, or the viscous mass, which apparently holds the micrococcus cluster together; the micrococci, many, or perhaps most of them now bispherical, and some yet single, become free and make their exit. Whether the glia constitutes the pabulum needed to effect this growth and duplication, and is gradually consumed, cr whether the same only serves to hold the micrococci together, and breaks because its contents become too large or too voluminous, I am Fic. 2—Schizophytes (Bacilli) found in the blood of the vena cava posterior of a cow which died of Texan fever. 925 objective: Tolles’ duplex ṣọ homog, immersion. not able to decide. These zodglcea-masses occur and can be found, though seldom in large numbers, in the fresh blood and blood serum; and are very numerous, and often very large in the morbid tissues, the exudations, particularly the lung exudations, and bldod extravasations, and in the morbid products in general. I never found them absent. The bispherical, and also the single micrococci, when freed from their glia, do not cease to multiply by fission; on the contrary, the process of division proceeds with great rapidity, provided the temperature is not too low. At an ordinary temperature, say about 70° to 75°, a double or bispheri- cal micrococcus is often changed into a small chain of two double micrococci, connected endways, in less than 5 minutes. While the process of division is thus going on, and the single cells of © Such a bispherical micrococcus are becoming double by a longi- tudinal growth, and becoming contracted in the middle, the orig- 202 A Pathogenic Schizophyte of the Hog. [ March, inal contraction between the secondary cells also gradually in- creases and becomes deeper, till it finally appears like a separa- tion, and then the end walls of both cells appear to be closed; the connecting neck cannot be seen, and the cells, now two bi- spherical micrococci, seem to merely touch each other. The single micrococci, too, become double or bispherical, and those already double gradually increase to chains of various length, and not dissimilar in appearance to a chain of an old-fashioned watch. These micrococcus-chains I consider as the third form spoken of. The same, however, hold together only temporarily, or for a short time, and then break up into larger or smaller joints, each joint consisting of one or more bispherical micro- cocci. When these chains separate or break up, the separation is not a sudden nor a rapid one; on the contrary, the bispherical micrococci which are about to separate appear to become at first more loosely connected with the rest of the chain; do not seem to be in as close a contact with the adjoining portion as before; a small space between them becomes visible; still there is evi- dently yet a connection, because the movement of the separating joints, although apparently independent, are limited to a swinging toand fro. The space, however, gradually widens, till finally a sep- aration takes place, and each link or joint goes its way. If the light is very good and well adjusted, and the human Se in first- rate condition, an objective like my Tolles’ y% or Zeiss’ ys will reveal the existence of an exceedingly slender thread, a adele which, gradually lengthening and finally snapping apart, constituted the connecting link or medium between the separating joints. I have repeatedly seen it as a post-flagellum when the joint or bispheri- cal micrococcus was slowly moving, but so far have never seen one at both ends. It may here be remarked, I have n@ver seen any single micrococci separating from such a chain or its joints, consequently the single or spherical micrococci must have an- other source or origin; but there is little hope that the latter will ever be fully revealed, unless our makers of objectives—men like Tolles, Zeiss, Powell and Leland, and others—will succeed in producing objectives which will give as good and sharp defini- tions, with an amplification of 2500 or 3000 diameters, as their best ones now in existence are giving with 1200 or 1500 diam- eters. Still, there is a multitude of other much larger Schizo- — phytes, and concerning them our present means are about suffi- 1882. | On Certain Aboriginal Implements, etc. 203 cient to observe what cannot be seen in regard to the very minute swine-plague Schizophytes. Therefore, a little more than what is really known about the latter may almost safely be inferred from analogy. But I will not enter into speculations, and, at any rate, first state what I hawe seen. Sometimes in perfectly fresh blood serum and in fresh lung-exudation, and almost always in blood serum and lung-exudation 12 to 24 hours old, and also in the mucus and morbid products of a diseased piece of intestine, peculiar-shaped Schizophytes can be found. The same are rod- shaped, but have at one end, or sometimes towards the middle, a very bright granule, which strongly refracts the light, and conse- quently is more dense than the rest of the bacterium. It is of about the same diameter as the rod itself. This granule is sur- rounded or enveloped bya zone or ring—possibly a membrane— which is less dense, and much less light-refracting. The whole rod, therefore, if this granule is situated®t one end, as is usually the case, presents the shape of a club, or rather that of a short stick with a bright round knob at one end. It is a so-called Helobacterium (Billroth), and the bright and dense or light- refracting granule is a so-called lasting spore (Dauerspore of Bill- roth (To be continued.) ERAT od ie ON CERTAIN ABORIGINAL IMPLEMENTS FROM NAPA COUNTY, CALIFORNIA. BY ROBERT E. C. STEARNS. T: figures herewith presented illustrate a collection made by me in October, 1881, on the top of Howell mountain, in Napa county. The mortars are exteriorly rude unworked stones, generally of much harder quality than most of the country rock in the neigh- borhood. Fig. 1 is the most symmetrical of the five specimens collected ; in this respect it is the least characteristic; otherwise So far as diameter and depth of the concavity are considered, it is a fair type of all. I was unable to find a single specimen, or even a fragment, *Read before the California Academy of Sciences, October 19, 1881. 204 On Certain Aboriginal Implements [ March, where the exterior had been shaped. The cavities in all of the | -pr ` ~ ES NN \\ Ñ \\\ \ \W\ \ \ NN \\ \\\ \ Fic. 1.—California Indian Mortar. specimens are nearly alike, about four inches in diameter the depth of a small saucer. Fic. 2.—Typical Indian Mortar. and of The foregoing figure (2) is a fairly typical specimen of this class of mortars. It was found in nearly the same locality as the sub- ject of the preceding figure. 1882. | From Napa County, California. 205 It is not probable that such shallow mortars were used for the pulverization of acorns or pine-nuts, or any other of the principal , articles which constituted the bulk of the aboriginal cuisine. This supposition is further supported by the fact of the great number of mortar holes which may be seen in the outcroppings of the permanent or fixed rocks in the immediate neighborhood. The territory from which the material under review was ob- tained, embraces an area of some two hundred acres; for the greater part a fertile intervale or small valley surrounded by hilly ground which merges by moderately inclined or gentle slopes into the general level. This intervale is about a mile in length, if measured between the extreme points, though prokably not one-fourth of a mile in width at the widest place. When the present owner purchased it, it was for the most part a willow swale about midway of its length; where on the easterly side the slope descends to the intervale, are several perpetual, running springs of most excellent water. These springs are only a few rods apart. In convenient proximity outcroppings of volcanic pudding-stone occur, which are full of mortar-holés of various sizes, from four inches in diameter and depth to twelve inches in diameter and depth. None of the mortar-holes in the fixed rocks are as shallow as those in the portable mortars figured above from which we may infer that these latter were used for some special rather than for general purposes, perhaps for the grinding of paint or medicine, while the fixed mortars were used for gen- eral purposes like the pounding of acorns, nuts, &c., &c. Of these latter it is often the case that the larger holes are united at- the top and for'an inch or more down, through close proximity and abrasion, through constant use the intervening wall or side at the top breaking throngh. As the springs are more numerous and better situated at this middle station, which by way of dis- tinction may be called station A, so also are the mortar holes more numerous, though the latter are also met with at or near the extreme points or ends of the intervale, which runs in a gen- eral way northerly and southerly. The northerly-point may be indicated as station B, and the southerly as station C. Pestles were collected at all of these stations. Some are hardl more than symmetrical cobble-stones, while others are of the usual pestle-form. None of them are nicely finished, and like the mortars are exceedingly simple and rude. 206 On Certain Aboriginal Implements [ March, The nearness of the outcropping country-rock to the springs and to the chief articles of food, operated, quite likely, to prevenf that degree of development in stone working which is found in, such implements among the relics of nearly related and geo- graphically approximate tribes. p There was no imperative necessity, nor anything to be gained by the careful and laborious finishing of portable mortars where the material requiring trituration was abundant and close at hand, making a permanent settlement possible, where otherwise only a temporary camp could be made, dependent for duration upon the extent of the mast or nut-harvest or acorn-crop. The mortars herewith figured, with, as before remarked, only the capacity of a common saucer, are in stones which weigh ` from chirty to fifty pounds. If these had belonged to a tribe within whose domain the acorn and nut-bearing trees were widely scattered, and thereby compelled to be more roving in their habits than the tribe which inhabited the region herein described, the mortars would probably have been smaller in bulk and conse- quently lighter in weight. To perpetrate a hibernicism, a portable acorn mortar of corresponding size and weight as related to capacity, would not be portable. Where the food conditions are as above indicated, the mill would of necessity have to be carried to the grist, instead of the grist to the mill; this would compel the carrying of pulverizing implements, and lead not only to a reduc- tion in the weight of such utensils, through finishing the exterior by cutting away every superfluous pound of stone, but also to the careful selection of pieces of stones or cobbles of a more compact and solid quality, so as to combine the greatest strength with the least weight. This also explains why mortars and pestles are so frequently met with in places near which the evidences of an aboriginal camp or settlement do not exist. That the tribe which inhabited this Howell mountain locality were not as expért in this class of stone working as those even of the not distant Calistoga and Knight’s valley region, the Ash-o- chi-mis, or Wattos, is proven by the mortars collected by me at the last named place in August, 1879; for though the lot of balf a dozen included one specimen hollowed in a rough stone, of the same general type as those figured in this paper, it also embraced specimens worked in well selected cobbles, and one hollowed in end of a section of a basaltic column. This latter as well as the 1882. ] From Napa County, California. 207 rough-stone one of the Knight’s valley collection, are in the Mu- ` seum of the University of California. Obsidian in pieces and chips are abundant at wn of the sta- tions, though more so at A than the others. The number of arrow-heads, and fragments of arrow-heads, collected principally at A, numbered about two hundred, of which one-third were found by my companion, Mr. A. L. Roach, of Indianapolis. A few were obtained by other parties. With occasional exceptions, the arrow-heads were in the rough stage of manufacture, awaiting critical selection and finishing by experts in this line, probably the veteran Nimrods of the tribe. G. 3. PANE A heads of Obsidian, California Obsidian vans to have been the only material used by the _ ancient arrow-makers of this region; none other was detected among the débris or remains of their long abandoned workshops, n the opposite side of Napa valley, in a hill not far from the reo of St. Helena, obsidian is found in great abundance, and it iv probable that from that locality the supply was obtained. About One-third of the arrow-heads were found at station B; the forms © of these are shown in the above aver: ` * 208 ‘On Certain Aboriginal Implements [March, Of number one but two specimens were found ; number two is another exceedingly rare form, of which the specimen figured is the most perfect, only three or four fragments of this, in addition to that figured, were detected. Mr. Roach obtained a single speci- men rather more complete than the above. This form, which is scarcely met with in most California collections, presents the very highest skill in arrow-making art. Number three is perhaps the most abundant form, while four, five and six are numerous ; seven is also seldom met with, and is very delicately and nicely worked. A single bead was detected by Mr. Roach at station C. At this southerly station the mortar (Fig, 1) was found. The general region herein referred to must have been a para- dise to the red man, so far as his needs and aboriginal comfort are concerned. Acorns of several species of oaks, pine nuts, ‘hazel nuts and manzanita berries were probably as abundant in former times as now, and it is altogether probable that game of all kinds was far more abundant than at the present day; in fact all of the requisites for the sustentation of a numerous aboriginal population. If the community which existed here was at all possessed of esthetic perceptions, the scenery must have added largely to the other attractions of the place. | As to the particular tribe which constituted that community, I have been unable to learn. Since this mountain valley became the property of the present . owner, I was informed by his wife, that a few years ago there - came along, one day, an old Indian, who told her that when he was a boy he lived here with his tribe, and he had now come back to see once again the place where his childhood was passed. “ He went up and away over the hills.” Stephen Powers, in his “Contributions to North American Ethnology,” places this region within the geographical area of the Wintuns, one of the great groups of Northern Californian Indians, which included numerous tribes. I would particularly call the attention of all interested in this line of inquiry, to this — important and interesting volume. The nearest adjacent tribes were the Napas, the Caymuses, the Calajomanas, the Mayacomas, the Ulucas and the Mutistals.? 1U. S. Geog. and Geol. Survey, Powell, Vol. 111, text and map. ? Bancroft’s Native Races of the Pacific States, Vol. 1, p. 363. 1882. | From Napa County, California. 209 Howell mountain as well as the country beyond, known as — Pope’s valley, form a region full of attractions for the lover of nature, whether a devotee of science or art. The mountain has an elevation variously stated at from 1500 to 1800 feet above the sea; from favorable points a magnificent panorama is presented, extending to Mt. Diablo in the south, and covering the whole valley of Napa and the westerly mountain ranges which fence in the pleasant valleys between their ridges. The atmosphere is full of health, and the scenery full of inspiration. On every hand, at every turn of the road, right or left, are pictures full of beauty, refreshing to the soul and delightful to the eye. ‘Towering pines, often two hundred feet in height, the Douglass spruce, full of grace and beauty when young, and standing grim, valiant and erect with outstretched and sometimes naked arms when old—as if prepared to wrestle with the storm; sturdy madronas with broadly buttressed bases holding firm to earth, with clean-barked_ branches widespreading to the sky; noble oaks whose port and bearing are full of stately grandeur. These form but a part of the sylvan deities in whose majestic presence adoration mingles with admiration ; these and humbler forms of vegetation, with rock and earth and mountain, are the elements here combined in pic- turesque harmony, a perpetual feast of beauty, changing only in the morning and evening to put on new splendor in the changing light, and revealing new graces and fresh charms of color and of form. Amid such scenes the California red man, indigenous and to the region born, lived, roamed, hunted and passed away, to be followed by paler faces of exotic lineage, who travel over the long unused and obscure trail, seeking among the chips and stones abandoned by the way, the story of those who made them. Lack of time prevented investigations elsewhere than at Howell mountain; Angroin’s farm is a good point for a base, as well as for recreation, and here more might be done. Pope val- ley, just over the ridge, should also be explored. It offers great inducements to the ethnologist, the artist and all others who love nature, or who seek for release or rest away from the tumult of traffic and the town. YOL. XVI.—NO, IIT, 15 210 Barbados. [ March, BARBADOS. BY F. M. ENDLICH. A? the good ship Solent, of H. M. Royal Mail Service, is slowly steaming into the main harbor of Barbados, a small flotilla of boats gradually accumulates around her. Boats of all sizes, of many colors, and in variable conditions of seaworthiness, con- tain a motley crew of black oarsmen. While following alongside of the steamer these enterprising substitutes for pkai keep incessantly shouting, with many gestures : “ Mastah ! mastah! here’s de boat for ye ; take ye a in ; ; g0 wid de boat of Christopher Columbus; come right ’long, now.’ Christopher Columbus is appropriately: clad in linen trousers, _ which once may have been white. The capacious folds of a sea- green “ duster ” envelops his manly form, and a gray beaver hat with a broad mourning band surmounts his stately figure. “Shut up dar, you black nigger,” chimes in a thick-set darkey of the most pronounced type; “don’t go wid dat fellow, mastah ; come wid your own little snow drop!” It is refreshing to note under the sub-tropical sun even this energy of competition. While passengers are listening to the alluring words of numerous boatmen the ship has anchored and everything is made ready for transfer to the shore. A short time must still elapse before the baggage and its owners can be placed into the tossing boat, and meanwhile a new scene presents itself. Rapidly approaching is a skiff propelled by the arms of a strong man. Within it are three or four boys and young men supplied with only a minimum of wearing apparel. Resting a few yards from the steamer the mysterious young darkeys make known the object of their visit : “ Trow down sixpence, mastah! trow him in de watah, far out; trow him far out!” Compliance with this apparently unreasonable request imme- diately proves them to be expert divers. With eager eyes and an attitude of intense excitement they closely watch every move- ment of the passengers who may be standing at the rail. A slight splash may be seen in the water, at once followed by that of four human bodies. Often the coin is recovered even before its last glit- ter has faded into the dull gray of the water. It isa rare case, in- deed, that any sixpence should escape their eyes, Although oc- — = 1882. ] Barbados. 211 casionally a shark’s fin may be seen in close proximity, the divers ply their vocation without paying any attention to the rapacious animal. Not until either the patience or small change of pas- sengers has been exhausted will the dripping youths take their departure, seeking fresh fields for their novel enterprise. Finally the baggage and personel of some particular party is safely stowed away in a rickety boat, which bears the name “Pearl of the Ocean” emblazoned in yellow letters on a pale green ground, and the pull for land is begun.. Rowing along and between’ the various craft which lie anchored here, the breakwater is at last passed and the boat glides smoothly along to one of the wharves. Generally the steamers anchor nearly a mile out, and a fine view of the harbor is afforded during the shoreward trip. The breakwater is a solid stone structure, extending outward for some distance. All boats and smaller ships enter within the shel- ter it affords and there discharge cargoes. As vessels are con- stantly arriving and departing, the scene here is one of great in- terest. Bridgetown, on the leeward side of the island, is the capital of Barbados. Steamers of various lines stop within its harbor, ex- changing freight and passengers. Dozens of lounging darkies, famous for their insolence, line the landing places, and protest to be most anxious to serve every new-comer in any capacity what- soever. Disinterested as this excessive politeness and attention. appears to be at first glance, it is soon changed to disappointment and loudly expressed anger when a successful competitor among them has secured a satchel or trunk and marches off in triumph. That much reviled class, so prominent in our more civilized coun- try, the hackmen, would certainly blush at their own bashful-. ness and maidenlike shyness could they but join the band of vociferating darkies on the docks of Bridgetown. With the pro- verbial inconsistency of the children of this world, the rejected! candidates turn their wrath upon the unfortunate stranger who. has given offence by not employing the entire tribe. Recovering speedily, however, a new victim is attacked and the same scenes. are rehearsed. Bridgetown is not well supplied with hotels, and the wanderers usually congregate at the hostelry where Mr. Kingsley is said to have met with so inhospitable a reception upon his afrival at night. The island of Barbados, most prominent among the Windward 212 Barbados. [ March, Group, was discovered early in the seventeenth century by Portu- guese seafarers. It was taken possession of by British subjects, and settlements were started in 1625. Since that time it has been ruled under the British flag. Until 1627 the island was the property of the Duke of Marlborough, then was transferred to the Duke of Carlisle, and in 1652 was attached under colonial charter to the British crown. During the two and a half centuries that have passed over this flourishing colony its inhabitants have developed an independent, self-reliant character. Dissensions from the opinions of the home government, interior disturbances by insurrection of the colored population, earthquakes and hurri- canes, have failed to disturb the proud, hospitable spirit of planters “to the manner born.” In 1816 the most dangerous revolt of the negroes laid in waste more than sixty plantations in four days. At present the protection of life and property, by adequate pro- visions, is made an object of special consideration, and serious trouble is no longer apprehended. Geologically speaking, the island is coralline in origin and rises to an elevation of about 800 feet above sea level. Gentle slopes, admirably fitted for a high degree of cultivation, characterize its general appearance. Seen from the sea the bright green cane- fields, separated from each other by roads of glistening whiteness, produce the impression of one great garden. This, indeed, is not lessened when traveling across country, where one estate joins the other, where dozens of sugar-mills in sight betoken the indus- try and prosperity of planters. But little timber remains on the island, having been removed for various economical purposes. “ Parishes” represent the subdivisions of the total area, and a population of about 170,000 inhabitants testifies to the density of settlement. Bridgetown contains about 50,000 souls. Narrow, irregular streets indicate the older portions of the town. Fine villas and country houses are located in the suburbs. Small wooden huts shelter large families of negroes, while but a short distance off, perhaps, may be the dwelling of an European, who has surrounded himself with everything that good taste and continental habits may require. Large gardens, indicating well developed horticul- tural ideas on the part of owners, surround the villas. Often the luxurious vegetation completely hides the dwelling from view, ‘with a climate so admirably adapted to plant life, it is not surpris- 1882. | : Barbados. 213 ing that many people should cultivate flowers and shrubs. To see plants which grow only in green-houses in the fatherland “ores TPH Boyt) ey neo N Pate se. Scattered in profusion over broad grounds, is so fascinating a sight that its influence can hardly fail to affect individual taste. Promi- nent among the structures of the town is the “ Government 214 Barbados. [March, Building.” An excellent material for architectural purposes is obtained by simply quarrying the coralline rock. It is readily dressed, well adapted to withstand the effects of the moist cli- mate, and is of dazzling whiteness. Trying as this latter property may be under a tropical sun, the effect is certainly imposing. Within the Government Building are located the legislative, judi- ciary’and.postal departments. The colonial parliament holds its sessions there, and often the pud spirit of the “true-born Bar- badian” has found vent in impassioned speech, defending the colony from real or fancied encroachments upon its colonial rights and prerogatives on the part of the home government. Able minds have there espoused the cause of their native island, and more than once has the introduction of home-measures been withdrawn in consequence. In all matters, however, not pertain- ing directly to the colony, its citizens are intensely loyal. Fre- quent visits to the homes of their childhgod, as well as the edu- cation of sons at the Alma Mater which once sheltered their fathers, tend to sustain the bond which distance and separate inte- rests might gradually weaken. The executive is represented by a Governor, who is appointed from Great Britain, and to whom legal and other assistance is afforded by the Attorney General, the Colonial Secretary, and officers specially appointed. “ Gov- ernment House” is his residence. It is surrounded by grounds which must appear charming to the northern eye. Luxuriant tropical plants, fostered by the hands of skilled gardeners, a taste- ful distribution of flowers, shrubs and trees render the park one of great beauty. Within the mansion the visitor meets with apartments typical of the tropics. Large, high rooms, spacious halls, and a subdued elegance at once denote comfort and judi- cious consideration for sanitary arrangements. The Governor of Barbados has under his charge several other British islands of the Windward Group. Although each one is relatively indepen- dent, this partial centralization of executive authority is produc- tive of good results. Difficulties can thus be more readily - adjusted, and the similarity of interests assures cooperation. Strikingly in contrast with the sable hue and light colored gar- ments of the natives are the bright scarlet coats of English troops. A garrison of 800 men is kept at Bridgetown. By their presence the more or less turbulent spirit of the negro population is sub- dued and the power is at hand to check any sudden insurrection. = 1882.] Barbados, 215 Picturesque among the “ Red-coats” is the uniform of native East Indian troops, several companies of which are quartered here. Turbans replace the cap or helmet, wide trowsers and leg- gings the more civilized pantaloons. Of strong build and finely formed, these troops certainly present the appearance of a foe not to be despised. The policy of retaining men of totally dif- ferent nationalities is one which, in case of emergencies, must be productive of good results wherever applicable. Higher educational institutions are represented at Bridgetown by Codington College. It is patronized by the sons of planters and merchants, and has furnished a number of men of consider- able local prominence. The building is beautifully situated amidst tall palms and groves of flowering trees which only a tropical sun can produce. Great interest is manifested by the inhabitants in religious matters. The leading denomination is the Church of England, but others are not wanting, notably the Wesleyan. Every “parish” has one or more churches, and Sunday is observed throughout with a rigor which would do justice to an old puritan- ical settlement. As is found to be the case elsewhere, so here, the colored population enters most zealously into the services. Consistent with the character of the economic features of the island, is that of the settlers at the main port. Society in Barba- dos does not present many classes, Planters and merchants lead in wealth, while the government officials form a separate division distinguished for education’ and wide experience. Growers of Produce are independent, and the complement is made up by workmen and not a few idlers, It is a noticeable feature that on the estates women are far better workers than men and are more reliable, Although a man may have no objections to pulling a heavy boat for several miles in a broiling sun for the compensa- tion of but a few shillings, he would be indignant if requested to- work in a canefield at regular and perhaps higher wages. Many of the colored women are tall, well-built, and they move through S the streets in a stately manner, certainly never in a hurry. This effect is greatly enhanced by the long trains of their white or — light-colored dresses, with which they conscientiously sweep the dusty streets, Interesting material for study on evolutional development may be found in the growth of a small girl to the Piaty of wearing å 216 Barbados: ; [March, a long white dress. No doubt, each successive step is to them of the same importance as to their more favored sisters of northerly climes. Covered with but the scantiest apology for a garment, or sometimes elaborately attired in nothing but a string of beads around the neck, the smallest members of the household attend to playing in undisturbed happiness. They are well treated by all and cry by far less than the average country children of our. own homes. Entirely at liberty, they roam into the fields, secure a prize in the shape of a huge sugar-cane, and enjoy themselves in gradually chewing up several feet of it. As they grow up their wearing apparel improves. It would be difficult to draw the line sharply at which the most pronounced metamorphosis takes place. By the time they have arrived at an age of comparative usefulness, either at market or in the sugar-house, they have risen to the ex- alted position of wearing long dresses. While working or walking in the country a “reef” is taken in the dress below the waist. Huge earrings and bracelets begin to ornament the dusky skin and a tastefully draped turban of flashy color protects the head from the rays of a hot sun. The hair is plaited in short, stiff braids and is ornamented with beads and ribbons; a necklace, sometimes more than one, is added; rings with precious glass stones adorn the fingers, and the young woman is ready for an evening promenade. Her good figure and general ornamentation may attract the attention of some stalwart young boatman, and a deepening of color in the dark brown cheeks betrays the blush which his loudly expressed admiration has called forth. An inconvenient narrowness of sidewalks in town forces pedes- trians into the street. There may be found a motley accumulation of donkeys, men, women and children. Once ina while a team drawn by six mules wends its way through the crowded thorough- fare, causing a decided swerving and sudden scattering of the mass of humanity. Here, as on the plantations, women take a leading part in active work. While a great, overgrown darkey may be perched on the top of a cart and allow himself to be - drawn by a donkey scarcely larger than a Newfoundland dog, a woman will walk alongside, staggering under a heavy load which she carries on her head. It is amusing to see the accuracy with which these women balance on their heads large wooden trays filled with fruit or vegetables. Both hands free to manage the folds of their ample, flowing dresses, they pass along with heads 1882. | Barbados, 217 held high, ever ready for trade or for friendly gossip with some acquaintance they may chance to meet. On Friday Bridgetown puts on its gayest colors, This day is devoted to the planters. From all parts of the island they enter the town, they buy and sell, exchange views and opinions with neighbors whom they see but once a week, and finish the day with a quiet rubber of whist or brandy and soda at their club- rooms. To them the news or the day is important, the fluctua- tions of the market value of sugar and its side-products become living figures. They have founded a “ Commercial Exchange,” where the latest dispatches and quotations are open to inspection. On this day, too, the “ Ice House” becomes an important estab- lishment. Essentially—in spite of the title—this is a restaurant. It is always supplied with ice, with the freshest and best viands, and with various luxuries as to which it seems to have the exclu- sive control. Every three months a shipload of ice arrives from Boston at Bridgetown. With it come fresh meats, vegetables, beer in casks, oysters in the shell (when in season), and other articles of food destined to tempt an islander whose thermometer usually ranges from 76 to g2 degrees. For a long time Barbados has been one of the important sugar- producing islands. Every article of value is mentally compared with sugar; the weather is of no importance whatever, except so far as it may improve or injure crops, and the telegraphic news most eagerly read relate to the sugar market. To a stranger the Singular unanimity of ideas upon this subject cannot but appear first ludicrous, then very much the reverse. Thorough cultiva- tion of every available portion of the island, careful management and judicious treatment of both the growing canes and the cane- juice have resulted in a high average yield per acre and a total Sugar production of about 60,000 tonsa year. Molasses andrum are both manufactured as additional products and are exported in large quantities. Ginger is extensively cultivated and forms quite an important item in the trade.. Driving over the smooth, white roads, fields of sugar cane are entered immediately after leaving the confines of the town. Prominent in the landscape are the gaunt arms of numerous windmills. Strangely as they may seem out of place at first, their appearance soon has a certain charm and awakens reminiscences of countries far removed from the tropics. Regular, constant winds render the mills a valuable and economi- 218 Barbados. [ March, cal adjunct to the manufacture of sugar. Located upon rising ground, they furnish power for crushing the canes, thus extracting the juice. From this latter crystalized sugar is obtained by methods of boiling, more or less complex. Briefly reviewing the process of sugar manufacture, it may be,stated as follows: The canes are cut, stripped of their blades, carted to the crusher, and the juice expressed. From there the latter is led into vats where an addition of lime assists clarification. It then passes to a series of kettles and is boiled down to a definite density. After being taken from the last pan the mass is allowed to cool and in part Row of Noble Palms. crystalize. As soon as the proper time arrives it is either filled into hogsheads and the molasses allowed to drain off, or the latter is removed in centrifugal machines. The article thus derived is directly marketable, but must be refined before acquiring the whiteness and firmness which the American retail consumer desires. On the estates the planters with their families live in patriarchal comfort. Absence of means of rapid communication, the unfor- gotten usages of the mother country, and their innate kindness, render them the most courteous and hospitable of hosts, Sur- ‘1882. ] Barbados. 219 rounded by fields which soon will yield golden fruit, and working with an energy which wind, weather or a fluctuating market im- pose, they lead a regular life, interrupted only by questions of local government, and by attempts at sanguinary revolt on the part of idle or dissatisfied negroes. On high points, exposed to view, for long distances may be seen staffs with movable arms or other indicators. They serve as telegraphic signals, and a men- acing attitude on any one plantation will soon be known all over the island. Thanks to good management, however, occurrences such as formerly devastated many plantations are becoming more infrequent from year to year. Few places, perhaps, can be found which at one glance display so much quiet scenic beauty and at the same time so fully illustrate the power of man as expressed by his industry. Groves of ma- hogany trees, the slender, graceful form of the noble palm, the clearly cut shore line, and the blue sea beyond, are combined with highly cultivated fields and subservience of wind and water to the will of man. The products of Barbadian industry are mainly the middle grades of sugar, which are largely exported to England. It seems Strange to note, in view of this latter fact, that supplies and other materials are drawn from the United States to a great extent. American meats, canned fruits and vegetables, and even horses and mules, are met with everywhere. Owing to the climate, stock degenerates very rapidly, and neither serviceable animals nor good . meat is raised on the island. An exception to this rule must be made in favor of the donkeys, however. Although of sorry ap- pearance and presumably ready to lean up against the nearest Post for support, these animals are capable of a prodigious amount of work. Disproportionate as the size of the little brutes and their loads may seem, they trudge steadily along, requiring only occasional physical admonition on the part of their drivers or riders On account of the thorough cultivation of the island but few wild fruits are found, and in consequence the table of the work- ing classes is not the most varied one. Salt fish, bread and Sugar cane form the staples. Codfish is imported in large quan- , tities, and some of the native fish are prepared in a similar manner. Nearly every man, woman or child, returning from the fields, Carries a long succulent cane. Often a small boy may be seen 220 Barbados. [March, attached to one end of a cane twice as long as himself, munching away lustily; the hard rind is gradually overcome, and the juice furnishes him his favorite nourishment. In addition to the nutri- ment obtained in this manner, such process of demolition furnishes an excellent means for passing the time. Few scenes are more ludicrous than seeing half a dozen lazy darkies, of various sizes, lying in some shady corner while munching long cane-stalks with the utmost solemnity. Poor as the fare may be, the people seem to require no better. In part, the indolence of the colored popu- lation may be explained by the climatal conditions of the island. Though rains are frequent and cooling breezes are not wanting, the mean temperature is such as to require but very scant clothing. Children are clad at a ridiculously small expense, and shoes are luxuries unknown until the female wearer blossoms into stately maidenhood, By this means one great incentive to work—the supply of clothing for the family—is reduced toa minimum, A few pence per week are ample to keep body and soul together, rum canbe stolen, and both may be acquired with but little labor. Among the native fish the “flying fish” ranks high as an article of food. At certain seasons it may be quite rare, and- again appear in abundance. (In March, 1880, flying fish were . selling at four cents per hundred at Bridgetown). During our stay we decided to indulge in the sport of catching them, which had been represented to us as an highly enjoyable pastime. A small fishing boat was accordingly chartered, together with a skipper and two men to assist him. Early one morning, long before sunrise, four of us, respectively “ England,” “ Nova Scotia,” “ Scotland” and “ America,” stood out to sea. With the usual forethought a sumptuous lunch had been packed into several bas- kets, rifles and shotguns were taken along to destroy sharks and secure seabirds. Fishing tackle and nets were supplied in abun- dance; also bait. Not many parties, perhaps, have started with more complete equipments. Our old, gray-haired skipper stood at the helm with imposing gravity while three poles were put up in the boat, and to each of them was attached a rag of triangular shape. Everything was shaky, the seats were very narrow, and our sporting accoutrements occupied by far the greater portion of available space. A brisk breeze, which had been blowing from the start, began to freshen up, the waves were gradually growing 1882. ] Barbados. 221 higher, and within the first hour we were all comfortably drenched. This part of the programme seemed in keeping with the expedi- tion, and we silently congratulated ourselves upon so auspicious a beginning. Before long, however, the sea continued making efforts to stow away a portion of its surplus water in our boat, and all hands were requested to “ bail out.” By means of hollow calabashes this feat was accomplished. After having gone out to sea about twelve miles sails were lowered and we lay tossing about and waiting for fish. All around us we could see the bright bodies of flying fish flash out from the crest of a wave, pass with great rapidity for some distance over the water, and then drop down again. Eventually a few curious individuals arrived, appa- rently to inspect the sides of our boat. During their examination they encountered sundry hooks, quietly opened their capacious mouths and allowed them to float in. One or two “ flops” when brought on board, and they settled down, seemingly resigned, in the water at the bottom of the boat. This sport was surely grow- ing exciting—but slowly. Thanks to the outward trip and the constant motion of our boat—thanks,too, to our elaborate break- fast, which had consisted of a glass of water—we four ancient mariners were beginning to experience a feeling which a novice on board of a ship might designate as “ faint.” An inexplicable want of energy, a certain absent-mindedness as to the fascinations of fishing, and a decided disinclination to attack our lunch bas- kets, became painfully noticeable. In order to revive our sunken spirits somewhat (we will generously accord him the benefit of a lingering doubt) this august individual ordered the bait to be brought out. Itwas brought out. A basket of loose workman- ship was filled with fragments of flying fish, which might have been alive two weeks before; at the time, however, they were very dead. This basket was hung over the side of the boat into the water. Evidently the fish appreciated the perfume which thus was spread far and wide, for they came in large numbers within easy reach of our nets. Whether it was the overpowering joy pro- duced by our success, or whether it was grief at the sudden end- ing of so many fish lives, full of youth and full of promise, we must allow posterity to decide. It is enough’ to say that “ Nove Scotia,” “Scotland” and “ America” ignominiously collapsed, and “the further proceedings interested them no more.” Occa- sionally a cold, wet fish would alight on the pale face of one or 222 Courtship and Marriage among the Choctaws, (March, the other, but beyond a mild protest no action was perceptible. After a sufficient number of fish had been stowed away in the boat . by “England” and the natives, the latter proceeded to do full justice to three-quarters of our elaborate lunch. Once more the sails were set and we sped homeward. Wave after wave passed over the dancing boat until finally the shore was reached. Wet, not hungry, trying to look cheerful, but nevertheless with a cart- load of fish to speak for us, we arrived at our hotel near noon. Strange as it may appear, it proved to be a rash undertaking, for some time to come, to mention “flying fish” within ee of three certain sportsmen, Barbados has become a prominent health resort, more particu- larly for fever patients from more southerly regions. For many years the island has been free from serious attacks of epidemic or endemic diseases. South of Bridgetown, a suburb, Hastings, is located, where good sea-bathing and comparatively cool air can beenjoyed. The climate is necessarily enervating, and any stimu- lant of such character isa welcome change. Many of the planters and merchants have traveled extensively, and their experiences in foreign countries have borne fruit in their own colony. Once more the gauntlet of officious porters and boatmen must be run, as the southward steamer has anchored off shore. Laden with trophies from the island, with coral shells and other equally bulky souvenirs, the traveler finds himself restored to his tempo- rary floating home, and “The ship drove past * * * And southward aye we fled.”’ 20? COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE AMONG THE CHOC- TAWS OF MISSISSIPPI. BY H. 5. HALBERT. tr two thousand Choctaws still living in their ancestral homes in Mississippi, retain, in all their pristine vigor, many of the usages of their ancestors. Among these are the methods em- ployed in conducting a courtship and the marriage ceremony. When a young Choctaw, of Kemper or Neshoba county, sees a maiden who pleases his fancy, he watches his opportunity until he finds her alone. He then approaches within a few yards of her and gently casts a pebble towards her, so that it may fall at 1882. ] Courtship and Marriage among the Choctaws. 223 her feet. He may have to do this two or three times before he attracts the maiden’s attention. If this pebble throwing is agree- able, she soon makes it manifest; if otherwise, a scornful look and a decided “ekwah” indicate that his suit is in vain. Some- times instead of throwing pebbles the suitor enters the woman’s cabin and lays his hat or handkerchief on her bed. This action . is interpreted as a desire on his part that she should be the sharer of his couch, If the man’s suit is acceptable the woman permits the hat to remain; but if she is unwilling to become his bride, it is removed instantly. The rejected suitor, in either method em- ployed, knows that it is useless to press his suit and beats as graceful a retreat as possible. When a marriage is agreed upon, the lovers appoint a time and place for the ceremony. On the marriage day the friends and relatives of the prospective couple meet at their respective houses or villages, and thence march towards each other. When they arrive near the marriage ground—generally an intermediate space between the two villages—they halt within about a hundred yards of each other. The brothers of the woman then go across to the Opposite party and bring forward the man and seat him ona blanket spread upon the marriage ground. The man’s sisters then do likewise by going over and bringing forward the woman and seating her by the side of the man. Sometimes, to furnish a little merriment for the occasion, the woman is expected to break loose and run. Of course she is pursued, captured and brought back. All parties now assemble around the expectant couple. A bag of bread is brought forward by the woman's rela- tives and deposited near her. In like manner the man’s relatives bring forward a bag of meat and deposit it near him. These bags of provisions are lingering symbols of the primitive days when the man was the hunter to provide the household with game, and the woman was to raise corn for the bread and hominy. The man’s friends and relatives now begin to throw presents upon the head and shoulders of the woman. These presents are of any kind that the donors choose to give, as articles of clothing, money, trinkets, ribbons, etc. As soon as thrown they are quickly Snatched off by the woman’s relatives and distributed among themselves, During all this time the couple sit very quietly and demurely, not a word spoken by either. When all the presen’s have been thrown and distributed, the couple, now man and wife, + * 224 Editors’ Table. [ March, arise, ‘the provisions from the bags are spread, and, just as in civ- ilized life, the ceremony is rounded off with a festival, The festi- val over, the company disperse, and the gallant groom conducts his bride to his home, where they enter upon the toils and respon- sibilities of the future. : cee EDITORS’ TABLE. EDITORS: A. S. PACKARD, JR., AND E. D. COPE, The utterances of Professor E. DuBois Raymond, at the recent celebration of the birthday of Leibnitz, in Berlin,’ should have a clearing effect on the intellectual atmosphere of the evo- lutionists. Professor Raymond exhibits in a marked degree the invaluable quality of intellectual self-control, one which is some- times wanting to brilliant thinkers. It is perfectly natural for the pioneer, in penetrating a new and unexplored region, to advance with too great celerity, and without giving himself the requisite time to discover the obstacles that may lie in his course. Some- times it has happened, that, bringing up at the edge of an unex- pected precipice, he has made the most astounding leaps, and has been compelled to lay to and repair damages for sometime thereafter. . ; A good many evolutionists have been floored by a serious interruption to the continuity of their “high priori” road, and not a few of them do not yet know just what has hurt them. That such an evanescent and unsubstantial condition as consciousness should have the gravity necessary to throw a triumphant army of advance into confusion, could hardly be suspected. Does not one of the leaders say that consciousness is to the progress of evolution, what the whistle is to the engine, that makes a good deal of noise but does none of the work? And another says, “ If the ‘will’ of man and the higher animals seems to be free in con- trast with the ‘ fixed’. will of the atoms, that is a delusion provoked by the contrast between the extremely complicated voluntary movements of the former and the extremely simple voluntary movements of the latter!” A slight difference of opinion, indeed! One authority tells us that consciousness does nothing, and the other will have it that it does everything, rising even to the auto- _ nomic dignity of a “will” for atoms! They agree in believing 1 See translation in Popular Science Monthly for February, 1882. 1882. ] Editors’ Table. 225 consciousness to be a form of force; but they differ in that the first authority thinks it is all dissipated, while the other holds it to be a link in a continuous chain of metamorphoses equivalent to every other link. If this be so, and the continuity be unbroken, what iron-clad fingers must these doughty soldiers have, who by merely putting pen to paper open the mouths of so many cannon, inaugurate so many conflagrations, and explode so many maga- zines. Verily we should have a new anatomy of this five-barreled mitrailleuse, through whose chambers flash such world-moving forces. As to the source of all this power, well says Drysdale, that if the brain of man contains stored such tremendous potency, its escape should, on his leaving this earthly abode, blow the top of his head entirely off. As usual, truth lies between these extremes; furthermore, a very fundamental truth has been neglected by both sides of the question, - Says Raymond, “ More temperate heads betrayed the weakness of their dialectics in that they could not grasp the dif- ference between the view which I opposed, that consciousness can be explained upon a mechanical basis, and the view which I did not question, but supported with new arguments, that con- sciousness is bound to material antecedents. PT res delivered before the British Association for the Ad t of Science, °? Consciousness in Evolution, Penn Monthly, July, 1875. . * The Origin of the Will, Penn Monthly, 1877, P: 439- _ XVL—NO. I, 3 i 226 Editors Table. [ March, Thus the force that applies light to the fuse is little comparable to the explosion of the blast. The force required to raise the sluice - is small compared with that which runs the mill. Still less is the relation of the force expended in planning a campaign to that required in executing it; or, of that used in directing a body of laborers to that expended by the laborers themselves. This is easily understood, but it is not so generally perceived by some of the correlators, that a process of exactly the same kind takes animal organism. The amount of. the primitive force may be very minute, for several releases may separate the thought from the ultimate result. In the cases above mentioned the mind only serves as a release to the muscles which act, before the latter in turn release still mightier forces. But these facts do not permit the supposition that the original conscious state is not an equivalent of forces both antecedent and subsequent. For without the decomposition of arterial blood and the oxygenation of tissue, consciousness could not exist, and the beginning would not begin. A third self-evident proposition is this: Movements determined by sensations cannot be compared to those which are not so de- termined. The former move towards the locality of pleasure, and away from the locality of pain. The latter move in the direct ratio of the product of the masses, and in the inverse ratio of the square ofthe distance. In the former case there is no equivalency between the force of the originating stimulus and the resulting act, and energy is generally gained in the process; in the secon case the correlation is exact, and if there be any difference be- tween the energy of the cause and that of the effect, that which has been dissipated by the way can be accounted for by proper search. But the biologist has much to do with a large class of designed movements, or acts, which are not performed in con- sciousness, and it is these which are likely to produce a confusion in the mind in regard to the relation between the movements 0: living and nont ‘living masses. Thus a class of writers compare the hunger of the lowest animals to the affinities of chemical sub- stances, etc., a supposition clearly inadmissable on physical grounds alone. The easiest solution of the problem lies in the well known ease with which conscious acts become automatic and unconscious, so soon as the structural lines which give direc- tion to the force have become organized. Consciousness thus appears as the creator of designed movements, and the resulting organism their sustainer.—C. 1882. ] Recent Literature. 227 RECENT LITERATURE. Ba.rour’s COMPARATIVE EMBRYOLOGY. Vol. 11, Vertebrates. — After finding the first volume of this work so useful, accurate and suggestive, we were prepared to welcome the appearance of the second volume, which certainly fulfills the high expectations formed after reading and frequent reference to the first. Our anticipations are fully met, and the entire work for the first time places in the hands of the student a reliable and critical account of the general mode of development of members of each great class of the animal kingdom. The facts have been gathered and compiled from a great variety, of sources, for the literature of em- bryology has multiplied excessively since 1860, the larger pro- portion of articles and memoirs having, indeed, been published within the last decade. The first third of the volume is devoted to a general account of the development of each class above the Arthropods, with which the last volume closed—z. ¢.,the groups Cephalochorda, containing the single genus Amphioxus; the Urochorda or Tunicata, and the Vertebrata. This part of the volume contains a good deal of original matter contributed by the author and a few other embry- ologists, together with the most recent results of embryological studies, so that we will glance at some new points which meet one’s eyes in the early pages. The peculiarities in the development of the Teleostean egg, says Balfour, can best be understood by regarding it as an Elasmo- branch egg very much reduced in size. “It seems, in fact, very probable that the Teleostei are in reality derived from a type of with a much larger ovum.” __The lamprey is regarded as the type of a degenerated but prim itive group of fishes, whose development, however, does not throw any light on its relationship. If so,we do not see why the author places it in his classification or phylogeny above so special and recent a group as the bony fishes. He then says that “ the simi- larity of the mouth and other parts of Petromyzon to those of the tadpole probably indicates that there existed a common ancestral form for the Cyclostomata and Amphibia. Embryology does not, however, add anything to the anatomical evidence on this subject.” On the other hand, he does not assent to Dohrn’s view that the oe have descended from a relatively highly organized type of fish. : Had space been allowed we would like to have had fuller state- ments concerning the later stages of the lancelet, as well as © of the ascidians. Concerning Myxine no reference is made to. Steenstrup’s paper, wherein the eggs are figured. Neither is a paper on Amphioxus in this journal (Jan. and Feb., 1880), by H. J. Rice, and containing new facts and drawings, noticed. 1A Treatise on Comparative Embryology. By Francis M. BALFOUR. In two Volumes. Vol. 1. London, Macmillan & Co., 1881. 8vo, pp. 655- XXI. 228 | Recent Literature. { March, We have in this work, for the first time in connected form, the comparative embryology of the Ganoids, the researches of Salensky on the sturgeon, and of A. Agassiz on-the gar-pike, supplemented by those of the author, assisted by Professor W. K. Parker and his son, W.N. Parker, giving us a good idea of the development of two principal types. In the sturgeon the segmentation of the yolk is complete, but the embryo does not become folded off from the yolk in the manner usual in Vertebrates, while the relation of the yolk to the embryo is unlike that in any other known vertebrate. Before hatching the embryo has, to a small extent, become folded off from the yolk both anteriorly and posteriorly, and has also become, to some extent, vertically compressed. Owing to these changes, it resembles somewhat the embryo of a bony fish. Ac- cording to Parker, in older larvæ a very rudimentary gill appears to be developed on the front walls of the spiracular cleft, while the gill-papillz of the true branchial arches are of considerable length. There isa suctorial disk, with slender papillze, which prob- ably ultimately become the barbels, and a corresponding but tem- porary one arises in the gar-pike. In the gar-pike, besides the discoveries, as respects the later stages, made by A. Agassiz, the segmentation is total; but the early stages of the embryo show a remarkable resemblance to those of bony fishes. Both the head and tail become early folded off from the yolk, as in bony-fishes. The yolk in the gar forms a special external yolk sack, instead of an internal dilatation of part of the alimentary tract as in the sturgeon, and besides, in the gar it is placed behind instead of in front of the liver, as in the sturgeon. A knowledge of the mode of development of the Ganoids is, of course, most important, since from them the Amphibia are sup- posed to have been derived. But, as Balfour observes, there are no very prominent Amphibian characters in the development of either type, otherwise than a general similarity in the segmentation and formation of the germ-layers. So that no light is thrown by embryology on the origin of the Amphibia. In considering the development of the Amphibia a good deal of stress is laid on the resemblance between the mouths of the tadpole and the lamprey, and Balfour thinks that these are not merely the results of more or less similar habits. Says Balfour : “ In dealing with the Ganoids and other types arguments have been adduced to show that there was a primitive vertebrate stock provided with a perioral suctorial disc; and of this stock the Cyclostomata are the degraded, but at o the same time the nearest living, representatives. The resem- _blances between the tadpole and the lamprey are probably due to both of them being descended from this stock. The Ganoids, as we have seen, also show traces of a similar descent; and the re- semblance between the larva of Dactylethra, the Old Red Sand- . stone Ganoids and Chimera probably indicate that an extension of our knowledge will bring to light further affinities between th 1882.] Recent Literature. 229 primitive Ganoid and Holocephalous stocks and the Amphibia.” — (To be continued.) GILL’S RECENT PROGRESS IN ZOOLOGY, FOR THE YEARS 1879 AND 1880.'—Few indeed of the numerous students of zodlogy in this country have time or opportunity even to glance at the work done each year by English-speaking naturalists, and still fewer are able to become acquainted with the work of foreign naturalists except through notices in scientific journals. To all, therefore, the present pamphlet, written as it is by one who by long study of the subject is well qualified to undertake such a work, will prove most valuable, After noting that the prominent feature of zodlogical progress during the period reviewed has been the discovery of numerous deep-sea types, and criticising the ordinal classification of Fishes and Birds put forward by certain zodlogists, Dr. Gill proceeds to give a short separate account or abstract of papers containing dis- coveries of importance. mong the subjects treated of are the following relating to invertebrates: Anal respiration; the effects of variously colored light upon the development of ova; the effects of starvation upon the human system, from the studies of surgeons during the late famine in India; the Pheodaria, a new group of Rhizopods allied to the Radiolaria, but constituted a class by Haeckel, who enu- merates more than 2000 species; the discovery of medusz in brackish and even in fresh water; a new order of Holothuroids (the Elasmopoda) ; a curious ophiuroid, with asteroid characters, found near Madagascar; the Orthonectids ; Polygordius and its rela- tionships; parasitic Planarians and Nemerteans; the relations of the Chetognaths and of Peripatus; the resemblance between the eyes of Limulus and of Trilobites; aborted development in decapod Crustacea; Scolopendrella; the phosphorescence of glow-worms ; the relations of the Polyzoa; the range in depth of living Brachi- opods; worm-like mollusks (Neomenia and Proneomenia); the regeneration of parts in Gastropods; Gastropieron ; recent Pleu- rotomariids ; the dentition of the Marginellide; the relation of — the arms and siphons of cephalopods to structures found in gas- tropods ; and recently described North American Cephalopoda. Among the vertebrates Dr. Gill, as might be expected both from the general direction of his own labors and from the exten- sive work performed upon our coasts by the Fish Commission, devotes most space to the Pisces. The principal works published upon this branch are noted, and mention made of the numerous workers who have described new species, anatomized known spe- cies, or discovered fossil forms. Then follow notices upon the Origin of sounds produced by fishes; the functions of the air- bladder ; the temperature of fishes; the ovaries of teleosts; the An Account of Recent Progress in Zoblogy, for the years 1879 and 1880. By _ HEODORE GILL. From the Smithsonian Report for 1880. ee 230 Recent Literature. [ March, flight of flying fishes ; the affinities of the fossil Platysomide and Paleoniscide,and of Pleuracanthus ; and the sexes of eels. Among new discoveries are noted two species of Pleuronectide (in the sense given to the term by Dr. Gill) without pectorals upon the blind side; the genera /costeus and Jcichthys, curious soft-boned California fishes, which have been constituted a “ family ” by Pro- fessor Jordan; Lopholatilus, a new economical fish; the Rock-fish of California, and a deep-sea Sebastes found off Inosima, Japan. The activity of ornithologists has produced numerous faunistic works, notably upon the birds of Papua and the adjacent islands, and several families have been monographed. After notes upon the Odontornithes, Archaeopteryx, and the extinct parrot of Bourbon, Dr. Gill turns to the mammals, commencing, as in other groups, by enumerating the features of progress. Then follow a condensation of the views of various naturalists on the progeni- tors of mammals; a synopsis of Marsh’s work on Jurassic Mam- mals ; notes on the inar at a of new Monotremes and Marsupials in New Guinea ; on a plague of rats whick occurs in Parana (Brazil) at intervals of thirty years; on the habitat of Lophiomys imhausi ; on the gestation of the elephant and length of life of the hippopotamus; and lastly, a short account of Professor Cope’s articles upon the extinct cat-like animals of America and the relations of the horizons of extinct Vertebrata in Europe and in North America. Dr. Gill utters a warning, by no means without reason, against the use of the word “order” to define groups which have less value than the sub-orders of mammals, and is especially severe upon Dr. Sclater for the recognition of two sub-classes and twenty- six orders in the homogeneous class of Birds. It would be well for all systematists to remember the warning, and to remember also that the same criticisms apply to the undue multiplication of families and genera. Nor does our author neglect the opportu- nity of throwing another stone at Dr. Günther for the mistaken conservatism which impels that excellent ichthyologist to retain the Cuverian orders of the Teleosts, to include sharks and Chi- meroids in the same order, and in various other ways to ignore broad morphological facts. THorett’s Spipers oF MatraysiA AnD PapuaJ—A_ third art of this extensive work has just been received. It forms a bulky and handsomely printed work of 720 pages, but without any plates. It forms volume xvit. of the Annals of the Civic Museum at Genoa, one of the most active scientific societies in Europe, and is another evidence of the scientific awakening now pervading the kingdom of Italy, and which is undoubtedly due largely to the freedom and political progress of the Italian nation resulting from the loss of the temporal power of the Pope. The collections which form the base of the present descriptions were those made \Studi sui Regni Malesi e Papuani. Per T. THORELL. tt. Genoa, 1881. 8v0- 1882. } Recent Literature. 231 by Professor O. Beccari at Amboina and by this explorer, who went in company with D’Albertis to New Guinea, together with collections from other parts of the Malay Archipelago. Dr. Tho- rell prefaces his work with valuable remarks on the geographical distribution of the spiders of this region and gives a full account of what has been done in the field by his predecessors. Tue DISTRIBUTION oF NORTH AMERICAN FRESH WATER MOL- Lusca.'—Professor Wetherby’s endeavor, in this interesting article, is to trace the causes which have led to the great differentiation of the fresh-water mollusks and to distinguish the various:faune. The Limneidz, circumpolar in their distribution, are most abun- dant in the lake region of the Archzan lands, and are essentially lacustrine, although a few are fluviatile. The Unionidz are most abundant in the region drained by the Ohio, and the typical Ohio forms are continued across the Mississippi to the Rocky Moun- tains and southward to Texas, but in vastly diminished numbers. South of the Ohio and east of the Mississippi, both within and without the Ohio drainage, many of the Unionide are evi- dently closely related to Ohio types, but along with them, princi- pally in small mountain streams, occur species which have a very different facies, and belong to a different fauna. Such are U. spinosus and U. collinus, the only spinous Uniones. he Strepomatidz first appear in New York, and are almost confined to the district occupied by the peculiar Unionide just mentioned. They do not cross the Mississippi, and are chiefly ound in mountain streams. he Unionid genus Anodonta is abundant with the Limneide of the Archean lake regions, and plentiful over the northern part of the region occupied by the Uniones, but gives way south- ward to Unio. Most of the described species of Anodonta and Unio are mere varieties, and even Dr. Lea has to confess that he can find no satisfactory anatomical differences in the latter genus, yet there are many types that must be called species. Reviewing these facts, Professor Wetherby concludes that the Limneidz form the oldest fauna, and that the typical Ohio forms spread from the Palzozoic lands of the Northern States, and are older than those found in the Mesozoic and Tertiary regions of the South. These latter he refers to a Palaeozoic ancestor whose home was in the western archzan region. All fresh-water mollusks were originally lacustrine, adapted themselves first to the change from salt to fresh water, and after- wards to the more rapid change caused by the elevation of moun- tain ranges, and the conversion of lakes into flowing water. Hence the most striking and peculiar forms are found in the Mountain streams of newer regions and have not yet had time to Pha the Geographical Distribution of Certain Fresh Water Mollusks of North merica, By A. G, WETHERBY, A. M. Jour. Cincin. Soc. Nat. Hist., July, 1881. 232 Recent Literature. [ March, spread. All the species, originating in the head-waters, propa- gated down-stream, and thus arose the overlapping of faunas, and probably the disappearance of many faunz as peculiar as is that of the Alabama, which contains, besides some distinctive Unios and a singular Goniobasis, two Strepomatid genera, Schizostoma and Tulotoma, with thirty species, none of which were found elsewhere. ZittEL’s HANDBUCH DER PaLmonToLoci£.'\—This standard and fresh work on general palzontology is slowly appearing in numbers, the present one beginning the treatment of the Mollusca. One important feature of the present number are the two hun- dred excellent wood-cuts'of fossil Lamellibranchs. The orders, families and leading genera are briefly described and the typical species mentioned. The systematic portion is succeeded by a brief section on the distribution of Lamellibranchs in geological time. It appears that of all fossil mollusks the Lamellibranchs con- stituted a fourth part in the palzozoic period, in the Jura and chalk periods one-half, and in the Tertiary period a third part. Martin AnD Moatet’s How To Dissect a CuELontan?.—This little book is the first of a series designed to form a handbook of vertebrate dissections. The directions given are meant for use in connection with lectures, and the reading of a good text-book and some knowledge of human osteology on the part of the dis- sector is assumed by the author. The species dissected is the red-bellied, slider terrapin (Pseudemys rugosa). After stating the zodlogical position of this terrapin in general terms, taken, with slight modifications, from Huxley, the student is then led to examine briefly the general external appearance of the animal, and then clear, succinct, and, we should think, sufficiently full directions how to dissect the creature are given. e method pursued is not comparative, but special; we should look for the introduction of the comparative method in the succeeding parts. No illustrations of the soft parts are given. A frontispiece is devoted to good figures, showing the different parts of the skull. The book is useful, and one which is needed. Packarp’s Zoorocy, Tarp Eprtion’.—The changes made in this edition consist mainly in the correction of errors, the results of suggestions and criticisms from naturalistsand teachers. Among _ : the changes and additions are references to Ryder’s Symphyla, — Handbuch der Paleontologie. Herausgegeben von K A. ZITTEL. I. Band. 2 Abtheilungen. I. Lieferung, mit , 200 Leipzig, 1881. 8vo. Preis Marks *Handbook of Vertebrate Dissection. Parti. Howto Dissect a Chelonian. By — H. NEWELL MARTIN, Professor in the Johns Hopkins University, and WILLIAM A. MoA.Le, M.D. New York, Macmillan & Co., 1881. 12mo, pp. 94. 75 cts. 84merican Science Series. Zodlogy for High Schools and Colleges. By r PACKARD, Jr. Third edition, revised. New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1881. 12m0. pp- 719. $3 i a acer a ARL eo original-holz-Schnitten. München und =~ 1882.] | Recent Literature. 233 which is regarded as a sub-order of Thysanura, while the recent views of Semper and Moseley as to the formation of coral reefs are briefly referred to. The index has been altered to correspond with changes in the text. VERRILL’s CEPHALOPODS OF THE NORTHEASTERN COAST OF AMERICA*.— This is a memoir of 267 pages, with 44 plates, upon the species of Cephalopods which have been collected upon the Atlantic coast of the United States, mostly within a few years, by the United States Fish Commission and the United States Coast Sur- vey. It is a monographic account of these animals, accompanied by most excellent plates from drawings by Mr. Emerton. While the bulk of the work is devoted to careful descriptions of the species, the gross anatomy of a number is given and illustrated, and the habits of some of the common species described. Besides the descriptions of gigantic squids and the excellent drawings illustrating them, the point of most interest brought out by the author is the description of the cone discovered by Mr. W. H. Dall in Moroteuthis robusta Verrill. It is figured on Pl. xxi, and thus described by Professor Verrill: “ This genus will have, as known characters: A long, narrow, thin pen, terminating posteri- orly in a conical, hollow, many-ribbed, oblique cone, ‘which is ieia into the oblique, anterior end of a long, round, tapering, acute, so/id, cartilaginous terminal cone, composed of concentric layers and corresponding to the solid cone of Belemntites in pos: tion and relation to the true pen.” This is a most interesting discovery, for we are now able to understand the relation of the cones described as Belemnites, which have usually been homologized with the pen or bone of ‘ttle. fishes. The Moroteuthis is a gigantic calamary, but the ordinary Belemnites may have been closely related in form to our hooked calamary, and a cone three inches long may have been worn by individuals not over two feet long, and not differing essentially in form from our common Ommastrephes. The cone is present or absent apparently in quite closely allied forms. We wish the author had made a: little more of a subject of so much paleontological interest. RECENT BOOKS AND ee E Zoologie oder Grundgesetze des _ thierischen Baus und Lebens. Von H, Alexander Pagenstecher. Vierter Theil. i mit 414 Holzschnitten. 8vo, pp. 999, cuts. Beis, 1881. From the author. — Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Fische Afrikas coe Persona er einer neuen Sargus- — Art von Den Galapagos-Inseln. Von Dr. z Stei er. Aus dem XLIV Bande der Denkschriften der Kais, Akad. der Wivechiichastes: 4to, pp. 42, 10 plates. Wien, 1881, From the author : Ueber Plicatocrinus fraasi om 4 oberen Weisser Jura von Nusplingen in Wiir temberg. Von Dr. K. A. , K. Bayerischen Akad. 8vo, pp. 12, 2 plates. München, t882. From the me noe ‘The Cephalopods of the Northeastern Coast of America. Parts i, i, ee. From the Trans. Connect kerAddè rat as propellers 234 Recent [aterature. March, L’ontologie ou La Science de L’étré pape raha porog de la Vie eter- nelle. Par J: Ta olivalt. G. Fischbacher, editeur. » pp. 212. Paris, 18381. From the e Sur la austin de gee dans le spectre solaire normal. Par M. S.—P. eset 4to, pp. 3. Paris i Anales del Minesterio de Fome nto de la Republica Mexicana. Año de 1881. Tomo v: royal saii pp. 696, maps. Mexico, 1881. From the Central Meteorologi- cal Obser The Superfi we ee of British Columbia and adjacent regions. By George M. Daw D.Sc., F.G.S. 8vo, pp. 16. Extract from the Qu eor Journal of the Goat Society ‘for May, 1881. London, 1881. From the author. Sketch of the Geology of British Columbia. By George M. Bini, D,Sc., F.G.S. 8vo, pp. 19, 2 it Extract from the Geological LE London, May, 788, From the author Proceedings of hey i National Museum. ra pp. 30. U.S. Gov. Print: ing Office ‘Was 1881. From the socie The vanes of ae ee eS ts and Placer Depos a By F. Eggleston, Ph.D. 8vo, pp. 14. From the ee aie of the Auneticen Institute of Mining Engineers. New York, 1881. From the author, ns. Amer. Inst. Mining A New York, 1881. From the secretary. the yee or of the Bituminous Coal Fields of Pennsylvania. By H. M. Chance, M. ae ssist. Geological Survey Penna. 8vo, pp. 19, cuts. From Trans. Amer. Inst. Mining Engin New York, 1881. From the author Glacial Erosion eS Geo H Sto 8vo, pp. 11. From the Proceedings of the Portland Society of Natural istry. Penland: 1881. From the au The Bulletin of the Buffalo Society of Natural sae Vol. Iv, No. 2. 8vo, pp- 64, 3 plates. Buffalo, 1882. From the societ rai YB Se ‘Cat (Felis domestica). 1. Preliminary account of the gros x. Wilder, M.D. 8vo, pp. 28, 4 plates. cena gh Philosophi- si Soc, ad Jay ave o Philadelphia, Fe From the author and Shells, No. y A. G. We bi by. 8vo, pp. I < youvisd “of, ae ‘Cincinnati ‘Sotiety of Watata tidor: Cincinnati, Dec., 1881. From the author. The Journal of a EEEF Society of Natural History, Vol. rv, No. 4, Dec. 1881. From the s Contributions to heath Ee te oot lo. By. Houses and House-life of the Ameri- can Aborigines . By Lew . Morgan. 4to, bound, pp. 282, 55 pean cuts and fig- ures. ; Depasliee of the “int terior, Ù. "S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. o y Mountain region. J. W. Powell, in charge for the director. Wasbington, 1881, R des naturforschenden oe in Brünn. xvi Band, 1879- Briinn, 1880. 8vo, pp. 231, 1 plate. From the society. Boletia a T ade > Pd dhe aes de Lisboa. 2d serie, No. 3. Lisboa, 1880. 8vo pean From the de la Soci Entomologique de Belgique. Tome vingt-troisième. Bruneian 1880. 8vo, pp. 154, I plate. From the society. Informe acerca de las Cepas de oag sepa de America consideradas bajo el punto de vista de los — — pres _— = la repoblacion de los os des filo: a lona. Por el Dr. D. Kelne Trémols y Borrell: ae 1881. 8vo, pp. 185. Ministère de l’ Agriculture Me ig Commerce. Direction de l’Agriculture> Com- enn Se du Phyllox Session de 1880, perag rendu et piéces an- xes, s, décrets et artiki ‘relatifs au p t epa Paris 1881. 8vo, pp. 134» X ma p- The Western Catalpa. A memoir of the eet or the Catalpa speciosa (En- gelman). B Dr. Jno. A. Warder. From the Journal of the American Agricu cultural Association. 8vo, pp. 79-102. From the author. a On the Cynipidous galls of Florida. By William H. Ashmead. [Paper No. I. 3 a From the Monthly Proc. Ent. Sec. A. N. S., May, 1881, p pp. IX-Xx.From the author. — 1882. } Botany. 235 Forestry for Indiana. By Dr. J. A. Warder. From the Transactions of the In- Horticultural Society for 1880, 8vo, pp. 7. From the n essay on em he ape sa Aani, By Dr. John A. eet Columbus, 80, 8vo, pp. 9. From the . Rem eae change in the color of the a a light blonde to black i Silin while under treatm nt by Pilocarpin. of a case of Pyelo- ieiihiitide with unusually prelonged anuria. 2. Case of tenes croup tr tebsted successfully by Pilocarpin. By D. W. Prentiss, A.M., M.D. Philadelphia, 1881. 8vo, pp. 15. fon the author Address at the ET isata of the American Pomological Society held in Boston, Mass., Sep 15, 16, 1881. By Marshall P. Wilder, president of the so- ciety. ' Publi shed e the society, 1881. From the author. Entomologisk Tidskrift pa féranstaltande af entomologiska föreningen i Stock- age ha af Jacob Sp anberg. and 1, Haft 1 and 2. Stockholm, 1881. From the edito La Piast en Suisse e l'année. 1880. reg 88 du ogr bbir ia fédéral du commerce et de l’agricultu Ay vec trois cartes, 1881, pp- 99. Note sur l’hortic pet en Algeri Par NVO a i Fro Journal de la Soc. gi +» 3¢ série, III, 1881, p: 261-271, Paris, 1881. From Bulletin de la Soci central ne et des comices ae a dn pean ment de PHér 67me e, Jan pa Synopsis of ie Cae of Ta nois, by Ge tt seh a From curators report in the Seventh annual report of the principal to the Bok d of Trustees of E outh- ae tho Normal University. Carbondale, Illinois, 1881. 8vo, pp. From the a nth Report of the State Entomologist on the noxious and beneficial Insects of a State of Illinois. Fiftha ao Erg by Cyrus Taas, Ph.D., State Entomol- ogist. Springfield, 1881. 8vo, pp. 238. From the author Description of the eke stages of Heliconia "dhru Linn. Wo. Edwards, Coalburgh, W. Va. crit Cadadian Entomologist. Vol. ak prt 1881, pp. Bie. From cia Department of the Interior. Voda States qera and copr Survey, F. V. Hayden HE S. Geologist- EEI = Bull. e U. S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. of the Terrs. Vol. vr. No. Washin eera Rebii 1, 1881. 8vo, pp. 202, 4 ees Fii the Interior Departa ent, Minis d’Agriculture. Industria e Commercio. Direzione pagi Agricoltura. Annali di ‘Agricsleern, 1881, Num. 34. Relazione intorno ai lavori a R. Stazione di entomologia agravia di Fivenze per gli anni 1 Lerak zA Ad. orgies! Tozzetti, Parte Scientifica, Firenze and Roma, 1881. I tabb. Transactions of the Massachusetts Hiken Society A the a 1880, Parts 1 and 2. Boston, 1881. 8vo, pp. 316. From the society. :0: GENERAL NOTES. BOTANY.' GORDONIA PUBESCENS L’HER (FRANKLINIA ALTAMAHA MAR- SHALL).—This tree, so far as I can learn from the records, has not been found in the uncultivated state since 1790, when Dr. Moses Marshall saw it near Fort Barrington, on the Altamaha river, in Georgia? It was first discovered by John Bartram in the course of his travels (as botanist to the king) through the Carolinas, — Georgia and Florida in 1765. His son William, then only a lad, © _ 1Edited by Pror. C. E. Bessey, Ames, I ee pee) ro Sa eee Joseph Banks, p. $65 1 Darlington’s s “ Memorials of Bartram ae 236 General Notes. [March, accompanied his father in his travels. Afterwards, in 1773, Wil- liam Bartram undertook, in the interests of Dr. Fothergill, of London, a journey through the same region. His book of travels was published in London in 1794. He states that he found it as he journeyed southwards in the summer of ’73 near Fort Barring- ton, where he had seen it ten or twelve years previously as he traveled with his father. After concluding his travels, which ex- tended as far west as the Mississippi, and occupied several years, he returned to Fort Barrington in the autumn of 1778, to collect and send off seeds, roots, etc., of such plants as he had seen in his way. He there found it again in mature fruit, and states that he saw “two to three acres covered with the tree.” The seeds col- lected by the Bartrams were distributed in this country and in Europe, and the trees growing from these seeds are all that we have left of the original discovery a hundred years ago. n March last I was requested by Professor C. S. Sargeant, who is in charge of the Forestry Department of the Tenth Census work, and also agent for the American Museum of Natural History in New York; to make an effort to rediscover the long lost tree, wood specimens of which were wanted to complete the series of forest trees of the United States for the Government, and also for the museum; to investigate its habits in the wild state, and to learn more of its geographical range. For that purpose I madea visit to Darien about the middle of March. At that time my only guide to the locality was the simple reference in our botanical books—“ found at Fort Barrington, on the Altamaha.” I supposed at first it was to be sought for in the river swamp, but on consulting Mr. Bartram’s Travels and learning more of the topography of the country I became convinced that it was not in the river swamp, it was to be looked for but in the flats and pine land branches. Barrington stands on the north side of the Altamaha and about 16 miles from Darien, where the river has bluffs on its northern banks, thus throwing the whole swamp on the south side. The road om Darien,the same as it was a hundred years ago, passes mostly through damp, flat pine woods, until within about three miles of the fort, where commences a succession of dry and rolling sand hills, which extend uptothe river. The site of the old fort is still to be seen, with its ditches and embankments marking the outlines. _ It retains the old name, and is now known as one of the ferry crossings of the Altamaha river. ' IT went up to Darien in company with a friend, traveling the same old road which the Bartrams*and Marshall had used. e made diligent search on the way, but could not find it. This sea- son of the year Was Losers ee for the = for an unknown region, went t thre e times;—in June, July and September * 1882. ] Botany. 237 branches near by, but failed to find it. He saw an abundance of G. lasianthus and Pinckneya pubens in bloom, but the object of our search could not be found. I made a recent visit to Darien in November. We went together again, making the fifth visit to the supposed locality. The following paragraph from William Bartram’s account of his discovery of this tree furnishes the clue by which I was guided in my search. After detailing the events of his journey southward from Philadelphia to Darien he says: “ I set off early in the morning (from Darien) for the Indian trading house on the river St. Mary, and took the road up the north-east side of the Altamaha. I passed through a well-inhabited district, mostly rice plantations on the waters of Cat Head creek,a branch of the Altamaha. On drawing near the fort I was delighted at the appearance of two beautiful shrubs in all their blooming graces. One of them appeared to bea species of Gordonia, but the flowers are longer and more fragrant than those of the Gordonia lasian- _ Now this paragraph gives a clue to the situation. Ist. As he journeyed from Darien, it was, of necessity, on the ngrth side of the river ; 2d. “As I drew near to the fort.” This is ambiguous, and may mean a few hundred yards, or even two or three miles, in a ride of 16 miles; 3d. The tree was evidently 7 sight from the road, and probably not far off, so as to be readily seen by any one passing that way; 4th. It was growing in company with another showy, flowering shrub. This other flowering shrub was most probably Pinckneya pubens (which was finely in bloom in June and July when my friend went up). The only other showy, flow- ering shrub which I saw in that region was G. dastanthus, and as Bartram knew that very well, the probability of its being Pinck- neya is increased. i Now about two miles from the fort, and just at the commence- ment of the sandhills, the road passes between two pine land branches within 40 or 50 yards on either side, spreading out into flats which approach almost up to the road. Here was an abun- dance of Pinckneya on both sides, in fact the principal growth, and also the only specimens seen from the road between Darien and the fort. I suppose, at a rough estimate, there may have been “ two or three acres covered with the tree,” as Mr. Bartram states. They are so near the road, and so conspicuous when in bloom, as to | arrest any one’s attention, and especially one who was looking out for new plants.. All the indications seemed to point to the spot. as the one where the Franklinia was discovered. If,as I suppose, _ Pinckneya was the accompanying shrub, it reduces it almost to a certainty, as we saw Pinckneya nowhere else on the route. We stopped here, and my friend and I made a close and exhaustive _ search on both sides of the road. We saw plenty of G. lastan- thus, and I gathered seed vessels of Pinckneya, but Franklinia was not to be seen. After satisfying ourselves that it was not * 238 General Notes. [ March, there we rode on towards the fort, and then returned from the fifth unsuccessful search. Whilst in Darien I met Mr. Cowper,a son of Hon. J. Hamilton Cowper, who was well known some forty years agoamong scientific men for his culture and refined hospitality, and for the great inter- est he took in the natural sciences. Mr. Cowper informed me that his father had collected in his grounds all the trees and shrubs indigenous to that section of the country, but drd not have Gordo- nia pubescens among them; that he himself had been hunting for it for several years past, having been up frequently to Barrington looking both in the river swamp, on the south side, and in the woods and branches on the north side. I also heard whilst there that a collector of seeds from some Northern house had come on from Florida to hunt for the Gordonia near Barrington, and that he was also unsuccessful. ` What are we to think of allthis? The two Bartrams and Moses Marshall saw it 100 years ago, without any doubt, for the trees growing from the seeds which they distributed give conclusive proof of its existence at that time, and in considerable quantity, in that lozalitY. Since then it has been lost, even to the people of that region, and, as faras I can learn, has never been seen else- where. Was it confined to that single locality, and has it become extinct? This supposition is scarcely admissible without very strong proof. I confess I am at a loss for any explanation of its disappearance. I have thus given a minute and detailed account of my unsuccessful efforts, in the hope that it may assist any future explorer to solve the mystery of Franklinia altamaha.—H. W. Ravenel, Aiken, S. C., Fan. 6, 1882. from the common European type, though the difference has not hitherto been considered sufficient to warrant a specific distinction. European specimens from Cooke, Winter, De Thiimen and Plow- right are on beech, but, according to Fries, it occurs also, though more rarely, on oak and birch. American specimens in Rav. Fungi Car. and F. Americani are on Magnolia glauca, on the dead trunks and branches of which it seems to be very common from Southern N. J. to Florida. It is the form on Magnolia of which I wish to speak. Inthe spring of 1875 I sent specimens of this fungus to Baron de Thiimen, who distributed them in his -Mycotheca Universalis (No. 359), and afterwards in the Bull. of the Torr. Bot. Club, Vol. vi, page 95, published it as Diatrype disciformis Fr. var. magnolie Thm., noting that it differed in its smaller disk and indeterminate ostiola from the European form. Some years ago I had noticed that occasionally a magnolia trunk — would be found on which the specimens of this fungus all pre- sented a concave disk, depressed even below the general surface — - of the bark with white, dot-like punctures marking the place ofthe | 1882. ] Botany. 239 ostiola, and differing so much from the ordinary form that it might readily be taken to be a different species. The asci and sporidia, however, did not differ from those of the more common form. In the autumn of 1874 a single magnolia trunk was found thickly covered with what was taken to be an old Diatrype, with the disks covered with little circular orange-red tremelloid caps of the same size as the disks and hiding them completely from sight. This was at that time supposed to be a species of Tre- mella, but it did not show the internal structure of that genus, nor could it be referred to any described species. So the matter re- mained till last November, when, on a collecting trip in the swamp, I again found a magnolia trunk covered with the little orange-red tremelloid disks. On removing one of these carefully with the point of a knife, behold the concave disk of Diatrype disciformis (?) with the white dot-like punctures marking the place of the osti- ola! On further examination it was found that on some parts of the trunk the tremelloid disks had already fallen away, laying bare the white punctured stroma of the Diatrype. Another speci- men on the same trunk had still further developed into the well- known form of D. disciformis var. magnolig, On looking further there were found a dozen or more trunks, all bearing specimens covered with the tremelloid disks as above described, showing plainly the various stages of development and demonstrating be- yond the shadow of a doubt that D. disciformis var. magnolia has in the young state its stroma covered with the aforesaid tremelloid isks. I could not at first see why I had not noticed this before, as the magnolia and the Diatrype in question are very common: but this may be due to the fact that the little tremelloid disks do not long endure, but soon turn black and fall off. The origin of the fungus is beneath the epidermis, which is soon ruptured and thrown off, revealing the red disk, which soon rises up even with or a little above the surface of the bark, soon.after which, as already stated, it also falls off, revealing the true disk of the Diatrype, which, in the different stages of its growth, presents at least three different forms—first, concave and slate color, with white dot-like punctures; then convex and brown, the surface _ being slightly cracked and the ostiola scarcely visible ; and finally the disk becomes black and the ostiola distinctly prominent. When it reaches this stage the asci have mostly disappeared. It is further to be noted that in the European specimens of D. disciformis the epidermis does not adhere to the margin of the disk but forms a loose, free border around it, while in the speci- men on magnolia the epidermis is closely adherent to the margin of the disk, and is also split in a stellate manner around it. In view of the facts now stated, it appears to me that Diatrype disci- Sormis var. magnolie is worthy of specific distinction, and I have Prepared specimens to be distributed in the next Century of North . Am. Fungi, under the name of Diatrype tremellophora—?. B. es Ellis, Newfield, N. F., Fan. 3, 1882. 240 - General Notes. { March, BoranicaL Notes.—Dr. Sternberg has seen “prehensile fila- ments ” of protoplasm in a species of Navicula, and is thus able to confirm Dr. Wallich’s views as to the motions of diatoms. In a letter to the American Monthly Microscropical Fournal he says: “I have seen them frequently in certain diatoms [ Navcula] found in abundance in the gutters of New Orleans.” He used a 2-5 per cent. solution of iodine for suddenly killing and staining the filaments. It is announced in English journals that B. D. Jackson, Secretary of the Linnean Society, will shortly bring out a new edition of Steudel’s Nomenclator Botanicus-——-Dr. Thurber is to publish a new edition of “American Weeds and Useful Plants,” and asks for notes upon new weeds, directing attention especially to the aggressive grasses. Specimens are desired, and should be sent to 751 Broadway, New York.——S. E. Cassino, of Boston, announces for publication, at-an early date, “ A Man- ual of the Mosses of the United States,’ by Leo Lesquereux and Thomas P. James. It will contain nine or ten copper-plates illus- trating the genera——The same publisher announces also a “Man- ual of the Lichens,” by Professor Tuckerman.——A. H. Curtiss’ Fascicle v. of his southern plants is’ one of the most interesting yet sent out by him. Several of the specimens represent new species, some of which are curious. Some are new to our flora, as Catesbea parviflora, a remarkable shrub from Southern Flor- ida. This year (1882) Mr. Curtiss intends to spend in collecting in the Smoky mountains of East Tennessee. M. E. Jones, of Salt Lake City, has recently sent out his catalogue of specimens of California Plants, to be issued in fascicles. Many interesting species are represented, and this, with the low price ($30 per fas- cicle of 500 species), will make these sets very desirable. ZOOLOGY. Nestinc Hasits oF THE Horned Larx.—In the November number of the Naruratist, Mr. Aldrich, of Webster City, Iowa, notices the finding of a bird’s nest with eggs, near the Agricul- tural College, on the last day of March, which he ascribes to the snow-bunting (Plectrophanes nivalis). In this he must be mistaken, as no bird of that species probably ever nested within a thousand miles of Iowa. There are, I believe, only two records of its breeding in the United States, and hoth of those were in New England. The bird to whom the nest that he discovered really belonged, was probably the horned lark (Eremophila alpestris). This bird habitually winters in Iowa in great numbers, and many a remain to breed, which they always do very early in the season, with little apparent regard to temperature. Professor Arthur, of Charles City, Iowa, tells me that he has seen the snow blowing over the nest and mother-bird when the weather was as severe as mid- winter. Some specimens that I shot in February and dissected, showed by the condition of the sexual organs, that the breeding 1882.] Zoölogy. 241 season was at hand, in fact they were evidently mating when killed. I will add that a short time after Mr. Aldrich’s visit I obtained for the college museum a nest with eggs from that same “little knoll” of which he speaks, while another nest was found with young, which was very likely the one that he saw, which may satisfy him that the bird had made no mistake.—F. £. L. Beal, Ag. College, Ames, Towa. NOTES ON SOME FRESH-WATER CRUSTACEA, TOGETHER WITH DEscrRIPTIONS OF TWO New Species (Continued). — Crangonyx gracilis Smith. — (C. gracilis Smith S. I., Crustacea o Fresh-waters of the U. S., Report U. S. Fish Commission for 1872-3, 654; S. A. Forbes, Bulletin Illinois Museum Nat. Hist., No. 1, 6.) Numerous specimens of the Western variety of this species were obtained in the ponds and slow streams around Irvington during the winter and early spring of 1879-80. They differ in no appreciable way from specimens of the same species obtained at various localities in Illinois. Crangonyx mucronatus Forbes.—(C. mucronatus Forbes, S. A., Bull. Ills. Mus. Nat. Hist., No. 1,6.) Two males of this curious Species were obtained from a well in Irvington during the latter part of the year 1879. On the anterior edge of the sternal portion of each of the last two thoracic segments, I have observed two ap- pendages, no mention of which is made in the original description cited above. They call to mind the appendages mentioned by Prof. S. I Smith (op. cit. 647) as occurring on some of the an- terior segments of Pontoporeia hoyi, In form these appendages are elongated, oval, and pointed. They are as long as the - branchial sacs, or longer, and seem to be corneous. They may Occur on the sternal portion of other of the thoracic segments ; but in the very few specimens that I have had the opportunity to examine, I have not observed this, Asellus communis Say —(A. communis Smith, S. I., op. cit. 657 A, militaris Hay, O. P., Bulletin Ills. Mus. Nat. Hist., No. 2, 90.) This species is very common in the streams about Irvington, during the early months of spring. I am now pretty well con- vinced that the form that I described as cited above is the same as the Eastern species. It differs certainly from Eastern speci- mens in the armature of the hand, in the form of the genital plates, in size,and in some other respects ; but I do not believe that these characters are sufficiently marked and constant to enable us to found species on them. The specimens obtained at Irvington differ in the details of the hand and genital plates from all others that I have seen; but these differences are accompanied by no others of importance. As I now recognize this species, it extends in its distribution from Massachusetts and Connecticut on the €ast to the Mississippi on the west, and to Central Mississippi on the south. About the middle of August of the present year I oo ! a VOL, XVIL—No, It, cll . 242 General Notes. [ March, was at Jackson, Miss., collecting fishes and, incidentally, other animals, While engaged in searching in the mud and am ong the fallen leaves in a pool formed by a spring along the Pearl river, I found some specimens that prove to belong to Asellus communis. The individuals are all of small size, none exceeding about 7™™ in length. That they are mature, however, is shown by the fact that several of the females bear numerous eggs be- neath their oostegites. They appear almost as pigmies beside the Illinois variety, #/itaris. The discovery of these specimens in this locality shows that this species has a very wide geographi- cal distribution. Mancasellus tenax Harger.—( Asellus tenax Smith, S. I, Amer. Jour. Sci., he 453: Asellopsis tenax Smith, S. I., Fresh- water Crustacea U. 659. Mancasellus tenax Harger, Amer. Jour. Sci., 1876, bate Along with the species of Asellus men- tioned above as occurring in the neighborhood of Irvington, and in equal abundance, is found Mancasellus tenax: It was origin- ally described from specimens obtained about the great lakes of Michigan, and I am not aware that it has hitherto been noticed anywhere else. The specimens that I have collected here appar- ently belong to Mr. Harger’s variety dieta; but are in some respects. different both from this variety and from the typical forms. The flagellum of the antennz may have as many as forty- five segments. The propodite of the first thoracic foot is oval, swollen, and armed with three teeth, being in these features like dilata, but differing in that the larger tooth is the one at the pos- _ terior angle, instead of the middle one. This largest tooth is fully one- “third as long as the dactyl. Thete is a prominent lobe or tooth on the concave side of the dactyl, about the middle of its length. On the outer surface of the mandible I have observed a small tubercle, situated apparently in a*slight depression and armed with a hair. This I have been inclined to regard as a rudi- ment of the mandibular palpus Eubranchipus vernalis Verrill. —( Eubranchipus vernalis Verrill, E. Packard, A. S., Jr., Hayden’s Rep. Geolog. and Geog. Sur., 1874, 622.) Large numbers at this crus- tacean, ‘so interesting on account of its curious form and structure, its habits, its beautiful colors, and its graceful movements, were taken from ponds in Irvington, during the winter of 1879-80. During this period the weather was unusually mild, and the waters remained unfrozen during the greater part of the season. Abaut the first’ of December I caught a single specimen of what was evidently an Eubranchipus. It was but partially developed, and I supposed that it would turn out to be Æ. serratus Forbes. On the roth of January I collected several full grown specimens of the same animal in the same pond, and a careful examination showed that they belonged to Proreštof Verrill’s £. vernalis. The ponds in which I have taken specimens here are, some of them 1882. ] ' Zoology. 243 at least, dried up every summer. Not many individuals could be captured by merely sweeping the net through the water; but when it was used to stir up the soft mud at the bottom, they could be taken in great numbers. In the March number of Vol. x11. of the AMERICAN NATURALIST occurs a note by Professor A. S. Packard, Jr., stating that this species had been captured at Dan- vers, Mass., Jan. 10, 1878, and had been seen even earlier. So far as I am aware, no one has hitherto reported this species as having been observed outside of Massachusetts and Connecticut. —O. P. Hay, Irvington, Ind. ALBINISM IN A CRUSTACEAN. — To-day I found under a log an albino specimen of Porcellio. It was of a uniform yellowish white color, and was among other sow-bugs of the ordinary gray and brown colors. It is the only one I have ever seen.—Henry Ward Turner, Ithaca, New York, Dec. 18th, 1881. : May 23, 1881. LONGEVITY OF THE TuRTLE.—Enclosed I send you a slip cut from “The Clayton Independent,” published at Clayton, N. Y., Sep. 8th, 1881. The article was copied by some of the local papers in that vicinity, viz: “ Watertown Times,” and “ Watertown Reformer.” For the truth of these statements I can vouch so far as the matter concerns myself. A. D. Percy is a brother-in-law of mine and a gentleman to be relied upon. At the second capture the first markings were not very distinct, but sufficiently so to be easily read. Very truly yours, ; C. D. ABBEY, Principal of the High School, Wausau, Wisconsin. “In 1864 C. D. Abbey found a large mud turtle on his father’s farm,.and cut his name and the date on the shell and then put it into the river. In 1874 he found the same turtle near the same place andagaincut his name and date in the shell and then released it. Last Friday the same turtle made its appearance, and A. D. Percy cut his name on the back, and placed it in the river, when it started directly for Canada, evidently displeased with such treatment.” HABITS oF THE Bortnc SponcE.—N. Nassonon finds, states the Journal of the Royal Microscropical Society, that the Clione lives on the shells of living oysters as well as on empty shells. They give off from the surface very delicate pseudopodia-like processes, which pass in all directions into the substance of the shell ; these processes may branch, and even anastomose with one another. he author, by placing in the aquarium fine transparent lamellae _ of oyster shells, saw the young Clione push its processes into the calcareous lamella; when they had reached a certain depth they united with one another and forced out hemispherical calcareous Particles; these were by contraction carried into the interior of the -body, and then cast to the exterior. The ectoderm is reported to % 244 General Notes. [ March, consist of flat, colorless epithelial cells, with processes by means of which the cells are connected together; the mesoderm is formed by a mass of layers of oval, yellow cells. Cotor SENSE IN CrustaceA—M. Paul Bert has made some interesting experiments on a small fresh water crustacean belong- ing to the genus Daphnia, from which he concludes that they perceive all the colors known to us, being, however, specially sensitive to the yellow and green, and that their limits of vision are the same as ours; but Sir John Lubbock, says the Jaurnal of the Royal Microscopical Society,as the results of his own exper- iments with Daphnia under different parts of the spectrum, con- siders that the limits of vision of Daphnia do not, at the violet end of the spectrum, coincide with ours, but that, like the ant, it is affected by the ultra-violet rays. HAIRS OF THE ANTERIOR ANTENN OF CRUSTACEA.—S. Jour- dain, after a few words on the auditory hairs of this group, pro- ceeds to point out the arrangement and structure of the processes found on these antennules, which were regarded by Leydig as having an olfactory function. Before describing the arrangements which obtain in the representatives of different orders, he says that in all cases we find a very delicate chitinous sheath, which is penetrated by an offshoot from the hypodermic layer, and which at its base is found to be in relation with a branch of the antennary nerve ; the free end is truncated and carries a hyaline body, which appears to be comparable to the rods found at the sensory ends of sensory organs. These may be known as the “poils á bâton- net.” The hairs are cylindrical in some cases, and then the chiti- nous cylindrical sheath is made up of a number of joints; the basal ones have thicker walls and are shorter than those which are more distal. In other cases the hairs are s#ifitate, and then the joints are ordinarily reduced to three, and the basal one, which is of some length, is constricted in its middle. A detailed study shows that the former arrangement is confined to the Podoph- thalmate crustacea; the hairs are found in the young, though in less number than in the adult; and, similarly, they are more numerous in the higher than in the lower forms. Although there seems to be no doubt that these organs respond to stimuli which are something else than tactile, we are not yet in a position to definitely assert that they have an olfactory function. The author concludes by remarking that the characters of these parts have a value for the systematist—¥ournal of the Royal Microscopical Society. : : ` BYTHINIA TENTACULATA.—My friend, Mr. Henry Prime, has just called my attention to an error in THe NATURALIST for Septem- ber, 1881 (p. 716), in introduced species of shells. Instead of W. H. Ballou, it should have been W. M. Beauchamp, as in the notice to which reference was made. + 1882. | - Zoölogy. 245 Permit me to make a little fuller statement about this shell. I met with it in great numbers at Oswego in June, 1879, and find- ing no description of an American shell corresponding to it, re- ferred the matter to Dr. James Lewis, who was equally puzzled with myself until he saw the shell. He at once pronounced it a Bythinia, the first he had known in this country, and thought it B. tentaculata Linn., but, as it varied locally, he was not sure but it might prove a new and native species. Mr. Tryon at once pro- nounced it B. tentaculata, but it is interesting for comparison with the European shell. Dr. Lewis had successfully colonized Western mollusks in the Mohawk river and Erie canal, and I sent him several hundreds of this species for that purpose. How they have thriven I do not o ut some in the Seneca river, but have seen none of them since, and think they require still waters. In the Erie canal at Syracuse, west of the Oswego canal only, there are a goo many. At Oswego they adhere to the wooden piers and stones near the mouth of the river,and I found them nowhere else there. Soon after these shells were brought to Dr. Lewis’ notice he showed some of them to Mr. Charles E. Beecher, of the New York State Cabinet, and found that he had frequently observed them in the canals near Albany, but had mistaken them for an- other native shell. Mr. B. certainly saw them before I did, though I happened to report them first. Dr. Lewis thought this species would spread rapidly, and it seems inclined to follow the canals, but not the streams. In ponds it would probably increase fast. Although it must have reached Oswego and Troy by way of the St. Lawrence, I am unable to learn of its presence on that river, or in Lake Champlain —W. M. Beauchamp. ZooLocicat Notes.—The species of orangs, which have been placed at from one to four, have been examined by Mr. F. O. Lucas, of Professor Ward’s establishment, who reports in the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History that all four forms must be referred to one. Professor Ward has returned from a collecting journey to New Zealand- and Australia with a large collection of marsupials, Ornithorhynchus, specimens of Echidna from New Guinea, and of Hatteria from New Zealand. His account of the habits of the latter very rare lizard, given in . Ward’s Natural Science Bulletin for January 1, is well worth reading. The mollusca of H. M. S. Challenger are being — described in the Journal of the Linnzan Society, London, ina — “a series of papers, by Rev. ‘R. B. Watson, of which we have thus far received eight parts. The deep sea mollusks of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean sea obtained by the U.S. Coast Survey steamer Blake have been described by Mr. W. H. Dall in Bulletin 0.11, Vol. rx, of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, at Cam- . bridge, Mass. The collections made by the Blake in one winter 246 General Notes. [ March, (1877-78) is very rich, containing perhaps three times as many species as the results of the whole three years’ voyage of the Challenger. ; ENTOMOLOGY.’ LIST OF NORTH AMERICAN CYNIPIDÆ. Genus 4. RHODITES Hartig. sub. gen. CALLIRHYTIS Forst. verna O. similis B. O S: radicum O. $. Jutilis O. S. bicolor Harris. tumifica O. S. dichlocans Harris. scitula B. Genus 9.. PERICLISTIS Forst eet s sylvestris O. S. A Socks O S > = Aulax sylvestris O.S. ? eGo pirata O. S. Genus 18. Cynips (L) Hertig. = Aulax pirata S strobilana Q. S. Genus 12, SYNERGUS Hartig. Genus 20. AcRASPIS Mayr, nov. gen. Se > pezomachoidesO.S. lignicola Q. S. ane ls Genus 15. DiastrorHus Hartig. Genus 22. BIorRHIZA Westwood. Oe atA S. forticornis Walsh. radicum Bass. cuscuteformis O. S. Genus 25. secs cape Mars pan gen. potentille Bass. 3 ; : Genus 27. HoLcaspis Mayr, nov. gen. Genus 17, ANDRICUS Hartig. globulus Fitch singularis B. duricoria Osten- Sackenii B. rugosa B. ignotus B. Genus 28. DRYOPRHANTA Forst. californicus B. sanii i concinnus B. bie 4 nubila B capsula B. bella B acinosus B. petiolicola B ; polita B. ? flocci Walsh. Genus 29. NEUROTERUS Hartig. tubicola O. S. batatus B. sub. gen. CALLIRHYTIS Forst. noxiosus B. agrifolie B. vesicula B. cornigera O. S. majalis B. Suttoni B. minutus B punctata B. floccosus B. seminator H. Rileyi B. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF GALL LITERATURE.—The study of galls be- longs to the domain of entomology as well as botany, and no one is more capable of reviewing the literature on the subject. = than Dr. Fr. Thomas, of Ohrdruf (Germany). Dr. Thomas has for some years past prepared the chapter, “ Durch Thiere erzeugte Pflanzengallen” (Galls produced on plants by animals) of the Botanischer Jahresbericht, and we have just received his report from Vol. vit of that periodical. This latest record comprises the, literature of the year 1879, including a few publications of the year 1878, not mentioned in the Jahresbericht for 1878, and is arranged as im the previous volumes; the titles are first given alphabetically by authors, a key to the subjects treated This department is edited by ProF. C. V. RiLey, Washington, D. C., to whom communications, books for notice, etc., should be sent. 1882.] Entomology. 247 of follows, and finally the review is given of the publica- tions. There are 107 publications recorded in this volume, of which number more than one-third treat directly or indirectly of the grape Phylloxera. The record is an evidence of the increas- ing interest felt in this branch of natural history. The most im- portant contribution of the year 1879 appears to have been L Courchet’s “ Etude sur les galles produites par les Aphidiens.” A NEW DEPREDATOR INFESTING WHEAT-STALKS.—Under the title of /sosoma allynii, Professor G. H. French, of Carbondale, Ill., describes what he believes to be a new wheat pest, in the Prairie Farmer, for Dec. 31, 1881. He has been kind enough to send us types of this new species, which, as we suspected from the description, prove to be not Isosoma, but a species of Eupel- mus parasitic doubtless on some of the wheat-stalk feeders and probably on some species of Chlorops. A detailed description published in the Canadian Entomologist (Jan., 1882) of this “ /so- soma allynit,’ shows also that Professor French drew it from the Eupelmus. The error would have less significance but for the existence of a true Isosoma affecting wheat much in the manner related by him, and undescribed. e have been studying this last insect m nearly two years past from i aa received from Tennesse and Missouri. The larvæ were first received in / June, 1880, passed the winter in the pupa state, and issued as adults in March and April, 1881. Specimens received the present season have issued in December, induced doubtless by the long protracted warm weather which gener- ally prevailed in those sections. Although congeneric with the Joint-worm (/sosoma hordei) of Harris and Fitch, it differs widely from the latter in habits and appearance. The Joint-worm forms a gall-like swelling at a joint 5.0. parva of Zo- near the base of the stalk, while the species Jora erp Riley. saad consideration feeds on the interior of —_ Ned i b, -r the stalk between the joints higher up without ¥! A ‘Causing a swelling. The adult iseer i is more penea andibles 1 slender and much more hirsute than is the append the tooit Perder IsosoMa TRITICI, n. sp. Female. n of body, 2.8 mm. Expanse of wings, a 4 po RT width of front wing, 0.7 mm. Antennz sub-clavate, the length : of t Whole body (with the i Bh pe of metanotum which i is finely punctu- — i n highly ; polished, m t d 248- General Notes. [March, abdomen. Color, pitchy-black without metallic luster, the scape of antennæ, Seas ionally asmall patch on the che “i mesoscutum, femoro-tibial Since es and en pensad laes joint) tawny; pronotal spot large, oval an Je yello tis E eins, dusky spate aids vitae ding to beyond middle of win anal ase Hae a long as the ma'ginal, postmarginal very slightly Ai cd marginal, and s al also shorter than 1 marginal. Des enone Ast 49 spec ; g unknown. Of these 24 specimens only one was fully winged, ‘wo were ‘farnighied with hind wings only, while the rest were ety related to the European Zsosoma linearis. This spe- inquilinous in the swellings formed by the Dipterous Octhiphila polystigma of Meigen. Kaltenbach remarks, however, that al- though obtaining the Isosoma many times from the wheat, he never succeeded in seeing the Dipteron—a very suggéstive fact. Walker (Notes on Chalcididz, p. 7) states, in reference to the “humeral spot” that although present in all European species of Isosoma, it is absent in American and Australian representatives of the genus. In ¢ritici, however, it is a prominent feature of the markings, and even in “hordei it is as evident as upon the European E: verticellata which we have from Walker himself.— C. V. Riley. * FURTHER NOTES ON THE IMPORTED CLOVER-LEAF WEEVIL (PAy- tonomus punctatus )—During a recent visit to our friend, Dr. Le- Conte, in Philadelphia, we learned that he had received a beetle from Canada, as long ago as 1853, from Mr. D’Urban, who was then connected with the geological survey of that country, and another specimen from the late Dr. Melsheimer, from Pennsyl- vania, and that these specimens had been described by him as Phytonomus opimus (Rhynchopnora, p. 124). He had recog- nized, from what we had published in the Naturatist, regarding Phytonomus punctatus, that his opimus was identical, and upon re- ceiving specimens from us he wrote that after a careful examina- tion there was no doubt in his mind as to the identity of the two species, Ph. punctatus, in its typical and most common form, is so easily recognizable by its coloration (the suture and margins of the elytra being pray dies: that one would not suspect its identity with PA.. opimus from ‘the description of this last. It would appear, however, that opfimus is identical with a variety of - Ph. punctatus described by Capiomont (Annales de la Société Entomologique de France, 1868, p. 123), in which the scales of the elytra are almost uniformly gray, and which is not rare in Eu- . rope. The specimen from Melsheimer is, moreover, evidently rubbed. It is a strange coincidence that the numerous specimens , we collected on Mr. Snook’s farm were all identical in coloration with the typical form, and that just those described by Dr. LeConte as opimus should belong to a comparatively rare form The identity of the two forms once established, it becomes probable that the insect had made a permanent lodgement i inthis country years ago, and that it was simply overlooked as an mee e 1882.] Entomology. 249 ous insect till the present year. That a beetle is quite liable to be | overlooked by coleopterists,although quite injurious to some cul- tivated plants, is not only probable, but has often occurred. Coceotorus scutellaris which injuriously affects the plum; Zy/o- derma fragarie which depredates on the strawberry plant; and Hylesinus trifolii which is so injurious to clover, are examples among many which occur to us of species very common on culti- vated plants, yet rare in collections. The same is equally true in other orders of insects. notable instance is found in the Hessian fly which, though more or less injurious every year in some of our wheat-producing sections, is yet so rare in collections that Dr. Packard had difficulty in procuring specimens to figure for his bulletin on the species. There is the other alternative, however (which is also not so improbable), that the two specimens that have remained solitary so many years in the largest American collection of Coleoptera, may really have come into the country through European ex- changes, especially as it is known that Dr. Melsheimer did, in some instances, mix up European with American species. It is impossible to say whether this Phytonomus will spread further west or not. The encouraging presumption, however, is, if we may predicate upon analogy, that it will not, since we recall no very injurious beetle introduced from Europe (excluding those feeding upon stored products) which has spread over the whole country, the most prominent examples. of such introduced species, Crioceris asparagi, Galeruca xanthomelena, etc., being yet confined to the Atlantic coast. ur experience and observations this winter confirm the opinion already expressed, that this Phytonomus hibernates principally in the young larva state, and that any mode of winter warfare that would crush or burn these larve hibernating in the old stalks would materially reduce the depredations of the species the ensuing summer. Clover stubble is, however, not so easily burned in winter, and whether rolling could be advantageously employed will depend very much on the smoothness of the field and other As an interesting fact in connection with imported clover localities —C, V Riley. SILK-worM Ecos; PRICES AND WHERE OBTAINED.—We daily receive applications for silk-worm eggs and inquiries as to where . Sitones tibialis, in Eufope is a dangerous enemy to young peas, and though like- ir eh aoced into the United States and Canada, does not appear to be injurio.s | either, 250 General Notes. [March, _ they can be obtained, the number of such applications indicating that interest in silk culture is fast increasing through the country. A small supply of silk-worm eggs will probably be at the dispo- sal of the Department of Agriculture early this spring, and will be distributed upon application. We learn also, from circulars received from Crozier & Co., Bayou Sara, La., that they are pre- pared to furnish eggs at the following prices: Annual Japanese, $5 per ounce, $1 per 1000 eggs; the best yellow breed, war- ranted free from disease, $6 per ounce, $I per 1000. o eggs ought to be ordered early, or else there is great danger of their hatching prematurely while on the way. A few eggs of a special race, fed for eleven years on osage orange ( Maclura auran- tiaca) by the editor, will be sent to a limited number of appli- cants who desire to feed with this plant, upon application to him. ANTHROPOLOGY.' ProFEssoR RAU oN Cup-sHAPED Strongs.—The distinguished curator of the archzological treasures of the National Museum has just published a paper upon cup-shaped and other lapidarian sculptures in the Old World and in America, which will form a pee of Volume v. in Major sae hee series of Contributions * rth American Ethnology. This nograph is in 4to, a eases of 102 pages of printed see, kotste by 61 ies on tinted paper. In archzology, as in natural history, form and function have to be studied separately, and each class of objects may be con- sidered from the point of view of either. Furthermore, in all anthropological investigations analogies are to be distinguished from homologies. The work under consideration treats of a cer- tain form in ancient sculpture, occurring in very interesting con- nections in various parts of the world, viz., certain cup- -shaped excavations called prerres a écuelles in French, and Schalensteine in German. Part J. is taken up with a comprehensive review O the work of Professor E. Desor, entitled “ Les Pierres à Ecuelles ” (Genéve, 1878); that of Sir James Y. Simpson entitled “ Archaic Sculptures of Cups, Circles, &c., upon Stones and Rocks in Scot- land, pueeed: and other Countries ” (Proc. Soc. Antiq., Scot- land, 1867); Mr. J. H. Rivett-Carnac’s “ Prehistoric Remains in Central India” (Calcntta 1879); and scattered references to these sculptures occurring in Scotland, England, Ireland, France, Switzerland, Germany, Austria, Denmark, Sweden, and India. One-half of the illustrations are taken from the works above men- tioned. Professor Rau is very careful, while describing and figuring : excavations very similar in form and grouping, to keep in view the fact that slight differences in detail combined with great dif- ferences of location may point to widely separated functions. In- 1 Edited by Professor OT1s T. MASON, 1305 Q. street, N. W., Washington, D. C. 1882. ] Anthropology. 251 deed the mahadeos and yonis of India can hardly be said to have had their counterparts in America. While the first part of the volume exhibits a vast deal of research and painstaking, the truly original portion and that for which a lasting obligation will be due the author, is Part 11., relating to cup- cuttings in America. These sculptures occur on hammer-stones, boulders of various sizes, paint mortars, stationary mortars, &c. They are not all alike in execution; some are single, others in groups. The Professor, both in his descriptive portion and in the closing remarks, enters quite minutely into the discussion of func- tions, and a few of his conclusions are herewith given : 1. The so-called hammer-stones were not flint nappers; many of them show no mark of use as hammers. There is great prob- . ability that they were nut-crackers. 1. Many of the pitted boulders were paint mortars, and those with several pits have their analogues in the compound paint cups of the Pueblo Indians. i. They were not anvils for shaping copper disks. Iv. They were not spindle sockets. Following this discussion is an extended allusion to several large pitted stones, notably one found by Dr. H. H..Hill, of Cincinnati. v. The deep depressions in large rocks were stationary mor- tars. vi. Certain sculptures found in Pennsylvania and elsewhere resemble the cup and ring cuttings of the Old World. In Part 111. Professor Rau discusses the significance of cup- shaped and other primitive sculptures, giving particular attention to Professor Nillson’s “ Phoenician Baal-worship theory,” Canon Greenwell’s “ map theory,” Professor Simpson’s “ dial theory,” and many other speculations. The author is very much inclined to admit Mr. Rivett-Carnac’s views respecting the “ reciprocal principle” in many European examples. The question as to the authorship of the sculptures is also considered, as well as the Superstitions connected with them, and the evidence afforded by them of migrations from the Old World to the New. Mexican ANTHROPOLOGY.—The fourth and fifth parts of. Axa/les del Museo Nacional de Mexico contain the following papers rela- tive to this department: . Codice Mendozino: Ensayo de descrifacion geroglifica, por el Sr. D. Manuel Orozco y Berra. (Continuacion) pp. 223-232. 3 La Piedra del Sol: Estudio arqueologico, por L. Sr. D. Alfredo Chavero. (Continu- acion) pp. 234-266; 291. Mitos de los Nahoas, por el Director del Museo, Sr. D. Gumesindo Mendoza. pp. 271-278; 315-322. Dos Antiguos Monumentos de Arquitectura Mexicana, ilustrados por el P. Pedro José Marquez. Tracudido para los “ Anales del Museo,” por F. P. T. pp. 279- À 90. Anales de Cuauhtitlan, appendix, 33-40; 41-48. 252 General Notes. [ March, THE IMPLEMENTS OF THE TRENTON GRAVELS.—Mr. Henry W. Haynes, of Boston, read a paper before the Boston Society of Natural History last January upon the argillite implements found in the gravels of the Delaware river, &c., compared with the palzolithic implements of Europe. The communication is pub- lished in Vol. xx1 of the Proceedings. The author comes to the following conclusions: The objects have come from the gravel beds of the Delaware valley, and only occasionally have they been found upon the surface. They show incontestable marks ` of human workmanship. The general appearance of the country is similar to that of the palzolithic gravels of the Old World. Dr. Abbott has sent us a pamphlet reprint from the Society’s Proceedings reviewing the whole subject. Antiguities oF New Mexico anp Arizona.—Dr. W. J. Hoff- man, of the Bureau of Ethnology at Washington, sends usa revised edition of a pamphlet on the above named subject, which first appeared in the Proceedings of the Davenport Academy of Natu- ral Sciences, The author has had a great deai of experience in the Indian country as a physician, is a man of great tact and address, and has been connected with the government surveys for a long time. We have in the brochure before us an excellent epitome of our knowledge of the Pueblos. The subject of glazed pottery is treated at length and several analyses given.’ On the subject of crania and deformations the treatise is especially full and the - bibliography invaluable. ASIATIC TRIBES IN NORTH America.-From the Proceedings of the Canadian Institute, we are in receipt of a brochure of 38 pages from the pen of Professor John Campbell, on the Asiatic Tribes of North America. In this the author indicates the origin Asia and the Tinneh of America.” Under the term Choctaw is included the entire Muscogee fam- ily, together with the Cherokees, the Choctaws representing the Tehuktchi or Tshekts, and the Cherokees the Koriaks or Koraeki. The Tuscaroras of the South are taken as the oldest and purest form ofthe Wyandot-Iroquois and through them the last named family are brought into relationship with the Choctaw-Cherokee, and by this path with the Koriak in Northeastern Asia. 1882.] Geology and Paleontology. 253 ANTHROPOLOGY IN FrANcE.—The unusual amount of matter relating to our own country precludes giving more than a brief outline of what is doing abroad. The Bulletins de la Société d’ Anthropologie de a reports the following RETINES in the Ist fasciculus for 1881 Bordier, M aoar cérébrale d’un apep P. 16. Chudzinski, M.—Splanchfologie d’un oran Vinson, Jules.—Pr rocédé de calcul du jeune ce Inau _ Soldi, Emile.—De l'emploi du cad en Egypte bp les ae irna, P- 34- Tenkate, H. F. C:—Crânes de musée de Leyde, p. 37. De Tor er A.—CrAne du j jeune gorille de musée oos a, p. 46. epenicts — Rapport sur un Jos ede M, Ot, .Ds-57- i hie tobe —Du Date nt de vue anthropologique, p. 72. let, —.—Menhirs et pat. Fre taillés dans le grés en Algérie Rabourdin, Lucien.—Age de pierre dans le Sahara central, pp. I15-160, The Revue d’Anthropologie, oe IV., part Iv., contains the fol- “gig original papers and review a, Paul.—La torsion ee lV Humerus et le Saige p. 577. eia M. de.—Les voyages de pirga i, 8 »P- 593- Ledouble, M.—Sur certain muscles co x animaux et a homme, p. 635. Nadaillac, M. de.—La poterie chez ie nciens a pereh del’ E 639. ervé, Georges.—Du poids de Pe Schshale; p 681—698. ai view = a Das Hirngewicht des Menschen; eine Studie,” von Th. von Bisc choff, B , 1880, and “Sul peso del cervello dell’uomo, z pen di Giustiniano Keon, Zabarowski, —.—Revue prehistorique. [Includes the following works: Emile Soldi’s “ Les Sweat méconnus;’’ Dr. Nehrings’s ‘‘ Nouvelles fowler dans le dilu- vium de Thiede,” and other works of a more local charac Topinard, Paul.—Revue des livres. [Résumé of recent Vanek upon the abo- gl Manouvrier, Se eview of French ania Italian journals. ' _ Deniker, —.—Review of Dr. Hortel’s “ De la ipia chez l’hom Vars, Ed. Maun russe. [Examines M. Bogdanoff’s aratati wadag At the close of the number is an extended bibliography, too long to be reproduced here; but the important titles will r in the next Smithsonian Annual Report. Correction.—By an oversight, for which we are extremely sorry, the title of the paper by Professor Cyrus Thomas on the ong 5s Troano, read at the American Association, was omitted from the . oo JAND PALONTOLOGY. Mars N THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE DINOSAURIA, — Pro- fessor Marsh regards the group as a sub-class, and divides it into ve orders, viz.; Sauropoda, Stegosauria, Ornitho poda, Ti heropoda and Hallopoda ; the first three herbivorous, the last carnivorous. The Sauropoda include At/antosaurus, Camarasaurus, Cetiosaurus and other forms having five digits on each of the limbs, and limbs nearly equal; Scelidosaurus, Hyleosaurus and others having a twenty digits, but with small fore limbs and a post-pubis, form the order Stegosauria; Camptonotus, Laosaurus, Iguanodon, etc., having five digits in manus and three in pes, with small fore limbs, are included i in the Or cal, rp la: whi le 2 ASAULUS , Žane- 254 General Notes. [March, rsh RHE, si other species with digitigrade we mall fore lim s, and prehensile claws, form the order Theropod Stich bee also two side a Aiea iS and Campsognatha, The Hallopoda are doubtfully referred to the sub-ciass, and have the hind feet specially adapted for leaping. In the preparation of his papers on this subject Professor Marsh has had very extensive material, and has had’excellent opportuni- ties for investigation. He had added more to our knowledge of this division of reptiles than perhaps any other single person. His demonstration of the structure of the pelvis in various genera, of the feet in many forms, including Campsoguathus, and the dis- covery of the clavicle in /gwanodon and other genera, are among the most important points gained. It is, however, not evident that the Dinosauria constitute a group of higher rank than an order, or that the subdivisions proposed by Professor Marsh are of higher rank than sub-orders or families. he “personal equation” is observable in this work, in as marked a degree as in any of Professor Marsh’s papers. This is is seen— First. In his failure to characterize his genera on first publish- ing them—a proceeding which is apparently intended to warn others off the field. The publication of nomina nuda, without the definitions which enable others to use them, is, to say the least, very inconvenient to cotemporary students. Second. In his failure to recognize the labors of others, except to point out supposed errors. Thus three of his orders had re- ceived names long before Professor Marsh wrote, and had been defined, less completely, it is true, but, as far a the material went, correctly. Thus his Sauropoda was named by Owen, in 1841, Opisthocela ; his Ornithopoda by Cope, in tase, Orthopoda ; and his Theropoda by Cope, in 1869, Gontopoda. The numerous gen- era described from the American Pitesti by American authors, are all ignored or stated to be founded on error... Some of them are identical with those proposed by Marsh, and of earlier date. ° Thirdly. In his failure to credit others with their discoveries, and permission of the inference that they are his own, Such is the discovery of the hyposphen articulation, by Cope, which he re- names the diplosphen. Such is the discovery of the sternum in the Dinosauria, which was made by Cope in the Laramie genus Mono- clonius in 1877 (Proceedings Philadelphia Academy). His ref- erence of some discoveries to other than their authors is not less frequent. Thus it is well known that Professor Cope first showed the bird-like. affinities of some of the Dinosauria,-and affirme er a i tot Cope, which Marsh states, in effect, was founded on the characters which belong to lumbar vertebræ of other genera, ignoring the fact that : 7 other distinctive characters were given at the same time, which are entirely suffi- 1882. } Geology and Paleontology. 255 that the bird-like tracks of the Triassic formation were made by Dinosauria, at least a year before Professor Huxley; yet these observations are credited to the latter writer. It cannot be said in defence of these defects in an otherwise ex- cellent memoir, that the papers in question have been written by Professor Marsh’s assistants, since the latter are not made re- sponsible on the title-page—2£. D. Cope. : Tue Dinosaurs oF BernissArt’.—In the year 1878 numerous bones of fossil reptilia were discovered in the St. Barbe mine of the Bernissart coal district, and ultimately several Iguanodon skel- etons were taken out from a depth of three hundred and fifty metres, as complete and almost as well preserved as though they had come straight from a slaughter-house. In a notice submitted to the Royal Academy of Belgium, M. Boulenger founds a new species on these skeletons, on account of their possession of six sacral vertebrz instead of five, the number possessed by that in the British Museum. M. P-J. Van Beneden, however, in reviewing M. Boulenger’s work, states his belief that the remains belong to the well-known Z. mantelli of England and Western Europe, and that the difference in the number of sacral vertebræ is merely an individual one. In support of this opinion he cites the facts that another Iguanodon, described by M. Hulke, has only four sacrals, and that the number of sacrals is subject to variation in many animals, especially in birds, the additional ones being taken from the caudal or the lumbar series. M. Dupont has also written upon the Bernissart Tguanodons, and agrees with M. Van Beneden in referring them to Z. manteli. _M. Van Beneden adds some interesting particulars relating to the limbs and pelvic arch of Iguanodon. 7 All palæontologists agree that the Iguanodons had on the hind feet three toes used in walking, but it is not generally known that the metatarsal bones of these three toes were completely separate, alike at both- ends, and capable of leaving their imprint upon the soil behind the toes, so that the Iguanodons were plantigrade when compared with most birds, or, to speak more accurately, were herpetigrade, like the penguin’s. The fore limbs, which are as little developed as in kangaroos, have five fingers ; three middle ones equally developed and having © three phalanges, as also has the fifth, and a thumb consisting of - a single large phalanx and a rudimentary metacarpal. e fift finger is small, and opposable to the thumb, so that the Iguanodons had two hands with which to gather the fruits of the cycads and conifers that flourished in the same epoch. : e impressions of the footsteps of these animals, well preserved ‘Sur l’Arc Pelvien des Dinosauriens de Bernissart ; par M. G. A. Boulenger. Rap- port de M, P-J. Van Beneden. Bruxelles. Imprimerie de PAcademie Royale de Belgique, 1881. i ' ; ; eo 256 General Notes. [ March, both in England and in Hanover,teach us that they did not make use of their tail for support, either when walking or when at rest, since up to this time no trace of a caudal impression has been found. This is also what might be inferred from the structure of the processes of the caudal vertebrz and from the tendons, which are so distinctly ossified that with a little trouble the myology of the tail could be made out. There has been considerable difference of opinion among natu- ralists as to the homologies of the pelvic bones of saurians, espe- cially with regard to the pubis, which is incomplete and does not take part in the formation of the cotyloid cavity. The pelvic basin of Comptonotus dispar (Marsh) is, according to that author, nearest to that of the Iguanodon, but has the post-pubis more bird-like than in the latter. HurKe on Poracantuus Foxi'.—Dr. J. M. Hulke has at last given us a description of this species, whose name has been on P nience Dr. Hulke has adopted the name given without descrip- tion by Professor Owen, but the species will stand Polacanthus fori Hulke. The animal is nearly allied to Hylæosaurus, and is one of the most thoroughly defended of the Dinosauria. Its body sup- ported huge spines, and its tail was enclosed in an armor of bony plates. The species was large and powerful, but not one of the gigantic forms of the order. It was found in the Wealden of the Isle of Wight by Dr. Fox, who has made so many important discoveries in that region. RUSSIAN SAUROPTERYGIA.—M. Kiprijanoff has communicated an important memoir on the genus /chthyosaurus to the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg’. The motive for the memoir was found in the discovery of the genus in the Cretaceous greensand of European Russia. This threw the genus into a later geological epoch than its range in Continental Europe had included. The author takes occasion to analyze the species of the genus,a work which will be of great service to extra-European palzontologists in their studies. The Russian species is the Z. campylodon of Carter. Besides describing the bones of the skeleton, M. Kipri- janoff investigates their histology, and especially the minute struc- ture of the teeth. The plates illustrating this part of the subject are beautiful specimens of art. . Tue Grotocy or Froripa—Prof. E. A. Smith, of Alabama, summarizes the geological history of the Peninsula of Florida as ollows : (1.) Since no rocks have been found in Florida dlder than the © 1From the Transactions of the Royal Society, London. Part 111, 1881. ne, 2Studien ueber die Fossillen Reptilien, Russlands von M. Kiprijanoff. 1 Theil, ad Galtieng Ichthyosaurus. Mem. de Academie Imperiale de Sciences de St. Peterse bourg. 1881. E 1882. | Geology and Paleontology. 257 Vicksburg limestone, it follows that until the end of the Eocene period, this part of our country had not yet been added to the firm lands of the continent, but was still submerged. (2.) During the period of disturbance which followed the de- position of the Vicksburg limestone, Florida was elevated nearly to its present height above the sea-level, which elevation was maintained without material interruption until the Champlain period. (3.) In this upward movement the axis of elevation did not coincide with the present main dividing ridge of the peninsula, but lay considerably to the westward, probably occupying the position very nearly of the western coast of to-day. (4.) After the Miocene (or possibly the Pliocene) period, there was again an elevation of Florida, as is shown by the presence of a Miocene limestone of the eastern slope of the peninsula, et distance (not less than thirty feet) above the present sea- evel, (5.) We have evidence in the distribution of the beds of the Champlain period (stratified drift of orange sand) that Florida and parts of the adjacent States were during this. time submerged sufficiently to allow the deposition over them ofa mass of pebbles, sand and clay, varying in thickness from a few feet to two hun- dred. From the peculiar mode of stratification of most of these beds, it is concluded, with reason, that they were sediments from tapidly-flowing, ever-varying currents. In the State, the beds of yellow and red loam lie directly upon the stratified drift. These beds of loam are devoid of stratified structure, as well as of fossils. and were probably deposited from slowly running or nearly stagnant waters. (6.) Following the submergence during the Champlain period, was a re-elevation, which brought the peninsula to approxi- mately its present configuration. —Scientific News. GrotocicaL News.—The Trans. N. Y. Acad. of Sciences contain a paper by Mr. J. H. Purman upon the “ Geology of the Copper egion of Northern Texas and the Indian Territory,” giving the first accurate description of the geological structure of the dis- trict. S. A. Miller (Jour. Cincin. Soc. Nat. Hist.) concludes his- article on Mesozoic and Czenozoic Geology by considering the “ Drift of the Central Part of the Continent.” He describes the character of these deposits, their situation, altitude, magnetic earings, fossils, etc., and concludes by the assertion that the facts collected tend to prove that “there is no marine or other deposit which represents a glacial period.” Ina second paper he describes two new crinoids from the Niagara group, and two new shells. In the Geneva Archives des Sci. Phys. et Nat., July, 1881, Mr. E. A. Forel has an important article on the periodical variations of ‘glaciers, based upon observations in the Alps. The Rhone glacier . has retreated from 1857 to 1880 ata rate varying from twenty- VOL, XVIL—NO. m 17 e . 258 General Notes. { March, three to seventy-one metres annually. The retreat or advance of a glacier depends “on changes of long cep ge in meteorological conditions—heat, moisture, winds.” ——In the Am. Fournal of Sci- ence Dr. R. W. Coppinger has some Etny PEOR upon the movement of the soil-cap on the shores of Western Patagonia. Evergreen forests and brushwood cover the shore hills to a height of one thousand feet, and gravitation, acting on this mass of vege- tation and the soil beneath, resting on a surface already planed by ice-action, causes the whole to slide downward to the water, which removes its free edge in much the same way that the end of a Greenland glacier is removed. The Report on the Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota, for 1880, contains a descriptive list of rocks, descriptions of three new Lower Silurian Brachiopods, and a note on the Cupriferous series by Professor Winchell; also an account of the Glacial phenomena of the State _and the district north and west of it, by Warren Upham. GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS.' Dr. LENZ ON THE SAHARA.—Dr. Oscar Lenz gives in the last number of the Zeztschrift of the Berlin Geographical Society” an account of the results of his journey across the Sahara, from Tan- ger to Timbuktu, and thence to Senegambia. a es good abridgement of his paper we take from the Vatu “The real journey was begun at Marrakesh, we the northern foot of the Atlas mountains, where Dr. Lenz laid in his store of provisions and changed his name and dress, traveling further under the disguise of a Turkish.military surgeon. He crossed the Atlas and the Anti-Atlas in a south-western direc- ti e Atlas consists, first, of a series of low hills belonging to the Tertiary and Cretaceous formations, then of a wide plateau of red sandstone, probably Triassic, and of the chief range, which consists of clay-slates with extensive iron ores. The pass of Bi- banan is 1250 metres above the sea-level, and it is surrounded with peaks about 4000 metres high, whilst the Wad Sus valley at its foot is but 150 metres above the sea, The Anti-Atlas consists of Palzozoic strata. On May 5, 1880, Dr. Lenz reached Tenduf, a small town founded some thirty years ago, and promising to acquire great importance as a station for caravans. The northern part of the Sahara is a plateau 400 metres high, consisting of hori- zontal Devonian strata which contain numerous fossils. On May 15 Dr. Lenz crossed the moving sand-dunes of Igidi, a wide tract where he observed the interesting phenomenon of musical sand, a sound like that of a trumpet being produced by the friction of the small grains of quartz. But amidst these moving dunes it is 1 Edited by Etuis H. ee prune tic Kurzer Bericht iiber meine Reise von Tanger nach Timbuktu und ess gga PS Von Dr, Oscar Lenz. Zeitschrift ee Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde zu es in. Nos. 94, 95, p- 272. It is accompanied by a large map ot his route. Scale 1:1 ,500,000- : rawn by Dr. R. Kiepert. 1882. ] Geography and Travels. 259 not uncommon to find some grazing places for camels, as well as flocks of gazelles and antelopes. At El Eglab Dr. Lenz found granite and porphyry, and was fortunate enough to have rain. -them. On May 29 he reached the salt works of Taudeni and visited the ruins of a very ancient town where numerous stone implements have been found. Here he crossed a depression of the desert only 145 to 170 metres high, while the remainder of the desert usually reaches as much as 250 to 300 metres above the sea level ; and he remarks that throughout: his journey he did not meet with depressions below the sea-level. The schemes for flooding the Sahara are therefore hopeless and misleading. landscape remained the same until the wide Alfa fields which extend north of Arauan. This little town is situated amidst sand- west to St. Louis. During his forty-three days’ travel through the Sahara Dr. Lenz observed that the temperature was not excessive; it usually was from 34° to 36° Celsius, and only in the Igidi region it reached 45°. The wind blew mostly from north-west, and it was only south of Taudeni that the traveler experienced the hot south winds [edrash] of the desert. As to the theory of north-eastern trade winds being the cause of the formation of the desert, Dr. Lenz remarks that he never observed such a wind, nor did his men; it must be stopped by the hilly tracts of the north. “ Another important remark of Dr. Lenz is what he makes with respect to the frequent description of the Sahara as a sea-bed.. Of course it was under the sea, but during the Devonian, Creta- ceous and Tertiary periods ; as to the sand which covers it now, it has nothing to do with the sea; it is the product of the destruction of sandstones by atmospheric agencies. Northern Africa was not always a desert, and the causes of its being so now must be sought for, not in geological but in meterological influences.” Arctic ExpLoration.—Up to the middle of June last the edge of the ice extended in an east and west direction at a distance of only sixty to one hundred miles from the coast of Finmark. It trended north-eastward toward Novaya Zemlya, and swept round at a distance of about thirty miles from Matyushin Strait, towards the entrance of theWhite Sea. With the probable exception of 1867, the ice was then nearer to the northern coast of Norway than it was ever known to be before. After the middle of August the ice dis- appeared off Novaya Zemlya, and there was probably open water to Franz-Josef Land. It is stated in the Royal Geographical Societies’ Proceedings that “ the collective evidence shows that the _ prevailing northerly and north-westerly winds of last winter packed the ice in a broad belt across the Spitzbergen and Barent’s Seas. _ . 260 General Notes. [ March, The southern edge of this belt was exceptionally low down along the north coast of Norway, while the northern edge nearly reached the south point of Spitzbergen. The southern pack-edge showed little alteration during May and June, but gave way rapidly when it fairly began to melt—about the beginning of July—as the ice was on the whole of no great thickness. The climatic conditions north and south of the belt seems to have differed considerably ~ during the winter. In the north of Norway heavy falls of snow were unusually frequent, while north of the belt the fall was comparatively slight. So early as the end of June the winter snow had in great measure disappeared even from the highlands of Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya, while in the northern part o Norway it lay thickly, down to the very water’s edge. On arriv- ing at Spitzbergen the walrus hunters also found vegetation unu- sually far advanced. Thus since large masses of ice were blown southward during the winter of 1880-1, it is highly probable that the Polar regions were fairly free from ice early in the summer, while the autumn must have offered exceptionally favorable con- ditions for an advance to the northward or north-eastward. This supposition is strongly confirmed by reports from the walrus grounds northward of Spitzbergen. With regard to the Kara Sea, it seems that it was not accessible from the westward till about the beginning of August. But while a heavy, solid pack _ extended northward from the Kara Strait along the east coast of Novaya Zemlya, the eastern part of the Kara Sea was certainly free from ice by the beginning of August, and very probably by the middle of July. In August and September, therefore, vessels from Europe could undoubtedly have reached the mouth of the - Yenisei.” It is probable the Zira took advantage of the disappearance of the ice in August, as mentioned above, to make her way to Franz Josef Land Lieutenant Berry, of the Rodgers, found the sea becoming deeper as he sailed to the north-eastward from Wrangell Island. His observations off Herald Island indicate that there is no regu- lar current flowing to the north-west, as previously supposed. No perceptible current was noticed at low and high water—the only movement being caused by the tidal action. i The expedition sent out by the Danish Government last sum- mer to Greenland, has returned home. It proceeded to the southernmost part of Greenland and succeeded in circumnavi- gating the large islands on the southern coast and in determining the exact position of Cape Farewell. Investigations were con- ducted on the mainland from the Tasermint Fjord on the west coast to the Lindenows Fjord on the east coast. There are high mountains and enormous glaciers on the west side. The eastern section is of lower elevation, and covered with 1882. ] Microscopy. Scientific News. 261 a layer of ice and snow with the exception of a few mountain peaks. Mr. Dall, in an elaborate paper on the hydrology of Behring Sea, in Petermann’s Mittheilungen, concludes that the warm sur- face water which enters the Polar Sea through Behring Strait is, at most, capable of melting 5100 square inches of ice, and that its influence is consequently insignificant. No branch of the Kuro Siwo enters the Behring Sea, and the currents in the Polar basin to the north of it, are mainly dependent upon the winds. There is no reason to suppose that these drift currents are capable of lishment of a meteorological station at’ Fort Simpson, on the Mackenzie River, to be conducted on the system adopted by the International Polar Conference. Lake Onega may be considered to mark the natural boundary between Northern Russia and Finland, as regards their geologi- cal structure, topographical features, fauna and flora. MICROSCOPY .' Tue Acme Microscopes,—These really excellent instruments, combining good workmanship with moderate cost, and built upon a model which comprises many of the most convenient and ser- viceable of recent improvements in the construction of stands, have passed into the hands of James W. Queen & Co., of Phila- delphia, who will act as business agents for their sale, and whose great business facilities cannot fail to secure for them a more gen- eral and adequate appreciation and attention than they have yet received. A “No, 4” stand, simpler and smaller than those for- merly made, and a “lithological,” specially adapted to the exami- nation of rocks, are among the recent additions to the Acme series. Ker srn SCIENTIFIC NEWS. — A French naval doctor, M. Crevaux, has lately made im- portant explorations in the northern parts of South America, more especially in the valley of the Orinoco and its affluents. Among other facts of observation, he states that the Guaraunos, at the delta of that river, take refuge in the trees when the delta is inundated. There they make a sort of dwelling with branches and clay. The women light, on a small piece of floor, the fire needed for cooking, and the traveler on the river by night often — sees with surprise long rows of flames at a considerable height in the air. The Guaraunos dispose of their dead by hanging them This department is edited by Dr. R. H. Warp, Troy, N. Y. a 262 Scientific News. [ March, in hammocks in the tops of trees. Dr. Crevaux, in the course of his travels, met with geophagous, or earth-eating tribes. The clay, which often serves for their food whole months, seems to be a mixture of oxide of iron and some organic substances. They have recourse to it more especially in times of scarcity; but, strange to say, there are eager gourmands for the substance, in- dividuals in whom the depraved taste becomes so pronounced, that they may be seen tearing pieces of ferruginous clay from huts made of- it, and putting them in their mouths. — Wasps are such an obstacle in the way of English fruit growers that one of them, Mr. William Taylor, thinks it worth while to pay three pence each for queens. And this season he bought and destroyed no less than 1192; about 230 nests have been annihilated within a mile of his premises, and still there is enough left for seed. He declares that the price named is not too high, “since it takes considerable skill to catch them,” and because of their enormous fecundity, of which he says in the Cottage Gardener: “Understand that every wasp seen before the middle of June is a queen, and liable to have a nest of 10,000 at least. I lately estimated the number of cells in a rather large nest, and made out gooo of them. A great many of the young had flown, and fresh eggs were laid in their places, and I have reason to believe that there is often more than one succession of young insects from the same cells, therefore 10,000 is a compara- tively small family.” — It has been found by M. de Lacerda that permanganate of potash is very efficacious as an antidote to the poison of snakes. He experimented on dogs, injecting a one per cent. solution of the substance into the cellular tissue or into the veins, after the poison, and the usual effects of the latter were strikingly obviated. In one series of experiments the poison was allowed time to take some effect before the permanganate solution was injected, the dogs showing dilatation of the pupil, respiratory and cardiac de- -rangements, muscular contractions, &c. Two or three minutes after the antidote was given these troubles disappeared, and after 15 to 25 minutes of some measure of prostration, -the animal would be able to walk and even run about, and recover its normal aspect. The same dose of poison, not counteracted, caused death, more or less rapidly. —Mr. J. M. Swanks’ Statistics of the Iron and Steel Productions of the United States, 1881, is issued by the Census Bureau, anc bears the marks of careful preparation. The historical sketch 1s interesting reading, The statement is made that “ we are to-day the second iron-making and steel-making country in the world. In a little while we shall surpass even Great Britain in the pro- duction of steel of all kinds, as we have already surpassed her in- a the production of Bessemer steel and in the consumption of alliron — and steel products. The year 1882 will probably witness this cop 1882. ] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 263 summation. We are destined also to pass Great Britain in the production of pig iron. —Under the title of “ Zodlogy in the University of Tokio,” Professor C. O. Whitman, late professor of zoology in the Univer- sity of Tokio, discourses in a pamphlet of forty-four pages on the needs of a more complete endowment of a zoological department, and the natural advantages enjoyed by the Japanese zoologist for the study of this science. It contains interesting facts regarding the land leech, the land planarian, the jumping fish, an h animals. Professor Whitman is at present in Naples, studying at the Zoological Laboratory, founded by Dr. Dohrn. —In the Iowa Legislature, on the 20th of January last, a peti- tion from the citizens of Pottawatomie county, and another by Messrs. Henderson and Calkins, were presented, asking for a ' thorough geological survey of the State. Both petitions were referred to the Committee of Ways and Means, which reported favorably on the project. Another move has been made looking toward the establishment of a Bureau of Agriculture, which shall sustain an entomologist, an office which is sadly needed. —Queen, one of the group of elephants connected with Bar- num’s circus, at Bridgeport, Conn., gave birth to a baby elephant last night (February 3) at eight o’clock; weight, forty-five pounds. The other baby elephant weighed one hundred and twenty-six pounds at birth. At last reports mother and daughter were doing well. — M. Pasteur has resolved to continue his researches into the means of preventing diseases by destroying or nullifying the viru- lence of the germs, and is about to visit the Bordeaux lazaretto, with a view of studying yellow fever, which he hopes to conquer by means of inoculation. —A new and most valuable feature of the Census Reports for 1880 are the Forestry Bulletins, prepared by Mr. C. S. Sargent. Each number is accompanied by a map of some State, showing the distribution of forests, with special reference to the lumber industry. —Humboldt is the title of a new monthly illustrated magazine of science in all departments, published at Stuttgart and edited by Dr. G. Krebs. :0: PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. Boston Socrery of Natura History, Jan. 18, 1882.—Mr. m. M. Davis discussed the classification of Lake Basins, and Mr. F. W. Putnam spoke of the use of copper and bronze by the early races of America. 7 Oa a? eb. 1.—Professor Henry W. Haynes gave some indications of an early race of men in New England, and Mr. F. W. Putnam © showed some interesting stone implements from Marshfield, Mass. 264 Selected Articles in Scientific Serials. (March, 1882. Mr. S. W. Garman spoke of a case of bird reasoning (?), and remarked on certain features of interest in the formation of cabinets. New York ACADEMY. OF SCIENCES, Jan. 9.——Dr. L. Johnson. described the parallel drift hills of Western New York, and Pro- fessor J. S. Newberry remarked on hypothetical high tides as agents of geological change. Jan. 30.—The following papers were read: The discovery of emeralds in North Carolina, illustrated with remarkable specimens, m. Earl Hidden. r. George F. Kunz exhibited a series of ancient obsidian knives found near the city of Guatemala, CoA. Feb. 6.—Professor J. S. Newberry remarked on the origin and relations of the carbon minerals. _ :0: SELECTED ARTICLES IN SCIENTIFIC SERIALS. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ScieNcE, February.—The flood of the Sma river valley from the melting of the Quaternary gla- cier, by J. D. Dana. Geology of the ip aig by O. A. Derby. A Gercaria with caudal sete, by J-W. Fewkes. Notice of a re- markable marine fauna occupying the aid banks off the south- ern coast of New England, by A. E. Verr QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF “eats SCIENCE, January.— On the morphology of Hemileia vastatrix (the fungus of the coffee disease of Ceylon), by H. M. Ward. On the nature of the organ in adult Teleosteans and Ganoids, which is usually regarded as the head-kidney or pronephros, by F. M. Balfour. Observations on the resting stage of Chlamydomyxa labyrinthuloides, by P. Ged- des. Review of recent researches in karyokinesis and cell divis- ion, by J. T. Cunningham. The micro-organisms which occur in septicemia, by . Dowdesnell. Pringsheim’s Laren: on chlorophyll, translated and condensed by B. Balfou ZEITSCHRIFT FUR WISSENCHAFTLICHE ZOOLOGIE, Bcc abl 30.— On the structure of the bird-inhabiting Sarcoptide, by G. Haller. On Scoloplos armiger, by W. Man. Comparative-embry ological studies, by E. Metschnikoff. Dimorpla nutans,a connective form between the Flagellata and Helliosa, by A. Gruber. Contribu- tions to a knowledge of Amcebe, by A. Gruber. Contributions to a knowledge of Radiolarian shells, by O. Bütschli. ZOOLOGICAL aae — —Traces of a great post-glacial flood, by H. H. Hawo ANNALS AND eae oF Natura History, December—.On certain points in the morphology of the Blastoidea, by P. Ho Carpenter. ; THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. VoL. xvi. — APRIL, 1882. — No. 4. MOUND PIPES. BY EDWIN A. BARBER. T is impossible to determine what was the earliest form of the tobacco-pipe. The oldest examples of which we possess any knowledge, have been exhumed from some of the mounds of the Mississippi valley. These are usually made of stone of great hardness, but we have no reason to believe that this material was always employed in their manufacture. It is not to be supposed that the symmetrical and highly-finished specimens which the mounds have produced were the results of the first savage con- ception of the narcotic utensil. Indeed, it is more than probable that the most ancient pipes were rudely fashioned from wood or other perishable substances, all traces of which. Have long : since disappeared. The earliest stone pipes from the mounds were “always carved from a single piece, and consist of a flat curved base, of variable length and width, with the bowl rising from the center of the convex side. From one of the ends, and communicating with the hollow of the bowl, is drilled a small hole, which answers the purpose of a tube; the corresponding opposite division being left for the manifest purpose of holding the implement to the mouth.”? It would be difficult to conceive of any other form so admirably adapted to the purpose for which it was designed. Such pipes are not only models of compactness, but are, in many instances, highly ornamental, and in all proba- bility totemic. In the majority of these “platform” pipes, the stem perforation, which is always straight, is so minute as to pre- clude the possibility of the insertion of an additional stem. The ! Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi valley, p. 228. | VOL, XVI.—No, IV. +e 266 Mound Pipes. [ April, implement was complete in one piece, so that all parts were equally durable. The facts that such pipes had expended upon them all of the ingenuity and skill at the command of the sculp- - tor, and that they were usually placed in association with human remains, go far to prove that they were invested, to a considerable degree, with’a religious, or at least a mortuary, significance. “ The remarkable characteristics of their elaborately sculptured pipes, and their obvious connection with services accompanying some of the rites of sacrifice or cremation, tend,” as Dr. Wilson observes, “to suggest very different associations with the pipe of those an- cient centuries from such as now pertain to its familiar descendant. Embodying, as these highly-finished implements did, the result of so much labor, as well as of artistic skill, there are not want- ing highly suggestive reasons for the opinion, that the elaborate employment of the imitative arts on the pipe-heads found depos- ited in the mounds, may indicate their having played an import- ant part in the religious solemnities of. the ancient race.” The typical mound pipe is of the “ monitor ” form, as it may be termed, possessing a short, cylindrical, urn, or spool-shaped bowl, rising from the center of a flat and slightly curved base. Fig. I is an illustration of an example from a mound in Ross county, Ohio, which is now deposited in the National Museum at Wash- ington. Pipes of this form average three or four inches in length, but an extraordinary specimen formerly in the collection of Mr. O. A. Jenison, of Lansing, Mich., measures six and five- eighths inches. The most important and interesting discovery of mound pipes was made by Messrs. Squier and Davis, during their explora- tions in the valley of the Mississippi, about a third of a century ago. From a small sacrificial tumulus in the vicinity of “ Mound City,” Ohio, they obtained nearly two hundred stone pipes. Many of these, according to the report of the discoverers, “ were much broken up, some of them calcined by the heat, which had been sufficiently strong to melt copper, masses of which were found fused together in the center of the basin. A large number have nevertheless been restored, at the expense of much labor and no small amount of patience. They are mostly composed of a red porphyritic stone, somewhat resembling the pipe stone of the Coteau des Prairies excepting that it is of great hardness and w interspersed with small variously colored granules, * * pes 1882. ] Mound Pipes. 267 The bowls of most of the pipes are carved in miniature figures of animals, birds, reptiles, etc. All of them are executed with strict fidelity to nature, and with exquisite skill”! With the exception of this large deposit of these objects, comparatively few of them have been brought to light; yet a number of them are scattered through public and private museums in the United States and Europe, some of which will be described hereafter. It is a mat- ter for sincere regret that the greater portion of the original col- ‘lection of Dr. E. H. Davis was sold to the Blackmore Museum _ at Salisbury, England, some years ago. In the Museum of Nat- ural History in New York City, however, thirteen of the original specimens, formerly owned by Mr. E. G. Squier, may yet be seen, including the remarkable example represented in Fig. 142 on page 244 of Ancient Monuments. In the magnificent collection of pipes recently owned by Mr. William Bragge, F.S.A., of Birmingham, England, are three broken bird-shaped pipes from “ Mound City,” Ohio. A set of casts of the entire Squier and Davis collection is preserved in the National Museum at Washington, Amongst the pipes of the original series were a number supposed to represent animals not indigenous to the Uni- ted States. Seven representations of the lamantin, or sea-cow, were found in the mounds, three of which were nearly perfect. “The sculptures of the manatus,” remark the explorers, “ are too exact to have been the production of those who were not well acquainted with the animal and its habits.” Though frequenting the mouths of tropical rivers, the “big beaver,” as the Florida Indians called this curious animal, has been found within the boundaries of the United States. Bartram states that it occurs in Florida, in a spring a few miles below Tallahassee.’ The manati are comprised in three or four species, two of which are found in - the Gulf of Mexico. The more northern species (Manatus lati- rostris) is found in 25° N. lat., and Harlan states that during the first quarter of the present century it was so abundant near the- capes of Eastern Florida that one Indian sometimes sieir Bo i ae or twelve specimens with a harpoon in a single season.* This Species, which sometimes attains to a length of fifteen or twenty . feet, bears a striking resemblance to the smaller M. senegalensis of : 2 Ancient “Reais p: 152. ? Ibid, p. 2 * Travels gee America, Dublin, 1793, p. 229. * Fauna Americana, 1825, p. 277 268 Mound Pipes. [April, Western Africa. In both of these species the caudal fin is rounded, and the fingers on the swimming paws of the former species are provided with rudimentary nails. The Indians were extravagantly fond of the flesh of the manatee, the tail being considered the most savory portion. The following quaint de- scription of the species inhabiting the Indian ocean is interesting as given by an early writer: “ It is good Meat, because using the Shoar it hath a flesh taste, resembling Veal, which also it shews like ; the Face is like a shrivelled Buffalo or Cow, the Eyes are small and round, and has hard Gums instead of Teeth; the In- trals also are like a Cow’s: there is a Stone generated in the Head, which is very valuable, being a soveraign remedy (as some report) against Cholick, Stone-Cholick, and Dysentery, being beat small, infused in Wine, and drunk fasting: the Body of this Fish is three Yards long and one broad, thick-skinned, and with- out Scales, narrow towards the Tail, which is very nervous, slow in swimming, because it wants Fins, in lieu of which it has two Paps, which it can use either to suckle its young withal, or creep ashoar, where it grazes, and where it delights to lie and sleep; for it can’t keep half an Hour under Water. It is very teachable and apt to be made tame, being famed like the Lizzard for their love to Man, whose Face is delight to look upon, and in weak- ness have refreshed them One of the sculptures ieli to above, is represented with a flat, truncated tail, which may possibly have been intended for the South American species (M. australis), though it is not probable that the ancient mound-builder was familiar with exotic models of this animal. I am inclined to believe that this feature was the result of an inaccuracy in detail on the part of the sculptor, especially as all of the other representations exhibit the rounded tail of the Floridian species. Another carving of ruder execution has, with some hesitation, been described as the toucan, a bird not found in the northern part of the western continent. Since the Indians of Guiana and Brazil, according to the statements of travelers, formerly domes- ticated this bird, the fact that the sculpture in question is repre- sented in the act of taking food from a human hand, “would favor the conclusion,” according to the discoverers, that it was 1Sir Thomas Herbert’s Travels in 1626. From Navigantium atque Itineratium Bibliotheca, by John Harris, F.R.S. London, 1705, Vol. £, p 1882. ] Mound Pipes. - 269 intended to represent the toucan. The shape and proportions of the beak and the number and position of the toes, however, are sufficient evidence that the bird which formed the model of the artist, did not belong to the zygodactylous order. The pipe shows three toes in front and the bill is short and stout. The builders of the mounds probably possessed their aviaries which, like those of the ancient Mexicans, doubtless supplied a number of species which were capable of domestication. Fic. t,—Monitor Pipe. Fic, 2.—Otter Pipe. Several of the images, however, are undoubtedly portraitures of familiar animals. “Not only are the features of the various animals represented faithfully, but their peculiarities and habits are in some degree exhibited.” In one pipe we recognize the otter with a fish in his mouth (Fig. 2). The tufted heron is seen in the position of devouring a fish (Fig. 3). ‘‘ Nothing can sur- pass the truthfulness and delicacy of the sculpture. The minutest feathers are shown; the articulations of the legs of the bird, as Fic. 3.—Heron Pipe. Fic. 4.—Beaver Pipe. also the gills, fins and scales of the fish, are represented.” The hawk is shown in the act of tearing a smaller bird’ The beaver also figures in the collection (Fig. 4), as also do the bear, panther, wolf, wild-cat, elk, opossum and squirrel; the buzzard, crow, eagle, falcon, owl, raven, duck, grouse, parroquet and swallow; the serpent (rattlesnake), turtle, frog, toad and a number of other animals which have been readily recognized. The sockets of the 1 Ancient seeps, p. 152. ? Ibid, * For ois of this sculpture, see Harper’s Mmthly Magazine, June, 1855. 270 Mound Pipes. [ April, eyes in the majority of the bird pipes were set with pearls from the margaritiferous Unionide. The most valuable specimens of the series, however, are those in the form of the human head, probably “ faithfully representing the prominent physical features of the ancient people by whom they were made.”? Fig. 5 illustrates the most interesting example. in this valuable collection.” Next in importance to the discoveries of Messrs. Squier and Davis, is the collection of mound pipes deposited in the Daven- port Academy of Natural Sciences, and for the greater part taken from mounds by members of that learned body. The series number forty-three specimens of the platform type, consisting of twenty-two with plain or zoned bowls of the “ monitor” pattern ; one human head; seven bigds, and thirteen other animal forms, of which Mr. W. H. Pratt has kindly sent me photographs. aes ‘ Fic. 5.—Pipe from Squier and Davis collection. Fic. 6.—Unfinished Pipe. An interesting and instructive specimen, in the form of an un- finished pipe, was taken from a mound at Toolsborough, Louisa county, Iowa, which serves'to show, to a certain extent, the man- ner of fashioning such objects. The material is a coarse, soft, cream-colored stone, which has been roughly hewn into the de- sired shape (Fig. 6). The inference to be drawn from the pres- ence of an incomplete pipe in one of the mounds, is either that it was discarded on account of the unsuitableness of the mate- rial, or that it was placed in the tumulus as a substitute for a per- fectly finished specimen which could not be procured at the time when the body it was intended to accompany was deposited. An 1 Ancient Monuments, p. 153. 2 The illustration of this pipe and those which precede, have been furnished through the courtesy of Professor S. F. Baird, secretary of the Smithsonian Institu- tion, from Dr. Charles Rau’s work on the Archeological Collection of the United States National Museum. 1882. ] Mound Pipes. 271 incomplete object, somewhat resembling this, in which the cavity of the bowl is merely indicated, is figured in Mr. E. G. Squier’s “ Aboriginal Monuments of the State of New York.”! It is made of steatite and was found near Mount Morris, Livingston county. The original of Fig. 7 is a bird-shaped pipe carved from Fic. 7.—Bird Pipe. a bluish-gray pipe stone. It was found associated with portions of several human skeletons and a four-sided, bent copper “ awl,” about six inches in length, in a mound of the same group as the last one figured. This was possibly intended to represent a spe- Bx Fic. 8.—Grouse Pipe. cies of wild duck, the eyes of which were globules of pure native . copper. From another mound of the same group was taken a second bird pipe of the same material, which is shown in Fig. 8, ‘Smith. Cont. to Knowl. Vol. 1, p. 76 (Fig. 12). 272. Mound Pipes. : [ April, and is believed to portray the male of the pinnated grouse. In the same mound were found portions of several human skeletons, about two hundred shell beads, five copper axes, one of them “a very smoothly wrought specimen, showing very distinct traces of the cloth in which it had been wrapped, and some portions of which were still adhering to the copper,”? and another bird-shaped Fic. 9.—Goose (?) Pipe. pipe of red pipe stone, furnished with eyes of pearl. The speci- men shown in Fig. ọ may have been meant for the wild goose, or possibly the loon. It is formed of sandstone, and was found in Louisa county, Iowa. bout one mile below Davenport, on the right bank of the Mississippi, the original of Fig. 10, fashioned from a light-gray pipe stone, was discovered in a mound at a depth of six feet, Fic. 10.—Ground Hog Pipe. associated with five very old copper, cloth-wrapped axes and two pieces of galena. Above these objects, one and a half feet from the top of the mound, were found two adult skeletons, evidently belonging to an intrusive burial, as they were accompanied by 1 Vide Proceedings of the Davenport Academy, Vol. 1, p. 108. 1882. ] Mound Pipes. 273 European relics, such as glass beads, etc. It is difficult to deter- mine what animal was intended, the wolf, ground-hog and prairie- Fic, 11.—Howling Wolf (?) Pipe. dog having been variously suggested. The “howling wolf” (?) pipe (Fig. 51) is from a sand hill in Rock Island county, Illinois: Fic. 12.—Lizard Pipe. The sculptured lizard (Fig. 12) and the turtle (Fig. 13) are from mounds in Mercer county, Ill. The last three are made of a Fic, 13.—Turtle Pipe. soft, dark slate-colored talc. The serpent pipe (Fig. 14) comes from the same locality, and is formed of a sort of clay slate, In close contiguity, in the same mound, a lump of galena, consider- ably ground down, was discovered, and the pipe presented the 274 Mound Pipes. [ April, appearance, when found, of having been lightly coated with a plumbiferous substance. Another example carved in the form of Fic. 14.—Serpent Pipe. a frog (Fig. 15) from a light-gray pipe stone, was exhumed from a mound in the same group with that which yielded the original of Fig. 10. Associated with the former were two copper axes and five skeletons, of which three faced the east and the others the west. The pipe was found with the latter two. Having incidentally heard of a pipe in the form of a bear, which was said to have been found in a mound in Muscatine county, Iowa, by a laboring man, the Rev. Mr. J. Gass, a member of the Academy, finally, with some difficulty, discovered the Fic. 15.—Frog Pipe. owner and succeeded in purchasing the specimen from hiin for a paltry sum (see Fig. 16). The peculiarity of this pipe, which is made of a gray trap rock, unpolished, is that, unlike most other platform pipes, it possesses a straight base which is not drilled and of which the front projection is lacking, the mouth of the animal forming the mouth-piece for the smoker. The most remarkable specimens in the Davenport collection, however, are the two elephant pipes recently brought to light, and which have been too hastily pronounged spurious by critics 1882. | Mound Pipes. 275 who have had no opportunity of examining them. The circum- stances of the discovery of these two examples are’ contained in the following extracts from a letter which I have received from Fic. 16.—Bear Pipe. Mr. W. H. Pratt, president of the Academy, under date of April 24, 1880: “ The first elephant pipe which we obtained-(Fig. 17) a little more than a year ago, was found some six years before by an illiterate German farmer named Peter Mare, while planting corn on a farm in the mound region, Louisa county, Iowa. He did not care whether it was elephant or kangaroo; to him it was a curious ‘Indian stone,’ and nothing more, and he kept it and smoked it. Fic. 17.—Elephant Pipe, Iowa. In 1878 he removed to Kansas, and when he left, he gave the pipe to his brother-in-law, a farm laborer, who also smoked it. Mr. Gass happened to hear of it, as he is always inquiring about such things, hunted up the man and borrowed the pipe to take photographs and casts from it. He could not buy it. The man Said his brother-in-law gave it to him and it was a curious thing— . 276 | Mound Pipes. [ April, he wanted to keep it. We were, however, unfortunate, or fortu- nate, enough to break it; that spoiled it for him and that was his chance to make some money out of it. He could have claimed any amount, and we would, as in duty bound, have raised it for him, but he was satisfied with three or four dollars. During ` the first week in April, this month, Rev. Ad. Blumer, another German Lutheran minister, now of Genesee, Illinois, having for- merly resided in Louisa county, went down there in company with Mr. Gass to open afew mounds, Mr. Blumer being well acquainted there. They carefully explored ten of them, and found nothing but ashes and decayed bones in any, except one. In that one was a layer of red, hard-burned clay, about five feet across and thirteen inches in thickness at the center, which rested upon a bed of ashes one foot in depth in the middle, the ashes Fic. 18.—Elephant Pipe, Iowa. resting upon the natural undisturbed clay. In the ashes, near the bottom of the layer, they found a part of a broken carved stone pipe representing some bird; a very small, beautifully formed copper ‘axe,’ and this last elephant pipe (Fig. 18). This pipe was first discovered by Mr. Blumer, and by him, at our earnest solicitation, turned over to the Academy.” Mr. J. Duncan Putnam, corresponding secretary of the Acad- emy, writes me that the former pipe “is of a light-colored sand- stone, but has been much greased and smoked, so as to appear of a dark color.” The material of the latter is the same. There seems to be no flaw in the history of these pipes, which, coming from sources of unquestioned integrity, is evidence that there has been no attempt at deception on the part of the Davenport Academy. — 1882. | | Mound Pipes. 277 It is not within the province of this paper to discuss the ques- tion of the contemporaneousness of man and the mastodon in the western hemisphere. The existence of an artificial mound in Wisconsin, 135 feet in length, zw the form of an elephant} adds much to the probability of the genuineness of the pipes above described. It is worthy of note, however, that no representations © of the male elephant have as yet been found amongst the remains of man in North America. It is, to say the least, a singular fact that the most characteristic features of this pachyderm, the promi- nent tusks, should have been omitted both in the pipe sculptures and the “big elephant mound,” if the ancient Americans were acquainted with the model. The long, slender, curved tusks, however, would be difficult to imitate either in the miniature stone sculptures or the embankments of earth, and might have been purposely ignored. These likenesses of fossil mammals acquire an additional interest, however, when we read the remark- able accounts of the discoveries in the State of Missouri and else- where, of deposits of bones of the mastodon in association with flint arrow-heads and fragments of pottery.? “Such contiguity . of the works of man with those extinct diluvial giants,” observes Dr. Wilson, “ warns us: at least to be on our guard against any supercilious rejection of indications of man’s ancient presence in the New World as well as the Old. * * * * Whether or not those huge mammals had been known to man, during his occu- pation of the American continent, as his living contemporaries, their remains were objects of sufficiently striking magnitude to awaken the curiosity even of the unimpressible Indian ; and tra- ditions were common among the aborigines of the forest relative to the existence and destruction of the strange monster, whose bones lie scattered over the continent from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico. * * * * In all that relates to the history of man in the pey world, we have ever to reserve ourselves for further truths,’ ah of the platform type are confined almost past hee a the section north of the Ohio and Missouri rivers, or to States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and Iowa. A few specimens of the curved-base form have been picked up in other localities, but 1 Vide Smith, — fa p- 416. The Big Elephant Mound in Grant county, Wisconsin, by Jare * See Foster’s Shue Toe of the U. S., p. 63. * Prehistoric Man, London, 1862, Vol. 1, p. 112, et seq. 278 Mound Pipes. [ April, generally, so far as I can ascertain, on the surface, having in all probability been carried from the mound region by roving bands of Indians of a more recent period. pin the National Museum at Washington, are three examples, which were derived respectively from Ohio, Maryland and Illinois. Another was discovered in the valley of the Delaware river in the State of New Jersey. It is of the plain “ monitor ” form, made of a light-brown or choco- late-colored stone, and is now owned by Mr. Wm. S. Vaux, of Philadelphia, Pa. Hon. R. S. Robertson, of Fort Wayne, Indi- ana, possesses a pipe of the same form, from a mound in Laport county of the same State, which was found in connection with a copper chisel, two copper needles, four flints, some fragments of pottery and a single skeleton. Two other pipes from Southern Ohio, in the same collection, are cylindrical bowls which have been broken from the curved platforms and put to further use by drilling stem-holes in the sides. One of these shows an opening in the base where it was broken from the stem, the hole being plugged to render it serviceable. The other example has a por- tion of the platform still attached, which has been smoothed or polished at the point of fracture. In the collection of Dr. C. S. Arthur, of Portland, Ind., are also three curved base pipes with plain bowls, two of which were ploughed up, and the third taken from a mound, in that State. Fic. 19.—* Dog” (?) Pipe. In a mound at Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, associated with pieces of mica, an interesting platform pipe was discovered. Hon, Horace Beach, who sends me the original, regards it as de- cidedly Egyptian in general appearance, and terms it the “dog (?) pipe.” It represents the head of some animal, possibly the mountain sheep or goat, and is made of a soft, heavy, dark-brown stone, somewhat resembling Catlinite. The peculiarity of this specimen is that the face looks away from the smoker. As may be seen in the illustration (Fig. 19); the anterior end of the ae 1882. | Mound Pipes. 279 form, constituting the handle, is wanting. On the upper part of the ' nose, and on the base, front and back of the neck, hieroglyphical lines are inscribed, which may have possessed some symbolical significance, or perhaps were simply ornamental. In a few exam- ples of pipes of this class, the platforms have been carved in imita- tion of animals. Dr. J. Schneck, of Mount Carmel, Illinois, sends me a sketch of a curious specimen which was found about two feet below the surface of the earth ina mound in Wabash county, Ill. (Fig. 20). It represents a small bird about the size of, and somewhat resembling, the chimney swallow (Chetura pelasgia Steph.), which, in those distant days, attached its nest, doubtless, to the cliffs and rocky crags. The material is a soft, yellow slate; the bird is represented on its back with wings crossed beneath, the cylindrical bowl rising from the breast, and the smoking orifice passing through the tail. Dr. Elliott Coues, Fic. 20.—Bird Pipe, Illinois. to whom I sent a sketch of this pipe, writes: “ As is so frequently the probable case in such matters, I am inclined to think the sculptor had no particular bird in mind in executing his rude carving. It is not necessary, or indeed permissible, to suppose that particular species were always intended to be represented. Not unfrequently, the likeness of some marked bird is so good as to be unmistakable, but the reverse is oftener the case; and in the present instance I can make no more of the carving than you have done ; “excepting that if any particular species may have been in the carver’s mind, his execution does not suffice for its ; determination.” Another specimen, in the collection of Mr. N. V. Johnson, of Brookville, Indiana, was found in a marsh a few miles north of that place. The material is a bluish-green stone, very hard and eny polished. Mr. Edgar R. Quick, who sends me a well- 280 Mound Pipes. [April, executed colored drawing of this object, writes: “ The general form of this beautiful piece of work is that of a crescent with a protuberance on the outside, which forms the bowl of the pipe. The horns of the crescent form respectively the handle and stem or mouthpiece. The handle or front part is beautifully carved in the semblance of a lizard’s head.” (Fig. 21.) Although many of the miniature sculptures already described are characterized by a remarkable accuracy of detail, and are faithful representations of well-known animals, the ancient artist was not always true to nature. In some of the carvings, promi- nent or characteristic features were often exaggerated; the heads of birds and mammals were sometimes disproportionately en- larged; in some instances to such an extent as to suggest to us the idea of caricature. Many of these sculptures were evidently Fic. 21.—Bird Pipe, Indiana, carved from memory, and errors of execution appear more fre- quently in the representations of those animals which obviously could not have been perfectly familiar to the sculptor. Indeed, many of these portraitures are scarcely recognizable, and it is often impossible to determine what animal the artist intended to copy. The body of the elephant pipe (Fig. 17) is much elon- gated and the legs shortened; defects which may. be attributed to the inexperience of the workman or his lack of personal knowledge of the model ; yet, notwithstanding the fact that certain archeologists have advanced the opinions respectively, that the peccary, the tapir and the armadillo were intended to be portrayed, a careful study of the image will confirm us in the belief that the elephant was the animal which the prehistoric artisan had before his mind, It may be asserted with a considerable degree ” con- 1882.] Flowers of Solanum rostratum.and Cassia chamecrista. 281 fidence that no representative of an exclusively exotic fauna figured in the pipe-sculptures of the mound-builders. If we accept the presence of the mammoth or mastodon amongst these carvings, the species which served as models, though now extinct, must be classed with our indigenous fauna. Their knowledge of such animals as the-parroquet, the manatus, and possibly the seal and Rocky mountain sheep, does not necessarily indicate any particular migration on the part of that ancient people, but serves to show that their intercourse and commercial relations with other ° peoples were extensive. As has been previously remarked, how- ever, the artists were apparently well acquainted with some of the birds, mammals and amphibia whose geographical limits were far removed from the upper portion of the Mississippi valley, but which, nevertheless, might have been met with by some of the people in their expeditions. On the other hand, many of the representations were evidently executed from descriptions or rude delineations furnished by those who had seen the originals. The mounds have produced galena from Missouri and the adjacent territory; mica from the spurs of the Alleghany or Rocky mountains; Catlinite from Minnesota; copper from the Lake Superior region; obsidian from Mexico and the Pacific slope of the United States, and marine shells from the Gulf of Mexico, the Atlantic ocean, and also the Dentalium of the Pacific coast. Thus it will be seen that the trade relations of the mound-build- ers extended over a great extent of territory, in fact, covering the greater portion of the present United States and probably pene- trating into British America and Mexico. 10: ON THE FLOWERS OF SOLANUM ROSTRATUM AND CASSIA CHAMACRISTA? BY PROFESSOR J. E. TODD. W FT HIN a few years, a plant has been introduced into Sonti western Iowa, which is as unwelcome as it is interesting. It bristles all over on stem, leaves and fruit, with stout, rigid prickles. It is commonly called Texas nettle;as it is supposed to have been brought by the herds of Texas cattle, which in l Vide Ancient Aboriginal Trade in North America, by Dr. Chas. Rau. Smith. Rep., 1872, P. 3 ? Read before the Biological Society of Washington, March, 1881. VOL, XVI.—NO, IV. 19 282 On the Flowers of Solanum rostratum [ April, recent years have been fattened in that region. It is found abun- dantly in Western Nebraska at present, and although it may have been introduced there in like manner, I presume it is indigenous. It is so put down, I believe, in Coulter’s Flora of Colorado. It has rather conspicuous flowers, of a pure sulphur-yellow color, and of the form repre: sented in the figure. It is a Solanum, but very unlike the more familiar forms of the genus. The essential organs are quite unsym- metrical. Four of the sta- mens are of the normal or usual form, but the fifth, which is on the lower side of the flower, is about twice the length of the others, and has a large, tapering anther, which about the middle is crooked to one side, and its slender apex curved upward as is represented in the figure. This irregularity, doubt- less earned for the plant, its cognomen rostratum. an —Solanum rostratum. a, flower (nat- The anthers open by tef- view laie h iea, and A view tl tho ane minal chinks or pores, as from above. is common to this genus. The long anther shows considerable elasticity, and in its move- ments throws a puff of pollen from its apex, which, as will be seen, is turned upward and at right angles with its axis. The pistil, as will be seen from the figure, is turned so as to resemble in general form, size and position, the long anther just described, with this exception, that it turns toward the opposite side of the flower. Moreover, the pistil and longer stamen, in different flowers, exchange directions, so that in some the pisti turns to the right hand, and the stamen to the left, and in others vice versa. We will, for convenience, call the flowers in | which the pistil turns to the right hand, facing as the flower, — 1882. ] and Cassia chamecrista. 283 right-handed, and those in which it turns to the left, left-handed. The figure represents a left-handed flower. With a little exami- nation, it is found that there is a very simple law deciding whether any given flower, from its position, should be right-handed or left- handed. In the examination of scores of flowers I found no exception to this law. The flowers are arranged in simple, bract- less racemes, which extend ina horizontal position. The flowers, consequently, are arranged. on each side of the axis. The law referred to is this. The pistil, in any flower, turns to- wards the axis of the raceme. It follows from this, that succes- sive flowers on the same raceme have their pistils turned toward opposite sides. It is also a fact of observation, that the flowers of a cluster on any one branch, and opening about the same time, are either all right-handed or all left-handed. Any plant, however, if it is at all large, exhibits right and left-handed flowers in about equal numbers. Of five plants observed : No. 1 ed 5 pat a n and 4 right-handed. « an p erosti I se ‘sé L se 2 é: LL (L3 3 é “ce LLa “ce 3 Lia é u W WN “ce 3 st “ “ e 4 se we The aa in all this is so obvious that it scarcely needs explanation. It is like most irregularities in flowers, a contri- - vance for cross-fertilization. After considerable watching, I had noticed no insects visiting the flowers, except a small humble-bee, and this seemed quite attentive. The weight of the bee so springs down the flower, that it is quite difficult, on account of the large flexible corolla, to see just what is done, but repeated observations ed me, quite satisfactorily, to this conclusion. The bee seeks the pollen—for the flowers have neither nectar nor odor—and this she uniformly gets from the four shorter stamens; never, so far as I could determine, from the larger one. This she does by seizingeach one, near its base, between her mandibles, and with a sort of milk- — ing motion crowds the pollen out of the terminal pores ; mean- while, by the movements of her feet, the larger stamen is repeat- edly sprung backwards, and as often throws a cloud of pollen on one side of her body ; this in a right-handed flower. When she passes to a left-handed flower, which, as was explained above, is very likely not to be on the same plant, the pollen is carried directly to the pistil of that flower, and so on. hea have S 284 On the Flowers of Solanum rostratum — (April, therefore, a novel apparatus for cross-fertilization, quite distinct from those that have been most commonly noticed. A few days after having noticed the peculiarities of Solanum rostratum, my attention was attracted to the asymmetry of the flowers of the more common plant, Cassia chamecrista. Its appearance, when fully open, as in early morning, is shown in the figure. The points that are of spécial interest to us, are the sickle-shaped pistil, the sta- mens with long, rigid anthers, opening by terminal pores, and most of them pointed to- ward the incurved petal, which is always on the opposite side from the pistil, as is shown in the figure. A vertical line let fall across the flower, in its natural position, uniformly falls midway between the two. So we may here speak of the flowers as right-handed or left- handed, as before, according to the position of the pistil. dee mit Big a payee Sein ig flower As the inflorescence is less regular than in S. rostratum, we have been unable to discover any definite law, as in that case, but different plants have about an equal share of right and left- handed flowers. Observations on some plants that were in rather a dilapidated condition, resulted as follows: Plant No. 1 had 6 right-handed flowers and 4 left-handed. ee 2 e 4 (Z é ee oe 2 LLa sc“ LL sé 3 Å“ 2 s (13 cé oe oO s LL “ (3 4 se I (1 sé sé sé 2 “ e ; I found these flowers also visited mainly by a small humble- bee, and judge that they gather pollen in a similar way to that noticed in the Solanum. The flowers are nectarless and odorless. The advantage is not so obvious in this arrangement as in the Solanum, and I have not had opportunity to study it quite as closely and carefully, but I consider the es explanation the a most probable. * 1882. | and Cassia chamecrista. 285 In gathering the: pollen, some grains are dropped on the in- curved petal, and by it made to adhere.to parts of the bee, and to such parts in a right-handed flower as will carry it to the stigma of a left-handed flower, and vice versa. So much for the observations upon the plants themselves. Let us trace their more marked peculiarities in related plants, and, if possible, find some hint as to their origin.’ In Solanum rostratum the particulars in which it differs from the normal form of the genus, are three, viz: (1) The long re- curved style; (2) the elongation and enlargement of the lower stamen; and (3) the crooking of them toward opposite sides of the flower. In examining kindred species of this most numerous genus, we find that in our common S. nigrum in Southern California, there appears a variety, S. Dillenti, which sometimes has its style exerted, and sometimes has it short as in the common nigrum. Another, S. nodiflor- unt, in Arizona, which feature,” passes into Crad at Santa Bar- velopment ofthis char- acter seems to attend, drooping attitude, as in the typical nigrum, to a more erect si- Fic. 3.—a, stamens and pistil of Sg/anum suboreenes ti T Pe anusual form ; b, do. of S. nigrum var. Dillenit ion. The obliquity of Cassia occidentalis, d, flower of r err A “nfet of the. stamens, or J. Murray. No te.—ő and c were drawn from dry speci- mens. their vertical asym metry, as it might e called, appears in S. inberasyst sometimes. I have observed it in the “ peach-blow” variety ; I have observed it more frequently in S. Carolinense. The extreme form, however, which we have found in S. rostratum, is confined to the sap mw eooo 1 This work would necessarily have been very incomplete, had not the library and ae of the U. S. Department of Agriculture been freely opened to me by the — eis Dr. Vasey, to whom I would thus acknowledge = indebtedness. , 286 Flowers of Solanum rostratum and Cassia chamecrista. | April, genera Androcera and Nycterium. The first has but one long stamen, and S. rostratum may be taken as its type. This sub- genus is confined to tropical America. Vycterium contains spe- cies most of which have three long stamens, but some have only one. A table of the species and their distribution is as follows: Gama; obtusilobum and \ 3 lower stamens longer, Mexico. amazonum Wrightii uae ns “ East Indies. vespertilio rice “ de (Canaries. i nS s « Arabia and North Africa. Of the lateral asymmetry I cannot speak, for so far as I can learn, it has not been noted. In the case of Cassia chamecrista, the unsymmetrical features are (1) the curved style, (2) the oblique stamens, (3) their abnormal number, and (4) the incurved petal. The first is not peculiar, but is found in nearly all representatives - of the order Leguminose. The second and fourth peculiarities are such as are easily overlooked, and have not, so far as I find, been noted of other species. The third peculiarity becomes, sig- nificant when we compare this species with a typical one of the genus, such as the one shown in the figure of C. acutifolia, which may also represent in general, Marylandica and occidentalis. Here (Fig. 2) we usually have seven fertile stamens; in that (Fig. 3 4) we find the other three of the normal’ number ten, present, but sterile, as if to indicate that some of the seven are derived from the longer ones of the typical form. One or two of them in chamecrista, instead of following the oblique position of the rest, sometimes stretch out on the side of the pistil. The advantages of the arrangement in chameerista for securing cross-fertilization over the more common form of the Cassi@, as- in acutifolia and occidentalis, I think may be séen without further explanation. Moreover, if the insects visit the flowers for pollen, we can readily see the advantage in having the stamens opun 3 equal length, and hence the development by natural selection, ot the Androcera form of Solanum, and the x ites —— among the > Cesalpinice ioe i : 3 Before leaving the subjects suggested by these fowenk: T would indicate several points, and not having time to — a them more fully, we will leave them in the form of queries. ~ 1. These similar modifications occur in utterly diverse families, | having similar geographical distribution, viz: in tropical. regio and a the limitations =" be foreher narrowed to the n rie 1882. | Ls Limulus an Arachnid ? 287 parts of these regions. May this not indicate that certain phys- ical influences have primarily induced the variations which have been developed into perfect adaptations ? 2. May not heliotropism, or the retarding effect of light upon the formation of tissue, partly explain the greater development of the lower stamens, the shortening of the middle, and the abortion of the upper; and may it not also explain the upward curving of the styles and lower stamens in these plants ? 3. May not the mechanical action of the insect have some con- nection with the obliquity of the C. chamecrista flower, and the divergence of the styles and stamens 3? C. chamecrista is like the typical form turned downward and to one side. 4. In these plants we have found a lack of bilateral symmetry, and we have found it attended with a regular exchange of sides, and that to accomplish a special purpose. Is this commonly so in plants thus irregular, such as the Cannacee and Zingiberacee ? —:0: IS LIMULUS AN ARACHNID? BY A. S. PACKARD, JR. N an article by Professor E. R. Lankester in the Quarterly Fournal of Microscopical Science, for July and October, 1881, entitled “ Limulus an Arachnid,” the author, distinguished for his histological and embryological papers especially relating to mol- lusks and Ccelenterates, takes the ground that Limulus, or the horse-shoe or king crab, “is best understood as an aquatic scor- pion, and the nae and its allies as terrestrial modifications of the king crab,” and on p. 507 he makes the following startling announcement: “ “That the king crab is as closely related to the scorpion as is the spider has for years been an open secret, which has escaped notice by something like fatality.” While appre- ciating the thorough and critical nature of the learned author's — work, especially observable in his excellent paper on the structure of Apus, we venture to assert that in regard to the systematic 7 position of Limulus, Professor Lankester has mistaken interest- ing analogies for affinities, and has on quite insufficient and at times wholly hypothetical grounds rashly overlooked the most solid facts, and safe inductions from such facts, and arrived at very ` forced and it seems to us strange and quite untenable conclusions. | oS ee outset, it will be remembered that shee Hag _— oats 288 Ls Limulus an Arachnid ? [April, the Tracheates, including the Arachnids, in having no trachee, no spiracles, and no Malpighian tubes. It differs from Arachnids in these characters; also in having compound eyes, no functional mandibles or maxillz, the legs not terminating, as is generally the case in Tracheates, in a pair of minute claws ; while its brain does not as in Arachnida supply both eyes and first cephalic appendages. On the other hand, Limulus agrees with Crus- tacea in being aquatic and breathing by external gills attached to several pairs of biramous feet; in having a simple brain, which as in some groups of typical Crustacea (Branchiopoda, etc.), does not supply any of the appendages, while the structure of the cir- culatory, digestive and reproductive organs agrees with that of the Crustacea; and, as we have shown in our Embryology of Limulus (this journal for 1870), the development of Limulus is- like that of certain other Crustacea with a condensed metamor- phosis, the possession of an amnion being paralleled by that of Apus. In all essential points Limulus is a Crustacean, with some fundamental features in which it departs from the normal Crus- tacean type, and with some superficial characters in which it resembles the scorpion. The importance of these superficial characters Mr. Lankester exaggerates, and upon them with a number of suppositious, æ priori, pseudo facts he constructs, by a process. quite the reverse of the inductive method, a new classifi- cation of the Arachnida. We will now briefly criticise some points. insisted. upon Gi Pro fessor Lankester: and first on p. 510, as regards the ensheathing of the nervous cord by an actual arterial vessel. This is to be met with in a less marked degree in the insects (Lepidoptera) as well as scorpions. As regards the comparison of the nervous system of Limulus with that of the scorpion, the comparison and statement based. on a month’s careful study and dissection of the nervous system, particularly the brain of the scorpion, while our author draws his inspiration from Newport’s account and figures. The differences between the brain and thoracic ganglionic mass of the scorpion, and that of Limulus are not even correctly stated by our author, The brain of the adult scorpion, as we stated on p. 7 of our second memoir, sends off nerves to the simple eyes and to the first pair of appendages ; in Limulus the brain supplies the. =| eyes alone; the first pair of appendages being supplied from the = 1882.] l Is Limulus an Arachnid ? 289 commissures, as in all Phyllopod Crustacea. Had Mr. Lankester examined for himself the brain of the scorpion, he would not have given the strangely incorrect account on p.511. In the first place, the nerves to the first pair of appendages arise from the brain itself, as we have seen and as has been stated by other authors,‘ and not as Lankester says from the cesophageal collar. Moreover, as we stated, the brain is situated in the top of the head of the Arachnida, and not on the same plane as the cesopha- geal collar as in Limulus. In regard to the morphology (not the internal structure) of the brain, Limulus much more nearly approaches Apus and other Phyllopods than the scorpion and other Arachnida. In discussing the external anatomy of Limulus, Mr. Lankester claims that between the sixth abdominal segment and the spine there are six segments. We venture to suggest that four of these segments are purely imaginary. Embryology, as we have ` indicated in our figures, shows that there are but nine segments in the abdomen of Limulus, the spine forming the ninth. Our author speaks of the “ post-anal spine,” when the anus is plainly situated in the base of the spine itself. It is a general law in the ig that the anus opens in the terminal segment of the body. There are fifteen segments in the body of Limulus, as embryology abundantly shows. In order to compare the body of Limulus with its fifteen segments or arthromeres to that of the scorpion with nineteen, Mr. Lankester conjures up four addi- tional segments, which are pure metaphysical inventions. The cephalothoracie plate or carapace is more than once styled a “sclerite.” The author here (as usual) sets aside the embryo- logical proof that the carapace is composed of the tergites of six segments, and allows, apparently as the results of his own inde- D observations (as if no one had previously dina m that an na otg paper on the i p aprak of Limulus Polyphemus, wad before the Amer. Assn, Adv, Science, August 1870, and printed in the AMERICAN NATU- RALIST ing Ooi, 1870, which our author has apparently not seen, the six seg- ments of the embryo Limulus when in the trilobite eee? iin ` and the anaes T of thoracic segments is state in the t is paper mam rof t e memoir t -~ neral account of the pe nad ology of ‘aunties , and appeared year in advance of wedi other account = the embryology o of Paai. 290 Is Limulus an Arachnid ? [ April, the carapace may “be considered as representing six coalesced tergites.” Partly on metaphysical grounds, and partly from the presence of moveable spines on the sides, which, however, are situated on the anterior limb-bearing segments of the abdomen, as well as on the 7th and 8th limbless segments, our author is en- couraged in the belief that these four hypothetical segments really exist. We prefer the plain teachings of observed facts, which are capable of demonstration and proof, and would ask for better evi- dence than this article affords of the existence of such segments. We would also continue to regard the anal spine as the telson. Lankester’s “telson” is made up of the consolidated thirteenth and fourteenth segments of the body f/us the anal spine or fif- teenth (or ninth abdominal) segment. Our author sets out with the foregone conclusion that he “must” find in the “abdominal carapace” of Limulus the rep- resentatives of the twelve abdominal segments of the scorpion, and so with a method of his own he creates them out of his inner consciousness. In like manner he feels compelled to offer a new interpretation of the scattered, individual, simple eyes of the scorpion, and at- tempts to show that after all they are compound eyes like those of Limulus, with the difference that in Scorpio they are “ina less compact form.” Now the compound eye of Limulus, like that of the lobster or any other Crustacean or insect, possesses a common basally undivided retina, in Limulus a common undivided outer cornea, while the two simple eyes in Limulus have each a sepa- rate cornea, a separate retina, and each ocellus is supplied by a separate nerve arising independently from the brain. In like manner our author labors to diminish the importance of the differences between the cephalothoracic appendages of the Arachnida and those of Limulus. Professor Lankester then ventures, we think, somewhat hastily, to homologize the first pair of abdominal appendages of Limulus with a little triangular median sternite in the scorpion. Then he ` fancifully homologizes the comb-like organs of the scorpion with the second pair of abdominal legs of Limulus, and also homolo- gizes the respiratory lamellz with the “lamelliform teeth of the scorpion’s comb-like organs.” The author farther seriously at- tempts to homologize the four pairs of stigmata of the scorpion _ with the four last pairs of biramous respiratory feet of Limulus. _ 1882. ] Ts Limulus an Arachnid ? 291 On the same principle the stigmata of any insect are the homo- logues of its legs. What will Mr. Lankester do with the gill-plates of the Eurypterida, which are not arranged, according to Wood- ward, like those of Limulus, but are placed like the teeth of a rake ? Another nae is added to the already long list, by Mr. Lan- kester’s discovery (of which he makes great account), of what he calls “ parabranchial stigmata” in Limulus. He places them on the “sternal area of the segments,” but his statements on the suc- ceeding page, and his figures plainly show that these little mus- cular pits are situated at the base of the biramous abdominal. legs. Is there an instance in nature of stigmata being borne on the legs? Is there the slightest possible reason for regarding these pits as stigmata? -We are then treated toa long series of suppositions accompanied by a series of elaborate hypothetical lithographic drawings designed tq “illustrate the hypothesis as to the derivation of the lamelliferous appendages of Limulus and Scorpio from a common ancestral form.” The late appearance of the lamellz on the feet of the embryo Limulus, should teach any naturalist of sound judgment that they are most probably very special and late differentiations of the appendages. Besides this, palzontology shows that in the Carboniferous period there were scorpions almost generically the same as the existing ones, and with them Bellinurus, closely resembling the Mesozoic and recent Limuli, which indicates that the latter type has always been a marine one, without any possible use for stigmata. Moreover, the Eurypterine Merostomata, with crustacean gills, flourished as early as the Lower Silurian period. Passing over for want of space and time, the three or Tu pages of trivial criticisms of our own views by Professor Lankester, we are thus brought to the close of Mr. Lankester’s article, and to his tabular view of his new classification of the Arachnida, one which is calculated at least to take away the breath of the ordi- nary systematist. Any attempt at reasoning with our author, whose methods are so opposed to the inductive mode of scientific reasoning, and whose views are often founded on baseless hypotheses, would probably be fruitless. He is “surprised” that we should persist in believing that Limulus is a Crustacean. We will in reply and to close this criticism, simply quote some 292 Is Limulus an Arachnid ? [April, statements of the late Dr. Von Willemoes-Suhm, whose impor- tant discoveries have been overlooked by all writers on Limulus. Our attention has been called to them through Mr. E. Burgess by Professor Walter Faxon, who has kindly sent us the subjoined extracts from Von Willemoes-Suhm’s Letters. The first reference by Von Willemoes-Suhm was in the Zeit- schrift für wissenschaftliche Zoölogie, xxIx, 1877, writing from Yeddo under date of May 7, 1875, he says: “I have in the mean- time discovered in the Philippines that the Limulus living there develops from a free-swimming larva, viz., a Nauplius stage, a . fact of great significance to the whole doctrine of crustacean de- velopment. The preliminary notice concerning it, which I soon send to the Royal Society, will soon come to your notice. Pack- ard and Dohrn have had to do with an animal which, like the crayfish, has a condensed development.” (p. CXXXII.) A fuller statement is in a postscript to a letter written aboard the Challenger to Professor Kupffer, dated “ Zamboanga, Min- daua, 4 Februar, 1875,” printed in “Challenger-Briefe von Ru- dolf von Willemoes-Suhm, Dr. Phil., 1872-1875. Nach dem Tode des Verfasser herausgegeben von seiner Mutter,” Leipzig, 1877, pp. 157,158. Iam indebted to Professor Faxon for the ex- tract of which I give the following translation : “I send you this postscript in order to forward early informa- tion that it has befallen to me to find on the surface of the water ` this stage shows a parallel with Eurypterus. Packard’s mode of development is a condensed one, and as would appear, his as well as Dohrn’s and Van Beneden’s generalizations on the position of Limulus are throughout untenable, in so far as they remove this from the Phyllopods (Apus and Branchipus). They rather be- come closely allied through their common Nauplius with three pair of appendages ; and a part of the ‘ Gigantostraken,’ especially the Eurypteridz, should be added to them.” i “ As soon as I reach Japan, I hope to also examine the Limu- lus there. The larvæ here are unfortunately very rare and difficult to isolate but I have good preparations of the most important stages. I-hope to fall in with the northern species.” » 1882.] A Pathogenic Schizéphyte of the Hog. 293 A PATHOGENIC SCHIZOPHYTE OF THE HOG. BY PROFESSOR H. J. DETMERS. (Continued from March number.) LITTLE over a year ago I had a chance to make an inci- dental investigation of a few cases of Texan fever, and be- sides other bacteria found several large bacilli, several micros in length. These bacilli developed large helobacteria, containing each one or two lasting spores. If the observations of éthers are correct, and I have no doubt they are, these lasting spores, when their time comes, burst, and discharge a cloudy mass, which is supposed to consist of exceedingly minute germs, too small to be distinctly seen with the very best objectives at our disposal, hese minute germs, it is further supposed, develop and grow, and finally form the micrococci of the Schizophytes to which the helobacteria and the lasting spores belong. The helobacteria, which I found in swine-plague, bear, as to size, about the same relation to the swine-plague Schizophytes, as the helobacteria found in Texan fever to the bacilli, which presented themselves in that dis- ease; consequently, as the former» were found so often, and fre- geniy i in perfectly fresh maera, before any other Schizophytes except those of swine-plague, and particularly before any putre- faction bacteria had made their app rance, there is, in my judg- ment, just cause to suppose ‘that these helobacteria are but another stage of development of the bispherical swine-plague Schizo- phytes, and that the germs of the swine-plague micrococci are the product of the lasting spores, At any rate, if such is the case, the whole cycle of development and propagation is complete, and a great many things are at once explained which otherwise cannot be accounted for. These lasting spores, undoubtedly, like those of some other Schizophytes, possess great vitality ; are able to withstand degrees _ of heat and cold and other adverse influences absolutely destruc- tive to the Schizophytes in any other form or stage of develop- ment. I have abundant proof—the same has been published in my reports to the Commissioner of Agriculture—that the vitality of the infectious principle of swine-plague, or what is the same, of the Schizophytes of swine-plague, can be preserved under cer- tain conditions, or in certain media—in an old straw stack for instance—a whole year, and possibly much longer. If the swine- * 294 A Pathogenic Schizophyte of the Hog. —_—[Aprriil, plague Schizophytes did not develop helobacteria or lasting spores, such a long preservation, to say the least, would be diffi- cult to comprehend, even if an indefinitely continued and unin- terrupted propagation of the Schizophytes by fission should be possible, for an old straw stack, although affording excellent pro- tection on account of its porosity, and by being a poor conductor of heat, does not seem to be capable of providing the necessary pabulum for innumerable generations for a whole year, or longer, without changing the malignant character of the Schizophytes, while, when cultivated in fluids, foreign to the body of the hog, the same Schizophytes undergo an observable change as to their malignancy—become less capable of producing mischief—in a few generations. Further, the swine-plague Schizophytes, whiie in the state of a single or double micrococcus, of a coccoglia, or of a micrococcus chain, are known to succumb in a comparatively short time to adverse influences, and it is very much to be doubted whether they possess vitality enough to be preserved a whole year, or longer, in a dormant state, even if protected by such a porous body as an old straw stack. Moreover, for reasons already stated, it would be impossible to account for the multi- tude of single micrococci invariably present in all infectious material, unless the swine-plague Schizophytes develop helo- bacteria and lasting spores, which produce germs developing to micrococci. If animal fluids, lung-exudation for instance, con- taining swine-plague Schizophytes, are filtrated through several papers, the latter, if fine enough, retain the micrococcus-chains, the zodgloea-masses, most, or nearly all of the double, and a good many of the single micrococci, while some of the fatter, no mat- ter how fine the papers may be, will pass through. But as the single or spherical micrococci of swine-plague are not a product of fission—do not proceed from micrococcus-chain, zodgloea- masses, or double micrococci—and do not come from other sin- gle micrococci, which, as far as I have been able to observe, de- velop to double or bispherical bodies, in as well as out of the zoogloea-mass, the fact that in a few hours or, at any rate, ina - day after the filtration, the number of single micrococci contained in the filtrate is much larger than immediately after the filtration, cannot be explained, unless something finer than the micrococci, in other words, some micrococcus germs or the products of the = lasting spores, too fine to be distinguished by the human eye -1882.] A Pathogenic Schizophyte of the Hog. 295 through the best lenses in use, must have been contained in the lung-exudation, and must have passed through the filtering papers. Still, when the filtrate containing the micrococci, was filtrated again and again, each time through four papers, and at such a time, at which most or nearly all of the micrococci had become double, or developed to chains, but before any helobac- teria had formed or could: be found, the filtrate finally became free from micrococci, and an inoculation with the same proved to be ineffective, while an inoculation with the filtrate containing micrococci, produced a mild form of disease. Hence, it must be supposed, time and repeated filtrations finally exhausted the exist- ing supply of micrococcus-germs or lasting spore products. Some French investigators, indeed, have found that in Anthrax not only the bacilli, but also their products (?), if used for inocu- lation, produce the disease. Does it not seem probable that these products are nothing but the germs discharged by the lasting spores, which are contained in the infectious media, invisible to the human eye even through the best objectives, because too small ? Finally, as single micrococci do not develop from other single micrococci, and are not a product of fission, they cannot increase in numbers in the animal organism—for instance, after an inocu- lation—unless we accept spontaneous generation, or unless there is another link in the cycle of metamorphosis, a helobacterium or lasting spore, which produces and disseminates the germs or seeds of the new micrococci. Therefore, as such helobacteria or lasting spores are of frequent occurrence, and can very often be found in perfectly fresh material, such as lung-exudation, blood serum, etc., before any other bacteria besides swine-plague Schiz- ophytes have made their appearance, and also correspond in size to the swine-plague Schizophytes the same as the helobacteria — found in Texan fever to the bacilli found in that disease, it will be pretty safe to conclude that the helobacteria in question are sim- ply an advanced and matured form of the swine-plague Schizo- phytes. The discharged contents of such a lasting spore, though _ undoubtedly granular, are too fine to be resolved by our present — objectives. But what proof is there that these Schizophytes, which I call Swine-plague Schizophytes, really constitute the cause and the oe _ infectious, principle of that disease, and are not the products of 296 A Pathogenic Schizophyte of the Hog. [ April, the morbid process, or merely accidental attendants. To show that their presence is not accidental, may not need much proof, although an abundance can be furnished. It will probably suffice to say, if the Schizophytes were accidental, that is, had no rela- tion to the disease, neither as cause nor as effect, it would be very strange that they are found in every case of swine-plague and nowhere else. It may be said that some investigators did not find them, but that proves nothing. They are easily overlooked. If one, for instance, has blood or blood serum under the micro- scope, and focusses on the blood corpuscles, the microphytes, and especially the micrococci, are easily overlooked, particularly if the objective has a short focus and a large aperture, and therefore but little penetration, but the same will come into view if the focus is very slightly raised, or just enough to make the outlines of the blood corpuscles a trifle less distinct, because the Schizo- phytes, it seems, have a tendency to crowd as close to the cover as they possibly can. Some of them also crowd to the slide, and may therefore be brought to view by lowering the focus ‘just a trifle. Besides, to distinguish under all circumstances, Swine- plague micrococci from small granules, and vice versa, requires some experience, a very good objective, good light and careful handling. Further, if one attempts to find Schizophytes in un- diluted blood he will very often not succeed, because the blood corpuscles, if very thick or numerous, are apt to hide them from . view. In all my examinations of blood, blood serum, lung-exudation and other morbid products of swine-plague, I never found the swine-plague Schizophytes absent, while on the other hand, I never found them anywhere else. It is true J have found similar single and double micrococci and micrococcus-chains in other substances; for instance, in wine, but the same differed in size, and behaved differently in forming zodglcea-masses and micro- coccus-chains. Those which I found in some substances were considerably smaller, while in somé others I found larger ones. If the possibility of spontaneous generation is admitted, it will be difficult to advance direct proof that the swine-plague Schizo- phytes are not the product of the morbid process, because in a certain sense they are; they multiply within the animal organism, and multiply very rapidly, and probably in the same ratio, in a which the morbid process progresses, if once introduced from the w 1882. | A Pathogenic Schizophyte of the Hog. 297 outside. If, however, the possibility of a spontaneous generation is not admitted, the Schizophytes cannot be produced, or .be called into existence by the morbid process. As evidence that the swine-plague Schizophytes constitute the true cause of thè morbid process, and the infectious principle of the disease, by which the latter is communicated from animal to animal, from herd to herd,and from one locality to another, I can offer the following facts, which may not constitute absolute proof, but, if considered in toto, make it reasonably certain that the Schizo- phytes, and nothing else, constitute. the cause and the infectious principle of the disease. I. Every inoculation of healthy pigs which never had become infected with swine-plague, when made with material contain- ing swine-plague Schizophytes—lung-exudation for instance— _ proved to be effective, and produced the disease in due time, be- tween three and fifteen days, or on an average in five to six days, notwithstanding the very small quantity, usually not exceeding the fourth part of one drop, with which the animal was inocula- ted on the outer surface of the ear, provided no measures of pre- vention were applied. For particulars I have to refer to my pub- lished reports.. Further, even an inoculation with filtrated lung- exudation, in which no visible solid bodies whatever, except Swine-plague micrococci, could be discovered, proved to be effec- tive, and produced a mild form of the disease, while filtrated lung-exudation, destitute of micrococci, when used to inoculate a healthy animal, proved to be ineffective, and did not even cause a visible reaction. 2. Inoculations with swine-plague Sinior cultivated in an innocent fluid, such as fresh cow-milk, albumen of a hen’s egg, etc., invariably produced the disease, though usually in a comparatively mild form; a fact which corresponds with the results _ Of the experiments, made by Toussaint, Pasteur, and Buchner with Bacillus anthracis, and by Pasteur with chicken-cholera microbes, and shows that the malignancy of pathogenic Schyzo- phytes depends largely upon the nature of this pabulum. 3- Swine, which survive an attack of swine-plague and recover, possess afterwards either perfect, or what is more frequent, partial > immunity from further infection. In other words, subsequent in- oculations, or a.subsequent exposure to the influence of the in- _ fectious principle, have either no effect batari; or have only a wk XVI.—nNOo, IV. 298 A Pathogenic Schizophyte of the Hog. [ April, comparatively slight effect, that is, are productive of a mild and not fatal form of the disease, or cause only a scarcely observable reaction. All this cannot find an explanation, if the infectious principle consists in a chemical virus, but is fully explained, if Schizophytes constitute the cause and the infectious principle of the disease, for it is a well known fact that these minute bodies, by passing through a certain cycle of changes or metamorphoses, and propagating to a certain extent exhaust in that medium, in which they are existing, the conditions necessary to their further development and propagation. They then render their medium sterile, and do not undergo any further changes, and do not multiply, unless, and until they are transferred to a fresh and otherwise suitable medium, when again they begin another cycle of metamorphosis and propagation, and multiply with great — rapidity. In an animal, which has recovered from an attack of Swine-plague, some of the conditions necessary to the further metamorphosis and propagation of the Schizophytes, it seems, have become either partially or fully exhausted, and are not very soon restored, hence the partial, or as the case may be, perfect immunity. Still, as will be mentioned again, such an animal is usually able, at least within two months after its recovery, to transmit the disease, from which the same itself is not any more suffering, to other healthy animals, though in most cases only in a mild form. 4. It is a well known fact, and has been observed every- where, not only by myself, but by nearly every one who has any experience in regard to swine-plague, that healthy hogs, which have access to a creek ora small stream of running water, which is further above accessible to, and defiled by, diseased hogs, or polluted with morbid products of swine-plague, or the carcasses of dead hogs, will almost invariably contract the dis- ease; a fact which plainly shows to every thinking man that the infectious principle must be something corporeal, endowed with life, and able, like the swine-plague Schizophytes, not only to withstand the influence of water, but also to live and to multiply in the same. A chemically acting, and invisible fluid, or volatile virus, one should suppose, would become diluted by the water of a creek, small river, or running stream to such an extent as to be perfectly harmless and unable to communicate the disease, be- cause there is no known chemical of an organic nature, but what 1882. | A Pathogenic Schizophyte of the Hog. 299 can be sufficiently diluted to lose its efficiency. With living germs it is different; if conditions are favorable, a few of them will suffice to develop innumerable generations, and may thus be- come a source of incalculable mischief. Further, it is also well known that the disease can be communicated through the air, and that the infectious principle which may happen to be floating in the air is absorbed by wounds, scratches, sores, abraisions, etc., in skin and mucous membranes, which would hardly be possible if a chemical virus constituted the cause and the means of in- fection. 5. The temperature of the atmosphere, and also the weather have considerable influence as to the spreading of the disease, but apparently have no influence whatever upon the morbid pro- cess or the development of the disease, after an animal has be- come infected. Frost, cold weather, lasting snow, frequent heavy rains, and continued drought and sunshine retard, and mild, warm and cloudy weather, heavy dews, and now and then a light rain considerably promote the spreading of the disease. Such would not be the case if the infectious principle consisted in a chemical virus, indestructible by water and air, but all this is natural, easily explained and self-evident, if living germs which require a certain degree of warmth and moisture, constitute the infectious princi- ple, because frost, lasting snow, cold weather, heavy rains, and continued drought are inimical to organic life and vegetation, offer but little opportunity to the Schizophytes for a change of place, and necessarily retard their development and propagation ; while, on the other hand, mild and warm weather, heavy dews, light rains, etc., are not only favorable to vegetation in general, and to the development of minute organic bodies in particular, but also offer a great many chances for a change of place and medium, and thus promote the propagation of the Schizophytes. The latter which are discharged in immense numbers with the excrements, urine, discharges from the nose, and other secretions and excre- tions of the diseased animals, rise into the air, perhaps mostly as micrococcus-germs and micrococci, probably only to a limited height, when the moisture contained in the dung and other excre- tions, and the urine evaporate, and come down again in the dew, and when it rains. At any rate, where swine-plague is prevailing, the Swine-plague micrococci can often be found in dew-drops on the grass early in the morning, and also in exposed pools of 300 A Pathogenic Schizophyte of the Hog. [ April, water. If the rain is a light one, the Schizophytes are apt to remain where the rain-drops deposit them, till evaporation once more carries them up into the air, but if the rain is very heavy or pouring, and temporarily flooding the ground, the Schizophytes, it seems, are washed away, for it can be observed that after light rains the spreading of the disease is accelerated, while immediate- ly after each heavy or pouring rain a temporary diminution, often almost amounting to a cessation, can be noticed. 6. As already mentioned, it is am established fact that external wounds, especially such as are caused by ringing, castration, cut- ting of tails, and slitting of ears, external sores, scratches, and - even abrasions, attract and absorb the infectious principle, and that the disease is also communicated, though not as readily as through wounds, etc., if the infectious principle is introduced with food or water for drinking into the digestive canal, while I have never‘ yet been able to observe, or to obtain any evidence, that the infectious principle does enter, or can enter, the animal organism through a healthy skin, orthrough the respiratory organs, if the mucous membranes are in a perfectly healthy condition, or free from any sores, wounds, or abrasions. It has even been re- peatedly observed that an animal whose skin and mucous mem- branes are whole and healthy, will not contract the disease, and is perfectly safe, if separated only by a fence, a board fence, or a board partition from diseased animals, provided, of course, an in- troduction of the infectious principle through the alimentary canal is prevented. All this shows that the infectious principle must be something that is very minute, but corporeal, and endowed with life and power of propagation, and not an invisible poisonous fluidum, for the latter, most assuredly, if dissolved in air, wou find its way through the lungs, and, very likely also through the healthy skin into the animal organism. 7. If the morbid process is taken into consideration—for par- ticulars I have to refer to my published reports, as going into de- tails would consume too much time—it also becomes evident that something corporeal and endowed with life and power of propaga- tion must constitute the cause of the disease. The morbid pro- cess in all parts and organs, in which it may develop, essentially the same, is best studied in the skin, subcutaneous tissues, and particularly in the lungs. At first the finer capillaries become a structed, as a consequence, more or less blood serum transudes . 1882. ] ‘A Pathogenic Schizophyte of the Hog. 301 through their walls into the tissues, or if the pressure is a great one some of the capillaries will yield, and become dilated or break behind the obstruction, and thus small specks of blood are extravasated. These extravasations are sometimes, especially in younger animals, exceedingly numerous, and present them- selves as tiny red, or reddish-brown specks of the size of a pin’s head, or smaller. To mention the further, or subsequent changes which are taking place, will not be necessary, for the same have but little bearing upon the subject. The question is what ob- structs the capillaries? It, of course, must be something solid or corporeal, and I have not been able to find anything, except the swine-plague Schizophytes. It is true, the single and double micrococci, and the micrococcus-chains cannot and do not do it, for they are abundantly small to pass everywhere with the greatest facility where a blood corpuscle can pass, but these micrococci form zodgloea-masses or coccoglia, which frequently are many times the size of a blood corpuscle, and therefore sufficiently large to clog the finer capillaries. Besides, some of the micro- cocci enter, or are taken up by the white blood corpuscles, and swell the latter not seldom to an abnormal size, or a size large enough to obstruct some of the finest capillary vessels. In all my ex- aminations of diseased lung-tissue, and lung-exudation, these zoogloea-masses and white blood corpuscles invaded by micro- cocci, have never been found missing, but always presented them- selves in great, though somewhat variable numbers. No matter, in which way, or by what means the Schizophytes enter the ani- mal organism, and get into the blood by being absorbed by the veins or by the lymphatics, the first capillary system to which they come, is in the lungs, which may account for the fact that in swine-plague morbid changes in the lungs, consisting in exuda- tion, extravasation of blood, and finally hepatization are never absent. At least I found them at every post-mortem examination, and in the last three years I made about 300. Dr. James Law, ~ of Ithaca, N. Y., in his report to the Commissioners of Agricul- l ture, records thé lungs of some of his experimental pigs as “healthy,” “sound,” “normal,” etc., which simply shows that those pigs were wot affected with swine-plague, and did xot die of that disease. It may here also be mentioned that in all cases of Swine-plague most of the lymphatic glands are more or less en- _ larged, and that comparatively more Schizophytes can be found — 302 A Pathogenic Schizophyte of the Hog. © [ April, in the enlarged or swelled lymphatic glands, than in any other part of the animal’s body. 8. In one and the same affected herd the older or more fully matured animals often recover, while nearly every young ani- mal and particularly nearly every young pig under three months old, if once infested, will succumb to the disease, and is almost sure to die. This also may be considered as proof that the Schizophytes, or rather their zoogloea-masses cause the disease by obstructing the capillaries. In older, and otherwise robust hogs the heart and the walls of the blood vessels are much stronger than in young pigs, and so it often happens that in the former the force of the blood current is strong enough to break and to disperse the zodgloea-masses, and thus to free the ob- structed passages, while in young, and especially in very young animals the pressure or the force of the blood current is insuf- ficient, and then the passage is not freed, and exudation takes place, or the walls of the blood vessels are too weak, and then the latter yield and break and blood is extravasated. Usually both processes occur. Hence, while blood-extravasations in the lungs, are, as a rule, more frequent in young animals, other mor- bid changes brought about by Schizophytes, which have passed the capillary system in the lungs, and are forming their zodglaea- masses in other parts or organs of the body, are on the whole more frequently met with in older hogs. Still, the latter, not- withstanding, have a much better chance of recovery than the former. g. An animal which is recovering from an attack of swine- plague, or in which the morbid process has ceased to be active, will yet for sometime discharge swine-plague Schizophytes with its excretions, and is able to communicate the disease to other healthy animals by polluting their food or water for drinking, consequently the organism of such an animal is not destitute of the infectious principle, but contains an abundance of the same in a potent condition, while its own tissues have become sterile, or are not any more acted upon, because some of the conditions re- _ quired by the Schizophytes to form z06glcea-masses and to pro- pagate have become exhausted. In the lungs of an animal which was butchered two months after recovery, I found an abundance | of swine-plague Schizophytes, but no zodglcea-masses. These _ facts, too, will be difficult of explanation, if a chemical poison or 1882. } A Pathogenic Schizophyte of the Hog. 303 virus, and not the Schizophytes constitute the infectious principle and the cause of the disease. 10. Swine-plague has a well-marked period of incubation, or as it has more appropriately been called stage of colonization, last- ing from two to fifteen days, during which no morbid symptoms, with the exception, perhaps, of a somewhat higher temperature, can be observed. The average time which elapses after an inocu- lation or infection has taken place till plain symptoms of disease make their appearance, or till the morbid process has sufficiently advanced to produce external symptoms, or a visible disturbance of health, may be set down as from five to six days. All this is easily explained if Schizophytes constitute the cause, because those introduced from without are insufficient in numbers to cause at once important morbid changes ; they must have time to undergo the necessary metamorphoses and to multiply within the animal organism, and this time varies according to the number of Schizophytes originally transferred to the condition or stage of development in which they are transferred, and to the degree of so-called predisposition or favorableness of conditions existing in the infected animal. As a rule, the larger the amount of the infectious material introduced and the richer the same in swine- plague Schizophytes, the shorter the period of incubation, or stage of colonization, On the other hand, if the infectious principle were a chemical poison or virus, its action, one should suppose, would, under all circumstances be exactly the same, and the malignancy of the morbid process and the time required for its devel- opment would not be influenced by, or be dependent upon so many conditions, such as the individuality, age and tempera- ture of the animal, the time and season of the year, the number and stage of metamorphosis of the Schizophytes contained in the infectious material and other yet unknown conditions. A poison or virus, indestructible by water and air, and not affected by dilu- tion, no matter how far it may be carried, one should suppose, would act with great uniformity, Consequently cne is obliged to- conclude that the Schizophytes, and not a chemical virus, must, and do, constitute the cause. 11. The infectious principle undoubtedly consists in something that is destroyed and made ineffective by putrefaction, because _ infectious material, such as blood, blood serum, lung exudation, 304 A Pathogenie Schizophyte of the Hog. [April, other morbid products, etc., if putrefied, can be consumed by healthy animals without communicating the disease, and if used for inoculation, such putrefied material may cause septicaemia, but never produces a genuine case of swine-plague. Further, as has been previously mentioned, swine-plague Schizophytes cannot any more be found in the blood, blood serum, morbid tissues and morbid products, etc., of hogs which are diseased with, or have died of, swine-plague after putrefaction has set in, or in other words, after putrefaction bacteria, and particularly Bacterium termo, have made their appearance in large numbers. So, for instance, blood which has become sufficiently putrefied to assume a pur- plish color, is destitute of swine-plague Schizophytes. If these two facts are connected, it becomes evident that infectious sub- stances or media lose their efficacy, or their power to communi- cate the disease to healthy animals simultaneously with the dis- appearance of the swine-plague Schizophytes, and vice versa, the latter disappear at the exact time at which the infectious sub- stances or media cease to be infectious. Does this indicate a close relationship between the swine-plague Schizophytes and the in- fectious principle, or can such a remarkable coincidence be rejected as merely accidental? Further, is it more rational to accept as the cause and infectious principle of swine-plague, an unseen virus or something which nobody has ever produced, nor ever will produce, but which, notwithstanding, is indestructible by water, air and dilution, and possesses the remarkable property of making its exit at the very moment at which the swine-plague Schizophytes are destroyed, or caused to disappear by putrefac- tion, than to regard the latter, the Schizophytes, which do exist, are present, can be seen, have been shown and, moreover, possess all the properties and peculiarities manifested by the infectious principle, as the true cause of the morbid process and the propa- gators of the disease? I, for one should not think so. 12. It is an established fact that the morbid process, which in- variably affects the lungs, will also develop in all such other parts or organs as may happen to be wounded, inflamed, or in a state of congestion—for particulars I have to refer to my reports—and thus some other parts besides the lungs may sometimes become just as much, or even more affected than the latter. So, for in- stance, if a pig has been ringed, or been castrated, and a perfect — : healing has not yet taken place when the animal becomes infected, ‘oe 1882. ] A Pathogenic Schizophyte of the Hog. 305 the parts yet more or less inflamed invariably become a promi- nent seat of the morbid process. All this is explained if the Schizophytes constitute the cause, as all recently wounded parts are comparatively rich in blood, and their capillaries, on account of the yet existing congestion or inflammation, are easily ob- structed; but I should find it very difficult to give an explanation, if a poison or chemical virus constitutes the infectious principle and the cause of swine-plague. A chemical poison or virus, one should suppose, would possess special affinity to certain parts or tissues, and therefore cause the morbid process either to develop invariably in one and the same part of the body, or to attack in all cases the whole animal organism. 13. Antiseptics, or medicines, which are either directly poison- ous to the lowest forms of organic life, or destructive to some of those conditions necessary to the metamorphoses and propaga- tion of the simplest forms of organic life, such as Schizophytes, and among those antiseptics particularly carbolic acid, iodine, hyposulphite of soda, benzoate of soda, thymol, etc., have proved to be almost sure prophylactics, Their use, combined with strict separation, will prevent the outbreak of swine-plague in animals which have been inoculated or have undoubtedly become infected. As one of the conditions necessary to the development of swine- plague, it seems, must be considered a certain degree of animal heat. At any rate, after or while the animal heat of a pig is reduced by a continued treatment with carbolic acid from the normal 102 or 103° F., to an abnormally low temperature of a few degrees below 100—in several cases it was reduced to 96° and 97°—nearly every inoculation with fresh infectious material has proved to remain ineffective, and the few which did not remain ineffective were followed by an unprecedentedly long period of incubation and a very mild form of the disease. Com- ment will not be necessary. The various antiseptics which have proved to be good prophylactics, are very dissimilar in their chemical action and affinities, and therefore their prophylactic effect cannot very well be explained if the infectious principle — consists in a chemical poison or virus, but admits explanation if something endowed with life and power of i ess consti- tutes the cause of swine-plague. 306 Mexican Caves with Human Remains. [ April, MEXICAN CAVES WITH HUMAN REMAINS. BY EDWARD PALMER. EAR the western border of the State of Coahuila, Mexico, are to be found several caves in the limestone formation of the mountains. In these caves human remains were found. This section of country under consideration is commonly called the Lajona, which means overflowed. During the rainy season, which is the months of July, August and September, the river Nazas overflows its banks, and inundates the valley. Of late years cotton and corn has been cultivated. To prevent the ex- cess of water from destroying the plants, large canals are dug round the fields, and connected with the river. These canals are used for irrigating the crops. Previous to the advent of the Spaniards this section could not have been much cultivated, as the good land was overflowed at the growing season, and previous to the rains it was too dry for crops to mature before the wet season, when the overflow would destroy them. It presents to the eye of an observer a country unfit to sustain a large permanent people without modern appliances. Its nu- merous mountains are dry and rocky, without trees, though having a few stunty bushes and plants in the shady recesses. The valley also is as dry and barren except immediately about the receding waters. The plants naturally produced in a country of this character are the cactus, agave, yucca, mesquite, Larrea mexicana, and allied forms. These are either armed with thorns, or are so excessively bitter that neither wild nor domestic animals using them for food can exterminate them. i Animals are- scarce; deer, two species of rabbits, skunk, badgers, ground squirrels, and rats, with snakes, lizards, birds and fish, are limited in number, except rabbits and blackbirds. The food products of a country determines its capacity to sus- tain life, especially when without domestic animals, and situated as these people were in the midst of a desert waste without any productive country immediately near from which to draw food supplies from, moving from place to place as the food and water supply admitted during the dry season, in the wet they could with pack-animals move their effects to the near mountains in which water is then to be found. During the dry season there are but two plants in that section, which could be counted upon for a sup- ply of food, game being merely incidental. an 1882. ] Mexican Caves with Human Remains. 307 In the spring the center or crown of the agave was roasted, when it became a nutritious article of food, and in summer the mesquite beans are ripe. After the flood of waters had subsided, annual plants, like the sunflower, would produce abundance of seeds, which the inhabitants could return and gather. As to the dead found in the caves, they had their knees drawn to their chin, also’ the hands, and so encased in their robes, and so securely bound with bands made of net-work, that they formed a convenient bundle for handling. Some had but one wrapping around the bones, others two; these during life were clothing and bedding, one worn round the waist and fastened by a belt; the other, worn over the shoulders, was fastened by two strings, at- tached thereto for that purpose. Those with only one wrapper, which was worn on the shoulders by day, wore around the waist in two parts appendages made of fringe or cloth; sometimes feathers were attached to the fringed ends to make the fringe longer and more showy; one division was worn behind the other in front. The heads of the dead were variously cared for. One had drawn over it a worked bag, another had a cap of net-work to which was fastened a profusion of feathers; this head rested in a collar of braided cat-tail rushes; other heads were placed in round pads that are usually worn on the heads of females to sup- port the jars of water while carrying them, Sandals of various qualities were used, made of agave fibers. The ornaments worn were seeds of plants, vertebra of snakes, roots of medical plants, pieces of shell, bone or stone cut into suitable shapes. Caves as depositories of the dead were very suitable, and saved the labor of digging graves in the earth. In the caves the dead were laid therein without any earth being placed over them. Raw materials for clothing was supplied mainly from the differ- _ ent agaves and yuccas; in fact, all the fabrics and sandals found with the cave dead were made from the fibers or leaves of those plants. Skins of animals seem only used to a limited extent for clothing, these plants furnishing a cooler and more durable fabric for hot climates. The remains found in the cave have their hair done up in one bunch behind, and bound very tight by cords; they are very short in length, very unlike the hair of many of the Indians of the United States, whose hair hang down to and below their waists done up in two bundles, one on each side, eee shan, the bunch : : mand with the cave dead. 1 308 Mexican Caves with Human Remains. [ April, The wooden handles and tools were cut by stone tools, and when they were required to be sharp, smooth and round, they were rendered so by rubbing with stones. As no ruins of ancient dwellings are to be found in the cave district, it is to be inferred that they lived in dwellings of very perishable materials. Baskets, plain and ornamented, were made from the split twigs of the Rhus or split roots of the mesquite bound over small rolls of grass. Dress goods were all made by hand-loom, or made of skins, and all garments of the same fashion were as plain as could be made. Only two pieces of pottery were found. If the war- like character of the people is to be inferred from the implements found, they should be considered very peaceable, for only two arrow-heads, parts of two bows, and one arrow shaft, to which is ` attached a piece of reed, having inserted in it a piece of a wooden arrow, the kind often used to kill small game; knives of fine finish made of stones, which by their size and shape would indi- cate they were used in cutting the maguey plant for roasting, and for dividing it after being cooked, were found. . For beds, small sticks and twigs of plants, over which were laid grasses, leaves, hides of animals, or mats, were used, as indicated by the remnants found in the caves. For covering by night, their clothing answered admirably, being long and of a width sufficient to cover them; their garments, may be called long, narrow blankets, retaining their strength to the present time; bands, parallel lines or simple diamonds or squares were used in ornamentation. The colors used in dyeing are yet bright and perfect, being black, yellow, brown, red, and orange. Easily constructed from the small pools, and sticks for the side and frame; for a roof, grass and earth, or yucca leaves were used. These simple huts were airy and cool, suited to the wants of a people living in a state of nature, and the requirements of a hot climate. Are the native inhabitants of the country under consideration, descendants of those whose remains are found in the caves? Though they have been modified to some extent by the Catholic religion, and introduced customs from Spain, they present very much in their customs which compel the belief that they are yet more truly Indian than any thing else. They live in their simple _ : huts with a household paraphernalia of Indians, often without the | 1882. | Mexican Caves with Human Remains. 309 least furniture. Beds, blankets, belts, shoes, baskets, crockery, hand-looms, and metates or stone mills with which they prepare their seeds and grain for food are still used; and the present in- habitants use many native plants and seeds for food that were ‘used by the cave dead, while cotton and wool have taken the place of the agave and yucca fiber for clothing, and leather is sub- stituted for plant fibers and leaves for shoes; it is only change of materials, not of mode of manufacture or superiority of workman- ship that make a difference. The fiber of the agave though not now in use for. clothing, is yet used to make ropes, mats, &c., the mode of preparing the fiber is handed down by cave people, and the knife now used, for the cutting up of the agave plant for domestic uses though of iron, is fashioned after the stone knife found with the dead in the caves. As one sees the people in their domestic relations, in their daily avocations, when engaged in their dances, in their desire for idleness, taking into consideration all the above mentioned traits, one comes to the conclusion that they are the descendants of the cave people. The influence of the Catholic church has caused them to bury their dead in the ground. The present race not of Spanish origin is Indian. Glancing over the physical geography and the natural produc- tions of the country about the caves, the question may be asked, how high in the scale of advancement did the former inhabitants of this section rise? The clothing and utensils found with the dead answers the question. A race of Indians, without commerce, de- pendent upon the natural productions of a desert country to supply their daily want; long practice in the use of their simple arts had created that perfection, which has given rise to the belief that only a superior race could produce like results. A people in nature, in a climate with nine months drouth, without domestic — animals and modern civilization could not become rich or civi- lized according to modern views. Studying closely this section with the evidences found with the cave dead, and comparing other lands with a similar production, and one finds there a like race- with corresponding manners and customs. Take for instance ancient Peru and its people; the Territories of Arizona, New Mexico and Southern California with their inhabitants as found at the Spanish Conquest, and compare them with that portion of Mexico formerly inhabited by the race whose remains are found in the caves, and one will find not only a resemblance of produc- 310 Mexican Caves with Human Remains. [April, tions from the soil, but the people possessing the same ability to take nature’s gifts, and adapt them to their every day wants in a highly satisfactory manner. We are astounded in beholding their workmanship, they simply took nature’s gifts and made the best of them. Comparing the cave clothing with that of the ancient Peruvians, we find a close alliance; both made by a hand-loom, the same as is used by the Indians of Peru, Mexico, Arizona, New Mexico and Southern California to-day. The rude Navajo Indian makes a blanket upon one of these hand-looms, which commands not only a good price from white men, but their admiration—yet he is considered a savage—lives in a hut. It is not necessary to live in palaces, in order to perform great works, and it is shown by our ancient and modern American In- dians, that they were equal to emergencies, until compelled to face Europeans with their civilization. In the New and Old World, it is customary to consider those that lived in caves to be a distinctive people from those called Pueblos or town-dwellers. The evidences of these kinds of habitations are to be found in many places. There was another class of dwellings: the perishable huts made of tree branches and thatched, of which nothing is left. The dwellers in each of these three classes of buildings might be of the same race. In the win- ter living in caves, in summer or while attending to crops they might live in temporary stick-huts. Some caves contain human remains, these have been put there as the easiest means of dis- posing of the dead. If surrounded by enemies, as the industrious and peaceful Indians of ancient times were, they had become Pueblos or dwellers in towns as a means of defence, yet they could be of the same people as the cave-dwellers, or those who inhab- ited brush houses. There was a distinctive race from the above which lived in brush huts; they lived by the chase, and roamed at will over the land, always warring against the town-dwellers. In some sections many stone implements are found, in others those of bronze. The finding of these tools of different materials is no evi- dence of their being made by distinctive people or in remote periods from each other, for sometimes one finds both’ together. Ancient and modern people in nature use whatever their section afforded. There is no reason to suppose that the so-called mound-builders were different from the cave-dwellers. Town- dwellers, makers of flint or bronze implements, they were albof 1882. | Editors’ Table. 311 the same great division; z. e. buryers of the dead. Their war-like enemies compelled them to live in brush huts, built together in a wooded country in winter, and in the openings in summer; thus the mounds with human remains therein occur in these sections. A difference in the kind of dwellings or tools do not of them- selves warrant the conclusion of some writers that each distinctive class was an evidence of tribal or race difference. We might as well consider the makers of pottery a distinct people; but they were not, for every race of Indian made and used pottery in ancient times, and at the present time, even the warlike Indian, without fixed habitations, has his though of a plainer kind. There are some who think that the kind of pottery argues a different race origin; this is not so, the different qualities of pottery and forms are designed to suit the different purposes for which they were made, and not for a display of race distinctions. In Mexico and the United States in ancient times, the Indians used the same method of rendering their pottery hard and smooth as is now practiced by the Indians of Mexico to-day. A pebble of agate or jasper is used to rub over the surface of the pottery as soon as the new made article is dry; a fine, hard, smooth surface is the result ; it has been considered a varnish. I saw it in general use; it is a new fact not known to writers before my visit to Mexico in 1877 and 1878. In conclusion, I would say that there are two races of Indians to-day, as there ‘were in ancient times, circumstances causing various interminglings, resulting in differences in manners and customs. 20: EDITORS FABLE: EDITORS: A. S. PACKARD, JR., AND E. D. COPE. Professor E. DuBois Raymond has recently delivered a lecture before the physicians of the German army, on exercise or use, in which he makes some important admissions. We hope to give an abstract of the lecture, but content ourselves, at present, with the following extracts: ‘We should be, therefore, free to admit, with some appearance of reason, that the vigor of the muscles of wings and of digging feet; the thick epidermis of the palm of the hand and of the sole of the foot; the callosities of the tail and of the ischia of some monkeys; the processes of 312 Editors’ Table. [ April, bones for the insertion of muscles; are the consequences of nutri- tive and formative excitation, transmitted by heredity.” In this position Professor Raymond is in strict accord with the American school of evolutionists. He then goes on to say: “It is neces- sary to admit along with development by use, development by natural selection, {and that for three reasons. First, there are innumerable adaptations—I cite only those known as mimetic coloration—which appear to be only explicable by natural selec- tion, and not by use. Second, plants which are, in their way, as well adapted to their environment as animals, are of course inca- pable of activity. Thirdly, we need the doctrine of natural - selection to explain the origin of the capacity for exercise itself. Unless we admit that which it is impossible to do from a scien- tific standpoint, that designed structures have a mechanical ori- gin, it is necessary to conclude that in the struggle for existence, the victory has been secured by those living beings who in exer- cising their natural functions have increased, by chance (“ par hasard ”) their capacity for these functions more than others, and that the beings thus favored have transmitted their fortunate gifts, to be still further developed by their descendants.” In these three propositions, Professor Raymond still clings to the obscuri- ties of the Darwinians, though Darwin himself is not responsible for them. To take up first the second and third of these propositions. Professor Raymond does not for the moment remember movement (or use) is an attribute of all life in its simplest forms, and that the sessile types of life, both vegetable and animal, must, in view of the facts, be regarded as a condition of degener- ation. It is scarcely to be doubted that the primordial types of vegetation were all free swimmers, and that their habit of build- ing cellulose and starch, is responsible for their early-assumed stationary condition. Their protoplasm is still in motion in the limited confines of their walls of cellulose. The movements of, primitive plants have doubtless modified their structure to the extent of their duration and scope, and probably laid slightly varied foundations on which automatic nutrition has built widely diverse results. We may attribute the origin of the forms of the vegetable kingdom to three kinds of motion which have acted in conjunction with the physical environment ; first, their primordial free movements; second, the intracellular movements of proto- — plasm ; third, the movements of insects, which have doubtless modified the structure of the floral organs. Of the forms thus produced, the fit have survived and the unfit have been lost, and that is what natural selection has had to do with it. a. The origin of mimetic coloration, like many other things, is yet unknown. An orthodox Darwinian attributes it to “ natural selec- tion,” which turns out, on analysis, to be “hasard.” The survivae of useful coloration is no doubt the result of natural selection. — 1882.] Recent Literature. 313 But this cannot be confounded with the question of origin. On this point the Darwinian is on the same footing as the old time Creationist. The latter says God made the variations, and the Darwinian says that they came by chance. Between these posi- tions science can perceive nothing to choose.—C. 10: RECENT LITERATURE. THE DEVELOPMENT oF AmpHioxus BY Hatscuek.1—The entire organic world does not contain a more interesting animal than the lancelet, Amphioxus or Branchiostoma, the lowest vertebrate, the link which, though far removed from either, indicates a com- mon origin, or at least a remarkable structural similarity between the Vertebrata and the Ascidians or Tunicates. The literature upon this creature, extensive but incomplete, is now enriched by the present exhaustive memoir by one of the most careful and accurate of European biologists. In this me- moir, which forms the greater portion of a late issue of the Arbeiten of the Zodlogical Institute of the University of Vienna, and is illustrated by nine large plates, carefully drawn and colored, the development of the lancelet is traced with the greatest minuteness from the ovum to the adult. e ovum of Amphioxus contains, between the germinal portion and the enclosing membrane a remarkably large water space, forming by far the greater portion of its bulk, and the cleavage is very near regular, the difference between the size of the cells separated by the first equatorial fissure being very small. The “blastula” stage with its large segmentation cavity, and the gradual formation of a “gastrula,” are abundantly illustrated; two plates are devoted to the more advanced development, plainly showing the hollow structure and alternate position of the muscle-plates or myocommas, and three colored plates are filled with transverse sections. i Until an advanced period of embryonic life, the digestive tract is continuous with a dorsal canal, which terminates at an openin upon the upper surface of the head. At a later period the vent is formed, connection between the digestive tract and the dorsal canal is cut off, the anterior opening closes, and the dorsal canal becomes the neural canal. The hollow form of the muscular segments is shared by the lancelet with the Selachians (sharks and rays), Cyclostomes (hags and lampreys) and Batrachia, and tends to prove their Primary origin as diverticula from the digestive cavity. In the notochord vacuoles are developed, which become larger, | Studien über Entwickelung der Amphioxus. Von B. HATSCHEK, pp. 88. 9 double 8vo plates. Arbeiten aus Zool, Inst. Univ. Wien und der Zool. Station n Triest, Ton 1 Heft, 1881 . o o o A VOL. XVI.—No. IV. 2i 314 Recent Literature. [ April, obliterating the structure of the original notochordal cells, until finally the notochord consists of a series of clear spaces separated by hyaline partitions. These vacuoles are traceable also in tuni- cates, and in the teleosts or bony fishes. In conclusion, we have to say that Hatschek has given to the world a most valuable addition to its stock of embryological knowledge. TROUESSART’S CATALOGUE OF RECENT AND Fossit MAMMALS.'— Catalogues of animal forms are as necessary to a student of zoology as are catalogues of books to the frequenters of a library, or directories to dwellers in cities. No zodlogist can carry in his brain, ready at an instant’s notice, the accepted name, synonymy, etc., of all the species included in the department he specially studies, and thus such works as Gray’s Hand-List of Birds, and the present are great boons to him; they save him hard work, and leave him free to exercise his mind upon purely scientific work. Dr. Trouessart’s catalogue, which has already progressed to the completion of the Primates and Rodentia promises to be to mammalogists what Gray’s Hand-List is to ornithologists, with the added recommendation that it contains also all known species of fossil mammals, and will therefore prove equally useful to the palzontologist. The classification adopted is to a great extent that of modern - authors with the addition of the orders proposed by Professor Cope, and is based upon the structure of the feet and teeth, ex- cept in the division of all mammalia into the universally accepted sub-classes Monodelphia (placental) and Didelphia (non-placental). The Prosimiz (Lemurs) are separated as an order from the Simiz; Cope's order Bunotheria, with four extinct sub-orders (Mesodonta, Creodonta, Tillodonta, Teniodonia), and one recent sub-order (Insectivora), is placed among the Secundates, or ungui- culates ; the Toxodonta are considered a sub-order of Rodentia, and the Zeuglodonta has the same rank among the Pinnipedia. The line of hoofed animals or Zernates is concluded by the Am- blypoda, with two sub-orders, Dinocerata and Pantodonta ; the porcine group is separated as a sub-order from the ruminants, and the order Sirenia is intercalated between the Edentata and the Cetacea. The last mentioned three orders form the group Homodonta, of equal rank with the Heterodonta, which includes the remaining monodelphian orders. : The catalogue gives, besides genera, sub-genera, and species, the habitat, the synonymy, and all varieties on which species have been founded. When these varieties are merely local, or perhaps based on individual characters, they are marked with the 1 Catalorue des Mammifères Vivants et Fossiles. Parle Dr. E. L. TROUESSART: o 3 June, 1878. : pe ee 1882. ] Recent Literature. 315 letters a, b, c, etc., but these letters are doubled when the varie- ties have the weight of races or geographical species, while fossil species and genera are marked by the sign f. There are points in the classification adopted that may reason- ably be objected to. The most important of these is the creation of the group Homodonta to include the sirenians, whales and eden- tates, orders not closely allied, and differing much in the struc- ture of the teeth. The terms Secundates and Ternates are new, and are no improvement upon the older terms Unguiculata and Ungulata, the last of which -should be understood to comprehend four orders, viz., Proboscidea, Artiodactyla, Perissodactyla, and Ambly- poda. It is not possible to discover anatomical characters of sufficient importance to warrant the separation of the Bimana from the Simiz, and it is probable that the Prosimiz should be placed in the bunotherian series of sub-orders. This last proba- bility is hinted at in the prospectus. Bettany’s Practica Botany.'\—This useful little book should have been called First Lessons in the Practical Botany of the Flowering Plants, as it does not even mention the non-flowering plants. In the words of its author “‘ its aim is to aid students in schools and colleges in the practical work of describing flower- ing plants.” Some excellent suggestions are given under “ How -to Describe Plants.” uti While we do not think it profitable to begin the study of botany with such complex organisms as the flowering plants, we nevertheless welcome this little volume because it can do good Service in directing pupils to study ø/anzs rather than books on Plants. The “laboratory method” is so fully carried out that the ok can scarcely be studied by itself; the pupil must study the plant.— C. £. B BALFOUR’S COMPARATIVE EMBRYOLOGY (SECOND Norice).—The. chapter on the development of the birds is quite long, and the _ embryology of the chick has been more thoroughly studied than that of any other animal. In the brief chapter on reptiles, the de- n First Lessons in Practical Botany, by G. T. Bettany, M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S. Mac- „by G. T. Bettany, M.A., B.Sc., F.L.5. millan & Co., London and New Yoik, 18mo, 104 pp. 316 oe Recent Literature: [ April, - velopment of the lizard is chiefly discussed. In the longer chapter on the mammals, several pages are devoted to the early stages in the development of man The remaining two-thirds of the book are, in the present stage of embryological science, of much value to the student, as Profes- sor Balfour here attempts the difficult task of stating the general conclusions derived from a survey of all authentic known facts re- garding the embryology of animals in general. This is done suc- cessfully, the work well deserving the name of a comparative embryology, In chapter x1, we are presented with a comparative sketch of the mode of formation of the germinal layers, and the notochord, with a notice of the mode of origin of the allantois and amnion. We notice here a little discrepancy in the author's statement regard- ing the allantoic bladder of the Amphibia, which leaves us some- what in doubt as to the author’s final opinion respecting its nature. On p. 108, the author states that the allantoic bladder of the frog “is probably homologous with the allantois of the higher Vertebrates;” on p. 587 he says that it “is homologous with the allantois of the amniotic Vetebrata,” on p. 256, it is stated that there is “ample evidence” that the allantois “ has taken its origin from a urinary bladder such as is found in Am- phibia.” . Chapter x11, observations on the ancestral forms of the Chor- data, is mainly speculative. The author claims that it is clear” from Amphioxus “that the ancestors of the Chordata were seg- mented, and that their mesoblast was divided into myotomes, which extended even into the region in front of the mouth. The mesoblast of the greater part of what is called the head in the Vertebrata proper was therefore segmented like that of the trunk.” In the Amphioxus also the only internal skeleton pres- ent is the unsegmented notochord; a “ fact which demonstrates that the skeleton is of comparatively little importance for the so- lution of a large number of fundamental questions.” We have’ for some time inclined to the view that there was a general analogy between the head of an Arthropod and a Vertebrate, more intimate than generally stated, and Balfour’s views on this point are of much interest. As to the differentiation of the Ver- 1882. } Recent Literature. 317 preoral lobe of many Invertebrate forms, and the primitive posi- tion of the Vertebrate mouth on the ventral side of the head affords a distinct support for this view.” + Gegenbaur’s theory that the pairs of cranial nerves represent so many segments, and his segmental theory of the skull, which has replaced the old-fashioned vertebrate theory of the skull, is appa- rently endorsed by Balfour, who states that “ the posterior part of the head must have been originally composed of a series of so- mites like those of the trunk, but in existing Vertebrates all trace of these, except in so far as they are indicated by the visceral clefts, has vanished in the adult. The cranial nerves, however, especially in the embryo, still indicate the number of anterior so- mites,” etc. art 1 is concluded by a chapter on the mode of origin and M aologies of the ahaa layers of animals in general, and with a discussion of larval form Part 11, or the second half of the book is devoted to Organo- geny, or the mode of origin of the different organs of the verte- brate body, and this important part is characterized by the same full, critical treatment as in the first part, with consideration of the theoretical bearings of facts, such as seem at least in the main warranted by our present knowledge of the facts. The work is a most stimulating one, and will greatly advance in English-speaking countries the study of what is the most diffi- cult field of research in biology. ELLIOTT’S SEAL Iscanps or ALasKA.'—This entertaining and unusually well illustrated monograph of the fur-seal, hair-seal, sea-lion, and walrus is exceptionally well done. The story is really a fascinating one, and the author’s sketches of these ani- mals in various ages and altitudes are apparently by far the best that have ever been executed. A number of important hitherto doubtful points have been cleared up by Mr. Elliott, especially those relating to the breeding habits of these creatures. The re- port, while of particular economic value, is also one e of the most important works on natural history which has been published by our Government, containing as it does the results of several years of arduous study and close. observations on the bleak, out-of-the- way Prybilov group of islands. tno the seal is not a fish, the volume not inappropeiatelg sas a special Bulletin under the direction of the Com- pe Ae of Fish and Fisheries. niacin of Fish and Fisheries. Spence r F. Baird, ns 176. Special Bulletin, A Monograph of the Seal Dinis of Ales By Henry W. E'liotr. Reprinted with additions, from the report on the Fishery Industries of tbe aes with e engravings and maps. Washington, Government Printing Office, ; 1882. 4to, poe Pa 318 Recent Literature. [April, RECENT BOOKS AND eee gs .—Dr. H. G. Bronn’s Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-Reichs, in wort u. Bild. Von C. H. Hoffmann. Sechster Band IHI Abthei- lu pie Re ilien 25 u. pe Lieferung. 8vo, pp. 79, 4 plates, colored. Leipzig und Heidelberg, 1881 Papers by Dr. W. Peters in the Sitzungs-Bericht der Gesellschaft naturforschenden Freunde zu Berlin. 1. Mittheilung über vier neue Fische. 15 February, 1881. . Uber das Barier schildförmeger Verbreiterungen der Dornfortsätze bei Seitiacen und neue oder Weniger bekannte Arten dieser Abtheilung der Reptilien. 15 Marz, 1881. 3. Uebersicht der zu den Familien der Typhlopes und Stenostomi gehörigen Gat- tungen oder untergattungen 4. Uber eine neuen Art von Tachydromus aus dem Amurlande. 5. Uber die von Herm, Dr. Finsch aus Polynesien gesandten Reptilien. 19 April, 1881. 6. Uber drei neue Eidechsen, zu der Familie der Scincoiden gehörig, eine Lipinia (Mit geckonendhlicher Bildung der Zehen!) aus Neu-Guinea und zwei Mocoa aus aay =f zip 17 Mai die Excrescenzen des eae von Rana gigas Blyth (—Rana liebigii aken. eren d der Pinte 8. Uber zwei Arten der -Selangengatang Psammophis und über die synonymie yon zwei Arten der Lycodon 9. Uber den Bau des EEEN Uræotyphlus oxyurus (Dum. cigs 2I ae 1881. ~ Uber die Verschiedenheit von Syngnathus (Belonichthys) za bezensis Pths., und S, (B.) eee Blecker, und iiber eine neue Art der Areaan "Callopsla von den Philippie 11. Die Besc kendat von reuen Anneliden des aged ce oa Museums zu Ber- lin, welche sich in dem Nachlasse des Staatsraths Prof. Dr. Grube in Breslau Fei 188 n haben, der ihm von der Frau Staatsrathin ia Mitgetheilt War. 19 uli, 1881. von Herrn Major von Mechow von Seiner letzten Expedition jeo Westafrika Migebrahten Saugethiere und legte darunter ein Wohlerhaltenes Exe plar der merkwiirdigen Insectivorengattung Potamogale (P. velox Duchaillu) at 18 October, 1881 L. 13. Zwei neue von Herrn Major von Mechow Während seiner letzen Expeditio Westafrikas entdeckte Schlangen und eine Uebersicht der von ihm v aa keaten carpeiblogle chen Sammlung. 15 November, 1881. 14. Uber die Net one a der Lenge der äusseren Spalten iaf Schallblasens Merkmal zur Unterscheidung besonders Afrikanischer Froscharten. 20 Dec ember, 1881. Berlin, 1882, om the author os die Chiropterengattung Mormopterus und die dahin gehörigen pay Peters. 8vo 6, late. Auszug aus dem ee der Kön W. Akademie der a ih ehea ii Berlin. i Mai. Berlin, 1881, m the a Palzontographica. Beiträge zur Naturgeschichte der Vorzeit. Wil ha Dunker und Karl A. Zittel. Achtundzwanzigster r Band. Der dritten Folge Viertes Band, Dritte Lieferung. Die Medullosex. Eine Gruppe der Fossilen Cycadeen. V öppe . Stenzel. 4t ov. 1881. Die Fauna des ag ag Diceras-Kalkes. (Zweite Abtheilung.) Bivalyen von Dr. Georg Boehm. 130, 26 plates. (Vierte und fünít eru De- cember, 1881. Mittheilangen ~ die Structur von fe prim ph loveni E. und H4 und Cyathophyllum sp. ?, V 4t stage (Sechste Lieferung.) alae 1882. Cassel, r58. ge ae te publishers Undersökningar öfver gorga 1 Sveriges Aldre mesozoiska Beldningar, af Bernhard Lundgren. » pp. 37, 6 plates. — ck ur Lunds univsitetes Arsskrift. Tom. XII. Lu a "1881, From the author Stu über die Aae Re se Russlands. Von W. Kiprijanoff. (Gattun Be perth König. au schen Sandstein oder Osteolith der Kreide. 1882. ] Recent Literature. 3 19 Gruppe.) 4to, pp. 106, 19 plates. From Memoires = oe Imperiale i Sciences de St. Petersbourg. St. Petersburg, 1881. Du Role des Courants Marins dans la déstribution aii e Se pa de Amphibies et particulierement des Phoques et des Otar Par eLa TO essart. 8vo, pp. 4. Extrait du Bull. de oe Societie d’ bmd Sclaniieiues Whites thane: 1881). Paris, 1881, From the author Association Frangaise pour L’avancement des s atii Congres de Reims. La Grotte de l’Albanea. 8vo, pp. 8, 4 plates Nouvelles eee dans les Alpes-Maritimes en 1879. M. Emile Riviere, 8vo, pp. 10. Paris, 1880. From the aut Tupi Pesos du os Inferieur nie neyo yt Par P. J. Van Beneden, o, pp. 46, fol. plate. Extrait du Tome 1 des Memoires de l’Academie royal an sa esl pe letters et in beaux-arts Jé pree 1881. Brusells, 1881. From the author. Polacanthus foxii, a large undescribed Dinosaur from the Wealden formation i iy the Isle of Wight. By J. W. Hulke, F.R.S. 4to, pp. 14, 7 plates. From t oa aini of the Royal Society. Part tu, 1881. London, 1881, the List of the Geological Pesto ot London, November 1, 1881. 8vo, pp. 79. Lon- don, 1881, From the so Report on the mode of ei gee -e species of igh uran from the Lias of Daikid and Begna oei i mittee consisting of Professor H Seeley, uag Profes Boy Dawkins, FRS., and Mr. C Moor F.R.S. Drawn y Prof essor go oe, pp. 8, fol. plate. Reprint from the Rist of the ae Ply 1880. Q ollowing is a list of papers i Professor H. G. Seeley, extract from the Quar- le Fst of the Geological Society : Note on the Cranial characters of a Teleosaur from the Withby Lias aera oa in the Woodwardian Museum of the Uae a of Cambridge, ee ae ew spe- cies, sie ste eucephalus. 8vo, pp. 8, quarto plate. Nov., 1880,— On the skull of an Ichthyosaurus from the Lias of Withby apparently in roar. a new ipecies (i. zetlandicus Seeley), creeds in the Woodw: f the University of Cam mbridge. 8vo, pp. 16, quarto plate. Nov., 18 Note on Psephoporus polygonus V. Meyer, a ser ye of Chelsedin reptile weet to the leathery turtle. 8vo, pp. 10, plate. Aug., On the remains of a small lizard from the Neocomian rocks of Comén, near Tri- este, preserved in the Geological Museum of the University of Vienna. 8vo, pp. 6, plate. February, 1881. The reptile faci of the Gosau formation, preserved in the Geological Museum of the University of Vienna, with a note on the geological horizon of the spec my Neu - Welt, west of Wiener Neustadt. By hy imaia Ph.D. 8vo, pp. 82, 5 fol plat | aaa From the departm onograph of the Seal islands of Alaska. By Henry W. Elliott. eis ane 176, 30 plates, cuts. U. S. Commission of Fish and supernatural power, the cd ar na Hun-Ahpu-Utiu—The One master nals coe eco power, the Coy Zaki-Nima-Tziz—The very active White Badge Nimak, Nim-tzyiz—Great Hog, White Great Ho og (a totemic god). Tepeu, Tepex, Tepal—The god who had sufficient, the wh agent god. ee a: —The feather plumed god, the feathered serpe ke, a ux Ah-Raxa-Lak, Ah-Raxa-Sel—He of the green dish Xpiyacoc, releer paternal and maternal powers of life. Cakulha Hurakan Le The storm and-earthquake gods. ulha Raxa-Ca Qabauil—The eea Chipi-nanauac, Raxa-nana appia Pty of Knowledge, the Genius of Reason. The Xbalamob of Vou tan—Very anc ient men aoe guard the towns. Hun-Batz, Hun-Choven—Patrons of the fine The paper closes with a short discussion of affinities with Aztec myths and color names. ‘Edited by Professor Oris T. Mason, 1305 Q. street, N. W., Washington, D. C. s . 332 ` General Notes. [April, THE WESTERN RESERVE AND NORTHERN OHIO HISTORICAL So- cCIETY.— Tracts 54 and 55 contain the report of thethirteenth annual meeting, and the address of the venerable president, Col. Charles Whittlesey. The address, although seemingly without connection with ethnology, is after all a very interesting piece of work. Indeed, Col. Whittlesey makes the State 5 Ohio the arena for the drama of five distinct populations: 1. ymmes purchase, with Cincin- nati as a center, settled by the Swedes and Dutch of New Jersey; 2. The Virginia military district, with Chilicothe as its metropolis, settled by Virginians; 3. The Ohio Company, around Marietta, recruited from Massachusetts; 4. The seven ranges of townships next to Pennsylvania, populated from that State; 5. The Western Reserve, about Cleveland, designed to be called New Connecticut, because settled from that State. Alluding to the five most promi- nent men at the inauguration of the late President (the Shermans, «Waite, Hayes and Garfield), the speaker said: “ Was it not the. result of a long train of agencies which by force of natural selec- tion brought them to the front on that occasion?” ANTIQUITIES OF ANDERSON TOWNSHIP, HAMILTON COUNTY, Oxnto.— The archeologists of the American Association, who visited the Madisonville cemetery last summer, will not soon for- get the small, delicate, enthusiastic and modest gentleman who contributed so largely to their happiness. The editor of these notes spent one entire day with him, in company with Mr. C. F. Low, visiting the mounds and earthworks of Anderson township. We suspected at that time something was brewing, and was not surprised to receive a few days ago, “ The Prehistoric Monuments of Anderson township, Hamilton paid Ohio,” by Charles L. Metz, M.D. [From the Journal of the Cincinnati Society of ‘Natural History, Vol. 1v, December, 1881.] The CHE 2 is a pamphlet of twelve pages, prefaced by a ma which t Smithsonian symbols are used. For this and for all ‘his Eas ing labors, Dr. Metz deserves the unqualified praise of archzolo- gists. Tue ANTHROPOLOGICAL ĪNSTITUTE OF Great Brirarn.—The August and the November numbers appear in the same binding, and contain the following papers: rite J.—Note on wae chis Lewis, A. L.—Notes on two one circles in Shropshir Backioud, Miss A. Ww. —Surgery and esas ig in Neolithic times. Wake, C. Staniland—Notes on the orig lag Christison, David—The Gauchos of pa Jorge, < Central Uu. L: —Note on wir dwellings in Woodthor orpe, R. G.—Notes on the wild tribe inhabiting the so-called Naga hills ont os north-east frontier of India. Part r, W.H Grama from the Island of Mallicollo, in tha ew > p SORE NE ac) Shoo a Flow .—On a collection of monu eeulid heads es appre! deformed : : : Wylie, A.—Notes hat = Western regions. Translated. pee the Tséén Han — : 1882. ] Anthropology. . 333 10. Flower, W. H.—Report on the bones found in a Roman villa at Morton near Brading, ahdi 1881. 11. Lewis, oo —Remarks on some Archaic structures in Somersetshire and Dor- setshire 12. ergy G. M. co he new sand ye for rai a the facial angle. 13. Gooch, W. D.—The e age of South Afric 14. Flower, W. H. T Aies to the pig eagat of Anthropology of the British As- sociation, York, Sept. 1, 1881. 1. Mr. Forte’s brief note refers to the discovery of an ancient cave workshop for the manufacture of Carib shell chisels. . The paper of Miss Buckland is a pleasant review of Dr. Broca’ s book on Prehistoric trepanning and cranial amulets 4. In a former communication Mr. Wake had held the Mala- gasy to be autochthonous. The object of the present writing is to correct this notion and to prove that the origin of this race was from the region inhabited by the Siamese and cognate peoples. _ 5. The term Gouch-os, so often seen in books on S. America, is not a race name, but implies rather a certain mode of life, and at San Jorge is given to negroes, Brazilians, pure Spaniards, and even to northern Europeans. The paper of Mr. Christison is one of absorbing interest. . Mr. Peal essays to connect the pile structures of India with the Swiss lake dwellings. 7. The Naga hills are south- -east of Assam, dividing that pro- vince from Burma, between 25° and 28° north, and 93° and 97° east. The frequent conflicts of these people with the British army in the east, afforded the officers in Her Majesty’s army the on of studying their sociology. . By “monumental heads” is meant artificial deformation oan upon the heads of children at a very early age, by means of circular constriction. Professor Flower takes advantage of a recent collection by Mr. Boyd to bring together the history of this practice in the New Hebrides, a custom not met with in ae other islands of the Pacific. he instrument of Mr. Atkinson was invented to measure the aeri formed between the ophryo-alveolar line and the plane of the visual axis, so much insisted on by Bro Lt In 2 paper, extending over sixty pages of the journal, Mr. Gooch, from a large personal experience and by the aid of local an, minutely describes the types, distribution, geo- 4 Ste horizon and material of the stone implements of South | Africa. American archeologists cannot afford to miss this paper. 14. The only noteworthy utterance for us in Professor Flower’s address, is the much-to-be-regretted fact that the Anthropologi- cal KERSE. is far from flourishing. ocy.—It is with profound sorrow that we record the enti of eke Carl Engelhardt, late secretary of the Sosy 334 General Notes. April, of Northern Antiquaries. He was profoundly versed in the an- tiquities of Scandinavia and Denmark, and was the author of many archeological works. Among them we would mention “ Denmark in the early Iron age, illustrated by recent discoveries in the peat mosses of Slesvig-Holstein,” a splendid quarto pro- fusely illustrated and dedicated to the Princess of Wales. It was published in London in 1866, GEOLOGY AND PALAZONTOLOGY. NEW CHARACTERS OF THE PERISSODACTYLA CONDYLARTHRA.— Besides the characters of this group given in the Naruratist for December, 1881 (page 1017), there are some further points of im- portance. The humerus in the two species of Phenacodus, where it is known, is much like that of the Creodonta, having a supracon- dylar foramen, and a simple condyle, without intertrochlear ridge. This is the only group of Ungulata where the supracondylar fora- men occurs, Numerous specimens of the species of Meniscotherium show that that genus belongs to the Condylarthra, and must be referred to a new family characterized by its more complex molar teeth. It is also possible that the number of the digits is different. The astragalus and humerus have the characters of those of Phena- codus, that is of the Creodonta. The two families of Condylarthra will be contrasted as follows : Phenacodontide, Dentition tubercular. J/eniscotheriide, Denti- tion lophodont, with external and internal crescents and deep valleys.—£. D. Cope. MeEsonyx AND Oxy@nA.—In Mesonyx ossifragus the ante- rior limbs are much shorter than the posterior ones. This is espec- ially marked in the humerus, which resembles in its form that of the otter. The ulna has a wide deep groove on its superior EN transverse and firmly fixed to the ulna. The greater length o the posterior limbs would indicate that the animal frequently rested on those extremities alone, in a position intermediate tween those used by the bears and kangaroos. The species is as large as a bear, and has a very large head. In Oxyena the posterior foot has some characters like those of the seals. The cuboid bone is exactly like that of those animals, an it is evident that the external toes of the hind foot diverged ex- tensively and were probably constructed for swimming.—Z&. D. Cope. Tue RHACHITOMOUS STEGOCEPHALI.—The segmented vertebre characteristic of this order have been found in the genera £ry- eee ops, Zatrachys and Trimerorhachis in America, and Actinodon 1 in . = Same slate at other localities. > 1882.] Geology and Paleontology. 335 Europe. It was first pointed out by myself in Eryops ( Rhachito- mus) and Trimerorhachis,.in the NATURALIST, May and Sept., 1878 (p. 633), and soon after by Gaudry in Actinodon, An examina- tion of the figures and descriptions given by Von Meyer (Palzon- tographica) of the rather imperfect specimens of Archegosaurus, led me to believe that the vertebrz of that genus possess the seg- mented character also. I therefore included Archegosaurus in the same natural division with Zryops, etc., and employed for it the name Ganocephala which had been created by Owen for its reception." It now appears from the descriptions of Dr. Fritsch that the verte- bre of Archegosaurus are not of the segmented type, but that they are discoidal, as in the Ladyrinthodontia. Under these circum- stances, the suborder Ganocephala must be given up, and a new name given to the suborder represented by Eryops, Actinodon, etc., and which I characterized in the Proceedings of the Ameri- can Philosophical Society, for June, 1880. This suborder may be called the Rachitomz, and will include the following genera. Trimerorhachis; ? Parioxys; Eryops; Actinodon; Zatrachys ; ? Pantylus. There are two families, defined as follows : Occipital condyle concave, undivided ie Geek puede cae eames Trimerorhachide Occipital condyle divided into two lateral condyles Eryopi. t one genus can yet be referred to the first family; to the second belong Act:modon and probably Zatrachys, besides Eryops.—E. D. Cope. MARSH ON THE DINOSAURIA.— Professor Marsh has published a more complete systematic arrangement of these reptiles than the one noticed in the March Naturatist. In this he includes many of the genera described by European and American authors, and gives them their appropriate positions. Genera whose characters so be ascertained are omitted, and some synonymes are in- cluded. GEoLocicaL News.—The Geology of Frenchman’s bay, Maine, is treated of by W. O. Crosby in the Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. The rocks consist of a schistose silver-bearing group, and a slate of Cambrian or Primordial age. A few fossils have been found in the M. Daubree (Bull. Soc. Geol. de France) gives details of the two directions taken by joints or frac- tures in the cretaceous strata near Paris. These joints are usually parallel to the reliefs of the region, and the two systems are nearly at right angles to each other.——The Geological Mag- azine for December, 1881, contains descriptions of some fos- sil Crustacea from the Stonesfield slate of Oxfordshire, Eng- land, by Hy. Woodward. Three species of Æryon and one of the’ curious larval-looking genus Pa/gocaris, hitherto known only from the P typus of Meek and Worthen, are for the first time published. The same magazine includes articles on the Brid- 1 Proceeds. Amer. Philosoph. Soc., 1880, June. eee 330 General Notes. [ April, lington and Dimlington (East Yorkshire) shell-beds, by G. W. Lamplugh ; and on the “Parallelism of the Hanoverian and English Upper Jurassic,” by C. Struckmann, translated by W. S. Dallas. One hundred and twenty-five fossil species are common to this formation in the two countries, nearly half of them bivalves. The North German Upper Jura is poor in Cephalopoda, and the small number of corals known to be common is most probably owing to the fact that the German corals are not yet worked out mon- ographically. A late issue of the Annales des Sci. Geologiques contains a malacological history of the Hill of Sansan, depart- ment of Gers, one of the richest deposits of fossils in France. The article includes a notice of the geology, with colored sections, and a dissertation upon the climate and topography of the region at the epoch of the deposit. In the Geological Magazine, January, 1882, E. T. Newton, F. G. S., has some notes on the Birds, Rep- tiles and Amphibia of the Preglacial Forest Bed series of the East of England. Most of the birds are indeterminable, but the genera Anser, and, doubtfully, Anas, are identified. Reptiles and amphibia have never previously been noted from those beds. In the same number H. H. Howorth, F. S. A., writes of the “Traces of a Great Post-glacial Flood,” as shown by the loess, the shells of which are land shells, while the relics of man an animal remains tell the same tale. . G. Nathrost (Kongl. Svenska Vetenskaps-Akad. Hand.) shows that it is not improba- ble that many markings referred to alge are really trails of ani- mals. He especially refers Zophyton to the trails of Medusez.—— In the Reports, British Association, Section C. York Meeting, J. Prestwich argues against the generally accepted theory of volcanic - action, the first cause of which he believes to be the welling up of the lava in consequence of pressure due to slight contraction ofa portion of the earth’s crust; this lava vaporizes the waters in the crevices of the volcano as well as those that afterwards flow into the cavities, and thus explosions are produced. The last issue of the American Fournal of Science contains an article by J. D. Dana, upon the “ Flood of the Connecticut River valley from the melt- ing of the Quarternary Glacier.” The author refers the “ kames in the Connecticut valley, and terrace formations in general, to conditions at variance with those of Mr. Upham,——-In the same journal Mr. A, O. Derby shows that, under the name of itacolu- mite, two very distinct geological series have been confounded, the newer of which is almost exclusively quartzite, but in places — contains pebbles of all the rocks of the older series, including the diamond. Diamonds have also been taken from clay (darre). The original diamond formation of Brazil is stated to be probably Cambrian. The International Geological Congress of Bologna — decided during the session of one week in September last that a chart of Europe should be published at Berlin on a scale of 1: 1,500,000. The terms employed are to be Group for the highest _ 1882. ] Mineralogy. 337 divison, System for the next, Series for the third, Stage for the fourth, for the fifth Assize or Couche. Formation was not adopted because it has other meanings. M. St. Meunier has suc- ceeded in artificially forming enstatite, a mineral which is common in meteorites,and in a section shows fan-shaped or star-shaped forms. It is out of those forms, producible (as M. St. Meunier remarks) in a porcelain tube heated to redness, that the fancy of Mr. Otto Hahn constructed the crinoids and sponges which form the sub- ject of his work.——At a recent meeting of the New York Acad. of Sciences, Dr. Alexis A. Julien read an able paper upon the volcanic tuffs of Idaho and other western localities. MINERALOGY -:.! HEEVITE FROM AMELIA COUNTY, VIRGINIA.—Among some min- erals recently obtained from the mica mine near Amelia Court- house, Virginia, already famous for its microlite, was a yellow, crystalline substance which upon examination has proved to be ffelvite. The mineral occurs in crystals and friable crystalline masses imbedded in bluish-white orthoclase, and is generally associated with pale red topazolite. While no crystals were found sufficiently perfect to allow of measurement, the absence of any action upon polarized light proved their isometric char- acter. The mineral has a hardness of about 6, a specific gravity of 4.306 (Haines), a sulphur-yellow color, a somewhat resinous lus- tre, and is partially translucent. It fuses at about 4 with intu- mescence to a brown glass, gives no water in the closed tube, and with the fluxes gives the reactions for manganese. Fused on charcoal with soda, it gives a hepar. It is soluble in hydrochloric acid, evolving sulphuretted hydrogen and leaving a residue of gelatinous silica. My friend, Mr. Reuben Haines, has been kind enough to con- tribute the following analysis: Gangue (SiO, insoluble in NaCO,) 9.22 SiO, 23.10 B e 11.47 MnO 45-38 Feo, 2.05 ALO, 2.68 aO 64 K,O +39 Na,O a 00.3 100.35 ei as The mineral was dissolved in HCI, and the “ gangue ” found by : repeatedly washing the total SiO, on the filter with a hot concen- — trated solution of NaCO,, which removed all the soluble SiO». By . 1 Edited by Professor HENRY C Lewis, Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila- delphia, to whom communications, papers for review, etc., should be sent. 338 General Notes. [ April, regarding the sulphur as combined with the iron and part of the manganese, the total percentage would be reduced by 2.25 per ent. Helvite has not previously been found in America.—H. Carvill wes. A new MancaneseE MINERAL.—Mr. M. W. Iles has examined an efflorescence which occurs upon an ore vein in Park county, Colorado. The efflorescence is of a pure white color, is very soft, has a specific gravity of 2.16, and occurs in friable crystal- line masses. It is soluble in water, and has a bitter, astringent taste. The aqueous solution has an acid reaction, indicating an admixture of free sulphuric acid. The following mean compo- sition was obtained : FeO ZnO MnO SO, HO. 4.18 5.97 22.31 36.07 31.60 The mineral appears to be a hydrous sulphate of manganese, containing perhaps admixtures of sulphatite, melanterite and goslarite. It should have further examination. GALENA WITH OCTAHEDRAL CLEAVAGE.—About twenty years ago, Dr. John Torrey noticed at the Pequea mine, Lancaster county, Penna., a remarkable variety of galena, which had an eminent octahedral cleavage. The usual cubical cleavage was very indistinct, but was made more prominent after heating. He supposed the galena either to be pseudomorphous after fluorite or to be a dimorphous variety. Dr. Cooke, however, showed that by pressure, traces of an octahedral cleavage may be developed in galena from many localities, and Dr. Genth holds that such cleav- age may be a natural result of octahedral crystallization. A few months ago a similar variety of galena was found near Mont Blanc, Switzerland. A large crystal formed of two cubo- octahedrons united by an octahedral face was found to give per- fect and brilliant octahedral cleavage faces when struck’ by a hammer. The cleavage faces had a slightly undulating surface. ` The specific gravity of the crystal was 7.67. No alteration in cleavage was produced by heating. ` Tue Conpition oF SutpHuR IN Coat.—Dr. W. Wallace’ has made some analyses of coal, which lead him to the conclu- sion that the sulphur found in coal, usually regarded as due to pyrite, exists frequently as an organic compound. He finds the amount of sulphur in many coals to be greatly in excess of the amount necessary to form bisulphide with the iron which 1s present. : At the recent meeting of the Amer. Inst. of Mining Engineers, = Dr. Thos. M. Drown, probably not aware of these researches, con- * tributed an interesting series of analyses of coals, which lead to 1 Proc. Phil. Soc. Glasgow, 1879-80, p. 223. 1882.] : Mineralogy. 339 the same conclusion. He shows, moreover, that the “organic sulphur” in coal is not affected by the process of coking. SPIRAL FIGURES IN CRySTALS.—Students in optical mineralogy will be interested in an article by L. Wright, in a recent number of the Philosophical Magazine, entitled ‘Some Spiral Figures observable in Crystals, illustrating the relation of their Optic Axes.” The author places a section of the mineral to be examined between a quarter-wave plate and a thick plate of quartz and examines this arrangement in a polariscope with con- verging rays. Beautiful spiral figures are produced, resembling the well known “ Airy’s spirals.” A uniaxial crystal, as calcite, shows a system of double spirals, mutually enwrapping each other (Fig. I.) A single axis of a biaxial crystal shows a simple spiral (Fig. 2), while if the section includes both axes of the biaxial crystal, as muscovite, two series of single spirals are observed, which, while separated from each other, finally enwrap one another (Fig. 3). This a beautiful demonstration of the well known fact that the optic axis of a uniaxial crystal has a two-fold character. Fig. 1, representing a uniaxial crystal is seen to be composed of the same two spirals seen in Fig. 3, a biaxial crystal. A uniaxial crystal must therefore be regarded as a case in which the two axes of a biaxial crystal coincide. i Mineralogists will here perceive how slight a distinction exists between a uniaxial crystal and a biaxial crystal of small optic axial angle and will understand how, for example, a biotite hav- ing often no appreciable biaxial character may yet be regarded as monoclinic with an optic axial angle of nearly 0°. Native SILVER.—Several interesting occurrences of native silver have recently been described. . The first of these is in the province of Almeria, Spain, where it has been found in iron ore. A bed of hematite of considerable 340 General Notes. [April, thickness forms a hill, at the base of which is a deposit of miocene marl containing occasional beds of argentiferous galena. e galena has long been worked for silver, and it is said that the Phoenicians and Romans once mined in that locality. Recently native silver has been found in the hematite itself, and in a bed of flint which overlies it. Veins of barite which traverse the hem- atite bed are also rich in native silver. The silver is said to occur in rounded grains. Another interesting occurrence of silver has been described by Kecenig and Stockder. They found it at a Colorado locality as clusters of crystals surrounded by or implanted in coal. The association of native silver with coal is a good demonstration of the accepted theory that organic substances play an important role in the reduction of metals from their salts. According to a note in a recent number of the Engineering and Mining Journal, native silver has been discovered in small specks and scales at the copper mines near Somerville, N. Some VIRGINIA MINERALS.—The students in the B of the University of Virginia, have contributed to the Chemical News several valuable notes upon Virginia minerals. S. Porcher describes a native alloy of gold and silver occurring in rounded grains in Montgomery county. The grains have the color of gold on the exterior, but are almost white within. The specific gravity is 15.46, less than that of gold. Allowing for the partial removal of silver from the surface, the composition is api to be represented by single atoms of gold and silver, F P Lippit has analyzed an epidote of clear pistachio green color, and finds that the iron is all in the ferric condition and that the mineral is about two-thirds aluminium epidote and one-third iron epidote. B. E. Sloan has examined the beautiful bluish-white felspar which accompanies the microlite, columbite and beryl of Amelia county. This felspar resembles oligoclase, but is now shown to be a true orthoclase. . Heyward describes a zinc-bearing clay from Pulaski county ; ; and A. L. Baker found that iodine was present in the salt brines of West Virginia. New Mivnerats.—JVocerine is a double fluoride of magnesium and calcium, which occurs in white acicular crystals in the vol- canic rocks of Nocera Neocyanite is an anhydrous silicate of copper, which occurs in small deep blue crystals upon the lava of Vesuvius. Tritochorite is a vanadate of lead and zinc, of a dark << color and yellow streak, occurring in columnar cleavable masse Melanotekite is another massive, cleavable mineral of nae color. It is a silicate of lead and iron, occurring at Longban, Sweden. It has a metallic lustre, and is nearly as hard as quartz. 1882. ] Geography and Travels. 341 MINERALOGICAL Notes.—A “ crystalline bitumen” is found in trap at Port-a-Port bay, Newfoundland. It seems to have re- sulted from the heating action of the igneous dyke upon bitumi- nous shales and limestones. These latter yield petroleum. Artificial pseudomorphs of calcite after gypsum have been made by placing a crystal of gypsum ina cold, saturated solution of carbonate of ammonia. The change takes place gradually, and requires several days unless the gypsum is in fine powder, when a few hours suffice. The beautiful amianthus from Canada is found to be mnch finer than any asbestos for the manufacture of asbestos fabrics. It is said that the fabrics made from it are light, soft, and white. It is also felted into sheets, which are flexible, and unctuous to the touch. It is known in commerce as “ Bos- tonite” or “ Canadian fiber.”——-An examination of a white slime which covered the bottom of a mine in Westphalia showed that it was composed of a mixture of Aluminite, Allophane and Hy- drargyllite. A recent analysis of the water of the Dead sea showed it to havea spec. grav. of 1.186, and to contain the follow- ing number of grams of solid matter in one litre: KCl NaCl NaBr MgCl, CaCl, CaSO, 16.90 74.05 5.02 128.10 35-36 t.2 Gold is reported as having been found in a ledge of quartzite near Amity, Orange county, New York. This is a locality already well known to mineralogists as having afforded many rare and beautiful species. Leadville, Col., analyzed by M. W. Iles, a small percentage of Massicot and a trace of chlorine was detected. Mineralogists should beware of artificial moss-agates. They are being manufactured of great perfection at Oberstein, Germany. The coloring matter is introduced in chalcedony to form artificial dendrites. GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS." EXPLORATIONS IN EQUATORIAL AFRICA.— Makua Land and the Interior of Mozambique-—Makua Land, the unexplored region lying between Masasi and Mozambique and south of the Rovuma river has recently been traversed in different directions by three © Englishmen. The Rev. Chauncy Maples, of the Universities Mission, advanced as far as Meto, about S. lat. 13°25’ E. long. 37° 58’. He was prevented by the cowardice of his native fol- lowers from continuing his journey to Mozambique. He heard re- ports of the existence of a snow-capped mountain called Irati, about 130 miles south-south-east of Meto and visible from that point in very clear weather. Mr. H. E. O'Neill, British Consul at Mozambique, has recently from Kisanga, opposite the island of Ibo. He found the country ‘Edited by Exits H. YARNALL, Philadelphia. s undertaken the exploration of a route to Lake Nyassa which starts ` s 342 General Notes. i [April, for the first forty miles of his march from the coast at Mokambo Bay thinly timbered with thick undergrowth, including quantities of the India-rubber vine, fairly cultivated and populous. The country then becomes rocky and broken with hills and peaks of bold shapes and precipitous sides from 200 to 1000 feet in height. At the one hundred and forty-second mile of his march he speaks of coming into view of the exceedingly beautiful Shalawe plain, which, dotted with villages, stretches away for many miles to the west and south where the vista terminates in a range of splendid hills Zooo to 4000 feet high. Mr. O’Neill made a successful journey of 600 miles, returning at the end of November last, and we hope shortly to give some details of his explorations. Mr. Joseph Thomson, who was sent by’ the Sultan of Zan- zibar to examine some so-called coal beds on the Lujende river near its junction with the Rovuma, passed through the northern portion of this region and has sent an interesting account of his journey to the Royal Geographical Society. The “coal” turned out to be some irregular layers of bituminous shale of no practi- cal use. Mr. Thomson’s report so much displeased the Sultan that he at once broke the engagement he had made for a period of two years with Mr. Thomson, who has returned to England. One of the members of the Universities Mission, the Rev. W. P. Johnson has also recently visited a lake; the source of the Lujende branch of the Rovuma, On reaching the banks of the lake he could see it stretching away to the south-east, the lofty hill Mangoche, near Nyassa, east of Mponda, being visible at the same time to the north-west. He supposes the lake to be the Lake Shirwa of Livingstone, the northern part of which has never be- fore been visited. r. Schuver's Expedition to Central Africa-—Petermann'’s Mittheilungen has received an account of the progress of Mr. J. M. Schuver on his journey from the Nile to Central Africa. He reached Fadassi on June 12, 1881. The source of the Termat affluent of the Blue Nile is in the Sori mountains west of Fasu- der. Another stream of the same name near Belletafa is an affluent of the Jaboos river. He left Fadassi,on July 30th, on a trip of thirty- eight days to the south, during which he reached the country of the Légha Gallas near the source of the Jaboos. He also explored the Amam country which is watered by two affluents of the Jaboos. The water-shed between the two Niles was defined as far as the eighth parallel. He saw far away to the south-west the great lake and river Baro flowing towards the west and situated a degree further south than as shown on Petermann’s map. The Wallel moun- tain rises to the east to the height of 11,000 feet. The Légha Gallas are a powerful tribe numbering 20,000 war- riors, and inhabit a country far to the westward of the Galla coun- try proper. Mr. Schuver proposed to leave Fadassi on Janua Ist, to explore the unknown regions down to the equator. 1882.] Geography and Travels. 343. Dr. Stecker in Abyssinia.—Dr. Stecker, the former companion of Dr. G. Rohlfs, has recently visited Lake Tana. He has explored all the lake, visited the mountains on its shores, and prepared a detailed map of this basin. Lake Tana has a superficial area of 1150 square miles, and is at an elevation of 6370 feet above the sea-level. The greatest depth ascertained is 38 fathoms. Dr. Stecker has made interesting collections of plants, insects, fishes and mollusks, and he discovered in the Gorgora mountains, situ- ated north of the lake, unmistakable proofs of volcanic activity ; eruptive cones, a crater and a mighty lava stream, all probably recent, as in the volcanic rocks he has found inclosed remains of a mollusk which still inhabits the waters of Lake Tana. Dr. Stecker, since he completed the survey of the lake in July last, visited Zobul, a province only recently conquered by King Jo- hannes, and never before visited by an European explorer. It lies to the east of Lake Ashangi and is inhabited by Azebu Galla. Dr. Stecker’s last letter is written from that lake, the environs of which he had surveyed.: If all goes well, he proposes to explore the countries to the west of Lake Tana as far as Fazokl, and then to visit Enarea and Kaffa. De Brazza on the Congo-——M. Savorgnan de Brazza, when last heard from, had arrived on the Alima river and was then prepar- ing to launch his small steamer to begin the exploration of the Congo. . Mizon, who was sent out to assist him reached Franceville, the station on the Upper Ogowé, on September 22, 1881. In his report to the French Committee of the International African Association he mentions among the products of the Upper gowé country caoutchouc and palm oil. There are forests of wild pine, the fiber of which. is used by the natives for various purposes, including nets for catching game and fish, Pigge and Wissmann.—Doctor Pogge and Lieut. Wissmann, owing to the disturbed condition of the country, have decided not to attempt a visit to Mossumba, the residence of the Muata Yanvo, but will endeavor to reach Tushilango-land. To do this they must follow the Kassai river to its junction with the Lulua, near to which they expect to find a great lake. They will thus advance, if successful, into an entirely unexplored portion of the Congo basin near the fifth degree of south latitude and several hundred miles north of Schiitts’s furthest point. we Doctor Buchner.—The German traveler, Dr. Buchner, in an address made at St. Paulo de Loanda on his return from the in- terior of Africa, after giving a brief account of his journey to, and residence at Mossumba, the capital of the Muata Yanvo, stated that in his endeavors to push northwards after leaving Mossum- ba, he had crossed fifteen rivers, thirteen of them in canoes. © With the exception of two, all these rivers have parallel and northerly courses. In this respect Dr. Buchner fully agrees with __ the views of his predecessor, Herr Schütts, as to the Kassai water — 344 General Notes. [ April, system, but he does not think that, even after it has received all its tributaries, the Kassai can be in any way compared with the Lualaba. Where he passed it the last time, in 8° S. lat. in the dry season, the Kassai had only a breadth of 394 feet, and a depth of ten feet, with a current of rather less than two miles. . NVotes.—A relief map of the equatorial region of Africa on the horizontal scale of one inch to twenty-five miles, and the vertical scale of one inch to five thousand feet has recently been ex- hibited in London. The French Government has undertaken to make a railroad between the Upper Senegal and the Niger rivers. The surveying expeditions*reached the starting point of the road on the Senegal at Khay, seven or eight miles below Me- dina on November 6th last———Commander V. L. Cameron, sailed from Liverpool on December 31, 1881, for Axim to join Capt. R. F. Burton in his exploration of the country at the back of the western portion of the Gold Coast colony. A Russian expedition for the exploration of Western Equatorial Africa is to leave Europe in April. The Cameroons mountains are proposed as the base of operations, and the exploration of the reported lake region to the east of them is the chief aim of the expedition. Dr. Josef Chavanne estimates the mean altitude of the continent of — Africa to be 2169.93 feet or double the mean altitude of the con- tinent of Europe, which is estimated at 971.41 feet. Since the return of the three native envoys from England, King Mtesa has been much better disposed to the English missionaries in Uganda. MICROSCOPY .! _ AMERICAN Society or Microscopists.—The Proceedings of the fourth annual meeting of this Society, held at Columbus, Ohio, August oth to 11th, 1881, have been issued in a pamphlet of 102 pages and seven plates. Perhaps the most generally interesting of the ten papers published, is “ A Study of Blood,” by Les- — ter Curtis, M.D., of Chicago. This paper describes a very careful | study, with one-tenth and one-sixteenth objectives, of fine defini- tion and high resolving power, of pus corpuscles, and of white corpuscles, and bleached red corpuscles of human blood, with a Heitzmann, of New York, in 1873, and subsequently by Dr. Louis Elsberg, of the same city, Dr. Klein, of London, in his Atlas of e Histology, and other writers. Although Dr. Curtis easily recog- nized (what, indeed, it is not difficult to see) a more or less dis- tinct appearance resembling a network, when the field was some- what blurred and the outlines of objects indistinct, he uniformly by such change of adjustment as would secure a fine definition and distinct outlines, found the appearance of net-work replaced — 1 This department is edited by Dr. R. H. Warp, Troy, N. Y. 1881. ] Microscopy. 345 by a quite distinct view of the surface of the corpuscle covered with small nodules of unequal size and placed at irregular inter- vals, clearly defined, and capable of casting shadows in various directions. No net-work could be seen between or below these nodules, though in some cases their shadows might seem to resemble one. Aside from the opinion of so competent a judge of appearance as Dr. Curtis, it may be added that the appearance of nodules in the absence of a net-work, as figured in the draw- ings representing his observations, indicates clearness of definition and reality of structure as distinguished from optical illusion. The only real question is whether a net-work of fibers, on another plane underlying this could have escaped detection by the same means which rendered the nodules so distinct. While the author’s experience may not be considered absolutely conclusive in so difficult a question, contested by so competent authority, still it is a valuable and interesting contribution to the subject, and it is quite sufficient to teach caution in adopting a theory which may yet be discarded along with the hexagonal markings of Pleurosigma angulatum. An interesting paper by C. M. Vorce, of Cleveland, on “ Forms observed in water of Lake Erie,” discusses the various vegetable and animal organisms obtained by filtration, through a muslin bag tied over a faucet, from the water supply of the city of Cleve- land. Besides casual observations made at other times, regular weekly examinations were made for a year or more. forms are figured upon a folded plate. The following general conclusions are of special interest: “Surprising to the writer was the discovery that the winter season was the most prolific of the whole year in number and variety of forms observed. * * * The most noticeable peculiarity of the filterings taken at this season is the abundance of infusoria, rotatoria and crustacea, which in small bodies of water are warm-weather forms; and next in attracting attention is the remarkable activity of repro- duction in vegetable life. Indeed, it is soon apparent to the ob- VOL. XVI.—wNo,. Iv. 23 346 General Notes. [ April, tion in many of the forms, so that these accelerated forms eventu- ally become so much more numerous than the others that the latter are frequently looked upon as. missing, although usually to be found if carefully searched for. In addition to this cause, the same effect is increased as spring advances and summer ap- proaches, by the shallow water forms being swept in from the streams and continuing their reproduction in the lake waters. And in the cases where examinations are made from water sup- plies passing through storage reservoirs, the influence of the still water in the reservoir, and of its bottom of sluicy mud, is also to be considered. As summer wanes and cold weather again ap- proaches, the winter forms increase in activity and abundance, while summer forms become more inactive, and the preponder- ance is again reversed.” ; Under the caption of “A Tumor of the left auricle,’ D. N, ‘Kinsman, M. D., of Columbus, gives an excellent clinical re- port of a rare and interesting medical case. Though chiefly valuable to physicians, the microscopical portion is sufficiently prominent to justify its appearance in the proceedings. The nature of “ muscular contractility ” is treated at length by Jacob Redding, M. D., of Falmouth, Ind. The author’s theory seems to rest partly upon plausible but not altogether safe rea- soning as to what would be likely to be found; his description of the tissues studied is not likely to be fully accepted by histolo- gists, who will approve still less his free statements as to the su- perficial view of former authors, and of their having completely ignored, or, at least, remained silent upon the subject of the inte- rior of the muscular “cells.” The article will repay a careful study. It is illustrated with a diagrammatic plate, which delin- eates with great distinctness the author’s theory. Shorter articles occur upon the “ Innervation of the lungs,” by A. M. Bleile, M. D.; “Gregarina in the American lobster,’ by Professor A. H. Tuttle, and “ Destruction of Acari by a fungus,” by C. M. Vorce. Also, a review of different kinds of “ Binocular microscopes,” by George E. Fell; an argument in favor of mak- ing “ Homogeneous-immersion obiectives adjustable,” by George E. Blockhan, M. D., and a description, by E. L. Shurley, M. D., of “An improved slide for the examination of gaseous matter.” This is a glass slide with an attached cell and cover-glass, the center of the bottom of the cell being raised by a glass disk, so that the bottom of the cell will be within reach of the focal capa- city of the objective used. The gas is introduced through an opening in the side of the cell by means of a fine metallic canula and a small flexible rubber tube, supplied from a compressible rubber bag or globe, such for instance, as in the instruments used in medical practice for the insufflation of powders, or inthe chemical laboratory for operating wasli-bottles and other appara- tus. The method is capable of further usefulness in microscopy: _ . 1882.] Scientific News. 347 Bauscu’s HOMOGENEOUS IMMERSION OBJECTIVES.— The Bausch & Lomb Optical Company, Rochester, which, under the able su- pervision of Mr. Edward Bausch, is making remarkable progress in the construction of lenses, has added to its list a series of hom- ogeneous immersion objectives, from }th to 3th inch, claiming an angular aperture of 140° in medium equivalent to crown glass. They are made adjustable, and up to ysth inch cost from $70 to $100. Bya change of adjustment they are capable of use as water or glycerine immersion. An immersion illuminator of in- genious construction is made for use with them. New. 4th, dry, of 140° is also made, with long working focus, and so well cor- rected that it will resolve No. 18 or No. 19 of Moller’s test-plate in balsam. Lesin VALLEY MicroscopicaL Socirry.—This new society held its February meeting in Easton, with a good attendance, Dr. Isaac Ott described and illustrated Dr. Stohrer’s (of Leipsic) plan for registering the growth of plants, and confirmed that au- thor’s hypothesis that during the day plants do not grow as rap- idly as at night. Mr. F. Wolle exhibited specimens of filamentous alga, illustrating a growth in some instances of from one-half to three-quarters ofan inch per hour. Mr. E. A. Rau also exhibited botanical specimens illustrating the growth of the lower orders. Other objects were shown by E. P. Seip and Breinig, and Mr. G. W. Stout. PiGron-post Fitms.—Having obtained a supply of the gelatine films used for transmission of news by pigeon-post during the siege of Paris (the expedient of posting despatches in the form of microscopic photographs, by the way, having been suggested by Sir David Brewster nearly fifty years ago), the editor of this de- partment of the Naruratist will take pleasure in sending an un- mounted specimen, sufficient for a microscopic object, to any per- son sending him a stamped and directed envelope for that pur- pose. Return exchange optional. Bioop Sratns on SreeL.—Dr. M. C. White, of New Haven, has been able to recognize and measure, by means of the vertical - illuminator and a eighth objective, blood-corpuscles upon a steel instrument that had been exposed during two winters in the woods, - ae SCIENTIFIC NEWS. — The annual report of the Boston Society of Natural History for 1881, while recording progress in the arrangement of the mu- seum and the issue of its publications, shows the amount of gen- eral interest felt by the citizens at large in the popular work of the society in the diffusion of science. Two ladies have generously _ paid the entire expenses of the Teachers’ School of Science estab- z 348 Scientific News. [ April, lished by the society, lectures having been delivered by Professors Cross, Hyatt, Goodale and Mr. W. O. Crosby. The average attend- ance on these lectures was at first 400. As the result of these lec- tures Mr. Augustus Lowell recently sent word that the society would receive an annual donation of $1500, to be expended in the Teachers’ School of Science. The laboratory of the society has been. used the past year by a Saturday morning class for teachers in zoology, a class in zodlogy for the Boston University, a class in zoology and paleontology from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, a special class in biology, and also in physiology, under the exclusive control of Mr. Van Vleck. Other donations for educational purposes under the auspices of the society are re- corded. — The reports of the Tenth Census are concerned much more with the material resources of the country, and has invited the cooperation of expert scientists to a far greater extent than here- tofore. This is good evidence that scientific ideas have as never + before impressed themselves upon the people and government. This will lead to a truer economy and a wiser administration of all subjects relating to the natural resources of the country. Be- sides the admirable report on the fur seal, which is noticed else- where, we have received an elaborate report on the Oyster Indus- try, prepared by Mr. Ernest Ingersoll, under the direction of the Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries. It consists of 250 quarto pages, with suitable illustrations. The account of the mode in which the starfish feeds upon the oyster is in some respects new to us. The excellent researches of Dr. Brooks upon the embryology of the oyster are given in full with his original drawings, and this illustrates how often what at first sight appears to be abstruse science and most remote from any practical issue, becomes avail- able and necessary in such a practical matter as the oyster fishery. — The eminent physiologist and anatomist, Professor Theodor Schwann, who in 1839 published his famous “ cell theory,” which made such a revolution in biology, and has done so much to simplify our conceptions of the general structures of organized ' bodies, died at Liége in February. Although active as a teacher, in late years Professor Schwann did not publish much, but he held to biology very much the same position maintained by Far- aday in physics. He was born in 1810, was an assistant of J. Müller, the great anatomist, and afterwards was appointed to a professorship in the University of Liége, which he held until the time of his death. In 1848, on the fortieth anniversary Of Schwann’s professoriate, deputations from all the important unte versities in the world went to Liége and presented addresses, while oe all distinguished biologists contributed their cartes to an mo which was presented to the Professor. ; . 1882. } Proceedings of Scientific Societies, — 349 — The report of P. W. Norris, superintendent of the Yellow- stone National Park, describes the recent violent eruptions of a geyser which he calls the “ Excelsior.” During much of the sum- mer of 1881 this geyser sent up to a height of from 100 to 300 feet, sufficient water to render the rapid Fire Hole river, nearly 100 yards wide, a foaming torrent of steaming hot water, and hurled rocks of from one to one hundred pounds’ weight around the edges of the crater. When the geyser is not in motion the column of steam rising from the crater forms a conspicuous land- mark in the park. A new map of the park accompanies the report. — At the last meeting of the Quekett Microscopical Club, Mr. F. Enock explained a new method of protecting cells from damage by externa! pressure upon the cement, his device consisting of a small metallic ring of angular section, which at the same time fitted closely round the cell and overlapped the margin of the cover-glass. It was believed that when placed in position and PT Saee round it would effectually prevent the escape of glyce — Probar DuBois Raymond, in a recent address before the surgeons of the French army, adopts the dynamic theory of heredity originally proposed by Cope in 1871, and subsequently elaborated’ by Haeckel under the name of perigenesis. He does not credit either of these naturalists. — The milk of the elephant, according to Dr. Charles Doremus (America), is the richest that he has ever examined, containing less water and more butter and sugar than any other. It has a very agreeable taste and odor. — Dr. William A. Hammond has recently read a paper on the mental constitution of Guiteau, in which he takes the ground advocated by the NATURALIST in its August, 1881, number, — The Naturalist Brazilian Exploring Expedition, under Mr. Herbert Smith, left Rio for the interior, Jan. 1, 1882. :0: PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. CALIFORNIA ACADEMY OF Sciences. Dec. 5.—At this meet- eral months in the field in connection with the work the U. S. Coast Survey. There was a large attendance, . Among the donations to the museum was one from E. F. Gerald of a fine specimen of vanadinite, the first discovered in the Pacific States or Territories. It was found forty-five miles above Yuma, Dr. W. F. McAllister presented an aboriginal skull, taken many feet below the surface at Mount Goat, Tombstone District. Cap- mneror tain C. L. Hooper of the Corwin don SẸ of Emper 350 _ Proceedings of Scientific Societies. { April, geese and a moosehead, with horns attached, from the Yukon river, in Alaska. John G. Lemmon described a new species of gentian, which he discovered in September last on the summit of the Chiricahua mountains, in Southeastern Arizona, and which on account of its small flower-cups, he named Gentiana microcalyx. It was a valuable acquisition to the cultivated flora, besides having valuable medicinal properties as a tonic. Robert E. C. Stearns read a suggestive paper on the growth of certain California forest trees, and meterological data suggested thereby. The death of Henry Chapman, the taxidermist and curator of mammals and birds of the Academy, was announced, and resolutions of respect to his memory were adopted. Tue San Dieco Socrety or Naturat History held its eighth annual meeting in the new building recently erected by the So- ciety, on Sixth street, November 18, 1881, the President, Dr. G. . Barnes, in the chair. There was a good attendance of mem- bers, and of visitors on invitation. Mr, C. J. Fox exhibited an Indian relic, probably a medicine tube, from Temecula cañon. Mr. O. N. Sanford exhibited an enormous beetle from Africa. The president gave the substance of a communication from Mr. Henry Hemphill, of Oakland (now of San Diego), addressed to Mr. Tryon, and by him submitted to the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences, describing a species of Acmza collected by him, which was also presented to the Academy of Sciences. Mr. Hemp- hill had discovered that the Acm@a pelta and Nacella instabilis were identical, apparent differences depending on stages of growth and effect of station. It is regarded as an interesting addition to our limpets. Annual reports of the librarian, treasurer and president were made. Srate Naturat History Society oF Ittinois.—The annual meeting was held at Champaign, February 28 to March 2, 1882. About thirty members were present, with an unusually good local attendance. Twenty-two papers were presented, nineteen of whic were read. Mr. Wm. McAdams gave an account of the religion of the mound builders, as indicated by idols and other relics of a religious character, and also described the “Great Cahokia Mound,” opposite St. Louis, and other mounds of that vicinity, giving the results of a recent survey of the group. 5 Earle described the mounds of a part of south-eastern Missouri, explored by him last autumn for the Smithsonian Institution. Mr. F. M. Webster gave an account of the appearance and movements of the Army Worm in north-eastern Illinois, in 1881. Mr. S. A. Forbes described the lateral organs of blind fishes and reportéd the a : results of a series of observations and experiments on the first food of the white fish. Mr. J. A. Armstrong described the life his- tory of a jelly fish; and Mr. C. W. Butler contributed a number 1882.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 351 of notes on the habits of animals and described the effect of the poison of snakes upon red blood-corpuscles, as determined by his recent experiments. Mr. A. B. Seymour read a paper on methods of ñeld work on parasitic fungi. Professor T. J. Burrill reported the normal occurrence of bacteria in the juices of plants, which act as ferment poisons on man, and also explained some recent im- provements made in microscope objectives, and Mr. C. W. Rolfe gave the results of some experiments made by him on the direc- tions taken by the roots of germinating seeds, and some observations on the number of rings exhibited by cross sections of the wood of trees of known age. The latter gentleman likewise read a paper on the improvement of methods of sci- ence teaching in the public schools. Dr. Edward Evans de- scribed the rock system of Northern Illinois, Wisconsin and Iowa, as indicated by records of deep borings, and gave a theory of the artesian water supply of this region; and Professor D. C. Taft delivered a lecture on the fossil tracks of the Connecticut val- ley. Mr. James Forsythe read an abstract of the proceedings of the last meeting of the Industrial University Natural History So- ciety, and Professor N. C. Ricker described and illustrated the “blue process” of copying manuscript, drawings, plates, etc., by photography. The evening of Wednesday was devoted to a re- ception given to the society by the faculty and students of the university, an interesting feature of which was a fine sip aioe 8 display, given jointly by. the society and the university. The o cers selected for the ensuing year were: President, Dr. J. W. Taylor, Kankakee; Secretary, S. A. Forbes, Normal; Treasurer, Tyler McWhorter, Aledo; Vice-Presidents, Professor T. Ea Bur- rill, Champaign, and Hon. William McAdams, Otterville, and ad- ditional members of the Executive Committee, Dr. Edwin Evans, Streator, and Dr. E. R. Boardman, Elmira. The reports of the Secretary and Treasurer showed that the society was in a flour- ishing condition as to funds and membership. Boston Society or Natura History, February 15.—Mr. S. Carr remarked on the Indians as mound- builders, and Mr. W. M. Davis concluded his paper on the origin of iskebasins—the “ obstruction type March 1.—Dr. W. S. Bigelow spoke of some points in connec- tion with the theory of spontaneous generation and the life-his- tory of the lowest organism. New York Acapemy oF Scrences, March 6.—Mr. W. E. Hid- den remarked on a phenomenal “ pocket ” of quartz crystals con- taining inclusions of water and carbon dioxide. Mr. N. H. Dar- _ ton read some notes on the Weehawken tunnel. APPALACHIAN Mountain Crus, Boston, March g irona G. L. Vose made a communication on the relation of mountains 352 Selected Articles in Scientific Serials. [ April, 1882. to the construction of railways. The president exhibited a new map of a portion of Japan, on porcelain. AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL Society, February 24.—Mr. George Kennan lectured on Siberia MIDDLESEX INSTITUTE, January 11, 1882.—Mr. Herbert Glea- son read a paper on Structural geology as illustrated by the formation of the American continent. E. H. Capen, president of Tufts College, Professor John P. Marshall and Dr. A. S. Packard, Jr., were elected honorary members. February 8.—President ait read a paper on Schools of for- estry. A paper from Warren H. Manning, of Reading, on the cultivation of trees, was read by the secrgfary, and followed by a general discussion. The executive com d a course of instructive lectures in the different departments of botany for the remainder of the winter season. ebruary 15.—Professor Edward S. Morse delivered a lecture on the Ancient glaciers of North America 20: SELECTED ARTICLES IN SCIENTIFIC SERIALS. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF Science, March.—Gold-bearing rocks of the province of Minas Geraes, Brazil, by O. A. Derby. The flood of the Connecticut River valley ste the melting of the Quaternary glacier, by J. D. Dana. Geographical distribution of certain fresh-water mollusks of North America, and the probable causes of their variation, by A. G. Wetherby. Description of a new genus of the order Eurypterida from the Utica slate, by C. D. Walcott. Notice of the remarkable marine fauna occupying the outer banks off the southern coast of New England, No. 4, by A. E. Verrill. Origin of jointed structure in undisturbed clay and marl deposits, by J. LeConte. ' GrotocicaL MAGazıne, February.—Cyrena fluminalis at Sum- mertown, near Oxford, by J. Prestwich. On Spermophilus be- neath the glacial till in Norfolk, by E. T. Newton. Supplement toa chapter i in the history of meteorites, by W. Flight. Traces of a great post-glacial flood, ony H. H, Howorth (concluded). THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. VoL. xvi. — MAY, 1882. — No. 5. THE ACORN-STORING HABIT OF THE CALIFORNIA WOODPECKER. BY ROBERT E. C. STEARNS. HE acorn-storing habit of the Californian woodpecker ( Mel- anerpes formicivorus), has long been known to the “ country folk ” and others who frequent the country and take notes by the way. Before the American occupation, the Spanish Californians had observed this curious habit, and gave the bird the appropriate and musical name “ el carpintero?” No doubt, still further back the aborigines had their name for the carpintero, and regarded the bird as invested with superior power, or possessed by some un- seen or hidden influence, which placed it above its feathered con- geners and proved it to be in some mysterious way a little closer to the heart of nature. It is highly probable that if we knew the traditions of the for- mer red men of California, we should find some quaint story or curious legend connected with this ingenious and interesting bird. I find no mention of this woodpecker in either Bancroft’s' or Powers” ethnological volumes, relating to the California tribes. During a recent visit to Napa county, I noticed near the house where I stayed, on Howell mountain, a fallen pine of the species known to botanists as Pinus ponderosa, the yellow pine of the woodsmen, the bark of which was full of acorn holes. The tree was a noble specimen, and its prostrate position gave : : me a chance to learn not only its dimensions, but also to ascer- — F tain very nearly the number of holes which the woodpeckers had made in its bark. In falling, the tip of the tree had broken off, and was so hidden in the general débris of fragments of branches, cones and under- 1 Native Races of the Pacific States. * Contributions to Ethnology, U. S. see and Geol. Survey, Powell, Vol. z~% ato. a n : _ VOL. XVI.—NO. V. y \ 354 The Acorn-storing Habit of the California Woodpecker. [May, brush, as to escape detection. The length was not less than 175 feet, the diameter of the butt just above the ground, five feet ten inches. At ninety feet the diameter was three feet eight inches. Above the ninety foot line the holes continued, but were so scat- tering that they are not included in the reckoning. Neither are those in the first ten feet of the trunk, as between the ten foot line and the ground they were comparatively few. Between the ten foot line and the ninety foot line the number of holes to the square foot, with a fair allowance for verification, was from sixty to twelve. A piece of the bark, sawed from the tree by my own hands, which measures exactly twelve inches by twelve inches, contains sixty holes; this is a much smaller num- ber than could be counted in the same sized piece in a great part of the section of eighty feet, while twelve is’ a very low minimum. The two diameters as above given, when added make eight feet and eighteen inches, the average diameter being one-half of this, or about four feet nine inches; this multiplied by three, to get the circumference, gives fourteen feet and three inches; and this again multiplied by the length of the section, eighty feet, pro- duces 1140 square feet. Now if we add the maximum and minimum of acorn holes to the square foot (sixty and twelve), we have seventy-two, which divided by two, gives an average of thirty-six to the square foot, and thirty-six times 1140 gives a product of forty-one thousand and forty (41,040) acorn holes. The holes are of different sizes, varying with the size of the acorn, which each hole is made to receive, for these birds are good workmen, and each acorn is nicely fitted into its special cavity. Making a fair selection of acorns as to size, I find that. iE takes on an average seven to make an ounce (that is, picked when green); and taking that number for a divisor, it shows the total weight of acorns required to fill the holes in the tree, is three hundred and sixty-six pounds seven ounces, avoirdupois. Whether any particular species of acorn is preferred, I am unable to say. sy The acorns in the tree above described, so far as it was possible to determine them without the cups, which the woodpeckers: reject, appeared to belong to the nearest adjacent oaks, Quercus chrysolepis. This oak is very abundant all around the mountain é and is itself peculiar in having two forms of leaf on the same twig- \ 1882.] Zhe Acorn-storing Habit of the California Woodpecker. 355 At the upper end of Pope valley, not far beyond Ætna springs, I noticed a standing pine of the same species as that described | and of about the same dimensions as the foregoing, which was full of holes. In Knights valley, in August, 1879, I observed woodpecker holes closely set in the bark of a large Douglass spruce (Tsuga douglassii); and I have been informed by various _ parties that these woodpeckers also bore and deposit acorns in the bark of various species of oaks. Sometimes the acorn holes are- made in the wood, as I have been informed by a friend, Mr. C. H. Dwinelle, of the University of California, who has seen such holes in a species of white oak in Alexander valley. He also related an instance of the “ car- pintero” sticking acorns in a crack between the boards in the porch of a house in Redwood city, San Mateo county. Mr. J. W. Bice, of the University, has also observed acorns stored in the white oaks near Healdsburg, in Sonoma county, as well as in the cracks between the boards in and around the pro- jecting eaves of barns and houses. Where the projecting rafters are boxed in, sometimes they will find a hole, and at other times make one, and store acorns in large quantities in such places. In clearing land the trees are girdled, and in about two years the bark drops off, leaving the exposed wood of the trunk ina sappy state, particularly on the side which is usually in the shade, and this side is especially selected by the woodpeckers for their purposes. They not infrequently drop acorns down chimneys, ' where of course the result of their labor is without any advan- tage. Upon turning to the volume on Ornithology in the Geological Survey (of California) publications, in reference to this species of woodpecker, it says: “ They are fond of playing together around ~ the branches, uttering their rattling calls, and often darting off to take a short sail in the air, returning to the same spot. They have © a habit, peculiar to them, of drilling small holes in the bark of- trees, and fitting acorns tightly into them, each one being care- hie E fully adapted and driven tight. The bark is often so full of these as to scarcely leave room to crowd in another without destroying f the bark entirely. These are generally considered as laid upfora winter supply of food; but while in this climate no such provision — iS necessary, it is also very improbable that birds of this family : T Would feed on hard nuts or seeds of any kind. The more prob- — 356 The Acorn-storing Habit of the California Woodpecker. [May, able explanation is, that they are preserved for the sake of the grubs they contain so frequently, which, being very small when the acorn falls, grow until they eat the whole interior, when they are a welcome delicacy for the bird. Whether they select only those containing grubs, or put away all they meet with, is uncer- tain; but as they leave great numbers in the tree untouched, it is probable that these are sound acorns, and often become a supply to the squirrels and the jays.” Without questioning the foregoing as to the preference of the woodpecker for animal food, and especially for the larve often contained in the acorns, it is undeniable that, in common with the jays, they are exceedingly fond of fruit, as many an orchardist can testify; and their predilection for almonds defore these nuts are quite ripe, is well known to the cost of. many almond growers ; that they eat other nuts and also acorns to some extent, I have no doubt. The jays and squirrels are quite likely benefited by the acorn-storing habit of this species of woodpecker; and I have been told that the jay sometimes assists the woodpecker by bringing acorns for the carpintero to deposit in the bark; and further that sometimes the jays put pebbles in the acorn holes “to fool the woodpeckers ;” but these latter statements, though perhaps true, need confirmation. As several woodpeckers are engaged in the work at the same time on the same tree, their operations, as may be imagined, are carried on with a good deal of vivacity and noise, in which the jays become interested, and dart about, adding to the tumult in their own peculiar chattering way. ` The latter have related singularities in the matter of food- storing, as will be seen below. The friend, Mr. Dwinelle, whom I have already quoted, states that the large thistle, which is abun- dant in certain places in Alameda county, owes its distribution in part to the jays who take the seeds, which are of good size, and plant them in the ground. He further states that a friend of his, who fed Indian corn to his chickens, had observed the jays fly down and pick up a kernel and then go off a short distance and plant it; in this way he discovered how it was that stalks of maize came up and were growing where he had never planted. Mr. Dwinelle has himself seen a jay plant an acorn in the ground of his (Mr. D.’s) house-yard or garden in Oakland. The bird deliberately made a hole, thrust in the acorn, covered it and : 7 1882.] The Acorn-storing Habit of the California Woodpecker. 357 then put a chip on the spot, perhaps the latter as a mulch; then flew away, found another acorn, which it accidentally dropped in a growth of periwinkle (myrtle), and after searching for it with- out finding it, gave up and flew away. As it is hardly presumable that the jays plant either the corn or the thistle for the purpose of perpetuating those species of plants with the object of obtaining food from future crops, it is likely that being full fed at the time, with appetites satisfied, they simply buried the seed for future need, as a dog buries a bone, and forgot all about it, or not needing the same, the seeds remained where the birds planted them, until they germinated and grew into plants. The holes made by the woodpeckers in the bark of trees also serve as a lurking place for beetles, ants and other insects, so that both vegetable and animal food are brought together side by side to furnish a meal in time of need, in which perhaps the jays some- times participate. Judging by the tree herein described, it would seem as if there were enough for all. Mr. Bice is of the opinion that the acorns are stored simply for the larve, which the carpintero eats after the maggot has attained a good size. He also relates the following, which is worthy of note: “ On cutting down a hollow oak on his father’s place, a woodpecker’s nest was discovered after the tree had fallen, and a young bird of the carpintero species was found and caught, being unable to fly. It was carefully reared, and became a great pet with the family. After it had reached maturity and was perfectly _ able to fly, though no restraint was placed upon it, it would come at once in answer to call, leaving its fellows in the trees. Upon One occasion, when the family went several miles from home to- ao visit a friend, the bird followed them, though at the time they were not aware of it, and only learned the fact from the friend _ whom they had visited, and who caught and kept the bird until an opportunity offered for returning it. Probably if it had not ‘ = been caught it would have followed the family back.” 7 There is a larger species of woodpecker, with plumage much ae resembling that of M. formicivorus, which sometimes appears in o flocks and helps itself, or tries to do so, to the stores laid up by el carpintero, who bravely fights the maurauder. I have been oe | unable to learn to what species these depredators belong. o 358 On some American forms of Chara coronata, [ May, OBSERVATIONS ON SOME AMERICAN FORMS OF CHARA CORONATA. BY T. F. ALLEN, M.D Chara coronata Ziz. (in ed. 1814), revised by A. Braun to include all known varieties, belongs to the second division of the genus Chara, namely Haplostephane (stipules composed of a simple series of cells}; it has but one stipular cell at the base of each leaf, is not corticated, is moncecious and is described as follows in Braun’s Characee Africanz: “ Plant annual, smooth and flexible. Leaves verticillate nine to eleven, with 4-6 articulations, 3-5 elon- gated segments and a short mucroniform ultimate segment. Bracts developed at every node; at the terminal node forming with the terminal segment a 3-5 divided crownlet (coronula) ; the posterior bracts shorter, depauperate or wholly wanting; the anterior about equaling the sporangium, rarely longer, often shorter. Stipules about the size of the leaves. Axtheridia and Sporangia produced on the same node, rarely, double or triple. Nucleus of the sporangium black, with a calcareous shell and with 7—12 conspicuous striz on a side.” ; The European form of this species, known as var. Braunii, has been considered the normal form, occupying as it does an inter- mediate position in respect to size, development of bracts, size of nucleus and form of the coronula. The nucleus varies from 420 to 550 m (micro-millemeters, mille-millemeters) in length, is g-striate; coronula of the sporangium is short and obtuse; the bracts anteriorly are equal to or shorter than the sporangium, posteriorly they are undeveloped. This form is found also in America, but the more distinctively American form has been known as var. Schweinitzit A. Br. This is usually characterized by a larger nucleus, 550 to 650 »., and by the great development of the bracts, which are often several times longer than the spo- rangium and are completely developed around the leaf, verticil- late, though the posterior are much shorter than the anterior. An African form, var. Perrottetii A. Br., has a large nucleus, 600-650 ., with unilateral bracts equaling in length the sporan- gium; this form we find in America also. From India, var. Coromanaclina A. Br., has been designated by a very large nu- - cleus 600-750 v., with verticillate bracts, nucleus with seven strong angles; some of our forms approach very closely to this, -1882.] On some American forms of Chara coronata. 359 having verticillate bracts and an equally large nucleus. In the Sandwich islands is found a delicate form in which the cells of the coronula are much elongated, and approaching this form is one collected in New Mexico by Wright. Besides the more dis- tinct forms are many intermediate forms, difficult to place, pos- sessing characters belonging to two or more varieties; indeed the forms of this species from different places are quite numerous. We find the plant everywhere from Canada to Mexico and from Massachusetts to California. One interesting fact is, that the plant in any given locality is constant in its peculiarities, and though thousands of plants be examined they will all be found to exhibit precisely the same character. This is true not only of this species but of most other species of Characez; thus in a pond filled with Chara Jetida A. Br., with long bracts and long terminal naked nodes (Macroptila, Macroteles) all the plants will have the same pecu- liarity and will keep it unchanged year after year, while a neigh- boring pond perhaps only a few rods distant, may be inhabited by another distinct but persistent form. A. Braun relates that Chara gymnopus var. Humboldtii A. Br., collected by Gollmer in the same lake in which fifty-five years before Humboldt had gathered it, presented precisely the same characters. We have, however, noticed in one instance an appa- — rent difference in a form of C. coronata collected in precisely the same locality in which it had been found twenty years before, __ but there might have been a difference in the maturity of the plants. This permanence of slight peculiarities may be owing to the disagreeable odor and taste of the plant, which has oftena strong smell of sulphuretted hydrogen, rendering it offensive to animals who might otherwise feed upon it and carry the seeds to other localities; and as the plants grow wholly under water, the seeds are not liable to be carried by the wind. Hybridization — a seems, therefore, to be infrequent and exceptional. -These very r qualities, which serve to limit the spread of the Characeæ, may also have determined the persistence of very ancient forms see ae limited their multiplication. = The characters relied upon for distinctions betweeen ‘pain a. - have been the development of the bracts, the size and striation of = the nucleus, and the character of the coronula of the sporangium. _ ? The general aspect of the plant, size and length of stem, — 360 On some American forms of Chara coronata. [May, or laxity of growth, seems to vary greatly from differences in the character of the water, exposure, et cetera. The plant has been thought to be free from incrustation, but one form from Canada (Pacific Railway survey) is so completely incrusted that it is ex- tremely brittle, and when dry has a gray color; while another form has a most peculiar zonular incrustation, giving the plant a variegated appearance. he development of bracts seems to be most capricious; though the comparative length of bracts and sporangia seems to be pretty constant in any one locality, the posterior development varies in a single plant, and at times ona single leaf, one node exhibiting verticillate bracts while the next node has absolutely no bracts on its dorsal aspect: this we often find to be the case in the longest bracted forms (var. Schweinttzit). In America we have every length of anterior bracts from two to three times the length of the sporangium, a little longer, of equal length, a little shorter, to very short bracts, one-half or even a third its length. Some of the shortest bracted forms are found with the largest sporangia and with verticillate bracts. Size of nucleus—The smallest, mature nucleus we have yet met with occurs in the form collected by Wright in New Mexico, and determined by A. Braun as var. Braunii forma tenera ; it is 420 uv. long and has seven striz; next in order is the Silver-city form, recently found, 500 ~. with only five striæ; one from Cali- fornia is 500 ». long with seven striæ; from Saranac lake, Ver- mont, N. Carolina, etc., are forms 520 to 550 v. long with longer or shorter bracts; then come the more common long-bracted forms (var. Schweinitzii) with nucleus 550 to 6504. long with 8 to g striz ; then some forms with larger nucleus and very short bracts, Penn. and Kansas, 660 to 780 (!) long with ọ to 10 striz. Both the smallest and largest nuclei now known to us have been associated with short bracts. The number of stri@ on the nucleus, representing the whorls of enveloping cells, varies considerably ; while in a general way they are more numerous on the longest nuclei, yet a smaller nucleus may have more than one somewhat larger ; the delicate Saranac form has 9 striæ, while the larger Vermont form has only 7 (the same as the delicate Braunii-tenera) though the nucleus is larger. The Silver-city form with a nucleus 500 ». long has 5 striz, while Braunii-tenera nucleus 420 r. has 7 strie. 1882. | On some American forms of Chara coronata. 361 The cells of the coronula vary greatly from the closely-set short cells of the more common forms to the divergent and elongated cells of Braunii-tenera, which exhibits an approach to the Sand- wich island form (var. Oahuensts A, Br.). These varying characters with their numerous combinations - seem to us to render a division of the species into definite varie- ties well nigh impossible. As it has now become unadvisable to bestow distinctive names upon the numerous forms of that. truly polymorphic species C. fetida A. Br., so in view of the now numerous and rapidly multiplying forms of C. coronata, it seems to us proper to describe them as forms peculiar in many cases to certain localities. The variations of this plant may be tabulated as follows, giving prominence to the size of the nucleus and length of the bracts, allowing also for variations in the habit of growth, et «Cetera: I, ‘sa seas nucleus less than 500 #. in length. haere bracts longer than the sporangia, verticillate or unilateral. . Condensata, verticils approximate, the leaves longer than the inter- nodes, b. Laxior, leaves loose, spreading. c. Clausa, leaves compact, incurved, A. Pachygyra, nucleus with thick prominent angles B. Leiopyrena, nucleus smooth, or with but slightly prominent angles, 2. Microptila, bracts shorter than the sporangium, verticillate or unilateral. . Condensata. b.. Laxior, c. Clausa. A. Pachygyra. B. Leiopyrena. 3. Meioptila, bracts equaling the sporangium in length, Al. Macrocarpa, nucleus more than 600 H. in length. . 1. Macroptila, microptila or meioptila. à hh or Leiopyrena. a. Condensata, laxior or clausa. mt. Meiocarpa, nucleus of medium size, between 590 and 600 4. long, Variations as above The American forms may be arranged and designated as bi = lows, beginning with those having the smallest nucleus: I. Forma tenuior, microcarpa, microptila, unilateralia, laxior, o- on (var. Braunii tenera A. Br.). This form was cole 362 On some American forms of Chara coronata. (May, by Wright in New Mexico (No. 908). It isa slender diffuse > plant, with rather long leaves. of 5-6 articulations, including the terminal one. The stip- ules and bracts are very slen- der; the bracts are unilateral, shorter than the sporangium,,. the anterior rather longer than the lateral. The coronula of the sporangium consists of oe five cells with elongated diverg- Fic, 1.—Variety Braunii tenera. ng tips, intermediate in aspect between var. Braunii and var. Oahuensis A. Br. - The sporangia and antheridia are usually duplicated on each of the two lower nodes. The terminal segment consists of three slender elongated cells forming a tuft. The nucleus is oval with about seven sharp angles, 420 to 460 ». long and about 250 » broad. In the adjoin- ing cut 7 represents the anterior aspect of a node with two: spo- rangia but with the antheridia removed, as at 3. 2 is a terminal ' node—all magnified’ forty diameters. . Forma microcarpa, microptila, unilateralia, laxior (var. Braunit Sah This form has been collected near St. eee by p Dr. Engelmann (to whose kindness I am indebted for specimens). Plants: diffuse, leaves longer than the inter- nodes, 4-5 articulations, of which the lowest or the two lowest are fertile; stipules rather stout but short; bracts. stout, unilateral, much shorter than the sporangium. Coronula of five connivent, blunt cells. Nucleus. broadly oval, 475 to 500 ~. long, with about six ribs, which are blunt and’ not prominent. The accompanying 3 figure, magnified forty times, repre- Fic. 2.—Variety Braunii genuina. sents the anterior aspect of a node of a leaf, with two sporangia, one antheridium, in situ (outlined) and one removed; only the anterior bracts are shown, the lateral are- about the same length. = 1u. Forma meiocarpa, microptila, verticillata, elongata, clausa,. PLATE IV. meme Vo Ee E S E Sanss a a a a Pe Chara Coronata, Ziz. Var. gracilis, Allen. i -i Aataral Size 1882. ] On some American forms of Chara coronata. 363 pachygyra (var. gracilis Allen ined.). Plant slender, elongated, 15 to 20™ in height. Verticils consisting of 9—10 leaves, distant. Leaves much shorter than the internodes, the lower spreading ; the upper fruiting ones connivent; articulations few, usually three, the two lower nodes bearing fruit, the upper sterile, the fertile = nodes usually connivent while the subterminal internode is elon- gated and divergent. Stipules very slender and rather short ; bracts slender, usually verticillate, much shorter than the sporan- gium, the anterior longer than the lateral, the posterior very small, sometimes wanting, the terminal bracts form, with the short terminal segment of the leaf, a triple tuft. Sporangia and antheridia usually duplicated on the two lowest nodes of the leaf. Sporangia' large in comparison with the size of the plant, with about eight whorls on one side; coronula of short pointed some- what divergent cells; altitude of cells of coronula in mature sporangia about 100 ». Nucleus broadly oval, 480 to 520 p. long, with five or six thick ribs. This form differs in habit of growth from all other known vari- eties. It was gathered near Silver City, New Mexico, by Mr. Rushy in 1880, being found in only one pool. . It occupies an interme- diate position between var. Braunii tenera (Forma 1) and the large fruited forms from Pennsylvania and Kansas, which seem almost identical with the East Indian var. Coromandelina A. Br. Explana- tion of the plate; 1, a partial view of a verti- cil, showing the relative size and. position of the stipules ; 2, a front view of the first node of a leaf, showing at æ the points of attach- ment of the antheridia which have been re- moved; 3, a lateral view of a second node, with a younger sporangium, showing the ver- ticillate bracts; 4, another second node, with a very young sporangium; 5, the terminal segment of a leaf; 6, a ripe nucleus. Iv. Forma microcarpa, meioptila, verticil- lata, tenuior. This form was collected in California, at “King’s river,” by Berggren JV in 1875, and sent me by Professor Nordstedt. Frc, 4 — Chara coronata The plant is slender and diffuse, and is inter- var. 4. : mediate between the extreme small-fruited unilateral forms and the medium-fruited verticillate ones. The bracts are verticiliate, 364 On some American forms of Chara coronata. [May, the anterior shorter than the lateral, which about equal in length the sporangium; the coronula consists of short thick cells with a minute point, not at all developed as in Braunit tenera. Nucleus 425-500 v. long, with 6-7 angles. We now come to a group of forms representing in a general way the ordinary var. Schweinitzi, though the transition from the short bracted and small fruited forms to the large bracts and large fruit, is gradual. The bracts subtending the sporangium vary in relative length, sometimes the anterior, sometimes the lateral bracts are longer. The form with long lateral bracts has been known as Chara foliolosa Schw., the one with shorter bracts but long leaves, as in Form 111. as C. opaca Schw. v. Forma macrocarpa, meioptila, verticillata, tenuior, leiopy- Fic. §5.—Chara coronata, 5th variety. rena. Plant small, diffuse, with elongated leaves of 4-5 articula- tions; bracts usually verticillate, equal in length to or slightly longer than the sporangium, anterior bracts somewhat longer than the lateral, posterior often nearly as long as the lateral, rarely wanting. Sporangium with 9-11 whorls, coronula of divergent cells with rather long points, similar to Braunii tenera of New Mexico (Forma 1). Nucleus 640 » long with g-11 slightly prominent ribs. Saranac lake, N. Y., 1881. : In previous years Professor C. H. Peck, of Albany, collected specimens from precisely the same locality, and in 1860 I sent specimens to Professor A. Braun, -who recognized it asa transi- , ee tion form between var. Braunii and var. Schweinitsii ; the ac- 1882.] On some American forms of Chara coronata. 365 companying drawings are taken from Professor Peck’s speci- mens. The bracts are shorter and unilateral, the nuclei smaller, 550 x., but the coronula seems less elongated; whether: the plant still continues to vary, remains for farther investigation to es- tablish. Fic. 6.—Chara coronata, 5th variety, æ & 6. vi. Forma macrocarpa, macroptila, verticillata, laxior, leiopy- rena. This very common northern form was collected in Canada by Professor Macoun; it is slender, diffuse, with long leaves of 4-5 articulations, verticillate bracts much longer than the sporan- gium, often two or three times its length, the anterior bracts longer than the lateral, the posterior large but much shorter. Nucleus precisely like the Saranac form (v), and about the same size, 620-650, ribs 9-10, scarcely prominent. One collection of this form from the far west of Canada is | completely incrusted with lime, and when dry is gray and very _ ittle; another from Eastern Canada has a peculiar zonular in- crustation but usually the plant is perfectly smooth even in water Containing considerable lime. The habit of growth varies ex- ceedingly, some are delicate, diffuse and pellucid, others stout, — thick, compact, and in deep water often attain a length of 4to5 feet (Litchfield lake, Ct.). This is our most common form, though € cells of the coronula are usually connivent, as in the next i Aa and the bracts may be unilateral on some nodes of the same _ Plant. | 366 On some American forms of Chara coronata. [May, e ps a ee Lid Fic. 7.—Chara coronata, 6th variety. vu. Forma meiocarpa, microp- tila, unilateralia, laxior. This form was collected at Brattleboro, Vt., by the late C. C. Frost, it pre- sents no differences from the last except the short unilateral bracts, smaller nucleus, 550-600, with . fewer ribs, 7-8. | Fic. 8.—C, iorenate, 7th variety. vii. Forma meiocarpa, meioptila, partim unilateralia, cellulis 3 ~ coronulz sporangii conniventibus, condensata. Plants compact, 1882.] Ox some American forms of Chara coronata. 307 rather stout, verticils approximate; stipules large, inflated, equal- ing the leaves in size. Bracts inflated, about equal in length to the sporangium or somewhat shorter, mostly unilateral, some- times verticillate ; leaves with 5—6 nodes, the three lower usually fertile ; sporangium with about nine whorls on one side, coronula con- nivent blunt; nucleus nearly smooth with about seven angles, 550-575 m long. Col- lected in Vermont by Mr. Horsford. From Hillsborough, N. C., have been collect- ed specimens by Mr. Curtis (communicated by Dr. Engelmann) of WE ony Fic. 9.—Chara coronata, 8th variety. eee a form almost identical with this one, except that the leaves have only three nodes, the lower of which is fertile, zhe upper much — : elongated, and the bracts commonly verticillate and somewhat a Narrower, Ce oe ok Forma macrocarpa, microptila, verticillata. The plants be- . ‘ : 7 longing to this form are remarkable for the large size of the fruit — - 368 On some American forms of Chara coronata. [ May, . and the small verticillate bracts. The specimens from Pennsylvania were collected “in a flume” by Mr. E. A. Rau. The plants are diffuse, thin and trans- parent; stems long; verticils approximate at upper part; leaves long, spreading, with two fertile nodes and 2-3 sterile; the upper inter- nodes much elongated. Bracts much shorter than the sporangium, verticillate, the ante- rior longer than the lateral; coronula of the sporangium consisting of connivent blunt cells; nucleus elliptical, about twice as long as broad, 650 v. long, with nine faint striæ. Very similar to this, apparently, is a form gth var.; a. from Kansas, collected by Fendler and com- municated to me by Dr. Engelmann, of St. Louis. The leaves are long, consisting of four nodes, of which the lowest is fertile ; the up- per considerably elongated. The bracts are less than half the length of the sporangium, verticillate, te anterior shorter than the lateral; Fic.—Chara coronata, gth variety; 4, c. = coronula with blunt somewhat connivent cells, the sporangium large with about twelve whorls on one side. Nucleus gigantic in size, 760-780 » long with 9-10 faint striæ. This form is truly western in the enormous development of nucleus, but in no other respect does it seem to differ from eastern forms. 6, a mature fruit; c, very young, showing a large antheridium. The figures have all been drawn with the camera lucida from actual speci- mens, and are perfectly true to nature. ue To these forms we have been able to refer all the specimens a < *Catlin’s N. A, — Vol. 1, p. 19, 1876: London, Chatto & Windus. : 1882. } The Loess of North America. 369 which have thus far been collected in America; they seem to illustrate the futility of attempting to define satisfactorily varieties, and to warrant their abandonment and the substitution of “ forms,’ varying with the locality, as has been suggested by Professor Nordstedt, of Sweden, and is the practice in the case of the polymorphous species, C. fwtida A. Br., C. intermedia A. _ Br., and many others. A few of the more remarkable forms may still retain a specific name, as var. Oahuensis A. Br., perhaps var. gracilis Allen, and a few others; or it might even be admissible.to bestow a specific name on each constant form as a convenient method of desig- nating its peculiarities. For the present, however, while our knowledge of the American forms is yet so incomplete, we prefer to classify them as above. :0: THE LOESS OF NORTH AMERICA. BY R. ELLSWORTH CALL, T= term loess is a purely provincial one, having been origi- nally applied by the residents of the Rhine valley to a certain comparatively recent formation bordering that stream. It is the anglicized form of the German /ész, itself a derivative of the verb lösen, to loose or to detach. It was evidently bestowed in allu- sion to the loose texture of that loam-like soil, and, in its present acceptation, is to be regarded as nearly the equivalent of the En- nes glish loam. flistorical—The earliest notice of the loess in America appears to have been in connection with various exploring expeditions sent out by the General Government. That of Lewis and Clark, made between the years 1803-1806, to the Rocky mountains, by way of © the Missouri river, called attention to the remarkable character, both physical and lithological, of the bluffs along that stream, but for aught the report contains their true geological position and history were not recognized. Later, the celebrated artist, Catlin, in his letters to England from the Northwest,’ gives a _ very accurate and graphic account of the Missouri river bluffs, in ae “nae he mentions certain of their remarkable physical pee o - Harities, The real geological character of this formation in the United . s You. xvr. —no NO. V. 25 370 The Loess of North America. _ [May, States seems to have been first surmised by Sir Charles Lyell, whose observations, however, were confined to the lower Missis- sippi, and notably to this deposit in the State of that name. “He had traveled extensively in Europe, and in the progress of his journeyings had taken occasion to study somewhat carefully the Rhenish loess. In the first edition of his “ Elements of Geology,” published in 1838, he mentions at some length the loess deposits of the Rhine, and states that it is mineralogically and chemi- cally similar to the famous deposits in the delta of the Nile. He also offers a few considerations touching its origin, to which it is -not here necessary to make .reference. Later, in 1846, while Lyell was in this country, Professor Wailes, of the Mississippi . Geological Survey, drew his especial attention to the deposit as laid down in certain ravines in Adams county, in that State. In the subsequently published account of his travels, Mr. Lyell remarks that “ the resemblance between this loam and the fluvia- tile silt of the valley of the Rhine, generally called loess, is most perfect”! Following him, most writers on the loess of the Mis- — sissippi valley consider it the counterpart of the Rhenish forma- tion. About this period a large portion of the great hydrographic basin of the Mississippi was being for the first time geologi- cally explored under the general and various State governments, so that discoveries of this deposit over large areas appearing to border upon the principal streams only, were both numerous and important. In Iowa, the first study of the loess was made by Dr. D. D. Owen, and reported upon to the General Government in his “ Geological © Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota,” published in 1852. He crossed the state from Des Moines, then-a mere military post, to its western limit. Commenting on the rock structure as he advanced, he says: “On approaching thé Missouri, the hills bordering the extensive bottoms, known as Council Bluffs, attract _ : particular attention, not only from their contour, but from their geological formation. Where vegetation has been removed from their slopes, they are seen to be composed chiefly of a fine ash- colored, silicious marl, or loam, effervescing with acids. In fav- orable situations many species of terrestrial and fluviatile shells : were discovered, of the same species as are found in similar a by Wailes in “ Report on the Agriculture and Geology of Mississippi,” ae 1854, p- 213. E A on, i 142. 1882. ] The Loess of North America. 371 deposits in the Wabash valley, which are considered contempo- raneous with the loess of the Rhine.” At about the same time loéss was found by Whittlesy' on the south shore of Lake Erie, and from the. presence of fresh-water shells he likewise inferred that the formation belonged to the age of the Rhenish lacustrine deposits. In writing on the superficial geology of the Lake Supe- rior section, E. Desor concludes that “though the terraces of Mackinac differ widely in composition from the loam, or loess, of Lakes Erie and Huron, yet, the fact that both are posterior to the . drift and occur at similar heights on the coast of the same lake, seems to warrant the conclusion that they may have been simul- taneous.” Whether those deposits are to be considered ¢rue loess, we are not prepared to state. The field of discovery and study now again reverted to the south, for, in 1854, was published Wailes’ account of this forma- tion as existing in Mississippi. One year later appeared Swallow’s “ First and Second Reports on the Geology of Missouri,” in which is given, for the first time, a full account of the loess, to which Professor Swallow applies the name of “bluff formation.” This work was followed in the succeeding year, 1856, by Owen’s “ Re- port on the Geology of Kentucky,” in which occur numerous references to the loess of that State. In the same year was pub- lished Volume 111 of the Pacific Railroad Reports, in which W. P. Blake, in giving an account of the geology of the thirty-fifth parallel, extends the geographical distribution of the loess to twenty-six miles above Fort Washita on the Red river, and ; quotes the observations of Shumard, made in the same section, during the explorations under charge of Captain Marcy, in 1852? In 1860, E. W. Hilgard, in his “Agriculture and Geology of Mississippi,” gave the most complete account of the loess of the | south yet published. In Nebraska, during the year 1867, it was- i studied by Dr. Hayden, and later by Prof. Aughey, who pub- r lished an account of the surface geology of that State in Hay- | den’s Annual Report for 1874. Meanwhile, Safford in Tennessee 2 had published, in 1869, his account of the geology of that sec- a _ tion; and White’s “ Geology of Iowa,” which appeared in 8o, ‘Report on the Geology of the Lake Superior Land District, 1851, Foster & Whit- — ney, , P- A i Exploration or the Red river of Louisiana,” pp. 28-29. The common error is here made of referring the fossils found to European species. was muscorum, rg at ae = Felix pees are named. = 372 The Loess of North America, [May, contains the most finished treatment of the Iowa loess, and inci- dentally that of Missouri and Nebraska, which has come under notice. The last elaborate study, to which it is here necessary to make reference, is contained in the “ Sketches of the Geology and Physical Geography of Nebraska,” by Professor Samuel Aughey, which is, mainly, so far as the loess is concerned, an extension of his previously published paper in the report of the Hayden sur- vey above mentioned." From these facts it will have been gathered that the loess is of wide distribution in the great central basin of the United States, to which it seems wholly confined. It is found in the States of Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, Illinois, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Kentucky, and in the Indian Territory ; but zz every instance is apparently confined to the higher lands along the larger streams. Its super- ficial extent is greatest in Nebraska, where, according to Aughey,” its area is three-fourths that of the State, or 56,994 square miles.’ In Iowa its superficial area is estimated by White’ at about 5000 square miles, but his calculations included only those sec- tions along the Missouri, inasmuch as he was evidently unac- quainted with its existence in Central Iowa, and in the eastern portion of the State. Its area appears to be next greater in Missouri, which is, indeed, but the southern extension of the Iowa and Nebraska deposit. In most of the other States where it occurs its area is comparatively small. Physical characters—Observers agree, in the main, with refer- ence to the physical features of this formation. Its material is exceedingly fine, very silicious as proven by numerous analyses, ashy color with slight yellowish tinge—normally; and often highly calcareous. In all these respects it agrees entirely with published descriptions of foreign loess. Zn situ it presents a re- -markably homogeneous structure, usually appearing in massive walls without, or with but faint, lamellation, the latter feature be- 1 It is not possible to note here all the minor papers, however important, that bear upon the different aspects of the loess. The reader is referred to the accompany- ing bibliography for all other details of publication, 2 Sketches, &c., p. 265. 3 « I should judge that the true loess covered about one-fourth to one-fifth of the : State, not more. It is largely confined to the borders of streams and the eastern por- tion.” Professor Hayden, im “itt, ges t Geology of Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 127. 1882.] The Loess of North America, ` 373 ing purely local. So perfect is the homogeneity that very careful examinations of specimens of soil from the Missouri valley, and the valleys of the Des Moines and Iowa rivers, failed to reveal even slightly marked physical differences. A peculiar feature of the loess—in all parts of the world—is the presence of numerous calcareous concretions—the /dessmannchen of the Rhenish deposits —which occur in zones, at varying distances throughout the mass. They assume all possible shapes from the spherical (Plate v, Fig. 4) through the spheroidal to the oblong; in all cases they are more or less numerously studded with roughened projections. No one shape seems to obtain more than another, and not unfrequently several are found cemented together {forming an eccentric single mass. They are certainly characteristic of the loess, for that forma- tion nowhere occurs without their presence. They are decidedly hydraulic as would be naturally inferred from their constitution. In no case have I ever observed fossils—either mollusks or vege- table matters—acting as a nucleus, On one occasion, 2803 of these bodies were crushed with that especial point in view. In nearly every instance, 2789, they were found to contain loose fragments broken by some means from their inner walls, but no foreign sub- stance whatever could be detected.' In the remaining fourteen — Specimens, while the concretions were hollow, they yet contained loose particles of no substance whatever. Not a single specimen was solid throughout. That they were originally solid, or of a pasty consistency, is not to be doubted, as a study of the inner surface reveals. They all present a deeply fissured interior (Plate _ "3 v, Fig. 1),? consequent on the evaporation of water and subse- quent contraction. In the vast majority of cases the pyramidal- masses of the interior showed distinct irregularly concentric lines. of growth, or rather of accretion (Plate v, Fig. 2). The presence of these zones and the peculiarly granulated surfaces of the crushed masses, with entire absence of distinct crystallization when viewed under the microscope? complicates somewhat the problem of their : 1 On being shaken a rattling sound is produced, owing to these separated fragments violently striking against the inner walls of the concretions. This has earned for them among the boys of this city, the appellation of “ rattle-boxes,” for which reason they: nak Seem to be in great demand, 1 View of a transverse section ot spherical loess concretion, showing interior: — @, peripheral layer, highly calcareous; b, B appearance of interior caused by the numerous deep fissures ¢; natural s : ofesor A: F. Ory, in litt. So also my own examinations. He 374 The Loess of North America. [May, origin. Professor J. D. Whitney says of them’ that they “have been formed in the loess by infiltration along the lines of cleavage and resultant chemical action on calcareous matter occurring in large quantity along certain planes.” It should be noted, in framing any theory on these peculiar bodies, that zozon? exception the fissures of the interior surface end with the outer calcareous envelope, as shown in Plate v (Fig. I and 2, c and’aæ). So also should be considered the numerous rugosities or protuberances more or less thickly studded over their surfaces (Plate v, Fig. 3)? Further, there often occur, in the pyramidal masses of the interior, numerous small black masses, apparently carbonaceous, the true nature of which has not yet been satisfactorily determined. I am, however, disposed to con- sider these concretions as a result of chemical changes in the composition of the loess itself through the action of carbonic and various of the humus acids. These exert, as is well known, a marked action upon certain mineral substances contained in soils, as notably upon carbonate of lime.* Whether there may have een an original foreign nucleus about which accretion began I am unable to say, but the fact is, that in none of the above men- tioned 2803 specimens could any such nucleus be found. On one other point the writer's observations lead to negative results. In every case, even when from considerable depths, the concretions are of a stony hardness, One observer* states that “when first exposed, most of these concretions are soft enough to be rubbed fine between the fingers, but they gradually harden _ by being exposed to the atmosphere.” Furthermore, the portion interior to the outer calcarecus envelope is largely, more than one-half, carbonate of lime. A little more than one-third is silica, with a smail per centage of alumina. We have here, then, the conditions which produce their hydraulic properties, a fact in it- self sufficient, almost, to lead to a belief in their universal hardness. Another feature of the loess remains to be noticed, which is in some particulars its most remarkable characteristic. Reference is ' AMERICAN NATURALIST, Vol XI, p. 709 2 This figure represents a form of twin concretion fairly common in the loess de- posits of this city, Des Moines, Iowa, 8 Vide Darwin’s “ Veretcbie Mould and Earth Worms,” p. 140, Zdid. p. 240. In ~ this wonderful! volume the reader will find numerous facts sore on this point. 4 Aughey, Sketches, &c., p. 266. 1882. ] The Loess of North America. 375 here made to the almost or quite vertical planes of cleavage. Wherever streams, both great and small, have eroded channels through the deposit, or when they undermine the resulting cliffs, the masses that become detached break off in planes parallel to the original cleavage planes. This is especially remarkable since the material of the loess is not cohesive, and not at all plas- tic, unless thoroughly saturated with water. The use to which this feature has been put is well illustrated by the great work of Richthofen on China. In our country it is most common to meet with bluffs that are more or less rounded, a condition due to the action of rains and ‘frosts. Microscopical and Chemical Features—The soil of the loess presents an unusually beautiful field when viewed with a good working microscope. A number of such examinations were made (1) of soil as taken zz situ, in which were presented minute granules of pure silica of an average diameter of 3}y to towo Of an inch ; (2) of soil after treatment with strong nitric acid, when the same features were prominent, the silica granules merely appear- ing somewhat brighter. None of the olive-green crystalline par- ticles, found by Pumpelly in the Chinese loess, were to be found, while in our examinations, as in his, there were no remains of minute organisms, such as diatoms? In most cases the granules were devoid of the sharp angles which recently detached particles of silicious rocks give. This may, in part at least, be due to the action of the acids mentioned above, and in part to attrition against one another. They were all irregularly ovoid and some- what translucent bodies, but occasionally discolored by some one or another of the iron oxides. Numerons analyses made by several observers, rate the ae proximate quantity of silica in the loess soil at from seventy-five to eighty per cent. Blow-pipe analysis, conducted solely with a ee view to qualitative ends, gave, as constituents of the soil from the _ Missouri river and Des Moines valley deposits, water, phosphorus a (trace), sodium (trace), iron (trace), calcium, magnesium, aluminum and silica. To present more clearly the nature of the soil, its i value agriculturally, and as anticipatory of its mode of origin, the ne : following table will be found useful and instructive. I give, also, in juxtaposition, the average of the results of Bischoff’s ex- 1 The examinations were conducted by the writer and Dr. A G, Field, to whom : the instrument used belonged. It was a Zentmayer’s Centennial morn stand, 5 ae r the A eye-piece and hy 10 objective, + [May, gS fe) ae OE seh = Sa A os S *uəa13 sı avədde Aaya yoryăy ut oazy a z Əy} JO ƏFVIJAL ƏY} SƏSVI asay} UL IUJH `S puer F ‘z sıəquınu sasdjeur ur paavaddy visauSvur jo ayeuoqres 10u IWJ Jo ayeuogavs ON z Ò ‘S pue p ‘E ssaquinu səsÁjeuv ur pasvedde owy ON p Ra ee E t S 2 2 Es ellie isis | at rans sous seca ead ie | A ® PS ggorr octttt test seers rye, N w || | 4 gor ette pew auel Š z | tIrI Eoo at | | ssop pug trSro e A ele To POE a + cesousem igien Sz'r | $ ‘saov.y oyen o1uvsiQ) gifo ttt ttt ttt! asso $ 5 S6g°S1 jee eee tae °°" Smt ‘qep. Ol'l Poe et *ƏIMSIO N $6z'1 ****a)vuU0qivo visausew Ea N OA | S SR eOr | vpos pue ysgog) of = **ayeuoqiva wnisauSeW| pge ******tayeydsoyd owrg Solz |iayem pur pre diuoqgiey : wn”) | | | | f ; ; tes. A g6z'o ee te ee grsauĝen] £E-g es ** ayeuoqaeo umyeg gSo'9 jses "+ əyeuoqavə awg] CL6b 1 thee VENTET visouseyy 2 pe zo'o m e a eed LLS LS vurum] y ztlo atts ay Szre'¢ pet E E a ae oe = T | $ ‘uoa Jo | ? aplxo dat) Pog E j*teteet ee aprxo onay $ uoi jo A E | l aprxosed pue vurunyy) ay: | Iyeu yew am ? aprxosed pue vununjy 3 & gerzh * poe apris) 7878 | } (snows) əjqnjosur| PEE 1g $ (snows) apqnyjosuy) S$Lep-22 [oss settee sss eiS | . | | . ; v = |; ER BEREA EEEE cae e a eee £ “yoyosig | AsO Uy áq. ‘Kany Aq “uong Aq S Aq səs | x *ssa0'T sosfjeuy | *SSJO'T səsÁjeuy *SS20'T səsÁjeuy *SS20°] ha -Ájeuy e əuyy Jo uonsodwog | om} | emoj JO uonisodwon aay | ` eyseaqaN jo uoyisodwop Ano} Hnosstjy Jo uonisoduroy E Jo Saga 3° aseiay) o Bernay jo əĝviaay è B Soe RR TRR EES ai ch BUR rs es Ra —— LESS IPOS MAAR EATE EAB DESIRES NS S a DRA MERI A kB SPEIER SGP SN I a S ‘sSdO"'T AHL AO AULSINTHD AHL DNIMOHS aTav EL SR PLATE: V. 1882.] The Loess of North America. 377 The composition of the concretions is essentially the same as that of the loess proper, though some of the elements do not appear therein. After treatment of 100 grains of the interior with strong muriatic acid, there remained, after thorough wash- ing and drying, thirty-one grains of insoluble residue, or nearly one-third, which was plainly silica. Dr. Litton’s analyses of con- cretions from the loess of Missouri, the only ones, I believe, on record in America, gave him: Residue, insoluble in pepe acid, principally silica.......... 35.08 Alumina and abet OF PONG: sige T eb CCC rely ya be aa eee 5-29 ORDONE OF Times Gass dw ohne Wie owh Gee Eee is Oe van ts 58.332 Carbonate of ce EE EL Oe te Uae cau ee 0.77 The absence of a greater amount of carbonaceous material in the loess soil proper is matter of common remark. It may be accounted for, perhaps, by the fact that carbon in the soil tends generally to oxidize and disappear, save where there is an accu- mulation of water and a cool climate.’ Its presence in the shape | of “ organic remains” seems to have been noticed, in chemical manipulations, only. by Aughey and Emery, as noted in the table, Method of Deposition—The older geologists, without excep- tion, seem to have agreed either upon the fluviatile or lacustrine origin of these famous deposits. Nor does this decision appear to have been questioned until the publication of Von Richtho- fen’s China, in which that celebrated geologist elaborated his views, based upon extensive and painstaking study of the loess of- that country. His views are radically distinct from those of his predecessors in the same field of investigation. They are based upon a study of the Chinese loess extending over a period of five or six years, while engaged in certain other investigations under | the auspices of the Prussian Government. His observations were — published at length in the work to which allusion has been made, in 1877, but not having access to the original containing _ them, I am obliged to formulate a résumé of his theory from _ reviews which have appeared in the several scientific journals. — This is deemed necessary for the reason that though based upon the Chinese loess, Richthofen expressly states that in his judg- - : 7 ment the theory of that deposit is applicable to the loess where- a ever on the globe it may be found. 1 Vide Darwin’s “ Naturalist’s Voyage around the World,” ed. of pP. 286, ae 287. Contains some interesting facts relative to pe formation. 378 The Loess of North America. [ May, Richthofen holds! that the loess is a subaérial accumulation, due to the drifting action of the winds; to transportation by riv- ulets from the hills immediately adjacent to each loess basin ; and to the mineral material left over the basin by the growing grasses and other plants. The material for wind transportation is gath- ered from the circumjacent or even from remote rocks which were decomposed or disintegrated by alternate changes in tem- perature or humidity. The plants that covered the great plains served to stop the wind-drifted particles, and thus kept the accu- mulation ever in progress. Observing certain local differences in the appearance of the deposits which he studied, he invented the distinctions of /and-loess and lake-loess. The last named was de- signed to account for certain indications of stratification or lamel- lation not to be adequately explained by the wind theory? The present system of drainage he accounts for much as do most other geologists, the main difference consisting in the assumption of great changes of climate causing heavy rains which led to floods. The usual indication of changes of level are also noticed by him, but they seem to have led to novel inter- pretation. Von Richthofen states that he found no evidence of a fresh-water fauna in the formations he studied, but land forms of molluscous and other animals abounded. In this he is directly opposed by the earlier and original observations — of Pumpelly* who distinctly states that he found fresh-water 1 This view was first advanced by him i in sesh in a memoir on the geology of the ie of Honan and Sha 2 Vide Am. Jour. of Sci. aa Ars, Vol. XIV, p. 490, series third. 8 Vide Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, No. 202, pp. 42-43. That this author at that writing was convinced of the fresh-water origin of the Chinese loess is attested by the following language. He says: “That this deposit was formed in | ‘fresh water, is shown by the presence of the shells found in the terrace of the Te ty The uniform character of the loam in the different basins, and in all parts of the same basin, its great extent, and the fineness of the material of which it consists, — are conditions which prove that it is not of a local origin, or derived from the detri- tus of neighboring shores, but that it was brought into the lakes by one or more large rivers which must have drained an area of great extent. Now throughout the. ; region in question, the only rivers are those of the Yang Ho and Sankang Ho basin, and independently of the fact that these streams drain a very small area, the valley systems of these were almost entirely occupied by the lakes.” OJ. cit., p. 42. On p. 43 he derives the following argument from physical geography: “ Indeed, all the information we possess concerning this region, goes to show that it has been the basin of a great lake, which once extended from the northern bank of the ¥eln S low river southward to the mountains crowned by the Great Wall.” These cles” Es were penned eleven years before the work of Richthofen appeared. a 1882. ] The Loess of North America. 379 forms in the loess regions on the borders of Mongolia. The points, however, which are mainly relied on by the Baron, appear to be (1) the presence of root-marks occurring throughout the formation; (2) absence of fresh-water or other aquatic life-forms ; and (3) absence of stratification. Both the second and third of these propositions are met by the repeated statements of numer- ous careful observers, who have found aquatic and semi-aquatic forms in many localities. The presence of the semi-aquatic forms alone-——such as Swccinea—which are indicative of a moist station, effectually negatives the assumption of a “dry, elevated area swept by fierce winds.” Thè first proposition has been met by the studies of Professor J. E. Todd, who has shown that from the law which evidently obtains, that root-marks vary in fre- quency inversely as their distance below the present surface, “ un- usual care is necessary to interpret observations correctly.” The conclusion reached by that observer is, that when correctly inter- preted the distribution of root-marks opposes the sub-aérial hy- pothesis. - It will have been observed that the original statements and in- ferences of Pumpelly and those of Richthofen were distinct and opposed. The former recognized the agency of water alone as sufficient to explain the phenomena he studied, while the latter called to the aid of the winds a lake-basin, which in turn neces- sitated his artificial distinctions of lake-loess and land-loess. That such a distinction is wholly inapplicable to American de- posits—unquestionably true loess—is patent, for the reasons that — it presents a perfect homogeneity of structure, entire absence of © any such modification as is seen in dunes—such as are true wind structures—and does present at several localities a faintly strati- fied appearance. Besides, the climatic conditions required by this theory of the Chinese loess, seem to have had no counterpart in climatic changes over the areas covered by our loess. The argument for the lacustrine origin of the American deposits | has been in part anticipated in the foregoing. But there should be added the facts that here the formation is confined to river a = | *Proc. A: A, A. S., 1878, Vol. xxvii. “ Richthofen’s Theory of the Loess, in the light of the Deposits of the Missouri.” Professor Todd here shows that the k lower limit of root- marks—about forty-five feet—is approximately parallel with the present surface. A table accompanies giving the depth of penetration of roots in ~ a the loess. Those of the scouring rush meee levigatum Braun) reached e ~ Point more than GORS five feet beneath the surface 380 The Loess of North America. [ May, valleys, and the high lands immediately adjacent ; that of the fineness of its material, its composition, its rounded or tritu- rated form, the fossils imbedded in it, and the unmistakable action of water in assorting ; that of general continental depression syn- chronous with its formation ; that of the vast quantity of the ma- terial and its deposition alike on hill and in valley. These sev- erally and together are fatal to the hypothesis of Von Richtho- fent It is nevertheless beyond question that the loess, after de- position, has been somewhat modified by the action of strong winds, but the evidences of such action are purely local. The great dust-storms of Western Iowa, extending far beyond the central portions of the State, which occurred in the spring of 1880, will long be remembered in the annals of Iowa. For days the air was filled with fine dust, coming from the south-west, the locality of the greatest areas of loess and the prevailing quarter of the winds. That much of this fine material was carried miles further away I have no doubt. The main effect however, of such wind storms, would be the denudation of the windward, and the deeper covering of the leeward bases and sides of hills. Fossils —The mollusks of the loess belong, with perhaps a single exception, to genera which now flourish in regions adjacent to the formation. They are Limnea, Physa, Planorbis, Segmentina, Pomatiopsis, Valvata, Amnicola, Spherium, Anodonta, among _ fresh-water forms, and Hyalina, Stenotrema, Helicodiscus, Conulus, Strobila, Helicina, Patula, Mesodon, Vallonia, Macrocyclis, Pupa, Succinea, Vertigo, and Cionella, among the land forms. Unio is 1At the present day the Missouri flows past the western boundary of Iowa at | an average rate of five miles per hour (Pacific R. R. Rept., Vol. 1, p. 232). The fall per mile of this remarkable river, from the three forks of the Missouri to St Joseph, varies from 31.59 to .88 feet, with an average for the whole distance of 1.55 + feet per mile. It annually discharges into the Mississippi about four tril- lions of cubic feet of water, and at the western boundary of Iowa it is not too great an estimate to assume an annual flow of two trillions of cubic feet of water, equaling one-tenth the whole discharge of the Mississippi. (See Humphrey’s and Abbott’s “ Report on the Mississippi River,” p. 49.) The amount of sediment now being contributed by the Missouri to the Gulf is remarkable. From specimens taken at Council Bluffs at both low and high water, Professor Emery determined the . ae amount in one gallon of the former at fifty-two grains, and in an equal quantity of : a.: the latter at 404 grains. That, under the conditions prevailing at the time of the ate loess deposition, the amount of sediment was very /argely in excess of these figures, is a fact beyond question, the material being, without doubt, furnished by the grind- ing of glaciers. These considerations should have their full weight in determining ; the dynamics of the loess of the Missouri region. 1882] Ichthyological Papers. 381 quoted by Drs. Hayden and Aughey from the loess of Nebraska. There are thus, of mollusks, eleven genera attributed to fresh- water, against thirteen genera to land forms. The single excep- tion to varieties now living, as above noted, is Helicina, the species meant, H. occulta Say, being now extinct.’ It may be properly considered the only species characteristic of the loess. From the loess of east Central Iowa, at Iowa City, the chela of a Cambarus is reported,” under circumstances which leave no doubt that it is from zrue loess. Of higher animals there have been found, especially in the Southern States, remains of Mastodon, Megatherium, Mylodon, Megatlonyx, Castor,and Fiber, among others. Their remains and the relation of the loess to the drift, which, when both are present, it always covers, places its epoch at the close of the glacial period. (To be continued.) 10: ICHTHYOLOGICAL PAPERS BY GEORGE POWERS DUNBAR, WITH A SKETCH OF HIS LIFE. BY JACOB L. WORTMAN. A STUDY of the fishes of the Southern States is one replete with many points of interest for the naturalist, and had it not been for a series of misfortunes, the credit for the earliest research into this field would probably be due to an American student now unknown, It is the object of the present article, to give some \ information relating to the life and labors of this meritorious naturalist, which are of especial interest, since he was one of the first native-born. Americans who made an extended study of the _ ichthyology of this region. The absence during his time of any periodical devoted to the natural sciences in this country, con- tributed much to his disadvantage, and as a consequence’ the technical descriptions were withheld in anticipation of an oppor- tunity to publish. This unfortunate circumstance is one of the- causes of his obscurity, and is in part answerable for the loss of his many excellent observations in this branch, 1812. Nothing of unusual interest was noticeable in his early childhood, except an innate love for a study of natural history, on | 382 Ichthyological Papers. [May, account of which his parents were doubtful of his future success in life. He entered St. Mary’s College, Maryland, at an early age, ana graduated from it with high honors in his eighteenth year. The unfavorable outlook that science then presented for a livelihood, induced him to look elsewhere for means of support. Civil engineering was the profession that he chose, and the one that he practiced until his death. Having completed his studies in this branch, he was engaged on a survey of the Baltimore and Ohio, and the Portsmouth and Roanoke railroads from 1829 to 1835, a station on the former line still bears his name. In the early part of 1835, he removed to New Orleans, where he was employed on the Nashville railroad under Major Ranney. He was appointed Engineer of Public Works of the State in 1837, which office he held until 1842, when he was elected surveyor of - the second municipality. This last office he retained with the ex- ception ofa few months till the time of his death, which occurred on December 29, 1850, at the mouth of the Coatzacoalcos river, Mexico. Although in feeble health, Mr. Dunbar had accepted a position with a corps of engineers, to survey the route for the Te- hauntepec railroad, where his health gave way entirely, and he died on shipboard while en route to his home in New Orleans. At the early age of nine, he began collecting and arranging in systematic order entomological specimens, In the course of a few years his collections on this subject amounted to several thousand specimens, which he afterwards presented to Dr, Luzenburg, of New Orleans. The collection was afterward destroyed for want of proper care. He was likewise familiar with the Flora of the South, and contributed something on the “ Flora of the Dismal Swamp.” Shortly after leaving college, he began a careful study of the classification, structure and habits of the fishes of the South- a ern States, which he continued with great zeal up to the time of 3 his death. All the time that could be spared from his professional 2 duties was given tothe pursuit of his favorite study, and he had ~ prepared nearly all the plates and texts for an extensive volume which he was intending soon to publish. The volume was to con- tain descriptions of over one hundred fishes, and was to be pro- fusely illustrated by drawings from life made by himself. His last observations on some of the fishes of the Mexican coast, made _ a short time previous to his decease, are still in existence and were probably the last that .he intended to make before publishing his = work. In connection with his sad and untimely death we 1882. | | Ichthyological Papers. i 383 called upon to chronicle another most lamentable fact, the utter destruction of his manuscript by fire at Riesterstown, Maryland, a few years afterwards. His friends intended to publish his work, but deferred publication in the hope that his son would take up . the subject and finish what his father had so nobly begun. The son, however, had no inclination for such study, and the publica- tion was too long delayed. The notes above referred to, a small field book containing drawings and descriptions of twenty species of fishes, together with some popular descriptions that were pub- lished in various newspapers, are all that remain of his labors in this field. These are the property of his eldest daughter, wife of Dr. W. H. Corbusier, Asst. Surg. U. S.A. Although the subject has been carefully developed by subsequent students, yet our re- spectful esteem is due to the merits of this pioneer naturalist, whom misfortune has cast into the shadow of obscurity. It is un- fortunate in the extreme that death should have cut short his career, and the result of his close and careful observations should have been swept away at a flash. That he possessed true merits is observable by a glance at his remaining notes, which likewise serve to indicate the excellence of his intended publication. I give some extracts from his MSS. which will prove interest- ing and novel even to ichthyologists. I. The Alligator Gar (Litholepis spatula Lac. Jor.\—But few of my readers except those who have resided in the South, have an _ idea of the alligator gar, and for their benefit I will describe this ` river robber, The body is cylindrical and elongated, and complete- - ly enveloped in a strong coat of mail, formed by strongly toothed quadrangular plates lapping over each other, and held by an ex- p s ceedingly thick and tough skin. The head is elongated, with a flattened obtuse snout, something similar to that of a pike, and armed with several rows of strong pointed and trenchant teeth, the outer row being much larger than the inner ones. The bones 8 of the head are naked, and forma series of stout plates. So hard es Pe is the armor with which this fish is enveloped, that no arm, how- _ €ver strong, can penetrate his back with an axe, and it is only by cutting him in his throat or by a blow on the back of the head : that he can be killed. T hey grow to an immense size, being © Ps often seen in the waters of the Mississippi twelve or fourteen feet = S long, and sometimes reaching a weight of several hundred pounds. _ a : He is possessed of prodigious strength, and sets at defiance the : _ dashes like light to their center, his capacious and horrid jaws 384 Ichthyological Papers. [May, efforts of the uninitiated angler, swallowing his hooks by the handful and parting his tackle as if it were pack thread. This remarkable fish is familiar to almost every resident in the South, and yet but little is known generally of its habits and his- tory. His terrific jaws, his flinty scales, and the extreme diffi- culty of hooking him, the ease with which he destroys the ordinary tackle used by the angler, added to his worthlessness for the table, render him an object of terror to the fisherman, which added to his fierce and repulsive appearance, is sure to ob- tain for him, should he by any means fall into his hands, such treatment as his namesake, the alligator, might expect from the huntsman whose dog had been devoured by the monster. Possessed of an exceedingly ravenous appetite, he snaps at and devours every thing which comes in his reach, and yet there are times when the most dainty morsel will scarcely tempt him. Early in the morning the water is continually broken by him as he rises to seize the floating insects, or small fish swimming upon the surface ; but, as the sun ascends, if on the feed, he takes to the deeper water, slowing moving along in search of his prey, and occasionally rising and rolling on the surface in sport. Tired of the chase, he may be seen basking his huge and motionless form in some sunny nook, the shoals of mullet frisking and frollick- ing around him unheeded. Rapid, current or pool, the clear running spring stream, the sluggish bayou, the pond, or the salt _ creek, all are familiar to him, but he particularly affects the deep - still bayou, or the entrance of some sluggish stream into a bright, clear and dashing current. Stand on the little bar formed by the’ junction of the last mentioned, and you may see him pass and repass, plunging into the current after a small fish, diving under the rooty bank, and rolling in fun on the top of the dark bayou, and snapping his jaws together, as if the livelong day were only created for him to rollick in. The ringing steel launched from the sturdy arm of the fisherman glances harmlessly from his more - than steel-clad body, the river robber rolls his huge form through _ the deep river, now rising like a porpoise, and now with noise- — less movement of a cat swimming slowly to the shallows, > stealing along through the bright green leaves of the beautiful nelumbium to surprise the sunny perch or sleeping pike, Or suddenly attracted by a passing shoal of sardine or mullet, he 1882.] Ichthyological Papers. 385 wide open and his sinewy tail dealing’ death on every side. The wary bass retires to his shady nook, and the little patasa dive deeper into their rooty recesses at his approach, and woe betide the unlucky wight who trails his well filled string of bass at the stern of his pirogue; the river robber is sure to attempt a rescue, and well will it be for the angler, as seizure once made, if he have a single fish left, of his morning’s sport. During the months of December and January the fish seek the heads of the still and almost stagnant bayous or the deep caves of the sluggish rivers to deposit their spawn. The eggs are held suspended in a thick gelatinous transparent substance, forming long ropes several inches in. diameter, which are hung on old snags, roots or branches of trees that have fallen into the water. The spawn has much the appearance of that of the frog, with the exception of the-circular form it assumes, and the size of the eggs, which are about as large as No. 4 shot, and of a dark pur- ple color. The young come forth during the spring, and tiny little rascals. they are, but they grow with astonishing rapidity, and by the latter part of August are some fourteen inches in length and weigh several ounces; in one year they reach a weight of from nine to twelve pounds, fe go on increasing to several hundreds. . Large numbers of these fry are destroyed by other fish, and well that it is so, otherwise no fish could live in any of the rivers for them, the ovaries of a large fish Ss several hundred thousand eggs. Well skilled are ye, my piscatory brethren of the North, in the art of killing trout and salmon, rock and pickerel, and truly you have beautiful custoiers to-deal with, but I would put you with your Conroy’s and your plaited silk, at a sixty pound Poipon D’Armée, and in an hour you would be hookless, lineless and | rodless, and only have for satisfaction that you had seen the lazy hulk roll his huge form in sport over the surface. Few of you _ would come off victorious in your first day, but when you be- came acquainted with your customer, and learned the necessary rigging, then would the armed monster repent of his ppr ite for os mullet or sardine. : Although I have taken many sat gar, from twenty to thirty _ Pounds, with a light fly rod and a single gut, yet I never fish for ec ~- them with such tackle, for where you succeed in striking one in ae 3 tender place and beyond the reach of his tremendous aM you — = VOL. XvI.—no. v, 26 ee 386 Ichthyological Papers. [May, will break your gut a hundred times. No! I go upon the safe, the sure principle of saving my fish, and I use tackle accordingly. My ash and hickory (I cannot yet boast a Conroy, but I will soon) are laid aside, and a three-joint cane, with a stout tip sub- stituted in their place; instead of rings my line passes through small beckets oz top of the rod and over a roller at the tip. My line is generally manilla or sea grass of fine size. I prefer it as such a large quantity can be placed upon the reel. But the main point is the arrangement of the hooks, which is as follows: A brass or copper wire about four inches long with an eye at one end holds the bait hook. The line is made fast to a double wire. passing through this eye and bent outwards, with two stout sharp hooks to each end with their points inwards, so that the fish when he takes the bait must have his throat directly above them. When the bait is taken, a strong strike is made and the conse- quence is that the gentleman has the hooks driven deep into either _ side of his throat. ; The bait is overboard and every one waiting anxiously to see the “ gar killer” strike his fish. The blue float slowly moves off and gradually sinks; he’s there. Quietly the line is paid from the reel until he has gone some thirty feet. The hooks are driven home, the cane bends to the pressure but the line does not move. “You're fast toa log,” cries one who never saw a gar. The line is slacked—another strike; another—he feels the steel and off he goes. Now for it! Full well does the gar killer know the exact pressure which his tackle will bear, and as well does he know that he can conquer only by making his prey fight — z and struggle for every inch of line. He whips him to his work, and now the robber has thrown off all his lethargy and tries every art, lays out all his strength to rid himself of the toils— beware his rush, for salmon or rock never came near it. Whiz — goes the reel; twenty yards are gone, and you have him. Now comes the struggle and the angler is victorious, his head is turned, and rapidly comes the line to the reel. Half an hour is gone and = yet his form has not been seen. Do you see the line slowly as- cending? Watch him well, ’tis his last attempt—defeat him and he is safe.. Slowly the white line leaves the water. Now faster — the spray is thrown far and wide, and high in the air leaps the victim, hoping by his huge weight to break the tackle. Down goes the tip, the line is slack as he leaves the water, and his last — 1882.] Ichthyological Papers. 387 attempt is abortive. Weaker and weaker are his struggles; he rolls and tumbles in the water as he is slowly drawn up; the gaff is in his gills; one haul, and he’s beached. IT. The Grande Ecaillé ( Megatops thrissoides B\).—In shape the head of the grand ecaillé is similar to the shad, but his mouth is much larger in proportion to the size of the fish, and his body is cov- _ ered with large splendid silver scales, fitting like plated armor; those of a fish five feet long being about two inches in diameter, and show- ing at each intersection about a quarter moon. His tail is large, broad and stout, and he sometimes grows to a length of eight and a-half or nine feet, but generally runs from three to seven. I record the killing a grand ecaillé with a rod and reel as the greatest piscatorial feat I ever performed, which is saying a good deal after successfully playing and killing two fish, each over twenty-five pounds, with two rods and reels at the same time. F could never have killed the grand ecaillé, however, with the tackle I used, had I not been in a pirogue with a sure and steady arm at the paddle, which gave me the advantage of running on im, In point of beauty, activity and strength, the grand ecaillé is . excelled by none of the finny tribe which have come under my observation. He belongs to the same family with the shad, her- ring, etc., and is the king of his tribe. He scorns the seine, and _ generally puts at defiance the efforts of the angler. Calmly he swims around the netted prison, seeking quietly to escape from __ the toils, but finds no outlet, with a quiet turn of the tail he goes slowly back to the center of the net—swiftly flies the foam from his vigorous tail; with one long sweeping, graceful bound, high above the floating corks he passes, and plunges with the grace and ease of an accomplished diver, head foremost into the green wave beyond; or if by chance he becomes entangled in the bag, he gathers his immense strength together, and like the tiger Springing on his prey, he rushes at the end of the bag, the corks _ quiver for a second, and the next instant sees the silvery meteor — Passing like a ray of light through the atmosphere, he quivers _ his broad forked tail in triumph, and laughing at the weak net, goes on his way rejoicing. See him struck by the hand line of the Sturdy coastman ; every inch of line is given to him and tie <= Asherman braces himself for the pull; well for him that his hands are hard ; the moment he finds himself checked in his rush, he : ` 388 - Ichthyological Papers. [May, leaves the water and springs some ten feet into the air, shaking _ himself violently with the hope of casting off the hook, which he will do,unless it is firmly fixed deep in his mouth, or tear off his jaw in the attempt. Another leap, another and another, with all the frenzy of the wild horse when he first feels the lasso, he springs through the air and dashes through the water; for a time there appears to be no diminution of his immense Strength, but you may notice that after a while the long curve he at first de- scribed in the air becomes broken, shorter grow the graceful leaps, and finally change into a violent jerking summersault— then all is calm. The fisherman pulls on the line; one last glorious effort of those splendid powers is made—right in a line with and towards the fisherman; the grande ecaillé takes his last leap, and falls helpless into the sea. Nowa child can take him without resistance—no struggling, a dead weight upon the line,he is hauled upon the beach. He flounces not, his fins are laid to his body, his gill covers do not move, he is dead! And not until death came upon him did the mighty and beautiful creature surrender himself to the superior robber. - I have often seen a school of red fish knocking the mullet into the air, I have seen troops of flying fish retreating from the lovely dolphin, I have heard for miles the roar of an immense company of mullet flying in short, regular leaps before a herd of porpoises, or a family of sharks, by whose giant forms I have seen the sea beaten into bubbles, as they lashed and struck among. the frightened mullet, from my boyhood up. I have seen man ~ prey upon his fellow-man, but never has it fallen to my lot to wit- ness so magnificent a sight of the strong preying upon the weak as that presented by the grand ecailles. The yellow rays of the set- a ting sun would glance upon the silver armor of a thousand forms Feet en aE e LOAA AS ke, TES š leaping in every possible direction, crossing and recrossing, yet never striking, the air was filled with the small sardine thrown from their native element to be devoured as they touched the water, the green gulf was lashed into a sea of foam, and the bright rait- bows were everywhere visible in the scene. We passed ‘through them many times, hoping that one might leap into the boat, caught them by the tails as they swam slowly by, and cursed our lot that we had brought no harpoon. It was a brilliant sight—one which in all probability had not been seen on so grand a scale be- fore, as they rarely run more than three or four together, and ¢ one which it may be my lot never to witness a 1882.] Problems for Zoölogists. 389 PROBLEMS FOR ZOOLOGISTS. BY J. S. KINGSLEY, ® R. S. H. Scudder in his address before the Entomological Section at the Boston meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, presented some of the problems which the entomologist has yet to solve, and acting upon the hint which his article affords, I would here state some of the questions in other departments of zodlogy which are as yet unanswered. Throughout our land there are several hundred people who are greatly interested in zodlogy, but the greater portion of them through lack of guidance and through misdirected efforts, add nothing to the stock of scientific knowledge which the world pos- sesses, On the shoulders of a few falls all of the original investi- gation done in America to-day. It is to that larger class who are willing to work, but who do not know how to work, or what to work upon, that this article is addressed. Some of the problems are simple, needing only a slight amount of experience, and a moderate amount of skill, while others require for their elucida- tion the trained investigator. To state all the problems requiring solution, would take more space than is contained in a volume of this magazine; a few only, therefore, are presented. Hermann Fol has recently described the effects produced upon the eggs of star-fishes when two or more spermatozoa enter it at the same time. An abnormal segmentation ensues, proceeding from two or more centers, and resulting in a compound gastrula. This would suggest a possible explanation of the cause of double monsters, and assign an answer for a much vexed question in tera- tology. A single fact is but a slender foundation for generaliza- tions of this character, and hence observations are needed to ascertain whether in other groups a multiple impregnation pro- uces a compound gastrula, and if so, what the gastrula in turn _ produces. The eggs of a few animals have been studied while becoming _ _ Mature, and when the impregnation was taking place, and with — _ Wonderful results. Yet but a very few forms have thus been _ Studied, and detailed accounts of the phenomena of the matura- tion and impregnation of eggs are needed in almost every group. The eggs of the larger proportion of the animal kingdom in be- _ ©oming mature form what are known as polar globules. With fae Possible exception noted by Grobben, these polar globules _ pn ' 390 Problems for Zcölegists. [ May, ‘have not been found in the eggs of insects and crustacea, but our information on this point is still of a negative character, and new and careful investigation may conclusively show that the Arthro- poda in this respect do not form an exception to the rule that the extrusion of polar globules is one of the features of the matura- tion of the eggs of all animals. Grobben when studying the development of a small fresh-water crustacean (Moina), found that certain cells, which eventually formed the genital organs, were differentiated at nearly the same time as the epiblast and hypoblast. Metchnikow has also found in an insect that the reproductive organs were very early de- veloped. When we consider that the chief end and purpose of every animal is the reproduction of its kind, this early appearance of the genital organs is what should be expected, but as yet, so far as I am aware, these two observations stand alone. Here is possibly a fruitful field for some ardent student. In the waters of the whole eastern United States (with the ex- ception of New England), and the Mississippi basin, are to be found representatives of a family of Mollusca peculiar to the American continent, the Strepomatidze (Melanians). Of this family numerous genera and many hundred nominal species have a been described, but as yet we know nothing of their embryology E and but little of their anatomy. With the exception of a paper on the structure of two genera by the late Dr. Stimpson, a few short notes is the sum total of our knowledge of true “ soft parts.” We cordially commend the investigation of the “ Melanians” to the — naturalists of the Mississippi basin. The fauna of the United States is exceedingly rich in Urodelou Batrachia, and a fine field is open for a comparative study of their visceral anatomy and their myology. Their osteology, however, — has been pretty carefully studied, though the results are not yet — published in full. European embryologists have confined their studies of the development of the Batrachia to the tailless forms, while Dr. Clark is the only American who has contributed any- thing of any extent to our knowledge of the life history of the — salamander,! and his observations are principally on the external changes. : The calf fish / Amia) of the Western rivers is a representative of 1 The observations of Scott and Osborn should not be overlooked, though pie j lished in England. i ; : x K 1882. } ! Recent Literature. 391 a group of fishes of whose development almost nothing is known, and a detailed account of its embryology would have an interest and importance only excelled among the vertebrates by that of Ceratodus. The gar pike’s development has only been studied by Mr. Agassiz, and his observations are very incomplete, though very important. A study of the development of any of the Amzu- rid@ (cat fish and horned pouts) would be very interesting and in- structive, and would amply repay the person who will undertake it, while the man who investigates the method of growth of Myx- ine, so common at Eastport, will have an entirely unexplored field to himself. The problems which we have stated are almost entirely em- bryological, and it is in this line of development that the most important results are to be reached. A future article will present more of the anatomical side. :0: RECENT LITERATURE. Tue ZoorocicaL REcorD For 1880.'—This volume, the seven- teenth of the series, has appeared with commendable promptness, and Mr. Rye, the editor, assures us that this rate of issue will. henceforth be maintained. The recorders of the different depart- ments are nearly the same as in the preceding volume. It appears that the number of new genera and sub-genera con- tained in the present volume is 1008, as against 976 of Vol. xvi (which contained sixty new genera of Arachnida, properly be- longing to Vol. xv, from which that group had been omitted). These are divided as follows: Mammalia, 34; Aves, 16; Reptilia, 216; Pisces, 31; Mollusca and Molluscoida, 79; Crustacea, 80; Arachnida, 78 ; Myriopoda, 2;, Insecta, 438; Vermes, 28 ; Echin- odermata, 24; Ccelenterata, 70; Spongida, 51; and Protozoa, 56. The number of pages is about the same as in the preceding volume. On p. 3, Myriopoda, we notice an important error. Me Ryder’s order Symphyla is spelled Symphuta, the name not being repeated in the note under the heading thus misspelled. © _ _This record is of the greatest service to the systematic zoolo- gist, and to none more than those who are unfortunate enough not to be within reach of large libraries. Hence the American zoolo- gist needs the “ Record,” if he has no other works. _ ee Tue Fish Fauna or Borneo2—In Vol. xvi of the Annals of the Genoa Museum of Natural History, D. Vinciguerra com- i7; i The Record of Zoological Literature. London. Van Voorst. 1881. D: Viscr 2 z i or urale enova. Vol. XVI. 3 eae GUERRA, Appanti ittiologici sulle collezioni de Museo Civico di Genova lv. Prima eae contribuzione alla Fauna Ittiologica di Borneo, pp. 161-182. 392 Recent Literature. [May, mences the publication of the results of the examination of a rich collection of fishes made by the Marquis Giacomo Doria and Dr. Odoardo Beccari during their residence at Sarawak. Eighteen species of Siluroids, two of them new to science, and © two others not before known to occur in Borneo are described; raising, with six species enumerated by E. Von Martens in the Zoology of the Prussian Expedition to Eastern Asia, the total number of known Bornean siluroids to fifty-eight. The writer remarks that he finds many new species in this col- lection, and that this may be expected from the fact that, except Bleeker, few naturalists have collected the fishes of the island. H. Schlegel, S. Miller, and J. Richardson had noted only ten Bornean species before the time of Bleeker, who, examining the collections made by Dutch government officials, raised the num- ber to three hundred and forty, all of which were from few locali- ies. Since that date the only additions to our ichthyological knowl- edge of Borneo have been the description by Dr. A. Günther of two species of Gobiidz, which formed part of the Doria collec- tion, and the chapter by Martens on ninety-four species of fresh- water fishes from the rivers Kapuas and Sambas. Mark’s MATURATION, FECUNDATION AND SEGMENTATION OF Limax.'—This work is very timely, and is valuable, both from the original facts it contains regarding the intricate subject of the preparation of the egg of the slug for fertilization, as well as the latter process, and the mode of segmentation, which is of great value from the detailed exposition for the English-reading student of a department of embryology which has been mapped out mainly by German embryologists. The author first gives us his own original observations, illus- trated by five excellent double plates, and then presents us with a- lengthy discussion’and review of all the papers and works which have been published on the earliest phases of embryonic develop- ment above enumerated. In the third part, Dr. Mark presents theoretical considerations and general conclusions regarding the promorphology of the ovum, polar phenomena, asters, spiral asters, the nuclear spindle, origin of nuclei, the germinative vesicle and polar globules. The appearance of such a profound, critical summary of what is known on these points, should give a stimulus to those studies in this country. The treatment of the subject by the author is clear, candid, and the matter well digested and elaborated. Gentry’s Nests anp Eacs.—It is hard to say whether we look upon these beautiful colored lithographs, representing the nests 1 Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoölogy at Harvard College, Vol. VI, No. 2. Maturation, Fecundation and Segmentation of Limax campestris Binney. By a r i a vo, pp. 173-625. 5 plates. a 2 Illustrations of the Nests and Eggs of Birds of the United States. J. A. Wagen- seller, 23 N. Sixth street, Philadelphia. vian * 1882. ] Recent Literature. 393 and eggs of birds, or upon similar repres of the birds in- other works of the kind, with the most pleasure. Illustrations of the nests and eggs, however, are more rare and proportionally more interesting, have now in the twenty-one parts already issued, represen- tations of the nests and eggs of the cedar bird, the wood pewee, the cat bird, the orchard oriole, the kingbird, the red-wing black- bird, the humming-bird and towhee bunting, or chewink, also of the screech owl, the wild turkey, the tit, the auk, the killdeer plover, the chimney bird, the crow blackbird and many others. In the plate containing the humming-bird’s nest and eggs, the male and female birds are also represented, forming a very beautiful pic- ture. The nest is made “of vegetable wool from the poplar and oak, and is lined with a few small white feathers. Externally there is a dense covering of bluish crustaceous lichens and brownish spider’s silk. It was placed upon a branch of the beech tree, at an elevation of twenty feet from the ground. In height it mea- sures one and three-fourth inches, in external diameter one and a half. The width of the cavity is three-fourths of an inch, and the depth about one-half.” The nest of the towhee bunting, or chewink, is described by Mr. Gentry as always placed upon the ground, usually half cov- ered and concealed by long grasses that surround it. Tle author says, “ When placed within a thicket, or on the borders of it, the nest is either built in a depression of the ground, usually beneath a bunch of grass, in a pile of old brush or faggots, or on a slight Prominence surrounded by tall, graceful ferns he figures of the crow blackbird, Maryland yellow-throat, the killdeet and the red-throated loon, are especially good. This excellence is partly due to the skill of the able zodlogical artist Edwin Sheppar We take this opportunity to recommend this elegant. work for every library CENT BOOKS AND aries ETS, ITE e the Iron ee Steel proderit of the Unite d States. Compile = by Jam wank. 4to, pp. maps, cuts, De- partment of the Interior. Ca us ot nk United ty ye Ren odin Print- mg Washington, 1881 Pok the department. of th ocene of Wyoming and New Mexico, made during 1 De pac 8vo, pp. 60, map. (Ext. Am. Phil. Soc.) Philadelphia, 1882. i the oo aut ; ; The Distribution of Plant Life, and the agencies contributing to it. ačdress delivered before the Maryland Horticultural Society at its April meeting, “i881 By Dr. B pp. 8. Baltimore, 188 or Eels (An nguilla acutirostis). Taai giesa de — Ballou. 4to, pp. 2, cuts. Jan. ae Am, Field. Chic cago, 1882. m the a : = the serenity of the ae orns of Quercus macrocarpa Michx, By Josep B: F. - ' PP: 4, T plate, Ext. from the Journal of she Cincinaati Society 2 Hacia Hi more. Cincinnati, 1882. From the au Pal siologicl B Bulletin, No. 34. Contributions to the pati of Radi Vertebrata o 394 Generat Notes. [May, The oe of Physiology, or Nature in thought ee ene: By T. Sterry Hunt, LL.D. 8vo, pp. 27. Boston, 1882. From the a A Revision of the Cis-Mississippi Tertiary Pectens of ae “Unit ai Saa pp- ee Rem arks on the Molluscan genera Hippagus, Vertico rdia and Pec pa pp. ote on the spp ae position of the Eocene deposits of Maryla Ange ie o pp. 6. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural peee e Philadel- phia. Philadelphia, 1882. From the author sh ae of the United States National Museum. Washington, 1882. ailed Amphibians, including the aria A thesis, presented to the Factlty a the Michigan University. By W. H. Smith. 12mo, pp. 158, bound. Detroit, 1877. A case of Polymely in Batrachia. By J. S. Kingsley. 8vo, pp. 8, plate. Ext. from the eo rad of the Boston Society of Natural History. Boston, 1881. Fists the author The Winter Bi He of iii By T. S. Roberts. 8vo, pp. 10. Extract from the Ninth Report of the Geological and Natural His = Survey of Minnesota, for the year 1880, Minneapolis, 1880. From the author Transactions of the American Institute of Miding Engineers. oun a lc Morters ” the Limestone belt of bee ne county, New York. By James D. Dan , pp. 80, plate, maps, cu Extract from the American Journal of Sciatic mee Haven, 1881. From he bar ge e zur Paläontologie ee ee und des Orients. Herausgegeben v. Mo oe a und Neumayr. Vol. 1, Part 1 and 11, 4to, pp. 70, 13 lates. Wien, Jan., 1882. From the publishers Die Steg gocephalen aus den rng: Na des Planerschen Grundes bei Dresden Von Hermann Credner in Leipzig. Vol, , 8vo, pp. 32, 2 plates. Berlin, 1881, From the pai Die fossilen Saurier in dem Kalke dés ee Me edenin im TA runde bei Dresden. Dr. H. B. Geinitz r. J. Deichüller. 8vo, eee ee ce Mineralogisch- geologisches aad PASA EAA "Mase m in Deedes, 1882. Dresden, 1882. From the authors. Alistomniashe Notizen uber Heloderma horridum Wiegm. Von Dr. J G. Fischer in Hamburg. 8vo, pp, 16, plate. Hamburg, 1882. From the author Une Page ds L’Historie D’une Beleie ou La Catologie il y Cinna ans. Dis- cours prononcé a la Seance publique de la Classe des Sciences. Par M.P. ae Van- Beneden. 8vo, pp. 34, plate. Brussels, 1882. From the author. Liste des a ya de la Société ae de France, au rre Fevrier, 1882. 8vo, p. 32. Paris, 1882, From the Ottawa Field- Naturalists gro mee Transactions No. 1, 8vo, pp. 64. plate, 1880-81. s No, 2. 8vo, pp. 44, plate, with the ira of Presiden Fletcher. Sans i, “Consd: Toa the president. The Scientific Roll and Magazine of Systematized Notes, conducted by Alexan- der oad F.S.S. Climate, Vol. 1, 8vo, pp. 40. London, Feb., 1882. From the co ond uctor, :0: GENERAL NOTES. BOTANY.’ a THE STUDY OF LICHENS IN NORTH AMERICA. —The eo wi : Edited by ProF. C E. Bessey, Ames, Iowa, 1882. | Botany. 395 As microscopes become cheaper and less cumbersome, and as in- formation as to the general structure of lichens becomes more available, many students will turn their attention to these curious products of the vegetable kingdom. Indeed, few of the thallo- phytes recommend themselves in as many ways to the laboratory worker as do the lichens. Their curious dual structure, their colorless filaments (hyphz), contrasting strongly with the round- ish green cells (gonidia), will alone furnish material for much close observation, and if the student permits himself to inquire as to the theories of Schwendener, and Minks, he need have no fears of speedily exhausting the study. Then, too, the various forms of fruiting, the differences in the spores and spore-sacs (asci) with the development of the latter may well claim the prolonged at- tention of the student, As a most important aid to the study of the lichens we have now the first part of the long promised “ Synopsis of the North American Lichens,”! from the hand of Professor Edward Tucker- man, than whom no one is better able to write upon this subject. Long ago (in 1848), Professor Tuckerman gave us a little book, now rare, “A Synopsis of the Lichenes of New England, the a Genera Lichenum; an Arrangement of the North American Lichens.” We now have Part ı of what will doubtless be for Several questions which have been under discussion i ta As to their relationship we find (p. v), “ The lowest divisions of vegetable life ma l be recognized as Alg chenes, and ‘A Synopsis of the North American Lichens. Part 1, comprising the Parmeliacei, — Cladoniei, and Ccenogoniei; by Edward Tuckerman, M. A., author of Genera Lich- ` enum. Boston: i : e S. E. Cassino, Publisher, i 396 General Notes. [ May, each other. Lichenes are reckoned as intermediate between the other two classes of Thallophytes; but all the limits are uncer- tain.’ As to the now famous question regarding the autono- my of lichens, after describing hyphz and gonidia, we find (p. vi.) “But we are not quite at liberty to stop here e marked contrast of hypha and gonidium was open to a iyeuh ex- planation, based on the apparent relations of these organs to what seemed the same in other classes of Thallophytes, which suggested ` and had its exemplification in the memorable labor of Schwen- dener. This was met, however, by lichenologists in a manner and tone often ill enough corresponding with the simply objective position of the other side; and there was room for further inves- tigation. Ideally, from the point of view of those who look at lichens as autonomous, the primordial cell should be referable either to hypha or gonidium ; but, in fact, as well emphasized by inks, it is its dualism which, from the beginning of our knowl- edge, and through all its extent, characterizes the lichen struc- ture, and determines its history. Yet this is not all. The pene- trating glance of the cited vegetable anatomist has demonstrated the existence of a third element. Behind and before the manifes- tation of the hyphæ, which are to play so great a part in the lichen world, is a dimly seen, primordial tissue, a web or net-work | of exceedingly delicate filaments (Hyphema Minks), which grad- ually pass into the hyphe proper, as these accomplish their high- est result in generating the gonimous cells,’ ON THE TERMS ANNUAL AND BieNNIAL.—There is certainly much ambiguity in the ie annual and pie Those plants which germinate in t spring and die the autumn are not very different sess those which vegetiite in thie summer or au- tumn, and flower and die in the succeeding spring or summer ; nor indeed can I see much between them and plants like Agave, which live in a barren state for many vears, and then flower once and die. It seems to be only a question of the time required to a the regas energy to produce flowers and fruit. rue annual plants may be divided into winter annuals and sum- : mer sii uals The komer usually store up nutritive matter in the autumn to supply the flowering state in the spring; differing in this from summer annuals. Byt this is not constantly the case. The Agave is many years deidg this. Although this plant flow- ers only once, we of course ought to have a term to distinguish it from the annuals. There are also the plants which produce stoles rooting at the end, such as the sympodes of Fragaria; in that case the plants are truly perennial. But see such plants as - Epilobium, where the: buds at the end of stoles alone remain alive during the winter, and produce the plants of the succeeding year: what are we to call these? We usually denominate them perennial. Then how separate them from those which are not — 4 aérial, but go through the same course e? Then come such plants 1882. ] ' Botany. 397 as Orchis, where a new tuber is formed by the side of the old one each year, usually at a very short distance from it, but sometimes at some considerable distance, as in Herminium ; and the tuber which has flowered dies. The tuber is therefore a winter annual. OFf course all these ought not to be confounded with the true perennials, where the same root lives and flowers at least several years in succession. DeCandolle’s terms nono- and poly-carpic will not do, for they convey another idea. Mono- and foly-tocous, as suggested by A. Gray, are better, but here we do not distinguish between Agave and Brassica, And he has not attempted to dis- tinguish these from Orchis (except by calling the latter perennial, as we all do), or Orchis from Fragaria—C. C. Babbington in Four. of Botany. : A Boranist’s TRIP TO “THe Aroostook.” No. 2.—On June 6th, ’81, my Western friend and I left Orono (Penobscot county) for Northern Maine, by way of the railroad as far as Mattawam- keag, where we passed a day pleasantly in following the banks of the river for flowers. On the stream of the same name I saw for the first time Alnus viridis, which afterwards became a daily forests, But for our own voices the stillness would have been oppressive; for a distance of many miles that day we did not find — UB ue an opening. The.mail agent said that between us and Canada on a 398 General Notes. . [May, one side there was probably no house to be found. In one planta- tion through which we passed there were but two families living, There were but few houses along the road, yet one might almost believe that avillage would spring up some time in this untrodden wilderness, whose tangled undergrowth makes it almost impene- trable. The forests often look black with the Abies nigra (“ Black growth”) and the dead trees are oftentimes covered with long green moss. We passed several cabins which are occupied by the lumbermen during the winter months. Ashland is a small, “finished ” village, situated on the Aroostook river. The people whom we met there are hospitable and refined. I added Aradis perfoliata, Rosa nitida,and Prunus pumila to my list; also learned through Mrs. G. D. that Trillium album grows on their farm, but I was too late to procure it. This immediate region is said to be rich in minerals. After another week profitably spent, we took passage for Fort Kent, 48 miles due north, by a corduroy road. The first day we passed at Portage Lake, a famous resort of fish- ermen. We gathered some Potamogetons of great size, but they were not in flower, and the day was productive of pleasure alone. For miles the forests were burned and still smouldering, the work of careless gunners, it is supposed. dismal swamp, indeed! The two fire-weeds, Erechthites hieracifolia and Epilobium angusti- folium, are found here as elsewhere on burnt ground, although I have been told that the first named had never been found in the county; but it is quite abundant on the line of the railroad. The country is decidedly mountainous ; the one, two and three mile hills would have been decidedly monotonous but for the lovely foliage and the frolicking brooks. In many places the road was “repaired,” and the ditches at the sides were frightful for hyper- sensitive nerves to contemplate. Eagle lake was the great fea- ture of the ride, it lays along the route for a distance of 5% miles. No part of the journey furnished excitement until the driver took his pistol out to load it, saying that he should have done so before starting ; that he had been fired upon twice in two years, and might need to use it before reaching Fort Kent. He also stated that a peddler who had left this place by that road was _ never heard from and that his bones were probably bleaching in the woods somewhere. Although we were on the gui vive all the afternoon, we only saw the enemy, for whom he had prepared, quietly standing in their doorways looking as demure as possible. At 9.39 Saturday night we found ourselves in Major D.’s hospit- able home, 200 miles due north of Bangor. Fort Kent may be called properly a French town. It is situated on the Fish river (its original name), which empties into the St. John river at this place. Nature has done much for this section of the State. The scenery is fine, the air is cool,and the people seem as happy twenty- two miles removed from a railroad (Edmundston, on the Canada © on _ side, being the nearest point), telegraph, doctor or drug store as- 1882. | Botany. 399 those do who have all the advantages of hourly intercourse with the world. It isa healthy place also, and the people welcome stran- gers to their midst with the characteristic hospitality of the county. Space will not admit of the list of plants made here, but the more rare ones were Pyrola rotundifolia and secunda, with their lovely varieties; also P. minor, Vaccinium cespitosum, V. uliginosum, Clematis verticillaris (Mr. Niles), and Pyrus sambuct- folia. The swamps at this place afford several orchids ; these dark, damp places are favorable to this family of plants. Habenaria orbi- culata often grows two feet high, with leaves seven by nine inches; H. viridis also very large. H. obtusata arid Listera con- vallarioides abound here. It is hard’work to procure them, re- quiring many a tumble and scratch, and the thought must often come to the mind of the most practical, Does it pay? Why all this toil for “ weeds” which have littie beauty save to the eye of the botanist? Yes, it does pay; our natures evermore grow young among the primitive pines. The scenery is wild and the silence oppressive. Some of the swamps seem like ponds filled with trees ; the fallen ones often form pens, and how to get along, though armed to the teeth with waterproof and rubber boots, one does not know always. Suffice it to say that people who care to visit such places find their way out of them feeling well paid for the trouble. It is interesting to trace the outlines of large trees in the primitive woods. Some have a little bark left, while in other cases there is merely an outline of green or brownish dust. “How old are you?” I asked, half frightened at the sound of own voice. I did not see a snake either year, and the squir- across. These are but few of the many interesting plants which — grow in this fascinating county. Go and see.—Kate Furbish. ~ Boranicat Nores.—J. C. Arthur in Vol. 11 of the Proceed- ings of the Davenport Academy of Sciences, publishes “ Con- ` . Iv,” in which he adds orty-three native and six introduced species to his previous — li Descriptions are given of such as are not found in Gray’s tributions to the Flora of Iowa, No. Iv ~ `- 400 ; Gencral Notes. [May, Manual, viz: Artemisia serrata Nutt., Senecio lugens; Rich., var. Hookeri Eaton, Plantago Rugelié Decaisne, Gerardia ten- uifolia Vahl., var. macrophylla Benth., Cuscuta Gronovii Wild., var. latifolia Engelm., Polygonum Muhlenbergii Watson, Aris- tida purpurea Nutt——F. A. Mansfield has compiled a list of plants (137 species and varieties) “ discovered in Maine, chiefly since the publication in 1868 of the ‘ Portland Catalogue of Maine Plants? ”——N. L. Britton has issued a circular of “ Notesi for the enone of those who have the “ Preliminary Catalogue of the Flora of New Jersey.” Attention is directed to many doubtful natives, and difficult species, and also to the common Manual,” by Jos. F. James, issued as an extra in the pe- tanical Gazette, will prove very useful to all students of that large genus. The list of New Mexico and Arizona plants col- lected by H. H. Rusby, contains many interesting species. Sets interest, N. L. Britton in the Torrey Bulletin describes and fig- ures (three fine colored plates) a new ayer oak, between Quercus Phellos and Q. nigra, and which he names Q. Rudkini. E Ss Greene describes six new Composite, scaly Californian; J. B Ellis describes sixteen new species of fungi mostly from New Jersey; and G. E.. Davenport contributes interesting “ Fern otes,” in which he gives reasons for suspecting Asplenium ebenoides to be a hybrid between ON ja ihe! and Asplenium ebeneum. ngleman’s “ Notes on Yucca,” in the Botanical Gazette include the description ‘a a new species, Y. elata, from the deserts of Arizona. L. M. Underwood brings together i in an alphabetically arranged catalogue the genera and species of North American Hepatice. It includes a nine pera 219 species and seventeen varieties. paper on “ The Variability of the Acorns of Quercus macrocarpa, in the oe Cinn. Soc. Nat. Hist., the author brings out to a remarkable degree the variable character of the acorn of our common bur-oak. “There are all gradations from no fringe at all on the cup, to one which has a fringe half an inch long. The | cups are shallow to deep, thick to thin, extending half way up the acorn, reaching to its apex, or almost entirely concealing it.” Eight figures accompany the paper. ZOOLOGY. NOTE ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF CERTAIN MoL- LusKs.—The occasion for this note arises from a brief review of Professor A. G. Wetherby’s paper “On the Geographical Distri- bution of certain Fresh-water Mollusks of North America, and the probable causes of their variation,” in this journal, March, 1882, page 231. The entire paragraph reads, “ The Siro In Jos. F. Jamess ` 1882. ] Zoology. 401 Now, this last statement, “they do not cross the Mississippi,” does injustice to what Professor Wetherby really states in the paper reviewed, and does violence to the facts in the case. The statement made by the author reviewed is “ This fauna [Fauna C] has a very limited distribution of genera and species west of the Mississippi * * .” (See Am. Jour. of Sciences, March, 1882, page 207.) Mr. Tryon, in his generally excellent monograph of the Strepomatidz published as No. 253 of the Smithsonian Mis- cellaneous Collections (1873), made the same statement the writer in the NATURALIST made, but with reference solely to the Trypa- nostomoid division of that family; he recognizes the occurrence of Gontobasis in various streams west of the Mississippi and trib- and xlviii). O e genus Gontobasis there are seven for from west of the Mississippi exclusive of those found on the Pacific slope hey are Gon. cubicoides Gon. potostensts, Gon. sordida, Gon. lirescens, Gon. ovoidea, Gon. haleiana, an Gon. alexandrensis. I am not aware that Gon. cubicoides Anth. has been hitherto reported from any other habitat than Indiana; but the specimens to which reference is here made can be referred som labels as above. Of 7) rypanostoma, one species at least occurs west of the Mississippi—the Try. suéulara Lea—which I desire to place on record here. Several hundred specimens were taken from the Des Moines river, at Fort Dodge, Webster county, No. 3, to s of the . » 422 General Notes. - [May, 4 and Oregon, but not between these stations so far as now known.” ‘This statement gives that remarkable species too narrow a limit by many thousands of square miles. In 1843 appeared Vol. v of Part 1 (Zodlogy of New York), by James E. DeKay, in which, p. 197 (Plate xiv, Fig. 214), is given a description of this shell with the name A/asmodon arcuata ; De Kay quotes it as “ one of the largest and most commonest of our Unios,” and states his speci- mens were from Rockland county, Champlain, Oneida and many other localities. Dr. Lewis (Bull. Buf. Soc. Nat. Sci., August, 1874, page 141) lists it among the shells of New York, as “ re- ported orally, localities not known.” I have five examples from a brook at Haydensville, Mass., and over 100 from a branch of the Connecticut river, near Hartland, Vermont, where it abounds. Beyond Maine the species is reported from various points in New Brunswick, and even from Newfoundland. Of its distribution in the western portions of America the following facts are known: “ It is the most abundant of the fresh-water bivalves, and the only one I have been able to find in the Chehalis, the streams empty- ing into Puget sound, and most branches of the Columbia” (Cooper, Pacific R. R. Reports, Vol. xu, Pt. 11, page 311). It is also quoted from the Shasta river, Oregon, having been collected in that stream by Dr. Trask, and from the Klamath and Yuba. It is known to the eastward among the Rocky mountains, specimens having been taken from the Missouri river above the Falls ; also from the Spokan river, below Lake Cceur d'Alene (Carpenter, Mollusks of west coast of North America, page 116). Concern- ing the conclusions drawn from this species, I am not prepared at this time to say anything. But to fix as a fact the important de- duction that this form and the others mentioned in connection therewith are “remnants” of another fauna which has suffered such remarkable changes as incidental to glaciation is a matter which will yet require a vast amount of labor and research. The exact distribution of this species, since so much is,made to de- pend on it, should be determined. It is believed that in this note all the known points of its occurrence in America have been, for the first time, brought together.—R. El/sworth Call. THE European House Sparrow.—Fasser domesticus has its place in nature, possibly monarchical Europe, and monarchical in- dividuals in other places can overestimate their worth, but im America they are out of place, and their introduction was 4 grievous mistake. Its disposition is very far from being republi- can, and its treatment of some of our native birds, which are of SRS get SE Nene a Sete anes Eee er Soe ele oe Osean ee ee cons tm a much more value than themselves, is tyrannical and despotic. © = Quarrelsome with and pugnacious towards the swallows, martins, wrens and bluebirds they take by force the houses put 4 especially for their use. Thanks for the love of liberty, right an justice, the swallow, martin, wren or bluebird having possession — of the house can, and usually does succeed in keeping it against — 1882.] Zoology. 403 the attack of a single pair of sparrows, but often, this pair, unsuc- cessful in their house-breaking attempt, go off and solicit the aid of their fellows, and return with a dozen or twenty of their kind, lay siege to the place,and by united effort zake 1¢, after the rightful occupants have made a desperate defence against enormous odds. It may be only a coincidence—it is a fact, however, that as the Sparrows have increased in numbers, the purple martins, Progne purpurea, have decreased in this locality. The sparrows are essentially gramnivorous and frugi ,and are not insectivorous in the legitimate use of the term. They are very destructive to garden and flower seeds, the small grains, and no species of fruit is free from their depredations. They are more dirty around the house than any of our native, social birds, drop- ping ez masse their excrements about the door. I presume they have their good qualities. I cannot agree with Mr. Minot when he says of the purple grackles that he “would not hesitate to sign the death warrant of the whole race,” but I would not hesi- tate to sign a warrant to banish the house sparrow from the United States to the place from which they came, and furnish a liberal supply of good food. and clean water for the voyage.— Elisha Slade, Somerset, Mass. THE Opossum at Ermira, N. Y.—Some five years since Mr. H. C. Hill, of Norristown, Pa., where opossums are plenty, sent a female with eleven young, to Dr. Wilder at Ithaca. Not altogether liking the Doctor's methods, and perhaps having doubts as to his intentions, they all made their escape and disappeared. is may perhaps account for the one captured near Elmira, mentioned in the Narurauist.—/ranklin C. Hill. A Larce Octopus on THE Frorrpa Coast.—I have in my Possession an Octopus, caught in the Halifax river one mile inland rom the sea, which weighed when caught two and a half pounds, measured from tip to tip of extended arms diagonally across the head twenty eight inches, longest arm sixteen inches with one hundred and ninety-eight suckers, shortest arm eight inches with eighty-seven suckers, other arms ten, thirteen, thirteen and a half and fifteen inches in length; one arm was broken in its capture. —Mrs. N. Hasty, New Smyrna, Florida. a Japanese Aguatic Animats Livinc on Lanp.—Among the | Conditions favorable to the transition from aquatic to terrestrial life, says Professor C. O. Whitman in his “ Zodlogy in the Uni- versity of Tokio,” is a saturated atmosphere. This condition Bo found in Japan, and it is here that we find some very interesting cases of true aquatic animals living on land. Every one knows that the medicinal leech is a fresh-water animal. This leech has ~ -the habit of crawling partly or wholly out of water, when the air _ "S So saturated with moisture that it can do so without exposing — 404 : General Notes. | May, its skin to dessication. The question naturally arises, could such a creature ever become habituated to living on land? When we remember that the skin of the leech performs the function of lungs, and that, provided it is kept wet, it is capable of drawing its sup- ply of oxygen from moist air, there is no difficulty in understand- ing how such a change might be induced. Experiment has already shown that some water-breathing animals can without difficulty become air-breathers. The Mexican axolotl is a well known instance, and the Lymnzidze which belong to the deep water fauna of the Lake of Geneva form another, Nature herself supplies us with numerous examples in which such a change is a normal occurrence in the animal’s cycle of life. No one has un- dertaken to test the matter in the case of the leech; but there is every reason to believe that nature has made this experiment, and that the land-leech found on the mountains of this island, and in some other parts of the world, is a living demonstration of her success. In this country the land-leech is found near the tops of mountains, in dense thickets, where the ground is carpeted with moss and other low plants. During the dryest months of sum- mer, these localities are kept moist by mists and showers. The structure of the leech has been modified to some extent in accom- modation to its present mode of life, but this modification is in every particular one of adaptation. Not an organ has been lost or acquired, certain organs have been compelled to do more work in the land-leech than they do in the common leech, and the natural result has been multiplication and enlargement. The skin-glands have become larger and more numerous, and the urinary, vesicles have expanded into bladder-like reservoirs. The liquid secretions of these organs supply any deficiency of water in the air, enabling the leech to keep its dermal respiratory organ constantly moist. The land planarian forms also are interesting examples of the kind here considered. This worm, which creeps about in damp weather, somewhat like a slug, is abundant in this island, and in many of the islands to the south. It has a wider distribution than the land-leech, being found in nearly all temperate and tropical - zones, not only on islands, but also on the continents, where the moisture of island atmosphere prevails. There is another very remarkable case, allied in some respects _ to those just mentioned. What could seem more out of place than a fish on land! It would seem that fishes are especially adapted to live exclusively in water. In providing the fish with fins, and with a respiratory organ in the form of gills, nature seems to have decreed that one class of animals should have a place and keep it. But all her devices to keep certain members of the finny tribe within the prescribed medium have failed. Among those remarkable fishes which have succeeded in over- — coming every obstacle to living out of water, at least one very 10- — This is the teresting species occurs on the coasts of Japan. Sie uae se Where life is so 1882. ] Zoölogy. 405 jumping-fish (Periophthalmus modistus Siebold), or the “ Tobi- haze” as the Japanese call it. This fish is more truly amphibious than the frog, for it is able to change the mode of its respiration at pleasure, breathing water and air alternately. It is accustomed to spend a great part of the time out of water, and actually ap- pears to prefer the air to water. If one attempts to capture it, it rarely, if ever, plunges into the water, but skips along the surface. It can climb up the steep sides of rocks or plants, and jumps along the shore in quest of insects and other small animals, with the agility of a frog. When out of water, it puffs up the cheeks with air, which is held for a short time and then renewed. ZONES OF LIFE IN THE OcEan.—Mr. A. Agassiz, in the third volume of the report of the scientific results of the voyage of the Challenger, recognizes three belts‘or zones of life from shore to the greatest ocean depths. The following extract is taken from the Harvard University Bulletin No. 21. “ The discovery by Count Pourtales, in his first dredgings off the Florida reefs, of ancient forms closely resembling types and genera characteristic of the chalk, first suggested the probability of the theories which looked upon the oceanic basins as of very ancient origin, and of their having retained practically unchanged the limits they now occupy from the time of the later Jurassic period. This ancient facies of many of the deep-sea Echini has also been traced in other groups of the animal kingdom. Professor Alph. Milne Edwards, in some of his preliminary reports on the Crustacea of the Blake calls Special attention to the resemblance of some of the deep-sea types to the Jurassic and Cretaceous forms. Bae “In making a comparison of the bathymetrical belts, Mr. Agassiz has found it convenient to recognize three such belts which are mainly dependent for their characteristics on their tem- : sae e belt, where the detritus carried to its slope supplies abundant food to. 2 mewhat less abundant than along the continental 406 General Notes. [ May, the animals living within its limits. It is also a region in which the temperature is very low, where it varies but little from the freezing point,and where the conditions under which the animals now living there have probably remained undisturbed for a considerable facies. In the continental belt they are less numerous, and their resemblance is more with the types of the later geological periods.” STELLER’S ManaTEE.—In his “ Voyage of the Vega,” Baron Nor- denskjold has collected all information attainable on Steller’s sea- cow (Rhytina Stelleri), which on Steller’s visit to Bering island in 1741, was found pasturing in large herds on the abundant sea- weeds on the shores of the island. Twenty-seven years after, not a specimen was to be found, and it was believed to be then ex- tinct. But Baron Nordenskjöld adduces evidence to prove that a specimen was seen twenty-seven years ago, though there can be little doubt that it has really gone the way of the mammoth. The Baron does not believe that its extinction is due to the destruc- tion by hunters, but that it was a survival from a past age doomed to extinction, which oveitook it when driven from its pastures on the shores of Bering island. Steller’s sea-cow (Rhytina Stelleri Cuvier) in a way took the place of the cloven-footed animals among the marine mammalia. The sea-cow was of a dark-brown color, sometime varied with white spots or streaks. The thick leathery skin was covered with hair which grew together so as to form an exterior skin, which was full of vermin and resembled the bark of an old oak. The full-grown animal was from twenty-five to thirty-eight English feet in length and weighed about sixty-seven cwt. The head was small in proportion to the large thick body, the neck short, the body diminishing rapidly behind. The short foreleg terminated abruptly without fingers or nails, but was overgrown with a num- ber of short thickly placed brush-hairs; the hind-leg was replaced by a tail-fin resembling a whale’s. The animals wanted teeth, but - was instead provided with two masticating plates, one in the gum, the other in the under jaw. The udders of the female, which abounded in milk, were placed between the fore-limbs. The fles and milk resembled those of horned cattle, indeed in Steller’s opinion surpassed them. The sea-cows were almost constantly employed in pasturing on the sea-weed which grew luxuriantly aoe on the coast, moving the head and neck while so doing much in the same way as an ox. While they pastured they showed great voracity, and did not allow themselves to be disturbed in the least by the presence of man. One might even touch them without their being frightened or disturbed. They entertained great — attachment to each other, and when one was harpoone:d the others made incredible attempts to rescue it. ee 1882. ] Zoology. 407 ZOOLOGICAL Notes.—Professor Felix Plateau gives directions for the rapid preparation of large myological preparations, of which we copy his abstract: 1. Maceration in alum during dissection; 2. Wash with pure water; 3. Tint with carmine; 4. Fix the carmine with alum; 5. Maceration in phenicized glycerine; 6. Suppression of the excess of glycerine by compression between absorbent paper. : The article is published in full in the Proceedings of the French Association for the Advancement of Science, 1880. Professor B. G. Wilder has published in the Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society the anatomy of the brain of the cat, accom- panied by numerous figures. Professor Owen lately read a paper before the Linnean Society on the homology of the conario- hypophysial tract, or the so-called pineal and pituitary glands. He propounds the view that it is the modified homologue of the ee Kingsley ; and No.6 to Mr. J. W. Fewkes’ development of the Pluteus of Arbacia, which differs in certain details from that of- Echinocidaris as worked out by J. Müller. —At a recent meet- -108 of the Linnean Society of London, Professor. Cobbold exhib- 408 General Notes. {May, ited a large Guinea worm taken from a pony, in Madras. Only one previous instance of the occurrence of this parasite in the horse has been mentioned, and its authenticity has been doubted. Kossman in Zoologischer Anseiger states that the Entoniscus, a parasite Isopod, is an endoparasite ; these Isopods are usually -exteérnal parasites.——C. P. Sluiter in the same journal describes the segmental organs in certain Sipunculidz from Malaysia. Far- ther additions to our knowledge of the fishes of Lower California and the Gulf of California are recorded in the Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum by Messrs. Jordan and Gilbert. Another paper of value in the same serial is that of Mr. Dall on the genera of Chitons, especially the fossil forms. An elabor- ate account of the structure and development of the gar pike by Messrs. Balfour and Parker, read before the Royal Society, is re- ported in Mature. As regards the skull the authors say that its morphology cannot be understood “ unless it be seen in the light derived from that of the Elasmobranchs, the sturgeon, and the anur- ous larva on one hand, and that of Amia calva and the Teleostei on the other. P. Geddes gives in Nature an abstract of an im- portant paper on animals containing chlorophyll, such as Spon- -gilla, Hydra, and certain Planarians, while others as Actinia, &c., contain chlorophyll originating from minute algz which he calls Philozoén, which inhabit these animals, The same discovery was recently pubiished by Dr. Brandt, so that both observers inde- pendently arrive at nearly the same conclusions, M. Geddes, how- ever, differing in some important particulars. A ENTOMOLOGY.’ Carnivorous HABITS OF MICROCENTRUS RETINERVIS.—! noted a circumstance on Sunday, October 23, which to me was very m- miles above Burlington, there are a number of burr oaks clus o determine them), were apparently feeding upon the beetles. It was so much aside from the habits of the Locustide, as I thought them to be strictly herbivorous, that I watched them very closely. They seized the beetles with their front legs, holding them in the same manner as a squirrel its food, and kept biting until the wing covers were broken through, then masticated the abdomen. I took a number of fragments of the beetles as a they were cast off, so I could not be deceived —ZH. G. Griffith, Burlington, Lowa. NOTE ON THE First INSECT FROM WRANGELL IsLanp.—Dr. I. C. Rosse, of the Corwin, has given me a small spider and a dried | 1 This department is edited by Pror. C. V. Rrrey, Washington, D. C., to wh communications, books for notice, etc., should be sent. 1832. | Entomology. 409 larva, which he picked up during a short visit of the Corwin to Wrangell island, „As the officers of the Corwin were the first per- sons ever known to have landed upon this island, it is probable that these are the first insects from that locality, and it may there- fore be interesting to note that the spider has been identified by Mr. Geo. Marx, of the Department of Agriculture, as ‘‘ am un- described species of Erigone,” the larva being probably lepidop- terous, but in too poor condition for determination.—/. H. Kiddır, Washington, February 6th, 1882. the box and last for a considerable time. They are made after a = hooks are used when the larva is in motion, and to bury its 410 General Notes. [ May, rejected them, however, and give this note of warning, especially to lepidopterists to whom they will prove particularly objection- able, as our experience of a few weeks suffices to show that they very quickly encourage greasing, and soon produce a relaxed sordid or greasy appearance of the insects. Another objection is, that by deliquescence the pale chocolate color of the cones com- municates to, and discolors the lining of the boxes wherever it comes in contact therewith. They may not be so objectionable for Coleoptera and Hemiptera, though in many families they would certainly prove injurious. We much prefer the old method of protection, viz: the pouring in the box of a little pure benzine, ° or what is better, according to LeConte’s formula, a mixture of I oz. nitro-benzole, 1 pint alconol, % oz. carbolic acid and 1 pint.. pure benzole. Inyjurtous Insects IN CALIFORNIA.—Our California friends are very active in their warfare with the increasing number of their insect pests, and Mr. Matthew Cooke, chief executive horticultural and health officer, has recently sent us a neatly bound little trea- tise on the insects injurious to fruits and fruit trees of California, giving a good deal of valuable practical information which must be productive of great good. Mr. Cooke lays no special claim to entomological knowledge, and several determinations are erro- neous. It is doubtful, e. g., whether C/stocampa americana or Orgyia leucostigma occur on the Pacific coast, and other species of these genera must be intended; while the determination, as Nematus similaris, of a saw-fly larva injuring pear trees is made without any warrant, so far as we can find, the insect which we have bred from cocoons sent us by Mr. Cooke, proving to be something quite different. These technical shortcomings do not, however, impair the practical value of the manual. SARCOPHAGA LINEATA DESTRUCTIVE To Locusts IN THE DAR- DANELLES.—From communications by Mr. Frank Calvert to mem- bers of the London Entomological Society, and a report of a committee appointed by said society to. inquire into the matter, it appears that Œdipoda cruciata Charp., which is the destructive species there, is preyed upon by parasites closely related to those which attack our Caloptenus spretus, and very much in the same — way. Two Dipterous species are worthy of note, viz., a flesh-fly, (Sarcophaga lineata Fall.) and a bee-fly ( Callostoma fascipennis -= Macq.). Of the Sarcophaga, Mr. Calvert remarks : es “I beg leave to call your particular attention to the larva that 1S. found in the body of the locust, no longer a matter of doubt. Each locust has from one to three of these larve, which are seen on tear- -ing open theneck and thorax. When the locust dies the larva, which is very active, leaves the body and buries itself in the ground with a - haste—proved by experiments I have made. The head is provided with a couple of black hooks which can be drawn in; these 1882.] : Entomology. 4II After a few hours the larva loses its liveliness in the ground. I have no pods at present to try if the larva feeds on the eggs of the locust. A remarkable coincidence with the appearance of the parasite is the melting away of the immense swarms of locusts that were hatched; it is true some were devoured, but the great masses have died before the deposit of the egg; the country so freed © round us is about twenty miles by forty. It is difficult to find locusts for specimens! * * The body parasite has de- vs i the locusts that escaped the Callostoma over 800 square miles, : Parasitic DIPTERA.—To the parasitic Diptera that are already well known, Dilophus, a genus of Bibionidz, should, it appears now be added. as, according to Mr. R. H. Meade of England, it has recently been bred from larva of Chetoptria hypericana. The Bibionidz have hitherto been known only as vegetable feeders in the larva state. Dorsat LOCOMOTION oF ALLORHINA NITIDA.—In the October, 1879, number of the Cazadian Entomologist, I published a note on the larve of Lachnosterna fusca, remarking on the numbers in which they occurred in the lawn in front of the Capitol at Wash- ington, and describing the peculiar manner in which the larve moved when placed upon a smooth surface—immediately turning upon their backs and moving forward with considerable rapidity by the alternate contraction and expansion of the segments. specimens were determined for me as Lachnosterna by an expe- rienced coleopterist; but the next year, by the rearing of the adult, they were proved to havebeen A//lorhina nitida. Professor Riley had meanwhile called my attention to the fact that in Le Raron’s fourth report, he had figured the larvz of the latter spe- ctes upon its back and in the act of progression. The statement is also made in this report that this larva “when out of the ground crawls with ease on its back.” This interesting habit is not confined to this species, as Rev. Samuel Lockwood, in the American NATURALIST, 1868, men- tions the same fact of the full-grown larva of Cotalpa lanigera, Stating, however, that the young larve walked normally upon their legs. Other Scarabzid larve will doubtless be found to a , share in the same habit —Z. O. Howard: MODES By WHICH SCALE-INSECTS SPREAD FROM TREE TO TREE— I watched to-day a colony of Hyperaspidius coccidivorus Ashmead _ Which has for two months or more been increasing on the trunk _ ofa tall seedling orange tree. The main trunk of the tree is cov- ered densely with Chaff scale? and upon it the larvae and imagos of the beetle are feeding. The greater number are now in imago. I found but cne pupa although larve are still abundant. The i a Mr. W. Kite of Germantown, Philadelphia, sent to NATURALIST, some months - te on io ay description of the same habit. / En vee Parlatoria Pergandii Comstock.—Eb. 412 General Notes, [ May, beetles, both larva and imago, feed upon the Coccids in all their ey never bite through or tear off the scale, but seem to push their heads under, between the bark and the scale. Larve of the scale-insect are quite abundant on the trunk, and these are sucked by the Coccinellid. Although this is not properly a breed- ing time of the scale, there are considerable numbers of scale larve wandering about, and I noticed again and again that they frequently mount upon the bodies of the Coccinellids while the latter are feeding and without attracting the attention of the beetle. It even seems to me that they are attracted by the smooth and shining surface of the Hyperaspidius’ elytra, as I sometimes saw three or four of the scale larvae together upon the back of a single individual of this extremely small beetle. As several large Coccinellids, Chilocorus bivulnerus, et al., are extreme- common in all our groves, and all feed more or less upon Coccids, it does not seem surprising that the scale should spread from tree to tree. Another method of transportation has recently occurred to m2. The shrike or butcher bird is very fond of selecting orange thorns as places to store insects. The bird is extremely common, and of course preferably selects orange trees that have long straggling branches, in fact, precisely those that are most thickly infested with Long scale. I know of one grove, much infested with scale and where at any time may be collected a double handful of dead or living insects (Orthoptera and common beetles like Phanzus) from the orange thorns upon which they have been impaled. The thorns on infected branches are always thick- ly coated with long scale, and in impaling a hard shelled insect like Phanzeus many scales are torn off, and both scales and their eggs adhere to the insect. The shrike sometimes transfers the ) insects it has impaled upon one tree to a thorn upon another tree, or after making a meal of its prey which it takes off of a thorn, the bird flies off and wipes its bill on the next tree. In this way as well as upon its feet, the bird must spread scales from tree to tree.—H. G. Hubbard, Crescent City, Fla., Dec. 12, 1881. a ANTHROPOLOGY:! Es CHARNEY ON THE AGE OF PaLanoue.—I am strongly inclined a _ to agree in the main, though not entirely with Charney’s opinion in reference to the age of Palanque as expressed in the October tion on the tablet presents a serious difficulty to his supposition that it was of Toltec origin, unless Toltec and Maya be the same. This is undoubtedly Maya, as it is not difficult to show that at least fifty of the characters are the symbols or hieroglyphs Of Maya days and months with accompanying numerals, The lara aa initial at the upper left-hand corner is probably the hieroglyph of the word Pacumchac, the name of a great religious festival held im- -t Edited by Professor Oris T. MASON, 1305 Q. street, N. W., Washington, D. C. 1882. ] Anthropology. 413 the month Par, which accounts for the repeated introduction of the character for this month in the inscription The four characters by the side of the upright of the cross are the symbols of four days, each with the numeral five attached, and correspond to the day columns of the Manuscript Troano. The whole inscription is doubtless a religious calendar relating chiefly to the festival mentioned. I call attention here to the fact that a reduced and imperfect copy of this cross is found on the back of one of the Copan statues; see middle plate between pages .156 and 157, Stephen’s Travels in Central America, Harper’s edition, 1877.—C. Thomas. Major Powe t’s First ANNuAL Report.—Within a few rs a handsome volume has been placed in our hands, entitled; First annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary o the Smithsonian Institution, 1879-80, by J. W. Powell, Director. Washington, Government Pr rinting Office, 1881, XXXVI, 603 pp., gr. in 8vo, with 1 ma , 346 figures. The report of Major Powell, which occupies 86 pages consists of an account of the work done and in progress by the Bureau of Ethnology, and the following papers by Major Powell: On the Evolution of Language, pp. 3-8. The Mythology of the North American Indians, with several new myths, pp. 19-52. e Wya sini ieee pp. 59-68. On 7 haem tot e of some anthropologic data, pp. 73-86. The ESOS pages of the volume are occupied with the following monogra A further contribution to the ay of the PAT Customs of the North American H. C. Yarrow, pp. 89—203, figures 1-47. sagetely in Central Pol a Picture Writing, by E S. Holden, pp. 205-545, figures Cession of Wad by Indian tribes to the United States, by C. C. Royce, pp. 247-262. Sign language among North American Indians compared with that oe other eoples and deaf-mutes, by Garrick Mallery, pp, arisen figures 61-346 ose of linguistic manuscripts in the library of the Bureau of Banolony. by J. C. Pilling, pp. 555-562. Mtustrations of the method of recording Indian or. From the manuscripts of Messrs. J. O. Dorsey, A. S. Gatschet and S. R. Riggs. ` No more important contribution to the science of anthropol- ogy has ever been made than the volume before us. Every con- tributor, Powell, Yarrow, Royce, Mallery, Pilling, Dorsey , Gat- schet and Riggs, excepting Professor Holden, is facile princeps in — aa the subject of which he treats, and no one who is at all familiar with the vague methods in vogue respecting the decipherment of entral American hieroglyphics, will withhold from the astrono- . mer the credit mio he deserves for applying rigid scientific meth- Ods in a new horizo In its form and e the volume is faultless. It is royal 7 _ Octavo in size, printed u upon cream calendered paper. The illus- i - : mions have no parallel in modern antropolegical works, bas a 414 General Notes, [ May, perhaps in the English editions of Evans’ Stone Implements, in- eed we do not know which to admire the more, the,gorgeous lithographs in Dr. Yarrow’s paper or the life-like wood-cuts in that of Colonel Mallery. The works of Major Powell, Dr. Yarrow and Colonel Mallery are so well known that, did our space allow, a hse be no need of an extended review. It is sufficient y that each author has embodied in his sketch his best aA ees thoughts. The articles by Professor Holden and Mr. Royce are not so well known, each author having traversed an untrodden field, or at least having followed unbeaten tracks. Professor Holden attempts to apply the methods employed in the interpretation of the ordinary cipher writing to the decipher- ing of the inscriptions of Yucatan. The slabs in Stephen’s and other works are indicated by Roman numerals and letters, and each hieroglyph has a number. A copy of the plates was then cut up and each glyph pasted a a separate card, which also bore the plate and glyph number, and the other numbers with which the glyph corresponded. Thas each form is known and the exact location where it appears, These cards may be arranged in any way the student sees fit, and indeed the case of 1500 cards has been deposited in the Bureau of Ethnology for the use of in- vestigators. The rest of Professor Holden’s paper is occupied with the comparison of Palenque and Copan with Mexican hiero- glyphics and bas-reliefs. Mr. Royce, formerly connected with the land division of the Indian office, years ago conceived the idea of illustrating, py means of colored maps and descriptive texts, the time and t manner in which the aborigines of the United States have sur- rendered their territory to the whites. Nothing in the way of ethnolagic work now going on has interested us more. Indeed, — one has no trouble to imagine, as the author proceeds, that he can see the savage title vanishing as breath from a pane of glass. The State of Indiana is given in the present volume, but Mr. ~ Royce’s work, when finished, will include the treaty cessions of the whole Union. In closing it is only justice to Mr. Pilling, the editor, to say that much of the attractiveness of the volume is due to his good taste. The catalogue of manuscripts, pages 555-577, is a fore | taste of what his great bibliography will be. ae UBBOCK’S ORIGIN oF CIVILIZATION. — Those who are now active in ethnologic work should never forget the debt of grati- tude they owe to those masters at whose feet they learned the — rudiments ọf their science. The Appletons, foremost of Amër can publishers to foster science, have just issued the fourth edi- tion of Sir John Lubbock’s Origin of Civilization, which was, at 4 | its first appearance, an epoch-making work, The opinions the Z _ forth by Archbishop Whately and others, that all ede ci are the 1882 ] Anthropology. 415 degenerate descendants of far superior ancestors, that no com- munity ever did or ever can emerge from utter barbarism to civ- ilization was first successfully met by Sir John Lubbock, who was able, from a wide generalization, to demonstrate the contrary. Arts, ornaments, marriage, relationship, religion, ethics, language and law are each treated as organisms, and followed up from*very humble beginnings to their very highest development. The reader is not called upon to follow the author through the dim mazes of speculation, but each argument is enforced by a concrete another. Mr. Lubbock is a most charming writer, never losing his sense of courtesy to-his opponents, aud moving on by a set- tled plan to his conclusion. PRE- INDIAN ABORIGINES.— From the Boston Evening Transcript of Feb. 4th, we clip the report of a paper by Professor Henry W. Haynes upon the existence in New England, in very early times, of a race of men different, from and far less advanced than the Indians. The evidence is the occurrence of rude, coarse, stone implements in numerous localities where none of the ordinary evidences of Indian occupation could be found. Professor Put- nam exhibited ‘at the same meeting a collection of rude surface implements: from Marshfield, in order to emphasize the fact that conclusions relating to the antiquity of relics could not be drawn simply from the character of the specimens themselves. Will not all our kind friends whose papers or discussions are reported in the daily press send a copy to the editor of this department ? ANTHROPOLOGY IN France.—The Revue d’ Anthropologie is the- Most prompt and readable of all our anthropological journals ; Vol. v, No. 1, for January, 1882, comes in good time and is not behind in value, “Three original papers are given, two by the editor. Le poids du cerveau, d’après les registres de Paul Broca, by Paul Topinard. De l’Acclimatement dans le race noire africaine, by Dr. A. Corre. [Especially val- — uable to American students, ] De V'Indice cephalique sur le crane et sur le vivant, d'après Broca, by Paul oe Topinard. ) The rest of the number is filled with reviews by specialists, — Ow- 416 General Notes. [May, GEOLOGY AND PALAZONTOLOGY. A SECOND GENUS OF Eocene PraciauLacip&.— Although many of the Mammalia of the Lower Eocene formation resemble the Marsupialia, characters which are unquestionably those of that order, have not yet been observed. They appear in many instances to possess characteristics of the insectivorous and car- nivorous orders as well, so that it has been thought best to refer m to a single order in combination with the /zsectivora, the Fusotheris. ‘Some new species, however, present the marsupial facies so decidedly as to leave no alternative but to refer them to that vee until further evidence shall confirm or set aside such a conclusi The n new genus now to be treated of is not very nearly related to any existing form of marsupials The nearest ally, Plagiaulax, As Professor Marsh does not offer any characters by which this group can be distinguished as an order from either the Marsupi- alia or the Bunotheria, \ have not been able to adopt it. As Fal- coner has suggested, the nearest ally is perhaps Hypstprymnus among the existing Marsupials, and Z7y/acoleo has, perhaps, an equal affinity. As the only part of the structure of these genera which is well known is the pa I define them as follows: The family of the Plagiaulacide differs from that of the Ma- cropodide in the possession of but two inferior true molars. Most of the genera have the fourth prama trenchant, and generally those anterior to it also, while there is but one, if any—the third —in the Macropidæ. There may, boar be but one in Calof- salis. The genera differ as follows: a. One large premolar, which presents anteriorly. ra premolar with a cutting edge anteriorly, and a free Peme cusp; ars wit Ty nümetous Cusp 0566 cle sc cp oie eves sce rrin] Cat opalis. aa, Several large premolars which present upwards. Premolars four, not 710g .0.c% 5 ] Aa et oO Aa <4 2 -t (2) ne a ae 29, D r. Swan M. Burnett, " How: We See.” -Thes aafaa will kS I scribed the structures which favor EPRA : ral plants, and Mr. J. S. Kingsley remarked on the em- bryology of fishes ee April 5. ng ere G. F. Wright described the “ Terminal mo o Taine of the great ice period in Pennsylvania,” and Mr. N.F Merrill read a second mpe on the lithological collection of the a Parallel Survey 2 EW ` ‘The mane MY OF SCIENCES, Mar. 27. Prokno as Egleston remarked on the proposed Government Com- ission for zi TE of i iron and steel. — - * nett. Notice of Fisher's “ Physics of the Earth's Crust, ” by C. ~ marine fauna occupying the outer banks off the southern coa Po _ Hyatt, lope, ı ockington and others, with reviews of Beale, Bu Leew, duge Wythe and others. i - in the history of meteorites, by W. Flight. bustorum, by J. W 440 Selected Articles in Scientific Serials. [ May, 1882. April 3.—Dr. George E. Beard read a paper (with illustrations) — on the paychobodical explanation of the Salem witchcraft excite- ment, and the practical lessons derived therefrom. -Mrpptesex Institure, Feb. 28.—L. L. Dame, president, de- livered an instructive lecture—the first in a series of twelve weekly botanical lectures—on the “ Growth of the plant from the seed,” a class of nearly fifty members Mar. 7.—Mrs. A. J. Dolbear gave the second in the series, her subject being “ Morphology of roots, stems and branches.” Mar. 8.—President Dame briefly reviewed the first year’s work of the Institute, and made some excellent suggestions in regard to the best manner of carrying on the work which the Institute had undertaken. The various reports presented a most gratifying exhibit of the condition of the Institute, and its future as a permanent scientific educational force seems well assured. Mr. Davenport announced the death of Professor Thomas P. James, an honorary member, and a committee consisting of the pres- . ident, W. H. Manning and Mr. Davenport was appointed to draw up suitable resolutions of respect to the memory of the deceased. AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL Society, March 21.—R. E. Colston delivered an illustrated lecture on modern Egypt and its people, | the army of Egypt and the military revolution in progress there. — the customs of marriage and divorce, and the condition of women in Mussulman countries. fs :0: SELECTED ARTICLES IN SCIENTIFIC SERIALS. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF Science, April_—The wings of Ptero: dactyles, by O. C. Marsh. Sandstones having the grains in part quartz crystals, by A. A. Young. The timber line, by H. Gan- E. Dutton. Great dyke of Foyaite or Elzolite-syenite in North- ie western New Jersey, by B. K. Emerson. Notice of the one a stof New England, by A. E. Verrill. “a Tue Grotocicat Macazine, March.— Supplement to a chapter i. OURNAL OF ee ooer, Oct. 1881.—Life history of Helix ar- a Taylor eS a at excell- | orris. THE June number of the NATURALIST will be sively tv articles on Evolution. It will contain ritto» by ™ THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. VoL. xvi. — JUNE, 1882. — No. 6. si TRANSFORMATIONS OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM, WITH REMARKS ON THE EFFECTS OF GRAVITY UPON THE FORMS OF. SHELLS AND ANIMALS: BY ALPHEUS HYATT. F continuation of our review in this journal for October last (P. 793) of Professor Hyatt’s contribution to the evolution the- ory, we make the following extracts from his last condensed paper, and reproduce from the Proceedings of the American Association the plates illustrating the paper. The results of his studies on the Steinheim shelis are roughly exhibited on Plate vı, and may be described briefly as follows. Figs. 1, 8, 12 and 16, are the ances- tors, varieties of Planorbis levis from the older Tertiaries of another locality, identified, named, and kindly sent to me with eleven’ other specimens of this species by Professor G. Sandberger, who. Opposes the evolutionary conclusions of both Hilgendorf and myself, ae From these four varieties spring four distinct lines of descent. Fig. t begins the series from 2-7, in which of course numbers of the Connecting forms are not figured. Fig. 8 begins the series fom 9-1 1,much shorter and containing fewer forms than in series- =< - Fig. t2 also gives rise to a short series with only few forms. Fig. 16, however, is the starting point for a compound series, or one composed of at least three sub-series, 19-20, 21-24, and 25-28. The intermediate forms by which the gap between the four *From the Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of es, Vol, XXIX, Boston Meeting, August, 1880. a eae "The author of the most complete Memoir om Tertiary shells in existence, cm chylien d. Vorwelt. : Ree mh XVI.—no. vi. : 30 442 Transformations of Planorbis. [June, ancestors and the four first forms of each series, viz: 2 and 9 and 17, which occur in the Steinheim basin, is very complete, but neccessarily left out in this plate. Numbering the series from right to left we see that Series 1 has three sub-series. Two of these show a tendency to uncoil, to become distorted and smaller than the ancestor, Fig. 16, while the third decreases in siz2, but has a form, Fig. 20, which is turreted like Figs, 11 and 6. Series 11 maintains a size about the same throughout, but be- comes flatter than the originating form, Fig. 12. Series 111 grows sensibly larger, and 10-11 are turreted-shells with a more rigid and sub-angular form of whorl than the primal form of Fig. 8. Series 1v exhibits not only greater increase in size, but vastly greater differences in form and in other characteristics of the shell from Fig, 1, with which it started. We can, therefore, without fear of error call series 1v a highly . progressive series; Series 11 a persistent series; sub-series 3 of Series I a partly retrogressive series; sub-series 2 of Series I, a purely retrogressive, and sub-series r of Series 1 also partly retro- gressive ; since, though it decreases in size and becomes deformed and .uncoiled, it also has a tendency to produce a new character- istic, the transverse ribs, and also increases in size its more closely coiled forms, as in Fig. 26. There is also other testimony going to show that this classifi- cation is correct. Semper’s researches on Lymneus stagnalis show, that under the most favorable physical conditions, this species increases to a maximum of size and has larger whorls, while under less favorable conditions with relation to food and tempera- ture, the size is very much decreased. he immediate results of weakness, ee by wounds, are also important in this connection. Pl. vir, Figs. 21, 214% and 22, a ‘diseased ZZ. oxystomus, var. revertens Hilg ,is a diseased specimen of the same species as Fig. 9, Pl. vi. Compare this diseased, partly uncoiled, shell with the species, Fig 23, Pl. vi, P% denu- datus and minutus. The weakness consequent upon old age 1$ equally significant and has a similar meaning. Pl. vu, Fig. 22, represents the effect of old age in distorting the growth of the outer whorl of PY. oxystomus. Compare with: Fig. 22, Pl. vI. These are true cases of disease of comparatively rare occur- rence in Ž/ oxystomus, I have in my collection many similar PLATE VI. i882] . Transformations of Planorbis. ~ 443 cases and have lately found some diseased shells of Pl. trochi- Jorwis, Fig. 7, Pl. vi. These are dwarfed, and show a tendency to unwind the spiral ; so that they look remotely like the begin- ning of a series of transition forms from PY. trochiformis to PL denudatus, Fig. 24, Pl. vi. The fliiig extracts contàin the author’s conclusions on E influence of the environment on mollusks: Darwinists would say that want of bilateral symmetry or the unsymmetrical spire was of advantage to the animal, therefore it was selected and pérpetuated. Now this statement may be readily accepted, with the under- standing that the “therefore” does not imply a relation of c: causa- tion, Most of the characteristics caused by the physical surroundings are of course advantageous, but the physical forces are the causes and not the advantageous or disadvantageous nature of the char- acteristic. The form of the embryonal tine is straight, bag like or swol- len, tubular ; Figs. 29—30, Pl. v The simplest form of all is a sia with which this embryonal bag begins, but this or the embryonal shell is not necessary for us to consider, The coiled unsymmetrical shell (da) is carried above the foot (2) as in the Helix pomatia, Fig. 8, Pl. vit, and Planorbis, Fig. 8 a Pl. vit. This is built by the mantle or internal soft cover- ing of the body d, Fig. 9. The shell has been removed, and the fleshy cone of the hanes containing the stomach, intestines, etc., has been partly unrolled to show that it was originally coiled up inside the shell. The structure of the shell can be more easily understood in forms like Figs. 11, 12, Pl. vi, where the mantle is not so long and not coiled, but builds a broad, evenly balanced, conical roof above the foot as in the Patella or Limpet. If this shell be divided into halves and one half removed as in Fig. 12, the structure’ of the shell becomes visible and also the relations of the mantle g, and the mantle border d’, to each other and to the two layers of the shell, e, and e’. his animal was once small enough to occupy only the upper part of this cone and then as it grew in size built the shell above itself. The outer layers, e, Fig. 12, the outer edges of which are Seen also on the surface of the shell, ġa, Fig. 11, were plastered up, _ ee ai of the other, oe the mantle ponin d+, which exactly fits aaa 444 Transformations of Planorbis. i pune. the last one formed, and the inner, longer layers e’ which simply serve to strengthen and support these are laid on by the. mantle itself, d, Fig. 12. ; The mantle border in the gasteropod forms a sort of collar, d+ | Figs. § and 12, Pl. vii, around the edge of the mantle, through which the creeping disk or foot projects when the animal is ex- panded. The mantle border among the lamellibranchs ¢d+Fig. 18, Pl. vi1,! forms a wider opening, or slit fore and aft, but it serves the same purpose of an aperture for the protrusion of the foot, when this is used as an external organ of motion, Fig. 18, Pl. vir. Any force which, would confine or interfere with the excreting surfaces of the mantle border, would affect the form of the imbri- cated layers e’ which determine the shape of the shell, and thus change or curve the form of the cone. The weight ot the shell itself or gravitation is such a force. If we try to account for the regularity of the spirals, whether bilateral or unsymmetrical, we are struck by the fact of their great regularity of curvature, and that this regularity can only be accounted for as the result of some general and constantly acting physical force, which tends to make the bag-like, straight shell of the young bend first into a bilateral spiral and then into-an unsymmetrical spiral. The force of gravitation, unless counteracted by great muscular strength, or the equilibrium of a perfectly cone-shaped, erect shell, as in some mollusks, would make the growing shell hang back and weigh upon the hinder portion of the border of the mantle, thus compressing the excreting surface in that quarter and decreasing the breadth of the shell layers built by this part. This would make the shell assume the form of a bent cone or the bilateral spiral as in Figs. 24-25, Pl. vit. The unsymmetrical spiral would be occasioned by any additional inequality in the weight of one ‘side over the other, which could be occasioned by the distribution of the heavier internal organs, particularly of the stomach, ovaries, etc. Any irregularities of weight on one side more than the other would, it is obvious, also compress that side as well as the back part of the mantle border, and tend to narrow the deposits. This would occasion a deflection laterally, and we should have what is so commonly the case, a shell bilateral in the young OF . -at the apex becoming by growth unsymmetrical or spiral. 1 See also Fig. 3, a fresh water clam (Anodonta) thrown widely open. + j - '1882.] ` Transformations of Planorbis. 445 This explanation is obviously applicable to the regular spirals, but the test cases are the irregular spirals. These occur through weakness occasioned by wounds, disease, Fig. 21, Pl. vt, or old age, as in Fig. 22, Pl. vu. All of the distortions thus produced tend to be irregular, that is the animal becomes too weak to counteract the effects of the weight of the shell by its inherited muscular power, and it falls over more or less to one side destroying the regular curve of the spiral. This falling over to the side of greatest weight occasions an irregularity in the deposition of the outer shell layers, and the shell ‘becomes more and more irregular as the animal grows weaker in old age or through disease. Another proof of the effects of gravity lies in the fact, that the _ irregularity of form of the shell is proportional to the extent to which it is supported and the excreting border of the mantle relieved from the effects of its weight. Thus, a perfectly regular spire in the young, by being supported, is turned into an irregular meandering tube in the after growth of the same animal. Magilus antiquus crawls freely when young among corals, and has, during this period, a regular turreted shell, Fig. 23 da, Pl. vit. It becomes finally fixed in the growing coral, which completely invests and supports it, and thereafter its shell is a rough irregu- lar tube growing upwards in the direction of least resistance. The border of the mantle being free from compression on all sides, deposits shell matter about equally all around in the specimen figured, and therefore grows upward in a straight line. The Vermetidz are supported in various degrees in the adults but free in the young. Their shells, therefore, though having a regular spiral in the young, are in proportion to the support re- ceived, transformed into tubes more or less meandering after they become attached as in F ig. 10 a, Pl. vir, or loose irregular spirals rising up like corkscrews and only supported on one side as in ig. 10, The Ammonoids and Nautiloids are notable for the complete bilateral symmetry of their spiral shells. ) Diseased specimens, which are not infrequent, however, tend to become unsymmetrical, coiling like the Gasteropods, as is well — known to all experienced palzontologists. These are commonly Spoken of by Quenstedt and others as diseased or deformed or _ Sick’species, 446 Transformations of Planorbis. [June, Once at the Sorbonne in Paris, Professor Hébert, a distinguished French palzontologist, showed me a magnificent series of un- - coiled Cretaceous Ammonites, and by way of testing these con- clusions, I asked this question : “Where, M. Hébert, is the closely coiled symmetrical form which ought to be found with these ?” He turned to the other side of the room, and pointed out the required form, saying, “ There it is, I found it last summer.” These and other facts of a similar kind indicate that when physical surroundings become unfavorable to any organization, it takes on a certain series of retrograde transformations. When they occur in the individual in the decline of life, or . prematurely in the course of growth, through disease, they are similar to the characteristics of whole species, and even groups of degenerate forms. As in the case described above, Fig. 22, PL vil, is taken from an aged specimen, but it is distorted in the same way as the diseased specimen, Fig. 21, Pl. vil, and the retrogress- ive or degraded species of Series 1, Pl. vı. All the facts corroborating this assertion have already been published and are too numerous to be described in the limits of a paper like this. The direction of the spiral is backwards or away from the mouth in the Gasteropods and towards the mouth in the Lamel- libranchs ; in, both, however, it is in the direction in which gravi- tation acts with greatest effect. The Lamellibranchs have a split shell, with two valves. Each valve is unsymmetrically spiral, hut there is one on each side of the vertical axis or axis of gravity, so that they balance each other and together forma bilaterally symmetrical shell, Figs. 15, 18, seen from the side, and 16, 17, from behind; g, spiral of right valve, and 4, spiral of left valve. _ The spiral and the outlines of the valves are equal on either side except in those forms which change the vertical axis and lie habitually on one side. These are deformed and unequal ; the deformation is in accord- ance with the amount of support and the resistance of the sur- roundings. a Thus oysters may grow to the right or left or very irregularly, fitting the curvature of surface, Fig. 13, Pl. vil. In the young they oo 1882. ] Transformations of Planorbis. 447 are free moving, bilaterally symmetrical, and for a time attached by a byssus, and then lie over on one side. Their symmetry is precisely accordant with these changes end- ing with having the lower valve permanently attached and larger and more concave than the upper. Fig. 14, Pl. vi, shows the outlines of a clam shell above that of an oyster shell, and both in their real positions for comparison with each other, the beaks of the clam shell being upon the back and those of the oyster shell across the anterior or mouth end of the animal which has built the shell. The positions of the mouth in each animal are shown at Z /. Fig. 18, Pl. vit, shows one side of a clam supposed to be buried in the mud with the siphons extended to the surface and the man- tle border or shell-building organ d +, and the digging foot &, in their natural expanded condition. | What are the changes which can take place in a member of the oyster family by change of habit ?! Can an animal of this family, which is always unsymmetrical when lying on one side, have a different position and thus return to the normal condition and have valves which are symmetrical and bilateral ? This question is answered by Lima, one of the same group as the oyster, a free swimmer but also burrowing into sponges as the clam does into the earth. This change of habit produces a cor- responding change in symmetry, and it becomes like the clam, also perfectly bilateral, Fig. 16, Pi. vin + n the other hand, can one of the fresh-water clams, Fig. 3, 17, Pl. vit, which are the reverse of the Ostreadæ, being almost invariably free moving or burrowing, and habitually bilateral, be- come attached, and if so does its shell become distorted like that of an oyster? oe . : The answer to this is Mulleria and genus Ægeria. Mulleria, Fig. 19, becomes attached and is distorted so as to resemble the oyster and not only that, but the animal changes, sincé there is but one large muscle g, asin the oyster, Fig. 1, Pl. vil, in place of * The effects of change of habit have lately been followed out by Dr. Anton Dohrn in an essay in which ke shows the results of change of function induced by new conditions to be the transformations of the organs themselves. His hypothesis States that new habits bring about or induce the organs to exercise apparently new functions, which were latent or only par:ly developed under the original conditions of the Surroundings. See Der Ursprung und d. Princip des Functionswechsel, by H Anton Dohrn, Leipzig, 1875. o 448 Transformations of Planorbis. [June, the two muscles used to close the shell in the clams, g, g, Fig. 18, Pl. vit, and the beaks of the shell have shifted from the middle of the back to the anterior end. Probably all attached animals show this tendency. Their attached and supported parts, the bases of the stems, etc., are irregular in form and growth, and their free upper parts more or less laterally symmetrical. The radiate sym- metry of the soft bodies of corals and of the harder, plate-cov- ered cups of the Crinoids, the attached parts of the Ascidians as compared with their freer bodies above; the perfect bilateral sym- metry of the free moving parts of the Mollusca, as in the Helix, Fig. 8, Pl. v11, and Planorbis, Fig. 8 æ, as compared with their sup- ported spiral shells, the same perfection in the free Eolis, Fig. 2, Pl. vir, which has no shell in the adult, and in most of the Ptero- pods, Fig. 7, Pl. vil, free swimming animals, as well as in the Cephalopods, Fig. 5, Pl. vir. One of the best proofs of this position lies where it is least to ‘be expected. The Brachiopoda are attached by a peduncle, or fleshy stem, and the upper valve, and not the lower, is the larger, just the reverse of the oyster. Upon examination, however, it is found that it is the upper valve which is held by the peduncle and the lower valve alone opens and closes. Then again Lingula, another type of Brachi- opod, which is not fixed by its peduncle, but simply occupies a sand burrow, and can move its valves sidewise, one over the other, has equal valves. Professor E. S. Morse’s investigations have shown that the symmetry in these animals changes from a worm-like up- right form of three rings or segments, and becomes laterally sym- metrical by subsequent changes in the form of the first and second segments, the third changing into the peduncle. Here then a round worm-like form exchanges its cylindrical shape for a flatter, shell-covered body in two of its segments, which become bent. over into’a horizontal position, while the third, which remains vertical, retains the original round tubular form. The Anomia, Figs. 31, 32, Pl. vu, presents a series of changes very similar in their meaning, though this animal is closely allied to the oyster. It has the lower valve flat, resting upon and taking the form of the surf2ce upon which it grows. The upper valve, 4, Figs. 30-3!» is. convex and larger than the lower concave valve, 4, Fig. 39, and : is supported by a plug, 4”, passing through the lower valve. = t PLATE VII. __ EXAMPLEs oF EFFECTS OF PHYSICAL SURROUNDINGS ON MOLLUSKS. — ee E E E EE 1882.] Transformations of Planorbis. 449 In this case in which also the upper valve is the larger, it is this which receives the direct support of the attached plug. The young are at first free, then attached by a byssus. Figs. 26, 27, show the right and left valves at an age when the animal has fallen over on the right side, and the notch, Fig. 27, begins to be formed. Fig. 28 shows how the lower valve continues to build out around the notch towards the anterior end, and in Figs. 29 and 30, it becomes complete. This greater demand upon functional activity of the lower side of the mantle, and the fact that this is the mova- ble valve, explains why it is not larger than the upper valve as in the oyster. As was pointed out to me by Mr. J. S. Kingsley,the growth of © the upper and lower valves sidewise is really an effort on the part of the animal to recover, by lateral growth in a new direction, the’ symmetry lost when it fell over `on its side. Any one comparing Figs. 28 and 31-30 will see that the long axis of the form in Fig. 31 is at right angles to what it is in Fig. 27. I shall call this tendency, to equalize the form in the direction of a horizontal plane, geomalic; the downward tendency of the growth being designated by botanists, geotropic. The Anomia, when it falls over, loses its bilateral symmetry, because the right and left sides become upper and lower, and being in the vertical position, they are unequally affected by gravity and by change of functions At the same time the dorsal and ventral sides, which were before vertical, have become horizontal; and the geomalic growth of the ventral side, in order to restore the — lost equilibrium in a horizontal direction, at once begins. This does not attain perfect lateral symmetry. The form of the animal cannot be easily changed, and the dorsal and ventral sides are still distinguishable; therefore, it is necessary to call this tendency of the growth by a new name, so that we can speak of the dorsal and ventral as well as the right and left sides as having the same tendency to assume by geomalic growth the natural and inevita- ble condition of equilibrium. The experienced observer will at once think of many apparent violations of this law. Many larval forms of Gasteropods begin to build the spiral, while they are still within the egg, or still free swimming animals. Balfour! States, in his masterly summary of Comparative Embry- 1 Comparative Embryology, vol. 1, p. 190. 450 Transformations of Planorbis. [June, ology that, during an early larval period, “in most Gasteropods, the shell and mantle extend much more to the left than towards the right side and that the commencement of the spiral shell is thus produced.” This same explanation applies to the falling over on one side of the young Anomia and oyster, in so far as the side upon which they fall is heavier than the other or upper side. These seem to be readily accounted for as the direct results of hereditary peculiarities which have arisen in their ancestors and become embryonic through the action of the law of quicker de- velopment or acceleration explained above, and into the same category comes also the straight anomalous bag-like shell or plate of the embryo, and the split bivalve shell of the young oyster, which according to Professor Brooks is never an embryonic plate as in other Lamellibranchs. The problem has not been approached among animals as it has among the plants by Sachs, Darwin and others. and we do not know how to distinguish between the direct effects of gravitation upon the growth of any animal at any one stated period of its life, and the effects of the proximate causes arising from the in- herent tendencies of heredity. Notwithstanding these imperfections in the evidence, and the absence of experimental proof, it has appeared to me that the — discussion of this question would not be without usefulness in calling attention to what seems to me- one of the most fruitful lines for experimental research. This, though now attracting much interest among botanists, on account of Sachs’ experiments and Darwin’s last book, is neglected by zoologists. In conclusion, Hyatt summarizes what he has endeavored to condense in his brief communication. I have tried to show the results of the study of the history ofa single species, Planorbis levis, and its evolution into many distin- guishable forms, of which 14-19 may with justice be called by dif- ferent names and considered as distinct species. I have also striven to bring into comprehensible shape the following concep- tions: First, that the unsymmetrical spiral forms of the shells of these, and ofall the mollusca, probably resulted from the modification of the action of the laws of heredity, produced by gravitation. Second, that there are many characteristics in these and in other Y groups of shells which are due solely to the uniform action of me 1882. | Transformations of Planorbts. 451 physical influence of the immediate surroundings, varying with every change of locality, but constant and uniform within each locality. Third, that the Darwinian law of natural selection does not - explain these relations, but applies only to the first stages in the establishment of the differences between forms or species in the same locality. That its office is to fix these in the organization and bring them within the reach of the laws of heredity. Fourth, that after this is done, they are inherited according to the law of heredity with acceleration, which shows us in what manner these differences and all other inheritable characters, however originated, may with greater or less rapidity, become incorporated in the young of descendant forms and species. Fifth} that in these earlier stages they are more or less pro- tected from change and may therefore remain comparatively inva- riable through long periods of time, or may be exposed to great changes in exceptional cases, and modified accordingly. Sixth, that these phenomena show, that in growth, repro- duction and heredity by acceleration, there is manifested a decided reaction of the organism, which succeeds in building up and Maintaining the type structure and form, under all ordinary or normal terrestrial conditions, but in some cases fails in fully ac- complishing this when exposed to exoepoonal surroundings, as in some cases of parasitism, Seventh, that gravity appears to be one of the causes of the aeai in effort, function and anatomy observed between the sides or ends of animal forms when in vertical relations to each other and to the earth, whether these be the anterior and posterior ends of the form, or the dorsal and ventral, or the left and right Sides, Eighth, that the bilateral or geomalic growth pherved: in the internal organs and the external parts of the organism when their Sides are in their original and hereditary positions, and the geo- malic growth of the dorsal and ventral sides, when these become horizontal through change of habit, appear to be directly or indi- rectly, responses to the demands of gravity. Ninth, the origin of the limbs, etc., in pairs, while mere buds, ! The fifth and sixth propositions are not discussed in this wap of space, but were given in the Memoir on enne Shells above aoe and in- €vening lecture of which this is an ET 452 - Transformations of Planorobts. [June, is difficult to account for, if they are not considered as the results of the efforts of the tissues of animals to maintain the equipoise of all the parts by geomalic growth in obedience to the laws of gravity. EXPLANATION OF LETTERS. a, right valve; 4, left valve ; ža, shell; c, hinge area hinge ligament; d, mantle; ate mantle border; @’, inner limit of mantle bo che 2", pallial line or trace made by a’ on the inn side of the valves ; dx, siphon of double funnel of clam ; e, outer layers of shell a by the mant rder; e’, inner layers of shell built by the mantle it elf; f, beaks of young valves, still remaining to form the beaks of the two valves; fa, rig k; fā, lefi ; J’, beak, apex or young shell of Gasteropod still remaining at the center cf the spire in Gasteropods; » !Mpression or mar y the posterior adductor mus n the interior of the valves , Pəsition of anterior adductor muscle shown through the shell only by a dotted line; 4, depression or hole e by the byssus or byssal plug in th r valve of Anoinia; 4’, bys- sus of threads; 4”, byssal plug; &, foot or crawling disk; %4’, tentacles or feelers; $”, division between foot and head ; Z, position of the mouth ; palpi, or flaps for conveying the food into the mouth; #’, right pai ir; m’’, left pair; 2, alls; n’, right pair; 2’’, left pair. ; PLATE VI Th n Undorf all belong to an t older Tertiary period than that at Steinheim, Plate VI 1s copied from Pl. 9 of me except Figs. 29-30. SERIES 1V., Fray: i 2 a Undor 2, aheimens, Steinheim, 1 ce ee ER ee 3. sinai, H „ochilor, SERIES 111, i “8, °** levis, Undorf. . “a “9, “€ oxystomus, Steinheim, "fy 30, f Sepre j k TE RRS O | turrita, id SERIES Il. } 32, “ levis, Undorf. SERIES I, Sub-series 3. 16, Pl. levis, Undorf. Be « Minutus, 12 levis, Steinheim., AT | Vh minutus, es triquetrus, a eh hg fe Sub-series 2, eim aoar -** santas, Stcinh u a «e denudatus, } a : minutus, denudatis, r oe 23, o E Appraisal f Lis f minutus, ; denudatus, t 24, t CRIT? IRIENN NT i “ : a var. distortus, ‘ hens Namies written. in this Ma esenares the transition forms, as in tuis case the voter wai Steinheimensis with tenuis, $ Bate * 1882. ] -Transformations of Planorbis. 453 Sub-series I. costatus, 5 >: Fic, 25, © ———— { Steinheim. minutus, **-26, ** costatus, on , 27, “* costatus, var— ği ia See | 4 J fy i 29, Doto coronata ? velum trom : above. V, velum, 13 pares b, open uia, w hinged disk used i in n closing a open- ing of Sr X ll w d d by th am Pack spot near the center of the velum. 30, View of th P PLATE VII. - 1, Left or lower valve of oyster (Fig. “ole A ees seen Ton enor (after Adam open. oung of oyster (after Brooks), abdominal view. 5 ae pallida (after Verrill), dorsal v , Limax, side view. ai Cavolina, ES view aaa Brown). 8, Helix, s 9, The same a ihe shell dissolved by acid, showing the conical bag of the mantle partly nwoun 10, Mires tricarinatus, grot Toa, roken isthe AN Gs e a se of ay if, sans diagram showing mene of r 12,.S: Ili t) d di 13, Ori in natural eg attached firmly to a stone, but projecting without other support for about 3% of its own length, 14, Clam sis (Myo in ouine aooe an eeoa shell and both in the same position with refer- , if these were in their places inside of the shell. 15, Mytilus edulis (after Morse), common musel attached to a stone by its byssus with the foot rotrude 16, Lima, view Rom the posterior end, showing bilateral symmetry. 17, onta, same, 18, Mya arenaria. Common clam seen from the side with the siphon and mantle-rim or foot - extended, : 19, Mulleria, right o h the solidified beak and the y hell showing at th end of th = heak ener Adams), i Eua f th hell ety 2, Pl aries, var, Severe spiral showing the orr in an adult ia, de to 21a. Top view ‘of Fig 22, Pl. oxystomus, shied old specimen ae similar par of the spiral due to the weakness of senili “ 23, Magilus antiquus shoeing the regular spiral below and the irregular straight shell above the two sides of the spire are in.some shells peri their entire gro 25, External view of the same she ll, seen from ntral side. e after the shell i is turned so as to rest on this valve, which is now below ae effort to readjust the lateral symmetry by the geomalic wth of ote the around the byssal plug (aftor Morse). 79» The same with the same valve after it been built around ae byssal plug (after orse). : sae + j 3, Anomia glabra, a full hell fi he | , right side, with PP I ing its projecting edges and beak be 31, The same from the upper or left side, Grice. necessarily concealed. : % The same from the anterior end to chow distortion produced by the change in position. oe . lower or np valve is is too concave to be cae SE a 5 454 - On Archesthetism. [June, ON ARCHASTHETISM. BY E. D. COPE. I. Tne Hyporuesis oF Use AND EFFORT. HE claims of the theory of Lamarck, that use modifies struc- ture in the animal kingdom, are being more carefully consid- ered than heretofore, and are being admitted in quarters where they have been hitherto neglected or ignored. Eleven years ago I restated the question as follows :' “ The influences and — which have operated to produce the type structures of the animal kingdom have been plainly of two kinds: 1. Originative, 2. Deen The prime importance of the former is obvious ; that the latter is only secondary in the order of time or succession, is evident from the fact that it controls the preservation or destruction of the results or creations of the rst. “Wallace and Darwin have propounded as the cause of modi- fication in descent their law of natura! selection. This law has been: epitomized by Spencer as the “ survival of the fittest.’ This neat expression no doubt covers the case, but it leaves the origin of the fittest entirely untouched. Darwin assumes a ‘tendency to variation’ in nature, and it is plainly necessary to do this, in order that materials for the exercise of a selection should exist. Darwin and Wallace’s law is, then, only restrictive, directive, con- servative or destructive of something already creat I propose then to seek for the originative laws by which these ‘subjects are furnished—in other words, for the causes of the origin of the fittest. “Tt has seemed to the author so clear from the first as to require - no demonstration, that natural selection includes no actively pro- gressive principle whatever ; that it must first wait for the devel- opment of variation, and then after securing the survival of the best, wait again for the best to project its own variations for selec- tion. In the question as to whether the latter are any better or worse than the characters of the parent, natural selection in no wise concerns itself.” In seeking for the causes of the origin of variation, the follow- ing hypothesis was proposed: “What are the influences locating growth force? The oa efficient ones with which we are acquainted, are, first, physical and chemical causes ; second, use; and I would add a third, viz: effort. I leave the first as not especially prominent in the econ- omy of type growth among animals, and confine myse 1The Method of Creation, 1871, pp. 2 and 18, Walker Prize Essay. Pi Amer, Philos, Soc., pp. 230-246. Proceeds. ie if to the. 1882.] On Archesthetism. 455 different in the muscles and other organs (as the pigment cells of reptiles and fishes) which are under the control of the volition of the animal. Here, and in many other instances which might be cited, it cannot be asserted that the nutrition of use is not under A difficulty in the way of this hypothesis, is the frequently unyielding character of the structures of adult animals, and the difficulty of bringing sufficient pressure to bear on them without > destroying life. But in fact the modifications must, in most iñ- stances take place during the period of growth. It is well known that the mental characteristics of the father are transmitted through the spermatozodid, and that therefore the molecular movements which produce the mechanism of such mental charac- ters, must exist in the spermatozodid. But the material of the - Spermatozodid is combined with that of the ovum, and the em- 456 On Archesthetism. [June, bryo is composed of the united contents of both bodies. Ina wonderful way the embryo develops into a being which re- sembles one or both parents in minute details. This result is evidently determined by the molecular and dynamic character of the original reproductive cells, which necessarily communi- cate their properties to the embryo, which is produced by their subdivision. Rud. Hering has identified this property of the original cells with the faculty of memory. This is a brilliant thought, and, under restriction, probably correct. The sensations of persons who have suffered amputation, shows that their sensorium retains a picture or map of the body so far as regards the location of all its sensitive regions. This simulacrum is invaded by consciousness whenever the proper stimulus is applied, and the locality of the stimulus fixed by it. This picture probably resides in many of the cells both sensory and motor, and it doubtless does so in the few cells of simple and low forms of life. The spermatozodid is such a cell, and, how or why we know not, also contains such an arrangement of its contents, and contains and communicates such a type force. It is probable that in the brain cell this is the condition of memory of locality. If now an intense and long-continued pres- sure of stimulus produces an unconscious picture of some organ of the body in the mind, there is ‘reason to suppose that the energies communicated to the embryo by the spermatozooid and ovum, will partake of the character of the memory thus created. > The only reason why the oft-repeated stories of birth-marks are so often untrue, is because the effect of temporary impressions on the mother is not strong enough to counterbalance the molecular structure established by impressions oftener repeated throughout much longer periods of time. . The demonstration of the truth or falsity of this position so as to constitute it the true doctrine of evolution, could only be veri- fied from the prosecution of the science of palæontology. It is only in this field that the consecutive series of structures can be obtained, which show the directions in which modification has taken place, and thus furnish evidence as to the causes of change. The most complete result of these investigations up to the pres- ent time, has been the obtaining of sufficiently full series of the Mammalia of the Tertiary period, to show their lines of descent. iS In this way the series of modifications of their teeth and feet has a - Pj mear o On Archæsthetism. 457 been discovered, and the homologies of their parts been ascer- tained." Perhaps the most important result of these investiga- tions is the following: The variations from which natural selec- tion has derived the persistent types of life, have not been general or even very extensive. They have been in a limited number of directions,? and the most of these have been towards the increase in perfection of some machine. They bear the impress of the presence of an adequate originating cause, directed to a special end. Some of the lines struck out have been apparently inade- quate to cope with their environment, and have been discontinued. Others have been more successful and have remained, and at- tained further modification. The reader can estimate the chance of the production of an especially adaptive mechanism in the absence of any pressure of force directing growth to that end. It appears to me that the probability of such variation appearing under such circumstances is very slight indeed, and its continuance through many geologic ages directed to the perfecting of one and the same machine, still smaller. For this reason, attempts have been made to demon- Strate a mechanical cause for the modifications of structure ob- served. For these I refer to papers by Messrs. Alpheus Hyatt, J. A. Ryder and myself; by Professor Hyatt * * “Upon the effects of gravity on the forms of shells and animals;’* Mr. Ryder “ On the mechanical genesis of Tooth Forms ;”* and “On the laws of digital reduction; by myself “ On the origin of the specialized teeth of the Cenicnta: -’S “ On the origin of the foot structures of the Ungulates ; œT “ On the effect of Impacts and Strains on the Feet of Mammalia.” Now demonstra- tion of the mechanical effects of the application of force to mat- „ter can only be obtained by observation of the process, and this. ’ cannot be seen, of course, by the observation of fossils. The 1 Homologies and Origin of the Molar teeth of the Mammalia educabilia. Jour- nal Academy Nat. oe Philadelphia, March, 1874. Proceedings Academy Nat. Sci., ieee 2? See Hyatt on ies Pam Tertiary Planorbis of Steinheim. Anniv. Mien: Bost.. Soe. Nat. Hist., 1880, « Proceeds. Amer, iaa a Science, 1880, p. 527 _ Proceedings RPE Cepia aie 1878, p. ey 1879, 47. 5 Loc, cit. » 1877, Octob 6 AMERICAN PERERA March, 1879, p. 171. Loc. cit., April, 1881, 269. ‘Loe. cit., July, 1881, P- 542. VOL.—xv1, No. v1, aeo On Archeæsthetism. [June, relation of the observed facts to the hypothesis is, however, shown by the above papers to be so precise that it only needs observa- tion on the production of similar changes by similar causes in living types, to give us a demonstration by induction, which will satisfy most minds. That such facts have been observed among the lower animals is well known. The change of form of ani- mals without hard parts, in adaptation to their environment, is an everyday occurrence. That these views are now shared by many naturalists is becom- ing every day more evident. Professor E. Dubois Raymond’ has recently delivered a lecture before the physicians of the German army, on exercise or use, in which he makes some important admissions. We give the following extract: ‘We should be, therefore, free to admit, with some appearance of reason, that the vigor of the muscles of wings and of digging feet; the thick epidermis of the palm of the hand and of the sole of the foot; the callosities of the tail and of the ischia of some monkeys ; the processes of bones for the insertion.of muscles; are the conse- ‘quences of nutritive and formative excitation, transmitted by heredity.” In this position Professor Raymond is in strict accord with the Lamarkian school of evolutionists. But Professor Ray- mond still clings to the obscurities of the Darwinians, though Darwin himself is not responsible’ for them, in the following sen- tences: “Itis necessary to admit along with development by use, development by natural selection, and that for three reasons. First, there are innumerable adaptations—I cite only those known ‘as mimetic coloration—which appear to be only explicable by natural selection, and not by use. Second, plants which are, 1m their way, as well adapted to their environment as animals, are of © course incapable of activity. Thirdly, we need the doctrine of natural selection to explain the origin of the capacity for exercise — itself.- Unless we admit that which it is impossible to do froma ~ scientific standpoint, that designed structures have a mechanical origin, it is necessary to conclude that in the struggle for existence the victory has been secured by those living beings who in exer- cising their natural functions have increased by chance (“par hasard”) their capacity for these functions more than others, and that the beings thus favored have transmitted their fortunate to be still further developed by their descendants.” 1 Revue Scientifique, Paris, Jan. 28, 1882. » 1882.] On Archesthetism. 459 To take up first the second and third of these propositions, Professor Raymond does not for’ the moment remember that movement (or use) is an attribute of all life in its simplest forms, and that the sessile types of life, both vegetable and animal, must, in view of the facts, be regarded as a condition of degeneration. It is scarcely to be doubted that the primordial types of vegeta- tion were all free swimmers, and that their habit of building cel- lulose and starch, is responsible for their early-assumed stationary condition. Their protoplasm is still in motion in the limited con- fines of their walls of cellulose. The movements of primitive plants have doubtless modified their structure to the extent of their duration and scope, and probably laid slightly varied founda- tions on which automatic nutrition has built widely diverse results. We may attribute the origin of the forms of the vegetable king- dom to three kinds of motion which have acted in conjunction with the physical environment; first, their primordial free move- ments ; Second, the intracellular movements of protoplasm ; third, the movements of insects, which have doubtless modified the structure of the floral organs. Of the forms thus produced, the fit have survived and the unfit have been lost, and that is what natural selection has had to do with it. The origin of mimetic coloration, like many other things, is yet unknown, An orthodox Darwinian attributes it to “ natural selec- tion,” which turns out,.on analysis, to be “ hasard.” The survival of useful coloration is no doubt the result of natural selection. But this cannot be confounded with the question of origin. On this point the Darwinian is on the same footing as the old-time ‘Creationist. The latter says God made the variations, and the /arwinian says that they came by chance. Between these posi- tions science can perceive nothing to choose. ; i I have attempted to explain the relation which non-adaptive structures bear to the theory of use and effort, in the following language ot “ The complementary diminution of growth nutrition follows the 460 On Archesthetism. ‘ [June, “ A complementary loss of growth force may be seen in the ab- sence of superior incisor teeth and digits in ruminating Mammalia, where excessive force is evidently expended in the development of horns, and complication of stomach and digestive organs. The excess devoted to the latter region may account for the lack of teeth at its anterior orifice, the mouth; otherwise, there appears to be no reason why the ruminating animals should not have the superior incisors as well developed as in the odd-toed (Perisso- dactyl) Ungulates, many of which graze and browse. The loss to the osseous system in the subtraction of digits may be made up in the development of horns and horn-cores, the horn sheath being perhaps the complement of the lost hoofs, It is not proposed to assert that similar parts or organs are necessarily and in all groups complementary to each other. The horse has the bones of the feet still further reduced than the ox, and is nevertheless without horns. The expenditure of the complementary growth force may be sought elsewhere in this animal. The lateral digits of the Equide. are successively retarded in their growth, their reduction being marked in Hippotherium, the last of the three-toed horses ; it is. accompanied by an almost coincident acceleration in the growth nutrition of the middle toe, which thus appears to be com- plementary to them,” IJ. THE OFFICE OF CONSCIOUSNESS. If the law of modification of structure by use and effort be true, it is evident that consciousness or sensibility must play an important part in evolution. This is because movements of ani- mals are plainly in part controlled by their conscious states. The question as to how many of the actions of animals are due to conscious states at once arises. It is well known that most of the more strictly vital functions are unconsciously performed. Not only these, but many acts which have to be learned, come to be performed in unconsciousness. Further, movements appropriate to needs which arise at the moment, and which are ordinarily termed voluntary, because they require the introduction of more or less of the rational faculty, are readily performed by verte- brated animals deprived of a brain, through the agency of the spinal cord alone. The history of the origin of these move- ments must then be traced. 0 The movements of living beings generally possess the peculi- arity of design, in which they differ from the movements of non- — living bodies. That is, their actions have some definite reference — to their well being or pleasure, or their preservation from injury 1 Such expressions as “ unconscious sensibility” and “ unconscious will” are not used here, as being self-contradictory in terms and without meaning. 1882. ] On Archesthetism. 461 or pain, and are varied with circumstances as they arise. This is not the case with non-living bodies, which move regardless of their integrity or that of objects near them. This characteristic at once suggests that some element enters into them which is wanting to the movements of non-living masses. It has been suggested that the attraction of animals for their food and their repulsion from pain are derivatives from the attractions and repul- sions of inorganic bodies, supposed to be the exhibitions of the force called chemism. But this supposition does not explain the wide difference between the two classes of acts. The adaptation to the environment seen in organic acts is unknown to the inor- ganic world, while the invariable character of the motions of in- organic force is greatly modified in bejngs possessed of life. Whether consciously performed or not, the acts of organic beings resemble those of conscious beings actuated by instincts of hun- ger, reproduction and defense. An explanation of these facts seems to be offered by a well known phenomenon. We know that it is true of ourselves and of many other animals, that while all new movements have to be learned by repeated attempts, with each succeeding movement the act becomes easier, and that finally it can be performed with- out requiring any attention whatever. If continued, the move- * ment becomes automatic, so that it may be, or is performed in a State of unconsciousness. In the words of Spencer, nervous cur- rents move most readily along accustomed channels. Thus the “habits” of animals may be looked on as movements acquired in Consciousness, and become automatic through frequent repeti- tion. Not only this, but the organization thus produced in the parent is transmitted to the succeeding generation, so that the movements of the latter are automatically and often unconsciously performed. This view may be even extended to the purely vital functions with every probability of its being the true explanation of their origin and development. On a former occasion’ I wrote : “In accordance with this view, the automatic ‘involuntary’ Movements of the heart, intestines, reproductive systems, etc., Were organized in successive states of consciousness, which con- ferred rhythmic movements whose results varied with the ma- chinery already existing and the material at hand for use. It is not inconceivable that circulation may have been established by the suffering produced by an overloaded stomach demanding dis- _ "Consciousness in Evolution. Penn Monthly, August, 1875, P- 565- 462 | On Archesthetism. [June, tribution of its contents. The structure of the Ccelenterata offers the structural conditions of such,a process, A want of propulsive power in a stomach or body sac occupied with its own functions, would lead to a painful clogging of the flow of its products, and the ‘voluntary’ contractility of the body or tube wall being thus stimulated, would at some point originate the pulsation necessary to relieve the tension. Thus might have originated the ‘con- tractile vesicle’ of some protozoa, or contractile tube of some higher animals ; its ultimate product being the mammalian heart. So with reproduction. Perhaps an excess of assimilation in well- one of the conditions of its performance. While less completely “voluntary ” than muscular action, it is more dependent on stim- ulus for its initial movements, and does not in these display the unconscious automatism characteristic of the muscular acts of many other functions.” It was not proposed in the preceding paragraph that the con- tractility of living protoplasm should be regarded as due to con- sciousness, but that the location in a particular place of a contrac- tility already existing, might be due to that cause. eh The preceding hypotheses bring us to a general theory of the evolution of organic structures or species. It is that they are the result of movements long continued and inherited, and that the character of these movements was originally determined by con- sciousness or sensibility. It remains then to consider the nature of consciousness. It may be mentioned that it is here left open whether there be any form of force which may be especially designated as “ vital.” | Many of the animal functions are known to be physical and chemical, and if there be any one which appears to be less expli- cable by reference to these forces than the others, it is that of nutrition. Probably in this instance force has been so metamor- phosed through the influence of the originative or conscious force in evolution, that it is a distinct species in the category of forces. Assuming it to be such, I have given it the name of Bathmism a (Method of Creation, 1871, p. 26). Perhaps the contractility = generally regarded as an attribute of living protoplasm may be a mae mechanical phenomenon dependent of course on nutrition Ase! : BE 1832. | On Archesthetism. ae 463 may be the exhibition of a force peculiar to living beings; and hence one of the “ vital” group. III. ARCHASTHETISM. The doctrine of evolution derives the organs of special sense from those of simple sensibility or touch. In other words, their history has been that of other organs; the complex have been derived from the general and simple. There ase then generalized consciousness and specialized consciousness. A number of forms of consciousness multiplies its vividness, the one kind reinforcing the other by a slightly different appreciation of the same thing. In the case of persons deprived of the sense of touch, the sense of sight is not sufficient to convince them of their own existence, as a matter of intellectual reflection. When there is no nervous system we must suppose sensibility to be generally distributed throughout the protoplasmic substance of the animal. The locali- zation of consciousness must depend on a localization of the kind and condition of protoplasm which sustains it; while in other parts of the body the protoplasm is modified in other directions and for other purposes. ' If this be true, the nervous tissue of the higher animals should retain the characters of the lowest simple Organisms. In point of fact this is the case, the nucleated cell being the essentially active element in the functions of brain and nerve, and being more numerous in that tissue than in any other. The remarkable evanescence of consciousness is one of its most marked characteristics. It is this peculiarity which has lead many thinkers to deny its existence in the lower animals, and to induce others to believe that it can have had but little place among the causes of evolution. Partly for the same reason many biolo- aie attempt to derive it by metamorphosis from some form of orce. But the nature of consciousness is such that it cannot be de- rived from unconsciousness, any more than matter can be derived from no matter, or force from no force. The “ unthinkable dogma of creation” (Haeckel) cannot be applied to consciousness more _ than to matter or force. It isa thing by itself, and with matter and force, forms a trio of primitive things which have to be accepted as ultimate facts. This is perfectly consistent with the Position that consciousness is an attribute of matter, and — Neither more nor less difficult to comprehend than the fact that 464 On Archesthetism. { June, force is an attribute of matter. This view is maintained in a fashion of his own by G. H. Lewes. Professor Raymond’ says in support of the same position : “More temperate heads betrayed the weakness of their dialec- tics in that they could not grasp the difference between the view which I opposed, that consciousness can be explained upon a mechanical basis, and the view which I did not question, but sup- philosophy, that that incomprehensibility is selfevident. It ap- „pears rather, that all philosophizing upon the mind must begin with the statement of this point.’ In stating this point some years ago, we used the following language? ‘It will doubtless become possible to exhibit a parallel scale of relations between stimuli on the one hand and the degrees of consciousness on the other. Yet for all this it will be impossible to express self-know- . ledge in terms of force.’ And again,‘ ‘ An unprejudiced scrutiny of the nature of consciousness, no matter how limited that scru- tiny necessarily is, shows that it is qualitatively comparable to nothing else. * * From this standpoint it is looked upon asa state of matter which is coéternal with it, but not coéxtensive.’” It is probable then that consciousness is a condition of matter in some peculiar state, and that wherever that condition of mat- ter exists, consciousness will be found, and that the absence of that state implies the absence of consciousness. What is that state ? It would be a monstrous assumption to suppose that conscious- ness and life are confined to the planet on which we dwell. presume that no one would be willing to maintain such an hypoth- esis. Yet it is obvious that if there be beings possessed of these attributes in the planets Mercury and Saturn, they cannot be composed of protoplasm, nor of any identical substance in the two. In the one planet protoplasm would be utterly disorganized and represented by its component gases; in the other it would be ‘Address on the celebration of the Birthday of Leibnitz, Pop. Science Monthly, Feb 2 Address delivered before the British Association for the Advancement of Science- ia 3 Consciousness in Evolution Penn Monthly, July, 1875. ae t The Origin of the Will, Penn Monthly, 1877, P. 439. i f 1882.] | On Archesthetism. 465 a solid, suitable for the manufacture of sharp-edged tools.’ But as it is probable that protoplasm is adapted for the phenomena of consciousness by a certain peculiarity of its constitution, it seems evident that other substances having a similar peculiarity may also be able to sustain it. I have elsewhere attempted to dis- cover what this is, in the following language ? “Nowhere does ‘the doctrine of the unspecialized’ receive greater warrant than in the constitution of protoplasm. Modern chemistry refers compound substances to four classes, each of which is characterized by a special formula of combination. These are called the hydrochloric acid type, the water gas type, ‘the ammonia type and the marsh gas type. These series are de- fined by the volumetric relations of their component simple sub- stances: thus in the first, a single volume unites with an equal volume of hydrogen; in the second, two volumes of hydrogen | unite with a single volume of another element ; in the third, three, and in the fourth, four volumes of hydrogen unite with the single volume of other elements. Hence the composition of these com- pounds is expressed by the following formulas—chlorine, oxygen, nitrogen and carbon being selected as typical of their respective classes: HCl, H,O, H,N and H,C. Now it is an interesting fact that protoplasm is composed of definite proportions of four simple substances, each one representing one of the classes above named, or in other words, the capacity for proportional molecular combination which characterizes them. The formula CyNs0 Hır expresses the constitution of this remarkable substance. Now 1 a ized’ or ‘undecided’ should be applicable to the molecular con- Fraser in AMERICAN NATURALIST, 1579, p- 420. Consciousness in Evolution, 1875, p. 573- 466 On Archesthetism. [June, and unspecialized, but unknown forms of matter possessing this capacity.” The condition of living protoplasm was also referred to in the following language in a later publication :' “The cause of the difference between conscious and uncon- scious force must be secondarily due to different conditions of matter as.to its atomic constitution ; consciousness being only possible, so far as we can ascertain, to matter whips has not "fallen into fixed and automatic relations of its atom Protoplasm in the form of food is not conscious; and tissue formed of protoplasm is not conscious, excepting certain cells where the forming process is in action. Nor is consciousness present in all cells where nutrition is active. From the increased consumption of encrgy, and the increased expenditure of energy (beat, Lombard) which takes place during conscious processes, we may well believe that the decomposition of protoplasm is more considerable in such processes than in other forms of nervous activity. We can imagine simple nutritión to be a condition of the elements of this substance in which the chemical force is simultaneously combining and dissolving its combination, and that during the process there is a condition in which the chemism is for the time being unsatisfied, though present. The direction, which this nutrition or metastasis takes, is due to the arrange- ment of the molecules already existing in the tissue, the new molecules taking the form of the old ones in replacement, so long as no extraneous force interferes. That they are rearranged under the influence of consciousness is apparent in the origin of varia- tions of structure in accordance with the views of evolution already entertained. It is the arrangement of the molecules which constitutes the automatic machinery of nutrition as well as of other activities, so that consciousness necessarily only appears in that stage of nutrition while the matter is in a transition state, and unformed. Whether chemism must be regarded as suspended, or only unsatisfied, at this stage, can only be imagined. As non- satisfaction is probably the temporary condition in all nutrition it is not unlikely that suspension may be the condition of con- sciousness, Perhaps the character of the components of protonlari is such, that the movements of their atoms, 2. ¢., their chemism, capes: : Ae 1 The Origin of the Will, Penn Monthly, Jane, 1877, p. 439- 1882.] ; On Archesthetism. 467 interfere and destroy each other, as in the cases of the inter- ference of the waves of light and sound. The colloid form of protoplasm is especially favorable to inter- nal movements which shall not destroy the integrity of the mass, perhaps more so than a gaseous state in a compound of similar con- stitution. It is, moreover, more favorable to the preservation of molarity than a gas could be, oa account of the ease with which it adheres to solid substances, and transports and locates them as part of its external and internal supports. But it is not incon- ceivable that under other conditions of temperature, etc., the gaseous condition of matter might answer the same purpose. It must be borne in mind, however, that this is a subordinate ques- tion, and that the real characteristic of the “physical basis of life” is to be found rather in its generalized dynamic condition. We must then believe that wherever this generalized condition exists, consciousness will be present. As soon as mechanical or chemical force appears in the molecules of the sustaining sub- stance, consciousness disappears. . The organism has taken the first step towards death, but is not dead, but is anesthetized. Constant nutrition is essential to the performance of all life func- tions, including consciousness, and it is evident that this is neces- Sary to the maintenance of the unspecialized condition in which the latter appears, ; Is the appearance of sensibility on the development of its sus- taining condition, evidence that the latter stands to the former in the relation of cause and effect? If the view of the preéxistence of consciousness be true, there is no more relation of cause and effect than in the case of the opening of a door which admits a wind. The force expended in opening the door is not converted into the energy exerted by the wind as it enters the room. It simply releases it, or admits it to a new field. It is, however, true, that consciousness having once entered, a larger conversion of force is necessary to its persistence than is expended during its absence, Like combustion, which is only communicable under Suitable conditions, consciousness having once been transmitted to a new @sthetophore, lives on it, and requires constant supplies of material for its sustenance. > The hypothesis of the primitive and creative function of con- Sciousness may be called Archesthetism. eee a substance which sustains consciousness. 468 On Archesthetism. ae IV. PAN/ESTHETISM. It has been the custom of men from the dawn of thought to at- tempt to construct for themselves cosmogonies and theologies. Sci- ence is yet far from supplying the facts necessary to the construction of a true system of the universe, and philosophy can only stretch out a little further into the unknown by the use of necessary in- ference. In spite, however, of the insufficiency of the data, men still suggest new views or cling to old ones, and an occasional flight into this region of thought, at least brings the thinker into sympathy with the thoughts of his fellow-men. ~ The admission of the possibility of the existence of conscious- ness in other forms of matter than protoplasm, and in other planets than the Earth, lends countenance to a rational belief in the so-called “supernatural” (better called the supersensuous) so prevalent among men in irrational forms. The question natu- rally arises, is there any generalized form of matter distributed through the universe which could sustain consciousness? The presumption is that such a form of matter may well exist. Evo- lution or specialization has only worked up part of its raw ma- terial in the organic world. Wherever primitive conditions re-. main, there primitive organisms abound, Protozoa are yet numer- ous on land, and the Protobathybius inhabits the depths of the sea. Highly specialized forms of life are in factnumerically a minority of living beings. May not this be true also of inorganic beings? It is thought that various celestial bodies represent unfinished worlds. Is it not probable that the grand source of matter not yet specialized into the sixty odd substances known to us, may still sustain the primitive force not yet modified into its species, and that this combination of states may be the condition of per- sistent consciousness from which all lesser lights derive their brilliancy? There is much to warrant such a view in the ob- served facts of life, taken in connection with the general course of evolution. Moreover that some form of matter connects the interstellar spaces, is thought to be proven by the transmission of light in some cases, and light and heat in others. That such a form of matter pervades all spaces whatever, is the theory of some physicists. If it be so generalized as to be capable of sus- taining consciousness, it becomes the source from which other > substances derive it, so soon as they, through the energy of MUU r 1882.] On Archesthetism. 469 trition, which resists death, maintain the same primitive and un- formed constitution capable of exhibiting it. Of course there is no evidence in our own memory of the existence of out personality prior to our human experience. No one on awaking from unconsciousness remembers having been anywhere in particular during the interval. These facts may te harmonized with the theory here presented, on the supposition that memory is lost on a transfer of consciousness from one physi- cal basis to another. The arguments in favor of a transfer of consciousness do not sustain the idea of a transfer of memory. Memory requires an arrangement of molecules or atoms which when finished no longer exhibits consciousness. With proper stimulus, when the proper kind of force conversion is set up in them, consciousness extends into them, and taking their form, produces reminiscence or conscious memory. The molecular arrangement would be probably lost on a transfer of conscious- ness to a new material basis. It might then be supposed that with every such transfer a new personality is established. Though the correct definition of personality includes memory as well as consciousness, when viewed as an objective concept, it may be questioned whether memory is necessary to the subjective belief in one’s own personality. Those insane persons who believe that they have lost their personality, and think that they are some one else, nevertheless recognize the fact that what they now are has a continuity of existence with what they once were. The mate- rial limitations of consciousness are the authors of the kind of personality it presents. A limitation or an expansion of its range would not destroy the idea of personality, but would simply restrict or extend it. The possible confluence of many person- alities would not destroy them, but each one would regard the others as additions to himself, and himself, therefore, as so much the greater being. As a summary of the preceding conclusions, the following analysis of metaphysical systems may be given. It defines the place of the doctrine of archæsthetism, above proposed, as dis- tinguished from the opposing view of metæsthetism, which is held by Many monists: ` 1. Consciousness (“ spirit”) is independent of matter.....--+.+-+++ . «s+ DUALISM: i, Consciousness is an attribute of matter....... Pe ccc tke ced ss.s> MONS, a, Consciousness is primitive and a cause of evolution,....--+ Archesthetism. &, Consciousness is a product of the evolution of matter and force pase Metasthetism. 470 Organic Physics. [ June, ORGANIC PHYSICS. BY CHARLES MORRIS. ‘I. Tae CHEMICAL EVOLUTION oF LIFE. N regard to the question of the origin and character of organic energy the whole course of modern science leads steadily to one conclusion. This is, to express it plainly, that the formation : of the organic body is a chemical problem, and the source of life force a question in physics. There has been a severe battle fought against this tendency to reduce life to a chemical equation. The adherents of the doctrine of vital energy have entrenched themselves behind many successive lines of defence, and are still fighting, with the bitterness of despair, behind their last barrier, that of protoplasm. Yet science has gone steadily on, breaking down, one by one, the dividing walls between organic and inor- ganic nature. Chemical experiment has shown that many of the organic compounds can be reproduced directly from their ele- ments, by processes identical with: or parellel to those which nature employs. Others, not yet reproduced, have been analyzed, and the character and mode of union of their constituents shown. The whole vast array of the lower organic compounds has been brought fairly within the field of chemistry, and laid out in defi- nite formula, In this respect there no longer exists any organic chemistry. It is simply the chemistry of carbon compounds. In like manner physical science has taken hold of the forces of living bodies, and has arrived at a similar conclusion. These | forces seem to closely accord in degree with the energy that should arise from the quantity of oxidized products yielded. Oxidation must set free energy. This energy must manifest itself as some mode of motion. And if the energy really manifested in the body closely agrees with that which must arise from the oxi- dation performed, there is nothing’ left, in this direction, for vi- tality to do. Chemistry is visibly at work here, too, and vitality is pushed out of the field of view. Only one point yet exists upon. which any question can be raised, and that is the synthesis of protoplasm, or rather of the molecules of which it is made up. There is no question about its analysis. This is admissibly chemical. Oxygen is constantly at _ work reducing it to its elements. But this oxidation does not suddenly break it asunder into elementary particles. On the con- — : 1882. | Organic Physics, 471 trary it takes it apart, piece by piece, as men take down the tim- bers of a house. Protoplasm has evidently a definite chemical structure, and if it can be taken down piecemeal it can be built up piecemeal. If susceptible to chemical analysis it must be suscep- tible to chemical synthesis. Moreover, animal bodies have nothing to do with the produc- tion of protoplasm. It is produced in plants alone. Animals simply add new protoplasm derived from plants to their existing protoplasmic tissues. Thus if vitality is confined in its action to the formation of protoplasm, then vitality exists in plants alone, and animals are destitute of it. Or if animals possess vital force its action is confined to assimilation, the causing of one fragment of protoplasm to cohere to another. Evidently chemistry has driven vitality into a` very close cor- ner, and left it a very weak leg to stand upon. And if we give vitality its correct name this leg grows weaker still. It is not chemical or physical energy. It is none of the forces at work in inorganic nature. Therefore it is something supernatural, Its adherents do not claim this. They do not boldly declare what they necessarily imply, that the formation and assimilation of Protoplasm are miraculous processes, and that organic existence is only sustained by a continual miracle. But their premises ad- mit of no other conclusion. Yet the duty of miracle in this di- rection is qa very limited one. Chemistry has free possession of the whole field, with the exception of a single obscure corner, in Which alone the miracle of vitality tremblingly holds out. There is a crucial test to which this final question may be put. There is one fixed condition under which alone the activity of Protoplasny can display itself. Oxygen .must always be present. There is no life without oxygen. When this element is abnor- mally abundant life proceeds with abnormal rapidity. When it is deficient in quantity life becomes sluggish. When it is pre- vented from entering the organism life ceases to exist. Hence vitality is incapable of displaying itself except in the presence of Oxygen, and the problem becomes the following: so much oxy- sen so much vitality. The one is measured in terms of the other. No one can imagine that the mere presence of oxygen sets the : wheels of vitality in motion. Oxygen is too vigorous a chemical _ 48ent to rest at ease in contact with the weakly cohering mole- : cules of protoplasm. It cannot but seize upon some of their con- 472 Organic Physics. [ June, stituents. That it constantly does so we are well aware, and its vigor in this respect is in close accordance with the vigor of vi- tality. So much life action is represented by so much chemical action. Chemical waste of the tissues accompanies every exer- cise of vitality. Yet if vitality be some super-physical process, some miraculous energy by which life is sustained and growth proceeds, why is oxygen so absolutely necessary to its perform- ances? Why does chemical action necessarily accompany it ? The more closely we look into the matter the more evident it be- comes that there is no such energy in existence as a special vital force, and that chemical affinity is the only energy active in or- ganic processes, Oxygen is much more than the scavenger of the organic body. ` It is its quickener. It is the life-giver to which all vitality is due. Its mode of action is undoubtedly destructive. But in destroying old constructions it yields the energy through which alone recon- struction can be effected. It is eating into life with an insatiable appetite, yet in doing so it gives off energies which constantly create new life. In the vegetable world the energy of the solar rays supplies the force necessary to the first step in organic syn- thesis, but oxygen does all the rest. Two opposite energies are constantly at work—chemical analysis and chemical synthesis— and the former is absolutely necessary to every step of the latter. ‘Oxygen is incessantly engaged in the plant, breaking down its molecules into simpler forms. But in doing so it yields energy which is exercised in the formation of new and more complex molecules, Every step of analysis is followed or accompanied by a step of synthesis. All the energy yielded by oxidation in the plant is thus employed, and step by step organic chemistry ad- vances, until the proteid molecules of protoplasm are finally pro- duced, In animals the life process does not differ essentially from that of plants. Yet chemically animals begin where plants leave ofi. The highest chemical product of plants serves as the nutriment of animals, Their principle of action is the same. Every act of chemical synthesis in both is preceded, or accompanied, by an act of analysis. Every step of a portion of matter up stairs is based upon a step of some other portion of matter down stairs. But 19 animals the.process begins near the top of the stairs. Only a ew o steps can be made upwards; many steps can be made downwards. - 3 : 1882. ] Organic Physics. 473 Hence the energy set free in analysis is only partly needed for new synthesis. Certain changes perhaps take place in the proteid molecules, but the essential work performed is the assimilation of new material, closely similar to the protoplasm of the tissues. For this labor only a tithe of the energy set free by oxidation is requisite, and the remainder is ready for any other employment to which the organism can devote it. Ifnot otherwise employed it becomes temperature energy, but it is also used in two special methods, as nerve and as muscle energy, and organic develop- ment is little more than an increasing specialization of these two modes of energy. If now we come to seek the method by which assimilation of protoplasm, and growth of structure, is achieved in the animal | body, we shall find it not easy to discover. Albumen is such a highly complex substance, and its chemical composition and changes in constitution are so far beyond the present appliances of chemical science, that we can only proceed by the process of analogy, and seek the possible instead of being able ‘to display the actual. We are apt to speak of protoplasm as if it were one _undeviating substance. Yet we might as reasonably speak of the several varieties of starch, of sugar, of woody fiber, of gum, etc., asa single substance. They are only variations of one special form of chemical molecule, and that a comparatively simple one. The molecule of albumen is excessively more complex than that of starch, and is therefore capable of an immensely wider series of variations, without essential change of constitution. And the more complex a molecule becomes the less its internal variations affect its physical constitution. Two simple oxides may differ very widely in physical character. Two unlike sugars present very slight differences. Two diverse albumens may present no appreciable difference. For all we know to the contrary not only the proteid molecules of every special animal tissue may have special constitutions, but also those of every diverse species of animal, and, in a minor degree, of every separate individual. When we speak of protoplasm it is far from certain that we are Speaking of a homogeneous substance. A mass of protoplasm is made up of chemical molecules which, even if similar in general _ Constitution, may differ in important particulars. - If, indeed, we come down to the basic principle of chemical action, we find it to be a satisfaction of active affinities, This satisfaction may be com- VOL, XVI.—No., v1, 32 i 474 Organic Physics. [June, - pleted in a single step and inactivity be immediately produced, or it may require. several successive steps, and inactivity be only gradually produced. Molecules in which considerable activity yet exists we denominate as acids or bases, accordingly as they diverge to the negative or positive side in their electric relations. Molecules in which activity has ceased, or has become very slight, we know as salts. If all their affinities are satisfied they are neutral salts. If acid or basic affinities yet exist they are acid or basic salts. | But the inactivity of a neutral salt only refers to its further _ synthesis. It is still susceptible of analysis. Some of its ele- mentary materials may be taken from it by the affinities of an active element. And this loss of material leaves the molecule again energetic. It has become once more an active radical, and is capable of regaining the materials it has lost, or of taking up new ones, Thus it may form a new molecule more complex than the original one. ‘ These modes of action of inorganic chemism certainly apply to organic chemism, even in its highest stages. Every exercise of affinity satisfies some of the active chemical energy of the mole- , cule, and thus reduces its energies. When these are all satisfied it becomes inactive. It is a neutral salt, incapable of further syn- thesis, yet still open to analysis. But if we look upon a molecule of protoplasm as an organic salt it is evident that it may have many more bonds of unsatisfied affinity than an inorganic salt. An acid or basic inorganic salt is neutralized after taking up One ‘or two monad atoms. An analogous organic salt may perhaps be able to take up successively ten or twenty monad atoms, or com- pound radicals. These considerations are not without their bearing upon the question of the growth of protoplasm. Did the proteid molecule act only by its own chemical energies, evidently its action could nat long continue. Although it might begin with many unsatisfied bonds, every new exercise of affinity would decrease its possible action. When all its affinities were satisfied growth must cease, and the molecule become a neutral salt. But though synthesis could proceed no further, analysis might act to again energize the molecule, and the more complex its condition the more subject it must become to analytic action. Ae Such seems to be the mode of operation in protoplasmic growth. = 1882. ] Organic Physics. 475 In fact there could be no other if this growth be a chemical pro- cess, for synthesis is a self-checking method and cannot long con- tinue unless its energy be restored by analysis. If a mass of protoplasm be made up of molecules of the same chemical consti- tution they may yet differ in degree of satisfaction of their affini- ties, and may be partly neutral, partly basic, and partly acid in their energies. Any exercise of these affinities tends to reduce them all to neutrality, and thus to restrict their chemical action. ` But they are constantly exposed to the assaults of oxygen, which, at every contact, robs them of some of their constituents, and thus restores their chemical activity. We must certainly deduce some such conclusion as this from the necessity of oxygen to all life energy, and the increase in oxidized waste with every increase in vital activity. Oxidation gives rise to this vital activity, which con- sists in the restoration of active chemical affinity to the oxidized molecules, and in the reproduction of protoplasmic tissues. Both results arise from one cause. Oxygen robs matter from the pro- teid molecules, and restores their lost chemical energy. They assimilate new material from the nutrient fluid; while animal motion and temperature arise from the excess of energy yielded by the oxidation. This general survey of the process leads us to a more particu- lar conception of its character. There is a peculiar polarity con- cerned in all chemical processes which is of essential importance here. A neutral salt is really a polar arrangement of the ele- ments. Its molecule has its positive and negative poles, but the _ €nergy of each restrains and balances that of the other. If we call such a molecule an acid salt, this is equivalent to saying that its acid pole has an excess of energy over its basic. New basic ma- terial is drawn in, and the poles become equal in energy, so that all their affinities are exercised internally. But if the constituents of this molecule be separated, their opposite chemical polarities at once become active. The one becomes an energetic base, the - other an energetic acid. If this separation proceeds further, a Portion of the products of the second separation becomes still more powerfully basic or acid, while other portions may return towards neutrality. If, for illustration, we take a molecule of the powerful acid H,SO, and cause it to combine with two mole- cules of the equally powerful base NaOH, we obtain the neutral salt Na,SO,, two molecules of water being ejected. A redivision 476 Organic Physics. [June, of this salt into its constituents yields the acid and base above named. The chemical poles, from being passive, have become active. A secondary division of the base gives us Na and OH, a powerful positive element, and a weak negative molecule. If finally OH be separated into its constituents, we obtain an atom of the active negative element, oxygen, and one of the weakly positive element, hydrogen. Analysis of the sulphuric acid mole- cule yields like results, one of which will be the neutral substance H,O, or water. It may here be asked what has all this to do with the chemical activity of protoplasm? It may possibly have much to do with it. If this activity be a chemical one it is certainly governed by the ruling principles and processes of chemistry. There is another chemical mode of action which may also have a bearing upon this question—that concerned in the chemism of the galvanic cir- cuit. In this circuit, as ordinarily constructed, there is but a sin- gle chemical energy in active operation, the affinity of the positive metal for the negative element of the fluid. For instance; in an ordinary form of battery, the oxygen of water combines with the metal zinc, the molecules of water intercharge. their atoms throughout the line of the circuit, and free hydrogen is given off . at the surface of the other metal employed. But if this second metal could be replaced by a substance having an affinity for hy- drogen, a more vigorous chemical action might take place, with the production of new molecules at each pole. Perhaps such a double action does occasionally take place in the local circuits produced in ordinary chemical action. In the case of such a double action much weaker affinities than those usually em- ployed might suffice. Yet any such galvanic chemism is necessarily temporary in its action. Its activity diminishes as the analysis of the molecules of the liquid is followed by the formation of new and more stable compounds, There is only one possible method in which we can conceive a constant reinvigoration of its activities, and that is through a continual restoration of its original conditions by re- verse chemical action. Could some active atmospheric element, for instance, constantly penetrate the liquid, break down its new formed molecules, and reproduce the original ones, while carry- ing away the neutralizing constituents, the chemical action of the battery might indefinitely retain its original activity. Its lost eñ- 1882.] Organic Physics. 477 ergies would be constantly replaced by energy derived from ex- terior nature. Such a continual reinvigoration takes place in organic che- mism. The exercise of the affinities of the molecules of proto- plasm must constantly tend to reduce their energy, and produce a neutral inactivity. But oxygen comes in, bringing with it the chemical energy of the exterior world. The new-formed, inactive molecules are partly oxidized, and perhaps regain their original condition. The chemical vigor of the circuit is restored, and its activity may thus be ceaseless, since it is continually re-energized by the forces of exterior nature. As a final deduction from the principles of inorganic chemistry, may be mentioned the fact that the activity of a galvanic circuit in which the affinities of both the positive and the negative con- stituents of the molecules of the liquid are engaged, must depend ‘upon the vigor of the opposite polarities of the circuit. If either the positive or the negative energy be neutralized the chemical activity must be checked, while if one or both of these polar en- ergies be decreased the activity of the circuit must be similarly reduced, These principles of inorganic chemism might have been con- sidered in more detail, since there is reason to believe that they . - are the agencies concerned in the higher organic chemistry. For the sake of brevity they have been given in a very condensed form with little attempt at illustration. It remains to apply them to the phenomena of what is called life action, or the assimilation and growth of protoplasm. In considering this question we have to deal with the units of Organic beings. Not the cell, but the nucleus of the cell, which 'S undoubtedly the active agent in protoplasmic growth. The Nucleus is itself an organized body, and appears to contain other Materials than the proteid molecules to whose chemical activity the phenomena of organic life are due. It is also evidently a Polar organization, its polarity being markedly displayed at the time of its division. The two nuclei into which the original one divides represents each a polar half of the original nucleus. Thus the Probable balanced polarity of the primary cell nucleus be- Omes an unbalanced polarity in the new cells resulting from its | division, We hope to show that this is a fact of essential im- _ Portance, ee 478 . Organic Physics. { June, The protoplasmic mass which constitutes the nucleus is an ag- gregation of highly complex chemical molecules similar, perhaps, in constitution, but which may differ considerably in the degree of satisfaction of their affinities. Some may be neutral, some acid, and some basic salts of the same chemical compound. If such be the case we can comprehend the polarity of the nucleus. The arrangement of its molecules may be but an expansion of the principle of arrangement of the polar constituents of a neutral salt molecule. This has its acid and its basic pole; and we can im- agine the molecules of the nuclear unit to be similarly arranged, not only with the acid and the basic poles of each turned in op- posite directions, but with the molecules of acid affinity occupying one pole, and those of basic affinity the other pole, of the nn- cleus. For this to be the case, however, some influencing agency is requisite, such as that of external chemical affinity. In short, the polarity of the nucleus may represent that of a galvanic circuit with active chemical affinity at each pole. The two poles of the nu- cleus may represent the acid and basic poles of such a circuit, and the nutrient material, the zinc and copper, or whatever other sub- stances are employed. If such be indeed the character of the nuclear polarity we can comprehend various results which are now mysterious to us. The assimilation of nutriment by such a polar arrangement would be a strictly chemical process, the op- posite poles taking up respectively basic and acid material. But the activity of this circuit, if dependant upon its own energies alone, must quickly come to an end through the satisfaction of the polar affinities and the chemical neutralization of the mole- cules. At this point the agency of oxygen comes in. This energetic element attacks and partly breaks down the complex proteid molecules, and restores to them their lost affinities. Through its action the original activity of these molecules is regained, and they again vigorously attract the chemical radicals of the nu- triment. Thus the probably small quantity of material carried off by every act of oxidation is perhaps replaced by the assimila- tion of larger and more complex molecules from the nutriment, and the protoplasmic mass grows in consequence. This, of course, is all pure hypothesis. We are ignorant of, and perhaps may always remain ignorant of the facts that would 1882.] Organic Physics, 479 prove or disprove it. Yet we have no reason to doubt that the assimilation of nutriment is a chemical process; we know that the nucleus is a polar organization, we know that oxidation is essential to its activity, and that the chemical relations here sup- posed are in accordance with those that exist, or might possibly exist, in the active liquid of the galvanic battery. Thus the basis of the hypothesis is not unreasonable; and it may be shown that certain of its necessary results are strikingly in accordance with some of the most abstruse phenomena of organic life. If the hypothesis here advanced should prove a key to unlock the mys- tery of these phenomena, and the organic unit have in its chemi- cal organization the essential elements of the most specialized life conditions, our hypothesis will certainly become worthy of consideration. For such a polar arrangement of acid and basic molecules to be fully effective, it seems necessary that each pole should be in full vigor. Their energies mutually support and aid each other. Any check to the action of the basic pole, for instance, would check that of the acid pole. The chemical activity of the one is rendered possible by the chemical activity of the other, and there may take place an interchange.of the constituents of the mole- cules like that supposed to occur in the water molecules of the battery. Hence the chemical activity of the nucleus would be controlled by that of its least vigorous pole, and for its fullest activity the poles must be equal in energy, and this energy be raised to its highest level of vigor. As for the aid of oxygen in the process, it is not probable that the oxidation is an immediate accompaniment of the chemical action. Oxygen is constantly making its way into the organic cells, and it is probable that a slow oxidation continually goes on, its quantity depending upon the vascularity of the organ con- cerned. Under special circumstances, as of irritation of the ner- sons and muscular tissues, oxidation seems to become suddenly Mvigorated, and a considerable breaking down of the organic molecules takes place, with a vigorous discharge of energy. But €very act of oxidation puts the nuclear molecules in a condition °F active chemical assimilation, so that if the requisite nutrient Material js provided, the loss is quickly repaired, and new proteid aaa specially sensitive to the affinity of oxygen are pro- eee And so the wheels of life roll on, and growth replaces 480 Organic Physics. [June, It might seem as if in such a process we had a provision for an endless life activity. The chemical energy of protoplasm, con- stantly quickened as it is by oxidation, appears capable of yielding an indefinitely large mass of material, so that the bulk and length of life of organisms might have no limits. Yet we are well aware that no such results take place, and therefore must believe that they are impossible. There must be some principle that checks both an indefinite increase in bulk and a ceaseless continuance of life. There is such a principle, and the first step of its action is a check to indefinite growth of the nuclear unit. For the activity of this growth free access both of nutriment and of oxygen is necessary. But the oxidation to which growth is due quickly interposes a check to its activity. Some of the waste materials yielded by oxidation appear to remain within the nucleus. Others collect around it and form a mass which is known as the organic cell, of which the nucleus occupies the center. Evidently this process must oppose that of nuclear growth. With every exer cise of chemical activity the mass of “formed material” around the nucleus increases in bulk, the access of oxygen and of nutri- ment is more and more hindered, and the nuclear energy is checked. There is only one method by which it can be regained. The waste material continues to cling firmly around it, and only by division of the mass into smaller portions can its nuclear center regain its former relations with the nutriment. This division takes place, and always through the nucleus. It might be imag- ined, indeed, that a vigorous effort was made by the polar con- stituents of the nucleus to reach the attractive nutriment, since division, is always preceded by a strongly declared polar arrange ment of its material, and it separates at its equator, its two original poles becoming the nuclear centers of two new cells. Growth energy is regained in these new cells, but its vigor is decreased with every successive division, for a reason now to be given. we can toplasm left fully free to act. But such a condition is inconsistent with any degree of organic development. Active protoplasm is necessarily semi-fluid in con- tozoans are nearly pure protoplasm, but evolution in this direction m checked by lack of solidity. For any extended development the protop 1882.] Organic Physics. 481 The ideas here advanced as to the constitution of the organic unit are not mere baseless supposition. This unit must be com- posed of chemical molecules, either identical or diverse in char- acter. Their chemical activity seems to render a diversity more probable than an identity ; but the apparent homogeneity of each unit seems to indicate that its molecules are not diverse in their chemical constitution, but only in their degree of chemical satis- faction’ They must be either acid, basic or neutral in character, and very probably divergences in this respect occur between the molecules of every unit mass. But in mixtures of acid, basic and neutral molecules there might be great variations ; here the acid, there the basic energy might be in excess. In other cases there might be a balance between these energies. Probably all these variations exist in organic units. Yet for the reasons we have here given, it seems probable that the unit mass in which the en- ergies of the acid and basic molecules were balanced, would be best constituted for vigorous chemical action; and particularly So if these acid and basic energies diverged considerably from the neutral line. Such we conceive to be the constitution of a fully active chemical unit. But the process of cell division tends to diminish this activity. For the separation of a nucleus into two halves, through its neutral equatorial region, must leave one of these halves with an excess of acid over basic vigor, and the other with an excess of basic over acid. The full energy of the acid pole remains in the one, in combination with a basic pole of reduced energy ; and the same rule applies to the basic pole of the other. Thus the chemical energy of each must be less than that of the Original unit. A second division adds to this effect. Of the acid half, for instance, after re-division in one of the new cells, the energy of the acid pole would be retained, with a basic pole still _ further diminished in energy; while in the other the two poles would return towards equality, but with diminished energy. This division must constantly tend to reduce the chemical energy of the cells, 2 A formula may aid in the elucidation of this principle. Sup- $ aa B stands for a normal unit, A and B represent- at: e most vigorous acid and basic molecules, while the con- I ing line represents a mass of molecules becoming successively Strongly acid and basic, until neutrality is attained at thë ~ 482 Organic Physics. [June, equator of the mass. If now this unit be divided equatorially we obtain two new units, A Band A B. Their chem- ical energy is decreased, because each has a weakened pole. division of the first of these new units will give us A b and A g. Here the first is thrown still more out of polar balance, while the second regains equality, but with diminished energy. And so on with continued division. We would obtain as the extreme terms of the process two cells, in one of which the full acid was accompanied by a greatly reduced basic vigor, and in the other a like advantage would be gained by the basic pole. — Between these would be a succession of cells, less out of chemi- cal balance, with one or more intermediate cells in which the bal- ance of energy would be preserved. But in all these cells the vigor of one or both of the poles would be greatly reduced, so that the chemical activity must decline in vigor with every new act of division. Such a result is but an organic example of the principle we have already considered in inorganic nature, in the gradual separation of the constituents of sodium sulphate, Na,SO, The molecules of the original cell would be repre- sented by the mass of new cells into which it finally breaks up, some of these cells being specially acid, basic or neutral, as were the molecules of the normal cell. In such a process we see the original strongly declared hetero- geneity of the normal unit gradually diminishing, and chemical homogeneity approaching, while life vigor decreases in accordance. The process of division, which is necessary to keep up the activ- ity of the cell, inevitably tends to diminish this activity from a secondary cause, that of loss of chemical heterogeneity. How shall this essential condition be restored, and the full activity of life action be reproduced ? Evidently by a reversal of the process = above considered. If cell division reduces the life energy, Ce l combination may restore it. If, for instance, the two extreme terms of such a continued division be reunited, all the lost chem- ical heterogeneity would be regained, and the normal condition reproduced, Let the two extreme. units, A b and a—B, join to form a new unit; we would have as result A B, the intermediate polarities falling into place between these polar ex- tremes. Thus by a single process of combination a cell would be gained possessing all the chemical heterogeneity, the polar balance and the vital activity of the original. : 1882. ] Organic Physics. 483 And such a result must very strongly tend to occur, from the vigorous attraction between acid and basic chemical radicals. Many other unions might take place, between the remaining cells of the continued division. Thus the final result of the division of a single normal cell, would be the reproduction, from the union of its many daughter cells, of numerous normal cells, differing perhaps considerably in their degree of homogeneity, and in the completeness of their polar balance, yet each capable of sctting - up a new life cycle. If now we give this polarity another name, and call it sexual polarity, new light may be thrown upon the life problem. Life is continuous, but not in the individual. The individual tends to- wards chemical inertness and final death. The continuity of life exists only in the race; and such, under our hypothesis, must be the law governing the development of the organic life units. Division, which is their only available method of contin- ued growth, brings them more and more towards chemical inert- ness and loss of vitality. Reunion of oppositely polarized germs, which have arisen from the original individual, restores the life activity by the production of a new vitalized individual. The life energy, failing in the individual, is restored in the race. If wè replace the words acid and basic polarity by male and female polarity, the cycle of life opens out before us, A normal unit or germ possesses balanced male and female energies. Con- tinued division produces a multitude of new cells, some with an excess of male, some of female energy. As either energy weak- zit therefore the new individuals are very likely to be specially ‘ae or female in condition, possessing some excess of acid or '€ energy in their chemical organization. [To be continued. | - y 484 The Order of the Universe. [June, THE ORDER OF THE UNIVERSE. BY W. N. LOCKINGTON. I. Monitsm v. DUALISM. NLY two complete theories of the origin, nature and pres- ervation of the universe have as yet been presented. The first of these, monism, assumes the essential unity of the universe. Everything within the universal bounds, from the tiniest particle — to the hugest globe; from the earth on which we poor reasoners dwell to the farthest star in heaven’s vast galaxy ; from the heaviest metal to the most etherealized interstellar medium, is by this theory conceived of as consisting of but one substance, to which, in the poverty of our human speech, we have given the name of “matter,” and to all whose manifestations, qualities or — properties, by which we are cognizant of its existence, we give the name of “ force.” The second or dualistic theory accepts matter as it finds it, and to a certain extent admits that matter is possessed of qualities or gives out manifestations which may be called force; but in order , to explain the existence of matter, assumes, entirely outside of material existence, a second principle, which existed before mat- ter, created that matter, endowed it with force, and is itself directly active in the highest manifestations of force exhibited by material organisms. Monism .asks it disciples to believe many things which, to the understanding of the highest outcome of this earth’s activities, are as yet incomprehensible. The formation and preservation of suns and planets; the molecular motions and structure of inor- ganic materials; the origin, nature, continuance and variation of life, have all to be conceived as emanating from matter by the action of its own inherent force. Dualism escapes these difficulties—strikes them out with a word by one vast assumption. An immaterial, or rather non-ma- terial agency accounts not only for all the manifestations of force, from that which forms a crystal to the highly developed con- sciousness of the wisest man, but for the very existence of mat- ter itself. The difficulty left is to account for the origin, nature and continued existence of the assumed creative power, and or the manner in which it was able to form matter out of preexis- tent nothing. : ; 1882. | The Order of the Universe. 485 The majority of men in all ages, and most of the accepted religions of mankind, have adopted the dualistic theory. By it the mind of man was relieved from all speculations regarding the nature of the material universe, every ordinary occurrence was _ referred to the action of a creative and preservative force, and extraordinary phenomena were unhesitatingly ascribed to a more direct agency of that force. But the spirit of inquiry is natural to the human mind, when it is not distorted by education or paralyzed by sloth. Certain re- sults were observed to follow certain causes with unerring regu- larity, whether in the broad domains of astronomy or in the nar- row limits of human activities, and confidence in these results be- came so unbounded that men in their daily life, while theoreti- cally believing in an omnipotent and omnipresent power, based all their actions upon the known propertiés of material things. This dual code of life is that observed throughout Christendom at the present epoch, and causes strange eccentricities. ` To explain this inconsistency, the idea of law arose. The òm- nipotent, all-knowing power which made matter and gave it its properties either cannot (a contradiction) or will not change those properties. Laws once made were conceived to continue either by the properties originally impressed upon matter by its creator, of by the continual preservative power of that creator, exercised invariably according to certain fixed rules which he has made for himself, and according to a prearranged design which he has pro- Posed to himself to work out. Under this phase of dualism, a belief in any departure from the known laws of matter becomes an improbability amounting almost to the impossibility of such departure which is the logical result of the monistic view. This elimination from the order of the universe of any present interference of a creative power, reduces that Power to the position of a passive spectator, or, at most, of an executor of laws framed in the far past, and is, therefore, rightly regarded by rigid dualists as a great concession in favor of m. monis A dualist conceives consciousness, or the soul, to be a direct emanation from the deity, imprisoned for a certain time within material bonds, but prompt at its liberation to return either to the _ 70d who gave it or to the punishment provided for it in conse- Mence of its misdeeds. To account for the existence of evil, the 486 The Order of the Universe. [June, idea of deity has also been made dual, including a good and evil principle, at war with each other. The evil principle, though nominally the weaker, is, in the current belief, allowed to succeed in the ruin of the future of the great majority of individual souls. Thus a dualist has at least a definite philosophy, one which, how- . ever it may be doubted, can never be disproved; and one which, however it may be believed, can never be proved. Leaving dualism for a while, let us consider how monism can explain consciousness; let us see if it has yet fixed upon a definite theory. ` $ II. MATTER, FORCE AND CONSCIOUSNESS. The exigencies of language compel us to give names to ex- press ideas which are not things, and it is a tendency of the hu- man mind to figuratively speak of these names as though they were objects, and too often to conceive of them as actual objects. The word “ matter,” in the strict monistic sense, must include all properties exhibited by matter just as surely as the name “man f must be held to include all the physical and moral properties of man. Just as justice is an abstraction of our language put in- stead of“ the state of being just,” so is force an abstract term meaning “the state of being forcible,” and consciousness al ab- stract noun meaning “the state of being conscious.” The latter word is in its very shape clearly a nominal form of the adjective conscious, but in the case of force it is less easy to define, since the adjective “forcible” is commonly held in a more limi- ted sense than the noun force, which is usually adjectived by the words “potential” and “kinetic” (actual), dependent upon whether the matter having force is using that quality internally ` or externally. “Latent heat,” “potential energy,” an other similar phrases, must be held simply to mean that a certain quantity of matter, not at the moment exhibiting heat or energy to our senses, may, under changed conditions, be made to do eh whilst “ sensible heat ” and “kinetic energy ” mean the exhibition of those properties to our senses by portions of the universal matter. 3 But there is a particular exhibition of force, residing only in certain complex and unstable compounds, which differs so widely from other forces that we are compelled to give it a distinct name —consciousness. Unable to explain how consciousness can be * produced, yet forced to acknowledge that it has never been mA 1882. } Editors’ Table. 487 with apart from matter, some monists conceive of it as an inde- pendent thing, which is, however, unable to manifest itself except through matter. Such a belief is simply a degradation of the supernatural half of a dualist’s belief. According to it, that which to a dualist is the soul, the emanation from an omnipotent deity, is a slave of matter. Such conceptions arise from the gross ideas of matter that have so long prevailed. The true concep- tion of matter is “everything that exists.” Under the monistic idea, as under the dualistic, the belief in supreme and subordinate spirits may exist, but the spiritualist who is a monist must concede the materiality of his supposed spirits. Under the monistic idea a future life is as possible as under the dualistic, but future con- sciousness must be accompanied by the matter which exhibits it, and the future existence of an individual must be a mental con- tinuation of his present mentality. The Buddhistic idea of Nir- vana, or of a state of generalized blessedness, an absorbption into an ocean of conscious matter, may be logically held by a monist ; whether he can find peace in believing in an eternity of existence, coupled with annihilation of individuality, is another question. To be consistent, every monist must, when he speaks of con- Sciousness, use that term in an abstract sense, as a certain force- quality of highly organized matter. To conclude, the shades of belief possible are almost endless, and the positive proof or disproof of most of them is impossible. It would be well, therefore, for all who have the slightest claim to the possession of a high degree of consciousness, who claim to be intelligent or civilized, to make a broad distinction between Proved facts and theoretical doctrines, and to have too much charity to be prejudiced against, and still less to discriminate Against, those whose honest doctrines differ from their own. At the same time the faith of the truly scientific mind will be in har- Mony with proved facts, and he will be at any time ready to sur- render a belief in deference to such facts. :0: EDITORS’ TABLE. EDITORS: A. S. PACKARD, JR., AND E. D. COPE. SRS The mortal remains of Charles Darwin lie by the side of those of Sir Isaac Newton, in Westminster Abbey. A great nation in omg homage to the name and fame of the world-renowned nat- o t has thus expressed its judgment of the true place he 488 Editors’ Table. | [June, . should take among those philosophers and students who have ‘done it greatest honor. The feeling thus expressed, that Darwin should rank with Newton, Faraday, and other scientific leaders, is shared by the best judges of the work he has done in remodel- ling scientific thought, and in originating and completing the rev- olution in biological methods, which has been effected within the last quarter of a century. s a physical geographer, as a systematic zoologist, and as an anatomist, as well as paleontologist, whatever Darwin accom- plished was of a high order. But it was not in these departments of science, that he excelled. He was most eminent and original in observing the habits of plants and animals, their rela- tions to each other and to their surroundings; he studied the variations of species under domestication and in a state of ngture ; he studied hybridity, and especially the effects of heredity and growth force. He did little work in comparative anatomy, and almost nothing in embryology, but the influence his ideas exerted upon these difficult fields of research, have stimulated the devel- opment of these sciences to a wonderful and unprecedented extent. Darwin pursued the objective or inductive method. He ap proached the subject of evolution, rather from the eee rom bold speculations. Some phases of his theory of natural selec- tions may be unproven hypotheses, and his own theory may be emended and greatly extended, but the world remembers New- ton’s theory of gravitation and forgets his crude theory of light. Darwin showed admirable caution, self-criticism, candor, and an absence of the controversial spirit. He gave credit to those to whom it was due, and the charge of appropriating the work of others has never been breathed in connection with his name. | - Moreover, his clear, simple, lucid style, his powers of ¢xpost tion and rapid generalization, caused his books to be read by the layman as well as by the scientist. His works and views never needed an expounder. Under all these conditions, Darwin was his own intellectual ex- ecutor. He gave his theory to the world, and lived to see it be- come the common intellectual wealth of his own age. Within _ twenty-two years after the appearance of the “ Origin of Species his opinions gained the mastery of the philosophic and scientific field of thought. is was mainly the result of his methods, the Baconian or es ductive. The & riori, purely metaphysical or philosophical methods of Herbert Spencer are not convincing to the most O 1882.] Editors’ Table. 489 naturalists. But the solid array of facts which Darwin mar- shaled in orderly lines, carried force and conviction to every un- prejudiced mind. It was partly for this reason that the views of Goethe, and St. Hilaire as well as Lamarck, did not gain universal sway and that they were temporarily overthrown by Cuvier and his school with their exact analytical methods. ut Darwin appeared in the fullness of time. Biology and ge- ology with their subordinate departments of palzontology, em- bryology, and histology had, after Lamarck’s and Cuvier’s death, either originated or immensely developed, and the time had arrived for synthetical methods and speculative views. ‘nough was known of the 100,000 species of plants and the near- ly halfa million species of animals now living, and of their relations to each other and to former worlds, to warrant the naturalist in attempting a solution of the question as to how they all appeared. The result of such inquiries has already been fruitful and happy. It has been given to the intellect of man to attempt a Solution of their questions, and the mere attempt, as the result proves, has elevated and drawn out man’s intellectual powers in a new direction. Many have aided in this work, but as the leader and successful originator of the new school of evolutionial thought, all will ascribe to Darwin the highest position, His was an epoch-making mind. : Darwinism, as such, 2. e. the theory of natural selection, ex- has sowed the seed, from which a rich intellectual harvest will be reaped by coming generations. Charles Robert Darwin, the grandson of Dr. Erasmus Darwin, was born Feb. 12,1809. After taking his degree at the Universi- “ty of Cambridge in 18 31, at the age of twenty-two, he sailed with apain Fitzroy, of H. M. ship Beagle, as volunteer naturalist im -S Survey of the coast of South America. Returning from his “Voyage around the world in 18 36, he published, in 1839, his. „goual of Researches into the Geology and Natural History of an ountries visited during the Voyage of H. M.S. Beagle round a Moria. In 1840-42 appeared his “ Zodlogy of the Voyage of (18 ‘agle” ; and rapidly succeeded his works on “ Coral Reefs,” E 42), on “ Volcanic Islands” (1844), and “ Geological Observa- ns ' (1846). His most finished systematic work was his “ Mono- vor, G TT e 33 490 Editors Table. [June, graphs on Cirripedia” (1851-53). His anatomical, systematic and palzontological work was all equally thoroughly well-done. He then matured his views as to the origin of species, sug- gested by his observations on the South American coast, particu- larly by “ certain facts in the distribufion of the organic beings in- habiting South America, and in the geological relations of the present to the past inhabitants of that continent.” The “Origin of Species” was issued in November, 1859, and was designed as an abstract of 2 more extended work. Then appeared. in rapid succession his “Fertilization of the Orchids” (1862), “ Habits and Movements of Climbing Plants” (1865), “ The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestica- tion ” (1867), “ Descent of Man” (1871), “ The expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals” (1872), “ Insectivorous Plants (1875), “ The Different Forms of Flowers and Plants of the same Species ” (1877), “ The Effects of Cross and Self-fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom,” and “ The Power of Movements in Plants ” (1880). His last book was “ The formation of Vegetable Mould through the action of Worms, with observations on their habits,” which appeared in 1881. He also contributed numerous papers to the scientific journals. His own works may be said to have created a new department of literature. After his return from his travels, he lived at Down, Kent, where he died. For many years his health had been precarious, and only a strong will, great powers of application, and his rare genius, enabled him to accomplish so vast and varied an amount of work. Darwin married in 1839,and left five worthy sons and two daughters, His life was a happy and peaceful one. His nature was genial and devoid of the controversial, self-seeking spirit. The great philosopher and naturalist died, though full of years and scientific honors, yet almost prematurely, mourned by the intel- lectual and scientific world. If it be admitted that effort and use lie at the foundation of development, it is important that the stimuli to effort and use should be preserved intact. The first great stimulus, both in 1m- portance and in order of time, is hunger. The second great stimulus is the instinct of sex. These two impelling forces lie at the foundation of the activities of man, as well of the inferior animals. A modern school of evolutionists believes that not only the machinery of animals has been built by these forces, but the mind itself has been by them elaborated from these forms of sim- ple consciousness in conjunction with memory. ; The mental faculties are divided into the intellectual (including rational) and the affectional classes. It is thought that the rational faculty has been developed by all kinds of experience into which their necessities have continually forced living beings. 1882. ] Editors’ Table. 49I The affectional or emotional qualities have been developed in the same way. The especially beneficial emotion is that of sympa- thy, or the love of other beings than self, and this it is thought has been evolved from the primitive sexual instinct. Darwin has pointed out how sexual selection has probably effected develop- ment of purely bodily perfections, as in the cases of the brilliant plumage and musical voices of birds. He very significantly calls his book on sexual selection, “ The Descent of Man.” That the rational faculty cannot be too much developed, goes without saying. It is also evident that the affections or sympa- thies should be developed sufficiently to produce a desire for the happiness of others, through the pleasure the happiness of others gives us. A lack of sympathy is as great a defect of character as is the lack of rationality. 5 The question for society then is, what are the best methods of developing the two foundation elements of character, rationality and sympathy. These qualities check each other in practice, and form the two sources of happiness. ; ' _ If custom imposes on either sex any disability by which its development in any respect is curtailed, the race of both sexes suffers injury. It suffers in two ways ] irst, by defective inheritance by children. Second, through inequality in the sexes themselves, and conse- quent lack of mutual sympathy and interest. ; 1. Of course children are more or less influenced in their men- tal constitution by that of the mother, and we shall never have an ideal race until mothers are developed as much as possible. We speak of mothers because custom does not supply to them the same stimuli to intellectual exercise as it does to men. Some professional men have even permitted themselves to express the idea that the education of girls interferes with their physical de- velopment. We are loth to believe that this is a necessary state of things; if it be so in some instances, it is to be hoped that it is a temporary condition of race or family, and one to be reme- died by future experience. There is also no doubt a lingering than are ignorant and thoughtless ones. The supposition that education can make a woman anything but a woman, can only entertained by persons unskilled in zodlogy. It has been Pretty conclusively shown by Broca and others, that a greater divergence or specialization of the sexes is consequent on civiliza- tion, as in evolution generally ; and it would seem to be entirely Within the range of our power to determine whether this diver- st SE ah or shall not include an atrophy of the rational faculty omen > The effect of education of both sexes is to enhance their erest in each other, and the relation is ennobled in direct pro- Portion to the amount of mental sympathy which exists between in s è 492. à Recent Literature. [June, them. It is to be doubted whether this field for the increase of happiness is as much as suspected by very many persons. One . of the first conditions of the stability and harmony of society is the correct working of the double-headed system on which it has been created. It cannot be denied that the greater the amount of interest invested in this system, the more secure it must become. The stimulus which intelligent people bring to bear on each other is very great, and where this comes from a person in whom the affections are deeply interested, the force is greatly multiplied. It is self-evident that the effects of this force must be seen in the race, and that it is one powerful agent in progressive evolution. It acts especially in times of prosperity, when the pressure of the struggle for physical existence is diminished. It assumes espe- cial importance when the impetus derived from the latter source diminishes, and is the best guarantee of future progress at such a time. Any agency, therefore, which effects the development of one sex, is a blessing to the other Is the present constitution of Christian society the best for the maintenance and development of the highest qualities of the in It is evident that the monogamic system will be pre- ferred in proportion as the mental constitution of the sexes adapts them best to each other’s needs. The rational education of wo- men is not in the interest of polygamy ; and the development of the higher affections of men is equally in the direction of monog- amy. Monogamy in a community is doubtless in direct propor- tion to the development of its members in rational and sympa- thetic qualities. But sexual selection has but imperfect opportu- nities where there is little to choose from in the poorer classes ; and where there are conventional standards of excellence in the richer classes. The problem is, how to secure a just regard for the far-reaching law of sexual selection, consistently with a main- tenance of the monogamic relation. General culture will do much towards placing the solution in the hands of every one, and toward producing any modification of existing customs which may be necessary.—C, 10: RECENT LITERATURE. for the observation of volcanic phenomena, and of eruptive been m and disciple of the late Mr. Poulett Scrope. The volume pre- ' The International Scientific Series. Volcanoes: What they are and what they teach. By Jonn W. Jupp, F.R.S. With 96 illustrations. New York. D. A ton & Co. 12mo, pp. 381. 1882.] Pe Recent Literature. ' "493 sents little matter subject to criticism except from those who may oppose some of the writer’s views on metamorphism, a matter regarding which there is naturally much difference of opinion. After describing the nature of volcanic action, well illustrated by the eruption of Vesuvius in 1872 (Fig. 1), which, with that of á a z MS mee ma e y D T i o ù re l j i Ay ati y N on are i., we H qili REE W it Ai I y Sut j i py ’ hit { y ry - Q — yo ~o M n s g a ° = = = = S g p in n @ oO = ey S g p gre ® n ` > = ~ = te D _ ~ “ z 1858, was volcanic a canic ven probably more carefully observed and photographed previous outburst, the work treats of the products of ction, the distribution of the materials ejected from vol- ts, with the various structures built up around them, as 494 Recent Literature. . | [June, also the internal structure of volcanic mountains and their distri- bution over the earth. The nature of lava overflows and the causes of the differences in their rate of motion are well discussed. The accompanying illustration (Fig. 2) of a lava stream which, from its imperfect fluidity in flowing over the edge ofa precipice, forms heavy pendant masses like a “ guttering” candle, is a fair example of the qual- ity of the woodcuts. The volcano from which all our pumice-stone comes is rep- resented by Fig. 3. How this is formed is well told. By experi- ments with sawdust thrown up by an air-blast, the structure of volcanoes formed of scoriz, pumice and other fragmental ma- terials is illustrated. Live “ Many cones formed in the first instance of scoriæ, tuff and Fic. 2 —Cascade of lava tumbling over a cliff in the Island of Bourbon. pumice may give rise to streams of lava, before the vent which they surround sinks into a state of quiescence. In these cases, the liquid lava in the vent gives off such quantities of steam that masses of froth, or scoriæ, are formed, which are ejected, and accumulate around the orifice. When the force of the pi eee j e of advancing lava stream. Examples of ak ‘breached cones abound in Auvergne and many other volcanic districts. A beau- - tiful example of a cone formed of pumice, which has breached by the outflow of a lava stream of obsidian, occurs 19 1882.1 Recent Literature. 495 the Lipari islands, at the Rocche Rosse (Fig. 3). It is this local- ity which supplies the whole world with pumice.” *JUIIINI-VAL] ULIPIsqo ue Jo MOYIaAO əy} Aq payovasq auod-ao1wnd y 'medyg Jo purysy ‘oouvig oduiwj—'€ ‘org 496 Recent Literature. [June, To the general student the closing third of the book will com- mend itself. The writer successfully applies the doctrine of con- tinuity to volcanism and volcanic rocks. He claims that the granites formed in Tertiary times present no essential points of difference from those which originated in the earlier periods, and that the same materials may, under different conditions “ assume either the characters of granite on thé.one hand, or of pumice on the other.” Professor Judd assumes that “ the careful considera- tion of all the facts of the case leads to the conclusion that when pumice, obsidian and rhyolite are now being ejected at the sur- face, the materials which form their substances are, at various depths in the earth’s interior, slowly consolidating in the form of -quartz-felsite, granite-porphyry and granite,” and after farther dis- cussion, he concludes “ that the manifestations of the subterranean forces in the past agree precisely in their ature and in their pro- ducts with those taking place around us at the present time.” We are then led to the subject of the formation of mountain chains, which are happily termed “ cicatrised mounds in the earth’s solid. rust.” He then epitomises the leading events in the formation of mountain chains, : “A line of weakness first betrays itself at a certain part of the earth’s surface by fissures, from which volcanic outbursts take place, and thus the position of the future mountain chain is deter- mined. Next subsidence during many millions of years permits of the accumulation of the raw materials out of which the most crystalline rock-masses, and place them in elevated and favorable positions ; and lastly, denudation sculptures from these hardened rock-masses all the varied mountain forms. Thus the _ What volcanoes teach us concerning the nature of the earth’s interior is given ina clear, interesting way. The “crust of the Brunton’s Bigle AND Science.'—The author of this excellent book makes a very successful attempt to reason with those w^% regard the doctrine of evolution “ with horror mingled with fear. e gives a brief, popular and very readable sketch of some of oe data on which the doctrine is founded, and shows “ that instead of 1 The Bible and Science. By T. Lauper BRUNTON, M.D., F.R.S., with illustra- tions. London, Macmillan & Co. 1881. 12mo,pp-415. $2.50. 1882.] Recent Literature. . 497 being atheistic it is the very reverse, and is no more opposed to the Biblical account of the creation than those geological doc- trines regarding the structure and formation of the earth’s crust, which were once regarded as heretical and dangerous, but are now to be found in every class-book, and are taught in every school.” The three first chapters are excellent examples of a common- sense interpretation of some of the events recorded in Genesis and Exodus in the hyperbolical and oriental language of a childish age of mankind, and they are written in a most interesting, graphic style. In lecture xvr on the Mosaic Record and Evolution, Dr. Brun- ton thus carries his readers in the following manner across the— to paraphrase a Latin expression—pons simiarum : “But by far the most serious objection to the hypothesis is its necessary extension to man. If we accept it, we must give up the belief which we all learned in our childhood, that a single enabled to pass on the accumulated knowledge of one generation to another. The monkeys on the other hand, developed rather one ever to pass into the other. The doctrine of a common descent of man and monkey from li Si lower animal, seems at first sight to cut at the root of all re- Sous beliefs. But again we must ask the question, does it do of oo people seem to believe that, according to the theory Scend ution, men are monkeys, because men and monkeys are de- ed from a common ancestor. But this is not the case. A 4 498 Recent Literature. — [ June, man is a man,and not a monkey, whether his first progenitors be- came men by special creation from a lump of clay, or whether they were developed from a man-like animal. We are not pagans, robbers, murderers, manstealers, living by rapine and dealing in bloodshed, and yet it is almost certain that we are descended from ancestors who were pagans, robbers, murderers, and manstealers, nor does it matter now whether these our ancestors were suddenly changed from heathen pirates to Christian herdsman and agricul- turists, or whether a generation or two elapsed during the change. The change has taken place, and that is enough.” The author then argues that though we are reasonable beings, we were not always so, @. e. in early infancy, and hence he claims “the difficulties regarding the passage from an animal to a man, and the possession of a soul are the same in the case of the indi- vidual man as they are in the case of the race.” : e would recommend this book to the general reader, while parents and teachers will find in the last chapter on the “ Devel- opment of Individuals,” some practical hints as to the care of children. The author’s views are expressed with so much earnestness, . simplicity and attractiveness, that we feel sure the book will be widely read, It is,in spite of some points which might be criti- cised, the best of the sort which has yet been published, and de- serves wide circulation. CuHautaugua Text-Books, No. 22, Bisticat Brotocy.'—Forty- one pages of false science mingled with true, the better to suit the babes who suck at the Chautauqua milk-bottle. The of clericalism. ‘ Cobbler, stick to your last,” is good advice to clergymen, who, though interested in some branch of biology, non-evolutionist that works in biology is heaping up facts to his own condemnation. After a tilt at monism, at Bichat, at Carpenter, and at Herbert Spencer, the author quotes the Rev. Jos. Cook. He then tries to squeeze help out of Huxley, notwithstanding that writer's known tendencies in an opposite direction. ; In the teeth of all the facts that prove that living beings are constantly changing, changing even in a few years, while pa man s eye can watch and record the changes; in the teeth of the Paps ss, Text-books. No 22, Biblical Biology. By Rev. J. H. WYT#® 1382. j Recent Literature. 499 the Copernican system is built, and in the teeth of the evolution of his own race during his own life, Dr. Wythe dare not only as- sert that ‘transmutation is impossible,” but brands with the name of “ Atheist,” such men as Spencer, Wallace, Tyndall, Huxley, Darwin, Quatrefages, Cope and Draper, men whose reverence for all that is good, and honest hatred of all that is evil or hypo- critical is evident in every line of their writings. Dr. Wythe does not know, or fo: gets, the fact that the teachers of a newer and better creed are always called atheists by the bigoted adherents of an older and worse one. His list of dualist naturalists consists in great part of the mighty of the past, and of men whose laurels have been won in non-biological fields, and whose claim to the title of biologist consists chiefly in their conservative opposition to the lessons biology teaches. savages exist, and Dr. Wythe will not deny that they are of the same species with himself. Ergo, civilization is not true. _ e refer, as a curiosity, to the paragraph on “ spiral motion or fiber” (sic), which the author declares to be a“ wonderful thing.” Even spiral motion without “ fiber ” is a “ wonderful thing” ac- cording to the definition given, which is as follows: “ For all cir- cular movement two forces are needed, centripetal and centrifugal, but for a spiral, a progressive movement of the centrifygal point is also necessary.” When we read the list of these movements we increase our wonder. They are “cyclosis and spiral fibers of plants, phyllotaxis, spiral forms in shells and radiates, the spiral oth ag of the moon and planets in space, and many spiral nebulz.” The classification of our author is better than might be ex- pected, indeed, in some points it is that of the “ atheistic Z Haeckel, but it is significant that the echinoderms are retaine among the radiates, that the troublesome types of Vermes are ignored, and that man is not included in the vertebrates. Shades of Cuvier and Agassiz, what think ye of him who claims to be «Your follower ? Darwin’s FORMATION OF VEGETABLE MOLD THROUGH THE Ac- TION of Worms.—This, the last of Mr. Darwin’s works, is char- acterized by the same patient observation, ingenuity in methods of research, cautious spirit and powers of generalization, which May be seen in his more important works. The startling conclu- Sions of this book are gradually approached, and each step is so a n ‘te International Scientific Series. The Formation of Vegetable Mould through LL.D Fr. of Worms, with observations in their habits, By CHARLES DARWIN aa i i 2 Cu., 1882. 12mo PP. 326. $1.50, With illustrations. New York, D. Appleton & Co., I i 500 Recent Literature. [ June, surely taken that the reader at the end is convinced that the results derived from so many facts must be well founded. In 1837, in a short paper on the “ Formation of Mould,” the author showed “that small fragments of burnt marl, cinders, &c., which had been thickly strewed over the surface of several ‘meadows, were found, after a few years, lying at the depth of some inches beneath the turf, but still forming a layer.” This was due “to the large quantities of fine earth continually brought up to the surface by worms in the form of castings.” is sub- ject has been faithfully followed up through a period of over forty ears. After describing the structure and habits of the earth-worm, Darwin shows that they burrow both by pushing away the earth on all sides, the pharynx being, as.Perrier had shown, pushed forwards into the end of the head, causing it to swell out, and thus push the earth away on all sides, while also the worm swal- lows the dirt, which passes through the body. In this way worms may penetrate to a depth of from three to eight feet. By their great numbers and continued activity earth-worms bury small, and often great stones left on the surface. In many-parts of England it is estimated that a weight of more than ten tons of dry earth annually passes through their bodies and is brought to the sur- face on each acre of land; so that the whole superficial bed of vegetable mold passes through their bodies in the course of every few years. Moreover they triturate and thus disintegrate parti- cles of rock, and thus aid in the denudation of land. By their action ancient earthworks and tumuli are lowered, and old ruins, pavements and stone walls are either buried or perceptibly low- ered, and thus the humble earth-worm acts in the end as a not unimportant geological agent. Tue Microscope in Mepicine, py Lionet S. Beate, M.B, F.R.S.'—This is the fourth edition of a well-known and valuable work, by one of the most practiced microscopists of the United Kingdom. The introduction consists of an able plea for encouragement and assistance in the scientific investigation of disease, and is fol- lowed by nearly 200 pages devoted to a description of the apparatus, necessary for the examination of objects of clinical importance,” the practical operations required for their demonstration, and the methods of recording the appearances observed. _ In this portion of the work full directions are given for harden- ing, boiling, freezing, rendering transparent or opaque, preserving» mounting, coloring, cutting sections, injecting, and other pro- cesses necessary for the examination of the various kinds 0 1 The Microscope in Medicine, by LIONEL S. BEALE, M.B., F.R.S., Fellow of the R oyal College of Physicians, ete., Fourth Edition, pp. 528. Illustrations re than 500, most of which have been drawn on wood by the author. London, J- and À. Churchill; Philadelphia, Lindsay and Blakiston. 1882.] Recent Literature. BOF healthy and morbid tissues, both hard and soft, and the letter- - press is aided by twenty-four plates. The second and larger part treats of the microscopical charac- ters of the simplest particles of tissues and of their demonstra- tion; of structural elements and elementary parts in health and disease ; of deposits from fluids, and of animal and vegetable parasites, After a chapter devoted to the living matter and cell- structure of organizms the author treats of lymph, chyle, blood and serous fluids, of medico-legal investigations, saliva, sputum, vomited matters, fæces, discharges of various kinds, and milk. Pus, animal poison or virus, contagium, and tubercle, are next considered, and the author’s views of their nature fully stated; the urine, and urinary deposits and calculi, are next examined into, and the remaining portion of the work, except a short chapter devoted to human parasites, is taken up by methods of investiga- tion of the various tissues and organs of the body in health and disease, and statements of the author’s opinions of the nature of diseases affecting them. In a field so broad as that covered by this book there is of course much room for difference of opinion. Dr. Beale devotes much of his space to theories of his own, more or less ably sup- ported by argument; and to the disproof of rival theories. His opinion upon the value of the microscopic examination of blood-stains in cases of supposed murder, based as it is upon the great resemblance of the red blood corpuscles of the carnivora, some ungulates, rodents, quadrumana and certain other mammatis to that of man, and upon his own extensive practice, is entitled to reat weight. He says,“ I can hardly think that in any given Case the scientific evidence in favor of a particular blood-stain being caused by human blood, will be of a kind that ought to be considered sufficiently conclusive to be ‘adduced, for example, against a prisoner upon his trial.’ He, however, considers such evidence as of value in strengthening or weakening other circum- latter rather than on account of the powerful arguments of the or oe That bacteria, vibrios, etc., are found in abundance in all those diseases called zymotic, is undeniable, but it is also true, as Dr. L ale asserts, that “ many things we eat contain them in count- ess multitudes, In the alimentary canal of infants suffering from a little stomach derangement, bacteria are often present in vast num- ko? .. Recent Literature. [ June, bers * * * * many of the secretions may contain them without perceptible injury to the health, while hosts of them are invariably © present in the fluids, and in and about the superficial cells of the mucous membrane of the mouth of all persons, even in the most vigorous health.” All fungi and schizomycetes feed upon decay- ing organic matter, and therefore their presence does not prove that they are the cause of the disease. The assumption of a dif- ferent species of bacterium to each disease is not warranted by our present knowledge of these low existences, and if, as our author asserts “ the virulence of the virus decreases as the bac- teria in it increase in number,’ the bacterium theory seems scarcely tenable. Dr. Beale asserts that he has never been able to discover a bacterium in pure vaccine lymph, and that those who regard the solid particles found in vaccine as bacteria com- mit the grave error of confounding the actual contagious “ bio- plasts,” derived from the living matter of the cow, with bacte- rium cells, from which they differ visibly in the want of regular form and the absence of a cell-wall. Dr. Beale believes the con- tagium or virus of every contagious disease to consist of extreme- ly minute particles of the ving matter of the species infected by the disease. This contagium is “bioplasm” become poisonous, and “each kind of contagious bioplasm manifests its own specific actions, and only these.” He admits, however, that such particles cannot, in the present state of our knowledge, be distinguished from healthy particles of the same size; and he also admits that it is remarkable that one form of disease has always been found accompanied by a specific organism that has not been found in any other. May not the truth lie between the two opposing schools, and, although the great majority of diseases are caused by organic changes in the protoplasm or in the secretions (Dr. Richardson's theory) of the infected species, may not a few, especially those which are localized in their manifestation, be caused by micro- scopic organisms? We know that the entozoa sometimes pro- duce positive disease, and that certain skin diseases are caused by acari—why then may not certain lower existences be poisonous, the power of forming tissue, is, in Dr. Beale’s opinion, the origin of pus. Tubercle, he asserts, can be microscopically shown to consist of small protoplasmic masses of about the size of a red . free from hereditary taint, tubercle may be developed by bad hygienic conditions in perso : me 1882. ] Recent Literature. : SO Morbid growths of a malignant, cancerous nature are by our author believed to originate “in the embryonic bioplasm found in connection with complex structures,” yet he also thinks that “ the cause of the cancer development operates at a period of time sepa- rated by many, many years from the period of the actual produc- tion of the cancer-cells, * * * even during embry- onic life.” Is the last belief, which is warranted by the often observed cancerous diathesis, consistent with the former ? It is greatly to be regretted that Dr. Beale continues to use the word “bioplasm”’ for the living formative substance of organisms, called by all naturalists and known to a large portion of the public as protoplasm. It matters not if the word has been, as Dr. Beale states, used improperly, the fact remains that those who use the word protoplasm, use it in exactly the same sense in which Dr. Beale uses “ bioplasm,” and nothing but confusion can result from the introduction of a new term. “Protoplasm” was first introduced to the English public in Von Mohl’s work “On the Vegetable Cell,” translated in 1851, and was known in Germany several years earlier. The existence of detached particles of living matter, destitute of a cell-wall, and usually smaller than cells, does not, whatever Dr. Beale may as- sert to the contrary, disprove the cell theory, which receives such continued confirmation from the work of microscopists in all parts of the civilized world, that it ought not to be called a theory, but a fact, Cells are the bricks of which the Metazoan edifice is constructed, but that edifice is also the manufactery for their construction, and the laboratory for their destruction and the working up again of a great portion of their material. W] at wonder is it, therefore, that in the fluids, and on and in the tissues should be found protoplasm, which has not yet been formed into cells, or which has previously existed in that state ? _ The formative powers of protoplasm, and the distinction vary- ing greatly in its width, between the formative and the formed Material, are recognized by all biologists, and it is difficult to see what addition Dr. Beale brings to our previous knowledge. Dr. Beale, in common with all other biologists, finds that a cer- tain complex physical substance, occurring only in the organic World, possesses properties and performs movements not pos- sessed or performed by other kinds of matter. In common with all other biologists, he is in the most absolute ignorance of the Cause of these movements, but, instead of confessing that ignor- ance, he asserts that they can only be accounted for by assuming pe existence. of “some sort of supra-physical` or vital power.” he latter term is admissible as a title for what we cannot explain, E the former term involves an assumption unwarranted by any- a § Within the range of our knowledge. The belief that every un- Xplained fact is “ supra-physical” belongs to the medieval stage 504 Recent Literature. {june of thought, and it is high time that it were banished from the be- liefs and writings, as it is from the life and practice of the civilized portion of humanity. RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. ine zur hieraa o> reggie Ungarns nd des Orients. Herausgegeben von E. Moj Neumayr. 410, pp. 124, 12 plates. Wien, 1882. Fern ea ‘edito Archiv fiir Anthropologie, Band XII, 1881. PE für Zoologie in Be- ziehung zur pe Aa Has wy mit Tipai ge ssilen. a poni äugethiere. Von Dr. W. Branco. 4to, pp. 143. Berlin, 1882. From the aut “Hanibu i der Paine, unter) Mitwirkung von w h. Schimper, professor er Universität zu Strassburg. Herausgegeben von Karl we Zittel professor der Universitat zu München. sal 8vo. pp. 148, 200 cuts. Leipzig, 1881. From the ors. Beobachtungen an Aulacoceras V. Hauer. Von Herrn W. Blanco in Münch 8v oe 8, Abdruck a. d. Zeitschr. Deutschen geolog. Ganclioabite: pee uthor ye er die Verwandtschafisverhältnisse der Fossilen Cephalopoden. W. Branco in Berlin. 8vo, pp. 20, cuts. Besonderer-Abdruck aus der PEET a Deutschen geologischen Gesellschaft. hie 1880. Berlin, 1880. From th uthor. Bulletin de la Société Zoologique de France pour l'année 1881, 3¢ & 1e Parties. - 8vo, pp. 106, 3 fol. plate. (Scences d’Avril-Juillet.) Paris, 1881. From the soci ciety. Revue des his hog Scientifiques Ministere de L’instruction Publique et e : Beaux-Arts. January, 1881, to rena 1881. 8vo, pp. 840. Paris, 1881. Fro the minister of public instructio Apuntes para la Fauna Paia, Riguetin: Por Don Juan Gundlach. Tercera Parte. ma Anfibios. (Anal. de la Soc. Esp. de Hist. Nat. Tomo x, 1881.) 8vo, pp- 46» plate. Fr uthor Anales del Museo Nacional de Mexico. Tomo 11, Summario :— 1 Essayo sobra los Simbolos Cranograficos de los Mexicanos, 2 La asgi del Sol. Estudio inti por Afredo Chavero peo = 3 Anales = ee (continuacion). 4to, pp. 36,1 plate. Mexico, 1882. gis om tie min oolo gal Kei for 1880. Being volume seventeenth of the Keco of tekei a Literature. Edited by Edward Cadwell Rye, F. Z. S., M. ES 8v0 (royal). oag 1881. From the society. ieee the By arg D ey 4 the Sumatran Rhinoceros (Ceratorhinus sumat- nsis). . A. For F.L.S. 4to, pp. 3, I plate. (From the Transac- tions of ia Zoological Sonic Vol XI, 1881.) London, 1881. From the author. ibe on the palate in the Trogons (Trogonidæ). By W. A. Forbes, B.A. PP- T ive systematic position of Eupetes macrocercus. ' By W. A. Forbes, B.A. pp. 2 ea servations on the incubation of the Indian Python (Python aoid with ari cial regard to the alleged increase of temperature during that proce w.A f Forbes, B.A. pp. 8, cut, From the Transactions of the Zoo fool Society ee don, Noscdebes 1881. London, 1881. From the author. Notes on s Vertebrata of the Pre- se Forest Bed series of the east of Eng- land. Part vi, Aves; Part vit, Pisces, Reptilia and Amphibia. By E. T. Newton, . pp. 6. Ext. from the Geological Magazine, 1882. London, 1882. From or, sa of = rns of the precious meee in the United States. BY Clarence King, special census agent, tenth census of the United States. 4 ae we 6 pla ates, „Diae ‘a ‘hee Interior, Gapensi Printing Office, V Washi ngton IddI. 1882. ] Recent Literature. 505 Explorations of Indian Gr “ei Cabrillo’s Voyage. Report on the operations of a special party for making ethno apea researches in the vicinity of Santa Barbara, Cal., with a short historical account of the region dure nT Dr. H.C. Yarrow, . 8 . 4to, pp. 16, cuts. Wathinetes, 1882, Fro An ai a contribution to the o ot the Mortuary Casto = the North Ameri- can Indians. By Dr, G Yar U.S.A 204, 47 plates, and cuts wae, aiats the "first annual report ‘of | the Bureau or p ees Gov. Print. Office, ashington, 1881. From the author eae No. 7. hiis: injurious to Poteet and Shade Trees. By A. S. Packard, J M.D. 8vo, pp- 276, cuts. Dept. of the Interior, United States Entomological Commission, Government Printing iss Washington, 1881. From the author. _ Bulletin of the United States Fi it artes 8vo, pp. 13, 12 plates. Wash- ington, March 13, 1882. From he. department. The Indians of Berks county, Pa.; being a summary of all the tangible records of the Aborigines of Berks county, and containing cuts and descriptions of the varie- ties of relics found within the county. By D. B. Brunner, A.M. 8vo, pp. 110, 34 ates, bou i 188 hor. Annual report of the ac, Paha naib Station for 1881. Printed by order of the Legislature. 8vo + PP: New 1882. ological and Natural History ES of Minnesota. The ninth annual N-A: he Ge pa a for ets year 1880 nchell, State Geologist. 8vo, pp. 400, 6 plates, cuts. “Minneapolis, Minn, Geom ibe author Remarks on the i i bs and Tertiary Flora of the Western Territories. By Leo Ar bade (Ext. the American Naturalist, February, 1882.) 8vo: pp. 8. Phi iladelphia, 1882. Friii the author Bulletin No. 1 of the American Museum of Natural History aa Park, it j kastai 8vo, pp. 30, 4 plates. New York, December 23, 18 From 8vo, pp, ys REUE a me 1882, Fro Geological Survey pf iT Jersey. Ann ae Att of ie ‘State Geologist for the 1881. 8 -year 1881. 8vo, pp. 0, 7 plates, map. "Trent, 1881. From the geologist in charge, G. H. Cook. Studies from < Biological Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Vol. It, No, 2. 0, pp. 208, 14 plates, cuts. Baltimore, March, 1882. From the university, oper! of the peg of Comparative Zoology at Harvard iss why 1x, Nos. rand 6. 8vo . 198. Cambridge, 1881. From the director, A. fos af foetal Kangaroo and its membranes. By Henry C. Chap mei Ge 6,1 plate, From the P roceedings of the roan “oft Natural pcan 4 Philadel- phia, 1881, Philadelphia, 1881 ro The Nature of the Human T haparsl Bone. By “Elliott Coues. dict os 36, c Extract from th m PUK iat Journal of Otology, Vol, 1v, Jan., 1882. Cambridge, ro uthor. Epe Piedi of the Ohio. Mechanics’ Institute, January, Vol. I, 8vo, 48. Published by the Ohio Mechanics’ Institute. Cincinnati, Onis, rabi ary, 1$ 2. From the publishers eel ‘rade of the Astiontursl Department of the University of Tennes- eral n M. McBryde. 8vo, pp. 208, cuts. Knoxville, Tenn., 1881. From Hunter N khoon segs oh relating to the Geological cin gg PA of the Fortieth Parallel. By E. Wadsworth, Ph.D, Svo, pp. 1881. On the ats of amygdaloidal cavities and veins in the Erani Point district of Lake n i niam Pre ; oe sad vei D: Dana. By M.E. Wadsworth; - 17, 1880. Svo, pp. 16. = E hs appropriation of the name en a 7 the Canadian Geologists. By. M. adsworth, Ph.D. January 5, 1881. VOL, XVI,—no, vr, 506 Gencral Notes. [June, A microscopic study of the Cumberland iron ore of Rhode Island. By M. E. Wadsworth, Ph.D. Abstract, y 18, 1881, 8vo, pp. 4. Extracts from the Pro- ceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History. Boston. From the author The Naturalists’ Leisure our and Monthly Bulletin. A. E. Foot, M.D. editor. Svo, pp. 32, illustrated, 75 cents per year. Philadelphia. :0: GENERAL NOTES. BOTANY .! THe Quittworts or North America.—Probably few of the readers of the Naruratist have given much time to the study of the grass-like or rush-like plants commonly designated as the quillworts, and included in the genus Isoëtes. They are Pterido- phytes, that is, they belong to the great group of plants lying next below the Phanerogams, and distinguishable from the sti lower plants by the possession of fibro-vascular bundles in their stems and leaves. The equisetums, ferns, adder-tongues, and ground-pines are among their relatives, and of these, the last named have by far the closest relationship. Although the plant- body of quillworts is much simpler than that of ground-pines and ferns, their reproductive organs are of a higher order, and for this germination of the microspores, there is an evident relationship and are clearly homologous with the rudimentary prothallium of the quillworts. The natural interest these plants possess, on account of their position so near the boundary line separating Pteridophytes from the lower Phanerogams, will be greatly enhanced by the excellent work recently done by Dr. Engelmann, the results of which have just been published in the Transactions of the St. Louis Academy of Sciences under the caption of “The Genus Isoétes in North America,” and also separately issued as a pamphlet of thirty -four pages, ith his usual thoroughness the author has left little more to be desired in this admirable monograph. The history of the species, both as to discovery and publication is- given with great fullness. From this we learn that “ the first notice which we have of an Isoétes in North America is given in Pursh’s F lora (A. D. 1806). During the succeeding quarter of a century pat ered Jsvétes riparia near Uxbridge, Mass., to the present time The morphological and biological characters are well worked out ` ‘Edited by Pror, C, E, Bessey, Ames, Iowa, 1882. ] Botany. 507 in sections 2 and 3 of the paper. In this part one regrets the absence of plates, which we hope the author may yet be enabled to add. The whole number of species in the world is stated to be “ per- haps forty to sixty,” of which fourteen, besides a dozen well- marked varieties, occur in North America, It may be of interest to enumerate those occuring in this country, giving the geograph- ical range, as indicated by specimens. 3. Z. Tuckermani A. Brgun; New England. 4. T. echinospora Durieu, var. Braunii Engelm,; Penn. northward and north- | westward and to Utah. : vars. robusta Engelm., Bootii Engelm., and muricata Engelm. ; New England. §. Z. Bolanderi Engelm. ; -Cal., Oregon and Ry. Mts. 6. T. saccharata Engelm. ; Maryland, . riparia Engelm.; Penn. to New England. 8. Z. melanospora Englem.; Georgia. \ ; ; I. Engelmanni A. Braun; Del. to New England to Missouri. var. gracilis Engelm. ; Penn. to New England, var. valida Engelm. ; Penn. var. georgiana Engelm. ; Georgia. to. Z. Howellii Engelm.; Oregon. It. Z. flaccida Shittleworth; Florida. : vars, rigida Engelm, and Chapmani Engelm.; Florida, 12, Z. melanapoda J. Gay; Ill. and Iowa to Indian Territory. var, pallida Engelm. ; Texas, 13. Z. Butleri Engelm.; Indian Territory. var. immaculata Engelm. ; Tennessee. 14. 7. Nuttallii A. Braun; Western Idaho to Oregon. 5 Mopern Borany AND MR. Darwiy.—!In no one thing is the bot- any of to-day more sharply in contrast with that cf a quarter ofa century ago than in the attention now given to the study of plants as living things. The plant as a body of a certain form, occupying a de nite amount of space, does not now absorb the whole atten- tion of the botanist. For the botanist of to-day, plants are living, Moving, feeling beings, whose habits and movements, and the secrets of whose lives are deemed worthy of the closest scrutiny and observation. In this work, the proper work of modern bot- any, Mr. Darwin led, and where he did not enter himself, he pointed out the way. The tities of his books alone, almost out- s . “oe line the whole work of the student of plant life. The “ Contri- p . Š eye Ad “ vances by which Orchids are fertilized by Insects ;” the “ Move- ments and Habits of Climbing Plants ;” the “ Variation of Ani- mals and Plants under Domestication;” the “ Insectivorous Plants ;” the “ Effects of Cross and Self-fertilization ;” the “ Dif ferent forms of Flowers on Plants of the same Species;” the “ Power of Movements in Plants ’ certainly the field was well mapped Out. Every book asit appeared gave a new impetus to biological botany, and at once directed attention to what in many cases had €n almost entirely neglected subjects. It is, however, not so _ Much what Mr. Darwin saw that others had not seen, for his ~- 508 Gencral Notes. [June, actual discoveries in botany are not many, as the rare power he possessed of making everything have a meaning. He added many fold to the pleasures of study by teaching us how to look in a new direction for the reasons for things. The colors, odors, forms, the irregularities of flowers are no longer but so many variations for tickling our sense organs. It may be a humiliating | lesson to learn, but close observation compels us to acknowledge that the fine colors and forms, and the sweet odors have no neces- sary relation to us, and that had man never come into existence, they would still have been just as beautiful and just as fragrant as they are now. In the domain of systematic botany, the great, law of the modi- fication of species is slowly (as was to be expected, Mr. Darwin not being a systematist) bringing about a complete revision of classification. Cohn’s, Sachs’, Caruel’s, De Bary’s and Gobi’s recent systems are all attempts to bring out the genetic relation- ship of the various groups, which are considered to have de- scended from more primitive forms. The parasites and sapro- phytes need no longer be placed by themselves in a group 0 exceptional plants, but find their proper places as the degraded members of various groups of chlorophyll bearing plants. Once granted the origin of species by means of natural selection, and its full import understood and acknowledged, a mutual relation is seen to exist between one group and another, a relation which is much more than that of mere structural similarity. Under the influence of the Darwinian method, the vegetable kingdom is as- suming a shape in our classifications, which shows a gradually increasing complexity, a gradual modification and differentiation as we pass from the slime molds to the flowering plants. The ‘flower of the phanérogam is not wholly phanerogamic, it had its beginnings away down among the simple pond-scums, and is but the last link in a chain extending throughout almost the whole plant world. ; : Borantcat Nores.—We see it announced that Williams & Norgate, of London, are to issue a work by Dr, M. C. Cooke, en- are beautifully prepared, and are well worthy of finding place in b i The first fascicle of “N. A. Graminez,” under preparation by F. Lamson Scribner, of Girard College, Philadel- the prosecution of this work by addressing the author as above. The manual of North American Lichens, recently published by S. E. Cassino, of Boston, has unfortunately not been stereo~ typed, which is much to be regretted, as the edition will, as a con- sequence, soon be out of print. M. S. Bebb, in the March be o — > 1882. ] Zoology. 50) tanical Gazette, concludes that the Californian willow, Salix Coultert Anders. is “ nearly allied to—if not identical with ”—S. sitchensis Sanson, which, like S. Coulteri, he now finds to have but one stamen under each scale! S. Coultert he regards as_ probably nothing more than “an extravagant autumnal growth of S. sit- chensis.”’ In the same journal Dr. Farlow notices the injury to the vine in Europe and Algiers caused by the American grape mildew (Peronospora viticola B. .). In moist regions it ap- pears to be very injurious, even approaching the Phylloxera in Some cases. Lime, antiseptic fluids, and other applications, failed to check the parasitic growths. Burning the leaves to destroy the odspores is recommended. Dr. R. E. Kunzé’s paper on “The Germination and Vitality of Seeds,” read before the Torrey Botanical Club, contains a mass of valuable information collected rom many sources. Copies may be obtained of N. L. Britton, School of Mines, New York city, for fifty cents each. Among the valuable foreign botanical journals, which American students may profitably consult, the Archives Botanigues du Nord de la | france, must be mentioned. Lotar’s memoir on the comparative anatomy of the vegetative organs of the Cucurbitacez is well worth careful reading. Dr. W. P. Wilson has published a Paper on “ The Cause of the Excretion of Water on the Surface of Nectaries,” in which he shows it to be due not to internal Pressure, as has generally been assumed, but to osmotic action. ——Dr. W. A. Kellerman’s paper, Eutwickelungsgeschichte der Blithe von Gunnera chilensis Lam., is a valuable contribution to our knowledge of these curious plants. Four plates accompany the paper. ZOOLOGY. Tre Nature or Lire—This is a tempting problem; it has attracted the attention of the thoughtful of the past, and is attract- ing the attention of the thoughtful of the present, yet in spite of untiring efforts, in spite of ingenious arguments, it is still un- Solved. Is it insolvable? This again is a question not to be an- Swered hastily, either in the negative or the affirmative, since so much that was once thought insolvable has been solved; while SO much that was supposed to be solved (by revelation or author- ity) has proyed to be still unknown. As indices which may point towards a sation, we give a short abstract of three papers that have lately appđared. - D. Monnier and C. Vogt ( Comptes Rendus, Jan. 12, 1882) state that by the joint action of two salts forming by double decompo- Sition one or two insoluble salts, are produced cellules, tubes and other forms assumed by organic life. The liquid in which this takes place may be of organic or semi-organic nature, or abso- lutely inorganic, but one of the salts must be dissolved in the liquid, while the other is present in a solid form, Saccharate of 510 General Notes. [June, lime and silicate of soda are among the liquids in which these pseudo-organic forms can be produced; certain viscid liquids yield no such results; the form of pseudo-organic product is constant with the same salts; and with some exceptions, the to liquids; and heterogenous granular contents combine to ren- der the resemblance to forms organically produced, most striking. M. Fournier obtained similar results as early as 1878. Messrs. O. Loew and T. Bokorny, of Munich, have worked the idea advanced by Professor Pflüger, that there is a chemical dis- tinction between living and dead protoplasm, up to a tangible hypothesis. Herr Loew found that albumen contained a number of aldehyde-groups closely bordering on amide-groups. Such groups, according to modern chemistry, must have intense atomic motion, and Herr Loew argued that this motion constitutes life. It was found that living protoplasm had the power of reducing silver from a very dilute alkaline solution, whilst dead protoplasm lacked this power. Their theory is that the aldehyde-groups of each molecule are brought into immediate proximity with the amide-groups of the next, thus causing intensification of molecu- lar action; with increased complexity and mobility follows 1n- creased instability, and thus apparently trifling agencies displace the molecules, cause their action to cease, and liberate heat, pro- ducing fevers, etc. When lifeless albumen is converted into the protoplasm of a living cell, heat becomes latent. Vital force, in the opinion of these chemists, is due to the tension of the alde- hyde-groups ultimately due to electric differences, and life is the total result yielded. The reviewer in the Journal of Science points out that Loew and Bokorny appear to regard albumen and protoplasm as identical, whereas, according to the analyses of Reinke, protoplasm con- tains scarcely thirty per cent. of albuminous matter, and includes upwards of forty proximate principles. The third contribution to the subject is that of O. Bütschli, who in Z20logischer Anzeiger publishes some original thoughts of life and death. He first draws attention to the great difference between the nature of death in the Protozoa and Metazoa. In the former the parent never exists by the side of its offspring, its reproduction (by fis- sion or spore-formation is the death of the individual. The higher animals, on the other hand, live after the birth of their offspring, but for a certain limited time, and their death throws a guana of organic matter into inactivity. He then finds the hypothetica cause of the limited duration of individual life in the nature pie egg, which he supposes to’ endow the individual with a limite quantity of a “in a certain sense ferment-like working substance á (in gewissem Sinne fermentartig wirkenden Stoffes). This limite 1882. ] ; Zoölogy. SII quantity diminishes perpetually in energy, and is finally ex- hausted, producing the death of the individual. Meanwhile, cer- tain tracts are set aside as reproductive organs, and produce a fresh supply of this “ life-ferment ” for the continuance of the spe- cies, The rejuvenescence of the nucleus of the infusoria by con- jugation is homologized with that of the egg by the spermatozoa, but while the nucleoli of the infusoria are principally concerned in the process of rejuvenescence, the cells which bring about de- velopment in the metazoa proceed chiefly from the nucleus of the male sexual cells. ¥ This is at least an ingenious hypothesis, but lacks support from observation. We know of no “ life-ferment,” and protoplasm the only life-substance we know of is certainly produced in plants, while animals contain more than they derived from the egg. Is Man Tue Hicuest Antmat?'—The measure of zoological rank is the specialization exhibited by all the organs, taken collec- tively. Specialization may be exaggerated in one or several organs, without the animai therefore attaining as a wholea high rank. This is the case in man. The measure of specialization is afforded by embryology, which shows in earlier stages the simplicity and uniformity of structure, which in later stages is replaced by com- plexity. The human body preserves several important embryonic features. In man we find three series of high differentiations, namely: in the brain, in the changes induced by or accompany- ing the upright position, and third in the opposibility of the thumbs to the other digits. These are the principal, though of course not strictly the only characteristics of man, which show that he is more specialized than any other animal. In other re- Spects he shows a still more striking inferiority. It is of course a familiar observation that his senses are less acute than those of little modified, preserving even the full number of five digits, and in respect of these members man stands therefore very low, !ower than the cow and the pig. He plants the whole sole of his foot upon the ground, yet none except the lower mammalia, together with man and his immediate congeners are plantigrade. So too with his stomach, which is so simple as compared with that of a ruminant, and indeed is of about the same grade as that of the — carnivora. It makes, however, a still more forcible impression to ee before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Cincin- = Meeting, August, 1881, | 512 General Notes. [June, learn that the human face, which we admire when withdrawn under a high intellectual forehead, is perhaps the most remarka- ble of all the indices that point out man’s inferiority. In the mam- malian embryo the face is formed under the fore brain or cerebral hemispheres. In our faces the foetal disposition is permanently re- tained, with changes, which when greatest are still inconsiderable. In quadrupeds the facial region acquires a prominent development leading to the specialization of the jaws and surrounding parts, which brings the face to a condition much higher than that of the fcetus. Hence the projecting snout is a higher structure than the retreating human face. These facts have long been familiar to anatomists, but I am not aware that the inferiority of the human to the brute countenance has heretofore been considered a scien- tific conclusion by any one. Yet that inferiority is incontroverti- ble and almost self-evident. The preceding statements render it clear to the reason, that man is not in all respects the highest animal—and that it is a prejudice of ignorance, that assumes that the specialization of the brain marks man as above all animals in the zodlogical system. It does give him a supremacy by his greater power of self-main- tenance in the struggle of the world, but that has nothing what- soever to do with his morphological rank. There is nothing in morphology that anywise justifies assigning, as is actually done, an almost infinitely greater systematic value to the specialization of the brain and a specialization of the limbs, stomach, teeth, face, etc., hence it is impossible to call man even the highest mammal. It is also doubtful whether mammals would be regarded as the highest class of the animal kingdom, were they not our nearest relatives. Let us beware of claiming to be the head of organic creation, since the Carnivora and Ungulata are in many respects higher than we. I believe that it is jnst as unscientific to call any one animal species the highest, as to pitch upon any one plant to stand at the head of the vegetable kingdom.—C. S. Minot. ZootocicaL Nores.—Mr. Chas. Linden, in a paper in the Bul- letin of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, states that the wood duck is easily domesticated, Mr. Irvin having raised successive broods of that species for many years, amounting frequently to thirty or more full-fledged young in one season. All the various ducks he experimented with migrated southward each autumn, an infallibly returned with a male mate, which remained until the young began to hatch. The observations recorded indicate t ! majority of our wild ducks do not easily change their wild condi- tion, but yet manifest no aversion to breeding freely when placed ; under artificial restraint ——Mr. Fewkes has described in the Amr" ican Journal of Science for February, a Cercaria yẹ inch long, found swimming with a jerky motion by means of a long tail, which at intervals has bundles of long sete arranged on opposite those of an annelid. Mr. Fewkes in stating that in the posse ‘sides like sit o 1832. | Entomology. 513 of regular paired bundles of bristles, this Cercaria differs from all others known, has apparently overlooked the work of Valette St. George, wherein he figures Cercaria setifera Müll: and C. elegans Müll., both inhabiting the Mediterranean sea. The tails are pro- vided with bundles of sete in pairs, and are much as in Mr. Fewkes species. In his tenth census report on the Oyster Fishery, Mr. E. Ingersoll describes the way in which the star-fish gains entrance to the oyster shell in order to feed upon it. Having met with an oyster, scallop, or other thin-shelled mollusk, and young ones are preferred because their armor is weak, the star- fish folds his five arms about jt in a firm.and deadly grasp. Then protruding the muscular ring at the entrance of his stomach through the circular opening in the centre of the under side of the disc, which he previously describes, he seizes the thin, newly- grown posterior edge of the shell, which oystermen call the “ nib” or “bill,” and little by little breaks it off. Then the star-fish pro- trudes into the shell the distensible mouth of the stomach, until it can seize upon the body of the mollusk. “The consumption of this begins at once, and as fast as the poor oyster’s or scallop’s body is drawn within its folds, the capacious stomach is pushed farther and farther in, until at last if the mollusk be a large one, the ‘pouches that I have described as packed away in the cavi- ties of the ray, are also drawn forth, and the starfish has substan- tially turned himself wrong side out. If he is dredged up at this Stage. as many examples constantly happen to be, and dragged away from his half-eaten prey, his stomach will be found hanging out of the centre of his body for a distance, perhaps, equal to half the length of one of the arms, and filled with the juices of the oyster he has devoured, and whose body, within the shell, will be found almost as squarely trimmed as could have been done by Scissors.” The wholesale manner in which the star-fish invades _ oyster beds, and the great increase in numbers of this creature _ Since oyster beds have been planted are described. The injury done to eyster beds by the star-fish from Buzzard’s bay to the yii end of Long Island sound is estimated at $200,000 a ar. ENTOMOLOGY .' NOTES From ILLINOIS; GRAIN-FEEDING HABITS OF FIELD CRICK- EAA morning after a rainy night, as I was passing along the ighway, I noticed one of our common field crickets working at oo of corn that had dropped from some farmer’s wagon nhs oy the way to market. The rain had softened the grain; a he watching the insect some time, I found it was eating the = of the softened kernel; I watched patiently until the cricket _ Seemed to have satisfied its hunger, and found the germ had all Cotman Partiment is edited by Pror. C. V. RILEY, Washington, D, C., to whom : » books for notice, etc., should be sent. . ‘514 General Notes, . ; [June, been eaten away. Early in the fall I found them in cornfields eating the crowns of kernels or ears that had blown to the ground, something I had always before attributed to mice. he same insect has annoyed farmers considerably in another manner. Much of the harvesting is done with self-binding har- vesting machines, using cord for binding. Judge of the surprise and chagrin of the farmer when on drawing in his stacks of grain, to find instead of compact bound sheaves only a mass of unbound grain, the bands of cord having been cut in many places by the crickets. Also I noticed numbers of our common black blister-bee- tle (Epicauta pennsylvanica) denuding the ears of corn of the silk before the kernel had been fecundated, thereby either partially or wholly destroying the ear. I have also found Diabrotica fossata Lec., which usually feeds upon the pollen of the flowers of the Composite, varying its bill of fare by eating the pollen of corn. Its near relative, D. dongicornis Say, which I fear is to be the future pest of the cornfield, I found feeding upon both silk and ernel; one individual had excavated nearly the whole interior of a kernel, and was still at work, being so far advanced into the interior as to leave only the tip of its abdomen visible. I had supposed the insect relied upon the flowers of thistle and some of the Composite for its food, but now think were all of these taken away it would find abundant sustenance in the cornfield itself— F. M. Webster, Waterman, Ils. Hapits of CysocepHatus.—There is nothing recorded, to our knowledge, concerning the habits of this little Nitidulid genus, distinguished by its peculiar appearance from the allied genera. [e] 2 So z R O = S. C., several twigs of Pinus elliottii, the leaves O which were covered witha Coccid, Chionaspis pinifolig Fitch. We- kept these twigs in a jar in the hope of obtaining Chalcid para- sites from the scales and were rewarded by the appearance 0 a 3 rt) gg © © ba 5 . oe (e) cr = wn or S or o {a = po) wn o oO Q 5 nq = ae © (e) rt = oO n QO a M Mi © S = E R A One Errect or tHe Mississipet FLoops.—Few evils are with- out their compensating benefit. The planters of the Teche country will, in all probability, be free for a number of years from the attacks of a beetle (Ligyrus rugiceps) which has of late years proved very destructive to the sugar cane there. It will undoubt- edly have been drowned out by the months of submersion which , the fields of the infested region have suffered. Late reports 107 dicate that even the stubble has become spoiled, and that little, T oe 188 2.] Entomology. 515 any, seed cane will be saved the present year. This will necessi- tate an importation of seed on a large scale, and we shall be agreeably surprised if the accompanying importation of some new insect foe to the sugar cane is not chronicled within a very few years. ; DoryPHORA IO-LINEATA IN ENGLAND.—Mr. J. Jenner Weir, a member of the London Entomological Society, found early last spring a living specimen of Doryphora ro-lineata which had been taken to London from this country in a barrel of potatoes. Dr. Dimmock’s INAUGURAL DissERTATION.—We sincerely con- gratulate Dr. Geo. Dimmock, of Cambridge, Mass., on the suc- cessful completion of his dissertation on “The anatomy of the cellent work by American students in the near future. a, Tne Triuncutiy or Metoipa.—“ Nothing new under th sun!” From a recent letter received from our friend M. Jules Lichtenstein, of Montpellier, we learn that the old entomological Writer Johann Leonhard Frisch in his remarkable work “ Beschrei- ung von allerley Insecten in Teutschland, etc,” tome VI. published in 1727, was well acquainted with and describes, p. 15, the triungulin of Melöe proscarabeus ; while some sixty years later Réaumur, DeGeer, and other old entomological writers did not know what the triungulin was. Frisch was also familiar with the malé of the Coccidee. Foss Tinerps,—Mr. V. T. Chambers communicates to Nature. (Vol. 25, p. 529) as corroborative of the Tineid nature of certain Serpentine, thread-like trails found by Lesquereux on leaves of Magnolia from the Tertiary of Alaska, that he distinctly remem- bers Seeing the figure by the same author of a fossil leaf of Acer On which there were several blotches, one of which bore a strong resemblance to the mine of Lithocolletis aceriella, now made in faves of Acer saccharinum. Ctasstrication or NortH AMERICAN CoLEopTera—We are glad to learn that the new edition of the classification of North tution, is being rapidly pushed to completion by Messrs. LeConte and Horn : Print, but it did more to promote Coleopterology in the United 516 General Notes. [June, States than any other work published either before or since. It has become somewhat antiquated, however, and it is gratifying to know that,we shall soon have anew edition brought up to date and written by the two men most competent to do the work. EXCHANGES WITH SouTH France.—M. Franz Richter, assistant to M. Lichtenstein, at Montpellier, offers all objects of natural history in the south of France, and more especially southern Hymenoptera well-named, Aphidide and Coccidz in microscopic preparations. He has also sets of Phylloxera in the various life- HIBERNATION OF THE Army Worm.—The experience of the past winter has very fully confirmed the revised conclusions we reached in 1880 respecting the hibernation of Leucania unipuncta in the larva state. We found the larve of all sizes throughout the milder winter weather in Washington, and the first moths issued from them early in March or about the time when in South Georgia what may safely be assumed to have been a second gen- eration of worms for that latitude were found of all sizes. At the present writing, in Washington the second generation of moths are ovipositing, preferring, in the open field, as we rightly inferred in 1877, old hay and stubble and coarse grass or corn stalks to the green grass, whenever the former are at hand. From the widespread occurrence of this insect wherever we have sought it so far, we conclude that much damage will result from the sec- ond and third broods of worms in the more northern States.—C- V. Riley, May 4, 1882. . ANTHROPOLOGY." Dr. Ravu’s Latest CONTRIBUTION TO Anturopotocy.— The Smithsonian Institution has done a very important servic work includes the following monographs : Baegert’s account of the aboriginal inhabitants of the Californian peninsula (Reports 1863 and 1864). Agricultural Implements of the North American stone period (1853). Artificial shell deposits in New Jersey (1864). Indian Pottery (1866). Drilling in stone without metal (1868). A deposit of flint implements in So. Illinois (1868). Memoir of C. F. P. yon Martius (1869). Ancient aboriginal trade in North America (1872). North American Stone Implements (1872). The prehistoric antiquities of Hungary (1876). The stock-in-trade of an aboriginal lapidary (1877). : Observations on a gold ornament from a mound in Florida (1877). Inasmuch as these articles were reprinted from stereotype 1 Edited by Professor Oris T. Mason, 1305 Q. street, N. W., Washington, D: 1882. | Anthropology. 517 plates, the author has called attention to additional information, or a modification of his views in a preface of six pages. very young archzologist should possess and study this work, and older investigators will receive no*harm from reviewing with Doctor Rau the grounds of their faith. Tue Books or Curran Batam.—A pamphlet bearing the fore- going title is issued by Edward Stern & Co., of Philadelphia. It is the substance of an address by Dr. Daniel G. Brinton to the Numismaticand Antiquarian Society of Philadelphia, in January last, which appeared also in the Penn Monthly for March. The Mayas of Yucatan possessed a literature written in “letters and characters,” preserved in volumes neatly bound, the paper manu- factured from the bark of a tree and sized with a durable white 3 varnish, The old sacred rituals preserved in these volumes were ruth- lessly destroyed, but some of the intelligent natives, instructed in Spanish, wrote out in a new alphabet, partly in that language and partly in their own, what they remembered of the contents of their ancient records. In whatever village or by whatever hand written out, each of these books was and is called “ The Book of Chilan Balam.” In the pamphlet before us, Dr. Brinton gives a digest of this won- derful work, together with photolithographs of the signs of the months compared with those of Bishop Landa. Tae RELATION or History To ANTHROPOLOGY.—In no way is the influence of anthropologic methods better exhibited than in the changes which have taken place among historians as to their manner of treating their subject. The best illustration of this we ave seen is the History of Ancient Egypt, by Canon George Rawlinson, published in two beautifully illustrated volumes by ee E. Cassino, of Boston. The Egyptians themselves, undesigned- ize their society? How did they treat each other, their women, children, friends, or rulers? What were their methods, customs, and ceremonies? What did they know, and how did they use their knowledge ? They perpetuated the knowledge of all these things in hieroglyphics on papyrus and cut in stone. Their cli- mate favored the permanence of their record. Canon Rawlinson has written history before. His works on the great monarchies of the east supersede the older histories. Fora long time the work before us will be the student's guide book to the geography, climate, races, language, industries, art, science, and religion of the land bordering the river which, “ issuing from the equatorial regions, has Strength to penetrate the ‘ frightful desert of interm- 518 General Notes. { June, inable scorching sand,’ and to bring its waters safely through two thousand miles of arid, thirsty plain, in order to mingle them with the blue waves of the Mediterranean.” Darwin AND ANTHROPOLOGY.—When weeping friends gather to pay their last respects over the grave of a great pilot, the reigning thought in the minds of those who had sailed with him in former years would be the recollection of pleasant days and nights, narrow escapes, and almost miraculous deliverances. So perfectly human would be this oneness with the dead that fora time the gallant ship, the faithful sailors, and the helpful passen- gers would be quite forgotten, or else all their good qualities would be merged and blended with the virtues of this one heroic soul, In attempting to study the connections of Charles Darwin with the natural history of man, we are embarrassed by this same feel- ing. We realize that in twenty-three years we have come a great journey, we have passed by innumerable shoals and quicksands, we have made. decided progress in the right direction. How much of this work was done by Mr. Darwin? How much did he immediately inspire? How much was accomplished by those who had drank of his inspiration? How much was the logical - fruit of seed which he had sown? How much was the outcome of opposition to him? In the brief space allowed to this note oF y regret, discussion of these topics would be impossible. Suffice it to say, there is no one acquainted with the progress of anthro- pology who will not admit that a great part of our latest anthro- pological research has been carried on through one of the motives fore Mr. Darwin’s day that there had been evolution, selection, human race, his disciples had boldly affirmed that man, SO his body is concerned, is no exception to the great law of the oon . sanguinity of all living creatures. The publication of the pe of Man and the work on the expression of emotions convince a readers, however, that the man witha thousand eyes had 1882. ] : Anthropology. 519 gathering materials for another great induction. Not content with the guesswork of his pupils, he determined to submit his own theories to the most rigid scrutiny. ANTHROPOLOGY IN GERMANY.—The Archiv für Anthropologie, issues a supplement to its thirteeth volume, which contains the following contributions :— Holder, H, v.—The skeletons in the Roman cemetery in Regensburg. pp. I-52. Schmidt, Emil—The import of cranial capacity. pp. 53-80. Reviews :—Scandinavian Literature, by Miss J. Mestorf, including Engelhard, Sophus Müller, SAREA up, ee emt Rygh, Udset Ingvald, Eag toa Neha gene: lius Séderwall;—b r, Fligier, including enbac Oppert, Spamer, Peschel ;—by Sc Souhatoen ore ninth Tera a Congres for Preistorc TO and Archæology in Lisbon from 20-29 Septem- 1880. Gis hundred and twenty pages of the supplement are devoted toa Catalogue of Anthropological Literature, published mainly in 1880, containing — i Archeology and priscan history, by J. H. Müller. It. Anatomy, by A. Ecker lit, Ethnography and Siberia: by Dr. Fredrich Ratzel. Iv. Zoology in its relation to Anthropology, by Dr. W. Branco. ANTHROPOLOGY IN GREAT BritTatn.—Vol. , No. 3, of the Journal of the Anthropological Institute, is an icap onay valu- able contribution to knowledge, having very little of speculation and a ae ier of important “information. The following is a list of the p Wore, Lt.-Col. R. c. —Notes on ien i inhabiting the so-called Naga on the’ North- East Frontier of Ind Thane, aes D.—On some Naga skull Howorth, H. H.—The eet of the Sha. Part Iv. Man, E HOn the Andamesie and Nicobarese. Thomson, Dr. Allen —Description of Andamanese Bone Necklaces Frere, The Right Hon. Sir. H. Bartlek—On the laws affecting the Relations between eae zed and Savage Life, as bearing on the dealings of Colonists with Abor- r, Woodthorpe’s s paper is part 11. of his studies, respecting the unkilted Nagas. The author minutely describes their physique, customs, clothing, habitations, burial, skull trophies, and cere- monies. Professor Thane describes the crania of the Nagas pro- cured by ene) Woodthorpe and others. Mr. worth, as is well-known, has given years of his life to the acr races and in the communication just cited devotes his pen to the Bulgarians. “There is a political Bulgaria and an ethnographic Bulgaria.” The two are different in boundaries and 3 erwise. The former includes all the country subject to the i adest crown in the days of its greatest prosperity, ne „Tatter ncludes the area peopled by Bulgarians properly so-ca Tt. Man was not only an eye-witness of what he has a 520 General Notes. [June, but he is a keen observer, and a piquant writer. He hasa charming way of knocking over old conceptions of how things must have been. For instance, the bamboo gridiron becomes a drying-grate; boiling meat in a bamboo pot over the fire is changed to roasting the whole affair, pot and all; holes in the ground to sleep in, are nothing but children playing burial, etc. For comparative technology, the article isinvaluable. The neck- laces described by Dr. Thomson are made from human bones. Sir. Bartle Frere’s paper, however, is the one of greatest mo- ment. The editor of these notes read a paper on the same topic atthe American Association last summer. Sir. Bartle Frere’s ob- servations were made in India, where the Aryan peoples have been in contact with uncivilized and more aboriginal races from the earliest times, and in South Africa among the Hottentots, Bushmen, and the Banta Tribes. GEOLOGY AND PALZONTOLOGY. THE ANCESTRY AND Hasits oF THyLtacoLteo.—The recent re- ception of nearly complete specimens of the mandibles of the Ptilodus medievus (NATURALIST, November, 1881), enables me to correct the table of genera of Plagiaulacide, given in the May, 1882, NATURALIST. The remarkable mammal in question turns out to have but one huge cutting premolar tooth, and to present considerable resemblance to the supposed “ pouched lion” (7 hy- lacoleo carnifex) of the Australian Pliocene formation, which ex- cited so much discussion a few years ago in England. Consid- erable light is thrown on the history of this group, which disap- peared so early in Europe and America, to survive in Australia almost up to the present geological age. i The genera of the family differ as follows : 4. Several large cutting premolars. Premolars four, sides not ridge foe Premolars typically three, with oblique lateral ridges.........- eevee aa. One large cutting premolar, . Inferior molars with several tubercles. Large premolar without posterior cusp; edge directed upwards; sides ae dus. . Clenacodon. Plagiaulax. i í ; ee im t ridged Large premolar with posterior cusp; edge directed forwards; sides (?) ne Cate ai Inferior molars small with few lobes; the last rudimental. BB Pie via? : - : idged Large premolar without posterior cusp; edge directed upwards; sides ae a of the The phylogeny of these forms, in connection with that nai kangaroos, may be expressed as follows: It is evident that Sì forms as Thylacoleo, Ptilodus, and Catopsalis are more specialize than Plagiaulax and Crenacodon, inasmuch as the num 5 is reduced, and the cutting function of the premolars is concentraten in a single large tooth. This is quite the same kind of specialization ber of teeth a 1882.] Geology and Paleontology. 521 as that which has taken place in the history of the descent of the Carnivora. Ctenacodon, as having the largest number of premo- lars, which have thè least amount of sculpture, is the least special- ized ofall the genera. Zhy/acoleo, with the rudimental character of the true molar teeth, is the most specialized, as it is the latest in time. The Macropodide retain the full series of true molar teeth Tritomodon (theoretical). x Ne 3 Ctenacodon eee N j \ Ptilodus , \ Catopsalis j: A \ Hypsiprym nus Thylacoleo ; Macropus The discussion between Professor Owen, on the one hand, and“ Messrs, Falconer, Krefft, and Flower, on the other, as to the - Mature of the food of Thylacoleo, is known to paleontologists. “rom the form of the teeth alone Professor Owen inferred the carnivorous nature of the food of this genus, while his opponents inferred a herbivorous diet from the resemblance between the dentition and that of the herbivorous Hyfsifrymnus. As the re- a of the discussion affects, in some degree, the genera Catopsa- ss and Prilodus, I recall it here. The comparison of Thylacoleo hn Hy psiprymnus is weakened by two considerations: First, the oe that the cutting tooth of the former is not homologous with vee cutting tooth of the latter; and second, that the grinding a ries of molars of the former is rudimental, while in the latter it is Omplete. It evidently does not follow that because Hypsiprym- x erly Journal Geological Society, 1868, Vol. XXIV, p. 307. a VOL.x lo VE, 35 ; 522 Gencral Notes. [June, nus is herbivorous, Thylaçoleo is so also, Professor Flower re- fers to the reduction of the molars in T%ylacoleo as slightly com- plicating the problem, and concludes that the food of that animal may have been fruit or juicy roots, or even meat. It is difficult to imagine what kind of vegetable food could have been appro- priated by such a dentition as that. of Pwlodus and Thylacoleo. The sharp thin, serrate, or smooth edges, are adapted for making cuts and dividing food into pieces. That these pieces were swallowed whole, is indicated by the small size and weak structure ‘of the molar teeth, which are not adapted for crushing or grind- ing. It is not necessary to suppose that the dentition was used on the same kind of food in the large and the small species. In Ptilodus medievus the diet may have consisted of small eggs, which were picked up by the incisors and cut by the fourth pre- molar. In Zhylacoleo it might have been larger eggs, as those of the crocodiles, or perhaps carrion, or even the weaker living ani- mals. The objection to the supposition that the food consisted of vegetables, is found in the necessity of swallowing the pieces without mastication. In case it could have been of a vegetable character the peculiar premolar teeth would cut off pieces of © fruits and other soft parts as suggested by Professor Flower, but that these genera could have been herbivorous in the manner © the existing kangaroos with their full series of molars in both jaws, is clearly inadmissable.—Z. D. Cope. Nores on Eocene MAMMALIA.. The creodont, Lipodectres pent trans, turns out to be identical with the Deltatherium fundamuis. Deltatherium absaroke must be referred to a new genus with the dental formula I. 3; C. 1; P-M. 2; M. 3. The premolars in Del- tatherium are 3, and in Proviverra 4. The fourth superior premo- ar has an internal lobe, and a single trenchant external lobe, and the fourth inferior premolar is different from the first true molar. The genus may be called Didelphodus. The Oligotomus osbornianus must be referred to a new genus. If it is not condylarthrous, it must be placed in the Chalicother- iidæ, as the most primitive form. The superior true molars have eight cusps, two internal, two intermediate, two principal ex- ternal, and two external rising from the cingulum: The posterior of the latter is opposite the interval between the principal €x- ternal, and if confluent with them would complete the two ex ternal V’s of the other genera of the family. Inferior molars and yee premolar, consisting of two V's. I call it Ectocion——E. P. ope. ON THE TAXEOPODA, A NEW ORDER OF MAMMALIA. — Å farie examination of the carpus of Fhenacodus shows that it a or of ith a ie 1882.] Geology and Paleontology. 523 articulate with the scaphoid, while in the Perissodactyla it sustains the scaphoid, while the lunar rests extensively on the unci- form. As compared with the three groups named, Phenacodus stands intermediate between the Amdlypoda and the Proboscidea, and agrees with the Hyracoidea in the slight posterior articulation of the unciform with the lunar bone. The peculiar carpus charac- teristic of the Perissodactyla is seen in the genera Triplopus and fyrachyus, and in the older Hyracotherium, which is the cotem- porary of Phenacodus. There seems to be no sufficient ground for separating the latter from the Prvdoscidea as a full order, so I combine the two groups in one, under the name of Zaxeopoda. The 7axeopoda is the primitive type of Ungulata in having the carpal and tarsal bones arranged in linear series. In the more specialized orders of Perissodactyla and Artiodactyla, the second Series of these bones has been rotated inwards one place. The Amblypoda has the fore foot of the primitive typeyand the hind foot of the more specialized type. The group of Ungulata, whatever rank it may have, will then be divided into the following orders or sub-orders: I. Os magnum supporting os lunare, and not articulating with os scaphoideum. _% Astragalus articulating only with navicular. Fibula with interlocking articulation with AS T OO ons sins vidoes Hyracoidea. Fibula with lateral contact on y-with-astrapel us isoeo paa Taxeopoda. Za. Astragalus uniting with both navicular and cuboid. Lunar uniting with unciform ; fibula only in contact with astragalus....Amblypodu. Os magnum supporting os scaphoideum; lunar supported in part by unci- form. Astragalus uniting with both cuboid and navicular. Astragalus truncate distally; median digit longest...........0+0 > + Perissodactyla. Astragalus ginglymoid distally; two median digits equal.......... .- Artiodactyla. The Taxeopoda are naturally divided into two sub-orders, the Proboscidea and Condylarthra, as follows. No postglenoid process, nor third trochanter of femur. Fibula articulating with a facet of the calcaneum.. eink Proboscidea. A Postglenoid process, and a third trochanter of the femur; no calcaneal facet for fibula g Condylarthra It is probable that the Zorodontia form a third division of the Taxeopoda. It is also probable that the Hyracoidea should be on to the position of a subdivision of the Zareopoda—E. D. ope, mr ALS of Wight, and M. J. E. Lee notes a peculiarity in the structure of au teraspidean plate found in the Eifel. This plate showsa repe- k ; at € occurrence of these layers. Mr. E. T. Newton gives a list Seventeen species of fishes, the remains of which have been EI 524 General Notes. ` [June, found in the Forest-bed series of the east of England. ——At a recent meeting of the Geological Society of London, Professor wen described Notochelys costata,an extinct Chelonian from Blinder’s river, Queensland. It is the first known Australian fos- sil turtle, and is of a generalized type between the Chelydrians and marine turtles. At the next meeting of the same society (Feb. 8, 1882), Mr. J. W. Hulke described /guanodon Seelyi from a bed between the clays and gravel of the cliffin Brook bay, Isle of Wight.——Various and prolific seams of anthracite and bituminous | coal, some of them 10 ft. or 12 ft. in thickness, have been found in Natal. Professor Marsh contributes to the American Journal of Science, an article upon the wings of Pterodactyles, with a full size plate of Rhamphorhynchus phyllurus Marsh. The speci- the long tail. The membrane was similar to that of bats——In the Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Nat. History, Mr. S. A. Miller describes some new species and genera of Palaozoic fossils. He also gives a well-merited criticism of Professor Nich- olson’s book on Monticulipora, showing the extensive ignorance of its author of American writings on the subject.: We per- formed the same duty for the same writer’s manual of Palzeontol- ogy a year or two ago. MINERALO GY: and Monite. They were found lining the walls of cavities IM the rock guano, and, though undoubtedly formed through the action of percolating waters, contain no organic matter. : onetite occurs in crystals having the form of rather thin rhomboids, often interpenetrating each other to form complex groups, Mr. E. S. Dana refers them to the triclinic syste™ Their greatest length is between „th and sth of an inch. The mineral ha$ an uneven fracture, a vitreous lustre, a Pp! yellowish-white color, and is semi-transparent; hardness 3-55 ale, specific gravity about 2.75. Heated before the blow-pipe 1n the forceps, it turns white and melts into a globule with crystalline facets. c It has the following composition (mean of two analyses by U. Shepard, Jr.) : ; Lime Phosphoric acid Sulphuric acid Water. ition 2 40.255 47. 100 4.550 8.175 = 100.080 Edited by Professor Henry CARVILL Lewis, Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila- n * delphia, to whom communications, papers for review, etc., should ? American Journal Sciences and Arts, May, 1882, p. 400. 1882. ] Mineralogy. 525 ing the percentage to 100, there was obtained :— P,O; CaO H,O 52.28 41.14 6.58 == 100 giving the formula 2CaO, H,O, P,O;. It is associated with crys- tallized gypsum and calcite, and with the following species. Monive is massive, slightly coherent, and wholly uncrystalline. It is snow-white, earthy and dull, with hardness below 2, and specific gravity about 2.1. In the closed tube it emits much moisture, and in the blow-pipe flame melts with difficulty to an opaque white enamel. ' mean of analyses, after deducting an admixture of gypsum, On subtracting the gypsum and hygroscopic water, and rais- d P.O; CaO i H,O 41.92 : 51.15 6.93 corresponding to Ca;P,0,1H,.O. It resembles kaolinite, and is a hydrated tricalcic phosphate. . URANOTHALLITE.—Schrauf! has named the variety of Liebig- ite from Joachimsthal, analyzed long ago by Vogl and Lin- dacker, Uranothallite. It contains more lime than Liebigite, and its composition may be represented by the formula Ca.UC,O,. +10 aq. It occurs in minute aggregated crystals and grains, often scaly, and has a green color and streak. It is translucent, has a vitreous lustre-except on the cleavage face, where it is pearly, and is soluble in acids. The crystals are too imperfect to give Satisfactory measurements. CHIOLITE AND CHODNEFFITE.—Professor P. Groth, of Strass- burg, has undertaken the revision of the natural compounds of fluoric acid, the analysis being performed by Mr. Brantl, of Mu- nich, and, as one of the first results, announces the identification of Chodneffite with Chiolite. Three analyses of perfectly pure Chiolite gave : I. II. III. Al 17.66, (2.) 17.65 17.64 ne 25.00 24 97 25.00 i i 58.00 57.30 100.66 99.92 was deduced; other portions, however, being richer in sodium e poorer in aluminium, and for these the formula 2NaF+AIF; constructed and the name Chodneffite given. rofessor Groth now shows that these latter analyses of Ram- 1 . Zeits, f, Kryst, 1882, vi. 4, 410. 526 7 General Notes. [June, melsberg were made upon material containing cryolite as an im- purity, it being impossible to separate cryolite from chiolite in the massive state. Professor Von Jeremejew has examined the crystals of chiolite and finds them to be tetragonal. hodneffite is merely an impure chiolite, and must be stricken from the list of minerals. Ruopizite.—Rhodizite, an extremely rare mineral, occurring in minute crystals upon some red tourmalines in the Ural moun- tains,@nd supposed to be a borate of lime, has been the subject of two recent communications by Bertrand to the Mineralogical Society of France. The crystals present the form of a dodgca- hedron, modified generally by tetrahedral faces. Bertrand con- cludes, from an examination of their optical properties, that the crystals are to be considered pseudo-isometric, and are composed of twelve elementary monoclinic crystals twinned symmetrically around a point. He has been able, moreover, actually to separate ‘these elementary crystals by cleavage. The elementary crystal of Rhodizite consists, he holds, of an oblique monoclinic prism of 120°, of which the height is equal to the width, and of which the obliquity is 54° 44’. . Crossy’s Common MINERALS AND Rocks.—The twelfth num- ber of the “ Guides for Science Teaching,” issued by the Boston Society of Natural History for the use of teachers, has been pre- pared by Mr. W. O. Crosby, whose contributions to the geol- .ogy and lithology of Massachusetts have been of great value. It is entitled “Common Minerals and Rocks,” and is an ele- mentary sketch treated in a familiar way, admirably serving the purpose intended. About twenty-five of the rock-forming minerals are described, special stress being laid upon their acidic or basic relations and their associations. The triclinic felspars, for example, are stated to occur with basic minerals, while ortho- clase is acidic in its associations. The silicates are divided into the two groups of basic and acidic; all species containing sixty per cent. or less of silica being classed as basic, while those con- taining more than sixty per cent. of silica are acidic. The basic silicates are dark colored and heavy, the acidic being light 1 color and weight, and the two classes of silicates belong tO dis- tinct rocks. | The little treatise is written from the lithologist’s standpoints and the larger portion of it treats of the origin and hysical dif- ferences of rocks. The author classifies rocks according to their geological origin. MARTITE.—O. A. Derby? has examined a large number of : octahedral crystals of Martite from Brazil, and concludes — e while a portion of them have resuited from the decomposition o 1 Am. Journ. Sc. and Arts, May, 1882, 373. : 1882. ] Mineralogy. 527 pyrite, a large proportion should be considered as produced by the alteration of magnetite. Nearly half the crystals ex- amined were attractable by the magnet, and all possible grada- tion between typical magnetite and hematite, both in magnetism and composition, were observed. sociated with calcite, erythrite, and occasionally pyrite and spongy leaflets of native silver. A sample from the surface gave M..W. Iles the following result :— eo, Pe AS SO, PDS a Ce Ag 11.59 11.99 63.82 2.60 2.05 1.55 1.13 0.16 trace trace = 98.89 New Minerat Resins.—Muchite. This is a resin found in cretaceous lignite in Moravia, and named by Schréckinger. It Tae SAND oF THE Desert or SAHARA.—A mineralogical study of the sand of the desert of Sahara has brought out some partic- ulars of interest. The sand is of a yellow color. The quartz Mineratocicat Nores.—Bearxite, a substance recently shown by Fischer to be a mixture, frequently contains considerable quantities of titanium and vanadium, It has been concluded by Dieulafait that beauxite originates from the decay of primitive §tanitic rocks, and that if so, these rocks should contain titanium and vanadium. In a recent paper in the Comptes Rendus, he demonstrates that this is the case, and that these elements are widely tused throughout the older formations. ertain zoned crys- tals of blende possess, in addition to the six characteristic cleavages of ordinary blende, three other planes of equally ready cleavage, Which have recently been studied by Hautefeuille. Conarite, Or More properly, Comarite, has been shown by Bertrand to be Probably hexagonal. M. W. Iles has detected a vanadium mineral, probably Dechenite, forming red and yellow incrusta- tions at some mines in Lea lville, Col. An analysis of the in- crustation was as follows: SiO, 36.86, PbO 38.51, ZnO 9.07, V.O; IL c., 380. ; 528 General Notes. ` (June, 9.14, FeO; 2.59, H:O 2.41, CO, .48 = 99.06. Professor B. K. Emerson has examined microscopically the rock forming a dyke which penetrates the bed of zinc ore at Franklin, N. J., and finds that it is a micaceous diabase, composed principally of labradorite, augite, biotite, and apatite, and containing, as foreign constitu- ents, franklinite, zincite, willemite, and calcite. e green nickle ore from New Caledonia, exhibited in quantity at the Centennial Exhibition, and known by the name of Noumeite or Garnierite, is an amorphous hydrous silicate of magnesia, contain- ing more or less admixture of oxide of nickle. It has been con- sidered as allied to Genthite, though probably a mixture. Ber- trand considers that its optical character is that of a uniaxial substance. Professor Shepard withdraws the species Glauba- patite,a name which he had given to a supposed soda-bearing guano. The soda was due to the damaged state of the cargo of the vessel in which the guano was shipped. GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS.' Tue Conco.—The treaty made by M. Savorgnan. de Brazza with the native chiefs at Stanley Pool, is published in the Proceed- | ings of the Royal Geographical Society for April. It is dated October 3, 1880, and cedes the territory between the rivers Jue and Impila to France for the establishment of a station. Mr. Stanley on arriving at Stanley Pool was not allowed to establish a depot or proceed any further in consequence of this agreement, which is considered by the native chief Makoko, as binding him not to receive any Europeans but Frenchmen. Mr. Stanley on his way up the Congo to the Pool, passed from Isangila to Manyanga entirely by river, but after that, he was obliged to make a road seven miles long, past the Ntombo Ma- taka Falls where he was again able to take to the river. ' The French missionary Père Augouard has also visited Stanley Pool, and on his way discovered a river over eighty feet broad, named the Eluala, which is not marked on Stanley’s map. The natives have also ceded a tract of land on the Congoat Manyanga, to the Belgian expedition for a depot. i Just below the boundary of this tractpthe Baptist mission has chosen a site and are building a house. On each side of the river there are many native towns within a short distance of this spot. Lake Nyassa.—The headquarters of the missionaries On this lake, has been removed from Livingstonia at Cape Maclear to Bandawé at Misangi Point, S. lat. 11° 56’ E. long. 34° 6’, a more healthy and central port. The new road from Nyassa to Tangan- yika is to be begun soon. A new steamer is to be sent out by the London Missionary Society to Quillimane and thence = the north end of Nyassa and over the new road when finished, to 1 Edited by ELLIS H. YARNALL, Philadelphia. 1882.] Geography and Travels. 529 Lake Tanganyika. The water however, continues to fall in the Nyassa, and also in the river Shire, and the navigation of the lat- ter is increasingly difficult. The careful observations on the changes in the water-level made during the past four or five years, will prove. of much practical as well as scientific importance. O'NeILt’s Journey ın Makua Lanp.—In the Natura ist for April last, we gave a short account of recent journeys in the Makua country lying west from Mozambique. An interesting paper by one of these travelers, Mr. O'Neill, British Consul at Mozambique, was read at a recent meeting of the Royal Geo- graphical Society.' As was stated by Lord Aberdare, the Presi- dent of the Society, “a remarkable fact in connection with the subject, is that the vast territory of Mozambique for the last 200 years had been in the possession of the Portuguese, and yet, so far . as could be ascertained, no Portuguese of unmixed blood had ever been more than twenty miles inland.” One of the most interesting features of this journey, is the in- telligence thus obtained of the existence of a lo ty snow-clad peak in this part of the African continent. It is doubtless the same mountain Mr, Maples heard of when at Meto. Mr. O'Neill writes :—‘ Whilst at Namurola, I also ascended a hill 500 or 600 feet high, and had a fair view of the mountain range which rises up west of the valley of the Malema, culminating in the Inagu Hills and Namuli Peak, and forming, if native accounts be cor- rect, the water-shed of the rivers of the Mozambique coast, and those that on its western side help to feed the Lake Kilwa? and its outlet, the Lujende or Liendi. I wish, however, distinctly to Say, that although the position of Namuli Peak was pointed out ome, I could not clearly distinguish it. A magnificent range of hills was visible, running apparently north-east and south-west, but the summits of its peaks and many of the hills themselves were totally lost in the mass of cloud and mist which the southerly winds had been drifting up during the past week, and which were, even now, descending as the first of the rains. I have concluded that this peak is snow-clad from the repeated accounts I have re- ceived, not only from coast men who have traded in the Malema valley, but also from chiefs and others who live comparatively near the spot. The usual description of it is, “ Its top is always white,’ and * Mnwisho zake huwezi kuma, or ‘Its summit is invisible. ” In an address made by Mr. Joseph Thomson after the reading of this paper, he said,“ It was a very interesting and suggestive fact, that three Englishmen should have been traveling in the Same country at the same time without any knowledge of each Other’s movements, and yet, not infringing on each other’s districts. I : Royal Geographical Society Proceedings, April, 1882. | ten Kilwa is probably identical with the Lake Shirwa of Livingstone and Kirk- 530 General Notes. [June, Thus, Mr. O’Neill kept to the south of the Upper Makua country, the Rev. Chauncy Maples to the middle part, and he (Mr. Thom- son) along the northern boundary up the river Rovuma and the ujende. From the reports of those travelers, together with the accounts given by Bishop Steere and Von der Decken further north, it was very evident that the same natural features extended from the Rufigi to the Zambesi, viz: a slightly undulating and irregular country, at one time spreading out in a great plain, at another forming a narrow valley; while small ridges of hills and isolated picturesque peaks diversified the scenery. - Geologically, the country consisted of metamorphic schists, . gneiss, and granite. The schists had been worn away and washed down, forming the plains in the valleys; while the bosses of hard, compact rock had remained as the ridges of hills and isolated peaks. Of course, the most interesting part of Mr. O'Neill’s journey, was the neighborhood of the mountain range in Makua, and the strange peak Namuli. That range evidently marked the commencement of the central plateau; and as to the peak Namuli, there could be little doubt that it was snow-clad, because Mr.,Maples obtained his information about it from sources quite independent of Mr. O'Neill, and the reports of the two travelers were exactly identical. Considering its position, it must be over 16,000 feet high to be snow-clad. He had no doubt that it would prove to be volcanic; and if so, it would form another link in the chain from the Red Sea to the Cape, which had given rise to the volcanic deposits in Abyssina at Kilimanjaro, and the enormous series of tufas and lavas which he (Mr. Thomson) discovered round the north end of Nyassa. That line of volcanoes coincide with the line of weakness and dislocation, along which the east- ern side of the continent had been upheaved.. The areas of de- pression, Nyassa and Tanganyika, were also approximately paral- lel to the line of dislocation.” Mr. O'Neill also mentioned an error in the map, by Dr. Peter- mann! in which two lakes appear situated on a tributary of the Lurio, one of which is placed in the heart of Makuani. “I made careful and constant inquiries with respect to these lakes, and was every where assured that no such existed in the Makua country or upon any tributary of the Lurio. The only lake that I-can hear of, is that of Kilwa, in the Ajawa country, which, as I have before said, is reported to be the scource of the Liendi. It seems not improbable, that there has been some confusion between these lakes. This probability is strengthened by the native statement that the Lake Kilwa is situated in a district called Muongoje, which name I find upon the shore of the easternmost lake in Peter- mann’s map.” Apyssinta—M. Raffray, French Vice-Consul at Massowah, d a recent journey to the camp of the King of Abyssinia, pass¢ 1See Map No. 71. Sud Afrika und Madagaskar Stieler’s Atlas. 1882.] ' Geography and Travels. “531 through a portion of that country which is very little known and very different in character from other parts of it—the inner basin of Lake Aussa. The region is thickly wooded, and trees un- known elsewhere are found there. He visited Lake Ashangi (8254 feet) which has no apparent outlet. The level of the lake remains the same throughout the year, and its waters run off through subterranean channels. After traversing the plains in- habited by the Raya Gallas, he ascended the Zebul mountains, an isolated chain, from which the whole Ethiopian mountain sys- tem could be seen to the westward, for over seventy miles, while to the eastward immense plains stretched down to the shores of the Red Sea and enclosed the great depression of Lake Aussa— . the basin which receives the waters of the Abyssinian plateaux. He afterwards ascended the lofty plateaux of Monts Abboi- Miéda and Abuna-Yusef, the passes of which are respectively 11,400 and 13,200 feet above the sea-level. M. Raffray describes these lofty summits on which grows a plant, reaching a height of twenty-six feet, the Rhynchopetalum montanum, and on which are found insects similar to those of temperate Europe. In speaking of the zodlogy of Abyssinia, and especially of the lower classes of animals found there, he defines four distinct regions of different altitudes. The first or coast region belongs tothe fauna of the Sahara; the second or valley region, has a fauna similar to that of the Senegal; the region of the lofty plateaux is more pe- culiarly Abyssinian, with a strikingly similar fauna to that of the Mediterranean; and lastly, the region of mountain tops, varying in altitude from 11,483 feet to 13,124, belongs to the fauna of the mountainous parts of temperate Europe. ScHUVER.—Mr. Schuver is continuing his explorations in the région south-west of Abyssinia. He finds that there are two aboos rivers—the word meaning simply a running stream. The Jaboos of the Blue Nile has its most southern and_ principal Source at the foot of the lofty Mount Wallel, in lat. 8° 50’ N. € most easterly and chief sources of the River Yal (affluent of the White Nile) is in the western valleys of the Shugru Mount- ains, the eastern base of which is bathed by the Blue Nile Jaboos. As far as the Yal flows through the territory of the Aman ne- groes, it bears the name of Valasat, but after it has passed the Banghe defile in a series of cataracts falling 2000 feet in twelve miles, and reaches the Berta country, it takes the name of Jaboos, the name by which the other permanent river of that country is known. In ascertaining these interesting facts, Mr. Schuver fol- lowed the western Jaboos down to the junction of the Owé, the Principal river of the valleys south of Gomashe; thenceforward Mest into the Burus plains, where it takes its final name of e Yal. . $32 +, General Notes. [ June, Tue New Porar Srations.—The Danish station has been changed from Upernavik, as first proposed, to a more southerly position at Godshaab, on the west coast of Greenland, so as to be at a greater distance from the American station at Lady Franklin Bay and the Austrian at Jan Mayen. The expedition, which is well fitted out at government expense, will sail from Copenhagen about May 2oth, and is expected to reach Godshaab at the end of June. It is to remain there until September, 1883. The Dutch propose to establish their station at Dicksonshavn, at the mouth of the river Yenisei, unless the ice prevents their reaching it, in which case they will go to the north-east point of Novaya Zemlya. Funds have been supplied for this purpose partly by the government and partly by public subscriptions. The party will be about twelve in number and will take with them all the instruments and apparatus specified by the International Polar Conference besides other instruments and a wooden house. It is hoped that an ascent of the Yenisei can be made in a steam launch. The British Government has granted the sum of £2500 and the Canadian Government $4000 for a circumpolar station. The Italian Antarctic Expedition started from Buenos Ayres on November 8, 1881, under command of Lieutenant Bove. The government of the Argentine Republic has sent out a commis- sion with the expedition for the purpose of carefully revising the survey of the coast of their country; thus the expedition now consists of four ships, viz: Santa Cruz, Uruguay, Cape Horn and a steam bark, The Cape Horn is the largest vessel and will pro- ceed to the Antarctic regions, while the Uruguay will remain at Cape Horn. Lieutenant Bove hoped to leave Cape Horn by the end of December, in order to sail across to South Shetland and Grahamsland. He hoped to be back at Tierra del Fuego by the end of March, to stay there until May, and then to leave for Buenos Ayres. MICROSCOPY.' MEASUREMENT OF Microscopic Aperture.—Hon. J. D. Cox, in a very interesting article in the Am. Month. Mic. Fourn., dis- cusses the present method of measuring angular aperture of the microscope by taking the angle of which the apex is the center of the microscopic field of view, and whose sides bound the tel- escopic field of view when the microscope is turned into a tele- scope, either by removing the ocular and looking down the tube with the naked eye, or by substituting a terrestrial eye-piece by restoring the ocular and adding an objective as an erector 1m the draw-tube. By experiments, confirmed and explained by geometric principles, he concludes that the telescopic aperture, owever correctly measured, is not the microscopic aperture, and that the difference, which is practically immaterial in objec- ? This department is edited by Dr. R, H. Warn, Troy, N. Y. : 1882. ] Scientific News. 533 tives of high power and short working distance, may become, with low powers, large enough to destroy the usefulness of the common methods of measurement of the lenses measured, a 34- inch varied from 36° to 38° telescopic aperture to 3914° micro- scopic, while a 3-inch ranged from 1314° to 19°. Change of draw-tube caused a variation of several degrees. A New Journat.—The (English) Postal Microscopical Society has undertaken the publication of a quarterly journal, the first number of which appeared in March. It is edited by the very able Hon. Sec’y of the Society, Mr. A. Allen, of Bath, and pub- lished by W. P. Collins, of London. Its primary object is the preservation of the most important notes and drawings from the note-books of the Society; but it will also contain original papers, notes, extracts, and correspondence upon microscopical subjects. It will be freely illustrated, and will doubtless prove an entertain- ing and instructive visitor. ‘0: SCIENTIFIC NEWS. are cut off and buried for a few days, till the tusks can be de- Stuffed as specimens, or sent off alive as curiosities, while myriads of eggs are blown or disposed of by dealers.—English Mechanic. 534 General Notes. [ June, — The views of Dr. Hahn, as to the presence of organic struc- tures in meteorites, have been refuted by Professor Carl Vogt, who, in a memoir presented to the French Academy of Sciences, affirms that Dr. Hahn has no foundation for his conclusions, and that in no single case do the pretended organic structures present the microscopic appearance of the organisms for which they have dlogy, as well as for laboratories for anatomical research. Director Wetterman states that naturally all sorts of sea animals will be needed for the work, and requests the addresses of aquaria in America that will enter into a mutual exchange of marine ani- mals or will dispose of them by sale. He expresses a wish to have as much as possible of the American submarine fauna rep- resented in their tanks. — James Geikie, LL. D., author of the “ Great Ice Age,” and for twenty-one years a member of the Geological Survey of Great Britain and Ireland, has recently received the appointment to the . Murchison Professorship of Mineralogy and Geology in the Uni- versity. of Edinburgh, made vacant by the appointment of his brother, Professor Archibald Geikie, to the director-generalship of the Geological Survey. He has resigned his position in the survey and enters upon his duties in the University in May. — But two summer schools of science will apparently be opened to students this coming season, one at Annisquam, Cape Ann, Mass., under the charge of Professor A. Hyatt, curator of the Boston Society of Natural History; the other is the summer school of biology of the Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass. Both offer good facilities for study. : — Weare asked by Professor E. S. Morse to correct a mistake on page 326 of the NATURALIST in reference to the Japanese stu- dents. Mr. Ijima and Mr. Iwakawa have never been abroad, what they have acquired has been learned in Japan. Mr. m sukwri was a fellow at Johns Hopkins University and was a stu- dent of Professor W. K. Brooks. - position has been heretofore doubtful. It turns out to be a flesh- 1882. ] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 535 PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. NATIONAL AcapEemy oF Sctences.—The Academy met in the National Museum, Washington, on Tuesday, April 18, 1882, President W. B. Rogers in the chair. The papers of the first day were: 1. The course of the Gulf stream since the Cretaceous period, Alexander Agassiz. 2. The Pre-cambrian rocks o ga The affinities of Palaocampa Meek and Worthen, as evidence of the wide diversity of type in the earliest known Myriapods, S. H. Scudder. On the genesis and development of the Chirop- terygium from the Ichthyopterygium, Theodore Gill. Wednesday, April 19, 1882.—g. Preliminary notice of a new Dividing Engine, H. A. Rowland. Jo. On photographs of the Spectrum of the nebula in Orion, Henry Draper. 11. Theory of concave gratings, H. A. Rowland. 12. On the influence of time on the change in the resistance of the carbon disk of Edison’s Tasimeter, T. C. Mendenhall, presented by G. F. Barker. 13. ote on a special form of secondary battery or electric accumu- lator, Wolcott Gibbs. 14. Researches on complex inorganic acids (continued), Wolcott Gibbs. 15. Biographical notice of Professor John W. Draper, G. F. Barker. 16. Some discoveries rt enhance the value of the cotton and orange crops, C. V. ley, the Moon, A. W. Wright. 21. On the results of the incandes- cent lamp tests at the Paris Exhibition, G. F. Barker. 22. On the infra-red portion of the solar spectrum as studied with the bolometer, S. P, Langley. Friday, April 21, 1882.—23. On the formation of metalliferous vein formation at Sulphur Bank, California, Joseph Leconte. On a form of standard Barometer, A. W. Wright. 25. On a mar- Supial genus from the Eocene, E. D. Cope. 26. On a fallacy in induction, C. S. Peirce. The committee to examine into the in- vestigations into the value of sorghum as a source of sugar, made an interesting report. Professor Ira Remsen, of Baltimore, Was elected a member. R EADELPHIA Acapemy Narurat Sciences, Dec. 13.—Mr. yder described the development of fish eggs. He agreed with is and Rauber in the opinion that the rim of the blastoderm Soes to form a part of the muscular plates of the side of the body. 536 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [June, 1882. - Dec. 20—Mr. Martindale read a history of the connection of Dr. Ruschenberger with the academy, as testimony to his ser- vices, on the occasion of his declining re-nomination to the presidency. ` Dec. 27.—As the result of the annual election it was announced that Dr. Jos. Leidy was duly elected president of the Academy. Jan. 3, 1882.—Mr. Ryder confirmed, by the result of his obser- vations on additional types, the formation of vacuoles in the noto- chord of teleost fishes; and stated that although the tissue of the neural and enteric portions of the neurenteric canal were contin- uous, no open canal connected those portions. Dr. Leidy called attention to the composition of the gravels of Philadelphia and its vicinity, The commonest pebbles are quartz or quartzite, while those next in frequency are red-sandstone, probably mesozoic. Conglomerates are also found, but fossiliferous pebbles are very rare. Jan. 10—Mr. Heilprin called attention to the tidal theory of Professor Ball, and stated that the existence of life upon the coast tended to nullify some of Professor Ball’s conclusions. r. Potts described a new sponge, Heteromeyenia rydert, also a new species of Tubella, which he named T. pennsylvanica, The seed-bodies' of this latter sponge range from sy to 7's of an inch in diameter. He showed how the statoblasts of sponges like Son- gilla fragilis and Carterella form layers upon rocks, etc., after the spicules of the sponge have been washed away. The subject of the algous parasitic chlorophyll cells in certain sponges, infusoria, and mollusks was discussed by the president and Mr. Ryder. Mr. Meehan related an incident which indicated that,sparrow- pes can see mice when perched at a horizontal distance of 500 ect. Jan. 17.—Papers upon the new Crinoids of the Chemung period from the State of New York, by H. S. Williams, M. D.; the Species of Odontomya found in the United States, by Dr. L. T. Day, and a new station for Corema Conradii, by Aubrey H. Smith, were presented for publication. Mr. Redfield spoke of the extreme rarity of C. Conradii. MIDDLESEX Institute. Feb. 28.—L. L. Dame, president, de- livered an instructive lecture, the first in a series of twelve weekly botanical lectures, on the “ Growth of the plant from the seed,” to a class of nearly fifty members. : —Mrs. A. J. Dolbear gave the second in the series, her subject being, “ Morphology of roots, stems, and branches.’ March 8.—President Dame briefly reviewed the first year’s work of the Institute, and made some excellent suggestions in regaf“ to the best manner of carrying on the work which the Institute had undertaken. es : THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. VoL. xvi. — FULY, 1882. — No. 7. ON SOME ENTOMOSTRACA OF LAKE MICHIGAN : AND ADJACENT WATERS. BY S. A. FORBES, E cannot go far in the study of the system of organic life which prevails in a stream or lake, without being made aware of the important part played therein by the neglected but inter- esting group of the smaller crustaceans. They occupy a central position not only in the classification of aquatic animals, but also in the complicated network of physiological relations by which the living forms of a body of water are held together as an organized society. Feeding, themselves, upon the lowest and smallest of plants and animals, they furnish food in turn to a great variety of the higher animals, and even ‘to some plants. The fisherman who toils at his nets, the sportsman in pursuit of health and recreation, rarely reflect, even if they know, that their amusements and their labors depend strictly upon these humble creatures, of whose very existence, indeed, many of them: are unaware; and, yet there is ample evidence that, with few and _*** unimportant exceptions, all young fishes, of our fresh waters at * “* Meast, live for a time almost wholly upon entomostraca.” If de- On the Food of Young Fishes. By S. A. Forbes. Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, Bulletin No. 3, November, 1880, pp. 66-79. 2 On the First Food of the Whitefish. By S. A. Forbes, Normal, Ill.. The Ameri- PR Field, Vol. xvi, No, 11, p. 171, March 11, 1882. $ vou. XVIL—NO, vir, ee | 538 On some Entomostraca of Lake Michigan [July, prived of this resource for the nourishment of their young, fishes would be reduced to an insignificant remnant of their present numbers. : Immense quantities of them are also taken by adult fishes, especially in early spring, and some of the largest species make them a principal dependence. The shovel fish (Polyodon) of our great central rivers—a giant among inland fishes—engulfs untold myriads of them at a meal—thus performing in fresh water the functions of the whale in the great seas. In the lakes of Europe they are the main food resource of several deep water salmonoids, while in our own great lakes, clouds of the higher crustaceans (Mysis) live wholly at their expense; and these Myside, again, contribute largely to the maintenance of the whitefish and black- fin, and other important species. Some insect larvae likewise prey upon them; and amphipod crustaceans, while they seem to feed chiefly, upon vegetable structures of one sort or another, certainly sometimes attack and devour entomostraca with a sur- prising ferocity. Mollusca, one would say, could afford to be indifferent to them, since they neither eat them nor are eaten by them, nor seem to come in contact with them anywhere, through any of their habits or necessities. But for this very reason these two classes afford an excellent illustration of the stringent system of reactions by which an assemblage of even the most diverse and seemingly independent organisms is held together. To say nothing of the fact that both groups feed to a considerable extent upon the same kinds of food, and thus probably limit each other's multiplication, in some degree, the further fact that vast quanti- ties of both are destroyed by fishes, brings them into a mutually — hostile relation. If there were no entomostraca for young fishes to eat, there would be very few fishes indeed to feed upon mob lusca,and that class would flourish almost without restraint; while,, m on the other hand, if there were no mollusca for the support ae j adult fishes, entomostraca would befrelieved from a considerable : part of the drain upon their numbers, and would multiply ac cordingly. a ' It is through their intervention that fishes and certain caf- nivorous plants are brought into apparent competition. The r number of entomostraca and minute insect larvæ destroyed by o the bladder-wort in some situations where the plant fills acres ®t the water, must be prodigious, taking the season through; and s 1882. | and Adjacent Waters. 539 is not impossible that the food supply of young fishes is some- times thereby materially diminished. In short, it would be difficult to mention a single group of aquatic or semi-aquatic animals or plants, whose interests are not affected, immediately or remotely, by these little animals. But they have other claims upon our attention besides their importance in the general system of aquatic life. To the student of classification, they offer a fresh and inviting field of original work; the physiologist and the histologist may examine here the animal organs and tissues reduced almost to their lowest and- simplest terms, and yet easily studied in detail, while they still form living parts of living organisms; and those attracted by natural beauty (as who is not?) will find few lovelier objects for the microscope, or more admirable illustrations of the play of life than these exquisite, crystalline specks, each comprising within its minute anatomy a system of organs and structures which for complexity and for perfection of detail, would scarcely discredit a butterfly or a fish. I know of but one contribution to an exact knowledge of the Entomostraca of Lake Michigan—a brief paper by Professor E. A. Birge, containing a list of nine species of Cladocera found in the Chicago water supply, with a description of Latona setifera O. F. M.; and I have seen nothing upon those of any other of the great lakes, except the notes ona few Cladocera published by Professor S. I. Smith in his paper on the invertebrate animals of ke Superior? On the smaller crustacea of the region adjacent to the lakes, we have the valuable “ Notes on Cladocera,” by Professor Birge, and a paper by the writer on the Crustacea of Illinois.‘ The Jake material upon which the present paper is based, was obtained chiefly by the towing-net and dredge in Grand Traverse 1 Notes on Crustacea in Chicago Water Supply, with remarks on the Formation of the Cardpace. By E. A. Birge, Professor of Zoology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. The Chicago Medical Fournal and Examiner, Vol. xiv, No. 6, Dec., 188r, pp. 584-590, Pi, 1 and 1. *Sketch of the Invertebrate Fauna of Lake Superior. By Sidney I. Smith, United States Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries. Part 11. Report of the Com- missioner for 1872 and 1873, pp. 690-707. 3 Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, Vol. Iv, _ 1876-77, Madison, Wis., 1879, pp. 77-110, and Pl. 1 and 11. '* Bulletin of the Illinois Museum of Natural History, No. 1, December, 1876, PP. 3-25, and Pl. 1, 540 On some Entomostraca of Lake Michigan [July, bay, in the north-eastern part of Lake Michigan, and in the south end of the lake off Chicago and Racine. Several of the lacus- trine species had been previously received from Mr. B. W. Thomas and Mr. Chas. S. Fellows, of Chicago, by whom they had been strained from the Chicago water supply. A few additional species from the lakes and pools of Central and Northern Illinois, are described in the appendix to this paper, one of which occurs also in Southern Massachusetts, and prob- ably throughout the country intervening. : ` One of the most interesting species was obtained in consider- able numbers in Grand Traverse bay, associated with the ordinary forms of the lake, nearly all of which were abundant there in October, 1881. It is a copepod of the family Calanidæ, repre- senting a new genus and species, for which the name Lpzschura lacustris is proposed (Pl. 1x Fig. 8, and Pl. vir Figs. 15, 19, 21-23 and 25-27). The family is easily distinguished from Cyclopidz and Har- pactide, to which most of our other fresh-water species belong, by the elongate anterior antenne of 23-25 articles, by the (usu- ally) two-branched antennulz and mandibular palpi, by the wide difference in size between the abdomen and thorax, and by the fact that in the male only one antenna is converted into a clasping organ. Epischura is colorless in autumn, although possibly red in spring, .063 in. long by .o15 in. wide, and distinguished in both sexes by what seems at first a deformity of the abdomen. On — closer inspection it is seen that in the male the last three segments of this region are laterally produced into a grasping orga of peculiar construction, and that the whole abdomen is thus dis- torted and rendered unsymmetrical. The lateral processes of the first and second segments evidently act against each other as 4 powerful pair of nippers, while the third, bearing upon the same side a stout toothed plate, must greatly increase the security of the grasp, when brought into play by the strong muscles of the abdomen. A fourth process extending forward from near the base of the right ramus of the furca, also contributes to the formation of this organ. A steel-trap attachment to the tail of an alligator would very well illustrate the vigorous embrace of this little crustacean. Besides this, the right antenna is thickene hinged as a clasper, and the last pair of legs is also con into a complicated apparatus of claws and forceps. In me a aami ee j 1882.] and Adjacent Waters. 54I female the abdomen is usually bent outward to the left, to leave space for a finger-like process which arises at the hind end of the ovisac and curves upward beside the second segment. This is the spermatophore, the ñeck of which is firmly cemented to the under side of the abdomen. In this sex the legs of the fifth pair are ex- tremely simple and rather small. . They are not branched like the other legs, and are without the delicate and beautiful fringes of feathery hairs with which the swimming appendages are provided, but each consists ofa single flat, three-jointed plate, with five spread- ing spines at and near its tip. The swimming legs of both male and female are peculiar in the fact that the inner branch of all the pairs is reduced to a single joint. The affinities of this genus are with Heterocope Sars, found in the lakes of Scandinavia, Switzer- land and Upper Italy, and probably in other parts of Europe also; but the modification of the abdomen asa prehensile organ is a new idea among Copepoda. Mutilated specimens of the female of this species have been taken by Mr. Thomas from the water supply of Chicago; I also found the species common in Geneva lake, in Southern Wisconsin, in October, 1881. Another beautiful member of this family, occurring abundantly everywhere in the lake and at all seasons of the year, is closely related to the Diaptomus gracilis of Europe; but a careful study of it during successive seasons, and a comparison with the orig- inal description of Sars and with the descriptions and plates of D. gracilis published by Gruber in 1878, have satisfied me that our species is distinct, and I therefore propose for it the name of Diaptomus sicilis (Pl. viir, Figs. 9 and 20). It is the most slender and elegant of our Calanidz, usually colorless and transparent, but sometimes crimson in spring. The antennz are long and Weak, reaching beyond the tip of the abdomen, and are provided with hairs of unusual length, that on the ninth joint, for example, reaching beyond the fourteenth, It is in the fifth pair of the legs of both male and female that we find the best ons characters in this family—and here the clearest distinctions from Diaptomus gracilis occur. In the male both pairs are two- branched. The last joint of the right leg forms a slender, sickle- shaped hook, which is regularly curved from base to apex, while _ the outer branch of the left leg of this pair is two-jointed, with a rounded extremity, bearing two short diverging | _ Claws 542 The Loess of North America. [July, EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIII. Fic. 1.—Diaptomus sanguineus, 9, X 42. t 2.—Dorsal outline of the same “& 3.—Diaptomus sanguineus, œ, geniculate antenna, X 50 4.— - “ CG, right leg of fifth pair, X 67. a X 70 s 5.— g “ d, left e “ 6— Ka ~ ©, leg of fifth pair. “ Gy fee “ “ second maxilliped, X 63. « 8— + stagnalis, antennula, x 48. « o— a sicilis, ¥' fifth pair of legs, X 160. “« 10.— es stagnalis, 578 Recent Literature. [July, the full belief that what is good for them is good for all. Itis only the little minds, the confirmed scarabeists (to make use of Dr. . W. Holmes’s amusing example), the men who cannot rise above the level of a list of species or an account of the metamor- phoses of a monad, that affect to believe that science is a sacred thing, that should, like the mysteries of the Egyptians, be the sole property of a few priests. et all, then, who wish for information combined with the en- tertainment of the highest faculties of the brain, promptly sub- scribe to Knowledge. ; ANIMAL Anatysis.'—This work is a series of blanks to be filled by the student, like those which have been introduced into the study of botany with such success. They are essentially neces- sary to a proper study of zoology in schools, and we are glad to see so good a beginning made in supplying the need, We hope, however, that some changes will be made in them as presented in this first edition. The Batrachia and tortoises are omitted——a serious error, since these animals, especially the former, are the most available and most easily analyzed of all the Vertebrata. In the snakes, examination of the teeth is not required—a great omission, Finally the order to which a species belongs is not required, thus losing one of the principal points of diagnosis in the Vertebrata. BIOLOGISCHES CENTRALBLATT2—It is not often that a new scien- tific journal attempts more than to represent either some well acknowledged department, or more frequently some specialty, since every year brings us new specialties clamoring for recog tion. The fortnightly publication, which we wish to notice here, is distinctly general in its scope and aim. The first volume, now completed, shows that this periodical fills an unoccupied and im- portant field with marked ability and success. This Centralolatt, one of many, attempts chiefly to give abstracts of the most valua- ble and important researches, as far as possible those of gene interest; special prominence is given to summaries of the results obtained concerning any subject, our knowledge of which has been increased by several separate investigations. The sciences included are botany, zodlogy, physiclogy, scientific psychology and a little pathology. The selection of matter has thus far been extremely judicious, so that we have an excellent presentation of the greater part of the most noteworthy current biological dis- coveries. Indeed we think the Biologisches Centralblatt may be justly described as indispensable to the general student. + Animal Analysis for use in Schools and Colleges, especially adapted to accom: . pany Jordan’s Manual of Vertebrates. By B. W. EvERMANN. Jansen, McClurg © Co., Chicago. aS . E. M, Rees, und BE * Biologisches Centralblatt. Unter mitwirkung von Dr. } pree _ SELENKA, herausgegeben von J. ROSENTHAL. Vol. 1, 8vo, Erlangen. casein sold, 1881-82. s Thes 1882. | Recent Literature. 579 appearance of the journal in point of mechanical execution is excellent, though the substitution of simple 7 for T% in all cases, being unusual, seems at first amusing. We will only add a brief mention of some of the general sum- maries or essays, to indicate the range of subjects: Berthold, Fertilization of Algæ; Klebs, Movement of vegetable Proto- plasm; Sprengel, Orthonectide ; Wiedershetm, North American Paleontology; Bischoff, Weight of the human Brain; Kraepelin, Duration of simple Psychic Processes; Exner, Functioning o the facetted Eye. The list might be greatly lengthened, but we believe that the titles quoted snffice to demonstrate the wide scope embraced. Several of the original articles are meritorious contributions, and the numerous abstracts make up a good intro- duction to the best current biological literature. We hope that American naturalists will support this valuable enterprise by their subscriptions. The price is very moderate, fifteen marks for a yearly volume of 800 pages.—C. S. M. PAGENSTECHER’S GENERAL ZooLocy, 4TH Part.\—The fourth part of this voluminous work relates to the excretory organs of animals, thus ending the consideration of the organs of vegetative life; and also to the external covering or integument of the body of animais. We have to make the same criticism regarding the cuts as in our former notice, the illustrations being too diminu- tive and not clearly drawn and engraved. e lack of subdi-. vision into sections is only partly made up by a detailed and ex- cellent table of contents. It is a useful work, valuable for refer- ence, and the author is careful to cite his authorities. Brooks’ INVERTEBRATE Zootocy2—It is with great pleasure that we have examined this work, and in a hasty manner read portions of it. The scope of the work is best indicated by the following extract from the preface: “ This is a hand-book, not a text-book, and the entire absence of generalization and compari- Son is not due to indifference to the generalizations of modern Philosophical morphology, but rather to a wish to aid beginners to study them.” Following out this idea, Dr. Brooks, in a very thorough manner, takes up in succession the Ameeba, Vorticella, Parameecium, Grantia, Eucope, Mnemopsis, starfish, sea urchin, earth-worm, leech, crab, lobster, Cyclops, grasshopper, Lamelli- branch and s uid. The method of treatment is modeled some- what after that in the well-known and much used “ Biology ” of uxley and Martin, and we think will be found to be a great im- provement upon it. With each form we have detailed accounts A ! Allgemeine Zoologie oder Grundgesetze des thierischen Baus und Lebens. Von H. Nee PAGENSTECHER. i heil. Mit 414 holzschnitten. Beilin, Ver- an n Paul Parey, 1881. Preis 21 mark. 8vo, pp- 959- s . 14and-book of Invertebrate Zoology for Laboratories and sea-side Work. By W. s, Ph. ssociate in biology and director of the Chesapeake —— SON vO, ce -o oratory of the Johns Hopkins University. Boston, S. E. Cassino, 1882. PP Yi + 30%. $3. 580 Recent Literature. [ July, of the various steps to be taken in order to acquire an autoptic and thorough knowledge of its structure and, in all but one or two forms, of its development as well. These directions for study are almost invariably full, clear and explicit, while the numerous out- line figures (of which there are 202) give one an idea of what to look for, and at the same time form a useful basis for comparative study. ‘These figures are for the most part clear and easily under- stood, and possess one very pleasing feature, they are original and have a freshness not always found in books of like char- acter. -The book is well printed, and is a credit to its pub- lisher; the typographical errors are few, as are those of the text; to one or two of the illustrations and a few of the statements of the text, we would not agree, though the points in question are of minor importance. On the whole we regard the work as by far the best text-book for laboratory work.—¥%. S. Kingsley. Dillwyn; Partulus, Beck, 1837; and Pariula by Pfeiffer, H. Pease, O. Semper, W. G. Binney, and our author. In the first of The characters of these several sub-genera are succinctly stated, accompanied by a figure of the species used as its type. It 18 4 -atalogue of the Genus Partula, Ferussac. By W. D. Hartman, M. P: ae o “ -D Printed for the author by F. S. Hickman, West Chester, Pa., 1881. Als r Observations on the species of the Genus Partula, Ferussac; with a Bibli Catalogue. By William Dell Hartman, M. D. Ball. Mus. Comp. Zoil. No. v. pp. 171-196. With two maps, Dec. 1881. r 1882.) Recent Literature. 581 and geographical distribution. The facts pertaining to the latter phase are further illustrated by two maps, showing the distribution of the species by islands, and in individual islands. They are, the author states, the work of Mr. Andrew Garrett, a resident of Huaheine, from whom we are promised further descriptions of species based upon the MSS. of the late W. H. Pease, and his own copious collections. From the facts brought out by Dr. Hartman it appears that Partula illustrates the influence of environment as do but few other genera of land shells. It is true that some of the species are said to be remarkably uniform in specific charac- ter and somewhat widely distributed over the islands in which they do occur, but the instances of variation, when away from the centers of distribution, appear to be much more numerous. To this fact must be attributed some of the vast quantity of synono- my indicated. Another peculiar feature is the common occur- rence of hybrids amongst certain forms “ the result of the union of proximate species.’ Dr. Hartman states that hybridization even occurs between the arboreal and ground species, and here is another frnitful source for re-description, as in Achatinella, and we might add Goniobasis as found in the southern United States, there is a marked mutation of species consequent on change of food and station. “It often happens that the gravid females are tion of certain forms. We are convinced that a vast deal of work remains to be done in this direction; a work which Hartman has performed for Partula; a work which will sensibly limit the num- ber of accepted species, Especially will this be true of the two great fresh-water families of our country, Unionide and Strep- omatide. In the case of Partula, Dr. Hartman finds the lingual dentition to vary within rather wide limits in the same species, a fact Which apparently indicates that the basis for final and ideal Classification does not lie therein. It is to be hoped that his un- Mvaled facilities will induce this author to further elaborate the ata bearing on the evolution of forms, of which he now gives us vague but suggestive hints. In summing up we should not fail to remark that of one hundred and seventy-four species enumer- ated, all go into synonomy save seventy-three, or over fifty per | cent. The genus, by the way, is declared to be confined to the - Pacific islands, “ They have never been found at the Sandwich 582 Recent Literature. | [July, group, or New Caledonia; its western limit is New Guinea, and they are not found in New Zealand or Australia. North of the equator, they are found at the Pelew islands, and as far north as Tuam inthe Ladrone islands. The New Hebrides and Solomon’s island have afforded a few species,” while the me/ropolts is situated in the Polynesian islands. Woodward, who makes, with others, the genus a section under Bulimus, gives its distribution as ‘Asiatic, Australian, and Pacific islands, South America.”—R&. Ellsworth Call. T Books AND ge ik ETS.—On the occurrence of fnar lus beneath the pliieiat till of Norfolk. By E. T. Newton, F.G.S. pp. 4, plate. Extract from the Geological Magazine, 1882. London, 1882. From the author, The New Zealand Journal of Sciences, oY voted to the furtherance of natural and applied gangen through the Colony. No. 2, Vol. 1, March. 1882. Price 25. 8vo pp- 481, stitched, The vagus vgb in Aeri domestic cat (Felis ppp rli By T. B. Sto AM., Ph.D. 8vo, pp ates. a bps sd American Philosophical pe July, 1881. Phin 1881. m the author. List of papers by William oe “Dall pestle U. S. Coast Survey, honorary curator U. ay Hein Maan 1865-1882. 8vo, pp. 6. Philadelphia (?), 1882. From the vse prey anieri = the Boston peiin Society. Vol. 1, No. 2, April, 1881, 8vo 6 From the i Trane sactions e i yan lea # eee Engineers. 8vo, pp. 80. Philae delphia. a m the Society. ee “ Forest and seas ” Bird Notes, A htag and spony of all the ornithologi- cal she anei ed in “ Forest and Stream.” Vol. 1-x1ri. Compiled by H. B. Bailey, 8vo, pp. 196. New York, 1881, From the author. Syllabus of Lectures on the Laws of Heredity and *Principles of jra = given at the Sheffield Scientific Scho ol of Yale College, to students in the course in Agri- - culture and in ogy, January to April, 1878. By Wm, H. Brewer. pe pp 8% Fermentation in its [lousehold Relations, pp. 26.— The Causes which affect the Vitality of Seeds, pp. 16.— The Principles of Breeding, pp. 18.— arieties of pees Plants; what they are, and how they are multiplied and dieoved: Pp. 34 Agricultural Societies, and what they a are and what they have done, pp. 30. The Adaptation of pe er o to the improvements in implements and transpor tation. By Pige Wm., H. Brewer of Yale College. 8vo, pp. 28. Extract oa the report of the pair oe Conn, Board ir Agriculture. New Haven , 1889. From the author Notice of a wok by bes i Nicholson on the genus pront and eert scription of two new genera and eight new species of ‘4a cepa the Hudson Riv group, with remarks upon pivo rs. “B S. A. Miller. 8vo, 2 plates a i the Journal of the Sennett Society of Natural History, Vol. sy Aoh, 1882. : cinnati, 1882. From the au iy The Bird’s- Nesting; a iad book of i Soen in gathering and preserving ek and Eggs of Birds for a of study. By Ernest Ingersoll. 8vo, pp. 19% pa te d. mese 1882. Fiese the author, Firs ons in Geo By A. S. Packard, Jr. To accompany the Cha aunor, eier o ‘icone. perl 8vo, pp. 126. Providence, 1882, From the autok. — Bulletin of the U. S. National Museum. Guide to the Flora a he So vici soe, ae pp. 264, se iaer under the direction it Institution, Department of the Inter Government Printi E tice, Was 1881. Fro the ty of the techie 1882. | Recent Literature. 583 Paleontology. On the origin and development of sovey i Horses. By Jac Wortman. pp. 16, istr ated. Extract oa a ES as City Review of eae and Industry. Kansas City, 1882. From the au Proceedings of the Academy in? Netra Siina of Philadelphia. 8vo, pp. 30. Philadelphia, 1882. From thes Proceedings oe ee States oti Museum, April ro, 1882. 8vo, pp. 16. From the secre A short sage “ol ‘the de bl of the region of the Lower Great Lakes during ike Great River age; or note the origin of the Great Lakes of North Am . W. Spencer, 8vo, Gee i6. (From the Proceedings of the American ppi for sas peaa a, of Science, Vol. xxx, 1881.) Salem, 1882. From the 3H of Colors r for the Charts of the U. S. — Survey, 7 chro- ah 4 to plates. Washington, 1882. From the Prospectus. Mt, Mica Tin and Mica Company. pp. 4. sete 1882. From the company. A ew for the use “i bag acy, in Egypto! ogy. By Edward Yorke McCauley, U.S.N. . Q0. ct from Proceedings of the Philosophical Society, Vol. xX, ra "Philadelphia, 1881. From tbe author Dr. H. G. Bronn’s Klassen und Ordnungen des iaig et wissenschaftlich dargestellt i in ‘he und Bild. Fortgesetzt von . Hoffman, professor in Leiden. = chster Band, 111 Abtheilung. Reptilien. va 753-848. “Tafel LXXVII-LXXXIV. eipzig, i he American Journal of ae June, 1882, From the editors. Library of Harvard University. A Bibliography of Fossil Insects. By S. H. reer: PP. 47. Can mbedae i 1882. atalogue des Mammifères vivants a fossiles. Parle Dr, E-L. Trouessart. Fa: c. I, aon pp. 67, 1880-81. From the author. Also by and from the same— Le Role des Courants Marins dans la Distributio ion Geographique des Mammifères n et ITEE des Phoques et des Otaries, pp. 4. And— 1 Genre Semnopithèque (Semnopithecws) pp. 12. Ev. Couri ts dz la phy et peas de Zoologie, Paris ology of Northwest Kashmir aad ae n (being sixth en of Geology of Kashmir and neighboring territories). By R. Lyddeker, B.A., F.Z.S., a. ia . from the Rec ting Geol. Surv. India, Vol. foe 1882, pp. Le Tunnel Sous-Marin du Pas-de:Cala Compte Rendu d’une visite aux tra- vaux einar. Par M. C. Janet. Baunin, 1882. Palæozoic Geology of the T about the western end of Lake Ontario. By Professor . Spencer, B A.Sc., F.G.S. pp. 43, pl. 1. Ext. from Canadian Naturalist, Vol. x, No, 3. From the author On the Physical ae and Hypsometry of ba Dade age: Mountain region. By Arnold Guyot. p. 22, with larg apd oe all maps. Ext. from Amer Jour. of Science, oe 1880. From the a ie fotos i of United States Marit sions pp- 433-448, May 6th, 1832. ngton Bulletin poe ve > Fish Commission, pp. 241-288. Washington, April 28, 1882. of m the departm logen, FORES, on the Origin and Nature of Life, pp. 27. By Dr. Elliott Goren Washington, 1882. From the author. Her E agra Bemerkungen. Von Dr. I. G. Fischer, in Hamburg. Mit zwei _ Tafeln, pp. Bonn, 1882 Proceedings of a Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences. Part 111, August to December, 1881, pp. aed pl. iv. Philadelphia, 1882. From the society ! Défense sie Colonies. V. Apparition et Réapparition en Angleterre et en Ecosse 2 T Erpa Coloniales Siinne de la Boheme, pp. 77- Par ma Barrande. ‘ro aut 584 General Notes, [July, Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers. From the institute, Smithsonian Report, 1880. Washington, 1881. From the Smithsonian insti- tution. Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada. Report of progress for 1879-1880, pp. 555, pl. XIX, maps V. Montreal, 1881. From the director of the geological survey. Bulletin of U. S. National Museum, No. 11. Bibliography of the Fishes of the acific coast of the U. S. to the end of the year 1879, pp. 73. By Dr. Theo Gill. Studien iiber das Milchgebiss und die Zahnhomologien bei den Chiropteren, Von Wilhelm Leche. Ext. Archiv. fur Naturg., xxxxu. Bonn. Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History, Vol. 111, No. v. Archypoly- poda, a subordinal type of spined Myriapods from the Carboniferous formation. By S.: H. Scudder. pp. 40, pl. iv. :0: GENERAL NOTES. BOTANY. An Active Desmip.—I have been much interested lately in observing a species of desmid, Cosmarium botrytis. When m bright sunlight it has a slow rotary movement, turning succes sively from right to left and from left to right, with now and then (if my eyes did not deceive me) what might be called a spasmodic jerk. The play of the protoplasm within the plant-body is €x- ceeding rapid, resembling, in the words of some writers, “the swarming of bees.” There seems to be three centers of move- ments among the granules in each half of the desmid, but as to of being alive by the movement of its protoplasm. I call atten- tion to this because in the few books of reference accessible to me, I find no mention of a revolving desmid.—Eloise Butler, Min- neapolis, Minn. : THE COFFEE-LEAF FUNGUS ONE OF THE URrEDINEÆ.—IN an m- teresting paper in the January number of the Quarterly Four nal of Microscopical Science, H. M. Ward describes and figures all se known stages of the coffee-leaf fungus (Hemileia vastat x) 0 Ceylon, and demonstrates its affinities with the ordinary Uredin- ea, Puccinia, Uromyces, Melampsora, etc. When Berkeley de- scribed it in 1869, he considered it to be “ with difficulty referable to any recognized section of fungi,” and regarded it as interme- redin bay and Morris subsequently came to the conclusion th bodies considered to be spores by Berkeley, were sporangia, entirely unsettling for a time all previous notions as to the r r tionship of the parasite. wo The gross anatomy of the coffee-leaf fungus is thus described o by Dyer (Qr. Four. Mic. Sci., April, 1880): “To the naked eys ee 1Edited by Pror. C, E. Bessey, Ames, Iowa. oe: 1882. ] Botany. 585 the first appearance of the Hemileia is indicated by a alent trans- parency or palish discoloration, easily noticed when the leaf is held up to the light. These transparent spots indicate ss seen Soot and found that after ramifying coven the leaf-cells, from which they draw nour- Yo av S) ishment by means of AS ana eeh haustoria (Fig. 1), they Se x 2 ‘4 Ss bers in the lacunæ be- l UNY ON neath the stomata, a $ pare AN through which they = œf Ñ, apex of each hypha ex- V pands into an ovoid sac, Wa AR ' which eventually ac- trating WA ae of a hypha with haustoria pene- — a thickened, oughened wall, be- comes a spore (see Fig. 2), the uredósporė, according to Ward. Later the same myceliu m gives rise in a very similar way to smooth napiform bodies—the teleutospores (Fig. 3). Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fic. 2.—Vertical section of leaf through a cluster of uredospores. Fic. 3.—Ver- coral Section of a leaf through a cluster of teleutospores; one uredospore still re- The germination of the uredospore (Fig. 4 a) agrees with that of the uredospore of ordinary Uredinez, one or more hyphæ be- ing sent out from it, which eventually penetrate the leaf. This Ward. The teleutospore germinates very readily, it being the rule for it to do so while uae attached to its hypha. A tube ae VOL, Xv1 “NO, VII. - 586 General Notes. [July, promycelium) is sent out (Fig. 4 4) which becomes septate, and eventually bears sporidia (erroneously called conidia by Mr. ard). In this the resemblance to the corresponding process in Puccinia, Uromyces, etc., is so great as to leave little doubt as to the identity of the teleutospores of Hemileia and those of the Uredinez, It is Fic. 4.—a, germinating uredospore; 3, germinating teleutospore bearing four sporidia. whether the hetercecism of the Uredinez, so particularly eg able in those species which affect the grasses, is not simply aa sort of transition stage in the change of habitat of the parası from one host to another ?>—C. £ B. x 1882. ] Botany. 587 dite as to be generally avoided even in botanical classes, is found in Dr. Rothrock’s “ Captive Plants,” which appeared in Our Couti- nent, of April 5. The substance of Schwendener’s theory as to the nature of lichens is clearly set forthina manner which leaves nothing to be desired. It is interesting to note that the article is written from the standpoint of Schwendener’s view, that is, that a lichen is primarily an ascomycetous fungus parasitic upon certain algze, the latter being the green bodies known as gonidia. even excellent figures accompany the article. ABNORMAL SPATHES OF SYMPLOCARPUS.— The past spring I have been on the lookout for abnormal growths in Symplocarpus fæti- dus Salisb., and herewith transmit the result, trusting that it may lead to further investigation. I found on examining several hundred specimens, five containing one spathe within another. They were, to all outward appearance, ina normal condition, but contained an inner spathe having a short peduncle (see Figs. 1 and 2). Ina cluster of three spathes, one was single, one contained a single perfect inner spathe with a spadix, while the other con- tained a double inner spathe with one spadix. The double /# | spathe faced toward the rear of //| the outer spathe. In the sin- \\ gle spathes I found specimens facing to the front, to the rear, and to one side. I also found three spathes oo aoe spathe, containing abortive spadices. Fic. 2.—Ver- oe ew oer Ti one case (the. spathe was oe maio ora P and spadix. . . . spathe contain- i three inches in height and con- Da tan ox tained a minute spadix one-eighth of an inch high spathe with spa- upon a short peduncle. This small spadix was yel- dix lowish white in color, hollow, and of a spongy consistence. It contained minute undeveloped flowers (see Fig. 3). Now comes the question as to what causes the mal- formation in one case and the abortion in the other. Thomé says: “As poverty of soil leads to abortion, so an unusual increase in the development of the axial or foliar organs is the result of too powerful nutri- tion.” This, however, is not a satisfactory explanation. There could not have been enough difference in the vation.—Chas. S. Plumb, Amherst, Mass. 588 General Notes. [July, Ertis’ NortaH AMERICAN Funct.—When, in 1878, the first cen- tury of “ North American Fungi,” by J. B. Ellis, appeared with the timidly expressed hope of its author that the work might be continued until a thousand species had been distributed, but few of the subscribers dared hope for a speedy completion of the first decade of centuries, and doubtless most looked for an early suspension of the work. So many attempts have been made to furnish sets of fungi, mosses, lichens, alge, etc., etc., which have been abandoned long before completion, that subscribers to such sets scarcely expect any other conclusion. It may be that Mr. Ellis will weary of the good work he is doing so well, and thus add his “ North American Fungi” to the long list of incompleted ZOOLOGY. . PRELIMINARY CLASSIFICATION OF THE BRAIN OF CRUSTACEA— The following provisional grouping of the brain of Crustacea appears to be justified by known facts, although excepting the brains of Decapoda and Limulus, no special histological work has been accomplished. d he terms archi-cerebrum and syn-cerebrum have been propose by Professor Lankester, the first to designate the simple worm like brain of Apus, and the second to designate the composite brain of the Decapoda, etc. Tetradecapoda. Syn-cerebrum Phyllocarida. adocera. Entomostraca. Phyllopoda. Archi-cerebrum Merostomata (Limulus). Cirripedia ? The syn-cerebrum of the Tetradecapoda, Amphipoda and 1s0- - 1882. ] Zoology. 589 poda, judging by Leydig’s figures! and our own observations on that of Idotea and Lerolis,” is built on a different plan from that of the Decapoda. The syn-cerebrum of the Phyllocarida is somewhat like that of the Cladocera and Copepoda (Calanide) ; being essentially different from that of the majority of the Mala- costracous Crustacea. The Copepodous brain is an- unstable, variable organ, but on the whole belongs to a different category from the syn-cerebrum of other Neocarida. We have, then, probably two types of archi-cerebra, and three types of syn-cerebra among existing Crustacea——A. S. Pack- ard, Fr. THE COLORING OF Zo0-GEOGRAPHICAL Maps.—Having had occa- Sion to prepare a colored map to illustrate the geographical dis- tribution of the phyllopod Crustacea of North America, for Hay- den’s 12th Annual Report of the U. S. Geological Survey, we would propose for the consideration of zodlogists, the following scale of colors, which we have adopted. In the colored maps al- ready published, one by Mr. W. G. Binney on the Western Mol- lusks, and one by Dr. John L. LeConte to illustrate the distribu- tion of the Coleoptera, the coloring does not at all agree. Itis highly desirable that such maps should, if possible, be uniform, as much so perhaps as geological maps. Arstic Realm Very pale carmine. Boreal (Canadian) Province. ... ) sis ve Blue. Eastern (Atlantic . Pale yellowish-green. Antillean Region ii.i ooi ee : entral Province .Pale (Vandyke) brown. Western (Pacific) Province. ....Sepia, dark brown. Central American Region. ..... Yellow ochre. Annual Isothermals A deep red heavy line. This combination of colors seems appropriate to the nature of these regions. The pale carmine is like ice ; the blue, yellowish- green and deep green characterizes the wooded portions of the continent, and the light brown forms the treeless plains and pla- teaus of the West. The Alpine summits of the White mountains and Rocky mountains are concolorous with the Arctic regions, and the summits of the Alleghanies with the Boreal province — A. S. Packard, Jr. Proressor E. A. BIRGE oN THE First ZOEA STAGE OF PINNO- THERES OSTREUM.—In the summer of 1878 I accompanied the Johns Hopkins Laboratory to Cresfield, Md., and occupied my tme with study on the development of decapod Crustacea. I Was so fortunate as to obtain from the egg specimens of the first zoea of Pinnotheres, and so unfortunate as to be unable to rear them beyond the first molting. I therefere send figures of the zoéa in < Tafeln zur Vergleichenden Anatomie. Von F. Leydig. Tübingen, 1864, folio. jaj rotioay for High Schools and Colleges, Figs. 255, 256. Drawn by Mr. Kings- 590 General Notes. [July, order that future observers may be able to connect tie free larvae — with the proper adult form. The female was found in an oyster with the eggs already well t. 2, Fic, 1.—Zoea of Pinnotheres ostreum (Say) from side. a”, antennule; a, antenna; l, labrum; md, mandible ; mp’ mp’’, maxillipeds. Fic. 2.—Zoéa from front. developed. She was put into a large glass jar and given an oys- ter shell under which to hide, and so lived for more than two _ weeks. During that time her shell increased greatly in thickness and strength—a fact of which I was made aware by a sharp nip Fic. 3.—Zcéa from rear, which she gave me one morning as I was putting fresh water rae — the jar. Evidently the change of environment did not injure 96F and she seemed well able to live indefinitely in her new quarters: — 1882. ] Zoölogy, 591 The eggs all hatched in the course of one night, throve for some days, but died before the first molting, in spite of all pos- sible care. {9 W Fic. 4, antennule; 5, mandible from outside; 6, labrum; 7, Ist maxilla; 8, 2d maxilla; 9, rst maxilliped; 10, 2d maxilliped; 11, end of abdomen. No special description is needed for the zoéa further than to Say that the total length was about 114". No special drawing of the rudimentary antenna was made. The cuts are all traced from camera lucida sketches. BOPYROIDES LATREUTICOLA, A NEW SPECIES OF Isopop CRUSTA- CEAN PARASITIC ON A GULF-WEED SHrimp.—Amongst a bottle of Marine Crustaceans caught with a fine net out of Sargassum or n of Latreutes ensiferus Stm., having a lateral thoracic protuberance, for the purpose of examining them for Bopyride. The swelling out is very peculiar, being directed outward and forward in looking at the host from above; a front view of the Protuberance does not exhibit the star-shaped drawing as in Bopyrus Paemoneticola Pack., on Palemonetes vulgaris Stm., owing to the fact that in the present case the female of the para- * Latreutes ensiferus Stimpson, Proceedings Acad, Philad., 1860, p. 27. v ce ensiferus, Milne Edwards in Histoire Naturelle de Crustacées, 1837, c_Bulletin of the, cee, tas, Selec, Masa, 1808, Vol.,x, List.of North Amedcan Tustacea, sub-order Caridea, by J. S. Kingsley, p. 56, No. 16. 592 General Notes. [July, site is not at all pigmented. The position of the latter is exactly the same as in Bopyrus, the dorsal side being directed toward the gills of the host and the ventral side toward the swollen carapace of the same. The examination of our parasite revealed an isopod crustacean belonging to the sub-genus Bopyroides established by Dr. Wm. Stimpson,' being closely allied to both the genus Bopyrus and ~ e The female of our parasite measures 14™ in length and 1™™ across its widest diameter. It is not as flat but more of a globu- lar shape than Bopyrus, its integument also less chitinized, the whole body therefore softer. The body is unsymmetrical in shape, similar to Bopyrus, differing also in this respect from the genus Gyge, which is unsymmetrical anteriorly only. Dorsally the seg- ments of the pleon, or tail, are distinct, whereas in Bopyrus they are fused or connate in the central dorsal axis. In this respect it agrees with Gyge as well as in some respects concerning the form of the gills. The latter do not consist of short, thick, fleshy, transversely placed lobes, but of fleshy, roundish ridges attached within the ventral lateral extremity of the six segments of the eon. Seven pairs of legs (pereiopods) are developed on one side and only one pair on the opposite side, the remaining six being obso- lete through parasitism. They are similar to those of Bopyrus palem., but even less distinct and not pigmented centrally. The side having but one leg is curved outward. ; The marsupium or breeding cavity is bounded posteriorly by the transverse prolonged lamella of the last pereiopod, anteriorly by the cephalic piece and the lamellæ of the first pair of pereto- pods, laterally on one side by the fleshy longitudinal ridge along the other developed pereiopods, which are, if I see rightly, there without lamellæ. On the opposite side, where only the first pereiopod remained, the marsupium is covered by two fleshy, sparsely pigmented lamellz (Figs. 1 and 2 a, a), and three or four very thin and delicate broad membranes (Figs. 1 and 2 b). | a membranes and lamellz are evidently the prolonged margins 0 the thoracic segments. he eggs measure 0.12™ in diameter. There are scarcely more than sixty eggs in some marsupia, the greater part 0 pee supia containing but a few eggs. On account of the scarcity 0 material but little was done to study the eggs; they were all ir the earlier stages of development, without any pigmentation an of a yellowish color. The cephalic portion, or head, consists apparently of but pt triangular fleshy piece. I was somewhat surprised to find in the 1 See Bopyroides acutimarginatus Stm., in Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sciences, P. 165, a Vol. xv, 1863. eee ie 2 Emilio Cornalia and Paolo Panceri in Mem. Acad. Reale di Torino, Ser. 2, 50°” — _ XIX, p. 85, Turin, 1861. Also Bate and Westwood, II, p. 223- ; F 1882. ] Zoology. 593 otherwise very degenerate female a pair of pigment spots of irregular shape, the ae a i pair of very minute, short, anterior, ela view of femal Fic, fleshy eea ore at b, membranous extensions of per n, drawn akarti: than i in reality. Fic. 2.—Dorsal view of fe- male with natal a, a, on t the opposite side in nature from Fi secs Fic. 3.—Ventral rn of transparent male, legs omitted. 4, picon ve pig- ment; 7, testis; ud, deferens; 4, liver; cor, heart. FIG mre baba pig- : t of male, GK ; Fic. Mesa of male. Fic, 6.—Thoracic leg of wa horas Cephalic piece of female. Fic. 8.—Pigment spot of first perei bal eee near its P ol eoe female Bopyroides. rig 7h of two (three i. jointed, larger, posterior E 594 General Notes. [July, The maxilla, if I properly recognized it, consists of a small flat basal piece with a rounded subtriangular flat terminal piece. The first pair of pereiopods is provided, near the junction of its basal piece and the prolonged lanceolate lamella, with a con- spicuous large peculiar pigment spot, as seen in Fig. 8. The male of our Bopyroides is smaller but higher specialized than that of Bopyrus palemoneticola, It is always found on the same spot—on the ventral side between the breathing appendages of the pleon of the female. It measures #™™ in length, and nearly 1mm in width. It is but sparingly pigmented and therefore very transparent. The head is slightly longer than the first segment of the pereion. Two moderately large pigment eyes are situated a little behind the middle of the head. I have examined five individuals and found in every case the anterior pair of antennz larger (three- jointed) than the posterior pair (two-jointed). The oral parts are conical and not very distinct. : The first thoracic segment is sub-quadrate, the second to sixth segments are equal in length, width and shape, so is the seventh segment, but with a faint lateral emargination. The propodus of the seven pairs of legs (eight in Bopyrus, male) is sub-chelate with | its inferior margin dentate, the dentation not being equally devel- oped in all the legs. ‘ The pleon, or tail, of the male is narrower than the pereion, has six sub-segments, sixth sub-segment with a lateral short spine, an indication of which is also found on the margin of the preceding two sub-segments. The spines may be regarded as rudimentary pleopods, The heart can be distinctly seen in the pleon, also a narrower string extending laterally from the first to the fifth thoracic Seg- ment, where an indistinct twist occurs, after which the string 1S ` somewhat flatter, reaching down into the seventh segment, where its terminus is obliterated by pigment. The part of this string anterior to the twist, I regard as the testis, while the posterior may be the vas deferens. I did not observe an anastomosis be- tween the two lateral strings, nor have I distinctly seen the ante- rior terminus of the same. An elongate lobe can be notre the first sub-segment of the pleon, which Dr. Fritz Müller, a si observed in the male of Bopyrus resupinatus, and which 1s re y garded by him as the liver.— Carl F. Gissler. ZoorocicaL Nores.—The Bulletin of the U.S. National M sa No. 11, is devoted to a Bibliography of the Fishes of the Pai Coast of the United States to the end of the year 1879, ?Y Theodore Gill. i : e new species (Asio portoricensis) from Porto Rico, are deset i by Mr. R. Ridgway, in the Proceedings of the U. S. pe Museum, who also contributes a list of the old world bi 1 Jenaische Zeitschrift fuer Med. und Naturwis., VI, 1, p- 53, 1879 1882. ] Zoölogy. 595 in the Museum, and notes on Costa Rican birds. A new genus of deep sea fishes (Benthodesmus) from the Banks of New- foundland, is also described by Messrs. Goode and Bean, while Messrs. Jordan and Gilbert describe thirty-three new species of fishes from Mazatlan, To the same serial Dr. Shufeldt con- the eastern coast of the United States——At a recent meeting (April 18), of the London Zodlogical Society, Professor Flower read a paper upon the mutual affinities of the animals composing the order of Edentata, in which the usual binary division into Phyllophaga (or Tardigrada) and Entomophaga (or Vermilingua) was shown not to agree with the most important structural characters. These, according to the interpretation put upon them by the author, indicates that the Bradypodide and Megatheriide are allied to the Myrmecophagide, and also, though less closely to the Dasypodide, all the American forms thus constituting one primary division of the order, from which both the Manidz and Orycteropodidz of the old world are totally distinct. munication was also read from Mr. Charles Darwin, introducing a paper by Dr. Van Dyck, of Beyrout, on the modification of a race of Syrian street dogs by means of natural selection -——— Mr. O. Thomas likewise read an account of a small collection of mammals from the State of Durango, Central Mexico, in which examples of several northern forms, not hitherto recorded so far South, and several southern forms not hitherto known so far North, occurred. n essay on certain points in the mor- Phology of the Blastoid crinoids, Messrs. Etheridge and Carpenter discuss in a way preliminary to their larger forthcoming work, some points which will interest our western paleontologists. IR j Gwyn Jeffreys continues in the Proceedings of the Zoological’ Society his account of the deep sea mollusks procured during the Lightning and Porcupine Expeditions in 1866-70. In the Bulletin of the U. S. Fish Commission, Mr. J. A. Ryder has a very interesting paper on the Protozoa and Protophytes con- sidered as the primary or indirect source of the food of fishes. He has also found that the food of the very young shad consists almost entirely of very small crustaceans, the very youngest Daphnidz, ete. Larger shad swallow small larval Diptera, besides Entomostraca. He says that the mode in which the young fish capture their entomostracan prey may be guessed from their oval armature. Most fish larvae appear to be provided with small, conical somewhat backwardly recurved teeth on the jaws. “ Rathke 1833 described the peculiar hooked teeth in the lower jaws of the larva of the viviparous blenny, and Forbes has observed Minute teeth in the lower jaw of the young Coregonus albus. I ave also met with similar teeth in the lower jaw of the larval 596 General Notes. [July, Spanish mackerel.” The mouth of the adult shad is practically toothless, and multitudes of small copepods are caught in the meshes of its branchial arches. The new Acalephs from the Tortugas and Key West, and also from the east coast of New Zealand are described and well illustrated by Mr. J. W. Fewkes in the Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy. Vol. x. Nos. 7 and 8. ENTOMOLOGY .' REPELLING Insects BY Matoporants.—Mr. J. A. Lintner, State Entomologist of New York, has recently published an in- teresting paper, in which (assuming that the parent insect is guided to her food-plant, or to that destined for her offspring by the sense of smell), he advocates the use of strong-smelling or malo- dorous substances, as counter-odorants to prevent noxious species from laying their eggs on cultivated plants This theory is put forth as a “ new principle, in protection from insect attack.” As remarked in a notice of the paper elsewhere, we have one serious criticism to make of it, viz: that it lacks both proof and sub- stantial foundation in fact. To give force to the theory, Mr. Lint- ner has to assume that substances like kerosene, coal-tar, naphtha- line, carbolic acid, gas-lime, bisulphide of carbon, smoke, etc., repel by their odor ; whereas the ordinary belief that they repel because of their toxic properties seems to us far more reasonable. Qur attempts to prevent the oviposition of the Cotton-worm moth, the Colorado potato-beetle, the apple-tree borers, and the Plum curculio, by the odor of carbolic acid and of coal-tar, of infusions of Ailanthus, Walnut, and decoctions of Horehound, or cabbage worms by the odor of creosote, have proved unavailing. Those of others in the same direction, and notably of Mr. I. W. Taylor, of Poland, N. Y., with such pungent odors as musk, camphor, ‘spirits of turpentine, asafcedita, kerosene, etc. (Rural New Yor. her, ov. 2, 1872), used especially to prevent the oviposition of Pieris experience will warrant an opinion it is adverse to the “ new prim ciple.” The senses of sight, touch, and taste, which palpable and readily located, play their part in insect e€ and both experiment and observation would indicate that, except perhaps for certain special families, particularly of Lepidoptera, this part is greater than that represented by the sense of smet, even in guiding the female to lay her eggs.—C. V. Riley. l This department is edited ROF. C. V. RILEY, Washington, communications, books for notice, etc., should be sent. 1882. | Entomology. 597 terity in climbing, swinging itself, monkey-like, from halm to halm, often suspended only by the front tarsi. One specimen was observed devouring a Tipula, and if this Dipteron should be the usual fcod of the Bittacus, the existing mimicry between the two insects would be significant, and in this particular case the more so as the Californian Tipula has, at least in the male, only rudimentary wings. According to Mr. H. Edwards’s observations both species are frequently found in the same localities. STRANGE HABIT or Metapopius FEMORATUS Fab.—The “ thick- thighed metapodius” is a common insect in the Southern cotton fields, attracting attention by its buzzing flight and ungainly form. The numerous observers connected with the cotton insect investi- gation have observed it preying upon the cotton caterpillar, while Glover states that it has been observed to injure cherries in the Western States. Mr. Schwarz informs me that he has seen it sucking the moisture from the newly dropped excrement of some unknown bird. Its eggs, according to Glover, are smooth, short, oval, and have been found arranged around a pine-leaf like a bead necklace. In May of the present year, while studying the Northern army- worm (Leucania unipuncia) in the wheat fields near Huntsville, Alabama, I found that among the other new natural enemies which this Southern irruption occasioned the Metapodius was very conspicuous. Immediately upon entering the fields I was struck with its buzzing flight, and it was not long before I dis- time there was quite a perceptible increase in the number of the worms so placed. The sight of these suspended larvæ was cer- tainly one of much interest, and, without seeing the great bug at work I might have puzzled over it for a long time without any Satisfactory explanation. I shall not attempt to explain this curious procedure on the Part of the Metapodii. It is seemingly as unexplainable as the Somewhat similar habit of the Southern loggerhead or shrike in & 598 General Notes. [July, impaling insects and other small animals upon thorns and sharp twigs. The worms are useless as further food, and certainly can- not be used as nidi for the eggs of the destroyer.—ZL. O. Howard. HABITS OF COSCINOPTERA DOMINICANA.—Large numbers of the larve and pupz of this case-bearing beetle were recently found by Professor F. H. King, at River Falls, Wis., in a large ant hill. In our account of the earlier stages of this beetle (6th Mo. Ent. Report, pp. 127-130), the larvæ, which we succeeded in feeding with old dry leaves, etc., were raised from the egg and their natu- ral habitat remained, therefore, unknown. We have no doubt from Professor King’s experience that it is an inquiline in ants’ nests, especially as other species of this group, e. g., the European Clythra quadrisignata, are known to have this habit. No North American species of the C/ythra group has heretofore been known to live among ants, though we lately received numerous cases of a Clythrid larva, found in ants’ nests in Arizona, by Mr. H. K. Bot-Fiy Maccors iN a Turtie’s Neck.—The Museum of Brown University has received specimens of a bot-fly maggot, of which eight or ten were taken, according to Professor J. W. P. Jenks, from under the skin of the back of the neck, close to the ca-s beneath, a the anterior part of the body À seen from above, and å the spiracles (sp) at the end of the body. It appears to be a genuine bot-fly, but quite unlike any genus figured by Brauer | in his work on the Œstridæ. ie > The body is long and slender, cylindri- cal, tapering so that each end is much alike. The segments are provided with numerous fine spines, which are not entirely con- fined to the posterior half or two-thirds of the segment. he body is slenderer and the spines much smaller than in Gastropht- lus equi—A.S. Packard, ¥r. : Sun-spots AND Insecr Lire.—Mr. A. H. Swinton, in a aad table intended to show the relation existing between sun-spot cycles and the appearance of insects. A number of ) that are rare in Great Britain, and at the same time So conspict” ous as to not easily be overlooked, are selected for this purP®™ A 1882.] Entomology. 599 That there exists a relation between sun-spot periods and me- teorological phenomena, and as a consequence between such in- sect phenomena as depend on meteorological conditions, will scarcely be doubted; but we do not believe that any such con- A Mite Inrestinc A Pork-Packinc HouseE.—!I send you by this mail a few specimens of a mite which I do not identify by means of the literature in my reach. It is found in a pork-pack- ing house here and seems to develop from the livers, lungs, and kidneys after they have been cooked and dried by steam. - They are treated in this way to reduce to a fertilizer. Where this ma- terial lies in sacks on the floor the mite is found forming a layer half an inch thick in places. If you are familiar with it will you be kind enough to send me its name on the enclosed card ?— W. E. Wilson, Professor Natural Science in Coe College. This mite proves to be 7yroglyphus longior Gervais, and this is the first occurrence of this species in the United States so far as we are aware. Larv& oF A Fry tn A Hor Sprinc IN Cotorapo.—I send you a bottle containing four specimens of animal life new to me, and those to whom I have shown them. . Having no works of refer- ence I would respectfully ask you to describe them for me. They were found in Gunnison Co., Col., in a hot spring, temperature 157° F., attached to the rock by the long end at about an angle of 45° and continually moving. Having no alcohol they were put into strong alum water. The color has not materially changed. The rocks were covered with them, as well as in other springs which were examined. Any information regarding them will be thankfully appreciated—H. G. Griffith, 317 N. gth street, Burlington, Towa. The larvæ are of those of a species of Stratiomys, and are like those from Borax lake, California, described and figured by us in the American Journal of Science, February, 1871, p. 102. The Specimens received from Mr. Griffith are much larger than those rom Borax lake, and differ decidedly in the much longer and narrower terminal, anal segment; this segment in the Borax lake species is half as wide as long, with a radiating tuft of res- as long as wide, and tapers to an obtuse point, with a transver:e Opening, and it is provided with minute short respiratory fila- ments. The head is as in the Borax lake specimens, but the y is a little more flat, and spindle-shaped, being broader in 600 General Notes. [July, the middle and tapering more rapidly towards each end. It is of a dark horn brown. Length 37™, breadth 51%4™™.—A. S. Pack- ard, Jr. Descent oF Dytiscus DURING A SHOWER.—In the October No. of Vol. 3, American Entomologist, mention is made of a “ veritable shower ” of water-beetles, supposed to be a species of Dytiscus, as having occurred ina certain locality in Kentucky during the- summer of 1880. I am reminded of this phenomenon by the singular manner in which some of my friends came into posses- sion of two remarkably fine specimens of Dytiscus fasciventris Say. Just after one of our light September showers, a goblet, that had been left on the outer ledge of a window, was found pretty full of the fresh rain-water in which were swimming about, in apparent content, the two water-beetles referred to. How they came there was the question—the opinion prevail- ing that they “rained down.” They could not have bred within a considerable distance from the house where they alighted, and the fact that they dropped into the glass of water was also most singular. They made no attempt to escape from the glass and lived there until the water was frozen late in November. No food was given them except that the water was occasionally replenished. Is it known to be a habit of this insect to rise into the air at certain times on the approach of, or during the progress of a shower ?—Mary E. Murtfeldt, Kirkwood, Mo. ANTHROPOLOGY." A WELL MERITED Honor.—It will be a source of gratification to the many friends of Professor Charles Rau, the Nestor O American archzologists, to learn that the University of Friburg has conferred upon him the honorary title of Doctor of Philos- ophy. A Correction.—In looking over the contents of the last num ber of the American Antiquarian, we were astonished to find that Dr. Yarrow, who has come to be our standard authority on dead Indians, should turn aside to treat of the superstitions of live In- dians. We have the doctor’s permission to state that his pape in the Antiquarian was upon the superstitions of the Sioux Indians. THE WASHINGTON SATURDAY Lecrures—By the jo of the Anthropological and the Biological Society of ton, in February last, a course of eight free lectures a tional Museum was organized. Four of them were upo int action Washing- t the Na- n anthro- March 1—Outlines of Sociology, by Major J. W. Powell ; April a. ; Paul Broca and the French School of i Zoe 1882. ] Anthropology. 601 Robert Fletcher; and April 29 — How we see, by Dr. Swan M. Burnett. The lectures of Mason, Powell ah Burnett were on topics somewhat familiar to our readers. They are more than a passing notice. The avowed object of the speaker was to state, not what is anthropology, but “the reason of its existence, and the circumstances attending its establishment and recognition in the scientific world.” A brief reference is made to separate branches of the study even in classic times, but the origina- tion of the science as a whole is taken from the foundation of the Paris Society of Anthropology, some twenty-three years ago (1859). The graye devoted to kindred branches and t S| net Ad The Society for the protection of e oes pa London. 1838. La Société Ethnologique de Paris, 18 39. of Londo 8 La Société dumbvopsioats de Paris. ` 1859. Versammlung der Anthr cee in agi 1861. The Anthropol ological Society of Lon 1863. The Anthropological Sattar of Great ‘Britain and Ireland. 1871. La ‘pankomaee d de anthropologia de Madrid. 1865. The Imperial Society of anthropo! logy and praet A Moscow. 1866. 1868. Societa italiana di oiogia, &c. 1871. The Anthropological Institute of New York. 1871. Academy of Sciences, C W, d pa Deutsche Gesellschatt fiir Anthropologie, Eth cee d Urgeschichte. 18 ge, no un rgescnicnte. 70. Congres international d’ant thropologie et archéologie préhistorique. 1865. The publications of these societies are also indicated. he biography of Broca is drawn mainly from the article of _ Professor Pozzi in the Revue Z Anthropologie. Broca, among his. many talents, had a great deal of ingenuity for devising mechani- cal ew Amon ng those noticed are che Liteon cs Se the new aui ae was the founder of the Société Pdadiecpoliaie de: , 1859), the Revue d’ Anthropologie, the Labora-- opology, and the Ecole d’Anthropologie, united in —— eg The total number of his printed 602 Generat Notes. ) [July, articles and volumes is 534, of which 109 are on comparative anatomy and general anthropology, 48 on general craniology, 35 on special craniology, 27 on ethnology, and 19 on miscellaneous subjects. i : As mentioned above, the Saturday lectures can be procured from Judd & Detweiler, of Washington, at 75 cents for the vol- ume containing the whole course. GEOLOGY AND PALAIONTOLOGY. LESQUEREUX ON THE TERTIARY FLORA AS RELATED TO THE TERTIARY ANIMALS OF THE WestT.—In regard to Professor Cope’s recent papers on the Cretaceous and Tertiary groups of the Western Territories, Mr. Lesquereux writes us that he has care- fully examined his conclusions and must say that he approves them fully and that they agree well with his own. “As to the types recognized in subsequent formations. There is a marke groups, and then the upper Miocene or Pliocene of the © Chalk bluffs of California. All these facts considering the character of the plants, constitute by persistent speci ous flora which it is extremely difficult to separate. admit that all the plants described from the Union group repi sent the same geological stage, we can scarcely draw any lines 0 separation for the Tertiary, which continues uninterruptedly from the Eocene of Black Butte and Golden City to the flora of o present epoch. Thus our present living flora would appear ae as Cretaceous in some of its characters as that of Golden City: F. V. Hayden, ANADA.— Tue GEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL History Survey oF C i ms a bulky octavo, accompanied by five maps of the regions explore illustrated by nineteen plates. The work of the Geologic nitoba, : in 1880 embraced surveys in the Northwest Territories, Manito?®, — 1882.| Geology and Paleontology. 603 Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and the Magdalen islands. The report embodies the results of an exploration from Fort Simp- son on the Pacific to Edmonton on the Saskatchewan, conducted in 1879 by Dr. Geo: M. Dawson, with maps containing all the available information regarding a region of about 130,000 square miles. e Skeena river is the most important stream of British The Douglas fir or “ Oregon pine” finds its eastern limit near McLeod’s lake, which empties into the Parsnip, a branch of Peace river. The area of actually cultivable land on this river is estimated at 23,500 square miles. The fossil plants of the Peace river district represents a flora akin to that of the Dakota of the United States, and is the oldest in which broad-leaved exogens of similar types to those existing predominate. Dr. attains a height of 200 feet, Thuja gigantea, which on the coast not unfrequently surpasses fifteen feet in diameter and 100 to 150 in height, and other conifers of smaller size. Extensive lignite deposits exist in the Tertiary on the Souris river, and among the fossil plants of this district are Platanus nobilis (Newberry), the leaves of which are a foot in diameter, a Seguota, and a sassafras. Dr. Robert Bell contributes an interesting report upon Hud- son’s bay, and some of the lakes and rivers to the west of it. This body of water, no part of which is in the Arctic circle, and the southern extremity of which is south of London, measures about 1000 miles in length to the end of James bay, is over 600 miles in width, and has an area of about 500,000 square miles, or upwards of half that of the Mediterranean. Its drainage basin extends eastward to the center of Labrador, and westward to the Rocky mountains, while southward it is extended by the Winnipeg basin, emptying by the Nelson river, as far as latitude 45°. It thus includes nearly 3,000,000 of square miles, a great part of which enjoys a temperate climate, while large tracts are very fer- tile. About thirty rivers of considerable size flow into Hud- Son’sbay. The Albany and the Churchill have the longest courses, but the muddy Nelson, though only 400 miles long, discharges the greatest body of water. The Albany can be navigated by Shallow draft steamers for 250 miles, the Nelson for 70 or 80, while the Churchill, a beautiful clear-water stream, somewhat larger than the Rhine, has at its entrance a splendid harbor, Geologically Hudson’s bay lies within the Laurentian, the Win- nipeg division excepted. To the south and south-west of James 694 General Notes. [July, bay much of the land is good; to the south-west the country is well wooded, and valuable minerals, including iron-stone, galena, gypsum, petroleum-bearing limestone, etc, are known to exist. The land around Hudson’s bay is rising from five to ten feet in a century. It is not improbable that, possessing a sea-port in the very center of the continent, 1500 miles nearer than Quebec to the fertile lands of the Northwest territories, Hudson’s bay may prove the future highway between those territories and Europe. This portion of the report concludes with a memoir upon the northern limits of the principal forest trees of Canada; a list of thirty-eight species of fossils collected in Manitoba, principally coelenterates, brachiopods and gasteropods; a list of 261 species o plants collected at various spots around Hudson’s bay in 1880, and a catalogue, by Dr. J. L. LeConte, of the coleoptera collected between Lake Winnipeg and Hudson’s bay. Other appendices are devoted to the mollusca, the analysis of the waters of Hayes’ and Nelson rivers, and weather statistics. The Magdalen islands are thirteen small islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, inhabited principally by French Acadians, and capable of becoming an unrivaled sea-side resort on account of the clean sandy beach backed by rich greensward. ABSENCE OF ANCIENT GLACIERS IN EasTerN AsiA.—In an article on glaciers and glacial periods in their relations to climate, in Natyre, A. Woeikof refers to the fact that the great interior plateaux of Central Asia are too dry for glaciers. China, Mand- chooria and Amoor are destitute of glaciers owing to the want of moisture in the winter time, dry north-west winds then prevail- ing. This has been the case since the Pliocene period. Pum- pelly and Richthofen found no traces of ancient glaciers in China nor on its western and northern borders, neither did Dr. Schmidt find any in the Amoor. As to the plateaux of Central Asia, they must have been exceedingly dry since the rise of the Himalaya and Karakoram to the south and the Pamir heights to the west ofthem, and thus have had nothing corresponding to the later glacial periods of Europe and North America. A New Genus oF Tnioponta.—Teniolabis sulcatus, gen. et Sp- nov. Char. gen.—This genus is established on a tooth whose p°- sition is on the arc of the alveolar line which connects the ee Jar and middle incisor regions. It is probably either the thir incisor of the superior or inferior series, or the canine of the 10- ferior series. In either case it differs from the corresponding tooth of any known genera of Tillodonta or Ti wentodonta. st long diameter of the root being placed antero-posteriorly, that © | the crown makes with it an angle of 30°. a Section of the crown oval; the grinding surface scalpriform 1B the manner of a rodent incisor; but beveled on side of the ped ; diameter instead of on the end as in that order. Enamel con- 1882.] Geology and Paleontolcgy. 605 sisting of a wide band on the external side of the tooth, which embraces more of the circumference- near the apex than else- where. Apex grooved behind. If this be an inferior canine tooth it differs from that of the Tillodonta in its large size and incisor-like form. It most resem- bles the external or third inferior incisor of Calamodon, From this it differs in the scalpriform wear, and the oval instead of tri- angular section, and in the absence of cementum layer. Char. Specif—The enamel band does not cover the entire width of the external face, but leaves exposed a part of the dental surface anterior and posterior to it except at the apex. At the latter point there are seven coarse shallow grooves of the enamel surface ; the posterior of these split up below, and become nar- rowed, while the anterior run out at the more curved anterior edge of the enamel band. The posterior apical groove has a flat bottom. At the front of the apex the enamel is involute tothe inner side for a short distance. The inner face of the tooth dis- plays five facet-like bands of the dentinal surface, which soon dis- appear inferiorly. Measurements—Length of tooth (root restored) .058; length of enamel band .031; width of enamel band at middle .0095; diameters of middle of tooth, anteroposterior .0130, transverse 009 long; diameter of apex of tooth .008. This tooth indicates a new and interesting type, perhaps of Calamodontide, and one of which more information will be awaited with interest. Judging from the size of the tooth its pos- sessor was as large as a sheep. From the Puerco Eocene of New Mexico, from D. Baldwin. GroLocicaL News.—The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 1880, contains Part x of Professor W. C. Williamson's researches into the organization of the fossil plants of the coal measures. The memoir is illustrated by eight plates. Certain small objects with projecting spines from the coal measures have been described as radiolarian, but Professors Haeckel and Strasburger concur with the writer in believin them vegetable. There is strong cause for the belief that they are cryptogamic macrospores, and Professor Strasburger suggests that their nearest allies may possibly be Azo//a and other rhizo- Carpous genera. In the same transactions Professor Owen gives a description of some remains of an extinct gigantic land-lizard (Megalania frisca Owen) a contemporarary in Australia with cor- respondingly large marsupials, also now extinct. Megalania pos- Sessed upon its skull several horns, provided with osseous cores. The principal of these horns correspond with those of the living small Australian lizard, Moloch horridus, but the horn-cones of the latter are formed of fibrous corium, without bone-deposits. The Skull is í foot 10% inches wide. The premaxillaries are eden- 605 General Notes. [July, tulous and sheathed with horn. The creature seems to have been phytophagous, and its defensive weapons probably preserved it until it finally fell before the Australian so-called “ Aborigine.” he memoir is illustrated with several plates. The Geological Magazine, April, 1882, contains contributions to the palzontol- ogy of the Yorkshire oolites, by W. H. Hudleston. This is one of a series, and treats of the Gasteropoda. The zones which con- tain Gasteropoda are the Dogger, with Mcrinea cingenda and numerous other shells; the Millepore bed; the Scarborough or gray limestone; the Kelloway rock, with numerous 77igonias ; the Oxford clay; and the lower Calcareous grit. Estuarine beds separate the lowest four of these. In all the beds the Ceph- alopoda are more conspicuous than the Gasteropoda.. In the ”» by Dr. Roberts, forming part of a discussion respecting the reviewer of this work in the Philosophical Magazine states that the structures figured by the authors have only a rough general resemblance to those claimed to be organic. In the Amerwan Journal of Science, Professor J. D. Dana continues his series of articles upon the flood of the Connecticut River valley from the Quarternary glacier, Writing of the retreat of the glacier, = gives a most interesting account of the present condition O Greenland, with a shaded map of its surface. In the same peri- odical Ben. K. Emerson describes the dykes of micaceous i that penetrate the bed of zinc ore at Franklin Furnace, N. J., ané - W. Iles treats of the occurrence of vanadium in ores at Leadville. Mr. C. A. White explains the continuity of genene 1882. ] Mineralogy. 607 lines of gill-bearing fresh-water mollusca, now separated from each other by barriers of land and sea that they are incapable of passing, by showing that the rivers in which kindred forms occur, once formed part of the drainage of inland lakes that have since become obliterated, and thus there was formerly a continuity which is now destroyed. Chas. U. Shepherd follows with a notice of Monetite and Monite, two new minerals obtained from the twin islands Mona and Moneta, near Porto Rico, W. I. Both are phosphate of lime, formed in the caverns of limestone rock by the infiltration of the soluble ingredients of the bird- guano upon the surface. Dr. Lemoine has communicated to the French Academy the result of his late paleontological re- searches upon the mammals of the Eocene beds around Rheims. The study of cerebral casts of Arotocyon and Pleuraspidotherium show relations to the embryonal brains of living mammals, and t those of certain marsupials, since the cerebral hemispheres leave the quadrigeminal tubercles completely uncovered. The den- and three of Aretmocrinus, all from the Burlington and Keokuk limestones of Indiana and Iowa, are described. In the same Proceedings, Angelo Heilprin has a “Revision of the Cis- Mississippi Tertiary Pectens of the United States;”’ “ Remarks on the Molluscan genera Hippagus, Verticordia, and Pecchiola ;” a “ Note on the Approximate Position of the Eocene Deposits of Maryland,” in which those deposits are referred to a horizon nearly equal to that of the Thanet sands and London clay of England and the Braccheux sands of the Paris basin, that is, near the base of the Eocene series; and a“ Revision of the Tertiary Species of Arca.” MINERALOGY .' PROCEEDINGS OF THE MINERALOGICAL SECTION OF THE PHILA- DELPHIA ACADEMY oF NATURAL ScIENCES.—The second number of the Proceedings of the Mineralogical and Geological Section of the Academy of Natural Sciences has just been published. The first number was published in 1880, and contained the Pro- ceedings from 1877 to 1879, inclusive, consisting ot fifty-one Satie a number of which have been noticed in foreign period- s. oo by Professor H. CARVILL Lewis, Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila- phia, to whom communications, papers for review, etc., should be sent. 608 General Notes. [July, This society, founded in January, 1877, and consisting of be- tween fifty and sixty members, is the only society in the country especially devoted to mineralogy which publishes Proceedings. A large proportion of the communications are brief and of local interest. It is greatly to be desired that a society of larger scope—a Mineralogical Society of America—may be organized ere long. With the leading mineralogists of this country as active mem- bers, such a society should be at least as successful as the miner- alogical societies of Great Britain and of France. The Nart- URALIST will give such a society all possible assistance. The volume before us consists of thirty-seven communications upon mineralogy and geology, contributed during 1880 and 1881. The mineralogical articles are here briefly reviewed under the titles as given. Some new Pennsylvania mineral localities —Chas. M. Wheatley reports new localities for aurichalcite, melaconite, byssolite and azurite in Berks and Montgomery counties. oe Pseudomorphs of Serpentine after Dolomite—H. Carvill Lewis describes at length some serpentine pseudomorphs from the Wis- sahickon creek, which have the cleavage planes and external characters of dolomite, resembling those described by Professor Dana from the Tilly-Foster iron mine. Their mode of origin JS discussed. New localities for Barite—H. C. Lewis gives three new Penn- sylvania localities for barite. New localities for Chabazite—L. Palmer announces two new localities for chabazite in Delaware county, Penna. On a new ore of Antimony—H. Carvill Lewis describes a new ore of antimony from Sonora, Mexico. It has the following characters: Isometric. Habit octahedral. Generally massive. grayish-yellow. Streak uncolored. Transparent in crystals, opaque when massive. Fracture sub-conchoidal. Before the blowpipe fuses with difficulty to a gray slag, decrepitates strongly and gives a white coating. In the closed tube decrepitates strong ys turns yellow when hot, gives off water but does not tuse. contains 3.1 per cent. of water, and consists mainly O nd nious oxide. (This communication was made Feb. 23, 1880, SI® months before Professor Cox’s paper before the A. A. A. S. upon this same mineral. Professor Cox supposes it to be stibiconite, but it is more nearly allied to senarmontite. ae Menaccanite from Fairmount park.—John Ford exhibits a large curved crystal of this mineral from Fairmount park, Phila. ote on Damourite from Berks county, Penna.—f. A. describes a shaly, talcose mineral from Rockland Forges, 2; alkali determination of which gave him: H,O, 5.62; Ky, 10-3" Na,O, 0.36. ae Gi Pan 1882.] Mineralogy . 6c9 On the Stalactites of Luray cave.—A. E. Foote describes the cave near Luray, Va., and states that the curving and twisting of the stalactites was due to the fungi which grew upon their sur- New locality for Sphene—A. E. Foote describes the new local- ity for sphene at Egansville, Renfrew county, Canada, where crystals weighing from twenty to eighty pounds occur in a vein of apatite. A crystal of apatite weighed 500 ibs. A new locality for Hyalite —H. C. Lewis describes green hyalite from Germantown, . ote on Autunite—H. C. Lewis gives the optical characters of the Philadelphia autunite. It is orthorhombic, with an optic axial divergence of 24°. Crystalline cavities in Agate—Theo. D. Rand exhibits speci- mens of agate containing crystalline cavities once occupied by calcite crystals. The method of taking type-metal casts of these Cavities was explained. Note on Halotrichite—H. C. Lewis states two localities for halotrichite. On twin crystals of Zircon.—A. E. Foote records the discovery of twin zircon crystals at Egansville, Canada. Disks of Quartz between lamine of Mica—Theo. D. Rand ex- hibits circular disks of quartz, showing a rotating black cross in the polarizing microscope, which occur in muscovite from Amelia county, Va. On two new localities of Columbite—H. Carvill Lewis records the occurrence of columbite at Mineral Hill, Pa., and at Dixon’s Quarry, Del. The crystallographic characters of the specimens were described. : On the occurrence of Fahlunite near Philadelphia —H. C. Lewis States that he has found fahlunite at two localities in hornblendic gneiss near Philadelphia. It is of a pale apple-green color, and has a scaly structure and felspathic cleavage. It resembles the variety known as chlorophyllite, and appears to be a product of alteration. On a mineral resembling Dopplerite from a peat bed at Scranton Pa—H. C. Lewis describes the black jelly-like substance from the Scranton peat bed, already noticed in the NATURALIST. litaniferous Garnet.—H. A. Keller describes a black garnet from Darby, Pa., whose color is due to enclosed particles of menaccanite and sphene, as shown both by microscopical exam- mation and by chemical analysis. Pyrophyllite and Alunogen in coal mines.—E. S. Reinhold states that the coatings of pyrophyllite from the coal slates of Mahanoy City, already described by Dr. Genth, have now been found in Our collieries, Other-coatings have proved to be alunogen, the Origin of which is discussed. 610 General Notes. [July, New locality for Mountain Cork.—T. D. Rand finds this mineral near Radnor, Pa. New locality for Aquacreptite—G. H. Parker finds aquacreptite in decomposed gneiss in West Philadelphia. ; : Note on Aquacreptite—H. C. Lewis remarks that at each of the localities for aquacreptite the rock differs; at West Chester it is serpentine, at Marble Hall limestone, and at Philadelphia gneiss. Experiments are described which he had made to discover the cause of decrepitation, which he finds due to capillary attraction. He concludes that the mineral is of mechanical origin, and differs from bole merely in a greater amount of mechanical action when placed in water, and that it is therefore not entitled to a special name. Quartz crystals from Newark, Del—W. W. Jefferis finds doubly terminated quartz at this locality. 7 A new mineral from Canada.—-A. E. Foote draws attention to some olive-green crystals from Hull, Canada, which he supposes to be new. : A peculiar twinned Garnet—-W. W. Jefferis exhibits a twinned pareet where the smaller crystal fitted loosely in a cavity in the arger. On Diorite——E. S. Reinhold describes a diorite from Placer county, Cal., closely resembling the “ Napoleonite ” of Corsica. A new locality for Allanite-—Isaac Lea finds allanite with zir- con at Yellow Springs, Chester county, Pa. oe A new locality for Copiapite—E. S. Reinhold finds copiapite at Mahanoy City, Pa. ; On Phytocollite—H. C. Lewis describes more fully the mineral from Scranton, giving an analysis, and suggests the term phyto- collite as generic for the related jelly-like hydrocarbons found in peat. A NEw tocarity ror Havestne—N. H. Darton” has found hayesine in soft fibrous crystals coating datholite and calcite 1n | cavities in the trap of Bergen Hill, N. J. An analysis gave CaO BO, ,0 18.39 49.10 35-46 = 99.95. i seel The slender crystals were grouped together, and lay like r white mats upon the calcite crystals. This is an interesting © currence of hayesine. - THE THIRD APPENDIX TO Dana’s Mingeracocy (Wiley +2 : N. Y.).—Professor E. S. Dana has done a great cgi ane pe rin : t time. Since ns, er the last appendix was prepared, seven years ago, a large 1 work | of new species have been added, and much mineralogica, has been done. The present appendix contains descripti ons of © 1 Amer. Fourn. Sc., June, 1882, p- 458. - 1882.] Mineralogy. 611 about 300 species announced as new, and also refers to many mineralogical articles, quoting new analyses and new facts as to physical characters and localities. The appendix is designed to make Dana’s Mineralogy (5th ed.) complete up to January, 1882, and should be in the hands of every owner of that noble volume. ORTHITE FROM VIRGINIA.—F. P. Dunnington' and G. A. Koe- nig? have described and analyzed orthite from Amelia county, Va. It occurs in blade-like crystals several inches long, of a black color and pitchy luster, sometimes Ep by an altered mate- rial. It has the following composition SiO, AlO, FeO, CeO, LaO, Di,O, FeO MnO CaO K,O Na,O OE (1) 32.35 16.42 4.40. 11.14 347 601 todi 1.12 11.47 .46 (2) 32.90 17.80 1.20 §8.00(CeO,) 14.20 ae i ILẸ a H?O 2.31 = . 100.62 3-20 = 99.66 Analysis (1) is by Dunnington, (2) by Koenig. NEW ANALYSES OF COLUMBITE AND Monazite.—F. P. Dunning- ton’ gives the following analyses of the columbite and monazite of Amelia count Columbite. “Hardness 5.5; spec. grav. 6.48; luster sub-resin- i. color dark-brown, streak light-brown, red when in thin’ Splin 1 sa Nb,O, SnO, MnO FeO CaO MgO YO, (?) gE EES 84.81 trate Bos coy: Loy 20 .82 = 100.22 Monazite, Ce,0, DLO, La,O, Y,0, FeO; Al, ThO, P,O, SiO, 10.30 244 log Li 9 18.6 24.04 2.7 == 98.38 Oxitvuary.—William S. Vaux, a w known amateur mineralo- gist, died at Philadelphia on May 5th, in his 71st year. As vice- president of the Academy of Natural Sciences and of the Numis- matic and Antiquarian Society, as president of the Zoological Society and as treasurer of the American Association for the Advancement of eT he showed an active interest in the Progress of scienc The chief object to which he devoted his ample means was the collection of choice minerals, and as a result of extensive traveling and constant collecting throughout a lifetime, he left one of the nén collections in this country. His cabinet was remarkable for the beauty of the individual specimens, in many cases unsur- passed. e has bequeathed it to the Academy of Natural Sci- ences of Philadelphia, a dmer. Chem. Journ., Vol. 1v, p. 138. he ane: Nat. Sc. Phila., 1382, p p. 103. 612 General Notes. (July, GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS." THE CHUKCHES AND THE Kuro-Sivo.—Captain Hooper, lately in command of the U.S. steamer Corwin, in an address before the Geographical Society of the Pacific, spoke of the habits and cus- toms of the Chukches who inhabit the arctic coast of Siberia. In the winter they travel west on their way to the Russian trading posts in the interior, which they reach by ascending the rivers ` west of Cape Jakan; in the spring they travel to East Cape, cross Behring Strait, and continue their journey to Cape Blossom, Kotzebue Sound, where they meet the Eskimo from the entire coast of Arctic Alaska, from Point Barrow to Cape Prince of current was observed. In the Arctic, as well as in the Behring Sea, there is no doubt a tidal current, but it is so dependen ; p the conditions of the ice that only the mean of a long series © careful observations could determine its characteristics. _ Six cases containing the zodlogical and anthropological coles tions, made by the brothers Krause in the Chukchi peninsula, have arrived at Bremen. Dr. Arthur Krause will remain ™ A during the summer, but his brother is now on his way ome. GeocrarnIcaL Notes.—Mr. A. R. Colquhoun, an officer n n employ of the Government of India, who has spent ten T surveying and engineering work in British Burma, has under ee a journey through southern China, and across the frontier ges 1! Edited by ELLIS H. YARNALL, Philadelphia. “ee 1882. | Geography and Ti ravels. 613 Burma to Rangoon. He proposes to start from Canton and attempt the ascent of the Si-kiang or Canton river to the highest navigable point, and thence pass through the southern part of the Yunnan province and the Shan states by way of Kiang-hung, Kiang-tung, Zimmay, and Shuaigyeen or Tonghoo, to Rangoon. € expects to travel over one thousand miles of new ground, and to bring back a full description of fifteen hundred miles of country hitherto undescribed. The two great objects of Mr. Colquhoun's adventurous journey are to collect information of permanent value to geographical science, and to gather materials for a journal of travel likely to prove interesting to the general public. The town of Tokio, Japan, by a recent census was found to contain 1,064,331 inhabitants. Dr. Crevaux, when last heard from, had reached the sources of the Rio Pilcomayo, S. lat. 21°, W. long. 68° 20/ 15”, in the Republic of Bolivia. Some very im- portant geographical observations had been made in connection by telegraph with the Cordova Observatory. The Nature states that a Russian naval officer has invented a very ingenious appa- ratus for ascertaining the depth of the sea without the use ofa costly and heavy line. Indeed, no line at all is used. The in- strument consists of a piece of lead, a small wheel with a con- trivance for registering the number of revolutions, and a float. While the apparatus sinks the wheel revolves, and the registered revolutions indicate the depth. When the bottom is reached, the lead becomes detached, the float begins to act, and the machine Shoots up to the surface, where it can easily be fished up by a net and the register read off. The celebrated Indian explorer, Nain Singh, or the Pundit No. Q, is dead. He was one of the Most remarkable travelers of this century ; his explorations in the Trans-Himalayian regions, and especially in Thibet in the ser- vice of the Trigonometrical Survey of India, were most success- ful and important, The Rev. W. S. Green has undertaken the exploration of the great glaciers of New Zealand, and the ascent of some of the highest peaks of those islands, several of which ave never been attempted. He is accompanied by two well- known Swiss guides. Afterwards Mr. Green proposes to visit New Guinea and ascend Mount Owen Stanley. Captains Bur- ton and Cameron have been visiting gold deposits in Apollonia and other districts near Axim, west coast of Africa. They were to start for the interior via the Ankobra river on February 25th last. They are making a valuable collection of objects of natural history.——It is thought that the American Mission will fix their g guage is predominant, and on the line of the densest population towards the center of Africa. oa ie following papers were to be read at the German Geo- Staphical Congress, which met at Halle on April 11-14: On some _ Stlentific results of the voyage of the Gazelle, particularly from a 614 General Notes. [July, zoogeographical point of view, by Professor Studer (Berne); On the progress of our knowledge of Sumatra, by Professor Kan (Am- sterdam); On the alleged influence of the earth’s rotation upon the formation of river-beds, by Professor Zöppritz (Konigsberg); On the colonies of Germans and their neighbors in Western Europe, by Herr Meitzen (Berlin); On the historical development of geo- graphical instruction, by Dr. Kropatschek (Brandenburg); On the treatment of subjects relating to conveyance in geographical instruction, by Professor Paulitschke (Vienna); On the introduc- tion of metrical measures in geographical instruction, by Professor Wagner (Gottingen); On the relation between anthropology and ethnology, by Professor Gerland (Strassburg); On the ethnologi- cal conditions of Northern Africa, by Dr. Nachtigal (Berlin) ; On the Polar question, by Professor Neumayer (Hamburg); On the geographical distribution of Alpine lakes, by Professor Credner (Greifswald); On the true definition of the development of coasts, by Professor Giinther (Ansbach); On geographical instruction in its relation to natural sciences, by Professor Schwalbe (Berlin); On the Guldberg-Mohn theory of horizontal air currents, by Pro- fessor Overbeck (Halle); On the systematic furtherance of the scientific topography of Germany, by Herr Lehmann (Halle). MICROSCOPY.! liquid to evaporate at the ordinary temperature; after a few hours have elapsed the most beautiful flower forms will be found ae will 1 This department is edited by Dr. R. H. Warp, Troy, N. Y. 1882.] Microscopy. 615 preserved. If we mix a drop of the four per cent. solution of the silica solution with a drop of the one per cent. sodium bicarbon- ate solution, we fail to obtain any plant forms, but find polarized spheres, which, when the Nicol prism is at 90°, exhibit a dark cross, just such as are obtained with calespar ; on further turning of the prism it seemed to revolve visibly, and at 0° almost entire- ly disappears or passes over into a green cross. The most min- ute traces of silica can, by this means, be readily detected in a mineral, by melting a small sample of the substance with a little potassium hydrate and dissolving it in a little water, and then placing a clear drop of the solution on an object slide in the man- ner previously indicated. It is just as easy to microscopically determine aluminum oxide as it was to detect the silica. It may be recognized as well from of glucium sulphate when evaporated on the slide leaves large Stars, which may be detected by the naked eye; whose fern-like leaves spread themselves over the entire surface of the drop. The Star in the center, when the prism is at 90°, exhibits prismatic colors, the leaves appear of a dull silver white or brownish color, and they are often perforated. Boric acids is likewise very easy to detect, for from its two per Sent. aqueous solution there is obtained} after evaporation, a series of very small plates hardly 2 mm. in diameter, which, when they Magnified 80 times, do not show any cross. If the residue of 616 General Notes. [J uly. i the boric acid be moistened with a drop of the two per cent. solu- tion of sodium bicarbonate, the dried drop will be found to consist of beautiful polarizing spheres, which in their center inclose a small white cross; this on turning the Nicol prism also revolves. Occasionally dendritic stars instead of the spheres are formed. The alkalies possess such optic properties that they can be definitely and certainly distinguished by the microscope. In mak- ing these tests it is best to employ the sulphates for the examina- tion, as they are the most constant in their composition, and in the drying thè samples will not absorb moisture from the air and so produce forms which may readily be recognized. Four per cent. solutions were made of the alkalies soluble in water. The test with potassium sulphate gives, at 0° of the Nicol, a series of rhombic plates, which are not very well defined ; at go° blue rims with yellow or red spots are developed; these cannot be taken for any other alkali. Sodium sulphate will be recognized just so soon as it becomes dry by its percipitation. In the darker field of the microscope it appears dull, and silvery-white in hopper-shaped quadratic crys- tals. The ammonium sulphate assumes such peculiar shapes that it cannot be mistaken for any other salt. At o° the crystals are hardly recognizable; at go° they appear like partly decomposed walls built of gray blocks, with blue and brown rims. Lithium sulphate forms clusters of prismatic needles which at o° show beautiful colors and a blue cross, which at go° becomes ` black. The most minute quantities of lithia can be recognized by their optical behavior. come cloudy, and after drying it appears white and shows distinct dendritic stars which consist of an accumulation of small crystals. Barium and strontium salts fail to show this reaction, or only in 4 very indistinct manner. Lime is best recognized under the micro- scope when it is in the form of the sulphate, and is prepared by mixing a drop of a soluble lime salt with a drop of nse sulphate. The sulphate crystallizes in stellar-shaped crystals, which cannot readily be mistaken for any other forms. Barium nitrate assumes mossy, glistening like silver, coloni dendritic forms; while strontium nitrate takes the form of radiat- ing needles, which are bluish at 0°, and at go° are blue, green, and red. , si Magnesia may, even when presentin the most minute quanta: be detected by the microscope. The sulphate forms color clusters of needles, which do not become colored even at hich The copper sulphate takes the form of step-like prisms, W 1882. | Microscopy. 617 at o° are almost colorless, becoming at 70° light blue with green stripes, and at 90° show brilliant colors. e four per cent. solution of manganese sulphate shows broad scales, silver white to gray in color, and which are partly serrated 0°, as well as at 60° and 909°. If the sample is left by itself for several days, polarizing spheres will appear; these are so peculiar that the manganese can readily be recognized from them, especially as no other metal forms such spheres. admium presents the most characteristic formations of all the metals; a four per cent. solution of the sulphate produces large spheres containing ellipsoids, which radiate from the center and are marked by regular transverse depressions. This formation can be recognized without a Nicol’s prism, and therefore it is not the result of the polarized light, but evidently depends upon the mechanical arrangement of the crystals. On using the Nicol the spheres show at 0° a beautiful blue or green cross, whose color zones increase with the turning of the prism until 90° is reached, when the most beautiful colors of the rainbow are manifested, while the ellipsoid becomes darker, better defined, and the trans- verse depressions are marked by dark spots. These phenomena become still more characteristic when observed over a plate of mica. From more dilute solutions of the cadmium sulphate, it is possible to obtain the spheres, but the peculiar structure is not rved, If a two per cent. solution of iron sulphate be mixed with a one per cent. solution of sodium bicarbonate, the drop ge be- and therefore are not produced by polarized light but result from the mechanical arrangement of the crystals. : The mercuric sulphate is difficultly soluble, but it can easily be eae into solution by the addition of a few drops of nitric id. It f 618 General Notes. [July, rhombic octahedrons, with the edges cut off; at 90° they glisten with the most beautiful play of colors, like the diamond; at times groups are formed which seem exactly like a set of diamond jewelry. PROTECTOR FOR Osjecrives.—A very convenient and useful contrivance for covering the front surface of an objective, and ` thereby protecting it from injury from corrosive fluids or gases, and also for enabling the objective to be plunged directly into water so that different layers of the liquid may be rapidly ex- amined for microscopic constituents, or sediments at the bottom examined im situ, is made by T. H. McAllister, of 49 Nassau street, New York. Fig. I gives Á} » m an external view of the instru- tion as applied to an objective. It is made of brass and closed at the lower end with a thin cover glass. It is applicable to any ob- jective of sufficiently narrow mounting and long working focus, and it works well with powers from a 1% inch to a low-angied Yth or ith. Livinc OBJECTS FoR THE Microscopr.—Living specimens of animals and plants are supplied, for microscopical study, by ^. D. Balen, of Plainfield, N. J. Single packages are sent by mail for 30 cents, or contracts made for a weekly supply, throughout the season, at a still lower rate. Fig. 1. 20: SCIENTIFIC NEWS. — Ata meeting of the New England Historic Genealogical Society, held April 5th, Dr. William Barrows read the follow- ing memorial to Congress: logical Society, would respectively represent that there are 10 he Territories of New Mexico and Arizona twenty-six towns of t races in North America whose origin and history lie yet unknown in their decayed and decaying antiquities ; that man have been abandoned by the decay and extinction 0 tants ; that many of these relics have already perished, the study of A +h 1 +] AifGceult: t: that nt ruins, 1882. ] Scientific News. 619° constitute one of the leading and most interesting problems of the antiquary and historian of the present age; that relic hunters have carried and scattered wide through America and Europe the remains of these extinct towns, thus making their history’s study still more difficult, and in some particulars nearly impossible; ` that the extinct towns, the only monuments or interpreters of these mysterious races, are now daily plundered and destroyed in an almost vandal way ; that for illustration the ancient Spanish cathe- dral or pecos, a building older than any now standing anywhere in the original thirteen States, and built two years before the founding of Boston, is being despoiled by the robbery of its graves, while its timbers are being used for camp-fires and sold to relic-hunters, and even used in the construction of stables. Your petitioners therefore pray that at least some of these ex- tinct cities or pueblos be carefully selected, with the land reser- vations attached, and dating mostly from the Spanish crown of 1680, may be withheld from public sale, and their antiquity and ruins be preserved, as they furnish invaluable data for ethnologi- cal studies, now engaging the attention of our most learned, scientific, antiquarian and historical students.” ry — It is proposed by a committee, signed by S. F. Baird, Drs. S. D. Gross, H. C. Wood, Weir Mitchell, Mr. Fairman Rogers, and others, to make a suitable and substantial acknowledgment of the preëminent services rendered to science by Professor Joseph Leidy, who has held the chair of anatomy in the University of Pennsylvania for thirty years, and to provide a testimonial whic 1, while expressing the admiration of those who unite in it for his disinterested and self-sacrificing devotion to science, will relieve im irom some elementary teaching and enable him to devote himself hereafter to those fields of profound investigation in which he is unrivaled. It is proposed, therefore, that the sum of $100,- 000 shall be raised, the interest of which shall be annually paid to Professor Joseph Leidy during his lifetime; and that, after his death, the said income shall be applied in perpetuity to the main- tenance of the Joseph Leidy Chair of Anatomy in the University of Pennsylvania. The names of the contributors will be perpetu- ated in a suitable manner. Subscriptions will be received by Dr. William Pepper, No, 1811 Spruce street, Philadelphia. — At the request of Dr. Anton Dohrn, Director of the Zodlogi- Cal station at Naples, Dr. W. B. Scott has accepted the Honorary - ie Fierasfer, by Dr. C. Emery; on the Pantoda, by Dr. A. Dohrn are of Simon Syrski, Professor of Zodlogy in the University of Lem- 620 Scientific News. [July, berg, a well known ichthyologist who discovered the male of the common eel, died January 14, aged 51. Professor A. W. Malm of Gottenberg, Sweden, died March 4, aged 61. — The death of Professor William B. Rogers, the President of the National Academy of Science, and late President of the Mas- - sachusetts Institute of Technology, occurred very suddenly May 30, while delivering the opening address of the commencement exercises of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology at Boston. Professor Rogers was born in Philadelphia in 1805. In 1835 he organized the geological survey of Virginia and conducted it until its discontinuance in 1842. He published numerous papers on mechanics, physics and geology. He was a fluent, elegant speaker and debater, most genial and kindly, hearty, ready and sympathetic in his intercourse with young scientists, and was 1n all respects a rare and admirable man. — It is the intention of the writer to publish an account of the spawning season of as many marine forms as possible, with a brief description of the methods of oviposition, places to look for eggs and embryos, and such other details as will aid one in obtaining and recognizing such material as is necessary for embryological work. To this end he would request that all who are working at the development of marine forms would send him notes cover- ing the points in question for which due credit will be given. lt is thought that the desirableness of such a paper will be evident to all, and it is hoped that the responses will be numerous. Ad- dress all replies to J. S. Kingsley, care Boston Society of Natural History, Boston, Mass. — Dr. Joseph Szabo, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology 1” the University of Budapest, Hungary, in a recent letter announces his intention to be present at the meeting of the American s- sociation at Montreal in August. He will start from Liverpool for Quebec in the early portion of July, and will visit as muc o our country as possible in the short space of time that he can re- main. He is especially desirous of visiting the Yellowstone Na- tional park. He is especially anxious to secure a great Va" riety of the igneous rocks of this country, especially those nee our Western territories. His writings on the volcanic rocks : * SEY and other portions of Europe are numerous and val- uable. — The French Government is to establish a zodlogical labora- tory on the shores of the Mediterranean at Villafranche, near Nice, under the care of Dr. J. Barrois. We have received from Professor Lacaze-Duthiers a brochure giving a full account, wi plans, of his prosperous seaside laboratory at Roscoff, an p winter zodlogical laboratory which he has founded at Banyu’s- sur-mer. | To 1882.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 621 — Mr. E. W. Nelson has returned from a sojourn of four and a half years in Northern Alaska. Besides his meteorological work, in connection with the U. S. Signal Service, he has brought to Washington an extensive and complete series of specimens, among which are about nine thousand implements and carvings, illustrating the mode of life of the Esquimaux and their handi- work. His notes of their customs, his vocabularies, and his col- lection of photographs, are very interesting and important. He has also secured a large collection of the birds and fishes of Alaska. — Among the new fellows elected at the last meeting of the Royal Microscopical Society, says the English Mechanic, was Mr. W. A. Thoms, baker of Alyth, who for the past ten years has been engaged in tracing the origin of leaven, which he concludes is identical with the fibrin of gluten and the granular contents of embryo-membranes. Mr. Thoms has also devoted a great deal of time to an investigation of the potato disease, and the salmon fungus. = — Charles M. Wheatley, who was well known for his import- ant discoveries of a Mesozoic Saurian bone-bed near Pheenixville, and of a Quaternary cave in eastern Pennsylvania, containing bones of the Megalonyx, tapir, peccary, etc., died May 6th. Mr. William S. Vaux died in Philadelphia May 5th, leaving a bequest of $10,000 to the Academy of Natural Sciences. — Among the papers read at the recent meeting of the Ameri- certain California forest trees and the meteorological influences Suggested thereby, by R. E. C. Stearns. — The next meeting of the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science will be held at Montreal, beginning Aug. 23, under the presidency of Principal J. W. Dawson. A number of British and other foreign scientists will be present, and the meeting will undoubtedly be one of unusual interest. — Professor Kowalewsky, of Moscow, has gone to the Cau- casus to examine the petroleum deposits of that region. =O. PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. Plored, and giving many particulars relative to the productions of that part of Bolivia. | A ov. 18.—Dr. Brinton explained the substance of his paper on : names of the gods in the Kiche Myth. | 622 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. a Mr. Lesley read a paper from Dr. Newberry on the origin of the Lake basins, and remarked upon the relations of Dr. Newber- ry’s claims to Professor Spencer's discoveries and views. He then gavea sketch of the progress of the excavations at Assos during the last few months, under the auspices of the Boston Archeological Society. Dec. 2.— Notes on the Laramie group, in the vicinity of Ra- ton, New Mexico,” by Professor J. J. Stevenson, was read by title. Dec. 16.—Mr. Price described the rockery on the grounds of the University of Pennsylvania, Professor Cope presented two papers of the geological explor- ation of the Big-Horn region, with special reference to the Eocene period. : PHILADELPHIA ACADEMY NATURAL ScIenceEs. Jan. 24—Mr. Skinner called attention to specimens of Dryocampa imperialis, which he exhibited. The insect had reached perfection in the chrysalis stage but had failed to emerge. ; r. Koenig exhibited a specimen of monosite from the mica mine of Amelia Court House, Va. This monosite contained 25.82 phosphoric acid, 4.22 oxide of thorium, and 69.65 of oxides of cerium, lanthanum, and didymium. The formula derived from this differed from that obtained for North Carolina monosite, and the speaker suggested the possibility of the existence in it of an undetermined metal of the cerium group. : discussion upon the cause of the timber line on high moun- tains and of the treeless nature of prairies was carried on, Mr. g han stating his belief that water rather than fire was the cause 0 forest destruction. Messrs. Leidy, Heilprin, Redfield, and Koe- nig opposed this view. : £ Dr. Horn spoke upon Platypsyllus,a small roach-like beetle P rasitic upon Scalops, and made by Dr. Le Conte the type ° new family. : Ne Feb. 7.—Professor Heilprin combated the opinion of bhai Sterry Hunt relative to the replacement from the interste space of carbonic acid abstracted from the air in the or ae coal of limestone. The speaker held ‘that the limestones O older geological formations were, like those of our days, forn a from those still older, while the amount of carbonic acid stor up in the coal beds of the world would, if again mingled wi atmosphere, only amount to one half of one per cent. 0 life, or still 3% per cent. below the quantity necessary to oen 0 Mr. Ryder described and illustrated the mesoblastic jae doco the ribs from cylindrical vacuolated tracts, and the segmentat of the notochord in Gambusia patruelis. r. Leidy exhibited specimens of worms from the peat oi ae They were bright red, 3 to 6 inches long, and lived coiled SE ro the muscles and other tissues of the fish. The worm 1S wap. .1882.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 623 identical with one of the genus Agamonema, found in fresh water turtles. Mr. Potts exhibited a specimen of the sponge to which the un- fitness for use of the Boston drinking water had been attributed. The specimens were composed in part of a Meyentia and in part of _a Spongilla. The Meyenia was new, and he proposed for it the name of M. acuminata. He believed that a sponge is usually the product of many statospheres, and that hybridism was, from the manner of germination of the statospheres, probably of frequent occurrence. The speaker stated that he had never yet been able to detect the ciliated chambers that have been described in sponges. Dr. Parker stated that the effect of colloids upon crystalline substances was to retard growth except in the direction of the axes. He believed that the various forms of spicules were caused by this retarding influence of the sarcode, acting with greater or lesser intensity. . r. Potts stated that in all spicules of sponges there was an axial space, branching towards the spines; moreover, the larger spicules can be seen to be formed of a series of annular layers, New York Acapemy oF Sciences, April 10—Mr. F. J. G. Wiechmann read a paper on the fusion-structures in meteorites” (illustrated with microscopic sections). April 24.—Professor J. J. Stevenson read a paper on the eco- nomic importance of the mineral resources of Southwest Virginia. ay 1.—Dr. B. N. Martin read a memorial notice of the life and works of the late Professor John W. Draper. May 8th.—Professor H. Le R. Fairchild lectured on the methods of animal locomotion. ay 22.—Dr. A. A. Julien presented notes and observations made during a recent visit to the islands of Curagoa, Buen Ayre and Aruba, W.I. Mr. J. C. Russell read a paper on sulphur de- posits in Utah and Nevada. une 5—Dr. W. Miller, read a paper on the prevention of tubercular disease in men and animals by Vaccination. Mr. N. L. Britton remarked on a glacial “ pot-hole” near Williams Bridge, N. Y : Boston Society or Natura Hisrory, General Meeting, April 19—Mr. Frederic Gardiner, Jr., described the methods of pro- Pagating salmon, and Dr. W. S. Bigelow spoke on the study of Bacteria and allied forms. tion of lake basins was opened with a paper by Mr. W. M. Davis. 624 Selected Articles in Scientific Serials. [July, 1882. Mr, S. H. Scudder spoke of an interesting discovery of older fossil insects west of the Mississippi. GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF THE PaciFic, San Francisco, March 29.—The secretary read a letter from the president of the Board of Trade, requesting the Geographical Society to discuss the merits of the Nicaragua Interocean canal The following gen- tlemen were appointed a committee to act thereon: Captain Oli- ver Eldridge, Andrew McFarlane Davis, William Aldrich, B. B. Redding and Thomas E. Slevin. A paper entitled “ Memoir on the River and Harbor of Guayaquil,” was then read by Thomas E. Slevin, LL.D. The president gave notice that a paper would be read at the next meeting by B. B. Redding on the Gallapagos islands. AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL Society, April 13.—The president, Chief Justice C. P. Daly, delivered an address upon Spain, Straits of Gibraltar and Tangiers in 1881. MIDDLESEX Institute, March 14 and 21.—Mr. R. Frohock de- livered the third and fourth lectures of the course on the “ Mor- phology of Leaves,” and the “ Arrangement of leaves on the CARIN i March 28 and April 4.—Mr. F. S. Coilins lectured on the “ Arrangement of flowers,” and the “ Morphology of the flower ; calyx and corolla.” April 11.—Mrs. A. J. Dolbear explained the “ Morphology of stamens and pistils ” and “ Æstivation.” April 12, Regular Monthly Meeting.—Informal remarks were made by President Dame and others. Resolutions of respect to the memory of Professor Thomas P. James were read, ordered to be placed on record, and a copy to be sent to the family of the honored deceased. A committee on floral exhibitions for the current year was appointrd, and the executive committee In- structed to arrange with the Essex Institute for a joint field ex- cursion in the Middlesex fells in June. BioLocicaL Society oF WasHiNnGTON, May. 26th.—The follow- ing communications were made :—Exhibition of Eskimo carvings of animals by E. W. Nelson. Appeal for an exploration of the molluscan Fauna of the District of Columbia by Wm. H. Dall. Exhibition of a rare Arctic bird, the Spoonbilled Sandpiper “ge rynorhynchus pygmaeus), by T. H. Bean, M. D. Air sacks 0 vertebrates, by R. M. Shufeldt, M. D. About mules, by Pr oles M. G. Ellzey. APPALACHIAN Mountain CLus, May 12.— The report of Mr. J. B. Henck, Jr., the delegate of the Club to the Alpine Congress, held at Milan last summer, was read. ; Mr. W. M. Davis read a paper on the little mountains ¢45 : the Catskills. cule oe A paper by Henry L. Stearns, entitled “ An Ascent of Pike ne Peak,” was read. p t of + THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. Vor. xvi. — AUGUST, 1882. — No. 8. ON THE COMPASS PLANT. BY BENJAMIN ALVORD. ae the publication of my paper on the compass plant, Silphium laciniatum (see page 12 of “ Proceedings of Ameri- can Association for Advancement of Science at Cambridge, Mass., in August, 1849”), I have made no communication concerning it to any scientific journal, constantly hoping that my army sta- tion would bring me where I could make more satisfactory ex- periments. In the meantime it has been made the topic of sev- eral papers (about fourteen in all) which will be enumerated at the end of this article. The Silphium laciniatum is a perennial plant of the order Com- Positz ; the first year it bears only radical leaves, the second year and after, it is a flowering herb with four or five leaves on the stem; very rough bristly throughout; leaves pinnately parted, _ Petioled but clasping at the base. Root very thick. Flowers yellow. Found on rich prairies of the Mississippi valley from Minnesota to Texas, not found on the Pacific slope. Stem stout, trom three to five feet high; leaves ovate in general outline, from twelve to thirty inches long. It was first seen by me in the autumn of 1839, on the rich Prairies near Fort Wayne in the north-eastern portion of the Cherokee nation, ‘hear the Arkansas line. I felt assured that its curious properties had not been made known to the scientific = World, and after I had explored alt those regions on horseback, one and satisfied myself of the verity of.the peculiarity, I made it _ Known to the National Institute in Washington, the officers of the army having been requested by that enlightened Secretary of _ Was, Joel R. Poinsett, to aid that society as opportunity should 42 ie _ VOL. xv1.—no. vin, 626 On the Compass Plant. [ August, offer. The first communication was dated August 9, 1842, when I delivered in person to the Secretary of the Institute, Francis Markoe, Jr., a dried specimen of the plant. My second letter, published, like the first, in the Proceedings of the Institute, was dated January 25, 1843. My principal object now is to record the various experiments which have, from time to time and in different places, been made by me or under my direction, to demonstrate that the meridional position of the plane of the leaf is due to the action of light. A Silphium laciniatum, or Compass Plant of the Western prairies. Radica twelve to thirty inches in height. The property is best exhibited in the radical leaf, which pre- sents its faces to the rising and setting sun. The flowering plant also exhibits the property, though imperfectly, but its leaves take a medium position between their normal and symmetrical arrange- ment in reference to the stalk, and the tendency to point towa the north. But I have been not a little surprised to find | figures of the plant, as given by A. W. B. (Professor A. W. Bens net) in Mature, Feb. 1, 1877, and by Sir Joseph D. Hooker 1n the: London Botanical Magazine for January, 1881, present not t 1 leaf from 1882. ] On the Compass Plant. 627 radical leaf, but the flowering plant. The reader of those jour- nals will look in vain at the drawings to comprehend the polarity of the plant. j The experiments to which I refer were made on the radical leaves, which grow to the height of from one to two feet, and are strong and robust, and not easily disturbed by winds or other extraneous objects, and therefore the more useful as a guide on the prairies. These experiments have been made since my paper was read in 1849 to the American Association. By them I became satis- fied that Dr. Gray was right, in 1849, in attributing the pecu- liarity to the action of light. Ist.—I applied a very delicate galvanometer to the points of the leaves, so delicate that it should have detected the minutest quantity of magnetic or galvanic action, and no deflection was apparent. 2d.—Powerful magnets did not appear to deflect the leaves. 3d.—The plant was grown in a box, and after the leaves pre- sented their edges north-and south, the box was turned ninety degrees, and in a few days the leaves were seen to struggle to get back to their former meridional position. 4th.—Neither J. W. Bailey, LL.D., professor of chemistry at West Point, nor Professor John Torrey, at Princeton, after careful analysis in 1842, could detect any traces of the magnetic oxide of iron in the plant, or iron in any shape. Mr. Edward Burgess, by request of Professor Asa Gray at Cambridge, about 1870, examined with a microscope the two sur- faces of the leaf of the S. /aciniatum, and found the structure of the epidermal tissue of the two surfaces to be similar, and also the number of stomata in each face to be about equal. Leaves Senerally turn toward the light, and the under surface in such Cases is more “ copiously furnished with s¢omata, or breathing Pores as they are often inaccurately termed, which serve to pro- mote a diffusion of gases between the external air and the inter- cellular cavities within the tissue, and especially an abundant exhalation of aqueous vapor” (W. F. Whitney in American - NATURALIST for March, 1871). ___ My theory is this: all leaves will turn their upper faces toward the light. But in the compass plant (I speak now of the radical leaf) the stem comes up vertically and stiffly from the root. 628 On the Compass Plant. [August, | Compelled to move on a Yertical axis, the leaf can have no upper and no lower face, and thus as they struggle toward the light they face the rising and the setting sun for a position of stable equilibrium. This is facilitated by the number of stomata on each face being equal. If the glare of mid-day should attract one face toward the south, with plane of the leaf east and west, it would be a position of unstable equilibrium. Some of the ob- servers have, in rare instances, found exceptions in which this last named posture of the leaf was found. But it could not remain long in that situation; once diverted, it woul settle finally into the meridional position as that of stable equilibrium. This action of light in its full effect is of course best exhibited on the open prairies, where both faces would have the equal light of the sun during the day. But in the case of the plants grown by Dr. Gray in his botani- cal garden at Cambridge, they are near houses and trees, and not in a position assimilated to their native region on the prairies. Their failure to show the property was a fact stated by Dr. Gray in 1849 before the American Association when my paper was read, and it was the cause of his contradiction of the existencé of the property in the edition of his “ Botany of the Northern U. S. for 1846.” Down to the present day these plants in his garden do not show the peculiarity, evidently because they do not, as on the prairies, have the equal light of the sun during the morning and the afternoon. Thus I was fully prepared to expect the result of the experi- ment by Stahl in Germany, referred to in the number for Febru- ary, 1882, of the American ẸŞournal of Science. It was pef formed not on the Si/phium laciniatum, but on the Lactuca scariola, and it is but just to Dr. George Engelmann, of St. Louis, to Say, that he made known the existence of polarity in that plant in August, 1878, to the American Association at St. Louis, also in the number of the Gardeners’ Chronicle, London, for 26th Febru- ary, 1881. Stahl states that he “took two plants of the Lactuca scariola growing in pots and placed one where it would be exposed to direct sunlight from 10 until 3, and kept in the dark for the rest 1I recommend to observers in Minnesota and Wisconsin to see if the exceptions, o when the plant is east and west, are more numerous there than in Arkansas an g Texas, where the sun at noon is higher than in more northern latitudes. bend low 4 the sun at noon the greater the oe effect. ae 1§82.] On the Compass Plant. oe 629 of the day; the other was placed so that from sunrise until 10 o'clock, and from 3 o'clock until sunset, it was exposed to the sunlight, but from 10 to 3 was in the dark. In the first case the leaves did not assume a meridional position, but in the second they did. All this shows that the meridional position is produced by the sun when near the horizon.” To this can be added that Dr. Engelmann, in a letter to me of 28th Feb., 1882, as also in his article in the Gardeners’ Chronicle, above mentioned, adds that observations with a microscope show that the number of somata on the two faces is equal, thus “showing a similar anatomical structure” to that of the Sz/phiuim laciniatum. : The compass plant shows its peculiarity best in mid-summer, when the plant is in full growth prior to the changes which the approach of autumn makes in most plants. It is also best shown in the little hollows on the prairies, where the radical leaves are somewhat sheltered from the winds, and where they will be seen all parallel to each other. There are also great varieties in the size and growth of the S. /aciniatum, both in the radical leaf and in the flowering plant. I have myself seen the polarity exhibited in a much more marked manner in some regions than in others. In this respect in Iowa it was never so apparent as on the prairies in Missouri, Arkansas and the Cherokee nation. j . And I was pleased to hear from Dr. Gray that Sir Joseph Hooker saw it in Southwestern Missouri, and in mid-summer. On reaching Boston in 1877, Dr. Gray says, that one of the first requests of that distinguished botanist was to be shown the compass plant, and Dr. Gray took him to that region. So that in the Botanical Magazine for January, 1881, he says: _ “I have not been able to detect any orientation of the leaves in the Kew cultivated specimens, but these not being planted in a good exposure all round, are out of court as witnesses. On the other hand, when traveling on the prairies with Dr. Gray in 1877, I watched the position of the leaves of many hundred plants from the window of the railroad car, and after some time persuaded : Myself that the younger, more erect leaves especially, had their faces parallel approximately to the meridian line.” Dr. Gray in the same article (as quoted by Sir Joseph Hooker) _ Says: “ But repeated observations upon the prairies with measure- ments by the compass! of directions assumed by hundreds of ‘In the remarks which followed .my paper read in August, 1849, to the Am. \ssoc. (see page 18 of Proceedings), Professor R. Morris said: “In surveying on 630 On the Compass Plant. [ August, leaves, especially of the radical ones, have shown that as to prev- alent position, the popular belief has a certain foundation in fact.” I wish now to refer to the exceptions. Besides the fact above stated, that great differences are shown in the growth of the plant in different states and regions, it has repeatedly been reported to me that an east and west position of the leaf has been discovered. In 1843 letters to the National Institute made the statement that occasionally a leaf would be found east and west. Ina letter to me from St. Louis county, Mo., June 19th, 1866, from Mr. A. Fendler (a very careful painstaking botanist), he said: “ Of the thirty-four leaves examined on the hill, eleven were in the true meridian, ove was due east and west, one was as much as 60° east, and but three deviating more than 25° from the true meridian. The ‘compass plant,’ although its leaves do not invariably point due north and south, is yet entitled to the name it bears, not only from observations made on the open prairies, but even from those made on the hills. For in the latter case I find that about one-third.of the number of their leaves exactly coincide with the meridian, and more than another third is of so small an angle as 3°—10° from the true north.” Professor Gray, in the article in the Botanical Magazine above referred to, says: “ As to their orientation,? not only is this rather vague in the cultivated plant, but subject to one singular anom- aly. I have several times met with a leaf abruptly and perma- nently twisted to a right angle in the middle, so that while the the prairies for several years, I have observed that in running compass lines north : and south, the edge of the leaf was seen, so that the plant was not at all conspicu- ous; but i in running lines east and west, the whole plant was seen, and it was 4 very conspicuous object.” The Rev. Thomas Hill, LL.D., then president of Harvard Univ., in the number of American Journal of Science for Nov., 1863, communicated the result of careful observations on the prairies near Chicago, with compass in hand, on the 8th of August. He appears to have examined the flowering plant, n the radical leaf, He speaks of twenty-nine plants which bore ninety-one leaves. He says the average of sixty-nine leaves was “about half a degree east of the mer- idian,” and that twenty-five were less than 1°. If the flowering plant would give such results, the average of radical leaves wend have been still more aa Ife has a paper on the same subject i in AMERICAN Le oarsageagir: fag sath ‘anki but it is imhigide: Ze the compass plant t faces the west as much Bas the east. It was called, when I first saw w it, the “ polar plant” by the officers fe army and the frontiersmen. But the name of “compass plant” is mu sie better, the other name might be mistaken as referring to some plant near the pol If I use the word “ Seales in this paper it is only in the sense of its tend assume the meridional position ue ~ 1882. ] . On the Compass Plant. 631 lobes of the basal half pointed say east and west, those of the apical half pointed north and south.” My explanation of the east and west position observed by Mr. Fendler is, that while under the action of light the situation of the leaf for a position of stable equilibrium, is to face the rising and setting sun, it might, under the glare of the mid-day sun have temporarily, as a position of unstable equilibrium, taken a posture east and west. This would be when the whole leaf faces toward the south. But the anomaly of “an abrupt torsion of 90° in the middle of the blade” (again referred to by Dr. Gray in reference to Professor Farlow’s note on Stahl), is one for future observers to scan, who live near the plant on the prairies. If the basal half was not from any cause free to change its direction, the phenomenon would appear to be explained. Now as to other plants, reports, after my first communication to the National Institute in 1842, were received from the West by that society, stating that other plants on the prairies were found to possess the same peculiarity. My paper of August, 1849, said: “ Proper observation and experiments may discover traces of some general law for these results.” We have men- tioned above the experiment on the Lactuca scariola. All tends to confirm the idea that the polarity is due to the action of light. Besides that plant, Stahl names Aplopappus rubiginosus, Lac- tuca saligna, and Chrondrella juncea, and he “ believes that many other examples will be found, especially among the plants of dry and exposed regions,” I have now to add that observations made during the last twelve months on the Chinese arbor-vite, or T huja orientalis, in this city (Washington), convince me that when raised in a hedge only three or four years old and three or four feet high, its broad leaves will face the rising and setting sun. In the court- yard of Professor C. V. Riley, corner of 13th and R streets, N. W., there are two such hedges of the plants; one running east and west, the other north and south. Both exhibited the prop- erty. In reference to the former hedge running east and west, if is might be Supposed thatthe pointing north of the leaves well in view, might be due to the other leaves, except at the ends, being hidden from view, interlocked by the closeness of the hedge, I _ Answer: look at the other hedge running north and south, and — gE. verity of the meridional position of the leaves is there 632 : On the Compass Plant. [ August, also clearly» apparent. Dr. J. G. Hunt, of Philadelphia, a distin- guished microscopist, examined some of the leaves of the Thuja orientalis which I sent him, and says, June Ig, 1881, that “there is no structural difference in the two sides of the leaves on the plant.” It is only in the young plant three or four feet high that this is seen, for in the beautiful clumps of the Thuja orientalis eight to twelve feet high, the leaves, all vertical, radiate in every _ direction from the trunk of the tree. A friend from Louisiana, the late Professor C. G. Forshey, wrote me that he had formed the same conclusion concerning _ this plant as to its meridional position under certain circum- stances. Mr. William Saunders, superintendent of the garden at the Agricultural Department in this city, informs me that the leaves of the Eucalyptus polyanthemis are vertical and have the number of stomata the same on both faces. But confined in a conserva- tory nothing is known of any tendency of the leaves to face the rising and setting sun, If it is asked why I was at an early date disposed to look to other agencies than light as possibly concerned in causing the peculiarity of the compass plant, I answer that I was fresh from the study of electro-magnetism. Read section 105 of Roget's. Electro-magnetism on the electrical spiral coil (the “ Solenoid ve by which currents of electricity cause it to act when suspended on a vertical axis, like the magnet in pointing to the north. Read the treatises on vegetable physiology which speak of the spiral coils in the leaves of various plants, and “that one of the most remarkable properties of vegetable membrane is its power of allowing fluids to pass slowly through it, even though no visible pores or apertures can be detected in it.” “The spiral filaments are found in leaf-stalks from which their spiral fibers can be un- coiled.” Thus if experiment and dissection of the compass plant could in any way favor the idea of such anatomical struc ture, its polarity might be sought for in electric currents. To this day the best received theory of the magnetism of the earth is Ampere’s, that it is due to electric currents from west to er around the crust of the globe; and that a steel magnet is caused by electric currents transverse to its axis and per meating ip -entire length, — ; cee But when one agency is sufficient to account for the phenome: 1882. | ` On the Compass Plant. 633 non, it is unnecessary to search for another. And this brings me to refer to the admirable drawing of the transverse section of the leaf, magnified 235 times, of Si/phium laciniatum, given on page 157 of Botany by C. E. Bessey, - professor of botany in the Iowa Agricultural College. He says, “ Its chlorophyll-bearing paren- chyma is almost entirely arranged as palisade tissue, so that the upper and lower portions are almost exactly identical in struc- ture ;” on page 103 he says, “ there are in the true upper surface 52,700 stomata per square inch, and on the under surface 57,300 per square inch.” This magnifying of a section of the leaf is a dissection, and thus there is no cause to suppose the existence of any spiral ducts such as are above referred to. Professor Bessey, living in the prairié region has the best possible opportunities to observe the compass plant. He says, page 515: “Its large pinnately lobed leaves twist upon their petioles, so as to present one surface of the blade to the east and the other to the west, the two edges being upon the meridian.” This language applies to the leaves of the flowering plant, for in the growing of the radical leaf there is no, cause for the twisting of the petiole in order that it may assume its meridional position. ~ As to the history of the plant in Europe. The following is an extract from the article by Sir Joseph Hooker in the London Botanical Magazine for January, 1881, above quoted, which is preceded by a drawing of the flowering plant: “This noble plant was introduced into Europe in 1781 by > Thouin and flowered for the first time in the Botanical Garden of Upsala in Sweden. It has been in cultivation in. Europe ever Since, though ‘its name and fame as the compass plant of the Prairies are of comparatively modern date, it having before that borne the popular names of turpentine plant and rosin weed, ex- cept among the hunters and settlers in the Western Sta’ | With regard to the history of its reputed properties as an indicator of the meridian by the position of its leaves, I am fortunate in hav- ing recourse to my friend Professor Asa Gray, now in England, who has most kindly furnished me the following very interesting - account of this matter: “* The first announcement of the tendency of the leaves of the Compass plant to direct their edges to the north and south, was ane by General (then Lieutenant) Alvord of the U. S. Army, in ʻe year 1842, and again in 1849, in communications to the Amer- _ ean Association for the Advancement of Science. But the fact appears to have long been familiar to the hunters who traversed 634 On the Compass Plant. [August, the prairies in which this plant abounds. The account was some- what discredited at the time by the observation that the plants cultivated in the Botanical Garden at Cambridge, U. S., did not distinctly exhibit this tendency.’ ”1 Nature for Feb. 1, 1877, contains the first of a series of articles by “A. W. B.” on “ Remarkable Plants,” and begins with the _ compass plant as No. 1. It says: “Our illustration is taken partly from the plate in Jacquin's ‘ Ecloge,’ the only good draw- ing of the plant published, assisted by comparison with dried specimens in the Kew Herbarium.” The full title? of Jacquins - - book, published in Latin in Vienna in, 1812, is, “ Selections of rare and little-known plants, described from living plants with col- ored illustrations.” Like the plant in Upsala, Sweden, in 1781, it was cultivated, but its true rarity, and its claims for interest and investigation, were quite unknown. If it is asked what remains for the observation of scientists in this connection, we answer, that besides the occasional torsion of 90° referred to by Dr. Gray, and the exceptions to the rule in which the whole leaf is east and west, to which we have briefly alluded, we will add: the whole subject of the reason (the entire rationale) of leaves turning towards the light is worthy of more full experiment and elucidation. I had written the above sentence when I was pleased to see in the American Fournal of Science for March, 1882, a communica- _tion by Dr. Asa Gray, stating the substance of a paper by Fran- cis Darwin, in Journal of the Linnzean Society, 1881, “On the power possessed by leaves of placing themselves at right angles to the direction of incident light.” Dr. Gray concludes his abstract by saying: “The experiments varied in many ways, and with arrangements to eliminate epinastic and hyponastic sews 1 Dr. Gray adds: “ The lines in ‘ Evangeline’ were inspired by a personal ane munication made by Gen. Alvord to the poet Longfellow.” This was in January, 1847. Sir Joseph Hooker adds in a note after quoting the lines, “ I cannot congrat- ulate the poet on the fidelity of the plant as a ‘delicate one.’”” The same criticism is made by the article in Mature. The truth is, I wrote Professor Longfellow ae “ Evangeline ” first came out that the plant was not a “ delicate ” one, but et os contrary, stout and robust, and therefore a better image of faith. “ Such in the sou of man is faith,” &c., &c., and in all the later editions of “ Evangeline,” m H , fellow calls it a “ vigorous plant.” But in England the first editions are m ae - 2 Eclogæ plantarum rariorum et minus cognitarum, quas ad vivum aan iconibus coloratis illustravit., Fehr. Jos. Fry. Jacquin. Fasc. I-X. Fa z i 1812. ; ; o o o : EW. G. E, ” 1882. ] On the Compass Flant, 635 dencies, plainly bring out the conclusion ‘that the power which leaves have of placing themselves at right angles to the incident light is due to a specialized sensitiveness to light, which is able to regulate or govern the action of other external forces, such as epinasty.’” . Professor Bessey, in his recent admirable work on botany, page 193, says: “The explanation for heliotropism which is com- monly given, is that the light retards the growth on the illumi- nated side, while the shaded side elongates, resulting in a tension which necessarily produces a curvature.” This is the most plausible statement we have seen, but we are not informed how far it is founded on any actual experiment. It is satisfactory that Mr. Darwin has undertaken the task in such-a careful and systematic manner. It is an interesting field of ob- servation and worthy of being thoroughly examined by different persons and in different localities. LIST OF PAPERS ON THE COMPASS PLANT, ETC. BENJAMIN ALvoRD, U. S. Army.—Proceedings of National Institute, Washington, D. C., 1842 and 184 Proceedings of American Association for the Advancement of Science (page 12) at Cambridge, Mass., August, 1849. ; THOMAS HiL, LL.D.—American par of Science for November, 1863, p. 439. American Naturalist, 1870, p J. A. ALLEN.—American Naturalist, 1870, p. 580. W. F. WHITNEY. —American Naturalist for March, 1871, p. I. PROFESSOR ALFRED W. BENNETT, Lecturer on Botany at St. Thomas Hospital, ng.—Nature for Feb. 1, 1877, p. 258, with figure of the plant. Dr. GEORGE ENGELMANN, of St. Louis.—American Association for Advancement of Science, St, Louis, Aug., 1878. PROFESSOR C, E. Bessey. —American Naturalist for August, 1877, p. 436. Botany, Henry Holt & Co., N. f. 1880, pages 103, 157, 515, with figures of section of leaf magnified. Dr. Asa GRAY.—Ed. of 1880 of Botany of Northern U. S. ——American Journal of Science for March, 1882, page 245. On Francis Dar- win’s paper in Journal of the Linnzan Society, No. 112, Vol. 18, pp. 42c- 455, June 1881, on ‘‘ The power possessed by leaves of placing ai at right angles to the direction of incident light.” Sir ate D. Hooker and Dr. Asa Gray.—London Botanical Magazine for Jan- 1881. ; kate Chronicle, p. 276, for Feb. 26, 1881. or PRoressor W. G. FarLow, of Harvard University.—American ‘iets al of Science for February, 1882, p. 157, giving extracts from Stahl in the Jen. Zeitschrift, etme 636 * The Development of the Tree-toad. [August, THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TREE-TOAD! BY MARY H. HINCKLEY. RECORD of several seasons gives the appearance of Hyla versicolor in the spring, in Milton, Massachusetts, from about the Ist to the 10th of May. Tadpoles of this species I have found most abundant in the water of small, still, shadowy ponds near large trees. The eggs are attached singly and in small groups for a distance of one or two yards along the grasses which grow up and rest on the water. Unless the grass is parted they are not readily seen. The gelatinous substance surrounding the eggs is exceedingly thin. When first laid they are of a drab color on the upper surface, which becomes lighter after a few hours in the water. The under surface is white; the extent of — this color varies; in some cases only a spot of drab is seen on an otherwise white egg. The period of egg-laying, according to my observations, extends from the first week in May to July. The development of the egg is rapid, being accomplished within forty- eight hours. When first hatched the tadpole is about a quarter _ of an inch long, of a pale yellow color, dotted with olive on the head and sides of the body. During the first week the external gills are developed and resorbed. At the same time the olive color gradually increases and deepens till it extends over the up- per surface of the tadpole. A fine dotting of gold color also appears on both upper and under surfaces. In the water, how ever, they look black. The holders, at first so prominent, disap- pear within ten days. The head and body are short. The tail is broad and thick. The eyes are prominent, set widely apart, and of a brilliant flame color; the iris in some specimens is quarter by dark lines. The lips are broad. The nostril openings and two perpendicular lines on the muzzle, also a line from before the eyes down each side to the tail, are gold colored. Transverse bars of the same tint on the upper edge of the tail are sometimes seen. The tadpoles are shy and quick in movement as yo moving through the water with the least perceptible mo the tail. They do not collect together, but where enough, each tadpole goes its own way independently. ; hardy, and probably owing in some degree to their quick 1 Abstract of a paper published in the Proceedings of the Boston Society ral History, Vol. xx1, Nov. 17, 1880. ung fishes, tion of They are - move of Nate there is room 1882. ] The Development of the Tree-toad. 637 ments, are more exempt from mutilation by water enemies than other species, rarely losing eyes or tail. “is JA Vy pm M i £ ANI He — E2 n ee re a i= A a ae Ses Wig = IIli a . El \) PA W YSS f $ Uj ee wl BAA es Eafe - t TETEE DEVELOPMENT CF HYLA VERSICOLOR. When about three weeks old the hind legs are in sight as small White gd, in front of the base of the eraila near the lower edp on 638 The Development of the Tr rée-toad., [ August, each side. An iridescence of great brilliancy is seen on the white surface of the abdomen and sides of the body. The head and upper portion of the body show a bluish, metallic sheen, and the tail, which is more or less flecked with brown or black, becomes in some specimens a bright red color. It would be difficult to exaggerate the beauty of coloring of these tadpoles, it exceeds in brilliancy and variety any species found in this locality. As the legs become more fully developed, the coloring of the head and body tends from dark olive toa light, grayish-green. In the seventh week the body begins to lose its roundness, and the arms are seen to be moved under the skin, as if the tadpole were impatient to get them free. The head then appears dispropor- tionately large. At this stage the tadpoles vary from gray to - pea-green in color. They are found in the’ shallow water near the shore, where many fall prey to various aquatic birds. During the eighth week they appear to take little ‘food; the arms are thrown out, the tail is gradually resorbed, the mouth developed, and the frogs leave the water. While a few specimens retain the color of gray up to this time, nearly all will be found of various shades of tender green on the upper surfaces, bordered with dif- ferent tints of gray or salmon color. The abdomen is white. Green asserts itself much earlier in some specimens than others; but I have never seen a tadpole of this species develop into the frog that did not sooner or later become green, The markings on the back also vary in time of appearance; but the coloring of black on the head, body and limbs, the smooth shiny patch below the eyes, the granulated appearance of the skin, and the yellow coloring in the folds of the legs, usually appear in the order of their mention, and after the frogs have left the water. Last season a small pond in an open pasture, about fifteen rods from a wood, furnished a good opportunity for observing their movements on leaving the water. From the 19th to the 24th of July, numbers of the young frogs, with tails in different stages of resorption, were found on the ground, weeds, and grasses about the pond, which by this time had become reduced by evaporation to a shallow pool. They represented a variety of shades of green; a few were gray, and occasionally one was scarcely to be sêpa- — 5 rated in color from the mud on which it rested. I observed por on the ground frequently capture the small spiders which Se : numerous there. As soon as they left the water their 9 a 1882. | The Development of the Tree-toad. 639 evidently, was to reach the wood. Apparently aware of their danger in this exposed journey, they drew attention to themselves, when approached, by continually springing out of harm’s way ; but after the shrubbery was reached they rarely made any attempt to escape when discovered, trusting wholly, like the mature frogs, to their disguise of coloring for safety. - I found several of them on a small apple tree which was in the line of their journey. They were on the new growth which was overrun with Aphides, and the frogs had assumed a deep emerald-green, so like the leaf that it was difficult at first glance to distinguish them from it. After they reached the wood I could trace them no farther. I think it probable that some observers have mistaken Æ. versicolor at this age for the adults of another species of Hyla. My knowledge of the frogs from this stage till they reach maturity, is confined chiefly to those reared ina fernery. For the first three months they retained the green color, as a rule, with occasional changes to tints of brown and gray, matching the earth or branches to which they clung. After that time shades of gray became the rule and green the exception. The black markings on the head, body and limbs did not change excepting to vary in distinctness. Their food, which they never took unless alive, was Aphides at first, but soon flies formed their chief diet. During the day they commonly remained motionless, hidden be- hind the bark of the branches, with feet and hands, which are evidently extremely sensitive, compactly folded under the body, so that only their outer edges came in contact with the surface on which they were seated. Occasionally they would pat the disks against the sides of the body as ifto moisten them. Their activity was reserved for the night, although rain accompanied by a south wind, caused them to move about uneasily. About the Ist of October they left the branches and ferns and nestled away in the damp earth and moss, where they remained through the winter, unless exposed to a temperature above 60°. They took no food from the first week in October till the 14th of the follow- ing May, when I gave them their liberty. They were then placed On an oak tree, where, after climbing till a suitable crevice or hiding place was found, they backed themselves into it and be- _ ame to all appearance like a part of the bark of the tree. 640 On some Entomostraca of Lake Michigan {August, ON SOME ENTOMOSTRACA OF LAKE MICHIGAN AND ADJACENT WATERS. BY S. A. FORBES. (Continued from Fuly number.) A THIRD Calanid deserves special mention asa species of Lim- nocalanus, a genus known hitherto only from Scandinavian lakes. It is readily distinguished, without dissection, from the other fresh-water Calanide, by the extraordinary length, size and promi- nence of the five or six terminal setz of the first maxillipeds. The second maxillipeds are also very long. The legs areall bi-ramose, the inner ramus of the fifth pair resembling the same appendage of the other legs. This species, which may be Limnocalanus macrurus Sars, was first sent me by Mr. C. S. Fellows, of Chica- go, about four years ago, a mutilated female having been obtained by him from the city water supply. The furca is as long as the entire abdomen. The rami are hairy, parallel, about seven times as long as wide, and provided with five subequal terminal sete, and one some distance in front of the external angle. It has been collected thus far only in the south end of the lake. I have found it abundant in the city harbor, even in the polluted water near the mouth of the river, where it is associated especially with Diæpto- mus sicilis and the Cyclops next to be described. a The Calanidz seem to have an unusual development in this country ; and to facilitate their study and comparison, I have de- scribed further on all the species which I have hitherto clearly distinguished. : Smallest and most abundant of the Copepoda of the lake, 1s 4 minute Cyclops (C. thomasi, n. s., Pl. xx Figs. 10, 11 and 16), only four hundredths of an inch in length (without seta) and about eleven thousandths of an inch in width, slender and colorless, with remarkably long caudal stylets ; and especially noticeable for the great difference in the length of the caudal sete. The inner and outer ones are inconspicuous, while the outer of the two median sete is longer than the furca, and the inner of these two 1s a long as the whole abdomen. This Cyclops was first Ach from Mr. B. W. Thomas, and I have since found it excessively ce abundant in the lake. I have not encountered it, however, bee w y other waters. R Its nearest European ally is apparently Cyclops bicusp sen 1882.] and Adjacent Waters. 641 Claus, but from this the description on another page will serve easily to distinguish it. This is the only Cyclops which I have yet noticed in Lake Michigan, and is certainly far the most abundant species. Of the many species of Cladocera occurring here, I have selected but three for especial comment. The first of these, Zep- todora hyalina Lillj.{Pl. 1x Fig. 3), which occurs also in Europe, is a most interesting creature. When in its native element it is almost perfectly transparent, and consequently invisible—a true microscopic ghost—a fact associated by Professor Weissmann with its predaceous habit and feeble locomotive power. To the little Cyclops host it must indeed be a dreadful aad mysterious enemy. Concealed by its transparency, it need not lurk in ob- scure hiding places, like grosser robbers, but can wing its way unnoticed among its prey. The common Daphnids of the lake are, however, almost equally transparent, and as these are not at all carnivorous, we must either suppose that they have developed independently the same peculiarity for a directly opposite purpose—that of self-pro- tection—or else we must conclude that there is something in the conditions of life here which tends to render the bodies of all entomostraca transparent. __ A single mutilated specimen of Leptodora was dredged by Professor S. I. Smith in Lake Superior ; it has been found in both ends of Lake Michigan, and I have also collected it in the Illinois river and the small lakes adjacent, and in a muddy pond in Northern Illinois only half a mile across and twenty feet in depth. A careful comparison of my specimens with the descriptions _ and figures of Lilljeborg and Weissmann, leaves no room for doubt that they belong to the European species. This is likewise the case with the remarkable Holopedium Sibberum Zaddach (Pl. 1x Figs. 12-15) found as yet only in Grand Traverse bay, where it occurred not rarely with Epischura, Diap- tomus, Cyclops and Daphnia hyalina. In this animal the bivalve shell has undergone a truly monstrous development, the brood cavity on the back being elevated to a height greater, when filled with young, than that of the remainder of the animal. On the other hand, the lateral valves of the shell are so shortened that they do not completely cover the branchial feet. For the protec- _ tion of the creature and its young, and partly also, according to 642 On some Entomostraca of Lake Michigan [ August, © P. E. Miiller’s supposition, to restore the balance of the body and enable it to float feet downwards, the shell secretes a layer or cloak of a gelatinous character and of an enormous thickness, relatively to the size of the animal. Through a slit in this man- tle the antennz and feet are thrust out ; but otherwise the animal is completely buried in a lump of gelatine. Bosmina (PI. 1x Fig. 17) was less abundant in my collections than the other fi ti d, but occurred very commonly in the stom- achs of Mysis oculatus dredged from the deeper waters of the bay. The commonest Cladocera in the lake are two forms of Daph- nia, remarkable for their thinness and exquisite transparency. They are allied to galeata and pellucida of the old world, recently reduced by Adolph Lutz to varieties of Daphnia hyalina Leydig. Although our specimens do not agree strictly either with the de- scriptions or the figures of those varieties extant, their differ- ences probably do not pass the limits of allowabie variation in this excessively variable species. The head is keeled, convex in dorsal outline and either rounded (pellucida) or pointed (galeata) in front, the shell is compressed and reticulate, and terminates posteriorly in a long, straight, dentate spine. ‘ An allied species, from the smaller Illinois lakes, where it is 1n | autumn by far the most abundant entomostracan, resembles Daph- nia cederstrémii Schodler, but differs especially in the still more enormous development of the head. This is as high as the body and more than two-thirds as long, deeply concave on the uppe" border, the apex curving upwards far beyond the dorsal line of the body. The head is expanded inferiorly also to such a degree that the sensory hairs of the antennules fall much short of the tip of the rostrum. The shell is reticulate, and its spine long and straight, there is no macula nigra, and the caudal claws have å row of teeth at their base. For this curious form I propos the name of Daphnia retrocurva. ; I have not found it in Lake Michigan, although in the smaller lakes it is mingled with both varieties of Daphnia hyalina. pe in the young, before they have left the brood cavity of the mother, the helmet is developed far beyond that of the adult of any of the latter species. - The female carries but one or two eggs, and the young e : times attain a size more than half that of the body of the mother 3 within the shell, before they leave her protection. o ~~ 1882.] | and Adjacent Waters. 643 This is the farthest extreme of a development of the head, which, beginning with such forms as pellucida, runs through gal- cata, apicata, berolinensts, vitrea, kahlenbergensis and cederstrémit to the present species, where it reaches truly enormous proportions. The meaning of such a character I am not able to imagine. The expansion of the head is a thin and flexible plate, affording lodg- ment to:no organs, and seems an utterly useless encumbrance. In Geneva lake, Wisconsin, the most abundant entomostracan in October,- was an extremely variable Daphnia approaching hyalina on the one hand and retrocurva on the other, but still sep- arable from both. It is evident that this group of helmeted Daphnias is still in process of active evolution, and it is possible that there are no actual breaks anywhere along the line from hyalina to retrocurva, although in the former the head may be scarcely larger than in Daphia pulex, while in the latter it is often more than half as large as the body. Comparing the Daphnias of Lake Michigan with those of Geneva lake, Wis. (nine miles long and twenty-three fathoms in depth), those of Long lake, Ills. (one anda half miles long and six fathoms deep), and those of other still smaller lakes of that region, a curious progressive predominance of the large-hel- meted forms is very evident in passing from larger to smaller lakes. If we extend the comparison further, and include the other entomostraca, and the swamps and smaller ponds as well, _ we shall be struck by the inferior development of the entomos- traca of the larger bodies of water, in numbers, in size and robust- ness, and in reproductive power. Their smaller numbers and Size are doubtless due to the relative scarcity of food. The sys- _ tem of aquatic animal life rests essentially upon the vegetable world, although perhaps less strictly than does the terrestrial sys- tem; and in a large and deep lake vegetation is much less abun- dant than in a narrower and shallower one, not only relatively to the amount of water but also to the area of the bottom. (In all the lakes which I have dredged, life of all sorts was much more Scanty in the interior deeper portions than along the margins.) From this deficiency of plant life results a deficiency of food for _€ntomostraca, whether of Algæ, of Protozoa or of higher forms, — and hence, of course, a smaller number of the entomostraca themselves, with more slender bodies suitable for more rapid locomotion. 644 On some Entomostraca of Lake Michigan [ August, The difference of reproductive energy, as shown by the much smaller egg-masses borne by the lacustrine species, depends upon the vastly greater destruction to which the paludinal crustacea ` are subjected. Many of the latter occupy waters liable to be exhausted by drought, with a consequent enormous waste of ento- mostracan life. The opportunity for reproduction is here greatly limited—in some situations to early spring alone—and the chances for destruction of the summer eggs in the dry and often dusty soil are so numerous that only the most prolific species can maintain themselves under such conditions. Further, the marshes and shallower lakes are the favorite breeding grounds of fishes, which migrate to them in spawning time, if possible, and it is from the entomostraca found here that most young fishes get their earliest food supplies—a danger from which the deep-water species are measurably free. Not only is a high reproductive power therefore rendered unnecessary among the latter by their freedom from many dangers to which the shal- low-water species are exposed, but in view of the relatively small amount of food available for them, a high rate of multiplication would be a positive injury, and could result only in wholesale starvation. EXPLANATION OF PLATE IX. Fic, 1 Ce a Parion labronectum, second maxilliped, x 123. E ye Bist dible and palpus, X 75. e? —Leptodora hyalina, 9 (After Weiimin n). ea SK g, antennæ, x 38. . 5 Wn g, part of left antenna, showing olfactory clubs, X 120. 6.—Cyclops insectus, g’, X 38. 7.—Osphranticum Tabrouectiins, leg of fourth pair Oates lacustris, &', X 42. (Some of the basal segments of the an- na are concealed. The segmentation of the cephalothorax is in- Deak shown. See text.) 9.—Osphranticum labronectum, antennula. “ 10.—Cy ae ops oe rate of re pair. 1I—_ 12 Holopedium giberim, 3 13 abdomen and furca. ms Baie i x marking of shell. “ 15.— z s eye and macula nigra. 16.—Cyclops thomasi, antenna, X 65. “ 17.—Bosmina (after Gerstaecker). TI et : 3 py ) = 7 3 & © AEEA ‘a Ra a } $ K j = = a \ 1882. ] E A and Adjacent Waters. 645 NEW GENERA AND SPECIES OF COPEPODA. Gents OSPHRANTICUM, gen. nov, (Plate vir Figs. 24, 28 and 29; Plate 1x Figs. 1, 2, 4, 5, 7 and 9.) This genus is similar to Diaptomus in general neato but differs especially in the structure of the fifth pair of legs of male and female. antenne are 23-jointed, the right of the male geniculate between the 18th and one Joints 13-18 are dilated on this antenna, and the 19th and 2oth are united, reducing the number e antennules and mouth-parts have the same general structure as in Diaptomus, . but the former are unusually large. The legs of the first pair have both rami 3- jointed. In the male both legs of the fifth pair are bi-ramose and armed with plu- mose cilia (Pl. vit Fig. 29). The inner ramus of each is 3-jointed and unmodified. In the outer ramus of the left leg the second and third joints are consolidated, and bear three plumose terminal setz, a strong spine on the outer margin and a pubes- cent tubercle at the inner base. The outer ramus of the right leg is 3-jointed, bears _ two sete at tip and is unarmed within. In the female the legs of the fifth pair are nearly alike and only the third joint of the outer ramus is modified (compare Fig, 28 Pl. vit, with Fig. 7 Pl. 1x). I. Osphranticum labronectum, sp. nov. The cephalothorax is oval, symmetrical, and composed of six segments regularly decreasing in length from before backwards. The head is not distinct from the first thoracic segment, and the posterior angles of the cephalothorax are evenly rounded. The abdomen is cylindrical and unarmed; of five segments in the male, four in the female, The *antennæ scarcely surpass the cephalothorax, and are very richly su . plied with olfactory clubs. The second joint is nearly as long as the three following. The setze of the antennules reach to the 20th joint of the antenne, The egg-sa¢ in the female is unusually large, obovate, widest posteriorly, flattened vertically, and ex- tending to the tips of the setae. The latter are five in number to each ramus, the fourth from the outside being much the longest This species is readily distinguished in life by the short and compact thorax (its depth being contained but two and a-half times in its length), and by its steady move- ment in the water, as it does not commonly swim with the jerking motion of Diap- tomus, Those taken at Normal were pale brown in color, without markings. Found in a wayside pool at Normal, Ill., in February, 1877, and in swamps in Iro- quois county, in the same month of 1882. The females of the latter lot were bear- ing eggs Genus DIAPTOMUS. 1. Diaptomus sicilis, sp.nov. (Pl. vit Figs. 9 and 20.) This is the American representative of Diaptomus gracilis of Europe. It differs from that species as described by Sars, as follows: The antepenultimate joint of the right male antenna is not armed with a hook, but with a long and slender spine- like process, nearly equaling the following joint. The last joint of the fifth pair of legs of the female is not distinct, nor indeed at all oe and its terminal spines reach less than half the distance to the tip of the claw of the penultimate joint. The inner ramus of this leg is much longer than the basal joint of the outer ramus, and is not 2-jointed in any specimen which I have examined. The terminal Claw of the right foot of the male is regularly curved from base to apex.’ e species is usually colorless, although I have seen occasionally individuals of ` 646 On some Entomostraca from Lake Michigan [August, a uniform crimson. Equally conspicuous differences are apparent on comparison of the legs of the fifth pair of the male with the descriptions and figures of Gruber! (see — ig. 9). ee The thoracic segments corresponding to the two last pairs of legs are not distinct, but the head is divided into an anterior and a posterior part by an evident constric- tion and an incomplete suture, The body is .065 in. long (without caudal basa: by one-fourth that depth. This s s has a special economical value as constituting, with one species of Cyclops, nai to be described, almost the entire first food of the whitefish, I have not found it anywhere outside of Lake Michigan, but there it occurs in im- mense numbers; sometimes being the most abundant species appearing in the net. A similar but not identical form occurs in the small and shallow lakes of Northern Illinois and Indiana. The latter is possibly the D. ee of Herrick,? although neither his description nor rie are really speci 2. Diaptomus leptopus, sp. nov. (Pl. viir Figs. 17-19.) This species resembles the foregoing in general appearance, but may be easily dis- tinguished by the relative robustness of the antennz and the shortness of their hairs and spines, by the width and shortness of the rami of the furca (the width being @ little more than two-thirds the length), by the serrate setæ of the swimming legs and the different shape and BR ions of the pair. An average male me s .07 in. in length fy .o15 in. in depth. The cephalo- one is a little the wiles eee the middle, with angles rounded and terminating in a single acute spine. The second segment of the female abdomen is very short. The antennz reach to the tip of the furca, and the antepenultimate ai of the right antenna bears a small hook at the tip in the male. e outer ramus of the first pair of legs has three long bristles at its tip, of which the outer is dentate externally and plumose within, while the short spine at its base is dentate on both margins. The outer edge of this ramus is fringed with long deli- cate pubescence. On all the swimming feet the terminal seta is dentate externally. The characters of the fifth pair of legs of male and female are sufficiently shown n by Figs. 17, 18 and 19 of the first plate. This species is of especial interest and value, since I have collected it from pools in Southern oval near Wood’s Holl, and also from similar situations at Normal, Illinoi The aie of specimens from these widely separate localities agree verre closely, thus affording a most useful indication of the constancy of such characters P have used in separating our species of this genus 3- Diaptomus stagnalis, sp. nov. (P1. vist Figs. 8, 10-12 and 14.) in, with- ) of This species is the largest of its genus which I have seen, measuring .1! out the caudal set. It is apparently nearest to Diaptomus ceruleus (= castor, : Europe, but differs constantly from that form in several particulars in which the vá rious figures of castor and westwoodti given by Baird, Lilljeborg, Lubbock and B agree with each othe The lateral angles of the cephalothorax are salient in the male and bi female. The branches of the furca are nearly as broad as long, are hairy w! fid in the © l Ueber zwei siiss-wasser-Calaniden. ? Microscopic Entomostraca. By C. G. Herrick. The Geological History Survey of Minnesota, The seventh annual en it the Shc I neapolis, Air and Natural -o 878. Min ithin and P ; 1882.] and Adjacent Waters. 647 about equal in length to the last abdominal segment., The antennæ are robust and long, attaining the middle of the abdomen, and the kedepane joint of the male bears at its tip a stout conical process about one-third the length of the joint. On all the swimming feet the lateral spines of the outer ramus are bi-serrate, anå the outer seta of the terminal three is strongly and sharply serrate without. This seta is about twice as broad as the others, and is but sparingly plumose within. The inner ramus of the right leg of the fifth pair is rudimentary and unarmed, about half tbe length of the basal joint of the outer ramus. The third joint of the outer ramus of the fifth pair of legs in the female is dis- tinct and bears three setæ, while the inner margin of the tip of the preceding joint - is coarsely toothed. The inner ramus is bi-articulate and terminates in two long feathered spines, which are longer than the whole ramus. Several specimens were taken from niani in Central Illinois, in early Spring. All were red throughout. 4. Diaptomus sanguineus Forbes. (Pl. vitt Figs. 1-7 and 13.) To the description of this species published in the first Bulletin of the Illinois Museum of Natural History, I will add but a few details. The posterior angles of the cephalothorax in the female are bifid, and its dorsal outline, regular in the male, is broken in the other sex by an elevation at the anterior Pee of the penultimate te within which one of the levator muscles of the omen takes its rise. I of no other Diaptomus possessing this character. None of the bristles of the anterior feet are serrate, although the lateral spines of the outer rami are so, The outer margins of these feet are not hairy. Genus EpIscHURA, gen, nov. (Pl. vin, Figs, 15, 16, 21-23, 25-27, and Pl. 1x, Fig. 8.) In the general character of the legs, both natatory and clasping, this genus stands near Heterocope of Sars, but is remarkably distinguished from all the other Copepoda known to me by the development of the abdomen of the male as a prehensile organ. The abdomen has five segments, the second and third of which are produced on the right side as large and strong processes which act against each other like forceps, while a toothed plate on the fourth segment and a spatulate one on the fifth, assist to form a peculiar and powerful grasping apparatus. The cephalothorax has six seg- ments, of which thé last bears both the fourth and fifth pairs of legs. The head is very distinct from the following segment. ‘The eye is single, sma The female abdomen is four-jointed (the first joint very dient, and is usually provided with a curved, cylindrical EERE firmly cemented to the under side of the ovisac and exte nding upwards on the right, beside the third ce: In the male the legs of the fifth mira are both one-branched, the left ramus three- jointed and the right two-jointed. In the former the second and third joints oppose an enormous, curved and flattened process of the first. In the right leg the second . joint is conical and hinged upon the first. e fifth legs of the female are likewise one-branched and simple. They are Ihres.jolnte, small and unarmed, except at the tip where they are palmately toothed, In all the remaining legs of both sexes, the inner ramus has but one joint, and the outer three, The antennæ are 25-jointed and the ET of the aliri is Saisie * 648 On some Entomostraca from Lake Michigan [August, 1, Epischura lacus(ris, sp. nov. The second segment of the abdomen of the male is twice as long as the first, and produced to the right as a large, elongate, triangular process, somewhat hooked backwards at the tip. The third segment is similarly produced, but rounded and ex- panded at the tip, which is roughened before and behind. From the right side of the fourth segment arises a stout process bearing at its apex a hatchet-shaped plate with seven broad obtuse serratures on its anterior margin. This process is ee hind, where it is opposed to the concave side of the left ramus of the furca. From the same side of the fifth segment, a short flattened plate, of a ee or paddle-like form, extends forward above or beyond the toothed process just mentioned. e antennz are 25-jointed, and reach to the second segment of the abdomen. There are especially prominent sensory hairs on the first and third joints, borne at the tips of long spines. The antennules are short, the ram rently but three- jointed, the short, median joints common in this oi Velie oilj obscurely in- dicated. The mandible has but seven teeth, the first simple and acute, separated from the second by an faceted about equal to the second and third, the second to the sixth bifid, the seventh entire and acute. The usual plumose bristle is replaced by a sharp, simple sp The outer ramus Fot the fourth pair of legs has two teeth at the outer tip of each of the two basal joints. The terminal joint of this ramus is armed as follows : 2 short simple spine at middle of outer margin and another at the distal outer angle; a single large and long terminal seta, strongly and sharply toothed mi and plumose within, and four long plumose setæ attached to the inner marg The left leg of the fifth pair in the male, viewed from behind, has be tadi joint very large, broader than long, with the inner inferior angle produced downwards as a long, stout, curveđ process or arm as long as the two remaining joints. The sec- ond joint is trapezoidal, shortest within. T thiid joint is about half as wide at base as the first, is straight without, with a sharp, small tooth at its distal third, and bifid at tip. On the inner margin this joint is at first dilated a little, and then deeply excavated to the narrow tip, to receive the lower end of the left leg, the lower two- thirds of this margin forming the segment of a circle. The right leg is two-jointed, the first joint twice as long as broad, alaih at the lower end forming an auriculate expansion at its inner inferior -e The second joint is conical in outline and about two-thirds as long as the firs he terminal bristles of the rami are very broad and a in the female, he outer one especially having an extraordinary size and thickness. There is also at the outer angle of each ramus a short, stout spine, that on the left ramus being in- flated like the outer bristle, The legs of the fifth pair in the female are three-jointed and similar, the basal joint short and broad, the second two and one. half times as long as wide. The leg terminates by four diverging teeth, preceded by two others, one on each side. Taken in the towing net abundantly in October, 1881, at Grand Traverse bay 5 also obtained rarely by Mr. B. W. Thomas, from the city water of Chicago. Genus LIMNOCALANUS. x Limnocalanus macrurus? Sars. Our specimens are distinguished from Zimnocalanus macrurus as described by Sar-,! by the antennz, which are 24-jointed instead of 25; by the mandibles which 1 Oversigt af de indenlandske Ferskvands terest Forhandlinger i Viden- e skabs-Selskabét i Christiana. Aar, 1862, pp. 21 . s -= 1882.] and Adjacent Waters. 649 have but eight teeth instead: of nine—only one setiform tooth where the other has two; and by the second pair of antennz, which are rather slender, and armed with long but weak seta. The penultimate abdominal. segment has a terminal circlet of ‘spinules Genus Cyclops. I, Cyclops thomasi, n. s. (Pl. 1x Figs. 10, 11 and 16.) Elongate, slender, broadest in front hg tapering backward, antennz 17-jointed, reaching the middle of the third segmen The first abdominal segment in the ae is broad in front and slightly emar- ginate on each side before the anterior angles, and the last segment has a terminal circlet of small spines. The rami of the furca are more than me as long as the abdomen, and each bears two short rows of transverse spinules outside, one at the anterior the other at the hens third. With the latter a spine occurs about as long as the outer terminal s The inner seta at the si of the ramus is about half the length of the furca, ee otter still shorter. The inner median seta is as long as the abdomen and furca, and the outer about half as | In the outer ramus of the first pair of legs the want joint has one spine and two setæ at the tip, one spine on the outer margin and two sets within. In the second, third and fourth pairs the last joint has one spine and one seta at tip, two spines externally and two setz within, The inner rami of the second and third pairs terminate in one spine and one ngs? that of the fourth pair in two spines, the inner of which is only half as long as the The legs of the fifth pair are two-jointed, ioe the basal joint quadrate, broad, and bearing one long spine. The second joint is narrow and longer, parallel and trun- cate, with one terminal spine about equal to the preceding, and one about half that le From C. dicuspidatus Claus, this species may be distinguished by the armature of the outer ramus of the first pair of e and from C, d/se¢osus Rehberg., by the arma- ture of the outer rami of the other leg It shares with Diaptomus sicilis the rei ponsrbility of affording to the young white- fish their earliest food. 2. Cyclops insectus, sp. nov. (PI. 1x Fig. 6.) Closely allied to the preceding, but more robust in all its parts, and with the cond cephalothoracic segment widest. The abdominal segments are all bordered with Spinules posteriorly. The two median caudal setæ are much more nearly equal than in ¢homasi, the outer and the inner are very short, but longer than in that species. e inner in our specimens is nae i than the outer—the reverse being the case in bicuspidatus as described by Cla The legs are armed nearly as in ‘owas but the last joint of the outer ramus of the first pair has two spines externally besides the one at the tip, and the terminal Spines on the last segment of the inner ramus of the fourth pair of legs are about equal. This is, perhaps, the commonest of the minute Cyclops of the small, temporary Pools in Northern Illinois, 3. Cyclops agilis Koch. (= serrulatus Fischer.) This species, distinguishable at a glance by its 12-jointed antennz and a fringe of Spinules alon ng each ramus of the furca, occurs with the preceding, but less ye Er a i ; abundant! 650 : Organic Physics. [ August, ORGANIC PHYSICS. BY CHARLES MORRIS. _ ( Continued from Fuly number.) BY it is necessary to more particularly examine this peculiar organic synthesis, through which a germinal cell is produced containing molecular energies derived from every portion of the body. The leucocytes appear to generally answer the require- ments, but in an organism so complex as that of the human body, we should naturally look for something more than a mere chance aggregation of cellular germs into a completely generalized germ. Such a process would be most likely to yield few perfectly or- ganized germs, and the production of abnormal should far exceed that of normal embryos. Evidently the continuance of the human species would be impossible unless full provision were _ made for the complete union of these cellular germs. And if such provision be made, the organs adapted to it can scarcely be invisible to us. In fact, as we have in the leucocyte an active cellular organism whose duty in the body has been a puzzle to physiologists, so we find organs in the body alike puzzling. And significantly these organs seem devoted only to the formation of leucocytes. They constitute the lymphatic vascular system, and the ductless glands, including those of both the vascular systems of the body. Physiologically there seems no especial necessity for the lymphatic vessels. Why should there be two separate vascular systems, each permeating every portion of the body, and only joining into one ata single point in their whole extensive course? We know the main purposes of the blood system, but the duty ascribed to the lymphatic system is one that inadequately €x- plains the existence of such an éxtensive system of vessels. If the blood capillaries exude a blastema for the immediate nutrition of the tissues, and if after nutrition is performed there remains a liquid containing the waste material of the tissues, it certainly seems as if the blood capillaries might be capable of reabsorbing this liquid, and that there would not be required for the duty of conveying it to the blood a second system of vessels equally ex- tensive with that of the veins and arteries. : - We should naturally look for some other duty in the lymphatic vessels, while the conveyance of waste should be looked upon as a secondary duty. And sucha primary duty may present itself. 2 7 I 882.] Organic Physics. 651 in the formation and conveyance of the leucocytes. If we accept the dogma which has certainly not been disproved, that no new cell arises except as a derivative from some preceding cell, then we must ascribe to the leucocytes a cellular origin. And as they arise in immediate contiguity to the cells of the tissues which are bathed by the lymph, we have some warrant for ascribing their origin to these cells. If, then, the primary duty of the lymphatic vessels be the forma- tion and conveyance of leucocytes, there must be some sufficient physiologic reason why these corpuscles are not immediately de- livered to the blood. If our hypothesis of the duty of the leuco- cytes be the correct one, it is not difficult to conceive this reason. If the combination of the germinal cells from every tissue into generalized cells be an essential duty of the body, then this union may be mainly performed in the lymphatic vessels, and the lym- phatic glands may be organs specially adapted to this purpose. These glands are very numerous. The body contains in all some 600 or 700 of them. At least one of them occurs upon every lymphatic vessel, and the minute ones on the smaller ves- sels are succeeded by larger ones on the lymphatic trunk vessels, particularly in the upper arm and thigh, the neck, the intestinal region, &c. In these glands the flow of the lymph is checked. After pass- ing through them it is much richer in leucocytes than before entering them. Evidently they have some essential connection with the development of the leucocytes. May not their main duty be the union of leucocytes into more generalized cells? In the line of flow of the lymph from every minor locality of the body one of these glands is sure to ‘be encountered. Into this flow the leucocytes, or the undeveloped buds, which have arisen from every minute portion, or every cell of that local region. And within the gland some active process of assimilation takes place, which may be the absorption of undeveloped by developed leucocytes, and a rapid growth in consequence. If so, in every gland would be formed germinal cells representing in their molecular conditions all the tissues of the region feeding that gland. Again, as the minor vessels aggregate to form trunk ves- sels, other glands appear, into which the leucocytes from local regions are poured. In these the process of combination may be Continued, so that the corpuscles which flow from every lymphatic 652 Organic Prysics. [August, gland will be molecular reproductions of all the tissues which send lymph into that gland. Thus the group of glands in the arm-pit may yield leucocytes representing the whole arm; those in the groin, the whole leg; those in the neck, the whole head, &c. In such an office we have a sufficient and most important duty for the lymphatic system and its numerous glands. The stream of lymph poured into the blood conveys leucocytes each of which represents ia its molecular organization some extensive region of the body. An important duty remains yet to be per- formed; the combination of these leucocytes into generalized representatives of the whole body. And the blood system has a series of glandular organs which are perhaps devoted to this duty alone. There are no organs of the body which have been a greater puzzle to physiologists than these ductless glands of the blood vessels, the spleen, thyroid, supra renal, &c. Many efforts have been made to explain them, but all that is really known is, that they favor the growth of leucocytes and cause a decrease in the number of red blood corpuscles, This is the only duty that can be ascribed to the principal of these glands, the spleen. Not the least puzzling thing about them is that they seem to have nothing to do with the health and vigor of the body. They may be ex- tirpated and life go on as before without a check. There is cer- tainly something very significant in this fact, It is incredible that such organs should be utterly without vital office in the body, and it is certain that no other internal portions of the body of the same size could be removed without serious injury. Perhaps if the effect upon the reproductive powers of the extirpation of the spleen had been investigated, some important results might have been discovered, for the action of the ductless glands in the in- crease of leucocytes appears to indicate that they are concerne, solely with reproduction, and have nothing to do with the indi- vidual life of the body. The duty of these closed glands, then, may be that of com- bining the corpuscular representatives of the different organs into corpuscular representatives of the body as a whole. The disap- pearance of the red blood cells may indicate a vigorous nutritive action of the leucocytes, and in the rapid and continuous flow °t the blood through these glands, the best developed cells may 1882. ] Organic Physics. 653 complete their molecular generalization and be prepared for excre- tion from the body by the reproductive glands, as the germs of independent organisms. A brief re-statement of the hypothesis here advanced may not be amiss. The human body is a colony of cells arranged into organized tissues. Each cell individually considered pursues its life process independently of all others. Its life duty is simply to assimilate nutriment, grow, and to produce daughter cells with the same functions. The life duty of the whole body is the same, to assimilate nutriment, to grow, and to produce daughter cells capable of going through the same process. And these functions as performed by the individual cells are the bases of the same functions ‘as performed by the whole body. Thus the body has a double duty to perform, to subserve the ends of indi- vidual life by growth, and those of race life by reproduction. Coherence of the newly budded cells is the organic agency in the former, freedom of these new cells in the latter. And as each cell is adapted to perform both these duties, so is the body as a whole. It has two complete and separate vascular systems, one devoted to the duty of nutrition of the coherent cells, the other to the nutrition of the free cells. The free cells live their life as independent offspring of the fixed cells. It has also two systems of glands devoted to these two duties; the ordinary blood gland is devoted to eliminating impurities ios the blood, elaborating special nutriment, aiding in digestion and otherwise subserving the nutrition of the body; the lymphatic or closed gland per- forms the same duty for the leucocytes; and each system of ves- sels aids the duty of the other; the lymphatics by bringing the. nutriment into direct contact with the tissues; and the blood vessels by their glandular aid to the nutrition of the leucocytes. The action of the glands is probably little more than one of re- tardation, and the bringing of the elements which enter them into close contiguity. No doubt the leucocytes assimilate mate- rial in the open vessels, but this takes place much more rapidly in the glands. And if the red blood cells are merely devitalized leucocytes, then their disappearance in the spleen may signify an assimilation of their molecules by the leucocytes. Thus the latter come more and more generalized in constitution as they absorb molecules originating in the cells of every portion of the body, and they finally reach the reproductive glands as complete molec- ular oo of the body. 654 Organic Physics. [ August, These reproductive glands, as a final process, excrete the ger-’ minal corpuscles from the body to pursue independently their life development. They are either completely thrown out, or else retained for a time in an organ which communicates with the ex- terior, and is essentially outside the individual organism. The germ is no more a part of the body in the ovary than is food in the mouth. In the process we have thus indicated, the chemical synthesis of the germ is completed. From this point a reverse process of analysis sets in; the cell grows, divides, its molecules separate and produce specialized cells, these aggregate into special tissues, and finally the- composite germ is analyzed into a specialized body, where a particular tissue represents every specific molecular energy in the germ. But the germs thus produced are derivatives of the whole body, and therefore have male and female polarities arising from its two sides. In some cases they display a hermaphroditic development without further polarization. But in all the higher animals a more complete polarization is necessary, and is gained by the union of germs from separate sexual individuals. This process is preceded by a very significant one in the germs themselves; they continue their growth in the reproductive organs. In the female cell this is done by the process of budding, the result be- ing the protrusion of one or more buds known as the polar bodies. In the formation of these buds one pole of the nucleus is always concerned, and it is evidently a true process of growth, in which the cell suffers a sexual differentiation, its male energy being budded off in these polar bodies. It is the first step in a hermaphroditic growth process which the germinal cell is not capable of carrying further, perhaps from the fact that all the provided nutriment is retained by the female half of the cell. A somewhat similar process takes place in the male germ, it being here rather a division than a budding. Thus bya natural continuance of the priaciple of cell growth, the two sexual germs become specially polarized, and suited to unite into a vigorously polar bisexual germ. This final step of synthesis achieved, analy- sis immediately proceeds as before. Cell growth, division and specialization set in, and a new organic being arises to replace the two in which its germinal organization was elaborated. In the process here indicated, we may perceive the fundamental 1882. | Organic Physics. 655 + ‘cause of one phase of organic evolution, that of growth. The size attained by an animal must be governed, in some degree at - least, by the relations of its nutritive and its reproductive ener- gies. If the coherent tendency is favored by any circumstance, the size of the animal must increase, and its reproductive powers lessen. If the free budding- tendency is favored, the opposite result must occur. Giants and dwarfs may be the results of abnormal preponderance of one or the other of these energies. There seems to be a constant tendency to vary in this particular, but the struggle for existence vigorously operates to hinder any continual reproduction of an aberration in size not suited to the best interests of the species. The influences which act upon the species, forcibly oppose aberration and restrain it within safe limits. One influence tending to this result is that of increased or decreased nutrition. We know that in plants diminished nutri- tion checks growth and hastens the period of reproduction, while increased nutrition has the opposite effect. Probably the same rule holds good in animals. The cells, not fully fed, may cease to form coherent offspring and send off wandering offspring in ‘search of food, reproductive energy being thus hastened. But if fully fed the principle of coherence may predominate to a later period in life and reproductive energy be decreased. We may close with the presentation of a deduction of some importance from the foresoing hypothesis. It has a specific bearing upon the question of the origin of species. Darwin’s theory is based upon the occurrence of innumerable minute varia- tions, of which the most advantageous are preserved. This theory, while explaining in the main the phenomenon of the origin of species, has met with certain awkward difficulties, and perhaps needs to be pieced out with some adventitious hypothesis capable of filling these blanks. It is also desirable that the cause of these variations should be explained if possible. One of the main objections to the Darwinian theory is the al- most total lack of link forms between species. As a nearly absolute rule we find that species boldly succeeds species without a trace of the steps by which the passage from one to the other was made. The only explanation given of this is that of the imper- fection of the geological record, but the implication from all the facts known is, that no linking forms existed—or, at least, not . 656 Organic Physics. — [August, as a rule—but that direct steps from species to species have been made. Nor is such a method of evolution inexplicable. In fact, Dar- win has, perhaps, unnecessarily limited the application of his own principles, in confining the molding influences to minute varia- tions. We know that there are many variations which are far from being minute. Extreme variations are occasionally pro- duced, and marked variations which are capable of hereditary transmission are not uncommon. The minute variations considered in the Darwinian theory are of universal occurrence. Perhaps no case ever arises of a com- pletely normal birth—of an offspring ‘precisely intermediate in all respects between its parents. Variations in size and vigor of the body as a whole, of the separate organs of the body, of the tis- sues composing these organs, &c., never fail to occur. There is a constant tendency to deviate from the type. And this-tendency is in continual conflict with the opposite tendency produced by the struggle for existence and the necessity of preserving the best adaptation to natural conditions. These minor variations may be due to variations in polar vigor of the molecules. We have already considered the question of molecular energy, and ascribed it to the degree of chemical polarity. The most vigorously acid or basic molecules must have the most vigorous growth energy. But this chemical polarity is constantly affected by cell division. The cells arising from con- tinued division of a primary cell must differ widely in polarity, ranging from the neutral to the extreme of acid or basic condi- tions. Perhaps the free buds of the tissue cells may be their. most vigorously polar offspring, yet differences cannot but occur in their degree of polarity, and the germinal cell into which they aggregate is perhaps made up of molecules considerably differing in chemical activity. In its evolution the growth vigor of the new tissues must be controlled by the chemical energy of the mole- cules from which they arise. Hence there may be variations from the parental form in every tissue and organ of the new form. The union of germs of two individuals adds a new element of com- plication to the case. If the molecules of the bisexual germs constitute poles of a galvanic circuit, there may be as many diverse circuits as there are diverse sets of molecules, and the : chemical energy of each circuit will be controlled by tie - . 1882.] Organic Physics. 657 chemical vigor of its weaker pole. In developing there is a tendency to reproduce a normal copy of one parent in one lateral half of the offspring, and the other parent in the other half. But this tendency is checked by the influence exerted by each pole of the germ upon the other, so that the two halves of the body are forced into close though not into exact accordance. Chemical vigor of the molecules must give special nutritive vigor to the tissues arising from them, and it may also yield a tendency to increased cellular coherence, thus doubly aiding the growth vigor of these tissues, while the weaker tissues may be more inclined to bud off free cells from lack of local nutrition. It is possible that we have in this diversity of molecular chem- ical activity in the germ an explanation of the marked physical diversities in the tissues thence arising. But there are many cases of abnormal birth which cannot be ascribed to this cause. These abnormalities are very numerous, and differ widely in degree, but may be all grouped under three classes. In one class there is a deficiency in one or more tissues; in another class there is an ex- cess; in a third class the tissues are normal but are displaced. In all these classes the normal type of the body is distinctly de- parted from. Surgical records give abundant cases in each of these classes of anomalies. In the first class are deficiencies of every degree, from a very slight lack of tissue to an extreme deficiency. In some cases the limbs are missing, in some the head, in some the brain, in others parts of the viscera. Here a mere trunk appears Without head or limbs. In the extreme case a mere shapeless lump of flesh is produced, destitute of any organic differentiation. A frequent case of deficiency is a lack of tissue in the line of junction of the lateral halves of the body. ‘his causes coales- cence of organs. In some cases the eyes coalesce, in some the Sides of the nose, in some the jaws, this being sometimes so ex- treme that the ears are united into one. Similar cases of coales- ence occur in the viscera, and in the lower limbs, which unite into one, ? : The second class of anomalies, that of excess organs, is equally marked. Ina not unusual case an extra finger appears on each hand, often accompanied by an extra toe on each foot. From -+ this simple duplication there are cases leading up to the most ex- treme duplication. Three or four eyes, a double tongue, heart, _ Vou, XVI.—No, vin, - 44 658 | Organic Physics. [ August, brain, face, and so on, appear, until every organ is duplicated. In more extreme cases we have duplication of the lower limbs, a double head, the head and part of the trunk double, and finally the whole body double, the two halves being united either inti- mately or by only a slight bond, like that of the Siamese twins. In some cases a triple body has appeared. These twin formations are not the result of a chance union of developing germs, for a com- plete series of duplications, from the slightest to the most ex- treme, are upon record. Another set of anomalies, that of cleft or division between the lateral halves of the body, may perhaps be included in the same class. An ordinary case of this kind is that of cleft or hare lip, but it is found in every part of the dividing line of the body. The two sexual halves seem to have a tendency to develop sepa- rately, and this is perhaps a step in the process of duplica- tion. The third class of anomalies alluded to is that of displacement of organs. This also is of frequent occurrence. A few instances will suffice for illustration. The twin internal organs, the two kidneys, for instance, sometimes occur on the same side of the body. Of the exterior organs, a case is on record in which thë 2 thumb was missing on one hand, while a double thumb appeared on the other. A more striking case is one in which one foot had but a single toe, while the other foot had eight, one of these be- ing partly cleft in indication of the ninth. Another case is that of eleven ribs on one side and thirteen on the other. These anomalous births may have far more importance than has been ascribed to them; possibly, indeed, they may be of essential significance in the question of the origin of species. But before considering their consequences, it may be weil to con- sider their cause. In doing so it becomes necessary to carry the nee theory of the struggle for existence further back than is usually : done. Ordinarily it is made to apply only to the case of survive of the fittest in mature forms or in well developed embryos. But. it may be applied with equal justice to the struggle for existence between germs, or between the leucocytes of the blood. $169 self-feeding amceboid corpuscles battle for nutriment. It ' ee probable that they all become fully generalized. ‘Those most fully generalized possess the best nutrient relations to the bl i and are most apt to survive. Those only partly generalized 1882. ] Organic Physics. 659 apt to lose their vitality and become nutriment for more vigorous leucocytes, or for the body tissues. But many imperfectly developed leucocytes may be excreted by the reproductive glands and pass into the ovaries or the testes. Here a new struggle for existence arises, in which the best devel- oped germs are undoubtedly favored, but in which chance cir- cumstances may give an imperfectly developed one an advantage in the struggle. Where the lack of normality is slight, the chances for development are nearly equal. Where it is great, only abnormal conditions in the reproductive organs can give the abnormal germ the advantage; consequently the production of a considerable anomaly is of rare occurrence. It is probable that cases of reversion to ancestral types are in- stances of germinal deficiency. The embryo, in its development, seems to pass through phases resembling every ancestral type of the species, and a partial deficiency of molecular organization: in the germ may limit the development of some organ or tissue at the point reached by a more or less remote ancestor. Fre- quently there are reproduced characteristics of an ancestor a few generations removed. Occasionally there may be of a very re- mote ancestor. The sexual union of a normal with a deficient germ cannot yield a normal offspring, since the opposite polari- ties necessary to normal development are only partially present. For this reason every anomaly crosses the lateral line of the body, since the molecules of neither sexual side can develop without aid from those of the other. As for the anomaly of displacement of organs, its cause is not apparent. The mode of arrangement of the germinal molecules controls the direction of their development, and the normal ar- rangement is forcibly produced through the action of the special polarities of these molecules. Yet perhaps there is some slight Possibility of variation in the position of the molecules in the germ. Ifso, an exceedingly slight molecular displacement might produce a strongly marked organic displacement in the developed ody. The third class of anomalies, that of duplication, can also be _ Met by a conjectural explanation. It may arise from duplication = Of leucocytes in the glands ; two leucocytes coming from the _ Same region of the body, and passing through the same lym- _ Phatic gland, may possibly combine, and thus yield a doubly 660 Organic Physics. [ August, polar corpuscle. If so, the germ thence arising would have a double, or perhaps a triple polarity in some of its molecules. And this duplication will be more complete as the gland producing it is a more central one. It may vary from the production of a slight duplication of tissue to that of a combination of two fully generalized leucocytes. If such a germ, with part or all of its molecules doubly polar, combine with a germ of the opposite sex and develop, the bisexual germ thus produced would be, to some extent, bipolar at one sexual pole and unipolar at the other. But as each pole exerts a controlling influence upon the develop- ment of the other, the result might be a bipolar or a unipolar or- ganism, as one or the other sexual pole was preponderant in energy. : If duplication of organs or of bodies has its origin in the action of the glands upon the development of the leucocytes, as here supposed, this must, in some cases at least, result from abnormal organization of the glands. Only thus can be understood the fre- quent recurrence of the same malformation out of the same parents; this extending to the extreme case of twin births, which may occur more than once from the same mother. Having thus offered some conjectural explanations as to the physiological cause of abnormal births, it remains to consider their bearing upon the question of the origin of species. Abnormal offspring do not succumb without a struggle for life. Twin monstrosities often survive to maturity. A deficiency So extreme as the total lack of a brain does not cause immediate death. Brainless children have survived for some time after birth. Of course the chances are enormously against extreme aberrations from the normal type being transmitted. But slight aberrations are sometimes stubbornly transmitted, particularly if they be such as do not specially affect the life chance of the indi- vidual. Thus an extra finger may be sent down through several generations, and undoubtedly could, by intelligent sexual selec- — tion, be made a type feature. It stubbornly resists reversion through the influence of union of the abnormal with a normal individual, There is a race prejudice which operates against the transmis- sion of external abnormalities, but which cannot affect that of in- ternal ones. The duplication of a muscle, for instance, would not appear externally, yet might give the animal possessing it some = 1882.] Organic Physics. 661 new movement of advantage in the life race. Its tendency to hereditary transmission must be as great as that of an extra fin- ger, while it would escape the checking influence of the race prejudice. It is equally possible that an extreme development, or an im- portant duplication of brain tissue, might appear. Slight deficiency or excess of brain tissue is often transmitted through several generations. The former is in the line of reversion towards an ancestral type, or towards some new degraded type, in which organs belonging to several types may exist in combination. The latter is in the line of development of a new type. Extreme variations in this respect are, of course, exceedingly unlikely to be transmitted. But minor variations are frequently transmitted, and it is impossible to say where the line must be drawn. It is quite possible that considerable anomalies may be occasionally transmitted to descendants. An animal might appear with an excessive brain development, or some brain duplication, yet this not be sufficient to destroy the due balance of the organs, or prevent sexual fertilization. And if such an excess were trans- mitted through several generations, the animals possessing it might, through ‘superior mental ability, crowd out and replace their less able -kindred. Possibly in this manner the long reach upward, from ape to man, might be made almost in a single step. In organic, as in inorganic nature, there are dividing lines, on opposite sides of which weights tend to fall in opposite direc- tions; or water-sheds, which divert the flow of waters to oppo- site oceans. An animal species may be exactiy adapted to sur- rounding conditions; but a scion of this species may arise not fully adapted to the environment, and it may transmit its anoma- lous organization through several generations. If the anomaly be a marked one, a struggle is at once set up within the organ- ism. The organic formation of the animal may not be out of accord with natural conditions. Its anomalous feature may be a decidedly advantageous one. Two tendencies exist within the animal, the tendency to conform to the hereditary habits of its’ type, and the tendency to avail itself of its new powers. There is a struggle between instinct and reason. Some divergence of habits will be very likely to arise, but not so great as there would be _ Were there no instinctive pull towards the normal habits. If the anomaly be transmitted to offspring, the ary p habits will 662 Organic Physics. [ August, also be transmitted; therefore every successive transmission favors the formation of a new adaptation to nature. If the change of organization be a muscular one, and a new movement of some part of the outer body be gained, the use of this movement may be of decided advantage to the animal, and if it be transmitted through a sufficient number of generations, new instinctive habits are likely to arise. If it be a nervous one, some new mental en- ergy may be gained, which must struggle with the hereditary muscular habits. It may be a new phase of nutritive or repro- ductive energy, but whatever it be it is not impossible but it may succeed in establishing itself against the two opposing influences of instinctive habits normal to the species, and of imperfect reproductive energy. Such an anomaly might be preserved without change in the surrounding conditions of nature, but would be specially likely to be preserved under such changes in the environment as favor variation in the normal offspring of the species. And by this means new species might arise through single great deviations from the specific type, as well as in the more general method of successive slight deviations. The chances are, doubtless, strongly against the hereditary preservation of an anomalous feature, while the. natural condi- tions remain unchanged. But it seems quite possible that if a marked change in conditions occur, or if a group of animals of some fixed type be moved toa new locality, to whose condi- tions they are not fully adapted, considerable organic changes might take place rapidly instead of with the slowness ordinarily supposed. For it is certainly not improbable that the inharmony between the animal and its surrounding conditions might strongly affect its internal organization and thus favor the formation of anomalous embryos. And some of these abnormal offspring, con- siderably varied from the normal type, might be particularly adapted to the surrounding conditions. If so, they would have an advantage over the normal forms, and their new powers would have a like advantage over the hereditary or instinctive tendencies. Such an anomaly, if transmitted to descendants, would possibly constitute a specific change in organization at a single step, while the new, well adapted variation might rapidly replace the old, ill adapted normal form. . The evolution of new species in this manner could but rarely 1882.]- Editors’ Table. 663 occur; yet every anomaly of excess is a new 28 766 Sketch of the Progress of North American [ October, work of description is far from exhausted, has a deterrent effect upon monographers. At least 124 species hitherto unknown to science have been added to the faunal lists of our Nearctic continent during the past two years, and the probabilities are that the actual numbers exceed this, for so rapidly is the work proceeded with, and so ex- tensive is the field, that it is not unlikely that some species have been described in advance sheets of the proceedings of societies, which have as yet not issued their completed volume, and thus have escaped the notice of the writer. The Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum for 1880, are almost entirely occupied with ichthyological papers. The princi- pal contributors are Professor D. S. Jordan and his coadjutor, Mr. C. H. Gilbert, Professor G. B. Goode, W. N. Lockington and Pro- fessor O. P. Hay. The two former ichthyologists have no less than thirty-seven papers, in which forty-nine new species are de- scribed, all from the Pacific coast, U, S. The total number of fishes enumerated from that coast is 270, of which all but fifteen were obtained by the writers, who during 1880 represented the U. S. Fish Commission in California. Seventeen previously known species were added to the fauna of California, principally sharks, making a total of twenty-eight species common to the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. In the preparation of this list priority of publication has been strictly regarded, and we thus regretfully witness the substitution of Scomberomorus for Cybium, of Tylo- surus for Belone, and of Stolephorus for Engraulis, while the- familiar quinnat or Californian salmon is exchanged for the “tshawytcha” or “ chouicha.” The species of Sebastichthys or rock cod, are twenty-five, fifteen of which are new. Eight spe- cies are added to the flat fishés, three to the Embiotocide and six to the rays, while the Paralepide and their relations are increased from one to five. Several nominal species are eliminated from the Lophobranchs, Gasterosteida and Petromyzontide. Among the most interesting discoveries may be mentioned that of a true sole (Aphoristia atricauda), a “ puffer” shark (Catulus ventriosus Garman), three Blennide of the genera Xiphister and Apodich- thys, a cottoid devoid of ventral fins (Ascelichthys rhodorus) and _ Nemichthys avocetta. _ In “ Notes on a collection of Fishes from Utah lake,” the same _ _. writers describe three new species of fishes, 1882. | Ichthyology in the rear 1880—87. 767 The Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. for 1881, contains descriptions of forty new species from Mazatlan, hice from Panama and a few others from the m coast, all by the same hard-working ich- thyologists. In the same volume Mr. C. L. Mackay reviews the genera and species of Centrarchide, and describes a new species of Lepomis. W. N. Lockington (Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1880) deséribes ten new species of fishes from various parts of the Pacific coast, the most noticeable of which are Prionotus stephanophrys, taken near San Francisco ; Myriolepis zonifer, a singular Chiroid, and the curi- ous soft-boned /costeus enigmaticus, for the reception of which and his own Jeichthys lockingtoni, Professor Jordan subsequently insti- tuted the family Icosteide. In the long low dorsal and anal, as well as in the extreme flexibility of the skeleton, these species agree, but while Icosteus is scaleless, with groups of spinules along the lateral line and spinules upon the fins, Icicthys is entirely scaly and without spinules. The same writer (Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci.) describes some new species from the Gulf of California, and a Catostomus from the Gila. - Miss Rosa Smith describes a Cremnobates and a Gobiesox from Southern California. Dr. T. H. Bean (Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1880) describes a new hake from South Carolina, and in.the same volume S. Garman gives a synopsis of the American Rhinobatidz, and Professor s dan notices a new Caranx from S. Carolina. S. Th. Cattie, of Arnheim, Holland, also contributes some in- formation respecting the structure of the organ of Syrski in the male eel, and the external characters of the sexes in that fish; and Professor O. P. Hay describes fifteen new species from the eastern part of the State of Mississippi, from afflyents of the Mississippi and Tombigbee, and from the Chickasawha. Eight of these species (including the new genus Opsopceodus) are Cyp- rinide, the remaining seven Etheostomatide. The U. S. Coast Survey Steamer Yukon proceeded, in 1880, along the coast of Alaska, calling at various points to make col- lections. The expedition was accompanied by Dr. W. H. Dall _ and Dr, Tarleton H. Bean, the latter of whom made a valuable — _ Collection of fishes, of which he gives a preliminary description + 768 Sketch of the. Progress of North American (October, in the Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1881. The new species enumerated are thirteen in number, without counting one taken only at Plover bay, Siberia. The most singular of these new forms is the ser- pentiform Ptilichihys goodei, allied to the Mastacembelide. The dorsal consists in front of many isolated spines, with a posterior, many-rayed soft portion, the mandible terminates in a skinny appendage, and the tip of the tail is free. The same naturalist, together ‘with Professor Goode, describes Apogon pandionis, a deep-water fish from the mouth of the Chesapeake. During his stay upon the Pacific coast, Professor Jordan tho- roughly investigated and cleared up the mystery in which the - species of the genus Oncorhynchus (Pacific salmon) had been wrapped by a crowd of naturalists who at various times had de- scribed as distinct, forms which have now been proved to be due to age, sex or season. There are only five species, the quinnat, chouicha, or king salmon, the most important of all from an economic point of view ; the blue-back, or red-fish, O. zerka, ex- amples of which, found high in the rivers and in the lakes, have long figured as a distinct species from their brethren of the lower waters ; the silver salmon, O. kisutch ; the fall ‘salmon, O. keta, and the dog salmon, O. gorbuscha. Professor S. A. Forbes! describes a Chologaster from the south- ern part of Illinois, it agrees with C. cornutus in position of eye and plan of markings, and with C. agassizii in length of pectorals and structure of scales. ‘Mr. S. Garman? whose special studies have added so much to our knowledge of the Selachians, has, during these two years, described two new species of Scyllium, one of Rhinobatus, one of Trigonorhina, two of Trygon and two of Raja, most of them from the Atlantic coast. Seven species of Trygon proper are now known to occur in America. Mr. Garman believes that the migrations of the Selachians, as also those of fishes, which the former follow in pursuit of their food, are much more limited in extent than has usually been supposed. Many species do no more than take short trips to deeper water and back again, and were methogical observations conducted for the purpose, it would be quite possible for our knowledge of the migrations of fishes to be extended so that the fisherman could follow his mee as the ; hunter does his.. 1 Amer. NAT., March, mae p- 232. uf - *Bulletin Missin C p. Zoology, e 1880-1881. ss 1882. ] 7 Ichthyology in the years 1880-81. 769 The same zodlogist has also described eleven species of Cy- prinodontidz, Cyprinidz and Catostomidz from the various parts of North America. On the Atlantic coast the labors of the Fish Commission have added several new species to our fauna. Professor G, B. Goode (Proc. U. S. Nat. Museum, Nov., 1880) describes seven new spe- cies of fishes that were the result of a single day’s work of the lish-hawk at the edge of the Gulf Stream in Southern New Eng- land. In this one day 120 species of invertebrates and fishes were added to the fauna of the region south of Cape Cod. The two new Pleuronectidz are ranged under as many new genera, and the genus Hypsiconetes is instituted for a species which is appa- rently gadoid, but in some respects resembles the blennioids. The same naturalist contributes to the Bulletin of the U. S. Fish Commission, 1881, an account of the habits, range and economic values of the carangoid fishes, pompanoes, crevallés, amber fish, etc., of the Atlantic coast; and also a digest of the recent litera- ture upon the life-history of the eel. There appears to be but little doubt that the organs of Syrski are the testes, but no one has as yet observed the spermatozoa in the common eel. Mr. Goode, however, has omitted any reference to a paper in this journal (Vol. xii, May, 1879, p. 319) by Professor A. S. Packard, Jr., and J. S. Kingsley, who were the first to discover the male eel in America, three specimens_having been obtained at Wood's Holl, while Mr. Kingsley claims to have seen the spermatozoa. Dr. Theodore Gill, in his review of Dr. Ginther’s Introduction to the study of Fishes, severely criticises the latter’s definition of a fish, and also the bibliography. The treatise is valuable from the thorough acquaintance with both external and internal char- acters which it displays. | Dr. Franz Steindachner (/chthyologische Beitrage 1x, Sitz. kais. Akad. Wiss., Wien, July, 1880), describes two species of Agonus from California, which have been shown to be identical with two species of Brachyopsis (Agonus pars). described a short time be- fore by Lockington and Jordan respectively. The description is accompanied by figures: In No. xı of the same series (1881), Dr. Steindachner describes Zrichodon japonicus, which ranges from Japan to Sitka. — Mr. Henry J. Rice (Amer. Nar., Jan., 1880) contributes a valu- able article upon tbe habits, structure and development of Am- 770 Sketch of the Progress of North American (October, phioxus lanceclatus,as observed by him in three adults taken at _ Fort Wool in twelve to fifteen fathoms of water, and in twenty young secured by surface dredging. The lancelet swims witha graceful, undulating motion, and can disappear from sight be- neath the sand almost instantaneously. It swims indifferently upon back or belly, and when excited is able to dart about with extreme rapidity. The writer believes the ova to issue from the branchiopore, and states that it is questionable whether the ante- rior pigment-spot of the spinal cord is of any more value than any of the other pigment-spots of the nervous system. The question, “ Do flying fish fly ?” is answered in the affirma- tive by C. O. Whitman, who declares that during a voyage from San Francisco to Yokohama, he several times distinctly saw the individual flaps of the large pectorals, while the ventrals were held in quiet expansion. The longest flight observed lasted forty seconds, and was certainly over eight hundred feet. The principal, almost the only contributor to the embryologi- cal knowledge of fishes, has been the indefatigable J. A. Ryder, of the Fish Commission. In the course of his investigations during the past year, he has elucidated many points in the developmental history of the shad, cod, salmon, top-minnow, stickleback, sea- horse, garfish and other fishes. The range of his observations has, in fact, been sufficiently extensive to warrant him in arriving at certain general conclusions, some of which contravene those of previous observers. When it is remembered that the only mate- rial at the command of most biologists who have worked upon the eggs and embryos of fishes, has been preserved in spirits for - more.or less time, while Professor Ryder has all along been sup- plied with fresh material in large quantity through the Fish Com- mission, it will be evident that his conclusions are entitled to great weight. He finds that in the Teleostean fishes and in stur- . geons, the segmentation-cavity is not obliterated, but gradually thins out and grows around the yelk between the ‘epiblast and hypoblast, forming a paravitelline space which persists for at least two weeks after the embryo leaves the egg. Around the edge of the blastoderm a thickened rim or annulus is developed in both the types above mentioned, and limits the paravitelline cavity. The cleavage of the germ disk is regular, but the embryo agrees with that of the Selachians in developing at the edge of the disk, instead fi in the center as is the case in birds and reptiles. A : t i y 1882.] Ichthyology in the years 1881-82. 771 vesicle appears at the tail end of the embryo when the blastoderm has rather more than half surrounded the vitellus, and this vesi- cle is almost certainly the result of the invagination of the gas- trula mouth or blastopore. From this vesicle, known as Kupffer’s vesicle, a canal proceeds forwards and opens on the dorsal face of the embryo. The gastrula of teleostean fishes is thus the result of an invagination at the tail, essentially as in Amphioxus, and is not homologous with the gastrula of Haeckel. The pectoral fins originate from lateral folds, and their first skeletal elements are a pair of cartilaginous rods which arè not placed radially, but are concentric with the base of the fin. These folds vary in their position, but are placed so far back that their genetic relation to the gill-arches appears improbable. The posi- tion of the fin becomes more anterior with the, growth of the embryo, and in the cod the base rotates through an angle of nearly go° to gain its upright position.- The shoulder girdle is of mesoblastic origin. The median unpaired fins originate from a dorsal and ventral natatory fold, which may be continuous, discontinuous from the ` very first (Hippocampus), or discontinuous at an early stage. The vent of the young fish appears long before the mouth; the intes- tine develops from behind forward, and it is probable the intestine and medullary canal are primitively continuous by means of a neurenteric canal. The investigations of Professor Ryder show wide differences in the order and manner of development of the various organs; differences of a nature to show that embryology alone is a most unsafe basis for classification. : In the four-spined stickleback the cerebral vesicles are extra- ordinarily large and the walls of the brain cavity very thin; the Optic cups have a great space between the floor of the cup and the lens; the pectoral folds originate unusually near to the gill- arches, and when the young fish leaves the egg, are as much developed as in a mackerel four days old; and there is an asym- metrical vitelline system of blood-channels. The corpuscles appear to originate by budding off from knobbed cells of the _ hypoblast of the venous sinus. : The nest-constructing habits of the sticklebacks have long ago : been noticed, but from the observations of Mr. Seal and Professor _ Ryder, it is now known that the male possesses a special spinning _ the use of aqueous media, both in mounting and staining. The — 772 Methods of Microscopical Research [ October, sland on the right side of the intestine, and that the stalks of water weeds and other objects of which the nest is constructed, are bound together by compound threads of six or eight fibers spun by him in a fitful way as the material is secreted. The egg-membranes of floating fish ova, as those of Cybium maculatum, are extremely thin, and pierced only by the micro- pyle, not perforated by pore canals as is the case with ova, which like those of the stickleback, salmon and shad, sink to the bottom. The ova of C. maculatum, the Spanish mackerel, are hatched in twenty-four hours after fertilization, and the young are then ina very rudimentary state. The gills of the so-called Lophobranchiates are not really tufted, but the two series of vascular branchial appendages to each arch in Hippocampus are homologous to the bifurcated vascu- lar branchial appendages of a salmon or other fish. But these appendages are much reduced in number, and, as if to compen- sate for this, the area of the ultimate branchial lamelle or pinne ranged upon them is extended, and these leaflets increase in size outwards, producing a tufted appearance. In all Lophobranchs the branchial arches are reduced, the opercle is a simple plate, the mouth is toothless, and the opercular membrane persistently 5 roofs over the gill chambers of the embryos. Experiments upon the retardation of the development of the ova of the shad, with the end of ascertaining the possibility of transporting them alive for long distances, were not successful on account of the development of fungus, but in four and a half days the ova at a temperature of 52° F., had not advanced farther than they would have done in water at 80° in twenty-four hours. :0: METHODS OF MICROSCOPICAL RESEARCH IN THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION IN NAPLES. BY C. O. WHITMAN. (Continued from September number.) II. Starninc METHODS. E has gradually become a settled custom in the Zodlogical S tion, to mount microscopical preparations in balsam wherever this can be successfully done; and to avoid, as much as possible, : _ disadvantages often arising from the use of these media in stain- 1882. ] in the Zoblogical Station in Naples. 773 ing alcoholic preparations, such as the tearing asunder of fragile tissues caused by the violent osmosis; swelling, the effects of which cannot always be fully obliterated by again transferring to alcohol, and maceration, which is liable to result where objects are left for a considerable time in the staining liquid, may all be avoided by using alcoholic solutions. Objects once successfully hardened may be left in such solutions for any required time, and when sufficiently stained, be washed in alcohol of a corre- sponding strength, and then passed through the higher grades without being exposed to water from first to last. As a rule, alcoholic dyes work quickly, and give far more satisfactory results than can be obtained with other media. They penetrate objects more readily, and thus give a more uniform coloring where ob- jects are immersed in toto. Even chitinous envelopes are seldom able to prevent the action of these fluids. It is not, however, to be denied that non-alcoholic dyes may often do excellent work, and in certain cases, even better than can be otherwise obtained. In the case of the Turbellaria, Dr. Lang has found picro-carmine to be one of the best staining agents, and this has been my experience with Dicyemide. As Dr. Mayer has remarked, the swelling caused by aqueous staining fluids is not always an evil, but precisely what is required by some objects after particular methods of treatment. From experiments recently made, Dr. Mayer has found that dyes containing a high percentage of alcohol, stain more diffusely than those of weaker grades, from which he infers that strong alcohol robs, to a certain extent, the tissues of their selective power, and renders them more or less equally receptive of color- ing matter, 1. Kleinenberg’s Hematoxylin}—1, To a saturated solution of chloride of calcium? in 70 per cent. alcohol, add a little alum and lter 2. One volume of No. 1 mixed with six to eight volumes of 70 per cent. alcohol. 3. At time of using pour into No. 2 as many drops of a con- * May be used after all hardening fluids. *Chloride of calcium, according to Kleinenberg, has no other use than to _ Strengthen the osmotic action between the haematoxylin solution and the alcohol con- ‘tained in the tissues. As chloride of calcium and alum give a peeciecate of gyp- / Sum, it ots asd be benter to use chloride of aluminum. 774 Methods of Microscopical Research [ October, centrated solution of crystallized haematoxylin in absolute alco- hol as suffice to give the required depth of color.’ If the color appears too strong, the fluid may be diluted with solution No. 1. / Before immersing objects in this fluid, great care should be taken to free them from the least trace of acid by frequently changing the alcohol. If this is not done thoroughly, the acid left in the preparation will sooner or later cause the color to fade; and such results have led to the erroneous conclusion that haema- toxylin will not give durable preparations. Dr. Mayer has found that the fading is entirely due to the presence of acid, and that with proper precautions the staining is permanent. Small objects are best stained in a weak solution, which colors more slowly but with greater clearness than stronger solutions. After staining, Kleinenberg transfers objects to go per cent. alco- hol. In case of over staining, the color may be partly removed by adding a little oxalic acid or hydrochloric acid (14 per cent. or less) to the alcohol containing the objects. The acidulated alco- hol is allowed to work until the color is slightly reddened. On transferring to pure alcohol the color passes again into a perma- nent blue-violet. 2. Mayer's cochineal tincture.—1 gramme powdered cochineal ` soaked in 8-10 ccm. 70 per cent. alcohol for several days, then ' filtered. The clear deep red fluid thus prepared may, like hæmatoxylin, be used in all cases where it is desirable to stain with an alcoholic solution, and will be found particularly useful for objects that are not casily penetrated by the ordinary aqueous solutions of car- mine, such as the Arthropods. It is necessary, before immersing larger objects in this fluid, to leave them a short time in 70 ‘per cent. alcohol, otherwise there may be a precipitate. The time required for staining, will vary fron a few minutes to even days, according to the nature and size of the object. With larger objects requiring considerable time, 1 A good solution should be vivlet inclining a little to blue. The red tinge that arises after the fluid has stood for some time, indicates that it has become slightly , acid, in which condition it is unfit for use. To restore its proper color, it is only -necessary to open a bottle of ammonia over the mouth of the bottle holding the | hematoxylin in such a’‘manner that a very small quantity of the gas will mix with Lg _ the fluid. If too much ammonia gas be added, a precipitate is produced which o epee We Bald. o sh ae, | : 1882.] in the Zoblogical Station in Naples. 775 it is important to use a large quantity of the fluid, otherwise the amount of coloring stuff in solution might not suffice to give the proper depth of color. Small and delicate objects, on the other hand, may be most successfully treated with a solution which has been diluted with 70 per cent. alcohol, or one which has been weakened by previous use. It is always necessary to free the tis- sues, after staining, from the surplus dye; and this may be done by washing in 70 per cent. alcohol, which must be changed until it shows no color. This process requires, for larger objects, con- siderable time and alcohol, but may be hastened by using the alcohol slightly warm. The color ultimately assumed by objects treated with cochineal tincture varies much, and depends partly on the reaction of the tissues themselves, partly on the presence or absence of certain salts. It is certainly one of the best recommendations of this Staining agent that, varying with the nature of the object and its mode of treatment both before and after staining, it gives such an extraordinary diversity of results. On account of the great variety of substances contained in the dried dye-stuff, it is evident that the composition of the tincture must vary according to the strength of the alcohol employed as a solvent. Solutions in 90 per. cent. or 100 per cent. alcohol have a light: red color, and stain too diffusely to have any practical value. The weaker the alco- hol the stronger the tincture, and the stronger the alcohol the more easily it penetrates objects ; the grade of alcohol may therefore be selected with reference to two points, depth of color and readi- ness of penetration; 70 per cent, or 60 per cent. is recommended by Dr. Mayer as combining both these qualities in a very favor- able degree. It is important to remember that whatever be the Strength of the solution, a precipitate will always be produced if an alcohol of a different grade, whether higher or lower, be mixed with it. It is evident then that a tincture of any given strength contains substances that are insoluble in any other grade of alco- hol, and this explains why superfluous coloring matter can only be removed from objects by the aid of alcohol of precisely the Same degree as that of the tincture. _ Over staining, which seldom occurs, may be easily corrected by the aid of acid alcohol (vs per cent. hydrochloric acid, or 1 per cent. acetic acid). Acid makes the tincture lighter, more yellow- ish-red, while the addition of.ammonia and other caustic alkalies . $ : 776 Methods of Microscopical Research [ October, l changes it to deep purple. Still more important is the fact that z j salts soluble in alcohol give a blue-gray, green-gray or blue-black precipitate. For'example, if a piece of cloth that has been dyed in cochineal and washed, be treated with an alcoholic solution of — a ferric or a calcic salt, it will assume a more or less deep blue color. As the salts present in the living organism are seldom, if ever, fully removed by preservative fluids, but in some cases even in- creased, it will often happen that an object, though stained in the red fluid, comes out blue, precisely as when stained with haema- toxylin. Such a result cannot, however, be obtained in the pres- ence of acids, nor in the absence of inorganic salts; under these conditions the color is always red. It is not possible, therefore, to know what color an object will ultimately present. Very often the different tissues of one and the same object present unlike colors. In the embryos of Lumbricus, Kleinen- berg found the walls of the blood vessels red, their contents dark blue. Glandular tissues, or their contents, are frequently stained gray-green. ee Objects treated with chromic or picric solutions, or with alco- hol, usually stain without difficulty ; but osmic acid preparations ? should be bleached before staining. Cochineal does not color so intensely as hematoxylin, and hence the latter often gives more. satisfactory results in the case of large objects stained in toto. ae As before pointed out, alcohol causes the salts contained in sea- water to be precipitated, thus forming a crust on the exterior of the animal which interferes with the staining process. It is there- fore necessary to treat marine animals that have been preserved " in strong alcohol, with acid alcohol (1-10 parts hydrochloric acid to 1000 parts 70 per cent. alcohol), and then carefully wash in pure 70 per cent. alcohol before staining with cochineal. 3. Picro-carmine—A very excellent picro-carmine is prepared by Dr. Mayer in the following manner: To a mixture of powdered carmine (2 g.) with water (25 ccm.), while heating over a water bath, add sufficient ammonia to dis- solve the carmine. The solution may then be left open for a few weeks (Mayer) in order that the ammonia may evaporate ; Or the , evaporation may be accelerated by heating (Hoyer). So long ee any ammonia remains, large bubbles will form while boiling, but as soon as the free ammonia has been expelled, the bubbles will i i BOOZ.) in the Zoological Station in Naples. 797 be small and the color of the fluid begin to be a little lighter. It is then allowed to cool, and filtered. To the filtered solution is added a concentrated aqueous solution of picric acid (about four volumes of the acid to one of the carmine solution). In order to protect this fluid against’ changes attributed to . Bacteria by Hoyer, Dr. Mayer places a small crystal of ¢hymol in the containing bottle; Professor Hoyer uses chloral-hydrate (1 per cent. or more) for the same purpose. 4. Acetic Acid Carmine3—Pulverized carmine added to a small quantity of boiling acetic acid (45 per cent.) until no more will dissolve ; filtered and diluted to about 1 per cent. for use. Flemming used the concentrated solution.. 5. Grenacher’s Carmine Solutions!—(1) Alum Carmine—An aqueous solution of alum (1-5 per cent., or any degree of concen- tration) boiled with 14-1 per cent. powdered carmine for 10-20 minutes; allowed to cool, then filtered. With the addition of a little carbolic acid the fluid will keep for years. It colors quickly, and nuclei more strongly than other parts. Objects washed in water after staining. (2) Acid Borax Carmine—a. An aqueous solution of bacas (1-2 per cent.) and carmine (14-34 per cent.) heated till the car- mine is dissolved. b. Acetic acid added by drops to solution @, while shaking, until the color is about the same as that of Beale’s carmine. c. Solution å left standing twenty-four hours, then turned off and filtered. This solution, which is a modification of Siap- Seis acid carmine, is not recommended for coloring in toto. It colors sections in %-3 minutes diffusely, and hence, after washing in water, they are placed for a few minutes in alcohol (50 or 70 per cent.) to which a drop of hydrochloric acid has been added ; then transferred to pure alcohol. ! The addition of the acid should cease before a precipitate begins to form. *Hoyer. “Beiträge z. histolog. Technik.” In Biolog. Centralblatt, B. 11, p. 17-19. : 3 Schneider. Zool. Anzeiger, No. 56, p. 254, 1880. Pe wena! “ Einige Notizen z. Tinctionstechnik.” Arch. f. Mik. Anat., Vol. XVI, P. 463, 1879. ; None of these Solutions to be used where calcareous parts are to be preserved. ? : P uS Bd. XIX, p. 317, and p. 742, B. XX, p. I. 778 Methods of Microscopical Research [ October, (3) Borax Carmine—a. An aqueous solution of dorax (4 per cent.) and carmine, heated till the carmine is dissolved. 6. Solution æ mixed with 70 per cent. alcohol in equal parts, left standing twenty-four hours and filtered. This fluid may be used for coloring objects in toto. After staining, the objects are to be washed in 33 per cent. alcohol, to which a little hydrochloric acid has been added (4-6 drops to 100 ccm.), and allowed to remain here until the color has been sufficiently removed. They are next passed through successively higher grades of alcohol for hardening. (4) Alcohol Carmine. —A teaspoonful of carmine dissolved, by heating about ten minutes, in 50 ccm. of 60-80 per cent. alcohol, to which 3-4 drops of hydrochloric acid have been added, then filtered. Objects colored in this fluid morti not be washed in water, but in alcohol of a grade corresponding to that of the solution. For diluting alcoholic solutions of carmine, alcohol of the same strength must always be used. ; 6. Aniline Dyes-—As a rule, aniline colors and the many others obtained recently from tar by chemical processes, can not be used for staining objects in toto, and are therefore not much employed in the Zoological Station. In very small objects and sections — already cut, very excellent results can be obtained by the meth- ods developed by Böttcher? Hermann; Flemming‘ and others; — for here diffuse staining may generally be avoided by first over- staining and then withdrawing the color to any desired extent by means of alcohol. But to obtain satisfactory results, the sections must be thin-enough to allow uniformity of action both to the coloring and the decoloring agent. It is evident that the process cannot be similarly controlled in larger objects, particularly where a dye is used, which, like most of those under consideration, is quickly — extracted by alcohol, for in this case the color would be removed from the superficial layers more rapidly than from the deeper 1 Dr. Mayer prepares, for some purposes, borax carmine of 50, 60 or 70 pet cent. That of 70 per cent. contains little carmine, but is well adapted to ata delicate objects that would suffer if exposed to weaker solutions. Boiling alcohol (50 Pe cent. or 60 per cent. ) dissolves about I per cent carmine and 1 per cent. borax. *Bottcher. Mul. Archiv., 1869, p. 373. Virchow’s Archiv., Bd. XL, p. 302. 3 Hermann. Commanostei to the ee in “_ 1875. ; PAON, p.105, _ *Flemming. Archiv. f. Mikr. Anat., Bd. x11, p. 702, Bd. XVI, p os Bd. gece 1882. ] in the Zoological Station in Naples. 779 enes, so that a uniform precision of color would be impossible. In this respect, a. Bismarck-brown forms an exception. The ation of this dye, introduced by Weigert,! is extremely simple: A saturated solution is made by dissolving the powder in boil- ing water or weak alcohol, or, according to Mayer, in 70 per cent, alcohol.2 The solution should be used undiluted, and requires to be filtered from time to time. It colors very ey objects hardened in alcohol or chromic acid. 6. Safranin.—t part safranin dissolved in 100 parts of absolute alcohol ; after a few days 200 parts of distilled water is added. Dr. Pfitzner from whom the above formula is taken, recom- mends this solution as one of the best for staining nuclei. It is cheap, easily prepared, acts quickly and stains ony the nuclei. It works best with chromic acid preparations, from which the acid has been removed as much as possible. 7. Llemming’s methods of treating Nuclei—The method em- ployed by Böttcher and Hermann of over staining objects with aniline dyes, and then removing the color to any desired extent by the aid of alcohol, formed the starting point of the methods recently published by Flemming. The following is a summary of the more important conclusions reached by Flemming :* __ A. For Nuclei in general—t. Objects hardened in chromic acid : (1-10 per cent. to % per cent.). The time will vary according to the nature of the object. 2. Carefully washed in distilled water. 3. Stained rabid or further hardened in weak and then strong alcohol. . Safranin, Magdala red q de naphthaline) and dalia (monophenylrosanilin) give the best staining. Safranin prepared as given above; magdala in the same way; dahlia best dissolved in Wee or acetic a ar Only very small objects, or thin sections, can be successfully stained, and these should be left in the fluid 12-24 hours. 4. Objects transferred to weak alcohol (70 per cent.) and shaken for a few moments; then placed in absolute alcohol for half a minute or longer=-till no visible clouds of color appear. The Process of decoloring is now completed and the objects must be *Wiegert. Arch. f. Mik. Anat., Bd. xv, p. 258, 1878.

eeu} arranged under one For large sections od offers one important ge yere amy lie-as fines fall. In the case of smaller sections, not li © method. 1882. ] in the Zovblogical Station in Naples. 785 WATER Batu. The diagram represents a convenient form of water bath, de- vised by Dr. Mayer. It is a small brass box 18™ long, 9°™ wide and 8™ high. The tube a, through which the water is received, and the rod 6 serve as handles. The receiving tube is closed by a cork provided with a glass tube for the escape of steam, which is bent in the form of a siphon to protect against dust. One and a-half centimeters from the base of the box is an oven (0) .7™ high, and 12™ long, which passes com- pletely through the box, and serves for warming the slides when shellac is used. Above are seen two circular basin-like pits (2) 5.5°" in diam., and 4™ deep, for receiving the two tin HM paraffine holders. These are geen by er caiae plates of glass. There are also six tubular pits, one for a thermometer (¢), the others for glass tubes. This water bath will be found useful for other purposes than those of imbedding and mounting. It will of course be under- Stood that the purpose in giving its exact dimensions is simply to furnish a guide where one is required. There are at least two important advantages offered by this water bath over those in general use, viz., the slides are protected from dust, and oe par- affine is not oneal to the water. ON THE HOMOLOGIES OF THE CRUSTACEAN LIMB. BY A. S. PACKARD, JR. I: following observations are reprinted from an essay on North American Phyllopod Crustacea, contributed to the forthcoming Twelfth Annual Report of the U. S. Geological and _ Geographical Survey of the Territories, F. V. Hayden in charge. Iam i indebted to Dr. Hayden’ s kindness for the use of the illus- 786 On the Homologies of the Crustacean Limb. (October, trations—Messrs. Sinclair & Son having, at their own expense, kindly struck off an edition of the accompanying plates from the drawings on stone made by them for the Survey. : The reader is supposed to have a general knowledge of Crus- tacea, especially the Phyllopods, a brief account of which may be found in the author’s Zodlogy, where the genera here referred to are figured. As to the anatomy of these interesting Crusta- Fic. 1.—Limnetis brevifrons, enlarged. Burgess, del. * cea, a transverse section of the anterior part of the body of any genus of Phyllopods (see Pl. x11, Fig. 2, also Fig. 1 in text) will convey an excellent idea of the leading features in their organiza- tion, especially those by which they differ from the members of other Crustacean orders. The leading topographical features in - the body, particularly of Arthropods, are the form of the elemen- tal segments with their appendages, and the relations of the prin- cipal anatomical systems to the body-walls. General relations of the systems of organs to the body-walls— We will first look at a section of a typical Phyllopod, such as Apus (Fig. 2). The body-walls are rather thick and the muscles are well developed, particularly the dorsal extensor muscles, and the motor or extensor muscles of the limbs, which arise in part from the dorsal region, and in part from the sides and sternal re- gion. The body cavity is rather small. The heart is large, either cylindrical as in Estheria, or flattened as in 77 hamnocephalus. The digestive tract is large, capacious, and the cavity of the head is mainly filled with the two liver masses; the brain being remarkably : small, while the nervous cord, especially the second and succeed- ing ganglia, are remarkably small and weak, compared with other a 1882. ] On the Homologies of the Crustacean Limb. 787 Crustacea, either the malacostracous or the entomostracous orders; this peculiarity is well brought out | in the transverse sections, where the diminutive size of the thoracic gan- glia, particularly in Zim- netis and Estheria is noteworthy. The appa- rent bulk of the body is largely due to the large size and nature of the leaf-like or foliaceous appendages, with their broad attachments ; the latter peculiarity is char- acteristic of the Bran- chiopods in general and the Phyllopods espe- pre sees of Apus; Aż, heart; zz, intestine; cially, and is quite dif- ee peer Eo D e ferent from the definite, resenting the e small coxal articulations of the legs of Malacostraca or Cope- poda. The ovaries or testes, according to the sex, form a large, s are seen in pen xx, Fig. 2, and in Zhamunocephalus in Plate XIv, Fig. 4 of our ess The segments of the ods. — Phyllopoda are exceptional to other Crustacea in laving an indefinite number of segments composing the body, and in having in one family (Apodid@) more than one pair of appendages to an arthromere. While the normal number in the Decapoda is twenty-one, in the Phyllopods it varies fro eni in Limnetis to forty-seven in Apus. The follow ving table ows the number in different genera of American species: : ‘ge o: Lap Tg & ey se| aj 8): a ES ie f SEL EIRIN s sa| g] 3 = Li = Aa- Ra 2 v © 1s AFANA = < B H ges Wee eke cy eucs S -Ra Ei.. eel t2 (le) o I 17-19 Esbern.. C 2i a hasl 23y o I |. 29-33 Paad o Ft 8 el Fae o I 28 eo ptr re ere re Pare *2| 1 1 | }1 |27 (60pairs)32 (14)| 1. 47 limbs) Ea OO eee pele cs A rj II 8 I 25 Branchinecta ........... 2a ri 2 o n 9 I 26 eatew pos aes ae ob or n 9 I 26 antennz sometimes wanting. š The en endite of Apus w anting in the American species. 788 On the Homologies of the Crustacean Limò. [ October, In an Apus lucasanus forty-two millimeters in length there are sixty pairs of legs behind the maxillipedes. There are forty-two segments behind the maxillipedal segment, including the telson, and twenty-seven limb-bearing segments, or sixty pairs of legs to twenty-seven segments, the average being two and six-twenty- sevenths (2;°) appendages to each leg-bearing segment. On the first eleven leg-bearing arthromeres, or the ten thoracic legs (beno- meres) together with the first abdominal arthromere, there is but a single pair of appendages to a segment, so that there are forty-nine pairs of abdominal appendages to sixteen arthromeres, or three and one-sixteenth pair of limbs, on the average, to each abdominal arthromere. The fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth pairs are situated on two arthomeres, and so on with the succeeding until the limbs become more numerous. On the two arthromeres before the last leg-bearing one, there are twelve pairs of appen- dages, or six to each arthromere. This irrelative repetition of arthromeres is only paralleled in one other Branchiate group, the Troita. In this group the new segments are interpolated between the head and abdomen at suc- cessive molts, as shown by Barrande. : The grouping of the body segments into a cephalothorax and abdomen, comparable with those two regions in the Decapoda is _ but slightly, if at all, indicated in the Phyllopoda. In Limnetis there is no such distinction of regions, in Apus the cephalotho- rax Merges insensibly into the abdomen, and it is not until we ascend to the Branchiopodide that we meet with a well-marked abdomen separated by tolerably clear indications from the thorax. The Appendages in general—The appendages of Crustacea may be divided into four groups: First, the sensory appendages, or antennz, which are in the adult preoral; second, the organs of prehension of food and of mastication, 7. e., the mandibles and accessory jaws, or maxillæ and maxillipeds, which are postoral; third, organs of locomotion, whether natatorial or ambulatory, which are appended to the thoracic portion of the body; and fourth, the appendages of the abdomen, which are both natatorial and concerned in reproduction; of the latter are the two pairs of gonopoda! in the Decapoda, while the eleventh pair of appen- _ dages in Apus may perhaps be regarded as gonopods. eke ae have (AMERICAN NATURALIST, XV, p. 881, 1881) applied the term gonopoda (Gr. youn, generation; zoöş, zodug, foot) to the first and second abdominal limbs | 1882. ] On the Homologies of the Crustacean Limb. 789 The following table will give our idea as to the succession and nomenclature of the appendages in the three subclasses of Tra- cheata and the two subclasses of Branchiate Arthropods : “TABLE A. . : Crustacea (neoca-| Merostomata. Hexapoda. Arachnida, Myriopoda, rida decapoda). (Limulus.) = | Number of segments.) } Antenne... . . .|Mandible.. .’. . Antenne... . . .|Firstantenne . . shat a (preoral) ?)/Mandibles.. . . . |Maxilla (chela), . |“ Maxilla”. . . . |Second antenne . Sst (postoral) eg. 3|First aa: E aa A ue aicy gh nag Al . .|Mandibles. . . . |Third pair legs. are ma xillz|Second leg . io rt ai . . |first maxilla . .|Fourth pair legs. ium. 5 rie react legs| Third leg. . . . . |First pair of legs . |Second maxillz . | Fifth pair legs. zenopods 6 by soe thoracic legs|Fourth leg. . . . |Second pair of legs First maxillipedes|Sixth pair legs. zenopods), 5 7) Third peana legs|Embryonic, decid-|Third pair of legs|Second maxilli- iet abdominal (bænopo uous. pedes. e 8 hey embryonic de-|, . do... . . . [Fourth pair of legs) Third maxillipedes Second abdominal ciduous legs.* 9\Second embryonic]. .do..... .|Fifth pair of legs . |First pair of legs . Th hird abdominal deciduous legs. bæno; à egs. Be pal To| Third embryonic de- ..do..... . (Sixth pair of legs|Second pair of legs| Fourth abdominal ciduous a, Ss. bzenopods). egs. i I1 Fourth ryonic Firs pair spinner-|Seventh pair of|Third pair of legs|Fifth, abdominal slesi. a legs. beenopods). gs- ; i TS embryonic de- Second ae spin-| Eighth pair of legs| Fourth pair of legs|Sixt aed abdom- uous legs, bzenopods). inal legs. 13) Sixth Ayano de- Third 3 pair spin-|Ninth pair of legs.|Fifth pair of legs ciduous legs. nerets beenopods). 34 Fi FN pa of rhab- ered “of scor-|Tenth pair of legs.|First abdominal egs (uropods). 15 Secon pair of rhab-| , , dites. 16 beer pair of rhab- . ss... e |Eleventh pair of)Second abdominal) Telson (spine). legs (uropods). ci a ee es Twelfth pair of/Third abdominal ; legs. legs (uropods). 17 a E BOM E E piain pair of|Fourth abdominal Orthoptera and : legs. legs (uropods). Neu alee of and anai legs o ggr pillars. : ee endites forming the hand of the m es Limnetis Sa base of the Ceia. region introducing dots in the branchial portion) may be seen how nearly the first leg of the male of Moina rectirostris agrees with that of the male Zimnetis, as seen in the sixth endite forming a claw like that of Limnetis, although the flabellum is not clearly differen- tiated from the endopodal portion of the limb, But when we look at the third pair of limbs of the female of the same Clado- ceran (Fig. 4), we find an epipodal portion (flabellum, ev, and gill) differentiated from the endopodal portion of the limbs. The endopodal portion in the Cladocera is not differentiated, and forms a number of well-marked lobes or endites (Lankester), as in the Phyllopoda; this differentiation into six ace lobes being peculiar to the Phyliopoda. . e Cladocerous mahi is intermediate in form and complication a pee ý VEDE CE) oder Ill ı gekannte Daphniden. 1877. 1882. ] On the Homologies of the Crustacean Limb. 791 between the Phyllopodous and Ostracodous limbs, and the latter are evidently derived from the Copepods, so that there is a con- tinuous ascending series from the Copepoda through the Ostra- coda to the Cladocera, and thence to the Phyllopoda. Hence, as the young of the Copepoda are all Nauplii, and also those of the Phyllopoda, it follows that the ancestral form of all the En- tomostracous Crustacea, as originally insisted on by Fritz Miller . (Fir Darwin) was a nauplius-like animal. Z EE : ` Zi sO are’ > LE 5 jA gts Gute AI; 2 n I= GLEE Me a Lok Le ae fo GUE LL oes = QOL Tak PAE Sa A LDF A ø yy hi Fic. 4.—One of the third pair of limbs of Moina: end, the endopodal portion ; ex, the exopodal (epipodal) portion of the limb. Comparison with the Decapodous limbs.—Having studied the homologies of the Phyllopodous limbs among themselves, and also compared them with those of the Cladocera and ‘Ostracoda, it remains now to compare the thoracic appendages of the Phyllo- pods with those of the adult Decapoda. At the outset, however, it seems nearly impossible to compare the swimming legs of the Phyllopods with the abdominal and thoracic appendages of Deca- pods. The thoracic Decapodous legs are axially jointed, consist- ing of an axis or protopodite, which is wanting in the Phyllopoda and all lower Crustacea, with no endital lobes as in Phyllopods, though the gill and flabellum of the Phyllopods are homologous with the gills and flabellum of the Decapod. There is no such -_Telation or close resemblance as to lead us to infer that as regards _ the nature of the thoracic and abdominal feet the Decapods have | : Gescended from the Ronee The a have probably 6 792 On the Homologies of the Crustacean Limb, (October, come down to us by a different branch of the Crustacean ances- tral tree, and have arisen entirely independently of the Phyllo- podous branch, by a line leading back directly to the ancestral Nauplius, the common ancestor of all the Meocarida. Nor does it seem to us that this statement or hypothesis is weakened when we consider the resemblances between the tho- racic feet of the Phyllopods and the maxillz and maxillipedes of the Decapoda. When we compare the leg of a Phyllopod with the second maxilla’ of the lobster (Fig. 6, B) or crayfish, we can detect a close homology, the chief difference being in the fact that the lobes of the endopodite are less numerous in the Decapod than in the Phyllopod. This close resem- possible homologies between the appendages of Limulus and a trilobite ; he let- as in p ig. 12, aia ern section of the thorax of a trilobite (Calymene), after Walcott: pace ; en, endopo fin ; en’, exopodite with the gills on the exopodal or respi- ihe: pa of the appendag limbs ; the thoracic limbs of trilobite, while having a jointed endo- podite as in Limulus, also having an exopodite and a forke spiral gill. Now, if we append to the coxopodite of Limulus an ` exopodite, and instead of having the gills arranged anteroposte- . riorly, like the leaves of a book, have them arranged on one side \ Fe Ringstey -Ort La Kae Eee x - ibe Py i ‘ackand, det. T. Sinclair & Son Lith. ANATOMY OF APUS. 1882. | On the Homologies of the Crustacean Limb. 797 (the outer) of a more or less cylindrical epipodite, as we have drawn them in Fig. TI, we shall hardly be doing greater violence to nature hain we see to occur in any Decapod, where, as may be seen in Pl. x, the maxilla of the lobster have no specialized exopo- dite, such as isso well marked cone.. in the maxillipedes, and the thoracic legs possess not even the rudiments. Change of function and radical changes of structure are most extreme in pt the Malacostracous Crustacea, from the Brachyura to the Isopoda and Amphipoda. If oe, so startling in these compara- tively recent forms, it is not to be wondered at that still greater and more fundamental modifications of the Crusta- cean type obtain in the archa- ic forms, the Palzocarides, of which Limulus is the sole survivor. To those who in- sist on the Arachnidan affini- ties of the Merostomata, we Would suggest that the same Shifting and change of func- tion and structure is to be ob- Served among the Tracheate Arthropoda, and that Limu- lus is not less a genuine Bran- chiate Arthropod for present- ing some features analogous = to 1 the Arachnida. lus polyshetens et ae enlarged), to com- A study of the Phyllopoda pare with a eee, ee ee and Phyllocarida must tend aai Åt, heart; antenna, with four bead-like joints, showing the thee e pend the third ending in a mo- niliform p 3: testes ae the gill (47) and single endite .— teral view of the brain of the Tea Apus caner. Set mis; br, brain; iam. commissure . suboesophageal ganglion; g. of, optic ganglion; oc, ocellus; as, cesophag —Brain and pan of ventral cord of Apus cancriformis; oc, nerve to ocelli ; ant', ant?, first and second antennal nerves; G!, cesophageal; G?, mandibu- ar g nglion, peated off three mandibular nerves (z md); d, oe cesophageal nerve; #, unpaired or lower cesophageal ganglion; æs, nerv assing to agus, s ns = > a sa g č -x y. Pp =. p 5 lat a as vi “ 7.—Apus longicaudatus, portion of embryonic membrane lying next to the cho- rion, and supposed to hy hei the amnion in Limulus ;-the nuclei in many of the cells have bec absorbed, ‘ $8,—An egg of the same, mea the cellular nature of the amnion. ** $8a.—A portion of the same amnion seen sideways of the egg. Fig. 1 drawn under the author’s direction by J. S. Kingsley; Figs. + ee 5 and 6 copied fons Zaddach; the remainder drawn with the camera by the au E =) Moruya? IDOLS AND IDOL WORSHIP OF THE DELAWARE INDIA BY CHARLES C. ABBOTT. HN Brainerd, while a missionary among the Indians of New Tei oe of one of these people, that “she had an aunt o kept an idol image, which, indeed partly be- longed to a aa that she had a mind to go and fetch her aunt and the image, that it might be burnt; but when she went to the place she found nobody at home, and the image also was taken away.” While this, indeed, is slender evidence of the occurrence of idol worship among the Delaware Indians, it is of interest in _ showing that images were not unknown, and that they possessed other significance and value than as mere ornaments. Any carv- ing in wood or stone, merely used for personal decoration would not have become sinful in the mind of an Indian woman, through th¢ preaching of the missionary; and a desire to destroy the object she reported as in her possession, must necessarily have 800 Tdols and Idol Worship of the Delaware Indians. (October, arisen from the fact that it was regarded with superstitious rever- ence and invested with supernatural powers, in their belief. Such “idols,” however, unless usually made of material as perishable as wood, were of rare occurrence, if we may judge by the common experience of those who have been enthusiastic col- lectors of the ordinary stone implements of these people. Rude representations of the human face, it is true, have been quite fre- quently found; but the character of all these carvings is such as to suggest simply that they were intended merely as personal ornaments, and possessed no religious significance. ; _ A recent discovery in New Jersey opens up the subject of the occurrence of “idols” among the Delaware Indians, and also furnishes another instance of the close relationship of the Ohio mound-builders and the Atlantic coast tribes. It has long been known to archeologists that elaborate carvings of the human head have been found, in mound regions, of such large size that their use as ornaments was impracticable, and their religious sig- nificance was therefore proportionately probable. Such a carving has been recently found in. New Jersey, and is at present a unique specimen. For other reasons than this, however, it is of consid- erable interest, The brief but authentic history of this idol, if Idol of the Delaware Indians. we may so designate it, is this: It was found in clearing a pre- viously uncultivated tract preparatory to building a dwelling house. The spot was covered with scrub pines, with an under- growth of black huckleberry and, in the moister soil, of swamp blueberry. The drier soil, except some two inches of humus, was an exceedingly homogeneous yellow ferruginous sand; and the workman was impressed by the fact that his spade had struck a stone a few inches below the surface, as the spot was one so des- titute of stone that the presence of one was deemed remarkabk. His attention was also drawn to the fact that the stone seemed 1882.] dols and [dol Worship of the Delaware Indians. 801 to be “ set fast.” - He therefore drove his spade down by the side of the stone, and then throwing his weight on the handle, by this means started the object, which “came up with a click.” Thus was the head broken from its base; and most unfortunately, no effort was made at the time to recover the missing portion. Many efforts have since been made, but as yet without success. These particulars are of interest from one important fact. It is evident that the relic as obtained is only a small portion of a large object, the character of which can only be surmised. That the portion remaining in the ground is quite large, is shown by the resistance it offered to the considerable force exerted to dis- place it, and which resulted in the fracture of the specimen. This evidence of the considerable dimensions of the entire object is of interest archzologically, from the fact that the greater the size of any such carving the equally greater probability that the object possessed a religious significance in the estimation of its aborig- inal owner. It is not improbable that the missing portion of this interesting relic is simply a square base without any work having been put upon it other than polishing. This is inferred from the fact that essentially similar, but even more artistic carvings have been found in Western New York and in Ohio, having only such plain Square bases. In ths thirteenth report of the regents of the Uni- versity of the State of New York, there is given a description, with illustrations of several carvings, which bear a marked resem- blance to the New Jersey specimen. Some of them, indeed, evi- dence so great skill on the part of the sculptor, that doubts have been expressed as to their being the handiwork of the Indians. The finding of the New Jersey carving would seem to bear directly upon this question, for the skill shown in the production of the latter, is evidence that the more artistic New York examples of Supposed aboriginal carving were not beyond the attainments of the Indian carver. It should be borne in mind also that the accu- racy with which celts, axes and trinkets of various patterns were shaped from the hardest stones, is of itself sufficient to show that @ faithful portrait in an easily worked material, was quite within their capabilities, The “idol” so recently brought to ligkt from barren New Jersey sands, possesses all those characteristics of feature and expression peculiar to the Indians of the Atlantic coast. The 802 Idols and Idol Worship of the Delaware Indians. (October, material is a compact argillaceous substance of a pale, oliva- ceous color. It is, in fact, ,an indurated clay-stone, and no doubt a nodule from the underlying cretaceous plastic clay cliffs on the shore of Raritan bay, near Keyport, New Jersey. These nodules abound in the clays just mentioned. The speci- men shows, at the point of fracture, that. this nodule is of unusual hardness, and has a clean conchoidal fracture. The slight depressions on the forehead are due to weathering, and the general condition of the surface indicates a considerable degree of antiquity. This fact, again, is of interest, as it adds to the series of facts already gathered concerning the handiwork of our coast tribes, which go to show that at the time of the Columbian dis- covery of the continent, the natives were not in as “advanced” a condition as they previously had been, and that the majority of the most artistic of their productions in stone, if indeed not all of them, were at that time veritable relics, and considered as such. In the execution of the idol we have been considering, the artist has secured the peculiar Indian physiognomy, yet it has been from simple economy ot labor given to certain salient points offered by the natural form of the nodule, the work being entirely limited to the front and upper part of the head. There is, strange to say, no labor given to the sides, the bunch-like prominences being left untouched, and the effect is produced of an irregularly winged aspect, somewhat Egyptian. This, of course, is purely accidental, and may be classed as one of those treacher- -ous resemblances which have led to so much vain speculation as to the ethnic relationship of American and Egyptian civili- zations, ` The height of this fragmentary carving is five and one-half inches; the breadth, four and one-eighth. Curiously enough, these measurements are identical with those of two similar carv- ings found in Ohio, and ‘nearly coincide with the measurements lar objects, whether in the possession of mound-builders or coast tribes, had a like significance, and was it not in all probability religious in its character ? am indebted to Professor Samuel Lockwood, of Freehold, New Jersey, for much of the information concerning the interest- ing object here described, and the details of its discovery. The specimen is in his cabinet. 1882. ] Editors’ Table. 803 EDITORS’: TABLE. EDITORS: A. S. PACKARD, JR., AND E. D. COPE. Posthumous fame is doubtless of greater benefit to the community at large than to the person commemorated by it. The former are taught the possibilities of life by the examples of those who have achieved much, and are stimulated by it to exertion and to success. One of the most impressive forms of commemo- ration is the erection of statues in public places. The general public, especially those who do not read, are compelled to learn history when it is taught in the object lessons of the sculptor's and painter’s arts. It has been the custom to erect statues to - successful military men from time immemorial, and the United States has not been slow to follow the example of older countries. European nations, both ancient and modern, have also made statues of their philosophers, statesmen and artists, and although America has not yet immortalized many of her own sons in this way, she will probably do so ere long. We have statues of Humboldt, Shakespeare and other foreign worthies in our parks, but very few of our own masters have been so commemorated. We therefore look with pleasure on the movements to erect statues to Professor Henry, to Longfellow, and to Alexander L. Holley. England will erect a statue to Darwin and plage it in South Kensington. But an excellent method of attaining the same end is the estali: lishment of scholarships bearing the name of the person whose memory it is important to preserve. It is greatly to be hoped that the subscription for the endowment of the Leidy chair of anatomy in the University ot Pennsylvania, will be successful. This proposition is the more meritorious, since it is Gesigned to benefit the present incumbent, Professor Joseph Leidy, during his life, as well as to commemorate his services to science. _ The American committee selected to prepare a fitting memo- rial of Darwin in. this country, are considering the advisability, as we understand, of creating a scholarship bearing his name, which shall support an American student of biology at some of the best schools of Europe. It is to be hoped that such a desirable prop- osition may be carried into effect. The Bi-Centennial Association of Pennsylvania has issued a circular which sets forth a plan for the creation of a series of t 804 Recent Literature. [ October, prizes for works in science and art, commemorative of the estab- lishment of the Commonwealth by Penn two hundred years ago. The competitors must be natives or residents of Pennsylvania, and the sums awarded are $500 to $1000. The prizes will be mostly presented to the association by private persons, and will bear their names. A number of them have been subscribed. Such _ prizes, numerous in Europe, are rare here, and are a most effective method of stimulating the higher forms of intellectual effort. :0: RECENT LITERATURE. — $ Lussock’s Ants, BEEs anb Wasps.'—This volume is a reprint, with some omission of details, of Sir John Lubbock’s papers which were read before the Linnzean Society of London. The volume is mainly devoted to ants, with a few pages referring to bees and wasps. The book is an important contribution to ani- mal psychology, and is almost entirely a fresh record of facts ob- served by the author, who only refers to the observations of other naturalists for the purpose of introducing his own. Lub- bock is a patient and most impartial observer, and is reticent as to ultimate questions, his method being purely inductive. How- ever, at the outset Sir John feels disposed to place the ants next to man in intelligence, a position which may be disputed, as purely reasoning processes are perhaps at least as frequently ob- served in the mammals and birds, particularly the domesticated kinds, as in ants or bees. We will now rapidly note the original discoveries of our author, such as prove to be additions to our stock of knowledge of insect mental traits. Lubbock is the first to show that in ants (Myrmica ruginodis), the queens have the instinct of bringing up larvee and the power of founding communities; and not queens only, but, as has been shown by Denny, Lespés, Dewitz, and proved by Forel, the workers will lay eggs which produce males. Lubbock has further proved that the worker eggs only produce males. While it has formerly been supposed that ants live but one year, Lubbock kept two queens over seven years, and they “are probably more than eight years old.” They seem in perfect heaith, and in 1881 laid fertile eggs, a fact which suggests physio- logical conclusions of great interest. He also has workers “more than six years old.” While English ants do not, as in warmer countries, lay up food for the winter, “ they do more, for they keep during six months the eggs which will enable them to procure food during the fol- lowing summer, a case of prudence unexampled in the animal kingdom.” ; 1 Bees, Ants and Wasps. A record of observations on the habits of the social Hy- menoptera. By Sir Jonn Luspock, Bart. New York, D. Appleton & a 1882. | Recent Literature. 805 As regards the slave-keeping propensity of ants and its effect upon the ant character, we have many fresh observations. During more than four years’ observations of a nest of Polyergus, Lub- bock’s specimens “certainly never fed themselves, and when the community changed its nest, which they did several times, the mistresses were carried from the one to the other by the slaves?” With Huber he does not doubt that specimens of Polyergus, if n if supplied with food. “ I have, however, kept isolated specimens for three months, by giving them a slave for an hour or two a day to clean and feed them; under these circumstances they remained in perfect health, while, but for the slaves, they would have perished in two or three days. Excepting the slave-making ants and some of the Myrmecophilous beetles above described, I know no case in nature of an animal having lost the instinct of feeding.” In Polyergus rufescens, the so-called workers, though thus helpless and idle, are numerous, energetic and, in some respects, even brilliant. In another slave-making ant, Strongyl- ognathus; the workers are much less numerous and so weak that it is an unsolved problem how they continue to make slaves. They make slaves of Tetramorium cespitum, which they carry off as pupæ. The extreme in the series of slave-making ants is An- ergates, which differs from all other ants “in having no workers at all,” The male is wingless; they and the females are accom- panied and tended by Tetramorium cespitum. The Anergates are absolutely dependent upon théir slaves, and cannot even feed themselves. Lubbock thinks male and female Anergates make their way into a nest of Tetramorium “ and in some manner con- trive to assassinate their queen.” As regards the effect upon the character of the ants, we quote as follows from our author : “ At any rate, these four genera offer us every gradation from lawless violence to contemptible parasitism. Formica sanguinea, which may be assumed to have comparatively recently taken to slave- making, has not as yet been materially affected. “ Polyergus, on the contrary, already illustrates the lowering tendency of slavery. They have lost their knowledge of art, their natural affection for their young, and even their instinct of feeding! They are, however, bold and powerful marauders. “In Strongylognathus the enervating influence of slavery has gone further, and told even on their bodily strength. They are no longer able to capture their slaves in fair and open warfare. Still they retain a‘semblance of authority, and when roused will fight bravely, though in vain. “In Anergates, finally, we come to the last scene of this sad history. We may safely conclude that in distant times their an- cestors lived, as so many ants do now, partly by hunting, partly on honey; that by degrees. they became bold marauders, and §radually took to keeping slaves ; that for a time they maintained b 806 Recent Literature. [ October, their strength and agility, though losing by degrees their real inde- ndence, their arts and even many of their instincts; that grad- ually even their bodily force dwindled away under the enervating influence to which they subjected themselves, until they sank to their present degraded condition—weak in body and mind, few - in numbers, and apparently nearly extinct, the miserable repre- sentatives of far superior ancestors, maintaining a precarious exist- ence as contemptible parasites of their former slaves.” As to the passions of these creatures, Lubbock states that ants of the same nest never quarrel. ‘I have never seen the slightest * evidence of ill-temper in any of my nests, all is harmony. Nor are instances of active assistance at all rare. Indeed, I have my- self witnessed various cases showing care and tenderness on their As to their recognition of one another, it appears that it is not personal or individual, “their harmony is not due to the fact that each ant is individually acquainted with every other member of the community. At the same time the fact that they ' recognize their friends even when intoxicated, and that they know the young born in their own nest even when they have been brought out of the chrysalis by strangers, seems to indicate that the recognition is not effected by means of any sign or pass word.” As to the power of communication, the results of a number of experiments taught our author that while they do not possess “any considerable power of descriptive communication,” op the other hand, there can, he thinks, be no doubt but that they do possess some power of the kind.’ He concludes that his experi- ments “certainly seem to indicate the possession, by ants, O something approaching to language. It is impossible to doubt that the friends were brought out by the first ant; and.as she returned empty handed to the nest, the others cannot have been induced to follow her merely by observing her proceedings. In face of such facts as these, it is impossible not to ask ourselves how far are ants mere exquisite automatons; how far are they conscious beings? When we see an ant hill, tenanted by thou- sands of industrious inhabitants, excavating chambers, forming tunnels, making roads, guarding their home, gathering food, feed- ing the young, tending their domestic animals—each one fulfill- ing its duties industriously, and without confusion—it is difficult altogether to deny to them the gift of reason; and the preceding observations tend to confirm the opinion that their mental powers differ from those of men not so much in kind as in degree.” - While our author concludes that ants track one another by scent, he is inclined to adopt the mosaic theory of insect vision, and from experiments with the spectrum, concludes that “ (1) ants have the power of distinguishing colors; (2) that they are very Sensitive to violet; and it would also seem (3) that their sensa- tions of color must be very different from those produced upon . us.” The sense of hearing appears to be lodged in the antenn&, 1882. | Recent Literature. 807 certain stethoscope-like organs occurring there, though ants are eaf to ordinary sounds, still he thinks that ants perceive sounds which we cannot hear. On the other hand the sense of smell is highly developed, and how important this is in enabling them to find their way is shown in chapter Ix, where are some. curious statements both as to their apparent want of ingenuity, especially in constructing bridges and earthworks. Ants while guided by scent are also guided by sight, and are greatly influenced by the direction of the light. © In the chapter on bees he records experiments showing that honey bees “.do not bring their friends to share any treasure they have discovered, so invariably as might be assumed from the statements of previous observers,” and he has been a good deal surprised at the difficulty which bees experience in finding their way. His observations also teach him that “ though bees habitu- ally know and return to their own hive, still, if placed on the alighting-board of another, they often enter it without molesta- tion.” He was unable to discover any evidence of affection among bees, they appearing “thoroughly callous and utterly indifferent to one another.” Contrary to the usual statements, he finds their devotion to the queen to be “ of the most limited character,” and the workers take no notice of their dead companions. Bees pos- sess a keen power of smell, but like ants the sense of hearing is very dull; they possess, however, a color sense, preferring one color to another, blue being distinctly their favorite. _ A brief final chapter is devoted to wasps, and Lubbock’s exper- iments, “in opposition to the statements of Huber and Dujar- din, serve to show that wasps and bees do not in all cases convey to one another information as to food which they may have dis- . Covered, though I do not doubt that they often do so.” They are also not affected by sounds, and they are capable of distinguish- ing color, “ though they do not seem so much guided by it as bees are.” The book has appendices giving details of experiments regard- Ing the recognition by ants of friends after long separation, and on the power of communication of ants and bees, with notes on the industry of wasps, for Lubbock’s investigations more than , confirm the general belief as to the great industry of all these t Insects, The work is a magazine of facts, materials for farther work on animal psychology. It Should stimulate our youth of both sexes Who are in any way interested in the study of nature, to observe ` ' Patiently and thoroughiy the habits of our insects. Any one of ordinary capacity can make similar observations, even those who are busy in other directions, for all of Sir John Lubbock’s works lave been prepared in moments snatched in the intervals of the life of a great banker and busy member of Parliament. 808 Recent Literature. [ October, Lurken’s Zootocy.'—As respects fullness of detail, and espe- cially the illustrations and press-work, this compact volume makes a most favorable impression. The author, Dr. Lütken, has long been known as one of the leading zodlogists of Denr- mark, and in fact of Europe. He has published copiously on fishes, Crustacea and especially Echinoderms, being one of the first living authorities on the latter group of animals. The Scan- dinavian naturalists are distinguished for the care and accuracy of their work, and these qualities are without doubt characteristic of the work before us. The plan of this zodlogy is somewhat like that of Peters and Carus’ and Claus’ zodlogy, and is designed for the advanced, work- ing zoologist. It will prove valuable for reference to the Ameri- can student, especially on account of the admirable wood-cuts, many of which are new, while all have been drawn and engraved with evidently great fidelity. It begins with the vertebrates and ends with the Infusoria. Over half of the volume is devoted to e classification, and although we should differ with the author in : some taxonomic matters, we congratulate his countrymen at —~ having such an admirable hand-book placed in their hands. ` GROTE’S ILLUSTRATED Essay on tHE Nocruip® oF NORTH America2—This essay relates to the structure and literature of our Noctuidae, an extensive family of moths which has forme the subject of many papers by Mr. Grote, whose faithful pioneer work on this group has rendered American entomology a lasting . service. The notes on Mr. Walker's types in the British Museum are the results of a second examination of that collection. The section entitled “Specimens of North American Noctuide”’ 1S illustrated with four excellent chromo-lithographs, drawn by A. H. Searle, in London. The book is thorough!y well printed and bound, and is an important addition to our lepidopterological literature, Recent Books AND PAMPHLETS.—Mission G. Revoil aux Pays gomalis, rani et Flore. Keptiles et Batrachiens. Par M. Leon Vaillant. Note sur les Cyprinodon du Groupe du C; calaritanus, Par M. H. E. Sauvage. Pl. 11. From M. Leon Vailiant. ji Report of T. B. Ferguson, Commissioner of Fisheries of Maryland, January, . eee ae : Dyreriget: En Haand-og Lærebog til Brug ved höjere Lereanstalter. EE ee ogi Zoologien Nr. 1.) Af Chr. Fr. LüTKEN, Fjerde Udgave. KjöbenhavD, — 1882. 8vo, pp. 699. ; ? An illustrated essay on the Noctuide of North America ; with “ A colony of But- ag terflies.”” By Augustus RADCLIFFE Grore. London, John Van Voorst, 1882. 8¥o pp. 85. Price ros. 6d. 1882. ] Botany. 809 FEN mi Ean ee je account of experiments in Oyster culture. By J. A. Ryder. mJ. A Zur on ed ah der e theoretischen Speculationen über die Geologie vón Bosnien. Von Professor Dr. R. Hoe 1882. From the author Die Segocephate aus tes "Rothlievenden des Plauen’ chet Grundes bei Dresden, i Hermann Credner in Leipzig. 111 Theil., 1882. From the author e du Musée Géologique Vaudois en 1881. Suivi de la Gaeta i adoptée du Musée. Par E. Renevier. Avril, 1882, From the author Humboldt teeny, No. 29. Facts and Fictions of Zoölogy. By Andrew Wilson, Ph.D., 1882. From the author e Origin and Déiuiopmemt tof the existing Horses. By Jacob L. Wortman. Ext. lim the Kansas City Review of Science and Industry, April and nh 1882. chs the author t ‘Kenntnigs der mittel miocinen Trionyx-Formen Steiermarks. Von R. eal 1881. From the author ea Reste aus der RETENE von Görlach bei Turnau in Steiermark. Von R. Hoernes. From the author: Address, by W. H. Dall, vice-president Section F, before the Section of Biology, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Montreal meeting, Aug. 23, 1882. From uthor "Co orig sur Unification des Travaux Géographiques, Par M. B. DeChan- Courtois. ite rom the author Transc n des Noms Géogeaphiques en lettres de sca Latin. Par M. B. DeChancouroie 1878. | From the author. De l'Unification des Trav Géologiques en gen@ral, et particuli irent en ce nA * hat les Figures aren ESE Far 'M. oe e Chancourtois. From t the :0: ACR GENERAL NOTES. BOTANY.! Some NEW SPECIES OF SPHARIACEOUS FuNGI.—The four species here described were found on petioles of Sabal serrulata, at Green ove i Fla., during the winter of 1881-2, by Dr. Martin. pella de usta E. ‘and M.— Perithecia coriaceous, flask- joks or chaps about % mill. diam., buried in the matrix in nite groups, above which the epidermis is generally more or defined line which does not, however, penetrate deeply; ostiola obtuse, barely piercing the epidermis; asci éageabiih 75-80 y sporidia uniseriate, elliptical, brown, 11-13 x 7 pe The substance of the petiole beneath the Rahat of perithecia, Edited by Pror. C, E. Bessey, Ames, Iowa. d f N 810 General Notes. [ October, is partially bleached so that a longitudinal section shows dull white blotches which indicate the presence of the fungus. Spheria sabalicola E. and M.—Gregarious or scattered, perithe- cia coriaceous with rather thick walls, about 14 mill. diam., cov- _ ered by the epidermis which is raised into little obtusely conic projections around which the surface of the matrix is of a tawny color; asci clavate-cylindrical, 57 x 8». Sporidia biseriate, ob- long, 3-septate, brown, about II x 3% m Spheria sabalensioides E. and M.—Perithecia scattered, min- ute, 1% mill. diam., globose, covered, the short ostiolum barely piercing the epidermis and visible under the lens as a small black dot; asci 75-80 x 714-9 ». Paraphyses none; sporidia biseriate, elliptic-fusiform, appendiculate, yellowish, with a gelatinous en- velop, 13-15 x 344-334 m. The short filiform appendages at each end of the sporidia are soon absorbed. ! Spheria sabalensis Cke., to which this is closely allied, has much longer sporidia (50 v.). To the above described species, which appear to be quite dis- tinct from any of the species on Sabal published by Berkeley ‘and Cooke, may be added: Cercospora malvicola E. and M. (N. A. F. No. 821)— Amphi- genous, minutely tufted on withered spots in the leaf; hyphæ gray, nodulose, sparingly branched, 90-114 ». high; conidia ter- minal, narrow cylindrical or attenuated above, 5-7-septate, 75-95 `p long. Differs from C. malvarum Sacc., in its shorter hyphæ and conidia, duller color and orbicular spots.— F. B. Ellis and e a Geo. Martin. New Foner sy J. B. ELLIS.— Cercospora cercidicola.—On brown. spots on living leaves of Cercis canadensis. Hyphæ fasciculate brown, 114 x 33⁄4 #., tips divaricate bearing the oblong-clavate, Z—~ 3-septate (30-38 x 5-7 x.) conidia, Cercospora physalidis—Amphigenous on white deciduous spots 1-2 De n ma See brown subnodulose, sage? x 5-57 = p.; conidia clavate-cylindrical, faintly 5-8 septate 65- AF pO On leaves of Phy lis i Ca < Cercospora euonymi. — Amphigenous on small white round _ Spots, 1-2 mill. in diam., with a dark purple border. Hyphæ “subnodulose brown, about 60 #. high, conidia 50-65 x 7-8 p. cla- da vate-cylindrical 3—5-septate. On leaves of Euonymus americana. < Cercospora asclepiadis—On Asclepias cornuti. Amphigenous, but mostly on the upper surface of the leaf, on suborbicular spots 1-3 mill. in diam., black at first but soon becoming white in the center, with a definite dark brown or nearly black raised border around which the leaf is stained purplish brown; hyphæ fascicu- late subnodulose and sparingly toothed above, brown, 40-50 x 4 mi conidialinear clavate, about 5-septate, hyaline, 80-120 x 344-44 “ 1882. | Botany. SII Quite different from C. clavata Ger., which is also found on sev- eral species of Asclepias. Cercospora toxicodendri—Snow white on black spots 1-2 mill. diam. Hyphe short, 25-30 x 5% v., pale brown; conidia slender | clavate, faintly multiseptate above, contracted below into aslen- der base, 50-60 x 5-6». On leaves of Rhus toxicodendron, New- Septoria sisymbrit-—On withered faded spots. Perithecia min- ute, erumpent, scattered or in groups of 3-4 open above as if the apex had been torn away; spores linear, 1—2 septate, 30-40 x 3-3% p., mostly curved, ends rather obtuse. The spores scarcely differ from those of S. stiguastri Pass., but the habit is different. Septoria pruni.—Perithecia immersed in dark brown deciduous Spots, 1-3 mill. diam. Spores cylindrical curved, obtuse, 4—6- septate, 30-50 x 2. On leaves of Prunus americana. _The above species, except the one noted, were collected in the vicinity of Lexingto by Professor W. A. Kellerman. Surements are in millimeters (mill.) and micromilli- Ee H., 2. e., thousandths of a millimeter — F. B. Ellis, Newfield, Paciric Coast Borany.—Our botanists of the western coast are showing a most commendable activity, worthy of imitation by those of the older portions of the country. Not content with the Possession of the finest local flora of any country in their “ Bot- any of California,” they are pushing.on with a vigor which will Without much doubt enable them to complete the systematic dis- Position of all their native plants long before it can be done for any other part of the United States. The fungi of the coast have been carefully collected and catalogued by Harkness and Moore; nderson has helped to make known the seaweeds of the coast, — / Many of which have been distributed in Farlow, Anderson, and aton's “Algæ Am. Bor. Exsiccate.’ The lichens collected shave been submitted to Professor Tuckerman for study, while the mosses and ferns were admirably worked in “ Botany of Cali- Plants now offered by the many collectors bring the coast flora Within the reach of every one. We have recently examined plants of several of these sets—notably those of G. R. Vasey, the Parrish Bros., San Bernardino, Cal. ; M. E. Jones, now of Salt Lake City ; J. - Lemmon, of Oakland, Cal., and find them to be most excellent. Among the plants sent out by Parrish Bros., are some very inter- esting Southern Californian species new to science, or but recently 812 General Notes. | October» described. Likewise among Mr. Lemmon’s ferns, are several new ones, and several other rare ones. In Oregon, Professor G. H. Collier, of Eugene City, has just published a “ List of the trees of Oregon,” an eight page pamph- let, giving “the maximum observed heightand diameter ” of fifty- seven trees, with the local names and occasional remarks as to habitat or economic uses. Thomas Howell, of Arthur, Oregon, has also issued a “Catalogue of the Plants of Oregon” which, although defective in some particulars, is valuable as being based upon actual collections. The last thing we have from our western botanists is Professor Rattan’s third and much enlarged and improved edition of his “Popular California Flora.” The introductory lessons contain many fresh notes and illustrations that are interesting, as for example,’that on the germination of the big-root (Megarrhiza) on p. Ix, and one on the germination of lupines on p. x. The Flora proper furnishes a handy manual for the study of the com- moner and easier plants of Central California. Gray's “CONTRIBUTIONS TO NORTH American Borany.”—In this we have: 1. Studies of Aster and Solidago in the older herbaria, and, 11. Characters of the new plants of certain recent collections, mainly in Arizona and adjacent regions. The first is of great in- terest to North American botanists, as it is the result of Dr. Gray’s studies in the great herbaria of the old world, during his ~ recent visit to England and the continent of Europe. The intro- ductory paragraph is so suggestive that we reproduce it here entire. “ Aster and Solidago in North America, like Hieracium in Eu- rope, are among the larger and doubtless the most intractable gen- assure normal and complete development, and upon many the difference iri climate and exposure seems to tell in unusual meas- ure upon the ramification, inflorescence and involucral bracts, which afford principal and comparatively stable characters to the species as we find them in their native haunts. J am not very confident of the success of my prolonged endeavors to put these genera into proper order and to fix the nomenclature of the older species; and in certain groups absolute or practical definition of . 1882. | Zoology. ooa the species by written characters or descriptions is beyond my powers. But no one has ever seen so many of the type-speci- mens of the species as I have, nor given more time to the sys- tematic study of these genera. * * * “Tt is noticeable that the herbarium of Nees von Esenbeck for Aster is not referred to. J cannot ascertain what has become of it. But the types of several of his species, or specimens named by him, have been met with in other herbaria, especially in that of Lindley, and that of Schultz, Bip., the latter now a part of the large collection of Dr. Cosson. As to Asters, I do not here attempt anything beyond a report of the main results of the study of certain principal herbaria; and I leave the high northern and far western species out of the present view.” ZOOLOGY. HABITS OF FRESH-wWATER CrusTACEA.—No one branch of bio- logical study is now bringing forth more interesting and every way useful results than embryology. Throwing light as it does, not only on questions of classification and theoretical biology, but also on the application of such theories to practical life, this new science may be termed at once the root and most typical fruit of a revolutionized biology. No other science fur- nishes a better illustration of the value of minute, accurate study _ of the most common and apparently insignificant facts. Sets of isolated facts evolved by conscientious study of different men Spring suddenly into line when once the clue is found, and the - result may be a new law which renders all these facts eloquent. To the systematist the merely external study of life histories is of greatest value as a check against redundancy in classification, and furnishes the only reliable method, among lower forms at _ least, of setting the bounds of species, any eminent monographers have beén obliged to considera- / bly augment the nomenclature of their specialty with names which, later, have proved to apply simply to larval or immature orms, on account of the impossibility of following the whole life history of each individual. ‘ t has been more recently discovered that similar opportunities or error are afforded by the difficulty of distinguishing the ulti- Mate stage in an animal’s life. It has been shown that the func- tions of reproduction are anomalous in the lower animals. Espe- _ VOL, XVI.—nNo, x, 55 814 General Notes. [ October, cially is this true in Crustacea, in so much that their condition affords no sufficient evidence that the sexually mature animal is in its historically perfect form. The enthusiasm elicited by the discovery that certain amphibians, under some circumstances, reproduce during a larval stage, was almost unparalleled, but I believe it demonstrable that, not only species, but families of lower Crustacea are normally sexually mature in a stage preced- ing actual maturity. We most naturally turn to the order Branchiopoda for a test, since the most remarkable cases on record of heterogeneous repro- duction have recently been read in their history. We need only mention the parthenogenetic summer brood of Daphnia,’ and the case of heterogenesis discovered by G. O. Sars in Leptodora, in which Sars concludes that LZ. hyalina has both “ dimorphous de- velopment and alternation of generations.” Nor are we disap- pointed in looking among the Cladocera for examples of hetero- genesis. During the winter semester of 1881-82, at Leipzig University, we had the opportunity of studying the development of Daphnia magna (—schéfferi), and among other interesting facts the following were elicited : he development proceeds in very much the way described for Moina by Grobben. . The secondary or swimming antennz have an evident palpus in the nauplius stage, however, which makes the parallel con:plete between Copepod and Branchipod Crusta- ea. The heart and circulatory system apparently is formed dif- ferently from the method given by Grobben. I may be permitted to say in this connection, that the circulatory system is much more complicated than hitherto described, and seems to originate about a mass of deutoplasm which surrounds the intestinal canal in the embryo, and which is a remainder of the food-yolk, “ Nahrungsdotter,” of the egg. The embryo, in a comparatively _ early age, begins to differentiate the walls of the valves, which first appear as a fold over the maxillary region near the position occupied by the heart, and extends gradually backwards in a thick fold of turgid cells between which fluid flows. uite remarkable is it that from the dorsal region a process extends, growing much more rapidly than the lateral portion till it reaches the membrane of the egg, when it curves downward and forwards till it reaches a position nearly half way from the | extremity of the abdomen to the maxiliz. The method of growth of this tail-like appendage of the shell is obscure, but it seems to stand in close relation to the formation of the brood- 1 See J. Lubbock ; Phil. Trans., Vol. 147, p. 98. Cfr. R. Leuckart: Archiv. f. Naturg., XXXI, and v. Siebold: Wahre Parthenogenesis bei Schmetterlingen und Bienen. - 2G. O. Sars: Om en dimorph Udvikling samt Generations vexel hos Leptodora, 1873. nd Die Entwicklungeschichte der Moina rectirostris, von Dr. Carl Grobben. Vienna, 79 ! 1882. ] Zoology. 815 cavity, and is the result of a secondary folding of the common shell envelop. At the close of the development in the egg, this the tail of a frightened dog, although the frequent motions of the post-abdomen are not a little hindered thereby. On its escape from the egg, the animal swims freely, and soon kicks this pliant appendage backward and upward till it assumes a direction parallel to the long axis of the body, and then very soon its unequal growth causes this tail to be somewhat elevated. The appendage probably serves as a support for the cast off skin in the molt, so that it cannot fall down upon the post-abdomen and then be broken off before that portion of the shell forming the inner covering of the brood cavity can be successfully molted —a danger especially incident to long forms with narrow brood cavities, and to young animals in which the shell is tender. (It may be for this reason that males, in which the part correspond- ing to the brood cavity is very narrow, and young females, have this spine, while adult females do not, for, as is well known, the males of all this section of the genus are spined through life.) Successive moltings increase the size of the animal, but the spine remains and increases correspondingly, giving the animal a very different. appearance from the parent, which was not only of an entirely different form but totally without the spine. Finally the young female produces eggs parthenogenetically, and is, therefore, according to our customary notions, an adult. We have here, therefore, a case of heterogenesis. Under circum- stances where food is not sufficiently abundant, it seems certain that the above-mentioned state is the final one, and that the ani- mal does not reach that condition which we name Daphnia magna, but remains in a stage which has received a different specific name. : „the same process has since been observed in the case of Daph- nia pulex, in Minnesota. Some of the so-called varieties are but age- forms. There is in each species what may be called a post- imago form, which is only assumed under favoring conditions. With- out going into the synonymy of this genus, which will bear a revision in view of this and similar facts, we may safely say that in the Daphnide we find heterogenesis almost a rule, at least in the genus Daphnia." We may add that every possible provision for the reproduction of these animals seems to be provided. 1) They are very prolific ; (2) reproduce both sexually and par- thenogenetically ; (3) resist great extremes of temperature ; (4) accommodate themselves to great alterations in the purity of the Water ; (5) the winter eggs are provided with a horny covering Or ephippium, which permits them to be dried in a mass of mud or frozen in a cake of ice without destroying their vitality ; (6) ! See Birge, Notes on Cladocera, Madison, Plate 11, Fig. 6. 816 General Notes. | October, during mild winters both summer and winter eggs are produced, and the successive broods of young after producing agamic young, throw off an ephippium so that the pool is filled with eggs which are calculated to stand any vicissitude. Thus it happens that after a pond has been dried for a long time the first warm shower quickens in it swarming life. The above facts are more significant when we remember that the Cladocera are above ail others among Crustacea, the most useful as purifying agencies. The greater number subsist entirely upon vegetable matter, and the only means they have of collecting it is by causing a current of water containing such minute particles as may exist in it to pass between the rotating jaws, though, perhaps, in some cases the rum is sufficiently prehensile to grasp somewhat larger food. Certain it is, however, that these same minute animals form an indispensable agent in the economy of nature, purifying all our stagnant pools of the decaying vegetation floating therein. One who had given no attention to the number of these creatures would undoubtedly be surprised on carefully examining a given quantity of water from the nearest lake. Here are some figures. In a quart of water taken by dipping from a lake near Minne- d MERGORDUDIA 4540 s5 Cus ORG Che ORR EM CD a S se) 1400 SIRO NA ik Bi ou Gada os ee eo kad ab AE A 9 Simocephalus ci ce veerceet ssn 56 ypris kas da ee os a es eee 50 EA n E ie teed E Oni A E dies Do 28 AMDRIDIGS ONEDY YOURE) e o cas oii cas bo uean cane ares 120 Infasora cca, Gees Se a re a 35 Mollusks E E E Mer Orme haga 22 itera CUMIN osure Edited by ELLIS H. YARNALL, Philadelphia. : Ñ gern ces ieee A KEEA Oe) EEE PL Eee STANE E O RE Selenium and tellu- FRANZ-JOSEF LAND DISCOVERIES along the SOUTH COAST by MB. Leigh Smith, 1380. 1882. | Geography and Travels. . 8329 Bay and wait till a more favorable opportunity should present itself to proceed. On August 7 the Azra was made fast to the land floe near Bell Island, and a store house was erected of mate- rials taken out of the Azra. On August 15 the Hira left Bell Island and being unable to pass to the eastwards of Barents Hook, she was made fast to the land floe off Cape Flora. The next few days were spent in collecting plants and fossils, which unfortu- nately were lost with the vessel. On August 21 the ira was © heavily nipped by the ice, and about 10 a. M. a leak was discov- ered. The #zra sank in two hours time, before many stores were saved. A house was built on Cape Flora of stones and turf, and covered with sails, and the winter was spent there. The party depended chiefly for food on the bears and walrus. Thirty-six bears and twenty-nine walrus were killed and eaten. Large num- bers of walrus appearing in June, they were enabled to lay in pro- visions for two months and started in four boats on June 21, 1882, _ for Novaya Zemlya. Eighty miles of water was encountered be- fore reaching ice.. Then the troubles began, and six weeks of constant toil followed until the open water was again found, and within twenty-four hours of leaving the ice the four boats, with their crews of twenty-five in all, were safely landed upon the beach at Matyushin Strait on the evening of August 2, where they were found the next day, first by the Dutch expedition in the Willem Barentz, and then by the Hope. The Hope arrived at Peterhead on August 20, within a few hours of the anniversary of the day when the Evra was lost. There seems now no reason to doubt that at some period of every summer, Franz-Josef Land is accessible without great diffi- culty, and it undoubtedly presents, at present, the most inviting and encouraging field for Arctic exploration for the purpose of reaching the most northern latitudes. Arctic EXPLORATION.— Lieutenant Hovgaard, formerly of the Nordenskiöld Expedition, will sail early in June, from Copen- hagen, in the steamer Dympna for Cape Chelyuskin, afterwards endeavoring to reach Franz-Josef Land. Remains of Northmen have been found on the east coast of Greenland in lat. 60° 31’ N. The building discovered is forty paces long by ten wide, and its foundations consist partly of stones of cyclopean dimensions, There are similar ruins, the na- tives report, in lat. 60° N. mmense ice-floes filled the sea between Spitzbergen and Ice- land in June. In Iceland large districts are said to be suffering from famine, as the vessels are unable to land the provisions on the customary arrival of which they-depended. The severity of the weather is preventing the growth of the crops, and large numbers of sheep and ponies are dying. Baron Nordenskiöld has published the first volume of the “ Scientific Results of the Vega Expedition.” It covers 800 pages 840 General Notes. [ October, with maps and tables. There are papers on the aurora, the health of the expedition, the color sense of the Chukchis, on the botanical collections, meteorological observations, the Inverte- brata of the Arctic Seas, etc. : Nature states that the French Government is making prepara- tions to send out an Antarctic Expedition to Cape Horn, The expedition will be fitted out for a period of eighteen months, and 2,500,000 francs have been voted for it. Recent explorations in the Argentine portion of the Terra del Fuego show an abundant occurrence of Deep Sea EXPLORATIONS. — The president of the English Geologists Association in his recent address before that Society, as given a valuable account of deep sea explorations from Capt. Dayman’s survey of the North Atlantic sea bed in 1857, to the expedition of the Challenger. The French Commission will continue their deep sea explora- tions on board the Travailleur during this season. The investi- | gations will include the ocean bed along the coast. of Spain, Por- tugal and Morocco. Ascent oF Mount Coox.—The Rev. W. S. Green and his two Swiss guides, succeeded in ascending Mount Cook, the highest known Australasian peak, on the 2d of March last, after two un- successful attempts. Great danger was incurred from continual avalanches, and the summit was not reached until 6.20 P.M. As the clouds obscured the view and the hour was so late. only ten minutes were spent on the summit and no observations appear to have been taken so that the actual height of Mount Cook is still unknown. It is given in the government map as 12,349 feet. in vegetation of Switzerland. Among these was a Gnaphalium closely resembling G. /eontopodium, the well-known ‘ Edelweiss. AFGHANISTAN.—During the recent occupation of Afghanistan by the English, an area of 39,500 square miles has been surveye@ in more or less detail, in various parts, and a further area of about 7000 square miles has-been explored by native agency. An important result of these surveys is to show that the position of Kabul, Ghazni and Kandahar, as indicated previously on the maps, are correct in latitude but erroneous in longitude by ten to fourteen miles, and that they all require to be shifted to the east, . 1882. ]. Microscopy. 841 bringing them so much nearer to the British frontier. A large number of the heights are found to be considerably in excess. MICROSCOPY.! BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE Mıcroscore. — Mr. Julien Deby, of London, late vice-president of the Belgian Microscopical Society, has commenced the publication, under this title, of a most use- ful work. Part 111, relating to the Diatomacea, has appeared, Mr. Frederick Kitton having assisted in its preparation. Parts 1 and 11, relating to the microscope proper, the Protozoa, the Des- midiz, etc., will shortly follow. In preparing for his own conve- nience this catalogue of the books and papers in his microscopi- cal library, Mr. Deby has with much labor prepared’a catalogue which, with its added desiderata, constitutes a very complete mi- croscopical bibliography. The work includes reference to papers in journals and transactions; and also contains a chronological index to all the publications referred to. It is handsomely printed for the author, and the necessarily limited edition has been generously distributed by him in the hope of making it use- ful to microscopical friends—a hope which will be abundantly realized. APPARENT Size oF MacniFieD Opsjects.—Professor Wm. H. Brewer read a paper upon this subject at the recent meeting of the A. A. A. S. The well known diversity of opinion as to the apparent size of an object under the microscope was illustrated by reports of experiments upon over 400 observers of all classes, ages, occupations and qualifications. The object was a common louse magnified, as estimated by scientific microscopists, to the Size of 4.66 inches. By far the greater number. of observers underestimated this value; two estimates were only one inch, while seven were over a foot, and one (by an expert draughts- man) was at least five feet. Among new students the first impres- sion was usually somewhat larger than the real value, and this was adhered to for some time. DouBLE-STAINING OF NUCLEATED Bioop Corpuscies.—Dr. Al- ! This department is edited by Dr. R. H. WARD, Troy, N. Y. Pan 842 Scientific News. [ October, washed again, as before, and set aside to dry, and finally mounted in Canada balsam warmed just sufficiently to spread properly. Corpuscles prepared in this way will be found to be stained red, while the nuclei and leucocytes will be a bluish-green, and will show with great sharpness and brilliancy under the microscope. , MounTING witH BLACK BackGrounp.—On principle, I very much dislike to see objects mounted with an irremovable d/ack background, \When it is desirable to view objects as opaque, there are so many other ways of doing this, e. g., the diaphragm, or the dark well of the opticians, or a piece of dead-black paper, cloth or velvet placed behind the slide; it can then still be viewed as a transparent object also. Otherwise it is the mounter saying to the observer: *“ You shall see my slide as / will, and in no other way.” —Tuffen West in Fournal of the Postal Microscopical Society. ——— O SCIENTIFIC NEWS. — Mr. Herbert Spencer, the leading philósopher of England, if not of the world, has been in this country for some weeks, the g test of Dr. Youmans, the editor of the Popular Science Monthly. wlr. Spencer, it is understood, will not lecture while in the United States, as he is traveling for his health. While few will probably have the pleasure of meeting this great thinker and organizer of new lines of thought which have already revolutionized social as well as physical science, it is a great pleasure to have him among us, and we feel sure that every one will earnestly hope for his full restoration to health and former capacity for work, ; — Professor R. Ellsworth Call has met with good success in his collecting tour in the Gulf States, having obtained a large number of the Strepomatide, a group of shells which he intends to monograph. He designs not merely to systematize the group, but to give their anatomy, development if possible, distribution, habits, &c., &c. He has already eight-tenths of all the nominal 1882. ] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 843 species, and hopes for the Joan of rarities and even common spe- cies from conchologists at home and abroad. e Darwin memorial fund amounts to 42500, and the memorial will take the form of a marble statue, to be placed in the large hall of the new Natural History Museum at South Kensington. — Our readers will deeply regret the untimely death of Pro- fessor F. M. Balfour, who was killed in July at the age of 31, by a fall on a glacier on Mont Blanc. His career had been a remarkably brilliant one, his work was critical and yet profound, and he had done perhaps more than any one else to advance em- bryological science in England. His “Comparative Embryology” will be a lasting monument to his genius as an investigator and scholar. — William Stanley Jevons, professor of political economy in University College, London, was drowned while bathing at Bex- hill, near Hastings, England, Aug. 15. His greatest work, “ The Principles of Science,” gave him a wide reputation ; it fully recog- nized the place of the doctrine of evolution in the philosophy of science. His text book on logic is widely used in American colleges. ——:0: —— PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. Present state and early history in America. The association will Meet in 1883 at Minneapolis, Minn., under the presidency of Professor C. A. Young, Principal Dawson having been president SECTION E—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. On the relations of Dictyophyton, Phragmodictyum and similar forms with Hyphon- - Not tenia, Kapris Hall. Hall “vote upon the genus Plumulites. James Hall, A source of the bituminous matter z the Ohio Black Shale (Huron Shale of New- berry). Ed. Orton. , 844 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. fOct., 1882. Contribution to Seismology. Richard Owen The topography and geo ology of the Great Salt Lake valley. William Bross, Pre-glacial channel of Eagle river, Lake Superior. Charles Whittlesey. Recent discove ries of fossil fishes in fa ‘De evonian rocks of Canada, J. F. The Eozoic rocks of Central and Southern Europe. T. Sterry Hunt. The pele sEse of Italy. T: Ster Note the oc currence i e lotia in the Utica formation near Ottawa, On at. RF y Arctic exchovation i in “North America, John Recent ebro! cys and paleontological taane in the eee limestone of Dutchess and neighbo rng Lopni s, New York. Wm ight. Mas leit americanus in a b dam neat hipaa N. 3 aia Lockwood. Silicified stumps of South Park, ‘Col. Robert B. War On the Apie and origin of jciùt aa W. 0. Crosby. nthe Winooski marble of Vermont, with exhibition of specimens. G, H. Perkins. The comparative wats weet of the crystalline rocks of North Carolina and Canada. ulie ex The genesis of e crystalline i iron ores of North Carolina and Northern Michigan. Alex Faloroié ioi of Eastern North America and more especially in Canada. J. W. ta under the PE of Coast Surv Terraces aa bee ches about Lake Ontario. Jos. W. S Occurrence of Gr nents ites in the Niagara formation oF ‘Gana a. Jos. W. Spenc On the change of moive Ie vel of the ocean and uplands on ide eastern cn of North America. Geo. H. Coo On os tertiary deposit containing impressions of leaves in Cumberland county, awson Deep-sea _ soundings and temperatures in the Gulf Stream off the ani coast, the U. S. aa J . Bartle The origin of joint anh -H. F. Wallin The great inal moraine across Pe ennsyivania. H: a Lewis. The Danite beds of North Ca rm Sg Ri ulie The Felsite tufa of Colorado. Alex A. Juli Note ee vt exterior markings of bark of Lepldodendivn chemungense. E. W. a On Anphicati cedarvillensis from the Niagara group of Cedarville, Ohio. E. W. Note on nthe fauna of the orn red ae E. W. Claypole. New sity. rocking stone in s. H. Graham. Occurence of sh A ore on in a Vi ictoria county, Ontario. W. Hamilton The undulations of the rock-masses across Central New York State. Henry S. illiams Fresh-water lignitic series of beds in the Cretaceous formation of France. D. W. Kow On the surface limit of the thickness of the Continental glacier in New Jersey sn arent t States, with notes on glacial phenomena in the Catskills. Jobn €. Suggestions as to the history of the Lower Coal measures of Ohio. aei Orton. The RE flood of the Connecticut River valley. C. H. Hitchcoc Some mooted points in American geology. J. S. Newberry. Genesis of North peia flora. J. S. Newbe Currents of air and ocean in connection with climate, regions of summer rains and summer droughts. J. pne m Hurlbert. Piane hy map-making, with new maps of Mammoth and Luray caves. Horace Law of fracture or fissuring, applied to inorganic and organic matter. Richard The Ta, of Sta Staffa and their relation to the ancient civilization of Iona. F. Cope On new baoetako of crystals of quartz and calcite in parallel position. R., B. THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. VoL. xvi. — NWO VEMB ER, 1882. — No. II. THE ANCIENT MAN OF CALAVERAS. BY W.:0. AYRES. F the minds of almost all, the existence of prehistoric man in Cali- fornia is associated mainly with the famous “ Calaveras skull,” and inasmuch as doubt has been cast on the authenticity of that relic, the whole subject has been badly neglected, and even by men - of science has been unreasonably set aside. We will speak of that skull presently, but it is only one of the many evidences to be considered, and we will at first put it out of view. We shall find that if it had never come to light at all, the proofs that man existed when, or rather before, the auriferous gravel was depos- ited, are so complete that he who doubts them would as readily doubt that Napoleon Bonaparte died on the Island of St. Helena. The auriferous gravel of the books is the pay-dirt of the Miners, and that we may know what the existence of man at the time of its deposit means, we must endeavor to ascertain how long ago that deposit occurred. If we say to a geolo- gist that the gravel is of Pliocene age, he carries back his thoughts over an interval of which the years reckoned by thou- Sands are never counted, though he knows the thousand must be very many. But for those to whom Pliocene and Post-pliocene Sound like barbarous terms it may be possible to adduce a form of proof which appeals to the eye, and which brings with it there- Ore, a force which all can appreciate. It is well to state at the outset that the pay-dirt is manifestly all of one formation and of one geological age, wherever we find It, Some of it is lying opened and exposed; we will let that Pass. Some of it is covered by volcanic rock, and of course is itself older than the rock; that is, the lava flowed out and cov- VOL. XVI.—no, XI. 57 846 The Ancient Man of Calaveras. [ November, ered the gravel after the gravel was in its present form and position. That is sure, for after the gravel was thus imbedded, it has most certainly never been disturbed until within these last few years the miners have dug into it in search of gold. To the gravel then below the lava, we will turn our attention. Looking out from Carson hill, in Calaveras county, you see across the Stanislas in Tuolumne, a long mountain ridge. It ex- tends down into the plain, where it ends very abruptly, while its . upper limit is out of sight away among the main heights of the Sierra Nevada. It looks like a huge railroad embankment, and suggests to you that idea, but men do not make railroad dykes forty miles long and 1500 to 3000 feet high. That which gives it its smooth even upper surface is basalt, that is, ancient lava; the lower part is of looser materials. The thickness of the basalt varies at different points, being here and there hundreds of feet thicker than it is at other places a mile or two either above or below. This is Table mountain, a name which has been famous in the history of California, as we shall see. The question occurs to us: How came Table mountain to exist? That basalt, when it was erupted, was fluid like other lava. How could it be piled up so thick and so abrupt (for its sides are often perpendicular) on that high mountain ridge, and remain there? Why did it not spread itself out laterally and cover the plain? But one answer to these questions can be given: T here was no plain. When that eruption took place, and the crater or fissure opened, far up near the summit of the Sierra Nevada, it naturally flowed into the bed of the first stream which crossed its track. This it filled and followed down until, when the eruption ended, the old river bed, away down to the plain, was blocked up by tne solid volcanic rock, and the waters which should have been there, were finding their way by some other track. As time passed on, the side of the mountain range was yield- ing to atmospheric influences. The flowing water. was carrying off the softer material on each side of the hard basalt, which had filled and obliterated the old river-bed; the Tuolumne river On- the south and the Stanislas on the north, with their tributaries, were formed, and scooped out their present valleys, and thus -Table mountain, which had been deposited in the bed of an old -mountain torrent, with high ridges confining it, became itself @ i i i 4 A 3 + 1882. | The Ancient Man of Calaveras. 847 ridge, standing like a wall above all which adjoined it. But be- neath the basalt lay the stones and gravel and sand and clay which made the bed of the ancient torrent, as they do of the modern streams. And like the modern streams, their predeces- sor, in age but not in locality, was rich in gold, and thanks to this gold, we know something of the Ancient Man of Calaveras and Tuolumne. We know him because he has left his mark among the stones and gravel. In what are called the “ early days” in ’49 and ’50, the south- ern mines were specially noted and productive. Don Pedro’s bar and Hawkin’s bar on the Tuolumne were crowded with miners, and all the region about Sonora, and Columbia, and Shaw’s flat, was swarming like a hive. The gold which was‘obtained had been brought down in company with the gravel from the moun- tain heights far above, by the rush of water, ages before. Wher- ever an old channel could be found in which the flow of water had been confined to narrow limits and to whirling eddies, there the gold had been deposited more abundantly, and rich strikes were made. While exploring these surface deposits, an old river-bed was struck at Shaw’s flat, in 1854, which showed features quite distinct from the “diggings ” adjacent, and in following out this discovery it became manifest that Table mountain, as already stated, was simply a mass of lava filling an ancient torrent cañon, and that the gravel thus buried was in various places most won- derfully rich. This was the beginning of Table mountain mining, The whole matter had very much the character of a lottery, for the expense of running a tunnel under the mountai was very great, and the result entirely uncertain, commonly rich to even a fabulous degree, or on the contrary a total failure. The failures were many and the losses destructive to the fortunes of the men interested, but the wild excitement of golden possibilities lured multitudes along, and for years and years in succession Table Mountain was bored and tunneled most completely. It is not for us now to speak of the triumph or the heart-ache which went with the work; we know well that i “ No minstrel ever sung or told A song so sweet as chink of gold,” and nowhere, even in that land of enchantment, was the wild and fatal fascination of the search more fully felt than at Table moun- * 848 The Ancient Man of Calaveras. [ November, tain. But that goes by us. Out of these tunnels came the tokens of the past, and we see shadowy visions of. the ancient man looming up. But we will first try to measure off the interval since the Table mountain lava flowed; not that we can specify it in figures, but we may learn enough to reverence its extent. We will consider | but one feature. This is the magnitude of the work which has been done by streams of water since the period of volcanic erup- tion of which mention has been made. The western slope of the Sierra Nevada is furrowed with enor- mous gorges reaching from the summit ridges to the plains of the Sacramento and the San Joaquim. Any one of them may be taken as a typé of all the others. At their upper part they are, of course, shallow and narrow; a few hundred feet deep anda quarter to half a mile wide, more or less, but steadily increasing in both dimensions. Before they reach their debouchure they are ten to twenty miles wide and two to four thousand feet deep. Standing far up among the higher ranges and following with the eye the stupendous furrow through its windings, fifteen, thirty, forty miles, till all is lost in the blueness. of depth and of distance, one often tries to roll back the tide of time and get some glimpse of the days when that plowshare began its work. But the blueness of the chasm is only a faint index of the dimness which comes across the mental vision. It is idle to suggest to one thus stand- ing and looking down the cañon of the Yuba, or the American, or the Tuolumne, that water can have done that work (and water certainly has done it) within an interval which, reckoning years by thousafids, must not have written against it very, very Many. We will not specify how many, but the number surely is great. And all this scooping out of cañons, this furrowing the: west- ern Sierra slope into its configuration of the present era, has been done since the Table mountain lava flowed. Of that there can be no question. The evidence is too plain to admit a doubt. If now we find the remains of man, or works which none but man could have made, among the gravel-beds beneath Table mountain, or in any other place amid the undisturbed pay-dirt, we cannot fail to know that human hands and human brains had done their work before the immense cafions of the Sierra Nevada commenced their formation in the little furrows near the summit down which the waters trickled. 1882.] The Ancient Man of Calaveras. 849 We can take the proofs only in brief, and we will take none but those which are absolutely established and authentic. Dr. Perez Snell, of Sonora, had in his collection (this collection has unfortunately perished by fire) a human jaw which was brought out in a carload of “ pay-dirt” from a shaft stretching far in beneath the Table mountain, and with it were several stone implements. Dr. Snell did not himself see this bone in the car as it was drawn to the surface, and in the minds of some a doubt might thus be thrown on its authenticity. The specimen was given to him by a miner. If it were an isolated instance this would be possibly worth considering, but it is only one of many, and at the same time it is only fair to state that there could not well have been found a miner in all that region who would have thought it worth his while to attempt a deception, nor even one who had any doubt in his own mind as to the point we are consid- ering. They saw the products of man’s work come out with the gravel too often to pay commonly any attention to them. The only wonder is that he even took the trouble to pick out the bone at all. There can be no question that for one such that has been preserved, dozens and perhaps hundreds have gone down in the current of water in the sluice washing. In 1857 Col. Hubbs, who was afterward State Superintendent of Instruction, found in a load of “ dirt” as it came out from his claim under Table mountain, portions of a human skull. He was on the ground himself, and saw the fragments as they were taken out of the sluice. They had come from a distance of 180 feet beneath the lava. One of the pieces is now in the collection of the Boston Society of Natural History; the other in that of the Philadelphia Académy. Mr. O. W. Stevens certifies that in 1853 he men in a shaft ünder Table mountain, “ about two hundred feet in,” a relic that resembled a large stone bead, of white marble, about an inch and a half long and an inch and a fourth in diameter, with a hole through it a fourth of an inch across., +- Dr, Snell had in his collection a stone muller or pestle which he took with his own hands from a car load of “ dirt ” as it came out from under Table mountain. Mr. Llewellyn Price certifies that in 1862 he dug up a stone Mortar under Table mountain at a depth of about 200 feet from the surface and about 1800 bet in from the mouth of the tunnel. 850 The Ancient Man of Calaveras. [ November, But why need we specify any further single instances. The witnesses already given were all credible and worthy men, they could have had no possible collusion, they had no motive for de- ception, and the circumstances were such that they could not well be deceived as to what they stated. If any candid person will not be convinced by the evidence they give, he would be equally incredulous were a hundred more to testify to the same truths. And the hundred more could be summoned were it worth the Fic. 1.—Calaveras Skull, Front View. while, for the instances in which the products of human work- manship have been washed out of the “ gravel” in searching for gold are altogether too numerous for record. Very many of them are now in the Museum of the University of California, and very many more were disregarded and lost, for so common di they become during the days of surface mining, that at length the miners paid no attention to them, and they simply went in with the refuse of the workings. They were almost universally implements of stone, such as mortars, pestles, rude vases or platters, that is, articles which could be used for grinding food, &c., but all rough in workman- 1882. ] The Ancient Man of Calaveras. 85E. ship and evidently fabricated by people low in the scale of civili- zation. But such as they are, they show with what appears to be conclusive proof, that they were made before Table mountain lava was erupted, and perhaps long before, for they were also surely made before the auriferous gravels were deposited. One item comes naturally to our consideration here in the line of confirmation. The auriferous gravels contain abundant re- mains of plants and animals. Mastodons and elephants appear Fic. 2.—Calaveras Skull, Profile View. to have specially abounded; in no other part of the world have their bones and teeth been found in greater numbers, With them Were found species of rhinoceros, Elotherium, horse, ox, camel, &c., &c. But all of these were of types long since passed away, and the same can be said of the leaves and fossilized wood. Dr. Newberry’s report characterizes them as being entirely unlike anything now growing in California, and as belonging to the Tertiary age, the later Pliocene. Now we know that the fauna and flora of a country cannot be completely changed except through the intervention of a very great space in time, or the agency of a sudden cataclysm and reconstruction. 852 The Ancient Man of Calaveras. [ November, And shall we now compare them in age with the others which are absolutely prehistoric, and which have disturbed the scientific world by their venerable antiquity. Fierce have been the*conflicts waged over the Neanderthal skull, the Engis skull, the men of Cro-Magnon and the various other relics gathered from the gravels and bone-breccias of Europe. But their record is dwarfed to comparative insignificance when laid by the side of that to which we have been looking. The days of Table mountain had passed off into the dark realm of the forgotten past, ages before the drift of the valley of the Somme was deposited or the man of the Neanderthal lived. Those European relics have by none been counted older than the Post-pliocene ; these of the Sierra Nevada go back to the Pliocene, and as the “new world” of modern style was the very oldest in showing itself above the waste of waters, so perhaps it was also the first to feel the step of man. It is possible that the discoveries of Ribiero in Portugal, and of the English Geological Survey in India may be found to carry us as far back as the times we have been discussing, but they have thus far been strangely ignored. What manner of man then was this Ancient Man of Calaveras ? Let him speak for himself. All notice of the skull described by Professor Whitney has been purposely omitted till this moment, because it is by far the most important “ find” yet made, and it is worthy of being considered by itself and in the present connec- tion. The chief point in estimating its value, is its genuineness. It has been the subject of much criticism, and in the minds of very many, its mention barely recalls Bret Harte’s ridiculous. doggerel, “ My name it was Brown, and my crust it was busted Falling down a shaft in Calaveras county, ; and the request to send the pieces back to old Mazzoura, has rele- gated the whole matter to the domain of joke. In the belief that Professor Whitney was the victim of a se//, the question is often asked whether there is any evidence that the skull was actually taken from the shaft to which its discovery is credited. Now with all due submission to previous judgment (or mis- judgment), I maintain that that question is of only secondary importance. The skull speaks for itself, and notwithstanding that its lower jaw is gone, it talks good English, whatever its vernacu- — lar may have been in the days of the flesh. 1882. ] The Ancient Man of Calaveras. 853 That it came to Professor Whitney from the hands of Mr. Mat- tison (or as I always heard him called, Matthewson), of Angels Camp, is certain. Where did Mr. Matthewson get that skull? I do not know, nor is the precise spot of much consequence. - He says he took it from his shaft near what was then called the Forks of the Road, above Angels. Suppose he did, or suppose he foolishly tried to humbug the geologist, what does it matter? He got the skull somewhere, and wherever it might have been first found, it surely was imbedded in the auriferous gravel, and it had become so imbedded at the time the gravel was originally deposited. You say, that is a bold assertion; how do you know it? I will tell you ; I know it, because she skull told me so. I saw it and -examined it carefully at the time when it first reached Professor Whitney’s hands. It was not only incrusted with sand and gravel, but its cavities were crowded with the same material; and that ‘Material was of a peculiar sort, a sort which I had had occasion to know thoroughly. It was the the common “ cement” or “ dirt” of the miners; that known in books as the auriferous gravel. This is an article “sai generis;’ it is not easily imitated. No skill possessed by Mr. Matthewson or any one else could have been sufficient to give the skull the characters which it had as I Saw it. It is most certainly no fabrication. But it has been said that it is a modern skull which had be- come incrusted after a few years of interment. This assertion, however, is never made by any one knowing the region. The gravel has not the slightest tendency toward an action of that sort. The skull would either decay and-waste away, or it would remain unchanged; and added to this comes in the fact that the hollows of the skull were crowded with the solidified and cemented sand, in such a way as they could have been only by its being driven into them in a semi-fluid mass, a condition which the gravels have never had since they were first laid down. No, no! Let the skull tell its own story, and believe what it Says, because it brings its own proof. Whatever age belongs to the gravel deposit under Table mountain belongs to the Calaveras skull, entirely irrespective of the question of honesty or dishon- €sty in the alleged finder. Wherever he found it, I believe its age to be beyond cavil. Its degree of fossilization has not been here insisted upon, 854 The Gray Rabbit ( Lepus sylvaticus). [November, because that change is more rapid in some localities than in others, but it is an interesting fact that this Calaveras skull is more thoroughly fossilized, a greater proportion of its phosphate of lime has become carbonate than in either of the European specimens which are reckoned of the greatest age. We seem then fairly entitled to consider the Ancient Man of Calaveras the oldest representative of our race to which we can as yet refer; and being such, is he of a bestial type? Look for yourself. Figures have been published by Professor Whitney in his work. What is there bestial as shown by them? A single skull cannot, of course, speak for a whole race, but so far as this specimen can testify, what man is now, man was then. It mani- fests no sign of inferiority to the American race as now existing. Barbarous in habit he doubtless may have been. All the relics of workmanship thus far discovered of those coeval with him, in- dicate a low grade of civilization, and yet one not necessarily much, if at all, lower than that of most of the Indian tribes which formerly occupied the entire breadth of the continent. And in intellectual power, judging from his cerebral development, he might assuredly have claimed a fair average rank. :0: THE GRAY RABBIT (LEPUS SYLVATICUS). BY SAMUEL LOCKWOOD. A BIT of odd, yet attractive innocence is the wild rabbit of Europe. I cannot say as much for its descendant, that pie- bald and lop-eared pet of my boyhood. All endearment died out at sight of the pampered old buck killing his own offspring from sheer wantonness; then came implacable dislike on seeing the doe eating one of her little babies. The domesticated rabbit gains nothing intellectually over its wild ancestor, but becomes emotionally unnatural, if not pathologically unsound. The tamed gray squirrel will lose the sexual instinct to the extent that it be- comes degenerated into or absorbed by a morbid appetite so en- grossing that the male will suck at one place on the tail of his mate, until he has nearly severed that member. Something not unlike is seen in the stallion of high strain, when biting the neck of the mare in the fervency of his passion. At the best, under domestication, the rabbit, like the guinea pig, Cavia cobaia, with its rabbit-like head and face, gets simply coddled into & 1882.] The Gray Rabbit (Lepus sylvaticus). 855 stupid harmlessness. In its wild state dwelling in communities, with a living to get, and many foes to shun, the wild rabbit has sharpened wits and many entertaining ways. I have seen them in their warrens abroad, and a rollicking abandon is their early morning frolic. Then all of a sudden comes a still, serious watchfulness, a oneness of circumspection, the whole camp mounting guard, for sitting on his hinder parts, every individual is on the alert. It is light and shade, Milesian merriment topping off with a bit of a row. Let one get its temper up, and it will stamp the ground in pettish, and it may be angry demonstration. All which has in it a spice of high-class nature; for I have seen chimpanzee do the same thing—yes, and coming higher, have painful recollections how a little motherless lad used to quail un- der a similar plantigrade terrorism, inflicted by Madam Anthro- pos. So this animal pantomime of “stamping out” is very human. Though not without cunning, if a ferret invade its domicile, it is all up with bunny, sure. But a terrier dog has been known to squeeze itself into the burrow, and coney, returning to find his home invaded, has with great energy closed up the entrance, thus burying alive the disturber of his peace. But all this is writing about real rabbits, which is not what we Started to do. Perhaps the following occurrence may set our subject in a proper light: A friend had procured an Irish farm- hand at the immigrant depot, at Castle Garden, New York. He brought him to Keyport, New Jersey, by steamboat, then took him in his own vehicle to the farm, some five miles away. William was intelligent and made sensible remarks on the new scenes through which he was riding. Our farmer friend, an inveterate wag, said: “ Yes, a fine country, William. But wait till I show you some of our native animals. You have not yet seen an American rabbit.” On reaching the first field of the farm a large Spanish stud appeared. Seeing his owner, Sancho approached ` the fence by the roadside, and brayed a sonorous welcome. Farmer : “ There, William, what do you think of that. for an American rabbit ?” William: “ An’ is that an American rabbit? Sure an’ if I’d Seen the baste at home I would have pronounced him a jackass! But this zs a fine country !” It was not long before the man did make the acquaintance of 856 The Gray Rabbit ( Lepus sylvaticus ). | [November, our gray rabbit, one which had been caught without harm ina trap. Attempting to toy with it, he received on his hand a smart blow from both hind feet of the affrighted little prisoner, which inflicted quite a scratch, on which he exclaimed: “ Sure, Master, ’an is this why you called that ass an American rabbit? Troth, and the little baste does kick like a mule. But I should never take it for a rabbit. At home we would call it a young hare.” Probably it would have bothered this sensible man, had he been told that there was in America a hare known as the “ great jack- ass rabbit.” Still, William was right every time. The gray rabbit is a hare; and our opening paragraph is applicable only to the true Euro- pean rabbit, Lepus cuniculus. The word rabbit then simply denotes a species of the genus Lepus, of which the word Aure is the gen- eric expression in the English and some of the continental lan- guages. Though possessing several species of hare, America does not include the true rabbit. Passing by certain real distinctions of form, let us notice some striking differences of habit. The cony is a true burrower, and lives in communities. The hare is solitary and, as a rule, does not burrow, though sometimes found occupying an abandoned burrow of some other animal, like the so-called burrowing-owl, Athene cunicularia, which occupies the deserted burrows of the prairie dog, Cynomys ludovicianus. Then the rabbit, like the guinea pig, brings forth its little ones full- haired and open-eyed; but the young hare comes into being nearly naked and quite blind, altogether a very helpless ‘thing. However, the popular voice has fairly got the start of science in this matter, and as the “ gray rabbit” it will be always known. The truth is the systematists got things so badly mixed that not until recently did this very common animal have a scientific name of its own. Peter Kalm, the Swedish botanist, for whom Linne . named our beautiful Kalmia, published at Stockholm his Travels in North America, 3 vols., 1753-61. Here is the earliest book allusion to the little hare, and it is referred to as inhabiting New Jersey. But the first carefully-worked-out diagnosis of the spe- cies, was made by John David Schoepf, who.in 1783 wrote an accurate scientific description of it in New York, which he pub- lished the year following in Germany. What is strange and un- fortunate, he did not give it a systematic name, but simply called it, “ Der Nord-Americanische Haase ;” and some of the system- 1882. ] The Gray Rabbit ( Lepus sylvaticus). 857 atists jumped at the conclusion that by “ North American Hare,” the savant meant Lepus americanus. It was some sixty years afterwards when Professor Baird translated Schoepf’s description, and said in connection: “It is nota little remarkable, that this, one of the best known animals of North America, should not have received a distinct scientific name until 1837, when Dr. Bach- man gave it the name Lepus sylvaticus,” the wood hare. Other scientists had worked on the case, but, in fatal confusion, had mistaken the individual. Schreber, in 1792, named it Z. nana, the dwarf hare, a good name, but his description applied to another hare. So it fell out that the only canonic christening the little fellow got, was received of Rev. John Bachman, a collaborator of Audubon. In what follows, the words hare and rabbit will be used interchangeably. A curious appearance is sometimes noticeable upon the snow after it has lain a few days. The foot-tracks and hard fecal pel- lets of the rabbit are seen, and close by certain reddish-brown stains, like spots of oxydized blood. These, in mistake, I once explained as probably hemorrhoids produced by constipation due to the dry fibrous food to which a severe winter reduces the ani- mal, when succulent food cannot be got. This is not the true cause, Something similar is seen in winter when the bees of an apiary, after being snowed-in, are “ dug out.” The snow around the hives is immediately thickly spotted with small brownish orange stains, Bee keepers call it “ bee dysentery.” It is sim- ply due to the cleanly habits of the insect. It will not defile the hive, so practices a severe continence until it can get out. In the hard winter of 1880, the hungry rabbits ventured into the gardens of Freehold, N. J., and in a number of places the snow was stained with these bloody spots. It is certainly interesting to know that all this comes of the almost fastidious cleanliness of - the animal. Should it find no better shelter in the cold weather, it must occupy its “form,” or “bed,” that is, its squatting place, into which it pushes its back parts, then flattens itself like a toad in its hole. Thus squatted, such is the resemblance of color to the ground, that the hunter has strode close to the animal’s nose and missed it, This form may be a depression in the side of the bank, or under a log, or in a tussock of grass, or in some low, bushy, close-leaved plant. Suppose a snow-storm, and the ani- ‘mal gets “ snowed under,” there is heat enough to make a little 858 he Gray Rabbit (Lepus sylvaticus). | [November, chamber,.and generally a thin breathing spot, or hole, above, caused by the thawing of the warm breath, which unhappily often betrays its hiding place to dog and man. If undisturbed, the animal is so impatient of cold as to stay in its form several days without food. So cleanly is the poor thing, that it will suf- fer acutely rather than pollute its home; hence the practice of a painful continence until forced by sheer distress to seek relief in a discharge of the suppressed urine. By this time the retained renal secretions have become thickened, and when discharged are of a reddish-brown hue. The hare of Europe, it is commonly said, never gets fat, unlike other wild animals, even their rabbits, and this no matter how good may be its feeding grounds. Our wood hare does some- times get quite fat, although it never makes “ kidney fat.” But confined to its form, as just described, the condition of the ani- mal becomes extremely bad. From long fasting the flesh gets to be very lean, while the retention of the urine infects the entire tissues with urea, making its odor so rank as to receive the epi- thet “ skunky.” The domestic rabbit can be made enormously fat. An epicure not many miles away, often luxuriated on a buck of large size, splendid condition and exquisite flavor. The truth told, it was an eunuch Cuniculus, fat, fair and portly, which graced our gour- mand’s board. But before leaving the adipose part of this sub- ject, a bit of ignorance must be mentioned, which ought to be unique. Last autumn my neighbor’s man captured a fine, gray rabbit. He had skinned the game, and was profuse in praise of its condition ; but having opened it, the poor man stood aghast in horror, and was suddenly taken sick, for he beheld in the coney an immense tape-worm! And this horror fell upon the whole family, for they all “ saw it with their own eyes.” So, not to waste the thing, it was thrown into'the stye out of sight. Here was a pearl cast before swine, for the simple fact was, that attached by the edge of a thin membrane to the viscera, along nearly its entire length, was a ribbon of adipose tissue, which was scolloped by little beads of fat, These scollopings were mis- taken for “ tape-worm joints.” In truth, this white, wavy fillet of round, waxen beads was really a very pretty object. Besides, who would look for a Tznia on the outside of the alimentary canal? However, these innocents believed they were right, and 1882. | The Gray Rabbit ( Lepus sylvaticus ). 859 “guessed,” dear souls, that “the naturalist wasn’t nice enough about his victuals.” — Our gray rabbit is often badly tormented with wormals, or worm-holes, in the skin, like the worbles of cattle. These are really subcutaneous bots, due to the presence, under the pelt, of - the larve of Cuterebra cuniculi Clark. Packard speaks of this species of fly infesting rabbits in the South, but they have long been too common in New Jersey. Over the pit occupied by each grub or maggot, is a clean-cut hole through the skin, which serves the larva for a breathing place. They are the most notice- able in the early fall, when the animal is in its best condition ; for -as the grub or larva feeds on the juices of its host, the mother-fly does not deposit her eggs upon the “ ill-favored and lean-fleshed.” I am told, however, of a boy who caught a rabbit in the Winter, and took it toa friend of' mine to skin, and it was too badly infested to be usable. Professor C. V. Riley writes me thus: “I have received the larva of Cuterebra cuniculi as early as July 19th. The larve were at that time full grown, and pu- pated four days later. I have also found them, both large and small, as late as September, so there is probably but little uni- -formity in their development, and it is not particularly strange that they should be found in the larval state in the winter.” The hunters say: “ The grub leaves after frost.” The places specially infested on the animal, are the back and neck, and forward parts of the shoulders. So bad is this at times that a suppuration occurs under the pelt, and an attempt to flay the animal starts the pus flowing, and the loathsome cadaver is cast away. Nor is this flow of maturation to be taken for the effect of wounding the larva by the knife. The skillful dresser of such small game ~ scarcely uses the knife in skinning, except at the head and toes, -drawing the pelt off like a stocking. But the hare family is often the subject of.an epidemic. In his grand monograph on the Leporide, says J. A. Allen: “In the case of our little wood hare (Z. sylvaticus), I have repeatedly met with their dead bodies in the woods and thickets, bearing no marks of a violent death, and have noted the scarcity of these animals during the years immediately following.” The Indians declare that the hares as a food supply are sometimes seriously -reduced by disease. Mr. Allen cites Dr. J. G. Cooper in AMERI- -CAN NATURALIST, who although as against the Indian averment, A ‘360 The Gray Rabbit (Lepus sylvaticus), (November, and disposed to attribute much of this mortality to the deep ‘snows making them easy prey, says of a certain species: “ Their numbers seem never to have increased much, north of the Colum- bia and Snake rivers since the epidemic (small pox) destroyed them some years since; but south of these rivers they became common.” OQ, shade of Jenner! Lepus variolus ! What says the epicure to this variety ? The gray rabbit has one form or bed to which it adheres with a cat-like attachment, the runway to which may sometimes be easily traced. If the gunner stations himself near this the game retreating homeward becomes an easy prey. A hunter told me when praising his hound, that by its bark he has distin- guished the doubling at half a mile distant, and shot the rabbit at its return; but that an old rabbit, if you miss him, will avoid his “ bed,” and give you trouble to get him. An old rabbit usu- ally has a series of forms at distances of thirty or forty. yards from its favorite one. These supplemental forms it uses for com- fort’s sake, and for strategic purposes. It dislikes to face the wind, and when in repose keeps its back to windward. With the change of wind, it will change its form. A change may be made upon suspicion of danger; or it may be circumvented when away from its favorite form. Though if the danger be imminent, it usually has some hole in the ground or place under or behind a log, or in a brush-heap, into which it at once retreats. If not taken too suddenly, there is a good deal of intelligence in its methods of flight, as well as in its temporary change of domicile. They do not connect their forms by their tracks, but take pro- digious leaps, clearing at a bound from fifteen to twenty feet, and the zig-zags and doublings are well suited to deceive. A curious : fact about their tracks might delude the unwary into the belief that they were double, and directed backwards. The hare is vir- tually a plantigrade, and its leaping is done with its hind legs, much like that of the kangaroo. Upon the soft snow or on the soft ground the spoor, or trail, of a rabbit in full jump com- prises two dissimilar pairs of imprints ; a pair of small toe-tracks inside, and a pair of large full foot-tracks outside. The series 1S the impression of successive leaps, which are made in the follow- ing way: The two little front feet or hands are put pretty close together, while the hind feet are set somewhat widely apart. The fore feet are then raised from the ground, and the body by the 1882.] The Crustacean Nebalia, etc. 861 same act is thrown back so as to bring the entire weight upon the firmly planted hind feet, in which, and in the thighs, and on the back the muscles are powerful, hence comes the tremendous spring. In alighting, the forward feet nearly close together, touch the ground first; then come down the hinder feet, striking out- side and forward of the front feet. Thus is made a double track, - the large and wide one outside and forward of the small one, like the kangaroo’s track, with this singular difference, the latter makes his double tracks walking, for when leaping the fore feet do not touch the ground. These peculiarities of rabbit tracks were no- ticed by that delightful naturalist, Robert Kennicott, in 1857, who adds: “In making the longest leaps the fore feet strike in a line, one behind the other, and at some distance in the rear of the hind ones, as if they had been again raised before the latter had _ touched the surface.” It is noticeable that when in quest of food on the snow, their tracks are made of leaps about four feet long. The strategic tact and knowingness of the wild rabbit was well understood by the plantation negroes, who held the little fellow in an affection not less than that of the Feejee for fat missionary. The upper side of the rabbit’s tail is brown, but it has a persist- ence in showing the under side, which is like a toilet puff, cottony white. The tail being ordinarily carried erect, looks like a tuft of pure clean cotton, or a fresh opened cotton ball, hence its familiar name among the negroes—‘“little cotton tail.” Uncle Remus, though partial, always gets fraternal when on this subject, and makes the cunning “brer rabbit” circumvent the slyness of “brer fox.” (To be continued.) :0: THE CRUSTACEAN NEBALIA AND ITS FOSSIL ALLIES, REPRESENTING THE ORDER PHYLLOCARIDA. v BY A. S. PACKARD, JR. I.—TnHE STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF NEBALIA. GOOD deal of interest is attached to this little Crustacean, on account of its composite nature and its evident relation- Ship to some curious fossils which are usually placed among the Phyllopods. The following exposition of the structure of We- balia bipes, which is sometimes dredged on our coast, and the remarks on its fossil allies may prove to be of interest to our XVI.—NO. XI. 58 ; 862 The Crustacean Nebalia and its Fossil Allies, [November, readers. The article is taken, by permission, from the advanced sheets of the Twelfth Annual Report of the U. S. Geological Survey of the Territories, F. V. Hayden, in charge. The species of Nebalia inhabit the sea at moderate depths. We have dredged W. dzpes on the coast of Labrador in from four to eight fathoms, and on the coast of Puget sound we collected a: similar species, just below low-water mark, among fucoids. The following is taken from Baird’s British Entomostraca: “ Otho Fabricius tells us that it carries its eggs under the thorax during the whole winter; that they degin to hatch in the month of April, and that the young are dorm in May. They are very lively, he adds, and adhere to the mother, who appears then to be half dead. The adult swims in a prone state, „using its hinder feet to propel it through the water. They are not very active. Montagu informs us that when moving in the water the superior antennæ are in constant motion as well as the abdominal feet, but that the inferior antennæ are usually motionless and brought under the body. They are found, according to Leach, on the south-western and western coasts of England, under stones that lie in the mud, amongst the hollows of the rocks; and Mr. McAndrew dredged it from a considerable depth amongst the Shetland isles.” In Nedalia bipes the body is rather slender and somewhat com- pressed, the anterior half protected by a carapace, beyond the lower edge of which the broad thin phyllopodiforny feet do not project. The carapace. Fie head and anterior half of the body, in- cluding the thorax and four anterior abdominal segments, are covered by the carapace, which on the lower edge extends below the ends of the thoracic feet, covers the basal joints of the anten- nz, and entirely covers the mouth parts. The sides are com- pressed, and are drawn together over the body by a large but rather weak adductor muscle (PI. xıv, Fig. 6), situated a little in front of the middle of the thorax. There is noJarge highly spe- cialized adductor muscle connecting the two sides of the cara- pace, nor any well-marked round muscular impression in the carapace, such as is characteristic in the Limnadiade; nor is there any hinge, a still more characteristic feature in the bivalved Phyllopods. On the contrary, as seen in Pl. xi, Fig. 3, repre- 1 I am indebted to Messrs. Sinclair & Son for kindly striking off an edition of the plates from the stones, after the Government edition was printed. To Dr. F. V. Hayden I am indebted tor the use of the illustrations. 1882. ] Representing the order Phyllocarida, 863 senting the carapace removed from the body and flattened out, there are no signs of a median hinge-joint. The nature of the rostrum is one of the diagnostic features of this order. In Nebalia the rostrum is long and narrow, oval, seen from above, terminating in an obtuse point quite far in advance of the head. It is loosely attached to the sinus in the front of the carapace, and thus forms a long, narrow, tongue-like flap, with a free movement up and down. It is thus seen to be rather a movable appendage of the carapace than a solid, immovable continuation of it, as in the Decapoda. Upon removing the cara- pace and flattening it out, it is seen to be readily comparable with the carapace of Ceratiocaris. Lhe eyes.—The eyes are mounted upon a stalk, and thus Ne- balia may be said to be essentially stalk-eyed. In this respect it is similar to the eye of the Branchipodide on the one hand, or to the eye of the Decapoda on the other. Lhe antenne.—The two pairs of antennz are large, well devel- oped, and of nearly equal size in the female, but in the male the second pair extend backward beyond the bases of the caudal appendages. In the rst pair the stem (scape or protopodite) is seen to be composed of five joints, the Ist, 2d and 4th the longest, the 3d and 5th short. From the scape arises the flagellum or en- dopodite, which has sixteen well-marked joints, each joint pro- vided externally with numerous sete; and besides, there arises ‘from the 5th joint of the scape or stem a scale-like unjointed _ appendage, which may be regarded as an exopodite ; if so, then the Ist instead of the 2d antennæ in the Phyllocarida bear a Scale-like exopodite; the 2d antenne in Decapoda bearing the €xopodite. The 2d antenne have a two-jointed stem or scape (protopo- dite), and a single, long, many-jointed flagellum or endopodite, the basal joint a large one; no exopodite being present even in a rudimentary form. The rst and 2d antennz are thus seen to be quite unlike those of the Malacostraca, and to resemble those of the Copepods, in that the anterior pair are rather the stouter of the two; but in those Copepods with very long antennæ it should be remem- bered that they are the 1st and not the 2d pair, as in the male Nebalia. It will thus be seen that while the antennz of the Phyl- locarida are entirely unlike those of the Phyllopoda, they are 864 The Crustacean Nebalia and its Fossil Allies, [November, neither closely homologous with those of the Decapoda (Mysis or Cuma) or the Copepoda. The 2d antennz of the male is said by Claus to be very long, and to resemble those of male Cumacez, but upon a comparison of the stem of the antenna, it is in Cuma quite different in the rel- ative length of the three joints. So also, while, as Claus observes, they are like the antennz of the Amphipoda, this resemblance is quite general; on the whole, however, the antenna of both pair bear a general resemblance to the Malacostracous type; also, on the other hand, they may also be compared with the more primi- tive Copepodous type. The mandibles (P1. xin, Fig. 4; Fig. 2, #d)—These are remark- able from the small size and weak development of the biting edge or mandible itself compared with the palpus. The oval or biting end of the protopodite is small, and armed with comparatively few and weak setz, which shows that the living Phyllocarida prob- ably feed on decaying animal and vegetable food, which is easily brushed into the mouth by their slight stiff bristles. The palpus, however, is enormously developed, extending out quite to, if not a little beyond, the edge of the carapace (Fig. 1). It is three- jointed ; the 2d a little longer than the basal, and swollen at the base, while the 3d is somewhat longer but slenderer, and edged with a fringe of close-set, rather stiff sete. Though so im- mensely developed as to the palpus, and entirely unlike the man- dible of the Phyllopoda, in which only the protopodite is devel- oped, it may be compared with the mandibles of the Decapoda, especially of Mysis and other Schizopods,! in which a very long three-jointed palpus is developed. But the very long and large mandibular palpus and very weak protopodite may be set down as a diagnostic feature of the living Phyllocarida, though the mandibles of the fossil species appear to have been much larger. The rst Maxilla (P1. xin, Fig. 2 mx; Fig. 5 mz’, 5 a).—These are likewise singular and diagnostic featüréi of this neler as rep- resented by their structure in the Nebaliada. They consist of a small lobe (Fig. 5 a, cx) with about eight stout seta, and a larger lobe (c4?) with the outer edge fringed with long coarse seta, one of which is a large ciliated seta; from this arises, after bending on itself at its base, an ercan long and slender multiarticulate 1Compare G. O. Sars’ Monographie over Mysider, 1870, Pl. r, Fig. 8. Claus states that the large palpus is very similar to that of many Amphipoda, but appar- ently overlooks the still closer resemblance to that of Mysis. t ae A.S. Packs à, del r . : viat E E Ss Ae : Pea BANE # T Sinclair & Son, Lith. | ANATOMY OF NEBALIA PIPES. 1882. ] Representing the order Phyllocarida. 86 5 process (or endopodite ?) which, in the female, is directed upward and backward (Fig. 5 a, ez), reaching to the tergum of the basal abdominal segment, and ending in two very long, slender sete, while a few other similar setz arise, one from each joint! In the male of N. geoffroyi, according to Claus, the long setose process is directed forwards and downwards. The 2d maxilla (Pl. xi, Figs. 2, 5 #a*)—These are entirely unlike those of the first pair, and unlike the Decapodous or Phyl- lopod type. They consist of a basal portion composed of four thin, delicate, unequal lobes (Fig. 5, + => 4), edged with long sete, with two sete twice as long as the others: arising from the 4th lobe; from this four-lobed basal joint or coxopodite, arise two _ appendages, the anterior (exopodite, er) small, one-jointed; the posterior (endopodite, ez) two-jointed, the end of the second joint carrying above five long, spreading, stout, slender sete This two-jointed appendage Claus considers as representing the stock of a palpus. This pair of maxille are quite unlike those of Decapods (Mysis, etc.), as well as those of the Phyllopods, and appear to be another diagnostic feature of the order. The absence of any maxillipedes, or of any rudiments of them, either in the adult or in the embryo, is a negative character of a good deal of importance when we regard the affinities of the group to the Decapods, or the zoéa-form of the same order, where two (Macrura) and three (Brachyura) pairs of maxillipedes are present, there being three pairs in the adult Decapod. The eight pairs of Phyllipodiform thoracic feet (Plate xiv, Fig. 3)—The maxillz are directly succeeded by eight pairs of leaf- like thoracic feet, the maxillipedes not being present. The feet all repeat each other in form, and a description of the 3d or 4th pair will answer for the Ist as well as the last. The leg (Fig. 3, 3d or 4th pair) consists of a broad, thin, six-jointed appendage, the endopodite (ez), which is fringed with very long, delicate setz, those arising from the terminal joint being ciliated; while a second series of fine stiff setæ arise obliquely from the edge. To the second joint of the endopodite are appended a distal or lower very broad thin gill, not quite twice as long as broad, and which reaches to the end of the endopodite, while situated more exter- nally is a double, broad, large lobe which corresponds to the exite aus draws attention to the position of this foot as compared with the 2d max- illz (putzfuss) of the Ostracoda. 866 The Crustacean Nebalia and its Fossil Allies, [November, or flabellum of the Phyllopod foot, this flabellum being as long as the entire endopodite, but not quite so broad as the gill. The distal portion of the flabellum is more pointed than the proximal, and, as will be seen by referring to the figure, is more actively engaged in the process of respiration. The figure shows by the dot- ted lines of parenchymatous matter the course taken by the blood in passing through the gill and accessory gill or flabellum, and that it must also be partly aerated by the jointed endopodite ; the en- tire appendage, therefore, as in those of the Branchipodide, is concerned in respiration. It will thus be seen that the limb is lamellated, but differs essentially from the Phyllopodous limb im that the endopodite is simple, the axis multiarticulate, but send- ing off no endopodal lobes from the axites, such as form the characteristic feature of the Phyllopodous foot. From overlook- ing this important and radical difference from the Phyllopodous foot, the earlier observers were led to place Nebalia among the Phyllopods. In comparing the thin, lamellar, thoracic foot of Nebalia with the thoracic foot of any Decapod, from Cuma to Mysis, and up through the Macrura to the crabs, it will be found impossible to homologize the parts closely, though a general homology is indi- cated, the endopodite of the Nebalia and the gills corresponding in a general sense to those of the Decapods, and it is this lack of a homology more than any other which forbids us from regard- ing the Nebalidz as entitled to take rank under the order of De- capoda, or with any of the Malacostraca. But when we compare the thoracic legs of the adult Nebalia with the maxillipedes of the zoéa of the Decapods, then we can detect a slight and inter- esting resemblance, but the resemblance and homology is not SO close as between the thoracic legs of the Phyllopods and the maxillz of the early zoéa. On comparing the broad lamellate thoracic feet of the adult Nebalia with the rudimentary thoracic feet of the later stages of the zoéa, the resemblance is but slight. Just before the zoea. passes into the adult condition the five pairs of thoracic feet of ‘the adult bend out as two-lobed processes ; but the resemblance to the leaf-like foot of Nebalia is too remote to be of any taxon- omic value; and this remote resemblance shows that Nebalia ‘does not beidni to the Decapod type. The six pairs of abdominal feet (Plate xıv, Figs. 4, 5)— Turning 1882.] Representing the order Phyllocarida. 867 to the abdominal feet, we find that they are simple, without gills, and entirely different from the leaf-like thoracic appendages, and we have in this differentiation of true abdominal from the thoracic feet a Malacostracan character, one quite unlike the differentia- tion or blending of the two regions in the Phyllopods. The abdomen is nine-jointed, the segments cylindrical and edged with obtuse spines (Pl. xiu, Fig. 8) much as in Copepoda. In their general form the abdominal legs appear to resemble the simple biramous legs of the Copepoda, but still more closely those of the Amphipoda, in which, as Claus observes, there is a similar retinaculum, (See also Milne-Edwards’s Crustacea, Pl. 30, Fig. 3") : The 5th and 6th segments of the abdomen bear much smaller, more rudimentary legs. The Ist pair (PI. xiv, Fig. 5) are seen to be two-jointed, the 2d joint long and slender, bearing near the end stout raptorial sete, and on the inner edge slender sete. The 6th pair are still more rudimentary, one-jointed, and with but few sete, which are stiff and coarse. These resemble the simple un- branched sth and last pair of abdominal feet in Copepoda (Ca- lanus 2), The long, slender terminal segment bears two very long, nar- Tow cercopods (PI. x1, Fig. 7) ending in one large and several small setae, but there is no telson; the cercopods are simple, the integument entirely smooth, with no striz or any other markings, and they are edged externally with short, and internally with long ciliated sete. In the absence of a telson Nebalia differs from Cuma or any other Decapod, and in this respect, and the simple cercopods, shows a close resemblance to the terminal segment with its two setiferous cercopods of the Copepoda. ; Internal anatomy.—Claus remarks in his “ Untersuchungen zur Erforschung der genealogischen Grundlage des Crustacean-Sys- tems” (1876), that in all the internal systems of organs, Nebalia “Is considerably removed from the Phyllopoda, and shows an im- mediate relationship to the Malacostraca, sometimes approaching near the Amphipoda, sometimes near the Myside. The ner- vous system consists of a large two-lobed brain and of a ventral cord extending through all the limb-bearing segments, there be- ing, as shown in Metschnikoff’s Fig. 25 of the embryo, seventeen ganglia, corresponding to the seventeen limb-bearing segments of the body behind the head. A transverse section of a ventral 868 The Crustacean Nebalia and its Fossil Alles, [November, ganglion of WV. dipes (Pl. xin, Fig. 9, or Fig. 1, in text, zg) shows a form of ganglion quite unlike that of the Estheria and other Phyllopods, in which the ganglia are separate, connected by rather long transverse commissures, whereas in Nebalia the pair of ganglia are consolidated and of the form of the Decapod ganglion, as also pointed out by Claus, who says that there is a very close resemblance in the form of the nervous centers to the ventral ganglionic chain of the Myside. We have endeavored to obtain good sections of the brain of Nebalia bipes, and Fig. 1 in the text will serve to illustrate toler- ably well the form and intimate structure of the supra-cesopha- geal ganglion. The brain is very small, and the section repre- sented was the third from the front of the head. The ovaries (ov) pass into the head, the end of each ovary overlying the brain. The brain itself is composed of two lobes closely united, and seen in section the brain is as deep as broad, with a constriction pass- ing around the outside in the mid- dle. The histological structure is very simple, with nothing approach- ing the complex nature of the Deca- podous brain. In the digestive canal, says Claus, we have a quite specific peculiarity, together with approximations some- times to the Amphipoda and Iso- poda, and sometimes to the Mysidz eb bite S; ov, ovary; @, portion i of brain still more enlarged to show and _Podophthalmata. The short the ganglion cells. Author del up-curved cesophagus leads into a stomach with a eee chitinous armature, in which an an- terior and a posterior division can be distinguished. Our sections of the body of Neéalia bipes show that in their general features the digestive canal and appendages are much as Claus describes for the Mediterranean species. We were unable to get good sections of the proventriculus or kaumagen.' Plate xiv, Fig. 6, evidently passes through the stomach in front of the heart, which is much larger than the intestine (Fig. 2, 7, in text). Fig. 2 (in text) is a section (No. 9) through the anterior part of the thorax, in the region of the adductor muscle (add. m); the heart (4¢) is quite remote from the small intestine, which is smaller than the two anterior coeca. In Fig. 3 (in text) of section ‘Our Sections were kindly made by Mr. Norman N. Mason of Providence, R. I. Plate XIV Sa a ann Leste ETT ` 3 Se fin rep tere Br Aas LEN He zegt t i 4 TA ; Tg BIEN a e EOE > s R FAIS ia DE SN TERR 3) 5 f + ya . Lee | T. Sinclair k Son, Lith ANATOMY OF NEBALIA PIPES 1882. ] Representing the order Phyllocarida. 869 14, through the same specimen at the end of the thorax, the Fic, 2.—Section through the front end of the thorax of Vebalia bipes. At, heart ; + incesti, ng, ganglion; vm, ventral muscle. Author, del. heart (472) is of its maximum size, and now we see sections of six ccecal tubes, the series of four lower ones being the four posterior tubes described by Claus as as passing back into the abdomen. In this sec- tion the dorsal muscles {dm) of the posterior part of the body appear, and the ventral muscles (vm) are larger than in section 9, while the ova- rian tubes (ov) are smaller. The heart of Nebalia is a long straight tube a little thicker just in front of the middle, beginning over the maxillz just in front of the Ist thoracic segment (tergite) and ex- tending to the middle of the 4th abdominal seg- ent. Claus includes Neba- lia among the Malacos- Fic. 3.—Section sage the end of thorax of Nebaia bipes, showi six coeca (cæc), tha heart r the ovaries s (o), and the sets of m cles; dorsal muscles ; vm, V ventral m ient nC, esis pecan 0v, yarala 7, intestines, Author el, 870 The Crustacean Nebalia and its Fossil Allies, [ November, traca, but when we consider the composite nature of the internal organs as described by him, we wonder that he failed to appre- ciate the independent, synthetic nature of the Phyllocaridan type which, when we take into account the external as wellas internal organization, forbids our regarding Nebalia as a true Malacostra- can, though the type of a group standing outside of, but nearer to the Malacostraca than are the Phyllopods. The development of Nebalia—Our knowledge of the develop- ment of Nebalia is due to the distinguished Russian embryolo- gist, who in 1868 published an elaborate account of the develop- mental history of Nebalia geoffroyi. Unfortunately the pamphlet is in Russian, and only brief abstracts of it have appeared in Ger- man. But as ample and well-drawn figures illustrate the work, we can state the salient points in the ontogeny of this interesting Crustacean. The yolk does not undergo total division, but by the subdivision of a large polar cell the yolk becomes surrounded by a layer of blastodermic cells. Soon after the rudiments of the two pairs of antennz and of- the mandibles bud out, the abdo- men also being differentiated from the rest of the body (P1. xv, Fig. 1). This is regarded as representing the free nauplius con- dition of other Crustacea. At a succeeding stage (Fig. 2) the two pairs of maxilla and two pairs of thoracic feet bud out; and in a stage immediately succeeding (Fig, 3) the palpus of the mandibles elongates, the maxilla are two-branched, and seven (or eight) pairs of thoracic feet are indicated. In a succeeding stage (Fig. 4) Nebalian characters assert themselves ; such are the carapace and large rostrum, the biramous anterior pair of anten- nz, the unbranched 2d pair, the long mandibular palpus, the absence of any rudiments of maxillipedes, and the eight pairs of thoracic feet (banopoda) and three pairs of abdominal feet (uro- poda), all of which are now well developed. At this stage it may be seen that, as in spiders, the 1st pair of thoracic feet may rep- resent the 2d maxilla of insects transferred from the head to the thorax; so in Nebalia, the three first of the eight pairs of tho- racic feet may correspond to the three pairs of maxillipedes of Decapods, which in early life, before the thorax is differentiated - from the head, may have remained afterwards as a part of the thorax. An intermediate step is the retention in the Myside of the last pair of maxillipedes or the 1st pair of thoracic feet, so that these Crustacea have six pairs of feet. Moreover, Nebalia 1882.] Representing the order Phyllocarida. 871 at this time, in the absence of differentiation of the thorax from the abdomen, and of thoracic and abdominal feet, the two sets being similar in form and development to each other, may also represent the Phyllopod stage. In the next stage, at the time Nebalia leaves the brood sac of the mother, it is but one step removed, so to speak, from the adult form. Metschnikoff’s observations were made on Nedalia geoffroyi of the Mediterranean sea. We have in our sections of Mebalia bipes observed stages of development in the young similar to the stages represented by Metschnikoff’s Fig. 13 or 14, and have found in the bottom of the vial in which the specimens were sent, several young which had fallen out of the brood sac of the parent. Upon comparing these with Metschnikoff’s Fig. 19, or Fig. 5, Pl. xv, they are of the same form; the rostrum being large, the procephalic lobes large, the eyes small, the stalks not yet devel- oped, while the maxillary palpus stretches back to the 1st abdom- inal feet; the thoracic feet are covered by the large carapace, and a 4th pair of abdominal feet have developed, while the caudal ap- pendages are as in the adult. In all these features we see only a general resemblance to the Schizopods of any value, the similar earliest phases of development proving of no special importance. Comparison between the early stages of Nebalia and the Decapod (Schizopod) Mysis—It would appear that if Nebalia were a Deca- pod, that in its larval stage it should present a close homology with Schizopods at a similar stage of existence. In Euphausia the young leaves the egg and becomes a free-swimming nauplius, and then a protozoéa, and at length a zoéa larva before assuming the adult condition. It is evident that since Nebalia passes its early stages in the incubatory pouch of the mother, that it should be rather compared with the young, when about ready to leave the mother, of some Mysis-like form. Happily, Professor G. O. Sars has afforded us the material for such a comparison. The early stages of Mysis, as worked out by Van Beneden and Claparéde, and of Nebalia, are much alike ; the formation of the blastoderm is much the same. The nauplius stage in the egg is nearly identical in both, but beyond this the parallelism ceases to be an exact one; Nebalia turns off and fol- lows quite a different developmental path from Mysis or any Decapod. If we compare the young of Nebalia, taken from the brood-sac, with that of Mysis, as figured by Claparéde (Plate 372 The Crustacean Nebalia and its Fossil Allies, [November, Xvul, Fig. 6), or a more advanced stage, particularly that of Pseu- domma roseum, as figured by Sars, we shall find that many of the differential characters which, in the adult, separate the Phyllo- carida from the Decapoda, are to be found i che young. In Mysis and allies at the same stage as Metschnikoff’s Fig. 18 of Nebalia (our Plate xv, Fig. 4), the 2d antenne are simple instead of being bifid as in Nebalia; there are no maxillipedes, and the maxillz are, as in the adult, immediately succeeded by the eight pairs of thoracic feet; moreover, there are no abdominal feet in Mysis or Pseudomma, while three pairs are present in the young Nebalia. But with the exception of the lack of abdominal feet in the Mysidz at this stage, it may be thought upon the whole, as has already been stated by Balfour, that “the development of Nebalia is abbreviated, but from Metschnikoff’s figures may be seen to resemble closely that of Mysis. * * * There is in the egg a nauplius stage with three [pairs of] appendages, and subsequently a stage with the zoéa appendages.” It seems to us that the comparison? here made is, as regards any resemblance to a zoéa, loose and inexact, whether applied to the Myside or to the Phyllocarida. The stage of the Myside succeeding the nauplius is characterized by the presence of the rudiments of eight pairs of appendages, the two pairs of maxille, and the six pairs of thoracic feet of the Schizopodous type, while the zoéa has no thoracic feet at all, so that it would appear that the Schiz- opods do not pass through a genuine zoéa state like that of the higher Decapods. Nor on the other hand is the Nebalia stage represented by Metschnikoff’s Fig. 18 (our Fig. 4) a zoéa stage, for the embryo has the rudiments of eight pairs of thoracic feet, and besides those of three pairs of abdominal feet, while there is a well-marked carapace and rostrum, as well as procephalic lobes with eyes, all these parts not being developed in the embrye Myside. But whatever may be said of the resemblances between Nebalia and the Mysidæ at an early period after the nauplius stage has been discarded, when we compare the later stage represented by Metschnikoff’s F ig. 19 (our Fig. 5, Plate xv) with the latest larval stage of Pseudomma (see Sars’s Fig. 23, our Plate xv, Fig. 6), 1 G. O. Sars, Monog. over Mysider, Heft. 1, Taf. 1v, Fig. 23. ; A * Claus (Genealog. Gundlage des Crust. Systems, p. 31), as we find since writing the above, does not accept Metschnikoff’s comparison of the young Nebalia with the zoéa, although he does not give the reasons for his dissent. PLATE XV. Fig. 5. Fig. 4. THE EMBRYOLOGY OF NEBALIA. 1882] Representing the order Phyllocarida, 873 then we see that the diagnostic ordinal characters of the Phyllo- carida have declared themselves. There are to be seen in Ne- balia the large movable rostrum, the compressed pseudobivalvu- lar carapace, the lack of maxillipedes, the eight pseudophyllopod thoracic feet, and four pairs of abdominal feet, out of the six of the adult. On the other hand, in Mysis of the same stage, the two pairs of maxillipedes are well developed, and the six pairs of remarkably long thoracic feet (the first pair modified maxillipedes) are present. There is little to indicate that the Schizopods have descended from a Nebalia-like form, but rather from some accel- erated zoéa form; while, as we attempt in this essay to show, the Phyllocarida have had no Decapod blood in them, so to speak, but have descended by a separate line from Copepod-like ances- tors, and culminated and even began to disappear before any Malacostraca, at least in any numbers, appeared. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIII. Fic. 1 See bipes Kroyer; female, much enlarged “ 2.—WNebalia bipes Kroyer, female, hea yi ros, rostrum ; car, carapace; anzt, Ist ieee ae -5) five basal joints; e x, xopodite n, endo porii; ant}, 2d antenna, wit sas basal jo pe part of frst pair of feet; mad, man- dible; mat, a xilla; mex, secon nd maxilla; s¢, stomach. The carapace fattened out to show relations of rostrum a 4.—Mandible, md, cutting edge; f, palpus. 5.—The two maxillex; In the four aes of the skopos: a.—Iīst maxilla; eal ¢ 2, coxopodites; 27, endopodite “ 6.—(Omitted. 7s Snide ager rai aap O “ 8.—Portion of d edge of an abdominal segment, 9. BE laset through a o eara ganglion EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIV. Fic. 1.—Nebalia bipes Kr. Q ; rst antenna; lettering as in Pl. XIII; 4, lobe from 4th pa int, “ 2—2d an e 5 ine oF pe 3d or 4th pair of thoracic feet; 7, flabellum ; ex, exopodite ; en, endopodite. “ 4.—One of 2d pair of abdominal legs; vez, retinaculum; ev, endopodite; ex, exopodite, “ 5.—One of the fifth pair of abdominal l fee “ 6,—Section ieee the body just behind es e first pair of thoracic feet, panes the stomach i and the fies anterior cæca (cac); add. mus, adductor cle; sh, shel "o © —Section Taek one of the cceca. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XV. Fic. l -—Nauplius “ee of si geoffroyi. “& 2.—Farther advanced emb A 5 — Stil be: sage, = te ‘thoracic feet. 4.— ced e $ Embryo aeg ra ‘hat ch. “© 6.—Embryo of Pseudomma about ready to hatch. (After Sars.) Figs. 1-5 copied from Metschnikoff. 8374 American Work on Recent Mollusca in 1881. [November, _ AMERICAN WORK ON RECENT MOLLUSCA IN 1881. BY WILLIAM H. DALL. INCE the appearance of our last record (1880), death has claimed Mr. Chas. M. Wheatley, of Phoenixville, Pennsylva- . nia, who was formerly noted for his interest in fresh-water shells, and for whom several American species have been named. . He di little original work in this field, but in geology and paleontology, especially the exploration of certain bone-bearing caves, his con- tributions to science have been gratefully recognized. The recorder would renew his request to authors to furnish him, as promptly as practicable, with separate copies of their publications on recent mollusks,' in order that the completion of this record may be made as early in the succeeding year as pos- sible, and he would also suggest to writers not resident in Amer- ica that any papers bearing on American mollusca or especially interesting for any reason to American malacologists, will, if copies are furnished, be duly noted in the record. The year shows a creditable amount of work done, and is especially notable’for the investigations into the mollusks of the deep sea (of which Pleurotomaria is not the least interesting); the contributions to our knowledge of the Cephalopoda of our east- ern coast; and the researches into the egg and early stages of Limax campestris and the generalizations resulting therefrom. An account of recent progress in zodlogy for the years 1879 and 1880, by Dr. Theo. Gill, appears in the Smithsonian Report for 1880, separate advance copies being issued in 1881. It con- tains a résumé of the more remarkable advances in our know- ledge of mollusks during the period mentioned. We are informed that similar reports may be hoped for annually hereafter in the Smithsonian Report on various subjects and by several hands. General works.—Mr. Tryon’s Manual of Conchology has com- pleted its third volume in 1881 covering the Tritonide, F usi- dz and Buccinidæ. When, in 1879, this work was announced, it was stated that it was proposed “to compile a conchological manual which while more comprehensive than any similar wor k hitherto published, shall be so condensed in text and illustration that it may be issued ata much more moderate price. It will- include in systematic order the diagnoses of all the genera and 1 Which may be sent care of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D, C. ~ zi à 1882.] American Work on Recent Mollusca in 188r. 875 higher divisions of the mollusca, both recent and fossil, and the descriptions and figures of all the recent species,” etc., etc. We have hitherto refrained from comment upon the manner in which | the performance compares with the promises above quoted from the second page of the cover. This, both from our wholly friendly feeling towards the industrious author, and from the hope that as the work advanced, the quality of it (once off unfamiliar ground like the Cephalopods) might improve. The fourth vol- ume has now begun to appear, and it seems to us that it is time to vindicate malacology in this country from the reproach of quietly accepting such a work as this as a praiseworthy or repre- sentative product of American science. The work is an utter failure if we judge it by its own pros- pectus. In the plain edition the figures are largely unidentifiable. In the (very badly) colored edition they are somewhat more recognizable, though we had not realized that so many blue and crimson gasteropods existed as are there depicted. The expense _ so far for a bound copy would be about $65, a sum sufficient to obtain quite a little library in itself, and at this rate the claim of a “moderate price” is quite unjustified. There is not a figure in the entire work, so far, by which it would be possible to discrim- inate between critical species, several of the figures are wrongly numbered, the “ descriptions” are inadequate to a painful degree, and contain, in many cases, no diagnostic characters. Were diagnoses of “all the genera” of recent and fossil mollusks really furnished; even if merely copied from the originals without con- firmation, the work would still be valuable, but that this is not the case in the families treated, can be determined. by any reader. In general, an uncharitable critic might be disposed to say that the author, when he founda species of which he could not copy a figure, “lumped” it with that which he “ guessed ” was nearest like it, or if he could not identify it with anything in the collec- tion at Philadelphia, he catalogued it with the “ spurious ” species, We do not assert that Mr. Tryon has done anything of this kind, but we do assert that the fesults of his work, in whatever way he arrived at them, are little better than they would have been in the above hypothetical case. Little care or research seems to have been devoted either to hunting up the locality where species not in the monographs were described or in figuring unfigured species which were easily 876 American Work on Recent Mollusca in 1881. [ November, within the author’s reach. Indeed, we have noticed, so far, but one original figure in the whole work, though there may be more. Of a species described in the Proceedings (1865, p. 64) of his own society, the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, and of which the type is accessible to all students in the National Museum at Washington, but a few hours away from his home, Mr. Tryon says, “no diagnosis of this species has been pub- lished, it is merely mentioned in Carpenter’s 2d Report, and fig- ured in Kiister from a drawing furnished by W. H. Dall.” This “ drawing ” was one of the plates of Alaska mollusks distributed by the writer in 1879, but of which the text is still in MS. owing to uncontrollable circumstances. The merits of the work are those pertaining to any catalogue which brings together scattered material, and would have been greater had not an illjudged attempt been made to combine spe- cies not autoptically known to the author, and of the distinctness of which he could not therefore speak with authority. It cer- tainly will not be, to a student requiring a real “ manual” of the subject, comparable in value to works like Bronn and Keferstein’s Malacozoa, for instance, and others of which the combined cost would be less than that of the few parts of Mr. Tryon’s work already issued. i i It is somewhat refreshing to turn from the preceding work to another, which though not American in authorship or. publica- tion, is nevertheless of so much importance to American, as well as other students of malacology as to render its mention here not inappropriate. I refer to Dr. Paul Fischer’s Manuel de Conchyliologie (Paris, F. Savy, 1881-2, fasc.1-4. To contain six or seven fasciculi of seven signatures each, 400 cuts in the text and 24 plates with 600 figures), of which (to May, 1882) four parts have appeared. The subscription (payable in advance) for the whole work, is twenty-four francs, The typographical execu- tion is of excellent quality, the illustrations in the text clear, and many of them new; the form, medium octavo, is convenient ; and of the execution so far, more need nót be said than that it 1S promptly up to date in matters of research, and in every way worthy of its distinguished author. “Common Sea Shells of California,” by Josiah Keep, A.M, Ala- meda, Cal. This little work prepared and published by its author, a teacher in the Alameda High School, contains sixty-four pas? - 1882.] American Work on Recent Mollusca in 1887. 877 of text and sixteen plates, figuring ninety-five species of Califor- nian shells, which are described in a conversational way in the text. Little is said of systematic classification, and wisely so. As it is, the book is well suited to assist the young to a knowledge of the names and more obvious characters of the shells they are likely to find on the shore, and to interest them in the general subject. The figures are very characteristic and in many cases unusually good. The draughtsman with some instruction would evidently do better work than is common. But we trust that, should Mr. Keep issue a larger work, as it has been hinted he would do, and his present draughtsman should assist, the latter will examine some standard works (like Adams’ Genera, for instance) and ob- serve that the axis of the spire should be kept at right angles to the line of sight, by which the foreshortening and distortion which spoil some of his figures of Gastropods (e. g. Pl. v1, Figs. 4 6,7; Pl. vu, Figs. 1, 2) will be entirely avoided. This criti- cism excepted, we cordially welcome the little book, which can be obtained of the author himself for the price of one dollar, by those who wish to encourage such enterprise. Anatomy, Physiology and Development—The most important work in this department which has appeared during the past year is that on the “Maturation, fecundation and segmentation of Limar campestris Binney,” by E. L. Mark (Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., VI, No. 12, 8vo, pp. 173-625, Pl. 1-v, Oct, 1881). This paper, according to a note by the author, was prepared early in 1879, though its publication has been long delayed, and has already been noticed in the Naturatisr. Its length and character forbid any attempt at analyzing it in detail here. This is the less to be regretted, since those who are ina position to profit by the obser- — vations and deductions therein set forth, will by no means fail to inform themselves from the original, while any attempt to con- dense for others the deductions from such investigations, could hardly result in an adequate representation of the author’s posi- tion. The work, in execution and presentation, is creditable to American science and to the author, and will form, we hope, Merely a beginning of his achievements in this direction. `- A reference was made in the record for 1880 (p. 709) to Profes- Sor Alpheus Hyatt’s lecture on the “ Transformation of Planorbis at Steinheim.” In the Proceedings of the Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci- VOL, XVI.—No, XI. 59 ~ 878 American Work on Recent Mollusca in 188r. [November, ence (vol. xx1x, Boston meeting) published June, 1881, is a com- bination of an abstract of the lecture, together with “remarks upon the effects of gravity upon the forms of shells and animals (pp. 1-24, Pl. 1-11, separate copies). In this extremely suggestive paper, Professor Hyatt, after discussing the particular case of the Steinheim Planorbis, strives to “ bring into comprehensible shape the following conceptions.” The conceptions are chiefly to the effect that the unsymmetrical spirality of most gasteropod shells is due to the effects of gravity transmitted by heredity. That many locally constant characteristics are due solely to the physi- cal influences of the environment. That natural selection does not explain these relations, but only serves to fix the results and bring them within the reach of heredity, when they may be in- herited according to the law of heredity with acceleration. That gravity appears to be one of the causes of the differences in effort, function and anatomy observed between various parts of animal forms when laterally or vertically considered. That the bilateral or geomalic (the tendency to equalize the form in direction of a horizontal plane) growth of organs or organisms appear to be directly or indirectly responses to the demands of gravity. Lastly, that the origin of the limbs in pairs, while mere buds, perhaps, may be the results of attempt at maintaining equipoise by geo malic growth in obedience to the laws of gravity. 7 That this effect of gravity is marked in animals which become permanently and immovably fixed, like the oyster (and only after they become attached) Professor Hyatt shows to be the case in many instances, and that he has suggested an hitherto overlooked vera causa there seems to be no doubt ; though its effect in mod- ifying, for instance, the cone of molluscan shells, seems less likely than that the inevitable divergencies from a true cone produced by the physical necessities of the environment, in perhaps 4 majority of cases, were seized on by natural selection on account of the advantages gained by economy in material, in space occu- pied, strength resulting and protection insured to delicate inter- nal organs by the spirality of the shell. Supposing all conchifers to be born with a straight conical shell, it is self-evident that un- _ less the creatures were pelagic or very sedentary, that fractures and unequal developments of the margin of the cone would be e case in a majority of individuals. That in fact the conical form would be a decided disadvantage to any creature which had 1882. | American Work on Recent Mollusca in 1881. 879 “to travel for its living. That every divergence from a true cone would be an advantage and would lead to hereditary retention or repetition of the divergence, and that spirality (as we know) must necessarily result from any deviation from the. straight cone whether due to a mere accidental fracture or any other cause. Knowing this and knowing that in most active mollusks gravity could not act in the same way and direction for five minutes at a time, owing to their changes of position, it does not seem that there is any need of it to account for the development of the spi- ral in the shells of free gasteropod mollusks. But whatever view may be. taken of single details, Professor Hyatt’s paper possesses, like most of his writings, the invaluable quality of arousing discussion, exciting interest and of suggest- ing new lines of thought; and of such essays we cannot have too many. Although first printed in the Quarterly Fournal of Microscopi- cal Science (London, 1881) and the result of studies by a native of Japan, K. Mitsukuri’s paper “On the structure and significance of some aberrant forms of lamellibranchiate gills ” (Studies from the Biological Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University, 11, No. 2, Pp. 257-270, Pl. x1x, Mar., 1882) may be considered as in one sense American work, since it was done at the laboratory of an American university and under the instruction and direction of Professor W. K. Brooks. The author here considers the struc- ture of the gills of Nucula and Yoldia and their relation to the gills of other acephalous mollusks. He arrives at the general conclusion that the Lamellibranchiate gill was perhaps originally a simple ridge on the side of the body, but to increase the surface of contact with the water, folds may have arisen on two sides of this ridge. If this be true, Nucula and Yoldia have advanced so far as the gills are concerned, but very little beyond the primitive condition. In course of time, however, as some forms of Aceph- ala became less capable of extensive locomotion, these folds were perhaps prolonged to form tentacular filaments, from which were finally evolved complex gill structures like those of Mytilus, Unio and Ostrea, which took on other functions than respiration, such as assisting in the food supply by means of the currents generated by their cilia, Between the simple gills of Nucula and the complex ones of Unio, there are many intermediate stages with modifications in different directions. 880 American Work on Recent Mollusca in 1881, [ November, In considering these views it should be borne in mind that the gills (especially in Gasteropods) are almost purely epithelial struc- tures, and therefore especially liable to modification; in most cases they hardly exist in the embryonic stages. As regards the correlation of inactivity with a high type of gill structure, it is per- haps doubtful how far this will bear inspection. Yoldia is ex- tremely active, but is almost like the sedentary Nucula in its gills: Unio which has, according to Mitsukuri, highly specialized gills, is, probably, in many cases nearly as active as Yoldia. Cardium and Pecten are remarkable for their activity, and have highly de- veloped gills, as also have Scintilla and Lepton, which move about almost like Gasteropods. Whatever be the fate of incidental speculations of the author, the paper is most suggestive and interesting, and may be taken as an intimation of what is in store for malacology when the em- bryologist and anatomists shall join forces and carry their investi- gations from the young stages to the fully developed adult form with greater continuity than appears to be the rule at present. Report of the Commissioners of Fisheries of Maryland, Jan., 1880 (8vo, pp. LXXVIII, I l. unp., 269, 8; and 16 plates and sec- tions), Annapolis, State printers, 1880. ` Report of T. B. Ferguson, a commissioner of fisheries [for the western shore] of Maryland, Jan., 1881, 8vo, Hagerstown, Bell & Co., 1881 (pp. CXIV, 152, 6; and 18 plates besides cuts in the _text). The contents of the first report were alluded to by the recorder in his summary for 1881, but not having been procurable by him until a late date, exact references to its contents are now added. The appendix contains the account of the “ Development of the American Oyster,” by Dr. W. K. Brooks, which occupies pp» I-102, with ten plates; “ Extracts from the Report of Master Francis Winslow, U.S.N., made to C. P. Patterson, superintendent coast and geodetic survey, of investigations of the oyster beds in Tangier and Pocamoke sounds and parts of Chesapeake bay, 1878-9,” comprising pp. 103-219, with four sections, and lastly, a compend of the “ Oyster laws,” which, it is alleged by disinter- ested parties, are never enforced except against non-residents, and hence are practically a dead letter. : The second report is made by Major Ferguson, on the Fish- eries-work which came under his own supervision, the State law 1882. | American Work on Recent Mollusca in 1881. 881 allotting one commissioner each to the eastern and western shores. The report itself relates chiefly to vertebrate fisheries, but the appendix is devoted entirely to invertebrates and further “ Oyster laws” are included in the compendium which closes the volume. The appendix consists of (1) an Account of experiments in oyster culture, by John A. Ryder; (2) an Account of an experi- ment in artificially fertilizing the ova of the European oyster, by Master Francis Winslow, U.S.N. (referred to in this record for 1880); (3) a Bibliography of literature (38 entries) relating to oyster culture; and (4) Notes on some of the early stages of development of the clam or mananose (Mya arenaria L.) by John A. Ryder. _ The first paper contains an account of the anatomy of the oys- ter, with illustrative diagrams. Several points are developed more fully than has been done by previous writers; the author’s attention is, however, chiefly directed toward the digestive, repro- ductive and respiratory tracts, and the account does not claim to be by any means complete. The pedal (?) muscles are not noted, an omission characteristic of most papers on the oyster. It is concluded that the oyster is dicecious. The “ fat” of the oyster is not fat at all, but though containing some oil globules, is a deposit of delicate protoplasm, easily digestible and nutritious, which is almost wanting in breeding oysters, which are, therefore, far less desirable as food. The food of the Chesapeake oyster is discussed, and an instance is mentioned where a Pinnotheres with eggs was: found established in the shell of an oyster upon which again were attached numbers of Vibriones and Zootham- nium colonies, whose increase, in all probability, formed part of the food supply of the mollusk, so that host and messmate were mutually benefited. The fauna of the oyster beds is enumerated, with many notes on the various species mentioned. There are but few mollusks, including the “ soft-shell clam” (Mya) ; a spe- cies of Modiola; Xylotrya fimbriata which rapidly destroys the woodwork of hatching boxes, etc; Solecurtus gibbus ; Crepidula Slauca; Litorina irrorata; Urosalpinx cinereus, the “ drill” or oyster borer; and some small gasteropods (probably in part Astyr is and Cerithiopsis), including some nudibranchiates. The artificial fertili- zation of the ova is then treated of and is undoubtedly practica- ble, but the further preservation of the embryo oysters has so far ~ t 882 American Work on Recent Mollusca in 1881. [November, failed entirely on account of their minute size, and in spite of the sanguine hopes expressed by Messrs. Ryder and Brooks, there does not appear to us to be any reasonable prospect of success in the project except at an expense which would in practice prove prohibitory. Mr. Ryder also gives figures of young oysters of known age, which illustrated the greater energy and extent of growth in the American (O. virginiana) as compared with the European (O. edulis) oyster. The second paper was noticed in this record for 1880, and in view of possible doubts as to the species of oyster observed upon, it is desirable that the experiment should be repeated with un- doubted O. edulis. It is really surprising that, with their facili- ties, the European naturalists have hitherto failed to give usa comprehensive monograph of one of the commonest and per- haps the best known moilusk in the world. The name “clam” in America is commonly applied to any bivalves not “mussels” or “cockles.” In New England the clam is Mya arenaria, in New York it is Venus mercenaria. In the for- mer region the Venus is known as the “ hard” or “ round ” clam; in the latter the Mya is called “ soft shell” or “ longneck” clam. . The name “ mananose” is a southern appellation for the Mya, perhaps of Indian origin. Mr. Ryder’s observations on the early stages of Mya are full of interest. This mollusk spawns in Sep- tember and October during a period of about forty days. It is dicecious. The changes in the egg succeed each other with con- siderable rapidity, and as in the development of the oyster there are marked periods of active change of form which alternate with periods of repose. Bilateral symmetry is marked. The eggs are about z$ inch in diameter. Their segmentation, as far as followed, resembled that of Anodonta, and the gastrula stage is formed in the same way as in the oyster. A portion of a letter from Mr. Henry Hemphill, of California, relating to variations due to station, in the genus Acmza appears in Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., 1881, pp. 87-8, in which the iden- tity of the so-called Nacella instabilis Gld., with Acm@ea pella Esch., is claimed. The recorder showed long since that the “ Nacellæ” of Carpenter's lists were all referable to Acmæa ex- cept one, which is an Anisomyon belonging to the Siphonariidæ. If an examination of the soft parts confirms Mr. Hemphill’s views, it will be a very striking ‘illustration of the influence of food and station on external characters. 1882. ] American Work on Recent Mollusca in 188r.. 883 “Observations on Planorbis” (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., 1881, Pp. 92-110), by Dr. R. E. C. Stearns, discusses several interesting questions, such as “ Are the shells of Planorbis dextral or sinis- tral?” He finds most of the species examined sinistral, others dextral and occasionally the same species may be coiled either way. Certain aspects of variation in American Planorbes are considered and pregnant suggestions made. The paper is well — illustrated. An abstract of a paper by Professor E. S. Morse, on changes in the proportions of Mya and Lunatia since the Indian shell- mound period (if such an expression may be permitted when the mounds were probably added to continuously up to the historic period), appears on p. 323, Am. Journ. Sci., xx, Oct., 1881, and an erratum to the same on p. 415. Professor Morse, as in Jap- anese shell-heaps, believes he has found good evidence of a change in the proportions of these shells in the differences be- tween the average measurements of a large number of specimens from the shell-heaps on the one hand, and from the present shore on the other. While there seems no reason why such a change may not have taken place, it is still evident that the satisfactory demonstration of the proposition is beset with no little difficulty. - The original paper was read before-the Cincinnati meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, in Au- gust, 1881. S. P. Robins has an article on “ Natural selection and the ink bag of dibranchiate Cephalopods,” in the Canadian Naturalist (1x, No. 9, pp. 414-420, Dec. 29, 1880), containing some specula- tions on this subject. Minot has, in the Journal of Otology for 1881, an article in which the available information on the otoliths of mollusks is brought together, but the recorder has not seen a copy of it. Abyssal mollusks, faunal and descriptive papers. — The mol- lusks of the deep sea have recently. attracted considerable atten- tion. Owing to their peculiar relations to the faunæ of other shores, the deep-sea animals have some right to be considered under a separate head. Those of the Gulf of Mexico and the - Caribbean sea, dredged by the Blake, form the subject of a “ Pre- liminary report on the Mollusca,” by W. H. Dall (Bull. Mus. Comp. Zodl., 1x, No. 2, pp. 33-144, July to December, 1881). To secure priority, advance sheets of each signature were sent to all 884 American Work on Recent Mollusca in 1881. [November, those most interested, and the work has benefited in several cases by the criticism and information thus elicited before its comple- tion. The following new genera or subgenera are proposed: An- cistrosyrinx, Bathymophila, Callogaza, Fluxina, Microgaza, Neilo- nella and Turcicula. The family Pleurotomariidz is defined from observations on the soft parts. About 150 new species are described, many of which are liable to turn up or have turned up in far distant regions. The genus Macrodon Lycett, hitherto known as a fossil, furnishes a minute representative to the list. The most numerous additions are in the Solenoconcha, Pleuro- tomide, Trochidz, Marginellide and the genera Triforis, Nezra, Leda and various opisthobranchiate groups. Among the, latter, Atys ? bathymophila (\. c. p. 98) has since proved to belong to the (fossil) genus Sabalia. The synonymy of the genus Puncturella; of Pleurotomaria (which is shown to be quotable as of Sowerby, not, as usually, of Defrance); of Crepidula and of Gouldia, is worked out. The latter is shown to be tenable as well as the specific names given by Professor C. B. Adams, in spite of a con- trary opinion which had been expressed by Mr. E. A. Smith, of the British Museum, who had in his excellent review of the genus, omitted to observe that the portions of D'Orbigny’s Mol- lusques de Cuba, in which his species of Gouldia (Adams) were published, dates from later than 1846 (probably 1853); unlike the earlier part, of which advance sheets were issued in 1841-2. The little Crassatellas, with which American conchologists are more familiar under the name of Gouldia (like “ Gouldia ” mac- . tracea) than they are with the more tropical type of the genus (G. cerina Ad.), are hardly separated by any definite characters from the typical Crassatella, though they were called Eriphyla by Gabb. It may be well to call attention to the necessity for circum- spection in describing these deep-water forms on which natural- ists are working in several .countries, to point out that at least two of the writer’s species of Nezra, N. Amatu/a and lamelhifer ee have been redescribed subsequently as W. contracta and N. semi- strigosa, by Dr. Jeffreys, who, however, atones for his synonymy | by some excellent figures. Modiola lutea (Jeffr. MS.) Fischer (Journ. de Conchyl., Jan., 1882), is without doubt identical with Modiola polita V.and S. The wide range of many of these deep-5°a forms and their existence in a fossil state in Italian and Sicilian 1882. | American Work on Recent Mollusca in 188r. 885 Tertiaries, render the workeof identification and determination of new forms peculiarly difficult, and the writer himself may doubt- less have erred, unintentionally, in taking for new what may, hereafter, be found already described. For all corrections or emendations he will be very grateful. A considerable number still remain to be worked up, of which several will doubtless prove new. There were no new brachiopods in the Agassiz- Sigsbee collection, but in the Agassiz-Bartlett dredgings of the fol- lowing year there seem to be several, of which a fine Terebratula, larger and more elongated than T. vifrea, with a strong, squarely flexed anterior margin, relatively small appressed apex, and a loop shaped much like that of T. sphenoidea Ph., is proposed to be called Z. bartlettii, in honor of Commander Bartlett, U.S.N., its discoverer in the deep waters of the Antilles. All the new spe- cies will be illustrated in the final report now in preparation. “ Notice of the remarkable marine fauna occupying the outer banks off the southern coast of New England ” (No. 2), by E. A. Verrill (Am, Your. Sci., xx, Oct., 1881, pp. 292-303). In this paper, a continuation of others heretofore mentioned, Professor Verrill gives the details in regard to a number of stations at which deep-sea dredgings were made by the Fiskhawk in 1880 and 1881, a list of fishes obtained and notes on the more inter- esting mollusca. Ina note Moroteuthis, n. g., is proposed with Lestoteuthis (? ) robusta (Dall) V., from the North Pacific, as type. The following new species are described: Zssa ramosa Verrill and Emerton, Pholadomya arata Verrill and Smith, Mytilimeria flexu- osa Verrill and Smith, Diplodonta turgida V. and S., and Dolium bairdii V. and S. The latter was also obtained by the Blake ex- pedition in deep water off the Antilles, and is closely allied to a small deep-water Mediterranean species, D. crosseanum Monte- rosato, - “ Repert on the Cephalopods [of the Blake expedition], (etc.),” by A. E. 'Verrill, (Bull. Mus. Comp. Zodl.; vit, pp. IT 16, 8 pl., March, 1881.) This paper includes figures and descriptions of eight species of cephalopods supposed to be already known, to- gether with Mastigoteuthis agassizii V. g. et sp. n., and Eledone ver- rucosa, sp. n. The figures are admirable, the text is revised in the second part of Professor Verrill’s “ Cephalopods of the N. E. coast of America,” elsewhere noticed, which should be consulted for some changes in the nomenclature here used. 886 American Work on Recent Mollusca in 1881. [November, Intimately related to the material forming the subject of the foregoing papers, is that treated of in a paper “ On certain Lim- pets and Chitons from the the deep waters off the eastern coast of the United States” (Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1881, pp. 400-414), by W. H. Dall. Certain very ordinary-looking little limpets from deep water were kindly submitted to the author by Professor Verrill, together with specimens of his Lepetella tubicola. The examination showed that these forms were of the highest inter- est, and belonged to two orders, Rhiphidoglossa and Docoglossa, most of the species appearing to be blind. Of the former group there were three species belonging to two genera, both nearer to each other than to any described genus of the order, but differ- ing so much as to necessitate their separation into distinct fam- ilies which are described as follows: Family Cocculinide Dall, containing the genus Cocculina Dall, with the two new species, C. rathbuni and C. beanii. The dentition closely resembles that of Parmophorus and Helicina, and indicates a relation of this family to the following one, such as in the Pulmonata is sustained . by the Cyclostomacea to the Cyclotacea as defined by Troschel. The internal and external anatomy present a curious mingling of features supposed to be characteristic of the Docoglossa and Rhiphidoglossa. The second family, Addisoniide Dall, includes the genus Addisonia with the new species A. paradoxa. This has a remarkable shell resembling Pilidium Midd. (Capu- lacmza Sars). It, or closely allied species, has been described from the Mediterranean, under the name of Gadinia excen- _trica Tiberi, but it has no relations with Gadinia. The soft parts are crowded to one side to make room for a curi- ously exaggerated gill or rather series of branchial leaflets. The dentition is different from anything hitherto recorded in the Rhiphidoglossa, showing Docoglossal features, while the remain- der of the anatomy is less like the true limpets than that of Coc- culina. Among the Docoglossa the characters of Lepetella Ver- rill are determined, It presents certain peculiarities and, for the group, a very abnormal dentition, which have led the writer to separate it in a distinct subfamily, Lepetelline from Lepeta, etc Pectinodonta arcuata, n. g. et sp., is proposed for a curious form allied to Scutellina, blind and with a dentition composed of one large pectinate lateral on each side of the median line. The wri- ter suggests that the peculiarities of the Docoglossal dentition 1882. | Progress of Invertebrate Paleontology, etc. 887 may perhaps best be accounted for by conceding to the group a normal dentition of zg, which by consolidation or suppression of teeth would cover all the forms yet investigated. The species of Chitonidz found in deep water on the American coast are enumerated, and the paper’ concludes with a scheme of classification of the Docoglossa brought up to date from that proposed by the writer twelve years previously. (To be continued.) :0: PROGRESS OF INVERTEBRATE PALAZONTOLOGY IN THE UNITED STATES FOR THE YEAR 1881. BY C. A. WHITE. WE have not to record the death of any worker in invertebrate palæontology during the past year, and the names of those who have published the results of their investigations during 1881, are mostly well known through their previous labors. The following account of work published during the past year is not really the measure of the amount that has been done; for some of those who are most deeply engaged in the work, have pub- lished very little within that time. Those gentlemen have kindly kept me informed of the progress of the work they have in hand, and mention is made of some of these in the following para- graphs : Mr. S. W. Ford has continued his studies of the primordial fauna, and has published a very interesting paper on the “ Em- bryonic forms of Trilobites from the Primordial rocks of Troy, N. Y., in the American ¥ournal of Science, Vol. XXII, pp. 250-259, with 13 woodcuts. Also “ Remarks on the genus Obolella,” in Vol. xx1, of the same journal, pp. 131-134, with 5 woodcuts. Professor James Hall informs me that “ no reports of the New ork State Museum having been printed for the past three years,” he has a large amount of work awaiting publication. As these works may be expected to appear soon, only brief reference need be made to them now. l This paper did not appear until April, 1882, but on account of its relations to- other material here treated of, the recorder has taken the liberty of calling attention toit. Those interested in deep-sea mollusks should also consult a paper in the Fournal de Conchyliologie, by Dr Paul Fischer, entitled “ Diagnoses d’espéces nou- Velles de Mollusques recueillis dans le cours des expeditions scientifiques de l’aviso- le Travailleur (1880-81),” I. c. pp. 49-53» Jan., 1882. 888 Progress of Invertebrate Paleontology [November, The museum report for 1880 is to contain some further work of Professor Hall’s on the Bryozoans and Lamellibranchiates. The report for 1881 will contain the completion of the Lamellibranchi- ates and a continuation of the Bryozoans and corals, a discussion of Uphantznia and Dictyophyton, &c., &c. The report for 1882 will contain the completion of the work on Bryozoans and corals. The appendix to Vol. v, Part u, of the Paleontology of New York, with 16 plates, is near completion. Professor Angelo Heilprin has continued his original investiga- tions in connection with his professional duties at the Philadel- phia Academy of Natural Sciences. The following is a list of the articles published by him during the past year, all of which have appeared in the Proceedings of the academy for 1881: “ Notes on the Tertiary geology of the Southern United States,” pp. 151-159: “A revision of the cis-Mississippi Tertiary Pectens of the United States ;” “Remarks on the Molluscan genera Hip- pagus, Verticordia and Pecchiolia ;’ “ Note on the approximate position of the Eocene deposits of Maryland,” and “ A revis- ion of the Tertiary species of Arca of the Eastern and South- ern United States.” Professor Heilprin has other works in progress besides the arrangement and classification of the collec- -tion of the academy. Professor Alpheus Hyatt has published the work mentioned in my last review, on the “ Genesis of the Tertiary species of Plan- orbis at Steinheim,” in the Anniversary Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History, 114 pages and ọ plates. A synopsis of this work, together with other matter, was pub- lished in the Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Vol. xxx, pp. 527-550, with two plates, under the title, “ Transformations of Planorbis at Steinheim, with remarks on the effects of gravity upon the forms of shells and animals.” During the summer of 1881 Professor Hyatt, to- gether with a party of his assistants and students, visited Anti- costi and other places in a yacht, for scientific study. Concern- ing his palzontological studies, he says: “I found specimens of Beatricia showing the terminal part to be an open cup. I also found natural sections exhibiting what seem to be vertical septa similar to those of Cystiophyllum.” His memoir on the Am- monites is now ready for the press. : In June of last year Mr. U. P. James published a paper in No. 1882. ] in the United States for the year 1881. 889 5 of The Paleontologist, pp. 33-44, which contains descriptions of a number of species of fossils by Mr. James, under the general title of “ Contributions to Palzontology: Fossils of the Lower Silurian formation, Ohio, Indiana and Kentucky.” During the past year Mr. S. A. Miller has published the follow- ing articles in the Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History: “ Description of some new and remarkable Crinoids and other fossils from the Hudson River group, and notice of Strotocrinus bloomfieldensis,’ Vol. 1v, pp. 69-77, illustrated on plate 1 ; “ New species of fossils and remarks upon others from the Niagara group of Illinois,’ Vol. 1v, pp. 166-176, illustrated on plate 4; “ Descriptions of new species of fossils,” Vol. 1v, pp. 259-262, illustrated on plate 6; “ Description of new species of fossils from the Hudson River group, and remarks upon others,” Vol. 1v, pp. 316-319, illustrated on plate 8. In the second of these articles Mr. Miller describes the new genus Zenocrinus, and in the last the new molluscan genus Pyanomya. He also continues his “Remarks on the Cenozoic age or Tertiary period,” in No. 4 of Vol. 111, and Nos. 1, 2 and 3 of Vol. 1v of the same journal. Mr. Samuel H. Scudder is still actively engaged upon work pertaining to fossil insects. Five installments of his “ Bibliog- raphy of Fossil Insects ” have appeared since the first two, men- tioned in my last review. These seven parts comprise something over thirty pages, His memoir on the “ Devonian Insects of New Brunswick has appeared in the Anniversary Memoirs of the Bos- ton Society of Natural History, 41 pages quarto. His article on the “Structure and Affinities of Euphoberia,” appeared in the American Fournal of Science, Vol. XX1, pp. 182-186; and that on the “ Tertiary Lake Basin at Florissant, Colorado,” in the Bulle- tin of the United States Geological Survey of the Territories, Vol. v1, pp. 279-300, and also a map. The following have also appeared from his pen during the past year: “A notice of Goss’ Papers on fossil insects,” in Psyche, Vol. 11, p. 138; “On two new British Carboniferous insects, with remarks on those already known,” Geological Magazine, Vol. vill, pp. 293-300, with one figure; “Remarks on a remarkable Carboniferous Millipede,” Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, Vol. XX1, P. 122; “On Lithosialis hohenica,” ib. p. 167; “ Relation of De- vonian insects to late and existing types,” American Fournal of Science, Vol. xx1, pp. 111-117. 890 , Progress of Invertebrate Paleontology [November, Mr. Scudder has also nearly completed works on fossil spiders and the Archipolypoda. Part u of the “ Revision of the Palzocrinoidea,’ by Messrs. Charles Wachsmuth and Frank Springer has appeared in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadel- phia for 1871, pp. 1-237, and three plates. This important and exhaustive work embraces the family Spheroidocrinidz, with the subfamilies Platycrinida, Rhodocrinide and Actinocrinide. It is greatly to be desired that nothing will occur to prevent the consummation of the plan of these gentlemen to complete this work for the whole order. Mr, C. D. Walcott has published his memoir, which was an- nounced in my last review, on “ The Trilobite; new and old evi- dence relating to its organization,” in the Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge, Vol. vHI, pp. 191-224, with six plates. This paper contains, among other matter, 4 résumé of all the evidence concerning the character of the ven- tral appendages of Trilobites, with illustrations of those organs. He has also published a brief article in the American Yournal of Science, Vol. XX, pp. 394, 395; “On the nature of Cyathophy- cus,” in which he expresses the opinion that the genus mentioned is a member of the same group to which Dictyophyton belongs, and which Professor Whitfield has shown to have close affinities with Euplectella, or the so-called glass-sponges. He is now en- gaged on some palzontological work for one of the divisions of the U. S. Geological Survey. _. Professor A. G. Wetherby has published the following papers in the Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History: “Description of Crinoids from the Upper Carboniferous of Pu- laski county, Kentucky,” Vol. m1, pp. 324-330, illustrated on plate 9; “ Description of new fossils from the Lower Silurian and Subcarboniferous rocks of Ohio and Kentucky,” Vol. 1v, pp» 77-85, illustrated on plate 2; “Description of new species of fossils from the Lower Silurian and Subcarboniferous rocks of Kentucky,” Vol. 1v, pp. 177-179, illustrated on plate 5. In my review for 1880 I inadvertently omitted to mention Pro- fessor R. P. Whitfield’s “ Notice of new forms of fossil Crusta- ceans from the Upper Devonian rocks of Ohio, with descriptions of new genera and species,” which appeared in the American Fournal of Science, Vol. x1x, pp. 33-42. The new genera are 1882.) ` = a the United States for the year 1881. 891 Echinocaris and Paleopalemon. During the past year he has published the six following articles: “ Observations on the struc- ture of Dictyophyton, and its affinities with certain sponges,” American Fournal of Science, Vol. XXII, pp. 132. This is accom- panied with a note by Dr. J. W. Dawson. “On the structure of a specimen of Uphantenia,” pp. 132, 133; “A new genus [An- thracopupa] and species of air-breathing mollusk from the Coal- measures of Ohio, and observations on Dawsonella,” American Journal of Science, Vol. XXI, pp. 125-128, with six wood-cuts ; “ Description of a new species of Crinoid from the Burlington limestone, at Burlington, Iowa,” Bulletin No. 1 of the American Museum of Natural History, pp. 7-9, plates 1-2; “ Remarks on Dictyophyton and descriptions of new species of allied forms from the Keokuk beds at Crawfordville, Indiana,” Bulletin No. 1 American Museum of Natural History, pp. 10-20, plates 3 and 4. This article contains also a reprint of Dr, Dawson’s observa- tions on Uphantenia already mentioned. Professor Whitfield is the first to announce the opinion that these and kindred bodies are closely related to the so-called glass-sponges. “ Observations on the purposes of the embryonic sheaths of Endoceras and their bearing on the origin of the siphon in the Orthoce'rata,” Bulletin No. 1 American Museum of Natural History, pp. 20-28, and three wood-cuts. Besides his stated work at the American Museum, he is engaged upon the paleontology of New Jersey. Professor Henry S. Williams has published in the Annals of the New York Academy of Natural Science, Vol. 11, No. 6, his complete paper on the “ Life-history of Spirifer levis,” of which an abstract was formerly published in the American Fournal of Science. ` ___ Professor A. S. Packard, Jr., has published, in the Bulletin of Hayden’s U. S. Geological Survey, a description, with figures, of a new species of fossil crayfish, under the name of Cambarus érimevus. The specimens were from the lower Tertiary fish beds Of Bear river, Wyoming Terr. In the American ¥ournal of Science, Vol. XXII, pp. 134-1 36, Mr. W. W. Dodge has an article announcing the discovery of Lower Silurian fossils in Penobscot county, Northern Maine. During the past year I have published the two following works: “On certain Cretaceous fossils from Arkansas and Colo- rado,” Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum, Vol. Iv, pp. 156-139, and one plate; “ Fossils of the Indiana rocks,” Annual report for 1880 of the Indiana Geological Survey, pp. 103-154, -and eleven plates. I have also several other works now in the _Printer’s hand. l See Amer. NAT., Vol. xv, p. 832. 892 The Number of Bones at present known [November, THE NUMBER OF BONES AT PRESENT KNOWN IN THE PECTORAL AND PELVIC LIMBS OF BIRDS. BY R. W. SHUFELDT. N many birds, as the Ætomorphæ, Psittacomorphe, Coraco- morphe of Huxley, we find at the back and upper part of the glenoid cavity, a sesamoid long known to ornithotomists as the os humero-scapulare ; this bone can in no way be claimed as be- longing to the category of bones that enter the pectoral limb, as it increases the articular surface of the glenoid cavity, and in so oing properly belongs to the scapular apparatus, being accessory to the shoulder girdle. In the arm {we have then but one bone, the humerus, in the forearm, or antibrachium, we find two, the radius and ulna, and in the angle formed by the articulation of the latter two with the humerus, or the elbow, we detect in many birds (Turdide and others), lodged at its posterior aspect, quite a sizable sesamoid, crescentic in form, which seems to serve the purpose of protect- ing the joint. It reminds one not a little of a floating olecranon. Two of these sesamoids occur at the same locality among Guille- mots and Penguins (Owen). Among raptorial birds and in some few other families, we find articulating with one or both of the long bones of the antibrach- ium, at the distal end or ends as the case may be, another sesa- moid, the os prominens. The vast majority of adult birds, and indeed the writer does not recall a’single exception at this moment, possess v0 free carpal bones, the scapho-lunar and cuneiform. To these we have to add to our enumeration, several bones that are found in the wrist of some, but not all immature birds; these eventually, we know, all become anchylosed about the proximal extremities of the metacarpals. First in this list we have os magnum, the larg- est, that subsequently amalgamates with index metacarpal; next in order we discover the unciform (Morse), a diminutive segment found in some birds, that finally unites with the last metacarpal, and to these four the writer, two or three years ago, added a fift and called it the pisiform. For several reasons, however, I have been induced to change the name of this segment, and have done so in a memoir elsewhere, now in press, and called it the pentos- teon, it being the fifth carpal segment discovered up to date. + name is one that cannot be productive of harm nor confusion 1882. ] in the Pectoral and Pelvic Limbs of Birds. 893 after its true homology has been decided upon. In manus we have quite a number of bones, but we must recollect that the list here given does not occur in all birds. Immature birds, at vari- ous ages, present us with three free metacarpals; these are pretty generally, at present, taken to be the first or pollex metacarpal, second or index, and third or middle. All three of these bones anchylose together, and with certain carpals, as mentioned above, to form in the adult the bone usually known as the metacarpal, a far better name for which would be the carpo-metacarpal. Now pollex metacarpal may support one phalanx, or one pha- lanx and a claw, which may be covered with the common integu- ment, or pierce it and be sheathed with horn. Index metacarpal may possess as many as Zhree phalanges, the last or distal one ex- hibiting the same conditions as the distal joint of pollex; finally middle metacarpal supports.a single phalanx. To recapitulate then, we have those adult birds that possess the fewest number of bones in the pectoral limb, presenting us with a humerus, an ulna and radius, two free carpals, a metacar- pal and four phalanges, ez in all, but the complete list of the bones of the avian pectoral limb, up to the present time, are just double this number, though we do not know a single bird that can boast of having them all, either adult or young. The following is the complete list : rachium or arm == 1 = humerus. Sesamoid of the elbow Antibrachium or forearm N radius and ulna. N l FERII 4 q The carpal sesamoid = os prominens. = Í Two free carpals == scapho-lunar and cuneiform. i ` Other bones of the carpus = 3 = os magnum, unciform and pentosteon. 3 f Metacarpal 3 = first, second and third. Zt Phalanges = 6 = 2 for pollex, 3 for index and 1 for f: — [middle. Total 20 Very many more bones are found in the pelvic extremity of birds than we have just enumerated for the anterior limb, but as already remarked, probably no single bird, either adult or young, Possesses them all. The limb now under consideration is divided into thigh, leg, tarsus, metatarsus and toes. To the thigh is allotted one bone, the femur, while on the other hand the leg or the next division below, has two principal long bones, sa heavy one constituting the main support, the tibia, and —NO. XI, 894 The Number of Bones at present known, etc. {November a lighter companion, the fibula, on its outer side.’ Up to the pres- ent date I know of but two free bones that occur about the knee- joint; the first of these is the patella, and this may co-exist with the, cnemial ridge of tibia, as in Colymbus (Owen). The other is a free sesamoid found in some birds, in a notch at the head of the fibula (Speotyto). In at least one bird the head of the tibia, or rather its proximal extremity, may be formed by an epiphysis so large as to include in the young the extensive pro and ecto- cnemial ridges (Cinclus mexicanus). The fibula is never so far produced as to articulate with the tarsus or its elementary repre- sentatives. Young birds of several genera offer us for examina- tion at the distal end of the tibia, three distinct ossifications that eventually amalgamate with that bone and with each other. These have been described by Morse and afterwards by myself in the osteology of the Tetraonida, as the fibulare (outer one), the tibiale (the inner one) and the intermedium (above). In many birds , 2. e., Centrocercus, we find a large sesamoid in the tendons at the back of the joint formed by the tibia and tarso-metatarsus. Three bones unite to form the bone of the so-called tarsus of birds ; they are the second, third and fourth metatarsals, and in immature birds we find their proximal extremities covered by an — epiphysis, the centrale of Morse, that may represent the united bones of ‘the distal row of tarsus. This epiphysis: may rest just on the summit of the united metatarsals and zof include that process found at the upper and posterior aspect of | the bone tarso-metatarsus, the much disputed “ calcaneal ” process (Centrocercus), or it may dip down behind and completely include it (Cinclus), This fact will obviously do away with my terming this process the tendinous, as I did in my osteology of Lanius, and leave quite a knotty point for ornithologists to settle in the way of serial homologies. The first metatarsal is found articulating on the lower and outer edge of the inner metatarsal as he os metatarsale accessorium. A small sesamoid may be found beyond the trochlez of the tarso-metatarsus, as in Eremophila. The number and arrangement of the phalanges in the feet, as found in. the various families and orders of birds is too well known to enter upon in so short a sketch as this simply pretends tobe. The greatest, and at the same time the most usual num- ber of separate joints, is fourteen, distributed in the order, 2, 3, 4 5, running from first to fourth toe respectively. Among other 1382. | Editors’ Table. 895 birds we find only thirteen, twelve and eleven, and still fewer in such forms as the ostrich and emeu. To tabulate our list then, we find for the Thigh t => Femur. Leg 2 = tibia and fibula. 2 = patella and sesamoid of fibula. Tibio-tarsus 3 = tibiale, fibulare and intermedium. - “Tarsus l Tarso-metatarsus I v. Sesamoid between them I Metatarsus co = centrale = tarsal sesam = three in ia metatarsus and the os metatarsale accessorium. | | Sesamoid beyond = I = podal sesamoid Phalanges 14 = greatest number in one foot. Total 29 in pelvic limb. In this enumeration the reader will observe that if I have left out any such ossifications as the tendons may assume, they properly belong to the muscular system. | :0:—— EDITORS’ TABLE. EDITORS: A. S. PACKARD, JR., AND E. D. COPE. The consensus of scientific opinion regarding the mental Condition of Guiteau, is at present identical with that expressed in our editorial of August, 1881. The importance of the exami- nation of the brain of this person has not been overlooked, and an investigation has accordingly been made. The brain was de- livered tqasome medical gentlemen of Philadelphia, and the report of one of them has been published in the newspapers. The result is about what was to have been anticipated where a simply medical expert is selected for such a work. The business of the physician being to alleviate and cure disease, his studies are chiefly in the direction of pathology (or diseased structure) and therapeutics, So the investigation of the brain of Guiteau, as reported by Dr. Shakespeare, was confined to a search for the €vidence of disease. Like the other medical experts who testi- fied during the trial, he seems to be ignorant of the science of anthropology, and of the various types of structure presented by € mammalian and especially the human brain. As was the Case during the trial, the question of malformation is not referred to. Yet all mental qualities, normal and abnormal, doubtless depend on peculiarities of brain structure, such as may be totally independent of the question of disease. The study of the rela- Pie. ats Pi ica TSEN 896 Editors’ Table. [ November, tive sizes, etc., of the masses forming the brain, is but the thres- hold of the investigation. The study of the cell-structure, on which so much depends, is a work of years, and the science of the anatomy of these parts has yet to be created. And yet the report before us does not hesitate to enter the perilous question of responsibility, and to make assertions regarding the freedom of Guiteau’s will! Truly the need of an education in the nat- ural sciences for medical men was never more strikingly displayed _ than in the Guiteau trial, and this its irrelevent appendix. It is just now the fashion among the editors of the news- paper press to decry Arctic exploration. The scientific results to be obtained by such investigations are, however, too in:portant to be surrendered to a temporary sentiment. As long as persons are found willing to undertake such expeditions, they should be sent, and the responsibility of their fate will rest with themselves. alone, The loss of most of Lieut. DeLong’s party, however, is the more to be regretted since it seems to have been unnecessary, The greater part of their number might apparently have been saved, had they divested themselves of the unreasonable preju- dice against eating human flesh. t has been reported that a number of the council of the: British Association for the Advancement of Science, agreed to a proposition to meet in 1884, in Montreal. It is further reported that other members have expressed dissatisfaction with this course, and desire to have the decision reversed. Such a meet- ing in this country would undoubtedly interfere with the meeting of the American Association the same year by drawing members from it. The more agreeable alternative would be to have the meetings combined into one grand association. The only objec- tion to this proposition is the greater mass of papers that would be brought before such a meeting, and the greater length of time required to transact its business than has hitherto been thought available for the meetings of either association. is objection could be gotten over by restricting the number : of papers; but the difficulty of doing this satisfactorily 15 obvious. —— The editor of the Gardeners’ Monthly, who is also a con- tributor to the New York /udependent, has several times recently presented himself as an antagonist of the NATURALIST. Being laced by our critic in the excellent company of Mr. Darwin, Professor Gray and Mr. Riley, we have heretofore permitted our friend to enjoy the diversion all to himself. We had hoped that the failure of his attempted corrections of these well-known authorities, would have inspired him with a little caution. But we now think it time to apply the language used: by the late . Darwin in a letter to one of our editors, that this gentleman “is the most inaccurate man he had ever known.” We think Mre 1882. | Recent Literature. 897 Darwin a little severe, however, when he says, “he has done more injury to science in America, than he had ever done it good.” If he had said Philadelphia instead of America, we would have been more disposed to agree with him. — We publish to-day an article on the Calaveras skull, by the distinguished naturalist, Dr. W. O. Ayres. Dr. Ayres gives the fossil mammalia found in the Pliocene gold gravel of Califor- mia (p. 851) as the “rhinoceros, Elotherium, horse, ox, camel, etc.” We pointed out in the NaturA.ist for January, 1880, that the occurrence of rhinoceros and Elotherium in these beds is im- possible, unless transported from a long distance. The Elo- therium, especially, could only have been brought there by man from Central Oregon or farther off. For camel should be read lama. :0! RECENT LITERATURE. Houcn’s ELEMENTS oF ForEstry.—There has long been a de- mand for a book on the important subject of forestry, and in some respects that want is now met in the book under considera- tion. The general plan of Dr. Hough’s book is excellent, and difficult as the subject is, he has in the main succeeded well in presenting it in an interesting and instructive manner. he suc- cessive chapters treat of soils and their preparation ; climate, etc.; reproduction from seed; propagation; buds, leaves, wood, etc. ; general views in regard to forestry; forestry laws; European forestry ; ornamental planting ; hedges, etc.; cutting and season- ing of wood; fuel, charcoal, etc.; forest fires; other injuries; 1n- sects ; preservation of wood; turpentine, rosin, and other pro- ducts. The chapters covering the foregoing subjects take up somewhat more than one-half of the book, and they are for the Most part quite satisfactory. The one which is most disappoint- ing is that on insects. We may hope that in a second edition this chapter will be rewritten and supplied with figures of Ameri- Dr. DeHass, in his papers, gave the benefit of his own personal experience in exploration, and in one of them brought together all the various instances in which the antiquity of man has been alleged on our continent. We have seen these stories frequently before in different places, but Dr. DeHass has certainly done a great service in making them stand up in a line together. The next meeting will be in Minneapolis, where more strenu- ous efforts must be put forth to make our section the best of all. GEOLOGY AND PALAONTOLOGY. THEORIES OF THE ORIGIN OF THE Lorss.—Baron Richthofen (Geol. Mag. July, 1882) writes upon the origin of the Loess, in answer to H. H. Howorth. He states that, petrographically, stratigraphically and zoologically the Loess differs from all other formations; that in its nearly perfect homogeneousness it con- trasts strongly with sedimentary strata deposited in shallow water ; that between ridges of considerable height it fills up the ollows, presenting a concave surface; that its composition 1s everywhere hydrated silicate of lime, with some quartz and mica; that there is no stratification; that the tubes, incrusted by car- bonate of lime, may be seen taken up by rootlets where vegeta- tion occurs; that the shells are almost all land shells; that the mammalian remains are those of animals living on the steppes; and that whenever the Loess fills a basin between two hills, the slopes are covered by angular fragments of the adjoining rock. Water action will not explain these facts. Wind action will. Repeated depositions and repeated growths of grass explain the capillary structure. Dust storms in the present age deposit a measurable thickness of yellow dust wherever there is vegetation, and in districts where grass is the chief growth, successive de- posits may reach hundreds and thousands of feet. The steppe basins of Mongolia have a structure similar to that of the Loess, and all that is needed to give those basins the characteristic Loess scenery is water and an outward drainage. Baron Richthofen’s paper is followed by a continuation of Mr. 1882. ] Geology and Paleontology. ; 92E mixed with the lighter. Baron Richthofen asserts that the Loess- covered portions of Europe must have had a steppe climate long enough for the deposit to be formed, but if so, how could the Helices and other damp-loving molluscs exist? Whence did the dust come to form this vast deposit? Wind blowing over grass raises no dust. As, according to Baron Richthofen the steppes of Mongolia are really Loess, and as the Loess is known to exist in Russia, where can we possibly look for a dry area large enough to supply this dust? 5 ; ` V. Wood contributes an additional theory to this much vexed question. In arctic climates where the soil is not covered by ice, the surface would annually thaw and be converted into mud by the melted snow. On all inclined surfaces it would slide downward from the frozen soil below, and thus leave a fresh surface exposed to the same agencies. Repeated depositions of this mud would fill the valley, and constitute the Loess. Nevapa.—Monday evening, Aug. 28th, tl Scien. held a special meeting, with Vice-President Justin P. Moore Footprints,” read by Joseph Le Conte, M.D., L.L.D., Professor in the Universityof California. He began by explaining that his atten- now uncovered, and found there the diligently at work, with whom he, as only a member, desired Most heartily to codperate. He then described the locality as a remnant of a sandstone elevation, which had been cut into by €rosion. An opening about 100 yards square had been quarried into the ledge, which is surroun i cliffs from 10 to 32 feet high, on t 922 General Notes. | November, level strata appear well exposed. The strata consist of heavy bedded, grayish and creamy sandstone, separated by thin layers of shale. The sandstones in many places, especially in the eastern cliff, are strongly affected with cross laminations, indicating de- posit by rapid shifting, overloaded currents—in other words, river flood deposits. We have, therefore, the mouth of an ancient stream. There appear to have been two shale floors about two feet apart, on which layer tracks are found. The whole area un- covered is literally strewn with these tracks. Parts of the area cleared have been trampled over by men and horses for eight or ten years, without attracting scientific attention. Their impor- tance was first recognized by the intelligent Warden, Major Garrard, and their hardness has been the means of preserving them. Besides the tracks, a considerable number of fossils have been found which may assist in determining their age. Among these are fragments of tusks and molars of an elephant, and molars and fragments of jaws containing molar teeth of two species of horse. These were but imperfectly petrified.. Two species of fresh-water shells have been found, an Anodonta and Sphzrium, also one Gastropod, Physa. Vegetable remains are also abundant, occuring mostly as matted masses of silicified herbaceous plants. The age of the strata seems difficult to determine, but judging from the mammalian remains alone, there can be no doubt that the deposit is either Quaternary or the Upper Pliocene.’ The molars discovered at Carson, above the tracks, indicate the Elephas primigenius rather than the americanus. The teeth of the horse indicate the Lguus major, which although similar to modern horses, was somewhat larger. The lithification of the strata and fossilization of plants and organic remains, and the slight tilting of the strata, may be adduced as evidence of an earlier age than the Quaternary. The strata somewhat resemble a lake terrace deposit. Although Miocene lake deposits are here not far off, Professor Le Conte thought the presence of horse and elephant a bar tothat age, The ancient Pliocene lake was the most ex- tensive, covering the whole basin region from the Sierra Nevada to the Wahsatch. Its extensive deposits have been largely covered up by the later deposits of the two great Quaternary lakes in the same region. Carson plains was about 240 feet above the level of these latter lakes; hence, a smaller and very shallow contemporaneous lake must have existed at a higher level, probably emptying into the greater lake. he tracks supposed to be human naturally excite the greatest interest, being several hundred in number. No one who studies them can fail to observe their remarkable general resemblance to human tracks, both in their form and in the apparent singleness ofeach impression. Their size calls for explanation ; although 1 The age was indicated as Pliocene from specimens sent one of the Editors, im the NATURALIST, March, 1882, p. 195. 1882. ] Geology and Paleontology. 923 well defined as rights and lefts, their straddle is unusually wide. He thought they might have been made by a human foot en- closed in a rawhide sandal much larger externally than the foot. This would at first make a flat track until soaked through, after which it would leave a round impression, but no toe marks. If not by man the tracks could only be made by some clumsy plan- tigrade quadruped like a bear or a gigantic ground sloth, My- lodon, such as lived in the Quaternary. Professor Le Conte desired to hold his final scientifically expressed opinion in reserve, awaiting further testimony. The interest among scientific men is intense on any subject calculated to show evidence of the an- tiquity of man, especially in Pliocene or Miocene ages. ORIGIN AND MoDE OF FORMATION OF SALINE MINERAL WATERS. —M. Dreulefait, in a lecture upon this subject recently delivered before the French Scientific Association, took occasion to dis- credit the usual theories which attribute the formation of the beds of the gypsum, rock-salt, etc., that mineralize such waters, to the action of sulphuric acid from the depths of the globe, or to any other izternal agency, and to attribute their origin entirely to causes acting exteriorly to the primitive crust of the earth. The rocks forming the first solid envelope must have solidified at a temperature of 2000° to 2500° C., at which chlorine, sulphur and their combinations must have existed completely disassocia- ted in the atmosphere. Chloride of sodium would form at a comparatively high temperature because it can support such a temperature without disassociation of its elements, but chloride of magnesia could not, since it decomposes at 100 in the presence of water, have been formed until the temperature of the earth was about 100 C., and the greater part of the water was already condensed. ere, then, is the source of the salts found in the earth’s crust, in the sea, and in mineral waters. The water, condensed by the lowered temperature, dissolved the soluble salts already deposited, as well as those continuously produced by the action of the acids within it. These salts were principally sulphides and chlor- ides produced by the union of sulphur and chlorine with the metals sodium, lithium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium already deposited in the more ancient crust of the earth. ooo us the masses of chloric and sulphuric salts which exist in the sedimentary beds of the globe have been formed by the spon- taneous evaporation of isolated portions of the ocean. This can be verified by the facts which occur in the evaporation of sea-water for the production of salt. The substances precipita- ted, in the order of their occurence, are : ; I. A feeble deposit of carbonate of lime with traces of strontian, and of sesquioxyde of iron mixed with a little manganese. 2, Gypsum. This deposit does not occur until the water has by evaporation diminished to one-fifth of its original volume. aa a General Notes. [ November, 3. Common Salt. The deposit of gypsum ceases when .88 _of the original volume of water has evaporated, and that of salt commences when only one-tenth of the volume remains, and continues till that quantity has been reduced one-half. 4. Sulphate of magnesia. A still further evaporation causes .the deposition of this. salt, -mingled however, with chloride of sodium. When the only three parts-out of a hundred remain, the quantities of sulphate of magnesia and common salt are equal. 5. Carnallibe, or double chloride of potassium and magnesium. - „This is deposited when the water has been reduced to a little less than one-fiftieth of its original volume. : Spontaneous evaporation goes no further; a bitter mother sum and salt occur, and there only. M. Dreulefait goes on to state that he has proved his deductions by observations carried on throughout a considerable portion of Southern Europe an Northern Africa, and has come to the conclusion that the pre- sence or absence of volcanic agencies makes no difference to the quantity of boracic acid found in saliferous districts. The salt springs of the non-volcanic parts of the south of France, > zerland, and Germany are as rich in boracic acid ‘as those of the -= ophitic districts of Engadine or the Pyrenees. } ~ The lecturer then treated of the salt pools formed in the delta 1882] Geology and Paleontology: 925 The water of the dead sea is a mother liquor, from which the saline masses found around it have been derived. M. Lorbet, in his explorations of Palestine, discovered, especially around Lake Tiberias, now 212 metres below the Mediterranean, a plateau THE SO-CALLED LEADVILLE PoRPHYRY. — Professor Alexis Julien read a paper at the Montreal meeting of the American PERMIAN VERTEBRATA.—Professor Cope read a paper before the American Philosophical Society in which he described the pelvic arch of the Diadectide, and the following new species from the Texas Permian: Pelycosauria, Edaphosaurus (g. n.) pogontas, which is allied to Pantylus, and proves that that genus must Placed in the Theromorphous order. Ectocynodon aguti. Micro- sauria, Diplocaulus magnicornis, a remarkable species with a large flat horn on each side of the cranium. Rachitomi, Acheloma (gen. allied to Eryops) cumminsi, and Anisodexis (g. n. allied to Leptophractus) imbricarius. Grotocicat News.—In the American Journal of Science, S. H. Scudder shows that Palzeocampa, from the carboniferous strata of Illinois, is a myriapod of a new and strange type. Paleocampa has ten equal body segments, each with a pair of stout, blunt legs, and four stiff-spreading bunches of spines of : complex structure. VOL, XvI.—nNo, x1, 62 926 General Notes. [ November, Archipolypoda are the precursors of the Diplopoda, and the discovery of these types prove that at this early period the di- vergencies of structure among myriapods were as great as they are to-day. In the same journal Méssrs. McGee and Call write upon the Loess of Des Moines, Iowa, giving faunal tables of the fossils, which have a less aquatic facies than the modern mollusca of the same district. Messrs. Scott and Osborn describe Ortho- cynodon, an ancestor of the Rhinoceros, from the Bridger Beds of Wyoming. It is the oldest known representative of the line, and differs from Amynodon in the erect lower canines, similarity of premolars and molars and other particulars. He has little of the rhinocerotic character in the skull, but the possession of ca- nines and loss of the median incisors point it out as related to Amynodon. MINERALOGY.' Tue acrionor Hear upon Crystats oF BoraciTE.—Mallardcon- tributes to the Mineralogical Society of France an interesting paper upon the change which heat produces in the optical properties of boracite. The leading mineralogists of Germany—Klein, Zirkel, Groth, etc., hold that such changes are due simply to unequal in- crystals around a point, is again strongly urged by Mallard in the present paper. He supposes each individual of the pseudo-sym- metrical crystal to be a pyramid whose base forms a face of the external dodecahedron, and whose summit is at the center of the crystal. By cutting sections in various directions through the crystal, and examining them optically both before and after heat- ing, he shows that there are persistent optical properties which cannot be explained by irregular tension. He concludes that by the action of an intense and prolonged heat, a series of very thin plates are formed, alternately twinned with each other according to a definite crystallographic law. He shows that analogous phe- nomena may be produced by the action of heat upon sulphate of potash, and that such invariable phenomena could not be pro- duced by tension or pressure in a colloid substance. PREHNITE.—This zeolite, so frequent in rocks of igneous ' origin, and recently found to so frequently exhibit curious opti- cal properties, has been carefully described by Professor B. K. Emerson in its associations and alterations in the Deerfield Dike of Connecticut. Prehnite is regarded as the oldest mineral in the veins in which it appears. Frequently the motion of the rock walls produces slickensides upon the prehnite, and sometimes 1 Edited by Professor H. Carvitt Lewis, Academy or Natural Sciences, Phila- delphia, to whom communications, papers for review, etc., should be sent. 1882. | Mineralogy. 927 breaks it up into sheets, which are re-cemented by prehnite. The prehnite often encloses diabantite, and then varies in color from deep oil-green to jet-black. This black prehnite is sometimes combed out by the slipping rock into long fibres, resembling hornblende or chrysotile. The prehnite also occurs asa finely crystallized double cone or spindle, forming beautiful specimens, This peculiar form is the result of the twinning of three individuals around a common axis, and the resulting optical properties are peculiar. Prehnite also occurs in amydaloidal cavities which are blackened as though held in the flame of a candle. A black sub- stance covers the fibres of prehnite, looking like a net-work of soot-covered cobwebs. This black substance is the result of alter- ation, and is probably chlorophzite. In other cases the prehnite has changed into a pale-green scaly mass, which appears to be diabantite. American Monazites.—In the American Journal of Science for October, Professor E. S. Dana and Mr. S. L. Penfield contribute valuable articles upon American monazites. From a careful measurement of a small monazite crystal from Alexander county, North Carolina, by Profesgor E S. Dana, the following axial ratio was obtained: c (vert) : b : à = 0.95484 : 1.03163 : I B = 76° 20 A table is given containing a list of the more important angles calculated from these data, and agreeing closely with the results of goniometrical measurement. The axial ratio is closely related to that of monazites from other localities. Mr. Penfield has analyzed the monazites from Portland, Ct., from Burke county, N. C., and from Amelia county, Va. The latter is the substance originally thought to be an altered micro- lite. Each analysis showed a considerable percentage of thoria, there being over fourteen per cent. in the monazite from Amelia county, Va. In each case, if the thoria is omitted from the analy- sis, the ratio is obtained of (Ce, La, Di), Os : Ps Os = I : 1, this heing the ratio of a normal phosphate of the cerium metals, Os. Moreover, there is just sufficient silica in each analy- sis to make a thorium silicate. Since, therefore, some monazites contain no thoria, and the thoria is here present in varying amount, it is probable that thorium silicate exists as an impurity. That this is indeed the case was proved by examination of a thin section of the mineral under the microscope. A dark resinous substance was seen scattered through the section, and when the latter was moistened with hydrochloric acid, white blotches, com- posed of gelatinous silica took the place of the resinous spots, the rest of the section being unchanged. It is evident, therefore, that the thorium silicate is a foreign admixture in the monazite, It probably exists as thorite or orangite. 928 Generai Notes. [ November, MINERALS FROM PIKE’s PEAK.—Pike’s Peak has already become famous for the number and beauty of the mineral species in its vicinity. Besides the extraordinary specimens of amazon-stone (microcline) from that locality, there have been found smoky quartz, albite, fluorite, biotite, siderophyllite, columbite, gothite, arfvedsonite, astrophyllite, zircon, limonite pseudomorphs, etc. Most of these occur in cavities in granite. Recently Messrs. W: Cross and W. F. Hillebrand have added several species, new to this locality. Several crystals of colorless or pale greenish topaz were found, one specimen being a fragment, which must have be- longed to a crystal a foot in diameter. Two imperfect crystals of phenacite were found, this being the first locality known in the United States. Cryolite, thomsenolite and several undetermined species were also found. j MINERALOGICAL Nores.—The volcanic ash ejected from Vesuvius during the eruption of February 25, 1882, has been analyzed by Ricciardi. The ash was black and magnetic. When heated, it gave off hydrochloric acid. It contained particles of magnetite and awgite, and numerous crystals of leucite.. As shown by analysis, it also contained a small percentage of apatite. Sulphate and chloride of ammonium were also present, and could be dis- solved out by water. ; Mountain cork has been recently used in Germany as a substi- tute for animal charcoal for the removal of color from molasses. The mountain cork, a variety of amphibole, is dried, ignited and soaked in molasses, then again dried and ignited. This process !S repeated several times until some 3.5 per cent. of carbon has be- come fixed in the mineral, which is then ready for use. It is more efficient than charcoal in removing the alkalies from molasses. GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS.' o. M. de Brazza left France in December, 5373, ascended the Ogowé, and succeeded in negotiating with the tribes on its banks and establishing a regular system of transport on the river. He founded his first station, Franceville, at the confluence of e Passa with the Ogowé. From here in June, 1880, he dispatche 770 natives in 44 canoes to meet his coadjutor, Dr. Ballay, at the coast, and then started alone, with a small party of natives, for the ongo. 1 Edited by ErLıs H. YARNALL, Philadelphia. 1882. ] Geography and Travels. 929 Two or three days journey from Franceville, the nature of the country changes. To the clayey soil of the Ogowé basin and its richly wooded and moist valleys succeeds a sandy, arid, and hilly country, with here and there, in the neighbourhood of a viliage, a group of palm trees. This is the aspect of the country which forms the water shed between the Ogowé and the tributaries of the Upper Congo; and it is a singular fact that these narrow sandy tracts of country, along the water’s bed, are everywhere inhabited by one and the same tribe, the Bateké, reputed, proba- bly erroneously, to be cannibals. When he had passed the Le- keti, a southern branch of the Alima, his route lay across the plateau of the Achicuya, an elevated district lying about 2600 feet above the sea-level, and separated from another similar. plateau (the Aboma) by the River Mpama. The chief of the Achicuya received M. de Brazza in a friendly manner, and a sim- lar reception awaited him on reaching the Aboma tribe. These latter are a fine race of people, handsomer and braver than any he had yet met with. It was here that M de Brazza first received definite information regarding the Congo and the powerful chief Makoko, whose sovereignty the Aboma acknowledge. Leaving their dis- trict, the party next travelled along the Lefini River—the Lawson of Mr. Stanley. M. de Brazza had just finished constructing a raft for the navigation of the stream, when a messenger from King Makoko arrived with offers of friendship. This much facilitated his further proceedings. He descended the Lefini with the envoy as far as Nyampo, leaving there the raft and journeying by land for two days across an uninhabited table-land. His march over a sun-scorched plateau was most wearisome, and he was beginning to find fault with his guide, when at 11 o'clock at night, after a forced march, he came in sight of the Congo. It appeared like an immense sheet of water, the silvery sheen of which contrasted with the sombre hue of the lofty mountains around. Towards the north-east the water-line extended to the horizon, and the Tiver swept in a noiseless, slow current past the foot of the hills beneath him. From here he visited Makoko, who gave him a most friendly reception, and entertained him for twenty-five days. A treaty was nally concluded by which the king placed his states under the protection of France, and ceded a tract of country, to be selected M. de Brazza, on the shores of the Congo. Another treaty was also arranged with the Ubanji, who appear to occupy the region between the Alima and Stanley Pool. The second French Station was placed at Ntamo, on the left bank of Stanley Pool, which M. de Brazza considers the key to the Congo interior. Stanley Pool is 93 miles nearer to the Atlantic coast than is in- _ dicated on Stanley’s map. o y these treaties and discoveries, M. de Brazza maintains that the rights of priority of the French nation are clearly established ` 930 General Notes. [November, over the region between the Ogowé, the Equator, and the Congo and over the tract of country on the southern bank of the Congo from Impila to the confluence of the River Djué, to the south of | Stanley Pool. The station at Ntamo was established:on October 1, 1880, and named Brazzaville. Leaving the station in charge of a sergeant and three men, M. de Brazza tried to find a new route to the sea by the valley of the N’Duo, which empties itself into the Niari and leads from Ntamo to the coast in a nearly due westerly di- rection. He was obliged, however, to abandon this, and continue his journey down the Congo. He arrived at the Gaboon in De- cember, 1880. Failing to find Dr. Ballay or any reinforcement for his expedition here, he again, for a third time, ascende the Ogowé and reached Franceville in February, 1881, where fhe found about 100 natives engaged in various industries and the settlement self-supporting. During the following six months preparations were made to transport a steamer, to be sent in sec- tions, from France, from the Ogowé to the Alima—a path being cleared by 400 laborers. This steamer has, however, not yet reached the Ogowée. In October, 1881, M. de Brazza set out from Franceville to endeavor again to explore the Niari valley route, from Stanley Pool to the Atlantic. He was more successful in this second attempt. The Niari proved to be a beautiful river which enters the Atlantic under the name of Quilliou, and flows for a long distance without rapids or falls past a broad, fertile, and densely peopled valley, lying athwart the great parallel terraces over which, ladder-like, the neighboring Congo has cut its bed on its way to the ocean. After many adventures, including a fight with a hostile tribe, M. de Brazza reached the coast at Landana on the 17th of April, 1882. The valley of the Niari is the best line for a railway to Brazza- ville or Ntamo. 3 Should the French choose to avail themselves of these dis- coveries, and occupy and hold the stations established by M. de Brazza, the political as well as geographical results can not fail to be of great importance. | The London Atheneum, however, asserts that the road along the Congo is far preferable to the route of M. de Brazza, which is considerably longer, and leads to a part of the coast where com- munication with the land is only possible in surf-boats, while the ongo is accessible at all times to vessels of the largest burthen. Mr. Stanley has recently returned to Europe. has now seven steamers on the Congo, and has founded four factories On ground ceded by the native kings. STEARNS’ EXPEDITION TO LABRADOR.—The Stearns’ Expedition to the coast of Labrador, reached home safely, on the 12th of Septem; ber. Mr. Stearns went as far north as Triangle Harbor, a few miles ~ 1882.] Microscopy. Scientific News. 931 above Square Island. A number of specimens of various kind were taken, but the greater part of the time was spent in hand dredging. The results have been sent to the Smithsonian Institution, and will soon be published. Mr. Stearns is about publishing a work on Labrador that will probably combine the greater part of our pres- — ent information on that subject. It will be uniform with his New England Bird Life, the second volume of which will soon appear, and probably come out under the name of the same publishers, Messrs, Lee & Shepard, of Boston, Mass. MICROSCOPY.? Microscopy AT THE AMERICAN AssociATION.—The first meet- ing of the new section of Histology and Microscopy, during the Montreal meeting of the American Association, fully justified the recent action of the Association in thus enlarging the scope and prominence of its former subsection of microscopy. Large and in- teresting sessions were held on four days during the week of the meeting, and many important papers were read. Easily first among the attractions of the meeting was the presence of the honored leader in microscopy, Dr. Wm. B. Carpenter, of London, and many microscopists who have heretofore only admired his judgment and skill as an author, found new pleasure in his genial Presence, and in his thoughtful, suggestive and conclusive remarks. His rational and conservative views in regard to angular aperture ` Were received with evident approval by the audience. Martin’s Unmountep Opjects.—The unmounted taterial from the laboratory of the late Mr. John Martin, of Maidstone, Eng- land, has been forwarded by his family to the Natural Science establishment of Professor Henry A. Ward, of Rochester, N. Y. It consists of a variety of hairs, seales, feathers, spines, spicules, seeds, pollens, sections of skin, hoofs and horns, infusorial earth, diatoms, foraminifera, etc. The specimens are folded in papers, and packed in small pill boxes, They are offered for sale at ten cents per box. ——:0:—— SCIENTIFIC NEWS. —- Professors Silliman, Johnson and Brewer, of the National Academy’s committee on sorghum culture, have been visiting Rio Grande, near Cape May, New Jersey, for the purpose of in- Specting Mr. Hilgard’s sugar works there. They consider the Success of the method there adopted, as assured. The sorghum Crop has long been an important one in this country, and its true Status will now be more generally known, through the labors of Mr. Collyer and this committee. —Dr. W. Kowalevsky of Moscow is at present in this country, and is studying the fossil vertebrata of Prof. Cope’s collection in Philadelphia. . 1 This department is edited by Dr. R. H. Warp, Troy, N. Y. 932 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [ Nov., 1882. — Professor Owen has dubbed the anti-vivisectionists, bestia- rians, to distinguish them from the humanitarians. > :0: PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. THE AMERICAN: ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCI- ENCE.—The following is a list of the papers read in the biological section: SECTION F—BIOLOGY. The pete mein ne of Yucca. Thomas Meehan. Dem tion of a series of Brains prepared by Giacomin’s method. William Osle Dei of a new species of Alcyonoid Polyp. Robt. E. cs — On up Polymorphism of Lycena pseudargiolus. Not i cathy terility of the Canada thistle at Yellow aids, Ohio. E. W. On the oath of the larva of Chrysopa. Wm Saunders Some remarks on the flora of North America, Professor paer rad. i Henry F. Osb The Placental development in Mammals [ n of and radicles of Indian corn and beans, W. S. Beah Observations on the fertilization of Yucca, avd on structural and anatomical pecu- iarities in Pronuba and Frolike C: V. Rile y A scl .of the history of our knowledge of the Budding of Salpa. W. K. Fritz Müller and the Nauplius of Decapods. W..K. Brooks. Examination of some controverted pom of the physiology of voice. T. Wesley Mills. Illusions of motions, hist exhibition of A ebay ee P. Bowditch. Cros ss Heredity from se A. B. Blackw sores hairs — bers of Compost itæ. G: Macloskie Blaste tridens: a pear-tree fungus. W On a “recent species of Heteroporg from the stint of Juan de Fuca. J. F. Whitea Insects versus flowers in the matter si Fertilization: E. W. Claypole. On a agen W. A. Buckhou A sketch of ve ‘hi istory of our knowledge of the pases of Salpa. W. K. Brooks. Fritz Milller and the Nauplius of Dec A new sexual character in. the pupze of. ‘some 4 tapia: f A. Lintner. On the position of the Gamopetalæ. Note on neo occurrence of traces of a northern flora in Southwestern Ohio. E. W. Cla Progressive growth of emg pon yi a isi tympani. Clarence J. Blake. The morphology of arter Frat A pone of petroleum ‘nid their me as Faseko C. V. Riley. he Jessup collection to illustrate Ameriodp forestry in the Museum of Nea His- rk, Be Albe tory, Central Par . Bickm a The hibernation of Ajet a xylina in e U. S. a settled fact. C. V. Riley Observations pal e elm- pie beetle eiiis zanthomelena); Pa G. Macloskie. r The organic compounds in their relation to life. Lester The primary ‘dioica of the Ungulata. Edwa C On the habits of pe anchus, Burt G Wilder, Classification of organisms. Lester F. War Some observations ok the ea frost upon leaf-cells. C. E. Bessey. The fauna of the Puerco Eoce Edward D. Cope. a on the Turbellaria. Wyllis A. Silliman. egg parasite of the currant saw-fly, Vematus ventricosus, - = Lintner. Miah of the Clematidæ of the United States. Joseph F. Jam Notes on the flora of th the Rocky mountains. Sereno o Pa tson. THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. VoL. xvi. — DECEMBER, 1882. — No. 12. . A PILGRIMAGE TO TEOTIHUACAN. DER te HILLS. ; akg pyramids of Teotihuacan are situated in a beautiful valley adjoining that of Mexico on the Northeast, and possessing greater beauty and fertility than its more famous neighbor. To reach these ruins, we left the city by the six o'clock morning train, for the station of San Juan Teotihuacan. Our party con- sisted of four Americans, one a resident of Mexico. As the sun had not risen, we found the air chilly and penetrating, and over- coats very comfortable. Our leader prudently carried an um- brella, not to keep off the rain, for it never rains here in March, but to protect himself from the fierce rays of the sun, which in the clear atmosphere of this altitude are very effective at midday, _ _ About eight o'clock we alight from the train to be besieged by numerous small boys, who offer for sale various relics from the ruins. After engaging the services of four Indian boys as guides, we set off afoot to visit the ruins. Accounts differ as to the origin of these works. We are in- formed by Ixtlilxochitl that they were built by the Toltecs after their migration from Hue Hue Hapalan. Mr. Bancroft places this event in the fifth or sixth century, Pro- fessor Short thinks that the evidence in favor of the fourth cen- tury is fully as good. On the other hand, Mons. Charnay’s recent excavations have led him to believe that the works at Tula were built about A. D. 660, and as the Teotihuacan works are of very much the same character, and at no great distance from Tula, the Presumption is that their age is about the same. In selecting their site, the builders certainly exercised: better VOL. XVI.—NO, x11. 63 934 A Pilgrimage to Teotihuacan. [ December, judgment than did the later race, who built the wonderful city on the shore of Lake Tezcuco—a lake whose only outlet is the at- mosphere. In fact, the government has finally been compelled to attempt the artificial drainage of this lake; a contract for the con- struction of a canal for this purpose having been already made. The principal works at Teotihuacan consist of two truncated pyramids—the “Mound of the Sun” and the “ Mound of the Moon.” The first measures 761 by 722 feet at the base, 216 feet in height, and its platform measures 59 by 105 feet, according to the figures of Señor Garcia y Cubas. From a distance a zigzag pathway leading up its eastern side is plainly discernible, but from either its foot or its summit the path- way is not noticed. In the centre of the platform stands a pillar of stone and cement, five feet in diameter, and four and a half feet high. Two explanations of this pillar may be offered. In case the pyramid was a religious structure, the pillar may have been used as an altar, or a pedestal for some sculptured image. If the pyramid was an astronomical structure, a possibility by no means remote when we remember the knowledge of astronomy possessed by this race, the pillar was doubtless a part of the apparatus em- ployed in observing the movements of the heavenly bodies. From this summit we look to the north and see a series of beautifully rounded -hills which look as if they might have been made by the hand of man, so regular are their outlines. To the west is the hill which hides from our view the lovely valley of Mexico. In the distance, toward the south, are the white peaks of Popo- catapetl, Ixtacihuatl and Malinche, while at our feet we may see the villages of San Juan, San Sebastian, San Martin and Santa Maria, so near that we can catch the sound of their bells as they — ring out from the white tower ot the Spanish-built churches. The “ Mound of the Moon,” according to our former authority, 4 measures 512 by 426 feet at the base, 137 feet in height, and has : a platform 19% feet square. In addition there is a step OF plat- form about half way from base to summit. From near this mound extends an avenue between two rows of singular ruins to the Rio San Juan,a distance of more than a mile. This is called thé n “ Path of the Dead,” and passes by the “ Mound of the Sun ©" the west. These ruins have the appearance of i which have been totally destroyed, leaving only great masses’ of mmense houses 1882.] A Pilgrimage to Teotihuacan. 935 material with no recognizable structure, and now largely over- grown with vegetation. The pyramids themselves are very regular in shape, but are covered with loose fragments of volcanic rock varying in size from six to eighteen inches. Amongst these rocks have grown up numerous shrubs, flowers and cactuses. These give a very ragged appearance to the structures. Near the “Path of the Dead” is the mouth of a cave of un- known depth, which has ramifications to the right and left. There Monolith near the Pyramids of Teotihuacan. -is a tradition that a subterranean passage exists between the pyra- mids. If this is true the cave is probably connected with this pas- Sage. As our party had not prepared to explore any caves our in- ‘vestigations ceased when we had exhausted the stock of wax ‘Matches we happened to have in our pockets, At the mouth of -this cave stands the huge monolith described by Almaraz (Apuntes, pp. 354-5), which he says “was found among the débris of a tlaltel” or mound. It is about five and a half feet wide and thick, and according to the above author, ten and a half feet high, and weighs over fifteen tons. At present, however, it stands only six feet above ground, and is surrounded by the small volcanic rocks which cover the surface in all directions. Anat- 936 A Pilgrimage to Teotihuacan. [ December, tempt was once made to remove the monolith to the city of Mexico, but it was found too heavy and was abandoned. The natives relate that soon after the conquest, the Spaniards attempted to cut the stone in two, but after each day’s work with chisels, the stone was miraculously restored in the night to a perfect condi- tion, and they finally desisted. The accompanying cut shows the face of the stone as it now appears. Near the “ Mound of the Sun” may be seen the ruins of the “Palace.” Its present magnificence consists in a solid floor of cement, some smoothly plastered walls about three feet in height built at an angle of perhaps fifteen degrees from the vertical, and a stairway of six or seven stone steps leading down into the - débris. In the ploughed fields in this vicinity we found large numbers of obsidian implements and terra-cotta figures. The arrow-heads are exactly similar in shape and size to those made of flint, by the North American Indians, and of common occurrence. The knife-blades are from one and one-half to one and three- fourths inches long, from three-eighths to five-eighths of an inch wide and only one-eighth of an inch thick in the center. One figure apparently represents a horned animal, and is the only one of the kind which has come under the writer's obser- vation. It measures one and three-fourths inches in length and the same in height, from tip to tip. In the group of terra-cotta figures, two have a decidedly Egyptian appearance, while one 1$ as certainly African, and another shows a strong suspicion of the Turk. Many of the figures of heads seem to be wanting the left ear; whether it was purposely omitted or has been easily knocked off in consequence of having been molded separately and after- ' ward attached to the head, it is difficult to determine. Two images represent the heads of animals, while another is a perfor- ated disc, one and three-sixteenths inches in diameter, and half an inch thick, with a depression on one side eleven-sixteenths of an inch in diameter. There is a great variety of countenance €X- hibited on these figures, The material also seems to vary, to a certain extent, some of the clay being of a finer grain than the rest, and, therefore, susceptible of a smoother finish. In regard to the ruins in general, Bancroft says, z speaks of hundreds of these mounds” (such as compose athe “Path of the Dead”) “arranged in streets, running exactly e 2 “H umboldt i 1882. | The Gray Rabbit ( Lepus sylvaticus), 937 and west, and north and south from the pyramids.” “ Accord- ing to Latrobe, the mounds extend for miles towards Tezcuco; and Waddy Thompson is confident that they are the ruins of an ancient city nearly as large as Mexico’” THE GRAY RABBIT (LEPUS SYLVATICUS), BY SAMUEL LOCKWOOD. — ( Continued ron November number.) HE thrifty house-dame, who has a way of “culling simples ” for her cuisine and leech-craft, feels badly hurt when the spring discloses the fact that of her savory pot-herbs the finest tussock has been used by a rabbit as a form through the winter, and the whole middle of it has been killed by the heat of the Occupant’s body. In a friend’s garden a large mat of thyme was thus nearly ruined. Who has not heard of improvident humans eating themselves out of house and home? What self-possession and decorous restraint in this our little solitaire. However pinching the winter’s cold and scarce the food, Coney keeps a wise care for his covert from the storm. In some things certainly the gray rabbit is quite particular, and sometimes too much so for its own good. So inquisitorious is it of small things on the way, that when in full retreat before the dog, the whistle of the hunter to stop the hound, will some- times stop the rabbit also. Even the clicking when setting the hammer of the gun will check the poor dazed thing in its flight, for it must know what the unusual sound is. True the pause is only for an instant, but that is enough for the sportsman’s aim. In the woods the rabbit will course through the underbrush, then, after making a tremendous leap at right angles, will double his track, These movements it will vary with zig-zags, greatly both- ering the hounds;.not seeming to look for a hole unless it be closely pressed, and a hollow tree offers an illusive asylum. In cleared land it makes for a known hiding place. And generally it knows all the good spots in a wide territory. My triend, Mr. Geo. H. Vanderbeck, an intelligent farmer, gives me the follow- 938 The Gray Rabbit ( Lepus sylvaticus). | December, ing: Once after a heavy fall ‘of snow he marked a rabbit trail at considerable distance from the house. It led in a straight line to the hennery, in which the game was found, having sought this shelter from the cold. From the directness of the trail it was evident that the animal had full knowledge of this retreat. He told me too of an old buck which he had often tried to take, but which would either by a direct or circuitous route, retreat to a deserted marmot’s or woodchuck’s hole, which it had long occu- pied. Two distinct kinds of tracks have been mentioned, that which is made in retreat and that which is made when foraging. To these a third must be added having two sets of imprints, in lines close and parallel to each other, and the step-marks at very short distances. These are the Courting tracks. At the turn of mid- winter, or about the beginning of February the male looks up his mate or mates. While the love emotion is on, prudence is off; hence, less cautious than usual, they do fall into some indis- cretions which imperil their safety. In truth it is with these sim- ple-folks much as it is with some thought to be wiser—when much love is in, some wit is out. If the snow or the ground be soft, these double-tracks, or courting ways, betray what is going on, and sometimes the nearness of the lovers. Our rabbit likes a bit of play in the evening twilight and the early morning dawn, hence it has been called a crepuscular animai. But it is essentially a nocturnal, like the rodents generally ; and the even- ing and the morning are its wooing day. The connubial impact — made, the doe has much to pull through, for the gay father is away with other loves. If the season prove favorable, three and perhaps four litters are to be raised ere the next winter comes. As an old rabbiter said: “Three crops in one season is only — | moderate for a she rabbit.” oy As to the breeding habits of the wood-hare, it must surely have undergone a change in the well populated places east. A thorough hunter tells me, he has never found a nest in the woods nor even a very young rabbit there ; that for breeding they prefer the cleared land. This habit secures an open look-out and guards against surprise. a But the breeding nest of the gray rabbit is a simple affair. Ao hole is scratched sloping downward into the ground about eighteen inches, The slope is slight, so that the nest is very near the sur- 1882. | The Gray Rabbit ( Lepus sylvaticus). 939 face, It has a bed made of dry leaves and grass, and on top some fur or hair, which the mother has torn from her own breast. The litter numbers from four to six. So small is the hole that the mother cannot nestle in it with her young, but she suckles them at the front or entrance, where she adjusts herself, then by a sort of wuzzling, not purring, sound, she calls the little ones, the call being at once obeyed. The maternal brooding and fondling which impart so much comfort to the mother’s care, are unknown to our gray rabbit. During the suckling period she occupies a slight depression in the ground a few yards off, from which the motherly watch is kept. I think she can give the alarm to her little ones, for they will keep well back in their nest and very quiet in time of danger, while the mother from her form will en- deavor to divert an enemy. But despite these vigils something may happen to bring the tenderlings to grief. Should they escape preying animals, for the mother is courageous in defence yet the sloping nature of the nest invites the rain, and a storm may drown the whole litter. Then the shallowness of the nest is such that the plough has often turned up all to perish in the cold winds of March. Should all go well, three weeks of suckling will suffice, when they become so large as to crowd their cave- like nest. Now the mother sets them adrift. The rabbit litters when very young, ere it has attained half its growth. A female may have two litters raised before she is a year old. As already hinted, the male of Z. sylvaticus gives himself no concern about the little ones, and is of loose morals at best. As for the petted Z. cuniculus, he is no better than a beastly blue- beard in his own household. But lest all father hares be set down as so depraved, I shail instance, by way of episode, a pretty exception, even should the story seem to some sensational. In the months of May and June, 1860, Professor F. V. Hayden and his party of U. S. explorers, found themselves up in the Alpine snows of the Wind River mountains, where they were detained several days in an attempt to feel their way to the Yellowstone. On the 31st of May Dr. Hayden declared that a new species of hare was around, as he had observed unusually large hare tracks inthe snow. As the Doctor expressed himself to us: “The tracks were very large, the feet being wide-spread, and the hair thick between the toes, thus really furnishing the animal with a snow- shoes,” In June one was captured, and the Doctor named s 940 hie Gray Rabbit (Lepus sylvaticus). (December, the species, Lepus bairdii. The animal seemed limited to that small Alpine territory. But one specimen was secured, and no . more was heard of this hare until 1872, when Dr. Hayden and party were in that region in the months of August and Septem- ber. At this time five specimens were obtained by Mr. C. Hart Merriam, the naturalist to the Hayden Survey; of these, four were adult males, and all had large teats and udders full of milk. The hair around the nipples was wet and stuck to them, showing that they had just been suckling their young. To make all cer- tain, resort was had to dissection, when the sex was demonstrated. Not only did Mr. Merriam make dissection, but also Dr. Josiah Curtis, a naturalist of the U. S. Geol. Survey, with the same result. In the face of such testimony disbelief would seem dis- courtesy. This hare is doubtless an Alpine form, says Allen, “inhabiting the snowy summits of the high portions of the Rocky mountains.” It has been found as far south as New Mexico. In winter its entire dress is white; but in summer the ` pelage generally is dark plumbeous, like that of the house mouse, “the feet are wholly white,” If not in exquisite taste, it cer- tainly is peculiar—for white satin shoes can hardly look well on large splay feet. It is a pity that as yet nothing has been learned of the female. We want to know more of their family matters. . How much of this nursing is done by the mother; or does she relegate all to the obliging father; or are there two broods to be suckled, the first being unweaned when the second one arrives? In the rigor of their mountain home do the leverets need longer nourishing than their little cousins in the plains? The larger rodent, the beaver, allows two litters in the lodge, but the first litter is supposed to be weaned. If a long suckling of the little hares is necessary, so that one litter is not weaned before the other comes, it would be interesting to know if two nests arr occupied, the older litter being left for the father to finish their bringing up. The wood-hare east is polygamous. It is hardly supposable that Baird's hare is so too, as that would make his duties as wet-nurse somewhat exacting. If then he is the one husband of the one wife, in every way his virtues outshine all that can be said for his loose kinsman in the east. But we need more light. E The striking out of the hind limbs of an adult rabbit with the claws distended, has often proved more than a match for wa a 1882. | The Gray Rabbit ( Lepus sylvaticus). 941 And little wonder that the hind limbs, with their armament of claws should be quite effective when we recall that grand out-fit of muscles, which enables them to make such prodigious leaps. We spoke of the surprise of the immigrant at the lusty kicking of the entrapped rabbit. Such conduct is, however, exceptional, or at most it lasts for a very short time. When taken by the hand, the captured rabbit at first, in its terror, utters a plaintive but musical cry; it is not properly a squeak; and after a few impo- tent struggles, it is dazed into a passive submission, Thus an adult gray rabbit may be carried lying full length on one’s arm, the front toes being loosely held between the fingers, although it has been taken but five minutes from the trap. After a little show of resistance it has submitted to the situation. Once when riding with my daughter, we came upon a gorgeous patch of Lupinus perennis by the roadside. I got out to gather some, when a young rabbit sprang out of the glowing bed of purple bloom. It dashed into a heap of brush near by, which enabled me to capture it without inflicting injury. I bore my pretty Prize to the carriage. But though only for a moment, that plain- tive whistle in the minor key, so flute-like and so pitiful, kept Piping in our ears. Our hearts misgave us. Daughter plead for the little prisoner’s release; that decided the matter. I bore it gently back to the bed of lupines, where it easily hid itself, and like a helpless little prince was safe under the royal purple. This almost non-resistant quality of the gray rabbit, has given me a liking for it. It is your pampered tame one that excels in the mulish accomplishment of kicking at his master. But when “striking out ” becomes a virtue, the mother gray-back has been known to shine. Once when inspecting the animals of a certain institution, unconsciously I was getting too near a long-eared mongrel, at which his tender shouted: “Keep away from that mule or he'll stoop up at you, and if you do excite his upsetting sin you'll get his compliments, and you won’t forget it either!” We ejaculated : “ The long-eared hybrid!” “ Yes, sir, that’s so,” responded the animal-man, “he is high bred. His father before him was a good trick mule.” What sharp observers these “ animal- men ” are. Who but the mule-man could so tersely describe the Precise pivotal politeness of the beast. And what method in his Salaam to a stranger. First the ears are set well back. Next, ~ . down goes the head, then, as if this formalist were fulcrumed at 942 The Gray Rabbit (Lepus sylvaticus). [ December, the middle, upward and backward go the heels; and the impres- sion made is not to be forgotten. But for real “fancy sparring,” no trick-mule could equal the deftly hitting of that mother gray- back who fought a huge black snake to rescue her young one. The reptile was rapidly bearing it away. A little low cry, though at quite a distance, was heard by the mother-hare, for their sense of hearing is marvelously keen. A few desperate leaps and she had caught up and joined issue with her dreadful foe. The snake dropped its prey, its sulphurous eyes glowed in lumi- nous rage, and it sprang. But the heroic mother leaped into the air, making a curve over its enemy, and just at passing the middle of this arc putting in most deftly a double shot behind, which sent the serpent rolling and squirming in the dust. This feat was several times repeated, the snake darting and snapping wildly, until its mouth was filled with hair, without inflicting any real hurt on the little heroine. The reptile was cowering fast and would fain slink away ; but the witness of this fierce battle now came to the rabbit’s aid. The black reptile was soon destroyed, and the brave mother left to her little one. I think the above should warrant a clear distinction between timidity and cowardice. It is the bravery of maternal despera- tion. - Though succumbing at last, I have witnessed a gallant fight of a young rat with a large pine snake (Pituophis melano- leucus), These very serpents are fond of young rabbits, and will capture them much as they do birds. Call it enchantment, fasci- nation, charming, or what one will, there is a fearful nervous — subjection. The poor little beast loses head. A farmer in the Pines told me that he saw at some distance up the road, a half- grown rabbit, and was somewhat surprised to see that it did not stir at his coming, but looked steadily at one spot. There wasa large pine snake slowly crawling up to its victim. Said he: “ i went up to the rabbit, gave it a push with my foot, when it went off at a lively gait. You see the spell was broken. The snake seeing me, made for the woods and got away. i The mink and the weasel are especially feared by the wild rab- bit. In Europe the ferret is used to hunt rabbits. If our com- mon weasel appears in a neighborhood, the rabbits will soon w exterminated for a considerable area. In the winter the gray-rabbit is very destructive to young trees; — and is the dread of the nurseryman, although much mischief laid a 1882. ] The Gray Rabbit (Lepus sylvaticus). 943 to them is chargeable to the field mice, which will bark trees both below and above the snow line. The rabbit will’ girdle young trees, and the very small trees of the nursery it will not only bark, but will cut off the branches and eat them. : I’ have in mind a nurseryman who had not yet learned this fact, and would not permit a gray rabbit to be in any way molested on his prem- ises. The tender hearted fellow soon woke up to his mistake. The animals became emboldened and took possession, and very soon many thousands of young trees were utterly ruined. At last, in dismay, he besought the help of his neighbors, and a war of extermination was proclaimed. Could it be got at, the ancient lore as touching the ancestry of L. sylvaticus, would be well worth the telling. Even before his- tory began, though a numerous, the coneys were always a feeble folk, and fair game for all animals carnivorously inclined. ‘In classic Greek we find a word meaning “ killing of hares,” and the _word hare a synonym for coward. And as for the poor fellow who was harried or hen-pecked, their philosopher Posidonius would say: “he led a hare’s life.” If remoteness of origin may count for much, the ancestry of the hares is extremely ancient. I am puzzled by a small fossil bone now lying on my table. It is from the Dakota Miocene, and is part of the left side of the under jaw of a hare. There are a number of these fossil or ex- tinct American hares, for which Professor Leidy raised the genus Palzolagus, “the ancient hare.” This jaw is, I think, that of a young individual, but I dare not guess the immense remoteness of that period in which it had to fulfill its mission as a prolific food provider for the numerous and terrible Felidz then existing, Probably the environment or life conditions of the Leporidz have improved since the Miocene times; for my fragment has the five molars so strongly set, and yet so small, that the owner surely was a smaller animal than our gray-rabbit, itself so small among those to which it is germane, as to merit the epithet familiar to Naturalists— the little wood hare.” I think the ancient could not achieve the deft leaps of the modern. As I see it, the body was shorter and thicker set, and its pug face, coulda fancier but imagine the style, would educe the fancy name, “ chunky chaps.” As already seen, the wild rabbit is very prolific; hence it is the only one of our large rodents that in any measure holds its own against the onflow of civilization. And yet its enemies are many. 944 The Gray Rabbit ( Lepus sylvaticus). _ .[ December, Even the domestic cat will take to the woods and become almost a fera, and subsist largely on young rabbits. To man with dog and gun, the pursuit of the rabbit seems to have a fascination. ‘To me, the yelping bark of the hound when he has scented the little thing, is always distressing. Old rabbit hunters claim that the three different kinds of sounds, when the dogs are baying, denote different grades of strain in the hounds. There is the short snappish yelp of the hound of low degree; the whining, yet almost percussive howl which marks the dog of fair and even good points ; then there is that long-drawn, deep-mouthed bay- ing which leaves that ancestral war-whoop far behind— “The wolf’s long howl on Ounalaska’s shore.” This can be heard far away, and denotes the hound of highest strain. I dislike them all, but this specially exaggerated wolfish baying is to me indescribably dismal. But judgments differ. Doubtless the devotee hears music in the frenzy of the howling dervish. I knew the father of a necessitous family. He kept one of these fiendishly accomplished brutes. The man must have had not an ear but two, for music, the one sa a pietist in church, the other as an enthusiast afield; for he said to a féllow sport: “In meetin’ I have my favorite hymn, but the sound of that hound when he has noseda rabbit, is to me real heavenly music!” As the poor miner declared, when half dazed over the death of his chum, this whole business is “ too technical for me!” I am so much pleased with the sight of little gray-back in the orchard near my study. With no dog near, he is in an interest- — ing repose, and the scene is innocent and pretty. In the confi- dence of safety, it squats, snips off at its base a dandelion leaf, za the situation, while the ears are set erect and expanded to catch the slightest sound. Ah! it has heard something, and off it i goes at almost flying speed, bearing that cottony caudal tuft aloft behind it. _If for mere display that white cockade may sug gest a spice`of vanity in rabbit life; but if from other motives It may hint at some serious verities in its experience. If it be “ white feather,” who will blame timidity where every hand 1882 ] The Paleozoic Allies of Nebatia. 945 hostile? if a flag of truce, it has never been regarded. How much this little manimal has to do in sustaining the faunal bal- ance in the east! To how many forms of life is it a food supply —to the creeping reptiles, the raptores of the birds, the rapacia of beasts, and even all-rapacious man. “ Behold, therefore, the goodness and severity of God:” Such is the rectitude of exist- ence that whether beast or man, “ no one liveth to himself, and no man dieth to himself.” “ The whole temporal shew related royally, And built up to eterne satawa Through the open arms But why tempt the depths ? So here endeth this memoir of “little cotton tail.” a THE PALZOZOIC ALLIES OF NEBALIA.. BY A. S. PACKARD, JR. Have studied the anatomy and development of Nebalia, we are prepared to compare it with a group of fossil forms which are scattered through the older Palæozoic rocks from the lowest Silurian to the Carboniferous. In a brief article! Mr. Sal- ter, nearly twenty years since, sketched out the characters and showed the relationship of Ceratiocaris and a number of allied forms to Nebalia in the following paragraph : “Before the structure of Ceratiocaris was known, of which genus a reduced figure is here given, the rostral portion of Pelto- caris could not have been understood. But a reference to the accompanying series of pyes will show that a tolerably Caris and other genera it is orma yet to be discovered. pesos Ceratiocaris, together with its movable rostrum, has a bivalved Shell, yet habitually keeps its valves halt closed, as I learn from perfect specimen Salter then Enina the characteristics of the fossil genera, beginning with Hymenocaris, which he considers the more gen- eralized type, and in the wood-cuts, which we partly here produce, shows the geological succession of these genera, which also serves as a genealogical table. He regards them as Phyllopods, associating with them Estheria and Apus, regarding the latter as 1 On Peltocaris, a new genus of Silurian Crustacea, by J. W. Salter, Quarterly Journal of the Geolzical Society of London, Vol. xix, 1863, p. 87. - ? Our Fig. 1, 946 The Paleozoic Allies of Nebalia. [ December, “the most complete and decided form, and it is one of the latest of the group, as it commences in the Trias.” He also says: “The links between these coal-measure forms and those of recent times, 4$ Ss v Q Q es 2 UZ NÀ g 3s =] [o] > Q ra g 3 irm = W _ v a» a ka og rt os we) Ta a 24 od be ee ote iz _— Fic. 1.—Hymenocaris eg en Flags). he 2,— Peltocaris (Lower Silurian). Fic. 3.—Ceratiocaris (Upper Silurian). Fic. 4.—Dictyocaris (Devonian 5 5. —Dithyr rocaris {Carbonier}. (Fic. 6. pee at Fic. 7.—Nebalia (recent). are many of them wanting; but in Nebalia we have a good rep- resentative of the compact, shield-shaped form of pene — the two valves soldered into one, and the rostrum ae a = 1882. ] The Paleozoic Allies of Nebalia. 947 eyes being still beneath the carapace.” It is evident from this that Mr. Salter regarded the fossil genera he enumerates as allied to and as the ancestors of Nebalia, and as representatives of it in Paleozoic times. He evidently adopted the views of Milne- Edwards and others as to the Phyllopodous nature of Nebalia. Discarding the Phyllopod forms, we here reproduce Salter’s figures and geological succession, which has been confirmed by the discoveries of Barrande and H. Woodward. Salter’s figure of Nebalia is, however, replaced by an original one of Weéa/ia bipes. In his article on the structure and systematic position of Ne- balia,’ Claus thus refers to the Palzeozoic forms: “It is generally considered that the oldest Palaeozoic Crusta- cean remains whose shells and form of the body partly resemble Apus and partly show a great similarity to Nebalia, for this rea- son are considered to be Phyllopods, though we are without any information as to the nature of the limbs.. But now the instruc- tive error, to which the consideration of Nebalia gave occasion, will lead us to exercise greater caution in the interpretation of Such incomplete and imperfectly known remains. “In Ceratiocaris Salter, we have a great Nebalia-like carapace by which a series of free segments were covered, and moreover a long well-separated, lancet-formed rostrum. On the other hand, the form of the abdomen, with the powerfully developed telson beset with lateral spines, indicates a different form, which also finds expression in the appendages of C. papilio Salt., figured as antennz or thoracic limbs. If these representations indicate true limbs, then they remind us most of the larval limbs of Decapods. So also the position of Dictyocaris Salt., and Dithyrocaris of Scouler to the other Silurian fossils regarded as Phyllopods (Hymenocaris, Peltocaris) will remain problematical until we have abt more precise explanations as to the nature of their imbs. Such a connecting link, which has served to the present day, we evidently find in the genus Nebalia.” In 1879, without knowing the views of Claus, just quoted, we ! Siebold u. Kdlliker’s Zeitschrift, XXU, 1872, p. 329. *The Nebeliad Crustacea as types of a new order. By A, S. Packard, Jr. AMER- ICAN NATURALIST, February, 1879, Vol. xit p. 128... 948 The Paleozoic Allies of Nebalia. [ December, published a brief notice of the leading characteristics of the group, and proposed that the Palzozoic fossil’ forms, Ceratio- caris, etc., be united with the X Nebaliadz to form a separate order of Crustacea under the name of Phyllocarida. Of the fossil forms, Hymeno- caris was regarded by Salter as “the more generalized type.” OF te side aon and disk with the The EATER Peltocaris and Dis- ge e-sha aped rostrum in situ. After cinocaris characterize the Lower prope core Silurian period, Ceratiocaris the Upper, Dictyocaris the Upper Silurian and the lowest Devonian strata, Dictyocaris and Argus the Carboniferous period. On examining the figures of Salter and of Barrande, for we have been unable to study any of the fossils themselves, owing to their extreme rarity, the relationship to Nebalia is very marked, as seen in the form of the carapace, the nearly free or detached rostrum, unless the separation took place after the death of the animal, and also of the rather long, slender abdomen. Upon examining the appendages at the end of the abdomen there is to be seen an important distinction from Nebalia; a long, slen- der telson is usually present, with a single pair of large eenia stylets, or cercopoda, in form like those of Nebalia. But in Hy- menocaris and Peltocaris the telson appears to be represented by a> pair of small (in Peltocaris minute) spines. In the presence of the telson in the ty pical fossil genus Ceratiocaris, we certainly have an important character separating the type with its allies from Nebalia, and allying them to the Decapods; and thus in the pro- foe visional synepsis of the order presented in the memoir soon tobe ~ published in Hayden’s Report, we have placed the fossil forms mo a separate sub-order from the Nebaliadæ. : While the posterior edges of the abdominal segments in Hy- menocaris appear to be spined as in Nebalia, there are some char- acteristics of importance in the fossil forms which deserve men- — tion; these are the sculptured carapace, especially of Dictyocaris, a in piik" the surface is reticulated! Moreover the size of these 1 It should here be remarked, that while the carapace of Nebalia is smooth, upon making a section of it a reticulated structure is plainly seen in the parenchyma oF of 8 soft parts of the shell, but it is entirely too minute to be percept ible in - shell even ve o ` 1882.] The Paleozoic Allies of Nebalia, 949 genera was enormous, but if we, as we seem to be warranted in doing, regard Nebalia as a survivor and decrepid or old-age type of the order, which has lost the ornamentation of the integument, the size and the telson even being dwarfed, smooth-skinned, and in general very simple compared with the forms which existed at the time when the type culminated and before it began to die out, we may have an explanation of the greater simplicity of the car- apace and abdomen of Nebalia, as compared with its Paleozoic ancestors, From our total lack of any knowledge of the nature of the limbs of the fossil Phyllocarida, we have to be guided solely by analogy, often an uncertain and delusive guide. But in the ab- sence of any evidence to the contrary,” there is every reason to Suppose that the appendages of the head, thorax and abdomen were on the type of Nebalia, since there is such a close corres- pondence in the form of the carapace, rostrum and abdomen. But whatever may be the differences between the fossil forms represented by Ceratiocaris, etc., they certainly seem to approach ebalia much nearer than any other known type of Crustacea ; they do not belong to the Decapods; they present a vague and general resemblance to the zoéa or larva of the Decapods, but no zoča has a telson, though one is developed in a postzoéal stage ; they do not belong to any other Malacostracous type, nor do they belong to any existing Entomostracous type, using those terms in the old sense. No naturalist or paleontologist has re- ferred them with certainty to the Decapods, or to any other Crusta- _ cean type than the Phyllopods. To this type (in the opinion of Metschnikoff and Claus, who have studied them most closely) under high powers. This structure may be comparable with that of Dictyocaris, espe- Cially as Salter remarks (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 1866, p. 161): “ The entire Surface of the carapace is marked with hexagonal reticulations one-thirtieth of a line in diameter, of which the areæ are convex and the bounding lines sunk on the exterior aspect. This would, I think, indicate the ornament to be connected with the structure of the carapace rather than to be a mere external sculpturing. As no films can be obtained thick enough to furnish a section for microscopic examination, the point cannot be ascertained.” * Close scrutiny of specimens in existence may yet show indications as.to the na- ture of the limbs; for example, Salter figures, in the Annals and Magazine of Nat- ural History, 3d series, Vol. v, 1860, p. 154, Fig. 3e, what he calls the jaws of Ceratiocaris Papilio, but the figure appears to us rather to represent a four jointed Piece of an antenna, In Fig. 2 there are. represented the tergal portion of seven - Segments lying under the carapace. If fresh attention were directed to the discov- a ‘ry of the nature of the limbs, success might result.: __ VOL. XVI.—NO. XII. 64 950 The Paleozoic Allies of Nebalia. [ December, they certainly do not belong; and thus, reasoning by exclusion, they either belong to the group of which Nebalia is a type, or they are members of a lost, extinct group. The natural conclu- sion, in the light of our present knowledge, is, that they are members of the group represented by the existing Nebalia. VG. 9.—Dithyrocaris neptuni Hall; telson and cercopoda, naturalsize, From Hall. In order, then, to summarize our present knowledge of the liv- ing Nebalia and its fossil allies, we will give what we regard as : the characters of the group, which may be regarded as provi ional, though perhaps of some present use. : External diagnostic characters of the order Piyliocarida—Boðy 3 1882. | The Paleozoic Allies of Nebaha. g5I compressed ; consisting of twenty-one segments—five cephalic, eight thoracic and eight abdominal. Carapace compressed, with, no regular hinge, loosely attached to the body by an adductor muscle ; with a movable rostrum inserted in a depression in the front edge, the carapace covering the basal joints of the abdomen. One pair of stalked eyes; no simple eyes. Two pairs of well- developed, many-jointed, long, large antenna, the first pair bira- mous, the second pair with a very long flagellum in the male. Mandibles weak, with a remarkably long three-jointed palpus. Two pairs of maxillz; the first with a remarkably long, slender, multiarticulate exopodite; second pair well developed, biramous ; no maxillipedes; eight pairs of biramous, broad, thin, respiratory, thoracic feet, not adapted for walking; the exopodites divided into a gill and flabellum; four pairs of large and two pairs of small abdominal swimming feet; no appendages on the seventh segment, the terminal one bearing two long caudal appendages (cercopoda). No telson present in the living species ; well devel- oped in the Ceratiocaride. Young developed in a brood sac; development direct; no marked metamorphosis; the young but slightly differing from the adult. Remarks.—By the sum of the foregoing characters the Phyllo- Carida appear to be excluded from any other group of Neocari- dan Crustacea. The differential characters separating them from the Decapods Or any other Malacostracous type, are: I. The loosely-attached carapace, the two halves connected by an adductor muscle. 2. The movable rostrum, loosely attached to the carapace. 3. The very long and large mandibular palpus; the long, slen- der appendage of the first maxilla, and the very long biramous Maxillz, 4. The absence of any maxillipedes. 5.. The eight pairs of pseudophyllopod thoracic feet, not adapted for walking ; the animal swimming on its back. 7. No zoéa-formed larva. ; The differential characters from the Phyllopods are the fol- lowing : I. Carapace not hinged ; a rostrum present. sN 2. Two pairs of well-developed long and large multiarticulate antennæ; the hinder pair in the male longer than the first pair. 952 The Paleozoic Allies of Nebalia. [ December, 3. The thorax and its appendages clearly differentiated from an abdomen. : Internal Organs.—No functional shell gland; no highly-devel- oped liver tubes like those of all Phyllopods; stomach and cœ- cal appendages (liver) entirely unlike those EOS of Phyllopods. ; The nervous system is entirely unlike the Phyllopod type, and approaches more the Decapod and Tetradecapod type. The resemblance to the Copepoda is in some points quite striking; this is & y seen in the equal A NV size of the two Fic. 10, — Echinocaris : mullinodosus. pairs of antenne, in the form of the abdomen, and the two caudal appen- dages,as wellasthe spines onthe hind Fic. 11. — Echinocaris edge of the seg- swééevts. ment, in the well-developed palpus of the mandibles, in the absence of maxillipedes, as well as the simple reproductive glands. In short, we regard the Phyllocarida as an accelerated, prematurative type of Crustacea which became well established in the lowest Primordial period, flourish- ing at a time when there was no Mala- costracous forms, and which culminated in the Upper Silurian period, and became nearly extinct at the close'of the Car- boniferous. Judging the group by the Fic, 12.—Echinocaris punc- Structure of Nebalia alone, whether we tatus; abdomen, dorsal view, consider the external or the internal 7, natural size. From Hall. PER ; ite or structure, it is a highly composite — . synthetic type, combining Copepod, Phyllopod and Decapod-like o features with more fundamental characteristic ones of its OWP- The group existed at a time when, save in the Carboniferous period, no Malacostraca, or at least very few, existed, and they : 2 thus anticipated the incoming of the more specialized on 1882. ] American Work on Recent Molluscain 1881. ` 953 Like many other synthetic, ancient types, the fossil representa- tives were of colossal size compared with the living survivors. While some of the fossil forms were of moderate size, though very large compared with Nebalia, some must have been of gigan- tic proportions. For example, in Dithyrocaris neptuni Hall, of which Fig. 9 represents the telson and tercopoda of natural size, the en- tire animal must have been some two feet in length. The Achino- caris punctatus must have been nearly a foot in length, while the _ Echinocarides (Figs. 10 and 11), described recently by Mr. R. P. Whitfield, were considerably smaller. 10: AMERICAN WORK ON RECENT MOLLUSCA IN 1881. BY WILLIAM H. DALL. (Continued from November number.) Psychology.—Owing to the secluded life of most mollusks they are not easily subjected to long-continued observation, and per- haps for this reason notes on their affections or mental processes are nearly unknown. But that careful observation would reveal in many mollusks a much higher degree of intelligence than they are usually credited with, there can be little doubt. A small con- tribution to this subject is contained in the paper on “ Intelligence in a Snail,” by the writer (Am. Nat. Dec. 1881, pp. 976-7). The observations there noted indicate that some species of the genus Helix are capable of recognizing a call or sound, and of distin- guishing it from other calls or sounds. Since this was printed the writer has had information of two other cases. of the same kind, though the facts are less clearly indicated than in the one first mentioned. Dr. Lockwood's observations on Mytilus indicate a certain degree of intelligence, and it cannot be doubted that obser- vations on cephalopods would show that these highly organized mollusks are capable of more or less complex mental operations. Geographical Distribution and Catalogues—In the Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci. (11, pp. 117-126) in an article “ On the relations of the fauna and flora of Santa Cruz, W. L,” Bland shows, froma dis- cussion of the land shells, that it is probable that St. Thomas and other islands of the Virgin group were formerly connected with nta Cruz, but that in spite of a submarine ridge (with, however, 700 fathonss of water over its greatest depression) extending to Saba, there i is no evidence of a dry-land connection of the latter 954 American Work on Recent Mollusca in 1881. [December, with the rest. He also places some facts on record in regard to an asserted desiccation of the island of Santa Cruz, and concludes that there is no sufficient proof of it nor of an alleged conflagra- tion caused by the French colonists in 1650. To the “History of Fremont county, Iowa,” Professor Call has contributed a chapter on the geology and natural history, which has been separately issued, with new pagination, with the date of Nov., 1880. The Mollusca are treated of on pp. 34-36, whereis given a list of thirty fresh-water and ten land shells, none of them peculiar to the locality, more than half of which are bivalves, mostly Naiades. In the Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., u, 1881, pp. 129-139. Dr. Stearns discusses the introduction of Helix aspersa L., in Califor- nia, together with the synonymy, relations and habitat of several South Californian species. “On the geographical distribution of certain fresh-water mol- lusks of North America, and the probable causes of their varia- tion” (Part 1, Jan., 1881, pp. 8; Part 11, July, 1881, pp. 11; Journ. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist, 1v, 1881). The two papers above cited contain an interesting resumé, from Professor Wetherby’s point of view, of a number of singularities in geographical distribution of American fresh-water shells." We are of the opinion that when the facts are fully determined in regard to the fossil as well as the recent forms, which unfortunately is not yet the case, results of value will be obtained. The author wisely does not, as yet, endeavor to formulate any results, but calls attention to the facts with a promise of further studies in the future. Stearns (Am. Nat., May 1881, pp. 362-6) discusses the distri- bution and synonymy of “ Mya arenaria in San Francisco, bay,” arriving at the doubtless correct conclusion that it has been intro- duced probably not earlier than 1872 or 1873, on oyster “seed,” planted by importers from the eastern coast, to grow and fatten in the bay. It has now almost entirely superseded other “ clams’ in the San Francisco markets, and has spread or been introduced also at Santa Cruz. Dr. Lockwood notes (Am. Nart., Nov., 1881, p. 908) the find- ing of the third fresh specimen (since 1876) of Argonauta arge L., on the New Jersey coast. Two occurred at Long Branch, the other fifteen miles south of it. One was living when found. The argonaut may therefore be said with truth to belong to the Sunk of the east coast of the United States. ae 1882.] American Work on Recent. Mollusca in 1881. 955 “ Observations on the species of the genus Partula Fér., with a bibliographic catalogue,” by W. D. Hartman, M.D. (Bull. Mus. Comp. Zodl., 1x, No. 5, 8vo, pp. 171-196, with two diagram plates, Nov., 1881). ; This paper contains no descriptions of new species, but is a succinct review of the genus in general, with a list of the species with references to descriptions and figures; a list of terrestrial species as distinguished from those which live in trees; another list of spurious species in which the. reference to P, auriculata Pfr., as a Tornatella would seem to be a typographical error. There is also an account of an examination of two bushels of duplicates from the Pease collection now in the possession of the Mus, Comp. Zoölogy, and two plates of diagrammatic maps pre- pared by Andrew Garrett, showing the distribution of the forms of Partula on five of the Polynesian islands. It would seem as if a very important contribution. to the study of the origin of spe- cies might be made by a keen-eyed and competent observer who should be willing to devote himself for a year or two to the study of these extremely local races, their environment and hybridization, on one of these islands, It is perhaps unnecessary to say that the information in this paper is fuller and more accurate than is to be elsewhere found on the same topic, and that it will be a welcome contribution should Dr. Hartman complete, as it has been ru- mored was his intention, a similar annotated synonymical cata- logue of the Achatinellidz. Dr. W. D. Hartman has had printed “A Catalogue of the genus Partula” (F. S. Hickman, West Chester, Pa., 1881, 8vo, pp. 14, cuts), enumerating the species with their synonyms, and divid- ing them into two sections, of which one contains ten and the other five subordinate groups, and these again are subdivided by characters of less importance. To the divisions of the sections new names have been applied, and they are termed subgenera, though the characters by which they are separated are superficial rather than structural. These subgenera are as follows: Partula (P. faba p. 6); Nenia (P. N. auriculata, Brod. p. 7); Astrea (P. A. dentifera, Pfr. p. 7; predccupied in ccelenterates, 1789); Clytia (P. G umbilicata, Pse. p. 8; preoccupied in ccelenterates, 1812); Ilia Ped. lutea, Lesson, p. 8; preoccupied in crustacea, 1817); GEnone (P. Œ. hebe, Pfr. p. 9; preoccupied in vermes, 1817); Helena (2. H. Otaheitana, Brug. p. 9); Pasithea (P. P. spadicea, Reeve, p. 10; 4 956 American Vork on Recent Mollusca in 188r. [December, preoccupied in ccelenterates, 1812, and otherwise); Æga (P. Æ. decussatula Pfr. p. 11 ; preoccupied in crustacea, 1815); Echo (P. E. arguta, Pease, p. 11; preoccupied in insects, 1853); in the second section Latia (P. L. ganymedes, Pfr. p. 12; preoccupied in mollusca, 1849); Evadne (P. E. bulimoides, Lesson, p. 12; preoc- ‘ cupied in crustacea, 1846); Harmonia (P. H. gibba, Fer. pi 13; preoccupied in insects, 1846); Matuta! (P. M. rosea, Brod. p. 14; preoccupied in crustacea by Fabricius); Sterope (P. S. carterien- sis, Quoy and Gaim. p. 14; preoccupied in insects, 1850. The types are illustrated by rather coarse wood-cuts in the text. This catalogue represents, better than any previous arrange- ment, the relations of the different species to each other, and is the result of some years conscientious study, aided by the best existing collection of the shells themselves. It is, therefore, un- fortunate that, at the last moment, as it were, it should have been somewhat hastily printed. We are authorized, on the part of the author (who as much as any one else regrets the circum- stance), to state that he desires to withdraw, as far as lies in his power, the names applied to the sections of Partula, which he is now of the opinion are perhaps hardly important enough, from a systematic point of view, to deserve naming; and that he has in preparation a new catalogue which will embody some revisions, some new species lately described and but recently received by Dr. Hartman, and in which he will adopt the classification indi- cated by Dr. Pfeiffer in his posthumous work, “ Nomenclator Heliciorum Viventium,” etc. A list of the Mollusca (two cephalopods, twenty-five gastero- pods, twenty-three lamellibranchs) forms part of a paper by Mr. R. Rathbun, on “ The littoral marine fauna of Provincetown, Cape Cod, Mass.,” in the Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 111, pp. 1 16-133 June, 1880. A reference to this paper was accidentally omitted from this record for 1880, In Am. Nat., May, 1881, pp. 390-91, Professor R. E. Call de- scribes a new Texan Unio, U. bollii Call, from the Colorado river, Texas, collected by the late Professor Jacob Boll. It is perhaps most nearly allied to U. guadrans Lea. We may here call atten- tion, though not strictly within our limits, to his list in the ae! number (p. 585) of the recent land and fresh-water shells iune 1 Printed Matata, but the derivation given shows this to be a typographical ert : oy z 1882. | American Work on Recent Mollusca in 1881. 95 fossil in the Iowa loess, and which in his moe determine it to _ be a lacustrine formation. “Notes on Succinea campestris and S. aurea” (Am. Nat., May, 1881, pp. 391-2). Professor R. E. Call extends the limits of the first species as far as New Orleans in the west, and Charleston, S. C., on the north, and of the second to Central and Southeastern New York. He also adds Southwest Iowa (Nishnabotna river) asa new and so far the most western locality for Unio pressus Eea. : Our Home und Science Gossip, a monthly periodical published at Rockford, Illinois, has a “department” devoted to Cozchology which deserves encouragement and a better proof-reader. In the number for June 15th, 1881, A. A. Hinkley mentions a pond near the Pecatonica river, near Rockford, and Mercer county, Illinois, as localities for the rare Zimnæa zebra Tryon. W. W. Calkins announces a “complete monograph” of the molluscan fauna of Illinois, to be published within the year, and asks for coöperation from local naturalists. The object of Mr. Calkins is a worthy one, and which should be promoted at home and imitated in other States of the Union, especially if Mr. Cal- _ kins gives as’ good figures of the species as those which have illustrated some of his papers noticed in this record for previous years. J. B. Upson contributes notes on Limnæea desidiosa Say, and Physa gyrina (found by “millions,” ina rain-flooded stone quarry which was thirty-five rods from any stream of water), Unio alatus Say, and Vertigo simplex Gould. Large numbers of the Unio from Rock river, were examined. Two-thirds proved to be males. Young ones were extremely rare. The nacre of the females, without exception, was much lighter than that of the males, being sometimes nearly white, while the males were of Various shades of purple. In the male shells the intensity of color varied with the “thickness of the mantle,” the shells of daikest hue being secreted by “ the very thickest mantle.” They sometimes produce pearls. The Vertigo, was described by Gould in 1840, and has been found in Canada and New England. In the winter of 1880-81, Mr. Upson found it near Cedar Keys, Florida, associated with Pupa rupicola Say, on decayed wood. No intermediate stations are known, and further confirmation of this very interesting discovery would be gratifying. 958 American Work on Recent Mollusca in 1881. [December, Mr. Upson also contributes hints to collectors, and offers prizes for the best collections made by children of the public schools. It will be seen that this little miscellany is by no means with- out interest, but worse typographical blunders than those which occur in it are rarely to be found, and the editor has included an account of “coon oysters ” on the coast of Florida, clipped from some exchange, under the head of Jethyology ! Descriptive and Systematic Papers——As usual, the recorder finds it difficult to assign many papers to any of the definite heads used in this record, since they combine descriptive and other matters under one title, and the recorder’s time and facilities do not permit him to attempt any exhaustive analysis like that of Professor von Martens in the Zodlogical Record. Still the rough arrangement here adopted is not without a certain use, and for that reason has been retained. “On the genera of Chitons,’ by W. H. Dall (Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1881, pp. 279-291, Dec.). In this article the writer has given brief but sufficient diagnosis of all the divisions of the Chitonide recognized by the late Dr. Carpenter and himself, both - recent and fossil. All the groups are restricted, some here first — characterized, but most of them have heretofore been made pub- lic. In the present arrangement all are brought together in their» systematic relations, and their chief characteristics tabulated. The writer observes, “with the above data and those comprised in my report on the Limpets and Chitons of Alaska, students _ should be pretty well able to refer any Chiton of whose charac- ters they have made themselves masters, to its proper place in the general classification.’ The following names are proposed for Palzeozoic Chitons on the authority of Dr. Carpenter's MSS., and should be credited to him. Chonechiton, Pterochiton, Loricites and Probolaum. Cymatochiton Dall, is proposed for Cymato- dus Carpenter, preoccupied in vertebrates. Among recent genera and subgenera hitherto only in MS. wi imperfectly characterized, diagnoses are given of Deshayesiella Cpr., Callochiton Gray, Stereochiton Cpr., Leptoplax Cpr Spongiochiton Cpr., Callistoplax Cpr., Angasia Cpr., Ceratozona Dall (for Ceratophorus Cpr., non Diesing, 1850), Pallochiton Dall (Hemphillia Cpr., non Binney), Fannettia Dall (Fannia Gray, non Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830), Sclerochiton Cpr., Lucilina Dall (Lucia Gld., non Swainson, 1833), Francisia Cpr., Dinoplax Cpr» 1882. } American Work on Recent Mollusca in 1881. 959 Middendorfia Cpr. (Dawsonia Cpr., 1873, preoc.), Beanella Dall (Beania Cpr. non Johnstone), Arthuria Cpr., Aulacochiton (Shut- tleworth restr.) Cpr., Fremblya H. Adams (= Streptochiton Cpr., MS.), Euplaciphora (Shuttleworth restr.) Cpr., Guildingia Cpr., Macandrellus Cpr., Stectoplax Cpr., Choneplax Cpr., Chi- toniscus Cpr. (non Herrmanssen). It is believed that the publi- cation of these tables will be beneficial in several ways, as in giving a general view of Dr. Carpenter’s classification, and espe- cially in calling attention to the characters which it is desirable should be distinctly noted by those who may describe new spe- cies of Chitonidæ, for the want of which it is impracticable in the majority of cases, to properly classify by determining the genus. or even to subsequently recognize the species. The publication of the entire monograph only awaits the preparation of the illus- trations (already drawn) which have been delayed by circum- stances entirely beyond the writer's control. “ The Cephalopods of the northeastern coast of America.” Part 1. “The smaller Cephalopods (etc.),” by A. E. Verrill (Trans. Conn. Acad. Sci., v., pp. 259-446, pl. xxvi—Lv1, June, 1880, Dec., 1881). Part 1 of this important work was noticed in this record for 1880. The second part is now completed, forming full mate- rial for a manual of the subject, which it is understood will be issued in the form of a “ Report on the Cephalopods,” in connec- tion with the “ U. S. Fish Commission Report for 1879,” which appears early in 1882.1 The first two sheets, which appeared in 1880, contain references to additional specimens of Architeuthis harveyi, and a full description of Ommastrephes illecebrosus (Les- ueur) Verrill. The new names applied in the subsequent por- tion of the paper are Cheloteuthis for C. rapax n. s. (by typo- graphical error Chiloteuthis) from a somewhat imperfect speci- men which is subsequently referred to as a synonym of Lestoteu- this Jabricit (Stp.) Verrill (Sepia loligo Fabr. Fauna Gronl.); Des- moteuthidz V. fam. nov. containing Desmoteuthis n. g. erected upon Leachia hyperborea Stp.; two new varieties (borealis: and pallida) of Loligo pealei Lesueur; Stoloteuthis n. g. for Sepiola leucoptera V.; Rossia megaptera V. n. s. from near Newfoundland ; and Alloposidæ V. fam. nov. for Alloposus V. (1880). An appen- dix follows, with descriptions of additional material and a crit- 1 Separate copies of this article in advance of the Report were received from the printer at the Smithsonian Inst. April 10, 1882. 960 American Work on Recent Mollusca in 1881. [ December, icism of several papers by Streenstrup and Owen, published nearly simultaneously with the earlier parts of Verrill’s work, thereby causing some entanglements in nomenclature, for an account of which the reader is referred to the paper itself, Sev- eral new names appear in this appendix, e. g. Brachioteuthis (beanii V.) g. et sp. n. from fish stomachs off Martha’s Vineyard ; Chiroteuthis lacertosa V. n. s. for a form from the eastern coast of North America of which a fragment was referred to C. bonplandi by Verrill in the Bull. Mus. Comp. Zodlogy. vir, Mar. 1881 ; _ Stoloteuthis (cf. antéa); Inioteuthis n. g. with Z. japonica and Z. Morsei V. spp. n. from Yedo Bay, Japan, collected by Professer Morse. Then follows a conspectus of the families, genera and species of Cephalopods included in this paper, specimens of all of which, except Zaonius pavo, have been examined by the author. The plates reflect: much credit on the artist, Mr. Emerton, those which are lithographed coming out with particular beauty. ! “Some notes on American land shells” (1-1, pp. 8 and 13, Journ. Cincinnati Soc. Nat: History, tv, Oct. and Dec., 1881). In these papers Professor A. G. Wetherby discusses the habitat, location, synonyms, etc., of a large number of species of pulmon- ates. Arielimax var. hecoxi is proposed for a form from Califor- nia which appears to differ from A. columbianus. When fully. extended, living specimens reach nine inches in length. An albino variety of Helix fidelis is noted from Washington Terri- tory. In the second part the molluscan fauna of Roan mountain, North Carolina, is considered, and Helicodiscus fimbriatus n. S. 1S described (p. 9, separate copies). Patula sampsoni is proposed as a name for a form closely allied to P. dorfeuilliana Lea from Eureka Springs, Ark. The paper closes with an appeal to and some instructions for collectors. In the American Fournal of Science (Volume XXII, pp. 411-14 Nov., 1881), Professor Verrill briefly reviews recent papers rela- ting to the East American invertebrate fauna. Professor Angelo Heilprin (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phil., Dec., 1881, pp. 423-28) publishes “ Remarks on the molluscan geuera Hippagus, Verticordia and Pecchiolia,” in which he calls attention to and details the confusion existing in regard to these genera, without, however, finally resolving the difficulties. He if oe o posed to retain Hippagus as distinct from Crenella (to which it has very generally been referred), on the ground that the an . 1882.] American Work on Recent Mollusca in 1881. 961 (of Lea’s types of Hippagus) is thicker and the umbones more prominently developed and spirally twisted than in Crenella, while on the possibly eroded hinge line he observes no crenula- tions. In general, however, these would hardly be taken to be “ sufficient differences to warrant a generic separation.” Bland, in the Annals. N. Y. Acad. Sci. (11., pp. 115-16), describes (with a figure) a somewhat remarkable new species of Triodopsis (T. levettei Bld.) from the vicinity of Santa Fé, New Mexico. In the same publication (pp. 127-28 with cut) he has an article en- titled “Notes on Macroceramus kieneri Pfr, and M. pontificus Gld.” in which he figures the former (from types) and comes to the conclusion that the two are distinct, and that M. kienert Pfr., is not a member of the fauna of the United States. - Geo. W. Harper describes and figures (Cin. Journ. Nat. Hist., IV., part 3, p. 258, Oct., ’81) Patuli bryanti n. s. from North Carolina, which bears a relation to P. perspectiva such as Helix cumberlandiana does to H. alternata. He also figures, with notes upon the species, Hyalina significans Bland. Rafael Arango describes (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, 1881, pp. 15-16) Choanopoma acervatum, Cylindrella paradoxa, C. incerta, these three illustrated by good cuts, and Ctenopoma nodi- Serum, all new species, together with Ctenopoma wrightianum Gundlach, n. sp. These new pulmonates are from Cuba. Economic Shell-fisheries and Miscellaneous Notes—The daily press in this, as in almost every field, gathers good wheat as well as chaff, and, occasionally, articles which would do no discredit to permanent scientific literature. Such of the latter. as have fallen under the writer’s notice are here mentioned as well as more pretentious documents and reports, as in previous years. “The Oyster Industry,” by Ernest Ingersoll (Tenth Census, Section x, Fishery Industries, Monograph B., Dept. Interior, 4to, p. 252, pl. xxx-xL11, Washington, 1881). This forms one of the special monographs on the history and present condition of the fishery industries, by G. Brown Goode, Assistant Director U. S. Nat. Mus., and a staff of associates. It contains descriptive and Statistical reports on the oyster industry from Maine to Texas and California; an account of the natural history of the oyster, a glossary of terms and statistical tables. Six of the plates illustrate the development of the oyster from observations by Professor W. K. Brooks (elsewhere noticed) and. the remainder 962 American Work on Recent Mollusca in 188r. [December, tools, barges, etc., pertaining to the business. The vast accumu- lation of facts brought together is an evidence of great industry, and can be properly estimated only by a specialist familiar with this field. Doubtless, there is some inequality in the character of the information, such as would inevitably result from the sources from which it is derived. Its value will be chiefly realized in the future. For the present, the only criticism which occurs to us, is, that we miss in addition to the accumulated facts, a brief digest from which their bearings might be rapidly gathered. It is prob- able, however, that this is easier to point out than to remedy. Report of the Commissioners of Shell-fisheries of Connecticut (Hartford, 1881, 8vo, pp. 35-132), presented to the legislature, January session, 1882. This first report of the Shell-fish Commis- sioners is included in the same covers, with the sixteenth report of the Fish Commissioners of the State, which occupies the pre- ceding thirty-four pages of the volume. The Shell-fish Commis- sion was established by an act of the legislature approved April 14th, 1881, entitled “ An act establishing a State Commission for the designation of oyster grounds,” which board is given by Section 1, exclusive jurisdiction over the offshore grounds, north of the New York State line, in Long Island sound, suitable for or occupied by oyster beds. They are empowered to survey and map all the grounds above mentioned, to ascertain the ownership of any that may be claimed by right of occupancy and the area of the natural beds, to report a plan for an equitable taxation of the property in said fisheries, and an annual report of the state of their condition. They are also empowered in the name of the State to grant by written instruments perpetual franchises in such un- claimed grounds, as are not and have not for ten years been natural clam or oyster beds, to citizens of the State applying for them, paying expenses of survey and one dollar per acre for the same for the purpose of planting or cultivating shell-fish thereon. The deeds are to be registered, maps of special sections made, boundary buoys or stakes set, and provision is made for a legal settlement of disputes. During the seven months, ending with Nov. 30th, 1881, about $8400.00 had been paid into the State treasury from receipts, while $4000.00 had been drawn for expenses incurred. The report contains, first, an account of lands registered as private property; second, a brief statement of the character of 1882. ] American Work on Recent Mcllusca in 1881. 963 the business of oyster cultivation as practiced in Connecticut ; third, the report of J. P. Bogart, Esq., engineer of the board, in relation to surveys made, accompanied by a map of the triangula- tion executed, and a general map of the State oyster grounds; and lastly, an appendix containing the forms of deeds used, and a compend of the laws of Connecticut relating to shell-fish and fisheries. It is creditable to the State of Connecticut that the importance of the subject has received legal recognition, and to the commissioners, Messrs. R. G. Pike, W. M. Hudson, and Geo. N. Woodruff, that so much has been accomplished with so little expense. This has doubtless been largely due to the intelligence and efficiency of the engineer of the board as well as to the exer- tions of the members of the commission themselves. Should Maryland and Virginia take similar action in the waters of the Chesapeake, and execute the laws already on the statute book, the inevitable depopulation of the oyster grounds now rapidly ap- proaching, and which will deprive over forty thousand people of their means of livelihood, might be long postponed if not entirely prevented. The crass ignorance of those most interested, how- ever, and its effect on State politics, are such that little in the way of rational legislation is to be hoped for, until after the business in the Chesapeake has practically destroyed itself. General information about the oyster and clam trade can be found in the weekly issues of Hopson’s Sea World, etc., for the year 1881, An important article on “ Chesapeake oysters” and the oyster trade of that region generally, can be found in the New York Herald for Oct. 11th, 1881, and another on “ Oysters in season,” in the issue of Aug. 26th, 1881. The business began in Balti- more in 1834, but was of little consequence until 1836, whena packing-house, dealing at first chiefly in raw oysters was estab- lished by C. S. Maltby. On both shores of the Chesapeake col- lectively, there is capital to the amount of more than seven and a half millions of dollars invested—over seventeen million bushels of oysters were handled—over forty thousand people and nearly ten thousand vessels and boats were employed in the business, while the wages earned are about seven millions of dollars. This article is largely indebted to the Census Report on the oyster industry for its facts, but presents them in a compact and handy shape. pcm i sie 964 American Work on Recent Mollusca in 1881. [ December, The consumption of oysters in New York, as appears from the second article referred to, between September Ist and January 1st, is about fifty thousand baskets æ day (sic), containing about two hundred oysters each. From January to May the consumption is about twenty-five per cent.less. This appears to be at the rate of ten millions oysters a day, or eight oysters fer capita for the entire population of the city, an estimate which seems grossly ex- cessive on the face of it, unless it be understood that the New York dealers sell oysters to private parties or small dealers in the surrounding country, which are included in the above figures, as well as the actual local consumption. A large natural bed of oysters, covering over one hundred acres was discovered in Smithtown bay, on the north shore of Long Island, N. Y., in September, 1881. It is in deep water and very rough bottom. The discovery created an immense excite- ment among the fishermen, who flocked from every. quarter to avail themselves of the unclaimed treasures. Lippincott's Magazine (May, 1881, pp. 479-492) has a well- illustrated article on oysters and oyster culture, here and abroad, under the title of “ Oyster culture,” by W. F. G. Shanks. “ Deterioration of American Oyster beds ” is the subject of two articles, by Lieut. Francis Winslow, U. S. N., in the Popular Science Monthly (Vol. xx, No. 1, pp. 29-42, Nov., 1881; No. 2. pp. 145-155, Dec., 1881), in which the danger to the Chesapeake beds, now imminent, is pointed out, and remedies are discussed and illustrated by instances of experience of European communities. So long as the community most directly interested remains, from ignorance, obstinately incredulous and unwilling to take any pre- cautions whatever, or even enforce the existing laws, nothing can be done, and it is probable they will awake to the danger only when it is too- late. The Sea World, Fishing Gazette and Packer's Fournal, a quarto weekly periodical, devoted in large part to the annals and interests of the edible shell-fish trade, has completed its third volume. It is published by W. B. Hopson at New Haven, Conn., and apparently printed and issued in New York. Those inter- ested in the economical shell-fish will find it worth while to refer to its files. In the number for Dec. 7th, 1881, an interesting account is given of oyster culture, near Groton, Conn., in the Poquonock river. White birch bushes, of proper size, are cnt; a v 1882.] American Work on Recent Mollusca in 188 1. 965 and stuck into the river bottom (soft mud) where there is about twelve feet of water at low tide. The spat adheres to the bushes and grows finely, twenty-five bushels of oysters (seven bushels marketable and the remainder “ seed ” oysters) having been taken from one bush which was four inches through the butt and had been set eighteen months. The average yield, however, is about five bushels to the bush. As the bottom is muddy, the spat which is caught by the bushes would otherwise be a complete loss. The oysters are said to be of fine flavor and rather peculiar shape. About fifty acres are devoted to this business. Although the bushes are always under water, a strong opposition to this mode of planting has been developed in the neighborhood which threatens to terminate the trade. The ostensible ground is, that itis liable to produce disease in the vicinity, which would seem to be an unwarranted assumption, and the editor ascribes the attack on the planters to “the determined opposition to oyster culture which has always been noticeable in that section of Con- necticut.” Why any oneshould oppose the cultivation of oysters does not seem clear. In New Haven, Conn., in the autumn of 1881, was reported a singular scarcity of oyster shells for use in planting new beds for the “spat” to settle upon. The value of'a bushel of the shells had risen to five and even seven cents a bushel. Formerly sur- plus oyster shells were used in making roads about New Haven and the smoothness, hardness and freedom from dust of the “shell roads” was so wellknown as to become proverbial. But the Scarcity of the shells, unless it proves to be merely temporary, will soon make the “ shell road ” a thing of the past. The franchise for fish and oysters in the Gulf of California is held by Don Guillermo Andrade by a concession from the Mexican authorities. A party has recently gone to investigate the islands covered by his concession, with a view of establishing packing establishments, for putting up turtle flesh and oysters in cans for export, The “ Market Review for 1881” (San Francisco, Cal.), states that the quantity of abalones ( Haliotis of several species) shipped by sea from California in 1880, was 6372 sacks, valued at $46,179.00 ; and in 1881, 4522 sacks, valued at $18,529.00. This is exclu- = sive of the quantity shipped by rail which is probably much ‘greater, Owing to the demand for iridescent buttons now in VOL, XVI.—NO, XII. 966 . American Work on Recent Mollusca in 1881, [December, fashion, the manufacture of these shells is very large. In this country the work is largely done in Philadelphia and New York. A considerable quantity of the shells are shipped to France; of the more solid and perfect shells, solid buttons are made, the refuse is ground up and mixed with cement which is molded into buttons, which display in their substance myriads of brilliant particles. The compound may be more conveniently and artistically treated than the solid shell itself, as well as at less cost. An account of “ Pearl diving (for Wargaritiphora californica Cpr.) in the Gulf of California” taken from the “ Youth's Companion” appears in the San Francisco Bulletin for Nov. gth, 1881. Two or three tons of fresh shells were obtained per day when weather permitted. They were allowed to die before being searched for pearls. The locality was called Bonita bay, being about fifty miles north of Loreto. The water was forty feet deep and only about one shell in one thousand contained a valuable pearl. Sharks and squids rendered diving (in a suit of rubber armor) ex- citing, if not dangerous. Eleven thousand bushels of clams (Venus mercenaria L.) were sent to market by the fishermen of East Hampton, Long Island, N. Y. in 188i. ; In the Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission (1. p. 21, Apr. 13th, 1881) Mr. John A. Ryder prints an extract from a letter to Mr. Tryon, by Henry Hemphill, calling attention to the valuable qualities of Glycimeris generosa Gould, as a food mol- lusk. It is found at Olympia, Washington Territory, and is said to resemble “scrambled eggs” in taste. They are calied “ Geo- ducks” by the urchins of Olympia, and “ Kwenuks” by the In- dians. The Fish Commission is investigating the question of transplanting these valuable mollusks to the east coast of the » United States. In the same publication (pp. 200-201) with the © title of “On the habits and distribution of the Geoduck,” etes is printed a letter from Hemphill on the same subject, in which he mentions that a large specimen will afford a pound of delicious flesh for food. They burrow very deeply into the sand, how- ever, and do not come much above extreme low tide limits, 50 that it is not easy or convenient to get at them except at low spring tides. On the other hand, they are said to be finer eating a than any other mollusk, not excepting the oyster. At a recent meeting of the Harbor Commissioners in = 1882.] American Work in Recent Mollusca in 1881. 967 Francisco, the Chief Engineer reported that the San Rafael ferry- slip, now six and one-half years old, was practically ruined by the teredo and would have to be replaced. Nearlyall the submerged wood-work was actually destroyed.. San Francisco Bulletin. W. N. Horton, of Olympia, W. T., has invented a plan for cir- cumventing the teredo. He is also the inventor of a process for boring logs for water pipes and pumps. His machinery cuts out a cylinder two inches thick, from between the core and the out- side of a log and of any desired caliber. By retaining the core and filling the cylindrical excavation around it with a special cement, it is thought that the ravages of the teredo would be con- fined to the outer part of a pile, so treated, and the core which is expected to sustain the needed weight would be protected by the cement, which in its turn would be preserved from friction by the outer coating of wood and bark. In the Sea World elsewhere alluded to (Dec. 7th, 1881), a resumé of facts relating to the giant cuttlefishes, is given, under the title of “ The Devil Fish of the Atlantic.” : In the Weekly Bulletin, San Francisco, Aug. 24, 1881, in an article on “ San Francisco Fishermen,” it is stated, that the Octo- pus (O. punctatus Gabb) is largely used for food by the Italian fishermen of that port, being made into a kind of chowder with vegetables and a sauce of olive oil and lemon juice, after the intestines have been removed, and is considered as especially appropriate food for fast-days. They are also dried for export by the Chinese. : In the Gulf of California the ten-armed cuttles sometimes attack the divers for pearl oysters. One killed, while attacking a diver, had arms twelve feet long, and a body larger than a beef barrel (7%., Nov. oth, 1881.) The Mew York Herald, of Nov. 25th, 1881, gives three col- umns to an account, by Mr. Morris, of the capture of an immense Squid (Architeuthis harveyi V.) at Portugal cove, Newfoundland, = on the roth of November, and a resumé of facts relating to these animals. The specimen in question was brought to New York. Harper's Weekly for Dec. ioth, ’81, has an illustrated article on the same subject apparently by the same author. A fictitious account of an imaginary capture of a giant squid (“ Architeuthis ”) appears in Lippincott s Magazine, Aug, 1881, P. 124, from the pen of Mr. C. F. Holder. 968 Organic Compounds in their Relations to Life. (December, “Mortality among Architeuthide.” Professor Verrill (Am. Journ. Sci., XXI, p. 251, Mar., 1881) notes a strange mortality of giant squids (“ Architeuthis”), which, according to Capt. J. W. Collins, occurred in Oct., 1875. Twenty or thirty specimens were found floating on the water and secured for bait by the fish- ing fleet. They were mostly somewhat mutilated when found. A novel mission in England sends beautiful sea-shells, which are generally collected by children, to little sick people in homes or hospitals. Since May, 1879, it has distributed a quarter of a million of shells from the West Indies; South Africa and Spain, as well as from the English coast.-—f/vote’s Leisure Hour. A specimen of Tridacna gigas Lam., weighing 528 pounds, was obtained by Professor Ward, of Rochester, New York, at Singa- pore. It was thirty-six inches long and twenty-seven broad, and was presented to the California State Mining Bureau, by Mr. J. Z. Davis.—S. F. Bulletin, Mar. 2d. Erratum—By an inexplicable and unfortunate “lapsus” in this record for 1880 (p. 716), the name of W. H. Ballou was substituted for that of Rev. W. M. Beauchamp, who should have been credited with the authorship of the note on the distribution of Bythinia tentaculata in the United States (cf. Am. NAT., July, 1880, p. 523, and Mar., 1882, pp. 244-5). ——— 0 THE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS IN THEIR RELATIONS TO LIFE? BY LESTER F. WARD. N a paper on the “ Formation of the Chemical Elements,”? read March 29, 1879, before the Philosophical Society of Wash- — : ington, I proposed the following cosmical definitions of the these A 2 principa) known forms of matter : “7. Chemical Elements.—Substances whose molecules are com- Hes posed either of those of other chemical elements of less atomic weight, or of such as are too low to be capable of molar aggre- gation, and therefore imperceptible to sense : formed during the — progress of development of star-systems at temperatures higher 1 Read before the Philosophical Society of Washington, January 28, 1882; 2 E read before the Biological Section of the American Association for the Advan a of Science at Montreal, August 29, 1882, ee ` 3“ Evolution of the Chemical kieras f in i the Popular Science Mente xvi (Felru-ry, 1881), pp. 526- ; 1882. ] Organic Compounds in their Relations to Life. 969 than can be artificially produced, and hence too stable to be arti- ficially dissociated. ; “2. Inorganic Compounds.—Substances whose molecules are composed of those of chemical elements or of other inorganic compounds of lower degrees of aggregation: formed in the later stages of the development of planets at high but artificially pro- ducible temperatures, and therefore capable: of artificial decom- position; and constituting the greater part of the solid crust of cooled-off bodies, their liquid, and a portion of their gaseous en- velope. “3, Organic Compounds.—Substances whose highly complex and very unstable molecules are composed of those of chemical elements, inorganic compounds, or organic compounds of lower organization: formed on the cooled surfaces of fully developed planets at life-supporting temperatures.” . In that paper I endeavored to show that the so-called chemical elements differ from one another in:ways which strongly suggest the possibility that some of them may have been evolved from simpler constituents in much the same manner as the inorganic compounds are formed. These latter were therefore treated as simply forming the continuation of a uniform process of evolu- tion, varied in its character only by the conditions of temperature affecting the globe at the period when these substances were res- pectively formed upon it. The passage above quoted from the same paper shows also that the development of the organic compounds was looked upon as the still further prolongation of this uniform law operating under the greatly lowered temperatures prevailing on the surface of the earth’s crust after its formation. This law was further shown to be none other than that which is known to prevail in each of the higher domains of phenomena, in the min- eral, the vegetable, and the animal world—the production of aggregates of higher orders of complexity through the re-com- pounding of units of lower degrees of simplicity. As indices of this law, and facts of primary significance, it was shown that throughout the scale, so far as traceable, even in the domain of the chemical elements, the molecules constituting each progres- sively more complex unit, exhibit increase of mass accompanied by decrease of stability. The present paper will aim to take the subject up where the former left it, and to confine itself exclusively to an examination 970 Organic Compounds in their Relations to Life. { December, of the last and highest of these products of Nature’s alembic— the Organic Compounds. These substances, as they exist on the globe, are for the most part products of organization, and they were long supposed to possess such subtile properties and composition as to be ever necessarily inscrutable to man. But quantitative chemistry has, within the last half century, not only succeeded in the complete analysis of all such substances obtained from organized beings, but it has also effected the synthesis, or reproduction out of their inorganic elements, of thousands of them. Thus Wohler, Berthe- lot, Kolbe, Friedel, Piria, Wertheim, and others have accom- plished the manufacture of such bodies as urea, formic, oxalic, lactic, and salicylic acid, numerous alcohols and ethers, glycer- ine, and a host of essences, including wintergreen, vanilla, mus- tard, cinnamon, camphor, etc., as well as alizarine and indigo dyes. These facts are sufficient to obliterate completely the line of demarkation formerly supposed to exist between the chemical constitution of inorganic and organic compounds, and when it is remembered that the latter differ as widely from one another as they do from the former in complexity, the uniform process of molecular aggregation cannot be regarded as interrupted at this stage. There is also much indirect evidence, though amounting to proof in but few cases, that the organic compounds, at least some of them, are sometimes directly formed by nature out of their inorganic constituents without the intervention of organized bodies. These substances have their peculiar properties depending, like those of all other substances, on their molecular constitution ; the artificial glycerine possesses the same sweet taste as the natural product, the manufactured spices yield the same aromas, and the laboratory dyes the same colors as those of the Orient. Many organic compounds are exceedingly complex, their molecules being relatively large, containing several thousand times as much matter as a molecule of hydrogen. Their instability, moreover, bears some proportion to their complexity. Most of them ae colloidal in structure and refuse to crystallize; a few of the sim- pler ones, however, in which the proportion of oxygen is jarge, as sugar, for example, become crystalline under certain conditions. The only element which is never absent from any of these o pounds is carbon. Oxygen is almost universally present, and the ae ra 1882.] Organic Compounds in their Relations to Life. 971 hydrocarbon group from which it is wanting is quite distinct from all others. Hydrogen comes next in point of regularity, and these three elements make up the great bulk of all organic matter. When nitrogen is added a marked change is made in the nature of the compounds. The nitrogenous group is distinguished especially by its great instability, and also by the number of isomeric forms which these bodies are capable of assuming. The only other elements that enter to any great extent into organic compounds are sulphur and phosphorus. These occur in limited but definite proportions in many of the most complex substances. The remarkable contrasts which the elements of organic com- pounds present when compared with one another have been fre- quently pointed out by different writers, and they are certainly adequate to explain most of the properties possessed by these bodies. The chief characteristic of oxygen is its great chemical activity, or tendency to combine with other substances, while that of nitrogen is its inertia, or inability so to combine. Carbon is a solid at all temperatures producible on the globe, while all the other three chief constituents of organic matter are practically incapable of solidification. This fact is a measure of the degree of cohesion of the homogeneous molecules composing the respec- tive molar aggregates; that of carbon is intense, while that of hydrogen is exceedingly slight. While this in each case depends on the degree of heat, it will be relatively the same among them all at any given temperature. It would appear that all the attempts, so to speak, on the part of nature to form compounds of the gaseous elements alone have resulted, where successful, in substances which are at once pro- nounced inorganic, such as water, H,O, ammonia NH, nitric acid, HNO,,etc. Itis remarkable that while the chief compound of the two persistent gases, hydrogen and oxygen, is liquid (water) or solid (ice) at our temperatures, that formed of the per- sistent solid, carbon, in combination with one of these gases, oxygen (carbonic dioxide, CO,), is a gas at all ordinary tempera- tures and pressures. Notwithstanding this, it can not be doubted that carbon is the agent which, by its great molecular cohesion prevents the dissolution of the higher compounds and’renders Organic substances possible. As already remarked, the transition from the inorganic to the organic is, from the point of view of chemical structure, purely 972 Organic Compounds in their Relations to Life. [ December, nominal, and the existence of any hard and fast line marking off one of these fields from the other has long been denied. If there were any advantage to be derived from such a line perhaps it could not be drawn ina better place than that where carbon unites with hydrogen or nitrogen, either with or without oxygen. This, it is true, would place all the hydrocarbons, as well as cyan- ogen in the organic series. On this view, therefore, the inorganic compound most nearly related to the organic series would be car- bonic acid, or, as it is now more properly called, carbonic dioxide, CO,, of whose inorganic origin there can be no doubt. The simplest organic compounds consist chiefly in the addition of different proportions of hydrogen to this basis and the reduction of the proportion of oxygen. In the various hydrides (methylic, CH,, ethylic, C,Hg, amylic, C,H, etc.), the oxygen disappears altogether. In the alcohols it reappears only in the addition of one oxygen molecule, to the tespective hydrides. The acids result from an additional increase in the proportion of oxy- gen (formic, CH.O,, acetic, C,H,O,, etc.). The actual devel- opment of the organic compounds, as it may be supposed to take place in nature, would seem to be in the reverse order to that above given, the organic acids being first formed from inorganic compounds by the addition of hydrogen, then the alcohols from these by still further increase of hydrogen accompanied by a re- duction of oxygen, and lastly, the hydrides from the alcohols by the loss of the one equivalent of oxygen remaining in the latter. The different kinds of acids, alcohols, and hydrides, arise from — varying the proportions of hydrogen and carbon. The simplest change possible may be indicated thus: ; r oa SN Pai EEE ETI Carbonic dioxide. Formic acid. 0, + H = QHO; ——— ey Methylic alcohol. CH,O, + H,— 0 = CH,0 ; FARE MEH ABST. Methyl. CHO — O = CH, ete. When we look at the higher and more complex compounds, we can readily see that they may be composed of the lower ones : ‘ as their molecular constituents. This is, to a great extent, — assumed by chemists, and the chemical synthesis of a large num- 1882. ] Organic Compounds in their Relations to Life. 973 ber of these substances has been carefully worked out. In the formation of sugar (Cij,H»O,), starch (CyH»O»), gum (Cj2H%O,3), etc., the proportion of oxygen is quite large, and the phenomena of crystallization may occur under certain circum- stances, The oils are a still more complex group, being formed by the union of very feeble acids with the common base, glycerine (C3;HsO;).: They are colloidal under all conditions, and decom- pose much more easily than the amyloids. The most important organic compounds, however, especially from the biological point of view, are those containing nitrogen. These fall under two general classes, and constitute the so-called organic bases on the one hand, and the albuminoids on the other. The former of these groups have been for the most part extracted from: vegetables of which they constitute the “active principles,” or characteristic properties, although, as we saw, a large number of them have been artificially manufactured. As illustrations of the nature and composition of these substances may be mentioned, morphine (C,;H,NO;), narcotine (C,»H.,NO,), quinine (CHa N:O»), strychnine (C,,H.N,O,), etc. It will be seen that the principal particulars in which these fundamentally differ from the organic compounds already considered, consist in the addition of a small percentage of nitrogen and the reduction of the propor- tion of oxygen; yet the properties which they possess are a hundred-fold more active. The composition of the organic bases, however, though some- what complex, is simple compared with that of the albuminous compounds, These contain, in addition to the elements of the former, small, but rather definite proportions of both sulphur and phosphorus. The number of molecules of each of the compo- nents indicates a large, complex molecule as the unit of compo- sition. The expression for albumen as given by Liebig was: CrigHs33N5,S;Og3- Could this be relied upon this substance would contain 679 equivalents of different weights, which, when reduced to the standard of hydrogen, would indicate a molecule for albumen 4870 times as large as the hydrogen unit. The mole- cule of fibrin is supposed to be still larger than that of albumen. The substances thus composed, as we should naturally expect, are very unstable and possess remarkable properties. They con- stitute the substance of the muscles and nerves of the animal sys- 974. Organic Compounds in thew Relations to Life. [ December, tem and the fibrin of blood. They are also found in all cells whether animal or vegetable. The base of the entire group is known as proteine, so named from its remarkable power of assum- ing different isomeric forms, of which it presents some thousand or more. Proteine contains no sulphur nor phosphorus, and. its formula as given by its illustrious discoverer, Mulder, is, Cis Ho NOs. Each of its units would thus be composed of 65 elemen- tary molecules, the combined mass of which would be equal to 395 molecules of hydrogen. All the actual known substances of this group have, therefore, more complex molecules than those of this still, to a great extent, theoretical one. While the albuminoids possess none of the active properties of the organic bases, they far exceed them in the power they have to change their form,and adapt themselves to the needs of organized beings. All properties in material bodies are the result of reac- tions taking place in their molecular constitution when brought into contact with other bodies. They are recognized only when they directly or indirectly affect the senses. As a rule, the larger their molecules, the more powerful their effects. In the case of the albuminoids, with their comparatively enormous units of aggregation, the entire substance is transformed with only slight external influence, either of heat or chemical contact, and either assumes new characters or breaks up into the simpler organic compounds of which it is composed. The general law above stated, that in the progress of the evolu- tion of matter from the simplest elemental state to the most com- plex organic compound, there has constantly been increase in the mass and decrease in the stability of the molecules, holds good throughout, and to it may now be added a third principle, obviously correlated with the above, and merely constituting 4 corollary to it, that part passu with these changes there has been an increase in the activity of the properties manifested by the sub- stances evolved. Although varying through wide degrees in this respect, all the ‘substances thus far mentioned possess sufficient stability to be rē- , tained, handled, and examined, and to the ordinary observer they present very much the same general appearance. While possess- ing many special qualities distinguishing them from other bodies, the albuminoids, as well as all the other organic compounds, ap pear to be and are incapable of any visible automatic movement. 1882.] Organic Compounds in their Relations to Life. 975 We are obliged, however, to suppose that these, like other solids, even the densest crystals or metals, possess at all times molecular activities. It is these activities that determine the respective prop- erties of all substances, and constitute the multiple and varied in Nature. In proteine bodies, these molecular activities are much more extensive and varied than are those of simpler bodies. The molecular units are so much larger that their motions must be, as it were, molar in comparison, while within these larger primary units there are lesser units of different orders of aggregation, each of which manifests its own appropriate activities, and thus modi- fies the general properties of the whole. The reason why we are unable to see these motions, is simply because they are still on far too small a scale to be directly observed either by the eye or by any of the appliances yet devised for intensifying human vision. The development of the albuminoids, highly complex as they are, is not alone sufficient for the immediate genesis of life. form of matter still more complex, must be reached before this re- sult is possible. But there is no evidence that this form of matter is produced by any different process from that by which other forms of matter are produced. From the molecule of hydrogen to that of albumen, the process of evolution has been uniformly the same, viz., that of compounding and recompounding, of doubly and multiply compounding ; in short, it has been the process of molecular aggregation. It would be contrary to the law of uni- formity in natural phenomena, upon the recognition of which modern science is based, to assume an abrupt change in the pro- cess at this point, and upon those who maintain such a saltus must rest the burden of proof. Dealing, as we constantly must do, with molecules only, we are able to form conclusions only from observed effects, but we have seen that, without changing the elementary substances which analysis can demonstrate to be present at any stage of the process, with each new step in the progress of aggregation new and higher properties are created. From the inert properties of carbon and nitrogen in the free state, of water and carbonic acid, the simplest compounds, we have, by further successive com- pounding, the more active ones of ammonia and nitric acid, the Sweet taste of sugar and glycerine, the powerful narcotic princi- ples of nicotine and morphine, the deadly toxic properties of 976 Organic Compounds in their Relations to Life. [December, strychnine, and, manifesting themselves in a wholly different manner, the still higher order of properties, including those of isomerism, exhibited by the proteine bodies; all of which we seem bound to ascribe to the respective orders of combination and complication, under which these substances, possessing the same elementary constituents, exist when they display these qualities. In short their properties must be regarded as the result of the respective molecular constitution of each substance, With still higher states of aggregation, could such be conceived as possible, we should therefore naturally expect still higher forms of activity, stil] more marked properties. But we have learned that, while we may safely predict higher properties from higher degrees of aggregation, we have no basis whatever upon which to predict the nature of these properties. Not even in the sim- plest inorganic reagencies can we foretell the result of the union of any two elements. We cannot even say which of the three states of matter, the gaseous, the liquid, or the solid, our new compound will exhibit at our temperatures. The invincible solid, carbon, when joined with oxygen, becomes a gas; the type of gases, hydrogen, when combined with another aii oxygen, re- sults in a solid at 32° Fahr. Much less can we predict the other more special properties, even of these primary compounds. fortiort is human prevision inadequate to presage the result of organic combinations. That the re-compounding of the proteine bodies should result in a new form, possessing the quality of Spontaneous movement is æ priori just as probable as that the addition of a molecule of oxygen should convert the hydrides into alcohols. This complex stage of aggregation is no longer an hypothetical one. The molar aggregate resulting from such a recompounding of the albuminoids has been discovered. It exists under diverse conditions and manifests properties fully in keeping with its ex- alted molecular character. This substance, discovered by Oken in 1809, and by him denominated Urschleim, recognized by Du- jardin in 1835, and called sarcode, and thoroughly studied by Mohl in 1846, who named it protoplasm, has now passed unchal- lenged into the nomenclature of modern organic chemistry má — the last mentioned designation. ble Protoplasm is a chemical substance, found in considera abundance in nature, not only within the tissues of area 1882.] Organic Compounds in their Relations to Life. 977 beings, but as we might almost say, in a mineral state, wholly dis- connected from such beings.. There is no more doubt that it is a natural product than there is that ammonia is such a product. Its composition has been ascertained with considerable accuracy, and is found to be substantially the same under whatever form it may occur. According to the highest authorities this substance contains, approximately, fifty-four parts of carbon, twenty-one parts of oxygen, sixteen parts of nitrogen, seven parts of hydrogen, and two parts of sulphur in one hundred parts. These propor- tions. doubtless vary somewhat, and traces of other ingredients may, perhaps, be occasionally detected, but the above description is sufficient to fix the chemical character of protoplasm. ‘To write its symbolic formula is impossible in the present state of science, but so is it still impossible, to write that of the albuminoids with any reliable accuracy. Their numerous isomeric forms show us that the grouping of the molecules is subject to constant changes. This is doubtless true to a far greater extent of pro- toplasm. It is a substance whose molecular units are probably compounded of the units of the proteine bodies, which enter bodily into them in the same manner that oxygen and hydrogen enter into water, or, as we suppose ammonia, carbonic acid, and the compound radicals to enter into the more complex organic compounds. The many conditions under which protoplasm is found to exist on the globe; may for convenience, be divided into two general classes: the free, and the dependent state. It is a matter of fact that it is found in a free state under a number of forms, both in the sea and in fresh water, and such bodies as Haeckel’s Protogenes, and Huxley’s Bathybius are simply representatives of it in this condition. On the other hand, protoplasm is present in all organ- isms, whether animal, vegetable, or protist, and of which, though small in relative quantity, it constitutes by far the most important of all their material constituents. To distinguish the wholly inde- pendent, amorphous, and spontaneously developed form of proto- plasm above described from that which is found in the tissues of Organisms and inseparable from them, Professor Haeckel proposes to apply to it the term plasson, or plasson bodies, which, while it should not lead to the notionghat there is any essential difference in the matter itself, is convenient to aid in retaining the concep- tion, not generally acknowledged, of its purely chemical character. if 978 Organic Compounds in their Relations to Life. [December, It is, however, difficult to describe the properties of the plasson bodies without giving rise to the idea of life, since the leading one is that of spontaneous mobility, or motility, as it has been technic- ally called. Anything that moves is naturally supposed to be alive, and if this were a test of life, all forms of protoplasm would be living things. And, indeed, there-would be really no objection to this view, provided the idea of life could be rigidly confined to this and a few other simple phenomena. But the tendency is always strong to couple with the notiomof life that of organization, and few can be brought to recognize either that life can be the product of chemical organization, or that it can precede morpho- logical organization. We are apt to associate with the concep- tion of life, that of nerves, muscles, joints, iimbs, stomach, and even sense organs. From the plasson bodies all these are as com- pletely wanting as from a lump of gypsum. The spontaneous $ movements and all the transformations through which these sub- stances pass, only constitute the mode in which their chemical activities manifest themselves. These activities belong to them in | the same sense that sweetness belongs to sugar or astringency to alum. In fact, the primary distinction between these most com- plex of all known bodies, and the less complex ones seems to be, that while in the latter all their activities are molecular, in the former they are to a certain extent molar, and carry with them the whole or a portion of the substances themselves. The plasson bodies have recently been made to constitute a special field of scientific research, and as much by accident as otherwise, it has been occupied by the biologists instead of by the chemists. These, like judges on the bench, have constantly ruled in favor of their own jurisdiction, and it is in this way that these substances have come to be regarded as forms of life, although © their biographers have from the first insisted that they are not or- ganized beings. Perhaps this bit of history is not unfortunate, since it teaches us to disconnect the ideas of life and organization in the biological sense, and thereby directs our thoughts towards the most profound truth, both of biology and of chemistry, which is that life is the result of the aggregation of matter. A plasson body performs all the essential functions of a living organism. : It a is capable of motion, nutrition ang propagation. To th fessor Haeckel adds sensation, for how can the other funct conceived of without the-aid of this one? But we might 1882. ] The Reptiles of the American Eocene. 979 as well ask, how can a crystal grow without sensation. Nor has that great naturalist failed to perceive these extreme consequences of this extension of the biological jurisdiction, for he seeks to escape them only by pushing it still farther, and proclaiming the animation of all material atoms, even of the lowest orders—die Atom-Seele. It seems far simpler, as well as more correct, to recognize in protoplasm a true chemical substance, but one whose properties constitute the fundamental element of life. Such a conclusion is no longer the bold speculation that it would have been pronounced a few years ago, and this paper could not be more fittingly concluded than with the words of Professor O. C. Marsh, uttered in 1877, that “if we are permitted to continue in imagination the rapidly converging lines of re- search pursued to-day, they seem to meet at the point where or- ganic and inorganic nature become one. That this point will yet be reached, I cannot doubt.” £0: THE REPTILES OF THE AMERICAN EOCENE. BY E. D. COPE. EMAINS of Batrachia are rare in North American formations later than the Permian. There are two or three species of Stegocephali known from the Trias, above which formation that order is not known to extend in any country. No Batrachians have been obtained from the Jurassic or Cretaceous systems ex- cepting from the top of the latter, in the Laramie. Here occur the salamandrine genera Scapherpeton and Hemitrypus Cope. A Single specimen of a frog from the Eocene is mentioned below, and then we miss them until the Loup Fork or Upper Miocene, where Azura and salamanders have been found. The vertebral column and part of the cranium of a probably incompletely developed tailless Batrachian, were procured by Dr. F. V. Hayden, from the fish shales of the Green River epoch, from near Green River City, Wyoming. They are not sufficiently characteristic to enable me to determine the relation of the species to known forms. It is the oldest of the order Anura yet discov- ered, the fossil remains of the known extinct species having been derived from the Miocene and later formations of Europe. The Eocene period, was, of the divisions of the Tertiary, the 980 The Reptiles of the American Eocene. {December, most prolific of reptilian life. It is true that the orders of reptiles which characterized the Mesozoic periods no longer existed. The Dinosauria had perished from the land; the /chthyopterygia, Sau- ropterygia and Pythonomorpha no fence: inhabited the sea, and the Pterosauria had disappeared from the air. What occasioned the remarkable change in reptilian life at the close of the Laramie epoch can only be surmised. During that time the principal land population of North America consisted of Dinosauria, of which there were many species and genera. With the opening of the Puerco Eocene, these huge beasts had entirely disappeared, and a population of small and medium sized Mammalia took their place. The comparative feebleness of the new comers precludes the idea that they assaulted and drove out or killed the Dénosau- via, or that they devoured their food and left them to starve. The only probable hypothesis must suppose that a change of climate ensued, either in a depression of the temperature, or in a desiccation of the atmosphere, which greatly reduced the amount . of vegetable life. The large Dinosauria would perish from lack of food, where smaller animals could live. That there was a gen- eral desiccation at the beginning of the Eocene period in central North America is indicated by topographical evidence. It was towards the close of the Laramie that the elevation of the Rocky mountains was completed, and their greatest effect in retaining the clouds and rains, must have been apparent. Nevertheless, this effect could not have continued, since the later Eocene and Miocene epochs were rich in forests and animal life. The Eocene reptiles were not a new creation, nor a new evolu- tion, but a remnant of the types that had coéxisted with the mon- archs of life during previous ages. We must except from this — statement the serpents, which first appear in numbers at this time, only one cretaceous species having been found by Dr. sate. in France. The crocodiles, tortoises, and lacertili represent ord already abundant in the Mesozoit faunæ. Their decadence in Con tral North America did not commence until the Miocene period, when the crocodiles and nearly all the tortoises disappeared. From the Loup Fork or Upper Miocene, only a few traces of lizards have been obtained, and snakes were ‘apparently not very numer- ous. On the eastern coast regions, crocodiles existed, and tor- toises were more numerous during the Miocene period ; but here also they were less abundant and varied than during the Eocene. * 1882. | The Reptiles of the American Eocene. 981 LACERTILIA. ; Of lizards I have obtained the remains of a half dozen of species, but none of them in a complete state of preser- vation. Professor Marsh has been more fortunate, as he de- scribed from his material from the Bridger beds, twenty-one spe- cies! He arranges these under five generic heads, as follows: Thinosaurus Marsh, five species; Glyptosaurus Marsh, eight spe- cies; Xestops Cope (1873, Oreosaurus Marsh, not Peters), five species; Zzzosaurus Marsh, two species; and /gwanavus Marsh, one species, As Professor Marsh does not give us any clue to the affinities of these forms, they cannot be further considered here. In Lieutenant Wheeler’s Survey Report? I have pointed out that the dermal scuta and a few other fragments which I ob- tained in the Wasatch beds of New Mexico, were probably refer- able to the Placosaurid@, a family created by Gervais to receive certain Lacertilia of the Eocene of France. To this family no doubt some of the species described by Marsh from the Bridger horizon are to be referred, medium sized animals, somewhat resembling Crocodiles. They have, according to Lemoine, who has discovered them in France, ambulatory limbs, adapted for swimming. OPHIDIA. The snakes of the Eocene are not very numerous as to species, Zz ra rb Fic. 1.—Paleophis econ Cope, from New PEA (Original.) FIG. 2.— Pateophis halidanus Cope, from New Jersey. (Original. ) American Journal of Science and Arts, 1871, June, and October, 1872. 3Vol. tv, pt. 1, p. 42, pl. XXXII, fig. 26-36. 66 VOL, XVI. —NO. XII 982 The Reptiles of the American Eocene. {December, The first known American species (Paleophis littoralis and P. halidanus) were determined by myself from New Jersey speci- mens. None have been procured from beds lower than the Bridger, and in that formation I found a single form. Professor Marsh described five species, Species of the genus Pa/gophis occur in the Eocene of Eng- land. They are supposed by Owen to be related to the Peropo- dous or Bozform families, They reached as large a size as the largest existing snakes. Other smaller Eocene species are said to have similar affinities. Fic. 3.—Skull of Crocodilus acer Cope, from Utah, nearly one-third natural size, lateral and superior views. Fics. a and å. aroki view and section of a maxillary tooth. Pmx, premaxillary bon mx ; na, nasal; /, lachrymal; bf prefrontal; ma, malar; fr, konat: ie pm esate pa, parietal; soc, supraoccipi- tal; sg, squamosal; g, quadrate ; qj, quadratojugal. (Original.) CROCODILIA. The fauna of the Eocene periods of the United States included a number of species of Crocodilia, some of which were repre- sented by great numbers of individuals. They were equally numerous in the Wasatch and Bridger epochs, but none have been found in the Green River formation proper. They are moderately abundant in the Wind River beds, and a species is 1882. | The Reptiles of the American Eocene. 983 known from the Manti beds of Utah. None are known from the Miocene formations east or west of the Rocky mountains, but they are not rare in the marine Miocene of the Atlantic coast. All the species belong to two genera, Plerodon Meyer, and Cro- codilus Linn. One species of the former is found in the Wasatch beds, with three or four species of Crocodilus. In the Bridger beds I know of six species of the latter genus. It is a fact that the American genus A//igator is nowhere found in the Tertiary formations of our continent. It is evident that it _ İs a specialized form of Crocodilus, which first appeared in Europe in Tertiary times, and subsequently in this country. Crocopitus Linn. The Eocene species of true crocodiles differ much in size and characters, ranging from the C. eterodon, which is not larger than an /guana, to the C. antiquus and C. clavis, which rival the existing species of the East Indies. The species are divided into two sections, which are distin- guished by the form of the frontal bone. In the one it is thin, and has low lateral olfactory crests. Such species are as yet only known from the Wasatch formation. They are the C. grypus Cope and C. wheeleri Cope. The species of the second section have massive frontal bones with strong lateral olfactory crests. The C. heterodon of the Wasatch belongs here ; also the C. edlottit of the Bridger, and the C. clavis of the Washakie basin. The frontal bones of several of the species are unknown. The species may be also distinguished by the sculpture of their teeth, some having the crowns grooved or channeled, and others having them smooth or finely lined. Of the former kind are C. subulatus Cope, C. acer Cope and C. sulciferus Cope; all the other species come under the second head. The C. sguankensis Marsh, from the Eocene of New Jersey has the enamel peculiarly rugose. A peculiarity of the composition of the crowns of some of the Species has been noticed, on account of which I proposed a genus, Thecachampsa. In this type the crown is composed of concentric hollow cones, one within the other. I have not been able to separate the crowns ofthe recent crocodiles into such bodies, and they are generally too thin to display more than a very few such layers, were they so separable. This character was first observed in some species of the Atlantic Coast, e. g., C. antiquus Leidy, and 984 The Reptiles of the American Eocene. { December, C. squankensis Marsh; and the two Eastern Miocene species, C. sericodon Cope (type of Thecachampsa) and C. sicaria Cope. (qeur3uQ) ‘sata peorjzaa pue esaze] ‘azis [wNywu paryj-auo Ayrvau ‘BuywosM WOI YSI ULD su72p02019—P ‘DIA The forms of the crowns vary considerably. In nearly all Crocodilia the posterior teeth have short and obtuse crowns ; but in C. heterodon Cope, this character is carried very far. The 1882. ] The Reptiles of the American Eocene. 985 vi RY Fic, 5.—Cranium of Crocodilus clavis Cope, lacking the occipital bones, from above and below, less than one-eighth natural size. @.—A maxillary tooth, one-half natural size. (Original. . 986 The Reptiles of the American Eocene. {December, posterior crowns are oval, bean-like bodies, with a median line from which fine incised lines radiate. Species with obtusely conic crowns are C. antiquus Leidy; C. clavis Cope; C. elliottii Leidy ; and C. affinis Marsh. C. subulatus Cope has the crowns acutely conic and curved or straight, while in C. acer Cope, they are compressed and have cutting edges. Finally, in C. riphodon Marsh, they are much compressed and sharp-edged. : The Crocodilus ( Thecachampsa) serratus Cope, of the New Jer- sey Eocene, presents the remarkable peculiarity of a finely serrate ridge along the middle line of the front and back of the neural spines of the vertebrze. In C. heterodon the osseous scuta of the back are articulated together by suture, as in some of the alligators. PLERODON Meyer. This genus only differs from Cyocodilus in the presence of two large teeth in each jaw in the position usually occupied by the single so-called canine tooth. It includes the P. rateli, an abun- dant species in the French Miocene. I detected a species in the Wasatch formation of New Mexico, the P. sphenops Cope. It is about the size of the alligator, and has a narrow muzzle. The following list shows the distribution of the Eocene croco- diles now known: -~ Puerco epoch. -Three species undetermined. Wasatch epoch. Crocodilus wheeleri, C. grypus, C. heterodon, C. acer. : ; Bridger epoch. C. subulatus ; C. sulciferus; C. xiphodon; G polyodon ; C. affinis; C. elliotti ; C. clavis. Claiborne epoch (marine), C. antiquus; C. fastigiatus ; C squankensis ; C. serratus. In general characters, so far as known, there is considerable resemblance between the Eocene and existing species of Croco- dilus. The C. acer, for instance, resembles in the form of its skull the C. americanus, of the West Indies and Mexico, but differs m the absence of the strong convexity of the frontal bone, and the more strongly grooved teeth. In general, the recent species have : - more pronounced cranial ridges than those of the Eocene period. TESTUDINATA. The Eocene forms of this order are of unusual interest. I have — seen sixteen species from the Wasatch formation, and thirty-two 1882. ] The Reptiles of the American Eocene. 987 from the Bridger and Washakie. Of these, six are common to the two formations, as indicated by imperfect material, leaving a total of forty-two. Three genera, Amys, Trionyx, and ? Plasto- menus hold over from the Cretaceous period, while six appear for the first time. Of these, five genera are not known to continue later than the Eocene period. In order to understand their rela- tion to members of the order which lived in other periods, I give a general sketch of the classification of the 7estudinata. Three primary divisions of this order are generally recognized. The first of these, the Athece, includes one living and one extinct genus. It is characterized by the absence of the combined coos- sification of ribs and skin, which form the carapace of other tor- toises, and by the annular shape of the inferior shell or plastron, which has no connection with any other part of the skeleton. In the recent genus Sfhargis (the leather-back turtle), the skin is filled with small osseous ene which form by their union a dor- sal shield. The other two suborders have the usual carapace and plastron, but they differ in some curious particulars. The greater number of the tortoises of the southern hemisphere cannot draw their heads into their shells, but throw them round sideways when they wish to protect themselves. As if to compensate for this defect, they have the pelvis united by suture below to the plastron, which insures strength but not elasticity. Then they have a peculiar frontal bone, and an additional scutum of the front of the plastron. This group is called the Pleurodira. In North America its species are only known as fossils of the Cretaceous period, and will there- fore not be further mentioned here. The group which has thar- acterized the Northern Hemisphere since the beginning of Ter- tiary time, although some of its members appeared earlier, is the third division of tortoises, the Cryptodira of Duméril and Bibron. They draw the head within the shell by a sigmoid flexure of the cervical vertebra ; the pelvis is not codssified with the plastron ; the frontal bone reaches the palatine below, and there is no addi- tional scutum of the plastron. Three prominent divisions or tribes may be recognized among the Cryptodira, by the various modes of articulation of the plastron with the carapace. In the first, the breast-plate sends out a few digitations to the edge of the dorsal shiéld on each side, 988 The Reptiles of the American Eocene. (December, but forms no true union with it. These are the Dactylosterna} The species are all aquatic, and many of them of marine habitat; they are the least specialized of the order, after the Athece. In the second tribe or C/idosterna, the plastron and carapace are united by a close suture at their edges of contact between the positions of the fore and hind legs; and the-plastron in addition, sends upwards, at the armpit and groin, on the inner side of the carapace, a process or abutment, which gives great strength to the union. In this division belong the fluviatile and many land “~ aa! poet Pi “> Ww 2 iss Ceo as , Fic. 6.— Trionyx scutumantiguum Cope, from the Bridger formation of Wyoming; one-fourth natural size. (Original.) tortoises, The third division, or Lysosterna, is less abundan represented by species than the other two. The plastron ey carapace are closely joined, but not by suture. Their straig 'See Proc. Amer. Philos. Society, 1881, p. 143. 1882. | The Reptiles of the American Eocene. 989 applied edges are separated by a thin layer of cartilage only, and there are no buttresses to strengthen the union. These are the tortoises which close the shell partially or wholly, by a hinge across the middle of the plastron; and they are exclusively inhabitants of the land. The families of the Dactylosterna are the marine turtles ( Chel- oniidæ), the snappers, (Chelydrid@), a family which connects the two, (Propleuride), and the Trionychide or soft-shelled turtles. The Propleuride belong to the cretaceous beds only, but the others abound in the Tertiaries. In the marine Eocene of New Jersey, parts of huge turtles are found, but enough is not yet known of them to assure us to Fic. 7.—Anostira ornata Leidy, from the B natural size, superior and inferior views, with section of marginal bone. "n an ooh From idy. what family they belong, except that they are not Trionychide. The sutures of their shells are very deeply interlocking and splin- tery. They form the genus Lembonax Cope. In the lacustrine Tertiaries of the West the only families of Dac- tylosterna represented are the 77 rionychide and Chelydride. Al- though found in the Western rivers at the present time, the 77i- onychid@ are only represented in a fossil state in the Eocene beds. They are unknown in the Miocene of the West, though com- mon in the marine Miocenes of the coast. Species of 7rionyx are very abundant in the Wasatch and Bridger beds, one of which is represented in the wood cut, Fig. 6. One genus of Chelydride 990 The Reptiles of the American Eocene. [December, occurs in the Bridger formation, the Azostira of Leidy (Fig. 7). Its two species differ from the existing snappers in having the marginal bones of the carapace united by suture with the plas- tron, in which they resemble C/idosterna, and in being elegantly sculptured as in the Zrionychide. The Ciidosterna are represented by three families, the Baénide, the Emydide, and the Testudinide. The first named family is of much interest, as it displays marked points of resemblance with the Pleurodira and the Chelydride, as well as with LEmydide. Like the first named, it has the additional scuta of the plastron (integulars); like the second, it has the caudal vertebre concave behind instead of in front, and has an additional row of scuta on the plastron, in contact with the marginals of the carapace. Then it has an additional bone on each side of the plastron (intersternal) as in Pleurodira. This family appeared in” Europe in the Jurassic period (Platychelys), and has been found in the American Laramie Cretaceous (Polythorax Cope). In the Eocene we have the genus Baéna Leidy, with four species, one of which is figured below . ae Fic. 8.—ABaéna arenosa Leidy, from the Bridger beds of ea one-third natural size. (Origi (Fig. 8). oe of Bačna range from the size of a red belly (2. arenosa) to that of a loggerhead (B. hebraica). The genus is only known in the Wasatch and Bridger. The Reptiles of the American Eocene, 1882. } SS AAS from the Bridger beds of Wyoming. Fic. 9.—Dermatemys wyomingensis Leidy, (From Leidy.) sl s lativertebralis Cone, from the Wasatch bi Fic. 10.— Em from above and the Wheeler eds of New Mexico, the carapace ry. (Original, from Report of plastron from below, one-third natural size. ’s Survey, Vol. Iv.) 992 The Reptiles of the American Eocene. [December, The Hmydid~ abound in the Eocene beds, and continue in greatly reduced numbers through the Miocene to the present time. But two genera occur in the Eocenes, Deratemys and Emys, and these still exist. Dermatemys is known by two species, one from the Wasatch, and one from the Bridger (Fig. 9), and by two or three living species from Mexico and Central America. These tortoises have the general appearance of the Baéuq@, in their narrowed sternal lokes, but they lack the essential characters of that genus, except the intermarginal row of scuta on the sides of the plastron. There are many species of Amys in all the Eocene beds. They are all nearly smooth, and of medium size, Fig. 10 represents one of them from the Wasatch bed of New Mexico. Its bones are light and thin; those of Æ. shaugnesstana Cope, are very thick. The surface of Æ. septaria Cope, from the Washakie basin, has delicate radiating lines. A number of elegantly sculptured species, some of which are of small size, occur in the lacustrine Eocenes. They belong to the genus Plastomenus Cope, and they are not yet sufficiently well known to make it clear whether they are Emydide@ or not. One genus of Testudinide ranges through our Eocenes. This is Hadrianus Cope, which only differs from Testudo in having two anal scuta instead of one, so far as the carapace is concerned. There are, perhaps, three species, two of which, Æ. corsoni and H. octonarius, grow to a large size (Fig. 11-13). They were heavy animals, and represent the earliest of the huge land tortoises of the genus Testudo, which still people the Gallapagos and Mas- carene islands of the Pacific ocean. Fic. 11.—Hadrianus octonarius Cope, tom the Bridger bed of iaae one-eighth natural size ie a anterior, 6 posteri X == SSS = ——— ee SSS EEL =N —— shana = > = ————— idger bed of Wyoming. i ‘us Cope, from the Bridg' : Fics, 12~-13.—Hadrianus octonarius : ; HR Fig, 12 hana view. Fig. 13.—Inferior view, one-eighth na i ar dis d in The whole number of species of reptiles thus far discovere SR | the Eocene of North America, is as follow o o o aR RAT: 8 Cigeodilian s.to ns: ETT A pekaens see A eee tT ss ” a a ame eRe aL DEN GER ae ve 35 BUGIA n Reames ec a Se ea a ie ~ 1 ey a a reg a: 994 Editors Table. [ December, EDITORS’ TABLE. EDITORS: A. S. PACKARD, JR., AND E, D. COPE. The question of the admission of women to our universities periodically agitates the controllers of those institutions, as new sets of female aspirants present themselves. This will no doubt go on until women have the same opportunities as men for higher education. The reasons why they should not enter the univer- sities, as presented by those who oppose their claims, do not ap- pear to us to possess much weight. The diversity of the objections is curious. On the one hand, we are told that. the inferiority of the sex is such that university advantages are useless to them. Others insist that the superiority of women is so great that they should not be exposed to the vicissitudes of the student life. Some are afraid of “ unsexing ” them; others fear that they will be unfitted for the duties of domestic life. We believe these estimates of woman’s character to be mistaken, and the fears to which they give rise tobe groundless. The relative position of the female sex was fixed before the origin of mankind, and it will not be readily changed in any material respect. When there is a prospect of changing the anatomy and physiology of woman, the possibility of “ unsexing ” her will present itself, and not sooner. It is the ignorance of this fact that gives rise to much of the solicitude which we hear expressed. There are a few abnormal individuals of each sex, whose sex characters are not pronounced, but this irregularity is very apt to right itself in a second generation, if any there be. For the mass of both sexes the obvious necessity is to make the most of them, intellectually, affectionally, and physically. The policy towards woman has too often been to dwarf them in one or all of these respects. In the _ East the physical and emotional are encouraged, and the intel- - lectual is suppressed. In the West the physical is discouraged, shall the intellectual be so also? To suppress the intellectual development of woman, argues ignorance of his own position on the part of man. This ignorance gives rise to unmanly fear, and to injustice to his own children, and to the race. Women cannot be too highly developed, and the mind cannot be omitted from a true development. As men are the sons of women, they lose nothing by the education of their mothers. Compulsory educa =~ tion is quite as much needed for women as for men, and goo? results might be anticipated were it applied. x 1882. | Editors’ Table. 995 There are some objections to coeducation, but they are more than counterbalanced by the necessities of the case. It is true _ that women attain maturity earlier than men; hence they fre- quently outstrip male students in college and university competi- tion. Were the competition postponed a decade in the lives of each, the results would generally be different. In fact, the objec- tion is not a serious one, for the girls may be classed at school with older boys, as they are to be with older men in later years. If girls and women are to have university education, they must share it with men, for there cannot be two sets of buildings and two faculties for the two sexes, where one will do the work. A different class of objections is raised from the supposed risks to propriety and morality incident to the association of the sexes in a large educational ‘institution. As university students are generally supposed to be beyond the age of tutelage, these objec- tions are not more applicable than to single women in other walks of life. Those who have had a proper home education are not likely to give ground of complaint, and those who have not received such training, are not likely to do better by exclusion ‘from university education. On the contrary, such education must give them a better knowledge of men and their relations to them. And the more that is known of the facts of this question by both Sexes, the better. They will discover that there are boundaries set by natural law, beyond which neither sex can pass without suffering of body or mind; and that in this, as in every other rela- tion of life, “ honesty is the best policy.” inally, women should have university education to open to them additional avenues for obtaining a livelihood. Those who Oppose it are unwittingly sustaining the too large numbers of prostitutes, incapable wives, and under-paid working women.—C. —— The Atlantic Monthly for October has an excellent arti- cle, by Mr. Hewett, on the administration of universities. It shows what has long been obvious, that the existing American System is a bad one, and that its faults are chiefly due to the fact that the faculties have no share in the government of our great. schools. Mr, Hewett points out the self-evident fact that the persons best adapted for the management of educational institu- tions, are practical educators, 7. e., professors and teachers. We hope that trustees and incorporators of our universities will more and more see the necessity of selecting their new members from this class, so that in time something more like the German sys- tem may prevail in America. ie —— In criticising, in our last number, the determination of the Mammalia, said by Professor Whitney to have been found accompanying the Calaveras skull, we do not wish to be under- d as doubting the determination of the age of the skull itself. There is good reason for believing that skull to have been buried at the period of the deposition of the gold-bearing gravel, in which it is said to have been found. 996 Recent Literature. [ December, RECENT LITERATURE. LANKESTER ON DEGENERATION.: —Mention should have sooner been made of this book, which, with the previously published essay by Dr. Anton Dohrn,’ draws attention to a phase of devel- opment, which has been somewhat neglected of late years; although the French naturalists a generation ago had a good deal to say about arrest of development, retrograde development and retrograde metamorphosis. The author recognizes the fact that there are numerous and important exceptions. to the general law of progressive development, that some important groups are due to retrogressive development, or to put it into one word, Degenera- tion. Lankester explains what he means by degeneration thus: The lizard-like creature Seps has remarkably small limbs, and in Bipes there is only a pair of stumps, representing the hinder ` limbs. No naturalist, he says, doubts that Seps and Bipes repre- sent two stages of degeneration, or atrophy of the limbs; that they have, in fact, been derived from the five-toed, four-legged or- dinary lizard form, and have nearly or almost /os¢t the legs once possessed by their ancestors. “This very partial or local atrophy is not, however, that to which I refer when using the word Degeneration. Let us imag- ine this atrophy to extend to a variety of important organs, SO that not only the legs, but the organs of sense, the nervous sys- tem, and even the mouth and digestive organs are obliterated, — then we shall have pictured a thorough-going instance of Degen- eration.” a ‘ briefly discussed, though the figure of the larval Ascidian side by side with the tadpole, on p. 42, is greatly exaggerated, æ la Haeckel, and is misleading to the lay-reader. The author also speaks of the Ascidians as if they were universally regarded by zodlogists as Vertebrates, whereas they are regarded as Mol- lusks by some, and as worms by many. 3 e author considers the antecedents of degeneration to be“: I. Parasitism; 2. Fixity or immobility; 3. Vegetative nutrition; 4. Excessive reduction in size. : Lankester also regards the sponges as due to degeneration, and “as only somewhat less degenerate we have all the Polyps and 1Nature Series. Degeneration, A chapter in Darwinism. By Professor E. RAY RE F.R. S. London: Macmillan & Co., 1880. 12mo, pp- 75- Price, 75 cents, *Der Ursprung der Wirbelthiere und das Princip des Fanctionswechsels. Geneal- ogische Skizzen von Anton Dohrn. Leipzig, 1875. 8vo, p. 87. : 3 See also Cope, Consciousness in Evolution, 1875, and Modern Doctrine of Evo- | lution, AMER. NATURALIST, 1880, 266, 1882. | Recent Literature. 997 Coral-animals; also the Starfishes.” He regards the Lamelli- branchiate mollusks as having degenerated from a higher type of head bearing active creatures like the cuttle-fish. The Polyzoa he appears to regard as degenerate mollusks, and the Rotifers as having degencrated from forms provided with legs. The author then claims that certain human races are degener- ated descendants of higher, more civilized peoples; such as the present descendants of the Indians of Central America, the mod- ern Egyptians, “and even the heirs of the great Oriental mon- archies of prae-Christian times,” while the Fuegians, the Bushmen, and even the Australians may also be degenerate races. Thus while he is indisposed to regard all the human races as degener- ated from an early high type of mankind, he recognizes the fact that numerous races have fallen away from a higher stage. We are inclined to think that the examples of degeneration mentioned by the author are really such. There are other exam- ples not referred to by Professor Lankester, such as the lice and Mallophaga, which are degenerate Hemiptera. mong the Dip- tera are numerous wingless degraded forms, and when we take into account the fact that nearly all Dipterous larve are nearly headless and evidently degenerated forms, we are inclined to think that the entire group of Diptera, numbering at least 20,000 spe- cies, are the result of a retrograde development; the Tipulidz may be an exception, but we were before reading this book dis- posed to regard the entire order as having degenerated from a lost type, with close affinities to the lower Lepidoptera. n Francisco to Honolulu and Japan, also the results of the U. S. Coast Survey soundings in the Caribbean sea, and the origin and depth off Florida of the Gulf Stream, The author has de- voted more space than is usual in similar class-books to the phe- nomena of the atmosphere, but the treatment of the whole sub- ject is throughout broad and catholic. ae 7 ical . By ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, LL.D., agrede aes cen aed ea Cache fondon and New York, Mac- millan & Co., 1881. 12mo, pp- 375. $i : VOL, XVI.—No. XII. 67 998 Recent Literature. - [ December, GEIKIE’s GEOLOGICAL SKETCHES,1—This collection of essays, by one of the foremost geologists of the day, not only contains some matter of purely geological interest, but will serve, by the genial spirit and clear, attractive literary style of the author to attract in the book. Again, fresh attention is being called, especially by some Ameri- can and Canadian geologists, to the pervasive and powerful agency of so simple a geological agent as rain in eroding lake basins and river valleys ; this hitherto not sufficiently appreciated -~ But none the less is Professor Geikie on proper occasions, a staunch glacialist, and in the interesting record of his Norwegian journeys, we have fresh confirmation by an expert, of the well- grounded theory that laid ice once capped Scandinavia as well as Scotland, the present representatives being but pigmies compared with the former rivers of ice, which filled and remolded, aided by subglacial streams, the valleys of Northwestern Europe. a In the essay on rock-weathering we have further evidence that it will not do to build public structures of freestone or marble in northern countries like Great Britain or the Northern United States. : ay Professor Geikie’s record of his rapid journey to Montana and the Yellowstone Park, which have been widely read and appreci- ated, find here a place of permanent preservation, and the stimu- lus of foreign observation and travel in the mind of one brought up in so small and isolated a geological area as the British Isles, 1Geological Sketches at Home and Abroad. By ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, pape ee F.R.S. Director General of the Geological Surveys of the United Kingdom, with - illustrations, New York, Macmillan & Co., 1882. 12mo, pp. 332 = 1882. } Recent Literature. 999 is perceptible in the succeeding chapter on the lava nelds of Northwestern Europe. Treat’s INJURIOUS INSECTS OF THE FARM AND GARDEN.'—One of the’ most hopeful signs of improvement in agriculture is the increased attention that is paid to injurious insects, the depreda- tions of which have for many years attracted attention from entomologists, have at length forced themselves upon the notice of legislatures, and are now at last beginning to awaken the ag- ricultural mind to the importance of the study of the life-history of the pests, with a view to combating them. In the words of the author, “ There is a surprising lack of knowledge among otherwise well-educated people as to the life-history of even the most common insects. The question asked not only by those in my immediate neighborhood, but by letters from all parts of the country, show how slight is the popular knowledge on this most important branch of Natural History.” Too true—even a non-. entomologist finds himself surprised at the vastness of the ignor- ance, yet the mere asking questions is a great advance upon the state of mind that referred a plague of caterpillars to the provi- dence of God. * In the two hundred and eighty pages of this little book all those insects that have developed into conspicuous pests are figured and described in terms sufficiently simple for the compre- hension of any reader who is able to discriminate an insect from a spider or a myriapod, or the orders of insects from each other. That readers in search of knowledge may be without excuse, the author prefaces her work with information on the above essential points. Among facts not very widely known are the destruction Wrought among cabbages, by Plusia brassicæ, Riley ; and that caused on parsley, carrot, and other cultivated umbellifers by the a Unjurious Insects of the Farm and Garden. By Mary TREAT. Fully illus- trated. New York, Orange Judd Co., 751’ Broadway. 188 1000 Recent Literature. [ December, green, black-and-yellow-spotted caterpillers of the beautiful black yellow-spotted swallow-tail butterfly. The Lepidoptera and Coleoptera take the lead in the number of destructive species, and it is hard to say which works most dam- age, as most of our cultivated plants appear to have enemies in both ranks, though the potato: and sweet-potato are especially affected by beetles, and the cabbage and fruit-trees generally, by caterpillars. The Hemiptera, with Phylloxera, the Chinch-bug and the aphides, come next in destructive powers ; the Diptera contribute several species, the Hymenoptera, though principally beneficial to man, furnish him with saw-fly enemies; and the one destructive locust enumerated is a host in himself. The work is printed in clear type and forms in all respects an attractive volume. W. N.L. to fish-culture. The most important of these, and abundantly illustrated with excellent wood-cuts, are Professor W. G. radot Marine Algæ of New England, and Professor A. E. Verrill’s RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.—A system of Human Anatomy, ncia its medical and surgical relations. By Harrison Allen, M.D. Section I. Histo on by E. O. Shakspeare, M.D. Section 1. Bones and Joints, by H. Allen, M.D. Philadelphia, 1882, From the author. nae i United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries. Report of the Commissioner for 1879. Washington, 1882. From the department. : kai The Mungoose on sugar estates in the West Indies. By D. Morris, M.A. Kings ton, Jamaica, 1882. rom the author. ico Official Report on the Creston group of mines in the State of Durango, Me By Frofessor Adolphe Rock. Philadelphia, 1882. eee. On Fishes Tails. By E.T. Newton, F.G.S. Reprint froni the Journ ae Quekett Microscopical Club, London, 1882. From the autho Camps in the Caribbees. The adventures of a naturalist in By Fred’k A. Ober. Boston, 1880. the Lesser Antilles. Philadelphie. tre Thése: Memoire sur la Geologie de la partt sud-est eee te sylvanie, 2me Thése: Propositi es author. ; 6, 1880, _Report of Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, from Nov. 16, 191% to the close of the year 1881. i ; : eee 1882. | Botany. IOOI National Academy of Sciences, Constitution and Membership. Washington, 1882. From the society Cacao: How tó Grow and how to Cure it. By D. Morris. M.A. Kingston, Ja- maica, 1882. From the author. Uber eifie neue Eremias-Art aus dem Thal des Krododil-flusses in Transvaal. Von Dr, Franz Steindachner. Aus dem vere Bande der Sitzb. der k. Akad. der Wissensch., 1 Abth., 1882. From us au Batrachiologische Beiträge. Von pire Steindachner. Aus dem LXXXV Bande der Sitzb. der k. Akad. der Tiek, 1882. From the author. The Channel Tunnel. By Professor Boyd Dawkins, M.A, Ext. from the Trans. Manchester Geolugical Society, 1882. From the author The American agp igs n pond Edited by Panki B. Hough. Cincinnati, T 1882. From the e ematicas, Physicas e Naturaes, Ne xxxiii. isboa, 1882. From the a Descriptions of ten new species of temea: H from the Serpan group, Ohio. Index, etc. 7 U. P. James. Cine 1882. From the maica. Annual Report of the Public ‘Gardens and Haaiions for the ee pi ing od guste, S 1881. By D. Morris, ica Kingston, Jamaica, 1882. From the “Terie zur Paläontologie Osterreich-Ungarns, und des Orients, saint Sat: V v. Mojsisovics o ok Neumayr. Wien, 1882. er jungtertiire Fisch- _ fauna Croatiens. Von D praia a Gorjanovie Beiträge zur iostais der fossilen Diatomeen Garer. Ungarn on A, Grunow ‘Brief mention of some of the men ia ad d in Aivi the = na ay in America. Descriptions of three new species of fossils, and remarks u others. By S.A. Miller. Description of a new species of Bou urguetocrinus. “By E. pH Loriol, etc., etc. From the Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Oct., dr From S. A. Miller. :0: ‘GENERAL NOTES. BOTANY. New Species oF Norra AMERICAN Fuxnci.— Diplodia Pyri E. and M.—Spots, light brown, small, border nearly. obsolete ; peri- thecia black, scattered, mostly epiphyllous ; spores oval, brown, a a yw. On living lvs. of Pyrus malus. Newfield, NI. cia aN je i soft, innate, otek yes dan. spores yellowish, aoa curved, co s x ee p. On iving A yellow, very delicate, exu ding a mass of Sabet co ore spores which viewed separately are subhyaline, filiform, straight or curved, faintly moren 60x34. On lvs, of Galium pilosum. -Septoria Smilacine E. and M.—Spots gray, oblong, border broad, dark-pink ; Pe light-brown, conoid, mostly epiphyl- __ "Edited by Pror. C. E. Bessey, Ames, Iowa. 1002 General Notes. [ December, lous, 114X3 .; spores hyaline, filiform, guttulate, 63-114 X 3#. n lvs. of Smilacina, Chester Co., Pa. 1882. Septoria Symploci E. and M.—Spots white, 1-1 ymm diam. border brown and a little raised; perithecia brown, subglobose, hypophyllous, semi-immersed, scattered irregularly, 112 ø. diam.; spores hyaline, cylindric-clavate, spuriously 2—3 septate, curved, 24-30 X 3, On fading leaves of Symplocos tinctoria. Green Cove Springs, Fla., Feb., 1882. Dr. Martin. Differs from S. stigma B. and C. in its longer spores. Septoria lepidiicola E. and M.—Spots pallid, subregular, 34™™ diam., perithecia dark-chestnut color, crowded, 74 » diam. spores hyaline, cylindrical, slightly curved, ends obtuse, guttulate or sep- tate, 24-33 X 234-3 m. On living leaves of Lepidium Virginicum. W. Chester, Pa., June, 1882. S. Lepidu Desm. has ovate spores Septoria lactucicola E. and M.—Perithecia punctiform, minute, scattered, on brown, concentrically wrinkled spots, %-1% cen- tim. diam. spores filiform, mostly curved 25-30 p. long. n living lvs. of Laciuca Canadensis. Newfield, N. J., Sept., 1882. ` Quite different from S. Lactuce Pass. ‘Phyllosticta clethricola E. and M.—Perithecia amphigenous, erumpent, on pale-brown spots 2-10™™ diam. Spores subhya- ' line, guttulate, ovate 9 x 6. On lvs. of Clethra alnifolia. New- field, N. J., Sept., 1882. Phyllosticta bataticola E. and M.—Perithecia few, minute, black, on small, white, round spots with a purplish border ; spores ob- long-elliptical 5 x 2», On lvs. of Batatas edulus. Newfield, N. J., Sept., 1882: S Baras Cke. has larger brown perithecia on much larger spots and has rather larger spores. Phyllosticta Orontii E. and M.—Perithecia brown, epiphyllous, 56 #. diam. on large yellow spots with an indefinite border; spores ovate, 6X 2%». On lvs. of Orontium aquaticum. Phyllosticta tolani E. and M.—Spots light-brown, border a lit- _ tle darker ; perithecia black, innate, amphigenous, upper portion deciduous, go ». diam., spores sub-hyaline, oblong 9x 2#. OM — lvs. of some Solanum. Lexington, Ky., Aug., 1882. Professor =- W. A. Kellerman. er Phyllosticta toxica E. and M.—Spots gray, round, small, border dark-brown; perithecia. black, epiphyllous, innate, 70 r. diam., spores sub-hýaline,'nearly globose, granular, 6-7 14 p. On fading lvs. of Rhus Toxicodendron. Decorah, Iowa. E. W. Holway. i Ascochyta Smilacis E. and M.—Spots pallid, round, border rown; perithecia black, globose, innate, epiphyllous, 140 #. diam. spores sub-hyaline, ovate, triseptate, 11-22 X 6-7 ». On lvs. of Smilax rotundifolia. Concord, Pa. ne Gleosporium Betularum E. and M.—Spots light-brown, nearly — round, 2-3™™ diam., border dark ; pustules brown, amphigenous, — 120-140 p., falling out and leaving a dark cup-shaped scar ; con- 1882. ] Botany. 1003 idia hyaline, obovate and ovate, 9-10% x 6 #., hyphe hyaline. On lvs. of Betula nigra and B. lenta. Bethlehem, Pa., Sept, 1882. E. A. Rau. Differs from G. Betule Mont. „and G. betuli. num Kickx., in its ovate conidia. Macrosporium Solani E. and M.—Hyphæ brown, erect, some- what curved, caespitose, septate, 50-70 X 3-414 ».; conidia brown, oblong- òbovate, pedicellate, endochreme divided by transverse and longitudinal septa; pedicel hyaline, septate above ; s including pedicel, 100-140 »#. long by 15-18 ». wide. ‘Grow mostly on the under surface of eroded spots and faded eta of the dying leaves of Solanum tuberosum. Newfield, N. Macrosporium .Catalpe E. and M.—Hyphe. brown, curved, nodulose, 8-12 septate, erect, amphigenous, 90-135 x 6n: con- idia brown, obovate and pyriform, sub-muriform, 27—54 X 15-27 m. On brown spots on the lvs. of Catalpa bignonioides. Bethlehem, Pa., Oct. 1882. au. Macrosporium herculeum E. and M.—Amphigenous, on dark- gray, round spots; hyphæ erect, brown, caespitose, flexuous, spar- ingly septate, 70-80 x 5 +; conidia brown, clavate, multiseptate with a few imperfect longitudinal septa, 200-225 X 21-2604. On” lvs. of Nasturtium Armoracia. Newfield, N. J. Cercospora canescens E. and M.—Spots brown, border yellowish- brown, broad and irregular; hyphæ caespitose, brown, 110 x 6 m., conidia, hyaline, cylindric-clavate, g septate 117 X 64. On fading leaves of Phaseolus. In Bah Cercospora flagellare E. and ML Sepots pallid, 14-34 cent. diam., sometimes confluent; hyphe tufted, brown, crooked and nodulose 75-80 X 44., bearing at ‘their tips the long, 80-112 X 4¥., slender conidia, ‘attenuated above, and 8-10 septate. Am- phigenous, but more perfectly developed on the under side of the leaf. On lvs. of Phytolacca decandra. _ Cercospora Echinocystis E. and M.—Hyphz brown, fasciculate, scarcely septate, hypophyllous 42 x 4” on white round, indefi- nitely bordered spots; conidia hyaline, cylindrical, clavate, 80- 105 X 3#., 3-6 septate. On lvs. of Echinocystis lobata. Lexing- Cercospora Dioscoree E. and M.—Hyphæ caespitose, brown, scarcely septate, hypophyllous, 30 X314 »; conidia sub- hyaline, cylindrical, 3-8 septate, 54-90 X 4-5 i. The upper surface of the leaf is mottled with dark-brown spots with a yellow border, but the fungus is found a under surface. On lvs. of Dios- corea villosa, Chester Co. Ramularia Plantaginis E sr M.—Spots small, round, light- gray, border reddish-brown ; hyphe cp. hypo phyllous, hy- aline; conidia, cylindrical, i5- 21 x 3-44 n. On lvs. of Plantago major. Kentucky, Professor W. A. Ke enna Ramularia Celastri E. and M.—Spots small, white, border dark- brown; hyphæ sub-hyaline, fasciculate, 24 x 3 #. ; conidia oblong- x Y 1004. General Notes. [ December, cylindrical, hyaline, guttulate, uniseptate, 18-21 x 3. On lvs. of Celastrus scandens, Chester Co., Pa. Oospora Tulipifere E. and M.—Hyphe subhyaline, becoming brown, septate, caespitose, 42 x 3 »., on light-brown spots, with a _ dark, narrow border; conidia subhyaline, ovate or fusiform-con- catenate, borne on the tips of the hyphz, 7-9 x 3-444 m. On lvs. of Liriodendron. West Chester, Pa., Dr. Martin, and BetHlehem, Pa, E. A. Rau, Sept. and Oct. Common.— Ñ B. Ellis, Newfield, N. F., and Dr. G. B. Martin. CuT-LEAVED Brecu.—Miss Kate Furbish sends tracings (here reproduced one-third natural size) of some pinnately lobed leaves of the beech, taken from a tree at Chesterville, Me. Dr. Packard found similar leaves at Brunswick, Me. The latter we have ex- LE i, SS - Pinnately lobed Beech leaves, amined, and find that the lobing is due to the early breaking — down of the parenchyma midway between the veins, the growth -of the rest of the leaf tissue continuing in the usual way. Probably | Miss Furbish’s specimens were produced in the same manner. | A Y OF WATER IN Forest Destruction.—The note in reference to the discussion of this topic before the Philadelphia A cademy (see p. 622, July number, Am. Nar.) is correct, so far as it goes, and yet from its brevity possibly gives a very different _ impression of the facts than actually occurred. ae he discussion arose from a letter read from Professor Sheafer, — of Pottsville, detailing a case where a large area of forest was de- | stroyed by the construction of a beaver dam. Mr. Meehan sim- _ ply gave instances of a similar character, where, by the formation — of railroad embankments, immense areas of forests had been dẹ: stroyed, and geological instances from now treeless prairies, in oe which buried forests had evidently been destroyed by water. He incidentally referred to his former addresses before the Academy, 1882. | Botany. 1005 on the washing away of the soil on the tops of high mountains, and the relation of the “ timber line ” to these facts, and suggested that in theories of the disappearance of forests both in the past and in the present, the agency of water as well as of climate should not be overlooked. It was not this that Professors Leidy, Heil- prin, Koenig, and Redfield opposed, but in their experience they had found that so far as the question of the “timber line” was concerned, climatic influences had as much, if not more to do in deciding it, than the mere washing away of the soil by.rains or melting snows.— Thomas Meehan, Germantown, Pa. N THE HETERGCISM OF THE UREDINEA.—Charles B. Plowright recorded last year in the December number of Grevillea, the results of a series of experiments upon the barberry cluster cup (Æcidium berberidis) and wheat rust (Puccinia graminis), which led him to “ differ from the eminent botanists abroad who do accept the hetercecism of Puccinia graminis as established beyond question.” This year he made another series of experiments, the results of which he gives in the September Grevillea as follows : “This year another series of cultures was instituted, in which the promycelium spores [sporidia] of Puccinia graminis were sown upon young barberry plants, with the unvarying result of pro- ducing the Æcidium, the check plants remaining free from the fungus. Young wheat plants, which were kept continuously cov- ered by bell glasses from the time they were first sown till the experiment was concluded, were also found, when infected with ripe Æcidium berberidis spores, to become infected with Uredo, while similar plants not so infected remained healthy,” — The experiments were so conclusive that Mr. Plowright, who entered upon them “ biassed against ” the doctrine of hetercecism, now fully accepts it. Note on GERARDIA.—It may be worth recording that Gerardia pedicularis L., although blooming profusely about Providence this season, yet owing, perhaps, to the long-continued drouth, is not nearly so much frequented by humble-bees as usual. Indeed, I notice more honey-bees about the plants. The consequence 1S, that much fewer flowers are perforated in the manner I have be- a new perforation. All entered by the open mouth of the corolla, There would seem then to be no necessary impediment to their means of ingress. Does not the diminished number of seekers account for the legitimate action of the few? Absence of active competition renders it unnecessary for the remaining bees to adopt a burglarious habit:— W. W. Bailey, Brown University, Sept. 1882 s 4 1006 General Notes. | December, ZOOLOGY. . NEW GENUS AND SPECIES OF THE CRUSTACEAN FAMILY Lynco- DAPHNIDE.'—Lyncodaphnia, gen. n. (Plate xvi, Fig. 1-4). Form much as in species of Alonella, etc., truncate behind; superior antennz like Macrothrix, attached movably to the end of a blunt prominence beneath the head; second or swimming antenne slender, four-jointed ramus with three long sete and a stout thorn at the end of distal segment, the joint following the short basal one with a thorn above, the following joint unarmed (!); three-jointed ramus as in Macrothrix, the basal segment armed with a much elongated seta; eye relatively small, pigment fleck (macula nigra) present ; intestine twice convoluted, expanded in front of the rec- tum, opening in the “ heel” of the post-abdomen; post-abdomen slender, sub-triangular, margined behind with a double series of spines; terminal claws large, and furnished with a long and short spine near the base; shell margined below by stout movable spines. us that the possibility of distinguishing families and genera, lies alone in the meagerness of our knowledge. There can be no doubt that this genus should stand next to Macrothrix, but it will be necessary to modify a little the diagno- sis of the Lyncodaphnidæ to receive it, and it then appears that it cannot longer remàin a sub-family of the Daphnidæ, hence 1 have proposed to give it equal rank with that body and the Lyn- ceids as an independent family, Lyncodaphnidæ, including the S (= Pasithea), Ilyocryptus. As thus limited a very natural group is formed, in size and isolation corresponding well with the other related families. 3 l Series secunda generum (Daphnide), sub-fam. Lyncodaphni mark’s Cladoceras, p. 134. Dodekas neuer Cladoceren, P. E. Malle Dodekas neuer Cladoceren nebst einem kurzen Ubersicht, der Cladoceren 2Kurz. fauna Bonmens, p. 30. ae enera Macrothrix, Lyncodaphnia, Drepanothrix, Lathonura 2 ne Kurz. Dan- ller, PLATE XVI. WAV iit Z Herrick Del Lyncodaphnia macrothroides. — 1882. | Zoology. l 1007 Lyncodaphnia macrothroides, sp. n. — Form sub-rectangular, greatly elongated ; length ,% em, ; height ,{°™ or less ; first antennæ long and slightly curved, borderdd behind by about ten spines, and terminating in two or three sword-shaped unequal spines and several sense-hairs, about jj" long; swimming antenne very slender, as in Macrothrix, wo" long; head not marked off by a depression from the body, small and extending below into a blunt elevation for attachment of antennz; labrum rather large; eye small; macula nigra conspicuous but not large; anterior feet strongly armed with curved spines; intestine anteriorly is fur- nished with cceca, is twice convoluted, broadened before entering the rectum, and opens some distance beyond the anal setze in the heel of the post-abdomen ; post-abdomen rather slender, toothed behind with a double series of about twelve prominences, ciliated near the anus but distally becoming strong, sharp teeth; ter- minal claws large, curved only at the end, pectinate and bearing near the base a small te large tooth ; eggs much like those of Macrothrix. Male not seen. Occurs in Lake Minis Hennepin county, Minnesota ; rare.— C. L. Herrick. Foop OF THE NESTLINGS OF TURDUS MIGRATORIUS.—In this vicinity robins usually rear two broods in a season—sometimes three—and occasionally young birds that are hatched in May will mate and repair the nest in which they were born, or build a new one, and rear a brood in August and early September, thus be- coming parents at the age of about four months. The nestlings of the earlier broods are mostly, if not exclusively, fed upon ani- mal food—insects in all stages of development—while the later broods receive a large share of fruit when in the nest, and after leaving it, so rene 4 as oe require the attention of their parents. thei E without giving up the use of insects. The latest roods frequently get a taste of early grapes, nor is it uncommon for the parents to carry to their little ones mouthfuls of mellow apples and pears. There are but few small fruits, cultivated or wild, that are not, to some extent, appropriated as fond for the nestlings when the parents can get them, and I think from obser- -vations of several years that at least one-third, probably one-half, of the food of nestling robins consists of the various fruits in _ their respective seasons. In the later broods, insects predominate as food during the first half of their nest-life, the fruits being prin- Cipally used during the remainder and until the young are able to ` take care of themselves. 1008 General Notes. [ December, The statement often seen in the books that “robins feed their young entirely upon animal food,” is altogether too sweep- ing. Without doubting the veracity of the person who first made use of this expression, I think his observations must have been confined to the earlier broods, and in the season before any fruits were ripe or approximately ripened. That robins can be reared upon animal. food alone is probably true; that they are not so reared when fruits are obtainable is equally true, and in a dearth of insects they can be raised upon food consisting largely of ruit. I am fully aware of the fact that in areas of some extent—usu- ally quite limited however—the small-fruit grower sometimes finds the robins very annoying, and even injurious, but to the com- munity at large, and certainly to the agriculturist and market gardener, they are decidedly beneficial and of incalculable worth, from their enormous destruction of noxious insects, especially in spring and early summer, Protected as they are by law a part of the season, I sincerely wish that the “close” time were meas- ured by the year.—Eiisha Slade, Somerset, Mass. More COMPLAINT ABOUT Passer pomrsticus.—This proliferous gourmand is adding a new item to his bill of fare with us this sea- son. As soon as wheat was fully headed out, dozens of these pests could be seen in one flock to settle down in the fields on the wheat-stalks and commence picking out the grains. Now that wheat is cut and shocked, they light on these and take their fill. I have noticed similar reports in some of the agricultural papers. —J. Schneck, Mt. Carmel, I. A PROLIFIC GARTER SNAKE.—July 26th, 1882,a specimen, thir- ty-four inches long, of Eutenia sirtalis B. and G., was brought to me from which were taken seventy-eight young; these varying from seven to five inches in length. The young were pressed from the vent. The first twenty or so were free from any cover- BA The remainder were in sacks, from three to five snakes in each. May not this latter fact lead us to think this species possibly also ovo-viviparous as well as viviparous? I do not know t at the number of young is without a precedent, but it exceeds, by far, anything I have observed.—/. Schneck. Tue SPOTTED SPREADING ADDER Viviparous.—Since sending. the note on the Garter Snake, I have learned of a still more re- markable case. A “ spotted spreading adder” was shot in two, near the middle; when eighty-seven young were taken from her body. The snake was a large one of this species. The young Were near six inches long. This occurred within the last two weeks, and in the presence of nearly a dozen persons, from sev- ral of whom I have gathered the facts. —/. Schneck. o: 1882. | Zoology. 1009 HABITS OF THE ENGLisH Sparrow.—The following interesting note has been received from Dr. A. K. Fisher, of Sing Sing, Y.: Knowing your great fondness for Passer domesticus I send you a brief account of one of the various ways in which he im- poses upon his superiors. The following was related to me by a friend, who was an eye-witness. You well know that when robins are feeding their young they will often collect a number of worms, forming a large billful, before making a trip to the nest. Well, the sparrow noticed this, too, and when the robin would alight to pick up something more, he would dash down beside the robin and snatch whatever might be in his mouth, then fly a few feet off. The robin would hop after him, when he would make an- other short flight until the robin would give up and go and hunt for something more. My friend saw the sparrow do this five or six times one afternoon.— Eliott Coues, Washington, D. C. Tue BLACK-FOOTED FERRET (Putorius nigripes) IN TEXAS.— Mr. Frank J. Thompson, of the Cincinnati Zoölogical Gardens, informs me of the reception there of a living specimen of this rare species, perhaps the first one ever placed on public exhibi- i It was captured near Abilene, in Taylor county, Texas, a locality far beyond the previously known range of the species, as assigned in my “ Fur Bearing Animals.” —£//ott Coues, Washing- ton, THE OCCURRENCE OF DEMODEX PHYLLOIDES CSOKOR, IN AMER- ICAN Swine.—The meat inspector for thecity of Toronto, Mr. R. Awde, has just handed me for examination, a piece of pork skin, marked by numerous white spots shining through the epidermis, which on separation of the subcutaneous tissue, turn out to be sebaceous glands, enlarged to the size of a grain of barley, and crowded with multitudes of mites (Demodex) in various stages of development. The mites belong to the species described by Dr, Johann Csokor (Verhandl der K. K. zool-bot. Gesell in Wien. : Vol. xxix, 1879, p. 419, et seg. and Pl. vim), as occasioning large cutaneous pustules and even ulcers in a herd of swine from Galicia; so far as I am aware it has not been recorded since. recorded D. folliculorum from the ox, but from an economic point of view. D. phylloides may possibly become more disastrous than any of these should its attacks attain the extent described by IOIO General Notes, [December, Csokor, which of course would destroy or materially depreciate the market value of the animals affected. Csokor calls attention to the fact that all of the herd in question were affected, as indi- cating a much readier infection by contact, than has been observed in the case of the dog. It is further to be noted that the mites in each gland are not to be reckoned by individuals or tens, as in other animals, but by thousands. Mr. Awde finds about one pig in twenty affected, from now to the end of the pork season. The parts involved (as also in Csokor’s cases) being the head, belly, and legs—R. Ramsey Wright, Oniversity College, Toronto. How Bap WEATHER Arrects THE Birps.—The early part of this season was very cold and wet, seriously impeding every Operation on the farm. The temperature finally became more genial during the month of June, though the rains have kept coming at frequent intervals. Grasses, wheat, oats, and potatoes have been growing very satisfactorily, but corn, our great staple, has been sadly impeded, and its promise to-day may be set down as simply “ doubtful.” Coupled with all this ill luck, we have had a frequent repetition of high winds—tornadoes, in many localities, as the reader will remember. At my place we had a terrible gale the night before the destructive tornado at Grinnel ; trees were blown down, fences destroyed, and the crops damaged in all directions, ; far, a most unfavorable year for all kinds of small birds.— Charles Aldrich, Webster City, Lowa. Fuly 3, 1882. PROTECTIVE CHANGE OF COLOR IN A SPIDER.—I suppose you know the little flower spiders, that conceal themselves in the flowers, aud seize any unwary insect that may chance to come within their reach. I have generally found them white and yel- low. I suspected they changed their color, and by experiment, I, find that this is so. 1882. | Zoblogy. IOII THE STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE SKULL IN STUR- GEONS.—Professor W. K. Parker has been working out the devel- opment of the skull in Acipenser ruthenus and A. sturio, the Rus- sian sterlet and the common sturgeon of the shores of Great Britain. The larve of the sterlet that were dissected varied from one-third to seven-twelfths of an inch in length, yet even in the smallest of these the cartilage was becoming consolidated. In the skull of the sturgeon the symplectic, which supports the mandi- bular and hyoid arches, is a separate cartilage, as in the Selachians, not a mere osseous center as in Lepidosteus and the Actinopteri; the peculiar modifications of the primary arches of the face show themselves during chondrification, thus the hyoid arch is from the first, inordinately large, yet in the larva the head of the great subdivided hyoid pier only articulates with the auditory capsule. There is no room for doubt that all the branchial arches are developed in the outer walls of the large respiratory pharynx, quite independentiy of the base of the skull and the fore part of the spinal column. Professor Parker declares that he has come to the conclusion that no true branchial or visceral arches exist in front of the mouth; the first cleft is that between mandible and hyoid, and the first arch, the mandibular. The true axis of the cranial skeleton ends under the fold of the mid-brain, and the “trabecule cranii” are merely fore-growths from the parachor- dals. In the sturgeons the ganoid scutes of the head are so far under the influence of the huge chondrocranium, to which they are applied, that they may be called frontal, parietal, etc., yet such scutes are not the exact homologues of the bones so named in the Actinopteri. The sturgeons, on the whole, stand between the Selachians and the bony ganoids, yet not directly in the line be- tween the Selachians and the bony ganoids, and not directly in the line between any one family of the former and any one family of the latter. Larval sturgeons are miniature sharks in appearance, since for weeks they have a shark-like mouth, true teeth in the throat and on the lips, and very long exposed gills. THE AMYLOLYTIC AND PROTEOLYTIC ACTIVITY OF PANCREATIC Exrracts.'—Dr. W. Roberts gives the result of his researches upon the Amylolytic (sugar-forming), and Proteolytic action of the pancreatic juices. Following Kuhne, he proposes to dis- tinguish soluble ferments, devoid of powers of growth and mul- tiplication, from organized ferments, such as yeast, by giving them the name of ensymes. The pancreas is the source of two enzymes, pancreatic diastase, and trypsin, which latter has the pro- teolytic power of converting casein into metacascin, which curdles by simple boiling. The pancreatic juice of the pig has great diastatic power, since it is capable of transforming four times its weight of dry starch at 40° C., to the point at which it no longer Proc. Royal Society. May 5th, 1881. 1012 General Notes. [ December, gives a color reaction with iodine, in five minutes. If the dias- tatic power of the pig's pancreatic juice be represented by 100, those of the ox and sheep, feeders on matters poor in starch, are respectively only eleven and twelve. Cold retards the action of the pancreatic juice; a temperature of from 30° to 45° C., is most favorable to diastetic, while one of 60° C. is most favorable to proteolytic or tryptic action; and these actions cease to take place at 70° C., and 80° C., respectively. Double the quantity of an enzyme will do its work in half the time, while half the quantity will require double the time, but this rule of inverse proportion is controlled by the rule that an enzyme liberates its energy at a progressively retarded rate. Tue Birps oF HELIGOLAND.—The Bull. Soc. Zool. de France examples of some of the rarest species. In his own words, “ Birds from very different regions, from the north and south of Europe, and all the north of Asia and America, choose this solitary rock as a place of repose during their migrations.” The island, a more or less clayey and ferruginous. rock of lower iriassic age, Ol SO little consistency that, at the rate it is wearing away, it will . disappear in four or five hundred years, lies in the direct course of the birds which migrate every year from Southern Europe and ~ Africa to the Arctic regions. As many as 15,000 larks were captured on the evening of ‘Nov. 6, 1863. M. Gatke has proved, before observed in Europe : Ochotsk); Pluvialis virginicus (Alaska); Totanus rufescens (America), and Larus roseus, a circumpolar bird, lacking in most collections. E e A . of Myxine, the hag-fish have been studied by J. E. Blomfield = i ee is : : ‘The eye of Spondylus has been found by S. J. Hickson, to ` ey 1882. ] Zvilogy. 1013 similar to, though less developed, than the eye of Pecten——In the same journal, P. H. Carpenter continues his notes on Echino- derm morphology.——E. R. Lankester claims that he has discov- ered in the tail of Appendiculariz, that the muscles are arranged in a series of segments (myomeres), seven in number, one corres- ponding to each pair of nerves given off by the axial nerve cord. H. N. Moseley, from a study of the soft parts, finds that the corals Seriatophora and Pocillopora are genuine corals like Madre- pores, as regarding the latter genus confirming Verrill’s opinion as to their affinities--—The Cilio-flagellate Infusoria have been studied by Bergh, who proves that the external membrane or skeleton consists of cellulose, this being the first time that cellulose has been demonstrated in the cell-wall of the Protozoa. The protoplasm of these organisms says Prof. Parker, in his review of ergh’s work, is usually divided into ectoplasm and entoplasm. The latter has been found by Bergh to contain chlorophyll, diato- min (the yellowish-brown coloring matter of diatoms), and starch. — Chlorophyll is already known to occur in many animals of widely separated groups; starch has hitherto been proved to exist only in the green Turbellarians, and diatomin has never before been known out of the vegetable kingdom. Bergh believes that in many genera of these infusoria, the nutrition is entirely like that of a plant, and that no solid nutriment is ever taken up. Bergh figures the lasso-cells or trichocysts of Polycricus, as originally discovered by Bütschli. Mr. A. Agassiz, continues in the Pro- ceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, his account of the young stages of osseous fishes. Many interesting points of relationship between the embryos of bony fishes and their fossil forms, have been traced by comparing the structure of the tail of the fish embryo, as it passes from the leptocardial stage through the various stages of heterocercality, to a so-called homocercal stage. This relation, says Agassiz, is very marked, and has led to some important generalizations. He finds, how- ever, that the comparisons of the pectorals, or of the dorsal arid young striped bass, blue fish, butter fish, toad fish, goose fish, scul- pin, lump fish, stickleback, cod, smelt,anda few others. an elaborate and beautifully illustrated article, with anatomical details on the larvæ of mayflies, by A. Vayssiére, recent numbers of the Annales des Sciences Naturelles contain a continuation of A. Milne-Edwards memoir on theavi fauna of the Antarctic regions. The stomachal armature of the crab, Birgus latro, is described by M. Mocquard. The more notable articles in the number issued in August, are Rietsch’s study of Szeruaspis scutata ; Fuch’s paper on the fauna of deep seas, and Giglioli’s essay on the deep-sea 68 VOL, XV1I.—NO, XII, 1CI4 General Notes. [December; : fauna of the Mediterranean; there are besides, several ornitholog- ical papers by Oustalet and others. ——Zeitschrift für Wissens- chaflliche Zoologie, August 1, contains an elaborate memoir by H. Ludwig, on the embryology of a star fish, Asteria gibbosa. There is throughout the Echinodermata a mode of development, which must be spoken of as a metamorphosis, all the larve being ciliated, with a mouth and anus on one side. The processes by which the primary larva is converted into the echinoderm appear to be essentially the same in all cases; all that happens in a more complicated history, being the fact that in the secondary larve there is an absorption of those larval parts which had themselves become secondary. The secondary characters are not to be regarded as having anything to do with the future organization of the echinoderm, but as adaptations proper to the larval life, and disappearing at its close. There is no true solid morula in the earliest phases of development, but a blastosphere with a unilami- nate wall; the gastrula is formed by invagination. Especial atten- tion is given to the mode of origin of the hydroccel, the blood vascular system and stomodzum, as well as the skeleton. ENTOMOLOGY! A New Rice STALK-BORER: GENUS-GRINDING.—We quote the following from an article on a new Lepidopterous insect which, in the larva state, bores the stalks of rice. The article occurs in the wren report of the U. S. Entomologist for 1881-2, already . printed : “ We have had some difficulty in deciding as to the true specific determination of this insect, chiefly because of a close general re- semblance which it must possess to other species. Mr. Grote, when we showed him a specimen last autumn in New York, thought it might possibly be his Chilo crambidoides, while Profes- sor Fernald determined it, from a specimen which we sent him, as Diphryx prolatella Grote? stating «at the time that he might be wrong, but that, having seen Mr. Grote’s type, he considered our insect identical with it so far as he could trust his recollection. The specific description of D. prolatelia certainly does agree very closely with the species we are considering, which has also the mucronate clypeus of Diphryx, but in order to refer our insect to D. prolatella we must assume that Mr. Grote erected his new genus, Diphryx, on a mutilated specimen which had lost its max- illary and part of its labial palpi, for the genus is founded on short labial papi which hardly exceed the face, and the absence of maxillary palpi—characters decidedly exceptional and remark- able in the family. In order to settle the matter, therefore, we again referred, through Mr. Henry Edwards, a perfect specimen o ; communications, or notice, etc., should be 1 This department is edited by Professor C. V. RILEY, Washington, D. C., to whom i sent. *N. Am. Moths, Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey; vI, No. 2, p. 273. e 1882.] _ Entomology. IOS. to Mr. Grote, who upon this second more careful examination de- cides that it is neither of the species mentioned, but an undes- cribed species of Chilo.” ` Accepting Mr. Grote’s decision, we described the insect as Chilo oryzæellus, but ventured the following opinion: “ As Mr. Grote’s types are in London he may be mistaken even in his final opinion, and the careless marner in which he has often made other genera renders it quite possible that Diphryx is a myth, founded on an imperfect specimen as above indicated.” In order to get positive information on the point in doubt, we subsequently mailed specimens of eur C. oryzeellus to Lord Wal- singham, with the request that he compare them with the type of Diphryx prolatella. His Lordship promptly replies by date of October 1, 1882: “I had no difficulty in finding this and ascer- taining that you are completely justified in your conclusion that the Crambid No. 2557 [ C. oryzeellus] is the same species. Grote’s type is a female, and has the palpi (labial) broken off, the shorter - maxillary palpi alone remaining.” - It is apparent, therefore, that Mr. Grote not only founded the genus Diphryx on what has no existence in nature, but mistook, besides, the maxillary for labial palpi. EFFECT OF PYRETHRUM UPON THE HEART-BEAT OF PLUSIA BRAS- sic@.—While engaged in experimenting for Professor Riley, with different samples of Pyrethrum, upon various lepidopterous larve, in September of the present year, I was much interested in noting the enormous increase in the rapidity of the pulse which the pois- oning occasioned with the larve of the cabbage Plusia. These lar- ve are so very delicate and transparent that the course of the vital fluid can be observed with ease, and repeated countings show the normal heart-beat to range between 44.and 68 per minute, aver- aging about 56. In the first convulsions from the effects of Py- rethrum the pulse immediately rose, and in the course of ten min- utes reached from 150 to 164, and usually subsided in the next fifteen minutes to the neighborhood of 140. As the convulsions ceased the pulse fell but slightly, but became very weak, until, finally, it could be counted no longer. The last count before the heart ceased to beat, apparently through the paralyzing of its. walls, showed a rate invariably of about 130 to the minute.——Z, . Howard. A BUTTERFLY Larva INJURIOUS To Pine Trees.—In_ the course of somè remarks recently made by Dr. H. A. Hagen be- fore the Entomological Society of Ontario, at its meeting in Montreal, he gave an interesting statement of the injury of Pieris menapia to pine forests in Washington Territory, and particularly in Colville valley, twelve miles from Spokan. : The caterpillar, found in all stages, destroys mostly the yellow 1016 General Notes. [ December, pine, but in some rare cases tamarack. ‘The eggs are of the usual Pieris form and are laid in a series of a dozen or two in a straight line on the leaves. The caterpillar eats all the leaves except the fasicle at the end. Then all the tips turn upward and give to the tree a chandelier-like appearance. The larva comes down rom the tree on a thread, some fifty feet or more. In the middle of July near Spokan, a number of old males were found ; higher up in the valley they grew more numerous, in some places many thousands being observed on one tree, presenting the appearance of snow flakes in the distance. The larva was found in all stages and the chrysalides were abundant. On July 24th females and fresh males abounded. They paired at once and laid eggs the same day. The destruction seems to have been great but localized, and Mr. S. Henshaw and Mr. H. R. Stretch assisted Dr. Hagen in his observations. The species has long been known to differ from the rest of its genus in its pine-feeding habits, and to be uncommonly numer- ous, at times, in various parts of the Rocky mountain region; but we have never heard of such disastrous consequences as those reported by Dr. Hagen. EnTomoLocy IN Wasnincron Terrirory.—In following Dr. Hagen’s remarks on the insects observed during the past summer in Washington Territory, Mr. S. Henshaw mentioned, at the late meeting ot the Entomological Society of Ontario, some points of interest observed during the trip. Among the Hymenoptera, bees and wasps were very abundant, the forms of Odyneri being especially so; very few Multillidz were found; the agricultural ant was observed in Montana. i Lepidoptera Rhopalocera were extremely abundant in speci- mens, but comparatively few species were observed. Papilio machaon form oregonia occurred abundantly at Uma- tilla, Or., June 24th, and was also taken at several points in W. T., along the Yakima and Columbia rivers. Among the Hetero- ‘cera, very few Sphingidæ occurred, five species of Ægeridæ were - taken, and the most interesting Bombycid is a “ basket-worm (Thyridopteryx sp. ?), found in Colville valley, W. T., and also in Montana. Cossus was very abundant on cotton-wood, and a number of interesting Notodontoid larve were taken. Night work yielded very poor results. i . With the Diptera, Tabanidz, Asilidze, Bombyliidæ and Syrphi- dz were most numerously represented. The occurrence of &ris- talis tenax at Portland, Or. (common in Europe, and recorded in this country, first in 1875, from N. E. Geo. and IIL), is of interest. Two species of Omus (Dejeani and Audouini?) were common at Portland, Or., and the last named occurred at one locality east of the Cascade mountains in W. T. The distribution of Au- douini (?) was confined to the mountain cajions, while Dejeant was _ equally common in such situations and along the river banks. 1882. | Fintomology. 1017 A number of Clivine and other Carabidz usually found in moist situations, were taken in the driest parts of sand plains. The most important discovery among the Orthoptera, is the capture of two specimens of Myrmecophila at Portland, Or. So far as known, there is but a single authentic record of the occur- rence of the genus in this country. A few species of Perlids were very abundant; a large series of two rare Gomphids were taken, and the occurrence of the’ genus Calopteryx on the banks of the Yakima, is of importance, as it is the first record of the genus west of the Rocky mountains, which were supposed to be a barrier to their western progress. As spe- cies occur far north, it is suggested that the passage is through the mountain passes beyond the limits of the United States. A point of interest, and noticeable throughout W. T., is the late hour at which insects are on the wing. It was a matter of common occurrence to see Odonata belonging to the genera Aeschna, Libellula, Diplax, &c., hawking about from after sun- down till dark. In New England and Europe, with the excep- tion of a few species of Aeschna and Cordulia, none are seen on the wing later than the early afternoon. Tue Army-worm IN 1882.—The damage to crops from the Army-worm in the more northern States, which we predicted in the June number of the Narura.ist, while not nearly so great as in 1880, has still been marked in certain localities, notably in Saratoga county, N. Y. The year 1882 will, however, be noted as a disastrous Army-worm year in many of the Southern States. Never before in the history of its appearances has the worm been so general south of Mason and Dixon’s line. The first week in May it appeared in force in the northern counties of Ala- bama, and shortly afterwards in nearly all the southern counties of Tennessee. Later, alarming reports were received from Ken- tucky, North Carolina, Virginia and Maryland, and in June some fields of grain in the District of Columbia were badly damaged. The first week in August a correspondent in Avoyelles parish, La., sent us genuine northern Army-worms, with the report that they were greatly injuring the corn crop, but were not so numer- ous as they had been in May and June. Moreover, Dr. Chas. Mohr informs us that the hay crop around Mobile, Ala., was completely ruined by an army-worm which, from all accounts, seems to be the true Leucania unipuncta. THE WHEAT-STALK WORM ON THE PACIFIC coasT.—Mr. TA Starner, of Dayton, Columbia county, Washington Territory, has recently sent us wheat-stalks containing. larve which he states have caused a shortness of the crop for several years, An exam- ination of the stalks showed many larve and pupæ seemingly identical with those of Jsosoma :ritici Riley, described in the March number of the Naruratist, and working in a precisely 1018 General Notes. [ December, similar manner. From thes great difference in locality, the pre- sumption would be that the species would prove distinct, for ¢vztict has never been found farther west than Washington county, Mis- souri. The rudimentary wing-pads of the pup, however, showed the western species to be wingless like ¢i¢icz, and the .imago, when it was subsequently bred, proved specifically identical. We remember seeing, in 1879, a correspondence in the col- umns of the Pacific Rural Press, relative to a wheat-stalk worm which was doing some damage to the crop in California. Speci- mens were referred to Dr. Packard, who pronounced them in all respects similar to /sosoma hordei, the well-known joint-worm fly, except that they lacked wings, It seems quite probable that this insect was also J. ¢ritict. Royal Agricultural Society, of Great Britain. We have had, on several occasions, the pleasure of referring to the excellency of Miss Ormerod’s writings in economic entomology, which is beginning to be appreciated even in Great Britain. i IMPORTANT WORK oN Cynipip&#.—Dr. Gustav Mayr has fol- lowed up his excellent paper on “ Die Genera der gallenbewohn- enden Cynipiden,” by another, just published, entitled, “ Die Eu- ropaischen Arten der gallenbewohnenden Cynipiden.” In this latter paper 142 species of 22 genera are described by means of the synoptical tables which Dr. Mayr has adopted and uses alto- gether for this kind of work. From its completeness, and from its very practical form, this paper cannot but give an added im- pulse to the study of the Cynipidæ, both in Europe and in this country. ; REMARKABLE FELTING CAUSED BY A BrETLE.—A few weeks ago we received from Mr. Henry Hales, of Ridgewood, N. J.,a piece of pillow ticking, the inside of which was felted with a fur-like coat- ing made from particles of the feathers with which the pillow had been filled. The felting is remarkably dense, evenly coating the whole surface of the piece of ticking, and greatly resembling in softness, smoothness and color the fur of a mole. We give Mr. Hales’s own words: 7 | “Enclosed I send you a piece of pillow-case which was filled with chicken feathers of various colors, in a neighbor's house. — The pillow was noticed to gradually shrink, and when opened to ascertain the cause, it was found that a little beetle had bred and- multiplied in the pillow, stripped all the soft parts of the feathers! off the stems and felted the pillow-case inside with the feathers, making it one uniform color. The whole fabric, over a yare square, was all evenly covered as the enclosed piece which was.cut from it. Do you know the insect? Is it an unusual occurrence? = 1882. ] Entomology. IOIg The insect is the common Dermestid beetle, Attagenus megato- ma, An examination shows that the short, downy particles of feathers are all inserted by their basal ends, and the explanation of the felting is of course simple enough, when the barbed na- ture of these fine feathers is remembered, the barbs all directed towards the apex. In the regular shaking of the pillow, each of the minute particles of feather whenever caught in the cotton fabric by its base, became anchored in such way that every ad- ditional movement would anchor it firmer. The remarkable thing about the present case is that the felting should be so beautifully eregular. We do not remember to have seen any published ac- count of a similar felting resulting from the work of a beetle.— C. V. Riley, in Rural New Yorker. Location oF Taste IN INsEcts.—J. Kunckel and J. Gazagnaire find that gustation in the Diptera begins with the paraglosse, at the point at which the false trachez open, and is continued along the false tracheze, becoming intensified at the extremity of the epi- pharynx, where quite a group of nerve-endings occurs; it is pro- longed along the margins of the epipharynx and operates at the entrance or throughout the cavity of the pharynx.-— Yournal of the Royal Microscopical Society. VITALITY oF INsEcts IN Gases.—-From the apparent indifference of some insects to foul and poisonous emanations as well as the varying sensitiveness of others under similar conditions, it would seem reasonable to conclude that there is a substantial difference in the delicacy of their respiratory functions, which might be in- dicated approximately by subjecting individuals of various groups to artificial atmospheres of deleterious or irrespirable gases. _ This opens a wide field of experimentation both in the methods employed, the reagents used, and the insects examined. More from curiosity than any other motive, I have made some trials in this direction, and the results may at least be tabulated, though. they have not been extended enough to admit of any very inter- esting deductions. The vessels used in these experiments were large glass bottles, the mouths of which were fitted very tightly with rubber corks, these latter were perforated by two circular holes in which were secured a long and short glass tube made air-tight in their fittings by the pressure applied to the rubber cork upon insertion. These glass tubes were one-half. inch in diameter, and served as an inlet and outlet for the gases, upon charging the bottles, and were in turn closed by small rubber corks. e gases used were oxygen, hydrogen, carbonic oxide, car- bonic acid anhydride, prussic acid vapors, nitrous acid fumes, chlorine, laughing gas (nitrous oxide) illuminating gas and am- monia. The experiments were made at the commencement of 1020 General Notes. [ December, the fall of 1881, and but a few species of insects, and those the most common were obtained for trial, and from want of time the experiments were necessarily incomplete. ‘ygen.—The insects introduced in this gas at first showed slight symptoms of exhilaration and excitement, moving rapidly, flying, accompanied with a restless inclination to jump; this passed away and the prisoners seemed totally unaffected by the excess of oxygen about them and when finally they succumbed, it seemed in some cases as much due to confinement as to the super-excitatory qualities of the gås they were breathing. Their resistance to the hurtful effects of the oxygen varied extremely, both in individuals of the same species and of different species, but in all cases the gas impaired their vitality only after long ex- posure to-its influence. Flies (Musca domestica) lived in the jars, completely charged with oxygen, from nine through fourteen, fifteen, twenty-three, to twenty-nine hours. : Colorado beetles (Doryphora decemlineata) were confined in oxygen for three days, and at the end of that time showed only a slight torpidity, which entirely disappeared when they were liberated, and they resumed their destructive habits apparently uninjured, ‘ he larvae of the Colorado beetle died in the oxygen after dis- playing great discomfort under its action after one and one-half ’s exposure Meal bugs (Upis pennsylvanicus) were introduced into the ox- ygen with the Colorado beetles, and behaved in a similar manner though noticeably rendered more torpid and inert. They recov- ered completely upon their release, The common yellow but- terfly (Colas philodoce) fluttered convulsively in the gas, but yielded to any injurious iafluence exerted by the gas over it, very slowly, dying in twelve hours, possibly as much from the effects of its own violence and consequent exhaustion, as from the power of the gas. Moth (Noctua—) unexpectedly exhibited great vitality, living over one and one-half days. Harvest men (Phalangium dorsatum) evinced considerable ex- — citement in the oxygen, and lived twenty-four hours. ee Hydrogen——Flies (Musca domestica) were instantly knocked down and after a few struggles became quiescent, with complete paralysis and plication of legs, in fifteen to twenty minutes, or 10 some cases in five minutes, Though this prostration closely re- sembled death, and was so in many instances, yet some of the flies were actuaily alive for a long time afterwards. After twenty- four hours confinement one fly revived sufficiently to fly, thoug! its legs remained crumpled beneath it. Ci _ Colorado beetles evinced a wonderful vitality in this suffocating — atmosphere ; the relation of two experiments will illustrate this. : 1o o 1882.] Entomology. 1021 In the first case a good-sized vigorous individual was dropped into the bottle, the vessel fully charged and the openings shut. The hostile atmosphere quickly affected the insect; after a few exertions to break its way out, it fell over, opening the elytra and protruding its wing membranes, and although occasionally mov- ing, it remained fora long time motionless. In an hour these move- ments were more noticeable, The beetle remained here for ten hours longer at the end of which time it was kicking, and after the least possible admission of air which failed to elicit any signs of relief from its fellow prisoners, commenced to walk. It was taken out in twenty-four hours, and revived so thoroughly as to appear actually unharmed. ° n a second case several individuals apparently succumbed at once, but in twelve hours recevered partially and crawled around, and after remaining in the gas almost two days, were removed, and were active and lively. These were then introduced into an atmosphere of carbonic acid anhydride, in which they remained four hours, and then eventually recovered, when refreshed by air and food. The snapper (Eater a) displayed very inferior power of resistance to the noxious effects of the gas, reviving in one case, . but feebly in twenty-four hours, and in another found dead in thirty hours Moths (Noctua--) died in twenty minutes, though instantly upon introduction, were thrown on their backs and paralyzed. A black wasp (Pompilus uutfasctatus) died in ten minutes. Carbonic Acid Anhydride.—-Flies (Musca domestica) were in- stantly overcome, and died in ion? ten to fifteen minutes. A large blue fly, bluebottle fly (Musca cesar) was in a dying | which time they remained upon their backs almost motionless. The surprising peated of those previously exposed to BY GIpEeP has been given abov Bed-bugs (Ciit dectularins) also recovered toa sieht degree after two hours’ exposur Carbonic Oxide. Colorads beetles revived after remaining in ` this virulent atmosphere eight, twenty, thirty and forty-five min- utes, Ants (Formica rubra) died in thirty seconds and in one minute. Prussic Acid Vapors.—This poisonous atmosphere acted fatally upon every insect exposed to it, though the indestructible Colo- rado beetle Fossa its attacks more ” stubbornly than any other experimented w Nitrous Acid eu —These fumes acted with fatal rapidity, and destroyed without perceptible roar maa in the time of their death the feebler and stronger inse Chlorine. mGMlorise corrodes and diniebeistaies the gas and . 1022 General Notes. [ December, the insects exposed to a dense atmosphere of this gas were imme- diately killed. It was, therefore, used simply as a diluent of the ordinary air. The Colorado beetles lived in an atmosphere over- poweringly odorous of chlorine for one hour, and partially re- vived upon their release. Nitrous Oxide (laughing gas) —The Colorado beetle gave in this gas no signs of exhilaration, lived two hours, and died upon re- moval; probably from exhaustion. Young of the common grasshopper (Caloptenus femur-rubrum) were confined two hours in this gas and were but little affected. Moths (Noctua) died in an hour and a-half, illuminating Gas.—The gases used were variable mixtures of ydrogen, marsh gas, carbonic oxide, and hydrocarbons, a notori- ously dangerous and irrespirable compound. Colorado beetles were instantly prostrated, folding up their legs underneath them, and gave in twenty minutes scarcely discernible indications of life. After an hour they were taken out and par- tially revived; some entirely recovered. The paralysis of the legs was the noticeable feature, especially that of the front pairs. Croton bugs (Actobia germanica) behaved similarly in the illu- .Minating gases, and on being removed after half an hour's con- nement recovered almost completely. i Voung of grasshopper (Caloptenus femur-rubrum) evinced signs of life one hour after their introduction, and one individual taken out at that time appeared completely lifeless, yet recovered and was sufficiently strong to force its way out from under a beaker glass. Others left in one day were killed. ey: A cicada (Cicada ruinosa) died in ten minutes. Flies impris- oned in these gases, though they instantly fell to the bottom of the jars in an almost lifeless state, recovered after five minutes immersion on being removed. A longer imprisonment dis- patched them. It seems quite feasible that insect cases made air-tight could be charged from time to time with ordinary illuminating gas, and their contents thus protected against the inroads and devastations of Anthreni and Dermestes. Other objects could, of course, be So treated. The cases should be thoroughly tight, and the gas a pure and well-cleaned product. I have kept admirably some spe- cimens in this way, but have noted several aberrant phenomena when specimens were moist. Some fragments of mummy skins, which I had in gas were in excellent condition after a long trial ; they had been taken from a decomposing subject. On noise ing them a rich growth of Fungi started out over them, whic flourished in the atmosphere of gas for a short time, but after re- peated charges sickened and died. : ia am convinced that in place of ordinary illuminating gas th vapors of Prussic acid diluted with air or pure carbonic oxide, in- jected into tight insect boxes, will prove most efficacious for She protection pf their contents.—Z. P. Gratacap. 1882. ] | Anthropology. 102 3 ANTHROPOLOGY.? THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL INsTITUTE.—If we were pained to learn from Professor Flower’s presidential address that the Anthropo- logical Institute of Great Britain was on the decline, we are Notes on the Napa Indians. By Alfred Simson. Notes on a Patagonian skull. By G. W. Bloxam. From mother-right to father-right. By A. W. Howorth and L. Fison. Analysis of relationships of consanguinity and affinity. By A. Macfarlane. On Aggri beads. By John Edward Price. On the aboriginal inhabitants of Andaman Is. 1. By E.H. Man. The twelve tribes of Tanganjika are the Wajiji (Ujiji), Warundi, Wazige, Waviri, Wamsansi, Ubwari, Ugoma, aguha, Mar- ungu, Itawa, Walungu, Wafipa, Ulcawendi. Of course, Mr. Hore, had to change the initial letter of most of his names from the old spelling, in order to confound our card catalogues. he Napa Indians are in the “ Oriental Province” of Ecuador. There are two classes, /udians and Infidels. The former speak Quichua, eat salt, and are semi-christianized ; the latter, not. : The /nfidels are the Zaparos, Piojes or Santa Marias, Catos, - Tutapishcus, Anhishiris, Intillamas, Meguanas, Copalureus, Tam- buryacus, Payaguas, Cuaranos, Pucabarrancas, Lagarto-Cochas and Tagsha-Curarais. The paper of Mr. Simson relates especially to the /zdians. In it are described the making of the bodoquera, or blow-gun, aborginal fishing, social customs, journeys for salt and poison, intoxication, &c. The paper of Messrs. Howitt and Fison starts out with the fol- lowing propositions : 1. Many tribes reckon descent through females, others through males. 2. The latter bear evident traces of the former regulation. 3. Where traces appear, uterine preceded male descent. Changes proceed from causes and motives, that is, from internal and external force. The external theory does not account for the origin of the change, it only pushes it further back. Internal causes or motives are either orderly or disorderly. Orderly changes are produced by the gradual alteration of laws relating to property. Savage peoples are divided into Classes and Clans, the former being a social distinction, the latter, local or physical. The Classes are further divided into Totems. The individuals bearing these totemic names are scattered throughout the clans and tribes, having perpetual succession through mother-right or. father-right. Now there is necessarily a conflict between the local and the sociai, and the extremely interesting and learned paper unfolds * Edited by Professor Oris T. Mason, 1305 Q street, N. W., Washington, D. G; . 1024 Gencial Notes. [ December, the working and interlacing of the two systems among the Australian tribes with which the authors are so familiar. Mr. Macfarlane, following up the investigations of inquirers into the law and biography of consanguinity and affinity in all times and tribes, seeks to develop a ‘‘systematic notation capable of denoting any relationship whatever.” There are but two fun- damental ideas in cousanguinity, the first may be represented by the letters and c, meaning parent and child; the other is sex, denoted by the letters # and f. Mr. Macfarlane shows how the remotest relationship may be indicated by such formule as J $ $ pp ma man's great, great, great grandmother. Mr. Man's communication, pages t 9-1 16 is a series of chapters in answer to the British Instructions to Observers, treating of the form and size, anatomy, color, odor, hair, development and decay, crosses, reproduction, abnormalities, pathology, physiog- nomy, motions, powers, senses, psychology, morals, magic, witc - craft, distribution, topography, communities, arithmetic, habita- tions, government, &c., of this interesting race. Asta.—The volume of Stanford's Compendium of Geography and Travel relating to Asia has just appeared. Noethnologist can afford to exclude these volumes from his library. The series are based on Hellwald’s “ Die Erde und ihre Völker,” but so much original matter has been added that we may well call the series a new work. Already the following are completed: “ Australasia, by A. R. Wallace and A. H. Keane; “ Africa,” by Keith John- son and A. H. Keane; “Central America, the West Indies and South America,” by H. W. Bates and A. H. Keane; and “ Asia, by A. H. Keane and Sir Richard Temple, Bart. Mr, Stanford will soon publish “ Europe,” by Sir A. C. Ram- say and A. H. Keane, and “North America,’ by F. V. Hayden, A. R. C. Selwyn and A. H. Keane. It will be perceived that the name of Mr. Augustus H. Keane is attached to each volume; in addition to assuming the main responsibility for the work on Asia, he is the ethnological editor of the series. After the usual amount of preface and introduction (pp. 1-28) the body of the book is divided as follows: A, Western Asia: Mohammedan States. B. Southern Asia: British Political System. . Northern Asia; Russian Political System, D. Eastern Asia: Buddhist States From chapter to chapter, in its appropriate place, the ethnogra- phy of each region is worked out. The term is to be taken in kind, the Caucasic and the Mongolic. These two Mr. Keane differentiates as follows: 1882. | Anthropology. 1025 IDEAL MONGOLIC TYPE. Shape of head. { Normally brachycephalic. Facial angle, Pt davai 76°~68°. Features, Square, oe and flattened, Cranium. 1200-1 ma “cu. Cheek bones, - Wigh and prouiibent. Ears, Mouth. — Large, with lips thick. Nose. broad, flat, concave. Forehead. . L ow, receding, narrow. Eye. mall, almond, o ital &e. Chin. Small ‘and rece edin Neck. Short and thickse figure. Squat, meen aie: Hands and feet. “Span vel alae. ft. sf Complexion, Veliowich, ae iis r olive, &c. Llatr. Dull- black, coarse, lied. Scanty. £ me Straight and scanty. ssion. He $ Faa, Dull, taciturn, &c. IDEAL CAUCASIC TYPE. Normally dolichocephalic. Orthognathous, 82°-76°, “a ed off and oval. HENS poe cm. d inconspic h] Long, narrow, high, cant ae or con- Straight, pe: oh e ker TETN: Large, round, Full and a: 5 ft. 4. in. to 5 ft. 2. n Fair or nine to brown, &c. Wavy, color v eae ela Full, bushy, and often Bright and varied. Erergetic, restless, &c. To these two blood-stocks belong as many as thirty language- stocks. In the comminglings of hi story, language and "blood have ceased to be codrdinate among certain peoples; notwith- | standing, on the whole, Mp radical A served separate from the Mongoli ryan forms have been pre- an. The following is Mr. Keane’s Scheme of the Aue races: I, MONGOLIC OR YELLOW TYPE. Stock Languages. Races. Main Divisions. ( Bod- | Tangutan ( Tibetans t Sifan Himalayan tribes | _ No, Assamese I. Tibeto-Burman | { Burmese | Kakhyon | Bam J Ome l urmese | So, Ass mese 2 KURI ooo a E A | Khasia trthes SON a E E aes | Talaings of Pegu Ho Siamese : | Shan 4. Tai Tai | Lao | Ahom 5- Sinico-Annamitic { Chinese | Toman i Cochin. Chinese oreans 6. Koreo- Japanese fj {apn ase: Mo f: Tu mh ee PRE Manchu 7. Ural. Altaic Finno-Tatars 4 Tar | Mogae | Ugrian { Malay 8. Malayan -Malays {| Formosan . H General Notes. [December, II. CAUCASIAN OR FAIR ese Stock Languages. Races. n Divisions. G: “es Paik ‘i Mingrelian O AVON ee sw ig ai cs Svan, Khevsur, nee and Laz Circassian 10, Cherkess Caucasians Abkhasian a le 11. Chechenz Chechen 12. Lesghian wo D aes ee n aa 3 5 cr aF = M n Iranians Siah- Posh Kafir ing (T | E Zarafshan 13. Aryan 4 Galchas E akhi Hindus [ie L is : Hebrzev-pheenician 14. Semitic 4 Semites Atab Himyantic Abyssinian III. RACES AND LANGUAGES OF DOUBTFUL AFFINITIES. 15. Brahni of Baluchistan. : 1: ae iin of the Deccan. 19. ibodea 20. Aino of — and Sakhalin, 21, Chukchi 22. Yukaphis | Hyperboreans, N. E. Siberia. 23. Kamchadales 24. ks Tr 26. Negritoes of ‘oe Malacca. The alphabetic list of races, which terminates each of the pre- ceding yare of the Stanford series, is omitted for want O space, contain 3009 entries. This list, however, with much additional foranti will be issued in a separate form ANTHROPOLOGY IN AMERICA.—TLhe’ Biological Society. sd waa ; ington has issued its first volume of Proceedings, a neat pampa of of 110 pages, containing the organization, constitution, A members, and an account of papers read to May 26, 1882. /An excellent feature of this work is one that all societies desiring to economize their means will do well to imitate. Instead of pi 7 ing all papers zz extenso, a reference is aie to all places wher the whole or parts of rs appear in print ai Mr. Calvin M. sigur of an P, O., Ohio, sends to 7 the 7 1882. ] Geology and Paleontology. 1027 editor, a photo of a specimen of the polished ornament commonly called the brooding bird, in which the animal is a turtle, and not a bird. We have seen the beaver taken off in the same way. The turtle-form is exceedingly rare, if it is not the only example. The image was found near a mound in Miami county, Ohio, two miles west of Stillwater river. Mr. William Kite, of Germantown, Pa., draws attention to the existence of doughnut-shaped stones in Pennsylvania, similar to those so common from California. Mr. Kite says, “ I have in my possession two such specimens, one from Chester county, Pa., and one on the outskirts of Germantown. The latter is the more curious, as it has a saucer-like cavity worked on both sides of the stone.” THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN.—The third number of Vol. IV, of this established quarterly is well above the average in merit. The original papers are as follows :— The native races of Colombia. By E. G. Barney. The divinity of the hearth. By Rev. O. D. Miller. Paleolithic man in America. ‘By L. P. Gratacap. Early European pipes found in the United States. By E. A. Barber. The Prehistoric architecture of America. By Stephen D. Peet. The correspondence and notes in this Journal are qnite as valuable as the original communications, GEOLOGY AND PALAONTOLOGY. A Fossin CroaTiaAN WHALE (Mesocetus agrami).—P. J. Van Beneden, in the “ Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Belgium,” gives an account of the remains of a whalebone whale contained in the museum of Agram, Crgatia. These remains are not only of interest from their affinities with existing species, but from the light they shed upon the changes undergone by the Eu- ropean seas since the Tertiary epoch. The Black Sea during that period covered Austria, Bavaria, Wurtemburg, and the lower part of Switzerland, and contained true whales, whereas now its cretacean fauna consists of only three dolphins. : The remains consist of the hinder portion of the cranium, a - mandibular condyle, several vertebre and a part of a rib. e form of the condyle is a mean between that of the existing whale- bone whales and that of the dolphins, showing habits intermedi- ate in some respects between these two groups. When the trans- verse section of the cranium of Mesocetus is compared with that of Balenoptera rostrata, a striking difference is observable in form and in the relative development of the bones composing them, The former is spread out laterally at the expense of the height; the sphenoid is at least twice as broad as high, and the palatine plate forms a horizontal cavity under the sphenoid; whereas in Une Fossile Balenie de Croatie, appartenant au genre Mésocéto, par P. J. Van Beneden, eons 1028 General Notes. December, the existing species the sphenoid is much higher than wide, and | the fold of the palatine is vertical. ORIGIN OF THE Pratrtes.—I notice in the AMERICAN NATUR- ALIST for May a note on “ The origin of the prairies,” in which the Indian custom of burning the grass is made to play a major part. Now, it seems to me, that this may help to account for the slow spreading of forests, but not for the origin of the prairies. Why did not trees spring up over one part of the country as well as another? This is the question; not why did not the forests spread? A reason often given is that the forests flourished only along streams because the prairies are too dry, but the timber often covers the highest points and is not found on the lower — nes. Did not the native grasses cover the ground first and thus pre- vent all light seeds from finding a place to grow? and as only the light seeds would be transported by the wind, and thus spread rapidly, the extension of the tree-covered areas was very slow. We observed several years since, that in Northern Ohio trees of the genus Populus, other than P. tremuloides, were very rare. Now they are not uncommon. Wherever a brushpile was burned at the proper season, if it was not a period of drought, the cotton- wood appeared. The seeds must have come with the winds, and wherever they found soft earth ready to receive them, if the sea- son was favorable, they grew. Of course the oak, hickory, wal- nut and beech could not travel in this way.” It seems to me that in these facts we have an important element of the solution of this much-debated question.——7. W. Tineti, Ottowa, Ti. Davis’ CLASSIFICATION of Lake Bastns.—This is a valuable essay, by Mr. W. M. Davis, on a topic in physical geology which has not before received such detailed and special treatment. It is reprinted from the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History (Vol. xxt, 1882). The author's primary classification of lakes is into three classes: A. Construction or orographic basins, of which (1) great basins such as Great Salt lake and the great akes of Central Africa are examples, (2) mountain trough basins (the western part of Lake Superior), (3) fault basins (the Dead sea and other species); B. Destruction or erosion basins, of these are the following species: (1) Glacial erosion basins, (2) wind erosion, (3) solution, (4) pit crater basins; and C. Obstruc- tion, barrier or enclosure basins, of which the most important are (1) fan delta barrier basins, (2) ice barriers, (3) moraine barrier basins, (4) drift barrier basins and a number of other species. he author claims that the Great lakes, tlre Italian and mpi s du ‘MAX ALVIA 1882. } Geology and Paleontology. 1029 moraine barrier lakes, which are now found on Pike’s peak, and in the Alps and the north-and-south lakes in Central New York, such as Cayuga, there are many others “ whose obstruction must be given the more general name of glacial or fluviatile drift.” Farther on he says: ‘‘ The detritus of the glacial period was de- posited with much irregularity, and it must often have interrupted the drainage lines of pre-glacial times; we cannot doubt that the greater number of lakes in Canada, New England and the Adi- fondaria, are of this origin, but nowhere are drift barriers of more significance than in the region of our great lakes.” Davis believes that the evidence ordinarily quoted to prove their glacial origin proves only their glacial occupation. He regards Lake Erie as the effect of simple subaérial erosion slightly modified by glacial action, while he does not feel obliged to regard the other great lakes as the “work of the great ice-plow.’’ He considers St. Mary’s river, Niagara and the St. Lawrence to be “all post- glacial overflows after the obstruction by drift and the change of level by northern depression were accomplished.” The brief dis- cussion is of a good deal of value, and will be read with interest in connection with the discussions now going on between Profes- sors Newberry, Lesley, Spencer and other of our geologists COLLETT’S GEOLOGY OF InpIANA FOR 1881.—This solmi is fully equal to if not superior to its predecessors in interest and value, both from a practical and scientific point of view. Mr. T H. Johnson’s report on the transverse strength and elasticity of building stones is valuable and graphically illustrated, and Pro- fessor Collett, the State oee has been efficiently aided in his work by Messrs, R T. Brown, M. N. Elrod, A. J. Phinney and John N. Hurty. The ta is largely made up of palzonto- logical matter supplied by Professor James Hall and Dr. C. A White, being illustrated with a plates, rendering the yok ume of much educational value Two NEw GENERA OF MaA FROM THE WASATCH EOCENE. —The Phenacodus laticuneus differs from the species of Phenaco- dus in the form of its superior premolars. The second, possesses two cusps while there is but one in the genus Pénacodus. The new — genus may be called Diacodexts. The species referred by me to Pachyaclopless do not belong to that genus, which is iden- tical with Propaleotherium. In the heel of the last inferior molar, and general dental characters, they agree with Lophiodon, but they have seven superior molars, the first premolar well de- veloped. The genus may be called Heptodon, the type is GE don ventorum Cope—E£. D. Cope. WHITE’S CARBONIFEROUS INVERTEBRATE Fossits or New Mex- Ico.—We have received a report, by Dr. C. A. White, printed as an appendix to the forthcoming volume of the Wheeler Survey west of the 100th meridian. The collection described represents. VOL. wyro: xir, 6 1030 _ General Notes. [ December, the coal-measure division of the Carboniferous system of the Upper Mississippi, and is closely allied to that upper division of that group. Grotoc:caL News.—The Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History contains descriptions of three new species from the Hudson river and Niagara groups, by S. A. Miller; a de- scription of a new species of Bourguetocrinus, by P. De Loriol, of Switzerland, and remarks upon a species of Cristatella, by C. Schlumberger, of Paris, both from the Ripley group of the Cretace- _ ous, Alabama; a description of two new crinoids from the shales of the Niagara group, New York, by E. N. S. Ringueberg, and an - article on American Paleozoic Bryozoa, by E. O. Ulrich. The latter is the first of a series, and contains not only descriptions of twenty-five new species, but discourses upon the general structure of the class; upon the affinities and zodlogical position of the Monticuliporidz and Fistuliporidz, which the author is inclined to place among the Bryozoa rather than among the Ceelerterata ; as well as a scheme of classification of the American Paleozoic Bryozoa. M. P. de Tchihatchef, in a discourse delivered at Southampton, combated the idea that the deserts of Asia and Africa are beds of the sea recently raised, and stated his belief that the deposits of sand are of atmospheric origin, and are the product of influences acting from the more or less remote geo- logical epoch, when the rocks from which they were formed, and which in many places still pierce through the superficial sand, were first raised——J. F. Whiteaves (Am. Jour. of Science, Oct.) notices the occurrence in the Utica formation of Svphonotreta scotica, a spinose brachiopod not before known to occur in North i Mr. W “~ America. r. W. E. Abbott, in a paper in the Journal of the Royal Society of New South Wales, refers to and endorses the opinion of. Mr. Russell, that the amount of precipitation over the watershed of the Darling exceeds the evaporation plus the amount carried off by the river, and that there must therefore be — an underground drainage. The fact that wells sunk in the vi cinity of the Darling have a flow independent of the variations m that river, seems to support this opinion. In the Geological _ Magazine, Mr. T. F. Jamieson writes in support of the theory, propounded by him in 1865, that the submergence of the land during and after the conclusion of the glacial period was caused by the weight of the ice upon the elastic crust of the earth. The shifting of the centre of gravity of the earth consequent upon the weight, according to the theory of Mr. Croll, will not, ın is 2 opinion, account for the existence of raised beaches in high north- ern latitudes, as at the transference of the weight of the ice from 4 the north pole to the south, and submergence caused by it would — cease as the weight diminished, allowing no time for beaches or form. A submergence caused by actual sinking of the crust from _ superincumbent pressure would, on the contrary return but slowly ae i $ 1882. | Mineralogy. 1031 to its former level, and probably some amount of permanent de- pression remai ined,_—In the same magazine, Mr. Woodward de- scribes five species of phyllopod Crustacea from shields found in the Upper Devonian of the Eifel, and one from the wentock shale of South Wales; Mr. W. H. Twelvetrees has some notes upon the geology of ‘the country at the base of the Due slopes of the Urals; Mr. S. V. Wood continues his argument for the formation of the Loess from the sliding into the valleys of the thawed soil-cap annually left unprotected upon the heights: Mr. Howorth adduces the evidence of the valley terraces in favor of the occurrence of a great post-glacial flood; and Mr. Flight continues his history of meteorites. Among the numerous in- teresting and valuable papers contained in the Bulletin of the Geo- logical Society of France, during the year 1881, are the follow- ing: On the importance of the central chamber of the Nummu- lites, by M. da la Harpe; On the Micaceous schists of the envi- rons of Saint-Léon (Allier), France, by M. Michel-Lévy ; On the connection between the propagation of heat with the cleavage of rocks and the movements of the soil that have produced them, by M. Ed. Jannettaz; Note on the Tertiary Echinide of Belgium, by M. Cotteau; On the geology of the environs of Saint-Amand, by M. Dagincourt ; The Quaternary of Chelles, by M. Ameghino ; Contact of the Bathonian and Callovian beds on the eastern bor- der of the Paris basin, by J. Wohlgemuth ; First fruits of the Eocene flora of Bois- Gout (Loire foledeur): by M. Ed. Bureau, with descriptions of two new species; On the geology of the Pyre- nees of Navarre, Guipuzcoa and Labourd, by M. P.-W. Stuart-Men- teath; On the general geology of Spain, by M. P. Rey-Lescure; On the Lingulz of the “ grès” Armorican of La Sartthe, by M. A. Guillier ; Geological notes on French Guiana, after the explora- tions of Dr. Crevaux, by M. Ch. Velain, with a map of the prov- ince, and numerous ‘figures of sections of the rocks. The river Oyapock, though only 435-kilometres in length, carries down more water than the Rhone, and the greater portion of its course is among gneissic rocks mingled with granite, which cause numerous cascades, and render its ascent impracticable; Syn- chronism of the Turonian of the Southwest with that of the south | of France, by M. H. Arnaud. MINERALOGY. Some New MINERALS IN METEORITES.—An examination of a mass of meteoric iron from Melbourne, Australia, has been made by Dr. W. Flight; of the British Museum, with the rey of the discovery of several new compounds of nickel and iro The meee which fell in 1854, consists entirely of metallic minerals, containing no rocky matter. The iron contains 7-9 1 Edited by Professor H. CARVILL Lewis, Academy of Natural — Phila- delphia, to whom communications, papers fo A reee, etc., should be se 2 Proc, Royal Soc., No. 218, p. 343. 1032 General Notes. [ December, per cent. of nickel, with small percentages of cobalt, silicium and copper. _ Lying on the plates of meteoric iron, which make up the mass, are thin metallic flexible plates of the thickness of writing paper of a substance having the composition Fe; Ni» It is this mineral which forms the figures on etched surfaces, and not, as generally believed, schreibersite. The name Ldmonsonite is pro- posed for this mineral. Nodules of troilite and graphite, and square prisms of what appears to be rhabdite (Fe, Nis) P. occur through the mass. Two other minerals were noticed, and are probably new. One occurs as brass-colored oblique crystals, cleavable across the base, and having a composition agreeing with the formula (Fe Ni.) Pz Another phosphide whose formula was (Fe; Ni) P. occurred in square prisms, bright externally, and dull, almost black within. The occluded gases in the meteorite amounted in bulk to 3.59 times the volume of the iron, and consisted of carbonic acid, 0.12; carbonic oxide, 31.88; hydrogen, 45.79; marsh-gas, 4.55 ; nitrogen, 17.66. CORUNDUM AND ITS ALTERATIONS.—Dr. F. A. Genth has made another valuable contribution to our knowledge of the genesis of minerals in a paper read before the American Philosophical So- ciety, on August, 18, 1882. The paper is in part an appendix to his former paper on corundum and its alterations, and in part a collection of mineralogical notes on various subjects. Of the alterations of corundum, the first described is an alteration into spinel of the corundum from Carter mine, Madison county, N. When containing fissures, it was observed, sometimes only by a small dark line, that a change had commenced, which, extending sometimes through large masses, had converted the corundum into a massive greenish-black spinel of granular structure. The spinel finally passes into prochlorite. Particles of spinel were also observed in corundum from Shimersville, Lehigh county, Pa., and were regarded as the result of alteration. At Toures county, Ga., corundum was surrounded by an alteration into greenish- white, cleavable zoisite. Several examples are given of the alteration of corundum into feldspar. The oligoclase of Unionville, Pa., is regarded as such an _ alteration. A number of instances are given of alteration into mica. A specimen from Haywood co., N. C., showed a large crystal of muscovite to which albite was attached, while through both sub- stances there occurred remnants of corundum crystals, dissemi- nated through the mass. The particles of corundum are corrod as though by a dissolving agent, and the whole mass has the ap- pearance of a éoarse granite in which corundum replaces thequartz. {n some specimens from Alabama, the corundum crystals are sur- _ rounded by a layer of sub-fibrous mica, outside of which is a fine ae scaly mica, much of which has changed into brown scales, which exfoliate when heated, The corundum is rounded and corroded, . 4 1882. ] Mineralogy. 1033 but the sub-fibrous mica forms a ring around it with perfect hex- agonal sides and sharp edges. Many of the crystals are almost completely changed into compact «mica. Several new localities are given of the aiteration of corundum into margarite, fibrolite and cyanite. The interesting fact is re- corded, that since these alterations of corundum occur in rounded masses in the gravel beds of the Southern States, the alterations here described must have taken place prior to the formation of the graveldeposits. Of other alterations, those of orthoclase into albite, and of talc into anthophyllite are described. Some very interesting pseudo- morphs of talc after magnetite, from the great serpentine bed in Iarford county, Maryland, were observed. Octahedrons of talc, of a white color and pearly Justre, had the scales arranged parallel to the octahedral planes, and sometimes contained a nucleus of magnetite, more or less altered. Dark spots often of definite shape occur throughout the steatite bed, and it is dest Sad EE that the entire steatite bed is an alteration from one of magnet Analyses are given of gahnite from North Cantina Zad Colo- rado, and some alterations of the latter into a chloritic mineral are described. Minute grains of rutile and zircon were detected in the “ Edge Hill rocks,” of Bucks county, Pa. Small crystals of sphalerite and prehnite from Cornwell, Pa., are analyzed and described. A compact variety of pyrophyllite, having the appearance of kao- linite, and not exfoliating when heated, was descrjbed as occurring in seams in the slates anil anthracite of Drifton, Luzerne county, Pa. Analyses of beryl and allanite from Alexander county, and of niccolite from Colorado are given, and some octahedral, cavernous crystals from a furnace bottom at Argo, Colorado, are shown by analysis to be probably artificial alisonite. The paper contains numerous analyses which are especially valuable from the well known accuracy of Dr. Genth’s work. Tue ParaGcenesis oF Minerars.—The study of the origin, suc- cessive formation and repeated alterations of minerals, is one of the most fruitful branches of mineralogy. As such studies pro- gress, the science becomes more generic, and, entering a broader field, ranks with geology in unfolding the cosmogonic truths, Of recent mineralogical papers, one of the most important is that by Professor B. K. Emerson! on the minerals of the Deerfield Dyke. Not only is each species carefully described, but its precise method of occurrence and of association with other min- erals is given so as to show its comparative age. A table is added which shows at a glance the paragenesis of the species found. Chemical analyses were not needed to establish the results ob- tained, and the mere inspection of the locality with the exact de- scription given, is of far greater value than any list of chemical 1 Amer, Journ. Sci., Nov., 1882. 1034 General Notes. | December, analyses, such as would have contented most writers, while chemical analyses are often needed to establish the identity of a species. The broader study of the origin of species can be done by close observation alone. The attention of our younger mineralogists should be partic- ularly called to the value of a full description of the associations of minerals. The selected specimens in our cabinets, from which all “dirt” has been removed can teach us nothing of their origin. It is the rough masses in their natural home, interpenetrated by more recent minerals, or occurring in veins in those which are older, which, with their products of decomposition, are most worthy of study, both macroscopically and microscopically. A study of mineralogical development may finally. lead to a new basis of classification, such as has already been attempted in lithology. A Mountain oF MARTITE.—An iron mountain, the Cerro de Mercedo, which rises abruptly cut of the plain near the city of Durango, Mexico, and which, a mile in length, is so covered by masses of iron ore as to conceal all rock outcrops has been re- ported upon by Mr. John Birkenbine, and the ore further described by Professsor B. Silliman. The ore has the streak and composi- tion of hematite, but the octahedral character of the crystals showed it to be martite, and oe is probable that the whole mass has been altered from magneti OF Herre Mr R Haines contributes to the specific gravity showed his first determination to have been erron- eous, owing to the small amount of material at hand. It is now found to be 3.29. A new analysis gave total SiO , 32.49 per cent. of which 5.17 per cent. was insoluble in sodic carbonate, and is regarded as gangue. The full analysis was not completed. GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS! PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL SECTION OF THE ee Association.—The meeting of the British Association for t e AG vancement of aortas this year, was held at ae “bon ugust 23d to 3ot The subject of the opening address of the president of the Geographical Section, was the Central Plateau of Asia. “ Thi> area,”’ he said, “ which is one of the most wonderful on the surface of the arth, contains nearly 3,000,000 of English square miles, and is equal to three- fourths of Europe. Its limits, its exterio’ P peAa nate its central and command: ing situation in the Asiatic continent, h will: be clearly — from the large dia- gram of Asia which is exhibited here. As compared with i t i T il is singularly destitute of natural peach ages. Thou it has several rae 4 dep s. of surface, yet its general elevation is very e, and some Ey RE . ‘Baited by Eun H. YARNALL, Philadelphia. 1882. | Geography and Travels. 1035 its large districts are the most elevated in the globe. It is walled in from the outer world and excluded from the benign influence of the sea by mountain chains. Its climate then is very severe on the whole, more distinguished for cold than for heat, but often displaying extremes of temperature high as well as low. It offers from the character of its contour, extraordinary obstacles to communication by land or or water. Though seldom inaccessible to courageous explorers, it is generally hard of access, and in several respects very inhospitable. In the progress of civili- zation it is, with reference to its historic past, excessively backward, _ Its capacities for the production of wealth have been but little deve scanty, scattered, and uncultured. Its agriculture comprises only a few areas widely ach other, and many of its largest districts are amazingly desolate. i ims on the attention of geographers, for é rized thus :—1. mountain system which dominates the greater part of Asia, and includes stupendous ranges with the loftiest peaks yet dis . A series of heights and depressions almost like the steps of a staircase within the mountainous circumvallation of the plateau. . The sources and the permanent supply of rivers which, passing from the plateau, flow through densely populated regions, and help to sustain the most numerous families of the human race. 4. A lacustrine system, comprising lakes, of which some are saline while others have fresh water, and of which many are situated at great altitudes. 5. The home of conquering races, o during several centuries over nearly all Asia and a large part of Europe. 6. Natural products of value, variety, or interest, and pastoral resources susceptible of indefi- nite development. 7. An enormous field for scientific research, with many regions vhich, undiscovered, yet need muc rther discovery. 8. An imperial jurisdiction offering many problems for the consideration of social inquirers.” The consideration of these points in detail occupied the re- mainder of Sir R. Temple’s address. Mr. John Ball discussed some points of the physical geog- raphy of South America, and gspecially the “remarkable con- trast that exists between the climate of the eastern and western po ith r characteristic vegetation, extends to the Pacific coast from the Isthmus of Panama to the Bay of Guayaquil. But the headlands which mark the southern limit of that bay—-Capes Parinas and Blanco—also mark a sudden and complete change of climate. From the latter cape, lying about five degrees south of the equa- tor, the comparatively narrow strip of land lying between the Andes and the Pacific coast—for a distance of fully 1500 miles —lies in what has been called the rainless zone of Western South America.” Again, “in the southern province of Brazil and thence southward to the estuary of the Plata, the climate shows a gradual transition from the moist tropical typ2 to the dry charac- ter of the pampzs region, which in a more marked degree pre- vails inthe south ofthe Argentine territory and through Eastern Pat- agonia. Exactly an opposite change occurs on the western side. In Chili, from Copiapo, where rain is rare and insufficient, to Valdivia, where it is excessive in amount, there is, as you travel ae ieee Ae 1036 General Notes. [December, southward, a gradual and steady increase in annual rainfall, with a corresponding change in the vegetation. The coast south from Valdivia, extending throughout Western Patagonia to the western end of the straits of Magellan, is apparently the part of the earth out of the tropics where the annual rainfall is greatest.” At Tumbez, on the south side of the Bay of Guayaquil, are frequent heavy rains and a mean temperature of about 82° F., with rich tropical vegetation; whereas at Payta, scarcely a hun- dred miles distant, no rain falls for two years at a time, and the average temperature is much lower than at Tumbez, while the coast is absolutely bare of vegetation he mildness of the climate, and es pecially of the winter climate, of the straits of Magellan is also without adequate ex- planation. `. Mr. Joseph Thomson read a ead paper on the Geograph- ical Evolution of the Tanganyika The various — in the evolution of the te pis Basin were summarized as follows ;—*The firs appearance of the future continent; we have been led to believe from Se theoretical considerations, was the appearance of a fold of the earth’s crust boundec spri two ai of weakness converging towards the south, which fold rst along these t Ne, E, the a of the se uture Ta anganyi ika H aers peria s Oke is intruded into the throbbing crust, and the surrounding region elevated to a considerable extent, followed by the isos: past of the body of the el ass area originating the great abyss of Tanganyika. The fifth great stage is marke the formation of a channel through i the w n coast mountain causing the era of the great central sea, which im- oe a -i eee © por > r oO < =. o a >p z oO = N ao E a o -_ = m i > F a) 3 5 = Erp 1, fina cy of the lake’s is explained = me probable fact that the rainfall and evaporation ay balance ca other in One of the most iene and elaborate aoe was by M. P. deTchihatchef, on the Deserts of Africa and After treating at length of the geology aad ‘physieal crana of the desert of Sahara, he gives the following resumé of t most prominent features in its geological history :— | “1. The records of this a are very old, for the a regions of the present oe were sities ted _ the Devonian period Ee n numbe ər of isolated masses of limestone, gnei and IEE ste, the limestone Yio ining Devonian rae Those masses conserved through all the succeeding ages their insular posi- tion, and neve ora agai pA the § ea. z tees s dur = Cretaceous. opori ; 1 m jake eee | Papa tier a umerous gulfs and bays. ara was represen.” ed until the one epoch chiefly by those innit potion which since hey, upheaval ha er, been covered we the se 1882. ] Geography and Travels. 1037 “ During the Quaternary period, among the gul{s which washed the shores of the e ae land, the largest occupied the present country a I Jgharghar ; the northern xtre of that gulf reached be place of Biskra, and t outhern the cretaceous Sheteask of ose and Tinghert; the town Uargla occupies almost ypa entral part of the s from the north, the last was entirely secluded from any com- munication pars ie sea, the littoral part of Algeria vran heey eG a a long time e e entrance of the quaternary gulf, is the narrow strip of dil uvial depos surrounded by pb st rocks, eend, from Gabes unto the salt a ke of El “Fede on : long discussed, of Me pi te commun n between lake and the sea; it con- firms the hypothesis of Commander Roudaire, and I am not aware that this argu- ment, which I consider as the s aeeisoeet of has ever heek urged in his favor The upheaval of the aN heres i large gulf Gad of many iher smaller ones) was the last marine phasis the Sahara underwent. 4. Onc gsi raised up in all its wey ie Sahara ey still to yemey a aieri ga which consisted in the. formation and accumulation of sands, It closes the fourth PAR last stage of her long ifications of qu ent t This history, as it ha wn, proves that there longer ques of a recent emersion of the whole Sahara from the bottom t rue the Libyan a . probably som t ie nger than her Eiks sister, or tertiary uncovered deposits (Eocene and Miocene) have there a larger development than the Cretaceous oi but, even adasia that the Libyan desert has been upraised after the Miocene period, it cannot l nt r s the great desert of Asia—the Gobi, e is abundant evidence to show its ancient formation, and P is “probable that after its upheaval this large surface has overflooded by the sea, as little as the Sahara- Libya sert since the Cretaceous and Tertiary eda or the Turkestan deserts since the P ic € nce more, i bi, n the other tw erts d accumulations had nothir o with marine deposits they were chiefly p d by heric roduce a agencies, and, as far as the Gobi is concerned, the frequent silicious rocks, as granite, syenite, gneiss, &c., were s pann irory apt to yi ield sufficient materials to the formation of quartz sands. Itis s perfluous to add that the bs ogre of those deserts did not _ t i rt,- ere the Quaternary epoch, or even in a more recent one. Therefore it is highly probable that, like the Sahara- Libyan ¢ desert, the Asiatic perai ere also crossed, long after bas The P and Meteorology of Kansas was treated af Z Dr. Litton Forbes. It would be impossible perhaps, to find a country of equal extent where the physical changes produced by the advent of civilization have been so numerous or so important. Not only has the fauna been in great part changed, but the flora also, as well as the amount of rainfall and the general hygrometric conditions of the atmosphere. Not merely has the number o inches of annual rainfall increased, but it has also been more equitably extended over a larger extent of country. The pro- gression westward of the rainfall of Kansas, in proportion as settle- ment has extended westward, is a most important fact. It may . be due in part to the planting of timber, but is probably much corn, and other crops, which afford protection to the earth from the sun’s rays, and so check a too rapid evaporation. 1038 General Notes. [ December, The State of Kansas forms a rectangular parallelogram, which measures about 400 miles from east to west, and about 200 from north to south, and contains over 82,000 square miles. Though to the eye apparently one vast, level plain, it is really a more or less elevated plateau, which slopes eastward at an appreciable angle. The highest, or western portion of the State, is about 4000 feet above the level of the sea, while the average height of the whole country .may be placed at about 2375 feet. The main water course is the Arkansas river, which has a fall of about six feet in the mile. In spite of the absence of hills, Kansas is singu- -larly free from marshland or swamps. This is due, in part, to the friable nature of the soil, and in part to the natural slope of the land towards the east. What is known as the “ Great Arkansas ‘Valley of South-western Kansas,” embraces a width of fifty miles, nearly the whole of which is sloping upland. The soil here is a sandy loam, of aliuvial origin, and of great depth and fertility. A remarkable peculiarity of the Arkansas river is that it never overflows its banks, but, so to say, underflows them. The water filters through the gravelly stratum underlying the surface-soil of the valley, and may always be found by digging for it. From a meteorological point of view, Kansas may be said to be divided into three distinct zones, marked off by the amount of rainfall. — In the extreme east the rainfall assimilates itself to that of Mis- souri, and is ample for all purposes of agriculture. In the middle zone, which may be said to lie in Central Kansas, the rainfall is less, yet amply sufficient for all purposes of farming or pasturage. e vegetation here is extraordinarily profuse, and is sub-tropical in character. The third and last zone lies in the western and south-western portions of the State. Here the climate resembles that of Colorado, and the rainfall is insufficient for agriculture, though sufficient for grazing purposes. It would seem, however, that the limits of the zone of moderate rainfall are constantly pro- ceeding westward as civilization advances. Twenty five years ago the frontier of agricultural production was placed at about the ninety-sixth degree of west longitude. Ten years later it had ad- vanced to the ninety-seventh, five years later to the ninety-eighth, while to-day it may be said to extend to the one hundredth, Along with this advance the character of the flora of the country has — appreciably changed. The “blue stem ” grass and other plants, which require moisture, have displaced the buffalo or “ gramma grass,” which is the natural covering of the great plains. Whether the procession westward of the rainfall will continue as heretofore, once it has reached the meridian of 100°, may fairly be open to ` Question. The prevailing winds from May to September are from the south and south-west. But inasmuch as the western limit of the Gulf of Mexico is in the ninty-eighth meridian, it follows that these wincs must blow over the arid and thirsty soil of Mexico, and will contain therefore but little moisture. Hence this west- 1882. ] Geography and Travels. 1039 ern part of Kansas must long continue to be an essentially dry country. Cultivation may no doubt modify the climate, but the process will be slower and more difficult than in Central Kansas. POGGE AND WissMANN.—Letters have been received from Dr. Pogge, dated November 27, 1881, written at Mukenge, the resi- dence of the chief of the Tusselanga in about 6° S. lat. and 22° 22’ 10” E. long. (Greenwich). The travelers had, in turning the territories of the Muata Yanvo, been obliged to take a north- easterly direction and after forty-four days’ march from Kimbunda crossed the Kassai on the 21st of October. The Kassai at this point had a wicth of about 350 yards. Here Wissmann sepa- rated from his companions and started in a southerly direction, whilst Dr. Pogge took a northerly course towards the territory of the Tusselanga, reaching on the 30th of October, the residence of the chief Kalamba Mukenge. This place, with its well built huts and population of about 1000 souls, lies between the sources to two rivulets flowing towards the Lulua, and having excellent drinking water, and would form a capital site for a station if the Lulua should prove available for water communication with the yet unknown regions beyond. But it appears that this river, not- withstanding its breadth of more than 300 yards, is very shallow and full of rapids. Pögge describes the country as fertile; every where madioca, maize, millet, and beans are cultivated, and the four kinds of oil palms, which grow chiefly in the forests, are seen planted in the cultivated fields. Of game animals occur only the wart-hog and a small species of Cape buffalo, but the rivers are full of hippopotami and the woods of various species of felid@. The grey parrot is also found here. The climate is warmer than _in the Muata Yanvo’s country, but everywhere salubrious and the natives are friendly and peaceable. The chief articles of trade are slaves, especially female, and. india-rubber; ivory being little dealt in. The chief market for ivory lies some eight days’ jour- | ney to the N. N. W. of Mukenge at a place called Kabao, in the Tukette country. 3 With regard to his further movements, Dr. Pégge hoped to leave Mukenge on the 29th of November and to cross the Lulua and meet Lieut. Wissmän in Bacua-Carimba. Both would then, under the protection and guidance of the chief Kalamba-M ukenge, travel eastward as far as the Lake Mukanga, distant ten days march, and then onward six days march to the Mobondi-Stani, further two days’ march to the Lubilash river, and two days beyond that, to the great Mobondi chief Fumo-Kole. As far as that point only was the traveler able to obtain information regarding the route. Should no insuperable obstacle be encountered, the travellers would travel along the trade road leading to Nyangwe on the Lubilash (the upper course of the Congo,) reaching which place Pögge would return to Mukenge whilst Wissmann would strike 1040 General Notes. [ December, for Zanzibar. Pogge calculates that his journey to the Lubilash and back to Mukenge will take six months. AFRICAN EXPLORATION.—The Royal Geographical Society has decided to send a new exploring expedition to Africa under the command of Mr. Joseph Thomson. fter organizing his com- pany at Zanzibar, Mr. Thomson will proceed from Mombas on the East African coast to Mount Kilimandjaro, and after ascend- ing this celebrated peak, he hopes to advance through an entirely unknown region to the shores of the Victoria Nyanza, returning to the coast by a more northerly route so as to visit, if practica- ble, Lake Baringo and Mount Kenia. ‘Lieutenant Giraud, a young French naval officer, has sailed from Marseilles for Zanzibar. He intends to go either to Lake Tan- ganyika, or more probably by the north shore of Lake Nyassa, to the Chambeze River. He will follow this stream to its outlet in Lake Bangweolo, which he proposes to circumnavigate. He then hopes to descend the Lualaba-Congo to the sea. The French Government has decided against the scheme of M. . Roudaire of flooding a portion of the Sahara, considering that the cost will exceed the advantages to be gained. Professor Guido Cora in an address before the: Italian Geo- graphical Society, describes the Desert of Sahara as an immense tract of country, with a mean elevation of from 1300 to 1650 feet above the level of the sea, in which sand does not occupy more than one-fifth of the entire area, and where large chains of moun- tains are found attaining a height of from 6550 feet to 8200 feet. n some parts it only rains once in some twenty years, while in others there is a regular rainv season; the temperature there rises to 122° F. and falls to 19° 4’ F., and the loftiest mountain tops arə coverel with snow and ice for several months in the year. The fauna and flora have a special importance. Lastly, the _ Sahara has a population of some 3,000,000, and contains towns O from 5099 to 10,099 inhabitants. It has a total area of 3,700,000 square miles, stretching on the north to the Great Atlas and the Mediterranean, between the two Syrtes to the south of Cyrenaica and Lower Egypt; on the east it is conterminous with the Valley of the Nile; on the south it is bounded by a line running from El Obeid to Lake Chad, to the middle course of the Niger, and: the lower part of the Senegal ; and lastly, on the west it reaches the Atlantic Ocean. ——:0:—— MICROSCOPY.' | Tayor’s Freezinc Mtcrotome.—All who are familiar with the exquisite sections of soft tissues, sometimes cut by the various freezing microtomes, and at the same time have had experience of the troubles, uncertainties and delays (if not dangers) of pack- ! This department is edited by Dr. R. H. Warb, Troy, N. Y. 1882. ] Microsccpy. 1041 ing ice and salt in little spaces close to the object, or pumping the spray of rhigolene or ether, will be glad to welcomea contrivance fitted to give the best results in cutting frozen tissues with uni- formity, certainty and ease. The microtome recently contrived by Thomas Taylor, M.D., of the Department of Agriculture, at Washington, seems able to accomplish this. As shown by the cut, a vessel containing salt and ice is ve 4 e placed at such a level that the salt water = sit from it flows by gravity (at a temperature of about zero) through a flexible tube to the object-carrier “A,” which is a hollow pill-box shaped cylinder of thin metal, upon the top of which the object to be frozen is placed. After cooling this box, by circu- lating through it, the salt water escapes through another tube to a receiver below. The flow from the upper vessel is regu- lated as desired, or stopped altogether, by | placing a spring clip upon the elastic tube, i iil. Economy of trouble, as well as 6f expense, may often be secured by returning the used water to the upper receiver, which can be done to some extent without detriment to the process, and is tense a cold. Suitable objects immersed in gum water, or other solutions capable of freezing to a proper degree of hardness, are promptly and thor- oughly frozen, from below upwards, when placed | upon the object-carrier, the freezing of a drop of | the gum water upon the top of the object indicat- ing that the whole mass is congealed. The desired intensity of cold can be maintained so uniformly for an indefinite time, that hasty work in cutting, which is essen- — 1042 General Notes. | December, tial to the best work of many freezing microtomes, and the char- acteristic advantage of some of the best of them, is not required. The cutting knife is supported upon a circular plate, which screws up and down around the object, the extent of its motion, and the consequent thickness of the section to be cut, being indicated by a pointer near its graduated edge. The best of workmanship is required in this screw, but it can be made so firm and yet so easy as to give excellent work. It is evident that the Biscoe form ‘of knife-carrier could be easily adapted to this instrument by those who prefer it. The standard size of the instrument cuts sections up to one inch wide, and costs $15.00, or with rubber tubes, clips and tin pail, $15.50. A special size is being made for cutting much larger sections, which will probably cost about $2000. The in- struments can be obtained from A. R. Taylor, 328 Massachusetts avenue, Capitol Hill, Washington, D. C. RELATION OF APERTURE AND Power.—In the Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, Professor Abbe gives an elaborate and exhaustive mathematical demonstration of the apertures useful for various powers. His conclusions favor extreme angles for high powers, economy of aperture for medium powers (the loss of penetration, working distance, &c., in superabundant aperture being always a disadvantage greater than the possible benefit), and considerable latitude for low powers, where-a surplus - aperture of 100 per cent. higher than that required for delineation, may be useful for illumination. A similarly conservative position was taken by Dr. Wm. B. Carpenter, in his able and highly appreciated address on the subject, at the Montreal meeting of the S. He preferred moderate angles for most purposes, even for high powers, and wholly condemned the fashion of attempting, by unduly high angle, to force a low power objective _ to do the work ofa high one. Such a lens will resolve tests, but its use is trying to the eyes. It is useless to spoil a good one _inch by trying to make it a poor one-fourth. On the other hand, Mr. Geo. E. Davis, in a lengthy editorial in the Northern Micro- scopist, urges the use of much higher angles than would be ad- mitted by Professor Abbe’s theories, and he would only select - low angles when cheapness was obligatory. His ideal series is- a 2 inch of 20° or more; a 1 inch of 35° or 40°, with a working distance of 0.40 inch; a % inch of 66° or 70°, working distance 0.10 or 0.12 inch; a 1% inch of roo°, and higher powers as re- quired. He claims that objectives by Tolles, Beck, Ross, and Wray, stand reduction of aperture by means of the iris diaphragm shutter remarkably well, though those of Zeiss, made from the — formulas of Professor Abbe, do not. (Conf. discussion at = Manchester, Mic. Soc., in the Northern Microscopist, Vol. 2, pp- 284-291.) | VisiBiLity OF Fine Ruttncs.—Professor W. A. Rogers, ina paper before the A. A. A. S. considers Mr. Fasoldt first in the art . 1882. | | Microscopy. 1043 of micrometric ruling, since the death of Nobert; but his plates as high as 100,000 to the inch, have not been photographed, and the resolution of 152,000 to the inch, though believed by some, has not been proven. Single lines g5}95 of an inch wide are _readily seen by the naked eye, and those’ one-third as wide may be seen without the microscope. Lines too fine to be seen singly with the microscope can be seen and resolved if ruled close together in bands. CuTTING Sections or Coat.—The discussion in the English journals as to the correctness of the assertion in the Micr ographic dictionary, that coal can be softened by soaking in a solution of carbonate of potash, sufficiently to be sliced with a razor, has ended with the concession that it is lignite,and not coal, that can be so prepared. The use in the dictionary of the word coal, in this special and not usual sense, has caused many and perplexing failures to experienced workers as well as to beginners. MIcROSCOPICAL D1AGNosts.—-Under this title, Professor Charles H. Stowell, of the university of Michigan, has brovght out an octavo volume of 250 pages. 1e book, which is published by Geo. S. Davis, of Detroit, at $3.00, is well printed and freely illus- trated with wood cuts and lithographs. Its character is not well indicated by its name. It consists of a collection of essays upon a variety of subjects, having in many cases little relation to each other, and no special connection with the technical subject an- nounced in the title. Part 1, of 93 pages, relates (with the excep- tion of the chapter on starch, which seems to belong to Part 11) to’ medical microscopy, with especial reference to questions of diag- nosis. It is the portion which gives name to the book, and after an introductory chapter on the instrument, treats of blood, epi- thelium, sputa, etc., muscle, urinary deposits, parasitic diseases of the skin, tumors, starch, and staining of blood. The chapters upon urinary deposits and tumors are particularly full, the former being illustrated by eight lithographs, very caref fully and accu- rately drawn by Mrs. Stowell. Part 11, of 118 pages, is a series of excellent studies in vegetable histology by Mrs. Stowell, the objects selected being of medicinal or economical importance, and the ob- servations having frequent reference to the question of adultera- tions. By far the most prominent and interesting portion of this Part, is the “Study of Wheat,” reprinted from the American Miller. The other chapters of this part relate mostly to medici- nal plants, and were originally produced in various journals. When supplemented, as proposed by Mrs. Stowell, by a series of similar studies of the more important medicinal plants, this collec- tion will become a treatise of great importance and interest. Part ` Ul is the series of very instructive and popular papers on the pre paration and mounting of microscopic Pct originally published 1044 ; General Notes. | December, = by Wm. H. Walmsley in Zhe Microscope. It forms a convenient appendix to the volume. Tue HOUSE-FLY AS A CARRIER OF CONTAGION. opie subject, which has attracted some attention of late, was discussed by Dr. Thomas Taylor, of Washington, at the Montreal meeting of the A. A. A. S. Having noticed a species of anguillula within the pro- boscis and abdomen of dissected flies, he undertook a series of experiments to determine whether the house- fly might not bea carrier and distributor of germinal virus of various kinds. The suction tube of the fly was found by measurement to be of suffi- cient diameter to admit of taking up the spores of cryptogams, trichina, the eggs of anguillula, or even the anguillula themselves. Thirteen specimens of anguillula were found in the proboscis of a single house fly, and sixteen acari in the thorax of another. Furthermore, flies fed with the spores of the red rust of grasses, mixed with sugar, swallowed it freely, and afso carried about the spores attached to the hairs on their limbs. The fact that by far the greater part of the spores were consumed, and digested with- out germinating, suggested to the author that the flies might thus be destroyers of microscopic germs as well as disseminators of them. Dr. Leidy made similar observations some years ago. Recent MicroscopicaL Papers :— | Micro-organisms dbe Rainwater, Ice, and Hail. (Discussing the question T eria in the air and . a cause of disease.) R. L. Maddox, M.D., in Jour oyal Mic. pe Vo l. 1, p. 449. eee gana pa edi Angular Aperture. Ernst Gundlach, in 4m. Month. . Journ Vol. i, p. 176. esata of the Planula of Clava eth Ag. J. H. Pillsbury (Montreal A. A. A. S.), in do. eeting pe New Thericola. Dr. A. C. Sto in do. Dp The Mireprars cope. Romyn Hitchooek iG wY Y. Mic. Soc.), in do. p. I New RR tant Pressure Fajection Apparatus, Professor Wm. Libby, ie (at k. S.), in do. p. 187. : Do of rare Apparent a by the Microscope. W. LeConte Stevens (at A. A. A. -), in do. p. 189. Some Vegetable Poisons. (Öiservations and Experiments © z regard 7 orge in poisonous plants). Professor T. J. aaay (at A. A. A. S ) in do. Proboscis and Labial Palps of she Oyster. H. J. Rice, in The hosed aig ‘Vol. Il, p i Occurrence of Red iow in Hertfordshire. R. B. Croft, R. N., in North. Micro- scopist, Vol. 1i, p. Life Histories anel a i eS80ns, Rev. W. H. Dallinger, in do. p. 2 P ET and Habits, nee Horner, in Journ. Pi eS. Mic. Sot., I, p. 63, ete. Photo-micro, graphy. ie ba description of apparatus and methods.) Harry arker, in do p. 7 Foraminifera; How to Prepare. Charles Elcock, in do. p. 25 and 139. Œtology of Tuberculosis, (A full and excellent summary of ces phere and experiments upon the Bacteria of tuberculous disease.) . F. -+ P 16 pp., Cambridge, 1882, Reprinted from Boston Med. and Surg. oe Coun alle Diseases, (A popular account of the germ theory of disease, Geo. - E. Blackham M. D., in Zie a 1882, p. 163. —- of Generations among the Uredines. Charles B. Plowright, in Sci. ae 4882. | Scientific News. 1045 SCIENTIFIC NEWS. — Nature for Sept. 28th, publishes, in full, a translation of the eloquent address of Professor Haeckel, at the Eisenach meeting of the German naturalists and physicians. After paying tribute “to Darwin’s theory of natural selection and the wide influence it has exerted on human thought, also giving his personal impres- sions of Darwin, when he first visited him in 1866, he then en- deavors, and with good success, to prove that Goethe was an evolutionist. Haeckel then gives very full credit to the views of Lamarck, whose merits have been quite kept in the dark by some English Darwinians. “ We cannot,” says Haeckel, “but regard it as a truly tragic fact, that the ‘ Philosophie Zoologique,’ by La- marck, one of the greatest productions of the great literary period in the beginning of our century, met, from its outset, with but extremely little attention, and in the course of a few years was utterly forgotten. Not till Darwin, fifty years later on, breathed new life into the transformation theory therein established, was the buried treasure again brought into the light of day, and we cannot now but describe it as the completest’ representation of the theory of development prior to the time of Darwin.” Haeckel’s monistic views, as he states them in this address, appear to be nearly identical with the agnosticism of Herbert Spencer—‘“ that purest monistic form of faith,” says Haeckel, “which attains its climax in the conviction of the unity of God and nature.’ The further advances we make in the knowledge of nature — “the more we approach that unattainable, ultimate ground—the purer will be our idea of God.” Haeckel then explains his views, uttered five years ago, as to the teaching of Darwinism in the lower schools, which had been misunderstood. “It stands to reason with these words I could not mean to claim that Darwinism should be taught in elementary schools. That is simply impossible. For just like the higher acknowledgment. — We have to announce the death of the Hon. B. B. Redding, State Fish Commissioner of California,a patron of science, and him- self possessed of no small scientific attainments, who died suddenly of apoplexy at his residence in San Francisco, on the morning of August 21st. Mr. Redding was born at Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, in 1824, and was the son of the U.S. Consul at that place. In 1849, he started for California in the brig Mary Jane, and after some interesting experiences in the Galapagos, reached San Fran- VOL. XV1,—NO, XII. 7? 1046 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [ December, sisco, and proceeded to the gold mines. Asa miner he was not cuccessful, but was soon elected to the Assembly, became editor of the Sax Joaquin Republican, and associate editor of the Sacra- mento State Journal, bought the latter paper; was in 1856, elected Mayor of Sacramento, and in 1863, was Secretary of State. From 1868 to his death, he was the land agent of the Central Pacific Railroad, and for several years was a Regent of the California State University. Readers of the NATURALIST must remember his contributions to science in this Magazine, and all who knew him personally, can testify to his kindness and courtesy, as well as to his interest in everything that tended toward the development of the resources of his adopted State. - — As we go to press we are in receipt of the news of the death, on Nov. 20th, of Dr. Henry Draper, of New York, of pleurisy. Both the friends of science and the personal friends of Dr. Draper, have in his death cause of the deepest regret. Dr. Draper’s devotion to science, fortunately sustained by a very helpful marriage, has been well known. His amiable character endeared him to his associates. — The California Academy of Sciences has recently received the gift of a large collection of birds and a small number of mammals, all finely mounted specimens, including cases for the same. This present was made by Mrs. Crocker, of Sacramento, widow of the late Judge E. B. Crocker, who was much interested in natural history, especially ornithology. The collection em- Eo ‘ages very rare forms, and cost several thousand dollars.— —Natural History is making great strides in Australia. The Biological Station at Sydney has now been completed. It is to e in part maintained by the Royal Society of New South Wales, the Royal Society of Victoria, and the Australian Biological Association. The station has been built mainly through the exertions of Baron Miclucho Maclay, the distinguished Russian naturalist and explorer. — Professor Cope recently procured a full-grown gorilla from the Ogobai river. It was shipped in a tierce of spirits, and ar- rived in good order. —Professor W. B. Carpenter lectures this winter at the Lowell enabled on Deep Sea Soundings and on Automatism in man and animals. PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY oF NaturaL Sciences, March 21.—Professor Cope characterized the Condylarthra, a group of Ungulates, found in the lowest horizon of the Eocene of the 1882. | Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 1047 United States. Having bunodont teeth, and five toes on each foot, they are the most generalized of the sub-order, but have left no unchanged descendants. The Rev. H. C. McCook described some interesting variations in the forms of the nest of Epeira strix. The ordinary nest of this spider, when in open wood or field, is a rolled leaf fastened by adhesive threads. A second form consists of two leaves lashed together; a third of small holes in wood or stone, lined with web ; a fourth (one example found) was a silk-lined cavity in a ball of sawdust, made by the carpenter ant; a fifth, or rather a whole series of variations was exhibited by a colony domiciled among fallen timber; a sixth form was a cavity in a bunch of parasitic moss; and a seventh is that made when the spider weaves her orb on the exposed portions of human habitations, and consists of a stiff cylinder of silk lashed strongly to the surface. This form js taken only in new buildings, which afford no crevices. In view of these adaptations to the environment, the spider must be credited with no small degree of intelligence. from the mica mine near Amelia Court House, Va. The result differs from the usual analysis of Helvite, which has not previously been found in America. April 18.—Professor Koenig described some crystals of orthite from the mica mine, at Amelia Court House, May 2.—Professor Leidy called attention to /i/aria wymani, an entozoan that takes up its residence in the brain of the darter, Plotus anhinga, Professor Wyman found this worm in seventeen out of nineteen birds examined, coiled up on the back of the cerebellum between the arachnoid and pia mater, from two to eight or more in each bird. The specimen exhibited by Dr. Leidy had a single worm enclosed between the two laminz of the dura mater in the inter@l of the cerebrum and cerebellum. Numerous specimens of Ascaris spiculigera were also exhibited? obtained from the stomachs of Plotus anhinga, Graculus dilophus, Pelecanus trachyrhynchus and P. fuscus. Dr. Leidy exhibited a specimen of the irregular phosphatic nodules, probably iste ag sd a zeuglodont or cetacean, brought from Ashley Hver S. C., be manufactured into a fertilizer : and also a quartzite a rolled pebble with a groove round the middle like that of the stone hammers found in the ancient copper mines of Lake Su- rior. Mr. Meehan gave an account of the supposed reasons why Ti huja occidentalis gained the name of Arbor Vitæ, and suggested that the tree might be the “ Annedda,” a decoction of which saved the lives of Cartier’s band in 1534. The Annedda is usually iden- tified with the white spruce (Ades alba), from the young tops and leaves of which, according to Rafinesque, the Indians obtained a spruce beer, that was one of their famous remedies for scurvy. 1048 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. (December, Boston Society of NATURAL History, Oct 4, 1882.—Mr. F. Putnam gave an account of recent explorations of Several ancient shell heaps on the coast of Maine; and Mr. W.O. Crosby spoke of the origin and classification of joint-structures. Oct. 18.—Dr. C. C. Abbott gave an account of his last year’s researches into the history of palzolithic man in the Delaware valley; and Mr. S. Garman shows some “ Antelope Medicine” of the Ogalallas. Nov. 1.—Papers by Mr. Wm. M. Davis, on the structural value of the trap ridges of the Connecticut valley, and by Mr. W. O. Crosby, on the Elevated coral-reefs of Eastern Cuba were read. Professor Zirkel’s paper on the Mineralogy of the fortieth par- allel survey, postponed from the last meeting, was also read BIoLocicAL Society OF WaAsHINGTON, Oct. 27.—Dr. W. S. Barnard made a communication on Ectoparasitic Trematodes ; r. W. P. Conant described two cases of snake-bite in Massa- chusetts; and Mr. Frederick W. True spoke of the cinnamon bear, with exhibition of a specimen ORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES , Oct. 16.—The following papers were read: On the genesis ‘of the Crystalline iron ores, by Dr. Alexis A. Julien; Note upon a new and remarkable Eurypterid from the Catskill group, by Professor D. S. Martin. Oct. 23—The following papers were read: Notes on the Cretaceous marl-belt of New Jersey, by Dr. N. L. Britton ; On the origin of the crystalline ores of iron, by Professor J. 3 New- erry. APPALACHIAN Mountain CLuB, Oct. 11.—An address was de- livered by Maj. Jed. Hotchkiss, of Staunton, Va., entitled “ The Appalachian Mountains of the Vir ie Mr. John Ritchie, In ly gave some notes on Mt. Stinson, Rum a Mr. W.O Crosby read notes on Elevated pot- ka near Shellburne Falls. NATIONAL Acapemy oF Scrences.—The annual autumn meet- ing of this body commenced in New York, at Columbia College, on Nov. 13th, and continued four days. The following is a list of the papers read : . . Mean annual Rain-fall, Elias Loomis. - On white Phosphorus, Ira Remsen. On the general equations of Optics, as derived from the electro-magnetic theory of Light. J. Willard Gibbs. On an improved form of standard Daniell Cell. George F. Barker. On complex inorganic Acids. Wolcott Gibbs T : modified form of solar Eye-piece for use with large apertures. Charles A. ung. ae wpn 7. mn Triassic (?) Insects from the Rocky mountains. Samuel H. Scudder 8. . Explanations on R a copy of the first ten numbers of the author's Celestial Charts. C. H. F. Pete 9. Lists of iori in Star Catálogo. C. H. F. Peters. 1882. | Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 1049 10. Remarks on the Structure of the present Comet. C. H. F. Pete 11. On a method of studying the laws of Contrast quantitatively. ny N. Rood. 12. On the Heat of the Comstock lode. G. F. Becker, by invitation, 13. Topographical effects of Faults and sepia G, F. Becker, by invitation. 14. Prepartion of Cyanin from Chinoline. C, F. Chandler 15. On the place of the Echeneididz in a syste Theo. . Gill, 16. Pi em existence in both AA of a ba oe dry zone and its cause. Guyot 17. 5 S0- called eruptive Serpentines. T. Sterry Hunt. 18. On a Sphereometer for eeng the radii of curvature of lenses of any diam- eter. Alfred M. May Ig. On a graphical re a representing the errors of a screw. Alfred M. Mayer. 20, On a simple experimental demonstration of Ohm’s law. Alfred M. Mayer. 21. On the Fauna of the Puerco Eocene. es AG ope. 22. On the Permian genus Diplocaulus. - E. D. Cope. 23. On the physical conditions under ne Coal was nN J. S. Newberry. 24. Effect of Magnetism on chemical action. Ira Rem 25. On Sinapic acid. Ira Rem 26, On the total solar Eclipse ie ee 6, 1883. Charles A. Young. 27. Physical and poe character of the sea bottom off our coast, especially be- ` neath the Gulf Strea 28. On the origin of em atoiko matter of bituminous Shales. J. S. New- berry. 29. On the meridian Photometer. E. C. Pickering. 30. On the micr aope structure of some of the Brachiopoda, with reference to their generic relat James Hall. . On the logic of solaris and on the cerai of the figure of the earth by the variations of gravitation. S Pie 32. On the supposed Human Footprints oul found in Nevada. O. C. Marsh. Q _ ONTARIO ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY.—A meeting of this society was held recently in Montreal during the session of the A. A. A.S. After the transaction of the routine business, the presi- son, aeae a loss on the A ter community estimated at several hundred thousand dollars, and called attention also to the relative abundance of parasites among the insects now maturing. The Phylloxera was referred to, and the discovery of the root- inhabiting type injuring the vines in several portions of the province, a form of the insect which until within the past few weeks was not known to occur within the province. Several other PERN points were taken up in reference to the occur- rence of some rare insects and new habits acquired by others. The short first crop in Ontario, a result, by many, attributed to insect agency, was shown to be 'due to other causes, some refer- ence was also made to the recent dissemination of insects destruc- tive to fruit in California, and the energetic measures being adopted there to suppress them 1050 Proceedings of Scientific Socteties. [Dec., 1882. THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCI- ENCE.—The following is a list of the papers read in the micros- copical section : SECTION G—MICROSCOPY. On angular aperture in relation to biological investigation. Wm. B. Carpenter. Demonstration of the Bacillus of tuberculosis, W. Osler, The third corpuscular element in the blood. W. Osl The development of blood corpuscles in the bone-marrow. Wm. Osler. Note on the Microcytes of the blood and their probable origin. W. Osler. Plant cells and living matter. Louis Elsberg. Histology of uterine fibroid’tumors, Henry O. Marcy. Some vegetable poisons. T. J. Burrill. A study of the problem of fine rulings with reference to the limit of naked eye visi- bility and microscopic resolution. W. A. Rogers. On a new form of dry mounting. W. A. Rogers. The house-fly considered in connection with the distribution of infectious and con- tagious poisons. Thomas Taylor. A new economic freezing microtome for section-cutting, with new mechanical de- vices. Thomas Taylor. On the epidermis of Marsipobranchs. A. H. Tuttle. sage’ " some of the peculiarities incident to the diseases of fruits. D. P. Pen- allow. er. Notes on the present status of sanitary inspection, with special reference to the ex- amination of water and air. Romyn Hitchcock. A filtering wash-bottle especially adapted to the use of the histologist. C. E. Han- Development of Cilia in the p'anula of Clava /eptostyla . J. H. Pillsbury. AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL Socrety, Nov. 17th—Mr. Paul B. - DuChaillu delivered a lecture on his journeys in Norway, Swe- den, Lapland and Northern Finland. 10: THE SEVENTEENTH VOLUME OF THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. In closing the Sixteenth volume of the AMERICAN NATURALIST, we would call the attention of our subscribers to the increased number of pages in this volume, which contains more reading matter than any previous volumes. From the papers now in hand, and those in preparation for the next year, it is believed that volume Seventeen will at least equal in general interest as well as in value for the special student, those of the past years? Our thanks are due to our friends and contributors who have, by their voluntary labors, made the magazine what it is. We would respectfully invite working naturalists to send us early notices of new discoveries as well as items of general scien- tific interest, and ask our friends to call the attention of all who are in any way interested in natural history to our magazine, which is designed to be an aid and stimulus in their studies and field work. : We would again ask our exchanges to specially notice the December NATURALIST, and to send marked copies containing such notices to the editors. a INDEX. Abbot, C. C., xg of tag Savannah Cricket i idols and nd fda worship o of the Del- Aboriginal implement, ! 203. Achznodon insolens, 534. Acris crepitans, 707. Adder, t 566. Æqu ite Wetékales, 147. Africa, explorations in, 80, 341, 758, 1040. Agalma a, 92. Alaska, al Aldrich, c birds racing with the cars, 5 the crow blackbird eat pl OS felin e developmen how bad eher. i 0 birds, toro. Alle, #8 43- f (ot oe + Ane, 533. postere iid 411. Alumin Alvor, B. “conipass plant, 625. 1s piema atg munculus, 74. \inatomical specimens, rapid preparation of, 407. par eaeoe, piscivorous, 564. b> b> D bo D be bs b> dy 5 3 7 = d inders, J. mate and aese A Animals, hypnotis isonchus aras: T Angus, J., protective change of color in a spider, ! Toro, Annedda, 1047. a ual, 396. ostira orn: penray eoa ela 407, Pyle macy re. fh omenclature, $28. in Germany, 519. n Great Britain, 519. Antilocapra americana, 407. Anu! new ore of, 608. Anura, fossil, 979- Aparis re and power in microscopes, 1042. pus, um in egg-sacs of, 142. P Bias» ag 610. ae n rocks of Great Britain, 74. Arctic explorations, 839. oe j 122. ree ie Seach, ogo of, 516. Arthrome fe ct ly nomeodahnre of part 676. spe $ C, physiological Ta ie 4 trichomes, i Ais Soman races of, 1024. Asellus co communis, 241. padi ee 52, ' Be Jemnit | Bessey M. ., forests, — influence upon cit- ropa e stem for laboratory study, 43. Astigmatism, 909. Attagenus megatoma, rorg. | Aurelia aurita, 148, | Axolotl, Mexican, 913. | Ayres, W. O., ancient man of Calaveras, 845. | Bacillus, 196, 293. note on me Helge 1005. Balfo oy, M., obitu ary of, 8 Barbadoes, 210. ber, E. A., mound pipes, 265. > oe oO Sx. ~ a Q = = hahii f the horned lark, Sassche mp, W. M., ps obi tentaculata, 244. Beauxite, 79, g e, 68o, "681, ack, cuteaved, 1004. $, 2:3: Bergamas e 8o. : E: Es he leaf Pie one of the Ure- cut- nt i 1004. | Bible and Science, 496. gy, 498. Biblical biol iennial, Biology, study of, 47. _ Birds, distribution of, 85. effec Bopyroides latreut at a, 592- A ae Buses E E., an Smee poa, 584. Butterflies, habits of, x Butterfly trees, 64. Bythinia tentaculata, 244. Call, R. E.. Geographical ee of certain 1 Po ten kin 69 oess of Nort , 369, 542. review of Hariman o ba y Pasi 580. anada, geology of, 602 Carabids, Se 1052 eke oo acy 281. Gat; Sotho. ‘claw on index of, 141. Catopsalis r ~~ >a , bli Pa fishes Captnlopotia; American, 959, 967. ink bag of, 820. Cephalosome, 677. eratiocaris, 945. Cercaria, with setz in pairs, 512. er cobs oda, 6 rcospora asclepia dis cidicola, B10, Chislite, 52 5. Chirodota, hit curses 51. Chiton, pai a ylli 3 infusoria, 1013. preleg Chologaster papilliferus, 2, Chrysocharis oat ot las 6x. A A Chrysopa, m va of, 825. Čhukches, 6 612, et i f, ane ol W. , defoliatio: ion of oak trees by o ape senator 5 Penn., 914. = atte = ti: ee per, W. B., is the human skull becoming thinner ? 136. ‘ope, -€ope, E. D., paces insolens, 534. and habits of T hylacoleo, vs anthropomorphous — 73- ihr ea 454 use and effort, a seon one or Eocene Plagiau- lac tion, 8: Marsh on the classification of the = Dinosauria, 253 new characters of the 'Perissodac- : tyla Condylarthra ee orms of oryphodontde, 73. ew forms of ‘Tzeniodon new genus of Tan she eb “~ — of sais — aA lanum Solidago, 8 Sparro ow, English, 140, ae 1008, 1009. Spheeria pcs Bon... cola, 810, pit the bie sabalensioides Sphinx nok sound- peed in » 7455 Spider, protective pegs of color in, toro. Spondylus. seol 3 Sponge, 536, 623 oring, 243. Staining methods 1 in Oo, 772. Starfish, tek it dakofi oyst: a, REGi Seuraa Dabitk wi bang California woodpe 353- gui Disa th ap? imple- me from California, 203 first Californian eel caught, 26. done or Halipteris- eller’s manatee » 40 Sterlet, developmen 10 Stone, calendar, of Me a rate fossils from New Mexico, 152: Saunaue. So Sturgeon, 739. ryology of, 228, 1011. Sulphur in coal wine, mite Teniodonta, 831. new genus of, 604. Tone aen seperate wat 604, system of, 7 Tardi grades, revival i afiar M. o Tariff on scienti S, 576. aae in Ma a ` T piepe of the West, f the Central U. 34 Testudinata, ‘Asmerican ocene, 9) Thallophytes, systematic arrangement of, 43- 123. axeop T cotihuacan, 933; iary flora paniere ‘177. | bissare eaga Thylaco i Tie os in Siberia, 175. in Ti ta a CP e 424. Toad, tree, 636. 3 Todd, J. È , flowers of of Solanum rostratum an Tourm ci chrome, A a habits of the Menopoma, 139- , 789- Ei aoe t present | 429. rea dis in pan pectoral and | Trenn — gt. LSS seem | Trilobi ag ee of, - Triungulin of Meloi > "515. Index. : antiquum, 988, Tarde Letitia sg 1007 ‘Turner, H. W., al he ism ina Crustacean, 243. Turtle, longevity of, 24. “Turtles, American Eocene, 986, iUniverse, order of, 484. Uranotha illite, 525. Uranothorite, 79. ‘Uredinez, 671. hetercecism in, 1005, Uropoda, 677. a e, 677. Ey tore. 454, 490. ‘Walrus a: in Maine, 326. Ward L F i eee . HRS: Teiatlons grain-feeding habits of field | 1057 Wetherby, A. G., distribution of Margaritana margaritifera, 675. occurrence a Mephitis in- terrupta in North Caro- me 73 Whale, fossil croatian, 1027 a of mic scopical re y aA in the zoological station in Nobles, Wildes, p o habits = Cryptobranchus, 816, Wild geese as pests, 3 Woodcock, 737. Woo a” California, Agta sioring habit, 353. Worms, Wormen, Li ichthyological papers ase we Da -i with a sketch g Bie age a Wright, C., arrangement of fi roots, 132. Wright, R. R., Demodex‘ Shulloides in America, 1009. and, New, 421 Sot life in ane: ocean. 405. | Tapinarii maps, 5 ' Zoologists, problems for,