THE | hua] 
E54 


AME RICAN NATU RALIST, 


AN ILLUSTRATED MAGAZINE 


NATURAL HISTORY. 


EDITED BY 
A. S. PACKARD n EDWARD D. COPE. 


be: ASSOCIATE EDITORS: 
W. N. LOCKINGTON, DEP. OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS. 
Pror. H. CARVILL LEWIS, DEPARTMENT OF MINERALOGY. 
Pror. C. E. BESSEY, DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY 
Z PORIE T, MASON, DEPARTMENT OF Aieteeceoneea 
fs Pror. HENRY SEWALL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
Hees Dr. C. O. WHITMAN, DEPARTMENT OF MICROSCOPY. 


> 


VOLUME XVIII. 


PHILADELPHIA : 
PRESS OF McCALLA & STAVELY, 
Nos. 237 AND 239 Dock STREET. 
188 


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hey 

tee 

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pes x 


ikea 


Foo se Ay Abs Y rbot ee Del XX (Leb) 


CONTE NTS. 


Disadvantages of the upright R Klean bb ed oe Oe Va CONE 6 o rn Ge 

The Mammalian Fauna of the Australian Desert. . peti De Senge Soe A 

Observations on the prince Orga in p> nett of certain 5 
> åj. 


On the Character and Function ol the Fai ts in the Bull- ` 
Snake (Pityophis). ise GOL] ooo wig Write sia et a Carel Ae RE: ba a ie je) Ae 
Ww: 


The Carolina Wren; a Y of its Life, a Charles C. Abbas. c, viele a t 
The Batrachia of the P period f North PRSA en 
trate oS ee Oe ee E a R D Oies -o eean 
An Account an the War Customs of the Gu es. [astraea]. J. Owen Dore. rae ee ey we a 
Notes on some apparently undescribed Infusoria from Putr 
Waters. esed]. E E T es ere ae E ai MOREE E E 
Colonial Organisms . Charles Morris... « t40, a40 
Review of the Poea of North PER ER Batrachology in in tthe 4 
ERIE OOS nas a Se Png ima gees a WN. Lockington.. o -+ « 149 
Wood Notes and Nest Hunting... ........ ee er ee eet ee a 
The Crab Parasite, Sacculina. [Illustrated.].......... wade GEE eke r SRS 
Men Ignorant of Fire . | Fs WN S A N T B80 
Grave Mounds in North Carolina ‘aud East e APREN is 
trate s Thoma 23 
Anatomy a oa ‘Ph yata a the Fiai Nepia. Misrdi. Pin A. Las. n & 8 k aO 359 
The Creodonta. [Illustrated] 5-3. a ee ee Se ces e + > + 255, 344, 478 
he Exhalatio of Ozone by Flowering P ab a cee Litas TM. A ee 5 Sore Ao 
Topographical Phenomena in Indiana. [Illustrated.] . . . . . John i POES. E 
Renumeration of the Spinal Ees an econstruction of the 
exuses in the Human, je: PA EAE eee Cok: alee hice a tas 


A Review of the Progress = Me sth Ritchie Tveter » 

Paleontology for 1883......... Ca hoe ca ce MAON n eed see ce See 
Lhe Medak, oa ey Spel a OR Gree Ps OVO ee lat age 
The Larval Theory of the Origin of ‘Cellul ar Thane Bae ire Oe Alpheus Byatt. R E ee 
The arning Brazilian Expedition. winced III. bio ett 

do Monte Negro, J: Lua oae . Herbert H. Smith . . . . 464, 578 

walk Micah the Natural History Museum at Fora EEES S. Lippincott. .... 485 
Construction of Ancient Mexican Terra-Cotta Pitch- Pans 

Hlageolers, = {iilustrated.|. Go ce a n Ta T. Cre. 498 
The Theory of a Glacial Dam at Cincinnati and its Verification: G. POREN Wright. . ‘ee . 


The Structure of the Trachez of Insects. strata De a oe CORR og n eRe 
Agricultural Botany. [Illustrated. Kaa a ee een eee Side teen. 4 sy = 
On the Evidence that the Earth’s Interior is is Solid... < o o ~ M £. Wadsworth . . 587, 678, 767 
Vestiges of Glacial Man in _ thee ae es 2 Mos Franc E. Babbitt © 2594, 697 
The Genesis of Crystallin Nips a seit toy cia mae = — 
Notes on a New ‘Seca tse. eae oF «+ +» Aifred C. Stokes 
The bles oes and Sexual Genesis. Re ee ee ae, Hollingsworth ar thr, 7i 
The Tertiary Marsupialia.  Dilustrated.]. a O OE a a a ee 
The Glaciated aa Nor merica. Eithir ir. pag Oe A Treiterick Wright. bate te 
g of the cae in ete ee and Allied Birds, Leonhard patie cate ee oe 
On the Taina of pp the Mollusca. . . ie Date. oe 3 790 


_ The Condylarthra. [lIllustrated.] . à E. D. Cope. 790, 892 
_ Notes on a Nevada Shell r jatradesns, imaraci j. ORE i diet c E. acne 851 
Aspects of 


the Body in Vertebrates and Arthropods. [Illustrated.] A 5. Packard... ..... 855 


CEST Oe RA 


iv Contents. 


e Northernmost Inhabitants of the Earth. An Dement 
„Ske tch [itastrat PTa e a seg ayia Mai eee 3 She acai ee ok 
C i [Iilustrated.]. EP Grotta s is „a Oe 
The North . American Ginsu [Illustrated.].. < š ee. Mone ss ee 
On Catagen oe ee oS , See Be hye. Ss aa R 
The Crystalline wa ne he Hentewest ; Se can noe CS E A R A Ta A 5 eee we 6 Oem 
Man in the Tertiaries . Seg oer a ae may 4 eR OETA, DOT EE aS a! a) E 


Recent Sade of the Spaditoot Toad. “Ti ustrated.]. . Charles = Abbott... ve sO 
Notices of so: w Parasitic Infusoria. [Illustrated. = te ow A red: Co Stokes. s o s . 1081 
roak, its Conon and Variations Sea a . Charles Morris... . 1086, 1210 
Dr. D. E. Salmon’s Claims respecting és discovery of the Gare 

Ce i a . A.J. Detmers.. 
The Segmental Sense-organs of the TOR [Tllustrated, ae ge aC OL Aan So 5 ses Ee 
The Amblypoda. {illustrat BC eve ey lowe whee eee E D. Cope. + « . ITIO, 1192 
Rock Inscriptions in Brazil. peA E . mC, ie n ac a 
The Relation of Color to Flavor in Fruits zod Ye egeta Mes. mae: os COT s v ve a + + 1203 
Preliminary Note on some Fossil Fishes recently discovered in 

the Silurian Rocks of North America. ..........&. W. Claypole «w es è. «122% 
The Harp Seal a permanent Dastdent i in the St. Lawrence. . . . C. Hart Merriam... « « +1227 


Pan o 


Eprrors’ TABLE. 
Pessimism and Hedonism, 40; The Society of Naturalists of the Eastern United States, 160: 
The Government Appropriations, 161; The Law and Insanity, 267; Origin of our Aryan ances- i 
tors, 269; Biology at the Johns s Hopkins aeaa a ~~ defer Science in Philadelphia, 393; 2 
rowth in nd D 


: e, 906; Engravi ence work 
908 ; Scientific peer 1031; The American Association for the Advancement of. Science in 
1884, 1121; The Press and Science, 1231; Original Research in Philadelphia, 1234. 
\ 


pees 


mee eS eat ee 


Sone LITERATURE, 
. atton and Harvey’s Le a rt Aaya 4t; Wright’s Animal Life, 45; Christ’s Flora 
neds Swen meet its ori: y’s wom ers in me mi [lastrato], 47; Ba me cles 
ologi cee: 


to: 


cent phn ey , Trois pa e, Rech. sur les Rept a a les Dre e: ; Cham 
ot s Geology of Winconsin, s: $ hs . Fish Commissioner’s Report 1880, > A meee: e 
aeee of the Wings of Hymenoptera, 165; The Standard koa Midas [illustrated] ad 
; Davis and Rice’s North American Batch: and Reptilia found east of the Mississippi 
er. ivi 


- Researches in og = s 
them, 273; Miss Buckley’s p pe her Been 273; Hansen’s Struct f the Momi 
Part: f 


Martin’s Human Body, 275: ahi t Books ‘aod Pamphlets, 276; Ryder’s Observations on 


Origi 

Economic Plants, 614; Recent Books and Pamphlets, su; The Zoological Record for 1882, 
; Collins’s Mineralogy, 710; Third Report of the U. Entomological Commission, 71% + 

The Coal and Iron counties of North Carolina, 712 ; ee Hand-book of Paleontology, 717+ 

Brehm’s Thierleben, 712; Recent Books and Pamphlets, 712; The Duke of Argyll’s Unity of 


premena Leche’s Anatomy of the Pelvic region in the cals tivora, 912; Gau- 


Contents. v 


dry’s “ Les Enchainements du Monde Animal,” 912; Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Fish 
I d Timbe 


Vacation, 913; Recent Books ig Pamphlets, 913; Notes e Birds observed du a sum- 
ruise in the of St. Lawrence, by William Brewster, 1014; m’s Siberia in 
Asia, 1017; Winchell’ s World- k, 1021r ; Dobson’s Monograph of the Insectivora, 10: { 
ey to North American Birds, 1025; Manual of the sses of North America, Bars Recent 
Bo and Pamphlets, 1027; Forbes’ Second Report of the Noxious Inse f Illinois, 1122; 
Catalogue of Aquatic Mammals of the United § Ce I’s Report on l 
of Minnesota, 1124; e Standard Natural History [Illustrated], 1125 ; logical Survey of 
bama, i ecent Books and Pamphlets, 1127; Kraepelin’s Proboscis of Musca [Illustrated], 
1234; Ober’s Travels in Mexico [Illustrated], 1244; Briefer Course in Botany, 1247; 
ple’s Cyclopedia, 1248; Recent Books and Pampklets, 1249. 


GENERAL Norss. 


Geography and Travels.—America, 52 ; A Visit to Stanley’s Stations in Africa, 53; Asia and 
the Indian archipelago, 55; Genigeishial Notes, 56; Asia and the Asiatic age: 172; The 
Southern inese, 173; Anam, or Upper Cochin China, 174; Africa, 175; Geographical News, 

Africa; The Congo, from its mouth to Bolobo, 277; The Kuilu, 278 ; M. Revoil’s Jou 


176 ; ng 
in the South Somali country, 279: senate aaa arene: 1279 5 ; —— a, 406; Asia, 407 ; Asia, 519; 
Africa, 520; America, age The Arctic, 522 orn, 522; graphical 
Notes, 523; Africa, 3; The Pacific nee 714; Geog raphical 1 Not , 716; Africa, 811; The 
sre 812; The Pacitic Islands, 813; America—The Giay ipalit; gts; Africa—Mada= 
ar, 916, The Aruwini,917: Asia—The Nan-schan Mountains, 917, owt Bera Caves, 

98, m amp 918, wg? le KESE n The Aral, aah EERE z America : Results ot the 
, 1030 a: The B sash Oian 1, The French 

on the Coo, The Upper Congo, 1030; Asia: The os phe or pone Mr. Carles’s Jour- 
ney in Corea, Arabia Petrza, 1031; Europe, 1033; Australia, 1033 ; Geographical Notes, 1033 ; 

; i a, Si ilson’” in eographi 


ec 
Notes, 1132; Asia; Mr. Graham’s Ascents of Himalayan peaks, 1250; Asiatic Notes, 1251; Afri- 
can Notes, 1252; Amerlca: The work of he Greely expedition, 1253. 

Geology and Palazont. —The sap of nase in Crinoid Stems [Illustrated], ch The 
Loup Fork beds on the oe river, 58; On new Lemuroids from the Puerco tormation, 59; 
The Destruction of the Volcano of erie (strated, 62; Hunting for lost Glockers’ with a 
Microscope, 62; Geological Notes, 62 ; Results of the -sea work of the ** Talisman,” 177 ; 
The Eocene Fauna of Togia ig Schltr on a Anopiotnerium, 18r ; Elevated Coral Reefs 

of Cuba, 187; The History of the ; Professor Owen on Fossil Mammals, 282 ; 
Fritsch on the Permian Fauna of Bohemia, 282 ; a aag on Eocene ies 283: The Mineral 


Products of the United States for 1882~3, 283; eh Notes, 285; T. S. Hunt on Cambrian 
rocks of North America, 409; The Geology of Algiers; Formations PE the Tay 4II; 
The Skull of a still living Shark of the Coal es easures, 412; Lesq d Ter 

tiary Plan 3; Geological Notes, 415 ; The Sisicdons of North E 524; Marsh on 


2l s eor En 1137; ; Seep nir ra, 1238 ; ee otes, 
1253; Note o; ws the Phylogeny of th 
Vertebrata, 1255; The S Permanente of Ocean Beds, fee Systematic Position of Lepidoden 
dron, Sigillaria and Stigmaria, 1257; Geological Notes, 1257. 


Mineralogy.—American Gems and Precious oe 63; A new Mineral, 65; Gems from the 
ra m e : Descloizite from Mexic 
ite, pew a ; Herderite from Maine, pe Ré t Meteorites, 182; The pars, 
183 184; Mineralogical Notes, 184; my Interesting Mineral from Canada, 
pé: Cubic cena 417; : . The Origin of the Diamond, 413 ; Uranothorite, 418; Topaz in Nevadite 


Contents. 
from Colorado, ae ee 419 ; eridan Gems, 419; Mineralogical Notes, ae 
Native Iron from w Jer: 618; Flexi ey aie Gown Pennsylvania, 619; Some Main 


rado, 1039 ; in 
adinite, 1041; New Minerals, 1141; Phetegreniy as applied to Minerals, 1143; Szaboite, 1144; 
Mineralogical Notes, 1144; Leucite from Lower C Sar Rasa 1259; Enargite from Montana, 1260; 
zulite from Georgia, 1260; Mineralogical Notes, 126r. 


District of Columbia, 66; Hybridism in Spirogyra 
usted 67; = Fungi, € 68; New Florida Aea II, 69; Gray’s Contributions to North 
merican Botany, 7 tot apres of new Species, 71 ; Remarka- 
Pr Fungus rome tg. = rain m, 73; Bo tanica redt 73% Popular Botany Again, 186; Gen 
era Pyrenomycetum Schematice delineata, 187; New F a Fungi, Im, 188 
ps, 190; A iti e i 


w I 

190; The August Flora of the Dismal Swamp and vicinity, 288; Lab ratory Notes, 290; Allen’s 
araceæ Americanz Exsiccatz, 290; gas ical Notes, 291 ; Ghands on a Grass [Illustrated], 

420; PAA aa in Zygnemacez, 421 ; Some Recent Botanical Advances, 422; Botany in a Méd- 


erican Ss, 
Botany, 533; Botanical Not, 534; An Okara tion of the Feniltstion of v Germ Cell o 
quisetu. i 


g a > 
fungus, 628; Red Clover in New Zealand, 6: flag: Botanical Notes, 629; Notes on Fungi, 721; 
Structure and Physiology of the Passion San iagoa lutea) oo 722; Cone 
spectus generum Discomycetum hucusque osuit, P. A. cardo, 723; 
The — = the Glade Mallow (Napza soloa) tllstraed, 724; See at ig posi g 
meeting of the A, A. A. S., 725; Erratum 725; Botanical Notes, 725; Additional Notes on Passion 
Foe ce 820; Anew Species of Moss[Ilinstrate ed], 821; The Fertilization of Pedicularis 
canadensis, 822; The Fertilization of Giant Hyssop ( ihanibies nepetoides) [Illustrated], -928 ; 
The Injuriousness of Porcupine Grass, 929; Structure of the Fruit of Porcupine G [Hlus- 
trated], 930; An abnormal — T 931; Botanical Notes, 932; Structure, Development 
and Distribution of Stomata in Equisetum arvense [Illustr Desmi e 
United States, 1042 ; onia Notes, 1044; Self-planting of Seeds of Porcupine Grass, 1145; 
The adventitious Inflorescence of Cuscuta glomerata RGR age ; Botany inthe A. A, A. 


3» 
S., 1147; New Species of North Amela Fungi, 1 ; Botanical Notes, 1148 ; Notes on the 
Structure re of the Flowers of Zygad » Nutt. Diaea], 1262; Concerning ey man- 


nerin which some Seeds o bury iy. kansae i n the Soil, 1262; New Spec f North 


f Grasses i 
American Fungi (continued), 1264; The Death of George Pendu. pea, e 1265; 


Botanical Notes, 1265. 


‘omology.—The genus Colias, 74; Habits of Blaps and Embaphion. 76 ; Larval Habits of 


al 
he Diparon family Dexidz, 76; Northern Localities for Southern Butterflies, 77; Insect-life 
ider Bags, S> 77; Aletia ae in the Nort 


Aquatic Spiders, 78; The Phylloxera 
in api Soil, 78; try for the he Siworm +78; The Ch bats thet in New York 
State, 79; Bacterial Dusace of he rh Cabbage-worm, 80; Entomological Notes, 803 
Flight of Insects, 191i; Van io, 191 imenta: ings in Beetles 192; 
Sitaris and ormations [Illustrated], 193; Variation in’ the t93; nities 


gan in 
ting Man, 540; ao Notes, 542; Eaton’s Mono- 
May-flies, Part 1, 630; Notes on Moths, 632: The Bird-louse (Dermaleichus 


T 


yk 


DAR 


Contents. vii 


AS 633; Entomological Notes, 633 ; The Transformations of Nola, 726; An Afri- 

can ial Caterpillar, 727; Antennæ of a Beetle used as Defensive Weapons, 727; T 

oe ism o ale Lucanidz, 728 ; Report of the ag Norra of the U.S. Departmen’ 

Agriculture for 1883, 728; Entomological a 729; wai of an aquatic Pyralid aips s 

[Illustrated], 824; Notes on Salt-water Ins > No. srt 826; Entomological 
t mbu: 


o 93 o No hmæus 
sella, 1044; Gunes of Caripeta goana E The Limbs of Insects, 1046; Poison 


Transmission, etic sie Mounting of Aphides, ai ‘ he common 

longicorn Pine Borer PONE SR aha, 1149; Egg-laying Habits of the Maple-tree 

s paired outlets of the sexual organs of Insects, r152; The Natu ture of the 

so-ca iu the Arachnids, 1153; The INERTA Position of the Embiidz, 1154; En- 

tomological Notes, 1155; Great Swarms of a a ipsa Insect r Daas 1266; The 
arval Stages of Mamestra picta, 1266; The Bees etc., of Labra 1267; Dangers 

from the Excrement of Flies, 1267; Origin of Bee’s Al as. Pfeil Notes, 1269. 


Zoology. —Owen on the — of the Body in Vertebrates and Invertebrates, 81; Forbes’ 
Stucies of the Food = Animals, 82; Symbiosis in the Animal Kingdom, 83; Collecting and 


t 
of the Axolotl, 88 ; Why Salamanders are not Eaten nie nding we Food wa pake - ; Califor 
ed “n 


89; , 89; 
195; Life in the Naples Aquaria, 199; New Human Cest ode (Ligula mansoni), 1993 Hydro- 
medusa without digestive Organs, 199; Blue a Matter of Rhizostoma, 199; An Oyster 


ona Crab, 200; Molting of Limulus, 200 ; Sograff’ Te ge of the poa myo, a 201 ; 
New Cave Aratheids P Spee 202; Ventral R )s 
204; Albrecht on the Morphological Value of the Mandibular Articulation, 205; Charac ers of 
Human Femora, 206; Z orate Notes, „An pieg n Medusæ [Illustrated], 300; A new ee 
Larva [Illustrat EE 305; Barn Owls in ; Notes = the Red-wing Blackbird, 309; 
Migrat ion of TEN h American Birds, 310 ; spate ua ammals, 313 ; Zoological Notes 
314; Trem —_ beta sense in Asericks Crayfish ite 429; ; nn T Epee 
observed i J43 “ Lateral Rod ges 
aiani poci 431; Pl Z | the absol fc fth 1 f Bi 


» 432 

ree new families of Fishes added to the deep-sea Fauna in a year, 433; Zoological Notes, 434: $ 

Atavism considered as a Conservative Agent in a State of Nature, 542; A transparent 

ve Sponge, 546; New Worm with a remarkable Nervous System, 546; New and Remarkable. 

O in the Air-sacs of a Gull, 547; The Side Organs of Gastrostomus, 547; Zoologi- 
; Vital Manifesta 


„tion Zool Notes, 642; Th 
Sete of Bog re af Sel-eyed Crastarea; 731; aa Cray fish not aliem ; The 
Abnormal D: TIl on the 


true Pigs, 738; yates Notes, 738 ; A new Infusoria m belongix ng to thei genus Vorticella [Illus- 
ted A 


Panther, 1160; Zoological Notes, 1163; The Molluscan Body-cavity, 1271; Note on the Pelvis 
in Birds and Dinosaurs, 1273; Thomaso: ney see type o of Hesperomys, 1275; An 


eer 


viii Contents. 


gg-laying Mammal, 1275 ; The American Badger in Ohio, 1276; Sag ot Kangaroo Life 
rhea 1276; Habits of the Gorilla, 1277 ; Zoological Notes, 127: 


Physiology. Te sa a Stomach, 208 ; Meastirements of the Depth of Sleep, 209 ; 
eriments upon the Heart of the Dog with selevence to the maximum volume of Blood sent 
h 


ne by the Heart, by W. H. Howell and F 
zation of Function in he Brain, 436; Writing with the Voice, 438; 
ba 

yd 


ot on arine 
29455 An xplanation of the Process of Inflammation, na ; e Cholera meet 

i ood nara 1165; Does 
umen does not occur in normal Urine, 1280 


ar occur in healthy Urine, 1280; 
Localization of Function in the Brain, 1281. 


Psychology. Tp of the Cat, 95; Sense Discrimination, 97; A Pair of Catastrophes, 
ry i 


97; Poet eams, 98 ; Intelligence in a Pointer, 211; A Labor-saving Fish-hawk [Illus- 
The a nence of i 


me, another Cat ony: 550 ; The Ten Command ents, 5523 


, 1063; Cunning as a Fox, T Emotional Faculties 


; The urement of Human aa 1170; The Psychical Relation ot Man 
to Animals, 1282; More concerning Cats’ Food, 1 


Anthropology.—Chinese Coins in British Columbia 


hoe 
, 98; Fuegian Ethnology, 99; The Atlantis 
99; The e German Anthropological 
an 


Society, 100; The West 100; Th Index 
€r-courses, tor; The Kanakas of N Caledonia, nie 


Sa Palæ eads, 

verse se Region, 442; The ro 

Eskimo and Indian Pictographs, 444; 

; The Northern laaz er of China, 553; The Keni 

of Fayptian — 553; The ar f the Eyes and Hair, 554; 

Stone Impl fi €sota, 555; The Astor Library, 645 ; The British Association An- 

; Anthropology at oo National es a pn Mr, Bancroft’s New 
i th 


asca district of the Canadian Northwest 

Territory, 746; Uniform Craniome 839 : Ethnology of British rca 840; The Catlin Col- 
: oTa u of Ethnology, 952; a SiC Sas Circular, 955; The American Antiqua 
nan, 955; PeabodyMuseum, 956 ; Anthro opology in France, 1065 ; Races of the Philippines, 1066 ; 
Psychical Research, 1067; Okadaira Shell Mound, 1067; Physiological Inquiries, 1067; The 
Chimalpahin, rx Board of Indian issioners, 1171; Th th Re- 

port of Washington 1171; The In Office sig irm Th Mosam ai Cale 
a Anew +1173; Anthropology in 1173; Further Discoveries of asic 
rania i 


n Michigan, 1174; The Aruba raea sa the Penance jargon, 1176; 
tion Nous, 1286; A Correction, 1288, 


rose copy.—Me thods of Preventing i Rolling ot Microtomic Sections, ro6 ; Schul 
oe 107; Mayer’s Metho 
n rea 


f Fixing Microscopical Sections 218, Pe rehloride a ot 
>° ani: nj 


: in Secretion, 327; Proceed 
Microscopists, 329; “ The PON Bulletin, ” 329; Collodion as a Fixative for Microscop- 


ESEA 


aiai 


. 


` Contents. ix 


ical Sections be Born’s Method of spain Objects ser" pe Sections, 446 ; 

Methods of Studying the so-called Liv f the Crustacea, new Section Flattener 

rele 557; i pac s Fluid, 558; Metho ds of Investigating pene Cells, 650; Pfitzer’s 
im 


Injection Mass, 958; Mr. ijima’s Methods ot Se ne am and their 1068 ; The 
ach Substance in the Hirudine ; Myrtillus, a new Dye for animal and vegetable 

1177 w Section- serenade filed, BJS: The Distomian Brood-sac or Sporo- 
Fi je ondi i Ayh The development of the Jaws of Branchiobdella and a method of 
isolating them, r1 Imbedding Apparatus [Illustrated], 1289; Treatment of the Ova and Em- 
bryos of the aa. 1290; The Organization of the Echinorhynchi, ragr. 


ScrentiFic News, 108, 220, 330, 448, 559, 654, 750, 845, 960, 1071, 1181, 1292. 


PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 

Biological Society ef Washington, rrr; New York peronem of ee 412; Boston Society 
of Natural History, 1 Komaki pere Club, 112, American Geographical Society, 
112; Proceedings a a Philadelphia Academy of Nataral Ara 222; Appalachian Moun- 

n Club, 223; Biological Society of Washington, 223; New ademy of Sciences, 223; 
penne Society of past History, 223; American Geographical Society, 223; The Society of 
Naturalists of the Eastern perge States, 224; American Philosophical Soc., aa Proceedings 
rire — Nat oa ae 334: enen Soc, of Washington, 336; New York 
Academy of Sciences, 336; A al Soc., 336; Boston Soc. of Natural History, 
336; pei ian Uaa Club, 336; Raua Šedé nce Association of Staten Island, 336 ; Bio- 
logical Soc. of Washington, 450; New York Academy of Sciences, 450; Boston Soc. of Natural 
History, 450; American Geo diaphicl Soc. -» 450; Biological see: of Washinetos, 560 ; 

s iety of N; hi 


° 
"4 
a 


b em: Natura ces 
656; Biological Society of Washington, 657; New York peep fb of Se 657; 
ciety of Natural History, 657; Appalachian Mountain Club, 658 ; 
ety, 658. Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, 458; Biological seep of va, 
752; Boston Society of Natural History, 752; New York Academy of Sciences, 753; Appalach- 
ian Mountain Club, 753 ; American ee ae 753: rere Ses ce Association of 
Staten Island, 754; Biological Society of Washington, 849 ; New k Anions of Sciences, 
849 ; Appalachian Mountain Club, 849; Ottawa Field Natusetists” cs 3 pid American Philo- 
sophical Society, 849; Philadelphia Academy ee ay Sciences ; American Association 
for Advancement of Science, 1182; Academy o ral Sciences Neste 1295; National 


Academy of Sciences, 1296; Appal fee cnet need 1296; Newton Natural History Soci- 
ety, 1297; New Yo rk Ac ade emy of Deresi 12 dds on Society oF anai fear 4 ee a 
ceedings ofthe A 


, f + dP i S i 
aS A met ECs © Vol y? X 4 lo r S 


L 6 


THE 


AMERICAN NATURALIST. 


VOL. xvi.— ¥A NUARY, 1884.—No. I. 


Cee ne i me 


DISADVANTAGES OF THE UPRIGHT POSITION. 
BY S. V. CLEVENGER, M.D. 


ibe immediate and remote causes of things have been and 

will be sought by thinkers who are not afraid to follow 
wherever facts#lead them. The doctrine that there is no effect 
without an antecedent cause, has met with fierce opposition from 
those who saw that the logical conclusions of correlated facts, 
such as are presented by Darwin, tended to the overthrow of 
puerile legends they believed in, and who were content to imagine 
that everything was causeless, or at best originated in some in- 
scrutable way. The Arab, upon having the sidereal motions 
explained to him, said, “ You trouble yourself greatly about 
things not intended for you to know. Even though what you 
tell me is true, the Koran leads us to believe otherwise. Mo- 
hammed taught us sufficient, and his followers can torture you 
out of your rationalism. Forbear your heretical facts !” 

The mechanical nature of things animate is as old in theory as 
Democritus, 500 B. C.; and Giordano Bruno, in A. D. 1600, for 
having amplified the Democritic idea, was burned at the stake. 
Kant granted a mechanical cosmogony, but in organic nature 
claimed cause finales. The battle of cause eficientes was fully 
won by Galileo, Copernicus, Kepler, Newton, Herschel, Laplace, 
etc., so far as the inanimate universe was concerned, but the me- 
chanical conception of that whick pertains to living things was 
hinted at by Aristotle. Geoffrey de St. Hilaire contended against 
Cuvier for the —_— of species and the monistic theory. 


VOL. XVIII.—No. I. 


2 Disadvantages of the Upright Position, [January, 


Treviranus, Oken, Goethe, Lamarck, and in our day, Darwin, 
Haeckel, Huxley, have carried on the warfare. Herbert Spencer 
advanced a mechanical physiology and morphology. His has 
carried the conception into histology, and Cope into palzontol- 
ogy. The unity of the laws which control organic and inorganic 
nature are to-day fully recognized by those who stand in the front 
rank of investigators and thinkers, but not until completer text- 
books from the new standpoint shall have found their way into 
the hands of medical students and naturalists generally, will com- 
mon recognition of the success of the mechanical idea be ob- 
tained. 


Assuredly the teleological is a very lazy way of thinking. It 4 
amounts to taking things for granted as so, because they are so, © 
It bars all inquiry, stops all investigation, and hands us bound ~ 


hand and foot to ignorance and superstition. 


Mechanical influences, such as impacts and strains, permanently — 


altering animal organs, have been discussed by Professor E. D. 


Cope in the AMERICAN NATURALIST, in articles entitled, Origin of © 


the Foot Structures of Ungulates, April, 1881; Effects of Im- 


pacts and Strains on the Feet of Mammalia, July, 1881; by 


Alpheus Hyatt, Transformations of Planorbis at Steinheim, with 
Remarks on the Effects of Gravity upon the forms of Shells and 
Animals, June, 1882. In articles published in the January and 


February, 1881, numbers, I attempted a disquisition upon physi- | 
cal influences in their relations to comparative neurology, and in — 


the. Juiy, 1881, number of the American Naruratist, On the 
Origin and Descent of the Human Brain, pointed out some hith- 
erto neglected mechanical factors in the development of the organ 
of the mind and its osseous envelope. 


While engaged in anatomical studies, the idea that there was 4 


definite reason for everything, and that we might some day dis- 


cover the reasons for many things not now known, was ever ‘pres~ 
ent tomy mind. I could get half lights and glimpses of causes 


PO AN FE eS PT ee ee Te 


k 


E AN eich) et eee MES ee 


from hints in Henle, Holden, or Sharpey and Quain, and fancied - 
I saw matters clearly enough in some particulars, only to be con- — 


fused by contradictory experiences subsequently. 


There seemed to be a definite enough law in the formation of | 
_ valves in the veins, for instance, but every student was compelled — 

to learn the location of these- valves by arbitrary exercise of the — 
memory. I think every student will conclude at the end of this : 


1884. Disadvantages of the Upright Position. 
S Prig 3 


paper that it is easy enough zow to remember which veins are 
valved and which are not. Let me present the subject just as it 
perplexed me at first. Nothing could be simpler from the teleo- 
logical standpoint, than that we should have valves in the veins 
of the arms and legs to assist the return of blood to the heart 
against gravitation, but what earthly use has a man for valves in 
the intercostal veins which carry blood almost horizontally back- 
ward to the azygos veins? When recumbent these valves are an 
actual detriment to the free flow of blood. The inferior thyroid 
veins which drop their blood into the innominate are obstructed 
by valves at their junction. Two pairs of valves are situated in 
the external jugular and another pair in the internal jugular, but 
in recognition of their uselessness they do not prevent regurgita- 
tion of blood nor liquids from passing upwards. 

An apparent anomaly exists in the absence of valves from 
parts where they are most needed, such as in the venz cave, 
spinal, iliac, hemorrhoidal and portal. The azygos veins have 
imperfect valves. 

Place man upon “all fours” and the law governing the pres- 
ence and absence of valves is at once apparent, applicable, so 
far as I have been able to ascertain, to all quadrupedal and 
quadrumanous animals: Dorsad veins are valved ; cephalad, ven- 
trad and caudad veins have no valves. The apparent excep- 
tions to this rule, I think, can be disposed of by considering 
the jugular valves as obsolescing, rendered rudimentary in man 
by the erect head, which in the lemur stage depended. The ru- 
dimentary azygos valves may be a recent creation, and an expla- 
nation of their presence may be found in the mutability of the | 
cardinal system. The single Eustachian valve, being large in the 
foetus, has a phylogenetic value. In this connection I would call 
attention to my mention, in Science (New York), June 25, 1881, 
of the probable branchial origin of the thyroid and thymus 
glands. There are many reasons for believing these bodies to be 
rudimentary gills. 

The only reason I can assign for the absence of cephalic and 
cervical valves generally, while the j ugulars possess them, is, that 
the jugular system was the most important to our quadrupedal 
ancestors with dependent heads, hence valves developed in them, 
and that owing to the cranial blood-vessels developing, pari passu, 
with the cranium and its contents generally, largely after man had 


4 Disadvantages of the Upright Position. (January, — 


6 assumed the erect position, the valvular 
formation elsewhere in the head would not — 
F occur while the jugular valves became ru- 


` 


d dimentary. 


Seea RngogIRna 


in man as in other animals. 


human being. 


“PERL ITIL 


veins when man is placed on all fours, 
a, refers to the spinal 


` 


Lone BL jugular and ca- 
val to femoral; c DN uadrupeds, thus : 
lal; y int makat ostal. q pe 


I 
ce 
Fi 


tarar 
ae oe 
ea Sas 
eg Oe BA 

El 


PPE ET PEEL Drs 


EESLI LEFUN 


A noticeable departure from the rule obtaining in the vascular 
system of Mammalia also occurs in the exposed situation of the 


femoral artery in man, The arteries lie deeper than the veins or 
are otherwise protected for the purpose, the teleologist would say» _ 


of preventing hemorrhage by superficial cuts. From the evolu- 
tionary standpoint it would appear that only animals with deeply- 


placed arteries would survive and transmit their peculiarities t°- 
their offspring, as the ordinary abrasions to which all animals we 


Certainly valves in the hemorrhoidal 
veins would be out of place in quadrupeds, | 
but to their absence in man many a life has — 
been and will be sacrificed, to say nothing — 
of the discomfort and distress occasioned — 
by the engorgement known as piles, which 
the presence of valves in these veins would — 
obviate. The spermatic valves are as useful _ 


A glance at the accompanying diagram ~ 
will afford an idea of the confusing distri- i 
bution of valved and unvalved veins in the 


The position assumed by these valved ) 


corresponds with those to be found in ~ 


eS eee eee een a a 


Le eee 
: 


Z aa m ea fee 
= ys cate 
nag a ee ioe SN oe Rs ae eS REE SSSR a a Tes Tee AR yg Ag Raia Ne ee ee Re RN ee Sa ei ig Ee SEES me eae ree eee Ne a =o 


= 


1884. | Disadvantages of the Upright Position. 5 


subject, not to mention their fierce onslaughts upon one another, 
would quickly kill off animals with superficially located arteries. 
But when man assumed the upright posture, the femoral artery, 
which was placed out of reach on the inner part of the thigh, be- 
came exposed, and were it not that this defect is nearly fully 
atoned for by his ability to protect the exposed artery in ways 
the brute could not, he too would have become extinct. Even 
as it is, this aberration is a fruitful cause of trouble and death. 

Another disadvantage which occurs in the upright position of 
man, is his greater liability to inguinal hernia. Quadrupeds have 
the main weight of abdominal viscera supported by ribs and 
styong pectoral and abdominal muscles. The weakest part of the 
latter group of muscles is in the region of Poupart’s ligament, 
above the groin. Inguinal hernia is rare in other vertebrates be- 
cause this weak part is relieved of the visceral stress, but as the 
pelvis receives the intestinal load in man, an immense number of 
tissues are manufactured to supplement this deficiency. It has 
been estimated that twenty per cent of the human family suffer 
in this way, and strangulated hernia frequently occasions death. 

If man has always been erect from creation, then we have 
nothing to hope from the future by way of an alteration of 
this defect. The same percentage of humanity will suffer to 
the end of time; but considered mechanically the so-called con- 
servative influence of nature which will tend to pile up additional 
muscular tissue in this region by reason of the increased blood 
supply te that part, aided by natural and sexual selection, will 
eventually reduce the percentage of ruptures greatly, if it does 
not eventually correct the trouble altogether. The liability to 
femoral hernia is similarly increased by the upright position. 

The peritoneal ligaments of the uterus subserve suspensorial 
functions in quadrupeds fully, which require much ingenious 
speculation to be faintly seen in man. The anterior, posterior and 

lateral ligaments are mainly concerned in preventing the gravid 
uterus from pitching too far toward the diaphragm of four-footed 
animals. The round ligaments are absolutely meaningless in the 
human female, but in lower animals serve the same purpose as 
the other ligaments. Prolapsus uteri by the erect position and 
absence of support fitted to that attitude, are thus rendered fre- 
quent, to the destruction of health and happiness of multitudes. 
As a deduction from mechanical laws, it could easily be imag- 


6 Disadvantages of the Upright Position. [January, 


ined that an animal or race of men which had the longest main- 
tained the erect position would have straighter abdomens, widely 
flared pelvic brims with contracted pelvic outlets, and that the 
weight of the spinal column would carry the sacrum lower down, 


and in general terms we find this to be the case. In quadrupeds — 


the box-shaped pelvis, which admits of easy parturition, prevails, 
but where the position of the animal is such as to throw the 
weight of the viscera into the pelvis, the brim necessarily widens, 


these weighty organs sink lower, and the heads of the femora, — | 


acting as fulcra, admit of the crest of the ilium being carried out- 
ward, while the lower part of the pelvis must be contracted. 
This box shape exists in the child’s innominate bones, while its 


protruding abdomen resembles that of the gorilla’) The gibbon — 


exhibits this iliac expansion through the sitting posture, which 
developed his ischial callosities. Similarly iliac expansion occurs 


in the chimpanzee. The Megatherium had wide iliacal expan- 
sion, due to its semi-erect habits, but as its weight was mainly _ 


supported by the huge tail with femora resting in acetabula placed 
far forwards, the leverage necessary to contract the lower pelvis 


is absent. Professor Weber, of Bonn, noted by Carl Vogt, “ Vor- — 

lesungen über den Menschen,” etc., distinguished four chief forms _ 
of the pelvis in man: the oval, round, square and cuneiform, — 
owned in order by Europeans, native Americans, Mongols and — 

black races. Resting upon its own merits as an osseous mechani- | 
cal proposition, it would seem that the older the race the lower ; 
the sacrum and the greater the tendency to approximate the — 


larger transverse diameter of the European female. The antero- 


posterior diameter of the simian pelvis is usually greater than the 
transverse; a similar condition affords the cuneiform, from which 
could be inferred that the erect position in the negro races had 
not been so long maintained as by the Mongols, whose pelvis as- a 
sumed the quadrilateral shape owing to persistence of spinal 


axis weight through greater time; this pressure has finally culmi- 
nated in pressing the sacrum of the European nearer the pubes, 


with consequent lateral expansion at the expense of the antero- 3 


posterior or conjugate. From Marsupialia to Lemurida the box — 
shape pelvis persists, but with the wedge shape induced in man @ ; 
remarkable phenomenon also occurs in the increased size of the 
foetal head in disproportion to the contraction of the pelvic out- l 


let: While the marsupial head is about one-sixth the size of the 


“a 


ponte 


eS 
ee a 
E 

i 
‘ 
“a 
Si 


1884.] Disadvantages of the Upright Position. 7 


smallest part of the parturient bony canal, the moment we pass 
to erect animals the greater relative increase is there in the cran- 
ial size with coexisting decrease in the area of the outlet. This 
altered condition of things has caused the death of millions of 
otherwise perfectly healthy and well-formed human mothers and 
children. The palzontologist might tell us if some such phe- 
nomenon of ischial approximation by natural mechanical causes 
has not caused the probable extinction of whole genera of verte- 
brates. If we are to believe that for our original sin the pangs 
and labor at term were increased, and also believe in the dispro- 
portionate contraction of the pelvic space being an efficient cause 
of the same difficulties of parturition, the logical inference is in- 
evitable that man’s original sin consisted in his getting upon his 
hind legs. 

Something of the changes noticed in the angle at which the 
head of the femur is set upon the shaft at different ages, is also 
noticeable phylogenetically. The neck of the femur in the child 
is obliquely placed, but in the adult is less so, and in advanced 
age tends to form a right angle with the socket. Both in the ad- 
vance of age in the individual and the tendency of an animal to 
assume more and more the upright posture, this change of angle 
seems attributable to no other cause than bodily weight against 
the femoral heads. 

This subject is not without direct application. Gynzcologists 
cause their patients to assume what is called the knee chest posi- 
tion, a prone one, for the purpose of restoring uteri to something 
near a natural position. Brown-Sequard recommends drawing 
away the blood from the spine in myelitis, or spinal congestion, 
by placing the patient on his abdomen or side with hands and feet 
somewhat dependent. The liability to spina-bifida is greatest in 
the human infant through the stress thrown upon the spine, and 
the absence of delivery troubles among lower races have refer- 
ence to discrepancy between pelvic and cranial sizes not having 
been reached by those races. The Sandwich island mother has 
difficult delivery only when her progeny is half white, that breed 
being larger in the forehead than the native child. 

The mechanism of the body, when fully recognized as mech- 
anism and nothing else, and as governed by mechanical laws, 
physical as well as chemical influences, will place forthcoming 
physiological studies upon a broader, safer foundation, and result 


8 Disadvantages of the Upright Position,  {January, 


_ in grand generalizations. The hydro-dynamics of animal life 
would alone furnish a theme for thousands of investigators. At 
present the world goes on in its blindness, apparently satisfied 
that everything is all right because it exists at all, ignorant cf the 
evil consequences of apparently beneficent peculiarities, vaunting 
man’s erectness and its advantages, while ignoring the disadvan- 
tages. The observation that the lower the animal the more pro- 
lific, would eventuate the belief that the higher the animal the 
more difficulties encompass his development and propagation, 
and the cranio-pelvic incompatibility alone may settle the Malthu- 
sian doctrine effectually for the higher races of men through their 
extinction, 


Foot-NoTE.—This article has a little history of its own, the nature of which shall 
. be its excuse for publication i 
Some members of the Chicago University faculty asked me, last year, if I would 
accept the chair of Comparative Anatomy and Physiology in that institution. I re- 
plied that I would, but must be allowed to teach what I considered to be the truth, 
and that evolution was the only sensible basis for such instruction. The president of 


the faculty, a Baptist minister, was to call upon me, I was told, upon a certain day to ~ 


arrange concerning salary and minor details. April 18, 1882, by invitation, I lec- 
tured before the Chicago University Club on the Disadvantages of the Upright Posi- 
tion. The subject and its treatment proved too Darwinistic, as a foretaste of my 
teachings, and the president did not call to see me. Since then Professor E. S. Bas- 
tin, who had ably filled all the scientific chairs in the university, was found to be 
2 teaching strict truth, to which no objection was raised, but the effects of such teach- 
ing upon the minds of the students was found to interfere with their docile gulping 
of all the antiquated rubbish dealt out from other chairs, A “ safe” teacher was 


wanted, one who could use the text-books of last century’s science. Professor Bas- 2 


tin resi 


Another “ university ” hereabouts made the substitution of Egyptian mythology for 


botany optional in the classical course, 


- These tottering schools do not seem to have asked themselves why a half million : 
people fail to support them, nor to be aware that Eastern colleges are filled with — 
Western youth, who might as well be taught nearer their homes the branches they _ 


can learn only in other States. 
_. The Academy of Sciences in this city 
great 


used. The last lecture I attended there was by a reverend gentleman whose thesis 


was the impossibility of the river Nile being more than 6000 years old. He based — 
his calculations upon ten years’ observations of the alluvial deposit at the mouth of © 
a small creek in this State. Darwinism mentioned within these precincts has some- — 
thing of the effect of the red rag shown to the bull, though no objection has been — 


raised against the delivery of evolutionary lectures. 


- The few scientific men Chicago has originated are drifting away from the place. : 


Gigantic barter occupies the time and attention of the people exclusively. It will 


hee y has never recovered from the disaster of th? : 
5 fire. The building has been forfeited through debts; large and valuable collec- 
Pons are being donated to it by Eastern institutions, but remain boxed up and un- 


a i ee ee 


R 


"ear 


PS 


1504.) ie Mammalian Fauna of the Australian Desert. 9 


probably be five hundred years before abstract science can be supported here, from 
present indications. 
This paper has been withheld from publication three years, as I earnestly desired 


` to make full dissections of widely diverging genera, to fully corroborate the general 


law which may be said to have been arrived at both inductively and Pee 
The pathology of insanity now claims my entire time, and I must leave to others the 
completion of what I have begun 

There have þeen occasional passages in medical journals which bore upon the sub- 
ject of the significance of valves in the veins, but I believe that no one has antici- 

ated me in the announcement of the influence which gravitation exerts upon the 
creation of these valves in quadrupeds, and that man’s veins are valved in such 
manner as to place his derivation from a quadrupedal form beyond dispute. The 
deductions from mechanical influences made in this paper are original, and I cannot 
find that they have been elsewhere mentioned. Certainly the publication of so 
sweeping a statement as that pertaining to the valves would have attracted universal 
attention among comparative anatomists had it been made before, and eminent gen- 
tlemen in that field have confessed to me that the matter was new to them. 

Besides its reading before the University Club, April 18, 1882, the substance of 
this paper was presented by me before the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sci- 
ences last May, as noted in AMERICAN NATURALIST, September, 1883. 


"T°. 
. 


THE MAMMALIAN FAUNA OF THE AUSTRALIAN 
DESERT. 


BY EDWARD B. SANGER, 


HE physical conditions of the interior of Australia are not 
such as to support a varied fauna. The mammals are few in 
number, and -are principally those which are best adapted for dry 
and arid regions. But four orders of Mammalia are represented, 
viz: Cheiroptera, Rodentia, Carnivora and Marsupialia. The first 
named order is represented by Scotophiius moris, the chocolate 
bat. These animals are very numerous. They live in hollow 
trees, and fly around in great numbers about dusk. To the natives, 
who catch and eat them, they are known by the name of “ ovolo- 
warra? They are generally caught by chopping them out of the . 
hollow trees in day time. This is the only species of bat that I 
observed in the interior. The Rodentia are represented by three 
genera and five species, viz: Hapalotis conditor, H. mitchelli, H. 
cervina, Mus vellerosus, Hydromys fulvolovatus. i 
Hàpalotus conditor is the Australian building rat. It builds 
nests, among the sandhills near the creeks, of sticks, leaves, &c. 
The nest is very roughly constructed, and to a non-observing eye 
looks like a mere bunch of dry sticks. Inside it is lined with 
soft leaves and bits of grass. The entrance is a small hole on the 


10 The Mammalian Fauna of the Australian Desert, (January, 


side. There is another mode of ingress or egress afforded by a 
tunnel burrowed by the rat from the floor of the structure under- 
ground to a distance of about three feet, when it rises to the sur- 
face in some clump of grass or small bush. This is evidently a 
mode of escape for the animal when surprised by aborigines or 
dingos (Canis dingo), which seem to be their only enemies. This 
rat is called “ kucala” by the natives, who prize them exceed- 
ingly as food. 

H. mitchelli and H. cervina are both nocturnal jerboa rats. Their 
nests consist simply of a few leaves and bunches of grass raked 
together in some clump of bushes. The natives eat them and call 
them respectively “arrttchi” and “ koolahroo.” 

Mus vellerosus is a small rat which infests large tracts of coun- 
try in droves during flood time. They migrate from place to 
place. Their well-beaten paths may often be seen winding through 
the sandhills, and sometimes the droves themselves. They are a 
great nuisance to the whites, as they eat up everything. Saddles, 
provisions and everything that can be hurt by an animal’s teeth 
must be placed up in trees or stumps away from the ground when 
the nightly camp is made, or all will be destroyed before morn- 
ing. The native (Dieyerie) name for them is “ mzaroo.” 

Hydromys fulvolovatus, the large Australian water rat, is com- 
mon in all the prominent water holes on Cooper’s creek. They 
live in holes in the banks, with one entrance opening under 
water and the other on the land. They live principally on 
roots, &c. The natives say that they kill and eat various water 
birds. I cannot say whether this is true or not, but I know 
that they will eat flesh. One day I shot some black swans 
(Chenopis atrata) and left them, after securing the skins, on 
the bank of a water hole. The next day I went there, and as 
I approached the dead swans I saw two or three water rats 
run away from them and disappear in the water. The swans 
were half eaten up, and had been dragged several yards nearer 
the water. I determined to make sure whether the rats had eaten 
of them or whether it was the dingos. I seasoned them with 
some strychnine and the next day found two dead rats by them. 
I think it is very probable that they do catch and eat birds. They 
are very large and ferocious, and can bite severely. The natives 
are afraid of them. 

The Carnivora are represented by Canis dingo. This dog is 


1534.] Tre Mammalian Fauna of the Australian Desert. II 


abundant wherever there are any animals for it to prey upon. 
Hence in regions where there are cattle and sheep they are more 
numerous than in outlying districts. The settlers poison them by 
preparing baits treated with strychnine. 

They do not travel or hunt in packs, bota are solitary. “Neither 
have they any fixed nest or den. In settled districts they are very 
shy, as might be expected; but in the remoter parts they are 
bolder, and I have known them carry off my boots at night time, 
which is very inconvenient in such regions. They are orange- 
yellow in color, and have a large bushy tail. In fact they are very 
handsome when pure blooded, z. e., have not mixed with other 
dogs belonging to the whites. They make a very mournful noise, 
howling at night. I have never heard the wild ones bark; they 
howl and growl only. They eat any animal that they can catch, 

lizards even. The smallerand more sluggish animals are the ones 
which fall a prey to them, as the dogs are no match for the kan- 
garoo or wallaby in swiftness; indeed, an adult kangaroo can 
_ easily kill them, so the dogs wisely leave them alone. It is very 
‘amusing to see one twisting and turning in pursuit of a sandhill 
wallaby (Bettongia grayi); the dog is generally beaten in the race. 
Sometimes, however, when the dog catches the wallaby napping, 
the laugh is on the other side. The natives tame these dogs and 
` always have a great number of them around their camp. Though 
they are kept in a half-starved condition, the natives seem to be 
fond of them. 

The dingos interbreed with dogs introduced by the whites. So 
common is this, indeed, that in the more settled districts a pure- 
blooded dingo is a rarity. They are universally distributed, being 
found in all parts of the continent, and do not seem to vary in 

character at all. The natives have no traditions concerning them, 
as far as I was able to learn. 
; The Marsupialia of the desert are represented by three families, 
Viz: the Macropidz, Peramelide and Phalangistide. In the first- 
Named order the largest form found in the desert is Osphranter 
rufus, the common red kangaroo. The male is red and the female 
a bluish-gray. This animal is but rarely seen, and only after a 
heavy rain, when there is plenty of vegetation for it to feed upon. 
4owards the confines of the desert it is more numerous. 
a Onychogalia lunata, the crescent-marked, nail-tailed kangaroo, 
is BO rather uncommon, and is almost always found on the stony 
ims or tablelands. 


12 The Mammalian Fauna of the Australian Desert. [January, 


Bettongia grayi, Gray's jerboa or the sandhill wallaby, is found 


among the sandhills, and is solitary in habit. I never saw two of 


them together. It is very swift and dexterous, dodging in and out 
among the bushes in a surprising manner. 

Among the Peramelide we find Perameles fasciatus and Pera- 
galea lagotis, known respectively as the banded and the long-eared 
bandicoot. Both of them are found in the sandhill country. 

Chæropus castanopus is also found, but it is rare. 


Along the creeks, and especially where there are abundant 3 


water holes, phalangers (Phalangista) are abundant, but of whati 
species Iam uncertain. 

The above are all the mammals that I met during my two 
years’ sojourn. When the country is better known more will 
probably be found. The number of forms depends greatly on 
the character of the season. After a rain animals visit the desert 
that are not known there at other times. Hence the conflicting 


k 
A 


reports received so often on the subject. With the exception of 


col ly eedt poh Se ie a ose acl EEEE N a aA 


Osphranter rufus those mentioned above are true desert forms; — 


that is, they are always found there. It is worthy of note that the 


; 


Marsupialia, though furnishing the greatest number of species, are 4 
not the predominating order of mammals. The Rodentia pre- _ 
ponderate in number and almost equal the former in species. A 
This is a notable exception to the other parts of the continent. it 
is still more interesting to notice that two' (the jerboas) of the 
four species of Rodentia remarkably resemble certain forms of the — 


Marsupialia. Like physical conditions seem to tend to produce — 
similar forms out of different types of animals. In other parts of 
the continent certain marsupials have developed into carnivores 


curiously resembling some forms among monodelphian Carnivora. 


The mammals living at present in the desert are small, and are 
well adapted to the life they lead. When contrasted with the 
giant marsupials which once inhabited the region, and whose 
remains we now find here and there in it, we can see how much 
the character of the fauna depends on the constancy of the physi- 


cal conditions of the region. Slight changes produce great 
results. 


1884.} Pulsating Organs in the Legs of Certain Hemiptera. 13 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE PULSATING ORGANS IN 
THE LEGS OF CERTAIN HEMIPTERA! 


BY WM. A. LOCY. 


AEAN opinions have been held regarding the pul- 
sating organs that have, from time to time, been observed in 
the legs of certain Hemiptera. 

They were first drawn and described by Behn, in 1835. These 
observations were at once called into question by Léon Dufour, 
who at that time was the acknowledged autocrat of the anatomy 
of the Hemiptera. 

Dufour considered that these movements were due to contrac- 
tions of the ordinary muscles of the legs and denied the existence ` 
of the blood currents observed by Behn. The scientific value of 
Dufour’s opinion on this point loses its force on account of his 
well known hostility to the theory of circylation of the blood in 
the Insecta. 

In the summer of 1883, while working on the circulation of 
blood in the Hemiptera, these organs came under my notice, and 
the following is a simple record of observations made to deter- 
mine: 

(1) Whether these organs are distinct from the muscular sys- 
tem of the legs, and 

(2) Whether they influence circulation ? 

To both of these questions the evidence is for an affirmative 
answer. During the progress of the work their automaticity was 
also observed and well established. 

Methods.—Different genera of the aquatic Hemiptera were fas- 
tened upon a microscope slide, their legs spread out in glycerine 
and covered with a cover-glass. The legs thus prepared were 
studied with both low and high powers of the microscope. Speci- 
mens for examination were chosen with reference to the trans- 
parency of their legs, as it is upon this point that success of ob- 
servation depends. Both larval and adult forms of the genera 
Studied were used, but the best results were uniformly obtained 
with the larval forms, on account of the greater transparency of 
their legs. 

In some cases special methods were necessary to render the 
legs transparent enough for observation. For this purpose the 


1 Work from the Biological Laboratory of Mt. Morris College, Mt. Morris, Illinois. 
: è 


TE Observations on the Pulsating Organs [January, 


integument of the legs was scraped very thin. The organs can 
be demonstrated in this manner, even in the thick legs of the 
adult Belostomæ. — 

The organs are most easily seen in the legs of Notonecta and ~ 
Corixa, but are not so large and pronounced as in the legs of the $ 
Nepide. In the more transparent individuals not only are the 
organs readily seen, but the circulation of the blood can be 
watched with a power high enough to bring out the corpuscles. 

The pulsating organs were noted in the following genera: 
Corixa, Notonecta, Gerris, Belostoma, Perthostoma and Ranatra ; . 
particular attention having been given to the organs in Belos- _ 
toma, Perthostoma and Ranatra. 

Description.—These organs are found in the three pairs of legs 
of all the genera mentioned above. They are generally in the 
tibia of the leg, just below its articulation with the femur. In the 
raptorial legs of Ranatra, however, the organs are in the clasp- 
joint or tarsus just below its articulation with the tibia. 

Examined with a power of seventy-five diameters, they appear 
as little whip-like organs pulsating rapidly. In the Nepidz they 
lie outside the median line of the leg, towards the front side, be- _ 
ing slightly convex: towards the outside. This curved body | 
which forms the bulk of the pulsatile organ, is attached at both 
ends and from its sides several attachments extend upwards and 
backwards to the integument of the leg (see Fig. 4). 

The shape in Corixa and Notonecta is quite different ; it is 
somewhat hand-shaped in Notonecta, and in Corixa the shape of 
an inverted letter L, with its lower portion prolonged. This 1 
hangs down into the leg-cavity beyond the median line. 4 

Crossing these organs obliquely, in the Nepidæ, lie the mus- _ 
cular fibers of the legs. The bands of muscle appear either 
straight or wavy, according as the legs are bent or extended, and 
remain perfectly quiet while the organs are beating. A careful 
study of the muscular system of the legs was first made, to avoid 
confusing it with the organs in question. With a power of 150 
diameters it can be made out very satisfactorily that the pulsatile 
organ is a thing separate from the muscular fibers of the leg, and | i 
does not involve them in its motion. This is best seen by focusing 
back and forth. When we have the muscles clearly in focus, the 
movements of the pulsating organ can still he seen lying a little a 
out of focus. In some of the thick-legged specimens, where a dis- 


PLATE LF 


PULSATILE 
ORGAN, 


~ 


5 E ORGAN. 


PULSA 


PULSATILE ORGAN. 


PULSATING ORGANS IN HEMIPTERA. 


1884. | in the Legs of Certain Hemiptera. 15 


tinct focus could not be obtained, the pulsations seemed to involve 
the muscular fibers, but scraping the integument thin, so as to 
admit more light, showed that this appearance was due to the 
general indistinctness. 

The pulsating organs are also unaffected by the movements of 
the muscles of the legs. On several occasions, when the legs 
were moving back and forth and the muscles all in action, the 
pulsatile organ has been observed beating naturally, wholly unaf- 
fected by their movements. 

Influence upon circulation, etc—In studying the influence of 
these organs on circulation, they were observed with powers of 
the microscope ranging from 187 to 438 diameters. Either of 
these powers is sufficient to bring out the blood corpuscles. 

In the legs of the insects in question there are two blood cur- 
rents, an outgoing current and a returning current. The out- 
going current passes along the inside of the leg, below the pulsa- 
ting organ, and the returning current passes to the outside of the 
leg, above the pulsating organ. As the blood currents flow near 
the pulsatile organ they move faster, and around the organ itself 
there is a whirlpool of motion. Here the corpuscles can be seen 
rolling over and over one another, and striking against the pulsa- 
tile organ, by which blow they are driven whirling along their 
course, 

The beating of these organs in the Nepide is such as to aid 
circulation in both directions ; and of their influence over it there 
is abundant proof. The motion of the pulsating organ is difficult 
to analyze and describe. In an organ beating slowly the motion 
is seen to originate in the posterior end, spread wave-like forwards 
to about the middle of the organ; the anterior end simply rising 
and falling. It may be likened to the motion of a whip-lash, 
resting on the ground, when the stock is given a quick upward 
stroke. It is to be understood that the “ anterior end” means 
the end towards the head of the insect, and the “ posterior end” 
the one opposite, towards the extremity of the leg. The attach- 
ments have no movement of their own, but are set in motion by 
the organ. This motion in the rapidly-beating organ resolves 
-itself into an upward beat of the posterior end almost simultane- 
ous with a downward stroke of the anterior end. Such an ar- 
rangement would aid the circulation of the blood. As the poste- 
rior end beats upward, it would make room for the outgoing cur- 


16 Observations on the Pulsating Organs [January, 


rent and, at the same time, force along the returning current. 
The outgoing current would almost instantaneously receive an 
impetus from the downward stroke of the anterior end. 


The influence of the pulsating organ on circulation is shown, 


not alone by the energetic movements of the blood currents in — 


its vicinity, but also when the motion ceases in it the blood cur- 


rents stop. I have never observed circulation in the legs while — 


these organs were quiet ; nor have I failed to detect it when they 
were in motion, except in a few specimens too opaque to show 
the blood corpuscles. The stopping and commencing of the 
blood currents, induced by the pulsating organ, have been re- 
peatedly observed. As soon as the pulsatile organ stops, the 
blood currents immediately cease in that particular leg, and the 
first motion of the blood is a slow retrograde movement which 


is particularly noticeable around the pulsatile organ, since here — 


the corpuscles are thickest. A slow oscillation sometimes takes 
place, similar to the movements in a frog’s capillaries, when cir- 
culation is suspended in the web. With the first stroke of the 
pulsatile organ, circulation is resumed, and continues until the 
pulsatile organ again stops. Z 


The influence of each pulsatile organ is confined, as near as I 


can make out, to a single leg, as circulation was noticed in pros 


gress in the body and in other legs during its cessation in one 
leg. 


tively short and independent of each other. Their periods of 
rest sometimes correspond, however, and the pulsatile organs of 
one side of the body may all be in a quiescent state at the same 
time. | : 

My observations on the rate of beating of these organs are 
fragmentary, but, as far as they extend, they show that while con- 
siderable irregularity exists in this regard, the rate of the pulsatile 
organ is always faster than the rate of the heart in the same insect. 


For instance, in Belostoma where the heart beats were from thir- | 


ty-four to forty-five per minute, the pulsating organs were beating 
from 127 to 150 times per minute. In Notonecta, where the 


In their intermittent action the periods of rest are compara- — 


heart was regular at seventy per minute, the pulsatile organs were 
beating 170 to 216 times per minute. In Ranatra the pulsations - 
were several times counted as high as 175 per minute. These 


insects were too opaque to admit of counting the heart bearts. 


a T T E S E ESE CE R 


i as 


1884.] in the Legs of Certain Hemiptera. 17 


Observations on Amputated Legs—A strong proof that the pul- 
satile organs are separate from the general muscular system of 
the legs, is found in their automaticity. About twenty-five obser- 
vations have now been made with the amputated legs of Ranatra 
and Perthostoma to study this phenomenon. When an amputated 
leg is placed under observation, the pulsatile organ is seen in 
motion similar to its action during life. It has already been noted 
that the pulsations are somewhat intermittent in life, and this 
characteristic is usually aggravated after amputation, so that the 
stops are more frequent and longer continued than before ampu- 
tation. . , 

These observations are not complete enough to establish the 
limit of automaticity. In one instance, however, I traced the 
beating of the pulsatile organ in the amputated leg of an adult 
Ranatra through a period of twenty-six hours and twenty min- 
utes. The duration of beating in an amputated leg is probably 


. greatly affected by circumstances, and it may, therefore, continue 


longer than in the case just cited, or stop sooner, according to 
circumstances, 

The pulsating organ continues its beating even when sliced 
portions of the legs are used instead of whole legs. It was cut 
in two, and the posterior part, which was attached to a fragment 
of the leg, still continued to beat. 

One set of observations on an amputated leg, that fairly repre- 
sents the others, is given below in detail : 

On Oct. 3, 1883,-the front ieg of an adult Ranatra was put 
under observation at 1.45 P.M. The pulsations were regular from 
135 to 140 per minute. After watching for ten minutes the leg 
was cut off close to the body witha sharp razor. During this 
Operation the eye was kept upon the pulsating organ through the 
microscope. The only perceptible effect was a slight increase in 
the rate of beating, which was now found to be 146 per minute. 
For the next ten minutes the amputated leg was -under constant 
Observation. It continued beating during this time, towards the 
Close ata slightly diminished rate, say 135 pulsations per minute. 

t 2.05 P. M. I was called away. 

The next observation was made after an absence of one hour 
and thirty minutes, at 3.35 P. M.; the organ was then beating reg- 


ce ularly at 115 pulsations per minute. No change was observed up 
_ to 3.45 P. m., at which time the specimen was laid aside. 


VOL. XVIJI.—NO, I. = 


AA 


18 Observations on the Pulsating Organs, etc. (January ” : 


From 4.20 P. M. to 9 P. M. seventeen distinct observations wend 
made, varying from one to seven minutes each. The actual time 
spent at the microscope during this period was forty-five minut 
For foùr minutes of this time the organ had been quiet. 

After 5.20 P. M. it gradually fell from 103 pulsations per minute — 
to 43 per minute, at 8.30 P. M.; from this time it began an increa 
that had reached 116 at 8.55 P. M. 

From 9 P. M. to 10.30 P. M. forty-seven minutes were spent 
the microscope, divided among thirty-six observations, the pulsa 
tions during this time gradually falling from 120 per minute to 
beats per minute.. . 

At 10.50 P. M. I retired, leaving the organ beating at 50 p | 
minute. . 


The following morning, Oct. 4, 1883, at 6.50 A. M., the org 
was not beating. Atg.50 A. M. regular observations were ag 


The rate varied from 67 to 24 beats per minute, being the greate 
part of the time at 55 per minute. 


No sudden transition of rate was observed in this specimen į 
the fall from 67 to 24 taking place gradually, the lowest limit 
having been reached, the rate would again increase to the high 
limit. Hot air blasts were several times blown over the micro 
scopic slide after the organ had been beating twenty-one hou 
The usual effect was to increase the rate and strength of beati 
for a short time. 

The other observations do not differ in any EEN particula 
from the one given above. They were all made in less ti 
however; the longer ones being several hours shorter than- 
-one detailed. 3 

The automaticity has also been noted in the amputated legs 9 
Notonecta and Corixa. . 

- The work on the histology of these organs has yielded, as | 
no definite results. 

‘To conclude, then, in my estimation the three points mentio! 
at the outset have been established, viz: 

(1) The pulsatile organs are separate from the muscular s; 
of the legs, 

(2) They influence circulation. 

(3) They are automatic. 


1884. ] Function of the Epiglottis in the Buli-Snake. 19 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE I, 


Fic, 1.—Belostoma larva, to show the location of the pulsatile organs. In all three 
pairs of legs they are in the tibia, just below the articulation with the femur. 
Fic, 2,—Location of the pulsatile organ in the legs of Corixa. In this genus the 
chitinous cord, to which the pulsatile organ seems deca. is set in motion 
by its beating. The motion of this cord sometimes extends through three 

joints. 

Fic. 3.—Ranatra, adult, to show the exceptional position of the pulsatile organ in 
the fore legs. 

Fic. 4.—The pulsatile organ as seen in the tibia of an adult Ranatra. At the poste- 
rior end are seen the attachments extending upwards and backwards to the in- 
tegument of the legs. Crossing the anterior end and middle portion are the 
oblique muscular fibers of the legs. he trachez are plainly shown. The 
arrows indicate the direction of the blood currents, 


10: 
ON THE CHARACTER AND FUNCTION OF THE EPI- 
GLOTTIS IN THE BULL-SNAKE (PITYOPHIS). 


BY CHARLES A. WHITE, M.D 


MONG the more commonly known serpents of the United 
States there is a group of species which naturalists range 
under the generic name of Pityophis, and which are distributed 
from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast. To all these species the 
popular name of bull-snake is applied, and the more common 
eastern variety is also often popularly called the pine-snake. They 
are great, good-natured fellows, always getting out of man’s way 
when they can, but occasionally, if they are pressed, they will 
throw themselves into a somewhat threatening attitude and emit 
a peculiar hiss. The old naturalist, William Bartram, spoke of it 
as a “terrible hiss, resembling distant thunder,” but even with the 
popular dislike to serpents, I think few persons would regard the 
hiss of the bull-snake as at all terrible or thunderous. 

Baird and Girard, Cope. and Yarrow, have all published lists of 
Species of Pityophis. Baird and Girard enumerated seven spe- 
cies ; Cope, five species, dividing one of them into three varieties; 
and Yarrow four species, dividing one of them in two varieties. 

All these forms have similar habits, and all, at times, produce a 
similar hoarse, hissing sound. It is well known that a hissing sound 
is produced by other serpents as well as other animals ; but the hiss 
of the bull-snake has a peculiar hoarseness which is sometimes so 
— loud that, with the help of the imagination, it appears to have 


! Read before the Biological Society of Washington, October, 1883. 


20 Function of the Epiglottis in the Bull-Snake. (January, 


suggested a likeness to the low, rumbling bellow of the bull; 
hence the popular name of these serpents. The peculiarity of the . 
hiss of the bull-snake is due to the character and posture of the 
epiglottis. This organ is absent, or represented only by a small j 
tubercle, in all other serpents which I have examined. It is present 
‘in all the species and varieties of Pityophis. It is of the same 
general character in all, although it varies a little in shape in oa 


Fic, 1.—Lateral and view from above of Mouth Parts of the Bull Snake. 


- different species, and also somewhat in different individuals. — 
therefore regard this feature as a generic character, although it. 
not improbable that some of the nearer allies of Pityophis wi 
found to possess a similar epiglottis. The accompanying zt 
drawn from nature by my friend Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, U. S. 
represents the mouth-parts of Pityophis sayi var. bellona. 


Sls im 


1884. | The Carolina Wren; a year of its life. 21 


tongue-sheath is represented at a; the epiglottis at 6; and the 
rima-glotidis (aperture of the windpipe) at c. 

The epiglottis is a thin, erect, flexible, flag-shaped or curved- 
spatulate body, situated upon the median line immediately in 
front of the rima-glotidis, and with its free end directed upward 
and backward, its posterior edge curving partly over the rima. It 
is evidently this epiglottis that produces the hoarseness of the 
hissing sound, which it accomplishes by dividing, and fluttering 
in, the strong current of air which is forced from the lung out of 
the rima. 

That this peculiar body is really the homologue of the epiglot- 
tis in the higher animals, is shown by its position in relation to 

the other parts of the mouth. It differs from the epiglottis in 
those animals by being placed longitudinally instead of trans- 
versely, and in not being hinged, and therefore not capable of 
falling down to cover the rjma in the act of swailowing. As ser- 
pents’ food is not comminuted, but swallowed whole, such pro- 
tection to the rima is unnecessary. we 


:0: 
THE CAROLINA WREN; A YEAR OF ITS LIFE. 


BY CHARLES C. ABBOTT, M.D. 


Ewe in the morning of Sept. 1, 1882, as I was passing near 
the stable, my attention was called to the shrill notes of an 
excited little bird that, darting from the building, alighted on the 
fence near by and screamed /immée, Jimmée, Jimmée, so loudly, 
that every James in the township should have hastened thither. — 
No response came, and again the call, a clear, penetrating whistle, 
was repeated. This continued, at brief intervals, for two or three 
minutes, and then, as quickly as it came, the bird flew back to the 
stable, entering through a knot-hole ina weather-board with such 
_Tapidity of movement that I could but marvel at its dexterity. 
_ Half an hour later I saw this same bird again, coming from 
the stable through the same knot-hole, and this time it sang as 
loudly, impatiently and frequently as before, but the notes were 
different. It said, or seemed to say, tsau-ré-ta, tsau-ré-ta, tsat- 
aeg é-ta. Had I not seen the bird I should have recognized it by a 
=~ Peculiarity in its song, which was never wanting whatever might 
~ be the particular notes it uttered. My attention being called to this 
: little bird—the Carolina wren (Thryothorus /ndovicianus)—I deter- 


t 


22 : The Carolina Wren; a year of its life. [ January 


mined forthwith to study its habits, as opportunity presented, for 
the little that I find recorded of it is far from satisfactory. l 

What might be the attraction in the stable was my first obj 
to determine, for I did not suppose it had a nest so late td 
season, and I had not noticed the bird particularly dug A 
summer months, although I knew they were in the nes zhb 
hood. A protracted search failed, indeed, in finding any “ 
but while I was wandering about I was surprised to see Be wre 
enter the building and proceed immediately to search for spiders 
which hitherto were abundant in every nook and corner, but now 
were comparatively scarce. Once the bird alighted upon the 
back of a horse standing in its stall, and while there quietl 
preened its feathers, as much as a wren ever deigns to do thi 
and then with a shrill chirp, that startled the animal, away it fle 
in search of more spiders. 

Late in the afternoon of the same day I again saw the wr 
enter the stable and pass directly through the mow-hole to th 
hay-loft overhead. 1 followed and found that the bird had take 
possession of a barn-swallow’s nest, and here it was keepin 
bachelor’s hall. The nest was placed against a rafter, near th 
peak of the roof, and was quite inaccessible to cats. This pro! 
ably the wren did not consider. It is a sly cat that ever catches. 
awren napping. The bird did not like my discovering his hidi 
place, or at least was annoyed by my inquisitiveness. It circl 
about me several times, snapping its beak I thought, and chirped 
an eansusly emphatic /sip, which I took to be the wrennish for 
“ damn.” 

All through the mellow September days, early and late, the 

clear notes of this wren were to be heard, and through October, 
and long after every summer songster had departed, I heard them 
daily and many times a day, 

During the autumn there was little to note with regard to the 
bird’s habits. The insects in the stable and outbuildings afforded 
it a sufficient food supply, but during exceptionally warm al 
sunny days it made frequent visits to a wooded slope near by, at 
there, among the giant oaks and chestnuts, it seemed more lively 
and full of song than when nearer home. 
__ A few words with reference to the character of its song. Every 
utterance is sharply defined by a peculiarity that belongs only to 
this bird. I think I should know the bird, by its voice, where 
I might hear it. 


1884. | The Carolina Wren; a year of its life. 23 


Again, while the bird has a great variety of notes, I believe I 
have never heard it mingle these various utterances. It may chance 
to whistle jiszmée or tsau-ré-ta or phoé-do, but it never follows one 
with the other. It is in all cases a repetition of the notes it first ut- 
ters. Thus I once recorded its song as uttered during ten minutes. 
Its notes then were phoédo, phoé-do, phoé-do phée ! with a rest of 
some five to ten seconds; then repeated, and this continued without 
any variation until the notes as here given had been uttered sixty- 
four times. As the bird was about commencing the sixty-fifth 
repetition it was frightened and flew off. A half hour later the 
bird took up its position on a hop-vine pole and sang the notes 
represented by the syllables ¢sav-ré-ta forty-seven times, with in- 
tervals of about five seconds between each utterance. 

I find it very generally stated that this wren is a “mocker,” 
imitating many of our common songsters. Evidences of this 
have never come under my notice. Carefully as I have listened 
to this wren for a year, I have never heard a note that I should 
consider as not its own, and not borrowed. It is not safe, how- 
ever, to conclude that it does not mimic other birds, because the 
one I have studied failed to do so. One’s observations must 
cover a wider range of territory, and extend over many years, 
before it is safe to be positive in the matter of the habits of birds. 
Only recently I read a most painful account of the many dangers 
to which birds nesting in the valley of the Hudson river are ex- 
posed. According to the writer but very few broods are success- 
fully reared. Happily, here in the Delaware valley the birds are 
more fortunate, and a failure is the exception, not the rule. So, 
too, it may be with the songs of birds. My Carolina wrens do 
not mimic, but perhaps my neighbor's do. 

At the onset of winter, which in 1882 was late in November, 
the wren seemed unusually active, and sang even more frequently 
than during the sunny days of early autumn, At this time the 
characteristic tyrannical temper of the wren tribe showed itself. 

y wren had preémpted the immediate vicinity of the stable, 
barn and other outbuildings, and woe betide any trespasser, 
snowbirds, sparrows, titmice and even bluejays were promptly 
warned off by the little tyrant. If they questioned his authority 
it was only to their sorrow. So it proved the long winter 
through. No other birds came near to stay. Spider-hunting, 
fighting and singing occupied all its moments, and, I am told, it 


24 The Carolina Wren; a year of its life. [January, 


was often heard to whistle late in the night. Probably it was 
dreaming, which is not to be wondered at, considering the activity 
of the bird’s brain when awake. 
Thus for six months this bird lived quite alone. It certainly ~ 
never wandered far at any one time. It was seen at too short in- 
tervals for this. But if lonely it was not morose, and to all ~ 
` appearance throve admirably from September to March. 
From March to September it lived another life. As early as the 
7th it appeared upon the scene with a companion. The two were 
very noisy and deinonstrative. I could not detect much evidence 
of affection, and at times their actions were strongly suggestive 
quarreling. This, however, did not last long. In the course 0 
a week they had settled all their little differences, and hunted the 
spiders in the outbuildings, and early insects everywhere, in com 
pany. The song of the male bird was now more varied and fre- | 
quent, yet never with a trace of mimicry of the notes of othe 
birds. Its song in volume exceeded even the clear whistle of the 
cardinal grosbeak, and could be heard distinctly for half a mil 
during a still morning. 
March 18 was a pleasant, spring-like day, and an early Mary 
land yellow-throat was singing merrily. This drew me out of : 
doors, and I noticed directly that the Carolina wrens had co 
menced nest-building. Both birds were busy carrying long grass 
strips of inner bark of shrubs and an odd thread or two that wei 
found near by. One bird examined the clothes-line carefully, b 
could not succeed in unraveling any portion. 
Following the wrens, I found they had located on the “ee | 
surface of one of the plates of the frame of the barn. The nest 
was directly under the roof, and quite filled the space between 
upper surface of the plate and the shingles, about six inches. The 
nest, when completed, except the lining, was quite a foot in length. 
It was, in fact, a mere shapeless mass of loose material. Into 
the female wren burrowed and remained most of the time, wA! 
the male bird brought softer fibers and chicken feathers. W 
these the cavity was lined and the nest completed. 
March 24 an egg was laid, and anothereach day until the 29th, 
when the hen commenced setting. During the days that followed 
the male bird was very active in supplying his mate with 
and took his turn in caring for the eggs, but evidently under pF 
test; this I conclude from the super-merry songs he uttered © 


1884. | The Carolina Wren ; a year of tts life. 25 


being relieved. Indeed it is a marvel to me that even a female 
wren can sit still. They have such nervous temperaments that an 
entire change of nidification, whereby solar heat could be depended 
upon, would, no doubt, be hailed by them with joy. 

Five young birds were hatched April 9. When twenty days 
old they were able to fly, and had left the nest and apparently 
their parents. I saw them, evidently shifting for themselves, two 
days later, when they disappeared. May 14 the old birds were 
again building a nest, this time in another building, but in a simi- 
lar position. The structure was identical in shape and size, but 
differed in being largely lined with snake-skins. It was completed 
by May 20, and a week later seven eggs had been laid, and June 
7 six eggs were hatched. The young were on the wing July 1. 
July 15 a third nest was found nearly completed. Five eggs 
were laid by the.23d, and on August 8 the young birds of the third 
brood had appeared, These could fly by the 26th of the month, 
and had left the nest and the neighborhood by the 3oth. 

It is now a few days more than a year since my attention was 
particularly called to the single Carolina wren that frequented the 
stable. During the past twelve months it was closely watched, 
_ and every habit noted. When I was absent others observed it for 
me, and nothing of importance escaped attention. While I am 
writing these concluding lines I can hear the bird singing merrily 
as it sits upon the. top of the hop-vine pole, of late its favorite 
perch. While listening to its song it is a proper time to sum up 
the results of what I have seen and heard. Asa songster it ranks 
very high, and its utterances were all original. As a spider-hunter 
it is as active as any of the family of wrens. As a courageous 
foe of the English sparrows it is a’blessing to the community. 


26 Batrachia of the Permian Period of North America. (January, 


THE BATRACHIA OF THE PERMIAN PERIOD OF a 
NORTH AMERICA. a 


BY E. D. COPE. 


poo class Batrachia holds an important position in the histor “ 
of the Vertebrata, as the first member of that kingdom which — : 


occupied the land on the advent of the conditions suitable for g 


= ats A 


air-breathing types. It thuş stands in ancestral relation to the 
lines of the Sauropsida and Mammalia, and as the immediate de- 
scendant of the fishes. 

There are several orders of Batrachia, and they display remark- 
able diversities of skeletal structure. For the better understand- 
ing of these, I give the following table of their principal defi- 
nitions :' 

I. Supraoccipital, intercalary and supratemporal bones present. Propodial _ 
bones distinct. 


Vertebral centra, ae atlas, pace one set of segments together support- 
hachi 


. 


Vertebrze RNS thel spin ‘ad infetioe digii each m forming two — 
centra to each arch, mee id inl 
Vertebral centra, ON atlas, not segini one to each ick: 


bones distinct. 


a An os intercalare. 


A palatine arch and separate caudal vertebræ Kosch 
aa No os intercalare, 

A maxillary arch; E arch imperfect; nasals, premaxillaries and caudal vet 
tebræ disti „<. o o . Urodela, 
Maxillary and REN arches distinct; nasals and premaxillaries e 


ym nnophio 
No maxillary or palatine arches; nasals and premaxillary, also caudal oC dis- 
tinct. Tra. chystomata 


INL. Supraoccipital, intercalare and supratemporal bones wanting. Fronta 
and parietals connate; propodial bones and caudal vertebra confluent 
Premaxillaries distinct trom nasals; no palatine arch; astragalus and calcaneum 
elongate, forming a distinct segment of the limb............0.-++809° ANE 
. The animals of the division 1 are all extinct. Division 1 in- 
cludes the salamanders and their allies, with the worm-like | 
cilians (Gymnophiona) ; while the third division embraces 
frogs, toads, etc. 
1 This is partly derived from the table which I have given in Vol. 1 Palæonto to! 


ogy of the Geological Survey of Ohio, 1874, p. 352. See also Proceedings 
_ delphia Academy, 1858, p. 211. 


1884.] Batrachia of the Permian Period of North America. 27 


The characters displayed by the three divisions in question, 
indicate their relationships to be as follows: The orders of 
division I present in their cranial structure a greater resemblance 
fo the limi>-finned or crossopterygian fishes, than do either of the 
_ others. The third division is the most divergent from that type, 
and is ia various respects the most specialized. This specializa- 
tion cčasfsts not only in a departure from the primitive Batrachia, 
but also from all other forms of Vertebrata. Its specialization is 
seen in the loss and codssification of various parts of the skele- 
ton. The Urodela display characters intermediate between the 
extremes of the class. Near them the Trachystomata (Sirenidz) 
are inferior by loss of parts of the skull, and of the pelvic arch, 
the result, probably, of a process of degeneration. The same is 
probably true of the Proteida, which have lost the maxillary arch 
of the Stegocephali, but retain their os intercalare.’ 

As regards the extinct orders, the primitive type is evidently 
the Rhachitomi, whose vertebral column displays an arrest of 
characters which are transitional in the higher Vertebrata. From 
this group the orders Embolomeri and Stegocephali have evi- 
dently been derived. We may then present the following gene- 
alogical table of the class Batrachia: 


. — Anura 
Gymnophiona 
Urodela Trachystomata 
Proteida 
Embolomeri Stegocephali 
‘ we 
Rhachitomi 


As regards the connection of the class, as a whole, with other 

- classes of Vertebrata, it is very probable that the extinct orders, 
as the Rhachitomi, were derived from some extinct form of Dip- 
noan fishes more or less related to the group of which the genus 
Ceratodus is a representative. In this type we have a persistent 
chorda dorsalis; fins which present the type from which ambulatory 


Of Cuvier; Epiotic of Iuxiey, according to Vrolik. 


28 Batrachia of the Permian Period of North America, | January, 


limbs were derived; a pelvis; and a cranium nearer that of the 
batrachians than most other fishes present. The Crossopterygia 
are a little on one side of the parental stem, since they have no a 
pelvis, and their limbs begin to show a beginning of that reduc- 
tion and specialization, which is carried to such an extent inthe 
Actinopteri, or typical fishes. : E o; 


view, nevertheless no progress has yet been made by palæonto- 
logical research in filling up the great interval which separates 
the Permian Batrachia from the Mesozoic Mammalia. It is also — 
true that the limb bones of the Permian Reptilian order of the — 
Theromorpha more nearly resemble those of the lowest Mamma- 
lia, the Monotremita, than do those of any other known forms. 


Tae Racaitom. 


I proposed this name! for a division of the Batrachia which j 
predominated during the Permian period in both the old and new a 
worlds. As stated above in the differential table, it is characterized 
by the primitive condition of its vertebral column. The cartilaginous 
chorda dorsalis was present in life, and the vertebral bodies arè 
represented by ossifications of its sheath. In the Trimerorhachide 
this ossification is superficial or cortical, while in the. Eryopide 
it penetrated more deeply into the chorda. The segments of the 
centrum are three in number, an inferior one or intercentrum, and 
a superior lateral one on each side, the pleurocentrum, as it 1 
called by Gaudry. The lateral pieces support the neural arch, | 
and on this account I have called them the centrum proper, 4 
distinguished from the intercentrum. The neural arch is UNS 
broken, and displays articular processes (zygapophyses) of usual 
form, and in some genera a large neural spine. 

The shoulder-girdle of these animals is remarkable for th 
small size of the coracoid element, resembling in this respect the 
salamanders, and approaching the mammals. There is probably 
a clavicle, as has been observed by Gaudry in Actinodon. He 
also finds the three thoracic shields of the Stegocephali (episterna 
and entosternum). I have such bones associated with the Ame 
can forms, but have not yet determined their species. The 
humerus has no head, but a band-like articular surface instea 


1 AMERICAN NATURALIST, 1882, p. 333- 


PLATE II. é 


ERYOPS MEGACEPHALUS Cope. X% 


EEEE E eer ERTEAN EE AEE ENEE EATE EPOE E T, PATE E E E TETA 


1884.] Batrachia of the Permian Period of North America. 29 


Its condyles, when present, are, on the other hand, well developed, 
and resemble those of salamanders, and of certain Mesozoic 
and. lowest Tertiary mammals, as Meniscoéssus of the. Laramie, 
and Catopsalis of the Puerco. The terminal phalanges were not 
converted into claws, but ; 

were flat and obtuse, as in 
existing Batrachia. 

The pelvic arch is inter- 
mediate between those of 
the Anura and salaman- 
ders, and resembied close- 
ly that of the Pelycosau- 
rian division of the Thero- 
morphous reptiles of the 
same age. The pubis and 
ischium are solidly united,. 
without the intervention of 
an obturator foramen, and 
those of opposite sides 
form a boat-shaped body. 
This is suspended from 
the sacrum by a vertical 
ilium, which rises from 
near the middle of each ue 2 
side. Its proportions are ea ae tage gear tg Src coe 
about as in the salaman- from that cy eases in poe Rena gery 
ders. The femur has no ie ten AN ae d 
head proper, and the dis- r 
tal condyles are better distinguished than in any other Batrachia 
and than in most Reptilia. 

The species of the Rachitomi are rather salamander-like in 
proportions, with relatively short legs and long tail, except in 
Eryops, where the latter was probably represented by a stump 
(see Plate 1). They had relatively large heads with wide gape, as 
in the frogs. None of the known species can be supposed to 
have had powers of leaping as in those modern animals. 

None of the known species had a formidable dentition, and in 
all of them the dentine is simply inflected, so that the section of 
a tooth presents a mass of closely-packed radii. 

The two families of this order are well distinguished by the 


30 Batrachia of the Permiau Period of North America. |Januaty, 1 


form of the basioccipital bone. In the Trimerorhachidæ its con- 
dyle is simple and concave, somewhat as in some fishes. The Ery- 
opidæ have the two condyles characteristic of Batrachia generally. 
This difference might be esteemed as of greater than family signifi- 
cance, but it is less considerable than at first sight appears. The — 
single cotylus-like basioccipital bone of the Trimerorhachide is | 
notched above, sometimes deeply, to receive the apex of the noto- 
‘chord. A corresponding notch on the inferior edge would, if 
present, divide the articulation into two surfaces, which would 
greatly resemble the condyles of Eryops. The latter are flat and 
look partly towards each other, and are evidently separated orig- 
inally by the fisswra notochorde. | 
To the Trimerorhachidz I have referred, with certainty, only 
the genus Trimerorhachis. I have been unable to learn the : 
structure of the vertebra in the European genus Archegosaurus. — 
According to some authors they are simple, as in the Stego- — 
cephali. Specimens of this.kind, of the size of the Archegosaurus 
decheni, are found in the locality where the latter occurs, 2. by 
Saarbrücken in Alsace; while rachitomous vertebrae from the — 
same locality are of larger size, and resemble those of Eryops 
(Mus. Princeton, N. J.). | 7 
I have called attention to the structure of the vertebral column — 
of the Rachitomi from a mechanical standpoint The notochord — 
persists, the osseous elements about it in the sheath or skin, in the 
form of regular concave segments much like such segments aS _ 
are cut from the skin of an orange, z. e., parts of spheres, having — 
greater or less thickness according to the group or species. Now — 
the point of divergence of these segments is on the side of the cok i 
umn, the upper segments rising, and the lower segments expanding 
downwards. To the upper segments are attached the arches and j 
their articulation, and the lower segments are like the segments OF 
a sphere. If you take a flexible cylinder, covered with a more oF 
less resistant skin or sheath, and bend that cylinder sidewise, YOU - 
will of course find that the folds of the surface will take place 
along the line of the shortest curve, which is on the side; and, : 
as a matter of fact, you will have breaks of very much the char- 
acter of the sutures of these vertebral segments. It may not be a 
symmetrical as in the actual .animal, for organic growth is sym i 
metrical so far as not interfered with; for, when we have aie : 


1 Science, 1883, p. 276. 


PLATE IV. 


TRIMERORHACHIS INSIGNIS Cope. } 


1884.] Batrachia of the Permian Period of North America, 31 


forces, the one of growth and the other of change or interruption, 
and they contend, we stili have in the organic being a quite symmet- 
rical result. In the cylinder bending in this way, of course the short- 
est line of curve is at the center of the side of the cylinder, and 
the longest curve is at the summit and base, and the shortest 
curve will be the point of fracture. And I presume it has hap- 
pened in the case of the construction of the segments of the sheath 
of the vertebral column that the lateral motion of the animal 
swimming has been the actual cause of the disposition of the osse- 
ous material in this form. 

A very good illustration of the effect of bending of a more or 
less flexible cylinder may be seen in the folds on the inner con- 
cave side of one’s coat sleeve. In the accompanying figure the 
folds in the cloth represent the lines of flexure, or what would be 


IG, 2,—Sleeve of a coat, showing folds produced by lateral flexure, which leave 
interspaces similar to the segments.of a rachitomous vertebra. Thus č represents 


intercentrum, Ż, pleurocentrum, and #, neurapophysis. : 
in a seat of ossific deposit, of interruption ; while the interspaces 
represent the segments bounded by such lines. The correspond- 
ence with the segments of the vertebrae of the Rhachitomi is 
remarkable. At the base we have the wide lenticular intercen- 
trum (viewed partly from below in the cut); between their Jateral 
apices we have the pleurocentra, and above, another segment, 
which in the vertebra is the base of the neural arch. 

The view that the segmentation of the vertebral column is the 
result of lateral alternating strains, was proposed by Herbert 
Spencer ( Principles of Biology, 11, p. 195). The present re- 

. Searches confirm this hypothesis in general. Mr. Spencer did 
not, however, specify the kind of segmentation to be expected 
from this process, and leaves it to be inferred that the segments 
will be cylinders of greater or less length. Thus he says (p. 205) 
“in a vertebral column of which the axis is beginning to ossify, 
the centrums consist of bony rings inclosing a still continuous 
rod of cartilage.” And it is true that this is the primitive form in 


32 Batrachia of the Permian Period of North America. [Januaty, 


embryology, but whether true in any instance in paleontological | 
history yet remains to be ascertained. 


TRIMERORHACHIS Cope. 


This genus presents the most imperfect vertebrae known in the ~ 
order. It differs from all others, including Archegosaurus, in the 
lack of a distinct neural spine. Its humeri do not display condyles, — 
but had cartilaginous articular surfaces. The teeth are rather small 


Fig. ga evorhachis insignis, skull ae above ; one-half natural size. Smal 
figure; sti ly prea sculpture and nare 


and of equal size, except a large one or two inside the external 
series near the anterior part of the mouth. 
Two species are known, the 7: insignis Cope, and T. bilobatus 
Cope, both from the Permian beds of Texas. Both were pro 
bly of slender proportions, and had short weak limbs. The 
head of the T. insignis is wide, flat and rounded, and its superior 
surface is strongly wrinkled. The iyriform mucous groove 


1 This proportion is not certainly known. - 


Ee ae lle a eee ee E ss 


we eee 


1884.) Batrachia of the Permian Period of North America. 33 


not extend behind the orbits. This was a very abundant species 


FIG. 4.—- Trimerorachis i insignis Cope; parts of skeleton, natural size. Fig. @ basi- 
occipital, exoccipital and peri pore bones, posterior view; 4, angle of knibe, ex- 
ternal view; c, the same, posterior view ; d, n of vertebral column depressed by 


pr se showing the rad saaty nag (ï) and the pleuroc (2); ¢, a part of the 
vertebral column, oblique view, showing double Reun aes and zygapophyses. 


during the Permian period in Texas, and probably possessed 
aquatic habits, 


Eryors Cope. 

This genus is the best-known American representative of the 
Eryopide. This family includes also Acheloma, Anisodexis, and 
Probably Zatrachys in America, and Actinodon in Europe. The 
last-named genus occurs in the Permian beds near Autun, in Cen- 
tral France, and has been well elucidated by the labors of Pro- 
fessor Gaudry of the Jardin des Plantes. z 

In Eryops the teeth are arranged much as in Trimerortaghis in 
external series of nearly uniform size, with some large oħes in 
the anterior parts of both j jaws, a little within the external rows. 
As in that genus, the supra-temporal does not display a free ex- 
ternal margin, as it does in Cricotus, and there is no angular pro- 
cess of the mandible. There is, on the other hand, no lyra. The 


k intercentra and pleurocentra are much more robust than in 


Epiperorhachis The neural spines of the vertebre are large, and 


3 


34 Batrachia of the Permian Period of North A merica. [ January, 


heavy, the pubis being thickened in front, and truncated with a 
flat V-shaped face with reverted lip. 

Three species of this genus are known. The most abundant 
in the Permian of Texas is the £. megacephalus Cope (Figs. 1 and 
5-6). This is the largest American batrachian, the skull meas- 
uring a foot wide by eighteen inches long. It was very abun- 


Fic. 5.—LZryops megacephalus Cope, skull from above, one-fifth nat. size. . 
dant, constituting with the reptilian genus Dimetrodon, the most 
prominent type of the Permian fauna in this country. The ver- i 
tebral column is slender when compared with the size of the i 
limbs, and especially of the head. The restoration of a species 
of European Labyrinthodon by Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins does 


w 
RSE 


not badly represent this species. The Æ. reticulatus Cop® | 
a much smaller species, and the sculpture of the s ol Pi 


PLATE III. 


ERvors MEGACEPHALUS 
EE yr ee = 


1884. ] Batrachia of the Permian Period of North America. 35 


sharper and of a net-like pattern. The neural spines are not so 
much expanded at the apex. It has been found in the Permian 
beds of New Mexico. The Æ. ferricolus Cope, is a still smaller 
species, known from skulls from Texas. This, with the Æ. mega- 
cephalus and the Trimerorhachis insignis, were found by Mr. Jacob 
Boll, a naturalist of Dallas, Texas, who was a man of many ac- 
complishments and an ardent explorer. He lost his life through 


Fic. 6.—Side view of skull of Eryops megacephalus, one-fifth nat. size. 


his indifference to his personal comfort while exploring the Per- 
mian beds at my instance. 


ACHELOMA Cope. 

This genus is allied to Eryops, and differs in two principal 
points. One of these is the absence of the lateral border of the 
cranial table formed by the external side of the os intercalare in 
Eryops and various other genera, the posterior outline of the 
skull being thus continuous. The other is the absence of the 
condyles of the humerus, a point in which it resembles, Trimero- 
thachis. The vertebral segments are more robust than in Trimero- 
the Js, and less so than in Eryops; and it agrees with those 
§enera in the absence of the mandibular angular process. 

The only known species of this genus is the A. cumminsi from 

€xas. Its structure is pretty well known. It resembles in gen- 
eral the Eryops megacephalus with its small orbits and absence of 
te groove, but is smaller and differs in various details. The 
skull is triangular, and measures a little more than seven inches 
ng by five wide, and has an open honeycombed sculpture of the 
Surface. The vertebrae and limbs are small for the size of the 
skull ; and in the former the summits of the neural spine are not 


36 Batrachia of the Permian Period of North America. [Januaty, ) 
ANISODEXIS Cope. 


This genus differs from those previously described, in the ine- 
quality in the sizes of the teeth of the external series. Thus 1n 
the upper jaw there is a very large one in the position of a canine, 
and in the lower jaw there are some large ones near the symphy- 
sis. The neural arch of the vertebrae resembles that of the 
genus Acheloma. The A. imbricarius Cope, is the only know 
species, and is represented in collections by fragments only. 
The size of its skull is nearly that of the Æryops megacephalus 
The sculpture of the superior surface of the skull is a coarse 
reticulation ; that of the sides of the jaws is of an imbricate of 
shingle-like character, The limbs are unknown. The vertebré 
do not exhibit an expansion of the summit of the neural spine. 
From the Texas beds. 


ZATRACHYS Cope. 


This genus was originally represented by a maxillary boa : 
which supports teeth of equal length, and whose surface is exti 
ordinarily rugose. In the typical species, Z. serratus, the rugost 
ties project in the form of teeth along the external alveolar bor 
der. Individuals with sculptured neural spines and dermal bone | 
are referred here. The intercentra are much like those of Eryop’ | 
and Acheloma, z! 

Two species are known, Z. serratus Cope, from Texas and a 
apicalis from New Mexico. In the latter the neural spines hav 
much expanded apices, with sculptured superior surfaces. at 
animal may have been four or five feet in length, while the r 
serratus could not have exceeded three feet. Both species er 
well protected from the assaults of the cotemporary carnivori 
saurians by their dermoössifications. 


3 


EMBOLOMERI. 


I proposed this order in 1880! to receive the family of a 


journal? and elsewhere, by the complete development of its ca 
and intercentra, both of which form entire vertebral bodies W i 
in pairs support single neural arches. No such character Is 
been detected in the known divisions of the Stegocephali. © 
1 AMERICAN NATURALIST, p. 610, is hee. r i 
? Loc. cit. 1876, p. 405; 1878. p. 319. Proceedings Am, Philos, S0C., rhe i 


as poe) 


PLATE V. 


¥ 


Beet FSA SS 
hk s 


i 
| 
kad 


CRICOTUS HETEROCLITUS Cope. $. 


1884.] Batrachia of the Permian Period of North America. 27 


characters were given as follows. I have not been able to expose 
the occipital condyle in my specimens. 

Centra and intercentra subequally developed as vertebral bodies, 
a single neural arch supported by one of each, forming a double 
body. Chevron bones supported only by intercentra. Basiocci- 
pital vertebral articulation connected with the first vertebra by 
an undivided discoid intercentrum. 

Thus the peculiarity of the vertebral column in general is car- 
ried into the cephalic articulation, and we have, instead of the 
complex atlas of the Rachitomi, a single body connecting the 
occipital condyle and first vertebra. This body represents, in all 
probability, zhe single occipital condyle of the reptilian skull. 
This part, as is well known, remains cartilaginous in the lizard 
long after the basioccipital is ossified,’ and is a distinct element. 
In the Urodele Batrachia it appears, according to Albrecht, as 
the odontoid process of the aé/as. The structure of Cricotus 
shows that it is a connate intercentrum. We have thus removed 
the last difficulty in the way of the proposition that the Reptilia 
are derivative of the Batrachia, viz., the difference in the cranio- 
vertebral articulation. But the former have not been derived 
from the Labyrinthodontia, as has been suggested, nor from 
the Rachitomi, but from the Embolomeri. The order of Rep- 
tilia which stands next to it is, of course, the Pelycosauria of 
the same period, which presents so many Batrachian characters, 
including intercentra, as I have for the first time pointed out 
in the paper above quoted. 

Professor Gaudry has been inclined to regard the bones which 
I have called intercentra as the true centra. But in the Embo- 
lomeri we have evidence that the pleurocentra are the true centra, 
since they assume the larger bulk, and support the neural arch 
and costal articulation, the intercentrum becoming more and 
more subordinate as we advance from the caudal series forwards. 
Moreover, the intercentrum bears the chevron bones in the 
Rhachitomi, and the Embolomeri, as they do in the cotemporary 
Pelycosauria. 

I add to the ordinal characters above given, that the three pec- 
oral shields of the Stegocephali are present here also. 

1See Parker On the development of the skull of the Lizard, Philosophical Trans- 
actions, London, 1879. ‘ 

? Intercentra remain in the cervical and dorsal series of Hatteria, and there is ro 
at least in the cervicals of the Pythonomorpha. 


38 Batrachia of the Permian Period of North America. (Januaty, i 


Besides Cricotus, Fritsch describes a genus from Bohemia 
under the name Diplovertebron, which I suspect to belong to the © 


Embolomeri. 

In the family Cricotida the chorda dorsalis is persistent and 
large. The vertebral centra and intercentra are perforated so as 
to resemble some kinds of discoidal beads. They form a charat- 


PIEN 


teristic feature among the Permian fossils. The abdomen is pro- 
tected by scales arranged in chevrons. There is a parietal fora: l 
men, and the supratemporal bone has a free external border like f 


the squamosal of the crocodile. 


a 


b 
FIG. 7.-—Cricotus heteroclitus Cope, the specimen figured on Plate v. Fig. 4 


ing 
from above, one-half nat. size, end of muzzle wanting; 4, abdominal surface, soi | 
scuta, distal extremity of femur and distal three phalanges of a digit, one- -half nat . 


Cricotus Cope. 


In this genus the teeth are rather large, and are of p 
size in the external rows. The tail is long, and was apparent? 


as 
useful as a natatory organ. The terminal phalanges are on 
in salamanders, and without claws. The pelvis has the cna 
of that of the Eryopidz, but is less massive anteriorly. 


1884.] . Batrachia of the Permian Period of North America. 39 


lower jaw has no posterior projecting angle. There are mucous | 
grooves on the skull. The abdominal scales are oblong and in 
close contact with each other. 

Cricotus heteroclitus was first found in Illinois, and afterwards in 
Texas. It is a more elongate animal than any of those described 
in the preceding pages, and it was furnished with short, rather 
stout limbs. It probably reached a length of ten feet, as my 
best preserved specimen, which is not the largest, measures about 
eight feet. It has an elongate triangular skull, eleven inches by 
six behind, with a singularly long, narrow, depressed muzzle, 
whose extremity overhangs the lower jaw completely. There are 
three pairs of mucous grooves; one is on each side of the roof of 
the muzzle, and runs out on the edge of the upper jaw, where 
it overhangs the extremity of the corresponding ramus. The 
second descends from behind the orbit, and running parallel to 
the edge of the upper jaw, joins the first at the usual position of 
a canine tooth in other forms. The third extends along the in- 
ternal inferior edge of the mandibular ramus. 

This species was probably aquatic in its habits. A smaller 
species, the C. gibsoni, has been described from Illinois. Its cau- 
dal vertebrze are of more elongate, cubical form than those of the 
C. heteroclitus. 

EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 


PLATE II. 
e Sy ase, omy Cope, vertebral column, one-fourth natural size, the upper fig- 
m the left side, the lower figure from below. The four- sections of the 
Ba represented are parts of the same individual. 
Prare IIT. 
oe meer Cope, pelvic arch and femur, four-fifteenths natural size, be- 
o the individual figured in Plate 11. Figs. 11-14 pelvis ; H, left side; 


on poate I3, posterior view; 14, from below. Figs. 15-19, femur; 15, ante- 
rior view; 16, posterior view; 17, proximal view; 19, distal view. 
PLATE IV. 


Trimerorhachis insignis Cope, part of vertebral column flattened by pressure, of 
probably one individual, natural size. The upper figures ete sa ) from the 
right side; the lower (exc ept d) from below. Figs. a-d, atlas and axis, t 
former with double s eid the latter with single Ascot Fig. 4, 
anterior view; Fig. d, posterior view. 


PLATE V. 

Cricotus heteroclitus Cope, part of skeleton of one individual, tae Figs fand g, 
two fifths natural size. The vertebra on the agait Ho wi clude the posterior 
extremity of the dorso-lumbar series of the as r besertéd! viewed 
partly from above. Fig, a, first cervical aar Tasg pies face; 4, the same 
attached to front of first cervical ayia. lateral view ; c, four cervical centra 
Separated by intercentra, partly from below; æd, e, caudal are from below ; 
caudal vertebræ siaal right sf i "Fi i ond. g, specimens of the same from 
Illinois, anterior v ws ; f, a dorsc-lumbar intercentrum ; ‘ Eye akata Hoste tae a 
with bases of ere bone; “ah two-fifths natural s 


40 Editors’ Table. [ January, 
EDITORS FABLE. 


EDITORS: A. S. PACKARD, JR., AND E. D. COPE. 


The first and hasty conclusion of many people on the 
perusal of Darwin’s Origin of Species was, that the populations 
of the earth, including ourselves, are the food for the mills of 
unconscious and implacable forces, or at best are the sport of 
aimless chance. And so long as all evolution was supposed to 
be included in the two words “heredity and natural selection,” 
there was good ground for pessimism, and even despair. It is 
a fact that in the early stage of thought on this subject, teachers as 
well as scholars underrated the importance of the question of the 
origin of variation, or the “ origin of the fittest,” although it had 
been publicly discussed in France a third of a century earlier. 
The laws of mechanical evolution which are adduced to explain 
the “ origin of the fittest ;’ do they give any relief to anxious hu- 
manity from undiscriminating domination of “the God of Forces?” 
The very term, “ mechanical evolution,’ would seem to preclude l 
any opportunity for the element of personality either as author or 
director. The pessimist and the fatalist may still apparently 
claim the field. But the nature, and hence the origin, of “ the 
fittest,’ must be thoroughly understood before such judgment — 
can be pronounced on the order of things. 
With the advent of sensibility came pleasure and pain. Pes- 
simism is the belief in the reign of suffering. On the other 
hand hedonism believes, if not in the reign of pleasure, at least in 
the reign of the greatest happiness to the greatest number. Do- 
sensitive beings walk open-eyed into pain or pleasure once know, — 
without fear of one or anticipation of the other? Every one knows l 
to the contrary. Memory has been the teacher of the ages, 50 
that the avoidance of pain and the pursuit of pleasure has been 
the business of living things since the dawn of consciousness - 
and the existence of memory. It is more than probable that 
these prime movers of the universe have directed the mechanical 
forces into profitable channels, and have converted them to 
their use. More than this, mechanical evolution means he 
development of the machine that directs other machines, the 
brain, and the mind. Hence mechanical evolution is the evolu- | 
tion of intelligence. Of course the lessons of experience are nd 
part lessons of pain, and beings that cannot act in accordance 


1884. | Recent Literature. 41 


with lessons sufficiently learned, will experience a maximum of 
suffering, and may have foundation for a private stock of pessim- 
ism of their own. But a tolerance of suffering is of various dura- 
tion, and sooner or later intelligence will have its beneficent way. 
And as “knowledge is power,” it results that the evolution of the 
living world and of men, has been and will be very much as they 
have it, and enlightened intelligence, well lived up to, has always 
resulted in a minimum of pain—C. 


e numbers of the AMERICAN NATURALIST for 1883 
were issued at the following dates: January, Jan. 5 ; February, 
Jan. 31st; March, Feb. 21st; April, March 15th; May, April 
18th ; June, May 17th; July, June 20th; August, July 16th; 
September, Aug. 15th; November, Oct. 19th; December, Nov. 
28th. 


A’. 
s 


RECENT LITERATURE. 


HATTON anD Harvey’s NewFounpLAnp.—This is a successful 
account from historical, physiographic, ethnographic and eco- 
nomic points of view of the first English colony, and the last to 
be developed. It is the joint production of a resident on the 
island, Rev. Mr. Harvey, who with general culture and an inti- 
mate knowledge of the land and its inhabitants, unites a hearty 
appreciation of science, and is well known for the interest he has 
taken in the natural history of the Newfoundland seas; and of 
Mr. Hatton, who has rewritten and edited the whole work. For 
Our part we do not see but that Mr. Harvey was quite competent 
for this task both as a writer, observer and collector of the facts. 
However that may be, the result is an authoritative, accurate, 
pleasantly written and timely manual of Newfoundland, with ex- 
cellent full-page illustrations and others in the text. The map 
Should have been a much better one; otherwise we have little 
fault to find with the volume. 

The history of Newfoundland has been a peculiar one. The 
authors say it presents the British government at its worst and 
its best. How the “ worst” could have been much worse, and 
how bad the “best” has been, is clearly brought out, and is an 
interesting study in sociology. The dominance of selfish greed 
on the part of a few British merchants, and the absence and en- 
tire lack for years of even rational and humanitarian feelings on 
ae part of the mother-country, shows how many savage traits 
Survived in the Anglo-Saxon race, of the best specimens, a century 


: Newfoundland. Its History, its Present Condition, and its Prospects in the Future. 
By JosEPH HATTON and the Rev. M. Harvey. Reprinted from the English edi- 
tion ; revised, corrected and enlarged. Illustrated. Boston, Doyle & Whittle, 1883. _ 
8vo. PP- 431. 


42 Recent Literature. [January, | 


ago. Perhaps less consideration was shown to the incipient col- 
ony than the codfish—the white of the Newfoundland egg—be- 
stows upon its own spawn. For not content with leaving the 
infant colony to nature, the mother-country proceeded to dwarf 
and mutilate it, and so retard its development that it is least im 
the list of dependencies of the British Empire. 

How this was done, and how fair are the future prospects of the 
colony, the reader may find in the first part of the book itself 
The second part treats of the physical geography and topography. 
There is much more arable land, valuable forests and a muc 
milder climate in Southwestern and Western Newfoundland than 
is ordinarily supposed. Even the vicinity of St. Johns has a 
much milder winter climate than that of Montreal, the thermom- 
eter scarcely falling below zero; on the other hand the north- 
eastern coast has a subarctic climate akin to that of Labrador. 

The account of the geology of the island is mostly taken from 
the report of Mr. Murray, the director of the Geological Survey 
of Newfoundland, a work still going on. From the chapter on- 
the aborigines it appears that they were the Bethuk tribe, a 
branch of the Algonkin race, and quite distinct from the Mic 
macs, now inhabiting Nova Scotia. So effectually were these 
hapless people exterminated by the settlers, that only a single 
skull remains on the island, which is now preserved in the locat 
museum of St. Johns. The skill of some of the Bethuks t 
drawing is thus described on p. 176, where reference is made to 
a woman of the tribe taken prisoner in 1823: “ She is described 
as six feet high, and having a fine figure; her complexion- 
swarthy, like the Micmacs, and her features handsome. In her 
manners she was bland, affable and affectionate. When a pencit 
and a piece of paper were given to her, she drew a deer perfectly 
at a few strokes, and what was most surprising, she began at the 
tip of the tail.” This woman and her two daughters were the last 
of the red Indians seen alive. She died at St. Johns of consump 
tion, after six years of civilized life. The account of this trids 
their habits and language, has been prepared with evident cafè 
It is interesting that no mention is made in the book of the Es- 
quimaux. There are probably no traces of them in Newfound: 
l This is rather curious, as Esquimiaux have extended along 
the Labrador coast to the Straits of Belle Isle, the survivor hav 
ing been seen by the writer of this notice at Caribou island, neat 
the south-western entrance of the straits, in 1860. If there ate 
yet to be found any trace of the Esquimaux in Newfoundland, We 
hope so competent a man as Mr. Harvey will look them up &™ 
report upon them. ee 

Naturalists and sportsmen will find much to interest them 1 
the chapters on the animals and plants, and that on New und: 
land as a sporting country. 2 

As would be expected, Mr. Harvey has given a full aofi 


i 
i 
i 
$ 


PLATE VI. 


On the Barrens. The Carribou, Buck and Doe. 


1884.] Recent Literature. 43 


of the giant squids which have shown such a partiality for the 
shores of this kraken-haunted land. His references to the great 
auk are interesting. We quote them all for the convenience of 
our ornithological readers. Whitbourne’s account, entitled “A 
Discourse and Discovery of Newfoundland,” was published on 
his return from the island, where he spent the summer of 1816: 
In this work he speaks of the “penguin,” as big as a goose, 
which in vast flocks covered many of the small islands, and were 
met with in large numbers as far out as the Banks. “ The last 
reference,” says our authors, “ is to the ‘ great auk,’ now numbered 
among the extinct birds, but in Whitbourne’s day it abounded in 
the Newfoundland waters. For the last eighty years not a single 
specimen of the great auk has been seen, and there are but a few 
skeletons of this singular bird in all the museums of the world” 
(p: 24). 

Again after speaking, on p. 135, of Fortune bay, our authors 
state: “ From Fortune bay there is a straight line of coast 
called the ‘ western shore,’ which is upwards of one hundred 
miles in length, and terminates at Cape Ray. It is indented with 
numbers of small bays and harbors, the largest being La Poile 
and Rose Blanch bays, There are also numerous clusters of 
islands, such as the Penguin islands, so called from the multitude 
of birds of that name which were formerly seen there. 

“ The great auk was once found in myriads around the shores, 
but is now extinct everywhere, not a specimen having been found 
for the last fifty years. The little auk, the puffin, the common 
guillemot, called locally the ‘murt and turr, and the razor-billed 
auk are abundant. The great auk was a very remarkable bird, 
‘and deserves more than a passing mention. It must now be 
reckoned, like the dodo, among the things that have been, though 
in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries it was to be seen in 
multitudes-on the low rocky islands on the eastern coast of the 
island, and immense flocks of them were encountered by the 
mariners of those days as far out as the Banks. Now the dis- 
' covery of a single living specimen, or even of a skeleton, would 
be hailed as a most fortunate event. The last auk was shot on an 
isolated rock of the south coast of Iceland. in 1844, and is now in 
the museum of Copenhagen. In all the museums of Europe and 
America there are only seventy-two specimens of the bird. Three 
of these were found on Funk island, off the north-eastern coast 
of Newfoundland in 1864. They came into the possession of 
Bishop Field, who forwarded one to Agassiz, another to Profes- 
sor Newton, of Cambridge, and the third ultimately reached the 
British Museum, where there is but one other specimen, brought 
from the Orkneys in 1812.. Numerous bones of the great auk 
have been found on Funk island, and a careful search might dis- 
cover many perfect skeletons. The great auk was larger than a 
goose. Its wings were very small, and not constituted for flight, 


44 Recent Literature. [January, 


but were admirable paddles in the water, enabling the bird to 
move about even more swiftly than the loon. The legs were ex- 
tremely short but powerful, and placed so much posteriorly that 
in resting on the rocks the birds assumed an upright attitude, the 
whole of the leg and toes being applied to the surface. It wasa 
native of the northern hemisphere, the penguin being its relative 
in the southern. The causes of its extermination are not difficult 
to discover. Its short wings and peculiar conformation rendered — 
it helpless on the land; while its flesh and feathers were so valu- © 
able as to invite the rapacity of man. There were few suitable 
breeding-places, and when these were invaded it could not fy — 
elsewhere, and had no choice but to die. In the ‘struggle for 
existence,’ to which nature subjects all her animated productions, © 
such a bird as the great auk must perish early. It must have” 
been a curious sight, two hundred years ago, to see these wild, 


quantities of these birds’ flesh, but they were accustomed to salt 


avista and other places were in the habit of salting and selling | 
them, in the winter season, instead of pork, to the fishermen. | 
The sailors used to land on the islands where they bred and fh 
their boats with the plump unwieldy birds (which on land pul 
make no effort to escape), driving them, according to Whitbourt 
on board by hundreds, or knocking them on the head with stich 
They feasted on their eggs and even burned their bodies for m 


mation regarding the former existence of the great auk, t? 
without doubt it ranged along the southern coast of Newto™ 


1884. } Recent Literature. 45 


land, Nova Scotia, and extended as far south as Cape Cod, as its 
bones are found in Indian shell-heaps at Ipswich, Mass., as well as 
the coast of Maine, and it was noticed by Josslyn, who called it . 
the “ wobble” (Amer. NAT., Vol. 1, p. 578 

The chapters on the fisheries, on Labrador, those on the agri- 

cultural and mineral resources, etc., are all to the urpose. The 

est game animal is the caribou, which still in vast kére traverses 
the island in periodical migrations ftom north to south: the moose 
is still common, and there is good salmon fishing. The accom- 
panying plate is a fair sample of the illustrations. 

When the railroad to Notre Dame bay shall have been com- 
pleted, a new era in the prosperity of Newfoundland will be opened, 
and when the railroad to Cape Ray, connecting the short sea 
route, is built, it will doubtless be very popular, and confer great 
local benefits by bringing the island into daily communication 
with Europe and America. 


WRIGHT’S ANIMAL Lire..—In preparing this work the author 
has kept in view the wants of a large class of persons who like to 
see good pictures of animals and to read anecdotes about them. 
The popular idea of an “ animal” is a beast or quadruped, or a 
bird, or reptile, or fish. There are those still existing to whom 
an insect is an insect, but perhaps not an “animal ;” coral polyps 
and the multitudes of species of worms and other invertebrates 
are as unknown to them as the inhabitants of the planet Mars. 
Such persons were “ brought up” on Goldsmith’s Animal King- 
dom, and when they buy for themselves or their children an Ani- 
mal Kingdom, they want a modern Goldsmith. In other words 
they desire and expect to buy a bibliothecal Noah’s ark with all 
its animals, which is well known were confined to such terrestrial 
forms as the celebrated voyager and his limited family could con- 
veniently gather when their time was not otherwise engaged in 
preparing for their momentous voyage. The innumerable creatures 
of the seas through which the Noachian craft leisurely ploughed, 
were regarded with as little interest by the early voyagers (who 
soon became sick of the sea and all that belonged to it) as the gen- 
eral reader of to day looks upon Porifera, Ccelenterates, Echino- 
derms, Vermes, Brachiopods, Polyzoa or Tunicates. They are to 
him little more than names of illy-understood groups which he 
supposes to be of but little importance, whereas if it had not been 
for the worms we should have had no vertebrates at all, much 
less readers of an “ Animal Kingdom.” 

Professor Wright has shrewdly adapted his book to this class 
of readers. He begins with mammals, then takes up the birds, 
and devotes two-thirds of the volume to these two classes, Con- 
siderable space is given to the reptiles, amphibians and fishes ; 

Animal Li ; 7 2 nimals. By E. PERCIVAL 
WRIGHT. win ern feed peit aT ipia & Co., inde Paris and 
New York. 8vo, pp. 618. 


46 Recent Literature. (January, 


sixty pages out of 618 are given to insects, and less than a hun- 
dred are reserved for all the other classes of the animal kingdom, ~ 
The result is a well-written, profusely-illustrated and well-bound 
story book, which would make an admirable present to a lad in- — 
terested in natural history. The value of such books is consider — 
able, and the author has succeeded admirably in his task. g 

With much to commend in the treatment of his subject, wé 
could, however, have wished for a more modern rendering of © 
zoological science, especially those facts and laws relating to the — 
struggle for existence, the relations of animals to each other and 
to their surroundings, as well as protective mimicry and the like ~ 
topics. It is evident that the author has not been inoculated with - 
the ideas and discoveries of modern biology; hence there is yet 
room for a skilfully written popular sketch of creation. : 

The author deprecates any criticism from specialists, so that 
fault-finding with his classification would be ungracious, though — 
we must say that his arrangement of the insects, the Crustacea 
and Mollusca is unnecessarily old-fashioned. The average reader 
would find the work just as interesting if it had been in this te — 
spect made more in accordance with modern views. 

The book is, however, a very entertaining one, with one OF 
more well selected illustrations on nearly every page, and the 
stories are well told, so that the publishers may feel well satisfied 
with the way in which the author has accomplished what 15, at 
best, a difficult task. 


Curist’s FLORA oF SWITZERLAND AND ITs Oricin.'—This m 
portant work, which we have received through the kindness of 
the author, is one that we think destined to attract much attent- 
tion. It is addressed not only to professional botanists but to cul 
tivated people everywhere. Many Americans visit the little re 
public every year, led by its unequaled natural attractions. To 
such this book will prove invaluable. It is not a flora in the com 
monly accepted sense, that is, a list and description of all pis 
plants of the region. On the contrary, it is an extended and pains- 
taking treatise on the phyto-geography of the country; the 0! 
gin, history and development of the vegetable growth. | 

The author has given many years of assiduous labor to 
work, and writes not only with polished grace but with evi 
devotion. In fact, we have found ourselves quite carried away © 
some of his graphic descriptions. gee 

The author treats minutely of the zones of distribution and y5 
causes which act upon them, and one who reads it carefully @ 

i hardly fail to acquire increased and useful information On 4 | 
variety of botanical subjects. Accompanying the work, whic 
one of 571 pages octavo, are five beautiful maps in color, 5% 

ing vegetable distribution, and four full-page illustrations of ¢ 


! Flore de la Suisse et ses origines. Par le Dr. H. Curist, Bale. 


1884. | Recent Literature. 47 


acteristic regional plants. It isa real treat to look over a book 
so entertaining in itself and so sumptuously prepared. The in- 
dices, those all-important adjuncts of any scientific work, not only 
include the names of plants, but of the insects visiting them, and 
of localities. We most heartily commend the volume to our fel- 
low- workers. 

We might add that we know from experience that Dr. Christ 
is an excellent collector. He is now especially interested in the 
genus Carex and in Conifere, and desires to exchange with 
American botanists. Those who are fortunate enough to effect 
an exchange with him will get more than an equivalent for what 
they send in varieties from the Alps superbly prepared.— W. W. 
Bailey. 

KLEY’S WINNERS IN LiFe’s Race! —We may say without 
qualification that this is the most successful attempt at a popular 


Sketch of modern zoology with which we are acquainted. The 
authoress has been fortunate in her sources of information and in 
er artists. She wields an easy and graceful pen, has the art of 


! The Winners in Life’s Race, or the Great Back-boned Family. By ARABELLA B. 
BuckLey. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1883. 12mo, pp. 367. $1.50. 


ee re 


PE UAE NI Me et ED mt 


| 
: 
: 
i 
j 


1884.] Recent Literature. 49 


vivid description and good generalizing powers. It is, moreover, 
a successful application of the principle of evolution, the theory 
forming the warp and woof of the work, and thus according with 
nature, while a wholesome and reverent tone pervades the pages. 
It is just the book to use in schools as a reader, or for collateral 
reading by classes in zoology. 

The book is a continuation of Miss Buckley's earlier little vol- 
ume entitled “ Life and her Children,” to which we shall hereafter 
draw attention. Taking up the thread dropped at the close of the 


book just named, the authoress shows that while the world before 
the advent of fishes and other back-boned animals was teeming 
with life, worms, mollusks, crustaceans, insects, etc., yet the world. 
could not make the fullest use of them, and therefore life devised 
a plan of structure where her forms should reach their highest 
€xpression, and which should take the lead all over the earth, 
dominating the regions of the air, the earth, as well as the water. 

Beginning with the lancelet, and considering the sea-squirts or 
ascidians, two types lying on the threshhold of “ back-bone life,” 
she then describes the lamprey, then the old-fashioned “ ganoid” 
fishes, and shows how they led the way to the incoming of the 

VOL, XVIIT.—No. 1, 4 


50 Recent Literature. _ (Janua, | 


amphibians, the reptiles, birds, the bony fishes, and lastly the 
mammals, with man, “ the last and greatest winner in life’s races. 
The story is most skillfully told; it will charm the grown-up 
naturalist, and, as we have reason to know, interest an intelligent 
lad. The wood-cuts, some of which we reproduce, are by Mr. 
Carreras, and are geological restorations of unusual excellence. 
The frontispiece, illustrating the phosphorescent fishes, is by Mr - 
Smit. The authoress acknowledges the aid of Professor W. 
Kitchen Parker, Mr. Alfred, R. Wallace and others, and her work 
while very readable is also reliable. We can see no points open — 
to serious criticism. | 


Baume’s ODONTOLOGICAL RESEARCHES!— This is not a yS 
tematic work on odontology, but a series of chapters on the gai 
eral nature of teeth, containing the results of the author’s original 
researches, and well illustrated by numerous wood-cuts. 4 
first part is an attempt at a developmental history of the teeth. 
After stating the nature of the theory of natural selection, the 
author enters into an elaborate general description of the derma 
armor of vertebrates, which is followed by descriptions of the 
placoid scales and teeth, and the teeth of other fishes, as well as 
those of amphibians and reptiles, and a section on the develop | 
ment of mammalian teeth. The following subjects are then diy. 
cussed: the reduction of the teeth; the strengthening 1n Uh” 
sockets of mammalian teeth, especially the relations between ©” 
teeth and bones; the hard tissues of teeth; the physiology © 
dental substance; the ever-growing teeth (wurzellose_zahne) 0, 
mammals, 2. e., those with an exposed pulp, as the incisors” 
rodents, and the tusks of the elephant; the formation of | 
crown and root; the specialized teeth; the transformation 
tooth-forms; the milk-teeth; the diphyodont semblance of m 
mals; the third dentition; the typical number of ets? p 

d H 


eto 
ti 


gii s] 


ENA 
as 
A 


_ teeth of the present time; the last rudiments of lost teeth 2” 
jaws of other mammals, and finally he discusses teeth ane © 
organism. ; 

The second part is of more practical interest, discussing 
defects of the hard parts. : 


RECENT Books AND PAMPHLETS. 3 
A. S. Packard, Fr.—American Science Series, Briefer Course, Zodlogy- H 
» & Co. 1883. 12°, pp. 334. 
Cragin, F. W.—A contribution to the History of the Fresh-water Copepoda 
Trans. Kan. Acad. Sci., May, 1883. From the author. <a 
Harger, Oscar.—Report on the Isopoda. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zodl., Vol. XI, per 
* Results of dredging on E. coast U. S., 1880. Sept., 1883. From the a 
Agassiz, Alex.—The Porpitide and Velellide. Mem. Mus. Camp. Zoö!. 
No. 2. Surface fauna of the Gulf Stream. July, 1883. gp 
Kunz, G. F—American Gems and Precious Stones. Ext. from “ The 
sources of the U.S.” Washington, 1883. From the author. 


\ Odontological Forschungen. Von ROBERT BAUME. Leipzig, Verlag VO” 
Felix, 1882. 8vo, pp. 307, 191. ; 


of Fd 
Paii] 
Nc, 


E 


1884.) Recent Literature. 51 


Williams, Alo—The Mineral Resources of the United States, Washington, 1883. 
rom the author. 
Clarke, W. H.—Horses’ Teeth, N. Y., W. R. Jenkins. From the publisher. 
Shufeldt, R. W.—Observations oa n the Osteology of Podasocys ponon Ext. 
ur. Anat. and Physiolo Also, Ohuersshoei's n the Habits of the Ameri- 
can Chameleon (Ano/is principalis), From the satio 
Barrois, Chas:—Recherches sur les Terrains Anciens des Asturies et de la Galice. 
Planches et Texte. Lille, 1882. From the author. 
Powell, J. W.—Annual kapan of the Secretary of the Interior for the year ended 
June 30, 1881, Vol. 111. Washington, 1882, From the department. 
Winchell, Alex.—W orld-li s or Aiea gst Geology. Chicago, Griggs & Co., 
8 From the publish 
Wi eon A H Ste Loins ppa Miller; S. a ee spe Survey of Illinois, ina 
Geology, by A. H. Worthen; Paleontology, by A Pees “pel Ores 
St. John and S. A. Miller. Bouton, May, 1883. Fro m A. H. Wor 
iee W.~-On a few Medusæ from the Bermudas. Bull. Mus, Comps rod Vol. 
so. 3 ie , 1883. Piss bey author 
aie. Chas and Wins —New hod for estimating the contents of 
highly oct Coal beds, - A to h Aai fields of Pennsylvania, 
Pohlman, Jul—On the Origin of the eastern end of Lake Erie. From the author. 
Sir, S. H.—The fossil White Ans pe konan Ext. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts 
d Sciences, 1833. From the 
FEAR S. V.—Report on the feoi PEREN observed post mortem in a case 
of Delirium Grave. From the author. 
Smucker, I—Mound-builders’ Works, near Newark, Ohio. From the author. 
t, M. &.—Observations sur une note récente de M, P. J. Van Beneden con- 
cernant la découverte des ossements de Bernissart. Ext. Bull. Acad. Roy. de 
+, 1883. author 


Ritch, W. G.—Illustrated New Mexico, 1883. 

Nipher, F. E.—On certain Problems in Refraction. 

ee Survey of Missouri. Fourth cai Report, 1882. Both from the 
Trans. St. Louis Acad, of Science, Vol. 1 

Shite: Aad Trotting Horse 

Set a new form of Lantern Galvanometer. Both from the Amer. Jour, Sci. and 


Seni and Chance, a lesii delivered before the Kansas Acad. of Science, 
1880. All from the a 

Wadsworth, J. L. R Ry and Nipher —The Tornado 7 Fes i 14, 1879. Ext. 
Trans, Acad. of Sci. St. Louis, ook: Iv. From the aut 

Geikie, Arch.—On the supposed Pre-cambrian rocks of St. uve Ext. Quarterly 

eol. Soc., Aug., 1883. From the author. 

Agassiz, Ale Eaka: from Eebyniogien Monagmphs, Il, Echinodonnai 
July, 1883. From the author 

Tn < 0.—-Origin of Coat. Ext. Geol. Mag., Decade 11, Vol. x, June, 


Tes i Mountains of Eastern Cuba. 
——0On the Classification and Origin of Joint-structures, Ext. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. 
Hat. 1882. All from the author, 
Coppi, Fran -=-Onservazioni. Malacologiche circa la Massa semistriata e N. costulata, 
rom the author. 
Baird, S. F—Annual al Report of the Board of Pepan of the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion. Washington, 1883. From the departmen 


Hayden, F. V., St. John, 0.; Packard, A. S Jr; Pia © ; Scudder, S. H; Shu- 
feldt, R. W—Twelfth Annual Report of the U. S. Gen and Geog. Survey o r 
the Territories. Rep, of E of the Exploration in wren and Idah 
Part x, Sy mee by C. A. White; Geology, set go Zot 


oo General Notes. [ January, 
Hayden, F. V., Holmes, W. H., Peale, A. C-—Ditto. Part 11. Yellowstone National 4 
Park. 


Hayden, F. V—-Maps and Panoramas of Twelfth Ania Report U. S. Geol. and 
Geog. Surv. Washington, 1883. From the departm 

Calvin, S—On the fauna found at Lime creek, Iowa. eh Amer. Jour. Science. 
From the author. 


GENERAL NOTES. 


GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS." 


America.—The Athabasca fur district, acccording to the Ret 
E. Petitot, contains large areas of fertile 'ground capable of se 
porting a considerable population. One of these areas is i 
delta formed by the mouths of the Athabasca and Peace rivers, d 
at their entrance into Athabasca lake. Between Egg river 
which the Peace river enters the lake, and Duck portage ont i 
Slave river, is an immense plain, intersected by rivulets and b is i 
the openings from the Peace to the Slave rivers. This delta ® 1 
comparable in fertility with that of the Comargue in proven 
Besides these deltas, the zone of natural prairie along the Rocky 
mountains from the Upper Saskatschewan ed Hay river, Be 
prises every condition necessary for settlem aie 

The Athabasca rises in a little lake at the per of Mt. Brow! 4 
(16,000 feet). Its course before entering Athabasca lake ae aq 
500 to 600 miles. The passage between Athabasca and Gt ak 
Slave lakes, known as Slave river, is 240 miles long, while tht asd 1 
Mackenzie, as the river is called between the Great Slave lak 


EN PRIE NAE 


proper, near the confluence of the Clear-water, is a chain of l - 
volcanic cones, and in this district “boucanes,” or vents, a he 
forth smoke and fire, abound. These are usually found on the e the | 
line of deposits of incompletely carbonized lignite. Where W 1 
Athabasca meets Birch or Bark mountains there is a cañon ©. 
i twenty-five to twenty-eight leagues long, called the Great S4 
followed by several other rapids. There is no fall, but 4 T% 
flat sheet of water, obstructed by enormous boulders. At ¥ . 
part erosion has detached from the rocks a multitude of lent 2 
lar concretions varying from the size of a button to that of a e 
boat. Fossils T in the shelly limestone that alternates 
the bituminous schist 
Lake Athabasca, Deadh, the smallest of the great chain A 
lakes that stretches from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Ate 
is 230 miles long by twenty wide. Its bed is deep, and its 07 


rocky, msec food to nothing but caribou. 
s ts paper and map correct four geographi 
1 This department is edited by W. N. LocCKINGTON, Philadelphia. 
r : f 


1884. | Geography and Travels. 53 


Lake La Rouge, which drains into the Churchill, but was said 
to also open into the Beaver river, is shown not to do so, as the 
La Plonge river, though it rises near Lake La Rouge and falls 
into the Beaver, does not take the waters of the lake. Lake Wol- 
laston docs not, as was supposed by Hearne, communicate with 
Lake Athabasca. The most southerly stream that flows into the 
latter lake rises at the foot of Beasts mountain, close to Lake 
Wollaston, but has no communication with it. Great Bear lake, 
supposed by Sir J. Richardson to have three outlets, viz., Bear 
ke and Hareskin rivers, entering the Mackenzie, and Beghula 
river, flowing to the Arctic, has really but one—that which bears 
the same name. The Hareskin river flows out of the Wind lake 
near Smith bay in Bear lake, and the Beghula or Anderson rises 
in a little lake at the foot of Mount Ti-dépay, quite to the north 
and some distance from Bear lake. The fourth error regards the 
famous great lake of the Eskimo, now known to be considerably 
smaller than was supposed. This lake was believed to have vari- 
ous Openings into the Arctic, besides one in the mouths of the 
Mackenzie and another in the Anderson. It is now known that 
this lake has but one outlet, the “ Natowdja,” which flows direct 
into the Arctic ocean. M. Petitot represents the Beaver and Un- 
known rivers, which enter Lake Athabasca from the south, as of 
rather large size, and as rising in lakes near the drainage of the 
Churchill. 
-~ The Indians of the Athabasca and Mackenzie districts, chiefly 
Chipewyans and Crees, are so reduced that they barely reach 


A Visit To StanLey’s Stations IN Arrica.—Mr. H. H. John- 
ston gives (Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc., Oct., 1883) an interesting ac- 
count of his trip up the Congo to Mr. Stanley’s stations. Mr. 
Johnston first made an excursion from Underhill, a Baptist sta- 
tion on the Lower Congo, to Pallaballa. The villages upon the 
Lower Congo have a comfortable look, and the natives raise 
Maize, cascada, limes, sometimes oranges, papaws, the passion 
flower, which gives the fruit known as maracuja or grenadilla, and 
bananas and plantains. The plots of garden are marked out by > 
a line of bast tied from peg to peg, just as our gardeners do with . 
a string; hens are kept in hen-coops made of withes and grass, 
and goats and sheep are housed in a shanty of palm-fronds. The 
Central African sheep have short hairy coats, and the rams have 
also a silky mane from chin to stomach. Here and there may be 
Seen a black, high-shouldered bullock stalled in a not ill-fashioned 
manger of palm-fronds. | f 

The houses are built neatly and well, and are usually raised a 
foot above the ground on a platform of beaten earth. They are 
made of stout poles, with a wide-spreadirg roof having a long 
pole in the center, and covered with thin laths and dried grass. 
The roof extends some feet beyond the house all round, and is 


54 General Notes. (January, , i 


prolonged in front into a kind of veranda, where the inmates of 
the dwelling pass most of their time. 

The scenery on the road to Pallaballa, as usual in the cataract f 
region of the Congo, consists of grass-covered hills alternating — 
with fertile valleys. Pallaballa is on the crest of a hill 1600. 
feet high, and is a station of the Livingston Inland Mission. f 

any Portuguese words are introduced into the dialect. AE 
prevailing superstition among the natives causes some person to 
be considered as udofki, or devil-possessed, whenever any one 
dies. The udokki must take the casca poison, which is, howeveh 1 
usually administered so as to be a strong emetic, under the we | 
tion that he will “ bring up” the devil. i 

e young men undergo an initiation of six months, during 
which time they are called i#kimba; do not wash any part o 
their bodies, and are chalked all over a ghastly white. The initie 
tion has three or more stages. The nganga, or medicine-maly © 
teaches them a distinct language, which is never taught t0 
females. | 

Returning to Vivi, Mr. Johnston walked thence for Tsangila | 


on Stanley Pool, is ninety-five miles beyond Manyanga- 1% — 
scenery between Manyanga and Leopoldville is beautiful. ae 
ey Pool is an expansion of the Congo, about twenty-five mi“ 4 


poo ) € 
cede from the water. “ Brazzaville,’ or rather Mfwa, nas eh 
advantages as a site, and is a small, low-lying native village. 

posite to it a curious cliff, apparently of red clay, rises some filly 


feet above the river. This is called Calina point, from MC" 


1884. | Geography and Travels. 55 


of the natives. The Wabuma, a stream at its mouth as wide as 
the Thames at Westminster, flows, according to Stanley, out of 
a lake seventy miles long (Lake Leopold II), runs for a great part 
of its course nearly parallel with the Congo, then bends away 
and broadens greatly, and finally contracts at its mouth. The 
Quango is probably an affluent of the Wabuma. The Bayansi 
village at the junction of Wabuma and the Congo has compact, 
tidy-locking houses, some containing three rooms. 

The principal tribes between Bólóbó and Stanley pool are the 
Batéké, the Bayansi, and the Wabuma. All seem to be compara- 
tively recentarrivals. The first are resident colonists from the north- 
west, between the Ogowé and the Congo; the second come from 
the Equator and north-east, and are the great travelers and traders 
of the Upper Congo, while the third inhabit the lower course of 
the river of the same name. All are kindly, merry, and courteous 
in behavior, of splendid physical development, and possessed of 
great artistic power, as shown in the decorations (often indelicate) 
of their utensils and arms. They are fond of music, and from 
their five-stringed instruments draw many harmonies of plaintive 
tone and perfect rhythm. The languages are of the Bantu stock,, 
and that of the Wabuma is strangely guttural. All have many 
words identical with the Kaffir tongues. Zanzibaris can often 
make themselves understood. 


ASIA AND THE INDIAN ArcHIPpeLaco.—Mr. H. O. Forbes has 
returned to London after five years of wanderings. He first 


According to Mr. R. Lydekker, of the Geological Survey of 
India, the deepest by far of the Indian River valleys is that of the 
Indus below Bowanji in Gilgit. Between that place and the Darel 
district, Lt. Col. H. C. B. Tanner states that the Indus flows in a 
Narrow gorge bordered by precipices 20,000 feet in height above 
the ocean level, the level of the waters being a little over 3000 
feet, thus giving nearly 17,000 feet as the actual depth of the gorge. 

€ occurrence of river gravels and honey-combed rock surfaces 


56 Genera: Notes. (January, 1 


many hundreds of feet below the present level proves that a great : 
part of this gorge has been cut by the river itself. at 

The lowest level of any Himalayan glacier is 9400 feet, at which ; 
point one of the glaciers about the Peak of Nanga-Parbat termr | 
nates, near the village of Tarshing. The most southern of AY 
Mastagh or Karakoram range (which contains the second highest 
known peak of the world, 28,000 feet) is covered witha complete 
network of glaciers, some of which (the Biafo and Braldu glaciers) 
are only exceeded in size by the great Humboldt glacier of Green- 
land. The lowest limit of these glaciers is about 10,000 feet, and, 
contrary to what occurs in other parts of Kashmir, they descenda 
quite into cultivated ground, and their terminal moraines are fe ; 
quently covered with a thick growth of cypress. ad 

Grocrapnicar Nores.—A letter from Mr. Stanley, dated J bes i 
14, reports the discovery of a new lake called Mantumba, ani 
also the exploration of the course of the River Ikelembu, WE 
is identical with the Malundu, and is a broad navigable stream 7 
Mr. Stanley expresses increasing surprise at the density | 


miles. The stone hatchets of the steppe are similar to pO 


Great results may be expected yp 
the proposed expedition of Col. Prejevalsky to Thibet. He w 


the Brahmaputra. The last census of Bohemia gave the MU 
ber of Czeehs as 3.470,252, that of the Germans as 2,054 
The number of foreigners in Bohemia is only 80,236, ane 
sists chiefly of Germans. The Czeeh nationality preponde! l 
in the center of Bohemia, in some districts to the -almost 
exclusion of the German element, but in the border dis 


1884.] Geology and Paleontology. 57 


especialiy those of the north-west, the Germans preponderate. 
-essup has written to the Russian Geographical Society 
that he has explored the Ongouz river, which was previously 
known only in the upper parts. Even the Tekkes did not know 
the route to the east of Mirza-chile. 

GEOLOGY AND PALAONTOLOGY. 

Tne Power or Morion 1n Crinoip Stems.—At the Soldiers’ 
Home, near Dayton, Ohio, I found the stone here figured. Im- 
bedded on its upper surface lay a coil of crinoid joints in such a 
way as to indicate that they had all once formed part of the same 
crinoid stem. Indeed, the former unity of the first 2% coils is 
evident ; but here we find traces of two coils, and a little farther 
out is seen a half coil of larger beads, however the parallelism of 


ERU 


© 
- AW A 
X 


CLAW LAL 


NERS 
Coil of Crinoid Joints. 


the coils would indicate that these are only parts of the same 
stem, the intermediate parts having been removed and their con- 
nection broken. a 

The stone is of the Clinton group, but I cannot determine the 
species of the crinoid; although separate joints of the stem are 
extremely common, the crinoid heads are lacking. One thing is 
remarkable, the rapid increase in size of the joints of the column 
within 2% coils, or not quite three inches, from } of an inch to 
about four times this diameter. I figure the end disks, enlarged 
two diameters. 

e column is disposed in a perfect and natural coil. It is not 
Customary to find things so arranged in nature unless It 1s either 
a law of their growth or the objects have the power of volition 

and can place themselves in such a position at will, The first 


58 General Notes, [January, 


case is not true here, because I frequently find a few continuous 
joints which do not show this coiled arrangement. It cannot be 
mere accident, since it is almost mathematically perfect, and any 
agency at work upon the animal after death, such as the rotary 
movement of water in a whirlpool, or the play of animals, might 
have twisted the crinoid about, but would not have formed a coil 
such as this. Hence, I conclude that it must have had the power 
of placing itself in this position at will, and that it was destroyed 
at a time when it had so disposed itself. The power of assuming 
the shape of a coil is quite a complex one, and necessitates a sys- 
tem of muscles capable of slight contraction along the whole ex- 
tent of the column, and is generally correlated with power 0 
motion in any direction, as in the bodies of snakes and the necks - 
of swans. 


friends on this subject.— Aug. F. Foerste, Dayton, Ohio. 


Tue Lour Fork BEDS ON THE GILA RIVER.—In his report of 
the Geology of New Mexico, fo the Secretary of the Interior, by 
Dr. F. V. Hayden, in 1869, this eminent geologist described the 
Santa Fé marls in their principal physical features. In 187 s 
my report to Capt. Geo. M. Wheeler, U. S. Engineers, I showed- 
that this formation is a member of the Loup Fork division of thè 
Miocene Tertiary, a conclusion clearly deducible from the remains 
of Vertebrata which it contains. An illustrated report on the z 
ter was published in the fourth volume of the Report of the U. > 
Geographical and Geological Survey W. of the rooth meridian, 
Capt G. M. Wheeler in charge (1877). ad 
__ Since that time the writer has made several visits to parts° 
New Mexico not previously explored, and I am able to show? a 
the Loup Fork formation has a much wider distribution 19 thar 
territory than has hitherto been supposed to be the case. |, J 

In descending the Rio Grande, beds appear on the west side o 
the river, which strongly resemble those of Santa Fé. They gi 
tend along the eastern base of the Magdalena mountains, and # 
far south as Socorro, in considerable extent and thickness. South 


mountains is composed of beds of this age where cut by the gf” 
of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé R. R. west of Hatch e 
tion. West of the Mimbres mountains the valley of the — 

e same name is filled with débris of the bed of eruptive = 


ee eee ae EES 


TOR a ee ee eg ee ae eee 


Se Pe EE EAE Ne Pe ea ee AEE ae 


1884. ] Geology and Paleontology. 59 
flow which once covered the country as far as traversed by the 
railroad from Deming to Silver City. Its age I could not 
ascertain. 

A great display of the Loup Fork formation is seen in the 
drainage basins of the heads of the Gila river. In traveling west- 
ward from Silver City, its beds first appear in the valley of Man- 
gus creek, which enters the Gila from the east. Crossing the 
Gila, the mail route to the west passes through the valley of 
Duck creek, which flows eastwards into that river. Though 
bounded by eruptive hills and mountains, and their outflows, the 
valley was once filled with Loup Fork beds; which have been 
extensively eroded, the principal exposures being on the north 
side of the valley, forming the foothills of the Mogollon range. 

n the divide between the waters of the Gila and San Francisco 
rivers, the formation rises in bluffs of 300 feet elevation. 
descent into the valley of the San Francisco brings to light a still 
greater depth of this deposit. The valley, which extends from 
the cafion which encloses the river south from the mouth o ry 
creek, to the Tulerosa mountains on the north, and between the 
Mogollons on the east :and the San Francisco range on the west, 
was once filled with the deposit of a Loup Fork lake. This mass 


basaltic outflows or not. When so protected, the river flows 
hrough comparatively narrow cafions. Where the outflow is 


for the fortunate discovery, by Mr. Robert Seip, of the skull of a 
Species of rhinoceros of the typical Loup Fork genus Aphelops. 
It is apparently the A. fossiger Cope, a species abundant in the 
Loup Fork beds of Kansas and Nebraska. It was found near 
the mouth of Dry creek, in a conglomerate bed of the formation. 

In the valley of the San Francisco, the Loup Fork beds reach 
a thickness of 500 teet, and consist of sand, clayey sand, soft 
Sandstone and conglomerates of larger and smaller pebbles of 
eruptive material, having a near resemblance to those of the 
gion of Santa Fé —&. D. Cope. 


ON New LeMUROIDS FROM THE PUERCO FORMATION.—The ani- 
Px of the Eocene period, of the Adapidz, may belong to the 
puroidea, but the evidence which I have derived from the feet 
— €lycodus! has led me to refer them? to the insectivorous divi- 
on of the Bunotheria, to the neighborhood of the Tupæidæ and 
Wade. At the same time I retained provisionally the gen- 


= 
Sah “N.S. GG Survey W. of rooth mer., G. M. Wheeler, Iv, p. 140. 
; seedings Academy Nat. Sciences of Philada., 1883, pp- 78-80. 


60 General Notes. 


era with three and two superior premolars in the sub-order 
muroidea, although the foot structure of these extinct genet 
yet unknown. I also inadvertently defined the Lemurot 
having quadrituberculate superior molars, a character whit 
well knew to be wanting in various extinct and recent § 
. where they are tritubercular. Two families we re propose 
Eocene lemuroids, which are defined as follows: 
Superior premolars three...... hin seen ee os a as AI 
Superior premolars two...........- Spe a ea epee en caer we eee Anapto 
The genera of the first named family are defined as fol 
I. Canine teeth large and lateral; well separated, 

First superior premolar without internal lobe ; superior true molars trituberct 
cingula +e eseee ee ice bale abel bald cd we OER NO Wes eee eee 
II. Canine teeth median in position or much reduced in size. | 

a, Last inferior premolar without internal tubercle. ! 
Inferior premolars all one-rooted. nine and incisor small, e...» 
First premolar only one-rooted; canine small; incisor very large....+++ 


aa, Last inferior premolar with internal tubercle. 


A very large ? canine; first premolar only one-rooted......-+++++ eo eed 
A very large ? canine; first and second premolars both one-rooted.. . Cyn 


open behind. | 
The genera of Anaptomorphidz, which on dental c 
includes Indrodon, differ as follows: 

5 a. Incisors three. ; } 
First superior | pared without inner lobe; posterior inner tubercle presen 
and second superior true molars ‘i seer ee 


aa. Incisors two, 


conic and acute, and are connected with the internal 
ridges which form a V. Posterior inner cusp disting 
and 11, a part of the posterior cingulum. Intermediate 

! Filhol Rech, Phosph, Quercy. ‘ 

. Proceedings American Philos. Society, 1883, p. 559- 

* Leidy, Report U. S. Geol. Survey Terr., 1. 

t Cope, Pal. Bull., No. 34. a 

oie uae 


f 


1884] Geology and Paleontology. 6I 


present, small. The superior incisors are well developed and dis- 
play no tendency towards the rodent type. A portion of lower 
jaw adheres to the skull, and may belong to the same animal. It 
supports the last two molars. These have two anterior, opposite, 
approximated cusps. The heel of the penultimate molar is 
rather large, and has a raised edge, which develops two tubercles 
at the angles. 

L[ndrodcn malaris, sp. nov.— Char. Specif—The first and third 
superior incisors are a little larger than the second. Canine pre- 
ceded and followed by diastemata, each of which is 1.5 times as 
long as the long diameter of the base of the crown. Premolars 
separated from each other and from the first true molars by inter- 
spaces half as long as the diastemata. Neither tooth has any basal 
tubercles, but the posterior has a weak external cingulum, which is 
stronger posteriorly. The internal cusp of the same tooth is an- 
terior, and is acute and elevated. The superior true molars have a 
strong external cingulum, which rises into a small tubercle oppo- 
site the space between the external principal cusps. Of the latter 
the anterior is a little more conic than the posterior, and both are 
well within the external border. On the last molar the posterior 
external cusp is continuous with the external intermediate tuber- 
cle, and forms a cutting edge within the posterior margin of the 
crown, The posterior inner tubercle is rather large, and pro- 
jects further inwards than the apex of the anterior V or the sec- 
ond true molar, but not so far as in the species of Anisonchus 
and Haploconus. 

The surface of the cranium is too much obscured by cracks 
_ and films of matrix to permit a view of the sutures and foramina. 
The face is wide, as the posterior part of the maxillary and the 
malar bones are expanded outwards. I have not yet been able 
to ascertain the condition of the orbit posteriorly. The mandibu- 
Jar ramus is rather slender. 


MEASUREMENTS. M. 

Length of dental series from posterior base of I IIT.........--.05+ oo OIRR 
Length of hases of superior incisors Seek wees v (0000 
Length of premolars on maxillary bone ..... OT One 
RODE base of Pon. IY oo icons Aosa ieii rere .0028 
es a ee ty Ns casi cannes .0038 
Diameters M. 11 { anteroposterior... 2... esse scence ese eee tere ceereee + 0033 
t erse PE A E E R . -0040 

Diameters inferior M. I { aNteroposteriOr ..os+ts:»rssesoeežeresosennr «0032 
i SFBNGVOTSE . uss cecacessvues s con 0039 

Depth of ramus mandibuli at M. H ..... ORE nahy -0070 


interest, In the shortening of its dental series it is the most spe- 
Cialized genus of the epoch, while the forms of its true molars 


62 General Notes. [ January, 


are like those of the simple Creodonta, and more specialized than 
those of Anaptomorphus and the lemurs generally. In the sim- 
plicity of its premolars, however, it maintains the general charac- 
ter of the Puerco fauna, and is more primitive than the forms just 
named, Its nearest ally of the Puerco yet known is Chriacus— 
B-D: Cope. 


THE DESTRUCTION OF THE VOLCANO oF KRAKATOA.—It now 
appears that this volcano was not wholly destroyed during the — 
great eruption on August 26th, a portion of its southern aspect 
still remaining. How it appeared before the catastrophe may be 
seen in the accompanying illustration from the Scientific Ameri 
can, Nature for Oct. 25 prints several communications respect- 
ing the great earthquake wave which was felt at Aden, Cape of 
Good Hope, and the Mauritius. Farther facts of much interest 
appear in Nature for Nov. 8. It seems that on May 22, 1883, | 
Krakatoa was in a state of eruption, sending out showers of ashes 
ey streams of pumice. The activity continued during June and 

uly. | 


water-covered areas.—/Journat of R. Microscopical Society. 


GEOLOGICAL Nores.—General— Professor T. R. Jones, in ê f 
report presented to the British Association at its last meeting, j 
gave a synopsis of the fossil Phyllopoda. He recognizes thirty | 
genera, of which seventeen occur in Great Britain. Mr. Hy. 
Woodward (Geol. Mag., Oct.) commences a synopsis of the 8°% f 
era and species of carboniferous limestone trilobites. The ; ht 
paper is almost entirely occupied with the genus Phillipsia, 18" | 
species of which are diagnosed. P /aticaudata is new, as 15 a : 
a species referred provisionally to Proetus, under the title of i T 
levis. The second paper (Nov.) diagnoses nine species of ¢ 
fithsides, one of which is new. The Transactions of the Roy T 
Dublin Society contain a monograph of the fossil fishes hr 7 
Carboniferous series of Great Britain. Following the intentio™ | 


= 


= 


PLATE VIIL 


——————— 
SaaS 


E eee 


———S=SSSSSSaaSSSsSsS= 
= 


n o T 


TE 

E 

n 
n 


The Volcano of Krakatoa, Straits of Sunda ; height, 2700 feet. 


1884. | Mineralogy. 63 


of Agassiz, as far as they can be detected by his MS, labels, fifty- 
nine genera and 163 species are recorded, of which 117 have been 
obtained at Armagh, Ireland. Fourteen of the genera are founded 
on the spines of Hybodonts, four generic names denote various 
peculiar cranial bones and dermal plates, the true anatomical rela- 
tions of which are as yet unknown, and forty-one are founded on 
the various forms of teeth of the types Orodus, Petalodus, Coch- 
liodus, Psammodus and Copodus. Mr. Davis states that, judging 
from analogy, the teeth of Cladodus may have been associated 
with the spines of Ctenacanthus. The spines of Oracanthus are 
Stated to have probably occupied a lateral position on the head 
of these elasmobranchs.. The worn condition of their apices 
proves that they were not dorsal, while their solid points, deco- 
rated on both sides, show that they were not true dermal 
plates. 

Tertiary —Mr. Newton (Geol. Mag., October) records the oc- 
currence of the cave hyena, which, with Professor Boyd Daw- 
kins, he regards as a large variety of H. crocuta, in the “ Forest 
Bed ” strata of Suffolk, England. 

Quaternary —The alluvial deposits of the Kashmir district are 
stated by Mr. R. Lydekker to be of vast and varied extent and 
composition. The town of Kishtwar, in the Chinab valley, is 
built on one of these deposits, at a level of several hundred feet 
above the river. The presence of fine clayey and sandy horizon- 
tal layers in the valleys, at considerable elevations above the bot- 
tom of the valley, prove that a dam once existed lower down the 
valley, and Mr. Drew has estimated that the great lake of Kash- 
ne must once have stood 2000 feet above the present level of the 
Va ey. 

MINERALOGY". 


AMERICAN Gems AND Precious StonEs.— Mr. Geo. F. Kunz has 
contributed to “ The Mineral Resources of the United States,” 
published by the Government, an article on American gems an 
Precious stones, of which separate copies have been printed. Mr. 

unz has for some years been connected with Messrs. Tiffany and 
Co., the well known jewelers of New York city, and has had an 
excellent opportunity for collecting facts concerning American 
gems. 


_. He states that systematic mining for gems and precious stones 
is being carried on at only two places in the United States, viz., 
Paris, Maine, and Stony Point, North Carolina. In other cases 
where gems are found they are either met with accidentally, or 
Occur in connection with other materials that are being mined, or 
in small veins which are only occasionally met with. They are 
often gathered with little system on the surface, as is the case with 
' Edited by Professor H., CARVILL Lewis, Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila- 
ions, papers for r 


delphia, to whom communications eview. etc.. should be sent. 


GA General Notes. { January, 


the sapphire, garnet and olivine found in Montana and New Mexico; 
or from the beds of streams and decomposing rock, as the moss 
agate from Colorado; or on beaches, as the agate, chlorastrolite 
and thomsonite from Lake Superior. 

Some eighty-eight different minerals occur in the United States 
which have been used as gems. Twelve of these occur in the 
the United States only. 


Diamonds are not mined in this country, although they have 
occasionally been found at a number of localities. A large dia ; 
mond was found at Manchester, opposite Richmond, Va., bya 
laborer employed in grading one of the streets. It was an octa- 
hedron, and weighed, after it was cut, over ten karats. It was worth | 
$5000 before cutting. The principal localities for sapphires and 
rubles are in New Mexico, Arizona, and Southern Colorado, where 
they occur in the sand, often on ant-hills. Garnets occur in the 


clear crystal for optical purposes is almost entirely Brazilian, w 
the good material found here rarely. reaches the proper channe® 
Although agates are abundant here, nearly all the polished spe’ 
mens sold in America have been polished in Germany, having 
originally came from Brazil and Uracuay. Moss agates, howevel 
are collected here in large quantities, although the cutting is doi 


jade 


A large number of minerals have been cut and used as gems % i 
ornaments, and Mr. Kunz’ ic i ice in sti lating 


to localities, but this will doubtedless be rectified in another yea! 
report. ot 

In stating that sphene does not occur as a gem in the Unie 
States, Mr. Kunz has evidently not been aware of the beau eo 
transparent yellow crystals, often of large size, which occut | 
Delaware county, Pennsylvania. - 


k 


F 
DE 


ee 
a 


N E E EE E T E E EA 


eee oe E ES 


1884.] Mineralogy. 65 


A NEW MINERAL.—Under the name of richellite MM. Cesaro 
and Despret! have described a supposed new mineral from Richelle, 
near Visé, Belgium. It is regarded as a hydrous fluo-phosphate of 
iron and calcium, and is a compact, soft, earthy substance of pale 
yellowish color and greasy luster, having a hardness of 2-3 and 
specific gravity 2. The composition is 

PO, Fen Al,O, CaO H,O 
28.67 28.71 1.80 5.64 35-54 

Of the water, 23.33 per cent is driven off at 100°. Further 
examination is needed to show that the mineral is homogeneous 
and a good species. 


GEMS FROM THE HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS.—Professor C. U. Shep- 
ard? has called attention to the discovery of a remarkable locality 
for sapphire and ruby in the Himalaya mountains. The crystals ’ 
occur with other varieties of corundum in a schistose or slaty 
rock, and are associated with chlorite. The gems, which are 
limpid and finely colored, are also finely crystallized. The local- 
ity was discovered accidentally, but is now guarded by govern- 
ment troops. Professor Shepard believes that the resemblances 
between the mode of occurrence of these Indian gems and those 
found in North and South Carolina are “ sufficiently important to 
encourage the expectation that valuablé corundum gems may yet 
be found in the United States.” 

Professor Shepard is apparently not aware that a much more 
full account of this discovery of gems in India was published more 
than a year ago, by Professor F. R. Mallet, in a paper entitled 
“On Sapphires recently discovered in the northwest Himalaya.” ’ 

It is there stated that the correct locality is Padam, east of the 
village of Machel, Zanskar district, territory of Kashmir. The 


: ems were exposed by a landslide, and occur far up on the moun- 


tain at the limit of perpetual snow. Some of the sapphires dis- 
covered were a foot in length. A physical and crystallographic 
description of the crystals is given. In the center ofa hexagonal 
Prism of sapphire, a cavity was found, in which were two crystals 
of tourmaline. Frequently the specimens are coated with a thin 
white mineral resembling gibbsite. 

The crystals are bluish white and translucent, with transparent. 
fine blue portions irregularly mixed. These blue portions o 
Course constitute the only valuable parts of the crystals, and are 
Carefully cut out by the lapidaries. 


Descroizire FROM Mexico.—S. L. Penfield? has analyzed a 
vanadium mineral from near Zacatecas, Mexico, which, while 
having the physical properties of the mineral recently described 


1 : « 
i Pel Soc. Belg., Mem. x, 1883. 


E dok Sc., Nov., 1883. Ji 
Farge Geolog. Surv. of India, Vol. xv, Part 2, p. 138. ‘ 
mer. Jour, Se., Nov., 1833. : 
, YOR zvin, —no. 1, 5 


x 


66 General Notes. 


by A. Frenzel under the name of ¢ritochorite, appears to be ur | 
doubted descloizite. The very small crystals, grouped somewhat 
like the common crystallizations of calamine or prehnite, hada a 
columnar fibrous structure, distinct columnar cleavage, dark- i 
brown color and resinous luster, with hardness 3.5, and s ci 
gravity 6.200. ef 
Before the blowpipe it gave reactions for vanadium, arsenit, f 
lead, copper and zinc, and in the closed tube it fused readily, i 
boiled up violently and gave off water. | 
A careful analysis gave 
V0, AsO, 7,0; TO iO 0 He 
18.95 3-82 oas 54.93. 6.94 122p 2D 
It differs from descloizite in having part of the vanadic acid 1 
placed by arsenic acid. The analyses, as well as all the phys! 
properties of the mineral, show such a close resemblance to trito : 
chorite that it is very possible that they are identical, and sho 
both be considered as arsenical varieties of descloizite. 


Gorp ın Norta Carouina—At a recent meeting of the AG 
emy of Natural Sciences Professor H. Carvill Lewis exhi 
some remarkable gold nuggets found in Montgomery coun 
C., forty miles east of Charlotte and two miles from Yadkin 
Some of the nuggets were of great size. One of them wel 
over four pounds, and contained nearly $1000 worth of gold. 
was finer than any specimen in the collection at the U.S. Mia 
was probably one of the largest nuggets ever found in 1 
America. Many of the specimens exhibited were of nearly P 
gold of a crystalline structure, and of a fine golden yellow 
It was stated that in the district of North Carolina, whence 
nuggets were taken, gold is very abundant. The larger ™ 
were found in the gulleys, where they had been washed out 
decomposed rock, and it had been stated that a shovelful oF 
dug out of the hillsides anywhere in the district would pañ 
traces of gold. Some years ago one man took out of a hol 
teen feet square $30,000 worth of the precious metal. The 4 
zite containing the gold occurs in a white clay or decomp” 
schist. 

BOTANY.! 


An INTERESTING Boranic RELIC oF THE DisTRICT OF C 
Bis2—At a meeting of the Biological Society of Washi 
held October roth, Mr. Lester F. Ward exhibited the or 
manuscript proceedings of the Washington Botanical 90° 
which had accidentally fallen into his hands. This soa 
formed in the year 1817 and continued in existence until 1820 


1 Edited by ProF. C. E. Bessey, Ames, Iowa. 
2 Communicated by Mr. Lester F. Ward. 


1884. ] Botany. 67 


numbered among its founders and most active members Rev. Dr. 
James Laurie, Dr. Alex. McWilliams and Dr. John A, Brereton, 
while Dr. Bigelow, of Boston, and Doctors Darlington and Bar- 
ton, of Pennsylvania, were honorary members. Four years after 
the dissolution of this society Dr. Brereton published his “ Flore 
Columbianz Prodomus,” in the preface of which he briefly alludes 
to it. This work is still extant, and an analysis of its contents 
may be found in Mr. Ward's recently published “ Flora of Wash- 
ington.”? 

This allusion of Dr. Brereton was about all that was known of 
the history of the botanical society prior to the discovery of the 
above-mentioned document, which, containing as it does the 
names of.all its members, its constitution and by-laws, and a 
careful record of all its work in the study of a then unknown and 
still remarkable flora, possesses great interest for local botanists. 
Mr. Ward promised that it should be ultimately so disposed of as 
to render it safe from the vicissitudes of either private individu- 
als or ephemeral societies. : 


HYBRIDISM IN SprroGyra.—An interesting case of hybridism 
between individuals of two distinct species of Spirogyra came un- 
der my observation at Ames, Ia., in August, 1883. The plants of 
this genus are the familiar pond scums which occur everywhere 
in ponds and ditches as green stringy growths floating or attached 
to sticks and stones. Each plant is a long cylinder of cells, and 
in the latter there may be seen, under a moderate power of the 
microscope, the beautiful spiral arrangement of the chlorophyll 
bodies. Sexual reproduction takes place by the union of the pro- 
toplasm of two cells. Two plants happening to lie side by side, 
bud out small short branches which, growing towards each other, 
finally touch at their tips and then fuse into tubes. Through these 
tubes the protoplasm from one cell runs into and unites with that 
in the other. Asa result of this union of protoplasm a resting 
spore (technically a zygospore) is formed. This process may be 
observed by any one almost any time during the summer, by the 
aid of a microscope, and there are few things which are more in- 
structive to the beginner in vegetable physiology, who would gain 
some insight into the real nature of sexual reproduction. 

_ Inthe case of hybridism under consideration, the two species 
involved were Spirogyra majuscula and S. protecta. These species 
differ from one another so much that there can be no question as 
to their distinctness. In S. majuscula (A and A’ in the figure) 
there are many very slightly coiled spirals of chlorophyll, the 
nucleus of the cell is very evident, and the partitions between the 
cells are plane; in S. protecta (B and B’ in the figure).on the con- 
trary, there is but one closely coiled spiral of chlorophyll, the nu- 


_* Guide to the Flora of Washington and its Vicinity. Bulletin No. 22, U. S. Na- 
tional Museum. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1881. 


68 General Notes. [ January, 


cleus is to be seen with difficulty, if at all, and the partitions ha 
a curious double-infolded appearance. 5 
Two individuals, one bearing all the characters of S. maguscuia 
and the other all those of S. protecta, were observed in conjuga 
tion, as in the figure. The two species were almost equally abun- 
dant in the pool from which the specimen was obtained. As 
be seen in the figure an apparently perfect resting spore | 
formed as a result of the hybridization. It is interesting to 
that the form of the resting spore resembles that of S. protecia 


FN 
(ey 


A, Spirogyra majuscula, and B, S. profectain conjugation; A’, 4 single 
S. majuscula showing structure; B’,a single cell of S. profecta showing ®t 
(From camera sketches.) 


much more than it does that of S. majuscula. The pure” 
resting spores of S. protecta in the same pool were muc 


In this instance B was functionally the female and A the 
that here form followed the female.— C. E. Bessey. 


Larce Funet.—Last summer while searching for small 

I found a fungus of unusual dimensions. It was on the- 
of an old tree which was decayed in places. The tree 
where the ground was wet, though not swampy ; it was 4 
tree, and the fungus was so high that I could not se 
a gentleman found means to reach it and cut it from th 


, 


dark brown shades of soft tints, growing darker at 


1884. ] Botany. 69 


Where the fungus touched the tree, each layer seemed to spring 
directly from the wood of the tree; while each was connected 
with the one below it by processes resembling teeth or strings. 
The whole mass was compact and solid, yet there was a juiciness 
about the surface which made it necessary to handle it carefully 
lest the delicate surface become scratched. I have seen many 
similar specimens but rarely one so large and perfect. I noticed 
a statement in the NaTuratisr that, as a rule, the large fungi of 
this species are not far from the ground. But I think that in 
Maine, at least, they grow high on the trees. I have many times 
seen them too high to reach, and I incline to the belief that a 
greater altitude is the rule and not the exception. 

n the same tree where I found this large fungus there were 
several small ones lower on the trunk.—C. W. L. Rich, Auburn, 


aane 


New Froripa Funai. I.—Asterina intricata E. & M.—Peri- 
thecia ( 1%4-34™™ diam.) suborbicular, flat, black, of a reticulated 
structure, the free ends of the reticulation forming a short, sub- 

yaline, marginal fringe ; asci abundant, obovate, sessile, 15x 10z.; 
sporidia narrow, clavate-oblong, hyaline, with a faint gelatinous 
border, about 9 x 3x., endochrome once divided. Remarkable for 
its large flat perithecia scattered over the lower surface of the leaf 
without any very distinct mycelium. On living leaves of Quercus 
| arenaria, 

Venturia cupulata E. & M.—Perithecia hypophyllous, scattered, 
astomous, 300v. diam., hairy around the base, bald and collapsed 
above; hairs setaceous brown black, apices entire, 210 X 6y.; 
asci oblong, 48 X 12%., eight-spored; sporidia obovate, hyaline, 
biseriate, uniseptate, 12-13 x 4-4%. On living leaves of Quer- 
cus laurifolia, ' 

Venturia applanata E. & M.—Perithecia hypophyllous, lenti- 
form (100y.), perforated in the center, of subradiate cellulose 
_ Structure, with a few (12-15) erect, brown, sparingly septate hairs, 
70-100. long; asci oblong, 40 x 10-12.; sporidia in 2-3 series, 
Ovate-oblong, I-septate, yellowish, 10-12 x 34. On living leaves 
of Magnolia glauca. 


15-16 x 3-314. Probably the perfectly developed asci will be 
found to be 8-spored. On living leaves of Magnolia glauca. 
__ Linospora Jerruginea E. & M.—Spots light yellowish-brown, 
border darker, narrow and slightly raised, 11%4—2™™" diam.; peri- 
thecia black, subglobose (150.), immersed and covered above by 
the blackened cuticle, perforated above but ostiolum scarcely 
Prominent; asci cylindrical, 75-80 x 7#, sessile or nearly so; 


[Jaa 


paraphyses abundant linear; sporidia 8, vermiform, yellowish 
faintly nucleate, acute at each end, 35-45 x 1%. The perithe 
cia are solitary, one in the center of each spot, but the spots 
often sterile. On leaves of Andromeda ferruginea. 


70 General Notes. 


selves. On leaves of //ex dahoon. 
Septoria serpentaria E. & M.—Spots chestnut-brown, becom 
darker, eroded, border obsolete, 1™™ diam. ; perithecia black, sut 
‘globose, innate-epiphyllous, 156 x 140y.; spores subhyaline, 
cylindrical curved, 82-108 x 4». On leaves of Quercus l 
olia. e 
Pestalozzia myrice E. & M.—Spots irregular, chestnut-browt - 
(5-10™™), acervuli innate-erumpent, epiphyllous, 75. diam ; spore 
oval, dark brown, biseptate, ends hyaline, 9-12y. long, crest 2 
parted; pedicels 12 X 2y., contracted below. On living leaves ® 
Myrica cerifera. 
Helminthosporium fumosum E. & M.—Hypophyllous in l 
olivaceous tufts which form a circular group 14—1°™ diam, sta 
ing on a prostrate pale brick-colored, branching mycelium, W 
forms a radiate-fimbriate margin around the whole; the $ 
hyphæ are pale brown, simple, septate, 75-80 X 6p., and | 
their tips a single obovate, brown, 3-septate spore, 25-30 X I 
On living leaves of Persea palustris — F. B. Ellis, Newfield, 
and Dr. Geo. Martin. 


Among the interesting plants described is a white-rayed | 
phium (S. a/biflorum) from Texas, closely related to the 0 
compass plant. In the thistles (now of the genus Cnicus 
merly Cirsium) the species C. discolor is hereafter to be the Vi 
discolor under C. altissimus. : 

“Of genuine Lactuca, or the Scariola section, we 


1884] Botany. 71 


have five indigenous species, namely, Z. canadensis L., the oldest 
name of the Z. elongata Muhl., &c.; L. integrifolia Bigelow (a 
better and perhaps as old a name as Z. sagittifolia E\l., which is 
not quite certain); Z. Aivsuta Muhl. and Nutt. (as old and quite 
as good a name as L. sanguinea Bigelow); L, graminifolia, a 
southern species of wide extension westward; Z. /udoviciana 
DC., a species which ranges from Dakota to Texas, and is marked 
by its larger heads and more imbricated and large-bracted invo- 
lucre.” 


new species of honeysuckle (Lonicera sullivantii) is de- 
scribed. It occurs from Central Ohio to Illinois, Wisconsin and 
Winnipeg, and also in Tennessee, etc. It has hitherto been con- 
sidered a form or variety of Z. fava, from which it is now for the 
first time separated. If we understand it aright, Z. sullivantii is 
the northern species, while Z. fava is strictly a southern specics. 
In this connection it may also be stated that hereafter the small 
honeysuckle (Lonicera parviflora of the manuals) is to be known 
as Z. glauca Hill, and that the var. douglasii is to be erased. 

A SUGGESTION IN REGARD TO THE PUBLICATION OF NEW SPE- 
CIES.—Some, months ago one of the foremost of our American 
botanists suggested the propriety of demanding in case of publi- 
cation of descriptions of new species in scientific journals, that 
Specimens should in every case accompany the descriptions. The 
_ Suggestion is well worth considering in these days when nearly 
every discoverer is inclined to make free use of his right to de- 
Scribe what he has found. There can be little doubt that it is 
wise to permit and encourage such work on the part of our best 
collectors. The stimulation it gives to the whole work in the 
field of systematic botany is no small part of the good which re- 
sults. But a serious inconvenience often arises as a consequence 
of such a mode of publication. It is, in the first place, difficult 
to find the descriptions on account of the well-known inaccuracy 
of most of the journal indexes, and in the second place it too 
often happens that the specimens upon which the descriptions 
were based, soon become inaccessible. These difficulties might 
be more or less completely remedied by our scientific journals 
adopting any of the following plans: 

I. Every description to be accompanied by the statement that 
type specimens were deposited in this or that established her- 
barium. i 
,.2: Every description to, be accompanied by specimens to be 
distributed by the editor of the journal giving such publication. 

- No description to be given until specimens are deposited in 
the National Herbarium. 
€ last is essentially the recommendation made in the No- 
vember number of the London Yournal of Botany. _It would 
Simplify matters very much if in every case the deposited speci- 


72 General Notes. J anuary, | 


mens were soon accompanied by the printed descriptions. We | 
shall return to this matter again ere long, and in t e meantime i 
shall be glad to receive further suggestions.—C. E. Dessey. 


REMARKABLE Fuscus Growru.—I have lately received from f 
Messrs. B. M. Everhart and W. T. Haines, of West Chester, Pa, 
a very curious growth, an account of which may be of interest 
This strange production is no doubt an abortive growth of the 7 
mycelium of some fungus unable to assume its normal form and i 
character for want of light and air. a | 

In the letter of Messrs. Everhart and Haines, accompany | 
the specimen, they say: “ About two years ago a gentleman % f 


this place, Dr. Warren, preparing to build a stable on his aes 4 


He 


out window or opcning of any sort, and consequently entirely 
dark. Some time afterwards, for the purpose of ventilation, a 
hole or trap door was cut through this floor, when it was eee 
ered that the under side of the floor was coated and festooned Witt 
the curious fungoid growth before mentioned. Here andt 
were hollow, bladder-like bodies six inches in diameter and 


least breath of air. The whole was very moist, with drops 
water standing òn it, and seemed to be enveloped in a mist. p 
tions of this curious growth taken out and hung in a dry 
near a hot stove had, in two days, shriveled to less than half 
original size, and were of a yellowish-white color, had a rather 
agreeable sweetish smell and adhered slightly to the fingers- 
shaking the dried mass fragments like snow flakes separated 
fell to the floor.” ; 

The specimens sent me some days ago have not changed m 
pearance since I received them. One of them consists © 
spongy, white, torn and ragged bundle like a much-worh’ 
cloth or bundle of white rags, more compact above where n ' 
gradually contracted into the suspending cord, which 1s about 1 
thick as one's fingér, tapering above to the size of a pipe stem | 


1884. ] Botany. 73 


of about the same consistency and appearance as a piece of deer 
skin. 

My friends, Messrs. Everhart and Haines, incline to the opin- 
ion that this is the Byssus sepiicus of Withering, and quote de- 
= scriptions of that production which is said to “ grow most luxu- 
riantly in bins or on wooden shelves in cellars where wine has 
been spilt, hanging down in the form of a jelly bag or of a cylin- 
der with a globe at the end, to the length of a foot or more. It 
is easily crushed, and then seems principally to consist of water 
adhering to the fingers.” It is quite probable that this may be 
the genuine Byssus septicus, but it is evidently only the mycelium 
of some fungus, being entirely without fruit of any kind, and of 
the same nature as the curious fungoid growths in old abandoned 
mines and subterranean galleries, To what species this mycelium 
pertains it is of course impossible to say, though it is not improb- 
ably the mycelium of Polyporus destructor Fr., which in confined 
and, damp places is known to luxuriate in various abnormal 
growths. —F. B. Ellis, Newfield, N. F. 

ErratumM.—By an annoying typographical error on page 1280 
of the December NATURALIST, ninth line from the bottom, the 
word Lxtomophthora was misspelled. 


Botanica Notes.—Dr. Farlow, in the November Botanical Ga- 
zette, concludes his interesting and valuable “ Enumeration of the 
eronosporee of the United States.” It is in reality much more 
than an enumeration, for every species (thirty-six in all) is described, 
and for each the synonymy is given, as well as reference to the 
€xsiccati and literature. The species are distributed as follows: 
Phytophthora, 1; Peronospora, 31; Cystopus, 4. The pub- 
` lishers of the Botanical Gasette offer a prize of fifty dollars for the 
best life-history of any plant, the result of original investigations. 
e papers are to be finished on or before the ist of Nov., 1884. 
Further particulars may be learned by addressing the editor of 
the Gazette, Crawfordsville, Indiana. A similar prize of from 
sixty to one hundred dollars for the best paper, and of fifty dol- 
lars for the second best, is also offered by the Boston Society of 
Natural History, as announced in the advertising pages of the 
NATURALIST, Surely biological botany should no longer lag.— 
Jr. Vasey’s “ Grasses of the United States,” recently issued as a spe- 
Cial report from the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., 
IS one of the most valuable papers which that department has is- 
Sued. Synopses and descriptions of the tribes and genera of our 
native grasses are given, and under each genus all our indigenous 
Species are catalogued. The arrangement is in accordance with 
that of Bentham and Hooker in their Genera Plantarum. The 
whole number of genera is 114, while of species there are enu- 
Merated 580. The Catalogue of Canadian Plants, Part 1, Poly- 
Petalze, by Professor John Macoun, which has lately appeared as 


74 General Notes. [Janua 


one of the publications of the Geological and Natural ge 
Survey of Canada, is a publication of much p t 
doubtless the forerunner of a flora of Canada, which has l 
been needed. It includes 997 species, although extending n 
further than the end of the Polypetalæ. The Catalogue of the 
Plants of Worcester county, Mass., by Professor Joseph Jack 
published by the Worcester Natural History Society, 1s credita- 
ble both to the author and the society which furnished the means 
for its publication. It contains 812 species and well-mar 

eties, distributed among 387 genera. Why do not more ® 
societies undertake the publication of such lists PE 
Bulletins of the U. S. Fish Commission we have a list of . 
and aquatic plants of the U. S., many of which are suita 
carp ponds, by L. F. Ward. It includes flowering plants oniy. 


ENTOMOLOGY.’ 


Tue Genus Cortas.—As “Contributions from the m 
Transcontinental Survey,” Dr. H. A. Hagen has sent us fe 
Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, Vol. 


the publications on the subject both here and abroad, and 
critically study large sets of specimens wherever such were py | 
l e reduces the number of species (exclusive of eW, 
and c@sonia) to nine, as follows: 
1. Colias chrysotheme = keewaydin, with seasonal forms ariadne and eurythemes 
2. C. philodice, with seasonal form mimicking ariadne, and with north- 
forms eriphyle and chrysomelas. : : 
i 1 and 2 are so nearly related to each other that obviously relia 
_ ferences are still a want,” p. 152.) ws 
3. C. interior, synonyms edwardsii with emelia and astrea, —— wua 
pelidne Boisd., is united with C. palæno, unless the type should provë s 
tity with C. interior.) id 
4. C. paleno with var. pelidne Boisd., Staud, and chippewa. 
Si. Cu mead, 
6. C. behrit, 
7. C. nastes. - 
8. C. hecla. 
9. C. boothii. ; 
Nos. 5 to g are simply enumerated, as little or no material | 
1 This department is edited by Pror. C. V, Rtrey, Washington, D. C., t° ™ 
communications, books for notice, etc., should be sent. 


* 


1834.] Entomology. 75 


at hand, and it is safe to assume that species founded as they 
have been, on limited material, will not stand, but will all come 
to be looked upon as extreme forms of chrysotheme. However 
this may be, but four species that are at all well known, exclusive 
of eurydice and c@sonia, are recognized by Dr. Hagen. 

A critical study of his paper renders it doubtful whether the 
context warrants even these four. C. harfordii and barbara are 
made (on p. 165) synonymous with what Wm. H. Edwards 
figured as the male of 4eewaydin, so that interior, of which 
they are also made synonyms, should perhaps be joined to 
chrysotheme. Philodice and anthyale are made synonymous, 
while Mr. W. H. Edwards also acknowledges in his later writings 
the identity of palæno and anthyale with philodice, and of ariadne 
and keewaydin with eurytheme. Thus the logic of Dr. Hagen’s 
showing is, that of the common and wide-spread forms we have 


_ but two species viz., chrysotheme and philodice. The fact that 


Moeschler and Keferstein unite interior with philodice also con- 
firms the invalidity of zv¢erior and of all the varieties that Hagen 
associates with it. 
Now we have long held the opinion that evrytheme and philodice, 
as they occur in the Mississippi valley, could not satisfactorily be 
separated by any permanent specific characters, and our breeding 
experience tends to confirm this view (though the notes have 
never been published). Hence as Hagen argues that eurytheme 
and chrysotheme are one, by parity of reasoning the conclusion 
is inevitable that our commoner North American forms of 
Colias are all reducible to three, viz., eurydice, cesonia and 
chrysotheme with its thirty or more races and variéties. This 
would seem to mean that the more fully abundant material from 
all sections is studied, the more hopelessly confused our specific 
divisions become, and this is just what it does mean, as we in- 
sisted in our recent remarks (p. 975) on the discussion of a simi- 
lar question between Messrs. Hagen and Edwards. Some years 


rejected, and that we recognized but two good species at St. Louis, 


viz., c@sonia and eurytheme, not being satisfied at that time that this 


Should fall in as ordinary varieties, geographical varieties and 
races, and seasonal forms, the names proposed as specific being 
retained for convenience, very much as Mr. Edwards has so ad- 
mirably done with the forms of Pieris napi. 

The genus may be looked upon asa plastic one in which the 
Species are in process of forming, but in most cases have not be- 


76 General Notes. [January, i 


come well differentiated. The pamphlet quotes in a postscript 
the characters which Mr. Keferstein has found variable and there- 
fore not of specific value in the genus. These include the discal 
spots on upper side of primaries and under side of secondaries, 
the submarginal series of spots on under side of primaries and 
the “ mealy spot.” If we add coloration within limits, and forma 
wing, as we are justified in doing, we must evidently depend on 
ay es Pete teen though less noticeable structure of the body. 


Hasits oF BLAPS AND EmBaPHion.—Among the more recent 
introductions from the Old World are two species of the Tene- 
brionid genus Blaps! Both species occur in Europe abundantly 
in stables, warehouses, ditty cellars, etc., and are so rarely met 
with away from such buildings that they may properly be 
included among the numerous “domestic” insects to which 
the family Tenebrionidæ furnishes a not inconsiderable contin- 
gent.. The North American representatives of Blaps are the 
numerous species of Eleodes which form the most conspicuous 
feature of the Coleopterous fauna of the Central and Pacific region 
of our continent. Some of the species occur in an increas 
number of individuals but I am not aware that any species B®” 
thus far any tendency to acquire habits similar to those of the 
two Blaps mentioned above. Mr. Lawrence Bruner informs me 
however, that another large Tenebrionid, Embaphion muricahih 
Say, is at present met with in large numbers in cellars in Nebrass 
and that it is much more frequent in such places than outdoof 
It would thus appear that this Embaphion flourishes more 10 
vicinity of human habitations than in its native haunts, and 
fact is the more interesting that the species belongs to the sm 
number of native American species which are habitually met 
in our houses, the large majority of such domestic Coleop™ 


being either European forms or at least cosmopolitan species 
uncertain origin.—£, A. Schwarz, Washington, D. n 


Larva HABITS oF THE Diprerous FAMILY DEXIDÆ.— 
Fr. Brauer has recently made some interesting observations 
the entomography of Hirmoneura obscura (Sitzungsber. d. SA 
Akad. d. Wiss. txxxvm, pp. 865-75) which have incidentally 
to the discovery of two other Dipterous parasites of the Rhi i 
gus larva and belonging to the family Dexidæ, of which litt 
thus far been known. A small parasitic larva produc T 
rustica Fall, while another larger one was found within the 3 
men of the Rhizotrogus larva adjacent to the colon of the: 
tinal canal. It was encased in a membraneous sac closely 1® 
bling the colon and which, tapering posteriorly, ended 1n 4° 


xi 
ER 


i : ae 

The specimens I siw and which were said to be found in Virginia were rf 

fatidica. Of the second species, B, mortisaga, I have not yet seen undoubted * 
c imens. 


1884. ] Entomology. 77 


what bent, chitinous funnel, open at the end. This opening prob- 
ably connects with one of the trachee of the beetle larva. The 
Dipterous larva lies in this sac with its abdomen reaching within 
the funnel. Puparia of the parasite were found in the ground 
and produced in July the perfect fly, which proved to be Fhore- 
stoma latum Egger. Dr. Brauer describes and illustrates the 
anatomical details of this larva. 

our North American Dexidz the habits of only one species 
have been recorded thus far, viz., the parasite on Diabrotica 
vittata, described by Dr. Henry Shimer (Am. Nar., V, p. 219) as 
Melanosphora diabrotice, a species which is deub:fully referred in 
Osten-Sacken’s catalogue to the genus Melanophora Meigen, as 
the figure and description do not permit of positive determination. 


NORTHERN LOCALITIES FOR SOUTHERN BUTTERFLIES.—In the 
November number of the Naruratist, Mr. Smith, of Natick, 
Mass., reports Mr. Scudder as saying that the most northern 
locality in which Junonia cænia has been found is the southern 
extremity of Maine, near Portsmouth, N. H. One example of 
this species was captured last summer by a gentleman from Ban- 
gor, in woods about four miles south of Orono. It was as large 
and nice as the average of a large lot captured in Florida. Chi- 
onobas jutta has also been taken for several years in a bog in the 
same vicinity. I think this is the first time it has been reported 
within the limits of the United States.—Mrs. C. H. Fernald, 
Orono, Me. 


INSECT-LIFE AMoNG SpipER Eccs.—At the annual meeting of 
the San Diego, Cal., Natural History Society, a letter from Miss 
Rosa Smith was read referring to the. discovery of the mature 
male of Zilla rosa, a beautifully colored California spider, and the 
Insect life observed in the egg cocoons of Epeira atrata, the spe- 
cies having been determined by Dr. H. McCook, of Philadelphia. 

hey are (1) a small ant; probably referable to Solenopsis and 
doubtless feeding on the spider eggs; (2) larve of a Dermestid 
beetle (Attagenus pellio ?), apparently feeding on the refuse mat- 
ter in the nest; (3) a true parasite of the Epeira eggs belonging 
to Pezomachus, having a secondary parasite in an undetermined 
Chalcid fly, which in its turn proved to be infested by a still 
Smaller species of the same family. 


ALETIA XYLINA IN THE NortH.—Yesterday in my little garden 
I took a wonderfully fresh example of Aletia argillacea, and two 
Years ago, when in Toronto, I found the insect extremely com- 
mon on fences, &c., in the streets of the city. I found one speci- 
men on the wall of a garden, with its wings still damp and unde- 
veloped, having just emerged from the chrysalis. I looked all 
round the garden but found no Malvaceous plants except a large 
bush of Abutilon and the little wild mallow, Malva rotundifolia. 
Ay. Edwards, New York, Oct. 23, 1883. 


78 Gencral Notes. (January, 


AQUATIC Spipers.—-Waiting beside a mill-pond on a mild, ] 
balmy day last March, a slight wind prevailing but not enough 
to ruffle the surface of the water, I noticed a spider let himself 
down into the water from one of the trees bordering upon ‘the 
pond, and as soon as it reached the water the web or strand wa 
severed with such a length attached to his person as to act asa i 
sail and serve to assist his propulsion, with the favoring breeze 
to the other side. oe 

Numerous spiders followed the same procedure with webs of 
varying lengths from three to eight feet. I supposed this Wa | 
their method of crossing from side to side in search of more’ 
abundant food. w 

I may perhaps be only repeating what was before well-known, 
but as it was new to me I give it for what it is worth.—George 6 
Henning, Washington, D. C., Nov. 17th, 1883. ie 


Tue Puyttoxera IN Sanpy Sort.—The London Times, imi 
recent issue, contains a dispatch which gives the condition of the 
French grape crop, as follows: Ro 

“ Only twelve of the southern departments seem satisfied with 
their vintage. The yield in general is expected to be even below 
the average of late years. Burgundy and Champagne ie 
yield extremely deficient, both in quantity and quality ; War 


Macon counts upon a better crop than had been predicted, though 


of somewhat poor quality. In Charente the quality 1S also 
oor.” : 
The same dispatch, in summing up the observations of Lalai 
mayor of Bordeaux, on the conditions of the vines in the! 
loxera-infested sections of the country, gives a most tavof 


French vines at Aigues-Mortes are flourishing in the sandy $ 
thus emphasizing the fact of the impotence of the Phylloxe 
such sandy soils. : 


roughly demonstrated, by the most careful tests, on several ai 
sions, that when Maclura aurantiaca is properly use for m 


1884.] Entomology. 79 


riers, at the silk farm at Genito, has completed some experiments 
on the relative value of the two plants, which he details in the 
opening number of the S7/k-Grower’s Guide and Manufacturer's 
Gazette. Four varieties of worms were reared. The race known 
as the “ Var” was fed throughout on mulberry leaves. The “ Py- 
renean ” and “ Cevennes ” worms were fed throughout on leaves 
and branches of osage orange, while the “ Milanese ” worms were 
fed on Maclura up to the second molt and then changed to 
mulberry leaves. At the close examples of each variety of co- 
coons were sent to the secretary of the Silk Board at Lyons, and 
appraised by him. The Maclura-fed cocoons were rated at 85 c. 
per pound, those raised partly on osage and partly on mulberry 
at 95 c. per pound, and those fed entirely on mulberry at $1.11 
per pound. 

This, Mr. des Lauriers thinks, seems to show that the differ- 
ence between Maclura and Morus as silkworm food is some 
“twenty-five to thirty per cent in favor of the latter, while it is 
evident that the leaf of the osage orange can be used with some 
advantage during the first two ages of the worms, thus allowing 
the mulberry tree to grow more leafy for feeding during the last 
three ages.” The experiment, although interesting, is not con- 
clusive, from the simple fact that different races were used in the 
different tests and not the same races, so that the result may have 
been due, to a certain extent, to race aud not to food. 


Tue Cuincu-Buc IN New York StatTe.—Professor J. A. Lint- 
ner, State entomologist of New York, has been interviewed at 
length in the Albany Argus of Oct. roth on the subject of 
Chinch-bug injuries in Northern New York. It appears that its 
destructive work was first discovered in June, 1882, by Mr. H. 

King, of Hammond, St. Lawrence county, and that the de- 
Struction has increased the present year though confined to 
grasses, 

_ In this interview, in a communication to Science of Oct. 19th, 
and in a circular issued from the office of the State entomolo- 
gist, Oct. 18th, Mr. Lintner draws attention to the rarity of 
the chinch-bug in the State of New York heretofore ; to its per- 
sistent injury in St. Lawrence county notwithstanding the past 
wet season, and finds in these facts reason for the greatest alarm 
on the supposition that this manifestation is due to an invasion, 
and that the insect shows exceptional power of withstanding con- 
stant rains, which are well known to prove disastrous to it in the 
Mississippi valley. 
___ We have not been able to read over these accounts without 
feeling that an undue amount of alarm is felt. Since the chinch- 
ug was known to occur in New York at the time of Harris and 
Fitch, and is found further north both on the Atlantic seaboard 
and in the Northwest, we see no reason for considering that St. 


80 General Notes. [Janu 


Lawrence county has been invaded from other parts, but should 
rather attribute the recent injury to undue increase of a species | 
always there, albeit not generally noticed and heretofore unre- p 
corded. This increase may in fact be due to the excessively dry 
weather that characterized 1880 and 1881 and previous years, 

reacting wet weather not having yet produced an injurious effect 
upon it. In this view of the matter, which seems to be most | 
reasonable, the outlook is rather encouraging than alarming, and | 
we fully expect to see this view corroborated by subsequent i 
events, 7. e., the pest will sink back to its state of harmlessness 
next year and probably perish in immense numbers during WF p 
coming winter. We would not, however, by any means have the 
farmers relent from the measures recommended by Mr. Lintner 
in the circular already alluded to, though he can scarcely expec 
them to carry out his advice without some obligatory law ot 
some compensation from the State—C. V. R., in Scientific Am 

can, 


BACTERIAL DISEASE OF THE IMPORTED CABBAGE-WORM— PA, 
fessor S. A. Forbes, State entomologist of Illinois, has found t - 
larvee of Pieris rape seriously affected, around Normal, Ils. by | 


them to a black almost fluid condition, dissolving at the to 
He finds the disease due to immense numbers of Bacteria, 
cessively minute, and that they can be cultivated artificial 
beef broth and thus introduced and propagated among 
insects, 3 
This black rot of the cabbage worm has been known to us for 
some years and is quite widespread. We have made reference 
it on page 70 of our Bulletin on the Cotton-worm in conn 


before, or while transforming to the chrysalis state. 
came flaccid and discolored, and after death were little more 
a bag of black putrescent liquid. I should have at once 
cluded that the yeast remedy was a success had I not § 
rienced the very same kind of mortality in previous reat”! 


con 


ilarly dying there."—C. V. R., in Scientific American. 4 
Enromotocicat Nores.—In a notice of the papers by Mr , 
Meyrick onthe Micro-lepidoptera of Australia, New Zealand 
Tasmania, Professor C. H. Fernald states that Carpocapsa ; 
nella has been introduced to those regions along with the PP 


1884. ] Zoology. 81 


Lord Walsingham writes us: “Noticing your mention of 
Helia americalis as a myrmicophilous Lepidopteron (Am. NAT., 
Oct., 1883, p. 1070), I would remind you of Myrmicocela ochra- 
ceella Tgstr., which is found also in ants’ nests. It is allied to the 
true Tinez. 


ZOOLOGY. 


OWEN ON THE AsPECTS OF THE BODY IN VERTEBRATES AND 
INVERTEBRATES.1'—The pineal and pituitary bodies, with the in- 
fundibulum, constituting what our author styles the conario- 
hypophysial tract, have been the theme of much discussion 
among naturalists. Some have seen in the pituitary, a glan 
secreting the intraventricular fluids of the brain, while others 
have believed it to be a remnant of an obsolete sense-organ. 

To Professor Owen it is neither of these, but is the residuum of 
the deutostome, or invertebrate mouth, opening on the neural 
aspect of the animal and superseded in the vertebrates by a “ tri- 
tostome” or hemal mouth. In proof of this view he shows that 
in the lower mammals the pineal and pituitary bodies and their 
connections are larger and have a less parenchymatous and more 
tubular structure than in man; that in reptiles the pineal produc- 
tion perforates, as a rule, the parietal bone, but in some cases the 
Suture between parietal and frontal; and that in fishes the relative 
Magnitude and tubular character of this transcerebral tract are 
still more marked. In the skate the extension of the pineal part 
reaches beyond the cartilaginous roof of the brain-case, and in all 
Elasmobranchs it is an elongate tube, dilated at its peripheral 
end and maintaining its communication with the third ventricle, 
from the floor of which the infundibulum extends to join the pitu- 
itary body. In the brain of the Chimera the cerebral masses are 
Separated from the optic lobes by cord-like lamella equal in length 
to the structures they separate. These cord-like lamella seem to 
represent the crura cerebri, and the space between them, which is 
traversed by the pineal body and its connections, is the third ven- 
tricle. This structure seems to indicate that the crura cerebri are 
homologous with the parial cords which girt the gullet and con- ` 
nect the fore brain with the hinder masses in invertebrates. In 
the embryos of all vertebrates the pineal extension seems in quest 
of an open or oral outlet, but is checked by the external skin in 
lower forms, and by the cranial roof of the brain in the higher 


ones, 

_ If it be admitted, with the great authority who, following in the 
line of Geoffrey St. Hilaire, advocates the “ Unity of Organiza- 
tion” of the vertebrate and invertebrate kingdoms, that just as 
the umbilicus is the remnant of the protostome or primordial 
Mouth, so the pineal body and its connections are the remnant in 


* Aspects of the Body in Vertebrates and Invertebrates. By Richard Owen. 
London, 1883. 


VOL, Xvi11.—No. 1, 6 


82 General Notes. 


the vertebrate of the neurally situated mouth of the arthropod 
mollusk, then the objections urged by Cuvier against the 
of his great rival are answered, and the dorsal (hæmal) a 
a caterpillar or crustacean must be considered to om, 3 
the ventral (hæmal) aspect of a vertebrate. Hæmal ant r 
must then be used in preference to dorsal and ventral, WoO 
latter depend only upon the position of the mouth, neural in tie 
Invertebrata, and separating the brain- ganglia to become a 
hæmal in the Vertebrata by the abortion of the portion ai 
neurad, and the connection of the alimentary canal wit 
vagination of the ectoblast. i | 
The arguments in favor of the homology of the dorsa 


the optic lobes and the hind brain, rather than between them 
the cerebrum ?—W, N, L. 


Forses’ Srupies or THE Foop or Animars—Some of 


food of the smaller fresh-water fishes, and the fourth er 
_ first food of the common whitefish. The first brings °° 


o 
The so-called pirate perch (Aphredoderus), proved be 
1 Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History. Bulletin No. 6. Studies 
Food of Birds, Insects and Fishes. By S, A. Forbes. 


PMAR OS 


a: 


ee See ee A ee 


I 884. ] Lvilvgy. 82 


almost entirely upon insects; sticklebacks eat about as much 
vegetable as animal substance; the small-mouthed atherinid La- 
bidesthes sicculus is a purely animal feeder, dividing itself almost 
equally between insects and entomostracans; Fundulus and Zygo- 
nectes take but little vegetable food ; the Cyprinidz, with a long 
intestine and pharyngeal teeth with a broad grinding surface, feed 
principally upon vegetable food, ingesting much mud therewith ; 
and in the Cyprinide, with hooked pharyngeal teeth and a short 
intestine, three-fourths of the food is animal. The smallest ento- 
mostracans form the first food of the young whitefish. 

Exact observations of this nature are scarce, and of great value, 
and Mr. Forbes has begun a needed work. 


SYMBIOSIS INTHE ANIMAL Kincpom.—Professor Hertwig, accord- 
ing to Nature, at the last meeting of German naturalists, read a pa- 
per on this subject. This term, symbiosis, first suggested by De 
Bary in connection with certain phenomena of the vegetable 
world, is here extended to the whole organic system. As distin- 
guished from ordinary parasitism, it is explained to mean the 
normal fellowship or association of dissimilar organisms which 
dwell together in a common abode for their mutual welfare. In ` 
the case of parasites the connection is altogether one-sided, one 
of the two organisms attaching itself to the other, and flourishing 
at its expense, as, for instance, the mistletoe on the apple tree. 
But in this newly-revealed phenomenon of symbiosis, which ap- 
pears to pervade the whole biological world, both associates are 
mutually beneficial, and in some instances even indispensable to 
each other. They act, so to say, like two partners in a well-reg- 
ulated business concern, codperating in the work of life, taking 
part in all its toils and troubles, and honorably sharing the com- 
mon profits. An illustration is drawn from the familiar hermit 
crab, one species of which, after taking possession of the first 
available empty shell, goes into partnership with a sea anemone 
( Adamsia palliata). This lonely creature, bright orange spotted 
with red, attaches itself to the roof of the common abode in such 
a position that its mouth and prehensile apparatus are always 
turned toward the head of its associate. It is thus enabled to 


join in all the expeditions of the restless hermit crab, and conve- 


niently share in the common plunder. In return for this service, 
the anemone protects his companion from his many enemies by 
means of the numerous long threads which it shoots out at the 
least alarm, and which are provided with millions of capsules 
charged with a stinging acid like that of the common nettle. So 
‘lose is the compact entered into by the two partners, that both 
have become indispensable to each other, as appears from a series 
of experiments made at the Neapolitan Aquarium. If the crab 

removed from his house, and this be stopped up so as to pre- 
vent his reéntering it, he will cast about for another shell, and 


84 General Notes. (January, 


never stop until his old associate is also transferred to their new 
abode. A still more remarkable illustration is drawn from the 
imbauba, or candle-nut tree of South America, which strikes up 
an alliance with a species of small black ant to their mutual ber 
efit. The whole subject of symbiosis, which naturalists are only 
beginning to study, is calculated to throw great light on the Dat 
winian theory of biological evolution. The various cases © 
fellowship between animals and plants of different orders, att 
even between members of the animal and vegetable kingdoms, 
show how, in the perpetual struggle for existence, the individul 
organism avails itself of the smallest advantage to secure a place 
in the household of nature. It often thus acquires marvelous | 


particular perspicuity than in the art of bringing int jew 


tofa 


1884.] | Zoology. ABS 


their capture he employed a net of fine muslin of a conical form, 
attached to a ring about 50° in diameter. The bottom of the 
net presents a contracted opening, like that of a “ well,” which 
opens at the middle of a much smaller net made of silken sieve- 
cloth, with very fine meshes. This latter is attached to a ring, 
equilibrated by a fragment of cork. This net of silken gauze 

oes not injure the animals at all, and it captures at least twice 
as many as the glass bottle which some naturalists substitute for 
it. It is easy to understand, in fact, that the impermeable walls 
of the bottle compel the water to turn in its interior, and cause 
eddies, which carry out a considerable proportion of the captured 
animals. 

With creatures so active and so difficult to observe alive under a 
high power, it is of great importance to have a process which 
enables them to be fixed instantaneously in their natural attitude 
before they have had time to withdraw into their test, and which 
preserves faithfully the details of their structure. 

Dr. Fol tried the various reagents most in vogue without at- 
taining his purpose. With weak osmic acid he did not succeed 
in preserving the cilia of the peristome; and with a stronger 
dose the body became absolutely opaque; in both cases there 
was always a strong contraction. 

Acetic acid, chromic acid and picro-sulphuric acid only gave 
him a fixation which was too slow, so that the animal died con- 
tracted in the bottom of its test. Finally he “succeeded with a 
reagent which is not employed in histology, perchloride of iron ;” 
by its means he has obtained a considerable number of specimens 
of various species, fixed in a state of full expansion. These sub- 
Jects, washed with alcohol and treated with gallic acid, present a 
brown coloration which is especially localized upon the nuclei, 
and renders them very visible ; the other parts of the animal ac- 
quire a light-brown tint, which renders them easy to see.— Fourn. 
Roy. Microscopical Society. | 


ound on the coast of Northumberland almost every stone 
in all directions by different species of Clione. Finally, 


86 General Notes. (January, 


Tscherniawsky commonly found in the Black sea very large stones 
which were perforated like a sieve by colonies of Clione; these | 
worked in conjunction with numerous boring Nemertine worms, 
annelids and bivalves, so that the durability of stone piers, wharves | 
and other marine structures was impaired. “i 
The question then arises how the Clione bores its way into the | 
hard calcareous structure. Does it go onina chemical or me- 
chanical way, or does the sponge simply settle itself in passages | 
previously bored by other animals? We must, he says, consid 
a prion that the parasite sponges are supplied for this purpo 
with special means or facilities which are wanting in the free-liv- | 
ing sponges. Hence arises the second question: How has the | ’ 
parasitic mode of life expressed itself in the structure of the body: | 
Nassonow set himself to the task of answering these inquiries. | 


light. : 


k 


- On June ttth he noticed a number of embryo sponges which 


vei could observe the operations of the sponge by transmittee 


sponge begins its work of destruction. At first it appears as $ 
rosette-like mark. The sponge sends out fine offshoots into the 


e S 
grown sponge, with all its branches and galleries, occupying 
very considerable surface, is naturally very great. 

1 The sponge bores its passages, in all probability, by secreting an acid. 127 
tect the presence of the acid would be difficult on em of the cone alkaline 1® 
action ot the sea water. Pee 


1884.] Zoology. 87 


The remainder of the paper is devoted to histological facts and 
an attempt to show the relations of the sponge structure to its 
parasitic mode of life. 


POLYMORPHISM AND PARTHENOGENESIS IN MitEs.—A. Berlese 
States that the adult Gamasus, like all parthenogenetic forms, 
produces viviparously hexapod nymphs, which never develop 
ova till they reach the mother-stage. Both the larvae and the 
nymphs are distinguishable by their soft hyaline epidermis and 
the complete absence of any reproductive organs, There are 
nymphs which ought to become males, and others which should 
become females; and this, which is the most frequent arrange- 
ment, may be spoken of as the normal series. In addition there 
are individuals which cannot be produced by the adults or the 
higher forms of the series, but they are derived from two distinct 
groups, which, like the adults, are of the ordinary, or of the 
extraordinary series. Thus G. tardus produces a special larva 
from which, by rapid metamorphosis, there is developed a larger 
Octopod nymph, During the whole of its development this form 
IS octopod and asexual; it molts as it grows, but does not seri- 
ously alter in form; at the later molts a slight difference may be 
detected between the future males and females, but there are no 
traces of any secondary sexual characters. 

A detailed account is given of the metamorphosis of G. tardus, 
G. coleoptratorum, G. stabularis and Trach ynotus inermis; in the 
last of these pzedogenesis is especially weil marked.— Fournal of 
Roy. Micr. Soc., April. 


WATER-COLLECTING APPARATUS FOR Mires.—Mr. C. F. George 

States that he has used the following in searching for Hydrachni- 
æ, and has found no other piece of apparatus so efficient: 

piece of thick brass wire is bent at about six inches from one 
€nd into a ring four or five inches in diameter. After connecting 
with some finer wire the two extremities of the ring, bend the 
Stout wire at right angles to the ring, and continue it for about 
four inches. Then make another ring about one and a half inches 
in diameter, and there terminate the wire, leaving the small ring, 
however, not quite complete. The two rings will thus be parallel — 
to each other. On the upper ring stitch a piece of tape, and to 

S sew a piece of muslin, made in the shape of a conical bag, 
and having its wider end affixed to the tape. Into the lower 
pening of this bag a small, wide-mouthed glass bottle, of about 

9 ounces capacity, should be fastened by a piece of thread or 
fine String, and the lower ring is then sprung around the neck of 
the bottle. The other end of the brass wire, which was left pro- 
J€cting for about six inches, is now to be firmly lashed to a light 
ane or stick, and the apparatus is complete. In order to use the 
@pparatus, move it gently backwards and forwards on the surface 
y the water , under the surface, or just above the bottom of the 


88 General Notes. (January, i 


pond, and among the weeds; the muslin will allow the water to 
pass through it, whilst any living organisms will be retained by 
the bottle. This can from time to time be examined witha pocket 
lens, and when it is found to contain anything, the lower ring of 
wire can be slipped off and the neck of the bottle pushed up 
through the upper ring, inverting the net. The contents may thet 
be poured off into another bottle, and after rearranging the app | 
ratus, fishing may go on again. The object of the piece of wire 
connecting the two ends of the net is to keep all stiff, so that the 


received two specimens of the Mexican laxolot ( Amblystoma meat : 
canum), which had been bred in France. They were albinos, 7 
as is often the case, and attracted much attention from visitors P 
Fulton Market. Last March the female laid many eggs— peria i 
a hundred and fifty—and a few were hatched. To the surprise t 
all she has just laid another batch, but it is too soon to we : 
these will produce young. Some of the eggs have been sent 0 
Mr. J. A. Ryder, of the U. S. Fish Commission, who e 
study their embryology if they prove to be fertile. We do B 
think it is generally known that this batrachian spawns twice ® 
year.—Forest and Stream. a 

Why SALAMANDERS ARE NOT EATEN By Frocs.—About ae 
ago the writer captured-a leopard frog in a meadow. | It ee 
lost the direction of the water, for, on being pursued, it took | a 
leaps toward the brook, which it could not see. It was P ie 
home and a place prepared for it in a fern case. A vessel of E 


a 


undertake a meal of salamander meat. He tried it severa 
before he learned better. His little victim would almost 
pear from view down the capacious gullet, but the pungen 
thrown out from all parts of the body seemed too muc 
frog’s palate, and it was invariably ejected. After this t 
strength the three prisoners became great friends, and the" 
manders would often crawl over the frog, he winking ae 
familiarity and rarely paying any attention to them.— W. W. i 
burn in Scientific American, as 
Foop oF SNAKES.—When out after prairie chickens in Augt 
last, I crossed a large ditch which was all dried up except $° 
small pools in which were large numbers of the common ©” 


1884. ] Zoology, 89 


or sunfish, Pomotis vulgaris, about one inch in length. In one 
of these pools two of the common garter snakes, Eutenia sirtalis, 
were catching these little fishes. Happening to pass the same 
place the next day, I found the pools dried up and the fish all 
dead. I was much surprised to see one of these snakes hastily 
moving away with one of the dead fish in his mouth. Is it com- 
mon for these snakes to feed upon fish? Is it not uncommon 
for any serpent to take as food an animal already dead >—Z£. A. 
Gastman, Decatur, Illinois. 


CALIFORNIA LonG-BILLED Marsu WreEN.—June 18, 1882, a 
friend and myself started for Soap lake, San Felipe, with the in- 
tention of getting a few sets of eggs of this bird. Arriving there 
we pulled on our long boots and plunged into the tules in differ- 
ent directions. After an hour's hard work we returned and 
reported—one set of badly incubated eggs. My friend’s expe- 
rience was about the same as mine. I had found and examined 
some twenty-five nests, and of that number only three had been 
lined and used; two had been deserted, the third had the above- 
mentioned set. The other nests were of the same appearance out- 
_ Wwardly, being woven of coarse bark of tules, but without the soft 
wooly lining of fine shreds of cotton tule and ducks’ feathers. 
Some looked new, others old, and were situated, mostly, just out 
of reach in the taller clumps of tules. I saw but few birds, and 
these were fearless, approaching within two feet and looking me 
in the eye. Now, what can be the object of all these extra nests? 
Do the other birds build them for a shelter, and in case they are 
disturbed can immediately occupy another nest, or like children 
who build mud houses for amusement, and because they have 
Nothing else to do? I hope to make another trip to the place 
when I have more time, and to be in better season.—A, D. But- 
lerfield, San José, Cal., in Oölogist and Ornithologist. X 

ZobLocicaL Nores.—Z/nfusoria—The parasites found in the 
Oysters of Arcachon and La Rochelle are the subject of a com- 
munication of A. Certes to the French Zoological Society. 
‘Among these are the following Infusoria: Hexamiia inflata Du- 
Jardin, Trypanosoma balbianii Certes; a species of Enchelyodon 
Which conjugates after developing actively by fissiparity, and 
after conjugation’ again becomes actively fissiparous, and Proro- 
centrum micans Ehrenberg. i 

Celenterates—M. Mérejowsky has contributed to the Bulletin 
of the French Zoological Society an account of the development 


of the endodermic cells ; the nucleolus takes the form of a chap- 
let bent upon itself, the grains of the chaplet separate and divide, 
and the ripe egg before fecundation does not present the least 
trace of a nucleolus in its entirely homogeneous nucleus. The 


blastula is composed of cells of very various sizes, its walls are 


90 General Notes. J anuary, . 


pierced by pores, and the endoderm is formed by the immig | 
tion, one by one, of the blastodermic cells, this immigration” 
taking place only at the posterior part of the larva. In further” 
development the ectoderm appears to be double, but this appear | 
ance is due to a differentiation in the protoplasm of the cells; and 


glands, disposed in the ectoderm. The medusa does not neces 
sarily die after it has laid its eggs. Under favorable conditions it | 
lives, but changes in form, the umbrella relaxes, turns Upwat® gi 
and ultimately forms a sac having a few tentacles around its naf 
row opening. Meanwhile the pendant manubrium loses its tet: | 
tacles, and forms the base of the hydra-like animal, while the : 
mouth narrows to a pore, by means of which the animal fixes | 
itself. The cavities of the manubrium and of the larger $4 | 
formed from the reversed umbrella ultimately communicate, O 
ectodermic cells lining the latter each acquire a vibratile cilium | 
and become endodermic, and the upper opening does duty forse 
mouth. Dr. Otto Hamann (Fen. Zeitschrift fur cvissenschafin | 
1882) gives the results of his researches into the structure the 


tion. Mr. R. E. C. Stearns describes a new Pennatu 
Japan under the name of Radicipes pleurocristatus (Proc. ©" 
Nat. Mus., 1883, p. 96). This species has a furcate basa! “io 
well adapted for fixation in a muddy bottom. Mr. Stearns yee 
brings together numerous accounts tending to prove that eee 
tulids with simple axial rods have considerable swimming pe ogy 
——<A recent memoir of the Museum of Comparative Zoolos! 
is devoted to the Porpitidz and Velellidæ. Professor Aga 


1884. ] Zoölogy. QI 


considers this small group of Hydrozoa, which is found wher- 
ever the influence of the Gulf Stream extends, to have greater 
affinity to the Tubularians than to the Siphonophoræ proper. 
Velella mutica is extremely abundant in the Straits of Florida, 
and sometimes finds its way north to Newport and Nantucket. 
It is larger than the Mediterranean species. The young differs 
greatly in appearance from the adult. The Florida Porpita, P, 
linneana, is also much larger than the Mediterranean species. 
In nearly all the Tubularians the base of the cœnosarc extends 
either as filaments or rootlets over a considerable space; these 
filaments are tubular, and, in Hydractinia especially, the base of 
the ccenosarc resembles in structure the float of Porpita., The 
great difference is that in the Porpitide and Velellide the ex- 
tension of the ccenosarc is consolidated into a float from which 
the polyps depend. 

Worms.—M. Megnin has contributed to the Bull, de la Soc. 
Zodlogique a study of the organization and development of Ech- 
inorhynchus, the most important result of which study is the 
proof of the existence in the larve of a well-developed digestive 
apparatus which atrophies without completely disappearing in the 
adult. In the latter the great development of the reproductive ap- 
paratus and the pronounced activity of the generative functions 
overshadow all other functions. The presence of a bifurcated 
intestine brings Echinorhynchus nearer the Trematodes and re- 
moves them from the Nematodes near which there was a ten- 
dency to place them. 


Tuntcates —W. K. Brooks (Zool. Anzeiger, May, 1882) claims 
that the solitary Salpa is a true female, which produces a chain of 


_ males by budding and discharges an egg into each of them before 
birth. These eggs are impregnated while the zooids of the chain ` 


are very small and sexually immature, and they develop into 
females which give rise to other males by budding. Thus there 
iS a remarkable difference in the mode of origin of the two sexes, 
but since both are the offspring of the solitary Salpa, one by bud- 
ding and the other by sexual reproduction, it is not a case of 
alternation of generations. This view, first put forth in the Bull. 

us. Comp. Zodl., No. 14, is again asserted in answer to Salen- 
sky, who claims that what Professor Brooks styled an ovary is 
but a mass of undifferentiated embryonic cells which gives rise 
both to the ovaries and to the digestive organs of the chain salpe. 
Examination with a high power proves, however, that the organ 


_ 48a true ovary containing eggs, while the digestive organs of the 


chain salpz are not formed from it. 

Crustacea.—In the Proc. U. S. Nat. Museum Professor S. La 
Smith gives a list of the Crustacea dredged upon the coast of 
Labrador by the expedition under the direction of W. A. Stearns, 
and also gives a review of the marine Crustacea of that region, 


92 | General Notes. [ January, 


which is, however, as appears to be the rule in invertebrates aa 
sessing it, dissolved in the plasma. 


Arachnides—M. Megnin (Bull. de la Soc, Zodl. de France) 


different stages, together with some recently hatched young W ; p 
could be identified as C. heteropalpus, ! - 

Fishes—Twenty-five new species of fishes from Florida am 
scribed in the Proceedings U. S. Nat. Museum (Sept., 1362 
Messrs. Jordan and Gilbert describe a new goby from Vanco 933), 


1884.] Zoölogy. 93 


tendency to entangle with those of other eggs so as to form 
bunches or strings, Mr. Ryder suggests that they may be the 
means by which the parent fish is enabled to suspend its ova to 
the stems or leaves of plants. The ovary of a full-grown Men- 
idia does not contain more than 300 eggs, while the silver-gar, 
the eggs of which have filaments scattered over the whole surface, 
contains 800 to 1000 ova. He notices that the number of ova 
produced by fishes is in some way proportioned to their chances 
of survival, and that in this respect species with thread-bearing 
eggs hold an intermediate position. The same naturalist has 
an interesting notice of the breeding habits and development ot 
Amiurus albidus, as exhibited by examples in confinement. The 
eggs were about 2000 in number, and formed a mass about eight 
inches long, four inches wide and one-half to three-fourths of an 
inch thick. Their surfaces were adherent but not gelatinous, so 
that intervening spaces remained between them for the passage of 
water. The female took no further notice of the eggs after de- 
positing them, but the male watched carefully over them until 
the young had escaped from the egg-membranes, hovering over 
the mass and forcing fresh water through it by the rapid vibration 
of anal, pectoral and ventral fins. All of those left in his charge 
came out, while an attempt to hatch a portion of them artificially 
was less successful. The water-space in the egg was from the 
first filled with a great number of free corpuscles, a character not 
before met with (so far as Mr. Ryder is aware) in any other Tele- - 
Ostean egg. From the sixth to the eighth day the young were 
hatched, and on the fifteenth would feed. The parent fishes 
would often take into their mouths pieces of the liver thrown to 
the young, together with the young that were hanging to them, 
but it was observed that the young fishes were invariably ejected 
uninjured, An elaborate and richly illustrated memoir of a hun- 
red pages, on the brain of the lamprey eel, by F. Ahlborn, ap- 
pears in the Zeitschrift fiir Wissens. Zoologie for Nov. 6. It treats 
not only of the morphology, but also of the cellular structure. 
| Nature records the factthat Mr. Morton states that Ceratodus forsteri 
in Mary’s river, Queenland, from June to August goes in pairs, 
that they make slight indentations in the muddy bottom in from 
Six to ten feet of water, in which the spawn is deposited; the 
male and female fish remain near the spawn, and are not then 
easily disturbed. They frequent the same place every year, and 
the spawn is like that of frogs. Mr. Morton has taken it and 
hatched it in a tub of water, keeping the young alive for some 
weeks, In his paper on the oviducts of the smelt, in the Pro- 
ceedings of the Zodlogical Society, Professor Huxley, after stating 
that, as is well known, Lepidosteus presents an example of a Ganoid 
with oviducts like those of the higher Teleostei ; in the smelt, on 
the other hand, “ we have a Teleostean with oviducts like those 
of the ordinary Ganoidei.” He concludes that “there are no two 


94 General Notes. 


large groups of animals for which the evidence of a direct genetic 
connection is better than in the case of the Ganoids and Teleos 
teans. Two other supposed distinctive characters between these 
two groups have been shown to be not well founded, as Boas has 
recently discoverd a conus arteriosus in Butirinus and other bony 
fish, while a spiral valve was long ago discovered by Valenciennes 
ina bony fish ( Chirocentrus dorab). Moreover, Huxley claims, with 
Balfour, that in the brain of Lepidosteus the epithalami “ becomt 
exactly similar to the so-called ‘cerebral hemispheres’ of the bony 
fishes;” he then adds, “ In all the Teleosteans, in fact, the bodies 
called ‘cerebral hemispheres’ are not the exact equivalents of the 
structures so named either in the higher Vertebrata or in the 
Selachians, but are epithalami, just as in the Ganoids. Thus, 
cerebral structure, as in other respects, the Ganoids and the 
Teleosteans are as closely related to one another as they ae 
different from the Selachians,” - 
Batrachians and Reptiles —Prof. E.D. Cope(Proc. Acad. Nat. Sch 
Phila.) contributes considerable additional information respe 
the geographical distribution of various batrachians and Be 
in Western North America. Among other results, the range % | 
Spea hammondi is extended to the Rocky mountains, a new* i 
phiopus is described from the Great Basin, and Rana pretiosa $ 
proved to extend into that district. The Northern Pacific o 
especially represented by Bascanium vetustum, Rana pre. 
Bufo columbiensis, extends in Idaho to the Rocky mountains. © 
comparison of the principal families and genera of cold-bloodé 
vertebrata found in the Nearctic, Sonoran, and Neotrop 
regions is given, in order to show the far greater relationship 
the Sonoran to the Nearctic than to the Neotropical. W. 
Birds.—In the proceedings of the Zoölogical Society, Mr. 
N. Parker states that on the whole the respiratory organs 0 i 
South American ostrich (Rhea) very nearly resembles that of th? 
Carinate birds ; but in several points it shows an intermediate Ch 
dition between the latter and Apteryx. The Bulletin of ™ i 
Nuttall Ornithological Club for Jan., 1883, contains, among ° 
good articles, notes on a lateral hermaphrodite green-tailed towfi 
though in plumage it resembled the females. B. F. Goss descri®® 
the breeding habits of Maximilian’s jay and Clarke’s crow, and 
Holtenhoff, Jr., describes the nest and eggs of LeConte’s thra: lls: 
——Mr. N. C. Brown has found specimens of Zonotrichia alien 


: h zesoth 
amy in the blue bird and marsh blackbird is recorded by Professor S 
on Wolf river, Wis., is described by F. L. Grundtvig ——A HP 


1884. ] Psychology. 95 


C. H. Townsend, while Mr. J. A. Allen notes certain exceptions to 
the law of increase in size northward among North American 
birds——The July number contains faunal lists and notes, with 
some notes on habits ———_Dr. Coues records, through G. F. Crook, 
a curious case of susceptibility of a caged red linnet to color. If 
anything blue is shown, it becomes terribly excited, and utters 
painful cries. H. W. Henshaw records an instance of semi- 
domestication of the California quail, while F. Stephens describes 
a California bird-crane, Dendreca occidentalis, being the most 
abundant migrants. A supplementary list of the birds coi- 
lected by Dr. Dybowski, in Kamtschatka, given in a recent issue 
of the Bull. de la Soc. Zodl. de France, raises the total number, 
including the swimming birds, to a hundred and thirty-four. 
new species of Astur, A. candidissimus, is described, also Hirundo 
kamtschatica, a species of Troglodytes, and Phyllopseuste homeyert, 
In the Proc. U. S. National Museum, Mr. R. Ridgway de- 
scribes Psaltriparus grindae and Junco bairdi, also a new variety of 
Lophophanes inornatus, all from the MS. of and from examples 
sent by Mr. L. Belding from Lower California. Anthus cervinus 
Pallas, before thought to be exclusively Asiatic, is also noted as 
occurring in Lower California. 


PSYCHOLOGY. 


INTELLIGENCE OF THE CaT.—One of the attractions of my 
home has ever been the number and variety of the pets we have 
kept, and to which liberty has generally been accorded. Thus 
they had an opportunity to develop their natures without great 
restraint; and I, to gratify my love for the observation of character 
in animals. Prominent among these pets were gophers, chip- 
munks squirrels-——black, gray, red and flying—robins, mocking- 
birds, cats and dogs, which were entirely free, and a robin, several 
Canaries, a fox, a bear, a bald-headed eagle, and several owls which 
were somewhat curtailed in their privileges. 

As the intelligence of the cat has called forth some notice of 
late, let me add a few facts which have come under my observa- 
tion. On introducing a new puss into the “happy family,” I 
found that notwithstanding her reputed treacherousness and self- 
ishness, a few kind, decided words, with considerable watching, 
and an occasional gentle spat, so well convinced her of the rights 
of others, that so far as those individuals are concerned in about 

© weeks she was conquered, and could be trusted to be ina 
room or out of doors alone with them. A young snipe being 
brought me, and all my efforts at taming it proving futile, for it 
‘Would run away, I wanted the old cat to catch and have it. She 
‘Would not touch it, helped us to “corner” it, but would not bite 
It, and after it was killed, she still refused to eat it, seeming to 
_ Fecognize it as one of her clan. 

Many think cats have a memory of places only and not of per- 


> 


96 General Notes. (January, £ 


sons and things. Of the contrary we had proof. One summer i 
during our absence, the house and pets being left with a faithful 


the cat, and attempted, with a hatchet, to cut her head off. For § 
tunately for Kit, the edge was dull and the aim poor, 80 only a 
little fur was cut, and she escaped for dear life to the barn. From | 
that time on, only faint glimpses of puss were seen for nearly a | 
month, despite kindly calling, and coaxing morsels, but on olf | 


came inso delighted to see and welcome us. From that day til | 
two years after when she died, every time the deathly hatchet | 
was taken up by the girl to split kindlings, pound steak, or W 


proached, we found him at our door begging entrance. Like om 
who had gathered up some grains of wisdom, he immedi a 
accommodated himself to his new surroundings, and we re 
scarcely get rid of him at all, but when spring came, and tt 
family, now absent three years, returned, Tip was missing and at 
found him safely ensconsed in his former home, nor has Der 
back to us but once, seemingly, to bid us good-by. Was it E 
consciousness that he was old and infirm, unable to stand, j 
aided, the severities of the approaching winter, or had our © 
told him of their kind home that he thus applied at our doot 
support and protection? It was surely memory of persons, a 
than mere place which induced his final return to his rig 
owners, 


Notwithstanding our old mother cat was usually so careful att 


_— 


Finally, as the winter of ’81-2 (which proved so very cold 


rarely disobeyed, one Sabbath we left her alone by mistake if i 


room where were some freshly mounted birds. 


cause. She had torn and chewed the poor skins into a h 


low a supply of fresh lard and white of egg, and succeeded © 
overcoming the poison so that she recovered. Her appetite a 
poor, and she seemed to have difficulty in eating. After 


1884.] — Psychology. ~ 97 


weeks we examined her mouth and to our surprise every tooth 
had dropped out. We thought we should have to kill her, but- 
she seemed to be growing better, so we let her live. Always a 
great mouser, after this she could only catch the mice and rats, 
and conscious of her inability to bite. them, brought them to us: 
to kill, scratching at the door and ‘making a certain mew which 
indicated she had something. The man used frequently to take 
her to the oat bin, and she would catch the intruders there as. 
fast as ever, bringing each one to him to finish. We kept her for 
two years after this serious experience, always feeding her bread. 
and milk, and bread and coffee and cutting her meat up very fine 
for her. She then sickened and soon was consigned to the gar- 
den Necropolis of the “ happy family.” 

© not these facts further demonstrate a goodly degree of. 
intelligence in the cat ?—Mary. É. Holmes, Rockford, Ills. 


Sense Discrimination.—In a chapter on sensitivity, Galton, in’ 
his “Inquiries into Human Faculty.” concludes that contrary 


Experimenting on a number of boys at a large educational 
blind asylum, he found that the blind lads who showed the most 
delicacy of touch, barely reached the mediocrity of the various 
Sighted lads of the same age whom he had previously tested. He 
inds that the guidance of the blind depends mainly on the mul- 
titude of collateral indications, to which they give much heed, and 
not in their Superior sensitivity to any one of them. Those who 
see do not care for so many of these collateral indicatioas, and 
habitually overlook and neglect several of them. 

Notwithstanding many travelers’ tales, Mr. Galton has thus far 
been unable to obtain satisfactory evidence of any general large 
Superiority of the senses of savage over those of civilized men. 

Own experience, so far as it goes, of Hottentots, Damaras. 
and some other wild races, went to show that their sense discrim- 
Lanon was not superior to those of white men, even as regards 

ĉenness of eyesight.” 

A PAIR oF CatastRopHEs.—Prudential killing by a Cat—A cat 
peg Red Bank, N, J., last month had a litter of kittens, one of 
which was a monstrosity. It had seven legs, of which one had 

Ves. xvi1.—no. 1, 7 


98 General Notes. [January | 


two feet. It had two bodies joined at the one neck, which sup l 
ported one head, which had two mouths, one under the otf,” 
After a few hours the mother cat deliberately killed the kitten by | 


biting it through the neck. Surely this was the exercise of fie | 
t.— S. Lod 


to me many years ago by an old physician, of which the 
n 


two cats, each with a litter of kittens but a few days old. One 
the cats was very young, it was her first litter, and t 
was her mother. It was noticed that the younger cat =~ 
seem well. Each one had her litter by herself, although | 
were in the same room. As the old cat lay suckling her own 
ter, the young cat came to her mother and made a low me 
then went to her own litter. The old cat followed her and 1mm p 
diately began removing the grand-kittens, adding them fo ©) 
own. The truth was she had adopted them, and seeminey aE 
the request of their mother, for not many minutes more 
elapsed before they were orphaned by their mother's death: 
Lockwood. 


Porrry in DREAMS.—lIt is not unusual for persons adat 
dreaming to compose verses, blank or rhyming, but it 15 


On a few occasions he remembered a few lines of these p 
tions. We append them as curiosities. The first is sim 
“ The copest leaves do hum exasperated horrors round!” 
The second: 
“ The ship of the desert is vanished forever, 

F Like music dried up in the bed of a river.” 

Another : 
; “ Emaciated swallows floating through the air, 
Two legs flung out behind, and two before.”’ 


ANTHROPOLOGY.’ 


Columbia, thirty Chinese coins in the auriferous sand, tW® g 
feet below the surface. They appeared to have been strung 
on taking them up the miner let them drop apart. = 
above and around them was as compact as any in the n 
hood. One of these coins I examined at the store of 

1 Edited by Professor OTIS T. Mason, 1305 Q street, N. W., Washingto™ 


Pages ee 


SGP ee pe et 


etree 


a Se 


1884 | Anthropology. 99 


in Victoria. Neither in metal nor markings did it resemble the 


- modern coins, but in its figures looked more like an Aztec calen- 


dar. So faras I can make out the markings, this is a Chinese 
chronological cycle of sixty years, invented by the Emperor 
Huungti, 2637 B. C., and circulated in this form to make his peo- 
ple remember it— Xames Deans. 


Furcian Erunotocy.—Professor A. H. Keane, in Mature, Au- 
gust 9, reviews a paper in Guido Cora’s Cosmos for May, written 
by Lieut. Bove, of the Italian Antarctic expedition, in which oc- 
cur some interesting details on the Fuegians. The archipelago 
is occupied by three races, the Alacalufs in the west, the Onas in 
the east, and the Yagans in the south. The latter, extending 
from the north side of Beagle channel southward to Cape Horn, 
appear to be the true aborigines, driven to their inhospitable 
islands by the other two tribes intruding from the mainland. The 

nas, who are clearly of Tehuelche origin, penetrated from Pata- 
gonia across the eastern arm of Magellan strait into the large , 
island of King Charles South Land. The Alacalufs, of Arau- 
canian stock, made their way from the Chilian Andes, across the 
western arm of Magellan strait into the islands from Cape Pillar 
to Stewart island. The Onas number about 2000, the other two 
about 3000 each. The Yagans appear to have been originally of 
the same stock as the Alacalufs, they are below the middle height, 
though nearly as tall as the Araucanians. They are distinguished 

y low brows, prominent zygomatic arches, large pendant lips, 
flat nose, round face, loose, wrinkly skin, thin extremities, legs 
curved outward, hair coarse, lank, long and black, with few excep- 
tions, They neither tattoo nor paint, and are scantily clad. Their 
houses are wretched hovels, but their beechwood canoes are skill- 
fully made. In these frail craft they navigate the stormy chan- 
nels, pursuing the whale and the dolphin beyond sight of land. 

e Yagans are polygamists and exacting of their wives, who are 
Prolific, however, and industrious. Many children succumb to 
the climate, and those who survive soon shift for themselves. 

ittle of social organization exists beyond the family and the 
hunting party. The belief in the supernatural and in a future 
existence seems to be little developed. The statement that the 

guage contains 30,000 vocables is received by Mr. Keane with 
extreme caution, 


Tue Arrantisi—M. E. F. Berlioux, professor of geography in 
the faculty of ‘letters, Lyon, has just published a learned work en- 
titled “ Les Atlantes : histoire dẹ l’Atlantis et de l’Atlas Primitif, 
ou Introduction a l’histoire de l’Europe” (Paris, Ernest Leroux, 

883, Pp. 170, 8vo). The question of Atlantis rests upon an 
agyptian tradition related by Solon, and preserved by Plato in 
the timæus and the Critias. For all the events related in this 


~ tradition, the dates and the geographical positions, there is always 


i 


100 General Notes. (January, 


to discussion. Now students have considered the subject from 
the first point of view only, regarding Atlantis as a continent 1 
the center of the Atlantic ocean, from which a great expedition 
was made nine or ten thousand years before our era, and which - 
was one day engulfed in the sea. In this form the legend is 50- 
seductive to the imagination as to place patient research out o! 
the question. Even those who have given any historic value to 
the narrative have placed the events so far back as to ante 
criticism, i 
In fact, the lands of the Atlas are not only rich in souveni 
found in books, but they are filled with monuments some ofw ich 
belong to the most remote ages and of which it becomes us t0 
study the history. The dolmens are more numerous than those 
of Armorica, and it is here that we must seek one end of that 
long line of megalithic monuments whose other extremity is t0 
be found in India, The tumuli mark a second epoch, and ten 
lines are not arrested by the ocean, they reappear on Ant : 
mains 0t 
others belonging to a still higher civilization. Indeed, e 
can land. Those of our readers who attended the } 

meeting of the American Association will recall Mr. H 
paper on the same subject, and they will be pleased 
Mr. Haliburton is at this time traversing the edge be 
Sahara with the classic authors in his hand. Ss 
Tue German ANTHROPOLOGICAL Society. — The fourteenth 
general meeting of the German Anthropological Society oe 
held the present year at Trier, on the gth, roth and 1 ith Aug 
Professor R. Virchow, president. The preliminary programi 
devoted to the general business of the meeting, and men, 
only a few of the papers to be read. 


be the editor. The first number presents a comely appea “ad 
though most readers object to quarto periodicals. Mr. Sat 7 
B. Evans contributes a paper on the Des Moines be 
mounds. 


Tue Great Inpex CaTatocur.—Volume tv of the “ v 
Catalogue of the Library of the Surgeon-General’s office, s! 
Army,” has just appeared. There are two things in these Vot the 
which we recommend to all anthropologists. e first n he 
alphabetical list of abbreviations of periodicals and societi K 
whole subject is in dire confusion elsewhere; but here ta 
duced to a rigid system. The second valuable thing 1S ha ; 
number of references to matters eminently anthropologic™ — 


1884.] Anthropology. i IOI 


the present volume one should examine the words, ear, Ecker, 
education, embalming, embryology, emigrants, emotions, engineering 
(sanitary), epidemics, ethics of medicine, ethnology (seven pages), 
eunuchs, evidence (medical), evolution and face. Indeed many an- 
thropological references occur under more general words, such 
as eye, face, etc. 


InpiAN Names OF WATER-COURSES.—Some one has said that 
the perishable is, after all, the most enduring. There is nothing 
in art more fragile than pottery or glass, yet either of them in its 
fragments outlasts bronze or marble. The same is true of words, 
Some of the tribes once puissant in the States east of the Missis- 
sippi have absolutely faded from the earth, yet they have left the 
evidences of their former power in the names of the natural fea- 
tures. Mr. H. W. Beckwith, of Danville, Illinois, has done a 
good service in publishing a list of these names for Indiana, in 
the State Geological Survey for 1882. Many of the titles were 
collected’ and defined by the late Daniel Hough. An excellent 
Map accompanies the paper. 

THE MAUMEE.—Ottawasepoie, Osawa river, by the Shawnees. Cagharenduteie, 
River of the standing rock, by the Wyandottes. 

THE ST. Mary’s.—Cokothekesepoie, X27tle river, by the Shawnees. ; 

THE WABASH.—Wauba, white, and Wabish water, in Algonkin. Quiaaghtena, in 
Iroquois. 


THE MississINEWA.—From missi and assin, with ewa, inanimate termination, signi- 
fying River of great stones. ‘ 

TiPPECANOE.~Kenonge, the long-billed pike. 

RED-woop CREEK.—Mus ua-metgi-sepe, Red-wood river, in Ojibwa. ; 

PINE CREEK.—Puckgwunnashgamucksepe, white pine tree of the bark-peeling kind, 
in Ojibwa, 


Wipcat.—Pishewa, in Shawnee, Ojibwa and Miami. 

Kankaku.—Theakiki, wolf land, in Mohegan. : 

TRoQuoIs.—Mockabella, from moqua, dear, in Kickapoo. Pickamink, deaver, in 
Pottawattomi. 

BEAVER LAKE.—Sagayiganuhnickyug, the lake of the beavers. 

WHITE RIVER,—Opecomeecah, in Delaware. 

VERMILION.—Piaukeshaw, red earth, burnt earth. 

EEL RIVER.—Kenabegwinnmaig, Snake-fish river. : 

Ox10.—Oio, beautiful, in Iroquois, Akanseas, by AFianies and Illinois, because 
the Akanseas formerly dwelt upon it. 

THE Kanaxas or New CaLeponia.—The people of New Cale- 
donia are the subject of a paper by Baron L. de Vaux, who has 
added to his own experience the knowledge gained by consulting 
the works of others, The islands are not remarkable for the 
luxuriance of their tropical growth, because the geological forma- 

n is not favorable. The people of to-day also seem to be in a 
State of degradation, not being engaged in those great and elabo- 
rate enterprises which distinguished their ancestors, such as long 
8queducts, terraced plantations of ignames, fortifications, etc. 
The New Caledonians are not so dark as the Negroes, but more 


102 . General Notes. [January, 


darkly colored than the Polynesians. They have crisped hain 
salient lips, noses artificially flattened, and the ears pierced in 
lower lobe. The beard is quite abundant, although many do not 
allow it to grow. They wear no clothing. The height of the 
women, poor creatures who ‘are only beasts of burden, is below 
the mean. Pretty up to the fifteenth year, they soon become d& | 
crepid by reason of severe toil and harsh usage. Old age is rate 
Frequent wars, chronic diseases, epidemics, carelessness about 
the laws of health, sudden changes of occupation, and above all, _ 
the enfeeblement of the mothers, are sufficient to account for the 
brevity of life. The women belong to the tribe and to their put 
chasers, hence courtship and marriage in a true sense are UP 
known. Betrothals take place early, and are effected by the 
exchange of gifts, they are binding only when the bachelor sends 
to his fiancée a collar of a certain pattern. Finally, to complete 
the engagement, both drink from the same cup a fermented 
liquor specially prepared. Infidelity in the wife is punished by : 
precipitating her from a celebrated cliff. The pastimes of the 
men consist of athletic sports, and they drive away dull care with 
the music of a rude flute and the recitation of ancient legends 
One of their favorite weapons is the sagaze, which they hurl by 
means of a short cord, looped at one end for the forefinger, aMi 
knotted at the other to make fast temporarily to the shaft. Those 
who have seen a seine landed by men with just sucha looped 
knotted cord passed around theif shoulders and wrapped oncè 
around the seine rope, will understand the working of this savage ; 
sling. The paper of Baron de Vaux abounds in useful informa — 
tion which the want of space does not even permit us to mention 
(Rev. d' Ethnog., 11, 327-354). | E 


FrencH EranoLocy.—The fourth part of Vol. 11, Revue d'Eth os 
nographie,. Paris, contains the following original memoirs : 
The Ghiliaks, from the latest sources of information. By J. Deniker. ; l 
The use of Mollusks among ancient and modern peoples Il. Mollusks of the 

tombs of Equador and New Guinea (6 figs.). By A. F. de Rochebrune- By : 
Ethnographic observations in the peninsula of California and Sonora (5 figs) 7% 

H. Tenkat ‘ 


The Kanakas of New Guinea (13 figs.). By Baron L, de Vaux. 


The Ghiliaks are that people who live at the mouth of nae 
Amoor and on the adjacent shore of Saghalin. They belong: 
with the Yukagirs, etc., to the vast family of tribes called by ; 
Schrenck the Paleasiatics. nA 

The use of mollusks among the S. American aborigines of the : 
Pacific coast was very restricted, both as regards species pa 
classes of specimens, and this fact is more apparent in Ecuagt — 
and New Grenada, than in Peru. gai 

The southern peninsula of California is almost devoid of intet 
est to the anthropologist. Ancient relics are rare, and the pule 


epee 
no Ug s Se eis er ees ed ee 


a Se eee ee ae ee 


= 


A 
f 


1884.] Anthropology. 103 


blood Pericuis and Coras give place to mixed-bloods, in which 
the foreign element has almost entirely obliterated every aborig- 
inal trace. 

The Kanakas of New Caledonia are of Negrito stock, and the 
Baron de Vaux has diligently supplemented his own personal 
observations by the study of original authorities. 

The last thirty pages of the number are devoted to reviews, 
reports of meetings, expositions and collections, correspondence, 
news and bibliography. : 

The third part of Vol. xvi of Rev. de Linguistique, Paris, is de- 
voted entirely to Sanscrit and Hindustanee. 

he second fascicule of the Bulletins de la Société d Anthropolo- 
gie de Paris, publishes the following papers of general interest: 
On the poisoned arrows of the North American Indians. By G. Lagneau. 
Discussion upon Polyandry in Asia—Kachmir and Thibet. Study in ancient and 
alvy. 


Anatomical significance of the chief humeral of the biceps muscle. By M. Leo 
Testut. 


On the races of Oceanica. By M. Cauvin. 
Report on the brain of Louis Asseline. By MM. Mathias Duval, Chudzinski and 
Hervé. 


Discussion upon the poisoned arrows of the North American Indians. By. MM. 
Prat and G. de Mortillet. 

The traces of ancient religions in Central Asia and to the south of the Hindoo 
Koosh. By Ch. E. de Ujfalvy. 


Morphologic description of the brain of Assezat. By MM. Mathias Duval, Chud- 
zinski and Hervé, 


Upon the “ Tablier” and steatopygia among the Bushman women. By Dr. Raphael 
Blanchard, 


Human sacrifices among the Khonds of India. By E. Reclus. 

The population of Western Laos. By Carl Bock. 

Discussion upon the Couvade among the Basques. By J. Vinson and G. Lagneau. 

Morphological description of the brain of Coudereau. By MM. Duval, Chudzinski 
and Hervé. 


Influence of alimentation upon the milk. By G. de Mortillet. 
The prehistoric Passo. By M. Chauvei. 

The most interesting papers of general interest are the reports 
on the brains of Louis Asseline, M. Assezat and M. Coudereau. 


Tue Concress oF AMERICANISTS.—In 1875 a gathering of 
Americanists took place at Nancy, France, and organized the 
Congrés International des Americanistes, which has assembled by 
adjournment every two years since that date—once each at Brus- 

» Luxembourg, Madrid and Copenhagen. 

In 1883 the session began at Copenhagen on August 21st. It 
Was opened with all due formality in the magnificent hall of the 
university, in the presence of the king, the royal family, the Prin- 
fess of Wales (then on a visit to her parents), the chief ministers 
of State, and many distinguished visitors and pees e Official 


= - - - 
Belgium, Spain and Italy, and from learned societies in 


o F ita, were present fr the governments of Denmark, 


K 
fi 


104 General Notes. (January, | 


Germany, Colombia and the United States, though we regret to | 
say that our own country had only one representative at any time — 
during the congress. ; 
- The opening session was presided over by the eminent arche- 
ologist, Professor Worsaae, who delivered the address of wel- 
come. He referred to the close relations which Scandinavia and 
Denmark had maintained, for nearly a thousand years, with Joe 
land, Greenland and Northern America, described some of the — 
voyages of the Northmen, and called attention to a model of one 
of their ancient ships‘which was exhibited in the hall. He was 
followed by M. Fabie (the delegate from Spain), M. Lucien Adam — 
(from France), and M. Anatole Bamps (from Belgium). The ad 
dress of the latter gave a brief but masterly sketch of the evi 
dence of the existence of palzolithic man in America, and asked 
the especial attention of the congress to this subject. Not only, 
said the speaker, is the testimony now ample that man existed in 
America at the close of the glacial epoch, but we are even just 
fied in saying that from a comparison of similar discoveries 1n the 
two hemispheres, the -huma race appears to have occit ie 
America at an epoch anterior fo any of which we have yet evr 
dence in Asia or Europe. 
At the session of the following day, the same topic was brought 
up by M. Lütken, who described the human remains found i 
caverns in Brazil by the late Dr. Lund. They were intimately 
associated with the bones of extinct animals, and gave pr 
of a high antiquity. M. Reiss, of Berlin, described similar results : 
from his own researches in Brazil and in Buenos Ayres. = 
A variety of new materials for the history of Columbus's ee 
ages was epitomized by M. Herrera, who has collected a mass 0 
unexpected information from unpublished documents in Spam 
Thus, contrary to what has been often stated, he shows that 
olumbus actually landed on the mainland of the continent at ê 
number of points. ; a 
During the second day two papers were presented in English. 
One was by Mr. Löffler, on the discovery of Vinland by theat 
cient Scandinavians. He refuted the opinion of the hito 
Bancroft that the Icelandic sagas are without historical value, air 
argued that Vinland should be located as far south as the ek 
of Virginia.’ The other paper was by Dr. Brinton, of Philace 
phia, one of the vice-presidents of the congress, an the om 
delegate from the United States. It was a sketch of the lite 
ture by native authors in the aboriginal tongues of America. M 
Another paper in English was read the following day bya 
Steenstrup. The subject was the ruins of ancient European “i 
onies which are discovered in unexpected spots in Green% pies 
No record of these settlements remain beyond obscure, ae 
in the sagas, which have been called in question. But 1t 15 Se 
that a much larger population once existed in that incleme” 


1884.] Anthropology. 105 


country than at present, and that the references in the sagas are 
quite trustworthy. ` 

On the 23d, a valuable communication was received from 
Baron Nordenskjöld. The celebrated navigator had directed that 
each member of the congress should be presented with an en- 
graved fac-simile of a map dating from before the year 1482, on 
which was represented Greenland and perhaps some outline of 
the northern portion of the continent. For various reasons, he 
argued that this map was the production of an Italian who had 
_ visited the Faroé islands. This chart and the subject in general 
were ably discussed at a later hour by M. Steenstrup and Admiral 
Irminger, who threw much light on the origin of the celebrated 
“map of Zeno.” The extensive voyages through the North- 
western waters by the Northmen were further proved in an ex- 
cellent paper by M. Brynjulfson. He recited an Icelandic poem 
of about the year 1100, which describes what is now known as 
Melville bay, and quoted a letter, still extant, of a priest, giving a 
narrative of his voyage in 1266 as far as what is now Smith's 
sound. The descriptions of localities in it are so accurate that 
they can be readily identified. 

How it happened that the really extensive geographical knowl- 
edge and profitable fisheries, colonies and commercial relations 
which the Northmen established with Greenland and vicinity 
between A. D..1000 and 1450 became neglected and at last for- 
gotten by themselves, was satisfactorily explained in a long and 
learned memoir by M. Valdemar Schmidt. 

_in the domain of archeology, two well-prepared papers on 
native American ceramics were presented by MM. Bamps and 
Rada. The former announced the important fact that all varieties 
and colors of American pottery, from the elaborate workmanship 
of Peru to the rude efforts of the hunting tribes, are invariably of 
One uniform pâte, not of several different colors or consisten- 
cies. Whatever differences there may be due to the mixing of 
the clay, to the burning, to external coloring, or other such ex- 
trinsic treatment. The decoration of native pottery, as well as 
the theory of aboriginal ornamentation in general, was discussed 
in an entertaining paper by M. Stolpe. 

It has long been known that various savage tribes perform an 
Operation on the skull similar to that called by surgeons “ tre- 
Phining.” The occurrence of this in several American nations 
was described by M. de Baye. : 

The changes of level in the different parts of the American 
Continent, and their effect on population, were shown by M. Vera, 
w brought together many striking facts to illustrate the vast 
Seologic oscillations which are in progress. 

I American linguistics, the principal contributions were a 

Paper by Dr. Rink on the Eskimo tongue, and some 
"Marks on the Kiché and Timucua by other members. The 


ee 


106 Gencral Notes. | January, 


question of the decipherment of the mysterious hieroglyphs of 
Yucatan was broached, but it was agreed that little progress had 


the kind. To be sure, there were a few threatening symptoms 0 
such an outbreak. The Celtomaniac was heard’ from who wanted 
to identify some American language with the Welsh, the ancient 
Atlantis was not wholly submerged out of sight, and the mis 
sionary journey of the Apostle St. Thomas to Mexico in A, D. 
50 would come up for a little while; but the good sense of the 
majority soon suppressed these wasters of time. 

The occasion was a fine one for practice in languages. The | 
congress has no official tongue, and though most of the proceed: 
ings were in French the papers and debates were alternately i 
that language and in German, English, Spanish and Danish. 
The sessions closed with an excursion in the picturesque Jan 
scapes around Copenhagen, and it is safe to say that every mem- 
ber of the body returned to his home enriched with information 
on the subject of his studies, and with a sentiment of warm friend- 
liness to the hospitable and intelligent Danish people. 

The next meeting of the congress will be at Turin, in 1885.— 

rs, 


MICROSCOPY .! 
METHODS OF PREVENTING THE ROLLING oF MICROTOMIC w 
TIONs.— The section-smoother described in the last number 0 


the NATURALIST appears to be the best instrument yet devised ad 
the prevention of section-rolling, not excepting the ingenious 
device of Schulze, described below. ` A 
Besides the section-smoother, there are other means by which 
the rolling of sections may be prevented. It may be effected bY 
rendering the paraffine softer and less elastic through the additio® 
of a small quantity’ of vaseline, by the aid of brush or $ it | 
held over the object by the left hand during the process of pi 
ting, and lastly—and most’ effectively—by placing the knife 4 
right angles to the carrier. The discovery of the fact that s€ we 
may be cut without rolling by giving the knife a transverse 
stead of an oblique position, was made by Mr. Caldwell, ant i 
about the same time by Professor Mark. Since the discovery 
this meth 5d, it has come very rapidly into general use, and 1 ay 
Jung’s microtome is supplied with “transverse” as W® with 
“ oblique knives.” This method, excellent as it is, especially ee 
small objects, does not suffice in all cases, and does not the the | 
remove the necessity of a section-smoother. Even with © | 


: 


1 Edited by Dr, C. O. WHITMAN, Mus. Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, 


1884. ] Microscopy. 107 


knife placed transversely, the section-smoother may often be used 
with advantage, and sometimes proves indispensable. 

In this method it is important to use a moderately soft paraf- 
fine, which may be obtained by mixing, in proper proportions, 
soft and hard paraffine, and further to give the piece of paraffine 
to be cut a rectangular form. The piece must then be so placed 
in the holder that the side next to the knife is exactly parallel 
with the cutting edge. Thus placed, every section lies flat on the 

lade. The second section pushes on the first, adhering to its 
adjoining side ; the third pushes on the first two, adhering to the 
second.. A whole ribbon of sections may be cut in this way ina 
few moments without danger of losing their serial order. Thus 
three very important points are gained: the sections remain per- 
fectly flat, the cutting may be as rapid as the hand can move, and 
the order of the sections is preserved without trouble to the man- 
ipulator. Care must be taken only that the opposite sides of the 
paraffine are parallel, otherwise the ribbon will curve to the right 
or left, and the arrangement of the sections on the slide be less 
easily accomplished. 


Scuutze’s SECTION-SMOOTHER.'—This contrivance consists of a 
small weight supported by a steel spring. The weight (w) which 


tin 


Fic. 1.—Section-smoother adjusted to a block of paraffine ( ) preparatory to cut- 
8; 0, the object; 4, paraffine-holder ; s, steel spring; w, weight. : 


has the form of a cylinder, is about 8™ in length, and is 
fixed to the lower end of an upright rod which can be turned 


(7 ), as may be seen from the figure. One end of the 
Spring (s) supporting the weight is soldered to the ferrule ; 


the other end is held fast in the holder (4), one arm of which is 
Prolonged into an enlarged handle-like portion. The holder (2) 


ro att Eilhard Schulze, Ein Schmittstrecker. Zool. Anzeiger, VI, No. 132, p. 


108 Scientific News. [Jani 


fits into a cylindrical hole which penetrates perpendiculari 
depth of 2-3™™ the hinder portion of the object-carrier. = 
this hole the holder can be turned, or moved up or down; and 
these movements, together with those which may be given to the 
rod (7) and the spring (s), are ample for all adjustments of the 
weight (w). oe 
Preparatory to cutting, the weight should be turned so as tobe 
parallel with the edge of the knife, and raised or lower 
means of the rod (7) and the holder (4) until it rests Zightly on x 
upper surface of the paraffine. Slight changes in the pressure 0t 
the weight can be made through the rod (7); greater changes at 
be effected by bending the spring. j iie 
The weight should rest, not directly over the object, but on s 
edge of the paraffine next to the knife. ea ibe 
his section-smoother, which can be fitted to any sliding er 
tome, can be obtained of Fr. Fasching, in Graz, Bigergasse, ™ : 


r toa 
ithin 


. 


13, at a price of 314 marks, or $0.85. 


10: Bs 
SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 


— Some Gossip asour Darwin.—In a recent visit to En 
the writer strolled into the village of Down in Kent, ee 
with some of the villagers in regard to Mr. Darwin, whose 
ful home is just cutside the little town. 

Some of this talk, although in itself idle and valueless, 7 
have an interest to readers, as showing how a great man 100K" 
his smaller neighbors. 

e landlord of the “George Inn” said that “all the peop 
wished to have Mr. Darwin buried in Down, but the govern 
would not let them. It would have helped the place sora 


zen 
E oe 


pretty dull in winter time. d 
“Mr. Darwin was a very fine-looking man. He ha 
forehead and wore a long beard. .Still, if you had met 


things. nee 

At Keston, three miles from Down, the landlady of tl i 
hound had never heard of Mr. Darwin until after ree Hf 
There was then considerable talk about his being buried in 
minster, but nothing was said of him before. Bo 

Several persons had considerable to say of Mr. Darwin ion 
sive and judicious charity to the poor, To Mr. Pars 5 


1884. | Scientific News. 109 


many years his personal servant, Mr. Darwin gave a life pension 
of £50, and the rent of the handsome “ Home Cottage ” in Down, 
During the time of a water famine in that region, he used to ride 
about on horseback to see who needed water, and had it brought 
to them at his own expense from the stream at St. Mary's Cray. 

“He was,” said Mr, Parslow, “a very social, nice sort of a gen- 
tleman, very joking and jolly indeed; a good husband and a 
good father and a most excellent master. Even his footmen used 
to stay with him as long as five years. They would rather stay 
with him than take a higher salary somewhere else. The cook 
came there while young and stayed there till his death, nearly 
thirty years later. 

“Mrs. Darwin is a pleasant lady, a year older than her husband. 
Their boys are all jolly, nice young fellows. All have turned 
out so well, not one of them rackety, you know. Seven children 
out of the ten are now living. 

“George Darwin is now a professor in Oxford. He was a 
barrister at first; had his wig and gown and all, but had to 
give it up on account of bad health. He would have made’a 
hornament to the profession. 

_ “Francis Darwin is a doctor, and used to work with his father 
in the greenhouse. He is soon to marry a lady who lectures on 
Botany in Oxford. 

“For the first twenty years after Mr. Darwin’s return from 
South America, his health was very bad—much more than later. 
He had a stomach disease which resulted from sea-sickness while 
on the voyage around the world. Mr. Parslow learned the water- 
_ Cure treatment and treated Mr. Darwin in that system, for a long. 
_ lime, giving much relief. 

“Mr. Darwin used to do his own writing but had copyists to 
get his work ready for the printer. He was always an early man. 
He used to get up at half past six. He used to bathe and then 
g0 out for a walk all around the place. Then Parslow used to 
get breakfast for him before the rest of the family came down. 

€ used to eat rapidly, then went to his study and wrote till 
after the rest had breakfast. Then Mrs. Darwin came in and he 
used to lie half an hour on the sofa while she or some one else 
read to him. Then he wrote till noon, then went out for an hour- 
to walk. He used to walk all around the place. Later in life, 
he had a cab, and used to ride on horseback. Then after lunch 
at one, he used to write awhile. Afterwards he and Mrs. Darwin 
used to go to the bedroom, where he lay ona sofa and often 
Smoked a cigarette while she read to him. After this he used 
to walk till dinner-time at five. Before the family grew up, they 
used to dine early, at half-past one, and had a meat-tea at half 
Past six, 

„~ Sometimes there were eighteen or twenty young Darwins of 
erent families in the house. Four-in-hand coaches of young 


IIO Scientific News. [January, 


Darwins used sometimes to come down from London. Mr f 

Darwin liked children. They didn’t disturb him in the least. | 

There were sometimes twenty or thirty pairs of little shoes to be 

pi of a morning, but there were always plenty of servants to 
o this. 

“ The gardener used to bring plants into his room often ofa 
morning, and he used to tie bits of cotton on them, and tryta 
make them do things. He used to try all sorts of seeds. He 
would sow them in pots in his study. z a 

“There were a quantity of people in Westminster Abbey when 
he was buried. Mr. Parslow and the cook were among the chief 
mourners and satin the Jerusalem chamber. The whole church 
was as full of people as they could stand. There was great ds: | 
appointment in Down that he was not buried there. He loved tht 
place, and we think that he would rather have rested there had 
he been consulted.” —David S, Jordan, Lloomington, Indiana. 


— Sir A. Henry Layard, in his “ Nineveh and Babylon "e 
scribes a lens which he found in the course of his excavations 


sion of Dr. Birch, the keeper of Oriental Antiquities, the Journal 
of the Royal Microscopical Society has been enabled to figure 
it. The lens is thus referred to by Sir A. H. Layard: «with 
the glass bowls was discovered a rock crystal lens, with oppose 
convex and plane faces. Its properties could hardly have pe 
unknown to the Assyrians, and we have consequently the eaf we 
specimen of a magnifying and burning glass. It was buried 8 


pier ee enamel of some object in ivory or wood, which had 


A note from Sir David Brewster, quoted by Layard, ends d 
follows: “ Itis obvious from the shape and rude cutting We 


are entitled, therefore, to consider it as intended to be used el 
lens, either for magnifying or for contracting the rays of the pe 
which it does, however, very imperfectly.” “4 

Gh ‘monograph of the North American fresh-water sponge 
now in course of preparation by Mr. Edward Potts. The best a 
son for collecting sponges varies with the different speci dle 
may be generally stated to be from the last of July to the ™ 
or latter part of November, when the spicules and statos dilute 
are likely to be fully matured. They may be preserved in oe 
alcohol or dried by a few days’ exposure tothe air; in which eo 
dition Mr. Potts would be very happy to receive specimen) es, 
all parts of this and other countries. If packed in light class) 
strong enough to prevent crushing, the postage by mail (4t sat, | 
will be but one cent per ounce, which Mr. Potts will gladly ™ 
with any other reasonable expenses, He will acknowledge © 


1884. ] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. III 


receipt, giving the names of known species and full credit to the 
collectors of all that are novel or interesting. Every gathering 
should be marked with its habitat, the date of collection, and the 
name and address of the sender. Address specimens and letters to 
Edward Potts, 228 S. Third street, Philadelphia. 


—We are glad to learn, that Dr. Shufeldt of the army is about 
to resume his scientific work at the Army Medical Museum of 
Washington. It is the intention of the recently appointed Sur- 
geon-General, General Robert Murray, U. S. Army, to place Dr. 
Shufeldt in the position he formerly held in that institution, and 
his duties in that field will commence at an early date. 

Dr. Shufeldt has during the year just past made very exten- 
sive collections of vertebrates and invertebrates in the southern 
part of the State of Louisiana. This collection amounted to 
Some 3000 specimens, and coming as they do from a section of 
Our country so little known and worked by the naturalist, they 
are particularly valuable, It is to be sincerely hoped that Dr. 
Shufeldt will be enabled to work up his collection, and duly give 
us a report upon the zoology of the section in question. 


— Charles Leslie McKay, U.S. Signal Officer at Nushegak, 
Alaska, was drowned in Bristol bay, last April, while on a col- 
lecting excursion. Mr. McKay was engaged in a zoological sur- 
vey of the Bristol Bay region under the auspices of the National 

useum, and had already sent in important collections. He was 
one of the most active of the younger naturalists, having given 
especial attention to Ichthyology. His only scientific publica- 
tionis a review of the Centrarchide, inthe Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. for 
1881. This paper was an abridgment of a detailed monograph, 
the manuscripts of which have been destroyed by the burning of 
the museum of the Indiana university. Mr. McKay wasa native 
of Wisconsin, a graduate of Indiana university, 26 years of age 
and unmarried.—D. S. F. 


— In the recent death of Dr. W. Kowalevsky, palzontological 
Science has lost one of its most able cultivators. He was profes- 
Sor in the University of Moscow, and was of the purest and most 
advanced Muscovitic stock. His contributions to vertebrate pal- 
ontology mostly appeared in the German Palzontographica, and 
Were of a high order of excellence. He anticipated several En- 
Ssh and American writers in several generalizations as to the 
descent of the ungulate Mammalia, among the rest in the gene- 

Sy of the horses. 


A" 


PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 


_ Biorocicar Society oF WasuHincToN, Nov. 30.—Communica- 
tions were made by Dr. Frank Baker on the logical method of 


es N 


112 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. (Jan, 


teaching anatomy ; by Dr, Thomas Taylor on Oidium tuckeri, ot i 
fungus of the foreign grape vine, with new facts relating to 
highest stage of fruit, with illustrations ; by Professor Theodore 
Gill on a new family of deep-sea fishes, the Acanthochenida; a 
by Professor C. V. Riley on the use of naphthaline in medi 
and as an insecticide. 


New York Acapemy oF Sciences, Nov. 5 —The relations 
Dinichthys, as shown by some recently discovered comf 
crania, by Dr. John S. Newberry, was the paper for the evening. ! 

Nov. 12.—Dr. Hubbard W. Mitchell delivered a lecture, illus 
trated with diagrams and stereopticon, upon the succession 
animal life on the globe. 


Nov. 19.—The following paper was read: Glacial phen 
in the Shawangunk mountains, Dr. Alexis A. Julien. 


E. Wadsworth gave brief notes on the lithology of the I 
Jura, Scotland. An 
Nov. 21.—Mr. William Brewster spoke of the bir yr 
on the Arethusa’s cruise to the Gulf of St. Lawrence; and è 
retary showed an interesting example of a “ home made witi 
hands.” 


APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN Crus, Nov. 14.—Reports of 


ascent of the Giant’s Stairs, by R. B. Lawrence; A trip ey 
ception, Dartmouth and Mitten, by George A. Sargenty 
Parker and Mount Nancy, by Albert Matthews; A visit * 
Imp Face, by Miss S. M. Barstow. 

At a special meeting, Nov. 20, White Mountain phote 
was illustrated, by W. H. Pickering; Randolph, by Mrs. 
Pychowska; The mountains near Zermatt, illustrated, by © 
Ames. ; n 
A trip to Blue hill was made Saturday, Nov. 10. 


AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL Sociery, Nov. 20.-- Me 
Kefinan delivered a lecture entitled, A journey throug? 
eastern Russia, illustrated with stereopticon views. cee 


CE a E ee a SSS toe Lee ae Lge e eee ee ean ae, Lee) eae re 


THE 


AMERICAN NATURALIST. 


= Vor. xvit.— FEBRUARY, 1884.—No. 2. 


AN ACCOUNT OF THE WAR CUSTOMS OF THE 
OSAGES, 


GIVEN BY RED CORN (HAPA SUISE), OF THE TSIJU PEACE-MAKING 
GENS, TO THE REV. J. OWEN DORSEY. 
INTRODUCTION, 

i order to obtain a better understanding of the subject, it will 

be necessary for the writer to describe the order in which the 
Osages encamped in their tribal circle. When they went on their 
buffalo hunt in the summer they always pitched their tents in a 
certain order, according to the clans or gentes of which the tribe 
was composed. In the first diagram seven gentes camp on the 
left, and fourteen, considered as seven at present, on the right. 
Those on the left are the Tsi’-ou or Chee’-zhoo gentes, forming 
the peace element of the tribe; those on the right are the Hañ’-ka 


— and Wa-sa’-ve (War-shar’-shay)! gentes, constituting the war ele- 


ment. The former could not take animal life of any sort, but 
Were obliged to content themselves with vegetable food, till they 
made an agreement with those on the right to supply them with 
vegetable food in exchange for meat, which the Hafi-ka and 
Wa-da-9e could obtain. 

The Tsi-ou (Chee-zhoo) gentes are as follows: 1: Those who 
Wear tails or locks of hair on the head. 2. Buffalo bull face. 3. 

€€-zhoo peace-makers or red eagle. 4. Those who carry the 
Sun on their backs, sun carriers. 5. Night people, or the 


1 age 
Wa-9a-3e or Wa-zha-zhe, means Osage, The exact pronunciation cannot be 


ee by ordinary English characters. Hence the “c” = “sh’’,is inverted to 
‘Show a sound betw, : 


een “sh” and “zh.” 
VOL. xvii1,—no, n. 8 


114 An account of the War Customs of the Osages. [Febr 


youngest Chee-zhoo. 6. Buffalo bull; and 7. Thunder people, 
or those who camp behind. : 

The gentes on the right are now in seven groups, the sevet 
Wa-zha’-zhe gentes having been consolidated into two groups 
and the seven Hañ-ka gentes into five groups. Before this cot 
solidation was made, the tribe consisted of the seven Chee-2h00 
fire-places or gentes on the left, and the seven Wa- zha-ahe fie 
places on the right. 

The following are the groups on the right, according to 
authorities, Saucy chief and He-who-never-fails: 8 
Osages, including six of the Wa-zha-zhe fire-places. 9. Haia 
apart from the rest. 10, Ponka peace-makers (the ain ges 


LEFT RIGHT 
TSICU SIDE HANKA SIDE 


Fic, 1.— Osage tribal circle and the tents of the mourners. 
on this side, as the Chee-zhoo peace-makers are on the 
they form a Wa-zha-zhe fire-place. 11. Hafi-ka having W" 
eagle gens, 12, Black bear. 1 3. Elk. 14. Kansas, pi 


1884.] An account of the War Customs of the Osages. 115 


ers, or wind people. All but Nos. 8 and 10 are Hañ-ka fire- 
places. 

The line drawn through the circle denotes the road traveled by 
the tribe. This forms the boundary between the two half-tribes. 

The following accounts of the Osage war customs are necessa- 
rily incomplete, being obtained from a member of the principal 
peace gens. Moreover, there are customs peculiar to each gens, 
which are not familiar to members of other gentes. 

There are three kinds of war parties among the Osages. The 
first is the large war party, undertaken in the summer. The next 
the sacred bag war party, in which only a few engage at any sea- 
son. The third is called “ tsi’-ka-kha’,” undertaken at any time, 
being an expedition after the horses and other property of the 
enemy. 

= T—A Larce War Party (Tu-Ta®’-Hv Tan’Ka), 

When a man on the left side of the tribal circle is mourning 
for one of his family, he selects a man from the right side of the 
tribe to mourn with him, and to be the real leader of the expe- 
dition. Let us suppose that the first mourner is a Chee-zhoo 
peace-maker man. He must present the other man, whom we 
will call a Hafika (in full, Hafika-apart-from-the-rest), with one 
of his best horses. Then the Chee-zhoo chooses a kettle-bearer 
for himself, and this kettle-bearer builds a small lodge (D, Fig. 1) 
for his friend. It is on the west side of the village, and is made 
of two buffalo robes. The door faces the west. A similar lodge 
(E) is built for the Hafika mourner, by his kettle-bearer, on the 
right side of the circle, and towards the west, as in the figure. 
Each mourner stays alone in his lodge, seeing no woman. 

As the Chee-zhoo is a peace gens, it has no war customs per- 
taining to it, so the Chee-zhoo mourner has to apply to a man of 
the first gens, Lock-wearers, to act as his teacher. The Lock- 
wearers and Buffalo-bull-face people are the soldiers or policemen 
of the Chee-zhoo peace-makers. Should the mourner fail to ob- 
tain a man of the first gens, he must ask one of the second gens, 


Buffalo-bull-face people, to instruct him. The Hañka mourner 


Must select his teacher from one of the soldier gentes on his side, 
der Osages or Hañka apart from the rest. ; 
Within four days of the time for departure, the mourners- 
return to the village and begin their preparations. The Hañka 
Mourner directs his teacher to select the time and place for 


s 


- 116 An account of the War Customs of the Osages. [F 


the final ceremonies. Whereupon the teacher goes to one ofthe 
heralds (an Elk or Kansas man), telling him to proclaim the news 
around the village’ | 

All the people who wish to see the ceremonies take a suffici 
number of tents and remove to the place outside the village 
pitching their tents in a circle. The large tent of the Cheezhoo 
is put up on the left, at A, Fig. 2, and the corresponding tent of Í 
the right side is pitched at B. The latter is the leading tent whet 


4 


w 


Fic, 2.—Plan of war tent. 


the deceased belongs to the left side,-and the former is the lead | 


all the men on their side, who meet at B. H +o 

Each mourner receives a war pipe and a forked stick on 
he can hang the bag in which the pipe is kept. The pipe® 
old one handed down from preceding generations. Such piP 
are.always kept by those men who have taken a degree Gr 2 | 
secret order of the tribe. The drum used on. this occasion . 
made by a man of the Sun-carrier gens, Two battle stam e 
are made for each mourner by an old man of the Elder Y 
gens (Fig. 3). One on each side has seven feathers, and 
oned as the superior one; and the other has six. The botto 
each standard terminates in a sharp point, which is used K 
spear, When the two teachers ask the Elder Osage mi 
make the standards, they hand him a new knife, some pa 
all other materials required for them. When he finishes r 
the knife and the remaining materials belong to him. © 


1884.] An account of the War Customs of the Osages. 57> 


same time the teachers give him some calico to pay him for his 
trouble. When the standards are completed, the old man says: 
“O Hañka and Cheezhoo, as you have paid me, take the stand- 
ards quickly!” The Cheezhoo teacher takes his in his left hand, 


Fic. 3.—Battle standards. 


and the Hañka extends the right hand for his standards, Then 
they lay down the standards before them. 

Then the general war tent of the tribe (Figs. 2 and 4) is erected — 
at C, facing the west, the place of honor being at the rear, towards 
the east. 

All the principal men of each side, including the head men of 
the gentes, who are a sort of priests, meet in the war tent, C. 
There the drum beats. At the rear of the tent are seated the - 
Principal old men, one for each gens. The two mourners are 
still outside, By and by the mourners are brought into the tent, 
in which there is no fire. The two bags containing the war pipes 
are hung on their necks, : 

For this occasion two war bags are made of the feathers and 
Skins of war eagles by some of the old men. These bags are 
now brought into the tent by the teachers, who present them to 

€ mourners. The old men who made the bags now choose two 
Or three men for each mourner, to act as Wa-sha’-pe wa’-shu- 


118 = An account of the War Customs of the Osages. [F 


wa’-kdhe, whom we may style lieutenants (though that is han 
the translation). These men drop their blankets and wear not 
“ing but their breech-cloths as they stand in a row with 
‘mourners, The old men who made the bags select a her 
each mourner out of any gens. These stand next to the 
ants. Each lieutenant and herald receives a war pipe 
Cheezhoo herald receives in his left hand a knife with 
dle painted red. The Hañka herald receives in his right hi 
hatchet with the handle reddened, 

Then the Hafika mourner (B) is brought to the front, 
told to select the best men on the Cheezhoo side for s 
bearers. He chooses one (Æ), leading him to the front, the 
crying as he goes, To the latter is handed a standard with s 
feathers by Cheezhoo’s teacher. It is received in the left 
and the man performs a war dance according to his own des 
custom, and then he takes his seat. Then the Cheezhoo mo 
is called to the front, being told to select the best man f 
Hafika side for standard-bearers, The first that he choo 
taken to the front, crying as he goes. Hafika’s teacher } 
him the other standard with seven feathers, which is 
the right hand. He dances, and sits down. Haiika’s ‘ 
selects a man from the opposite side (F) to carry the s$ 
with six feathers; and Cheezhoo’s mourner chooses 4 fi 
‘man (X) for a similar office. When the Hafika mourner 
the third man on the Cheezhoo side (G), the latter takes the 
ard from Æ, dances, and returns it to its holder. So 
Cheezhoo mourner selects the third man on the Hañk 
the latter takes the standard from J, dances, and returns 
fourth standard-bearer on the Cheezhoo side (Æ) takes the 
ard from F, dances, and returns it. And the fourth man 
Hañka side (M) takes the standard from K, to whom 
it after dancing. 

Then the lieutenants are painted with charcoal. Bef 
done, the Black bear people make a fire outside the 
placing on it a quantity of small willows which will $ 
' When these are charred, they are broken in small 
placed in pans, with a little water in each, Each liet 
the Cheezhoo side dips his hands into a pan, rubs them 
and then with his left palm he rubs his face, begi 
right ear, and going down the cheek, across the mouth 


An account of the War Customs of the Osages, IIQ 


1884.] 


paBreeetceseaeaeueennua ie ae eee ee ee Ce E) 


Rata et ae 
è 
i 


FIG. 4.—The war tent (C), showing the positions of the mourners, etc. 
mourner; & The Hañka mourner; cece, 


+ 


From X to X, the twenty-one old men; A, the Cheezhoo 
the lieutenants; dæ, the heralds, 


120 An account of the War Customs of the Osages. (February, i 


cheek to the ear. Next he rubs his right palm across his lef | 
shoulder, bringing the mark a little to the front. Rubbing more 
charcoal on his hands, he places his left palm on his right shoul- 
der, bringing the mark slightly to the front. With his right palm 
he makes a round mark on the chest, over the depression be | 
tween the two parts of the sternum. a 
The lieutenants on the Hañka side proceed in a similar mat- 
ner, but in reverse order, beginning with the right hand and end 
ing with the left in making the round mark over the breast bone. 
These men are now enlisted, and cannot sit down till night 
comes and the other warriors have lain down. The lieutenants, 
heralds, and standard-bearers can neither eat nor drink till they 
receive permission. ce 
After the lieutenants finish painting, the two heralds are 
‘dered to arise, one standing on the Cheezhoo mourner’s left, a 
other on the Hañka mourner’s right. They are sent from e 
tent, being ordered to go about a hundred yards from the village 
and then run around it. They start from the west, Cheezi 
herald going towards the north, and the other man running 
the south. When the Cheezhoo man gets due north, and 
Hañka is opposite him, the former cries to the latter : “ O | 
he says that you will cause the spirits of the animals to- 
along! He says that you must cause the spirits of the am 
to pass along at sunset!” To this the Hafika man replies, i 
Cheezhoo, he says that you must cause the spirits of the aniti 
to pass along! He says that you must cause the spirits of the 
mals to pass along at sunset!” Just before they reach the east, 
cry again, Cheezhoo speaking first. When they pass the east 
Cheezhoo man goes outside of the other's course, keeping t° 
left of the latter. When the Cheezhoo reaches the south, 
the Hañka is at the north, they cry again; and so when they a 
turn to the west. Then the large war tent (C) is taken dowi 
The Hañka mourner tells the Cheezhoo mourner and stan 
bearers to collect their warriors, while he and his standart- 
ers do likewise on the Hañka side. All the Cheezhoo men of 

seven gentes have to prepare for the four days’ dances. — A 
aiso have to furnish a drum. They meet in their large tem i 
at the back of which are seated the four standard-bearer? 
Gand H). The man who has the standard with seven ** 
(Æ) is the principal one, so he sits on the left of the one ™ 


1884.] An account of the War Customs of the Osages, 12I 


feathers (F). The standards are held with the feathers facing the 
west. The rest of the men sit around the tent. Then Æ selects 
all the young men who are to sit with the party as warriors, and 
the adult kettle-bearers, who prepare food for them. Of these 
latter there are from ten to twenty, no fixed number, and they 
have a separate camp. Next Æ selects about six youths who are 
fast runners, to act as kettle-bearers who give water to the war- 
riors. The man who cooked for the mourner at the first, and 
made the small lodge for him, is the leader of the kettle-bearers 
on his side. 

A man of the Sun-carrier gens is requested to make the drum 
for the party. He is furnished with the requisite implements, and 
gets a piece-of calico as his pay. In the meantime the Hafika 
Standard-bearers are doing similar things, but in a different order. 
In the Hañka tent (4) the man with the seven feather standard 
(Z) sits on the right of the other, who has that with six feathers 
(X). No. 3 (Z) is on the right of Z, and No. 4 (M) is on the left of 

The adult kettle-bearers and the kettle-bearers who give 
water are chosen by the holder of the principal standard (/). A 
Sun-carrier man is hired to make the drum. 

Then follows a dance around the village, while the two Sun- 
Carrier men are making the drums. Prior to this dance the men 
of each party try to get ready and rise to their feet before the 
others, The mourners, lieutenants and heralds keep at a short 
distance from the singers and dancers. At each tent (A and B) a 
Standard is raised. In modern times this is the U. S. flag. 

The principal kettle-bearer on each side carries one of the flags, 
and he is followed by the rest, including the kettle-bearers or ser- 
vants of both kinds. (See Fig. 5.) After the two parties pass 
each other, they walk in silence for about fifty yards, when the 
drums are sounded for another dance. (These drums are prob- 
ably those which were used at the, war tent C, as the new drums 
are not yet finished.) The dance is accompanied by a war song. 
Then they go silently as before; and so on till they arrive at the 
Tear of the village. They sing and dance as they pass each other 
the second time; and so on till they return to the tents at the west. 
Then they have a dance, in which they tell what they expect to do 
When they meet the enemy. This must not be confounded with 
e bravery dance, which takes place afterward, according to Red 

EIL, i $ 


122 An account of the War Customs of the Osages: [F 


After this each mourner or war captain gives to his pr | 
kettle-bearer a horse, which the servant sells to the man who 
give the most food for it. The food is brought in and cooked 
the adult kettle-bearers. The women are invited to a feast, 
the men eat none of the food. Each woman brings a bo 
flour, coffee, etc. The kettle-bearers run to meet them, take 
food and place it in a heap. At the end of the feast the 
bowls are handed to their owners. The food brought | 
women is cooked and the men have their feast. Should the 
ply be insufficient another horse is sold for food, the women 
invited to another feast, and they give more food in return for 


| 


Fic. 5.—Dance around the Village. 
men to eat. The dance is continued through the day, till 
half an hour before sunset. Sci 
Then they dance the U-dhu’-ta wa-tsi"’ or circle dance, im 

the Cheezhoo men dance from the west to the north, then 
the east and south, and round to the west again. Them 
the other side go in the opposite direction, In this dance 
first standard-bearer on the Hañka side tells one of his T 
in a song, as he dances, He is followed by the leading ~ 
zhoo standard-bearer. The principal Hañka standard-bearer 
and dances again, and is followed, as before, by the fisi E 
zhoo standard-bearer. So the two sing and dance 1n a 
they have sung about twelve songs. A whoop is a 
men march a short distance to perform the dance called 


rf 


1884.) An account of the War Customs of the Osages. 123 


very dance. They meet in front of the large Hañka tent (B), and 
the flag is hoisted (Fig. 6). All sit out of doors, forming a figure like 
a capital U, at the base of which 
are the standard-bearers, Next p: 
to them sit the warriors, and the : 
kettle-bearers sit at the ends: } 
The leading Hañka standard P 
bearer (/) arises, sings and dances 0: 
-a little to the west, and then back ` fa 
to his place, when he resumes his} = 
seat. He is followed by the first - 


"©: 


Cheezhoo standard-bearer (Æ), 
after whom dances the second 
Hañka standard-bearer (X), who 
is succeeded by the Cheezhoo of — 
the same rank (F). Next come 

the third Hañka and Cheezhoo I 
men (Z and G), then the fourth 
pair (M and Æ). Then the warri- 
ors dance in like manner. When a E 4 

they have finished the kettle- Fic. 6.—Bravery dance. 
bearers may dance if they desire. 

This ends the dances for the first day. Then the heralds make 
another circuit of the village, starting from their respective tents, 
Aand B. After this the war captains, warriors and servants sit 
and rest, smoking and talking till it is time to sleep. The princi- 
pal standard-bearer on each side (Æ, Z) calls his war captain, tell- 
ing him that on the morrow, just at daybreak, they must make 
the mysterious charcoal. Then the Hafika standard-bearer, Z, 
tells his captain to inform the men that they can lie down. So 
One of the Hañka lieutenants cries over to those in the other 
camp: “ Halloo, lieutenants!” One of the Cheezhoo lieutenants 
replies, “ What is it?” The Hafika man says, “ Ho! ye adult ket- 
tle-bearers, ye young kettle-bearers and ye standard-bearers! it 1s 
Said that you shali sleep!” The Cheezhoo replies, “O, grand- 
father, it is well !” Then he addresses the men on his own side, 
but ina loud voice, so that those on the other side may hear, too: 
= °, O comrades, standard-bearers! Ho, O comrades, ye Pr : 
kettle-bearers ! Ho, O comrades, ye young kettle-bearers! it is 
Said that ye shall sleep!” Then the Hafka lieutenant calls agam, 
“Ho, O lieutenant!” The Cheezhoo says, “ What is the matter? 


Coi 


| 


124 An account of the War Customs of the Osages. [Fe yr 


The Hañka says, “ O war captains and ye lieutenants! it is a 
O comrades, that you shall sleep!” The Cheezhoo replies, “I 
is well, O grandfather!” Then he addresses the mourners a f 
lieutenants on both sides, “ Ho, O comrades , ye war captains! Ho, 
O comrades, ye lieutenants! it is said that ye shall sleep!” Thet 
the Hañka cries again, “ Ho, O lieutenant!” The Cheezhoo sj 
“O my grandchild! to-morrow you shall cause them, it is sail, 
to attend to their duties.” The Cheezhoo replies, “O gr 
father, it is well!” Then he says to all, “ O comrades, to-mot f 
row I will cause you to attend to your duties!” Thin t 
ceremonies and proclamations for the night. 

On the second day the Cheezhoo men precede the Hañ 


nies for the day. On the previous evening members of the 
khe sub-gens of the Buffalo-bull gens brought in bunches 
willow, which were laid out of sight by some of the men 0 
Hañka side. Before daylight, ọn the second day, all the ı 
arise, and the men of the Night gens (who are a sort of bear p% i 
ple) set the willows afire; while the fire burns, long praye® © 

made by the men of the Night and Elder Osage gentes. 
end of a song they see who can get some of the fire. 
struggle which ensues the pieces of willow are crushed 
This act has a special name. What charcoal each one 


_ mixes the sacred charcoal with ordinary charcoal, after 
paints himself. Those who desire go and sing around the vii 
After breakfast they dance around the village all the mort 
on the first day. Then they have another feast at abo 
They dance the circle and bravery dances, as on the 
ing day. At night, just before retiring, one of the ©? 
lieutenants calls to those on the other side. A Hañka 
replies, “O my grandchild! what is the matter?” The 
Cheezhoo says what the Hafika did on the previous nigh 
the Hañka speaks the words used on ‘eum occasion by the 
zhoo. : 
On the third day the Hañka men precede the Cheezho? E 
in every rite, as they did on the first day, and one of . 
ber acts as the officer of the day. The sacred bags | 
war party are brought in, one by a Wa-zha-zhe or Osage 


1884.] An account of the War Customs of the Osages. 125 


the Hañka side, and one by a member of the Lock-wearer gens 
for the Cheezhoo mourner. 
They dance as on the preceding days. The Hafka mourner 
tells the Cheezhoo that on the morrow they will take the first step. 
On the fourth day the Cheezhoo men lead in every rite, as 
they did on the second day. Two narrow strips of buffalo hide 
are prepared by an old woman of a Buffalo gens on the Hañka 
side of the circle. These strips are placed side by side on the 
ground, and about two feet apart. The Cheezhoo men place 
their left feet on the rear one, and their right feet on the front one. 
The Hafika men have their right feet on the rear one and advance 
with their left feet on the front one. This is the first step taken ` 
on the war path. | 
The warriors now mount their horses, forming in two columns, ` 
in each of which they go two abreast, The standard-bearers ride 
in advance. The Cheezhoo column goes once around the vil- 
lage, in the usual course from: the west to the north, thence by 
the east and south to the west again. The Hañka column pro- 
ceeds in the opposite direction. They approach one another 
again at the west, and depart westward in parallel columns (Fig. 
7). Their course on the war path is 
_ Supposed to be towards the west. & 4) R 4 
When they have gone a certain dis- ° z 


+ 
tance from the village a member of * T 3 2 


the Dhu-khe sub-gens of the Buffalo * . y 5 
bull gens is taken to the front, where e . + G 
€ performs a rite. At its conclusion ` v í + 


the march is resumed, and they con- 5 


. R b 
tinue on their journey for about four 5 : 

ys, at the end of which period a ¢ . , 7 
Small tent is erected for each captain i : K ;: 


r mourner, the door facing the west. 

Each eagle is removed from the sa- +, š S é 

cred bag and placed on top of the 

Small tent (on its proper side), facing 

the west. Each captain goes through + ‘ "i ¿ó 

his tent from east to west, knocking “ : 
ue tent, and causing the eagle 'F IG, + kien of march towards 

to fall to the ground. The eagle is re- home. 

Stored to its bag. Then all the warriors except the captains, 


e 


E3 e + 


126 An account of the War Customs of the Osages. [Fe 


lieutenants and heralds can swim and wash their faces. 
resume their march, and by and by they meet a foe whom they 
attack. Let us suppose that they kill him. The first man who 
strikes him gets the first honor, and the second honor is given to 
the next who gives a blow. The scalp is handed to the Hañ 
captain, who gives it to the Cheezhoo captain, saying, “ Here 
that for which you employed me.” The corpse is laid with the 
head to the east. The Hañka captain makes a hole on the right 
side of the chest into which is thrust the standard with sen 
feathers of the Hañka men, the feathers pointing to the west 
The Cheezhoo makes a hole on the left side of the corpse int 
which is stuck the principal Cheezhoo standard. The seco 
Hañka standard-bearer places his standard, with six feathers, ® 
tween the right arm and the chest; and the second Cheezi0® 
standard-bearer puts his between the left arm and the side. i 
Should they lose one of their own men at this place, they 
up the body against a tree or bank, using most of their 1 
painting him all over. They break four arrows which the 
by him, and they leave some paint there. After mourning 
their own dead, they will mourn for the foe just as if he 
friend. At certain intervals (answering to every two OF 
hours, as we reckon time), the standard-bearers tell the cap® 
to command the warriors to mourn. Before they reach hom? 
the trophies, including the scalps, are placed on a pole, at! 
they charge, firing four times at it. : 
When they have lost one of their party they neither eat 
drink till they have poured out food and water for the 
When they come to a post oak they strip it of the bark for T 
five feet from the ground; they paint the tree red, break 
arrows and leave them by the tree with some paint. : 
When they approach the village, they cannot enter it if 
have lost any of their party; but they must stop, in that 
about one or two hundred yards from it. The principal mat 
1A similar custom is practiced by the Dakotas when they cut down t 


for their sacred pole, more than two hundred years ago. The Oma i 
their pole, on that occasion, represented an enemy, and a scalp was put Pi 
in accordance with that notion, A race for a tree also occurs whet = ig 
young men go to cut down one for the dance after the thanksgiving for? ti 
the buffalo hunt. Further investigation of this custom may reveal : 
facts. 


1884] An_account of the War Customs of the Osages. 127 


the Kansas gens knows what is meant. He puts on a robe made 
of bear or buffalo skin, and advances toward the party, with his 
kettle-bearer, till he can hear what they say. He begins the con- 
versation by asking them what is the cause of their halt. Then 
he tell them the news from the village. After this he approaches 
the warriors, going around them, and performing a rite, first at the 
north, then at the west, south and east. Next he addresses the 
Hajika captain, then the Cheezhoo captain, telling whether they 
can enter the village. 

Having gained his consent, they leave all their blankets and 
other clothing, as the pay of the old man and his servant, But 
they retain their weapons. They are met by some of the people, 
who give them other garments. Then the warriors separate. 
The tents A and B are thrown down, and the war tent, C, is set 
up again at the west. 

The final ceremonies are the scalp dance, captive dance (?),} 

dance in which they take the standards, and the trial over the 
sacred bags. One of the captains may select any one of the three 
dances to the exclusion of the others, or he may have two without 
the standard dance; but the trial over the sacred bag is never 
omitted. 
_ The scalp dance.—Previous to this dance, the captain of one side 
gives a horse to his principal kettle-bearer, who sells it for the 
food needed at the feast which precedes the dance. The stand- 
ard-bearers dressed in their finest attire, notify all the women in 
the village: “We wish you to come and dance this afternoon.” 
Then the two captains go around the village, saying, “ Ho, my 
little sisters ! my comrades! it is said you must pity me!” Each 
Captain walks around the village according to the side of the cir- 
Clein which he camps, and each woman in dancing remembers this 
Tule. 

After the women have been called by the captains, the former 
Strip to the waist, covering their bosoms with pieces of cloth or 
Calico, They pretend to be men, decorating themselves with 
feathers, paint, etc. They are led by one who carries the scalp 
on its pole. She is chosen for that purpose by one of the captains. 

ome women carry bows, others take arrows, some have war 
Pipes, and some carry peace pipes. The drummers sit in a small 


Circle around the pole. A great warrior arises and tells of his ex- 


rt *, . . . 
` Takdhe watsi", in Osage. Its translation is doubtful. 


128 An account of the War Customs of the Osages. [F 


ploits. Then the drum beats, and the women dance. All s 
together, the women of the Cheezhoo gentes moving in one direc 
tion, and those of the Hañka gentes in the other, around the Í 
The successful warriors who are mounted, come in their wa {f 
dress, and gallop around the pole, close to the women, telling of i 
their deeds. This dance is continued for about half an hout. i 
The trial or ordeal of the sacred bags must follow on the aet gi 
day, unless a captain wishes to have the captive dance, in whict | 
event it follows. 
The captive dance-—A war captain gives another horse to | 
chief kettle-bearer, who sells it for the food required for feasting 
the guests before the dance. The standard-bearers and c 
go around the village, as on the preceding day, and the 
come, as before. The drummers sit around the pole. The¢ 
are led by two men abreast. These used to be men that had 
to war afoot. They are followed by two women, then two 


come to the dance on their horses. One of the princi 
tells his story first; and the horsemen tell their deeds aS w” 
gallop around the dancers. The dance lasts for about hai 
hour. But if the captain prefers, he may substitute the st 
dance for the captive dance. But if the latter is chosen 
second day, and the captain wishes to gain more honor, 
another horse to his chief kettle-bearer, to be sold for food 
feast that is held before the Standard dance on the third day. 
The Standard dance —The standards are made like those 
-atthe beginning of the expedition, and they are given t0 
standard-bearers, who dance around the village, two a9? 
going in the same direction, followed by the other Y 
Having gone around the village, they assemble at a S20" 
tance from it and have the circle dance and bravery dane 
the first. This ends the dancing for that day. | 
The Trial over the sacred bags —The old men assemble in 
tent, C. The sacred bags are brought in to test the warrio 
are watched very closely by the old men. All the old 
have been distinguished in war are painted with the decora 
théir respective gentes, That of the Chéezhoo peace- a 
is as follows: The face is first whitened all over with clays 
a red spot is made on the forehead, and the lower part of 
is reddened. With his fingers, the man scrapes off the: 


2 ee eee ee 


1884.] An account of the War Customs of the Osages. 129 


forming the dark figures by letting the natural color of the‘face 
show through. (See Fig. 8.) 

Each warrior has four sticks about six inches long, to be laid 
in succession on the sacred bag. The warriors are taken in the 
following order: First, the captains, next the lieutenants ; then the 
heralds ; after whom is the man who struck the first blow; then 
he who hit the second blow ; and so on. 

As each captain lays his first stick on the bag, he says, “ Ho, 
O grandfather! I lay this down on you because I am one who 
has killed a man.” On laying down the second, he says, “ Ho, 


<9) > 


Fic. 8.—Decoration of the Tsicu Wactake or Cheezhoo peace-maker gens. 


O grandfather! I wish to be fortunate in stealing horses! I also 
Wish our children to be as fortunate as we!” When he puts down 
e third, he says, “ Ho, O grandfather! I wish to raise a domes- 
tic animal. I wish to succeed in bringing it to maturity.” By 
this he means a son. The prayer when the last stick is laid down 
'S as follows: “ Ho, O grandfather! May we continue a people 
without Sustaining any injuries !” 

Similar petitions are made by the lieutenants and heralds. He 
who gave the first blow says, as he lays down the first stick, “ Ho, 
O grandfather ! I lay down this on you as one who has caused 
another to stun a foe!” The rest of his petitions are those of the 

VOL. XvItI.—no. 11, 9 


130 An account of the War Customs of the Osages. [Februaty, 


captains and other men. He who struck the second blow, says 
as follows, on laying down his first stick: “ Ho, O grandfather! 
I place this on you because I was the next one to strike and stun 
aman!” The other petitions follow, as given above. The first 
petition of each of the remaining warriors is as follows: “Ho, 0 
grandfather! I lay this on you as a token that I have aided in 
overcoming the foe! (A provisional translation, as the writer is 
uncertain as to the exact rendering of “ wa-yii-khpe,” which, judg- 
ing from the meaning of the root hpa and khpe in cognate lan- — 
guages, implies pulling down a foe.) 
At the conclusion of this trial, the warriors rub the paint of, 
_ and wash their faces, thus ending the war party. | 


II. Sacrep Bac War PARTY. 


A man mourns alone, putting mud on his face. He comes into 
the village, and selects a man for his first kettle-bearer, who builds f 
for him a small lodge apart from the village. The mourner® f 
tires to this lodge, and keeps away from the women. He ; 
his servant, the kettle-bearer, for two men, one on the Hañka side 
of the tribe, the other on the Cheezhoo side, to act as standart = 
bearers. When they come to him, he informs them whither be ; : 
wishes to go, and for what purpose. The three depart to invite i 
the warriors. Those who are willing can join the party. 1 E 
mourner has a pipe and tobacco, also a sacred bag made of the i 
skin and feathers of a bird, given him by his teacher, one of te 7 
old men belonging to the secret order. ft 

The servant cleans out the pipe bowl, which is filled by the 3 
mourner. The latter hands the pipe around the circle of f 

beginning with two standard-bearers. Last of all the mour? i 


smokes. As he hands the pipe to each man, he says. “ G o 
father, I ask an animal of you.” The reply is, “ Captain, you°™ 4 
have your desire.” : si 

All march a short distance from the village. A small fire | E 
made. The teacher performs a ceremony over the mount | e 
and then makes him take the first step on the war path, 4 a a 
been shown in the account of a large war party. Then nee F 
teacher departs to the village. The warriors march on. p 3 
meet a foe, he who strikes him has. the first honor, the el 
who hits him, cuts off his head. The honor of killing er I 
longs to the captain or mourner, whether he is the actual S% | 


Wei 1 ech E ne ag LA, jel a on E a ar 


- “8ainst one of the four corners made by the previous incisions 


Position of th 


1884.] An account of the War Customs of the Osages. 131 


or not; and the whole scalp is his. When they turn back, 
they hasten homeward. Before they reach home, the scalp and 
other trophies are fastened to a pole, charged on and shot at four - 
times. 

When the warriors get near the village, they use charcoal for 
painting their faces and the scalp. The young kettle-bearers 
make this charcoal, using willow if they can find any. Then fol- 
low the ceremonies accompanying the cutting off the under skin 
ofthe scalp. The captain stands facing the east, and if he is a 
member of a gens on the Cheezhoo or left side of the tribe, he holds 
a knife in his left hand. If he belongs to a gens on the Hañka 
side, he holds the knife in his other hand. Holding the scalp in 


e 


o 
Fic. 9.—Showing how the scalp is prepared for the pole. 


S hand, with the other he places the blade across it, with the 
Point towards the south. (Fig. 9.) Then he turns it with the 


_ Point toward the east. Next, with the blade resting on the scalp, the 


to the south, he moves the knife backward and forward four 
€s, Cutting deeper into the scalp on each occasion. Then he 
“akes four similar cuts, but with the point to the east. After 
t part of the blade being on the scalp, its edge is put 
i and 4), beginning with No. 1. He cuts under each corner 
mes, singing a sacred song each time that he changes the 

t the knife. All of the under skin is cut loose by this 
Nia thrown away. The scalp is stretched and fastened to 
W, Which is bent and formed intoa hoop. This hoop is tied 


132 An acconnt of the War Customs of the Osages. | February, 


toa pole that is carried by the principal kettle-bearer. (See Fig. 10) 
On reaching the village, they charge around 

it, shouting and giving the war whoop. Such 

of the old men as have been warriors go out 

‘to meet them, asking who was the first to 
strike a blow, who cut off the head, etc. On 

learning these things, those old men who 

struck foes when they were younger, say ™ 

a loud voice, that all the people may heat, 

“ As I struck a foe, such a one (naming him) 

has done so too!” Others say: “As I at 

off the head of a foe, such a one (naming him) 

has done so too!” Then follows a feast 


been described. 


sacred bag, the affirmations and petitions 1® 
semble those used by the members of a large 
war party, with only one exception. 

Fic. 10.—Mode of man who cut off the head of a foe says, when 
mounting ascalp. he lays down his first stick, “ Ho, O gra" 
father! Ilay this down on you as one who has broken off 4 

head 


III. HORSE-STEALING EXPEDITION. 
This can be undertaken at any season. There are as many CF 
tains as may wish to join the party. Each one of them © 
mourner for. dead kindred, or for stolen property. 


When men wish to steal horses from the enemy, they paint thet 


faces with charcoal. 

On such an expedition the customs resemble those of the 
patties. 

GENERAL Remarks, APPLICABLE TO ANY WAR PARTY. 

Before attacking the foe, the warriors paint themselves anet 
This is the “death paint.” If any man dies with this paint 
him, the survivors do not put on him any other paint. his 

All the gentes on the Cheezhoo side use “ fire paint,” go 
red, applying it with the left hand all over the face. — a 
use prayers about the fire, saying, “ As the fire has nọ va 
so should we have none.” They put. mud on the cheek, 
low the left eye, and as wide as two or three fingers. On 


other 


after which comes the dances which have — 


During the trial of the warriors over the 


Oe. | slg ae ee Fi Lge A = 
rte ier ES 


Fe et ot eed ge eke Sy Es ISAS 5a a 1S" By aa A EDAN 
= we SAE pee Rey ge Me: È Sol 


us obscure, apparently centrally 
Placed in the med : 


andi 


1884.] Infusoria from Putrid Waters. 133 


Hañka side, they put the mud'on the right cheek below the eye. 
This is the young buffalo-bull decoration. With reference to it, 
aman says, “My little grandfather (the young buffalo-bull) is 
always dangerous as he makes an attempt. Very close do I stand, 
ready to go to the attack!” The horse is painted with some of 
the mud on the left cheek, shoulder and thigh, if his rider belongs, 
to the Cheezhoo side, but the mud is put on the right cheek, 
shoulder and thigh of a horse belonging to a warrior on the Hafika 
side. 

Some warriors, who act like a black bear, paint with charcoal 
alone. (The tradition of the black bear people is, that they brought 
down fire from one of the upper worlds. 

Some paint in the wind style, some in the lightning style, and 
others in the panther or catamount style. 


NOTES ON mae A APPARENTLY UNDESCRIBED 
INFUSORIA FROM PUTRID WATERS. 
_ BY DR. ALFRED C. STOKES. 

FRoM a dead rat which had been lying exposed to the weather 

for an unknown period, but long enough to have had most of 
the abdominal soft parts destroyed, the tail was taken and placed 
to macerate in ordinary river water as supplied the town by 
hydrant. By the third day the infusion teemed with minute life, 
az apparently undescribed Heteromita, which at first glance was 
mistaken for H. caudata Duj., being particularly abundant. A 
careful examination; however, discovered so many essential points 
of divergence between it and known forms that it seems to de- 
mand recognition as a presumably new species, under the name 
of Heteromita putrina (Figs. 1 and 2). 


7 ian line; contractile 
Nssicle conspicuous, situated near the 
“i margin of the anterior body 
eka vibratile flagellum but slightly 
is ng the body in length, the trailing 

um about three times ‘as long \ 
id, both being of equal size 
Mserted anteriorly. Length of ody 
9 ars inch, Habitat, the putrid 
al Macerations, 


Fig. 1. Fig. 2. 
Heteromita putrina, n. sp. X 1500. 


134 Notes on some apparently undescribed | February, 


The creature, when in a healthy or comfortable condition, is 
very slightly if at all changeable in shape. When about to die it 
takes a sub-spheroidal form and becomes diffluent, but this stage 
is at times postponed until the animal has passed a short period 
as a granular amoeba, with a large and conspicuous contractile 
vesicle, slowly moving by a forward flow of a sarcode wave unat 
companied by the posteriorly located granules. The motion of 
the Heteromita when swimming is rapid and oscillating, being @ 
forward movement by short zig-zags, the animal at the same i 
rotating on its longitudinal axis. | 

The anterior vibratile flagellum is ordinarily extremely difficult 
to detect. The zodid, when attached, rests at the extremity of its 
anchoring flagellum, and when viewed dorsally the vibrating lash 
is visible for only the very short distance between its origin and 
the point where it curves to pass beneath the lower or ventral 
surface (as in Fig. 1), this part being flexilife but apparently not 
vibratile. Even when in a favorable position for its own démon- 
stration, the rapidly-moving filament becomes visible only after 
careful manipulation of the mirror, or after the infusorium a 
been killed by iodine or osmic acid. Small particles are not 
affected by its motion until they have floated past the anterior . 
margin of the body, sometimes almost in contact with the surface ; 
when they fall into the stream and are dashed upward, at tin > 
performing a complete circuit around the animal to the starting : 
point. If solid food is taken, which I doubt, it must enter throug 
the ventral surface. No solid particle has been seen to pass T , 
the endoplasm, although I have tried to feed the creatures go ; 
indigo, and have had the same individuals in a growing-slide 
four full days surrounded by myriads of bacteria. = 

The contractile vesicle pulsates quickly and sharply once pS 
nine seconds. The only method of reproduction observed !S 
longitudinal fission. The species here referred to is remat fe 
_ for its stability of form and for the position of its tractellum i 

vibrating flagellum, the latter peculiarity having been recorded 1" l 
‘no other member of the genus. fae 

In the same animal maceration, as the Heteromite weie ye 
pearing, many ciliated infusoria were developed, which, accordi 
to the latest schemes of classification, can be relegated bay i 
genus Tillina only, although, so far as external contour § wer fh 
cerned, the resemblance is remote. This difference of form, 


1884.] Infusoria from Putrid Waters. 135 


_ ever, in connection with certain points of structure, compels its 

addition to the rapidly increasing list of new American species, 
while the possession of a pharynx from which spring rows of 
vibratile cilia, at once forces its admission into the above-men- 
tioned genus. 

The likeness of the hitherto single known species, 7i/lina mag- 
na Griiber, to Colpoda, has been remarked by its discoverer, but 
the resemblance between the latter and the form here referred to 
as Tillina saprophila, n. sp., is even more conspicuous than with 
the type, and would necessarily place it in the genus Colpoda were 
not the pharyngeal series of cilia present. These cilia are appa- 
rently larger but much shorter than those of the general cuticular 
surface, which are long and very fine. They are with difficulty 
separately resolved by the objective, unless the infusorium is in 
a weakened or dying condition; otherwise their motion is inces- 
sant, and they themselves become visible only through their effect. 
They depend from the entire internal surface of the membranous 
Pharynx, projecting slightly, if at all, beyond the oral aperture. 
The cilia of the general surface are extremely fine and, like those 
in the pharynx, can be satisfactorily distinguished only when the 
_ animal is quiescent, those situated anteriorly then showing them- 
= Selves to be somewhat the largest. The body is grooved oblique- 
ly, the striations being especially distinct on the anterior body half. 
The circular oral aperture is placed in the center of the ventral sur- 
_ ¥ace and, as the infusorium is swimming at ease, appears to be lat- 

eral. It is followed by the short membranous pharynx curving 
. toward the posterior extremity of the zodid and bearing the vibra- 
tile series already referred to. The endoplasm, usually colorless, 
encloses several linear straight or slightly curved dark-bordered 

ies, and numerous small corpuscles which at times render the 
y semi-opaque. The nucleus is large and situated near the 
‘enter of the dorsal region, commonly opposite, occasionally 
slightly in advance of the pharynx and oral aperture. The con- 
4 ctile vesicles increase in numbers with the creature’s age. In 
l ‘arly youth the pulsating vacuole is single and postero-terminal ; 
_ When the Tillina is mature, or nearly so, two, three or even four, 
eriorly placed, are not uncommon. When single, pulsations 
€ place about four times a minute. 
he Reproduction is accomplished by encystment followed by spore 
mation and by fission into two or more zodids, the young in 


136 Notes on some apparently undescribed — [February, 


the latter event differing in form so conspicuously from the mature 
animal that, before the life-history had been traced, they were 
mistaken for another species and described as such in manuscript. 
The act is performed without immediate conjugation; whether in 
the instances observed there had been a remote union, I of course 
do not know. 

Individuals have several times been so accommodating as to 
enter the field of the objective just before the beginning of the 
first stage in this reproductive act, thus affording me an oppor 
tunity to follow the changes with ease. The body is soft and 
flexible, but, except immediately prior to encystment, is not 
changeable in shape. At that time, however, the animal assumes 
a spherical form, and prepares a cyst so delicate and transparent 
that ordinarily it is invisible after its evacuation; but occasionally 
it collapses as an indescribable exuvium containing several bright 
bubble-like spots, and becomes for a very short time slightly 


Fig. 3. Fig. 4. 
_ fillina saprophila, n. sp. Fic. 3-——Immature form, x 960. Fic. 4.— Mature 
infusorium, xX T50. 

amæœæboid. Fission is accomplished within this sac, and I have™ 
one or two instances observed a binary division without the forma 
tion of an enclosing membrane; but in every case it seems that 
the divided surfaces become the ventral, The process, at leat 
when four zooids are the result, consumes about two hours pics 
the assumption of the spherical form. The young force ie 
way from the cyst through a small opening visible only 12 a 
effect upon the shape of the emerging creatures. A small kn 
like projection first appears, and as the animal urges itself throug! 
the aperture, a narrow and sharply defined constriction pe 
successively over the whole length of the body, each of the li poe 
animals emerging through the same opening. The young ©” 
the old differ, as shown in lateral view in Figs. 3 and 4, the ont 
being the mature form, in which the dorsal surface, as seen in P oe 
file, is much more strongly and evenly convex, and the “aa 
more flattened, than in Fig 3. In the infusion, forms intermediat 


1884.] Infusoria from Putrid Waters. 137 


in shape and size are abundant. The length of the zodid imme- 
diately after emergence is d inch, at maturity, 4, inch. 

€ species seems to be not very susceptible to the deoxygen- 
ation of the water, thriving and multiplying where more sensitive 
infusoria would soon die. But when the supply of oxygen be- 
comes too limited for even its small demands, the second form of 
reproduction, that of sporular subdivision of the entire body 
takes place. The zodid assumes a spherical shape as before, but 
now prepares a distinct and substantial cyst in which the subdi- 
vision is accomplished. I have witnessed the formation of these 
cysts in very many instances, the completion of the process once 
only. The cyst wall was then suddenly ruptured and the motion- 
less and finely-divided contents thrown out by the collapsing sac, 
but to my regret were almost immediately lost amid the surround- 
ing clouds of bacteria. 

The movement of the infusorium when first placed on the 
slide, is rapid and erratic, with rotation on the longitudinal axis ; 
when quieted it is irregularly forward, or in wide circles, usually 
with one or the’other lateral surface downward, thus placing the 
oral aperture, as already mentioned, apparently upon the side. 

_ The following may be taken as a description: 
TILLINA SAPROPHILA, n. sp.—Body flexible, obliquely grooved, subreniform or 
-shaped in profile, length once and one-half to twice the width ; when viewed 
y, ovate, wider and somewhat inflated posteriorly, tapering and pointed ante- 
Size and dorsal convexity increasing, the ventral concavity lessening with 


Tiorly ; 


dies; nucleus spherical, dorso-central; con- 
vesicles several or single, posteriorly situated; anal aperture not observed. 
etal body > T000 to -Lyinch. Habitat, the putrid liquid of animal macerations 
Su water from the Delaware river. 
This species conspicuously differs from Tillina magna not only 
form and size but in the possession, by the latter, of a poste- 
Morly-developed lobate process, an elongate-ovate anteriorly- 
e e a single contractile vesicle and a larger pharynx. 
that an animalcule to a Chinaman is a great leap, and one 
at aga nature would take longer to make than the writer is 
va ka taking. But Charlie Lee is a genial little Chinaman 
oo keeps a laundry and sleeps: on a shelf, who intends, 
haa returns to the Flowery Kingdom, to have “a big blick 
= œ With tlees in flont.” He has started a new “ craze” in this 


in 


i 
A 
X 


138 - Notes on some apparently undescribed (February, 


town by the introduction of a Chinese narcissus, whose pretty 
blossoms are brightening many a front window, and perfuming 
many a room with their delicate fragrance. Charlie’s cultivation 
of the plant is much like our winter culture of the hyacinth, only 
he thinks it necessary to surround the bulbs with many stones 
and pebbles, and to bind together the leaves with a strip of red 
paper, which gives them quite a military aspect. Several of the 
outer onion-like layers of these bulbs were put to soak, and the | 
result awaited. My pleasure in this result was to be slightly 
dashed with bitter. The infusion swarmed with what a fet? | 
called “heathen dragons,” but the dipping-tube occasionally | 
brought up a fragment bearing a sedentary collar-monad, a Me . 
nosiga, which, under other circumstances I would have been ghd 
to see. Members of the Choano-F lagellata have become favorites 
of mine, and I have learned to associate them with especial purity i 
in their surroundings; so to take them from this brownish, mi- 
cilaginous and malodorous liquid, was it not the fall that is said? 
always follow undue pride? This alone, however, would sca? ie 
have upset my equilibrium, There is a little more. The e% 
ture was one that had seemed particularly graceful, and I a 
described it as new in the American Monthly Microscopical “ish 
nal for Nov., 1883, naming it Monosiga Woodia, after a ™ 
How did it get into this undesirable predicament ? Had its Had 
cent germ been clinging to the bulb from China land? * 
been swinging in the air of Trenton, or had it been floating e 
water of the Delaware? Who can tell ? ae 

With it Gontomonas truncata Fres., whose habitat is a 
“fresh water,” was present in profusion, its numbers ici dy 
rapidly by longitudinal fission, and a Tillina, differing $0 mark 
from the form in the rat-tail maceration that it must be rè ag: 
aS a new comer among known infusoria. 

The latter Holotrichous creature, represented in Fig. 3 
peculiar in form that I hardly 
how to characterize it ext 


js? 


know 
oa 


shaped, although its rese eper 
to that ugly hand-protector ©", 

EAN distant. Neither kidney ee T 
Fic. 5.—Tillina inflata, n. sp;, ever possessed that pO ane 
X. 560.. © largement which gives the, “table 
its curious mitten-like contour, and which makes inflata a> 


d 
E 
& 


f: 
KR 
$ 

is S 


a 


1884.] Infusoria from Putrid Waters. 139 


specific name. When viewed dorsally, consequently in transverse 
optical section, the body is ovate in outline. In its lateral aspect, 
as is shown in the figure, it exhibits a superficial differentiation 
into an anterior narrower body-half and a rounded, very con- 
spicuously widened and inflated posterior portion. When mature 
it measures ,j; inch in length, ,}, in. at the widest part of the pos- 
terior body half, and yd) in. at the greatest width of the anterior 
portion. 
The surface is obliquely grooved, apparently in two directions, 
this double striation being much more conspicuous in the young, 
as is also the case with Tillina saprophila. In color it is a deep 
amber, The tint varies in depth, however, changing with the 
color of the infusion and, to a certain extent, with age, the young 
usually being paler than the adults. The granulate endoplasm 
encloses many large granular corpuscles, seemingly formed of 
agglomerated food particles, almost as abundant in those just 
escaped from the cyst as in the older animals. The large ovate 
nucleus is located above the median line near the center of the 
dorsum. The single contractile vesicle is situated close to the 


Posterior extremity and to the right. It pulsates, as in the pre- 
_ Ceding species of the genus, once each fifteen seconds, The anal 


aperture seems to be rather indifferently placed either above or 
below the pulsating vacuole. But I may have misinterpreted 
this, as its appearance is always sudden and unexpected, the ani- 
mal being in rapid movement at the same time, and the contrac- 
tile vesicle probably collapsed and invisible. The ovate oral 


‘ aperture is placed obliquely near the center of the left latera} 
a margin of the ventral surface. The succeeding rather capacious. 
_ but short and slightly recurved pharynx is entirely ciliated, the 


Cilia being of course shorter, but apparently much coarser, than 
e long fine vibratile hairs of the cuticular surface. To actually 
See the individual pharyngeal cilia is no small matter, demanding 


_ 20 slight amount of patience even after the restless creature has 


their seemingly greater size may therefore be 


’ raed both with this; and the preceding Tillina, as I have 
___ 10 instance been able to see them in the recently-killed infu- 


» while those of the cuticle are then readily resolved. 

Movements resemble those of T. saprophila, the creature 
the ba upon one side, usually the left, when quietly feeding on 
_ »acteria that seem to be a favorite food. When these plants are 


Its 


140 Colonial Organisms. [ February, 


abundant they are swept through the pharynx and into the body 
in a strong stream, the animal having sufficient intelligence to 
know and to reject what may be unpleasant or non-beneficial. 
With indigo it refuses to have anything to do; and a particle of 
any kind that may be too large, or otherwise unacceptable, 
scarcely passes the oral aperture before the current is reversed 
and the disagreeable substance dashed out. ae afl 
Reproduction with the form referred to as Tillina inflata, n. Sp 
is accomplished, so far as I have observed, by encystment and 
subdivision of the body into four zodids, which differ from the 
adult in no particular, except in their smaller size. 


A’ 


COLONIAL ORGANISMS. 
BY CHARLES MORRIS. 


Ie remarkable resemblance which appears between the sep? 
rate segments of an Annelid, the distinct, units of a m 
zoan, or in the sectional parts of other forms of the animal ; 
vegetable kingdoms, is one that admits of two interpretatio 
and has in consequence given rise to two opposed theories. * 
the first, supported by several eminent scientists, it is a a 
that each unit or segment represents an original individual, i 
that the existing individual arose through the subordin” g 
the members of an original colony. In the second, support di 
equally eminent authorities, it is assumed that the organs í 
-original individual gradually took on the form and in 
the parent body, and thus, though originally diverse in fun 
grew to closely resemble each other. d 

This latter theory, which is based on the assumed tendency 4 
each cell or other portion of an organic form to develop into i 
exact reproduction of that form, is supported by Huxley, . 
Beneden and other biologists. The opposite theory, "ae 
based on the apparently direct indication of the facts, 15° 
by Allman, Gegenbaur, Claus, Lankester, the Hertwigs, ee -divit 


discoveries seem to sustain the colonial rather than the ™ t 
ual theory. The probable fact is, however, that they are q te 
a certain extent, true, and that both the colonizing habit p he 
reproductive power of single cells have had their share ult 
formation of the closely similar sections of Hydrozoat = 
melidan individuals. ` 


1884. ], Colonial Organisms. 14} 


It is proposed here to offer a general consideration of the sub- 
ject in its application to both the vegetable and animal kingdoms, 
and mainly from the colonial point of view, though with full 
acknowledgment -of the tendency of the generalized parts of an 
organic body to assume the form of the whole, and the power 
of each unspecialized cell to act as a reproductive germ. It is 
quite possible that some new arguments may be advanced, and 
the whole subject be placed in a clearer light, since, so far as the 
writer is aware, no complete treatment of it has been yet at- 
tempted. 

Organic forms are reproduced in two methods : by asexual and 
by sexual generation. The first, the development of unfertilized 
germinal cells, is the most common in the lowest forms of life. 
The second, the development of fertilized germs, or of germinal 
cells into whose composition enters material from two separate 
individuals, gradually replaces the first as life attains a higher 
grade, and completely replaces it in the highest forms. In con- ` 
nection with this is another fact of importance here. The pro- 
ducts of asexual reproduction very commonly remain attached 
to the mother form, and compose colonies. The products of 
sexual reproduction never remain attached, but always enjoy a 
free existence. This distinction is markedly displayed in vegeta- 
ble life, in which the product of the leaf bud continues, with few 
exceptions, attached to the parent form, while the product of the 
flower bud is always set free, to give rise to a new parent stock. 

There is reason to believe that generalized cells, capable of 
‘productive development under proper conditions, exist abun- 
dantly in every part of every organism. In all the higher animals, 
if the views advanced by the writer in a preceding paper’ be cor- 
rect, these mainly exist in the blood current, as the amceboid white 
corpuscles, In many of the lower animals, in which specialization 
made no progress, most or all of the cells of the body possess 
Power, and reproductive budding may take place at any part 
the organism, or if it be cut into minute portions, each of 
e may develop into a new individual. In vegetable forms the 

“et Condition seems to prevail, In the lower plants every cell 
vag be capable of asexual development. In the higher plants 

€ process of specialization has taken this power from the great 
< of colle, yet vast numbers of cells exist capable of germinal 


Organit Physics, AMER. NAT., July, 1882. 


this 
of 


142 : Colonial Organisms. [ February, 


reproduction. We venture to offer the hypothesis that the meri- 
stem, or generalized active tissue, is made up of such reproduc 
tive cells, each capable of asexual development, or of being cot 
verted, through the medium of the flower organs, into sexul 
germs. If this be correct, the meristem cells of plants represet! 
in their germinal powers the generalized tissue cells of the tie 
animals, and the wandering white corpuscles of the higher 
animals. : 
Abundant, however, as germinal cells may be in every partot 
very organism, yet only a limited number of them can develop 
since their growth acts to exhaust the strength and substance t 
the parent form. Only in the lower single-celled organisms 0 
we find instances in which. the whole body is converted p 
active germs, and the parent disappears in its offspring. In ae 
the higher animals and plants this only partially takes place, a 
the less so the higher the organism. " 
The development of the germ cells usually occurs only 
those points where favoring conditions most fully exist. In " 
ual reproduction these points are particularly limited in “a 
since the requisite meeting of germs from two organisms ~ ; 
take place through the aid of a special mechanism. j 
reproduction needs no such special mechanism, and may g 
in most regions of the body. Yet, as life advances in grade, a 
favoring conditions of asexual development will be apt t 
more abundantly in some regions of the body than in others, # 
tend to become confined to these regions by hereditary t i 
sion. In the higher plants these regions are usually i 
- axils, in which a degree of protection is afforded the bud, or pat : 
tially developed germ. But if a tree be closely trimmed, # i 
thus deprived of all its buds, new germs may develop # a 
point in the secondary meristem of the trunk or branches,“ 
new shoots appear, the product of germinal cells which 0 | 
would have lacked the opportunity to develop. oats 
In the development of the germs of the root fibers or shot : 
no such protection is requisite, and they may start me ‘ 
point in the cambium layer. They are evidently the prov he 
those meristem cells, which have been most successful 1% 
general effort to develop. : ; 
The reason that certain cells alone succeed in develope is 
of the great mass of cells that possess equal germinal pow” ; | 


= 


a 


] 
' 
; 


1884.] Colonial Organisms. 143 


an interesting subject to which some further attention is desirable. 
As already said, each developing cell to a certain extent exhausts 
the organism and checks the reproductive activity of other cells. 
What is the principle of selection of these fortunate cells? It 
would seem as if they must possess Superiority in nutrition, or 
be most favorably situated for assimilating nutriment from the 
vascular juices of the organism. Thus growing rich in proto- 
plasm, their effort to develop must be not too greatly hampered 
by the crowding of surrounding cells. They must have some 
freedom of field in which to expand. The cell most favored in 
these particulars will be the most likely to develop. As for the 
germ cell of sexual reproduction, it possesses these requisites in 
a high degree. It develops in a region which is richly supplied 
with nutriment, and where there is no hindrance to its expansion. 
Of the many cells delivered into this region it would seem that 
those richest in protoplasm should, all things considered, have 
the best chance to develop and become the germs of new organ- 
isms. In sexual development, however, there must enter a cer- 
tain element of chance, since the meeting of ova and spermato- 
zoa is, to some extent, a matter of chance, and the earliest fertil- 
ized ova probably have a degree of advantage over their rivals. 
With these preliminary remarks we may proceed to the con- 
deration of the colonizing habit as usually displayed by the 
Products of asexual generation. Colonial organisms occur abun- 
_ dantly in the single-celled field of life, as in the Diatomacez, the 
Volvocineæ, the Foraminifera, the Radiolaria, the Flagellata, &c. 
In the multicelled field it is indicated throughout the vegetable 
ngdom, and in the Spongida, the Hydrozoa, the Actinozoa, the 
P olyzoa, the Ascidia, the Annelida and the Arthropoda of the 
Ammal kingdom. But these indications of colonial origin are by 
— means all equally distinct, and in some of the sub-kingdoms 
Mentioned they are but vaguely discernible. Yet there is a grad- 
ual movement from the less to the more questionable colonies 
: which is significant of a common origin, 
i ose colonies of Rhizopod and Flagellate Protozoa no traces 
| €rentiation appear. Each individual is like all the others, 
each is capable of separate existence. We cannot, in any 
i Sense, consider these colonies as compound individuals, 
though in the Foraminifera there is a slight tendency in that 
Sirection This tendency is more markedly displayed in the 


S 


144 Colonial Organisms. [ February, 


Volvocinez, as we shall show farther on. It will suffice to say 

here that these colonies are the product of continued asexual 

reproduction, and of the coherence of individuals thus pro- 
uced. 

Of colonies of Metazoa those of the sponges are similarly the 
result of asexual reproduction, are unattended by specialization | 
of any members of the colony, and their members may be sep 
rated and pursue individual lives, and produce new colonies. The 
sexually generated sponge, on the contrary, begins life as a free 
individual. | 

But the subject of the sponge leads us deeper into the question 
of reproduction. As is well known there are two hypotheses & 
tant in regard to the classification of the individual sponge. In 
the one it is viewed as a colony of Flagellate Protozoa. In the 
other it is viewed as a single Metazoan. The former hypothes 
is based on the cellular organization of the sponge, since mosto 
the cells of its epidermal layer are essentially Flagellate Infi- | 
soria. The latter is based on the character of its reproductioh 
since the germ develops in Metazoan fashion and not by a pre 
cess of colonization. ` : 

It has been assumed that these hypotheses are mutually excl 
sive, and that only one of them can be true. Yet this does 1 
necessarily follow. They may both be true. The strong ee . 
ment which each advances may perhaps be reconciled by ¢ oo 
hypothesis, or by a fuller consideration of the essential chara eR d 
of reproduction. | 

The assumption that a compound organism which is born a5? 
single cell, and grows by asexual budding, is a Protozoan pone q 
and that one which is born as a definite compound of p gs 4 
Metazoan individual, has its uses for purposes of classi 1 
but it declares a distinction that has no real existence. * | a 
consider birth in its true relations, all organisms are born a> he i 
gle cells, and their complete development takes place after gë 
For birth really occurs at the moment in which the germinal a : 
ceases to be a part of the parent organism, and begins its indi o 
ual life. Whether it is delivered directly into the suiro  / 
elements, or into an ovary within the maternal body, the Se 
tial fact remains the same. It has ceased to be a constituent P | 
of the maternal body. It occupies an external locality, we 
the exterior world or in a cavity communicating therewith" 


1884.] : Colonial Organisms. 145 


its nutrition and growth have become distinct from those of the 
mother. The only discoverable difference is that in the one case 
the nutriment is obtained independently of the mother, in the 
other case it is for a time provided by the mother. 

The phenomena succeeding birth are the same in both cases. 
Continued division of the germ cell takes place and a mass of 
cohering cells is formed. It is true that in the cases where this 
takes place within the ovary or the egg a definite form is assumed. 
But the same is the fact with the Foraminifera, the Radiolaria, 
the Fungi, and the other colonial organizations which arise exte- 
riorly through the continued subdivision of a germinal cell. 
There is no essential distinction between the two processes. The 
only visible distinction is that in the one case all this subdivision 
takes place exteriorly to the maternal body, in the other a greater 
or lesser portion of it takes place in a cavity of the maternal 
body which communicates with the external world, or within a 
capsular inclosure provided by the mother. 

The distinction, therefore, between Protozoa and Metazoa is by 
no means absolute, and the highest Metazoan is essentially a col- 
ony of Protozoa, since it is born asa single cell, and gains its 
mature form by a long series of asexual cell productions. Its 
main distinction is that many of these new cells are greatly spe- 
cialized, while in the simpler cell colonies they are to a great ex- 
tent generalized. 

The most primitive organic differentiation is into free cell and 
coherent cell individuals. Of the former there are numerous in- 
Stances in the Protozoan world, yet at a very low level of life 
asexually-born cells begin to cohere into colonies. From these, 
a a higher level, arises the only distinctive feature of the primi- 
tive Metazoan life, that of the formation of organized cell colo- 
nies within the maternal ovary or the egg, precedent to birth into 
the exterior world. However different this process may appear 
from the formation of the simpler cell colony, the difference is 
only in seeming, and the enclosed embryo perhaps very gradu- 
ally Succeeded to the external colony. ; 

‘hg first Significant step in this direction is taken at the low 
Of the Volvocinee. The globular colony of Volvox in fact 
acts as a sort of womb, into which are born asexual germs. These 
Der inito embryo colonies within the maternal body. We 
: re an instance closely analogous to that of Metazoan 


VOL ! 
XVI.—NO, 11, io 


146 Colonial Organisms. [ February, 


birth, and a significant indication of the origin of the latter, The 
sexual offspring of Volvox, however, is born as a single germinal 
cell. 

In the vegetable world the free cell colony assumes a size and 
complexity considerably in advance of any animal instances, for 
the Algæ and Fungi begin their external life as single cells. 
Thus, however large and complex they become, the process of 
growth is distinctly that of cell colonization. 

There is one important fact observable in all cell colonies. 
They do not display varying and indefinite expansion, but tend 
to assume specific forms. These organisms are probably results 
of natural selection, and possess the forms best adapted to the life 
conditions of the colony, which forms are hereditarily transmitted. 
Now we may readily conceive, in the numberless fluctuations of 
nature, the appearance of circumstances to which the mature col 
ony would be well adapted, but in which the germinal cell and 
the growing colony would be in danger of extirpation. Under 
such circumstances it would be a decided advantage if the germ 
could pass through its first stages of division within the maternal 
body, and a still more decided advantage if it could be retained 
under the maternal protection until sufficiently developed to be 
able to take care of itself in the ‘battle of life. Such, poss®” 
was the method in which the Protozoan cell colony became the 
Metazoan organism, namely, by the retention of the germ 
cell under the maternal protection until it had unfolded into 
self-sustaining organism. The degree to which this embryom® 
growth proceeds differs greatly in different cases. In al J 
the new creature is born as a single cell. In the Protozoan ©” 
ony it is shed into the external world at this stage. In the 
zoan it is retained until it has passed through a portion Of $ 
whole of its development, or, more usually, is born as an Ege 
which the germ rests in a store of nutriment provided DY 
mother, and enclosed within a protective covering. Only 19 3 
case of the Mammalia is the development completed before & 
ternal birth. 

Thus the division of the germinal cell, in the formation of a 
Morula, is in no fundamental sense different from the divisio? 
the ameeboid cell, in the formation of a colony of Forami™ 
The Flagellate colony, from which there is reason to believe ve 
the sponge originated, may, in the process of evolution, 5 


q 


1884. | Colonial Organisms. 147 


gained a somewhat complex organization, protected by fibrous 


and mineral secretions. Perhaps primitively yielding its germs 
as free cells, to develop into colonies externally, it may, in the 
exigencies of the struggle for existence, have come to retain 
them until they had developed into organized colonies, capable 
of selfsupport. Yet during the long period in which these 
gradual changes took place, the cells of the sponge colony con- 
tinued to retain the characteristics of the Amcebz and the Flagel- , 
lata, so that to-day they display the double character of a colony 
of Protozoa and of a Metazoan individual. 

We have dwelt at considerable length on this one case, as it 
involves the principle at the basis of all organic development. 
There is one other matter of interest connected with it to which 


_ We may here refer. The retention of the embryo within the ma- 


ternal body, or within the egg, has an important bearing on the 
question of evolution. This latter retention is a true “ accelera- 
tion of development.”! The embryo, while thus retained, is spe- 
cially favored in its growth. Provided with food without per- 
Sonal exertion, as in the case of free cell colonization, none of its 
energies are exhausted, and that organic development which is 
So greatly favored by complete rest proceeds rapidly. Its condi- 
tion resembles that of the insect in the pupa stage, in which, sup- 
Plied with abundant nutriment, and in a state of complete rest, 
organic development is rapidly attained. Such is the case with 
the embryo within the egg or the maternal womb. Its develop- 
ment is strongly accelerated, its larval stages passed through so 
rapidly that many of them are slurred over, and only the more 
marked stages are discoverable, and the new individual, when at 
length forced to depend on its own exertions, begins its free life 
ata much higher stage than in the case of the germ that is shed 
mito the external world as a single cell, or a very immature 
ny. 

If now We come to the consideration of Metazoan colonies, 
eon a gradual variation from simple to complex conditions 
“Y analogous to the parallel case of cell colonies. Many of 
aaa of the Metazoa are nearly as simple as those of the 
the Such is the case with the Ascidia and the Polyzoa. 
. + Colonies are compounds of precisely similar, asexually-born 
viduals, each of which pursues life as an individual, though 


: 1G 
Pe. Origin of Genera. 1868. 


148 Colonial Organisms. [February 


they seem to possess some degree of vascular and sensory Con- 
nection. 
A somewhat more progressed case is presented by the Actino- _ 
zoa, in which the colony is united by a common stem, which i$ 
fed by the united labors of the feeding individuals, and through 
which these individuals possess some degree of vascular, sensi 
tive and motor connection. The separate members of the colony 
' here take a first step towards reduction into the organs of a com- 
plex individual. | 
In the Hydrozoa this subordination is much more declared. 
Each member of the colony has lost a portion of its life powe 
and is thus an incomplete individual. Some feed only, and have 
ceased to reproduce. Others reproduce only, and have ceased t0 | 
feed. The colonial life is a necessity, since each individual hes | 
lost a portion of its life powers. From being individuals p% 
sessed of all the life functions, they have become organs gi 
composite individual, but organs which are as yet, in nearly ê 
complete sense, individual animals. If now we consider g 
swimming Hydrozoan colonies, the Siphonophora, a remarkable 
development of this principle of subordination makes its appear | 
ance. These complex animals yield strong indications of an of 
gin in colonies of individuals, which have become quite inapt = 
of a separate life. Each has lost not one only but several of 18 
organic powers, and is reduced to the performance of a siis 
duty, while dependent on its differently-developed neighbors a 
aid in its other duties. The original individuals have become 
graded into organs through this loss of ability and limitation 
their field of labor. Thus, at the extremity of the gener BS 
of the Siphonophora, there is usually an individual converted 
to a simple bladder, and useful only for purposes of ioe 
Beneath it are a number of others which act only as swim 
bells, their sole duty being to rythmically contract and exp 
On the remaining portion of the stem are individuals, en 
which act as food catchers, others as mouths and GIS" s 
organs, others are limited to reproductive activity, and 0 jf 
again are reduced to mere covering pieces, in which all the ó 
organs have disappeared, and which seem intended me 
protect the more active individuals. The common comm se 
stem acts as a vascular system, and probably possesses 
degree of sensory and motor activity. | 


1884.] North American Batrachology in the years 1880-83. 149 


In the Siphonophora, then, the reduction of a colony of budded 
individuals to the condition of a single composite individual has 
greatly progressed, so far as indications go. Their embryologi- 
cal development points to such an origin. In fact, the Hydrozoa 
generally are born from the egg as ciliated planule, which, after 
a period of free-swimming existence, become fixed and develop 
the mouth and tentacles of the Hydroid type. Only later the 
polyp buds sprout and the polypary is formed. Thus their em- 
bryological development indicates the character of their phylo- 
genetic evolution. 

(To be continued.) 


"Tt 


Ve 


REVIEW OF THE PROGRESS OF NORTH AMERICAN 
BATRACHOLOGY IN THE YEARS 1880-1883. 


BY W: N. LOCKINGTON., 


| this department little has been done in the direction of de- 

Scriptive zodlogy—probably little remains to be done in the 
limits of the United States, while the researches of Sumichrast 
Bocourt, Cope and others, must have nearly exhausted the riches 
of Mexico and Central America in batrachian forms. Fortunately 
the batrachia are still, as they have been, favorite subjects with 
the anatomist and embryologist, and to this fact we owe much of 
the material presented in this article. 

The Most important addition to North American Batrachology 
Within the two years to which we are confined is certainly that of 
M. Brocchi, forming one of the quarto numbers of the magnifi- 
cent work which for several years has been published under the 
direction of M. H. Milne Edwards, by order of the Minister of 
Public Instruction, and entitled “Mission Scientifique au Mex- 
ique et dans lAmerique Centrale.” The part already published, 

ough containing only the Raniformia and a portion of the 
ylæformia, comprises descriptions of seventy species, eleven of 
which are new. The classification adopted is unfortunately that 
; a Dumeril and Bibron. The primary division of the Anura is 

Phaneroglossa and Aglossa. The former group is divided 
in r ylæformia, Raniformia, Hemiphractiformia (having teeth 

th jaws), Bufoniformia and Hylapesiformia, the last section 
nng forms which are toothless like the toads, but are with- 
Sut the dilated sacral vertebre of the latter. The Aglossa are 


150 Review of the Progress of North American (February, 


divided into Dactylethriformia and Pipzeformia, the latter without — 


teeth in the upper jaw. 

The classifications of Ginther, Mivart and Cope are reviewed 
the character separating the Bufoniformia from the Hylapesiformi, 
and that dividing the Aglossa, are taken from Mivart, while the 
reasons given for the rejection of Cope’s views are: Ist, the diffi- 
culty that arises, in practice, when a valuable specimen can only 
be correctly placed by its destruction in the search for characters 
drawn from its osteology ; 2d, the length of time necessary for the 
complete ossification of the batrachian skeleton, so that, unless 
the specimen is adult, it cannot always be determined to which 
section it rightly belongs. 

The first of these objections is well answered by Mr. G A. 


i ; ia 
Boulenger, in the introduction to the catalogue of Batrachia 


Salientia in the British Museum, already noticed by us in Vol 
XVU, p. 181. In adopting Professor Cope’s system, Mr. Boulet 
ger says, “ Very little skill is required to obtain the necessa 
information without serious injury to the specimen. Hoe 
gists have long been in the habit of making an incision p 
skin of the pelvic region for the purpose of ascertaining whet 4 
the diapophyses of the sacral vertebrz are dilated or not; & ™ 
made in the same manner along the thorax will show the ie 
characters, and another (which can be sewn up again) along 
side of the body, will suffice for the examination of the struct® 
of the vertebral column.” ad 

M. Brocchi’s volume is illustrated by ten well executed p v 
plates, in which the external and craniological characters © 
newly described species are shown. 

Among the new forms are Rana vaillantii, Rana macros 
R. maculata, Leptodactylus fragilis, Hyla plicata, H. panulats 


T pie 
phias is proposed, but this is a synonym of the Hypsibo# 


pe EPP LD ESSE CR ee COE IE ee PL a ee 


. 


crassa and H. guatemalensis. For the latter the new name, B 


Wagler, as defined by Cope. There are some other synomy™ . 


among the Bufones and Hyle. 


Among the species described from Mexico the following 0c 
also in the United States, according to Brocclin, Rana halen a 


Scaphiopus solitarius Holbrook, Hyla regilla Baird and Gir? 
(Oregon, California), Hyla versicolor Harlan, Hyla vÀ 
(Florida) and Hyla cadaverina Cope (Pacific Region). 


cosb 


Miss M. H. Hinckley (Proc. Bost. Soc, Nat. Hist., 1880) 4 


1884. ] Batrachology in the years 1880-188}. 151 


her observations upon the metamorphoses of Hyla versicolor. 
Eggs laid May roth become frogs on July 4th. In two days after 
deposition all the ova were hatched, in four days the external gills 
were developed, in eight days the external gills were completely 
resorbed on both sides ; and in seventeen days after deposition the 
hind legs commenced to bud, but the fore-legs did not both he- 
come free until about July 3d, by which time the edges of the tail 
were undergoing resorption. The tail in some cases disappeared 
in thirty-six hours. 

Miss Hinckley also describes and figures (Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. 
Hist., 1882, pp. 307-315) some differences in the mouth structure 
of the anurous batrachia of Massachusetts. These fall into three 
groups, which characterize the frogs, tree-frogs and toads. In 
the first the upper lip is shorter and narrower than in the others, 
and a papillose border, bending inwards at the angles of the 
mouth extends around the lower lip and overlaps the upper 
slightly on both sides. 

In the tree-frog tadpoles observed (Hyla versicolor and Hyla 
pickeringit) the upper lip is broad and falls into two deep curves, | 
along the lateral portions of which extend papillz like those of 
the lower lip. The papillze are small, and the papillose border 
does not bend inwards at the mouth angles. In the toads, Bufo 
americanus and B. fowleri, the upper lip is broad and nearly 
Straight, and the lower lip is fringed and without papillz in the 
the center, | 

The upper lips in all the species, the under lips when not edged 
with papillz, and several fleshy folds which extend across both 
lips, especially the lower, are fringed with what appear in the 
Microscope to be closely set teeth of unevenlength. These fringes 
Serve to collect and hold the food, both upper and under lips being 
Used for this purpose; and Miss Hinckley observes that animal 
food appears to be preferred to vegetable by young tadpoles. Rana 
Plvatica has four fringed folds on the lower lip, while the other 

anidæ observed have three. Hyla versicolor has three fringed 
folds on the lower lip, while Hy/a pickeringit has but two, and 
à short space of fringe on the margin of the lip. The same ob- 
w has also some notes on the development of Rana sylvatica 
“gig many respects appears to be very distinct from other 

v England Ranidæ. It congregates earliest in spring for the 
ee Of oviposition, but cannot move in water below 45°F. 


152 Review of the Progress of North American (February, 


As many as 1380 eggs are contained in a single mass. The time 
in which the eggs develop varies greatly according to temperature. 
The metamorphosis of the tadpoles observed occupied from April 
12 to June th, when the tail had wholly disappeared, and tadpoles 
which on May 31st measured 58™" in length were reduced to 
young frogs 18" long. The external gills became fully developed 
two days after hatching, and in four days more were entirely re- 
sorbed, leaving an opening through which the action of the inter- 
nal gills could be seen. The legs budded on May 6th, and by 
May 20 the feet and toes were well defined. 

In the Canadian Naturalist (Vol. 9, p. 160), Mr. H. Mont- 
gomery observes that examples of Menobranchus kept in an 
aquarium plentifully stocked with mollusks fed entirely upon fishes. 

Mr. W. Frear, ina note to the AMERICAN NATURALIST, gives a 
curious instance of the vitality of this batrachian. An individual 
that had lain exposed to the summer sun for forty-eight hours, 
and had been completely covered with alcohol for twenty hours 
gave undoubted signs of vitality, by opening its mouth and sway- 
ing its tail, when placed on the dissecting table. 

Mr. J. S. Kingsley (Proc. Bost. Soc., 1881) notices a case of 
polymely, or the development of an additional limb, in an exam- 
ple of Rana halecina. The supernumary limb, is in origin a 
structure a limb of the left side, but occupies nearly the position 0 
a tail. The myology of the proximal part of this extra leg !$ 
less perfect than that of the distal, but the most singular abnor 
mality is the formation of an acetabulum for the odd limb at th 
symphyis of the pubes. 

Wm. E. Carlin (Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 1881) states that large 
numbers of the Stredon lichenoides of Como Lake change every 
season to the Amblystoma state, but that the change takes plae 
much more slowly in the alkaline waters of the lake than in fresh 
water. : 

S. F. Clarke (Johns Hopkins University, Studies from the Bio 
logical Laboratory) gives the result of observations upon me 5 
velopment of Amélystoma punctatum, The eggs are deposited 1 
masses of from two to three hundred, each covered with 4 pi 
cious gelatinous coating, at first thin, but rapidly becoming thi 
by absorption of water. Thus each egg consists of two st 
nous shells, separated by a space filled with clear fluid, and “ 
well protected from voracious fishes. In the act of depos! 


Te ee Ee aS ee ey SEs ee ae e n ETE eT NS Oe GS ae 


Sal fins grow 


1884. ] Batrachology in the years 1880-188}. 153 


the ova, the female lies with her anterior limbs extended laterally, 
and her hind limbs curved round the opening of the cloaca, ap- 
parently to assist in holding the eggs together. If disturbed she 
leaves the spot, and commences the operation elsewhere. The 
male deposits the spermatic liquid upon the eggs. The sperma- 
tozoa are very large, .75 millimetre in length, while those of Me- 
nopoma are only .25™™ and those of Rana temporaria .0o8™™ 
They are long slender filaments, pointed at both ends. The 
ova, as usual in Batrachia, have a light and dark-colored pole, but 
the dark portion, instead of being much smaller than the light 
one, as is frequent, is equal to it in size, so that the third segmen- 
tation furrow is equatorial. After this furrow is formed segmen- 
tation proceeds most rapidly at the light colored pole, which is 
always the lowest, and the dark area increases until the only 
light part left isa small area around the lower pole, and extend- 
ing upward from on one side. This white area then becomes sur- 
rounded by a furrow, and forms a prominence, the “ vitelline 
plug” of Ecker. Gradually the vitelline plug sinks into the mass 
of the egg, except a very small round spot, from which extend 
outwardly the rudimentary walls of the medullary folds. By the 
end of the fourth day these folds have spread anteriorly to the 
cephalic end, and the egg has now become elongated in the direc- 
ton of the medullary folds and their central groove. In about 
nine hours more the neural tube is enclosed, by this time the em- 
bryo has much increased in size and weight, and the entire sur- 
face is covered with cilia. A constriction next defines the head, 
and the optic lobes appear as oval prominences. The throat is 
next marked off, the proto-vertebre appear, branchial lobes are 
developed, and the anterior limbs indicated. The tail lengthens, 
and the balancers, so-called from their resemblance to the bal- 
ats of dipterous insects, appear between the eyes and branchial 
Obes. Active muscular movements next occur, the gills are de- 
fined, the pulsations of the heart are visible, and pigment cells are 
e Nerd. Most of the energy is now devoted to the growth of 
€ gills and balancers, and at the next stage the caudal and dor- 
actively. The balancers, held out so that they point 
d downwards, aid in keeping the head and branchiæ 

on the dirt at the bottom; they decrease as the anterior 
after Said and finally break off, about twenty-eight days 
33 ;, vitelline plug was formed. With the appearance of the 


utwards an 


mtd digit of the anterior limbs the lobes that will form the hind- 


1534 North American Batrachology in the years 1880-83. [Februaty, 


limbs commence to bud. At the age of sixty days all the external 
parts are formed, and it undergoes no external change except 
growth until the branchiz are resorbed, a process which occupies 
from three to five days. The entire series of changes, in vigorols 
examples, occupies about a hundred days. 

The same writer gives an account of the development of the 
Wolffian body in this salamander. It arises from the outer layer 
ofthe mesoderm asa solid rod of cells, and is at first largest 
anteriorly, a dorsal and ventral duct are then formed by the split- 
ting of the cells, and an opening into the body cavity is madè 
from the dorsal duct. The method of development of this orga 
differs from that observed in allied forms that have been wor 
out, and is most like that of the Elasmobranchiates. 

The same laboratory furnishes some interesting notes upon the 
secretion of the pepsin-forming glands of the frog, by H. F. Sewa! 
The œsophageal glands, which, when the intestinal- canal is empl; 
are full of fine granules, undergo marked changes in digestion 
losing the greater part of these granules during the process. These 
changes are started by the mere absorption of matter from the | 
alimentary canal, but the regeneration of the glands depends up?" 
the presence of new matter in the blood itself. eS 

The fifth Bulletin of the Illinois State Laboratory of Nate 
History is a list of the Batrachia and Reptilia found east of a 
Mississippi, by N. S. Davis and F. L. Rice. Siren lac 
credited to Northeastern Illinois. The Bulletin No. "i 
U. S. National Museum consists of a check-list of the Reptilia% 
Batrachia of North America. The classification is based 0n 
of Professor Cope, as set forth in Bulletin No. 1, of the st 
series. 

The work of Dr. J. J. Mason, upon the minute structure 
central nervous system of certain reptiles and batrachians ge 
uable addition to our knowledge of brain-structure in the pr 
illustrated as it is by artotype plates taken from negatives ' a | 
by the author. Numerous sections of the spinal cord and 
of Rana, Menopoma, Diemyctylus and Siren are ae gest 
transversely-developed spinal cord of Menopoma, deeply gsuttd 
posteriorly, contrasts greatly with the oval and slightly iagti? 
form of that of Rana. The writer does not claim to distil y 
between motor and sensory cells, and considers that the atl 
which makes the nuclei the true function centres of the neft ~ 
is an unproved one. 


of the 
a 


1884. |] Wood Notes and Nest Hunting. 155 
WOOD NOTES AND NEST HUNTING. 
BY HORACE LUNT. 


as along an old dam, now unappropriated and neg- 

lected, where, on either side of it, trees have since its build- 
ing grown to maturity, now watching for awhile the adventurous 
bream which approaches the shallow water for Gerris and water- 
beetles, and whose motions appear to be dull and heavy by the 
surfeit of this continual feast, my eye is arrested by another in- 
Sect-catcher of the air, the wood pewee. With what unerring 
precision it darts upon some aspiring beetle, and returns to its 
observatory on the opposite shore! 

This bird is not shy when engaged in its legitimate pursuits, 
and will allow a very near approach. His head is continually 
moving from side to side; he occasionally stops, however, to 
preen his breast feathers ; which seem to be always ruffled, or 
with uplifted claw to give his crown a series of quick, spiteful 
digs, and with droll performance peer under his outstretched 
wings for a troublesome parasite. Now he darts off, flying fifty 
yards away in a straight line, to gobble an insect which he sees at 
that distance, not returning to his post, but to a sycamore grow- 
ing on the dam. This is the season of incubation, and I suspect, 
Considering the good provider and kind husband that he is, that 
this tid-bit just captured is for his consort. 

No one, without the aid of the bird, could expect to find such 
a nest. How nicely it is saddled on the end of a horizontal 
bough, thirty feet from the ground, so shallow that one can see, 
even at this angle of vision, the head and back of the female as 
she sits upon it. The couple did not wander far for their build- 
ing material, for the nest is chiefly composed of mosses and thin 
Plates of old bark that cleave from the young growing liber, so 
Soe teristic of the buttonwood, glued together with saliva, 
Which nature has so bountifully supplied to many of the birds. 
hehe Sits, evidently not caring whether her nest or her pres- 
iss as been discovered. Her head moves about freely, and 

: ene cannot resist the temptation of flying off to seize a 
me insect, but returns immediately to her task. Here comes 
ae Spm Se more, and standing close beside her, gives a kiss 
yi etle in the bargain. How gallantly he breaks it to her, 

She, as is her prerogative, receives it with cool indifference, 


156 Wood Notes and Nest Hunting. [ February, 


and bids him go for more. As he stands on the branch an in- 
stant, his back toward me, and the broad leaves uplifted by the 
wind let in a sunbeam upon him, I note a shade of dark greet 
and the long pointed wings, reaching down half way on his tail, 
which is not so deeply forked as is that of the olive-sided fy- 
catcher, a first cousin, whom he otherwise much resembles: 
When he rises I see in this individual an exception to the oo 
eral dress of the under parts of this species. The pale yellowish 
tint of the breast is replaced by whitish ash. The song® 
often heard, as if he was aware of the melancholy strain, and had 
the good sense to consider the feelings of his mate during 

distressed period, and worked for her crop’s sake instead. Res 


ing on this slope in the shade of the beech trees, watching te Ẹ 


gambols of a pair of large purple-black butterflies (Vanessa a 
tiopa) flying high up among the trunks, attracted there, no doubt, 
by the nectar that exudes from the bark, I hear the energo" 
notes of the oven-bird or golden-crowned thrush (Siurus aurit- 


pillus). Immediately after a little bunch of feathers drops dori 


from a low branch, and goes pecking here and there On the 


ground, not a rod from where I am sitting. He takes long, quick ! 


strides, as he turns his head to look at me, now half tumbling i 
over dead sticks that lay in his path, or getting his long Si 
claw tangled in the blackberry vines, and making little exertion 
to clear himself. Now he runs swiftly ahead to capture a" l 
or turns back quickly sideways for some crawling dainty "r 
nearly escaped his notice. How much the color is like that * 
the leaves and grasses and vines through which he forages. e 
upper parts are of dark olive-green, with two dark streaks 08 a 
crown, and a broader brownish-yellow one between them, ™" 

the breast and sides of dirty white, streaked with black. | 


I believe not many of the birds sing while upon the grout 


They love to mount some kind of stage, on which to pour TE 
their melodies. But the golden-crowned hardly thinks it W ao 
his time to take the pains to fly to a music stand wher 
inspiration siezes him, but stops his feeding for a brief intel” 
lifts up his head an instant before commencing, as is the 9% 
some of our best singers, and utters in a loud clear tone the sl 
lables cheat-er cheat-er cheat-er. The song is not like anY is 
in the woods. Listening to his lay at noon-time, when the * s$ 
rays are pouring down on the mosses, one imagines it ÍS sa 


Ret a 


Dae ts | 


i 
: 


I 


_ Pletely 


1884.] Wood Notes and Nest Hunting. 157 


sprightly as in the morning. There appears to be a dragging of 
the notes, as though the little songster was worn out with the 
heat, and although he may be very near you in shade, the first 
syllables seem to come from a distance, showing his great powers 
of ventriloquism, gradually sounding nearer and louder, until he 
reaches the climax. This is his commonplace humming after all, 
for Mr. Boardman, a close observer of the birds, says he ħas 
another song at times, so rare and beautiful that but few know it | 
as from that bird. 

His nest is not far from here, for when I happen in this vicinity 


his song is sure to be heard. He likes just sucha place as this, 


shaded slopes near a stream. As you walk along you see hun- 
dreds of depressions, little hollows under the roots, crevices in 
the ledges, and hide-away places generally in which you would 
choose to locate a nest, but thus far it has escaped my search. 
How shrewd these birds are in concealing their homes, not only 
from the sight of man, but often, as they must, from the sharper 
cow bunting, whose special instinct it is to intrude upon them, and 
from the numerous greedy prowlers that go nosing round, both 
night and day, for just such morsels as the nests of these ground 
builders offer. 


The general intelligence of birds, considering their compara- 


tively low position in the scale of creation, seems to me remark- 


able. How alert they have learned to be on account of these 
Surrounding dangers. How many little schemes they invent to 
deceive you. This same golden-crowned is a curious bird. He | 
*€s to be near you, though he does not want you to be aware 


of it; so he flies swiftly past, far enough, he probably thinks, for 


you to lose sight of him, when he makes a detour, and finally 
back again along another air line, and flits behind a rock 
yards away, with the probable satisfaction that he has com- 
Cutwitted his vexatious follower, and can watch you at 
leisure without being observed himself. 
lt is amusing also to observe the cuteness of these crows, 
__ young are nested in a tall pine near by. Only a stifled 
iy, ed scolding croak escapes them now, as though it was 
: ‘for them to keep in so long. If they could give a few loud 
oc ble caws it would be such a relief ; but it behooves them 
this silent, that their enemies’ attention may not be directed to 
e place on earth, wherein is centered all of their affection. 


158 Wood Notes and Nest Hunting. [ February, 


Two small birds, with ashen heads and olivaceous backs, and 
breasts of reddish-yellow, flutter down as noiselessly as butterflies, 
close to my rather uncomfortable position, in a patch of greet 
briers and blackberry vines. They have taken me by surprise, 
and almost before that feeling has been replaced by inquiry they 
have moved off again in their nervous way, flying in all kinds of 
places, now down to the ground, or zigzagging among the shrubs 
or smacking with their bills among the leaves, as they glean i 
the highest branches of the elms and willows. At length on, 
with undulating flight, wings its way to a small cedar, and hides 
in the thick foliage. The movement is so different from the usul _ 
manner of proceeding from bush to tree, that one suspects as 
ject of great importance possesses the bird, and watches sharp? — 
for developments. Sure enough, there in the horizontal fork ofa | 
limb, not fifteen feet high, the American redstart (Setophaga rile 
cilla), the red-tailed insect eater, has laid the foundation for? 
nest. From a human standpoint, the locality is not well chose 
situated as it is, quite near a wood-path, and in full view of every 
young rambler who may feel disposed to rob. Though placed 1 
this opening, how nicely the general colors of the material i 
which it is composed harmonize with that of the bark of the! q 
No one without the aid of the bird would discover it, it is such 3 
wee bit of a construction, and so accurately fitted among w 
smaller twigs. How busy the little worker is. Though taking | 


observations quite near, she does not appear in any way discon- ] 
sf 
: 


pletion of the nest in a given period of time. Here she tugs fot 


4 


4 


last year’s plant-stem, to suit a certain defective place in the sf : 


stops, and having secured a fast hold with her beak, gives #°" 
upward pull, which evidently requires all her strength to re" 


the bleached strip, and flies with it to her home. 


She always builds from the inside, never placing material 0 
the nest while standing outside of it. The cavity must be joked ai 


1884. ] Wood Notes and Nest Hunting. 159 


after and nicely turned and pressed to fit her precious little body, 
so she gets in and squats and turns round and round with out- 
spread tail and wings, tucking in here and there, and fastening 
with saliva the stray ends, and hugging with her chin and bill the 
outside edges against her breast. The delicate structure is pro- 
gressing rapidly, and the female appears to be the chief architect 
and worker. If the male comes it is only to flaunt himself before 
her and disappear. These are evidently young birds, for on the 
occasional visits of the male I notice the color is similar to his 
wife. His tail coverts and tail, however, are darker with perhaps 
a deeper orange-red on the sides of the breast. He will have to 
Wait a year or two before he puts on the uniform of black and 
red that older male birds wear. 

In a week the nest is finished; the upper parts are slightly 
drawn in and compactly thatched. Now that the task is off her 
mind, she appears more cautious, and uses many little devices ; 
fluttering among the lower branches or flying into the farthest 
side of the tree and skulking up to the nest, with the hope that 
her skillful manceuvering has been successful in eluding my 
Vigils. As I approach the nest she utters a sharp chip, chip, pre- 
cisely like the note of the hair bird, but does not manifest any 
_ *xtraordinary signs of distress. She remains at her post of trust 
till the last second, and then eyes me keenly from one of the 
branches above, as if she had the conscious power to prevent me 
from Stealing away her home. It is a deep cavity, upholstered 
with fine grasses and a few horse-hairs, on which rest already two 
tiny eggs, the ends of which are very unequal, tapering quite 
acutely from the larger part. The ground color is white, blotched 
with reddish-brown, as if the bird had rubbed on them some of 

yi coloring of her breast, I dare not breathe on the sacred 
s lest the parent consider them polluted, and forsake the 
S Spot to heron earth.. No fear of her! Sensible to the 
‘ay € seems to have comprehended the object of my visit, for 
“rdly have I withdrawn a reasonable distance when she again 
to her nest, and with a cant of her head, as she stands on 
wi Says : “There, you big fellow ; I trust you are satisfied 
your investigations, Now leave me to finish my work in 
Peace,” 
: In this thick clump of high bluebérry. bushes, interlaced and 
_~ 8fOwn with greenbriers, madam catbird has improvidently 


= 


160 Editors’ Table. [February, 


. made her home. While looking through the interstices of leaves 

and sprays from the other side, to observe the devoted actions o 
the pair, I discover another odlogist, but with more hostile inter 
tions than the writer. A small striped coachwhip snake has i 
the several portions of its lithe body conveniently along the twig 
and there remains as motionless as any part of the bush. Aftet 
watching it for a time, I make various noises to ascertain to what 
extent it can be affected by sound, and seeing that it does nol 
stir from its resting place, I slightly shake the bush, when È 
lowers its head, darts out its forked tongue, but seems unwilling 
to move. Nature has given to its skin the general hue of te 
bark, and probably it instinctively remains in this position, rely 
ing more for protection on the harmony of color and being i 
rest than upon escape by any other means. Just as I am en | 
` to take more vigorous measures for its removal, the bush € 
struck by a sudden breeze, which appears like a palpable p 4 
vention; while the serpent takes advantage of it, and glides 
through the tangled mass out of reach. 


EDITORS’ ‘TABLE, 
EDITORS: A. S. PACKARD, JR., AND E. D. COPE. 


—— The Society of Naturalists of the Eastern United Sa 
held its first full meeting in Columbia College, New York, 
the Christmas holidays. The aims of this body, so far as W 
are developed, appear to be to sustain the business aspect # a 
pursuit of natural science in a material and practical way- | : 
papers read related to the means rather than the ends of the sort 
tific career, no discussion of subjects of pure science being 1) 
order. The questions discussed may be classified as follows: | a 
The methods of original research. (2) The methods of te4 l ) 
(3) The constitution of societies and academies of science g 
The employment of competent specialists by the educat i 
institutions of the country. In each of these departments pe 
is to be accomplished in this country, and none who atten tas 
meeting failed to gain ideas on these topics. The society its 
chosen to restrict its geographical range in order to reliev® | 
members of the necessity of traveling long distances, which antior 
siderations of time and-money render impracticable. tE 
pated that other sections of the country will adopt similar O'S" 


= & 


Cannot do 


1884. | Editors’ Table. 161 


zations, should they feel the need of them. A committee to de- 
fine the terms of membership was appointed. The time of hold- 
ing the annual meeting was fixed for the Christmas holidays as 
most convenient for teachers. 

e goodly attendance and interest shown in the meeting, 
proved that the City of New York was the most convenient place, 
and that the holidays are the best time for such a meeting. 
Members from the leading colleges and museums of New Eng- 
land and the Middle Atlantic States were present, and the senti- 
ment that such a society had an unworked field before it was 
generally entertained. The topics were in nearly every case of 
a practical nature, such as the methods of lecturing, of teach- 
ing, of laboratory work, of the arrangement of museums, both 
from a scientific and educational point of view. Biology is to be 
More and more dependent on exact and careful methods of 
Preparing material for study, and hence a large amount of atten- 
tion was devoted to histological methods and processes, such as 
the cutting and staining of microscopic sections, methods used in 
the microscopic study of rocks and to allied topics. The rela- 
tions of the original investigator to the public, and the necessity 
of maintaining academies and institutions for original research 
Was discussed. The society has begun well its work, and will 
doubtless, by the numbers of applicants for membership which 


_ Were presented, become a live, zealous and wide-awake body of 


Working men. Its membership should, however, be carefully 


selected, so that it may not be too unwieldy, and be burdened 
with too much dead wood. 


~— It is to be earnestly hoped that the three great national sci- 
Ey bureaus will obtain due recognition from Congress this win- 
= We refer of course to the National Museum, the Geological 
peas and the Fish Commission. The results of these organi- 
a a are doing infinite good in aiding to counteract our.utilita- 
ee — non-intellectual tendencies, and the country cannot 
ei ae aa the value of the labors, especially of Professor 
Gist and afterwards of Hayden, Wheeler, King and Powell, in 
The ane and conducting these admirable enterprises. 
ally ac position of the surplus which the Government is annu- 
Sumulating, has become an important question. Congress 
better than appropriate it for the advancement of sci- 
expencry, ring those great works which by their nature are too 
be mu. to be undertaken by private persons. The money may 
wi spent. ee Sil 


-m Ir 


162 Recent Literature. [ February, 


RECENT LITERATURE. ; 


Mission SCIENTIFIQUE AU MEXIQUE; RECHERCHES ZOOLOGIQUES, 
TROIS. PARTIE, RECH. SUR LES REPTILES ET LES BATRACIENS, pat 
MM. Dumeéril et Bocourt—This part of this magnificent work 
advances well into the Ophidia, which is the only order remat 
ing to be completed to bring the series to a close. Forty-eight 
species, are described, of which thirty-six are figured as to the 
details of the scutellation of the head and adjacent parts of the 
body. These figures are nicely executed, and two of them, rep 
resenting species of Ninia, are full length and colored. This | 
work brings the subject of Mexican - Ophiology nearer to, e 
than any general work, and includes a number of species Y 
North America and the West Indies. We have not been able 11 
previous numbers to praise the systematic treatment of the pi 
ject, and the present number presents rather more numerous 
fects than any of its predecessors. Thus the species describe 
purport to belong to the group Calamariine. Nevertheless 1t 8 
quite certain the serpents like Ninia cannot belong to the me T 
natural group as Catostoma and Carphophiops, the only charac 
ter they possess in common being their small size. I have showt : 
in fact' that Ninia must be arranged with Storeria and To 
notus on account of the presence of hypapophyses throug ct 
the dorsal vertebral column. As to nomenclature, the failure t 
adopt the names of Baird and Girard, where they have prom | 
of date of publication over those of Duméril and Bibron, K E 
serious error. Inconsistencies in nomenclature are obser a 
Thus Chersodromus is adopted, while Colorhogia, which rests 
the same differential character, is not adopted. The genus iga 


Cope ; and E. sumichrasti, Geagras sumichrasti Boc. Con te | 
D. & B., is Haldea B. & G.; Streptophorus D. & B., is Nima 


sc 7 
redimitus is Colorhogia redimita Cope. Conopsis in wo T 
genera, as I have pointed out. C. nasus and C. mat pee af 
erly belong to it, while C. lineatus is Toluca lineata > -tot 
account of the presence of internasals. C varians belong’ ove 
genus Ogmius Cope, on account of the presence of me: 
teeth? In the same way Ficimia ornata is distinct from 
1 Proceedings Phila. Academy, 1864, p. 167. 
2 See Journal Academy Phila., 1875, p. 142. 


1884. ] Recent Literature. 163 


in the presence of internasal scuta, and should be referred to the 
genus Gyalopium Cope, of which it is the second species. It was 
described some years ago! as Ficimia publia Cope. The Pseudo- 
ficimia pulchra is the Geagras frontalis Cope} the difference from 
the other species of Geagras figured on the same plate, č. e., the 
separation of the nasal from the preocular by an interspace not 
eing of generic value. Scolecophis Fitz., should be Scolecophis 
Cope, who first described the genus. Homalocranium D. & B., 
is Tantilla B. & G., of prior date. Here should come the genus 
Enulius Cope, which is truly glyphodont, though the authors of 
this work assert the contrary. Ogmius should also be placed 
near to Stenorhina in the glyphodont series.—E. D. C. 
CHAMBERLAIN’s GEOLOGY oF WIsconsIN®,—This is not only one 
of our best State reports, but one of the most valuable and interest- 
ing. Beginning to look casually over the first part of Vol. 1, en- 
titled General Geology, by the chief geologist, we expected to 
find the usual résumé for popular use, but while it is entertaining, 
for it held our attention from its able summary of the whole 
Story, it will continue to have permanent value from its discus- 
Sion of the Archzan age as well as the Glacial epoch. We 
should unhesitatingly recommend any beginner or advanced stu- 
dent in geology to read this part of Vol. 1 in connection with his 
geological manuals 
The candid, well-balanced mind of the chief geologist is seen 
throughout the entire narrative as well as in the discussions and 
references to the opinions and works of others. It is evident 
t the survey has been in good directive hands, while the re- 
Ports of the assistants prove that the details have been carefully 
and skillfully elaborated. The people of Wisconsin are to be con- - 
gtatulated on the results of such excellent work, and on having 
them Presented in a simple, intelligible form. 
ginning with the hypothetical and pre-Laurentian history of 
Wisconsin and of North America in general, which is discussed 
in a fresh and comprehensive way, we find a good sketch of the 
«an age, which seems to us, in some points, more satisfactory 
7 that given in the text-books. To be sure nearly every point 
C interest connected with this age is under debate. Professor 
tion soey however, adopts Selwyn’s view that the upper por- 
mestone and iron, as well as graphite, belong in reality to a 
or Huronian age. “ All the facts thus far disclosed in Wis- 
Pport this view, which, pending the results of investiga- 
must yet occupy some years, we shall assume to be 


1 
proceeds . Phila. Acad., 1866, p. 126. 

ie cit., P. 142; Toluca Jrontalis, Proceeds. Phila. Acad., 1864, p. 167. 

1 ly, 18 £$ Bicone. Survey of 1873-79. Vols. I-IV. Atlas of maps. , Vols. 
z s ag X vo, í 


164 Recent Literature. [ February, 


the correct one. The Archzean limestone and iron-ore beds of 
ew York are likewise considered to be Huronian.” 


do thousands. Even in the more extended views presented i" 
this sketch, relative injustice is done the earlier eras. In discus 
ing the Laurentian, measuring as it does accumulations may 
thousands of feet in thickness, we only consider it as a WI a 
making no attempt at even an enumeration of the subordin; 

periods of deposition that marks its history. Even in des thick 
the Huronian system we barely enumerate the successive t 
deposits, though they embrace rich and varied accumulations "i — 
ore, carbon and lime, besides common detritus. Were these be 
modified members of the later systems, they would doubtless 

tanked as important periods, and the whole Huronian Sy°" 
would be graded as the equivalent of the Devonian age, or per 

haps of the Mesozoic era.” 


the Wisconsin and adjoining areas. Two glacial epochs are n 
scribed, their existence clearly proven, and the colored m 

tions or theoretical maps of the two periods will be foun eart 
most useful and timely. We have nowhere met with a < prodl : 
and more comprehensive exposition of the subject, and j P 


Whitfield, Professors L. C. Wooster and F. By 
others. As they stand, the four volumes of this survey *® < 
notable addition to our geological literature. 

U. S. Fish Commissioners’ Report For 1880)—The of jut 
reports of the U. S. Fish Commission reach us each year, = ’ 
1U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Part VII. Report of the Commis i i : 
[S. F. Baird] for 1880. Washington, 1883. 8vo, pp. 1060. 


, aed I 


i ilna eective reaches far beyond the consideration of purely 
Bs logical que 


1884.] Recent Literature, 165 


so many pages, seldom, if ever, under a thousand, replete with 
matter of interest to naturalists and to fishermen, as well as 
to the general public, together with some padding to fill 
out the portly tome. The most notable zodlogical contribution 
is Mr. Goode’s “ Material for a history of the sword fish,” a com- 
prehensive account including a notice of the fisheries. It com- 
prises ninety-nine pages and twenty-four plates, and is published 
rather to stimulate inquiry than as a complete monographic 
account of these fishes, so difficult to carefully study in nature. 

large proportion of the report is filled with translations of 
foreign papers on different piscicultural topics. 

ADOLPH’s MORPHOLOGY oF THE WINGS OF HYMENOPTERA.— 
This important memoir was published during the past year in the 
Nova Acta of the Imperial Leopold-Carolinian German Academy 
of Naturalists, under the title : “ On the morphology of the wings 
of Hymenoptera. F orming a contribution to the question of the 
origin of species and of atavism.” It is illustrated by six plates, 
five of which are filled with photograms of portions of wings, 
illustrating the variations and abnormalities in the venation. It 
'S iN Continuation of an earlier similar work, published in 1882, 


on insect wings 


gs. 
It is impossible to make an abstract of these interesting 
researches on the variation of venation, as the author does not 
Present us with one. He closes the work, however, as follows : 

€ number of drones of Apis mellifica here studied amounts 
to 1918; of these 889 specimens with 2107 anomalies of thirty- 
fight different types or formations (bildungen) were surveyed 
_the most exact manner in tables, the remaining ones only 
with reference to the rarest forms. Three hundred and twenty- 
‘IX worker bees and 125 queens were brought together for 
comparison. Among isolated deviations have occurred only 
Bae. figured on Taf. 5, fig 2; Taf. 4, fig 5, and these indeed 


for systematic uses. But now they have an interest from other 
tae of view, and especially valuable are these abnormal forma- 
the a are opposed to artificial specifications and break over 
aag ts to species which our comprehension of Nature has 


Aid une as the drones of Apis mellifica. But much is accom- 
While t if we no more hastily throw aside, but consider it worth 
with ? Eve thoughtful consideration to and compare them 

other—be they normal or deformed—venations. In the 


open, hy Species nearly exhausted. There is a possibility still 
ten these researches, of opening a new line of inquiry, 


stions.” 


166 Recent Literature. [ February, 


THE STANDARD NaturaL Hisrory.—We have received six 
parts of what promises to be a most timely and excellent work, 
The publishers and editors have gone to work in the right way in 
securing the aid of specialists in writing upon special groups. In 
this respect the work will be an advance even upon Brehm’s Ani- 


FIG, t.—-Polypeutes tricinctus, three-banded Armadillo. 


EE SO x 
y aA <> 
RS 


ne 


N 
yA 
Ñ 


mal Life, which was prepared by only a few writers, whil w 
es. 


& Co. 


e the 
1 The Standard Natural History. By the leading American authoriti P 
: a C 


by ELLIOTT Coves, M.D., and J. S. KINGSLEY. Boston, S., E. Cassino 
cents a part, $6.00 a volume, cloth. 


1884] Recent Literature. 167 


editors of the present work have engaged nearly forty collabora- 
tors. The difficulty will be to secure sufficient unity in the mode 
of treatment by so many authors; but we do not see any marked 
signs of this in the parts before us. This is a subscription work, 
and most publishers of such works for popular sale are timid and 
even silly about admitting anything that looks like evolution, but 
NAN | ip A BEER No phe 2 


Ee > 3 


EG 


~~ 
2 


‘{iAdp Uviuvusey ‘sin sHanhsog@—z ‘OI 


the ; ; 
present work is as it should be, in accord and in fact based on 


= aes We notice in the parts before us that the Proto- 
DSK ahaa by Mr. Romyn Hitchcock, the Infusoria by Dr. 
Sor E x ea the Crustacea by Mr. J. S. Kingsley and Profes- 
Wright - Dirge, the mammals by Dr. Coues, Professor R. R. 
and Professor T. Gill. The names of the other contribu- 


168 : Recent Literature. __ [February, 


tors are a guarantee of the permanent value of what will bea 


representative American work. It should be widely patronized. 
The illustrations are ample, many indeed from European sources, 
but with many original sketches. The paper and presswork arè 
faultless. The work -is to be issued in six imperial octavo vol- 
umes; Vol. 1 is to be devoted to the lower invertebrates ; Vol. 1 
to arthropods; 11 to the lower vertebrates; 1v to birds; V © 
mammals, and vi to the races of man. 


Davis AND Ricr’s NORTH AMERICAN BATRACHIA AND REPTILA 
FOUND EAST OF THE Mississippi RIVER}—This little book presents — 
us with the best synopsis of our cold-blooded land Vertebrata 
of our region which has yet appeared. The characters of the 
divisions are better drawn than in most American general works, 
though this is not’ very high praise. In fact there is room — 


much improvement in this respect, and it could hardly be ren i 


ical dis 
The authors extend our knowledge of the geographical 
tribution in a good many important points. 
ON THE FORMATION OF THE EGG AND THE BLASTODE P 

Ji 


ee Arsis, by Ludwig Will?—Z. The Forma 


erably from that hitherto described by authors. Huxley, yi i 
and Claus considered that the terminal chamber of "i a 
Aphis differed considerably from the viviparous form, n bs 
the whole arrangement and signification of the elementi f 
in the existence of a yolk passage. Will, however, 5% nd 
in the viviparous Aphis there exists also a yolk passage 
the arrangement of the cells in the interior of the 
quite the same as that in the true females, and ree de 
considers as vitelligenous cells. The wall of the eas 
ovarian tube of the adult is formed of a single layer © 
cells, which not only covers the egg chambe pa 
minal one. Nothing was seen of the structure 
mentioned by former writers on the subject, alth rsion lea 
his investigations one of Zeiss’s homogeneous ker rep, © 
i No. 5 of the Illinois State Laboratory of Ne tural TEP 


b le £ ? ee Af 
Zur Bildung des Eies und des Blastoderm bei den Vea: zi 


Lupwic Witt. Aus den Arbeiten d. zool. zoot. Instituts in 


1884. ] Recent Literature. 169 


The terminal chamber, in which the egg is formed, consists of 
two parts. The wall of the upper part is formed of pavement 
epithelium, which is continued into the solid interior part. In’ 
the interior of the upper part he finds a rounded mass of proto- 
plasm, and between this and the external layer of pavement epi- 
thelial cells is a single layer of large cells (the ovula). These 
cells are each connected with the internal mass by a pedicel of 
homogeneous protoplasm. The pavement epithelial cells pass 
into long cylindrical cells at the inferior part of the terminal 
chamber ; this part of the terminal chamber contains, as a rule, 
only one large cell, the young egg, which is also connected with 
the central mass of protoplasm by a pedicel. 

In the oviparous Aphis, in which a similar structure of the ter- 
minal chamber is well known, the cells of the upper part of this 
chamber have been generally taken for vitelligenous cells, one 
cell in the lower part for the egg and the pedicel for a passage for 
vitellus prepared by the vitelligenous cells. 

Will shows, however, that at least in the agamic Aphis the ele- 
ments have quite a different signification. He considers the cells 
in the upper to be ovula (eianlagen), and the large cell in the 
lower part a young egg. 

The pedicel has nothing to do with a yolk passage, but only 
corresponds to the pedicels of the ovula. 

€n one of the ovula has reached a certain size it leaves the 
“pper part of the chamber, but the pedicel remains and forms 
later that which the authors have called the yolk pedicel (dotter- 
Strang); this remains until the blastoderm is develo 
We often find as many as three successive eggs in connection with 
the terminal chamber. 

n the way downward the egg continually grows, and the 
Cells of the epithelial covering becoming more and more de- 
Pressed ; the ovula do not increase in size at all. 

Here two very interesting questions arise: (1) Why does one 
of the ovula of the terminal chamber leave its place and become 
pay 4 egg? (2) Why do the eggs and not the ovula increase 

ze 


(1) At the time when no ovulum has yet left the terminal 


oF ail and when all the elements of this part of the ovary are 


eal supply of nourishment from the blood which bathes the 

“terior wall of the chamber. The cells grow equally, and exert 

io Pressure in the wall of the chamber, and the result must 

of a bursting of the wall of the chamber or a protrusion of one 

ber ae into the chamber below. At the base of the cham- 
teed 


€ it passes into the oviduct, the resistance is much less 


170 Recent Literature. | February, 


than that at any other point, consequently the ovulum at this 
_ point passes out, drawing with it the pedicel of protoplasm which 
still remains in connection with the central mass, which Will calls 
the “rachis,” and which corresponds to the rachis in the nema 
todes. The ovules have now a chance to grow again, and when 
the pressure is again exerted another passes out. ; 

(2) In a similar way the growth of the young egg is explained 
The ovula as well as the young eggs being connected with the 
rachis by a string of protoplasm they cannot be considered a 
distinct cells, for it must be considered that the protoplasm 15 
common to all the cells. It is evident that the new protoplasm 
which the egg and ovula acquire by a process of assimilation 5 
common as well. The pressure exerted upon the epithelial layer 
of the egg is not as great as that upon the wall of the termi 
chamber and consequently there is much less pressure on the egg 
than on the ovula. Owing to the great pressure on the ov 
the growth is not so rapid as in the egg, consequently uch 
the common protoplasm of the terminal chamber goes 
nourishment of the egg through its pedicel. cells 

The cells of the terminal chamber not being vitelligenou® ik 
but ovula, the pedicel is consequently not for the passag® of yo 
but protoplasm. 4 

TI. Formation of the Blastoderm,—~The young ¢€gg) which po* 
sesses no membrane at all, consists of a very homo eneous Pa 
toplasm. The clear germinal vesicle (keimbläschen) does ! 
take any color in carmine, while the dense germinal spot (kell 


y examining large numbers of eggs in the first stages of de 
velopment Will finds that the germinal vesicle does not disappet: 
The first change consists in the appearance of a great no 
little vesicles of deutoplasm which are quite different from 
later fully developed deutoplasm called by Metschnikoff gr 
därer dotter.” These vesicles fill up the whole protop ae that 
the exception only of that near the periphery of the egg cs really 


not surrounded by deutoplasm but lies in an irregular E 
protoplasm. In section he found the primitive nuclei in di he 


where they undergo division and form the future cells o! 
blastoderm, The blastoderm consists of a single layer of be- 
which possess a common protoplasm and only later do they 
come separate. The blastoderm does not cover the ex 
face of the egg, for at one pole (the basal), the deut plasm 
tends to the surface of the egg. 

Will differs considerably from A. Brandt as regards 


cell divs 


1884.] Recent Literature. IJI 


ion, and considers him wrong in a number of other points. He 
describes a division which is only known in Actinospherum, 
where it was described some time ago by Grube. 

The principal thing is that it begins with a change in the nu- 
cleolus, which breaks up into a great many little particles. These 
particles are arranged in a definite way so as to form different 
figures, of which the rod-like form (stabchenform) is the most 
common and characteristic. The substance of the nucleus is not 
modified at all, and only its exterior form is changed. Froma 
spherical vessel it changes to an elliptical, and then eo a biscuit- 
shaped body, after which stage the division takes 

Will also criticises the “ keimblaschentheorie ” of A. Brandt, 


thelial as well as the blastodermic cells. Will finds that this basis 
is false and consequently the theory built upon it is also false— ~ 
B. Sharp. 
RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. 
» and Kingsley, J. S e Standard Library of Natural History, by uh 
leadin ee sip T Beaton; 1883, Cassino & Co. Nos. 1-8. Fro 
ers 


Martin, N., and Brooks, W. K.—Studies from the Biological Laboratory, sae 
Hopkins University, Baltimore, 1883. Vol. 11, No. 4. From the editors 
Simmonds, P. L.—A Sag pet Be x eed Animals and their Products, with a Glos- 
. aa 1883, E. an N. Spon, From the publishers, 
Sclater, P. L—List oí the Zire Animals now or lately ee in the pim 
of the Zoölogical Society of London. 1883. From the society. 
Kiprijanow, = —Studien nee die Fossilen Reptilien wa ie 111 Thiel. Grup- 
pe Thaumatosauria n Theil. Ordnung Crocodilia. St. Petersburg, 1885. 
Fr rom the . duthor. ` 
Albrecht, P.—Note sur le Pelvisternum des Edentés ; 
——Sur le Crane Remarquable d’une Idiote de 21 an 
se Se aly sr Intercostdidales et les ees raii du sacrum des mam- 


hyses ós 
(Hatteria punctata Gra 


Sur la valeur morphologique de Varticulation mandibulaire, du cart! ilage de 
Mickel, et des osselets de louie, etc. All dated Bruxelles, 1883, and from the 


— rN osseuses sur les Apophyses épineuses des vertèbres d’un Reptile 
ay); 


Miter, g 4. —Glyptocrinus redefined z restricted, Gaurocrinus, Pycnocrinus and 
iae anede and two new species described. Ext, Jour. Cin. Soc. 

Nat, Hist., rom the aio 
Halt, J, k uie of the machinery and methods of cutting specimens of Rocks 
ni abi ils at the N. Y. State Museum of Natural History. 1883. From the 


R. ley, W, F. E.—New a fossils. From the author 
set ioe N. A.—A note on the foeces of pde i infants. Ext. Trans. Coll. 
Schip Physicians of Phila, 1883. From the a 
sser, Mf.—Ueber die extremititen des Anoplorberium Ext. Neuen Jahrb.. für. 
Min. Geol. und Paliont, 1883. 
ne E. D.—The Evidence = Evolution i in ies History of the extinct Mammalia. 
tom the Proc, Amer. Assoc. Adv. of Scie 1883 


n the contents of a ticki cave in the Island of Angat West Indies. Wash- 
ington, 1883, 


172 General Notes. [February, 


Cope, E. D.—Palzontological Bulletin, No. 37. Philadelphia, Jan. 2, 1884. 
Powell, J. W—Human Evolution. Presidential address delivered before the An- 
thropological Society of Washington, Nov. 6, 1883. From the author. 
——Third Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1881-82, Wash- 
ington, 1883. From the department. 
Fritsch, A.—Hauna der Gaskohle, Boehmen’s, etc. From the author. ; 
Duméril A., and Bocourt, T--Etudes sur les Reptiles et les Batraciens. 3™° partie. 

(Mission Scientifique au Mexique et dans P Amerique Centrale.) 1883. From 
T. Bocourt. ) 
Allen, Harrison.—A System of Human Anatomy, including its medical and surgi 
cal relations,” Section v. Nervous System. Phila., 1883. From the author. 
Brinton, D. G.—Aboriginal American Authors, and their productions. Phila., 1883- 
From theauthor. 
Leidy, Jos+-Urnatella gracilis, a fresh-water Polyzoan, Reprint from the Jour, 
Acad. Nat. Sci., Phil., 1883. From the author. 
Hagué, 4.—Abstract of Report on the Geology of the Eureka district, NOR i 
Ext. Annual Report of the Director of the Geol. Survey. From the al peo 
Wilder, B. G.—On the Brain of a Cat lacking the Corpus Callosum. Prelit ed 
Notice. Read before the Amer. Neurological Assoc., 1883. Fron 
author. ) ; } 
Hebert, M. E.—Notions générales de Géologie. Paris, 1884. From the author. 
Abbott, H. L—General G. K. Warren. (Obituary.) go 
Julien, A. A—The Decay of the Building Stones of New York city. RP © — 
paper read before N. Y. Acad. of Sciences, 1883. coe rie 
The Dunyte beds of North Carolina. Ext. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., pi ; 
ie Genesis of the Crystalline Iron Ores, Ext. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., 
1882. 


4 
—The Volcanic Tufts of Challis, Idaho, and other Western localities. o 
Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci. All from the author. oie : 
Peirce, M. P.——Carp and Carp Culture. Harrisburg, 1882. From api pe ‘Cah 
Zittel, K, A—Die Sahara. Thre physische und geologische Beschaffenheit, “°°” 
` 1883. From the author. 
t :0: 
GENERAL NOTES. : 
GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS.’ upon 
ASIA AND THE Asratic IsLanps.—Mr. C. Trotter's pal g 
New Guinea, read before the British Association, coni pi 
general information. Geologically this large island 15 ne niji 


quently of recent limestone, with raised coral beaches 
by considerable rivers, with flat mangrove-covered ban 
- ing access to the interior. Except at these spots 


This department is edited by W. N. Lockincron, Philadelphia. 


1884. | Geography and Travels. 173 


at a distance of five or six miles, thus forming safe anchorages. 
The interior here consists of ranges of rolling grassy hills with 
scattered eucalyptus, acacia, etc., interspersed with streams, and 
contains tracts well fitted for sugar and other tropical crops. 
Beyond is the Owen Stanley range 13,000 feet high. The rocks 
of this range appear to be the same as the Devonian and Silurian 
series of the New South Wales gold-fields. The central moun- 
tains of the northwest peninsula, the Arfak, seem mainly granite 
and gneiss. Though severe earthquakes occur on the north 
coast, no active volcanoes have yet been found. 

The level of civilization among the isolated tribes of Papuans 
varies greatly. Some are skillful and industrious cultivators, but 
their plants and their agriculture appear to have come from Asia. 
Cannibalism is not common, and is, perhaps, mainly confined to 
wartime. The spirit of the dead ancestor is supposed to enter 
into his image or Karwar, so that a man would rather part with 
the skull than with the image of his father. This ancestor wor- 
ship is the principal part of their religion. They show a marked 
feeling for art in the ornamentation of their houses, weapons, 
tools, etc. They are a rude, boisterous, independent people, with 
a keen sense of their rights, not only in the soil, but in the fruits 
of the forest trees, and in the fish of the streams belonging to the 
tribe. Though the Malay custom of building the houses on piles 
's general, some are also built on the ground, or high up in trees. 

The eastern peninsula is partly occupied by a fairer and milder 
race, with Polynesian affinities, but with a religion even more 
rudimentary than the Papuan. The people of the north coast 
generally are finer than those of the south, perhaps through. 
intercourse and intermingling with the emigration passing from 

Sia to the Pacific, while the people of the south coast have had 
relations mainly with the inferior Australians. Hereditary rank 
'S not a Papuan conception, and the power of the chiefs is small. 
be Malay rulers of the small islands Bachian, Gébé and Tidore 
D e, since the fifteenth century, laid claim to New Guinea. The 

utch base their claims on those of the last, as their suzerainty, and 
Guin annexed the western part as far as 140° 47’ E. long. New 
ts €a was actually discovered by the Portuguese or Spaniards in 
Races” and by the time of Torres most of the outline was roughly 


i SOUTHERN CHINESE.—It would seem, from the- facts 
by Sat together in a paper read before the British Association 
the a3 H. S. Hallett, that the claim of the Chinese Emperor to 
icc of Tonquin and Annam may be regarded as the 

3 Of a once real, though now obsolete right. 
2356, s inese Emperor Yaou, who came to the throne B. C. 
> Sent the tribe of Hi to take possession of the country to the 
Tong of the Yangtsi. Kingdoms thus formed extended south of 
un, B. C. 2208. The Annamite and Shan kingdoms were 


174 General Notes. [ February, 


in existence within the bounds of the Chinese empire before its 
earliest contraction. By B. C. 1550, owing to revolts, it had con- 
tracted to the northern bank of the Yangtsi-Kiang, and during the 
Chou dynasty, B. C. 1134-255, it seldom included any portion of 
the basin of that river. The elder brother of the founder ofthe 
Chou dynasty left the empire, and founded the kingdoms of Youe 
and Hou outside of it, on the frontiers of Ssu-ch’uan. Other evi- 
dence leads to the conviction that the Shans formed part of the | 
early Chinese horde. Thirty per cent of their vocabulary 8 — 
Chinese. The Lao Shans were settled in the country west of 
Tong-king at a very early date, and had wedged themselves into 
the Yun country, as far south as Vien Chang, before the amv® — 
of the Yun Shans in the valley of the Menam. The name ge 3 
to them by their neighbors, Lau or Lao, means ancient or 0™ — 
The Yun Shans had founded towns south of Yunnan longi 
the time of Gaudama, and were pushing down the valley of 2 
Mekong through the Yun or Karen country. These Karens, 
there is reason to believe, were the earliest Chinese emigrants, ™ 
a long period they ruled over the country of Youe-Chang ce 
Tching, Lin-y, or Lam-ap), and in the fourth century over the 
bodia. In A. D. 431 the Yun Shans founded several co 
valley of the Menam, and by 707 had overrun and occupi 
northern half of Cambodia. the 
Early in the sixth century B.C., the Mau Shans entered ) 
valley of the Irrawadi, and drove the Burmese rn ; 
southward. About A. D. 1220 they annexed Assam, and ie 5 
predominant over the Shan States east and west of the they 
far south as Zimmé. By the end of the thirteenth a to 
had shattered the Burmese empire, driven the Yun ed he : 
Chaliang, from whence the latter descended and pang 
kingdom of Siam, attacked Java, Malacca and Cambodia ginsi | 
part of Pegu, and extended their sway over the Malay ort 
as far south as Lavoy. From this time to 1554 a aswel! | 
ruled in the valleys of the Irrawadi, Sittang and Sa Chim. f 
as in the country south of Yunnan, as far east.as Coc E 


ANAM, OR Upper Cocnin Curya.—According tO M Lal F 
tains E 


of producing rice enough for its inhabitants, it is pp s Co 


Tsiampas, who for ten centuries kept the Anamites © a, | 
this province there are more than five hundred villag® 


1884. ] Geography and Travels. _ 175 


or sixty markets. The capital and citadel of Binh-dinh may have 
ten to twelve thousand inhabitants. Near it is the port of Thi- 
nai, the ancient Gia, by error called Qui-nhon on the French 
maps. The area of Anam is probably about 47,000 square miles. 
The capital, Hue, was created by the Anamite Emperor Nguyen- 
Anh. It has a huge citadel, but the town, according to M. Aubry, 
does not contain more than 40,000 people. 


Arrica.—Mr. J. Stewart has made important geographical dis- 
coveries in the upland region between Lakes Nyassa and Tan- 
ganyika. On an expedition westward to Mt. Mapurumuka, he 
passed in two days march the affluents of the Songwé, flowing 
to Lake Nyassa, the Loangwa flowing to the Zambesi, and the 
Chambezi flowing to Lake Bangweolo. The source streams of 
Chambezi were found to be 934 feet above the lake, and form a 
considerable river by their union. Further along the road to 

anganyika other streams flowing to the Chambezi were found 
at a level of 500 to 600 feet above the lake, so it is inferred that a 
portion of the lower course of the river is navigable. 


Mr. J. T. Last (Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc., Oct.) gives a graphic 
description of the tribe, or rather the remnant of a tribe, known 
-~ the Wa-itumba. The coast tribes (Warima) assisted by the 
W a-lori, overran the whole of the district formerly inhabited by 
the Wa-itumba, so the Humba and Mamboia mountains are now 
but very thinly settled, though numerous sites of decayed villages, 
with their plantain-trees, remain to tell the tale. The Humba 
hills consists of five ranges lying between 6° 30’ and 7° S. lat. and 


_ 36° 30’ and 37° E. long. Thehills have few trees, but are covered. 


with tall coarse grass, while between each range is a valley with 
one or more rivers fed by numerous streams. The Wa-itumba 
re tolerably tall, and of muscular build, owing probably to their 
z ork as iron-smelters and forgers. They are far superior to the 
urrounding agricultural tribes in acuteness, ingenuity and barter, 
riis appearance have very much in common with the sooty 


of hile. eh in three places between the third and fourth ranges 


28 away the light sand in a successive series of pits, and then by 


ry ter ees 


. aoe is done with charcoal, made by the men for the purpose, 


Se 


— long, are used to convey the blast to the furnace. The fire 


fed alternately with charcoal, and ore, and three sets of bellows 


4 


176 General Notes. (February, | 


are used. The result is a mass of impure iron, which has to be 
again smelted to consume the charcoal within it, and is thenh 
again and hammered into hoes. The smelting is done ina ro 
hut with a steep high roof, but all the blacksmith’s work is done 
in the open air. The neighboring Mangaheri are a timid, peat 
able people inhabiting a district some thirty-five miles long by fif- 
teen wide between 6° 20’ and 6° 40’ S. lat. and 37° to 37° 40 l 
long. Every man is more or less a blacksmith and can forge 
hoes, swords, hatchets, arrow-heads, spears, etc. The women 


of thesetribesare of two kinds, m/songi or round huts, and the more 
substantial but dismal and dirty zembe. A tembe consists 

crotched posts inserted in holes about two feet apart. Two ne 
of these posts are set up at a distance of about nine feet from eah 


in with small wood, bound with a wild creeper, and pack 

wet clay. The roof is made by covering a mass of smaller pos 

branches and grass with about two feet of dry beaten clay. i 

doorway never more than four feet high and two wide and 50 

small round holes to look out at, are left in the sides. a 
Mr. Stanley returned in August from a journey to the ei | 

of the Ikelemba or Kassai, where he founded an advance e the | 


together with eight of their eleven Zanzibar men. ith 
The African traveler, Ernst Marno, died at Fazogi, 0” ee 

of August last, while on his way to Europe to recruit his 

He was only 39 years of age. 


GEOGRAPHICAL News.—An expedition despatched to New s 
by the proprietors of the Melbourne Argus has returned to Q entot, 
land. Its members suffered from fever, and one, Professor semi- 

Dr. Fisher, when about six days march from the > 
mythical inland sea of Lake Bahringo, was compelled - a 
by a force of 3000 Masai warriors. He has made large C. E 
tions, including many species new to science === apt. Lake 
Foot, R. N., has been appointed British Consul for the into 
district of South Central Africa, and will endeavor tO enter pre 

M. Flegel ® 


5 


, friendly negotiations with the native chiefs. 


. 


by the International African Association to comman 
t 


1884.] Geology and Paleontology. 177 


coni, sent out by the Milan Geographical Society, was mur- 
dered by the Somalis on August 5th. The Sultan of Ogaden 
had warned him not to proceed on account of the state of war 
that prevailed, but S™ Sacconi continued onward until he was 
surrounded by 5000 men. In the course of the night five Somalis 
suddenly attacked the traveler’s tent while the guards were asleep 
and killed S* Sacconi with their knives. All his notes are lost, 
and his diary burned. Captain Dawson and party, of the 
British Circumpolar Expedition, which wintered at-Fort Rae, 
arrived safe and well at Winnepeg on Nov. 2.——Lieut. Hovgaard, 
in reply to an inquiry from Baron Nordenskjöld, states that he 
could have navigated the Kara sea and reached the Yenisei last year 
had he not, by signals of distress fromthe Varna, been compelled to 
leave the lead along the shore of Waigatz island. The lead was 
open as far as the eye could reach——lIn the vicinity of Bona, 
Algeria, the Naiba, an isolated mountain 800 meters high, is 
gradually descending into the earth, forming a deep excavation 
round the sinking mass. 


GEOLOGY AND PALAIONTOLOGY. 


RESULTS oF THE DEEP-SEA WORK OF THE “ TALISMAN.” —M. 
Alphonse Milne-Edwards has communicated to the French Acad- 
emy some preliminary reports of the results of the work of the 

eep-sea explorations conducted by the French government 
during the past season. The work was carried on from the Gulf 
of zascony to the Cape Verde islands, and then north-westward 
See Sargassum sea, north-eastward to the Azores, and back to 

rance, As far south as the exploration extended, the great 
depths were found to be occupied by an arctic fauna, totally dis- 
tinct in character from that inhabiting the lesser depths. The 
be Fence, says M. Milne-Edwards, is like that distinguishing the 


næ of distinct geological horizons. Between the Azores and 


ne 


bg lr = eigenen eee ae es Pa EN 


axe the bottom is covered with deep white slime composed of 
oe ae of Globigerina. Fragments of pumice and other rocks 


Amon, some of the latter containing fossils, among others 
e 


. e 
Polished and striated pebbles of glacial origin, which M. 


ba 2 i - 2 a 
~ SOlonies, may take place. Oscillations of the ocean 
on a sufficient scale are all that is necessary. Ele- 
_ = ocean bottom sufficient to connect New Guinea with 


> 1i, 


nn 


178 General Notes. [ February, 


Tue Eocene Fauna oF Paraconra.—lIn a recent issue of the 
Revue Scientifique M. Trouessart gives an account of the Eocene 
fauna of Southern Patagonia. The great discoverer in this direc- 
tion has been Señor F. P. Moreno, of the Buenos Ayres Museum, 
who, with five persons and a canoe drawn by horses, ascended the 
Santa Cruz river beyond the point reached by Darwin, and dis- 
covered lakes Argentine, Viedma and San Martin, all fed by the 
glaciers of the Andes. The middle course of the river, though 
desolate as the lower, is grander, and the outlines of the hills at once 
reminded Sr. Moreno of the Mauvaises Terres of Nebraska and 
New Mexico. The upper course traverses the great forest of beeches 
that has replaced the palms of the Tertiary epoch, and the rich- 
ness of the flora contrasts greatly with the aridity of the lower 
regions. Ina little cavern was found the mummified body of à 
man, wrapped in feathers of the rhea and painted like the mum- 
mies of Arizona. This mummy marks the previous existence of 
a people less barbarous than the scattered tribes that now inhabit 
the country. 

On the left bank of the middle course, at a point passed but 
not noticed by Darwin, was discovered the rich fossiliferous beds, 
the treasures of which now enrich the Museum of Buenos 
Ayres. The current is so rapid and the stream so narrow 
passage of this formation, the beds of which are almost veri 
that it is no wonder that Darwin’s attention was otherwise ocet 
pied when passing. These difficulties caused the collections 
made by Sr. Moreno to be far smaller than they would otherwis¢ 
have been. 

One of the principal remains is a large skull, incomp 
riorly; this skull was described under the name of Astra, et 
ium patagonicum by Burmeister. According to Señor Mor 
the upper surface is convex ; there are no horns, an 
mous canines are present, there are but three or fo 


premolars on each side of the upper jaw. It presents ee ig | 


eralized characters, its only molar is marsupial, while the form 
the skull approaches that of the carnivores, so that it may = 
supposed to be a great transitional marsupial of aquatic ae 
The brain is very much reduced. Another species is 4 true 
supial which Sr. Moreno has described under the nam 


mandible of Owen’s Nesodon imbricatus, and two molars © 
_ stitute a complete transition between the toxodonts an while 
ustralis, 


_ Tembotherium holmbergi is a true rodent from t^e ~ sr 
beds: M. Lista, in his voyage to the sources of the Rive 


lete ante — 


e of ree | 
tenthes arate. The same locality has furnished a portion f Tie 


1884.] Geology and Paleontology. 179 


had previously found a cranium of an Anchitherium, as well as 
o Dr. Cunningham had discovered in the Lower 
Tertiary of the Gallegos river an ungulate described by Flower 
as Homalodontherium cunninghamii, and d'Orbigny had found 
the rodent-like Megamys patagoniensis. Two molars, with a frag- 
ment of skull, discovered by M. Moyzes in a bed which is be- 
lieved by Sr. Moreno to form the passage from Cretaceous to 
Tertiary, might have belonged either to a gigantic capybara or a 
small elephant, and formed part of what is probably the oldest 
known South American mammal. Sr. Moreno has named it 
Mesotherium marshit. 

Dr. Cunningham was the first to find remains of Edentata in 
the Tertiary, by the discovery of some plates of a Glyptodon on 
the Gallegos river. Inthe upper horizon of the Santa Cruz beds 
Sr. Moreno has found fragments of the cuirass of Hoplophorus 
australis, and the Museum of Buenos Ayres has the humerus of 
a Mylodon from a Tertiary deposit near the Rio Colorado. 

In the Bay of Santa Cruz, at the base of the marine Tertiary, 
St. Moreno found the skull of an enormous cetacean so firmly 
imbedded in the rock that he could only extricate the cervical 
vertebre and a portion of the occipital region. This species he 
has named Paleobalena bergii. Remains of another cetacean 
Species, Saurocetes argentinensis, were also found, as well as frag- 
ments of some dolphins, of some seals -from the Chubut river, 
oan of birds, etc. The discovery of these remains tends to show 
ti at the Tertiary fauna of Patagonia preceded that of the Argen- 
ne Republic, and if the list of the Patagonian Tertiary fauna is 
small, it is probably because it is as yet incomplete. 
-g0 iche previously supposed, on the faith of the observations of 
el igny, Burmeister and Darwin, that Patagonia was entirely 
th — of marine Tertiary deposits, but it is now demonstrated 
at terrestrial and lacustrine deposits are largely represented. ` 
welch Presence of so rich a Tertiary fauna in Patagonia lends 
ght to Sr. Moreno’s opinion that at the commencement of this 
i a Southern continent existed, spreading over the present 
tiy the Atlantic and Pacific, and that the fauna of this coun- 
tia 2 northward towards the equator at the time when the 
emersi epoch had set in in Southern Patagonia. Traces of local 
- etation aa and immersions, as well as traces of an abundant veg- 
which « vancıng to the sea, occur in many points of Patagonia, 
à at that period evidently enjoyed a warmer climate. At the 
Anyag the southern point of the South American continent 
Qatar © be slowly sinking, and soundings in the Atlantic show 
and Tiers = less than 150 meters would unite the Falkland isles 
the latitud el Fuego with the continent, which would then, at 
tude of the Santa Cruz river, have the width of Africa at 
land ste A further rise of 2000 meters would unite this 
: | South Georgia and other antarctic lands, and the kind 


180 General Notes. [ February, 


of hook towards the east formed by Tierra.del Fuego and Staten 
island, indicates the direction of the crest of this submerged con- 
tinent. This subsidence of Patagonia, following an elevation 
which has left salt lakes with still-living marine species 200 feet 
above the sea, is balanced by an elevation to the north of the Rio 
de la Plata. There the same upward movement of submarine 
formations which has caused the canal to the east of the Patago- 
nian Andes to be abandoned by the sea, while that to the west 
parts off a chain of multitudinous islands, is now in operation 
farther north. Modern alluvium, formed by great lakes fed by 
the melting glaciers, have filled up the old sea-canal to the east 
of the Patagonian Andes. An alternation of partial subsidences 
and elevations, such as are now acting, allowed the fauna to per 
sist, and caused that alternation of marine and terrestrial beds 
which is observable. a 
Towards the middle of the Tertiary period, the two Americas 
were as yet disunited, Southern Brazil was a great island, the By 
filling the basins of the Amazons and the La Plata ; the mass ° 
the Columbian mountains stretched to the north, while Bolivia and 
Patagonia, now separated from the southern continent, form reel | 
vast peninsula. The numerous groups of islands dotted over’ ch | 
Pacific seem to be the remains of the submerged continent which 
united Australia to South America, According to Hooker” 
less than seventy-seven species of plants are common to A | 
Zealand, Tasmania and South America, whilst very few psat | 
politan genera are common to these regions. The presence | 
marsupials is another link between Australia and South a ; 
Probably Australia was parted off at the end of the oa gh | 
period, while South America was still a portion of the ses 
continent. The marsupials were thus divided and evolved ap 
rately in their two seats, while in the Miocene the edentates “£ 


the remains of Mesotherium, is probably the old 
known in Patagonia, and extends over a large area tO. ~ 
and south-west. An ancient shore near Lake Argentine Py 
the subsidence of Patagonia toward the end of then 
period. nai 
Sr. Moreno believes that the present relief of Patagonia Te 
result of volcanic eruptions which, towards the end of ver : 
tiary, were repeated from Tierra del Fuego to Brazil. + “ce gb 
influence of these Patagonia rose again, but the antarctle "espis 
advanced and the land was glaciated. The pampean !9. fore 
the result of the far-spreading glaciation produced, 19 or a init : 
no s opinion, by astronomical causes, and the remains ae ; 


Were carried by the ice from more southern parts—"" mp 
complete skeleton is found in the true silt of the lower t " 


~ 


1884.] Geology and Paleontology. 181 


The cold spread northwards to Chili , Bolivia, even Brazil, and 
most of the animals perished. A few of the hardiest, as the 
guanaco, llama, vizcacha, puma, armadillo and rhea again spread 
southwards when the glacial era passed, but the great edentates 
found neither the mild climate nor the abundant vegetation that 
suited them, and remained in the as yet marshy pampa. At this 
epoch the mastcdons which had penetrated by the Isthmus of 
Panama, appeared upon the scene. The extinct fauna found in 
Patagonia must be that indigenous to the country, for since no 
animal leaves its country unless forced thereto by the struggle 
for life, it is unlikely that Brazil and Bolivia were abandoned for 
desolate Patagonia.—Dr. Tyouessart in Revue Scientifique. 


SCHLOSSER ON ANOPLOTHERIUM.—Herr Schlosser, of Munich, 
has dispelled the uncertainty respecting the relations of the gen- 
era Anoplotherium and Eurytherium. He finds that the peculiar 
second digit of the hind foot which characterizes the latter, be- 
longs as well to the former, and that the name Eurytherium is a 
Synonym. This digit, extending nearly at right angles to the 
others, was probably connected with them by a web, according 
to Schlosser, who agrees with Cuvier that the habits of these 
animals were aquatic. He refers three genera to the Anoplo- 
theriide, with the following numbers of species. Anoplotherium 
Cuv., three sp.; Diplobune Fraas, three sp ; Dacrytherium Filh., 
one sp. r 


ELEVATED CORAL Reers oF Cusa.—Mr. W. O. Crosby (Proc. 
Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist.) describes the elevated coral reefs of Cuba, and 


A. Agassiz from examination of the Florida reefs. Four coral 
terraces extend, with slight interruptions, round the entire Island 
Cuba. In the western part of the island they are the predomi- 
nating formation, and are well preserved on the summits of the 
highest hills, but further east erosion has been more rapid. The 
Owest terrace, on the northern side of the island, rises thirty feet, 
the Second rises abruptly 200 to 250 feet above it, the third is 
ge 500 feet high, and the fourth has a height of probably not 
ss than 800 feet near Baracoa. Five miles west of Baracoa 
2000 feet of the upper part of a mountain is reef limestone and 
fisaly the formation must have been 2000 feet thick. The 
‘hickness of the reefs here and upon the Island of Jamaica, where 
ted reefs reach a thickness of 2000 feet, is considered 

+ end Cr osby to prove that they were formed in shallow water 
te Period of slow subsidence, according to the theory of 


ian 4 des not appear to be any reason to doubt Mr. Crosby’s _ 
Son sere in this case, neither does there appear to be any rea- 
: needa. doubt those of Professor Agassiz in that of the Florida 

a The latter authority does not endeavor to set aside the 


182 General Notes. [February, 


theory of Darwin, but to show that in some cases, at least, coral 
reefs are but the summit of an elevation formed by other agen- 
cies. In cases of subsidence the reefs are thick, while in regions 
of elevation, as in Florida, the coral reef is but a thin crust top- 
ping a bank of deposited matter. 


MINERALOGY". 


ITE—A New Zeouite.—A. Arzuni describes a 2” 
lite from St. Andreasberg, in the Harz, which, while closely 1e 
sembling gruelinite in form and physical properties, contains ah 
and magnesia in place of pativis of the aluminum and lime, at i$ 
to be regarded as a new variety of gruelinite. It 1s describ Ke 
occurring in small crystals upon calcite, containing 1n their 10 
the rhombohedron, scaleushedron and hexagonal prism, and A 
sessing a prismatic cleavage, and a hardness of between 3 an 4 
The composition is : : 

BO) MAG, FO) Cad mo h H,0 
3.8 4-5 20.2 = 108 


51.2 12.0 77 I.I 
and the formyla 
(Mg Na,), (Al, Fe,), Sy Og + 13 H:O com 3 
is adduced, the mineral being regarded as a magnesia-Iron = 
elinite. of the 
It is named from Dr. A. von Groddeck, the director % 
museum at Clausthal, in which the specimen was toune. fot 
HERDERITE FROM Maine.—Mr. U. E. Hidden, well kno the 
his mineralogical discoveries in North Carolina, announce a 
probable occurrence of the rare mineral Herderite at eas at t0 
Maine. The crystals are short, truncated prisms, trans ae grav 
translucent, colorless or faintly yellowish. Hardness 5 ee It re 
ity 3. The crystals are orthorhombic with TAT = I? sent 
sembles topaz in form and color, but has neither the clea 
the hardness of that mineral. An analysis is now beine 
Professor E. S. Dana gives some crystallogr aphic. meas 
which closely approximate the angles of herderite. 
Recent METEORITES.—A large meteorite fell la 
near Brescia, Italy. It was about half a metre long and 0" 
ical shape. It buried itself a metre deep in the cat . 
the grass in the neighborhood, and when dug out was “although 
and the smell of sulphur was distinctly noticeable. rection, 
the meteorite passed through the air in a S. S. E. p ection. 
forced its way into the earth obliquely in an opposite a purst # 
About a year earlier, in February, 1882, a great nee ugh 
_ a cloudless sky in Transylvania. A large ball of fire see? d 
1 Edited by Pro i atural Scien 
delphia, to pace es he lanis coreg Sl er be sent 
Am. Four. Sci., jan., 1884, p 7% 


1884. ] Mineralogy. 183 


out western Transylvania suddenly burst, and three minutes after 
its disappearance a series of detonations was heard. The path of 
the meteor was for a long time marked by a grayish-white cloud. 
Some 3000 stones fell, the largest of them weighing over 38 kil- 
ogrammes. Analysis showed that they were stone meteorites 
containing a percentage of 9.88 nickel-iron, 6.63 magnetic pyrites 
and 83.49 silicates, 


Tu Fetpspars.—Speaking of the importance of a correct de- 
termination of the feldspars, J. Szabo! remarks “that it is the 
unanimous conviction with petrographers that every kind of a 
rock mass can be best determined by the mineral association 
found in it, and of all mineral it is the kind of feldspar which is 
most important. There was a time when we had been contented 
to say feldspar generally; then came a time when we said ortho- 
clase and plagioclase; but now we know that this is not enough ; 
we must discern among the plagioclases according to their basic- 
ity, at least an oligoclase-andesite, a labradorite, and a bytainite- 
anorthite.” He states that in the case of an eruption, the most 
acid feldspars are the first product of eruption and the most basic 
the last, and that in many cases “the determination of the feldspar 
is the only possible way of saying something of the lithological 
and chronological character of the rock in question.” 

In order to determine the feldspar in the quickest way, he rec- 
ommends flame experiments, and describes his method of work. 
It is based upon the coloration of the flame of a Bunsen burner 


Parts of the flame. He distinguishes seven degrees of fusibility 
from Bronzite (1) to Stibrite (7), in each case holding the grain in 
the flame for one minute, and noting the degree of fusion. “ So- 
rises is the element in the silicates which makes them easily 
usible, the magnesium and aluminum render them less fusible or 
altogether infusible,” 
: to the coloration of the flame, he uses a solution of indigo 
sulphuric acid, through which to observe the coloration by: 
Potash, and discovers five degrees in the yellow flame of sodium, 
eee three degrees for the red flame of potash, the intensity of 
“0 ration depending upon the percentage of the alkali. 
woe ne these observations with an examination of the 
er of the fused globule, it is claimed that all the principal feld- 
fal that, be racognized. It is doubtful, however, whether a care- 
Sure ree unless made confident by long practice, would be 
on his determination by this method. The almost universal 
“trenee of a mixture of two or more feldspars renders any 


7 1 
_ Proc, Amer. Assoc, Adv. Sci., XXXI., 270, 1882. 


» 


discovered near Platte mountain, Colorado, about twee 


184 General Notes. | February, 


such method uncertain. Descloiseaux, in a recent paper, has 
shown that although albite is the most constant of all the felé 
spars, it is subject to great variations, both as to homogeneity 
and optical characters. 

‘Tschermak holds that the soda-lime feidspars are all mixtures 
of a soda feldspar with a lime feldspar, the proportions varying 
to form a continuous series from a pure soda feldspar (albite) £ 
a pure lime feldspar (anorthite). Probably the only pere 
pure albite ever found occurs at Kasbék, Caucasia, where, accord- 
ing to Baerwald,? is a feldspar in which is no trace of lime or 
potash, and whose angles and specific gravity are almost identi- 
cal with those calculated by Tschermak as belonging to a theo- 
retically pure albite. 


“ Traité élémentaire de Mineralogie,” the subject of pseudo-sy'® 
metry is treated substantially as follows: After referring & 
labors of mineralogists. by means of the polarizing microscope 
upon the internal structure of certain minerals, such as ana te 
boracite, some garnets, etc., generally regarded as isometric, | 
shown optically to belong to another system ; and after re 


marks t! 
by an interior 


. . . ma. s 
hile admitting that the interior structure of a crys mite 
er. 


_ MINerALOoGicat Nores.—A new locality for topaz evel . 
: jn de 
north of Pike’s Peak. The crystals occurred in a po wee 


topaz were crystals of Mitchie goathite. fluorite, et ig the 
largest microcline crystal found measured eighteen i? a 
1 Bull. Soc. Min. de France, vI, 89. 
*Zeitsch, f. Kryst., VIL 48, . 


found a crystal of fluorite. 


1884. ] Mineralogy. 185 


largest diameter. E. Claassen has described some interesting 
crystals of pyrite from Parma, Cuyahoga county, Ohio. They 
orm combinations of the cube; octahedron and pyritohedron, the 
cube predominating. The interesting feature of the crystals con- 
tists in the fact that the cubic planes are concave, the other faces 
being flat as usual. Some of the combination edges are therefore 
curved lines. The author supposes that the concave planes are 
the result of subsequent growth over a smaller normal crystal. 
It is more probable, however, that the raised edges are due to the 
more active growth which always occurs at the edges of planes, 
and which renders the edge harder than central parts of the planes. 
In quartz crystals the edge is often raised above the interior, and 
the same occurs in imperfect crystals of alum, salt, etc. The edges 
are first formed, and if the solution is exhausted, the planes are 
very apt to be concave-——Kosmann has published a description 
of the minerals of the ore deposits of the Muschelkalk of Upper 
Silesia, In addition to the various ores of zinc and manganese 
which are described at length, mention is made of an interesting 
discovery of a bed of asphalt in the deep workings of the Frieder- 
ich s mine. Now that asbestos in the many forms in which it 
1S manufactured, is so largely used in mines, factories, furnaces, 
mills, steamships, etc., the demand for the raw material is great. 
stos suitable for manufacturing purposes is not common. 
Even though the mineral may look well to a mineralogist, it may 
Worthless to the manufacturer. Not only is length of fiber 
necessary, but a certain toughness and elasticity is requisite, which 
any specimens do not possess. If itis at all altered or “ rotten,” 
it is without value.-——Larger quantities of horn silver occur in 
nizona, the ore being horn silver and native silver occurring in 
atig gneiss. Many mines have been opened, and many mil- 
1ons of dollars of silver already extracted. In a mine recently 
EN in the Turkey Creek district, $60,000 worth of silver was 
tained in the first fifty feet sunk. Argentiferous sulphuret of 
copper has been discovered in Yavapai county, yielding copper 
and silver in abundance. Rubellan has been shown by Holl- 
ne to be an alterative product of magnesian micas, very variable 
Per ation, by no means homogeneous, and certainly not 
P "id £0 a distinct name. The Zircons found near Pike's 
ally of olorado, are very pure and transparent, and are occasion- 
y of a deep emerald-green color. Geinitz has described a 
f¢udomorph of nacrite after fluorite, in which the nacrite partially 
: A chromium diopside has been 
in sci in the diamond mines of the Cape. The blue color seen 
me varieties of halite has been investigated by Wittjen and 


Prechi y. 
Heap who conclude that it is probably due to the presence of 
ination clusions, producing the optical effect. An ex- 


non Of a boiler incrustation from Zwickau, proved that the 
Main consti tuent was magnesium hydroxide, or drucite. 


186 General Notes. (February, 


BOTANY .! 


Porutar Botany AcAin—Some months ago, in commenting 
upon Step’s “ Plant Life,” we referred to the duty which every 
scientific man owes to his country, to present the leading facts of 
his science in the language of the people. : y 

We wish to reiterate the sentiment, feeling that in so doing wè 
are aiding the cause of scientific and technical botany. We hold 
the more eminent a worker in science becomes, just so much the 
more is it his duty to appear before the world as an instructor 
who may speak “as one having authority.” The world is full of 
men who write for the people, but who themselves have not seen 
_ the things whereof they speak. That they have readers, shows 
the longing there is among the people for a knowledge of sciet- 
tific matters. Why should not every man who brings to light a 
imporiant fact in any department of science, himself publish yee 
the world at large, instead of permitting another to do so "wit 
has simply been standing at the door of the temple?” i 

The wonders of plant life ought to afford material for many 
popular book, popular in the best sense of that much abused wore 
It is greatly to the credit of the people who read popular b 
and who listen to popular lectures, that both authors and | 
find it profitable to assume to have themselves seen the wo ae 
things of which they speak: There isa hint here for Bet ith 
workers, for the men who have all their lives been familiar j 
Nature’s mysterious workings. If the man who makes A 
excursion into the domain of Nature, and fills up his fragm ii i 
and superficial observations by cramming from some a he bë 
volume, is so eagerly/listened to, how much the more Wi ce tht 
who is able to draw from long years of personal expenen is 
material of his narration. for Sone 

Some time ago Miss Herrick prepared a few papers, pings 
ners Monthly upon some of the curious and interest AS fojt 
which the microscope had revealed to her’ in the world o f e 
life. She has now brought these together and addeda poe 
under the title of “ Wonders of Plant Life,” ? which he it has 4 
e have fit 
a chapt a ‘ ‘ : s things 3 © 

apter on the beginnings of life, in which ma X then follor, 


have brought out in one of the tastiest little volumes W 


worts and mosses, a fifth on ferns. The remaining chap 


‘ Edited by Pror. C, E, Bessey, Ames, Iowa. a+, Bledsoe # s 
Py The Wonders of Plant Life under the Microscope. By Sophie B Ma 
New York, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1883. 284 pp. 16 mo. 


1884. ] Botany. i 187 


All the way through the author has introduced drawings from 
specimens of her own preparations, and these, with those copied 
from Sachs, Carpenter, Darwin and other sources, bring the num- 
ber of illustrations up to eighty-five. Some of these are quite 
good, while others, we are sorry to say, are sadly deficient in that 
very desirable quality—accuracy.. 

Now this book is one from which, as a text,*two separate ser- 
mons might be preached. From one standpoint it is to be com- 
mended, while from another it must be severely criticised. It is 
commendable in that the author has wrought into it so much of 

er own observation and work; it is to be criticised in that there 
arẹ so many grievous errors which mar what would otherwise 
have been a delightful little book. We are sorry to have to say 
it, but there is not a chapter which does not contain erroneous 
statements. Weare allthe more sorry to have to say this, because of 
the evident good faith and -desire on the part of the author to 
represent the several subjects treated of as they are understood 
y modern botanists. Had the manuscript (and some of the 
drawings) been submitted to some one more familiar with the sub- 
ject, many of the errors might have easily been eliminated. For 
example, on page 73 we read “ Mildew, which is so destructive 
to cotton and linen fabrics, etc., etc.,” and we are then referred to 
1g. 20 A.” Upon turning to the figure we find a poorly copied 
drawing of wheat rust (Puccinia)! The blunder, for such it is, 
comes from the fact that in England wheat rust is called mildew, 
ut our author ought to have known that what she referred to is 
A very different thing. On page 133 we have an illustration of 
ie truth Of the adage “that a little knowledge is a danger- 
pis ‘ec Here we read that “lateral shoots, vegetable hairs, 
- caves are exogenous, or proceed from a layer of growing cells 
Just underneath the bark,” a statement which bears evidence of 
tes misunderstanding of the term exogenous in this con- 
ke on. It is needless to cite further examples. _ May we not 
rg that the publishers will authorize an early revision, in which 
errors will be eliminated ? 
ga CENERA PYRENOMYCETUM SCHEMATICE DELINEATA, By P. A. 
rdo, Patavii, Nov. 188 3.—This latest work of the well- 
mycologist of Padua, consists of fourteen lithographic 


the amateur d 
able that in this 


nd the critical student of mycology. It is notice- 
is new arrangement, the name Sphæria, under which 


188 General Notes. [ February, 


all these forms were once included, has, as far as any generic sig- 
nificance is concerned, entirely disappeared, being retained only 
to designate the 420 species (enumerated on pp. 367-543, Sil 
vol. 2) whose fructification is unknown. Whether this new classi- 
fication, founded principally on the color and septation of the 
sporidia, will finally be accepted, remains to be seen. By tie 
mycologists of coftinental Europe it is already adopted, while the 
English mycologists, under the leadership of Dr. Cooke, are rais- 
ing some objections which are worthy of consideration. 

The old classification of the Sphzriacee has already been 
essentially modified and is destined yet to undergo still a 
changes. The only question seems to be concerning the mim 
and extent of these changes. 

In making innovations on any old and well established syste™ 
the tendency is always to extremes, and the new definitions 
proposed are finally accepted, rejected or modified in accor | 
with the conclusions deduced from more mature deliberation, 
this no doubt will be the case with the new carpological T 
so ably advocated and finely illustrated by the learned editor 
the Sylloge. 

The objections urged against this system are, in bie 
forms evidently closely allied are widely separated. For ee 
the old genus Melanconis is limited to the species with un! ae 
hyaline sporidia and stands in the sect. Hyalodidym@, a geek 
species with uniseptate brown sporidia constitute the genus prown ) 
coniella in the sect. Pheodidyma, and the species with a 
sporidia having three or more septa are placed in the sine al 
dovalsa in the sect. Pheophragmiz, the mode of growtl ‘not 
these three forms being essentially the same, t. e., perit i be 
or less distinctly circinate in a definite stroma. It CaM ier 
denied that the carpological system of classification has je th | 
not to be disregarded or hastily rejected, and it is PFO" Mear 
with some modification it will yet be universally adopted. ology | 
while, whatever may be the final conclusion, students of mye ee : 

everywhere will be glad that with the two volumes of ne 
and the “ Genera Pyrenomycetum ” they may now witb fungi 

certainty determine the various species of Sphæriaceo oo. : 
within their reach—/. B. Ellis, Newfieid, N. J., Dee 7 i 


New Froripa Funat, II.—Zsariopsis clavata, E. & es 2 
dles of fertile hyphae about 5"™ high and 30-40. thick, Cr ort 
of loosely compacted threads divergent and subundulat® tt : 
and bearing at their tips single oblong-fusiform brow? be 
conidia, 18-22 x 5-6 p. Many of the component Se; ing cot 
minate in free, divergent ends, these free ends also woe’ forming = 
dia. There is also a prostrate hypha, like that of Melio “On livit 
orbicular patches from which the upright hyphæ anse 
leaves of Persea palustris. - 


1884.] Botany. 189 


The above described species were collected at Green Cove 
Springs, Florida, during the winter of 1882-3, by Dr. Martin. 


To these may be added the following species collected at various 
places : 

Phyllosticta fraxini E, & M.—Spots: light brown with a dark 
purple border, 14-1™ in diam., perithecia epiphyllous, scattered, ` 
lentiform, black, (1502); spores oblong, or oblong-elliptical, 
hyaline, 1-2 nucleate, 7-9 X 214-3». On leaves of Fraxinus, 
Del. Co. Pa. Dr. Martin; and Bethlehem, Pa., E. A. Rau. 

„Phyllosticta catalpe E. & M.—Spots pale brown, circular, 5—7™™" 
diam., border darker ; perithecia few scattered, often sterile, brown, 
lenticular, innate, epiphyllous, 112 x 84; spores subhyaline, 
oval, 5-7 x 214-44. On leaves of Catalpa bignonioides, West 
Chester, Pa., August, 188 : 

Ramularia orontii, E. & M.—Spots large, pale brown, border 
darker ; hyphz epiphyllous, hyaline, 30 x 3, apices mostly bifid ; 
conidia hyaline, numerous, oblong, with the ends rather acute, 
uniseptate, 18 X 4u. On leaves of Orontium. Newfield, N. J. 
Ramularia andromede E. & M.—Hypophyllous, forming dull 
white orbicular patches about 1° diam., with a red-brown spot of 

same extent on the opposite side of the leaf; hyphz, simple or 
branched, continuous, 30-40 X 3; conidia oblong or cylindrical, 
10-20 x 114-24, continuous or uniseptate. On leaves of 4. 
racemosa. Newfield, N J 

Cercospora perse@, E. & M.—On reddish-brown irregular-shaped 
Spots 7—jm diameter, with a dark but not raised border ; hyphe 
“piphylious, densely czspitose, brown, faintly septate, bent and 
Seniculate above, apices subdenticulate, 55 x 4#. Conidia slender 

vate, 3-4 septate, 100 x 3u. On leaves of Persea palustris. 
hcg a heuchere E. & M.—Spots brown, mostly round 
sl i ), border obsolete ; hyphæ fasciculate, flexuous, light brown, 
eona hypophyllous, 30 x 3-4%4z; conidia subhyaline (light 
H, color), cylindric-clavate, septate, 60-75 x 3. On leaves of 


w 
tuchera americana. Chester Co, Fa 
i oacrosporium Martindalei E. & M.—Hypophyllous on pale 
Hyph Spots, 35-34% diam. on living leaves of Magnolia glauca. 
we €rumpent, czespitose, geniculate, multiseptate, 50-80 X5 ; 
teen 35-50 X 18-22%, about 3-septate at first, becoming muri- 
hyphae d dark brown; pedicels 20-50 long, often wanting. The 
gi ba® form tufts nearly black, arranged in a circle about 3™™ In 
the leaf Occasionally the fungus appears on the upper side of 
wi aw The spots on the upper side of the leaf are much darker 
| “the center, € distinct border and show a dark discolored speck in 
7: an inch > In which a gre ryo small sanes larva — y 3 
- insect, whic aPParently hatched from an egg deposited by som 
ge Which thus causes the dead spot in oe leaf on which the 


190 General Notes. [February, 
fungus grows. This curious species was discovered by Mr. Isaac 
C. Martindale, while ona visit to Newfield, Sept. 23d, 1883—/ 
B. Ellis, Newfield, N. F., and Dr. Geo. Martin. 


LABORATORY HELPS.— About two years ago the German edition 
of Poulson’s little manual, Botanisché Mikrschemie, made its appear- 
ance in this country, and was at once placed upon the list of 
necessaries in the botanical laboratory. Protessor Trelease has — 


this country. It appears under the title of Botanical 
chemistry, and is published by the well-known Boston house 
Cassino & Co. The scope of the work may be understood iro 
the principal topics noted in the table of contents, V12: a 
chemical reagents and their application ; mounting media @ 
cements; vegetable substances and the means of recognizing 
them. It is in substance just the book that every laboratory © 
dent has been wanting to have at hand for a long time. 
regret that the publishers did not print it upon thinner ppc wil 
it is it will be necessary to break the binding before the boo os 
remain open upon the laboratory table. It should have ? 
printed upon thin paper, with narrow margin and a flexible who 
ing, and we hope that the author, and the many students 
will use the work, will make so strong a demand up ition it 
lishers as to compel them to speedily bring out a new edit 
the more desirable form. m 
A New Epition or Cooxe’s Hanp-Book OF 1 oe 
first installment of the new edition of this valuable work, i 
first edition which was published in 1871, has long mee that § 
to all students of the fungi, and while it contains much 
antiquated, it still is the only general work a 
Hymenomycetes of the new edition will appear as an °FE tion 
Grevillea, so paged as to be bound separately upon 5 oe ie 
Botanica, Nores.—Grevillea for December cone 
structive paper on alkaloids and other substances that ae 
extracted from Fungi, prepared by C. G. Stewart of St- extra? 
Hospital Chemical Laboratory. .We hope to preset nats 
from this paper at an early day for readers of the ! come 
Another species of Podophyllum (the genus r ne Fou 
may apple) has just been described by Dr. Hance, 1" ntains 
of Botany. Yt was discovered in the Lo-fau-shau MO% ii 
the province of Canton, China. It has four to five ee 
purple isostemonous flowers, and has been named : P pelia 
This makes four species of the genus now known, VI? `- egion; 
ofeastern North America; P. emodi of the Himalayan arn ae 
pletanthum of Formosa, and P. versipelle of south pet” 
—It is with great pleasure that we read the anno" 


AAN 


1884.] Entomology. IQI 


the editor that the Journal of Botany will be continued, the sup- 
port during the past year having been sufficient to leave a balance 
on the right side of the account. In the October number ot 
the Torrey Bulletin, Dr. Allen publishes some very interesting 
notes on the American specics of Fortpella, with six plates of 
figures. A key to all the known species (12) is given, and four 
new species and a new variety are described. Eight species are 
found in North America, and these are widely enough distributed 
to warrant a search for them in any part of the country with a 
reasonable hope of success. In the same number D. H. Camp- 
bell figures and describes some very simple prothallia of a fern 
(Onoclea struthiopteris). A row of four or five cells terminate in 
an apparently single celled antheridium! They were obtained by 
artificial culture under glass. Robert Ridgway, in the Decem- 
ber Botanical Gazette records a number of true measurements, 
Which confirm the belief we have held for many years that the 
heights of our trees as given in the books and manuals are uni- 
formly too low; witness the following: Quercus michauxti, 119 
feet ; Carya porcina, 115 feet; C. microcarpa, 134 feet; Cataipa 
Speciosa, 101% feet; Fraxinus americana, 127 feet; Sassafras offici- 
nale, 82 feet. After a long delay, no doubt very vexatious to 
the author, the botanical portion of the thirty-third and thirty- 
fourth Annual Reports of the New York State Museum of Natural 

story have appeared. The first was transmitted to the legisla- 
ture in February, 1880, and the last in March, 1881. Surely the 
State of New York ought not to delay so inexcusably the publi- 
cation of such important reports. Both contain numerous de- 
Scriptions of new species, and in each are good plates giving de- 
tails of structure, 


ENTOMOLOGY.' 


FLIGHT OF Insecrs.—Dr. Amans in his extended paper de- 
tribes his examination of the structure of the thorax in ZEschna, 
Sirex and Locusta, and discusses the views of previous authors 
ih the subject of flight of insects. He considers that a rational 
“ory of flight can only be formulated after various dissections 
ata erous experiments on the resistance of the air; the laws 
sa e latter are as yet very incompletely known, and as to anat- 
fore’ a knowledge of one animal hardly affords a sufficient basis 
~ 2 general theory. For the investigation of preliminary prob- 
wig is Specially well adapted, as it is probably the most 
a ie of insects, making, as it does, twenty-eight vibrations 


a 3 Axtewnany Hone oF Vantsi 10.—J. Chatin describes the 
€s found on the joints which form the tip of the antenne of 


lng: i 
communia partment is edited by Pror. C. V. RILEY, Washington, D. C., to whom 
i ons, books for notice, etc., should be sent. 


192 General Notes. [February, 


this insect as communicating with the exterior by means of a very 
narrow orifice, which does not open directly to the exterior, but 
is more or less completely closed by cuticular ridges which ap- 
proximate to and curve towards one another. Some authors, 
indeed, report the presence of an obturator membrane, but this is 
an appearance only, and seems to be due to the disposition of 
these parts; the rod or rods found in the pit have a periphera 
zone, within which is a quantity of finely granular protoplasm ; It 
is only in the young that one can observe the nucleus, as thè 
rapid formation of pigment obscures the relations of this body; 


these is indicated by the nerve-branches; the upper appeal 
undergo a special differentiation, the exact investigation of p 
the author postpones for the present. — Journal of the Roy 
Microscopical Society, December, 1883. 


Rupimentary Wines 1N Beettes.—Dr. H. Dewitz 
that the hind wings of the Coleoptera show most dis f 
an organ may gradually become aborted by disuse, and pe 
transformation of the whole habit of the animal may be connect 
with this. The membranous hind-wings of beetles, which sè 
for flight, lie, as is well known, concealed beneath the firm horny 
fore-wings, the so-called elytra. For the purpose of figa l 
elytra are raised, and the folded hind-wings extended, so a 3 

to exceed the former in length. But many beetles do not 2 
all. In these we find the hind-wings more or less ee w 
entirely deficient. This phenomenon occurs with especi and 
quency among the Carabide, Melasomata and Curculionide, * 
also, although less frequently, among the Ptinide. 

_ As the wings are already indicated in the larva, Dr. 126% 
inclined to think that, in one or other of the species inthe i 
destitute of wings, traces of these organs would occur, at ja 
larval or the pupal stage. For four years his labors were ‘ati : 
and it is only quite recently that he succeeded in demonst Nie | 
the rudimentary hind-wings in the larvae and pup® “wi | 
hololeucus Lam., in which both sexes are apterous, t. & dese a 4 
ind-wings. The fore-wing occurs in the half-grown br 
the rudiment of the hind wing only shows itself much P ge | 
the animal is already on the point of terminating the la which 

We have in these rudiments of hind-wings an organ vancing 
either advancing or has retrograded. That it is notañ *-ecidedlf : 
organ, but one in course of disappearance, is shown most e doS 
by the circumstance that this, like all retrogressive organ ol | 
not, like those in full function, increase with the deve are tee 
the individual, but, on the contrary, diminishes. | Wer 


points out | 
tinctly how | 


ae = : 


yore | 


Ps a SER Se ees 


1884. } Entomology. 193 


fore justified in assuming that Niptus hololeucus once bore well- 
developed hind wings, and that these gradually became aborted 
in consequence of disuse, until they were finally thrown back into 
the young stages, and some day will disappear even from these 
stages. In other wingless beetles this period may have already 
occurred. 

This abortion of an organ brings after it other transformations 
ofthe body. Without the hind-wings the beetles cannot fly. It 
is therefore not necessary for them to be able to spread out the 
elytra, the latter remain permanently lying upon the back. What 
is the consequence? The two elytra grow together to form a 
firm dorsal shield, such as we find in nearly all beetles which are 
entirely destitute of hind-wings. Atthe same time the elytra be- 
come convex, and bend round at the sides, so that they embrace 
the abdomen. In consequence of the disappearance of the wing- 
muscles, the thorax becomes altered. The body acquires quite a 
different form ; new forms are produced which we call species. 


SITARIS AND ITS TRANSFORMATIONS.—Those who have read of 
the hypermetamorphosis of Meloé, and of Epicauta, &c., in pre- 
ng volumes of this journal, may be interested to note those of 
the European Meloé beetle, Sitaris, whose history was worked 


` 


ani Kis Š 
Cp 


out by Fabre, in 18 
It is hatched 1 
holes in 


Stage C, then an active fourth one (D), which be- 


| | figures | normal pupa E, the beetle being represented at F; all the 


a ION IN THE ArcTias.—Rev. Dr. Hulst, in the Bulletin 
es man 78 Entomological Society for October, relates how 


194 General Notes. f [February, 


figurata, placèntia, decorata, flammea and excelsa as synomyms 
of A. nais Drury, and A. saundersii Grote as synonymous with 
A. parthenice Kirby; A. anna Grote being merely a variety of the 
same species. Mr. Hulst is not singular in this respect. Ul 
own rearing experience is similar and we anticipate some pretty 
extensive coalitions in Mr. Stretch’s forthcoming monograph. 


AFFINITIES OF PaLmocampa.—In discussing the genealogy of 
the Myriopoda in a paper just issued from the Proceedings of the 
American Philosophical Society (Vol. xxi, p. 208) Dr. £ ckard 
concludes that Paleocampa—a caterpillar-like form described by 
Meek and Worthen, from the carboniferous of Illinois—s not & 
Myriopod as Scudder maintained, but that it may be regal 2 
the hairy larva of some carboniferous neuropterous insect all 
to the Panorpide. He would therefore exclude it from aly 
genealogical considerations in reference to the Myriopods. 


Tue Hessian Fiy..—During the present summer I noticed ha 
the Hessian fly was exceedingly destructive in some pa 
Perry county, Penna., especially near the west bank of the the 
quehanna river, whole fields there were so badly injured re 
crop was not worth reaping. It is the steady belief of the vai 
in the county that the attacks of this insect are not, a515 ka 
supposed, most severe on the early sown wheat, on he dur- 
they maintain that theearliest sown wheat, namely that put eth 
ing the first week of September, often yields a good crop, ue d the 
which is sown between the roth and 22d is badly infested anti 
latest, that soon in the last week of the month, again earliest 
The last part is of course natural and usual. But that Oth 
wheat should thus yield well is not, I think, in accordance 
customary statements on the subject. : the fol- 

I am inclined to think that it may be accounted for 1 ay bit 
lowing way. The early sown wheat may not ier tre | 
may yield, as said above, a fair crop, because it grows 3 A singe 
rank, and is thus better able to support an attack. th stra 
“ flax seed ” will not materially injure a showy and heat 
But when, as I have seen them this season, five, Six 2% r 


may consequently thus also make up for the destruction © j 
It is not likely that the earliest wheat is avoided by the by he 
consequently the above explanation seems rational. S y 


1884. | Zoölogy. 195 


spring attack that does the whole mischief to the farmer who 
knows nothing concerning the autumn brood. 

I have, moreover, been led to believe that an enormous destruc- 
tion of the “ flax seed ” occurs during the winter, especially in the 
roots, which are entirely killed by the fly. I have often dug up 
and examined such roots during the winter and have many times 
found the pupæ nearly all dead and rotten. If further examination 
should confirm this observation we have an efficient cause check- 
ing to a great extent the excessive multiplication of this pest. 


ZOOLOGY. 


Notes on American Mepusa.—No group of marine animals 
presents a more fascinating field for the discovery of unknown 
facts than the Meduse. As in the progress of science isolated 
observations may come to have a value greatly beyond their appa- 
rent significance, I have thought it best to publish a series of dis- 
connected notes on these animals. Many of them have been in 
MS. for some time, and I have preserved them in this form with 
the belief that new opportunities might give me such additional 
observations as would enhance their value. Many notes, and 
Some of the most important, have already become antiquated 
through the studies of others. The remainder are presented be- 


Paying cut (Fig. 1). 
ae Most important 
differen as 


ce 

and the adult is the 

ii Ae size of the 
projection of the 

bell. This 


Fic. 1.——Dinematella cavosa. 


196 General Notes. [ February, 


easily seen through the bell walls. The remaining parts of the 
\ Medusa are the same as those of a larva a little older which is fig- 
ured in the Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, 
Vol. vr, No. 8. Observations are needed to show what the func- 
tion of the cavity (c) is in the adult. 
emmaria gemmosa McCrady.—In the youngest larva of Gem- 
maria gemmosa, which has formerly 
been described, two well-devel 


summer, I took at Newport, R. 1,8 
still younger Gemmaria than these, 
which has. only one tentacle and the 
rudiment simply of a se ie 
tically opposite it, as show 


gure. 
It will thus be seen pee 
of Gemmaria, as far as the u 
tentacle goes, resembles Hybocode! 
and other unitentaculated gener 
is, however, possible that ye specr 
men was an imperfect one, an” 
the other tentacle had been destroye 
or possibly that its growth ha 
abnormally retarded. E 
Oceania languida A. Ag. — 


ae 

student of the group of Medu all 

Giese —G. gemmosa with one familiar with the tact that abno Nu- 
acie. 


. 


: e 
uent occurrence 
ties are of freq iJ] suffice: 


bad = variations in the number of tentacles, aoea £ 
and ot : i es 
er structures. Among the haat double ocellus 


ingle 


hag 
number. It seldom happens that the number of ae 


of many if | i / 
` y if not all the true Oceanidæ. Q. languida Ta 


ts an 

Newport with a perfectly formed bell but only ort 

tubes, two of which (1, 2) have normal ovaries (o) and ae Medo? 

blindly in the bell walls, half way between the center s á 

<2 ee th Amn aaia, p MC, OO 
2? Bull. Mus. Comp. Zodl., Vol. vit, No. 7. 


1884.] Zoology. 197 


and the bell margin. The Oceania seemed not in the least incom- 
moded by the loss of the 
fourth and the reduction 
in size of a third radial 
tube, but moved with the 
same ease as if both were 
present and well develop- 
ed. ere is this inex- 
plicable relationship in 
the position of the two 


ought we to suppose the missing tube, if it had existed, to 
tube 3, h 
light on this question let us turn to the appendages of the bell 
margin, where we would naturally expect concomitant variations. 
Between g and 4 on the bell margin, corresponding to the angle 
a P b, there are seven otocysts and four well developed tentacles. 
tween sections æ and 4 of the margin, passing through ç, there 
are fourteen fully-formed otocysts and eight tentacles, or just 
“hell o Many as on the first mentioned portion of the rim. The 
bell margin shares with the remainder of the umbrella the trifid 
er indicated by the radial tubes. It seems to be, therefore, 
that the bell margin confirms a theory, which the radial tubes sug- 
Sest, that only three sectors exist in the umbrella, while the 
hi tla. unrepresented on the bell margin as in the body of the 


poen @ parasita—Among the hydroid Medusæ we find very 
ing ples of parasitic gonophores. One of the most interest- 


ese is the genus Mnestra, found parasitic on the abnor- 
mollusk, Phyllirhoé. The affinities of this Medusa have never 
been Satisfact 


orily made out, and nothing is yet known of its 
opment. 
aban’ existence of lateral appendages to the tentacles and the 
dei aa of Otocysts, leads me to place it somewhere near Zan- 
(Fi mmaria, The tentacles (Fig, 4 / are v 

'S. 6), and from thei 


ery stunte 
r tips there arises a cluster of lateral appen- 


198 General Notes. [February, 


dages, each consisting of a number of thread cells enclosed ina 
capsule and mounted on a small peduncle. 

' There are four radial tubes, and the ovaries are found along the 
course of these tubes instead of near the proboscis as might be 
expected in a gonophore destitute of marginal otocysts. Certain 
organs which are identified as ovaries and lie on radial tubes, are 
pigmented a black color. 

Each of the four radial tubes has, midway on its course, a slight 
enlargement forming a pocket into which it is not impossible that 
the young are dropped, and may be carried while the larva i$ 
passing through its younger stages. There is a very small Pe 
boscis, by which the Medusa is in part fastened to the body of! 
host (Fig. 4). 


Fig. 4. ne a ĝe Be" 
Fic. 4.—~Mnestra parasita attached to the edge of the body of Yo be Tiichod and 
tubes; d, body of Phyllirhoé ; u, umbrella. Fic. 5.—Section 0 pac of the fot- 
Mnestra body, showing how the umbrellaof the latter embraces the t 
er. Fic. 6.—Tentacle of Mnestra with side branches. 


Locality, Florida reefs. f Siphon | 
_ Abyla pentagona Forskal.—One of the few genera 0 waters 5 
phora which has not yet been recorded from American A sing 


near Tampa bay. . en ge bee 

Gleba hippopus Forskal.—The U. S. Fish Commission, iphon 
elsewhere? mentioned, found a single specimen of yo Blake ® 
phore off Nantucket, and a second was collected by t speci j 
taken from the Gulf of Mexico, near Tampa bay, the first ac | 
far as I know, that the genus has been mentioned from” — 
ity or the Gulf of Mexico,—/, Walter Fewkes. 


1, 3239 
* Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoöl., Vol. ix, No. 7, p. 275, Note. No. 8, figs. Pa 


1884.] Zoölogy. 199 


LIFE IN THE NAPLES AQUARIA.—H. Eisig placed in a basin 
of water an Octopus, a Gobius and a Pagurus, with an Actinian 
on its shell; the Octopus attacked the crab, which immediately 
withdrew into its shell, while the attacker instantly retreated, for 
the stinging organs of the Actinia had been too much for it. The 
same thing happened with the goby. A Pagurus without a shell 
was afterwards placed near the Octopus, and the latter examined 
it very carefully before it dared to seize it. At the same time it 
is to be observed that the Actinian gets much assistance from its 
commensal, thanks to the locomotive and olfactory powers of the 


er. 

Observations on thermal conditions showed that many fishes 
and other marine forms were but little affected by alterations in 
temperature; while a study of the modes of nesting of marine 
forms shows that much depends on what region of the sea the 
Subjects naturally inhabit, and considerable differences are to be 

tved between pelagic and more deeply dwelling fishes and 
cephalopods.— Fourn. Roy. Microscopical Society, Aug., 1883. 


New Human Cestope—Licura mansont.—Dr, S. S. Cobbold 
describes a Cestode, twelve of which were found in a Chinese, 
lying in the subperitoneal fascia, about the iliac fossæ, and behind 
the kidneys, a single one being found lying free in the right pleu- 
ral cavity, They were from 12 in. to 14 in. long, 1-8th in. broad 
and 1-64th in. thick. “The Cestode comes nearer to Ligula sim- 
plicissina, frequently found in the abdominal cavity of fresh-water 
fishes, than to any other species, and without asserting positively 

it may not be a variety of that form, the author thinks, from 
the unique character of its habitat, associated with certain differ- 
ences of form, that it may properly be regarded as the immature 
representative of a totally distinct species.—/ourn. R. Micr. Soc. 


HypRo-MepusA’ wirHoutT DicestivE OrGANS.—Dr. Lendenfeld 
describes a new sub-family of hydroids, Eucopellina, in which 


Australia.” The larva 
ĉe carried upon almost unbranched stems, which spring from 


four h It discharges its reproductive elements within twenty- 
urs 


results and those lately obtained by Kleinenberg on the same 


* 


200 General Notes. [February, 


body ; one which the latter author distinguishes as cyanein, The 
French observer finds that the tissues give up the color after 
death, and that the blue color of the aqueous solution disappears 
when heat of from 40° to 45° is applied, and gives place to a well 
marked rosy hue, which again disappears on cooling. Speci 
scopic examination reveals the presence of three absorption- 
bands, one in the red, one in the yellow, and one in the green 
region; the second of these corresponds almost exactly in post- 
tion to the sodium-band. If the aqueous solution is treated with 
ammonia the blue color is immediately precipitated under the 
form of small blue flakes which may be collected on the filter 
paper and analyzed. The author hopes that further investiga- 
tions will reveal the cause of the differences which obtain a 
his results and those of Kleinenberg.—/ourn. Roy. Microscopie 
Society, Aug, 1883, 


AN OYSTER on a CRAB.—A fisherman has sent me a ne 
crab with an oyster somewhat larger than itself ensconsed on 
right side of its carapace. The crab is Cancer irroratus Jay, 
is a young female which has but just attained puberty. ous 
shield is two inches across, and one-and-three-fourths inches f 
front to back. The caudal flap is distended with eggs. a 
oyster is two-and-half inches in length, and two inches “| aa 
is firmly attached to the right extremity of the carapace. te 
wonder how the prospective little mother could me ee 
charge so far, and at the same time carry such a lobsid el 
cumbrance ; the crab is hardly more than one-fourth fully gr° nS 
The oyster, it is pretty certain, is about four months 0 
Lockwood. 


l : F. 
MovuLTING oF LımuLus.—I was much interested me 
: i , ‘on of 
ters of Limulus. But it caused surprise to see a disci 
points which I thought were settled in my article on the 1” 
Foot Crab, in Am. Naturauist. Vol. Iv, 1871, P 2577 att 


sexes. As to the exuviation of large crabs, I gave instance he 
measurement of increase. Where these crabs are comme 
shedding of the adult is not a rare sight. ught uP 
As to finding undoubted exuviz of the adult males bro The 
by the sea, it is uncommon to find such of either ee 
young have very light shells, and their exuvia are easil where: 
shoreward by the wash, and often make vast wind-rowS- prougtt 
as the adult exuvie are heavy, and are seldom foun ‘that 
up. I think, too, that the young crabs prefer shoaler wê” - 


1884. | Zovlogy. 201 


do the adults, I have shown that at considerable depths, even in 
winter, the large adult has been known to shed. Had Mr. Koon 
consulted the article referred to he could not have written, “ We 
are led to believe that large Limuli rarely, possibly never, shed, 
because among all those examined, there were no large exuviz.” 
On seeing the act of exuviation by a large Limulus, an officer of the 
United States Army, at the fort at Sandy Hook, N. J., exclaimed: 
“The animal is spewing itself out at its mouth !”—S. Lockwood. 


SocraFr’s EMBRYOLOGY OF THE CHILopop Myriopops—We 
have received from the author an elaborate memoir, unfortunately 
in the Russian language, and with no complete abstract in Frenc 
or German, on the embryology of two species of Geophilus (G. 
Serrugineus and proximus). It is a large*quarto brochure of 77 
pages, dated Moscow, 1883, with the illustrations, printed some- 
times in three colors, inserted in the text; as the drawings of the 
sections and complete embryo are on a large scale, one can form 
Some idea of the nature and high value of the author’s work. 
The bibliographical references are full and satisfactory. Beginning 
with careful comparative descriptions of the two species of Geophi- 
lus, whose development is described, the internal reproductive 
organs are figured and elaborately described. Ina partial abstract 
which appeared in the Zoologischer Anzeiger for Nov. 6, 1882, 

states that the best material for his researches were the 
above-named species of Geophilus. The Lithobii present much 
more difficult material for study, as their eggs are scattered in 
the earth or in the humus of decaying vegetation, and are like 
small particles of sand, from which they often can with difficulty 
be distinguished ; besides this the egg-membranes are unusually 
thick, rendering them difficult to study. The eggs of the .Ge- 
pai lie under the bark of trees (G. proximus) or in sandy soil 

- ferrugineus) in small bunches, eighteen to thirty-five in num- 
arn are protected and watched by the female. It is very 
attac ltto keep the eggs alive in confinement, since they are 
ki aiad by fungi. Itis also almost impossible to study the eggs 
i stages of one and the same brood, so that one has to make 
oy daily excursions for material for study. 


i hiain® Ovarian eggs. At this stage the egg is filled with yolk, 
. tion the germinal vesicles and yolk nucleus; but on one oc- 
- a nucl 

t and exhibiting division of its chromatin into two groups 
Dii a found in the center, probably derived from the 
vesicle., The nucleus and protoplasm divide into a 


202 General Notes. [ February, 


considerable number of portions; the central cleavage-masses are 
round or polygonal, the peripheral ones stellate. Yolk cleavage 
now takes place, the yolk breaking up into pyramidal masses, as 
in the Decapoda, these masses carrying portions of protoplasm 
upon their apices; the segmentation is not dichotomous; the 
number of pyramids was always the same, and the only dif- 
ference between the young and the perfect pyramid consists in at 
indefiniteness of outline in the apex of the former. The simu 
taneous origin of the masses is not an impossible circumstance, 
and is explained by the action of the central protoplasm in draw- , 
ing into itself the superincumbent yelk. The protoplasm-mass® 
of the yelk now sink into the pyramids which form the primary 
endoderm, and the central protoplasm-masses come to the sur- 
face of the ovum and form the primary ectoderm, In the Chilog- 
natha, judging from Polydesmus, the method of formation of the 
blastoderm more resembles that of the Crustacean and Ara 
nida; the yelk cleavage appears to have been correctly described 
by Metschnikoff. The blastoderm of Geophilus consists at first 
of large, pale, very thin cells, dividing very rapidly so as to "= 
in the course of twenty-four hours, a number of very small ¢ 
which are, however, smaller on one side of the ovum than wpe 
other; on this side the primitive streak appears, beginning ù 
anterior end, which develops the first segments and appends” 
before the hinder portion is clearly defined. Before the ry 
ance of the primitive streak the mesoderm is divided © ested 
the small-celled ectoderm, and at the same time nuclei, 10V a 


rived from the nucleus of the ovum, and to have bith 
mained at the center. The mesoderm, like the primitive ® ids 
evelops first in front. The conversion of the yo ne takes 
into endoderm, 7. e., into the epithelium of the mid-gut, nest that 
place when the embryo is fully formed; it commences ane the 
stage which Professor Metschnikoff did not observe, 4” 
same time as the beginning of flexion of the embryo. the tras : 
ihe two preceding paragraphs have been taken from of the 

lation in the Journal of the Royal Microscopical so i 
author’s abstract (published in the Zool. Ansieger, V 5 iane” 
later stagės are described in detail, with sections, both tre feet! 
and longitudinal, and views of the complete embry? g a 
stages; with some sketches of the later embryo m figure? 
The structure of the nervous system is described ane y. A 
including the brain of Scolopendra, in a comparati gee 
translation of the entire memoir would be most desirable 

_ New Cave Aracunips.—The following cave cos 10 0f 
 Phalangidæ and Nemastomatidæ are interesting addis a 
cave-fauna. oa T 
- Obisium caricola, n. sp—This is an aberrant specie’ 


ae 


= te Pee REF 


1884.] 


~ 


Zvilogy. 203 


parently belongs to this genus. The cephalothorax is much 


longer 


middle, narrowing in front and behind, 
and deeply cleft between the chelicerz, 
an unusual feature in the genus. There 


are no 


smaller than usual and separate at base; 
the head is shorter and the fingers longer 
than usual. The pedipalps are as long 
_ as the 
are rather thick. The abdomen is nar- 
row and rather long, with the segments 
well marked. Length of body including 
the chelicere 2™m. One specimen, col- 
ected by us in the Newmarket cave, Va. 
Chthonius cecus, n. sy .—Body unusu- 
ally short and broad, and the limbs short 
and thick 
stout and thick. Pedipalps unusually 


short ` 


than broad, widest just before the 


eyes. The cheliceræ are rather 


body without the cheliceræ, and 


ick. Eyeless. Cheliceræ very 


the 2d joint short and twice as Fic. 1.—-New Cave Obisium. 


thick as in C. packardu Hagen; 3d joint short, thick, conical ; 


manus 


very short and thick, really but little longer than the 3d 


joint; the movable finger nearly twice as long as the manus; it 

'S stout and very straight, and serrulate on the inneredge. Legs 

short and thick. Length of body with the cheliceræ, 1.5™™- 
Wo specimens collected by us at Weyer’s cave, Va 


genus 
presse 


and the 
reunded 


&macera cavicolens, gen. et sp. nov.—Gen. chars—lIn this 


of Phalangide the body is not spiny, is slightly com- 
» much less flattened than usual, no broader than high, 
tergal as well as ventral surface is unusually convex and 

The cephalic plate bearing the eyes is about half as 


long as broad. The abdomen forms two-thirds the length of the 
Pedi. with nine segments seen from above. Chelicerz 3-jointed. 
¢dipalps 6-jointed, considerably longer than the body. It has 


broad d 


diffuse 


ey close affinities to any of the European genera. 
-9P Chars —Eyes large, prominent, scarcely situated on an 


ce, black and well developed. A series of large, short but 
Orsal, transverse, blackish spots, and broad dusky lateral 
band. Chelicerz with manus rather thick, the fingers 


, vety unequal ; the movable fingers about two-thirds as long as 


ee 


Pedi 


Manus with 


a series of about 24 separate stiff, straight, sete. 


ap densely setose, from 1-1% longer than body, 5th joint 


| than any of the other joints, and much swollen, oval; 6th no 


the end into 
vided into twelve joints. Length of body, 4™™: thickness, 
"nas width, 2mm, J & y» 


5th is wide. Fourth pair of legs with joint 5 divided at 
nine minute joints, and the last tarsal joint (joint 6) 


i Bat cave, Carter Co., Ky. Two specimens. 
a mops, n. sp.—Eyes wanting, with traces of a retina, 


204 _ General Notes. [ February, 


h 
even length; 6th (terminal) two-thirds as long as the sth and 
nearly as long in proportion as the terminal joint in N. trogle- 
dytes Pack.; it is very setose, and the tip is rounded. | 

Legs of the 2d pair 3™™ in length, hairy, last tarsal joint vat 
divided ; 4th pair 4™™ in length; the last tarsal joint with nine 
subjoints, and the claws smaller than in the 2d pair. 

Length of the body, including the chelicere, 1™ Bat cave 
Carter Co., Ky. Two immature specimens, but the species ^ 
very characteristic, and this is the first occurrence of the gen 
east of the Great Basin. 


VENTRAL REPUGNATORIAL ORGAN IN CENTIPEDES (Gropa 
—The gland which emits a red liquid by certain disks in 


to long ducts, each of which leads from a long pyriform oe 


which is very thin, contains a number of smooth p i 
fibers which ramify, anastomose, and form a reticulum, ois, and 
connected similarly with those of the neighboring 87)". 
hich 

5 evi 
very often exhibit a succession of slight inflations, ani expt 
dently contractile and intended to compress the gland 

the contents. The system of glands belonging to a “s and 


Surrounded by adipose cells, and it is innervated by et 
branches derived from the anterior nerve of the pa! ee ; the 
given off on each side by the ganglion of the the malt 
trachez belong to a branch which comes direct from 
trunk. | jy in the 
The liquid contained in the gland coagulates prom is sol 
air, has an acid reaction and taste, and irritates the pe s actiot 
uble in water and alcohol, and becomes whitish unor ae pe 
of caustic potash; the coagulum shows, under the m! h geneal 
amorphous mass containing elongated crystals, wie is sho 
form rosettes about 0.14™ in maximum diameter ; an only diret 
ats composition to be analogous to that of silk. The 


1884.] 5 Zodlogy. 205 


evidence as to the function which the author was able to obtain, 

was that when the back is mechanically irritated the animal turns 

up its ventral surface and the disks become covered with the 

Sa object of which seems to be retaliation.— Fourn. R. 
. Soe. 


ALBRECHT ON THE MORPHOLOGICAL VALUE OF THE MANDIBU- 
LAR ARTICULATION.—In this pamphlet M. P. Albrecht combats 
the general idea that the ear-bones are homologous with different 
parts of the first, or first and second visceral arches—parts which 
are distinct bones in the lower gnathostomes. His argument is 
as follows: In all non-mammalian gnathostomes the articulation 
of the mandible is between the articular element and the quad- 
rate, and good evidence is needed to the contrary before we are 
bound to believe it otherwise in mammals. He maintains that 
the squamosal is a compound bone, formed of the true squamo- 
sal and the quadrate, and that the mandibular articulation is with 
the latter element, just as in other gnathostomes. This belief is 


new-born infant’s skull in the writer’s possession. In this skull 
the temporal of the right side is normal, but on the left side the 
zygomatic part is isolated from the true squamosal, which is united 
with the ali-sphenoid. Cases of a sutural division of the squamosal 
into an upper and lower portion are cited. If then, the zygomatic 
Part of the squamosal is really the quadrate, and the mandibular 
articulation i i i 

— €ar bones must be sought for. After enumerating and 


Maat. with the single cartilage of the urodela; and in the 
Ror the four tiny ear bones are identical in position and 


of Rega that have no columella. The extra-mandibular part 


tachi” and with the columello-articular ligament of the Ba- 


throughone Sauropsida. Thus the arrangements are the same 
fishes} 
j Sauropsida and Mammals. 


206 General Notes. [ February, 


CuaracTERS or Human Femora.—Dr. E. Houzé, in the bulle- 
tin of the Anthropological Society of Brussels, gives the result of 
an examination into the third trochanter as it occasionally appears 
in a rudimental condition in man. He finds it to be more com- 
mon in the higher than the lower races, as it is the point of inser- 
tion of the gluteus maximus muscle, which is in man intimate 
connected with the maintenance of the erect position. Thus its 
very rare inthe Anthropoid apes which are “ platypyges;" Cee 
in the negroes which he terms “ micropyges,” while it 1s vey 
common in Europeans, who are “megapyges, Or have th 
gluteus muscles best developed. It is rather more common re 
women than in men. The hypotrochanteric fossa is situated 
below the third trochanter. It is rare in men of the presentp® 
riod, but is constantly present in the femora of the men of 
reindeer epoch in Belgium. It is found in men from Grevelle ant 
Cro-Magnon in France. 


ZooLocicaL Notes.—General.—Professor E. H, Gigliolh a 
written note appended to an inaugural discourse delivered bywa- 
at the opening of the new hall, for the Central Collection of I 3 
Vertebrates in the Museum at Florence, states that there arf e 
in that collection more than 22,000 specimens, including “a 
ples of all the mammals (108 species), reptiles (41 species), ted 
batrachia (21 species) found in Italy. The birds are represen 
_ by 22,000 examples and 415 species, and the fishes by mon uitt 

14,000 specimens and 554 species, yet these classes a 


ries by 


complete. The same naturalist writes of the recent discov the 
the Italian vessel Washington and the French Travai fe 
“discovery of an abyssal fauna in the Mediterranean, ge the 
Carpenter had confidently asserted the scarci pore 


depths of that sea. Among the results obtained by the ! ie 
ton were Willemcesia, Dorocidaris, Brisinga, Ar gyropelecy®,, with 

, incular fish W 
large emerald eyes, Gadiculus, Macrurus scele orhynchus, ae } 
other interesting forms. Species which are known to to 5? : 
depths eight times greater were found at depths of a : 
meters. : 
Cnemidot | 
erra LAO 


iera 1) 


oe 
Fishes—The report of Messrs. Goode and Bean Patil 


Pleuronectidæ, including two new species; six MA pee 
three new species, eight Gadidz, with one new spec! a 


1884 ] Zoology. 207 


dz, with one new species, four Lycodidz, two of which are new; 
and three Sternoptychidz, one of which is new. Most other fami- 
lies are represented by one species only, but include a new species 
of Alepocephalus, Bathysaurus, Halosaurus, and Mettastoma, as 
well as Poromitra capito, a Berycoid fish. Altogether, the list of 
United States fishes receives seventeen additions. W. K. Parker 
has published a memoir with twelve colored plates upon the struc- 
ture and development of the skull in the sturgeons A. ruthenus and 
A, sturio. His conclusions are that we have in the sturgeon a form 
practically intermediate between the Selachians and the Holos- 
tei. The first stages of the cranium are, to’ use his own words, 
“confusingly simple,” and he believes that the vertebral segmen- 
tation of the skull is a comparatively late and secondary spectaliza- 
tion, The same anatomist also, in the Philosophical Transac- 
tions of the Royal Society, gives an exhaustive account, with 
nine plates of sections; etc., of the development of the skull in 

osteus osseus. In comparing the skull with those of Polyp- 
terus and Amia, he says “ Amia is a true Ganoid, and has sev- 
eral unmistakable diagnostics even in its skull, but it comes very 
near to the Physostomous Teleosteans. In the Proceedings of 
the United States National Museum, Messrs. Jordan and Gilbert 
give a review of the American Carangide, with the synonymy 
and geographical distribution of each species. The genera recog- 
nized in the family are only six: Megalaspis, Decapterus, Trach- 
urus, Caranx, Silene, and Chloroscombrus. The artificiality of 
Seneric distinctions generally is to some extent acknowledged in 
the following words: “ This division is not wholly natural, inas- 
Much as the differences between the extremes among the species 
of Caranx are greater than those separating some of these species 

related genera, while, on the other hand, the characters 


vai eas has five American species ; Trachurus is credited with 
wi , 


thers are made sub-genera, has nineteen species, 
ia two, and Chloroscombrus two, making thirty speċies in all. 

the same Proceedings, Dr. T. H. Bean records the first occur- 
Drg Pseudotriacis microdon Capello on the shores of the United 
par: It is a rare species, and was before known from Portugal 
lifes, The example referred to came ashore at the Amagansett 
paca Station on Long Island. Professor Jordan describes a 


terio € of Sidera those species of Muræna, which have the pos- 
the * nostrils without tubes, and the teeth all sharp, and gives to 
W species the name of S, chlevastes. Messrs. Jordan and 
tigma also described a new species of Rhinobatus (R. glaucos- 
peels Mazatlan. In the same Proceedings Miss Rosa Smith 
tides the life colors of Cremnobates integripinnis, and notices 


208 General Notes. [ February, 


the occurrence of Gasterosteus williamsoni in an artesian well at 
San Bernardino, California. Messrs. Evermann and Meek 
(Proceedings Academy Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, 1883), de 
fine sixteen species of Gerres, and review the species found in 
American waters. G. homonymus is considered identical with 6, 
gula C. and V. and G. harengulus with Eucinostomus pseudoguli 
of Poey and Diapterus gracilis of Gill. 

Birds—Dr. R.W.Shufeldt publishes inthe Journal of Physiology 
and Anatomy (xvii, 86), observations on the osteology of Podas- 
ocys montanus, illustrated by a plate. In 1859 the skins of but two 
of these birds were in the Smithsonian collections. Upon its nats | 
plains, and in the open parks of the Rocky mountains, it has al 
the habits and action of a true plover, iacking only in the nosy 
traits of Vanellas and Ægialites. sia Nut 
Ornithological Club for October, 1883, contains a notice by Dr | 
C. H. Merriam, of the yellow-green vireo, which has not a 
occurred north of Fort Brown, Texas. It was found dead in 
Province of Quebec, Canada, and was probably a storm waif. Dt 
Merriam also states that the harlequin duck, a common summe 
resident in Newfoundland, nests in hollow trees. His au 


na A 
coast, but are found scattered all over the count 1 


but 
bed by 
C. F. Bendire. e 
Mammais—Dr. J. B. Holder, of the American Moa 
Natural History, New York, has added further to on dt 
of the right whale of the north temperate Atlantic (B «ae of De E 
tica Cope) by the publication of figures and descrif mples, 
exterior characters and osteology of three or four Ke rter tha? 
cluding both sexes. The head is always relatively a has? 
in B. mysticetus, but a female from the New Jersey tter to Dt | 
longer head than the males. Dr. Manigault, in 4 South Car f 
Holder respecting an example taken at Charleston ~ | a limite? 
lina, states that a fishery for this whale is carried On Pig that" 
extent off the coast of South Carolina and Georg ™ 
attains a length of sixty feet. 
PHYSIOLOGY. mi E 

DIGESTION WITHOUT A Sromaca.—In the Archiv J le o | 
Physiologie, 1883, M. Ogata describes some reman peint” 
ments upon the digestive powers of animals in Wi” spor, i E 
2 This department is edited by Professor Henry SEWALL, of APRS { 


1884. ] Physiology. 209 


ofthe stomach was nearly or completely excluded. A dog was 
submitted to an operation in which the whole of the stomach was 
removed except a small part of the wall near the cardiac entrance 
ofthe organ. The free edges of the alimentary tube were sewed 
together, the animal completely recovered from the operation and 
was killed six years after for the purpose of post mortem observa- 
tion. During that period the dog remained in perfect health, 
gained in weight and readily digested the most various food mat- 
ters. The fæces were quite normal in character. Ogata studied 
the subject farther in various ways. Iu dogs possessing a gastric 
fistula food matters of different kinds were introduced, by means 
of a tube passed through the opening in the stomach wall, directly 
into the duodenum, the gastric juice being prevented from pass- 
ing the pylorus by means of an appropriate plug. When mixed 
tissues, such as pieces of liver, lung or intestinal mucous mem- 
brane were thus introduced into the duodenum, it was found 
that the cellular or albumen-containing elements were most readily 
dissolved, while the collaginous and reticular tissues were com- 
paratively unaffected. Elastic tissue was also dissolved, but more 
slowly than the first-named. With vegetable substances it was 
found that the cell contents were dissolved while the cell-walls, 
ugh apparently offering no great resistance to the diffusion of 
the intestinal juices through them, remained undigested. A num- 
er of dogs were fed in the way described with meat or eggs and 
killed in a painless manner at different times after giving the 
fal. It was found that the food in each case had provoked 
active secretion of the alkaline fluids of the pancreas and intestine 
and that a large amount of material was digested and absorbed 
bP aba hours after feeding. The conclusion arrived at is that 
Minous bodies and cooked connective tissue are digested as 
paren done and speedily by juices poured into the intestiné alone 
these = secretions of the stomach and intestine together. In 

. a, ee there seemed to bea very limited flow of bile. 


7 
À 
; 
i 
j 


es eer 


ested more ra 


than whe 


awakened € sleeper, that is, to call forth some decisive sign of 
Of the au consciousness. As a sensory stimulus they made use 
8 given h tory sensation produced by dropping a lead ball from 
accorda eight. The strength of the stimulus was reckoned, in 
Teasin.- ota tope recent investigations of Vierordt, * = 
ve * Girectly as the heigh t as the 0.59 power of te 

igs y t, but as l 59 p 


210 Gencral Notes. | Februar 


height. For a perfectly healthy man, the curve which they git _ 
shows that for the first hour the slumber is very light; after om 
hour and and fifteen minutes, the depth of sleep increases rapidly, 
and reaches its maximum point at one hour and forty-five minutesi 
the curve then falls quickly to about two hours and fifteen minutes 
and afterwards more gradually. At about four hours and thirty 
minutes, there is a second small rise which reaches its maxımu 
at five hours and thirty minutes, alter which the curve agat 
gradually approaches the base line until the time of awakening 
xperiments made upon persons not perfectly healthy, or afte | 
ene made some exertion, gave curves of a different form= 
cience. i 


_ EXPERIMENTS UPON THE HEART OF THE DoG WITH RE be 
VENTRICLE IN A SINGLE BEAT, AND THE INFLUENCE OF 
IN VENOUS PRESSURE, ARTERIAL PRESSURE, AND Fu and 
UPON THE WorK DONE BY THE Heart. By W.H. Hows 
F. Donaldson, Jr.\—Owing to the indirectness of the meth a 
hitherto used for estimating the quantity of blood pumped J 
from the left ventricle at each systole, this important actors 
calculations of the work done by the heart has never = frot 
factorily determined. Volkmann, and afterwards Vieron ae 
calculations based upon the mean velocity of the stream of bm 
in the unbranched aorta, obtained the fraction ao as rept systole 


and the body-weight. Fick, from data obtained by oe 
In our investigation we have made use of the dog's eee e 
pletely isolated from all other organs of the body, Wir" farit 
ception of the lungs, after the method devised by P rofessor sf 


Ce eee 
With regard to the maximum quantity of blood he waned 
thrown out from the left ventricle at a single systole a met 
result of the experiments may be stated as follows: ° wig 
to HF 
ich 
body weight is 3, or .oo17. In one exper iment 10 ge rate 
pulse-rate was 126 per minute, about the norma ‘ne norm 
obtained was h or .oo14. / In applying these results pee z 
dog, we believe that the average quantity of blood P is appro” l 
from the left ventricle at each systole in the living dog, maxi 
mated most closely in the experiments given by the 
outflow obtained from the isolated heart. ‘ims. of me 
Variations of arterial pressure, from 58 to 147 ™ No 
1383p set reprinted from the Proceedings of the Royal Society — 


E884 | Fsychology. 211 


cury, were found to have no direct effect whatever upon the 
quantity of blood sent out from the left ventricle at each systole. 
Since the pulse rate is not altered, the work done by the left ven- 
tricle varies directly as the arterial pressure against which it 
works, within the limits named. For how’much wider limits than 
those given this may hold true was not determined. There is 
every reason to believe that under normal conditions the force of 
the systole is more than stifficient to completely empty the ven- 
tricular cavity, and since, with arterial pressures from 58 to 147 
millims., the quantity of blood ejected at each systole remains 
constant, it seems probable that within these limits, at least, the 
force of the ventricular contraction is not influenced by variations 
in arterial pressure, but remains maximal throughout. 

Variations of venous pressure on the right side of the heart in- 
fluence in a marked manner the outflow from the left ventricle. 
As the general result of the experiments it was found that the 
outflow from the left ventricle, and consequently the work done 

y it, increases with the venous pressure, but not proportionally, 
up to the point of maximum work, 

Variations in the rate of beat of the heart were obtained by 


koas or cooling theblood supplied to it. The general result may 


outflow from the ventricle at each systole are not, however, in- 
versely proportional to the changes in the pulse-rate. The total 


| November, 1883 
4 PSYCHOLOGY. 


INTELLIGENCE IN A PoINrER.—Don was a pointer dog, of large 
> nce, that I shot with over forty years ago. At that time the 
Were grouse were abundant in our wild prairies. The birds 
nar frequently found in particular localities in different 
the of the day. They affected the low grounds or swales, where 
and os, Was long, in the heat of the day, and in the morning — 

cloudy dae they resorted to the high, rolling prairie. In a cool, 
Dee sabe they were likely to remain on the high grounds. 
the feld „learned this as well as his master, and when taken into 
deli it was interesting to observe the dog, when on the prairie, 
over th y surveying the ground and then start out and range 

This. same ground his master would have selected. 

’ Peculiar « the result of education and observation, and was not 
= arto Don. I have known many old bird dogs do the same, 


212 General Notes. [ February, 


But there was one thing which Don had not been taught in train- 
ing, but which he had adopted of his own notion, as the result 
his own reasoning or reflective powers. 
When a young bird gets separated from its companions, or it 
may be is the last of a covey which has escaped the fowling- 
piece, it is apt to wander a good deal, and the dog may follow its 
trail for a considerable distance. When pressed it will seek short 
cover if convenient, and there the trail is freqently lost. In such 
cases I have frequently- seen Don hunt about rapidly and irregt- 
larly for a short time, and if still unsuccessful he wouid retum 
the last point where he could detect the scent, and then cot 
mence to hunt in a circle, enlarging the circle by perhaps W0 
feet in the radius, and these were made with wonderful regularity 
till he had covered the ground for many rods around, if the wa 
of success required it, but he generally found the bird within tet 
or twelve feet of the starting-point. I once knew him to goon 
the ground a second time in the same way before he was z 
cessful, — a deo 
Invariably the bird was found to have conccaled itself in ac | 
narrow depression in the prairie. ted i 
I repeat that the dog had not been taught, but had adoptet ' 
_ voluntarily, or, it was his own invention. 
I never knew any other dog to do this, a 


Ithough a book coul 


be filled with accounts of smart things which bird dogs have be? > 
known to do.—/. D. Caton. 


can have in the vicii dpe got 
houses or grounds, as th ates f 
people affirm no hawk ue on h 
to commit depredations gh-bo¥® 


nest is the best a 


3 
© 
= 
aa 
wt 

Ss 

“uw 
© 
cy 
5 
va 
v 
e] 
D 


1884.] Psychology. 213 


better known as the seven mile beach, appears to be a favorite 
spot in the breeding season; there, the writer of this article has 
photographed seven of their nests. All are built on the tops of 
trees of various altitudes, with one exception, one being built on 
the roots. The tree is, however, turned upside down, as repre- 
sented in our sketch as a picturesque object. The founders of 
that family residence selected the roots of the tree uplifted and 
forming a basin-like solid foundation, conveniently shaped to 
save labor in collecting sticks, of which the superstructure is 
formed, slight additions being sufficient for the cradle of ten gen- 
erations of young hawks which I have known. 

That lone and venerable cedar tree stands in a salt meadow, 
half a mile from the sea, with its roots high up in the air, while 
its branches are buried, and hold it to the earth, the effect of some 
terrible storm of wind or sea (perhaps both), no one knows when 
as far as I could learn. On the roots of this tree the fish-hawks 
have annually repaired the nest and raised their families. Now 
they have abandoned it. 

It may not be out of place to remark here that the fish-hawks 
do not always select a dead tree on which to build, as is gener- 
ally Supposed, almost all their nests being seen on dead trees, 
but it is a fact that the trees selected almost certainly die, or the 
oe do, in a few years after being so occupied.—7. 

- Leale, 


THE PERMANENCE oF THE Domestic INSTINCT IN THE Cat.— 
That the common cat would return to its primitive feral state, if 
< company of them of both sexes were turned loose in a region — 
Where they could have no access to mankind, is probable, and 


= integral characteristic of the species, is a matter that will hardly 
questioned by any one. Still opportunities to test the real per- 
not often presented. I had the good 
maA however, to meet with an interesting opportunity of this 
nd, during the prosecution of my field work for the U. S. Geo- 
logical Survey, in the summer of 1883. 
tn the Prosecution of that work I made the journey, together 
ea my party of three other persons, in an open row-boat, from 
ai ton, Montana, to Bismarck, Dakota, a distance of more 


ing steamers 
arya our journey, 
na S making our camp one night, about 100 miles above Fort 
dae a good sized black-and-white male cat came to the boat, 
d, although shy a 
"Read before the Biological Society of Washington, Nov. 16, 1883. 


214 General Notes. [ February, 


ing us. I at first supposed that he belonged to some settler, but 
upon examining the neighborhood, no trace of the recent presence 
there of white men could be detected. When we started upon 
our journey in the morning, we left the cat on shore, but he 
followed along the bank, mewing piteously to be taken on board. 
The boat was headed for the shore, and as soon as it touched the 
bank the cat jumped on board, evincing delight at being in our 
company. For the next 100 miles he was our companion, 

we became very much attached to him. He was extremely neat 
and never soiled the boat in any respect while we had him. At 
times he would ask plainly, by such signs as he could command, 
to be set on shore; and then he would hurry back again for fear 
of being left. He was gratified with our attentions to him, an 
purred approvingly when we caressed him. : 

We would have gladly taken him to Washington with us, but 
as that was impracticable we decided to leave him at the first 
place which should seem to offer him a good home. Upon r 
ing Fort Peck, which is now only an Indian trading post, We 
found only one white man there, who was in charge of the S 
To him we told the story of our cat and begged him to ge he 
wanderer a home. He consented, and upon going to the yee | 
at once declared our cat to be one which he, in compati ma | 
party of buffalo hunters, had, the year before, taken to the pe 
where we had found him. He said the cat was absent, plo was 
on a hunt, when they broke their camp, and so Jerry, for pe 
the name we had given him, was left there, and ha spa 
year alone in the wilderness, hunting his own living. sociated 

Of course I cannot cannot say that Jerry had not 4 ahi 
with mankind in all that time, but the circumstances aver 2 
conclusion. If he had, after his abandonment, taken up 
settler, it seems hardly probable that he would have been 50 him 
to join us. He seemed quite conscious that we would ver | 
away from his haunt; and this shows that he had formed aai 
tachment to either persons or locality there. The love a jo 
is doubtless more observable in the cat than the love of demot : 
while the reverse is true of the dog. Cats are never ri suspett 
strative in their expression of attachment as dogs; and do with : 
that the associations of human domesticity has much to 0 that 
the attachment to locality which cats manifest. It 1s ee ; 
Jerry was an unusually intelligent cat; and his as that there 
somewhat exceptional one. But I cannot help thinking. allege! 
is yet much for us to learn of the psychology ° wae 
-well-known animal.—C. A. White. 

Note.—Dr. Crichton Rrowne, Vols. 1 and II “Wen 
Asylum Reports,” states that the greater size O 
ilized races, unaccompanied by a proportionate MM” atin 
pelvic diameters, is an influence operating to a great? evens 
production of idiocy, imbecility and insanity — - y.a 


i 


| 
| 
| 


. 
. 


SF Ea ae Cn SAE E SEER ESA 


or, Gal ee ee ee AS 


1884.] Anthropology, 215 


ANTHROPOLOGY. ! 


Tre Inpian Census. — Mr. Sherman Day, in the Overland 
Monthly for November, speaks of the remissness of the census 
officers with respect to the enumeration of Indians. He has 
compiled a table of our Indian population which combines the 
meager returns of the census, the data of the Indian Office, and 
some investigations of his own, as follows: 


Total, - 
i hd Indians Agency Total 
States. a o eh outside. Tadlint indians. 
MN ck cs ee 1,262,505 213 T 
E SS L ka. 802,525 195- +} :- pi 
California POR MS's Wide oe Seas oN 866,342 13,601 4,324 I 7:925 
Ra i 195,252 154 925 1,079 
e e .. ; 622,700 255 255 
T ee 146,608 5 5 
Wi. S 269.493 180 | ie 
© a 1,542,1 1 5 
— 6-0 E ee 3,077,871 140 rat 
ana ; 246 246 
466 350 816 
815 1,714 
50 59 
848 848 
625 625 
15 AS 
369 2 
7:249 1795 17,044 
2,300 4333 6,682 
1,857 1,857 
13 113 
233 3:939 4,1 74 
2,803 7,831 10,634 
63 
819 5,116 5:935 
1,230 1,230 
130 1 
1,694 4,471 6,195 
184 s 
77 77 
131 131 
352 352 
i 7 992 108 1,100 
Y a Alsi See ogee E, 332,2 II 
2 ere ee Tiga 85 85 
Nec, 8 I 3457 2 
Sconsin Lip ede Ad Rok ea ay a I 4.161 | Pigs 
| 91,786 


1 Edit w ie 
: . ae an by Professor Oris T; Mason, 1305 Q street, N. W., Washington, ai C. 


216 General Notes. [ February, 


Territories ae indians gency ) 
: eo Seu ns. | ouside, Indians. | Indians. 
MENTOR Maia Gis Volk ehh k > ,661 3,493 17,221 20,714 
se agent a SE Ean he CE 166,273 1,391 31,096 32487 
a. Cotathbies 20550562. 6... 177,624 : 
Idaho Z 36,862 765 3,652 4,417 
Montand. o. ong ws 6 depis 57,864 1,663 18,705 20,368 
MEW MECN so ccs a a 146,242 9,772 26,677 36,449 
a E E ee 146,334 807 2,371 3! 
W e a 88,219 4,405 13,103 17,508 
EE ia Sica 22,562 140 1,782 nA 
Indian Ter... 79,024 | 5 tribes prc 79,024 
other tribes} 18,988 \ a 
Total organized Territories... 978,665 22.441 ~ 193,631 215,072 
Alaska (estan haris irre 33,426 31,250 31,240 
Terr. with Alaska. ..... eye], 012,0901 $. 3,681 TORR i 
Grand Total | 50,430,651 95,571 | 243.527 | 339008 
Total Indians without Alaska, States...........-- enesest a 91,786 
* m "s sé Territories lerek ee Meee eee 216,072 
oe s B aa 307,858 
sé s6 with “cc 33 i lglg aces 6s bee er ae 339,098 
Agency Indians, PAMER. ois os ieee wane bos sso os 49,896 
“ tf Egar a 6 TONEN wee 193,631 
Total agency Indians ......... seceeaseteess 2035 2 ar 


BRITISH AnTHROPOLOGY.—The Journal of the Anthropoleg 
Institute commences each volume with what we call the ™ 
year. No.2 of Vol. xm appeared in November. The 
papers of general import, are as follows: jè 
On some customs of the Aborigines of the River Darling, N. S. Wales. By 

ck Bonney. 


The nature and origin of group marriage. By C. Staniland Wake. 
Notes on stone implements from S. Africa. By Maj. H. W. Feilden. mw 
i ak alagasy- BY 
Notes on Relics of the sign and gesture language among the Malagas | 
James Sibree. 


On some Australian beliefs. By A. W. Howitt. 
On the Botocudos. By A. H. Keane. : Sedia 
The Ethnology of Germany (Part v1), the Barini, Barangians and Feel 
1. By Henry H. Howorth. rs and 
Mr. Bonney speaks from an experience of fifteen west YP 
repudiates the assertion that the Australians are the lor a 


with a rope, or choking with sand. The initiation of the y” is 
is painful and tedious, and many seek to defer the day. that sie 
completion the young man may marry. They believe 


1884. | Anthropology. 217 


ness is caused by an enemy who uses certain charms, and is 
cured by the doctor practicing the sucking cure. A very sick 
person or an exhausted traveling companion is fed upon blood 
supplied from the veins of his friends. The burial customs are 
exceedingly interesting. 

Mr. Wake sums up the later researches on group marriage 
and seeks to find its cause in two principles. First, sexual con- 
duct is natural, and therefore permissible to all—implying a sex- 
ual right in every individual who attains a certain age ; and sec- 
ond, sexual unions between persons without certain degrees of 
consanguinity are criminal. Ree 

Mr. Sibree follows up Colonel Mallery’s investigations concern- 
ing gesture speech by independent researches among the Mala- 

S 


gasy. ; 

Mr. Howitt’s paper was read by Mr. Tylor. All the tribes be- 
lieve that the earth is flat, and that the sky is propped up on 
poles. Beyond the sky is the gum-tree country, the home of 
spirits and ghosts. Every man has within him a Yamdéo, or spirit, 
which can leave his body and wander even to the gum-tree coun- 
try and talk with the spirits there, or converse with the wandering 
ghosts of other sleepers. The state of departed souls and their 
doings after leaving the human body fill a great part of Australian 
mythology. .The dead are buried doubled up, the body lying on 
the side, and the usual deposit is made of the personal effects of 
the deceased. The author closes with an extended account of 
ghost-land. 

__Mr. Ribeiro having visited England with some Botocudo In- 
tans, Mr. Keane took the occasion to explain the habitat and 
tory of the tribe. 
€ papers of Mr. Howorth are all alike in this, that they be- 
long to what may be called classic ethnology, and exhibit a great 
‘mount of close reading and critical study. 


German AnrHRopotocy.—The fourteenth annual meeting of 

le German Anthropological Society was held at Trieste on the 
» Toth, rith, 12th August of the past year. The president 
Was Professor Virchow, and the general secretary, Dr. Johannes 


ze. In attendance were 302 registered members. The chief 
the a On of the meeting was the old Roman remains, of which 
the city can boast the finest. Some of the most important ad- 


es Were the following : 
Trees Speech on the first use of metals. By Professor Virchow. 
and ifs neighborhood, until the conquest of the Franks. By Dr. Hettner 
directo eum, 


Y, Y of the mus 
5 Progress of Science, By Dr. Ranke. | An excellent summary. ] 
Asthtopological Catal | . 


ogues. Herr Schaaf hausen. 


218 - General Notes. [ February, 


MICROSCOPY .' . 


Mayer’s Meruop oF Fixinc MIcroscoPicaL Secrions?—The 
new fixative proposed by Dr. Mayer is prepared by mixing tle 
filtered white of eggs with an equal volume of glycerine? A little 
carbolic acid may be added as an antiseptic. A very thin and 
even layer of the fixative is painted upon the object-slide, which 
is then ready for receiving the sections. After the sections atè 
placed, the slide is warmed a few minutes in the oven of a water- 
bath, just Jong enough to melt the paraffine. The paraffine 1$ 
next dissolved away from the sections by turpentine, the turpen- 
tine removed by alcohol, and the sections then colored 2m silit 08 
the slide. ae nded. 

As acoloring fluid, a strong alcoholic carmine is recomme 
It is prepared as follows: a 

issolve four grams carmine in 100°% alcohol bis | 
cent) by boiling about thirty minutes, adding thirty yr | 
strong hydrochloric acid during the boiling. The 50 erie 
‘should be filtered while hot, and the acid carefully neutrali a. 
adding ammonia until carmine begins to be precipitated. eate 

This fluid, which may require to be filtered a second T obtain 
cooling, stains uncommonly quick, deep and diffuse. +0 "iy ; 
a differential staining, it is well to stain deeply, and then par" 
decolor by washing with acidulated alcohol. er 

The decoloration should be checked at the moment 
film of the fixative become nearly or quite colorless. 


a 
PERCHLORIDE OF IRON AS A REAGENT FOR PRE D re | 
MARINE ANIMALS.—In experimenting with a delicate class > cip 
rine infusoria (Tintinnodea), Dr. Folt found that pi rwicadl ; 
common use for instantaneous killing, such as picro-su P etic adh 
osmic acid alone or in combination with chromic and paral : 
and corrosive sublimate, failed to give successful pre ont quite 
He finally succeeded with perchloride of iron, 4 ae id o 
new in histological technique. An alchoholic solatii a 
about two per cent will answer ordinary purposes; D4 large nue 
solution should be used in case it is desired to kill a er to tut 
ber of animals in a large vessel. It will not do, bor - 
a saturated solution directly into sea-water, as precip! aration 
be copiously formed, which would utterly ruin the i mot% | 
After the animals have sunk to the bottom of the Nein adde 
the water may be turned off, and seventy per cent an 
In order to remove from the tissues the ferric salts hol ¢ 
them, it is necessary to replace this alcohol with alco 
ing a few drops of hydrochloric acid. | 
1 Edited by Dr. C:O. WHITMAN, Mus. Comp. Zool., Cambridge opted 


; Dr. Paul Mayer. “ Einfache Methode zum Aufkleben mikros 


er! : en p ] 
Schmitte. Mittheil Zoolog. Station at Naples, 1v, p. 521, 1883. Zool. yav a 
t Fol, Beiträge zur histologischen Technik. Zeitschr. f. w155- 
491, 1883. ; 


dhering ® 


1884. | Microscopy. 219 


The “ fixation” of the animals in an expanded life-like form 
is perfect, and the action of the dilute acid is of so short 
duration that it causes no injury to the tissues. Not only infu- 
soria and rhizopods, but also large pelagic animals, such as Me- 
duse, Ctenophore, Salpæ, Heteropods, Doliolum, &c., may be 
thus killed and transferred to alcohol, with their form, histologi- 
cal structure, and cilia perfectly preserved. After complete re- 
moval of the yellowish color due to the presence of ferric salts by 
washing in acidulated alcohol, the tissues of transparent animals 
remain almost free from cloudiness, 

he best method of staining such objects is to add a few drops 
of gallic acid (one per cent solution) to the alcohol. After 
twenty-four hours the acidulated alcohol is turned off and pure 
alcohol added. Thus treated the protoplasm will take a light 
brown color, the nuclei a much deeper brown. Carmine stains 
too deeply and diffusely, and cannot be successfully removed. 


THE Preparation or Dry InjecTION-MASSES—The variously 
colored gelatine emulsions in common use as injections, keep for 
only a short time, and have therefore to be prepared as occasion 
arises for their use. The dry emulsions recommended by Fol are 
very easily prepared and convenient in use. As they will keep 
for any length of time, they can be prepared in quantities, and 
thus be ready for use at any moment. j 
, Carmine Emulsion —One kilogram gelatine (softer kind used 
in photography), soaked in water for a few hours until thoroughly 
Softened ; after turning off the water, heat the gelatine over a 
water bath until liquified; and then add to it, little by little, one 
liter of a strong solution of carmine in ammonia. The mixture 
stiffened by cooling is cut up, and the pieces packed in a fine 
Ee of netting. Vigorous pressure with the hand under water 

rces the emulsion through the net in the form of fine strings or 
vermicelli. These strings are placed in a sieve and washed until 
they are free from acid or excess of ammonia ; then collected and 
re-dissolved by heating. The liquid is poured upon large sheets 
aay ment which have been saturated with paraffine, and these 
of th are then hung up to dry in an airy place. The dried layers 
th © emulsion, which are easily separated from the parchment, 
ace be cut into strips and placed where they are protected from 

and dampness. 

pine Carmine solution used in this emulsion is prepared as fol- 
ma iig solution of ammonia is diluted with 3-4 volumes of 
is mj. and Carmine added in excess. After filtering, the solution 
change t With the gelatine, and then enough acetic acid added to 
comple the dark purple-red into blood-red. It is not necessary to 

n neutralize the ammonia. 
minutes "y emulsion requires only to be placed in water for a few 

and melted over the water-bath, to be ready for use. 


220 Scientific News. [February, 


Blue Emulsion—A slightly modified form of Thiersch’s for- 
mula: 

1. To 300°™ of melted gelatine add 120°™ of a cold-saturated 
solution of green vitriol (ferro-sulphate). 

2. To 600%™ of melted gelatine add first 240°™ of a saturated 
solution of oxalic acid, then 240°™ of a cold saturated solution of 
red prussiate of potash (potassic ferricyanide). 

3. No. 1 poured slowly into No. 2 while stirring vigorously; 
the mixture heated for fifteen minutes. py 

4. After cooling, the emulsion is pressed through netting, thi 
vermicelli washed and spread on waxed paper for drying. In ‘i 
case the vermicelli must be dried directly, as they do not melt w 
without the addition of oxalic acid. ld 

he dry vermicelli are prepared for use by first soaking in a 
water, and then heating with the addition of oxalic acid eno 
to reduce them to a liquid. Eoo liters ol 

Black Emulsion. — 1. Soak 500 g. gelatine in two pe 
water, in which 140 g. of common salt have previously 
dissolved, and melt the mass on the water-bath. _ we 

2. Dissolve 300 g. nitrate of silver in 1 liter distilled water. Z 

. No. 2 poured very slowly into No. 1 while stirring. hie 
tremely fine-grained emulsion may be obtained by us g 
times as much water in Nos. 1 and 2. 

4. No. 3 pressed into vermicelli as above, and t 
No. 5 by clear daylight. a engl ofa 

5. Mix 1% liter paap, potassic oxalate with 500 
cold-saturated solution of ferro-sulphate. k emulsion, 

6. No. 4 mixed with No. 5 gives a thoroughly blac d finally 
which should be washed several hours, again melted an 
poured in a thin layer on waxed paper. 4 pota 

A gray-black out may be obtained by using ee ig 
sic bromide in the place of common salt in No. 1, te 
operations being the same. 


hen mixed with 


A”, 
Ue 


SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 


pee! 

— The Trustees of Williams College engaged pe SPO Zoologi 
series of years, one of the tables at Dohrn’s Internatio opied by 
cal Station at Naples. It has until recently bo id ‘Scientific 
Dr. Edmund B. Wilson, a graduate of the Shefhe co 
School, and of the Johns Hopkins University. rinciples which | 
His occupancy of the table illustrates the ais A appoi"! 


already able by 
guished for research, may apply for the use of ye pillia 


1884. | Scientific News. 221 
naturalist who does not give evidence of ability to do original 
work 


It is expected that each occupant of the table will give, soon 
after his return to this country, a brief course of lectures in the 
Natural History lecture room, at Williams, on some subject con- 
nected with zoological work. 

The table is now held by Professor Clarke, but it will probably 
be vacated on or before April 1st, 1884. The successful appli- 
cant will be informed of his appointment as soon as practicable 
after itis made, and the name will be also communicated to 
Science and the AMERICAN NATURALIST, for publication —Wi/- 
liams College, Dec., 1883. 


— The camels now running wild in Arizona were bought by 
the United States Government in Asia Minor. There were sev- 
enty-six camels in the first “colony.” They were first employed 
in packing between Fort Tejon and Albuquerque, in some in- 
stances carrying 100 gallons of water to the animal, and going 
nine days without water themselves. Tiring of the camels, the 
Government condemned them and they were sold at Benicia to 
two Frenchmen, who took them to Reese river, where they were 
used in packing salt to Virginia City. Afterwards the animals 
Were brought back to Arizona, and for some time were engaged 
in packing ore from Silver King to Yuma; but through some 
cause or other the Frenchmen became disgusted, there being no 
market for camels just then, and turned the camels loose upon 
the desert near Maricopa wells, and to-day they and their de- 
Scendants are roaming through the Gila valley, increasing and 
multiplying and getting fat upon the succulent sagebrush and 

wood with which the country abounds.— Tombstone Epitaph. 


_ > The Puget Sound Argus says: “Mount Adams, in Wash- 
ington Territory, was recently ascended by a large party. They 
rodes elevation of 12,650 feet. The crater was penetrated 
th 'stance of 100 feet. There was a ceaseless drip of water from 
: € roof of. the ice-inc 
fo ing from the slumbering fires far below, whence a loud, 
E =e arose. A rock hurled down produced a deafening 
ra on.” y 
an object for a 
P ed by Jewett, on the authority of Vansant, at 13,258, and by 


baa ty Holt & Co., New York, have recently published 

5 their American Science 
high sch efer Course, Itis designed for use in grammar and 
: larger Zoe In part re-written and made simpler than the 
been retai ogy by the same author, portions of that work have 
= “amed, with additions regarding the habits of birds and 


222 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [February 


common mammals. A number of illustrations, especially of 
birds and mammals, appear in it not contained in the larger vol 
ume. It isa book of 334 pages. 

— An admission fee of fifty cents is now charged visitors to 
the ostrich farm at Anaheim, Cal. The object of the tariff is to 
discourage the rush of visitors, who seriously interfere with s 
work of the farm. The birds are breeding and require carefu 
attention and freedom from disturbance. i al 

— Major J. W. Powell is delivering some lectures on Soci 
Evolution before the Philosophical Society of Washington. 

— Mr. Robert B. Tolles died Nov. 18, 1833, at Boston, Po 
many years Mr. Tolles held the highest place in America as i 
manufacturer of microscopic lenses and triplets, as well as w 
microscopic apparatus, devised by himself. His death 1s 4 
to the scientific world. 


A’ 


PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 


ATURAL 

PROCEEDINGS OF THE PHILADELPHIA ACADEMY va pea ain 
SCIENCES.—Oct. 3.—Professor Heilprin discussed the 

raneity of geological formations. festing 


ct. 11.—Rev. Dr. McCook spoke of the parasites fies, 


the cocoons of spiders. The cocoons of ichncuey 
the genus Pezomachus, were found in the cocoons 0 were i 
riparia and Epeira atrata of the Pacific coast, but eee the last- 
their turn infested by chalcidians. From the cocoon ee i 
named species several small beetle larvæ of the ae the genus 
ma were also extracted, together with some ants o! " 
Solenopsis. s bairdii, 4 
Oct. 18.—Mr. J. A. Ryder described Gastrostom depths of 
strange fish dredged off the Massachusetts coast a de betwee 
from 500 to 3000 fathoms. A comparison was mT n, Inthe 
this species and the Eurypharynx of the Mediterra oped, 9 
American form the jaws are still more remarkably The extensi- 
‘that they are seven times the length of the head. aie from the 
ble membrane of the upper jaw, and the pouch pen m the body 
lower, cause the mouth to be a vast funnel, to wer is partly 
seems an insignificant appendage. Probably the tacle. The 
digested, as well as collected and stored, in this receP 5 are me 
gills are placed far behind the skull, the gill-op wore” is sitt 
pores, the opercular bones are absent ; a membranous tly into te 
ated near the tail, and the ova, as in eels, drops direc 
alimentary canal. The eyes are functional. : ü the sol 
Nov. 1.—Mr. J. Willcox detailed his observations ga that thë 
of parts of Canada and New York, and stated his be retreat had 
great glacier had removed the original soil, and in es be fount 
deposited the existing coat, always thinner than that oe 


1884.) K Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 223 


south of the terminal moraine. Professor Heilprin called atten- 
tion to the presence of fragments of trilobites among fossils from 
rocks of the Hamilton period in Pike and Monroe counties, where 
Professor J. C. White had been unable to discover them. 

APPALACHIAN Mountain CLus.—Dec. 12, 1883.—Report of the 
councilor of topography, J. R. Edmunds; Nordenskjéld’s Green- 
and expedition, by Professor Wm. H. Niles; Twin Mountain 
range and valley of the East branch, by R. K. Wood; an ascent 
of the Giant’s Stairs (postponed from Nov. 14); ascents of Mts. 
Hale, Pliny, and Caribou, by E. B. Cook; a partial exploration 
of Mt. Wildcat, by Miss M. M. Pychowska. 

Special Meeting, Dec. 19.—Optical illusions among the moun- 
tains, by Professor Charles E. Fay. 

Biotocicat Society oF WasHINGTON.—Dec. 14.—Papers were 
read by Professor C. V. Riley on the use of napthaline in medi- 
cine and as an insecticide; by Mr. Henry W. Elliott, concerning 
the appetite of the muskrat; by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, the ana- 
tomical collections of the Army Medical Museum. 

ec. 28.—Communications were presented by Dr. Thomas 
Taylor on napthaline, its effects on seeds, plants, insects and other 
animals; by Mr. J. A. Ryder on the structure of the egg-mem- 
brane; by Dr. W. S. Barnard some results by massage et contre 
coup; and Mr. Romyn Hitchcock exhibited an improved form 
of microscope 

New York ACADEMY oF Scrences.—Dec. 10.—The following 
Paper was read: The geology, botany, and scenery of the Yellow- 
stone National Park (illustrated with lantern views), by Dr. J. S. 

ewberry and Professor H. L, Fairchild. 

t Dec, 17.—The following papers were presented: 1. The litera- 
ure of ozone and peroxide of hydrogen (second memoir), includ- 
Ng: 1. Historical-critical résumé of the progress of discovery 
9: 2. Index to the literature of ozone, 1879-1883; 3- 

x to the literature of peroxide of hydrogen, 1879-1883; 11. 
ph a gathered from eight years of personal inspection, as to the 
R. Les destruction of the Adirondack forests, by Professor Albert 


oradi Society or NATURAL Hisrory.—Jan. 2.—Dr. Kneeland 
io ae cause and consequences of the recent earthquake at 
The §'ving lantern illustrations. 
serpen: Secretary showed a description and drawing of the “sea 
Pent lately seen at Long Branch. 
Conklin ICAN GEOGRAPHICAL Society.—Dec. 17—Mr. Alfred R. 
ing delivered a lecture entitled “ Mexico; her Physical 
Views > and Resources,” illustrated with thirty stereopticon 


| un. 8—Rey, C. C. Tiffany, D. D., delivered a lecture entitled 
views, 7 224 the Midnight Sun,” illustrated with stereopticon 


- 


ee T 
i ae 
Lane 
Pap 
es 


224 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [Feb., 1884 


Tue Society oF NaTuRALISTS OF THE EASTERN UNITED 
STATES held its winter meeting in Columbia College, New York, 
Dec. 27 and 28. There was a large attendance of members and 
a goodly list of papers presented, as will be seen by the titles 
given below. The meeting was opened by an address by the presi- 
dent setting forth the aims and objects of the organization. — 
following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President, 
Professor Alpheus Hyatt, of the Boston Society of Natural ro 
tory ; vice-presidents, Professor H. N. Martin, of Johns Hopkins 
University of Baltimore, and Professor A. S. Packard, Jr., of Brown 
University, Providence; secretary, Charles Sedgwick Minot, 
Harvard Medical School ; treasurer, Professor William B. ees 
of Princeton, and executive committee at large: Professor 2d 
Lewis, of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, @ 
Lester J. Ward, of the United States National Museum. ait 

A committee was appointed to act with the executive eee 
tee in defining what a “ professional naturalist ” is. A yea 
was adopted that the society, recognizing the great imp ee 
a thorough knowledge of modern languages, especially 
and German, to students of natural history, regards it ey a 
ful sign that a conference of professors in this departmen A cot 
assembled, and expresses its sympathy with their "oa ogy 
mittee was also appointed to confer with the section of bi $ 
the American Association for the Advancement of Science. 


TITLES OF PAPERS READ: a PEF 
Application of photography to the preparation of natural history figures | 
By S. H. Gage, y 

Adaptation of lectures to large classes. By W. H. Niles. 

de of making models of gigantic Cephalopods. By J. H. ri, 
Preparation of rock-sections. By James Hall. 
On some methods of pursuing teratological researches. By 
Methods of section-cutting. By E. B, Wilson. 
Arrangement of a museum of vertebrates. .By B. G. Wilder. 
Academies of science. By E. D. Cope. 
Use of pure carminic acid in staining. By G. Dimmock. 
Bleaching skeletons by peroxygen of hydrogen ; skeleton hold 
Instruction in mineralogy and petrography. By M. E. Wadsworth. 
Arrangement of minerals in museums, By H. C. Lewis. j 
Methods of mounting museum specimens for exhibition. By A. Hy 
Good and bad timber. By J. T. Rothrock. 
Evolution and histology. By C. S. Minot. 
Preparation of organs. By B. G. Wilder. ; 
Biology in the Northwest. By W. Trelease. 
Necturus for laboratory use. By B. G. Wilder and J. H. Gage- 
Immersion apparatus. By Alexis Julien. 
Museum administration. By G. B. Goode. 
Method of lecturing to large classes. By A. S. Bickmore. 
Various methods of carmine staining. By B. Sharpe. 


Harrison Allen. 


er. By S. H. Gag® 3 : 


THE 


AMERICAN NATURALIST. 


Vor. xvit.— MARCH, 1884—No. 3. 


THE CRAB PARASITE, SACCULINA, 
BY CARL F. GISSLER. 


NOME three years ago I received a small number of crabs, pre- 
~ served in alcohol, that had been collected by Dr. Van Elsen 
in the neighborhood of Tampa, Hillsboro county, Fla. The sci- 
entific name of the crab is Panopæus herbstii, described by A. 
Milne. Edwards, a crustacean which has been introduced from 
farther south, Key West, the West Indies and Brazil, where it 
occurs most abundantly. Once in a great while an occasional 
Straggler from those southern waters is found on the shores of 
New Jersey, Long Island and Connecticut. Three other species 
of the genus Panopzeus permanently occur from Florida up to 
the New England States, Panopeus harrisii, P. depressus and P. 
‘a. Our P. herbstii is easily distinguished from the other three 
AR as taught by Professor S. I. Smith, of Yale College, “ by 
poe on the sub-hepatic region, just below the first lobe of 
antero-lateral border of the carapax, also by the post-orbital 
thar being Separated from the second tooth of the antero-lateral 
pred aad a rounded sinus, and by the dactylus of the larger 
eo having a stout tooth near the base within.” Tt is well 

n that all these Panopzus species largely contribute to the 
a many marine fishes. T 
much Much for the Panopæus. But our P. herdbstit does not so 
crustacean * US at present as does its enemy, which is also a 

ser , living parasitically on its host. It does, however, not 
Parasite in the gill-cavity of its host, as is the case with the 
: ep “Pyrus infecting the common shrimp of our shores," 
; : — oe Vol. xiv, sumac: 3d, 1881, p. 151. ery 


226 The Crab Parasite, Sacculina. [ March, 


but occurs on the ventral surface of the abdomen of its host 
The scientific genus-name of our parasite is Sacculina, and by 
calling it specifically Sacculina panopei, we honor both parasite 
and host. In systematic zodlogy this Sacculina belongs to the 
family Rhizocephala, and these again are classified among the 
barnacles or cirripeds, which the earlier zoologists regarded a 
mollusks, but which, in reality, are crustaceans and relatives of 
the lobster, shrimp and crab. Sacculina is one of the most 
striking examples of animal degeneration. Fig. 3 illustrates the 


r 


EXPLANATION OF FIGURES. ` tral view: cole 
FIG. 1.—Sacculina panopei, female enlarged (male unknown). Ven 
brownish. 
¢, abdominal, sub-segmented portion. 
6. thoracic portion, the sac filled with eggs. s 
a, pdomen of 
ai, \ the last three segments of ventral surface of a 
herbstii, 


Fic, 2.—Sacculina panopei, female, enlarged. Lateral view. 
a, abdomen of Panopeus herbstii. 
¢, abdominal portion with sexual orifice. 
Fic. 3.—Nauplius stage of Sacculina purpurea. (After Fritz 
Fic. 4.—Pupa stage of Lepas australis. (After Darwin.') 


*Chas. Darwin, A monograph of the sub-class Cirriped 


Miiller-) 


PTE eae 


1884. ] The Crab Parasite, Sacculina. 227 


youngest or so-called Nauplius stage of another Sacculina, S. 
purpurea, It is a free-swimming, active larva, has neither eyes 
nor mouth; its “cypris” and pupa stage, differs from the same 
of the near allied barnacles by the absence of the paired eye on 
the ventral surface of the head, Fig. 4. 

In another later paper? I have described and figured the “ em- 
bryo” of the Bopyrus infecting the common prawn, calling that 
“embryo” the highest and most advanced stage in the develop- 
ment of Bopyrus, which, under favorable circumstances, will 
enter the gill-cavity of the earlier developmental stages of the 
prawn, where it, as the prawn advances in growth, will, when a 
female, lose its eyes, both antennz, the uropods, etc.; while the 
pleopods will degenerate into the abdominal lobes and from the 
seventh free segment will bud a pair of legs. What a clumsy and 
helpless creature the adult female Bopyrus is, may be learned from 
the description and illustration given by me in the two journals 
cited. But our Sacculina is much more degenerate, it is the most 
utterly reduced parasite known. Its body is a mere sac (meas- 
ures 23™™ in thickness, 6™ in width and 43™™ in length, figs. I 
and 2), of kidney shape, convex anteriorly, posteriorly concave in 
the middle and filled with a great number of minute eggs. Its 
lower constricted portion is securely attached by a short stem, 
like a barnacle, to the third last segment on the ventral surface 
of the abdomen of (in this case a female) Panopeus herbstii, 
= abdomen, upon dissection, exhibits a large number of 
i tubes, originating from the stem of the parasite and 
buting over and entangling the intestinal tract of the crab, 
S ee enotically absorbing nourishment from the same. Some 
the ie tubes terminate blind, others form delicate plexuses. At 

ish ea constricted portion of the bag we notice a small, round- 
' ikae, y piece, flattened antero-posteriorly. It has some resem- 
' zt i the fog-pipe of a steamer. Its posterior surface is con- 
width erent into seven parts. It measures 13>” in 
Provided 1 in length. Its anterior surface is concave and 
Sac iy its lower half with a minute opening, the sexual ori- 
side, and gaia surface of the sac I presume to be the dorsal 
; Opposite, the concave, I take for the ventral side of 


the 
animal. The upper smaller part, resembling a fog-pipe, is the 
i 
Idem. 


, Aur. 
Naturanisr, Vol. xv1, January, 1882, pp. 5-12. 


228 The Crab Parasite, Sacculina. [March, 


abdominal portion, and its segments are the remainder of the 
swimming legs of the pupa stage. The main body, the sac, is 
the thoracic portion of the former pupa. The cause for so rea- 
soning is the supposed existence, in Sacculina, of what is known 
under the name of “dorsal organ” in the young of a great many 
crustaceans, even if such a structure has not yet been discovered 
among Rhizocephala. The peculiar attitude of the pupa stage in 
barnacles in the act of permanently attaching themselves to some 
marine object, tends to an assumption of analogy. I have repeat 
edly seen the “dorsal organ” and noticed its use in the yous 
of branchipod crustaceans (Eubranchipus, Streptocephalus, Apus, 
Chirocephalus, Limnetis, etc.) in attaching themselves to the 
walls of the breeding jars in which they were kept. This orga 
appears to be of a glandular nature, is situated in most case m 
the occipital region, is strikingly large in the young of 
crustaceans, and gradually degenerates in the further develop | 
ment, but persists in some forms. The pupa of Sacculina may 
attach itself head foremost by means of the “ frontal or dors! 
organ” to the abdomen of Panopzus, the mouth and antenë 
subsequently degenerate, the intestinal tract develops into eee | 
ber of ccecal appendages, the latter enter the host, and the sa 
ming feet, or cirri, are lost. The thoracic portion, or Sa, 7 pie 
; . delicat? 
posed of an outer very tough skin and an inner more ~ 
membrane.. This sac presents an analogy to the 
or breeding cavity of Bopyrus, for in it the eggs ar A 
protected until better fit to leave the mother animal. 
stant current of sea-water between these two skins may į oe 
exist for the aération of the young; the entrance and exit | 
water must, if there is no other opening, be through gs nouris? 
orifice.. May not the extraordinary mode of obtaining BA. 
ment render both parasite and host, physiologically ap be 
so to speak, but one animal? May not thus a oe og ! 
effected largely contributing to an oxygenation of the ee (Pa | 
fluid of Sacculina, a mere combination, as it were, f <. aad f 
respiration è 


. E „ation due © 
dages or tubes. The question, What is degen ic a 
exhibited in Sacculina? we answer it is due to Bee petat" i 
being a near relative of the barnacles, it is due t° 


1884.] Men Ignorant of Fire. 229 


phosis of the Nauplius into a pupa and subsequently-into an ani- 
mal of a sessile and immobile habit of life; second, it is due to 
parasitism (Symbiosis). An approximate stability of the present 
form of Sacculina is maintained by the important law of heredity, 
very slow changes in color, form, etc., will, however, make their 
appearance by changes of climate and immediate surroundings, z. €., 
the host. In concluding, let me quote from E. Haeckel: “ The series 
of forms which the individual organism passes from the egg up to 
the development of the adult form is but a brief and rapid reca- 
pitulation of the series of forms, which all the ancestors of this 
organism have passed since the beginning of the organic history 
of the earth down to the present day. This repetition or recapit- 
ulation is conditioned through the laws of heredity and modified 
through the laws of adaptation. The historical record, preserved 
in the developmental history of the individual, is rendered grad- 
ually obliterate, the development gradually taking a more and 
more direct course from the egg up to the adult, and it is also 
often falsified through the struggle for existence which the free- 
living young are subject to. The falsification of the ontogenetic 


product is conditioned through the law of the modified or falsified 
heredity.” 


MEN IGNORANT OF FIRE. 
BY TITIAN R. PEALE, 


pey, mankind differs from all other animals in the habit 
ta et his food by the means of fire, which, in the progress 
vization, has improved so much as to become a science. 


Hence there 
; i many grades of progress to be observed between 
savage an ne: 7 
7 i the civilized man ; and hence there are many facts 


ka record by the intelligent traveler, relative to the use of 
TAR ah SRE of any but a single record where natives of 
Ui o ia ones did not know the use of fire; that one 
On. the aoth Pe Fanua Loa, or Bowditch’s island, discovered 
manded by Ca January, 1841, by the U. S. S. Peacock, com- 
ter and en: W. H. Hudson, of the U. S. South Sea Survey- 
Vol. v, p. v) oring Expedition (see Narrative by Ch. Wilkes, 


Of the boats sou relates : “The natives were at first very shy 
them to a.” 4 e Hawaiians who were in them soon induced 
aPproach, and to enter into trade, and finally enticed 


a 


230 Men Ignorant of Fire. [March, 


them alongside the ships. On coming near they began a song 
or chant, holding up their paddles and mats, and shouting, ‘kaflou 
tamatau.’ They resembled the natives of Oatafu, or Duke of 
York’s island, wore the same kind of mats, eye-shades and orm 
ments, and some were tatooed in the same manner. Some, 
ever, were tatooed in a different style, being ornamented with 
variety of arrows on the forehead and cheeks, They were al 
finely formed and manly in appearance, with pleasing countè 
nances that expressed good nature. 

“They were eager enough for trade, and soon disposed of al 
they had to exchange; a few presents were made them, but all 
inducements failed to entice them on board. They app 
cheertul, laughing heartily at anything that struck them as ridit- 
lous. y * * * * * * + 

“The population of this island is estimated to be about ® | 
hundred souls, most of whom dwell in the town. 

“There were no signs of places for cooking, nor any app 
ance of fire, and it is believed that all their provisions are ea 
raw. What strengthened this opinion was the alarm the er 
felt when they saw the sparks emanating from the flint and 7 
and the emission of smoke from the mouths of those who 
smoking cigars.” 


The writer of this article was on board the Peacock, and ® 
vouch for the verity of Captain Hudson's account of our sd 
views with the natives, and also that they eat their -_ os i 
without cooking, but also had the greatest dread of fire in any pee 
We saw no traces of charcoal or ashes in their village or 
and we fully understood them as to their food, and how” 
taken. It consisted entirely of cocoanuts and pandanus bird 
fish, echini, and other products of the sea; the er aia j 
nd even ™ E 
ed on for? | 
island'sS* | 


w 

In many of the semi-civilized islands of the Pacific pee 
cooked fish are still eaten as a delicacy; also echi; ST i] f 
as we eat oysters, raw, or “in the shell.” one oF 4 
The terror of fire, as we witnessed it on more ee to | d 
sion at Bowditch’s island, convinced us fully that food; $ l 
period of our visit the natives had never cooked ee nd P 
was not abundant on any of the coral islands oF ret a d 
were plenty and relished when not cooked. We sa i preset? 4 
half cooking at the Paumotu archipelago of fish, £ 
them for transportation to the Island of Tahiti. 


mostly seen there, were not regarded as food, at 
were, could not have been easily obtained or reli 
plies, the population being large in proportion to the 


1884. } Men Ignorant of Fire. 231 


The natives of Fanua Loa, when discovered, were quite ingeni- 
ous in the construction of houses, canoes, and various fishing im- 
plements, mats, &c., considering the total absence of all metals, 
their island being of coral formation, and their having no com- 
munication with any other. 

The various boxes, bowls, stools, &c., carved from the solid 
wood with sharks’ teeth, and smoothed with coral and shark-skin 
files, were obtained and brought home, and formed a part of the 
nucleus of the National Museum in the Smithsonian Institution 
at Washington, where they now hold a place in the Ethnological 
Department ; but, strange as it may appear, some wag, more 
learned than wise, wrote on a box containing fishing implements 
the words, “ Tinder box,” to contradict the statement by Captain 
Hudson, in Wilkes’ published journal—a practical joke, no doubt, 
but one that should never have been tolerated by those in charge 
of the public specimens in a national museum. 

That cold meals agreed with the Fanua Loans was evidenced 
by their appearance—they were a handsome people. When we 
visited them in January, 1841, they were living anterior to their 
“stone age ;” no one of them, it is probable, had ever seen a 
Stone, or a stone implement of any kind; the smallest stone to 
them would have been as great a curiosity as a coral tree would 
be to a Dakota Indian on our prairies! Their hardest edge tools 
were made of sharks’ teeth or chama shells, yet their carving was 
not bad ; their canoes, stools and boxes, &c., were neatly smoothed 
with sharks’ skins on wooden handles, forming rasps of various 
shapes to suit the work to be done. They had a well, and a sea 
wall built of coral rock. 

We obtained from them very neatly plaited rush mats used for 
clothing, &c., but saw no tapa or bark cloth, so common on the 
volcanic islands of the Pacific ocean. 

The thunder of our cannon, when measuring the island by 
Sound, when explained to them, did not create half the alarm 
created by a lighted cigar, which in their understanding could 
TA bear any explanation, and no persuasion on either of our. 
visits could induce them to approach it. 

Py after -two years, and when foreign missionaries have 

there, this plain statement of a little fact about fire, will 
perhaps be as new at Fanua Loa as similar facts will be about 
“anibalism on other islands where they have been taught to con- 


232 Grave Mounds in North Carolina and East Tennessee. (March, 


sider it disgraceful to their ancestry. But facts are always of in- 
terest in the history of any people, however civilized they may 
become. 

The natives of most of the Polynesian islands, I believe, are 
willing and capable of the highest grade of improvement in civ- 
ilization, under proper treatment by nations of greater power 
and higher mental attainment. 


"A* 


GRAVE MOUNDS IN NORTH CAROLINA AND EAST 
TENNESSEE. 


BY DR. CYRUS THOMAS, 


Bae EVING that the description of a new class of grave mounds, 
recently found in North Carolina and East Tennessee, mif 
be of interest to the readers of the AMERICAN NATURALIST, I seth 
by permission of the chief of the Bureau of Ethnology, the hi- 
lowing extract from my report of the mound explorations of the 
past season. 

“ The Nelson Mound.”—This mound, so insignificant in outward , 
appearance as scarcely to attract any notice, was located (for it 2 i 
longer exists) on the farm of Rev. T. F. Nelson, in Caldwell prei] 
N. C., on the bottom land of the Yadkin, about one h 2i | 
yards from the river bank. It was almost a true circle pe 
thirty-eight feet in diameter, but not exceeding at any -= 
eighteen inches in height. The thorough excavation 
vealed the fact that the builders of the mound had first dug 
cular pit, with perpendicular margin, to the depth of thre 
and thirty-eight feet in diameter, then deposited their dead “it 
manner hereafter shown, and afterwards covered them aa 
ing a slight mound above the pit. val of O | 

A plan of the pit, drawn at the time (after the Te m 
dirt), showing the stone graves and skeletons, is given n rere bilt i 

The walled graves or vaults and altar-shaped mas? t to hol! 
of water-worn boulders and clay or earth merely suho —— f 
them in place. i we 

No. 1, a stone grave or vault standing exactly 1 ~ be f 
‘the pit. In this case, a small circular hole, 4 little One E 


fe 
ach 


ee 


center Ý 


feet in diameter and extending down three feet below plac d 
tom of the large pit, had been dug, the body of around ti f 
perpendicularly upon its feet-and the wall built up ion 


‘UONVAVOXS Jaye ‘PUNOI UOSJƏN “J * L'AN JO souvavaddy 


y 
a; 
h 
|ie, = 


‘ITIA ALV Td 


1884.] Grave Mounds in North Carolina and East Tennessee. 233 


the bottom of the hole, converging, after a height of four feet was 
reached, so as to be covered at the top by a single soapstone rock 
of moderate size. On the top of the head of the skeleton, and 
immediately under the capstone of the vault, were found several 
plates of silver mica which had evidently been cut with some 
rude implement. Although the bones were much decayed, yet 
they were retained in position by the dirt which filled the vault, 
an indication that the flesh had been removed before burial, and 
the vault filled with dirt as it was built up. 

re 2. 3,4. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10, although walled around in a 
similar manner, were in a sitting posture on the bottom of the 
pit. In the grave of No. 2 was found a polished celt; in that of 
No. 3 a single discoidal stone; in that of No. 6 two polished 
celts, and immediately over No. 9 a pitted stone. 

Nos. 11, 12 and 13 are three skeletons in a squatting posture 
ms no wall around them, and unaccompanied by relics of any 

ind, 


Nos. 14 and 15 are two unenclosed skeletons lying horizontally 
. full length. With the former some pieces of broken soapstone 
Pipes were found, and with the latter one polished celt. 

No. 16, an unenclosed squatter, was of unusually large size, 
not less than seven feet high when living. Near the mouth was 
an uninjured soapstone pipe; the legs were extended in a south- 
‘ast direction upon a bed of burnt earth. 

The faces of all the squatting skeletons were turned away from 
= Standing central one. 

At “a” was found a considerable quantity of black paint in little 
lumps which appear to have been molded in the hull of some nut. 
At“B” was a cubical mass of water-worn boulders, built up solidly 
and symmetrically, twenty-four inches long, eighteen inches wide 
and eighteen inches high, but with no bones, specimens of art, 
coal, ashes, or indications of fire on or around it. On the con- 

» Many of the stones of the vaults and the earth immediately 
Ne them bore unmistakable evidences of fire ; in fact the heat 
tons se ae left its mark on the bones of the enclosed skele- 
bu: i amither indication that the flesh had been removed before 

nal, either by previous burial or otherwise. 
ered through the dirt which filled the pit were small pieces 
so aa charcoal. The bottom and sides of the pit were 
‘y marked that they could be traced without difficulty- 


234 Grave Mounds in North Carolina and East Tennessee. {March, 


This mound stood about seventy-five yards south of a triangular 
burial-pit described elsewhere. 

“The Jones Mound.’—This mound, situated on the farm of 
Mr. W. D. Jones in the same county, was found, upon investiga- 
tion, to be similar in form and construction to that just described. 
It was circular, thirty-two feet in diameter and but one foot in 


Fic. 1.--W. D. Jones Mound, Caldwell county, N. C. 
height; the pit was also circular, thirty-two feet im aa 
three feet deep. The bottom in this case was of can ae 
been baked hard by fire to the depth of two or mee one stot 
In this mound were found twenty-five skeletons a! : 
heap, the relative positions of which are shown In a he 
No. 1. A “squatter,” walled in with water-worn z 
face turned toward the west; no relics. 


1884.) Grave Mounds in North Carolina and East Tennessee. 235 


No, 2. Sitting with the face toward the center; two polished 


celts at the feet, and immediately in front of the face a cylinder of 


hard gray mortar (not burned), about five inches long and two 
inches in diameter with a hole through one end. 

No. 3. Sitting, with the face toward the center ; several polished 
celts at the feet. 

No. 4. Horizontal, head southeast, several celts at the feet. 

No. 5. Horizontal, head toward the center; several celts at the 


No. 6. Facing the center, sitting; shell beads around the neck, 
a Unio shell on top of the head with the concave surface down, a 
“conch shell” (Pyrula perversa) in front of the face, and celts at 

e feet. 

No. 7. Sitting, facing the center, celts at the feet. 

No. 8. Very large, lying on the left side, legs partially drawn 
up, walled in with boulders; no implements. 

No. 9. Horizontal, face down, head toward the center, celts and 
discoidal stones at the feet, and a pot resting, mouth down, upon 
the head. 

No. 10. Horizontal, face up, feet toward the center, pot resting 
on the face, stone implements at the feet. 

No. 11. Horizontal, head south-east, arms extended and a 
bracelet of copper and shell beads (alternating) around the neck; 
oo with a food cup (without handle) at the right side of the 


No. 12. Horizontal, face up, head south-east, shell beads around 
the neck, a hook or crescent-shaped piece of copper on the 
reast and a soapstone pipe near the face. One hand near each 
side of the head, each grasping small conical copper ornaments 
(ear drops) and a small bunch of hair. Was this individual, pos- 
‘ibly a female, buried alive ? 

No. 13. Horizontal, on the back, head south-east, copper and 
shell beads around the neck and wrists, a hook or crescent-shaped 
i of copper on the breast, a food cup (with handle) lying on 
ii with the mouth close to the face, a pipe near the mouth 

two celts over the head. 

No. t4. Horizontal, lying on the back, head north-east, arms 

each hand resting on a shell which had evidently been 
~~ though the figures were almost totally obliterated. 
®. 15. Horizontal, on the back, head west, knees drawn up, 


€ implements at the feet. 


236 Grave Mounds in North Carolina and East Tennessee. (March, 


No. 16. Too much decayed to determine the position. 

No. 17. Four skeletons in one grave, horizontal, heads toward 
the east and large rocks lying on the legs below the knees; no 
implements. 

No. 18. Two skeletons in one grave, heads west, faces down, 
knees drawn up; no implements, 

No. 20. Sitting, with face toward the east, walled in, a large 
rock lying on the feet (though this may have fallen from the 
wall); no implements. 

No. 21. Sitting, walled in, over the head, but under the cap- 
stone of the vault, a handful of flint arrow-heads. 

No. 22. Doubled up with the head between the feet 

“A” A solid mass of boulders, oval-shaped, thirty-two inches 
long, twenty-two inches wide and twenty-four inches high, saat 
ing on the bottom of the pit. No ashes or other indications 0 
fire about it. 

Fragments of pottery, mica, galena, charcoal, red and black 
paint and stone chips were found scattered in small quantities 
through the earth which filled the pit. All the celts were more 
or less polished. ge 

“ The Lenoir Burial Pit”—This is a circular burial pit gp? 
to those described, but level on the surface. It is on the farm : 
Mr. R. T. Lenoir, same county. A diagram is given 1 Fig å 
Diameter twenty-seven feet, depth three and a half feet, an 
perfect circle, sides nearly perpendicular. The dirt in this case, 
in the others, was all thrown out. Le 

No. t. A bed of charred or rather burnt bones, rest 
space three feet long, two feet wide and about one gon to 
“The bones were so thoroughly burned that it was pare ; 
_ determine whether they were human or animal.” Benes sree 
bed the yellow sand was baked to the depth of two oF 
inches. Under the bones was a shell gorget. “ot 

No. 2. A skeleton in a sitting posture facing north-east, nS 
near the mouth and a polished celt over the head. she nek 

No. 3. Sitting, facing east, with shell beads around t 
and also around the arms just below the shoulders. on the 

No. 4. Horizontal, on the back, head east and nee 
concave surface of an engraved shell, “ conch shell” (2 ‘ground 
versa), at the side of the head, and copper and shell 
the neck. 


1884.] Grave Mounds in North Carolina and East Tennessee. 237 


No. 5. Horizontal, head north-east, shell beads around the 
neck and two discoidal stones and one celt at the feet. 

No. 6. A communal grave containing at least twenty-five skel- 
etons, in two tiers, buried without any apparent regularity as to 
direction or relative position. Thirteen of the twenty-five were 
“ flat-heads ”—“ that is, the heads running back instead of up in 
the ordinary way.” 


Fic. 2.—R, T Léiole Burial Pit. 
Scattered through this grave, between and above the skeletons, 
Were polished celts, discoidal stones, shells, mica, galena, frag- 
ments of pottery and one whole pot. Around the neck and 
Pedi: of some of the skeletons were also shell beads. There 
eaa have been more than twenty-five individuals buried here, 
» however, being the number of skulls observed. 
___ “0.7. Horizontal, on the left side, head north-east; no imple- 


238 Grave Mounds in North Carolina and East Tennessee. (Match, 


No. 8. An irregular layer of water-worn stones about four feet 

square. On top was a bed of charcoal three or four inches thick, 
-on and partially embedded in which were three skeletons, but 

showing no indications of having been in the fire. Scattered 
over these were discoidal stones, one sinall saucer-shaped dish, 
shells (one of which is engraved), pipes, shell beads and pieces of 
pottery. 

No. 9. A grave containing three skeletons, lying horizontally 
on their backs and side by side; the outer ones with their heads 
east and the middle one with the head west; no implements. 

No. 10. Horizontal, on the right side, head north, with stone 
implements in front of the face. 

No. 11. Doubled up, top of the head south, shell beads around 
the neck and celts at the feet. of 
No. 12. A grave containing seventeen skeletons, seven 
which had flat heads, two of the number children. Two of the 

adult heads were resting on engraved shells. 

In this grave were found four pots and two food cups, the han- 
dle of one representing an owl’s head and that of the other at 
eagle’s head. One of the small pots was inside a mice | 
Scattered among the skeletons were shell beads, poe 
discoidal stones, paint, &c. None of the skeletons were enc 
in stone graves. as) 

For the purpose of comparison I will now give the deste | 
of a single mound found on the bank of the Holston riven =. 
van county, East Tennessee. It is circular in form, thirty in | 
feet in diameter and five feet high; on the top was peas ct 
fourteen inches in diameter, the tree having been cut down sped it 

five years ago. This mound differed from those deson! pe 
having no pit below it; but in it, built on the natural D high, 

the ground, was a circular wall of cobble stones, three ee 
enclosing a space fourteen feet in diameter. Inside of ue 

twelve stone graves similar to those shown in Plate vill, peal 
them in the center and the other eleven equally spa 
near the wall, as shown in Fig. 3. amet 

The surface of the area enclosed by the circular W: pa ga | 

-ered to the depth of three inches with charcoal and 
built on this layer. oe | 

Each grave contained a single sitting skeleton; = moult? | 
neck of the central one were shell beads, and near We 


1884.) Grave Mounds in North Carolina and East Tennessee. 239 


finely polished pipe of green syenite; no relics were found in any 
of the other graves. 

It is only necessary to add that these mounds and burial pits 
were opened by the regular assistants of the Bureau of Ethnol- 
ogy, and that all the articles mentioned, except the skeletons, are 
now in the National Museum. Some of the skulls have also 
been received, but most of the skeletons were so badly decayed 
that when exposed to the air they crumbled to pieces. 


Fic. 3.—Mound on Holston river, Sullivan county, Tenn. 


I give here a list of the articles obtained from one of these 
places, the “ Lenoir Burial Pit” : 

One stone axe ; forty-three polished celts; nine vessels of clay; 

; TO arrow-heads ; twenty soap-stone pipes, mostly unin- 

lured; twelve discoidal stones ; ten rubbing stones ; two hammer 

» One broken soapstone vessel; six engraved shells; four 

ones Borgets ; one Pyrula perversa entire, and two or three broken 

seg iron celt; five very large copper beads; one lot of 

ts of shells, some of them engraved; a few rude shell pins; 


240 Colonial Organisms. [ March, 


shell beads; a few small copper beads ; specimens of paint and 
plumbago ; three skulls. 

I am inclined to believe that these mounds are the work of the 
Cherokees, but cannot give my reasons for this belief in this 
article. Somewhat similar burials found in Kentucky point to 
the region of the Ohio as the former home of the builders of the 
North Carolina and East Tennessee mounds. It is possible, 
therefore, that further research will tend to confirm the Cherokee 
tradition mentioned by old John Lederer. 


A" 


COLONIAL ORGANISMS. 


BY CHARLES MORRIS. 


(Continued from page 149.) 
CONTINUED review of the subject of animal colonization 
leads next to the Annelida and the Arthropoda as its most 
advanced instances. This progression, indeed, is not so strongly 
marked in the Annelida, which are usually not only distinctly 
segmented, but each segment is an almost complete individ 5 
Each segment possesses its own nerve fibers and ganglion, 


i of 
and, in a partial degree, its own circulation. The ee 
the several segments unite into a common intestine. In nik 


retention of individuality, in some cases, goes still further. 
are existing worms which possess eyes in each separate ` begt 
Thus the indications are very marked that the Annelid ail 
life as a colony of budded individuals in which subordinati ; 
some of the life functions had taken place. This wer ; 
is yet, in many instances, very slight, the only distinctly orga 
ized segment being the head, with its mouth and senm 33 
The loss of individual completeness is not nearly 50 p 
the members of the Siphonophora. pit or 
In its reproductive phenomena the family of segmen In cet io 
presents some striking evidences of a colonial origin. gail : 
instances the worm is born as an individual segment, e 
its mature state by subsequent budding. This 1$ the wt inde 
the tape worm, in which the budding process eae: | 
nitely throughout life. Among the Chætopoda some divided io? 
cant phenomena are exhibited. A single worm © oot 
two through fission between two of the body j 


* 


: 
: 


te mes 


1884.] Colonial Organisms. 241 


which becomes the anal region of the anterior worm, and the 
other develops into the head and several succeeding segments of 
the posterior worm. The anal region may, by growth and seg- 
mentation, give rise to an indefinite number of new segments. In 
the fresh-water worms, the Nais and Chetogaster, this phenome- 
non proceeds farther. After the division into two worms and 
subsequent growth by segmentation, fission again and again 
takes place, whenever four or five new segments are added in 
front of an anal zone, so that a chain of zodids is formed, each 
with a few segments only and all fed from the mouth of the ante- 
rior one, Subsequently they break up into free individuals, each 
of which lengthens by budding. 

This phenomenon strongly indicates an original possession of 
the full life functions by a single segment which formed, by asex- 
ual reproduction, a longitudinal colony. Each member of this 
colony, while subordinated in function, tends to complete devel- 
opment, as is shown by the fact that certain segments apparently 
regain lost organs and resume discarded functions. The seem- 
ing indications is that these organs and functions were part of 
their original life plan, and that their ordinary development is 
only a partial one. 

In fact, in all these cases of individuals developed from colo- 
nies, the segments or organs present certain analogies to the lar- 
val state of other animals. The larva is an instance of retarded 
development in which the surrounding conditions check for a 
time the further unfoldment of the life plan, and cause the assump- 
tion of new temporary organs or functions. In the segment the 
unfoldment of the life plan is in like manner checked, and occa- 
sonally new organs or functions are developed to bring the 
organism into harmony with surrounding conditions, Ordinarily 

larva enters into new conditions and resumes its checked de- 
a t. Ordinarily the segment fails to enter into new condi- 

; tions, and its development continues partial. Yet there are inter- 

A Taa AAA in which the larval retardation continues for life, 

Leptocephali, or-embryonic fish. ~ And'to complete the 
Selig we have the above interesting instance of the Cheto- 
4 = TN hich the developmental energies of the segments .ap- 
ae | Sccasionally to triumph over the retarding conditions, and 
TEES ie ' 
Theia on * Growth and Development,” AMER. NATURALIST, July, 1883, P- 


YOU. xvns. nD, rrr, 6 


242 Colonial Organisms. (March, 


to cause a nearly complete unfoldment of the original life plan. 
The main difference between the larva and the Annelid segment, 
or the Hydrozoan organ, is, that in the former the animal is 
checked in an embryonic stage, in which it possesses full life 
functions; in the latter it attains its mature stage, but with only 
a portion of the life functions. In the former it displays an inde- 
pendent immaturity, in the latter a subordinated maturity. But 
with these distinctions we seem to behold in all these phenomena 
the results of one law of nature, a checked development, under 
the force of circumstances, of forms which have an innate ten- 
dency to complete their development, which tendency becomes 
effective as soon as the retarding conditions are removed, and at ) 
times seemingly in spite of them. There appears to be a pers 
tent strife between the active external conditions and the innit 
hereditary life energies. 
The embryological development of the Annelids presents indi- 
cations like those of the Hydrozoa. They leave the egg as glob- | 
ular masses of untransformed cells. This cell mass elongate | 
and becomes segmented, while the head organs appear anteriori} i 
The number of segments increases by the interposition of new 
ones, the segmental organs appear, and the young am or ; 
the mature form. In this process the indication óf a orl iy 
colonial origin is evident, though perhaps less so than in the mli 
drozoa. The asexual budding by which the mature e ofis 
formed is certainly significant, and points to the 
phylogenetic derivation. : opment 1 
In the Arthropoda appears the highest known deve dk 
this principle of the formation of individuals by the at et 
tion of colonies, Of these the Myriopoda alone presen iit 
indications of colonization, In them the segments are 3 


space. It lacks only the mouth and the senge 
head-segment to be a complete animal. And its 
the indefinite budding of new segments is sig 
origin. of 
In the Crustacéa, Insecta and Arachnida, the ee 
original colonial condition are much less evident, thov A 
ordinarily quite manifest in Crustacean and insect 


organs y 
formation Á 
nificant of 
he | 


1884.} Colonial Organisms. 243 


even in the highest of the Arthropoda, the insects, the original 
individuality of the segments is not quite lost in the mature 
state. The primitively individual members of the colony stub- 
bornly resist the cession of their separate functions, and only 
partially yield to the common needs. This persistent individu- 
ality of the segment is partly manifest in their legs and wings, 
which are appendages of separate segments; but more particu- 
larly in the segmental succession of their nervous, muscular and 
respiratory organs, and in their segmented chitinous armor. In- 
deed, the Crustaceans and Insects indicate a lateral as well as a 
longitudinal development of individual segments, for the limbs 
present significant traces of an origin in the budding process. 
They appear, in fact, to be a series of specialized segments which 
have become greatly degraded from their original organic com- 
pleteness through disuse of the internal organs, Each possesses 
its muscles, its chitinous armor and what may represent its intes- 
tinal cavity. The successive joints of the limbs appear to result 
from a continuance of the budding process. This seems evi- 
denced by their power of reproduction by budding, when broken 
off at the joint, and also by the lateral budding which frequently 
takes place at the extremities of the limbs. 

As for the reproduction of the Arthropoda, it tends to disguise 
their colonial origin, yet only partly so. They are usually born 
as partially developed colonies, resembling the Annelida in gen- 
eral configuration. But this merely indicates an acceleration of 
development, or an embryological growth to a considerable ex- 
‘ent through the aid of maternally-provided nutriment. In the 

insects, the ants and bees, the parental care js continued 
until maturity. The growth of the embryo from nutriment pro- 
vided by the maternal body in no essential sense differs from its 
Continued growth from nutriment provided by the workers, and 
it is not thrown upon its own resources until maturity. This is 
final and highest outcome of the colonial method of animal 
Meas n, one in which the members of the colony have become 
ioe ded together and subordinated as to have almost vanished 
‘om Observation, and in which the young begins its individual 
in the mature state. 
a sarani we have here given of the method of development 

2 idual animals through a process of colonization, and the — 

ee different consideration of this topic see “ The Evolution of Or- 
> Popular Science Monthly, Nov., 1880. 


244 Colonial Organisms. [March, 


reduction of the members of the colony to the condition of or 
gans of an individual, may be briefly concluded and perhaps 
strengthened by a reference to the sub-kingdoms of animal 
whose members appear to develop as individuals and not through 
colonization, and whose organs arise from special modification of 
the tissues of the individual body, and not from subordination of 
the separate members of a colony. There are three of thes 
sub-kingdoms, the Echinodermata, the Mollusca and the Verte 
brata. Of these, indeed, the first is supposed by Haeckel to ani 
from a colony, since he ascribes the star-fish to the original junc- 
tion of five worm-like animals. The evidence in favor of this, 
however, is-not convincing, and is not sustained by any distinct 
evidence of budding in the development of the embryo. lae 
gard to the Mollusca their individual derivation is unguestiot 
able, and their organs present no indication of assuming the typ 
cal molluscan form. The segmental character of a part of the 
body of the Vertebrata. has been adduced as an argument 
favor of their colonial derivation, but this argument is unsus- 
tained by any other evidence. There is no indication of segner: 
tation in the organs, none of which are successively ated, a 
in the Arthropoda and Hydrozoa. These organs indeed present 
every indication of originating in the transformation of the. 
sues of an individual, and display no evidence whatever ae 
dency to assume the parental form. The only indication e 
nial aggregation is in the segmental repetition of the v ai 
bones and their accompanying nerve ganglia, but this sega | 
tion may perhaps be better explained in another manner 
_In vertebrate embryology there is no clear evidence f “E 
mentation; and the lowest vertebrate, the lancelet, ane , 
vertebral characteristics very imperfectly. The Tunicata 
some indication of a connection with the Vertebrata by e this 
mentation of their posterior body in the embryo state, | wnt 
very low stage in the. line of, vertebrate development 15 jo the 
unlike the accordant. stage of articulate development pe 
latter each segment is furnished with nearly all the organ? de 
sy fon individual life. - In the former the functional. Pe 
velop within the anterior undivided body, and the ‘ 


is limited to the tissues of the tail, and is perhaps due t° Firan 


of: flexibility in the Swimming motion of a homogeneous i. 
1 See Led Evolution of Organic Form,” Pop. Science Monthly, Novas 1880 £ A 


1884.] Colonial Organisms. 245 


As for the reproductive phenomena of the animals’ here con- 
sidered, there is no essential distinction from those of the colo- 
nial class. In the low forms the young are born immature, in 
the high forms they are born mature, but in’ all ‘cases their real 
birth is as a single cell into the ovary, while the after develop- 
ment is gained partly within the maternal body or the egg, partly 
in the external world. Yet’ in this respect the highest vertebrate 
presents an interesting parallelism with the highest arthropod. As 
the ants continue to feed the embryo after birth until it has as- 
sumed the mature form and is able to obtain’ its wm subsistence 
in the method of the mature animals, the sare may be said of 
the birds and the Mammalia, which continue’ to supply their 
young with food after birth until they are able to provide for their 
own needs in the parental method. Thus at the summit of the 
organic series the young begins its individual life as an animal 
mature in every function except the reproductive. ` 

The colonial origin of the higher plants is equally significant 
with that of the animals mentioned. As compared with the ani- 
mal world their closest analogy is with the colonies of the fixed 
Hydrozoa, in which, from a common stem attached to the surface, 
outgrow successive nutritive and reproductive individuals. This 
description applies exactly to the highest plants, with the excep- 
tion that they are attached to the ground by’ roots, which are also 
transformed individuals. 3 ae 
_ Even the escape of the reproductive members of the Hydro- 
zoan colonies as free Medusz is not without its analogies in the 
vegetable world, whose shed spores become reproductive indi- 
viduals. The fact is that all high development in plants is at- 
tained by the method of colonization, and that the advancement 
in this direction is far inferior to that gained by the higher animal 
colonies. she 

The lower sub-kingdoms of plants are not clearly distinct from 
cell colonies. They are born as single cells, which subsequently 
develop into cell masses. These, particularly in some of the 
higher Fungi, become very complexly organized, yet they dis- 
play little or no cell differentiation, and may properly be consid- 
ered as cell colonies. The spores, which are shed by all the 
lower Orders of plants, are free asexual offspring probably pecu- 
liar only in being specially rich in protoplasm, and thus well 
adapted to active growth. Such an asexual growth takes place 


246 Colonial Organisms. [March, 


in the spores of all plants from the Fungi to the Ferns, and sexual 
propagation arises through a combination of two cells produced 
by this secondary growth. 

As the gastrula seems to be the primitive form of thë many- 
celled animal, so we might reasonably look for some parallel 
typical form in plants. In all higher plants the leaf is the mos 
apparent fundamental form. Yet the leaf is the result of a com 
siderable degree of evolution, and is preceded in the lowest plants 
by a mere mass of undifferentiated cells which assumes no typi- 
cal form. There is no requirement of a digestive cavity to which 
the fundamental form of animals is due. This cell mass assumé 
the leaf shape in some of the Algæ. In the mosses the leaf bè 
comes more definitely organized, and still more so im the fems 
but gains its highest condition only in the phanerogams. The 
embryological development passes through conditions analogous i 
to those of animals. Birth consists in the extrusion of a singl 
cell which, after fertilization, develops into a cell colony, and sub 
sequently, in the higher plants, produces embryo leaves, stem 
root in its ovarian development. In all plants a mass 0 me 
ganized tissue represents the early cell colony, while the leaf 7 
the flower appear in the higher plants as the ultimate results ; 
vegetable evolution. But these higher plants are in puer Í 
sense individuals. They are colonies of but slightly $ e 
nated members. The mosses, the ferns and their cong’ ers, 
little more than leaf colonies. An Endogen is an organ! fal 
each of whose members is a single leaf. In the Exogen "i 
step of progression is made, and the individual m a 
colony is a group of leaves, attached alternately to an unbrane 
stem. pich 
In all plant colonies a stock-mass or stem is formet A T 
serves as a reservoir of nutriment and a vascular organ ii he 
mosses and lower ferns this stem lies under grout i steni 
germs which it produces unfold into colonies of individua Fl 
or leaves. The colonies are annually reproduced, and eat in $ 
something to the dimensions of the stock mass, which, i 
higher ferns, emerges from the ground, and gradusi a 
upwards into the air. This fern stem has no power of sel atid 
It is made up of the bases of old leaves, of vascular bu K zi 
serve to supply the new leaves with nutriment, and ch to l 
roots which grow abundantly from its sides, and add MIT i 
thickness. 


1884.] Colonial Organisms. 247 


In the Endogen the colonial character of the tree is equally or 
perhaps yet more evident. The stem is, as it were, a fertile soil, 
in which annual colonies of leaf individuals take root, For the 
leaf is not properly an organ of the tree, but is an individual 
which is rooted in the tree, as the tree itself in the soil. The 
vascular bundles or the root fibers of the leaves force their way 
far down into the trunk, as if in search of nutriment, and thus 
add new tissue to the stem throughout its whole length. Neither 
in the Fern nor the Endogen has the stem any power of self- 
growth (except in some special instances), there being no ger- 
minal tissue except at the extremity of the stem. The tree fern 
adds new tissue mainly to the extremity of the stem, which in- 
creases in diameter only by the outgrowth of adventitious roots. 
The Endogen, by the downward growth of vascular bundles from 
the leaves, adds new tissue throughout the stem, which in conse- 
quence becomes exceedingly dense and hard, but which has no 
growth in diameter. 

In the Exogen other features of progression appear, and the 
colonial character has become less evident. The individual mem- 
ber of the Exogen colony is no longer a single leaf, but a group 
of leaves, seated on an unbranched connecting stem. And the 
vascular bundles proceeding from these leaves can be traced but 
a short distance into the substance of the stem. The members 
of the colony seek less for individual service by aid of their 
fibrous roots, but trust more to the general vascular service of the 
stem. This service is more easily performed from the fact that 
the exogenous trunk retains active tissue throughout its whole 
length. Thus cell reproduction is constant, and the stem in- 
‘creases annually in diameter. In addition the presence of ger- 
minal tissue throughout the stem permits asexual reproduction 
elsewhere than at the apex, as in Ferns and Endogens, and repro- 

Uctive buds may be formed at any point in the cambium layer. 
Thus the Exogen, though a colony in origin, has made a decided 
Movement towards a composite individuality, though it is far 
from having attained the definite individuality attained by the 
higher animal colonial groups. 

We have, thus far, considered only the leaf members of the 
Plant colony. There are two other members, the root and the 
flower, both produced by asexual budding, the former represent- 
ing an earlier stage in vegetable evolution than the leaf, the latter 


248 Colonial Organisms. [March, 


the most highly evolved members of the plant colony. The plat 
stem which connects these individuals resembles the stem of the 
Coelenterate colony in its vascular function, But the plant colony 
has the peculiar feature that it includes two distinct forms o 
nutritive individuals, each absorbing a special kind of nutriment 
The water and the nitrogenous elements of the food are ab 
sorbed by the roots, the carbonaceous by the leaves. Just wher 
the chemical combination of these various elements into prott 
plasm takes place, whether in the leaves or the stem, is not knows 
It appears, from these considerations, that the tree is net 
colony ina simple sense, as in the Polyzoa, in which precise | 
similar individuals are aggregated; but in a complex sense, asti 
the Hydrozoa, in which each individual performs but a part d 
the life functions, and is dependent upon other individuals for th 
remainder. Thus the tree is, in one sense, an individual, wi 
three kinds of organs, but in a truer sense, a colony of pat) 
subordinated individuals. oe 
The third form of organ, or member of the colony, the re" 
ductive, is in its origin a modified leaf group. It has no nu 
powers, its sole duty being sexual reproduction. This rept? aA 
tive function we need to consider in conclusion. The plant T 
ony, like the animal colony, is built up by asexual sa j} 
These buds, in the higher plants, attain a considerable deg | 
-development ere their individual life begins. They enter 1 
their life duties neither as simple cells nor as simple leaf "o 
but as leaf colonies. Thus the product of a rane | 
t loses t” E 
h its 10 
nce of “Ae 


acts as a compound individual. This is another insta | 
celeration of Development,” an advanced degree of deví throw FE 
being attained under the parental care, ere the offspring a 
upon its own resources as an active individual. pe ot | ) 
In régard to the sexual individuals a still more declar 5 18 i 
eration is evident. In this respect the history of ph prodit. 1 
parallel with that of animals. In the lowest forms eT q 
of sexual “conjugation” is a single cell, which is at mt l 
‘upon its own resources for development. In somew ich ; l 
forms, as in the higher Fungi, asexual germs, pê woe 
‘Protoplasm, are’shed as free individuals, and grow itO 


1884.} Colonial Organisms. 249 


ments of the mycelium ere sexual reproduction takes place. 
There seems here a preliminary gathering of nutriment for the 
use of the sexual germ. In the Ferns this process is repeated in 
a fuller degree. The asexual spore develops into a proeméryo, or 
mass of cell tissue, within which arise the ova and spermatozoa 
of sexual reproduction, Thus the new-born sexual germ is pro- 
vided with a stock of nutriment to aid in its embryo develop- 
ment, and the proembryo is in this sense the primitive form of 
the seed of the higher plants. It, indeed, in a fuller sense, rep- 
resents the flower of the higher plants, since it acts as a repro- 
ductive organ, and produces fertilized germs. 

But in the Phanerogams the development of the embryo under 
the parental care proceeds considerably farther than in the 
Cryptogams. The young is not shed as a germinal cell, nor as 
a mass of unorganized cell tissue, nor even as a leaf colony as in , 
the asexual bud, but as a mature plant, with stem, leaf and root 
all clearly indicated, and surrounded by a store of nutriment to 
aid in the early stages of its subsequent growth. Thus the seed 
of the plant is directly parallel to the egg of the animal, and ac- 
celeration of development has attained to as high a stage in the 
one case as in the other. In the highest phases of both plant 
and animal life the young begins its individual life as a copy of 
the mature form. In the seed of the Endogen the simple nature 
of its individual is apparent in the presence of a single seed-leaf, 
while the double, or the yet more numerous cotyledons of the 
Exogens, point to the composite character of the exogenous in- 

ividual. 


_ This paper has grown to too great a length, and yet the subject 
is but briefly treated. A fuller consideration could have included 
Many other facts in aid of the doctrine of the colonial origin of 

Organisms reviewed, and also have made more apparent the 
fact that the organs of individually-developing classes of animals, 
as the mollusks and the vertebrates, present no indication of a 
tendency to assume the typical form of the animal, as required 
by the Opposite theory. It is offered but as a partial contribution 
to the subject, with little value beyond its extension of the inquiry 
to the whole field of animal and vegetable life, and possibly its 
efort to place the phenomena of reproduction, and the essential 
ctions between the Protozoa and the Metazoa, in a some- 
what clearer light, 


250 Anatomy and Physiology of the Family Nepida. (March, 


ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FAMILY 
NEPID} 
BY WILLIAM A. LOCY. 


deae value arising from a study of the organs and their func- 
tions in any animal, is not limited to a knowledge of the 
form studied nor to the facts obtained. The general principles of 
comparative anatomy and physiology will be thus developed, 
since they exist in the study of the bodies of all animals, and 
furthermore, the study of a typical form will furnish a key t08 
more special knowledge of a whole group, just as a type lar 
guage affords a key to a group of languages. In studying the s 
anatomy and physiology of the family Nepidæ, then, results are 
obtained which reach far beyond the boundaries of the family 
and which constitute simply special cases to illustrate the pring: 
ples of comparative anatomy and physiology. : 
The functions performed by the organs of animals’ bodies nat | 
urally fall into three groups, nutrition, reproduction and relation, 
which will form special divisions of this subject to be l 
after considering a few generalities. briet 
Methods of work, etc—The more general methods are a) 
considered here, the special methods, when requiring mention, ie ; 
spoken of in connection with the work for which they a 
signed. 
To dissect successfully the Insecta, it is nece 
under water or some other transparent liquid, therefore 4 by 
ing slab and a tray are essential. The former is easily wis bet 
loading cork or soft wood until it will sink under water ; a Me 
ter to paint this black to furnish a good background, sin 5 a 
tissues of insects are usually white. Any vessel of com - 
size will serve as a tray. 


ssary tO wort 


long the melt 


: 

a 

q 

: 


, found 3% 
be founi 
quate for all ordinary work: (1) A pair of fine Se yí 


1 Thesis to obtain the Degree of Master of Science, submitted to the Y 
Michigan. 


SS ae — 


1884) Anatomy and Physiology of the Family Nepide. 251 


curved points ; (2) a fine scalpel for general cutting; (3) needles 
mounted in wooden handles are very convenient for separating 
the tissues and removing small portions piecemeal, these ground 
to an edge and sharpened form very fine cutting instruments; 
(4) fine pliers or forceps; (5) a good pocket lens, or better, a dis- 
secting microscope. For all histological work and fine anatomy, 
a good compound microscope which, however, need not cost 
more than $35 or $50, is necessary. 

Habits, etc—The family Nepidz, of the Hemiptera, is repre- 
sented in our waters by four distinct genera, Belostoma, Perthos- 
toma, Nepa and Ranatra. They are of common occurrence in 
the ponds and streams about Ann Arbor, except Nepa, which is 
rarely found. The first three mentioned are flattened and oval in 
outline, while Ranatra is remarkable for its long linear form. 

Belostoma and Perthostoma, the most active forms, have their 
hind legs admirably fitted for swimming. Ranatra and Nepa, to 
correspond with their habits, have their hind legs fitted for crawl- 
ing along the bottom and upon aquatic plants. The fore legs of 
all the genera are raptorial and armed with a terminal claw. In 
Ranatra this fits into a groove in the tibia, as the blade of a knife 
fits into the handle. In the other genera the femur is grooved to 
receive the fore leg, and the trochanter, the terminal claw. The 
prey is seized by these raptorial legs and conveyed to the mouth; 
it is here punctured by the three-jointed beak and the nutriment 
sucked out. Their food consists of the juices of larval insects, 
tadpoles, young fish, gasteropods, etc. In Ranatra and Nepa the 
antenne are three-jointed, in Belostoma and Perthostoma four- 
jointed, and concealed in a vaulted cavity opening below the eyes. 

The adult Belostome are very large, ranging from three to four 
and a half inches in length, and are the brigands of the streams 

inhabit. From their rapacious habits they soon exhaust the 
from one locality, then fly to another during the night. 
attack aquatic forms several times their own size. In an 
aquarium I remember having once seen a large Belostoma kill a 
frog four times its size, despite the fierce struggles of the frog to 


In general appearance Ranatra resemble the “ walking-sticks.” 


body ends posteriorly in two long sete, the grooved 


which, applied together, form a respiratory tube as long as the 
omen. The front legs are very long, and extend straight out 


252 Anatomy and Physiology of the Family Nepida, ‘March, 


in front of the body, which throws the center of gravity too fr 
forward for convenient flight. 

When preparing for flight the air sacs are first inflated, the 
prothorax and head are thrown downward, and the front legs dis- 
posed of in a very ingenious manner. The femurs are bent upon 
the joint near the head, a little more than go° from their origina 
position, and the tibiæ are folded closely against these, thus the 
front legs hang under the body, directed a little backward. 

Though of much smaller size, Perthostoma strongly resembles 
Belostoma in general appearance, but is quite distinct in anteng, 
beak and legs. The females of the genus carry their eggs on the 
back, regularly arranged in a single layer, cemented to the body 
by a substance insoluble in water. The eggs of the other genera 
are attached to the water plants and submerged objects. 

Belostoma, Perthostoma and Ranatra are infested by 4 Hy- 
drachna, which is found attached to different parts of the body 
This is probably also true of Nepa, but I have not had the spe 
mens to determine. For a fuller account of the external anatom) 
and the family characteristics, the reader is referred to the at 
on systematic entomology, while attention is now called to 
internal anatomy. ' 

. A. THE FUNCTION oF NUTRITION. pe 
The function of nutrition includes all the processes pe sol 
in preserving the organism of an animal, as the digestion ai 
its conveyance to a point for use, the chemical changes : 
verting food into tissue, and the removal of waste matter “| 

a ction of circle 
processes are carried on by the organs of digestion, a 
tion, of respiration and of excretion, which form separate ; 
heads for consideration. 

I, THe DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. ee 
15 

On opening the insect the most prominent set of organs mr 
alimentary canal and its appendages. The thread-like the bek 
characteristic of suctorial insects, extends straight from stoma 
to the metathorax, where it enlarges abruptly into the pecali | 
The anterior end of the cesophagus is connected a vision 
pumping apparatus, which will be described later. The © et 
the digestive apparatus into a distinct crop, chylific 
frequently found among insects, is practically oblit je 
insects; this, indeed, is the case in most of the i pegit 
Sometimes in Ranatra an oval enlargement exists at 
a 


1884.) Anatomy and Physiology of the Family Nepide. 253 


ning of the stomach (Fig. 3) and another at the end not so well 
marked, but in neither case are they distinctly separate from the 
rest of the stomach. 

The stomach, taken as a whole, is of unusual size, and much 
saculated by contraction. In the third abdominal segment its 
pyloric end opens into the intestine. Both stomach and intestine 
consist of at least two coats, an external muscular coat and an 
internal mucous coat. The existence of a third coat in the Hem- 
iptera is a disputed point; though Dr. Leidy mentions it in Bel- 
ostoma, and I have found it, to the best of my belief, in Ranatra. 

The muscular coat consists of both longitudinal and annular 
fibers, the former predominating. The peristaltic contractions of 
the alimentary canal are due to these muscular layers, and in the 
insects under consideration these movements are very energetic 
and thorough, separating the liquid food into chyle and excre- 
menta. The mucous layer extends the entire length of the ali- 
mentary canal, and is most easily observed at the pharynx and at 

anus. 

Before emptying into the caecum, the intestine is divided into an 
anterior and posterior portion by a bulbous enlargement, upon 
which the Malpighian tubules are situated. The first part may be 
conveniently called the duodenum, as some authors call it, and 
the after part the ilium. The duodenum is convoluted upon it- 
self several times. In Belostoma it turns from its origin, first to 
the left, then upward, running along the left side of the stomach 
to about one-third its length, then turning upon itself, returns to 
the median line of the body; from this point it passes upward on 
the right side of the stomach, turns with an irregular loop and 
teaches again the median line, where it enlarges into the bulb, The 
Ussues of the duodenum are the same as those of the stomach. 

_ The ilium is slightly larger than the duodenum and coils upon 
self five or six times in a sigmoid manner. In the greater num- 
der of Specimens dissected, the coils were six in number. The 
, ilium empties into a cylinder larger than itself, which represents 
the colon or rectum. The upper portion, which is separated from 
l Ss lower by a slight constriction, is sometimes considered as 

(“Presenting the colon, and the lower portion the rectum. This 

“er diminishes rapidly, and ends in a pointed opening at the 
| a aperture, which is situated above and behind the genital 


e ES 
F a 


254 Anatomy and Physiology of the Family Nepide. (March, 


From the colon a large czecal pouch extends forward, beneath 
the intestine, reaching in its ordinary condition to the middle of 
the fourth ventral segment. This is the cecum. It is sometimes 
so distended with air as to reach even to the thorax, and to give 
a bloated appearance to the usually flattened ventral surface of 
the insect. This organ probably plays the same part as the air 
bladder of some fishes, serving as a natatory vesicle. I have 
often seen these insects come to the surface and forcibly exp! 
the air from the cecum. When the abdomen is just below the 
surface, the water is thrown upward in jets by the discharged 
air. I have also noticed the larvz of Belostoma, when irri i 
throw from the anus jet after jet of a strong smelling, light-greet 
ish fluid, the propulsive force of which probably comes from tit 
cecum, | 

Frequently when the insects have died in water, the cæcum 
naturally white, is found swelled and of a dark-blue or livit 
color. From the large number of cases in which this has beet 
observed, I think that it is due to some disease. The chief 
ferences in the alimentary canal of Belostoma and Ranatra m 
_ be seen by comparing Figs. 3 and 5. e 

Method of taking Food—tIn order to understand how — ; 
sects take their food, we must first study the boda ; 
or the beak. This is a three-jointed tubular structure a 
from the modified mouth parts. All masticatory pane 
obliterated, the labium is elongated and folded upon itself vitit 
ing a sort of trough, which is nearly closed at the topi 
this the maxillæ and mandibles are found modified ee 
bristles which, before entering the trough, pass through peak 
made from the labrum. This sheath projects into the > ee 
trough, from above (Fig. 2). and te 

By the action of these bristles the prey is punctured r 
food-juices brought to the real sucking organ, the tine, iat? 
This is a stiff chitinous trough, roofed by a plate "e pt of this 
which the cesophagus enters from behind. The ene 
trough extend much above the roofing, as shown 10 “adie of ™ | 
tion of the apparatus (Fig. 7); from the elevated mi attache 
roof chitinous threads originate, to which muscles a into Qo 
These extend upward, first in one sheet, then Ss are 
parts, one going to the left the other to the ee rid 
tached to the integument of the head. There is ROT” 


1884. | The Creodonta. 255 


rent sucking apparatus in the body, and the only use I can assign 
to the structure just described, is that of a pumping organ. It is 
probable that the liquid food is sucked into the pharynx by the 
contraction of the muscles which are attached to the chitinous 
threads ; this process enlarges the pharynx cavity by lifting the 
roof, From the pharynx the food passes, by muscular contrac- 
tion, down the cesophagus. [Plates to follow with succeeding 
number. | 
(To be continued.) 


Faw 
À 


THE CREODONTA. 
BY E. D. COPE. 

Eeen knowledge justifies the generalization that, since 
‘the Eocene period, the mammalian fauna of the Northern 
hemisphere has diminished in the number of its species and gen- 
era. The Eocene fauna was richer than the Miocene ; the Miocene 
than the Pliocene, and the Pliocene was richer than the modern 
_ fauna. With this numerical diminution in species has come in- 
creased specialization of structure, which means both greater per- 

fection of mechanism and greater diversity of type.” 
_ The order of Carnivora is a universal and well-known factor of 
the mammalian life of the present period. It was equally so in 
the Pliocene and Miocene periods. When we come to examine 
the overflowing life of undoubted Eocene time, we can no longer 
find mammals which possess the essential characters of the order. 
¢ Carnivora are unguiculate gyrencephalous mammalia with a 
Soossified scaphoid and lunar bone of the carpus, called, there- 
» the scapholunar bone. They have a grooved astragalus. 
No scapholunar bone has yet been found in any Eocene mammal 
_ ' North America, and it is doubtful whether any has been found 
in Europe. Nevertheless the Eocene fauna did not lack preda- 
tory flesh-eaters whose function was like that of the Carnivora of 
“er periods, to restrain the undue increase of all other forms of 
life. Their variety was greater than that presented by their car- 
nivorous Successors on the North American continent, and their 
numbers were proportioned to the general luxuriance of the life 
which furnished them subsistence. There were species whose 
“ze and powers of destruction equaled those of the bears, lions 
| = tigers of modern times. Species of medium size abounded, 
.., Seneralization was published in the Report U. S. G. G. Survey W. of tooth 


256 The Creodonta, (March, 


while the smaller forms, representing in function the civets and 
weasels of to-day, were especially numerous. 

The systematic position of these animals has been difficult to 
determine with satisfactory precision, owing to the impertet 
= knowledge which we possess of their structure. Besides lack of 
scapholunar bone, they nearly all differ from the Carnivora in ther 
ungrooved astragalus, and their greatly reduced and smooth 
cerebral hemispheres. Their position then can only be with the 
Marsupialia or the Insectivora. The superficial resemblances art 
often to the former order, where the carnivorous types Thylacinus, 
Sarcophilus, Dasyurus and the opossums, seem to present neat 
affinities, if the structure of the teeth only is to be considered. 
Laurillard, DeBlainville and Gaudry have, at different times, 3 
signed to them this position. It is true, however, that no om 
osseous character, except the possession of marsupial bones, hs 
yet been discovered which characterizes the order Marsupialia. | 


It rests chiefly on the characters of its soft parts, especially 0 
the brain and reproductive system. Most marsupials have th l 
angle of the lower jaw inflected ; the Eocene flesh-eaters do nt 
The carnivorous marsupials generally have more than ix” | 
teeth ; the Eocene flesh-eaters have six or less. The m fa i 
generally have perforated palates; the Eocene forms e 
play the character. No marsupial bones have yet been ef m 
the Eocene forms (with the possible exception of Mioclænus) A 
that we cannot yet find the necessary reasons for placing ee 7 
tinct forms with the order which possesses them. On : 
hand the brain was probably marsupial in its internal sap 
as it certainly was in its external character. Finally s a 
covery of the character of the temporary dentition 1m the oe 
flesh-eaters has added force to the view that they cannot we 
supiils. M. Filhol has shown that in Hyanodon ae 
three temporary molars, and I have proven that there but 0% 
least two in Triisodon. There is, according to Flow’ n trot 
in the Marsupialia. It is, however, to be remembered th a 
marsupials, opossums, occur in the Oligocene In that thf 
America and Europe (genus Peratherium Aym.), ania in Be 
resemble their Eocene predecessors very much, especial a 
constitution and form of the molar teeth. ch fundë 

The comparison with the Insectivora betrays 9° ife” 
mental diversities as that with the Marsupialia. The w 


1884.] The Creodonta. 257 


are of minor import, although in particular cases considerable. 
In spite of their often large size and evidently predatory habits, 
the Eocene flesh-eaters must be placed with the Insectivora. But 
as I have already pointed out,’ they have contemporaries which 
must go with them. These are two groups, the one with rodent, 
the other with edentate tendencies, the Tillodonta and Tznio- 
donta. The former of these is intimately allied to the living 
Chiromys of Madagascar, which itself is almost a lemur, by gen- 


i —Left mandibular ramus of Zyiřsodon guivirensis Cope, three-fourths nat. 

size, ee the Puerco beds of New Mexico. Fig. a, erena vem, , displaying the 

last porary molar in place; 4, the same from above; e, internal si 

the temporary molar removed and the permanent four wae “molaradisplayed i in 

the jaw; d, the fourth permanent premolar viewed from above. nal; from 
ol. 1v, Report U.S. Ceolapical Survey Terrs., F. V. Hayden in charge. 


eral consent. The whole of this assemblage I have regarded as 
an order of mammals to which I have given the name of the 
Bunotheria. In this order there are included six suborders, and 


; S. G. G. Surveys W. of tooth meridian, G. M. Wheeler in charge, 


Report U. 
IV, P. 85, 1877. oul Academy Philadelphia, 1883, p. 77. 
VOL, Xvitt.—wo, m1, 17 


258 The Creodonta. [March, 


the carnivorous type of this series, the group now under discus 
sion, I have called the Creodonta.! Its definition is as follows: 

Neither incisor nor canine teeth growing from persistent pulps 
Hallux not opposable. Superior true molars tritubercular or 
more simple. 

The only character which distinguishes the suborder from the 
Insectivora is the possession of tritubercular or more simple 
molars above. This is, as I have shown, a feature of more it 
portance than has been hitherto supposed. The trituberculi 
molar is the primitive type from which the quadritubercular 
has been directly derived. It has furnished the starting point fr 
both the carnivorous and the herbivorous dentitions, since it wè 
common to both the clawed and hoofed mammals of the Putt, 
or lowest known epoch of the Eocene period. 4 

So far as known, the Creodonta were all plantigrade, and bi 
long tails, and were mostly five-toed. With the possible excep 
of Protopsalis tigrinus, they all had relatively larger heads a 
shorter legs than the majority of the Carnivora of the pres 
period. This is true of all the recent Creodonta, 
reach the dimensions of many of the fossil forms. e 

The contents of the suborder Creodonta display, in ther mi 
fications, the usual range of simplicity and complexity c0 
with the type, and the families may be arranged in some ; 
phylogenetic order, in accordance with this principle. ™ 
less a difficulty arises as to what are ancestral or primitive 
tions, and what characters, if any, must be regarded as the re 
of degradation. As other parts of the skeleton are less ee | 
obtained, these considerations relate chiefly to the dentition. 4 

In my paper on the Homologies and Origin of pe“ 
Molar Teeth, etc.? I pointed out that the cone was er b 
form of tooth from which all others must have been deni 
the Mammalia this may have been modified in several mot | 
ultaneously, but two methods present themselves as the rene sit 
tain secondary primitive types. The first of these is that 5 
ple premolar, where the cone is compressed, and 1s sooner sil 
followed by a horizontal extension or heel. This type Pi 
phia Academy” 


1 For greater detail on this topic, see Proceedings Philadel 
P- 77: 
*Proceedings American Philosophical Society, 1883, P. 324 
Bulletin, No, 37. 

3Journal Academy Nat. Sciences Philada., 1874, March. 


1884.] The Creodonta. 259 


the inferior true;molars of the Mesonychidze. The second modi- 
fication consists in the addition of lateral cusps or spines to the 
simple cone. Such a type is seen in inferior molars of Spalaco- 
therium tricuspidens Ow., of the Jurassic period, and in some of 
the incisors of Plestadapis tricuspidens' Gerv. This form, by the 
shifting of the two subordinate cusps to the inner side of the 
principal one, will give a trituberculate molar of the lower series, 
an exaggeration of which is seen in the South African “ mole,” 


le 2.—Mandible of Mesonyx ossifragus Cope, from the Wasatch epoch of the 
5 5 Horn river, Wyoming, one-third nat. size. Original. From Report U. S. G, 
v Terrs., Vol. Ill. 


Chrysochloris. If a cingulum appears at the posterior base of 
such a tooth, we have a rudimental “heel,” such as is seen in 
Centetes, and is still better developed in many creodont and mar- 
Supial genera, forming the basis of the inferior sectorial tooth of 
the Carnivora, This, which I have called the “ tubercular-secto- 


1 : i 
Lemoine, Communication sur les Ossemens Fossiles deny. Reims, p. 9, pl. 1, 
13. The superior dentition of this specimen is represented in fig. 6. 


260 The Creodonta. [March 


rial,” is especially well marked in Oxyæna (Fig. 3) and Stypo- 
lophus. 

All stages of diminution of the anterior of the two inner cusps 
of the inferior molars may be seen in the genera of Centetidæ, as 
for instance in Ictops and Diacodon, until a true quadrituberc- 
late molar is reached as in Mioclenus. In Miacis and Didymic 
tis one tubercular-sectorial remains with one or more tubercular 
The process of developing a tubercular inferior molar from a tt 
tubercular tooth, is the reverse of what has taken place in the 
Carnivora, where the tubercular-sectorial has, by loss of pafs 


Mea Ai 


: on Me 
Fie. 3 Oxyena fo rcipata Cope, mandible from the Wasatch bet rooth 2 
baste kal natural size. Original from Report U. S. G. G. Survey 
WwW 


lars 
G. M. osmi, Vol. tv, The numbers a the approximate premo: 
molars ge 
s 
become a true sectorial. With these explanatory cea 
sent the following definition of the families. I have 
used the shape of the astragalus as a family ssn h ed 2 
majority of the Creodonta its trochlear face is not pare 
the Mesonychide it is strongly grooved. In wee 
some species of Stypolophus, as well as in the moles, ! 
grooved : 
I. Inferior DE AA premolariform. Mem” 
Inferior molars consisting of a cone and heel. n... 000er ttt "ene 
Inferior molars with a blade formed of anterior and pedi cuii: 


1884. ] The Creodonta. i 261 


II. Inferior molars tritubercular without heel, 
No sectorial teeth; tibia and fibula codssified.............. . s o o o Chrysochloridide. 
IH. Inferior molars tritubercular-sectorial or quadritubercular, 


a, No superior sectorial teeth. 


ene DA TR a e o iaeaea h erena ea te Na Cea oO Centetide. 
Tibia fibula codssified; external tubereles of saperi molars wih! 
CbniG WO CieviCles ool ul sc eks coe .Mythomyide} 
Tibia ad fibula codssified ; external tubercles two Vs; clavicles..... --- Lalpide. 
aa, First true superior molar sector 
Tibia and fibula distinct; no tubercular molars......... Oxyenide. 


aaa, Fourth superior premolar sectorial. 
Tibia and fibula distinct; true molars tubercular,...........0.s0000000sMiacida. 
The number of genera and species embraced by these families 
is as follows. The extinct forms only are enumerated, and 
those of North America are specified : 


Families. Genera. Species. N. America, 
Mesonychide saae... es nas A ORS A 
Hyænodontidæ è I I0 3 
ryotordidæe REPT ERTL CEE ee Pag aed * 
e Sb in ss kn oa hae OE sasak 18 44 37 
Mythomyide ......... * * 
Talpide .... * * 
E a aaan 3 7 4 
Miacidæ..... 2 12 12 
ROM E cs nas anne he Oak 28 80 63 


The affinities of these families may be expressed in the follow- 
nt diagram, which may be regarded as an attempted phylogeny 


Insectivora Carnivora 


Talpide © Mythomyide Miacide  Oxyænidæ _ 


LEUT rR iae 
Chrysochlorididæ Centetidse Hyznodontida 


ae 
=o Hes Mesonychidz 


Mesozoic * forms. 


1 
This family is sometimes called the Po‘amogalide. Mythomys is, however, the 
“ame first published, with a description, for the typical and only genus. 


262 The Creodonta. (March, 


In geological time the Mesonychidz, Miacidæ and Oxyanite — 
are confined to the Eocene period. The Hyznodontide extent 
through the Upper Eocene and Oligocene or Lowest Miocene 
formations. The Centetidz are predominately Eocene, but i 
North America they are also found in the Oligocene. In recent 
times they are only known in the islands of Madagascar and 
Cuba. The Chrysochlorididz are modern and African, while the 
Talpidz commence in the Middle Miocene in Europe, and area 
abundant in recent times in the Northern hemisphere. Mytho- 
myidæ are only known as recent in África. These relations miy 
be expressed as follows: 


Eocene. Miocene. Recent, 
Lower, Upper. Lower. 
Mesonychid 


Hyænodontidæ .., “a | 
Chrysochlorididz, 
Centetidz 


eee ee ees 


"ee ease — _ 


z 

D 

5 

Ou 2 

8 
eee 


Americal 


MESONYCHID#. 

In this family the form of the inferior molars is not very dif 
ent from that displayed by the last lower premolars 0 i 
ous Mammalia generally. The superior molars are er pt 
pondingly simple structure, in like manner resembling © 
premolars of the superior series of Carnivora and some 


first, Ù 


also differ from those of Mesonyx in the development a J 
terior cusp, thus approaching the Hyznodontide (Fig: hos 


1884.] The Creodonta. 263 


mal from France under the name Afiterodon gaudryi. He has 
not stated how this genus differs from Amblyctonus. 


Fig. 4. Fig. 5. 

Fic. 4.—Part of mandibular ramus of Ambiyctonus sinosus Cope, with the last 
three molars ; upper figure the same, from above; two-thirds nat. size. From the 
Yasatch beds of New Mexico. Fic. 5.—Distal ends of tibia of, a-b, Amblyctonus 
sinosus, and c d e, Oxyena morsitans Cope; 4 and d, distal views; two-thirds natu- 

l size. From the Wasatch beds of New Mexico. Original, from U. S. G. G 
Expl. Surv. W. of tooth mer., G. M. Wheeler. 

In the genus Mesonyx we have a structure of the astragalus 
found only elsewhere in flesh-eating mammals in the Hyznodon.? 
Its distal extremity has two well-marked facets, one for the navic- 
ular bone and one for the cuboid (Fig. 9).. The appearance is 
that of a perissodactyle mammal, and the astragalus of the Me- 
onyx might well be taken for that of an ungulate of that sub- 
order. The tibial face of the bone is grooved, another point in 
which it differs from most of the Creodonta. Still another char- 
acteristic peculiarity is seen in the forms of the ungues. These 
are neither claws nor hoofs, but between the two, resembling the 
corresponding part in some Rodentia. Their deeply fissured ex- 
‘remities show that they are rather allied to claws than to hoofs 
(Fig. 10). The narrow navicular facet of the astragalus renders 
it probable that the inner digit or hallux is wanting, and that 
there are but four toes in the hinder foot. The form of the trape- 
zum shows that there are but four toes on the anterior foot (Fig. 
7). One more character completes the singular ensemble pre- 
sented by this genus. The zygapophy’ses of the lumbar vertebrae 
embrace each other as in the lower perissodactyles and artio- 

les, a character not found in the Carnivora or Insectivora. 

"Fide Professor W. B. Scott. 


264 Lhe Creodonta. [ March, 


Among the Creodonta I have only observed it elsewhere in the 
genus Mioclænus, but the vertebrae of many of these animals 
are unknown. It is wanting in Thylacinus and the opossum, and 
rudimental in Sarcophilus, among marsupials. 

Three species of the genus Mesonyx are known, M. ossifragus 


G, 6.—Mesonyx ossifragus Cope, skull gue to postgleno E pro ee 
sive, ‘from below; on e-third dates! size. the Was = 


iginal, from esau. S. Geol. Surv. ide tage Va H a en. 
Cope, from the Wasatch Eocene, and M. lanius and M. n 
Cope, from the Bridger. The last named is the type claws W” 
the size of the wolf, and had more slender feet and 


1 Proceedings American Philos, Society, 1833, p. 543- 


i I A ks el ee 


1884. | The Creodonta. 265 
\ 


the other two. The M. /anius was considerably larger than the 
M. obtusidens, equaling the black bear (Ursus americanus) in size. 
It had a large head, with a long, rather narrow and truncate 
muzzle. The limbs were relatively smaller, 
not exceeding those of the black bear in 
length and thickness. The tail was long 
and slender as in the cats, while the claws 
were broad and flat as in the beaver. 

The molar, canine and incisor teeth of 
my specimen, as well as those of one in the 
Princeton Museum, are much worn by 
use. This is especially true of the canines 
of both, while the crowns of the molars of 
my Bitter Creek specimen are almost en- 
tirely worn away. The same peculiarity is 
to be observed in the specimens of the al- 
lied Amélyctonus sinosus, which I obtained 
in New Mexico. It is probable that these 
Species chewed hard substances. The pe- 
culiar approach of the lower canines is a 
Special modification for peculiar habits, Vic, Mamy: hai 
which I suspect to have been the devouring left anterior foot, one-half 
of the turtles which so abounded on land abc To rh r 
and in the waters of the same period. The right side of same individ- 
slender symphysis could most readily be (2; Rom the Bridger 
introduced into the shell, while the lateral beds of Wyoming. 
Pressure of the upper canines with the lower, would be well 
adapted for breaking the bony covering of those reptiles. The 
breaking of these shells in the attempt to masticate their contents 
Would produce the unusual wear of the teeth observed. 

: The Mesonyx ossifragus is the largest species, its skull exceed- 
ing that of the grizzly bear in dimensions (Figs. 2, 6, 8,9 and 10), 

Was originally found by the writer in the Wasatch beds of New 
Mexico, and was afterwards found by Mr. Wortman to be not un- 
common in the corresponding formation in Northern Wyoming. 
From Material obtained by this gentleman, we can forma general 

of the form and proportions of the Mesonyx ossifragus. We 

‘an depict an animal as large as a large-sized American black bear, 
with a long, stout tail and a wide head as large as that of a grizzly 
The fore limbs are so much shorter than the hind limbs 


266 The Creodonta. [ March, 


that the animal customarily sat on its haunches when on land, la 
walking, its high rump and low withers would give it somewh# 
the figure of a huge rabbit. Its neck was about as long as tha 
of an average dog. Its tread was plantigrade, and its claws like 
those of various rodents, intermediate between hoofs and claws 
The animal, to judge from its otter-like humerus, was a goo 
swimmer, although there is nothing specially adapted for aquatic 


f 


i 
HH} 


8.—Anterior limb bones of the specimen of ane 
. . S m 


6 and 8, one-third nat, size. Fig. a, femur from front; 4, 5 
tragalus and calcaneum from above; g, the same, distal view. 
poch. 


gon her hast 

life in the other bones of its limbs. Its teeth, o the A ai 
are of the simple construction of the mammals which ; ait 
largely composed of fishes. We cannot but consider 


1884. ] Editors’ Table. 267 


as one of the most singular which the Eocene period possessed, 
In size it was not exceeded by any other 
flesh-eater of the period, but was equaled 
by the Protopsalis tigrinus. Its anterior limbs 
were evidently relatively shorter than in the 
Mesonyx lanius. 

The Sarcothraustes antiquus is a large ani- 
mal from the Puerco epoch of New Mexico, 
of about the size of the Mesonyx ossifragus, 
Its inferior molars have a wide heel as in 
Amblyctonus. The genus Dissacus Cope, 
Occurs in the same formation and locality. 
Its inferior molars (Fig. 11) present an ac- 
cessory cusp on the inner side of the prin- 
cipal cone. This constitutes the first step 
towards the tubercular-sectorial tooth of From the Wasatch beds 
other families. There are two species, the % Wyoming. 

D. navajovius, as large as the red fox, and D. carnifex Cope, of 
larger size, 


ese 11.— Dissacus navajovius Cope, right mandibular ramus, three-fourths natu- 
Origin} a, external; 4, superior views. From the Puerco beds of New Mexico. 


A 


EDITORS! TABLE. 


EDITORS: A. S. PACKARD, JR., AND E. D. COPE. 


— That the ordinary jury is incompetent to deal with nice 
questions of mental status which come before our courts receives 
uent proof. And this will always be the case so long as the 
question of « responsibility” is permitted to complicate the ques- 
tion. Two recent verdicts bring this subject before us at the 


268 Editors’ Table. [March, 


present time. Nutt, of Uniontown, Pennsylvania, was declared 
insane by a jury who knew him to be sane, in order to avoid the 
necessity of hanging him for a murder which they thought justi- 
fiable. Meredith, of Philadelphia, is declared sane, although his — 
nearest relatives testified to his monomania, and his written de- 
fence proved that their statements were correct. This was done 
to avoid the necessity of depriving the subject of the investigation — 
of his liberty. | | 

It is thus clear that our laws on this subject need revision 
They should keep in view the fact that the brain is liable to tem 
porary disorders like other organs, and that persons must not be 
adjudged “insane” because they have displayed insanity on om 
or more occasions in their history. Second, the question of 
“responsibility” should be subordinated to more easily under 
stood aspects of the question. Thirdly, undoubted insanity 
should not be considered ground for restraining liberty in sott 
cases, nor for escape from penalties in others. In explanation 
these points we reproduce here our remarks in the NATURALS! i 
for January, 1882, apropos of the assassination of President 
Garfield: sey 

“In the first place the present definition, which only “= ‘, 
insanity where the criminal is unable to judge of the consequent 
of an act, is certainly erroneous. Persons undoubtedly sae 
often act with deliberate design and great forethought. It m 
be a safe, though not a perfect definition of insanity, t0 P 
it asa state of mind in which acts are committed which in 
direct opposition to the plain and obvious interests, not y 
sons affected by the act, but of the actor. Here the Kear 
the ignorance of consequences is restricted to its tegi : 
the instinct of self-preservation, through which the rational sti 
has originated. It is another way of stating that the em ma 
or sentimental elements of character have so far overe ] 
rational as to cause the commission of self-destructive 
Under this definition an act of violence committed vite | 
society would not indicate insanity, while the same a a 
in civilized society, where means of detection and pu perst 
abound, would be properly regarded as that of an me 

“In such a classification, criminals are those vapa 
the rights of persons and property with a reas g 


of advancing their own interests thereby. J : 
* * * * * 


1884.] Editors’ Table. 269 


“The punishment of the insane should be like that of the sane 
criminal, designed to protect society in two ways; firstly, by 
restraining the criminal himself from inflicting further injury; an 
secondly, by furnishing persons in the community of similar 
mental constitution with reasons for believing that it is contrary 
to their interests to commit like acts. In this way the law would 
furnish such insane with motives which would produce a change 
in the balance of the mind, the result being sanity. The punish- 
ment of death is as proper in such cases as in that of sane 
criminals of corresponding grade. The death. penalty might 
even be necessary in the case of that lower grade of the in- 
sane who do not understand consequences. In this case the 
only object sought is the protection of the community, for 
motives are less operative with these than with the higher class 
of the insane. In either, the question of moral responsibility is 
omitted from consideration, as being beyond the range of human 
knowledge.”—C. 


— When philology and archeology together take up the 
same tools and work at the Aryan problem, employing the criti- 
cal methods of paleontology, the results are most promising. 
Several works recently published converge upon the question as 
to the origin, or rather the birthplace of our Aryan ancestors. 
The origin of our domestic animals, particularly the‘horse, ox, sheep 
and pig, formerly supposed mostly to have been in Central Asia, is 
now shown to have been in Central and Eastern Europe as well 
as Western and Central Asia. The birthplace of the cereals ap- 
pears to have been for the most part in Western Asia and in 
Europe. Any one who will, from the facts given by DeCandolle 
in his “L’Origine des Plantes cultivées,” plot upon a map the 
areas where they have been found wild, will be surprised to see 
that most of the areas of wheat, barley, rye and oats lie in the 
Western border of Asia and in Southeastern Europe. We are 
not, then, compelled to vaguely look to the highlands of north- 
western India and of Central Asia for the origin of our domestic 
animals and plants. | 

And now a reviewer in the Academy of Dec. 8, Mr. A. H. 
Sayce, in noticing two recent German works on the origin of the 


St achvergleichung und Urgeschichte) has for the first time em- 
Ployed a thoroughly critical method in determining the character 


270 Recent Literature. [March, 


nity to which Pictet and other writers have accustomed us. The 
early Aryan comes before us as a coarse and uncivilized nomad, 
unacquainted with the use of metals, and protecting himself wi 
the skins of wild beasts from the inclemencies of the climate’ 
This Aryan society was like that of the Swiss pile-dwellers 
whom, indeed, Professor Schrader believes to have been Aryat, 
drawing attention to the similarities between the results he has 
derived from his linguistic researches and the discoveries o 
archeologists in the ruins of the Swiss lake-dwellers of the stone 
a 


e 

Professor Schrader’s “linguistic palæontology,” carried on, 
adds the reviewer, under the salutary control of archeology, leads 
him to the same conclusions, though by a different road, as 
fessor Penka, z. e., that Europe, not Asia, was the original home 
of the Aryan family, as first suggested by Dr. Latham. Mr. 
Sayce tells us that this theory has recently been gaining ground, 
remarking: “ We now know that it is to the European, rather 
than to the Indic languages that we must look for the truest t} 
resentation of primitive Indo-European grammar and phono se 

he argument, therefore, formerly used to support the wg , 
an Asiatic origin for the Indo-European family of speech 
now be turned against it.” ae 

Penka considers the starting point of Aryan emigration te 
been Scandinavia, the Aryan invaders of Northwestern ae 
having been a later and distant offshoot of the primitives’) 
Mr. Sayce has been attracted by Poesche’s hypothesis, ™ 
makes the Rokytno marshes the original center of the ae 
ding to s™ 

thot 

d, and where tt 
race or races who first spoke them originally dwelt. ae unt | 


| 


in suggesting that the birthplace of the Aryans was in rae 


:0:-— 

RECENT LITERATURE. his met 

MEINERT’s ANATOMY OF THE CENTIPEDE’S HEADS i of tht 

oir is fortunately written in English. It treats 1n se (5.0 

external anatomy of the parts of the head in Scolops a a conti 

spinipes Kohlr.) as most typical of the Chilopods. ‘tl always ” ; 
bution to the morphology of the myriopods it W! : 


; Syste 4: nae 
‘Caput Scolopendre. The Head of the Scolopendra and its Stem 
Fr. MEINERT. With 3 plates. Copenhagen, 1883. 4%» PP 11: 


ie eS aA 


1884.] Recent Literature, 271 


valuable, though we doubt if some of the author’s views will 
command generalassent. The details appear to have been worked 
out with care, while the drawings seem to have been very care- 
fully made by the author, and beautifully engraved by Lovendal. 

In the course of his lengthy views of the works of his prede- 
cessors, the author criticises and disproves Newport views that 
the head of chilopods is composed of eight sub-segments. Four 
pages of the memoir are devoted to an elaborate and useful tabu- 
lar view of the opinions of forty-six authors as to the morphology 
and nomenclature of the mouth-parts. 

Dr. Meinert gives a new explanation and nomenclature of the 
mouth-parts. He also claims that they are homologous with 
those of biting insects, or, to use his own words, set forth in an 
idiom peculiarly his own, “ it is purposed to serve me to show the 
coincidence of the head of Chilopoda and its parts of the mouth 
with the head of the Insect and its parts of the mouth, especially 
in the Orthoptera, that is to say, in insects with free biting parts 
of the mouth, and four pairs of these parts or four metamers in 
the head.” Here it may be remarked that Meinert does not re- 
gard the antennz and the antennal segment as homologues of the 
other mouth-parts and segments. In his own words, “ The real 
head then must be said to consist of the three foremost metamers, 
together with their exponents or limbs; that is to say, the labium, 
‘he maxillz and the mandibles, and besides of the lamina cephal- 
ca, which latter, as well as its appendages, the antennz, I by no 
means can consider to be homonomeous with the other metamers 
of the body and of the head, and with their exponents.” Mei- 
nert's reasons for rejecting the view that the so-called antennal 
segment is not such, are weak and unsatisfactory; its form is 
necessarily unlike the other segments, as it constitutes a preoral 
Segment and the front of the head; it is therefore unlike the suc- 


ceeding segments, though homologous with them. He considers 


ed as 

Splendid memoir (published, however, since Meinert’s present 
Paper) appears to confirm Metschnikoff’s views. Meinert claims 
that “ neither in the Chilopoda nor in the insects can any ventral 
Part be pointed out in the lamina cephalica;” and he also insists 
that the alimentary canal does not pass through the antennal 
segment, or, as he calls it, Zamina cephalica. But if any one will 
*xamine Sograff’s Figs. 38, 39 and 43, we think that he will ad- 
ut that Sograff fully proves that, as in insects, the alimentary 
canal at first opens as a mouth in the middle of the antennal seg- 
ha Moving back into the mandibular segment in after life, 

ile the antennæ arise as pleural outgrowths in almost exactly 


bie 


272 Recent Literature, | March, 


the same manner and relative proportion as the mandibles and 
maxillæ. Here, as in other memoirs, Meinert lacks breadth and 
comprehensiveness in his treatment of arthropod morphology. 
We also think that there is a decided lack of homology between 
the mouth-parts of myriopods and hexapods, as we have en- 
deavored recently to show, the terms labium, maxillæ and mat 
dibles not being properly applicable to the myriopods, however 
alike their appendages are in the embryo to those of Hexapoda. 


Leypic’s RESEARCHES IN ANarTomY AND HıstroLocy.—Prokts- 
sor Leydig devotes the greater part of his most recent W 
“Unbersuchungen zur Anatomie und Histologie der Thiere 
(Bonn, 1883, pp. 174), to the discussion of the intimate structure 
of the tissue cells of the Insecta. A few pages treat of the tactile 
papilla of the Kentucky blind fish (Amdlyopsis spelaus), and of | 
the olfactory cones in the cray-fish from the Mammoth cave 
(Oréonectes pellucidus). As these forms have been described | 
detail in earlier volumes of this journal (Jan., '72, Dec, n 
some of the readers of the NaTuRALIST may be interested in t 
result of the distinguished histologist’s observations. | 

The tactile papilla are arranged on the top of the head 
ridges, which thus acquire a pectinated appearan beda 
Jour., 1871, PL, Figs. 7, 8, 9, 10). Professor Wyman ree , 
filament projecting out of the funnel-shaped extremity © ee 
papilla, but Leydig denies the existence of the filament, se shaped | 
that the funnel is occupied in the fresh state by a benna d 
sense-organ similar to those met with everywhere in ~ nel 8 
Teleostei, and suggests that as the thin edge of the tu ae 
occasionally prolonged into several points, one of these m . 
taken for a central filament by Wyman. ie 

In addition to the larger papillæ, isolated smaller ones a 
scattered over the head and mucous membran 
being most frequent on the lips. They are, for 
naked eye, and in fact generally require the micr oscope slightly 
demonstration. They are slender and cylindrical, with X for he 
broader base and fringed extremity, also hollowed ou 
-lodgment of a “ sense-beaker.” for bY 

As the want of sight in the blind fish is compensated ea o 
the development of the tactile ridges, so in various Cru t 
the “cave-fauna” it has been noticed that the o a 
are present to a much greater number than ID % to O% 


” 


possessed of sight. Professor Leydig was ¥ f the othe! 
pore Orconectes pellucidus in this respect with any ° ch of tt 


orth American species, but finds that the external b eT a 
antennula which bears the olfactory cones has peg of the 
ments. The cones are chiefly confined to the middle © seven 
flagellum, and are there arranged to the number punch ® 
each segment, three being on the middle and four m4 a 


my 


1884. ] Recent Literature. 273 


the distal end. The number to each segment decreases both 
towards the proximal and distal ends of the cone-bearing region. 

On examination of the only species of which I have living 
specimens just now, C. propinquus, I find the external branch of 
the antennula composed of eighteen or nineteen segments. The 
distal nine of these alone bear olfactory cones, and only five of 
them (the 11th, r2th, 13th, 14th, 15th), have the full number of 
eight on each joint, so that O. pellucidus would appear to form no 
exception to the rule which has been noted above as to the 
European “ Cave” Crustacea.—R. R. W. 


STERNBERG'S PHOTOMICROGRAPHS AND How To MaKe Tuem.— 
Many a naturalist who may be unskilled in drawing, or who may 
desire to reproduce by photography histological preparations, will 
be thankful for this excellent work, which so describes the tech- 
nique of photomicrography as to enable one familiar with the use 
of the microscope to make photomicrographs with the least ex- 
penditure of time and money. The author, who is well known 
for his researches on disease-germs, has designed the work for 
beginners, who, like the author, had resorted to photography for 
the purpose of making pictorial memoranda of his microscopical 
observations. 

The first part of the book is devoted to technology, and con- 
siders light, microscopical apparatus, the camera and photographic 
material, the arrangement of microscope and camera for photo- 
graphy, the operating room and fixtures, etc., the exposure and 
development of the plate, the fixing, intensification and preserva- 
tion of the negative, as well as photographing by reflected light, 
and making positives upon glass. This part concludes with 
chapters upon the selection and preparation of objects for photo- 
graphing 


The second part is devoted to a description of plates, and toa 
Popular account of elementary histology, containing accounts of 
the Ameceda, of Micrococci, of one-celled algz, of epithelial and 
other cells, blood-discs and of vegetable cells and diatoms, the 
microphotographs being excellent. The book is a timely an 
useful one, and though the plates are very useful as examples of 
excellent work, we are not sure that it would not have given 
more unity to the book to have issued the second part as a sepa- 
“oy work. At any rate there will doubtless be a good demand 
„i Suc a hand-book as the present one. It is well printed and 
illustrated, 

Miss Buckey’s Lire anp Her Curtpren2—The title of this 
Photomicrographs ow to make them. Illustrated by forty-seven Photo- 
Sree ticroscopic objects, reproduced by the Heliotype process. By GORGE 
BERG, M.D., U.S.A., etc. Boston, J. R. Osgood & Co., 1883. 8vo, Pp- 
ife and Her Chi n. i i ife f the Amæba to the In- 
188), < ARAMELLA B Beckley Te a hie Vow, D. Appleton & Co., 
mo, Pp. 312, $1.50. 

— NO, rir 


VOL, xvr. 18 


274 Recent Literature. 


little book is designed to express, as the preface states, “the 
family bond uniting all living things, as we use the term, ‘ Natur 
and her works,’ to embrace all organic and inorganic phenomena’ 
Although British animals are referred to wherever possible, yet 
the book will be found to be most agreeable reading by our young 
naturalists, boys and girls. We have never met with a book bet 
ter calculated to interest the young, while it is written froma 
high standpoint. After the youthful reader has read this, and 
“Winners in Life’s Race,” by the same author, he will be pr 
pared to understand the evolutional questions which will com 
up in after reading and study. As it is, the transition from olè 
fashioned books about animals to the more advanced ones, piè 
pared from an evolutional standpoint, is so sudden that the reade 
is sometimes thrown off his balance. The tone of the a 
of “ Life and her Children,” while liberal, is also reverential. 
The illustrations of the marine animals have been prepared by 
Dr. Wild, artist of the Challenger expedition ; they are sketchy 
and attractive, though not always well engraved; but they a 
valuable to the young reader from showing the creatures e 
roundings of water, rock and ocean bottom. The drawing)” pi 
the insects are indifferent, as are the lithographic plates. ' 
book will be excellent reading in connection with school work. f 
OF Dirree : 


Hansen’s STRUCTURE OF THE Mourn PARTS : 
The author adds another to the series of works now appears 
the structure of the mouth parts of the Diptera, which 1s of 
the most difficult subjects in insect anatomy, and one teq wb 
both close observation and good powers of generális 3 
ticularly in comparing these highly modified parts with o , 
other insects. “fell hist d 

The descriptive part of the work is preceded by 4 ful 
cal account of the work of others, from SwA d Kag $ 
that it 0 
eat cafe 


=. 


thoroughness. Fortunately there is a Latin, 
spectus systematicus,” of the chief results, which wi |] 
treatise vastly more useful to the English stu ga Latin. 4 
the explanations of the plates are both in Danish 7 ji 
figures have been beautifully drawn by the author, ana 
engraved on copper by Lövendal, the prince j 
engravers. The sketches are characterized by c% wnona 2S f 
cacy. We only wish that they could have been ~~ etot f 
scale. So far as we are aware this is the most 1M 
tomical essay of the year. ! 
Fabrica Oris Dipterorum ; Dipterernes Mund i A natomisk 08 an 
Ved H. J. HANSEN. Cand. Mag. tte afdeling. (Tabanid® 
“hereva, Mydas, Apiocera.) Med 5 Kobbertavler. Kjöten T 


1884] Recent Literature. 275 


WHERE DID LIFE BEGIN ?!—This brochure is devoted to the 
demonstration of the proposition that life made its appearance 
on the earth at the poles. e obvious reason for this conclusion 
is the fact that it was at the poles that the temperature of the 
earth first reached a point sufficiently low to permit life as it ap- 
pears to us now. The question is discussed from both the phys- 
ical and biological standpoints, and the facts of geographical dis- 
tribution are brought to bear. The reasoning is good and fairly 
deducible from the premises. The law, while true in general, is 
nevertheless subordinated in its workings to questions of the dis- 
tribution of land and water. We cannot, therefore, agree with 
Mr. Scribner in the supposition that hairy elephants and rhinoce- 
roses have always dwelt in arctic climes, and had not migrated 
from tropical regions in earlier ages. The land of the arctics 
which belongs to the possible age of higher mammals is of later 
geologic age than that of the south, so that many of the terres- 
trial types of animals and plants have of necessity originated in 
southern regions. 


GEOLOGICAL Report oF INDIANA FOR 18822—This useful vol- 
ume comprises the results of further surveys of different counties, 
besides containing an outline of the geology of the State, with 
an outline map. It likewise contains a catalogue of the flora of 
central-eastern Indiana by Dr. A. J. Phinney. A large propor- 
tion of the volume, with thirty-two plates, is devoted to the elu- 
cidation, by Professor James Hall, of the late Mr. Van Cleve’s 
fossils, and manuscripts relating to them; also lengthy notes on 
the Spergen Hill carboniferous fossils, by Professor Hall. The 
report closes with a brief reference to the diatoms of the waters 
of Indiana accompanying six plates of figures. 


Martin’s Human Bopy3—This is an abridgement of the au- 
thor’s larger text-book on human physiology, and seems to us to 
be as well, if not much better adapted for general use than any 

book on this subject. Teachers certainly will find it a fresh 
and original book, and will be aided in their work of teaching 
this difficult study by the appendices to many of the chapters, 
Siving directions for the performance of simple physiological ex- 
Periments. The illustrations are abundant and excellent, particu- 
larly the full-page illustrations in colors, which are well printed. 


A brief inqui inni igra- 
> inquiry as to the probable place of beginning and natural course of mig 
Nn therefrom of the Flora frae piarchi the Earth. By G. HILTON SCRIBNER. 
ew York, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1883. 
"Indiana D, i fth Annual Re- 
a Department of Geology and Natural History. (Twel nn 
T% JouN CoLLert, State Geologist, 1882. Indianapolis, 1883. 8vo, pp. 400. 
American Science Series, Briefer Course. ‘The Human Body. An elementary 
oe of Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. By H. Newett Martin. M. D., 
ew York, Henry Holt & Co., 1883. 12mo, pp. 355- $1-50- 


276 Recent Literature. [ March, 


RECENT Books AND PAMPHLETS. 


Brinton, D. G.—The Gueguence, a comedy ballet in the Nahuatl-Spanish dialet 
of Nicaragua. Library of American 5 natara, No. 111. Phila., 1883. From 


the antho 
Coues, E. Tela aaa, 1884. Ext. from The Auk, From the author 
a E. L.—Revue generale de ee et 1883. Paris, 1884. Publication 
de the author. 


a Revue ron nd From 
mart Je =< Hit of New ikii, with maps and plates. Wellington, 
om the author 
adess, J s —The origin pi the carbonaceous matter in bie shales, Ex. 
? Annals N. Y. Academy of Sciences, 1883. From the author i 
Cwen, Rd. Peeericotid of the body in Vertebrates and iaverieoeatle London, 1 g 
From 
Houzé, F e iiile Trochanter de PHomme et des Animaux. Feri 
Hypotrochantérienne de Homme. Ext. du Bull. de la Soc. d 
Bruxelles, 1883. From the author | 
Albrecht, Pate les 4 os RE le bec de lievre et la Ja aer EE 
gique des dents incisives supérieures de fera e. Comm. faite a 
throp. de Bruxelles, 1882. From the au Zool. Att 
Das os intermedium tarsi der Dde Sepi Abd. aus dem 
1883. From the author. jin, Lot 
Jordan D. S.—Notes on FER Fishes preserved in the mon a ; 
don, Paris and Copenhagen. Ext. Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci, 22 
Riley, C. V.—Reports of experiments upon the Insects injuriously, fe No. 1, 
orange tree and cotton plant. U. S. Dep. of Agri iculture. | 
1883. 


he chinch bap 

——Reports of observations on the Rocky Mountain locust and the : 
Id. Bulletin No. 2, 1883. Sor. is 

——On a gall-making patios of Apionine. Ext, Bull. Brooklyn Entom. 9% , 

——Observations of the fertilization of Yucca and on structural Assoc, Adr d S 

peculiarities in Pronuba and Prodoxus. Ext. Proc. Amer. 
1883. All from the author. È Eat, e 
Hitchcock, C. H.—The early hiseory of the North American continen | 

Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1883. From the author á asie 

Von Graf. E Woeii seg von den United States Con st Mus, CÈ 


Zool., Vol. XI, No. 7. From Professor Alex. Ag Sali? Ja 
Sozinskey, T. emt ara Symbolism. Rep. Med. and Surg. Reporter, 
From the au g Relation 


Filhol, M. H. A a relatives au memoire de e M. Cope intitulé pamet” 
horizons renfermant des debris d'animaux vertébrés fossiles €n 
Amérique. From the‘author. 

Ribot, Th.—The diseases of the Will. Humboldt Library, No 33 Gen. Sus): ` “ i 

Forth- Major, C. J—Studien zur Geschichte der Wildschweine ( 

Abd. aus dem Zool. Anz., 1883, No. 140. 


Ancora la Tyrrhenis. Both from the author pinal cord 
Barnes, Wm.——On the development of the boptertor fissure of the , Acad. 
the ear s the central canal th 7 


and Scien 3=4. Fow the author. eustachiat 
Tuttle, A. H. nen relation of the external eit arene or 1883+ 

to ss = visceral cleft. Rep. Proc y 4 
Hunt, T paeen pea logical history of spia inc urine 

cambrian ticki, Fran one Tra ns, Roy. Soc. of Canada, 1885: 
——The Taconic question in geology, Part 1 Ext. idem 


——— 


Pe eo eg ey meen ete 


1884.] Geography and Travels. 277 


Gardner, J. S—A monograph of the British Eocene flora. Vol. 11, Part 1. Gym- 
nospermz. Palzontographical Society, London, 1883. From the author. 
Dugés, Aif—Una Nueva Especie de Salamanquesa (Hemidactylus navarri Alf. 
Dugés). La Naturaleza, Mexico, 1883. From the author, 

Agassiz, Alex.—Report on tne Echini. Rep. on the res. of dredging in the Gulf of 
Mexico 1877-78, Caribbean sea, 187879, and Atlantic coast, U. S., 1880, by 
the U. S. Coast Surv. steamer Blaže. Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol. x, No. 1, 
Cambridge. From the author. 


SEEM yc immer: 
GENERAL NOTES. 
GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS.' 


Arrica—TuHE Conco, FROM its Moura to Boroso.—Mr. H. 
H. Johnstone (Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc., Dec., 1883) not only de- 
scribes the lower course of the Congo, but gives a map and details 
respecting the aspect of the western coast of South Africa gener- 
ally. The forest belt of Africa extends from Sierra Leone to the 
Ogowé, a little to the south of which it is succeeded by the park- 
like scenery so characteristic of South Africa. The thick forest 
is determined by the perpetual rains, and its absence in the 
country, which has a dry season of greater or less duration, is 
determined by the fires which, started by the natives among the 
long dry grass, sweep the forest from the hills. This well- 
timbered but open country is at first a narrow strip along the 
coast, but the boundary line soon bends to the east. The limit 
of the oil-palm (L/ais guineensis) is approximately 10° S. lat., but 
along the coast it does not stretch far south of the Congo mouth. 
A little to the south of the Congo, between Ambrizete and 

ca da Cobra, the park-like scenery begins to retreat from the 
Coast, and is followed by a region of sparse vegetation, with 
euphorbias and aloes, and occasionally baobabs, mimosas, and 
» and where there is often less than two months rain in the 
year. Patches of this kind of country, broken by timber along 
the rivers, fringe the coast as far south as Benguela, where a belt 
commences and runs far into the interior. At about the 13th 


‘Parallel this region of scanty vegetation gives way to absolute 


"sert, which is a prolongation along the south-western coast of 
the Kalahari desert, The northward trend of the Congo brings 
its course above Stanley pool into the region of forest and per- 
Petual rain, 

‘he sandy wastes between Mossamedes and Orange river 
Cow little but the strange Welwitschia and a few stunted Bauhi- 
mas, but the park-like country has the Hyphcene-palm, the oil- 
Palm, the cottonwood, the baobab, figs, mimosas, numerous 


2 the id papilionaceous trees, etc. This is also the country of 


ge game animals. The thick forest, where vegetable life 
Supreme, shelters the anthropoid apes, which thus do not 
ch within too miles of the northern bank of the Lower 


S department is edited by W. N. LOCKINGTON, Philadelphia, 


Tules 


m 


278 General Notes. [March, 


Congo, yet probably cross it near the equator. The gray parrot, 
often stated to have its southern limit at the Congo, reaches, per 
haps, its greatest development in Malange, nearly 300 miles south 
of that river. 

The single mouth of the Congo is unimposing beside the deltas 
of the other great African rivers, and it is not unlikely that this 
outlet is not of very ancient date. Many of the so-called creeks 
between Boma and the sea have gained in length within the 
memory of settlers on the Lower Congo, and seem to be attempt 
on the part of the river to force a new way to the sea. Banat 
point, a sandy peninsula at the Congo mouth, would long a? 
have been washed away had it not been for man’s protection. The 
scenery of the region of the rapids, Yellala, Ngoma, and Isa 
is graphically sketched by Mr. Johnstone, as also the Ntombo 
Mataka falls above Manyanga—the nearest approach to a @* 
cade the river exhibits. Above Stanley pool the scenery 8 
tropical, and the river moves swiftly between high wooded A 
Below Boma, the hottest place on the Congo, good water cani 
obtained from ever-running rills, so that above Vivi dysentery © 
almost unknown. At Msuata, above Stanley pool, the bay 
ture ranges from 87° in the shade at noon to 60° at two ll 
morning. I att 

The races between Lake Bungweolo and Stanley gore | 
Bantu of the purest type. On the coast the Bantu sena { 
mixed with an earlier negro population. The Ba-yanst er vation 
are perfect Greek statues in their forms, and have a civilizat 
of their own, building houses of three or more rooms, P aie 
with matting, and havinga door of laths and matting pee 
on a rude hinge. Their pottery, weaving, decoration, m ces t | 
in iron and copper, attempts at husbandry and contrival e 
fishing and bird-catching show a great advance on the sal i 
the lower river. They are very free from superstitions, 
apologize for the remains of fetish among them. be the 

Most of the fruits and vegetables grown by the tribes ° 4 
Congo seem to have been introduced by the Porto ae i 

There is no large kingdom in this region, but each V gt 
a small independent state, and this fact has, 1n Mr. J e vilag 
opinion, greatly facilitated the entry of civilization. 1f 0M) nis 
has declined to receive Mr. Stanley, the next has wera 
out of rivalry, so that he is now looked up tO as Spmettsó 
and keeps the peace among the natives. The egtab ions bat 
Vivi and Leopoldville are small towns; twenty-one sta equ 
been founded in all, and an European can travel to Rhine 
Station, 700 miles up the river, as safely as upon aoe 

Tre KurLu.—At .a recent meeting of the Royal of 1883 A 
Society, M. Van de Velde stated that in the spring pile Cap 
had been sent by sea to the mouth of the Kuilu, W o 


1884.] Geography and Travels. 279 


Elliot was sent by land from Isangila. The two met at Kitabi, 
and founded the stations of Massabe, on the coast, and Rudolf- 
stadt, Baudouinville. Franktown, Stanley, Niadi, Stephanieville, 
and Philippeville further up the river. Many good native roads 
were found, and it is believed that a railway can be made from 
the coast to Leopoldville so as to avoid the rapids of the Congo. 


M. Revoit’s JOURNEY IN THE Sourn SomaLt CounTRY.— 
This enterprising traveler has reached the town of Gananeh, on 
the Upper Juba. Notwithstanding the protection of the Sultan 
of Zanzibar and the good offices of the Governor of Magadoxo, 
and in spite of an escort of 200 men from the Somali tribe 


= 

for life to reach the town of Gualidi. This town is divided 
into six quarters, placed on both sides of the river Webbe, 
and is an extensive congeries of the conical huts called min, 
of which each Somal possesses two or three. By the end of 
August he reached Gananeh, and intends to go thence to the 
Galla country. 


GEOGRAPHICAL NoTES.—Mr. Jas. Stewart, who has completed 
the survey of Lake Nyassa, and has been engaged in making a 
toad between that lake and Tanganyika, died Aug. 30, 1883. 
Sir John Kirk writes from Zanzibar that the rumors of the death 

ing Mtesa are not supported by anything known at Zanzibar. 
——Lieut.-Col. E. .C. Ross believes that he has identified the 
Sitakus or Sitioganus of Nearchus and Pliny with the Kara- 
Aghatch, while the latter is the upper course of the Mund or Khor- 
i-Ziaret, the mouth of which, in the Persian gulf, is well known. 
— The Indian government contemplates sending an expedition 
tothe Takht-i-Suliman, the highest peak of the Suliman range. 
€ summit is a narrow plateau some five miles long from north 
to south, with a peak at each end over 11,000 feet high. It is 
lieved that a day’s observation from its summit will be the 
Means of mapping some 50,000 square miles of the territory im- 
mediately beyond the north-west frontier of India. Mr. 
has visited the Padas, Lawas, and Limbang, three rivers opening 
into the Brunei bay, on the north-west coast of Borneo. The 
bang and Padas have comparatively large populations on their 
banks, while the smaller Lawas flows through a beautiful but 
Parsely -populated country. e Lennard, a river of the Kim- 
berley district, Northwest Australia, rises in the Leopold ranges, 
and at about thirty miles from the sea forms a delta, the northern 


The grass on these rivers was remarkably luxuriant. f 

“iver (the Robinson) and several running streams, all lined with 
and densely grassed, were discovered by the Hon. J. F or- 
rest. The country as a whole is thinly timbered, and the district 


5 well adapted for raising cattle and horses. The interior of 


280 General Notes. (March, 


New Guinea has never been penetrated to any considerable dis- 
tance, except along the course of rivers. Lieut. Armit only went 
twenty-five to thirty miles inland. The death of M. de Braza 
has been reported, but the report is now ascertained to be untrue 
The Revue de Geographie states that harmony reigns between 
this explorer and the International Association——M. de lè 
Croix stated before the Geographical Society of Paris thathe 
distinctly heard the detonations of the eruption of Krakatoa 
though he was then at Lahat, 746 miles distant. M. Brau de St 
Pol Lias informed the same society that Tolok-Betoung is now no 
more a seaport, since a barrier of pumice, nineteen miles in length, 
two-thirds ofa mile in width, and from thirteen to sixteen feet 
deep, has, since the eruption, formed a floating jetty in front of the 
entrance of theharbor. The official number of the victims of 
the explosion is 15,000. The Bolivian government has vd 
atched an expedition against the Tobas (the murderers of Dr 
Crevaux). M. Thouar accompanies it, and intends to survey 
Pilcomayo river, and to verify the existence of its reported he 
the Guayra. . Milne-Edwards has asserted ie rie 
Geographical Society of Paris that the bathymetrical map i | 
Atlantic ocean, published under German authority, 158 5 the 
fiction. In one place where the map marks 3000 fatho) we 
Talisman expedition found 6000; and in another where the 
descended 30c0 fathoms, the map showed 1000 on 


Chinese, most of whom are outlaws, but become -T 
the soil when on Russian territory, and many Corea 


' GEOLOGY AND PALÆONTOLOGY. 


Tue HISTORY OF THE OREODONTIDE.— reot 
graphs, containing a synoptic view of the histo meeting of 
tidæ, is taken from a paper recently read before a we 
American Philosophical Society : eodont®" 

From what is now known of the history of me are S 
the following conclusions may be drawn. | : 
cially instructive as far as they go, since they ! tinction 

e rise, great development, decadence and ex " 


1884.] Geology and Paleontology. 281 


of the best marked types of Mammalia the world has seen. The 
history of this type involves more or less the history of the life 
of the North American continent during the Miocene epoch of 
Tertiary time. It moreover involves the laws which regulate the 
vital success of all types of life, and which express the causes of 
multiplication, of energy, of weakness and of sterility. 

Two lines of the family, the Oreodontinæ and the Agriochcer- 
ina, come to light simultaneously in geological time, the White 
River epoch, or the Oligocene. The latter is a higher type than 
the former, in its more complex fourth premolars, while it is infe- 
rior in the non-closure of the orbits posteriorly. It may then be 
regarded as a parallel line. It has but two generic types, while 
the Oreodontinz present us with seven. So far as yet known, the 
Agriochcerine did not continue as long as the Oreodontinz, as 
will be shown in tabular form below. 

In the progressive modifications of the Oreodontine series, the 
first step was the inflation of the otic bulla (genus Eucrotaphus). 


€ species may be thus arranged in accordance with their dis- 
tribution in time: 
rite River epoch——Oreodon gracilis; O. affinis ; O. culbert- 
ae Eucrotaphus jacksoni; E. major. Agriochcerus antiquus ; 
Major ; A. latifrons. 
oo epoch—Eucrotaphus jacksoni; E. major. Meryco- 
““tus superbus; M. leidyi; M. chelydra, sp. nov.; M. macro- 
rips Sp. nov. Agriochcerus guyotianus; A. trifrons, sp. nOV.; 
~fyderanus. Coloreodon macrocephalus. 
North Fork of ¥ohn Day River epoch—Eucrotaphus trigono- 


~ 


282 General Notes. 


. 
cephalus, sp. nov.; E. major. Coloreodon ferox; C. macro | 
cephalus. 

Ticholeptus beds——-Merycochcerus montanus, sp. nov.; M. rus 
ticus, M. proprius. Merychyus arenarum, sp. nov.; M. pari 
nus, sp. nov.; M. zygomaticus. Cyclopidius simus; C. emydinus 
sp. nov. Leptauchenia major; L. decora; L. nitida. Pithecistes 
brevifacies; P. heterodon; P. decedens, sp. nov. _ 

: Laip Fork beds—? Merychyus elegans; M. medius; ? M. me 
jor 


The stratigraphic relations of these species may be represented 
under their generic heads in the following table : 


Pit | a 
al: |. da 
Shp de a as P heed ee, S A 
es of |} aa Sa ap ER 
ake © sala = oO S v j = 9 | i- x 3 
de | >. 1 a 
Oreodontine. 14 | | | 
Oreodon Leidy ETRE | | 
Eucrotaphus Leidy ......... 3 | am —_—— 
hocheerus Leidy.....) 7 | a | i a 
e us boldy a Sa] 6 | | | mY 
Leptauchenia Leidy........, 3 | | 
Cyclopidius Cope........... | | | REYS 
Pithecistes Cope ........... 3 | | | rE 
_ Agriocherine. | | | l 
Agriochcerus Leidy ........ pes | | | | 
Coloreodon Cope orai ae, — 


. 35 | | _E D. Cole 


PROFESSOR OWEN ON FossIL Mammars— Professor R a 
has recently described, from incisor teeth and their cast ~ni the 
nodon ramsayi, a mammal with rodent upper 1 
wombat, but probably equal in size to a tapır. _ 
characters of both enamel and dentine indicate its 
ities. The remains are from the Pleistocene of Qu fessor OW% 
the same meeting of the Royal Society (Nov. 15) tre on valley: 
described a humerus from the breccia cave in Wellingte 
Apparently this belonged to an Echidna of very wie skull of 
At the next meeting Professor Owen described : 


berg and the Rhætic of Somerset, and those of Stereogna definite 
the Odlite. The fossil presents no characters t 
whether it was a placental or non-placental. It 1s eye of the Be 
to the Meniscoéssus of the Laramie and Polymast ae 
cene. 


FRITSCH ON THE PERMIAN FAUNA OF Bonema —D" za 
continues his work on the Vertebrata of the Perm, JE 

hemia. The last number (pp. 159-182) co Hyp 
of the following species and genera: Hylonomit®,"" — 
1 The question refers to the geological age. 


1884.] Geology and Paleontology. 283 


longicostatum; Seeleya pusilla; Ricnodon copei; R. dispersus; R. 
trachylepis; Orthocosta microscopica. Microbrachide, Micro- 
brachis pelekani; M. mollis ; M. branchiophorus. These species are 
fully described and admirably illustrated. In the Hylonomide 
Dr. Fritsch includes the genera Hylonomus Daws., Smilerpeton 
Daw., Hyloplesium Fr., Seeleya Fr., and Orthocosta Fr. In the 
Microbrachide he is inclined to include, besides Microbrachis, 
the American genera Tuditanus and Cocytinus Cope. 


— 


FILHOL on Eocene Lemuroips.—Dr. Henri Filhol has pub- 
lished in the Annales des Sciences Geologiques a valuable illustrated 
paper on the two lemuroid genera Necrolemur Filh., and Adapis 
Cuv. His object is firstly to show that these genera are distinct 
from certain American genera ; and second, to describe the limb- 
bones and dental variations of the species of Adapis. As regards 
the first proposition it results from a statement by myself that 
the Necrolemur is identical with Anaptomorphus Cope, and the 
Notharctus Leidy, is identical with Adapis Cuv. Dr. Filhol 
shows that both these identifications are erroneous. The first 
correction I have already made in my forthcoming volume on the 
Tertiary Mammalia of the West, which has been in press about 
a year. ¿I do not remember that I had published this conclusion 
prior to my Paleontological Bulletin No. 37, p. 318 (January 2, 
1884), though it may be inferred from my language in the Pro- 
ceedings American Philosophical Society, 1881, p. 154. It is also 
expressed in the January, 1884, number of the AMERICAN NATU- 
RALIST, Dec. 29, 1883. Necrolemur has three premolars and 
Anaptomorphus has but two. As Dr. Filhol remarks, he has 
made no detailed description of the teeth in his account of Ne- 
crolemur in the Recherches sur les Phosphorites de Quercy, 
hence the difficulty I experienced in determining at first its den- 
tal formula, The differences in the detailed structure of the 
molar teeth of the two genera, now pointed out by Dr. Filhol, are 
mostly due to differences of wear. ` 

_Dr. Filhol has obtained the canine and incisive series of Ada- 

, and can show that they are of generally identical structure. 

“Us discovery furnishes the needful desideratum for the distinc- 
on of that genus from Notharctus. Hitherto no characters suffi- 
“lent to indicate a difference were known. 
Dr. Filhol gives a figure of a nearly complete skull of Adapis 
s. His figures of the limb bones of the same species 

Cope. that they greatly resemble those of Tomitherium.—Z. D. 


Tae MINERAL PRODUCTS OF THE UNITED STATES FOR 1882-3. 


ae impossible to state the total mineral product in any form 


shall not be open to just criticism. It is evident that the 


metallic statistics of such incongruous substances as iron ore, 
gold and silver; the spot value of coal mined, and the 


284 General Notes. [March, 


market value of metallic copper after having been transported 
hundreds of miles; the spot value of a crude substance like un- 
ground, unrefined barytes, and the value of a finished product 
like brick (in which the cost of manufacture is the leading item), 
such details cannot well be taken as items in a general summary. 
The statistics have been compiled with a view to giving informa- 
tion on those points which are of most interest and utility, and art 
presented in the form usual in the several branches of trade sta- 
tistics. The result is that the values stated for the different pro- 
ducts are necessarily taken at different stages of production of 
transportation, etc. Theoretically perfect statistics of en r 
products would include first of all the actual net spot y 
each substance in its crudest form, as taken from the eart! d 
yet for practical purposes such statistics would have little m 
other than the fact that the items could be combined ei a 
total in which each substance should be rated ona i 
basis. The following groupings, therefore, are presente 

full realization of the incongruity of many of the items: 


Values of the metallic products of the United States in 1882. 


6. 
Pig ifon, spot VMN, risen sass St RP AK roth S eoo 
Silver, coining value........... iw desis s EE wee 3324500,000 
Reet CORBIN valhe ins piss wd iad beds Cums seol ndeawas 16,038.09 
Cor pér, value at New York city......... NEE E PTE ee 12.624.550 
Lead, value at New York city........ Sree os een . 646,620 
Zinc, value at New York city.. soe iocis iene sA rr 4487537 
‘Quicksilver, value at San Francisco......... week peeneee 309.771 
Nickel, value at Philadelphia.......... E SE T 12,000 
Antimony, value at San Francisco........ Peres Pee ee 1,000 
Platinum, value at New York city....... vdiaaten voce nee eee 
Total oR ee ee $219,755 a 
in 1882 (0l : 


. . ay 
Values of some of the non-metallic products of the United State. 
spot values except chrome tron ore). 


ERE EN POE TS 


Cement ee yoe eae neue eam 
Limestone for iron flux......... aeee CU eecrere ces 

HoOspnate feria vee 
New Jersey marls PM Pr oe 
Crude borax ., X 


. 
“eee Ai 


vee 
eevee 
a | a s... 


Manganese ore ., UM Gee eee 


Asbestos.,... Cues tensed 

Graphite. ....... E EE here 
Sulphur... i 
Commit ore ind mate oo i ice vs teats a 
Precious stones, uncut E te 


1884.] Geology and Paleontology. 285 


Oe ey er a PUN ie vale Cie oe Sk we RES $10,500 
ee a ee EN E AP 6,250 
n R E Seen dyes A nape T oie has hee 1,750 

ROE sie E E EE AE ER Ferne trans We S306 35008 


Résumé of the values of the metallic and non-metallic mineral substances pro- 
duced in the United States for 1882. 


SPE isl pila ea a ies tal a nae RP ae siaed $219,756,004 
Mineral substances named in the foregoing table.......... 226,156,402 
$445,912,406 


Fire-clay, kaolin, potters’ clay, common brick clay, terra- 

cotta, limestone used as flux in copper and lead smelt- 

ing, iron ore used as flux in lea smelting, pyrites 

(for acid making), zinc white made directly from ore, 

marls (other than New Jersey), apatite, gypsum, tin ore, 

bismuth, arsenic, iridosmine, mill-buhrstone and stone 

for making grindstones, lithographic stone, tale (other 

than “ soapstone ”), quartz, feldspar, fluorspar, terra- 

alba, chalk, crude mineral paints, nitrate of soda, car- 

bonate of soda, sulphate of soda, native alum, ozocerite, 
mineral soap, strontia, etc.—certainly not less than.... 8,000,000 

Grand total .......... TET rer re T $45 3.912,406 
The grand total might be considerably reduced by substituting 
the value of the iron ore mined for that of the pig iron made; 
by deducting the discount on silver, and by considering lime, salt 
cement, borax, etc., as manufactures. It will also be remarked, 
that the spot values of copper, lead, zinc and chrome iron ore are 
oe less than their respective values after transportation to 
Market. 


[Abstract from a report entitled “ The Mineral Resources of the United States,” 
Albert Williams, Jr., chief of Division of Mining Statistics and Technology, 
on ae Geological Survey, for the calendar year 1882 and the first six months 
3. 


. o 
Mollusca, by C. A. White. The work is illustrated with thirty- 
two plates. Mr. White notices that five of the types that are 
ognized among the fauna of the Laramie group, Bathyompha- 
lus, Cerithidea, Pyrgulifera, Melanopsis and Melania, have never 
en found among the living fauna of North America, but are 
represented by living species in the old world. The ten species 
of Unio described by Dr. Lea are referred to living species. Pro- 
‘sor Hall believes that the two bivalves, Cypricardites catskill- 
tasis and C. angustata, described by Vanuxem from the Lower 
ak ian, truly belong to Anodonta. These excepted, the ear- 
Unionidæ known are two or three species collected by Pro- 
stra Cope in the valley of Gallinas creek, New Mexico, from 
: Se of Triassic, or perhaps Jurassic age-———M. Petiton (Bull. 
Chi Geol, France, 1883) gives a sketch map of Lower Cochin 
showing the vast recent deposits of the Mekong delta, 


286 General Notes. 


extending over the whole of the peninsula that terminates at Pi 
Camao. The interior of this peninsula, and large areas in the 
Me-kong, are completely marshy. Further north, on the Gulfof 
Siam, is a sandy tract traversed by granitoid mountains, and with 
a mass of sandstone in the center. In the north of the regions 
a porphyritic mass and one of sandstone, The chief mountain 
mass is to the west, in Baria and Bienhoa, and consists of four 
separate chains of granitoid rocks. A great part of Bienho, 
Longh-Thanh and Baria is covered with an extensive deposit 
ferruginous clay, often containing so much iron as to becomes 
veritable iron ore. This is often used as a building stone, ani 
even at Saigon for macadam, a use for which its friable natur 
unfits it. M. Petiton states that in Cambodia, in many mountaits i 
to the north of Udong and to the west of the River Toule Sap, he 3 
has found microgranulite, granulite, porphyry and petrosiliceot 
porphyry. To tke east of the river lies the mountain Pnom Neang 
Canh Rey, composed of the last named mineral, and iron ma | 
and lime quarries also exist in the region. To the south-west? 
Pursat commences the enormous formation of more or less po" 
phyritic sandstone, which extends thence westward into rer 
ese province of Battambang. Very little stratification ey pan 
yet met with in Lower Cochin China, and the only foss! 
was an encrinite in the limestone of Hatien. 
Siluri Axel Tullb tributes to the Zeitschrift & 
vian.—Axe] Tullberg contribu : f the Sinit 


rographically very different from those of Northern 


Silurian of the islands Oeland and Gothland, East hs 
sed of li 


upper stage of the Upper Silurian is in parts repr ‘the L H 
about 1000 meters of Cardiola shales, the equivalent o oal 


meters, while the Cambrian or “primordia! 7 e Geol Ge 
some 120 meters thick._—F. Neetling (Zeit. ee zens P, i 
1883) has a note upon the systematic position “qrii and P. ee 
ambonites, and describes two new forms, P. schm n of th , 
‘Both occasionally occur in boulders. Comparis© 


1884.] Geology and Paleontology. 287 


ters of the valves and internal supports leads our authority to 
place Pentamerus and Porambonites in the same family Poram- 
bonitide. The genus Porambonites leads upwards towards the 
Strophomenidz, while Pentamerus points towards the Rhyn- 
chonellidz. 

Devonian—E. Kayser (Zeit. Deut. Geol. Gesell., 1883) de- 
scribes two new goniatites and four new brachiopods from the 
Devonian of the Rhine. 

Carboniferous—In the Geological Magazine, Dec., 1883, Mr- 
H. Woodward continues his synopsis of the genera and species 
of carboniferous trilobites, characterizing four species of Brachy- 
metopus, one of which is new. The same writer has also some 
notes on the nature of the two pits, or pores, placed one on each 
side of the glabella, in front of the compound eyes. He inclines 
. Somewhat to the belief that they may, as suggested by Mr. J. 
Young, be the marks of ocelli, such as occur in the Merostomata, 
both recent and fossil. If so, this would be further evidence of 
the affinities of both groups with the Arachnida. The pore is, 

owever, present in the isopodous genera Sphzroma and Serolis, 
as well as in Limulus. 

Permian.—H. Credner (Zeit. Deut. Geol. Gesell., 1883) con- 
tributes a fourth article upon the Stegocephali of the Rothlie- 
genden near Dresden. Branchiosaurus gracilis, Acanthostoma 
vorax, Melanerpeton spiniceps and Discosaurus permianus are de- 
scribed. The last belongs to the family Limnerpetidez. 

Mesozoic —Emil Haug (Neues Jahrb. fiir Min., Geol. und Pal.) 
reviews the so-called Chztetes of the Mesozoic strata. Of these 
he describes Monticulipora recubariensis from the Trias; Chetetes 
beneckei, a true Cheetetes, from the gray limestone of the Lias of 

rn Tyrol, and Pseudochetetes polyporus. 

ertiary——The ninth volume of the Memoirs of the Swiss. 
Paleontological Society contains a report upon the chelonians 

the Vaudois molasse preserved in the Museum of Lausanne 
by Dr. Portis. Three new species of Emys, one of Kinosternon, 
one of Cistudo, three of Trionyx are described, and a list of twen- 
ty-five species is given. In an appendix the same writer de- 
| e new genus and species Polysternon provinciale from the 
peer Cretaceous of Fuveau. The plastron of this species is pecu- 
| from the presence of a pair of osseous plates between the hypo- 
ns, which are very much shortened, and the xiphi-plas- 
trons. These are styled by Portis prosteto-plastrons. The mem- 
Bor illustrated by twenty-nine plates.—Dr. Lemoine describes 


Ah Species of Adapisorex, distinguished by the variable dimen- 
Te of the maxillaries and the well characterized form of the 
ee mar. These are A. gaudryii, chevilionti, remensis and 


tric mus. All are of very small size and, as signified by the gen- 


name, have affinities with the Tertiary Adapis on the one 


288 General Notes. | March, 


hand, and on the other with the recent Soricide. All have been 
found in the Lower Eocene near Rheims. 
Recent—F., E. Geinitz (Zeit. Deut. Geol. Gesell.) states that the 
observations he has made during the last four years on the east 
ern part of the Mecklenburg coast prove that it is now sinking 
F. Noetling (/oc. cit.) gives a catalogue of the Diatomacea o 
the diluvium of Western Prussia, with particulars respecting the 
manner and quantity of their occurrence.——M. Virlet d'Aoust 
(Bull. Soc. Geol. France, 1883) contributes some valuable remarks 
upon the incessant formation of minerals, in various rocks, by 
means of molecular transport and displacement. A geode cot: 
taining a small bell of the Gallo Roman epoch is referred to, 
found probably in an ancient alluvial deposit at Conde-sur > | 
M. d’Aoust states that he has proved that all flint geodes, bull — 
stones, etc., are the result of molecular movements that have 
taken place since the formation of the rocks, and that Jimonites 
and the iron ores of alluvial beds have the same origin and at 
still in course of formation. He instances a geode foun 
vine at Perigueux, a veritable eagle-stone,—hematite enclosing 2 
silver pieces of coin of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries i 
re-formation of flint where buhr-stones have been taken iM it 
spoken of as a fact known to the quarrymen, as atso | 
grains of iron ore in alluvial clays. 


BOTANY. qt 
NITE“ f 

Tur Aucusr FLORA oF THE DISMAL SWAMP ABE veto i 

The celebrated Dismal Swamp occupies the greater Lait ia, ae E 


all steamboat > | | 

plies between that place and Elizabeth City, N. e "E 
der. X E 
e mak i 


twelve miles of the lake. sugs? f 
The water in the canal is of a sinister blackness, v5 ey a 
tive of malaria and chills, yet it is both. healthful roast enti , 
and the swamp is the only locality on the southern tannic f 
free from malaria. The water has the bitter flavor of © Soa | 
derived from the juniper vegetation of the swamp: subsist 1 j 
considerable population of whites and negroes ‘on, alae? E 
jumber trade, which is the great industry of this regi’ 3 


1 Edited by Pror. C. E. Bessey, Ames, Iowa. 


1884.] Botany. 289 


there are many good farms along the line of the canal. The soil 
is a bottomless peat bog which, when drained and sweetened with 
lime or oyster shells, produces fabulous crops of corn and 
tobacco. 

The prevalent forest growth consists of Taxodium distichum 
(bald cypress), Cupressus thyoides (white cedar), Juniperus virgin- 
tana (red cedar), Magnolia glauca (sweet-bay), Acer rubrum (red 
or swamp maple), Nyssa multiflora (sour gum), Liquidambar sty- 
racifiua (sweet gum), and Quercus aquatica ? (water oak). 


The following herbaceous and arborescent plants were found 
in flower or fruit in the neighborhood of Drummond’s lake during 
the second week in August: Nesæa verticillata (swamp loose- 
strife), Saururus annuus(lizard’s tail), Callicarpa americana (French 
mulberry), Fussiea decurrens, Ludwigia alternifolia (false loose- 
strife), Rhexia virginica (meadow-beauty), Rosa carolina (swamp 
rose), Rubus occidentalis (black raspberry), Smilax rotundifolia 
(green-brier), Saddatia paniculata (American centaury), Passiflora 
incarnata (passion flower) and C/ethra alnifolia (white alder). The 
latter in some places is so abundant that the air is as heavy laden 
with its perfume as “ the zephyrs that wax faint o’er the gardens 
of Gull in their bloom.” The white water lily (Nymphaea odor- 
aia) is very abundant in the canal, but the yellow water lily 
(Nuphar advena) is scarce, as is also Pontederia cordata, although 
the latter two are abundant in the Pasquotank river, into which 

te canal empties. The rush family is represented by two spe- 
cies of Juncus; the sedge family by the genera Hemicarpha, 
Scirpus, Rhynchospora and Carex; all of which are superabun- 
ant. The grass family is represented by the genera Aurundina- 
na, Cynodon, Glyceria, Poa, Paspalum, Briza, Uniola, Setaria and 
Leersia, I observed no specimens of Zizania, Andropogon, Eri- 
ànthus nor Sorghum. The fern family is represented only by 
Onoclea sensióilis (sensitive fern), Woodwardia virginica (chain 


fern) and Aspidium noveboracense (shield fern). 


moss, together with the canebrake (Aurundinaria macro- 


: Perma), give a decided sub-tropical aspect to the scenery. 


_ eeple-bush), Xyris caroliniana (yellow-eyed grass), 
a ciliaris (yello s (y . * 


; ily), Lilium superbum, Sagittaria pusilla (arrow-head), Polygala 
YOL, xvit, —yo, 111, 19 


290 General Notes. [ March, 


lutea (milkwort), Nuphar advena (yellow water lily) and Pontede- 
ria cordata (pickerel-weed). 

In a damp, shady dell along the Pasquotank river, I discovered 
the rare Hydrolea affinis, Lobelia cardinalis, L. syphilitica, L. sji- 
cata, and a form of Rhexia virginica, with pure white petals, ar 
abundant, and in such places is usually found a tangle of Clemati 
viorna (leather flower), Centrosema virginianum {butterfly-pe), 
Apios tuberosa ‘wild bean) and Mikania scandens (climbing hemp- 
weed). The river at this point is somewhat brackish, and along 
its margins Spartina polystachya (cord grass) grows sparingly. 

The “ pine openings” on the uplands are usually carpeted} 
Sabbatia angularis and Stylosanthes, Lespedeza, Desmodium, 
Crotalaria, Medicago and other Leguminosæ. On a 
heath, a short distance from the town, I found a thrifty colony o 
Rosa bracteata, which has not heretofore been found growing 
without cultivation north of Mobile, Ala. i 

In addition to the above, almost all the plants found wa ; 
Dismal Swamp are also found growing in this neighbor: be l 
where they may be collected with much less trouble than in Oe 
SW. 


teresting and suggestive laboratory study consists in wat jy valè Í 
development of pollen. I have found two plants ¢ : y I 
able for such study, viz., Scotch pine and the common ® u 


e lilac is also easily studied, on account of its ki ag of | i 


sections. In this case again the.work must beg! | 
should continue at intervals of a few days unti 
developed. Pa 

2. The flow of Sap (water).—A neat demonstrati 
rent explanation of the cause of the flow of w 
early spring may be made as follows: During 
a small branch from a maple tree, bring it ly; now Crei 
warm it quickly, when the water will flow free ie flow ae f 
when the flow instantly ceases ; warm again, a0 E 
resumed, and so on. 


Wels 
ALLEN’s CHARACEA AMERICANA EXSICCAT "p specit! f 
time to time, noticed this important publicatio F 


1884.} Botany. 291 


these little-known plants. Fasciculus 1v, just received, brings the 
number of species up to forty. As with the previous fasciculi, the 
specimens are excellent, and the labeling leaves nothing to be de- 
sired. The species are as follows: Nitella tenuissima, N. glom- 
erulifera, N. opaca, N. minuta, Tolypella comosa, T. fimbriata, T. 
intertexta, Chara hydropitys, var. genuina, C. sejuncta, C. gymnopus, 
var, armata, A New Zealand species, Nitella tricellularis is also 
added. 

The specimens were almost entirely collected in New York 
and New Jersey, indicating that they are, without doubt, to be 
found abundantly almost everywhere throughout the country, if 
collectors will but search carefully for them. These fasciculi are 
not sold, but may be obtained in exchange for specimens of 
Characee. One hundred specimens of any desirable form will 
be considered equivalent to a fasciculus in exchange. All corre- 
spondence and specimens should be addressed to Dr. T. F. Allen, 
10 East 36th street, New York city. May we not ask the readers 
of the NATURALIST everywhere to keep a sharp lookout for the 
Characez ? 

BoranicaL Nores.—In the Proceedings of the Davenport 

emy of Sciences, Vol. 1v, Dr. C. C. Parry publishes a paper 

on the species of Arctostaphylos, natives of the Pacific coast of the 
United States. A new species (A. oppositifolia) is described from 
wer California. In another paper in the same volume, Dr. 
Parry describes four other new species from Southern and Lower 
California, viz., Phacelia saffrutescens, Ptelea aptera, Polygala fishia, 
orcuttii. r. Gray’s paper in the December American 
Journal of Science, on “ Some points in Botanical Nomenclature,” 
should receive a thoughtful reading by all our systematic botan- 
ists. It is to be hoped that DeCandolle’s “ Nouvelles Remarques 
sur la Nomenclature Botanique,” of which Dr. Gray’s paper is a 
review, will soon appear in English dress in this country. Uni- 
formi of usage in matters pertaining to nomenclature is so de- 
sirable, that no one ought to consider himself fitted to describe 
and name a species until he has acquainted himself fully with the 
Wages of naturalists. Every botanical library should contain the 
Dall Report on Nomenclature, published in the Proceedings of the 
t can Association for the Advancement of Science, and the 
Ws of Botanical Nomenclature, by Alph. DeCandolle, of which 


4 Fa sh translation by Dr. Weddell appeared in 1868.—_—The 


Botanical Gazette contains a suggestive article, by Dr. 
pos t, on the origin of domesticated vegetables. He pro- 
S to study the origin of domesticated plants by taking into 


, L -culture n their variations. He is led to infer long prehistoric 


of many American plants, as maize, pumpkin, tomato, 

ofono Ste. Moreover, he considers it not improbable that many 
nar so-called natural species are but escapes from a prehistoric 
Wen. the December: Ti orrey Bulletin E. L. Greene 


292 General Notes. (March, 


describes eight new species of flowering plants from S. W. United 
States; C. H. Peck notices a new genus (Neopeckia) established 
by Saccardo, while Dr. Vasey describes two new Western grasses. 
Lists of the plant catalogues of Indiana, Illinois, Michigat 
and Wisconsin are given in the same number by W. 
and N. L. Britten. Henry and James Groves continue thei 
notes on British Characeze in the January Journal of Botany 
recording and figuring Chara braunii, found in Britain for the 
first time last September. G. Baker, in the same number 
continues his synopsis of the genus Selaginella, bringing the 
number of species up to one hundred and nine — Dr. Farlo 
Notes on the cryptogamic flora of the White mountains in Ap. 
palachia (Jan., 1884) is an interesting contribution to our kn 
edge of the lower plants of this region. Six new — 
fungi are described, viz., Doassansia epilobit, Propolis 
Stictis tsuge, Cercospora pyri, Ramularia oxalidis. 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


EGG-LAYING HABITS OF THE EGG-PARASITE OF THE Co 
worm.—In our “ Guide to the Study of Insects,” (p. 200) bi its 
briefly referred to a minute species of Platygaster which lays 
eggs in those of the canker worm. e noticed oe 
day (Nov. 28, 1863, or a year or two earlier) two of these i 
gasters upon two bunches of freshly laid eggs u p d 
worm moth, probably Anisopteryx pometaria Mann. room 
the eggs and ichneumons in a box, and returning tO wn 
at the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, watched 
of the minute Platygasters with a lens of twenty- 
One of them thrust its hind body down between the a 
while the rest of the body was still, and supported by oe 
hind legs, the wings resting on the top of the egg oe seent 
the antennæ were constantly vibrating. There cou e pushing 
slight motion of the abdomen, the ovipositor meanwhi y ovipos , 
and boring into the side of the egg. The operation es Wha 
tion required from one to three, generally three, mio o 
the egg had been deposited in the right place, e han belo 
ran swiftly about, vibrating its antenne more rapidly t its abó” 
until finding a suitable egg it suddenly paused, dro ae 
men down between the eggs, and went through the så jy take ® ) 
vres as we have described. Sometimes it would der | 


The other Platygaster kept on the under prer on ov 
unity 7 
rom egs 

It was very uneasy, and would constantly run about E te . 


and sharp ovipositor, and apparently try to 
durate shell without success, It never attempt 


1884.) Entomology. 293 


top or bottom of the egg, but directed its efforts to the thinner 
sides. It would frequently stop and clean its head with its fore 
legs, and the end of the abdomen with its hind legs, as a fly does. 
—A. S. Packard, jr. 


PAIRED SEXUAL Out ets IN Insects.—J. A. Palmén records in 
the Morphologische Jahrbuch, 1883, the discovery in the May flies 
(Ephemeridz) that the outlets of the sexual glands are paired, 
not only in the larve of all stages, but also in the imagines, and 
in both sexes, as had been earlier stated by Réaumer, Eaton and 
Joly. In the males the vasa deferentia pass through on the ven- 
tral side of the ninth segment two external appendages, both 
reproductive organs, at whose tips or sides the openings are situ- 
ated. In the larvz the female openings are not formed until after 
the last molt. In the females the two oviducts open on the ven- 
tral side of the hind body between the seventh and eighth seg- 


Palmén suggests that the Ephemerids represent, in respect to 
the reproductive system among insects, a very primitive type of 
organization, and he concludes that the inner sexual organs of 
insects are built up of two different morphological elements, #. e., 
(a) internal primitive paired structures (testes with vasa deferentia, 
ovaria with oviducts), and (4) integumental structures, such as the 
ductus ejaculatorius and vagina. 


Tue Larc worm.—For three summers past the existence of 
the larch, hackmatack or tamarack, in the northern portions o 
New England, New York, and portions of New Brunswick and 

nada, has been threatened by a saw-fly larva. This proves to 
be the Nematus erichsonii, as the transformations, habits and 
mago appear to be the same. From Ratzeburg’s description, the 
habits of the American worm are evidently like those of the 

4uropean species, and it is very probable that the insect is com- 
mon to both Europe and Northeastern America. At any rate 
one Species could not have been introduced with European 
larches, since its ravages have been committed in the wilder, less 
uented portions of Maine, New Hampshire and New York, 
as well as on the seaboard in towns long settled. In brief, the 

“its of our species are as follows: The eggs are laid in the ter- 
ae young shoots of the larch from about the middle of June, 
the husetts, to the early part of July in Northern Maine, 
| larvae feeding on the leaves late in June and in July and early 
. - By the last of July to the first week in August, accord- 

P'S to the latitude, the worms are nearly fully grown, while a few 
” rown ones occur on the trees in Maine in the last week of 
Wink and the early days of September. It is very doubtful 
accon ? there are two broods. We will now give a more detailed 
h nt of its habits, from a report on the causes of the destruc- 

report evergreen forests extracted from the forthcoming annual 
: of the Entomologist, Department of Agriculture, 1883. 


ae a 


i 
} 
: 


294 General Notes. [March, 


The eggs had all hatched by June 23-28; few were to be 
found at Brunswick, although the incisions made by the female 
were commonly observed. The female saw-fly makes about a 
dozen incisions in the terminal young, fresh, green shoot, some 
times in one of the side shoots next to the terminal one; judging 
by the shape of the hole the eggs are of the shape described by 
Ratzeburg, 7. e.. oval cylindrical and about 1.5 in length. 
eggs are placed in two rows, alternating, not exactly parallel, ont 
being placed a little in advance of the other. The eggs arei 
serted at the base of the fresh, soft, young, partly-developed 
leaves of the new shoot, which is usually by June 20-30 only 


` 
Fig. 1. | va thet 
Fic. 1.—The larch saw-fly, nat. size and enlarged. Fig. 2- 
different ages, nat, size. Miss L. Sullivan, del. 


arch worn 


the eggs causes a deformation of the shoot, W ner) SO. 
Beans being in all cases observed on one See opserved wid 
the shoot. In many cases a last year’s shoot he shoot. That 
the scars of the incisions on the concavity we ie nding 2 teti | 
incisions were made by the saw-fly was prove Z ymetimes pt 
hatched, but dead, larva in one of the holes. nds made at 
two of the leaves diein consequence of the wou 


At A nately 
After the foregoing lines were written we fortu 


1834. ] Entomology. 295 


a female in confinement, June 29, while engaged in the process of 
ovipositing ; we should judge that the operation of sawing the 
slit and depositing the egg required not less than five minutes, and 
perhaps not much more than that length of time. The fly had 
been evidently at work for some time previous, as a number of 
eggs had been laid along the shoot; she had begun at the farther 
end and worked down to the base of the new, fresh, green shoot. 
She stood head downward while engaged in making the puncture, 
and was not disturbed by our removing the larch twig from the 
glass jar and holding it in our hand while watching the move- 
ments of the ovipositor under a Tolles triplet. The two sets of 
serrated blades of the ovipositor were thrust obliquely into the 
shoot by a sawing movement; the lower set of blades was most 
active, sliding in and out alternately, the general motion being 
like that of a hand-saw. After the incision is sufficiently deep, 
the egg evidently passes through the inner blades of the oviposi- 
tor, forced out of the oviduct by an evident expulsive movement 
of the muscles at the base of the ovipositor. The slit or opening 
of the incision after the egg has passed into it is quite narrow and 
about 1;"" in length. While engaged in the process the antennz 
are motionless, but immediately after the ovipositor is withdrawn 
they begin to vibrate actively, the insect being then in search of 
a site for a fresh incision. 

After making the foregoing observations we found at Phillips, 
Me, July 1, and at Errol, N. H., July 4, numerous twigs con- 
taining eggs, and the flies were also observed upon the trees ovi- 
positing. Although the slit is at first closed, as soon as the em- 

ryo increases in size the twigs swell where they have been in- 
cised by the ovipositor, and the slits enlarge or gape more or less, 
becoming much larger and more conspicuous than when the eggs 
are first deposited. It would thus appear that oviposition takes 
place about a week later in the vicinity of Brunswick, Me., than 
in Essex county, Massachusetts, and about a week later in 
Northern Maine and New Hampshire than on the coast at 

runswick, 

When the larva hatches the incision gapes open, leaving an 
Pg hole. Out of this gape the larva creeps, and it rarely eats 
A terminal shoot, but crawls upon the leaves of the whorls next 
eet terminal shoot. At first it nibbles one side ofthe needle or 
ka faving it half eaten and rough, serrate, and partly withered 
in § the edge. The half-eaten, withered leaves of unequal length 

à whorl on the ends of the smaller branches enable one to de- 
; ecg Presence of the young worms on the tree. . 

„p ually after the young larvæ have shed their first skin, they 
aus. the verticils of the larch and almost invariably begin to 
eating acedles, one after another, beginning at the distal end and 
way leaf obliquely until only a short stump is left; in this 
“Y one verticil after another is eaten, and when the worms are 


296 General Notes., [March, 


half-grown they occasionally collect around the main stem ofthe 
twig in singular clumps or clusters, the hinder part of the body 
curled over their backs, and, owing to their oblique posture in 
reference to one another, appearing like a ball of worms. This 
singular appearance was briefly noticed by Ratzeburg. The cast 
ings or excrement are long, cylindrical, more or less truncated a 
each end. Our saw-fly differs slightly, as has been described, 
from the German in the eggs being laid at the base of the leaves 
on the newly-grown shoots, rather than on or just under 
epidermis of the last year’s shoots, where we have repeatedly and 
in vain searched for them. The larva were observed to hatch 
out from June 20 to 30 at Brunswick, Me. 

The worms appear to attain their full size in about five to seve? 
days after hatching; certainly less than or not more than ten 
days. There appear to be but three molts or changes of skin, 
i. e., four stages ofthe larva. In casting the skin the head splits 
open along the median line of the vertex, and the epicramum or 
sides of the head split apart on each side, leaving the clypeus sn 
labrum in place ; then the body is drawn out of the rent, the 
adhering to the needle or leaf —A. S. Packard, Jr. 


smaller branches and twigs of both large and small tr a eight 
The small pale-green caterpillars bite off from SIX : 
leaves, constructing a broad, flat, irregular case; ish, thts 
being separated from the twig turning red or, yo ee , 
forming a conspicuous patch. This rude case 1S he 3 feed 
with silk, the worm living in a rude silken tube, Sa witht 
upon the inside of the leaves. The length of this sb salis Ë 
which the little caterpillar finally changes to a Cug . 
from 8 to 10™ in length. hrough the moat | 
The worms are found from the first of May thro Ae z0-28th 
une I. 7 
ou 30, the mob 
making their appearance early in July. The larva Erslog | 
moth are described in the report for 1883 of the 
U. S. Department of Agriculture. -ell marked, 
The moth (Gelechia abietisella, n. sp.) is beautifully p, Withowt 
probably examples occur throughout the sumti 
doubt the eggs are laid on the twigs or leaves 10 the winter, ' 
the caterpillars become almost full-fed before the Ta , wort 
nating in their cases, becoming active in the spring. ee with 0% 
are preyed upon by an ichneumon, the ova sae dy to ims" 
pupa which had recently transformed, and anote g P 
nate, occurring in the cases June gth —A. S. Packart 


1884.] Entomology. 297 


Foop-PLANTS OF THE ARMY WORM.—In Bulletin No. 3, Ento- 
mological Division, Dept. Agriculture, some new facts are re- 
corded in reference to Leucania unipuncta,and notably an ac- 
count of its injury to cranberry bogs. We quote the following 
in reference to its food-plants : 

“The normal food-plants of the army worm are found among 
the grasses and grains, not a single species of either, so far as 
known, coming amiss. Wheat and oats seem to be its favorite 
among the small grains, though rye and barley are also taken 
with less relish. German millet, corn and sorghum, particularly 
when young and tender, are eaten by the worms. They were 
found, in 1881, feeding to a greater or less extent on flax in Illi- 
nois, although this is mentioned by Fitch as one of the crops 
which the worms will not touch. They have also been reported 
to eat onions, peas, beans and other vegetables, though probably 
only when pressed with hunger. As stated in our Eighth Mis- 
souri Report, upon the reliable authority of Mr. B. F. Mills, of 
Makanda, Ill., they have also been known to eat the leaves of 
fruit trees. Ordinarily clover is disregarded by the worms, though 

ey occasionally nibble at it. A timothy field is often eaten to 
the ground, leaving the clover scattered through it standing. In 
this connection it may be well to state that on the Department 
grounds at Washington the newly-hatched worms have been 
found in a folded clover leaf, feeding thus protected, and under 
such circumstances as rendered it probable that they had been 
hatched there. í 

“Mr. Lockwood stated in his report (see last Annual Report 
of this Department) that even the common ragweed (Ambrosia 
artemisiefolia) was eaten clean by the worms, and also that the 
Worms in passing through a strawberry patch devoured both the 
leaves of the plant and the unripe fruit. 

_ In order to establish upon proper authority the facts concern- 
ng what the army worm will and will not eat when pushed by 
unger, we conducted during the summer of 1881-’82, a series 
experiments upon different plants, placing each plant in a sep- 
arate breeding-cage with a few healthy half-grown larva. The 
results show an unexpected power of accommodation to plants 
in many families, and no resultant variation in the imagines worth 
mentioning, 
k The results are summarized below : 
PENRE -Papaver somniferum. (Garden poppy.) 
Aet ur larvæ all attained full growth and entered the ground. Three moths 


= #—Brassica oleracea. (Cabbage.) 
The four larvæ in his case moved restlessly about for the first day without 
changed second day they began to feed, and by the fifteenth all had 
Ceca. to pupa. In this state two died, but the other two issued as : 
of — Raphanus sativus. (Radish.) ; 
in =i larvze two lived to issue as moths; one died in the pupa, and one 
arva state, 


298 General Notes. [March, 


MALVACEZ.— Gossypium herbaceum., (Cotton.) 
All died after feeding slightly. 
VITACEÆ.— Vitis labrusca. (Grape.) 
All died without feeding. 
LEGUMINOSA.—Pisum sativum. (Garden pea. 
Of five larvæ all fed abundantly ; transformed and issued as moths. 
LecuMiInos#.— Phaseolus vulgaris, (Garden bean.) 
All died without touching the leaves. 
ROSACEÆ.— Fragaria virginiensis. (Strawberry.) 
r larvæ experimented on all fed for from seven to ten days and thes 
died without transforming. 
ROSACEÆ.—Rubus strigosus. (Raspberry.) 
Of eight larva all fed well and all transformed to pupa; only four, hower® 
issuing as moths. 
UMBELLIFER#.— Daucus carota. (Carrots.) died 
The four larvæ begun feeding on the second day ; all transformed; two 
in the pupa state and the other two issued as moths. 
UMBELLIFERÆ.— Pastinaca sativa, (Parsnip.) and th 
Of four larvæ one died before transforming, one in the pupa state, 
other two issued as moths. | 
COMPOSITÆ.— Lactuca sativa. (Garden lettuce.) 
rvæ one was destroyed by the others before they co 
the others all fed to full growth, transformed and issued as mo 
CHENOPODIACEÆ.— Beta vulgaris. (Garden beet.) ii 


Ate ied after six days; the 
f four larve, after feeding slightly, three et and issued as an 


mmenced to etti 
ths. 


one fed more extensively, transformed to pup: 
healthy moth. 
LILIACER.—Allium sativum. (On 
All fed; two died as larve, 
sued as moths. 
CONIFER A.—Abies canadensis. (Hemlock.) 
l died without feeding. 


ion.) pe “i 
and the other two completed the round 


i. 
SALIVARY AND OLFACTORY ORGANS OF Bess—P. Oe ographi@ : 
this elaborate paper commences with the ordinary he 


and discusses their developmental history an tion, w 
He points out that all glands have to supply 4 par the ric 
the more the separate cells take a larger share NB") Jn pets 
the secretion from a smaller number of secreting “this is efoti 
there are two essentially different modes by which S as the i 
and the two types may be appropriately spoken = of the 2 | 
cellular, and the intercellular. In the simplest se 
we find a sac lined by a simple layer of cells, a the comt 
each cell presents a proportionately broad surface the PP 
cavity ; the material is obtained from the blood ee diminish 
ends of the cells. If the sac elongates, its dianc the 
and we get the tubular form. In these two “SY yee ore 

are widest in a direction parallel to the lumen of nate dito ; 
If the cells become spheroidal, there is a proportio petweet 
in the secreting surface, and efferent canals oe 


1884.] Entomology. 299 


cells. As a matter of fact, glands of this kind of construction do, 
among the Apidz, stand remarkably close to the sacular or the 
tubular. 

The intracellular type obtains in what the author calls his first, 
fourth and fifth system ; here the cells are attached to long stalks 
and float in the collum, and thus it happens that the whole of 
their surface is able to take up the necessary matter from the 
bl In connection with consequent large secretion, secretory 
canaliculi are developed, which make their way into the cells, sur- 
round the plasma, and so afford a correspondingly large surface 
for excretion. To this type a much greater secretory activity 
must be ascribed than to that in which secretion is intercellular. 
In the so-called fourth system we find that the intercellular spaces 
are very rare, and in the first (Bombus) the free cells are arranged 
in acini. Both these arrangements must be due to the large num- 
ber of cells present. 

The author concludes that the so-called crop has, in honey 
bees, the function of, at times, completely shutting off the honey- 
stomach from the chyle-intestine, while the small intestine forms 
the means of communication between the latter and the rectum. 
The salivary glands vary considerably both in genera and species, 
and it seems proable that their functions are also very varied. 
While one system of glands is formed within the propria of the 
first portion of the larval spinning glands, two others are derived 
from its efferent canals, and the other two are fresh structures 
tormed by an invagination of the epidermis. The olfactory mucous 
gland of Wolff is salivary in function. 


Entomotocicat. Norrs.—J. Nusbaum discusses in the Zoologis- 
cher Anseiger, Jan. 7, the structure, development and morphology 
of Leydig’s chorda, or so-called ventral vessel of Lepidoptera, 
which has lately been treated of by Burger and by Cattie. Nus- 
baum concludes that the chorda is a mesoskeleton; that it is 
analogous to, but not homologous with, the chorda of vertebrates, 
and that we may distinguish in the arthropoda, as in the verte- 

€s, two morphologically different parts in the internal skel- 

: I, an endoskeleton (endodermal chorda and its products) ; 

2,a mesoskeleton (ż e., Leydig’s chorda). Fritz-Miller describes 
~ the same journal (p. 415, 16) the appendages of the abdomen 
in Acrea thalia——Mr. A. E. Butler discusses the moths of the 
amily Urapterygide” in the collection of the British Museum. 
brat the category of a family should be applied to what appears 
a. scarcely a sub-division of a sub-family of geometrids 

k to what extremities systematists of an exceedingly analyt- 
-AA turn of mind will sometimes go. Why should not the in- 
"re of such immense collections as those of the Briti 

Matec lead to broader taxonomical views ?--—The late Hermann 
its qa eats in Kosmos of the intelligence of the honey bee, and 

difference in different races——“ Ants and their Ways” is the 


300 General Notes. {March, 


title ofa little book by W. F. White, published by the London 
Religious Tract Society. The prolonged existence of Ichneu- 
mon in the pupa state is noticed by W. McRae in the Ent 
gist,p. 188. Several interesting papers on the Collembola, by6. 
Brook, have appeared during the past year in the Jou the 
Linnean Society of London; among others a revision of the 
genus Entomobrya, of which Degeeria of Nicolet is a synonym. 
Packard’s Degeeria 10-fasciata, a common U. S. species, is referred 
to the common European Entomobrya muttifasciata, of which 
Say’s Pedura fasciata is also regarded by Mr. Brook as ô 
synonym. 


ZOOLOGY 


OTES ON Mepusm — (Continued from February number) 
Stomatonema reticulatum, n. g. and s.—I have given the name 
Stomatonema reticulatum to a new Discophore from the South 
Atlantic, which has affinities with Cassiopea, Aurelia, and others 
and seems to me to throw considerable light on the homolog 
of certain peculiar bodies called “crests,” found on the pou | 
inder of that curious genus from the Florida Keys, knoe 
Stomolophus. i bell- 

he body isan inch and a half in diameter, 1$ rounded, , 
shaped above, with thick gelatinous walls. Th a 
bell is much thinner than the central region, and on were 
a fine reticulation of anastomosing tubes. The region os the bl 
work of tubes forms a narrow zone, whose outer edge 1s oe 
margin. There are no marginal tentacles as 1n Casstop 
some other related genera of Discophora. i i 

The marginal tin are more closely allied to a] 
Aurelia than to the same structures in Cyanea or jar inte l 
The sense-bodies are eight in number, placed at reg® z q wibi 
about the rim of the bell. Each sense-body 15 oo eyo! 
hood, and on either side, continued for a short ees gens 
the sense-bulbs, is a lappet similar to like structures 1M pt 
Aurelia. In addition to the zone of anastomosine Sis ss 


without bifurcation to the inner rim of the margin’ 
Between these last there are still others, also. nal net? 
branched, which arise from the inner rim Of t bells 

dly in the : 


on the lower floor. zB cteristic: Te 
in the OP fe 

pepe sie | 
likeness to those of Aurelia. On the under sie ø l 
is formed between two wing-like folds, W | 


1884.] Zoblogy.. 301 


border the canal on each side. These folds are continued around 
the oval tentacles at their distal ends, extending for about half 
the length of the tentacle on the upper side, and enclosing on this 
side a canal similar to that found below. On the edge of each of 
these folds there is placed a row of suckers, or “ mouths,” which 
resemble the well-known mouths in Aurelia, Cassiopea, and other 
similar Discophores. Each oral tentacle is thus bordered above 
and below by a double row of these sucking mouths. The signi- 
fication of my emphasis of this fact will be seen when we come to 
consider their homologues in the strange genus Stomolophus. 

A system of vessels for the transportation of the food from the 
sucking mouths to the central stomach cavity pervades the oral 
tentacles. Through the middle of each tentacle there passes a 
tube, which takes up alternately from upper and lower sides 
smaller vessels, passing to it from the superficial canal on the 
lower and likewise from that already described on the upper 
edges of the oral tentacles. As it nears the common fusion of 
all the oral tentacles, the median vessel of each tentacle becomes 
Superficial, and opens into the groove with which it is continued 
on the lower surface of the oral apparatus, until ultimately it 
passes through a common central orifice into the stomach cavity. 
The two regions of suckers found on the oral tentacles we may 
designate as the upper and lower regions; the former being simply 
a continuation of the latter around the distal end of each oral 

endage. The upper region of suckers is therefore morpho- 
logically the same as the lower, with which it stands in direct 
communication. In Aurelia the lower region of suckers ends on 
the lower side of the oral tentacle near its distal extremity. 
its continuation on the upper side in Stomatonema mean 
anything when we study the distribution of these bodies in some 
other genera? 

The genus Stomolophus, found in Floridan waters, is a Dis- 
cophorous medusa of which little is yet known, either as regards 
i anatomy or embryology. As far as our limited knowledge of 

€ structure of their umbrella goes, there are many points of re- 
oe in the two genera. Both have the same bell-shaped 
St es, and both are destitute of tentacles on the bell margin. 
L polophus is represented in the well-known figure in Professor 

Agassiz’ “Contributions to the Natural History of the United 
man with a reticulated zone surrounding the bell margin, 
ey May correspond with the reticulated zone of tubes in our 

genus, 
. In the Structure of the oral region the two genera seem widely 
eee for while in Stomatonema we find this organ composed 
: thee ora! tentacles, each of which is wholly distinct from the 
een, M Stomolophus there is a consolidated oral cylinder 
eight by longitudinal lines of “crests,” of which there are 
Pairs. Of these crests there are two kinds, an upper, arising 


302 General Notes. 


from the sides of the oral cylinder which, as the medusa swims 
through the water, is almost wholly concealed by the sides of the 
bell, and a lower, in anatomical structure resembling the last, 
also arranged in eight pairs in a similar manner, They are, 
however, disconnected from the upper, and are situated at the 
distal end of the oval cylinder. These “crests,” particularly the 
upper, are raised folds or lips thrown into many ruffles, and at 
vertically arranged on the oral cylinder; the lower extending 
around the marginal rim into the mouth cavity of the cylinder. 
Professor Agassiz has already shown that the oral cylinder of 
Stomolophus may be looked upon as the homologue of the eight 
consolidated arms of the Rhizostome medusa. If we imagine the _ 
eight oral tentacles of Stomatonema consolidated into an oral 5 
cylinder, we would have almost exactly the morphology of ie. > 
mouth-parts of Stomolophus. In that consolidation the pe 4 | 
“crests” are what remains of the upper region of suckers andthe f 
lips upon which they arise, while the lower “ crests” or e | 
representatives of the lower lips and their appendages. Int 
fancied consolidation we must suppose a small partition a { 
the upper and lower lines ot sucking mouths, the upper Gh", p 
being separated from the lower by an unbroken and consolidate 
section of the oral cylinder. 

The genus Stomatonema approaches more closely 


homologous with the consolidation of the oral tentacles. | 
this morphology of the organ in question is suppor, 
course of the development of the mouth must be “his not 0t 
proved by those who have opportunities to study Cai 
common medusa in Floridan waters, or on the 3 
Georgian coasts. : 
The genus Stomatonema was taken in Montert p 
a type specimen is in the Mus. Comp. Zool. at Cam 


young of the former genus are attached t 
dy and stomach of the latter, and the 
genera are found in North American waters, 
the accompanying sketch made several years a 
Franca. Although the commensalism of Cona res 
don has never been observed in our North Ameri ore (199 
` tives, the late Professor McCrady many yar McCr. ™ 
discovered in Charleston harbor a Cuma odentia er 
young lives in the bell cavity of a genus to Wig whethet X fi 
name of Turritopsis. It remains yet to w sane nii 3 
species of Glossocodon and Cunina have hk diterranean g” ; 


lationship which has been described in the 


1884.] Zoology. 303 


by, Haeckel! Uljanin, F. E. Schultze, and others, between the 
genera Caramina and Cunina. Fritz Müller has described a like 
commensalism in Glossoco- 
don (Liriope) and Cunina from 
South American waters. 
Later investigations may 
show that our species are the 
same as his, and probably 
stragglers from warmer south- 
ern waters. To those espe- 
cially whose good fortune it 
is to cultivate the study of 
the Medusæ of these locali- 
tes, we must look for new 
observations. On the New 
England coast both genera 
are very rare. The genus 
Carmarina, which has six ra- 
es tubes while Glossocodon 
ang dur, has not been -m y- The fse extn of probost 

: ; of Carmarina, with stomach walls cut off 
Fritz Miiller’s observations of and tongue “columella” protruded; a, a, 

ssocodon cath arinensis, we colonies of Cuninz Bs, b Tongue” (ex- 

th 


å, “ 

May n of peduncle of the proboscis); c, 
te tne Same OF a base of the tongue and union with proboscis; 
similar commensalism in our 4, section of the proboscis at the point where 
_ Species of the same genus. it is cut off from the attached part 

Although I have searched in vain for this relationship in our 
_ Senera, many specimens of Carmarina with Cunina colonies 
4 oo during my stay in Villa Franca, where both these 


pi than those thus far known from this side of the Atlantic. 


pase published by Haeckel and Schultze, shows in the same 
ie ies in different stages of development, where one of 


is,a diminutive bell, and is almost identical with the youngest 
l meen st (Fig. 7) represents the “ tongue” (b, bb) of Car- 
4 which it hen the terminal extremity of the proboscis (4), from 


Witea. Fio little beyond the lips of the same. In order to 
Bic an whole extent, certain dissections have n necessary. 
í mach walls have been removed—cut away—in order to 
which a To ke gn of the relationship of the two genera known as Alloeogenesis 
el first advanced has a shown to be erroneous, 


304 General Notes. [March, i 


expose this organ and its appendages, the Cunina colonies, more 
clearly, so that only the line of their former attachments is repre 
sented. Upon the tongue will be observed on each side an 
elongated cluster (a), made up of spherical, flask-shaped and 
star-like bodies, each of which, when magnified slightly in siz, 
will be found to be a medusa of different torm from its associates, 
since in different stages of growth, but all attached to a commot 
stolon which itself hangs from the tongue of the Carmarita 
These clusters or colonies of young Cuninz, as is well known 
ultimately dissolve their connection with the stolon and swim 
away as free medusz. 
As my object in the introduction of this cut is simply to al l 
attention toa mutual relationship of the two genera, boua 
which occur in our waters, I will not consider many theo } 
points which are closely connected with this relation aa . 
colony of young Cuninz and a Siphonophore. I have been 
to confirm an important observation of Uljani 
ranean species of Cunina does not always attach i 
tongue of Carmarina, but is sometimes found fastened eveni 
the walls of the umbrella. Such observations would i) 
show that attachment to the tongue is not essential to the 
the young Cunina colonies. Must it necessarily be su pte 
that the young Cunina cannot also fasten itself to another a. 
as Professor McCrady has shown C. octonaria clings ee ‘ 
bell-walls of Turritopsis? If attached to the bell a sae 
it can get little of the common food with its host. an 
is it anything more than a parasite or is it a true pe tot 
Observation must yet show that the attachment © a| 
other is necessary for the life of either. ` 
In studying a specimen of Carmarina with Cuine an 
I separated one of these colonies of Cunina aoe nori 
and found thatit lived some time in that condition. eloped is 
died before any of the buds attached to the stolon dev of Cutis 
free medusæ. The difference between such a Cotony = porgi” 


Siphonophore to one or the other as essentially ee 
While, without doubt, we must regard the attac 

colonies as representing a hydroid stage, 
resemble more closely a budding Lizzia or 


$: 


1884.] Zoölogy. 305 


hydroid. Cunina has become degenerated by its parasitism or 
commensalism so that the proboscis with young budding from 
it alone remains. Its bell has gone, the mouth opening is no 
longer functional, and the proboscis, which has elongated into a 
stolon attached to the body of a host, is closely crowded with the 
young. The modifications which the same stolon undergoes in 
the Siphonophores, where it is elongated into the axis, and the 
changes which take place in the bell of the primitive Lizzia, by 
which a float or air bubble results, has been sufficiently discussed 
elsewhere. The most widely aberrant forms of development 
among the Siphonophores can be made uniform if we compare 
them with that of the budding Sarsia and Lizzia as the normal 

That exceptional form of development called alternation of 
generation which exists in the fixed hydroids may be regarded 
as the irregular, not the normal, method. It isan adaptation re- 
sulting from peculiar circumstances, and a departure from a rule 
in one direction as that of the Siphonophores is in another. The 
Cunina colonies have resemblances with both fixed hydroids and 
Siphonophores, but have not departed as widely as either from 
the normal method in their older larval and adult conditions.— 
F. W. Fewkes, Cambridge, Dec., 1883. 


A New Peracıc Larva.—While engaged in the study of the 
larvae of our marine Annelids, myattention has been directed to the 
close resemblance which many of them bear to the young of the 
Polyzoa, more especially of the entoproctous genera, Loxosoma, 
and Pedicellina. Several points of resemblance between Actino- 
trocha, the young of a Gephyrean genus called Phoronis, and the 
former of these two polyzoan genera in the adult condition have 
already been suggested by others, while the relationship between 
the young of the Chzetopods, and the larve of Polyzoa have 
been repeatedly commented upon by those who have studied the 
development of both these groups of animals. The larval Che- 

A worm which most closely resembles the young of Loxoso- 
ma is the well-known Mitraria, the comparisons between which 
ve been nowhere more concisely made than by Balfour, in the 
volume of his Comparative Embryology. To prove any 
S*netic relations between these groups, other worm larve, even 
more closely related to the Polyzoa than Mitraria, ought to be 
oa. and it would seem self-evident to every one that 
any intimate connection between the Vermian and Poly- 

roan phyla can be satisfactorily made out, that a larger number of 
on te larval forms of one group or the other should be 
vür Such a larva, which seems to me to fill in part the gap in 
of the larval Annelid and the young Polyzoan, I 


í have taken several times at Newport, and although I am at pres- 


ent ignorant of the adult form which it attains, it seems to me of 
more than ordinary interest as having to a greater extent than 


VOL. xvin, —no. u, 20 


306 General Notes. (March, 


any known larva, characteristics of the young of both the grou 
of Chzetopods and that of the Marine Polyzoa. 

The identification at present accepted of the genus into which 
Mitraria is developed, is not wholly satisfactory. Mitraria was 
first found figured and described by Johannes Müller He speaks 
of three species, and regards them as the larvæ of some Annelidas 
genus. The next naturalist in order of time who studied Mitrana 
was Claparede,? who fished the animal with the dip-net on the 
coast of Scotland. Neither Miiller nor Claparede observed tht 
transformation of the larva which they had found into a worm o 
had anything more than a speculative knowledge of the genus t 
which it belongs. Schneider? was the first to observe a new stagt 
in the development of Mitraria. He found that this larva, whe 
left in his glasses, was replaced by one which he considered ap 
proximately in form that of a Gephyrean. Kowalevsky, how: 1 
ever, according to Metschnikoff, had determined the Chetan . 
nature of Mitraria in 1867, although he had not published 
discovery. The last step in the history of the attempts to ‘ald 
mine the adult of Mitraria we owe to Metschnikoff,* who A 
it into a Chztopod belonging to the family of Clymeniee io 
though he was not able to determine the genus of Annelids ui | 
which it developed, he traced it into a tubicolous worm, | 
has many resemblances to some of the genera of this famiy. 


has the closest likeness to Mitraria. It is, however, À 
far removed from it in many points of structure. ss Cyd 
The Polyzoan larva, which it approaches most ea p 
pelma, the young of Loxosoma.’ Cyclopelma longicil eternit 
first described by Busch,’ who was, however, pence 
satisfactorily the adult form. Leuckart® first Bes Fe r oe ae 
Ima is the young of the entoproctous Polyzoan, i 
The new Reis which I am about to describe has many af i 
with Cyclopelma, as well as with Mitraria, and seems 
ate between the two. a 
The general form of our new larva is as follows: sit ye 
Its body has an elongated, oval shape, girt equa?" spote 
swollen belt (cb) upon he margin of which the cilja $ 2 


1 Arch. f. Anat. u. Phys., 1854, p. 88, Pls. v, VI. 

? Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., X, p. 407. 

* Arch. f, Mikros. Anat., v (1869), p. 271. ee 

*Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., XXI, p. 233, Pl., XVIIL ibed was foumi tt” 3 

5 A new Mitraria of large size, differing from any yet deere ya i 
in the Bermudas in May, 1882. 5 w is founds igh i 

* Let me add to Dr. Leidy’s list of localities where this te from New ” ° 
England coast, on Sipunculus; Professor Verrill also reports 1t ™ 
coast. (Preliminary Check-list.) 

"Beobach, über Anat. u. Entwick. wirbellos, Thiere, 1851. 

* Arch, f. Naturg., 1867, p. 304. 


1884. ] Zoölogy. 307 


This belt, when the larva is looked at from either extremity, 
is oval, and has its margin 
deeply indented with a notch 
(m) on one side. It divides 
the larva into two halves of 
unequal size, which may be 
called the anterior (a), and the «6... 
posterior (4). The anterior is 
hat-shaped and rounded at 
the apex. It is sometimes 


ceals the posterior half of the 
body, Fic. 1.—Larva from cain o ans a, ror 
The apex of the upper half Set beiisphares ciated betj, oncit 
of the body is rendered very apical projection; ž, posterior hemisphere ; 
prominent by reason of a tuft 4?) ciliated caudal prominences ; s, sete ; st, 
of cilia (cr). In one specimen apd lower extremity of larva. 
as y 0! arva. 

(Fig. 1) these cilia appeared to 
set on the edge of an orifice, which was widely open and 
every resemblance to a mouth. A small median pro- 
longation (0p) of a ridge on one side was noticed. In the 
walls of the larva near by was a pair of reddish pigment spots 
(oc). The union of the upper half of the embryo and the cili- 
ated belt is marked more especially on the ventral side by 
Opaque walls caused by pigment (ms) of a black color. The pos- 
~ terior body region is smaller and more pointed than the anterior, 
= and tapers uniformly from its fusion with a ciliated belt to two 
: a appendages (ff) at the lower pole, or posterior extremity 
, he larva. The posterior body region is unsegmented, and the 
_ Papilliform caudal appendages are covered with fine cilia. A vent 
Opens posteriorly between these two appendages, out of which 
: feces were observed to pass. On the side of the posterior half 


of body, opposite that in which the notch () in the margin 
the ciliated belt is found, several long spines (s) arise, which, 
in eee as long, resemble in general characters the spines 
itraria, They do not spring from a single or double? pro- 
terior ce as in Mitraria, but are appended to the side of the pos- 
tres part of the body which bears the ciliated papillæ. The 
t Prs uth was very difficult to discover, but in single specimens 
piesa hed seen in the region just below the ring of cilia in the 
ntation already spoken of in the margin of that structure. 
` This pigment calls to mind the “ Mesoderme oral,” in the figures of oung Poly- 
Coe tic (Recherches sur Api amera des Bryozoaires, Lille, Pre 
a sing figures of species of Mitraria by Müller. In Metschnikoff ’s species there is 
Prominence upon which the sete arise. 


308 General Notes. [March, 


The body walls, for the most part, are opaque, especially in the 
region of the ciliated belt, which encloses some of the most im- 
portant vital organs. Within the body, however, a globular, 
orange-colored mass (s¢) could be seen, and from it a continuation 
(intestine) leading downward into the posterior body region. The 
cesophagus, if seen, was not recognized. The upward prolonga 
tion of the walls in which the orange mass is found, as shown ii 
a specimen with the upper hemisphere extended, was at first 
thought to be an œsophagus, but afterwards it was referred to @ | 
similar placed organ in Mitraria. 

There are several doubtful and many anomalou 
larva which we have described above. 

The position of the internal organs, upon 
pends in the identification, could not, from 
at my disposal, be satisfactorily determined. 
all homology with other Metachete, that the mo 
situated at the apex of the upper hemisphere, by w 

3 


s features in the ) 


hich the lava 


-mi 

ae 

—j; 
ER 
=e N 
Aa 
Z., 
4 
SS) 


M 


3.—Larva with ciliated belt turned backward (ventral view); 


G. 
Fic. 4.—Ciliated belt seen from below. 


would be made mesotrochal. All homology with Mirga 1 
point to a region just below the ciliated band as a ciliated 1 
ation of this organ. If it really does exist here the us to O 
d be exactly homoi cE vol 8 

ectodermic thickening which is described by Merari M. 
found at the apex of the upper hemisphere of t f heli pave” 
apical unfolding of the wall of the body wou nit 
entirely different meaning from the interpretati iog 
mouth, and the cilia would be regarded as h homolog j 
well-known tuft found in so many genera 1 @ wat 
position. ior PFs | 
The two ciliated protuberances (ff) on the ee genes 
the body resemble closely similar appendages 19 >: che Poy 
Chetopoda.. They are not found in Mitraria the forme! gee 
larve. In connection with taik tee of 
and their existence here, it may be well to : 
ing sentences in Metschnikoff’s article (2. ait) on analen P 
mentof Mitraria, He says: “ Die Abwesen 


mo 


er 


1884. ] Zoblogy. 309 


len bei unserem Wurme kann schon deshalb nicht gegen die 
Clymenidennatur desselben augefiihrt werden, weil wir ja mehrere 
Reprasentanten dieser Familie (Z. B. Clymenides Clap. oder Cly- 
menia Qtrf.) ohne die charakteristische Schwanzbildung der 
echten Clymenen kennen.” If our larva be the young of some 
member of the Clymenidz, the ciliated projections may be two 

of the characteristic papillae of this region of the adult. 
Our unknown larva has one highly characteristic Polyzoan 
er half of the 


proximate nearer the sete of Mitraria as far as position goes, 
although they are not mounted on any special prominence, and 
arise from the posterior body region which bears the terminal 
ciliated prominences. In Mitraria there are no eye-spots similar 
to those which have been described in our new larva. In the 
young Loxosoma there are two well marked ocelli. 

As only a single stage in the development of my new larva 
Was found, it is impossible to do more than speculate in regard to 
the genus of which it is the young. There is no doubt that it is 
a larval Annelid, but I am at a loss to what family of Chatopoda 
it should be referred. —/. Walter Fewkes. 


Barn Owrs N Missourt.—As in several other parts of the 
Country, there has been an unusual occurrence of numbers of the 
owl here this winter. Specimens were captured in four dif- 
ferent buildings in the city and one in the country, A number 
them made a regular resort of an unused chimney in a resi- 
nce near the centre of the city —F. A. Sampson, Sedalia Natural . 
History Society, Sedalia, Mo. 


: g Nores ON THE Rep-winc BLACKBIRD.—I examined to-day 
nests of this bird (Age/eus pheniceus) in a prairie, though 
nl my residence. There was but one egg in one of the nests, 
eit in another, and four in another. One nest hada very young 
and three eggs, while the fifth nest contained four little birds 
about one-fourth grown. All of these but one, I am confident, 


In; : : 
is = 'S very difficult to reconcile the hypothesis of Metschnikoff, that the Mitraria 
stage of a genus ymenidz, and the larvæ of Clymenella and 

No. 2), 12 Dt E. B. Wilson (Stud. f. Biol. Lab. Johns Hopkins Univ., Vol. 1 
latter none of res given in the excellent embryology of his worm -A 


two. Unti si an or ; 
Mets a a larger number of older larva of Mitraria are known, its reference by 
to the Clymenidz i thetical. 


must remain more or less hypotheti 


310 General Notes. [ March, 


were old nests, which had undergone slight repairs, so that the 
poet Longfellow, when he wrote— 
“ There are no birds in last year’s nests,” 


could not have referred to the red-wing blackbird. These nests — 
were built among the cat-tail flags and coarse grass.and reeds, 
which grow in the water. One of the nests was suspended upon 
green supports, while in the others the supporting stalks were al 
dead. The first-mentioned nest was evidently of recent construe 
tion, while the others had been used at least one previous season 
Opinion has varied much inthe past in regard to the usefulness 
of this much persecuted bird. The fact that he was in the habit 
of eating some corn, just as it was hardening out of the mik, 
created a deep-seated prejudice among superficial observers yes ‘ 
ago; but “the authorities” are all of one accord in the idea that 
it is one of our most useful birds. Wilson, in his time, esti o 
that the red-wings annually consumed in this country the 
aggregate of 16,000,000,000 of insects, the most of which p 
noxious! So much good work as that surely should entitle 
beautiful bird to the fullest measure of protection. ijk 
But I am of the opinion that the red-wings pape | 
best days” in several of the Northern States. Some dotes 
have occasionally found their nests in trees and bushes, an : 
“upon the ground. But in the great prairie States a a : 
nesting place is among the rank vegetation of the — ser 
and the margins of shallow lakes. But settlement "i 
tion are resulting in the annual reclamation of thousan in ma 
of these wet lands, and just now there is springing UP As dl 
regions almost a mania on the subject of tile ae wane 
this progresses the prairie sloughs and ponds will becom, : 
land, and cease to be the summer resorts of the red wt doa a 
will gradually retire and betake themselves to other W ed abot 
less, far-distant localities. This region has been e there 5 
twenty-five years,and in that time I am confident birds. Ë 
been quite a diminution in the vast numbers of these raids u 
the present time there is little if any complaint of yer ier yas 
the corn-fields, concerning which much was p: will wok 
ago. During the next decade tile-drainage and po species,” ; 
very marked changes in the summer homes of ded | - 
well as its frequent associate the yellow-hea here they 
(Xanthocephalus icterocephalus), and many regions ye cai 
now very abundant will doubtless only know eas Webster © 
visitants or “birds of passage.”—Charles Aldrich, d 
Towa, Fune 7, 188 te cong l 
the first CP 
MIGRATION or Nortu American Birps.-—At New Y | 
of the American Ornithologists’ Union, held in f pirds was T 
Sept. 26-28, 1883, a committee on the migra fullest exte f 
pointed to investigate, in all its bearings and to t 


1884.] Zoölogy. 311 


storms, gales of wind, protracted periods of unusually high or 
low temperature (for the locality and time of year) are among the 


upon the movements of birds. The opening of the leaves and 
the flowering of certain plants, with the correlative appearance of 
a multitude of insects, are also among the actors that have to do 
with the abundance of many species. Hence the careful regis- 
tration of certain meteorological phenomena, and of the state of 
advancing vegetation from day to day, will constitute prominent 
ems in the record books of the observer. 

For the purpose of rendering the result of the season’s work 
as full and valuable as possible, the committee earnestly solicits 
the codperation of every ornithologist, field-collector, sportsman 
and observer of nature in North America. Indeed, a large corps 
of observers is absolutely essential to the success of the under- 
taking, and the committee hopes to receive substantial aid from 
many who profess no knowledge of ornithology. Efficient ser- 
vice can be rendered by those familiar with only our commonest 
birds, and the committee will gladly accept data concerning any 


` Of the following well-known species : 


Robin, mocking bird, catbird, brown thrasher, bluebird, house 
Wren, yellow-rumped warbler (myrtle bird), yellow-breasted chat, 
edstart, Maryland yellow-throat, cedarbird (waxwing, cherry- 
bird), purple martin, barn swallow (fork-tailed), violet-green swal- 


d 
Stosbeak, indigo bird, bobolink (ricebird), cowbird, yellow-headed 
blackbir i 


the the enormous m 
Joint labors of this army of field workers, it has been deemed 


"When 
first heard, 
"When first seen, 


312 General Notes. [March, 


competent superintendent. The districts, with their respective 

superintendents, are: 

Alaska—Supt., John Murdoch, Smithsonian Inst., Washington, D. C. 

Northwest Territories—Supt., Ernest E. Seton, Assinaboia, via Carberry, Manitoba, 

Newfoundland—Supt., James P. Howley, St, John’s, Newfoundland. 

British Columbia—Supt. (not yet determined). 

Manitoba—Supt., Professor W. W. Cooke, Caddo, Indian ba 

Canada—Supt., Montague Chamberlain, St. John, New Brunswick. 

SEs maen ( ie Amar ae and lightships from Gi to the Gulf of Mer 
co)—Supt. (not yet determined). 

hës ETE E John H. lie Portland, Conn. 

Atlantic district (New York, Pennsylvania, New Jery, Delaware, Maryland, Vir- 

oa, ree Carolina. South Carolina)—Supt., Dr. A. K. Fisher, Sing Sing 

ew Yor 


Middle-Eastern district (Southern Michigan, Indiana, one West Virginin S : 
jarky an and Tennessee east of the Tennessee river, Alabama, Georgia an : 
a)—Supt., Dr. J. M. Wheaton, Columbus, Ohio. Kar 
Missisippi Mand kota, sinse ota, Wisconsin, Nebraska, p Bg 
s, Missouri, Indian Territory, Arkansas, the small portion sO pp) | 

lan gi west of the jain river, Texas, Louisiana, Mississi 


Profess W. Cooke, Caddo, Indian Territo do; aah 
Rocky poms district egy Montana, Wyoming Utah, Colorado, 
New Mexico)—Supt., Dr. Edgar A. Mear 


Pacific aig PE EANES Oregon, Gaian, " Nevada) Std L, Belding, $% 
The home of each observer is called a station, and is comm : 
by number upon the books of the committee he ular, al 
particularly requests that all persons who read ‘this pee nal” 
are willing to aid in the work, will immediately mee Thos 
with the superintendents of their respective distric et beet 
residing in districts whose sopi araca have not as yêt 
named, may address the chairm the 
It is the duty of each sadi. to exert hint ae , 
utmost to increase the number of observers in his the dea 
answer the questions they may put to him concerning oduct 
of the work, etc.; to collect at frequent intervals the Pf 
their labors; to ascertain from these data t 
tain species in winter and the times of leaving thei 
to determine, if possible, the number and extent © EF ie 
nues of migration within the limits of his district, an el: to loca 
age rate of speed at which the different species trave u | sib 
the breeding areas of the summer residents; ane, a 
mit the result of the season’s work to the chairman anif 
mittee. The chairman shall, in turn, arrange, COP 
tematize the material received from th 
several districts, and shall present to the commet® 
joint labors of all the collaborators, h pen with any the sa 
è 


upon 
deductions or generalizations he may made onia 
INSTRUCTIONS TO COLLABORATORS. --The data coe pie 3. Meteor 
arranged in three general classes: a. Ornithological p 


cal phenomena ; c. Cani apoa and correlative aap a end. 


1884.] Zoblogy. 313 


(a) Ornithological phenomena. —Each observer is nyom to prepare, at his ear- 
liest a ience, a complete list of the birds known to occur in the vicinity of his 
and to indicate (by the abbreviations enclosed in parenthesis) to which of 
the folliëlig five categories each species pertains : 
I. Permanent residents, or those that are found regularly opiato the entire 
rom (R). 
Winter as or those that occur only during the winter season, passing 
socth i in the spring (WV). 
B hT Transient mA or those that occur only during the migration in spring and 
v}. 
4. Summer residents, or those that are known to breed, but which depart southward 
E dh winter (SR). 
5. Accidental visitants, or stragglers from remote districts (AV). 
It is desirable also to indicate the relative abundance of the different species, the 
to be employed for this purpose being: Abundant, common, tolerably common, 
In many species the arap arrive + berien of the females, hence it is important 
to note the sex of the first comers, and the date at which the opposite sex is first seen. 
In Cos tM and Seater ‘it is highly i mate to distinguish between 


o 3 
3. The departure of the bulk (BD 
4. The last gpa sn ` r 


time of mating, when observed, should alw ways CET ems 
ko p teorological phen omena.—Extended meteorologieal data are not required, 
observer would derive material assistance from a systematic weather 
i i nse 


ind, 
2. The direction, character and duration of storm 
3. The general conditions of the atmosphere, Satadiny rainfall. 
4. The succession of marked warm and cold waves, including a record of all 
sudden changes of temperature. 
(©) Contemporary and correlative phenomena.—The committee desires that the data 
psa this head be as full and complete as possible, and requests exact information 


I. a date at which the first toad i is seen, 
€ date at which the first fi rd. 
ies * The date at which the first tiny isai or “ peeper ” is heard 
“alia which certain mammals and reptiles enter upon and emerge from 
ation 


hi 
The dates of the floweri 
ing of various plan 
$ te dates of the ris and falling of the wnt of various trees and shrubs. 
in dates of the breaking up and aeeppessaner of the ice in rivers and lakes 
=e and of the freezing over of the same in the fall. 
C. HART MERRIAM, 
Chairman of Committee on Migration, 
Locust Grove, Lewis county, N. x. 
C 


tinued R-Markincs oF Mammats.—Professor Eimer has con- 
As ed his Studies in regard to the color-markings of vertebrates. 
7 * "Ne result of his observations he has laid down certain general 


314 General Notes. [ March, 


principles which he applies to the different groups, notably to the 
mammals. 

The following general statements are elaborated: 1. That the 
color-markings of mammals may be reduced to longitudinal 
stripes, spots, and transverse stripes. 2. That the longitudinal 


case of other groups, such as the Saurians. 6. That in a 
the development of markings follows a regular course, that 1s, Me 
longitudinal markings are followed by spots which, in turn, rue 
together, and finally form the transverse or tiger stripes. /- 
the position of the smallest spot on a mammal is not acciden 
but due’to the action of genetic and phylogenetic laws, from w^ 
it follows that markings are an available means for the determine: a 
tion of species. 8. That the regularity of the developmen | 
markings shows that they arise from constitutional causes: of the 
The author takes the Viverrida as the original types% 
Carnivores, and believes that in the hyena, cats, dogs, <7 
weasels he can trace the form and position of markings Yao a 
by the former. He acknowledges several difficult), spotted } 
in the case of the leopard, jaguar, and other peu 
cats. He believes that the Ungulates follow the sa 
regard to markings as the Carnivores. and Map 
ZOOLOGICAL Nores.—Sponges.—Mr. Carter (Ann. ges from 
Nat. Hist., Nov.) describes thirteen new species of spon S a , 
various parts of the world. : | 
Cælenterates—Dr. R.von Lendenfeld (Ann. and Mag gims l 
Oct., 1883) gives a valuable description of the gua 
nematophores of the Plumularia. He, with Hamann, 
ah nematophore to the chitinous pep x ee pr d] 
which is truly a polyp the tentacles of which 18" ie 
while the ind i aar oils have grown together. 10 a | 
these guard-polyps are well supplied with pai adhesi 
some of those in Aglaophenia and Antennularia „rd-animals l 
cells, while some species of Aglaophenia have G and adhi ] 
machopolyps supplied with both urticating et “peliet that 
cells. The writer agrees with Hamann in t wee stat 
urticating cells of Ccelenterates are not en ‘the nerve : 
that “there exists a continuous connection be apsule, 
system and the plasma-mantle of the urticating je exerts ue 
ruptured by the pressure which the plas eam | oe 
i A preventive excitement may also issue hus exhibited 
system, and paralyze the cnidocil. There 15 ; 4 


1884. | Zoology. 315 


commencement of that reciprocal “ reflex and preventive action 
to which modern psychology ascribes such great importance.” 
——lIn a recent number of the Bulletins of the Museum of Com- 
parative Zoology, Mr. J. W. Fewkes gives a list of thirty-five 
Medusz found in Castle harbor, Bermudas, in May and June, 
1882, describes the new species Tamoya punctata and Oceanopsis 
bermudensis, and gives notes on an unidentified Cladonema, an 
Ectopleura, and an Ephyra with sixteen tentacles. 

Echinoderms.—Mr. F. J. Bell describes (Ann. and Mag. Nat. 
Hist., Dec.) Asterias nautarum from Ecuador, and Cuicita acutis- 
pinosa trom Aneiteum, New Hebrides. 

Vermes.—In the October issue of the Annals and Magazine of 
Natural History, Mr. F. E. Beddard has a note upon four species 
ofearthworms from India viz., Megascolex affinis, Pericheta ar- 
mata, Perionyx macintoshii, and Typheus orientalis, the three last 
new. The anatomical characters of Typhzus are quite different 
from those of any other genus before described. 


_Mollusca—The efforts of Mr. J. A. Ryder to artificially fer- 
tilize the ova of the American oyster have at last proved success- 
ful, The sexes of the oyster can be readily distinguished by the 
“drop test,” that is, by the different behavior of a drop of milt, 
when placed in water, from that ofa drop from the ovary of the 
female. The milt and ova were mixed ina dish, then poured into 
à pail of water, and then into a pond filled with sea water, which 
nits passage was compelled to pass through a filter of sand, so 
as to avoid all possibility of the entrance of germs from the out- 
side. Forty-six days after the experiment was commenced spat 
from one-fourth to three-fourths of an inch in diameter was found 
a the pond. Mr. R. E. C. Stearns, in a letter to the Fish 
Commission, States that Glycimeris generosa, of the western coast 
of the United States, attains a weight of sixteen pounds, and is 
Probably the largest Saxicavid known, and, next to Tridacna 
sigas, the largest clam in the world. 


a Was fixed in the cavity formed by the junction of the four 
ion Which unite the stomach of the jelly-fish to the um- 
ar - Comparison of the notes of various observers leads the 
hese to the conclusion that Medusz do not eat small fishes, 
do mae beret digestive apparatus could not digest ; nor 
e Pay young of certain fishes, the adults of which live at more 
tain Mousiderable depths, come up to seek and reside with 
ee Miss Rosa Smith (Proc. U. S. a a 
7 interesting notes on twenty-five species of fishes taken 
at 
Todos Santos bay, Lower California, 


316 General Notes. [ March, 


the Zoological Society of London. 
zine of Natural History, G. A. Boulenger describes Lipinia anolis, 
from the Solomon islands ; Rhacophorus lateralis, from Malabar; 
Rappia burtoni, from the Ancober river, Gold Coast; Bufo am 
dersonii, from the north of Hindostan (Agra, Ajmere); Ayla glan — 
dulosa, from Guatemala; H. macrops, from Treasury island, Solo- 
mon group ; Hynobius lichenatus, from Awomori, Japan; Spelerpes 
peruvianus, from Moyobamba, Peru ; and Cryptopsophis multipl- 
catus, a new genus and species of Cæciliidæ, from the Seychelles. 
The genus differs from Dermophis in the absence of a , 
row of mandibular teeth. Fourteen genera of these snake-formed 
batrachians are now known. i 
The same naturalist also describes four forms of Lophogi 
thus, two of which are new. Z. maculilabris is from the Timor l 
Laut islands, the others from Australia. 
ag. Nat. Hist, Nov) mi 


incompletely surrounded, and the Heloder 
the parietal bar, these characters of the suborder als 
For these reasons M. Boulenger proposes_to retain epre 
simply as a family under the old name of Geckotidæ, separatilg 
from it the three aberrant genera to form the family Eublepharis 
Eublepharis is Indian, Coleonyx Central American, and psio 
tylus West African, yet all are closely allied both in struit 


and coloration, and all possess connivent mo 


vable eyelids. 


Birds —The Proceedings of the Zoological 
patie ek notes filling forty pages on birds co 
G. F. Gaumer spent three years explo 
logical discoveries are recorded by 
Salvin, in the Proceedings of the Zodlogical S 
Gaumer’s notes on the climate of Yucatan are 
- especially those relating to the senotes 
the country, which appear to be undergr 


Mammals.—In a paper on the natural positio 


Dipodidz, in the Proceedings Zodl. Soc. London, ` 
dents having 


concludes that they are hystricine ro 
their hind limbs specially modifie 
nearest existing allies are the family Ch 
R. Owen discusses in the same Proceeding 
keelless sternum of Notornis, by “a com 
stances enforced, with operative con 
first taught us by the immortal author of the 


inchil 
s 
bi 


Society of Londt 
i Mgr 
Sclater. o 


or und 
ound rivers. 


d for leaping, profes 
lide. og te 


ve f organic ald 
ditions “hile sophie 208° . 


lected in th 
ne Republic by E, W. White, edited by P. L. 
ring Yuca 
A. Boucard, W 


tes by 
-ty of Lae 
Ocl wel inter : 
erground caves” 
n of bs 
G. } £ 
the bone: 
that hf 
Profess™ : 


and 


the ° 


nation of ge Q 


vitali) 


1884. | Fsychology. 317 


gique.” The same line of reasoning advanced by Owen applies 
to the origin of Aptornis and Dinornis. The bottle-nosed 
whale is discussed by W. H. Flower and also by Captain Grey 
in the same journal, which also contains a figure of a new species 
of zebra (Equus grevyi) recently described by A. Milne-Edwards, 
from equatorial Egypt. 


PSYCHOLOGY. 


Tue DISEASES OF THE WiLL.'—In the Humboldt Library Mr. 
Fitzgerald places before the public the results of the latest thought 
and labor of the scientific world, in a series of 8vo pamphlets 
costing fifteen cents apiece. This enterprize cannot be too highly 
commended from the standpoint of the public instructor and lover 
of knowledge. If the masses are ever to become acquainted with 
the laws of their being, such a publication as the Humboldt 
Library will prove a powerful agency in accomplishing the de- 
sirable result. 

M. Ribot has the merit of stating, in clear and comprehensible 
language, the facts, doctrines, and hypotheses of modern meta- 
physics, so that the average reader may be easily introduced to 
perhaps the most important of all sciences. In this, and other 
essays on these subjects, M. Ribot pursues the inductive method, 
studying the mind as it is exhibited in the normal and abnormal 
types which are accessible everywhere. The important aid to be 
derived from pathology in mental science is well known. M. 
Ribot arranges the diseases of the will into several heads, viz: 1. 
lack of impulsion, as seen in irresolution; 2. excess of impul- 
Sion; 3, impairment of voluntary intelligence; 4, caprice; and 
5, extinction of will. Under the last head he treats of ecstacy, 
mrvana, hypnotism, etc. The author shows the intermediary 
Character of the will, that it is not only a cause, but also an 

, thus denying the ordinary form of so-called “freedom of 
the will.” It is difficult to perceive the utility of the word will 
in this doctrine. As the outcome of a stimulus which has passed 
through more or less complex emotive or ratiocinative processes, 
action is only the movement of the last ball in a series in which 
U one has been struck a blow. At best the word can only 

used to represent a convenient fiction, supposing this doctrine 
to express all there is of will in the human mind. 
Ta short paragraph expresses incidentally the author’s views as 

the origin of the mechanism whose action expresses human 
motives and human intelligence. I quote it as being in con- 
šonance with views often expressed by the present writer, but 
Opposed to those held by many of the physiological metaphysi- 
cans of the present day: “The will has for its basis a legac 
n down from generations innumerable, and registered in 
lated be tenet ey Me By Th. Ribot. Humboldt Library, No. 52. Trans- 


318 General Notes. | March, 


the organism, namely, primordial automatic activity, which is 
almost invariable, and quite unconscious, although in the distant 
past it must have been accompanied by a rudiment of consciousness 
which later faded away, in proportion as coordination, growing 
more perfect, became organic in the species,” p. 38. e italics 
are our own.—Z. D. C. 


SAGACITY OF THE HorsE.—On my farm, one Sunday, the 
house was left in charge of one man, who sat in the porch reat 
ing. A mare, with her young foal, was grazing in the orchard 
near by. At length he saw the mare coming from a distant part 
of the orchard at full speed, making a loud outery—a sort of ut- 
natural whinney, but, as he says, more like a scream of distress 
than the natural voice of the horse. She came as near to the 
man as the fence would allow, and then turned back for a fw 
rods, and then returned, all the while keeping up the unna a 
outcry. So soon as he started to follow her she ran back in 
direction of a morass or miry place which had been left ungu r 
and only stopped on its very brink. The man hastened e 
spot with all speed, and found the colt mired in the soft mu 
water. It was already dead.— F. D. Caton. ʻi 


INDIVIDUAL IpIOsyNcRASY.—In an article contributed e ate 
entitled “ Idiosyncrasy,” Mr. Grant Allen contends thai 

psychical individuality or native character of each of us IS w ki 
but a sum of innumerable inherited tendencies co o i 
accidental or spontaneous variations of brain structu 
ground that the intricate structural relations involve | 
preciable improvement of cerebral functions could oticing t 
duced in this “accidental” way. Zhe Academy, m n ma A 
article, then goes on to say: “It. may, however, Oce ofp ey 
reader that the essayist is here soaring into the veg differe 
hypothetical physiology. For aught anybody api importa 
in the quality of the brain substance might ree ntaneoi 
psychical consequences ; and it is hard to see why a alitis 
variation’ should be able to modify ‘ indefinitely suc oo tis 
a plant or animal as ‘hardness of skin’ or ‘ wood a : 
and not be adequate to bring about changes 1n E sychical # 
nervous substance which may have well-marke ae) m 
companiments. However this may be, Mr. Allen in any 


ancestral tendencies somehow present in & la 
parents’ nervous organization, of that particular and 
elements which constitutes the original idiosyncrasy ort tott 
being so, it would seem that we must still have co 
factor of ‘accident.’ ” ae uiries i? : 

DOMESTICATION oF Animats.—Galton, in ee si poss 
Human Faculty,” remarks that the few animals o 


1884. } Anthropology. 319 


in a state of domestication were first reclaimed from wildness in 
prehistoric times. Our remote barbarian ancestors, he says, must 
be credited with having accomplished a very remarkable feat, 
which no subsequent generation has rivaled. The utmost that 
weof modern times have succeeded in doing is to improve the 
races of those animals that we received from our forefathers in an 
already domesticated condition. Galton throws out the hypoth- 
esis that only a few species of animals are fitted by their nature to 

come domestic, and that these were discovered long ago by 
the exercise of no higher intelligence than is to be found among 
barbarous tribes of the present day. The failure of civilized man 
to add to the number of domesticated species would on this sup- 
position be due to the fact that all the suitable material whence 


discuss. My conclusion is that all domesticable animals of any 
note have long ago fallen under the yoke of man. In short, 
that the animal creation has been pretty thoroughly, though half 
unconsciously, explored by the every-day habits of rude races 
and simple civilizations.” He then cites numerous cases in sup- 


tied, in terror and hatred of its captors.” Per contra, we saw, in 
1877, a young buffalo, perhaps a yearling, walking freely and like 
an ordinary heifer about one of the stations on the Kansas Pacific 
ilroad, going leisurely across the track before an approaching 
train ; and it is well known that the buffalo can be tamed and 
dized with the domestic cattle. At the same time the vil- 

age Indians of our continent have never d ticated the buffalo ; 
“ike not to be expected that our nomad, hunter Indians would 
act esticar any animals except the horse and dog, and 


re American Quaternary horse, and the Indian dog an offshoot 
the coyote. 

Weas ANTHROPOLOGY. ! 
war PRroverss.—What archeology is to modern art and 
phy : dee the higher religions, folk-lore is to sound philoso- 
pee: . is the, fossiliferous stratum of human thought. Every 
ie by Professor Oris T. Mason, 1305 Q street, N. W., Washington, D. C. 


320 General Notes. [March, 


department of human activity has its folk-lore, as every phase of 
human life has its antiquities. The chief signal officer of the U. 

. Army has done a lasting favor to anthropology by including 
among the “Signal Service Notes” Lieutenant H. H. C. Dun- 
woody’s collection of weather proverbs. The critics have bees 
making merry over this book, and asking General Hazen whether 
the prophecies concerning the weather have been taken from the 
pages commencing with: 

** When the ass begins to bray, 
Be sure we shall have rain that day ?” 

Of course not, for these proverbs were the guide-book of the ent- 
ics’ own kindred down to the establishment of the Weather 
Bureau. In this octavo volume of 148 pages, the work of ie | 
300 collectors, we have about all that is worth gathering ® 
weather lore. In the letter of transmittal, Lieutenant pr 
woody points out that many weather prognostics “ express a 3 
crude form the meteorological conditions likely to follow, i 
they have resulted from close observation. inc 


Dunwoody’s work opens with a discussion on weather p i 


etc., arranged in alphabetical order under some 1mp? Sadia 
Part 11 gives a conipllating of instrumental and other local rae 
tions of approaching storms. Rhode 
Canonicus MemoriAL.—On the 21st Sept’ en 
Island Historical Society erected a monument to t eb: vating 
Canonicus. A short time since some workmen 1n Th depth 
a sewer in Providence, brought to the surface, from as erect 
eight feet, a large boulder of granite, and this has memorate Of 
in the “glen” of the North Burial-ground, to com n 
life and virtues of the great sachem. 


ABORIGINAL AMERICAN AUTHORS.—Ât the ras © 
tional des Américanistes, Dr. D. G. Brinton rea <a ae 


has been enlarged and printed, since his return, 1. 


lly those in Ss pai | 
history of literature. yeyin | 


to the mechanical execution but to the matter. such thing S 
be startled when they are told that there 15 any : : 


fervid orl 6 
book written by an Indian. We have all heard d languag 7 


1884.] Anthropology. 321 


grammatic structure; but were they employed in creating a litera- 
ture? Both in English and Spanish creditable literary work 
been done by Indians, there is no æ priori reason, therefore, 
against their producing better books in their own language. 

Dr. Brinton, commencing with the far north, calls to mind: 
Rink’s “ Legends and Tales of the Eskimo.” 
Pok’s (a Greenlander) Travels in Europe. 
Kaladlit Assilialit, &c. (see Field’s Indian Bibliog., p. 199). 
Walum Olum (History of the Delawares). Beach’s Miscellany. 
The Iroquois Book of Rites. No, 11. Lib. Aborig. Am. Lit. 
Story of Francois Kaondinoketo. Paris, 1877. 
National Legend of the Chahta-Muskokee tribes. Histor. Mag., Feb., 1870. 
Sequoyah’s Alphabet. 
_ Passing southward into Mexico, Central America and S. Amer- 
ica, Dr. Brinton has found much more that is valuable, but the 
list is too long to be repeated here. 


_ Mr. Bancrort’s Lisrary.—The historian, Hubert H. Bancroft, 
is in Mexico, with three assistants, gathering material for his 
“History of the Pacific States.” He has been received by the 
leading literary men, as well as by the President of the Republic 
and heads of departments, with marked consideration and respect. 
His works have been carefully reviewed by Altamirano, Chavero, 
Riva Palacio and others, and the government has opened the 
archives anew to his secretaries, besides presenting him with cop- 
ies of all its publications. The addition to his library, from his 
journey to Mexico, will not be less than 6000 volumes, mostly 
— and manuscripts, once lodged in churches and con- 


The second volume of the History of the Pacific States has ap- 
pared, being also Vol. 11 of Central America. Vol. 1v, the first 
on Mexico, was published some time since. Vol. 11 will conclude 
the history of Central America and bring the work down almost 
to our day. Mr. Bancroft should be rewarded in his great labor 
by the most liberal patronage. 


= thea ANTHROPOLOGICAL Society oF WASHINGTON.—It really 
4 live ape though the Washington Anthropological Society would 
: "ieee maturity. Vol. 11 of its Transactions has just appeared, 
| a the journal and papers from Feb. 7, 1882, to May 15, 
3. An introductory statement gives a brief history of the 
_ Society and the method of its proceedings. The list of officers, 
list tity honorary, corresponding and active, follows. The 
2 ere is given below: 
. : ka Innuit tribes of the Pacific coast. By Ivar Petrof. [No abstract.} 
rh p of objects in the new National Museum in its relation to anthropol- 
The eatme ‘rae Brown Goode. [Synopsis } P- "y Professor Otis T. 
: Mason, [Abstract] p- rd colonists of higher races. By 
EL wie 


Bt i aie jp ei lac 


322 General Notes. (March, 


The gentile system of the Iowas. By Rev. J. Owen Dorsey. [Abstract.] p 10 

Society as a domain of natural forces. By Lester F. Ward, [No abatra} p i. 

Life in Zuñi. By Frank H. Cushing. [Abstract.] p. 14. 

The turning point of modern sociological science. By Dr, J. C. Welling. ps 

The Carson footprints. By Dr. W. J. Hoffman. p. 34. 

eS at the American Association. By Professor Otis T. Mason. [No ab 
ct] 8. 


Tiaan i er and aboriginal tools for working soapstone. By J. D. McGuire 
[Abstract.] p. 39. 
Mound explorations in Southern Illinois. By Professor Cyrus Thomas, | Abstract} 


Tattooing among civilized people. By Dr. Robert Fletcher. p. 40. 

On the Hawaiians. By Capt. C. E. Dutton. [No abstract,] p.68. 

An inquiry into the origin of invention. By Col. F. A. Seely. p. 70- : 

Aleutian songs and traditions. By Ivan Petroff. [Abstract.] p. 90. 4 
he Carson footprints. By G. K, Gilbert. Le ] pP 95 4 

Artin shell. By William H. Holm p- 9 

Cannibalism. By Dr. J. Hamilton pede ag TP 


Stone implements from Ghazipur, India. By H. Rivett clea tee» 7 
122, 


Dakotan legends and myths. By Rev. J. Owen Dorsey. [Abstract.] P- sh } | 
On ak Rawson Rawson’s deductions, By Dr. Robert Fletcher. [ 
bil 5 | 
pS ar of Eskimo pictographs with those of other American 
r. W. J. Hoffman, p. 128. Jerenith 0 
Illustrations of minus tes Slav and Magyar folk-lore, By Mr. 3 
tin. [Abstract.] p. 147. py ats ‘ 
The Shetimasha Indians of St. Mary’s parish, Southern Louisiana. : 
Gatschet. p. 148. we 
Mound distribution in the United States. By Professor Cyrus Thoms 
P. 159. By By William H. a 


The use of the cross symbol by the ancient Americans. 
„p. 161. A 
Origin of the sexes. By Dr. Charles E. Hagner. [No andl Ee us 
Annual ates of the president, Major J. W. Powel l. Delivered 
P- 17 
THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN.— This useful per 
fifth volume with the October number. The co ontents | 
Native races of Colombia, fifth paper. By E. G. Barney. 
Mexican antiquities. By L. P. Gratacap. 
The gentile system of the Omahas. By Rev. J. Owen Dorsey. 
_ Primitive Northwest. By C. W. Butterfield. 
Babylonian and Assyrian art. By W, St. C, Boscawen. H rai 
The editor contributes a timely paper On ad animal 
and an illustrated article on medicine men an 


A. S. Gatschet, are among its most valuab ep 
reading, especially of German and French pu 
be improved, 


THE Patmouituic Man’s BEADS.— 
Nov. 22, offers some statements confirmatory « 


1884.] Anthropology. 323 


Dr. Rigollot, Sir Charles Lyell and Mr. James Wyatt, that the 
well known foraminiferous fossil, Cosctnospora globularis D'Orb., 
was used by Palzolithic man in making necklaces and other or- 
naments, 


PopuLaATION OF CutNA—Minister Young, of Peking, writes to 
the State Department, under date of May 22, 1883, respecting 
the population of China, as follows: “I have been informed indi- 
rectly, but from official sources, that the census of China, as taken 
last a Sid for the purpose of taxation, shows a total population of 
255,000,000. This does not include the Mongolian or other out- 
lying dependencies of the empire, but only the eighteen provinces 
of China proper. Nor does it embrace the aboriginal tribes 
which exist in very considerable numbers in the Island of For- 
mosa and the provinces of Kuangsi, Yunnan, Knei Chow and 
Szchuan, Making due allowance for understatements due to the 
purpose for which the census was taken, and for the aboriginal 
tribes mentioned above, and for the Mongolian dependencies, 
which are really an integral part of the empire, it is probable that 
the sum total of the population of China really exceeds 300,000,- 
000. (Consular Reports, Aug., 1883.) 


Notices or reviews of the following anthropological works 
have come to hand: 
Swedish Society of Anthropol dG hy. Ex from Minutes 1881 to 
pology and Geography. Extract from Minutes 1 
1883. ia ‘atéria vir, 380-390. 
cal Society of Paris. Meetings of July 20, October 5, 19, November 


NEE ontant 88 18, February 1, 15, March 1, 15, 1883. 
Mat Son ta eee ebruary 5 » 15, 1903 


The fibulze of the age of bronze and of the first age of iron. By Oscar Montelius. 
, &e., XVII, 427-4 


wae of rock-sculpture. iy Hans Hildebrand. Matériaux, &c., XVI, 


report of the professor of anthropology to the Museum of Natural History, 


aoe 1883. [M. de Quatrefages.] 
Studies HS ge the ethnology of India, By Paolo Mantegazza. Part 1. General pr 
The Hin Archiv. per l Anthrop e la Etnol., Florence, Vol. Xt, 


ma 177-241. 
and Celts in the Valley of the Po. By Professor G. Sergi. Archiv. per 
ga e la Etnol., Florence, X111, pp. 117-176. 
among the Red-skins of French Guiana, By M. Boussenarol. Rev. Sci- 
p- 656, 


upon dreams. By M. Alix. Rev. Scient., 3 Nov., 1883, P- 554s 
cele M. L., History of the Grand Traverse region, including prehistori 

Be cambios Jesuit possessions, etc., to be published in vasa i in the 
Grand Traverse 
The Lake-dwellers of ¥eutaste: (Phrenol, Jour.) Kansas City Rev., vit, 486. 
"sslgrappen in Oceanien, By A. Bastian. Berlin, Diimmlers. ` 3 tables, pp. 282, 
Contributions to the anthropological literature of America. By Dr. Emil poaa. 

tdt 411-435 from Archiv. für Anthr 


opologie. 
ts in a at N s de Nadaillac. Maté- 
saosin a. Carson, Nev. By aan 


324 General Notes. [March 


A hut of the stone age discovered at Schussenried (Wurtemburg). By Dr. V. Gros. 

Matériaux, XVIL, 321-323. 

The horse in prehistoric and historic times. By C. A. Pietrement. Matériaus, 
XVII, 323-336. 


MICROSCOPY AND HISTOLOGY.! 


Pure CARMINIC ACID FOR COLORING MICROSCOPICAL PREPARA 
TIONS.2~Since Gerlach first called attention to carmin as a color- 
ing matter for histological purposes, many methods of pre | 
the carmin solutions have been published, but, so far as lam 
aware, none which result in anything but mixtures of variots 7 
carmin salts with undetermined and undesirable impurities, n 
as fatty matter, tyrosin, sugar, and salts of alkaline metals, Ui 
course the coloration produced by these mixtures has been some 
times good, sometimes bad, and the solutions have easily spoiled ; 
or decomposed, while their preparation often required consid 
able time and trouble. Several years ago I studied or 4 
chiefly from a chemical standpoint, and since then I have a 
wondered why naturalists usually used carmin solutions ey 
water, with some caustic or destructive material added, wa a 
principal solvent. Carmin of commerce, it is true, 1S al l 
soluble, even in water, until ammonia, borax, or some ot are i 
to solution is added ; but carminic acid, the basis of ha 
matter of carmin, has long been stated in the leading ¢ ce 
dictionaries and hand-books to be readily soluble in posts ays T. 
alcohol. Watts (Dict. Chem., 1872, 1st suppl., Pa and se 
carminic acid: “ This acid forms a purple mass, ne rahi | 
ble in all proportions in water and in alcohol. e a aht 

ydrochloric acid dissolve it without alteration. tos 4 
of 136° C. without decomposition.’ o E 

Earlier still Watts (Dict. Chem., 1863, V. 1, P. p ee 
fine red pigment known in commerce as carmin ra pee 
treating a solution of cochineal with cream of : 


tologice ie : 4 
: ‘ -half of the on 
some of the published recipes, more than one ge „e hitet pares | 

There are two ways commonly in use Er pre acid arti 7 
acid, which term Ihere use as distinguished ee hwveigget oe 
(the cochineal decoction for which Grenacher, ee | 

1 Edited by Dr. C. O. Wurman, Mus. Comparative wae society A E 
-3 By Geo. Dimmock. Read at the New York meeting ° ey 
ists of the Eastern United States, 28th Dec., 1883. 


1884.] Microscopy and Histology. 325 


and others have given recipes) and from carmin (the impure com- 
mercial powder). The first mode of preparation, the one which 
I followed in preparing the acid upon which I have experimented 
is that of Warren De la Rue. Watts, whom I quote because he 
gives clear directions (Dict. Chem., 1863, vol. 1, p. 804), gives 
De la Rue’s method, as follows: “ To separate it [carminic acid] 
cochineal is exhausted with boiling water; the extract is pre- 
cipitated by subacetate of lead slightly acidulated, care being 
taken not to add the lead-solution in excess; the precipitate is 
washed with distilled water till the wash-water no longer gives a 
precipitate with a solution of mercuric chloride, then decomposed 
by sulphuretted hydrogen; the filtrate is evaporated to a syrupy 
consistence and dried over the water-bath ; and the dark purple 
product thus obtained is treated with alcohol which extracts the 
carminic acid.” The second mode of preparing carminic acid, 
that of Schaller, is given by Watts (Dict. Chem., 1872, 1st suppl., 
P. 413) as follows: “C. Schaller prepares this acid by precipi- 
tating the aqueous extract of cochineal with neutral lead acetate 
slightly acidulated with acetic acid; decomposing the washed 
precipitate- with sulphuric acid; again precipitating the filtrate 
with Jead-acetate, and decomposing the precipitate with sulphuric 
acid, avoiding an excess; then precipitating a third time, and de- 
composing the precipitate with hydrogen sulphide. The filtered 
solution is evaporated to dryness; the residue dissolved in abso- 
lute alcohol ; the crystalline nodules of carminic acid obtained on 
ving this solution to evaporate are freed from a yellow sub- 
stance by washing with cold water, which dissolves only the car- 
minic acid ; and the residue left on evaporating the aqueous solu- 
tion is recrystallized from absolute alcohol or from ether.” 

Schaller’s mode of preparation gives purer carminic acid than 
Rue’s, but either kind is sufficiently pure for histological 
tp The precipitation by lead acetate and the dissolving in 
ohol free the carminic acid from animal impurities, and the 
Consequence is a purer form of pigment than can be extracted by 
red process hitherto employed for the preparation of carmin for . 
bee Bical purposes. I will here add that carminic acid has 
aren shown recently by Liebermann and Van Dorp to be related, 
rough nitrococcusic acid, to trinitrocresol, which has been ob- 
of ed from coal-tar cresol, thus showing that the coloring matter 

cochineal contains methylated benzine-residues. a, 
able. jaa prad aa pee carminic acid, ready gp oe 
ie emical student could easily prepare it the pro- 

PS Siven above. y Aiha $ i 
aii unnecessary to explain to naturalists the advantages of 
ree ig Solutions of ipinta over aqueous ones. The alcoholic 
tion oer Preparations much quicker than the aqueous solu- 
> pa? for coloring sections I employ a solution of 0.25 gram 
acid to-100 grams of eighty per cent: alcohol, and leave 


326 General Notes. (March, 


sections in the solution from two to five minutes. A solution of 
equal carmin strength but in absolute alcohol can be employed; 
it has, however, no special advantages, since with the eighty per 
cent alcoholic solution the sections can be washed directly in 
absolute alcohol, and then put into oil of cloves or turpentin 
Coloring in the piece before sectioning never takes as long with 
alcoholic carminic acid as it does with ordinary carmin solutions, 
and if it did take long the strong alcohol would preserve the tissue 
from maceration. In coloring pieces of mollusca, or of other 
equaily slimy animals, the slime should be removed beforehand 
or the coloration will be unsatisfactory, because the slime con- 
gealing in the alcohol takes up the coloring matter, forming at 
almost impervious colored layer on the outside and leaving the 
inside of the piece nearly uncolored. ae. ie 
Some preparations colored in alcoholic carminic acid and then 
put up in glycerin lost their color in a few months, the color set 
ing to be entirely diffused in the glycerin, while similar ior | | 
tions mounted in Canada balsam retained their color pee Ny | 
do not know if this fading would occur with Pee difusita "a 
with alcoholic ammonic carminate, or even if this | rahi 
not due to some impurity of the glycerin (of the purity 0 w 
was doubtful); time to testthis matter further failed. an 
n alcoholic ammonic carminate, or ammonia carea 
prepared, at a moment’s notice, from alcoholic a w 
adding ammonia, drop by drop, and stirring until the y a 
tion changes from its bright red to purple red. nies 
pure alcoholic ammonic carminate can be produces e] 
of ammonia, and at any time. As the carminic aci a yi A 


served dry without decomposition, and die ie 
alcohol, one can carry the ingredients of a carmine solu 1S 
vest pocket, without inconvenience. ey | 
making and using alcoholic carminic acid pure alcohol 
distilled water give the best results, because a po of impu 
minic acid is converted to carminates by the this precautiot 
- water. In making alcoholic ammonic carminate.t ie produc 
is not as necessary, because the color of the ape p ammo 
by the impurities of the water is so nearly like tha ae 
carminate. l acher’s ca 
Alcoholic carminic acid may be used, as Gn joration 8? 
solution is used, to color sections from which ge pet ploric a0% 
be afterwards partly extracted by very dilute | yeations wie 
leaving nuclei red. Another way to use carmin g is to Pee 
is especially applicable to alcoholic carminic aci“, minate o | 
tate the carmin in the tissues by some salt, the pari found, # 
base of which gives a desired coloration. I aidi the cot 
example, that specimens hardened for a momen ae ME 
glass with an alcoholic solution of corrosive SU a ‘in alcohol l 
chloride) and, after washing with alcohol, cotor af 


1884. ] Microscopy and Histology. 327 


carminic acid, took a fine coloration of mercuric carminate. So, 
too, specimens colored in alcoholic carminic acid can be changed 
by a few moments’ treatment with a very dilute alcoholic solu- 
tion of lead-acetate or cobalt nitrate to a beautiful purple. With 
lead acetate used as abovea double coloration is sometimes pro- 
duced, but I have not examined sufficiently these colorations to 
accurately describe them. Cupric and other salts, used as above 
described, have not given me very favorable results. Sometimes 
salts in the tissues of the animals themselves change portions of 
the carminic acid to purple carminates, giving a double coloration 
without further treatment. 

Picric acid added to alcoholic carminic acid in extremely small 
quantities (best in a dilute alcoholic solution, testing the solution 
on specimens after each addition) makes a double alcoholic color- 
ing fluid (a so-called picro-carmin). I have been unable thus far 
to determine the proportion of picric acid required for this solu- 
tion, having in every case added an excess. All different kinds of 
carmin solutions can be made from carminic acid with the ad- 
vantage of having always uniform strength, of being definite 
mixtures, and of not spoiling as readily as those made directly 

m cochineal, 

Incompatible reagents with carminic acid are, of course, all 

aline solutions and nearly all metallic salts; with ammonic 
carminate, are naturally all acids ; with all carmine solutions, are 

mine and chlorine. 

I hope later to try some coloring experiments with coccinin, 
tuficoccin, carmin red, and ruficarmin, all of which are derived 

m carminic acid, and of possible value to the histologist. 


CTURE OF SECRETORY CELLS AND THEIR CHANGES IN 
SECRETION —The histological structures of the various secretory 
cells have been described by different observers, as well as the 
changes undergone in them during the act of secretion. But 
re descriptions exhibit many discrepancies, which are largely 
a to the differences between the methods employed in study- 
aaa aues. Mr. J. N. Langley, whose experience eminently 


glands ur conceptions of the secretory cell. He says: “The 
f vertebrates in which I find that the secretory cells have 
Saliva 


of ty glands, and the similar glands of the mucous membrane 
ions, the ‘chief’ cells of mammalian gastric glands; the 


have c glands of such birds, fishes, reptiles and amphibia as I 
Creas - ined; the cesophageal glands of the frog; the pan- 
vr S Ri ke o S 


ornate : The cell substance is composed of (a) a 


328 General Notes. (March, 


periphery with a thin continuous layer of modified protoplasm; 
the framework in some cases has the form of a network of smal 
threads of equal size as described by Klein, in others of flattened 
bands. Further, the threads or bands may vary in size indi 
ferent parts of the cell, and the meshes in different parts of the 
cell may be of different size and shape. Within the meshes of 
the framework are enclosed two chemical substances at leat 
viz., (6) a hyaline substance in contact with the framework, a 
of (c) spherical granules which are embedded in the hyaline st 
stance. In the gland cells which secrete much organic mati 
the cell granules are conspicuous and fairly large. In the gland 
cells which secrete comparatively little organic matter the cel 
granules are, generally speaking, smaller and Jess distinct, t 
lower the mean percentage of organic matter is in the fuid 
secreted. The cell-granules are in nearly all cases mesostales, 

î. e., substances stored up in the cell and destined to give pee 

the organic substances of the secretion. The granularity ofa : 
in the resting state thus depends upon its storage power. OP" 
ally speaking, the greater the storage power of a cell, the high 
is the percentage of the organic substance in its secretions, ™ 

this is not always the case, since it may happen that the < 
secretion of water may increase without any corresponding i 
crease in the rate of secretion of organic substance, and e may 
quence the percentage of organic substance in the secretio ie 
be small; further, it is possible that under special circums" i 


Hath ight secrete a large q 
a cell with small storage power mig large storage 


"A 


changes take place: The granules decrease in number, 
usually, if not always, in size; the hyaline substance 
in amount; the network grows. The i Bacar 
work is much less than that of the bya 
Moreover, in the majority of cells the details © 
which take place are much the same. The hyaline ie 
creases chiefly in the outer region of the cells, 
disappear from this region, so that an outer non- 
and aninner granular zone are formed. its mes 
throughout the cell in all cases. In the outer zone pag 
filled with hyaline substance; in the inner 200 xe 
filled with granules and a smal] amount of hya fe | 
he glands in which an outer non-granular PR A the frog” 


toad, the gastric glands of ihe snake, and t pr 
pa r i to be remembered that ther iy being : 


1884 | Microscopy and Histology. 329 


An obvious hypothesis is that the protoplasmic network forms the 
hyaline substance, and then out of this manufactures the gran- 
ules, which are, as we know, converted during secretion into some 
one or more of the organic bodies of the fluid secreted. * = 
The network appears to be the result of the two-fold tendency of 
the protoplasm to form fibrille, and to store up substances 
within its grasp; in most cases it is obviously not constant in 

rm, but is continually altering the arrangement of its bars and 
the size of its meshes. This is especially distinct in mucous cells 
in which, during secretion, numerous fresh connecting fibrillz are 
formed.”—Froc. Camb. Philos. Soc., Vol. v. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF Microscopists. 
—This volume of 275 pages contains the proceedings of the sixth 
meeting of this active society, which was held at Chicago, Aug. 


Specially microscopical articles were the following: College 
microscopical societies, by Sarah F. Whiting; the relation of 


*. M. Hamlin; preparing and mounting bacteria, by T. J. 
Burrill ; the microscope in the detection of lard adulterations, by 
- Belfield; a new method of dry mounting, by A. H. Chester; 

a New form of microscope stand with concentric movements, by 
+ D. Cox; a critical study of the actionof a diamond in 1uling 
eS upon glass, by W. ‘A. Rogers; cataloguing, labeling, and 
Storing microscopical preparations, by S. H. Gage. There are 
also reports of the committee on eye-pieces, micrometry, centi- 
bi ike scale A, 1882,a study of centimeter, marked A, prepared 
ae U. S. Bureau of Weights and Measures, by W. A. Rogers, 

nd rules for the control of the standard micrometer. 


“The MicroscopicaL BuLLETIN.” —The first number of the 
ong Microscopical Bulletin, to be published bi-monthly by James 
pubes & Co., Philadelphia, appeared in December. lis 
the ication is designed to answer the question, “ What’s new in 
double osoPical line?” The first number consists of eight 
Pe cai -column octavo pages, and contains the more interesting 

is 188>. of Professor Duncan’s address before the Roy. Mic. S0; 

ege a short essay on pathogenic bacteria, a description of 
slide-box, and other microscopic accessories. 


330 Scientific News. (March, 


SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 


Professor Miiller’s widow, it is proposed that the interest of th 
memorial sum shall be given preferentially to some descendant o 
Professor Müller who shall devote himself to the study of naturi l 
philosophy, or else to some other needy and worthy studentof 
that science who shall have been educated at the Public School of ; 
Lippstadt. The realization of these wishes will depend on tt - 
amount of funds to be collected, which shall be employed accom | 
ing to the final decision of a committee composed of the prov 
ional one at Lippstadt and twice its number of donors fom 
abroad. The committee purposes to send a biography with por l 
trait of the late Müller to all those who have signified a real intet 
est in the aforesaid foundation. wi 
The editors of the AMERICAN NATURALIST very han E 
dorse this appeal, and will take charge of and forward on 
treasurer of the German committee any subscriptions they Het i 


mann Miiller. oldas 
— Professor Richard Owen, who is now eighty rt edi 
resigned the superintendency of the Natural Histo e 
ofthe British Museum at South Kensington. Asa p eT 
genius and indefatigable scholarship, he has been ma! a 
Sir Richard Owen is still activein palæontological p | 
logical studies. Some idea of his industry may be fewer 
the fact that he published, between 1830 and 187 Sie Societys $ 
368 papers, the titles of which are given in the ein to tit 
list, and since then he has contributed several ia 
Transactions of the Royal and the Geological, : 


Zoölogical Societies, besides his Comparative Anatea iis 


S 


ha p 


by “ The Auk, a Quarterly Journal of Ornithology i 
two first words should be prefixed to what is othe eds of Eng 
title we are at a loss to understand. Of the h a 
names of birds, the one selected seems to persis title of 
vision to be the most unfortunate. A bi-sylla e ‘4 evi 
respectable bird still in the land of the living pee: name did 
editorial taste. We question whether ge auk. 
have something to do with the extinction "a «nes to US 
ring its awkward, gawky cognomen, The Auh me Jong ™' 
ever, as fat and juicy as ever was its prototype—an® . 
“ wobble” ! 


1884.] Scientific News, 331 


— M. Pasteur has shown that the bacillus of “ rouget,” as 
found in pigs, can be attenuated by passing it through rabbits. 
The inoculated rabbits are all rendered very ill or die, but pigs 
inoculated with the bacillus, after the virus has been passed 
through a series of rabbits, have “ rouget” ina mild form, and 
enjoy immunity from further attacks. A series of inoculations 
carried through pigeons, on the other hand, increases the viru- 
lence of the disease when a pig is inoculated from the last of the 
pigeons. . 

— A change has recently been made in the constitution of the 
Royal Academy of the Lincei, in Rome, by which foreign mem- 
bers of all grades are admitted to an equal dignity with the regu- 
lar members, and be participants in the same rights, and this 
was confirmed by the decree of King Humbert the First, on the 
26th of July, 1883.—F. V. H. 

— Mr. J. Starkie Gardner, of London, is preparing to bring 
with him, next summer, to this country a number of series of Eo- 
cene fossils of England. Each series will consist of twenty-five 
Specimens, and each specimen will be seventy or eighty inches in 
Superficial area, cleaned and hardened and in a separate case. 
Price £15. 

— M. Cartailhac has communicated to the French Academy of 
Sciences a description of some old flint mines in Miocene strata, 
near Mur-de-Barrez, Aveyron, which appear to have been worked 
by Neolithic miners. This is stated to be the first discovery of 
Prehistoric mines in France.—English Mechanic. 

— We received, December 20, 1883, a general geological map 
of the area explored and mapped by Dr. F. V. Hayden and the 
Surveys under his charge from 1869 to 1880. Onecan obtain a 

idea of the relations of the formations of an area of over 
500,000 square miles in extent. 

— Ofthe fourteen circumpolar expeditions eleven have safely 
mturned. The Russian at the mouth of the Lena, and the Fin- 
rs at Sodankyla, will be continued for another winter, while the 
vendo the American expedition to Lady Franklin bay is un- 


— We regret to notice the stoppage of Dr. C. F. Lutken’s 
ag Danish Journal of Scislicey the Naamini Tidsskrift, 
uch has been successfully conducted and well patronized in 
Denmark for nearly twenty years. 
Pa ag excellent German scientific monthly, Cosmos, begins 
Gale a: 1884, in a new form and cover. It proposes more espe- 
aieo ofore to be an exponent of the doctrines of devel- 


p Mr. Rom . > 
Month ‘omyn Hitchcock announces that the American 
after } ly Microscopical Journal, for 1884, will be published here- 
oe himself, at Washington, D. C. (P. O. box 630.) 


332 Proceedings of Scientific Socteties. (March, 


—Professor Flower is spoken of as the successor of Professor 
Owen as director of the South Kensington Museum, London. 


— Fossil fishes of the Green River shales may be had from $ 
H. Sommers, St. Joseph, Mo. 


— Brig.-Gen. Andrew A. Humphreys, U. S. A., retired, diet 
suddenly at Washington, D.C., Dec. 28, from an attack of angi , 
pectoris. The deceased had a brilliant record, both military and 
civily At the close of the war he was assigned to duty as cma 
of engineers, which office he filled until June 30, 1879, when be 
was retired at his request. He was a member of various Amei 
can and foreign societies. He will be remembered for his work 
in connection with Gen. Abbot in the physics and hydrography 
of the Mississippi river. He was also chief of the surveys br 
the Pacific railroad, finishing his report in 1861. a 


was born at Landskrona, in March, 1787, Tae. 
1811 obtained the degree of Ph. D. from the University of ati | 
His magnum opus is the work on the Scandinavian a 
occupied him for more than thirty-three years. i is last imp 
ant work was The Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia. 


— Professor Wm. Denton, of Wellesley, Mass., peel 
of fever in New Guinea. His two sons, who were wi ae p 
recently returned to this country, bringing with them a with at 
lection of birds. They state that the natives they er 
friendly. - 
_ —As we go to press we hear of the death of oa : 
Guyot of Princeton, the well known geographer 
gist. E 
— The death is also announced of Professor Ercol a 

gna. ‘i 


Bolo 


Oi ye 5 


PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES 


a 1883M", 
AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, ei vyilliams, e 


Devonian is faulted down 3500 feet agains 
erg. vote “0 

May 18.—Mr. E. W. Claypole communicated. iat jp 
relic of the native flora of Pennsylvania, S 8 


1884.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 333 
county,” with specimens of Vaccinium brachycerum Mich. ( Gay- 
lussaccia brachycera Gray). 

June 16.—Professor Cope presented the following papers from 
Dr. A. S. Packard: On the morphology of the Myriopoda ; 
A revision of the Lysiopetalidz, a family of Chilognath Myriopoda, 
with a notice of the genus Cambala. Mr. Grote commuhicated 
a paper upon the Noctuide. Twenty-four sub-family groups are 
here proposed and the structure discussed. About half-a-dozen 
forms of this family were known in 1859, between which date 
and 1883 Mr. Grote himself described about 100 genera and 
1000 species, so that the total number of species known is now 
about 1700. The outlines of Mr. Grote’s theory of geographical 
distribution and migration are also given in this paper. 

Aug. 17.—A paper upon a large crustacean from the Catskill 
group of Pennsylvania, by Mr. E. W. Claypole, with a note “On 
the genus Renssalaeria in the Hamilton group of Perry county, 
Pennsylvania,” and another upon “The equivalent of the New 
York Portage group in Perry county, Pennsylvania,” both by the 
same author, were read. Specimens of rye, barley, and wheat 
grains that had sprouted in ice were exhibited, with a letter from 
Mr. J. Lesley. 

Oct. 5.—The Secretary read an article of Professor D. Kirkwood 
upon the “ Zone of Asteroids and the rings of Saturn.” 

Oct 19.—An annotated translation of the Ramirez MS., giving 
the history of the Mexicans from their paintings, was communi- 
cated by Mr. H. Phillips, Jr. A memoir by Dr. J.C. Branner, 
upon the course and growth of the fibro-vascular bundles in 
palms, was also read. Dr. Frazer exhibited a map of Radnor 
township and the surrounding district, showing the belt of syenite 
gneiss which runs east and west from Radnor to Wayne stations. 

` “razer also discussed the stratigraphical relationships of the 
Serpentine belt south of it. He considered the magnesian beds 
as original parts of the series, instead of exogenous, as main- 
tained by Mr. Rand. 

a 16.—Professor Cope described the formations of New 
ide ae the fossils of which he had been studying in his recent 


visib & 7-—Mr. Lilly’s section of 18 55 feet of Devonian rocks, 

sen lein Gulf Brook gorge, at Leroy, Pennsylvania, was pre- 

Pe Professor Houston described Mr. P. B. Delancey’s 
o 


aai -adj ism in his 
sytchronous-multine perfect self-adjustable synchronism i 


334 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [Mareh, 


by F. M. Day. Dr.H. Allen read a paper “ On a case of human 
congenital malformation,” and exhibited photographs. 

Jan. 4, 1884.—Professor Lesley presented a note upon the pos- 
sible original meanings of the animal ideographs of the god St 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE PHILADELPHIA ACADEMY OF NATURAL 
Sciences, Nov. 8.—Dr. Sharp called attention to the presence d 
retinal cells upon the siphon of Solenensis. His attention was fist 
drawn to the matter by observing that these mollusks retracted 
the siphon when the shadow of his hand passed over the wate 
of the dish they were contained in. Mr. T. Meehan gave a 
account of his visit to Alaska. The Davidson glacier is retreat 
ing, but the great Muir glacier, which has a frontage of two 
a thickness of 960 feet, and is said to be 400 miles long, sill 
pours its icebergs into the ocean, The region is singularly favor 
able to vegetation, and the forests, though of few species, a 
often so dense as to make travel impossible. The trunks fè 
quently touch, in which case their timber is of little value. 

Nov. 15.—Dr. Randolph called attention to the structure oft 
wheat grain. His methods had rendered apparent the pii ei 
of gluten in the body of the cell, while the so-called ge ee 
of the cortex do not respond to any artificial digestion, an 
to have but little nutritive value. ee | 

Professor Heilprin said that a small collection of fossils st 
Professor Cope from Laredo, Texas, proved that the Clai fit 
Parisian formation extended south to that point. ee! oe 
doubt that it penetrates some distance into Mexico. the bac 
at some point near this locality, be a contact with to be full 
water or terrestrial strata, of as yet undetermined age, 
further inland. Cor Sempet 

Nov. 21.—Dr. Sharp called attention to hoe and 
method of preparing dried specimens of soft ani a 
hibited some beautiful examples. f tow vE 

Dr. Leidy described an older method in which pes nin sof 
injected, aud afterwards dissolved out with turpentine. 6,0 
Cope spoke of the cretaceous formations, Nos. 4 5 on the plit 
central part of Dakota, and of extensive buttes ra White Rivet 
These buttes contained fossils characteristic of t ! 5 
Miocene beds. O a a | 

Dr, Hayden said that the fresh-water lake indicated niles 
deposits must have extended over 100,000 to 1 pagon. 

Rev. Dr. McCook stated that the occident ant ( along” 
river in Ë 


a oe 


5 


ie 
a 


occidentalis) was in Dakota confined to the botto ir 
Missouri river; it does not stretch caste ug 
state of that name, and is absent in Eastern e d ET Oe 
abounds in the west of that State, and in Kansas from the 

further east than Brookville. The débris col 


1884.) Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 335 


contained some undeveloped pods of Dalea alopecuroides, the 
refuse of the harvesting of these creatures. 

A paper entitled “ Notes on American Fishes Preserved in the 
Museums of Berlin, London, Paris and Copenhagen,” by D. S, 
Jordan, was presented for publication, as also one on “ Staining 
with Hematoxylon,” by Dr. C. L. Mitchell. 

Nov. 29.—Rev. Dr. McCook exhibited and described the tent 
and egg-nest of Attus opifex, a Californian saltigrade spider. Dr. 
McCook also reported the discovery on the Wissahickon of 
Psocus expunctatus, a web-spinning neuropterous insect, not before 
known to occur in this country. Dr. Horn exhibited specimens 
of the curious beetle Platypsylla castoris, parasitic upon the beaver, 
These specimens came from European beavers living at the mouth 
of the Rhone, but the species was first described from examples 
taken from an American beaver living at Amsterdam. Mr. 
Cresson described some Aztec bells, considered the probable mode 
of their manufacture, and compared them with Peruvian, Assyrian 
and Egyptian forms, 

Dec. 6.—Professor Lewis exhibited some gold nuggets from 
Montgomery county, N.C. Professor Cope placed on record a 
new genus of mammals supposed to be Lemuroid from the Puer- 
co Eocene. The typical species is Zndrodon malare. 

December 12.—Rev. Dr. McCock described the manner in 
which the queen ant starts a formicary, as illustrated by the wing- 
less queens o Camponotus pennsylvanicus. These had walled 
themselves in with small particles of bark. Professor Heilprin 
gave the results of his studies upon the tertiary and cretaceous of 

Atlantic and Southern States. The three lowest Cretaceous 
posits belong to the Senonian, and the upper one to the Mzs- 
g group. The boundary of the tertiary was traced through 
Rinia and the Carolinas. Patches of eocene occur along the 
rig of North and South Carolina. Professor Cope exhibited 
€ skull of Aphelops Jossiger from the Loup Fork strata of Sand 
creek, an affluent of the San Francisco river, New Mexico. 
s graphs of an Aphelops indistinguishable from this species 
— ed the existence of the Loup Fork beds near the City of 
co r. Wortman referred to similar remains in Florida,- 
ting the presence of the same beds. Professor Lewis an- 
a that the angles of a mineral described by him at a pre- 
Ti meeting as new, were identical with those of Sarcolite. 
Leidy size of the crystals found in Canada is remarkable. Dr. 

Stated that he had lea A sticest pp d fresh-water ceph- 

in a mil] worm Manayunkia, recently described by him, was found 
-Pond some times overflowed by the ocean, so that, after 
ie may be marine. Dr. A. J. Parker called attention 
im in ae, Prove a new method of reproduction observed by 
these j ‘phileptis fasciola. The lengthened extremity of one of 
infusorians broke up into little masses of protoplasm having 


336 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [March, 18%, 


e 
amoeboid movements, although the cilia of the creature continued 
active. A bud then appeared in the ectosarc, which was followed 
by the endosarc, and grew until the original form was attained, 
Rev. Dr. McCook spoke of the architecture of Formica rufa, a 
displayed in Dakota. This ant is European, but occurs also on 
the plains, even to the elevation of Leadville. It is not foundon 
the Atlantic sea-board. 


BIOLOGICAL Society oF WasxHincTon.—The fourth anniver 
sary meeting was held on Friday evening, January 25th. The 
President, Professor Charles A. White, delivered the annual at 
dress upon; “ Certain phases in the geological history gie 
North American continent, biologically considered.” 


New York Acapemy oF Sciences, Jan. 7.—The 
the evening was:.Notes and criticisms on Mr. Grant Alt 
theory of the origin of leaf-forms (illustrated with specimens) r | 

r. Ñ. L. Britton. 

Jañ 14.—The following papers were read : The sor 
of glacier ice, and its influence on the topography of 
America, by Dr. John S. Newberry ; “ Field-work in local mit | 
eralogy, by Mr. B. B. Chamberlin. 

Bot. x —The following paper was read: Methods of a | 
self- defence (illustrated with lantern), by Professor H. Le r 

Jan. 28—Professor J. W. Powell, of Washington, | 
livered a lecture on: The mythology of the Indians i 
mento valley. 

American GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, Jan. 24.—The n 
the evening was on the exploration of Petra-Arabia, r 
L; Wilson, Ph.D., illustrated with views. 


Garman ipokee on the “sea-serpent,” itd sige gies 
new Selachian. Mr. W. O. Crosby discussed the relation” 
slates and conglomerates of the Boston basin. 


APPALACHIAN Mountain CLUB, Jan. T rese! 
The reports of the Secretaries and the Treasurer = 
and the annual election of officers held. Mr. n 
a paper on “The sanitary effect of forests.” © z 

inslow read a paper on “ Mount Zion, teea read a 

Jan. 18.—Special meeting. Mr. Fred. A O a 4 
on “ Mexico,” including an ascent of Popocatape™ , 
ber of lantern views being shown. 

NATURAL Science ASSOCIATION oF STATEN ISLAN 
One new member was elected and other pusiness van f: 
C. W. Leng then read a trioer on the Cicindeli ae 
Remarks were made by Mr. Sechusen or Bee i 
series of precious stones, their woe cha prot the © 
localities from which they came. He 
to the society. 


THE 


AMERICAN NATURALIST. 


Vor. xvu1.— APRIL, 1884.—No. 4. 


THE EXHALATION OF OZONE BY FLOWERING 
PLANTS. 


BY J. M. ANDERS, M.D., PH.D. 


IEA ozone there is, perhaps, no more highly remarkable and 

perplexing substance. Nevertheless there is no substance 
more important to the sanitarian for study and consideration, 
since it has undoubted hygienic bearings, some of which are now 
quite well understood. There is no question but that through its 
oxydizing properties it is the greatest natural purifier of the 
atmosphere. 

It is doubtless nature’s means of ridding our atmosphere of 
organic impurities, and disease germs, which cause, as is well 
known, manifold forms of suffering, and render the air unfit for 

ing purposes. 

We have little certain knowledge of its real nature and many 
" its properties ; and leaving the solution of these more puzzling 
Testjons to the expert chemist, I purpose to adduce evidence 
Ea pew of establishing a newly-discovered source in nature 

iS Important substance. 
= ne can be artificially formed in various ways, to wit: by 
Passing electric discharges through pure oxygen; by the elec- 
: Hika decomposition of water; by suspending a stick of phos- 
SSS i a bottle filled with moist air, and in other ways, It is 
in the atmosphere, but not universally. Fresh, pure 
a close air of generally contains ozone, while it is absent from the 
: the latter meee, and occupied dwellings, for the reason that in 
i Gaia itis consumed in oxydizing and destroying or- 
: air to the nities. For a like reason it is frequently found in the 


€ windward of a city, but rarely or never to the leeward. 
Nok avni, ~no, Iv. 22 ; 


338 The Exhalation of Ozone by Flowering Plants, [Api 


In my readings, while preparing earlier memoirs on some plast 
functions, I would not infrequently meet with statements to tie 
effect that some sort of relationship exists between vegetation i 
and particularly forest growth, and the ozonic condition of te 
atmosphere. Thus, as stated in a former paper, a Dr. Schreibe 
maintains that the emanations from pine forests actively conet 
the oxygen of the air into ozone, but upon what basis of truth! 
any, the statement rests, [ have not learned. A. Naquet sji . 
“ Ozone exists in woods and fields and wherever there is actine 
vegetation.” Itis evident that assertions of a general character 
like the above, without experimental proof, are of no real saet 
tific value. On the other hand, the solution of so importanta 
question as whether plants generate or convert the oxygen of 
air into ozone, could not fail to be hailed as a noteworthy adas 
in scientific knowledge. 2 

For more than a year past the writer, while engaged p 
active practice of his profession, has devoted his intervals ® | 
leisure to an experimental investigation of the subject. ay 
nary to giving in detail the results of these experiments, n 
thought proper to speak of the various tests for the dn 
ozone, and to point out the relative merits of the same. an 
dicative of the difficulties of making such tests, pare F 
scopes have from time to time been devised, most of which ! : 
proved highly unsatisfactory. <i 

. lo: has 

Dr. A. R. Leeds, of Stevens Institute of Techno o 
an investigation into the relative merits of some half ike 
ing tests for ozone (Chem. News for May, 187 8). Wi i ai 
a detailed account of his observations, it will suffice or k 
to state a few of his conclusions. The Schoenbein or 
starch test was found to be most sensitive. It a rai 
that this test was used in all my observations. — Dr. f. 
test, which was also employed in our exper! go 
oderately Sê 

and whet ® 


” 


tened occupying a position midway 
sensitive, and those least so to the influence | 

In the National Board of Health Bulletin 
Dr. J. H. Long, under the auspices of the A made it 
sociation, records the results of ozone observati f 
ent places throughout the United States, bya 


of ozone. 


1884] The Exhalation of Ozone by Flowering Plants. 339 


men who kindly cooperated with him. In these investigations 
three kinds of tests were employed, to wit: Schoenbein paper, 
paper impregnated with tincture of guaiacum, and paper impreg- 
nated with solution of thallous hydrate. The doctor gives the 
methods of preparing these different papers. The Schoenbein is 
made according to the following formula: Potassium iodide 5 
parts, starch 50 parts and water 1000 parts. The starch and 
iodide are rubbed with a small amount of water until a milky 
homogeneous fluid is produced, and then the rest of the water is 
added and the whole boiled for some time with constant Stirring. 
The freshly prepared paste is spread on strips of filter paper, 
which are afterwards dried in a close room. The filter paper used 
is the best Swedish (Munktells). The guaiacum is made from a 

ully prepared tincture containing 8 per cent of resin and 
9 per cent of alcohol. When exposed to artificially prepared 
Ozone this paper turns greenish-blue and finally a bright blue, 
while the Schoenbein turns quite blue. The papers employed in 
the present researches were very kindly prepared for me by Pro- 
fessor Henry Leffman after the above formulz, and they gave 
excellent reactions both in the hands of the professor and in my 
om hands, when exposed to ozone artificially prepared. The 
iodized starch, or Schoenbein, being universally acknowledged to 
be the Most sensitive, as well as giving the most reliable results | 
me reactions obtained by this test were considered of paramount 
portance and value. There are, however, sometimes other 
| bodies present in the atmosphere which have the power of de- 
ic iodide of potassium, and hence give a blue reaction 
. Well as ozone, to wit, peroxide of hydrogen, the oxides of 
i Mio and ammonia. The latter substance can be detected by 
; ee à piece of red litmus near to the test papers, the effect 
. nalo aa the paper blue. The presence of the nitrous oxides 
mm: Teadily demonstrated. How to avoid mistaking the 
: aa of hydrogen for ozone may prove difficult, 
Wat substances appear to have many properties in com- 
Whether "eee. it has been a disputed question among chemists 
W Possible to distinguish between them by any known 
: Claims to be abe > R. Leeds (Chem. News for April 9, 1880) 
; "i . “The epee each by its own properties. He 


ost striking property of ozone is its smell. 
So far as long continued familiarity with it enables me 


340 The Exhalation of Ozone by Flowering Plants. [April, 


to judge, whether the ozone is derived from the silent discharges 
of pure and dry oxygen, or accompanies the electrolysis of water 
(and the smell is identical), is possessed by ozone only.” Ths 
odor is not peculiar to peroxide of hydrogen, for the same author 
says of this substance, “ The solution which I have prepared 
different times myself, carbonic acid being employed to decom 
pose barium peroxide, have not evolved any odor that I was able 
to recognize or perceive. Ozone is only slightly soluble in water, 
and is readily expelled on heating, while hydrogen peroxide is 
mixable, and solutions containing one per cent of peroxide o 
hydrogen may be concentrated by evaporation on the water bath 
until a higher degree of concentration is reached without gei 
loss of peroxide.’ ee 
The question, can ozone and peroxide of hydrogen coéxist® 
the same atmosphere? has also been oppositely discussed by 
chemists. Professor McLeod, as the result of his investigations 
(Chem. News, Vol. XL, p. 307), concluded that these two bodies dè 
compose one another. From this fact he further argues that it 
extremely improbable that ozone and peroxide of hyd i 
both formed during the slow oxydation of phosphorus. pn : i 
other hand Schöne, by an elaborate series of experiments | r 
by Leeds) shows that when strongly oxydized oxygen, Com e | 
5.2 volumes per cent of ozone, is agitated with an hydrogen i 
oxide solution containing 0.4 per cent of the peroxide, of a 
or four times as much as is necessary to destroy all Bees 
is only after the lapse of half an hour that as much a 
ozone is destroyed. Professor Leeds, in the article aire® 
ferred to, comes to the rescue of Schone, and very ao 
shows that not only ozone but also peroxide of hydroge® 


and that 
absolute 


slow, mutual decomposition takes place when toss" ~, 
ing to all the best authorities, peroxide of hydrogen ' i 
at a temperature of about 70° Fahr., while to 0e 2 
quires a temperature of about 200°. Fahr. The imp? i 
fact cannot be overrated, as it has a great DSS” © 
results of the present experiments. l 


1 See also Schöne, Ann. der Chem., 196, P- 
XXIV, p. 221. ' 


1884.] The Exhalation of Ozone by Flowering Plants. 341 


In the case of the guaiacum test there are so many interfering 
conditions as to render it nearly valueless. Thus it will not only 
react in the presence of peroxide of hydrogen-and the oxides of 
nitrogen, but even the oxygen of the atmosphere is said to impart 
to it a tint hard to distinguish from the coloration due to ozone. 

The color scales were not used in these researches, as they are 
very difficult to obtain and, furthermore, the object here was not 
so much to ascertain the degree of coloring of the test papers as 
the single important fact whether plants have the power of gen- 
erating ozone. 

In noting the results obtained, the terms “ marked,” “slight” 
and “very slight” are used to express, in a general way, the ex- 
tent of blue coloration. This plan is deemed preferable for the 
reason that the tints, in most instances, were not very striking. 

My first observations were conducted in Horticultural Hall, 
Fairmount Park, Philadelphia. It was thought that a careful 
testing of the air of this hall, filled as it is witha profusion of 
plants, mostly of the foliage varieties, would give results suffi- 
ciently striking to be of value in clearing up the subject. In this, 
however, I was measurably disappointed, as will be seen hereafter. 
The hall has several compartments. The so-called main hall, of 
about the following dimensions: 220 feet in length, 100 feet in 
width and, the dome-like roof being of glass in the center, 65 
feet high. The room is filled with a variety of species of palms, 
bananas, monesteras, colocasias, caladiums, ferns, Ficus elastica, 
bamboo canes, Australian and New Zealand pines and numbers 
of smaller foliage plants. Average temperature of the hall 

during the time of experiments, 70° Fahr. 

On either side of the main hall are several smaller ones in 
_ Which the air was likewise tested, known under the names fern 
- forcing house, temperate house, propagating house and 
_ “sonomic house,- The. dimensions of these rooms are, length 100 
oes, width 30 feet, ceiling, curvilinear and of glass, 20 feet in 
_ “eight. The temperate house contained half hardy plants, as the 
, Ser. lemon, hibiscus, and a number of azalias in bloom. 
rcing house contained bedding plants, geranium, colius and — 
: yranthes, but few blooming, mostly cuttings. Economic 
© Contained pitcher plants, tea, coffee, chocolate, sugar, yapas, 
ua and aromatic plants. Propagating house is located out- 
The the main building, and contained geraniums in bloom. 
house was well stocked with ferns. 


342 The Exhalation of Ozone by Flowering Plants. [April, 


The average temperature of these apartments was as follows: 
Economic house 80°, temperate house 55°, fern house 65°, fore 
ing house 75° Fahr. 

The first experiments were commenced Oct. 14, 1882, and con- | 
tinued till the end of November. The atmosphere of the main 
hall was tested on twenty-five days during this period, the Schoen- 
bein giving negative results except on Nov. 29th and 3oth, when 
this paper showed a slight blue tint. The papers were placed ot 
the branches of the highest plants, moistened both when they : 
were suspended and after being taken down, and the duration of d 
the experiments varied from four to twenty-four hours, 


The guaiacum test paper showed a very slight reaction for ; 
about one-half of these observations, but unfortunately this p 
could not be relied upon, while the results with the Schoenbeit 
were too meager on which to base conclusions. A few see ; 
made during this series simultaneously in the forcing and ci l 
houses with negative results. It should be stated that "p | 
periments were being conducted at a time when penn f 
tors were daily attracted to the hall by the indescnit * l 
of the plants, and hence it was thought not unreaso e 
pose that any ozone which might have been generated 5 | 
plants was consumed in oxydizing the organic matter pe d 
the air by the visitors, for it should be remembers gree 
tenkofer has pointed out, ozone is never detectable "a 
phere of occupied dwellings. Though these experiment jot 
barren of results, when the above circumstances arè Mi — 
account they were not much to be wondered at. d 

. : i latter part 0° 

The next series of observations began in the i March 
ruary, and were continued through the months i 
April of the past year. During the month of ro 
only an occasional visitor admitted, in March a abf 
very few, while in April the number was Comm 
though not by any means numerous. These exp sphere 
results somewhat more encouraging. The ae 
exterior was simultaneously tested for the sake of ¢ a 
the two situations. The observations wer ee í 
days in the main hall, Schoenbein papers ee sie ae 
these gave “very slight” reactions, while by e „adone“ 

during the same time six “ very slight” r e house 
Twenty-four tests of the air in the tempera 


OF ee ee eee de ye 8 ee ee 
eden is Ce aia EEEE 


Beast 


1884.) The Exhalation of Ozone by Flowering Plants. 343 


Schoenbein gave only three “very slight” reactions. During 
these observations the outer air was tested twelve times, with but 
two“ slight” reactions, and the air of the propagating house for the 
remaining days in place of the outer air, which gave two “ very 
slight” reactions. The air of the propagating house was next 
compared with the external air. For thirteen days in the former 
situation the Schoenbein paper gave “very slight” reactions in 
four instances, while the latter (outer air) gave “ very slight” in- 
dications of ozone in two instances. It will be observed that here 
the result was better in the propagating house than in the open 
air, which was, to say the least, quite suggestive. In all the pre- 
ceding experiments of this series there was a striking similarity 
in the two situations, and the outer air giving somewhat the bet- 
ter results. The air of the fern house, as well as economic house, 
were also given a few trials and compared with the outer air, but 
the results were negative throughout. During all of the out- 
door observations the guaiacum paper gave slight indications of 
ozone in more than half of the experiments, and striking in four 
cases. The results with this paper for corresponding days in- 
doors were almost identical, with the degree of coloring in a few 
instances in favor of the outside. The propagating house yielded 
the best indoor results with the guaiacum paper, as did the 
Schoenbein, while the temperate house gave almost equally good 
results with the guaiacum paper as in the propagating house. 

$ was not the case, it will be remembered, with the Schoen- 
bein, The duration of the individual experiments varied from 
SIX to sixteen hours, the average duration being about ten hours. 
; The question here arises, were the reactions obtained by the 
indoor tests due to ozone emitted from the plants or to the circu- 
lation of the outer air through these apartments. There is. con- 


_ Santly more or less interchange of air between the exterior and 


a of the building, due to the numerous interstices between 
panes of glass and the frequent opening and closing of the 


| heated “a must also be observed that all these apartments are 


and artificial heat was necessary during all these investi- 

by numerous hot water pipes placed directly under and 
Parallel with a grated floor from which warm air rises and ascends 
through the building. The idea that the external conditions 
might bs affected the results on the inside is doubtless still fur- 
Strengthened by the fact that most of the results obtained 


344 The Creodonta. 


were, as already stated, nearly identical in the two situations, with 
a preponderance of coloring in favor of the outside. I was thus 
forced, though reluctantly, to dismiss all the experiments thus ft 
made as having yielded doubtful results, excepting those made it 
the propagating house, of which it will be necessary to speak 
further. : 
How can we account for the results in this situation differing 
from those of the other rooms? I was unable at that time t 
find any good reason, the conditions appearing to be about the 
same. Subsequent experimentation, however, threw new light 
upon this vexed question. It will be only necessary here to 
state, what I trust will be evident to the mind of the reader later , 
on, that the somewhat more striking results in this house ne 
have been due to the fact that it was well stocked with flowers 
geraniums, poe 


(To be continued.) 


"ry" 


THE CREODONTA. 


BY E. D. COPE. 
(Continued from the March number, $. 267.) 
HYÆNODONTIDÆ. 


I this family the anterior cusp of the inferior gee 
a tree. m 
the last inte 
In the Eia 
molars, on the contrary, the anterior basal cusp has ge 
and the posterior one is developed behi ) 
blade. The superior molars, like the inferior, 
lobe. ae 
Professor W. B. Scott has studied the posteriof 
brain-case of a species of Hyznodon, which he om 
lows. I quote from the advance sheets of his paper 
ject, which he has kindly permitted me to us¢- 
“The hind limb is in essentials very like eye 
the Bridger Eocene; the femur has a decided tai 
The tibia is much like that of Mesonyx, ame iy 
characteristically Creodont in having its ast ie 
1 My acknowledgments are due Mr. Menje for valuable assis 
ing these observations. 


Sea ore te S 


1884.] The Creodonta. 345 


flat, with only a very slight median ridge for the groove of the 
astragalus. e internal malleolus is very large. 

“The astragalus is but slightly concave from side to side, much 
less So than in Mesonyx. 

“The foot is plantigrade, and the entire length of the calcan- 
eum rested on the ground. Five well-developed digits were pres- 
ent, terminating in short and stout compressed claws; very differ- 
ent from the peculiar depressed ungual phalanges of Mesonyx ; 
otherwise the resemblance of the foot as a whole to that of Meso- 
nyx is very striking. 

“The brain case attributed by Gervais to Hyzenodon must be- 
long to some other genus, or else our American species differ very 
radically from the French. In the American species the brain is 
relatively very small and simple, being but slightly larger than 
that of Thylacynus, to which animal Hyznodon presents man 
interesting approximations in the structure of the skull and teeth. 
The cerebellum of Hyzenodon is entirely uncovered by the hemi- 
spheres, which in their turn seem to have but three straight longi- 
Mais ee gyri, presenting the simplest type of the carnivorous 

rain.” 


It is highly probable that this family is a derivative of a 
pentadactyl form of the Mesonychidæ. Its appearance in time 
corresponds nearly with the disappearance of the latter. 

But one genus of this family has been thus far described, the 
Hyænodon of Laizer and Parieu. Its dental formula is I. 3; C. 
1; P-m.{; M. 3. The last three molars in both jaws are sectorials, 
and the last of these are the largest, and form the most effective 
Shears for the dividing of animal tissues. The position of these 
teeth indicates a mouth fissured far posteriorly, and a correspond- 
ingly posterior position of the masseter muscle. This structure 
indicates a weak power of prehension of the canine teeth. This 
5 er is sustained by the frequently anteriorly directed infe- 
"or canines, and the generally slender mandibular rami. The 
Hy ænodons must be regarded as snappers, and not capable of 
holding on to a living enemy with much persistency.’ They were 
evidently weaker in all points of organism than the modern Car- 
nora, which no doubt accounts for their extinction. Thirteen 
YAp have been described, all but three North American forms 
being French. The oldest of these, the H. parisiensis Kefst., is 
ite the Upper Eocene or Oligocene, or the Paris Gypsum, but 

Teference to this genus is not yet certain. Gaudry, however, 
ede the origin of the sectorial tooth of the Carnivora, AMERICAN NATURAL~ 

3 1970, P. 17. 


346 The Creodonta. [Apr 


states that Hyænodon occurs in the Gypse. Seven species are 
described by Filhol as from the Phosphorites. Some of these 
(as H. leptorhynchus L. & P.) are elsewhere found in the Stan- 


robably 
pian, a Lower Miocene, but some of them pe p at 
Eocene! The three North American species 4 


Je fossils of AN 


1 Professor Gaudry thinks the Phosphorites inclu 
epochs, 


1884.] The Creodonta, 347 


River or Oligocene horizon, and no species is known from later 
formations. The species range in size from that of the Æ. vul- 
pinus Gerv., which equals a red fox, to that of an American black 
bear, as the Æ. heberti Filhol, and H. horridus Leidy (Fig. 12). 
The latter species is from the bad lands of Nebraska. 
LEPTICTIDÆ.? 

This family is very nearly related to the Centetidæ, which are 

now living in Madagascar. The only character by which I dis- 


WAITS 
aiy 


AY 
NA \ 


“Ay uur 


Stypolophus whitie Cope, skul 
river, W thirds natural size. F; igs. a-b from the Wasatch beds of the Big Horn 
a y i £ : a : 


CSS oe ee ae dey ee 
P 
“ 
yw 
| 


Figs. 
oR ak i right mandibular ramus. Fig. d, left tarsus minus cuneiform bones, from 
Hayden, "ginal, from Vol. 11, Report U. S. Geological Survey Terrs., F. V. 
Poe it is by the presence of the zygomatic arch, a part of the 
Which is absent in the Centetidæ (Fig. 13). The Leptictide 


Th: ae 
Pia family is included in the Centetidæ in the first part of this paper, p. 261. 


348 The Creodonta. 


are no doubt the ancestors of the Centetidz ; and their later types, 
as Leptictis, approach the existing family in their dentition quite 
closely! The earlier types display great variety in their dentition, 
and give ground for distinguishing many genera. 

Two groups are easily recognized among the Leptictide. In 
the first of these the last or fourth inferior premolar is a simple 
premolariform tooth, different from the inferior true molars, and 
without any internal cusp. In the second division the fourthin 
ferior premolar is either like the true molars or approximates 
their form by the presence of an internal tubercle. To the latter 
group belongs the genus Chriacus, which from the slight deve 
opment of the fourth inferior premolar (Fig. 14) approximates tht . 
first division. The genus may, however, be improperly rel i 
to the Creodonta. 


Fig. 15. 
ible and patt 0 
Fic. 14.--Chriacus angulatus Cope, right ramus of mandible ane P 
ry bone with teeth ; iora the Wasatch beds of the Big Horn, W p true 
ice n size. Figs. 6-c natural size. Fig. æ, firs paar side; 4" 
from below; 4, ramus from external side; c, the same, a and lower 
from above. Fic. 15.—Mioclenus turgidus Cope, patt o of New Mi 
one animal, two-thirds natural size. From the Puerco beds see 
nal, from Vol. 111, Report U. S. Geol. Survey Terrs. 


e first division of the famil 


Fig. 14, 


There are seven genera of th f 
may be distinguished into two sections. In On 
are three well-developed anterior cusps of the inferior the anteri 
forming a tubercular sectorial tooth; in the other = 


nae U 
1 Enough is now known of the mammalian fauna 7 pera The 
of its decidedly Miocene and, to some degree, Eocene aes neat t 
Coki gh Tii ly the Eocene types; the Chiromys ene 
lodonta, while the closest allies of the carnivorous genus Crypto 
the Lower Miocene of France and the Middle Miocene 
descendants of the Eocene types appear to have persist 
tiles are not African but are South American. 


T 


1884. | The Creodonta. 349 


cusp is rudimental or wanting, and the tooth approximates more 
or less the quadrituberculate condition. In the latter subsection 
there are three genera. The first of these, Mioclanus Cope, has 
the inferior true molars quadrituberculate and of equal elevation ; 
the first true molar may have an anterior or fifth tubercle, The 
external cusps of the superior true molars are distinct and coni- 
cal. In Triisodon Cope, the inferior true molars only are known, 
These have four cusps with a rudimental anterior fifth, They dif- 
fer from the corresponding cusps in all the other genera in being 
compressed so as to have fore and aft cutting edges. Diacodon 
Cope, is the third genus. Its superior molars are like those of 
Mioclenus, but the two anterior cusps of the lower true molars 
are much elevated, the posterior are rudimental, and there is a 
rudimental fifth in front. 

Mioclznus presents the only truly quadritubercular lower mo- 
lars in the suborder. It is so far known only from the Puerco or 
oldest Eocene of North America. There are nine species known 


Fig. 16, Fig. 17. 
F ic, 16.-— Af; } lenus č 
below, two-thirds natural size. From the Puerco beds of New Mexico. Fig. a, from 


: . len onus Cope, 
and mandibular bones two-thirds natural size; from the Puerco 
Side 2? ,% Superior true molar teeth from below; 4, left mandibular ramus, external 
we inner side; d, from above. From Report U. S. Geol. Survey Terrs., 


So far, which range from the size of a mink (M. minimus) to that 
of a wolf (M. Jerox) in the sizes of their jaws, but in the case of 
M. ferox, of which a good deal of the skeleton is known, the 
, y Was relatively smaller. The species differ in the form of the 
Superior premolar, and in the robustness of their inferior 
The M. turgidus (Fig. 15) represents the type with 
‘bust premolars, and the M. subtrigonus (Fig. 17) those with 
ore compressed premolars. 


350 The Creodonta. [Apri | 


We can read the nature of the primitive mammal, Mioclems 
ferox, in so far as the materials permit. It was an effective flesh- 
eater, and probably an eater of other things than flesh. It hada 
long tail and well-developed limbs. It had five toes all around 
and the great or first toe was not opposable to the others, and 
may have been rudimental. The feet were plantigrade and the 
claws prehensile. The fore feet were well turned outwards. The 
were, perhaps, marsupial bones, but this point is not yet certainly 
determined. The presence of a patella distinguishes it from mar 
supials in general. Its embracing glenoid cavity of the skull, ad d 
form of the inferior molars, resemble those of the Arctocy 

This species is about the size of a sheep. The bones are statt 
by Mr. Baldwin, who discovered it, to be derived from the red 
beds in the upper part of the Puerco series. : ‘ 

The genus Triisodon includes as yet but one species, the ; 
quivirensis Cope, which is only known from the rami of pe 
jaw. These bones are shorter and more robust than those of the 
coyote, and indicate an animal of perhaps the size of the be 7 
ine (Fig. 1, p. 257). It was evidently strongly carnivorous © 
diet, and was a capable biter. Its remains are from the a 


of New Mexico. v "a 
i F : wo from the asatch : 
Diacodon includes seven species, t the Poer 
(Fig. 18), while those of 
vary in dimensions fro Jt 
common weasel (D. mene ye 
of a wolf (D. conidens). oe 

; cies of the Puerco were © 
Fic. 18.—Jaws of species of he genus Tr 
Diacodon from the Wasatch ferred by me to t me 
bed be New Mexico, Fig. a, but are now more prope 
mandibular ramus, inner side, Diacodon. The only a wad 
i s2. Pip: 2; . sare pe 
D. celatus, eft aT Pha e the superior molar U we 4 
ramus, natural size; c, same, conidens, where they are : sabe 
ize. inal, . Li ih e of Mioclænus. ; 
from the Report U. S. Ġ. G. tical with thos of the first © 
ane Ne of tooth mer., G. M. Of the four genera [is 

ticle! 


sion of the Leptictid@, p 
tubercular sectorial teeth, but two are found in Now 
while three of them have been discovered in wer pol 

The typical and most widely distributed genv® "| 


SLES Spa ee Gee ee PSI SR nT alo DEE GY DE VER i” gE aoe EAB) Peano ym 


1884.] The Creodonta. 351 


Cope (Fig. 13). It has compressed premolars, except the fourth 
superior, which is conic with two basal lobes. In Proviverra 
Riitimeyer, this tooth is triangular and cutting. One species has 
been found in the Swiss Eocene. Quercitherium of Filhol is dis- 
tinguished by its very robust premolars. Like Proviverra it has 
but one rather small species. It is from the French Phosphorites. 
Stypolophus has the two cusps of the superior true molars close 
together, forming twin cusps, and they have behind them a heel, 
which is cutting. Two species have been discovered in the 
French Phosphorites, one of which, the S. cay/usi of Filhol, is 
preserved to us in the most perfect skull of a Creodont known. 
From it I have restored the skull of the S. whitie (Fig. 13). It 
has elevated sagittal and posterior crests for the insertion of the 
temporal muscles, and the brain-case is very small. A cast of the 
brain displayed to Mr. Filhol the following characters: The 
hemispheres are small, and leave the cerebellum and the posterior 
edge of the middle brain uncovered. Anteriorly they contract to 
an isthmus which separates them from the large olfactory lobes. 
The hemispheres display three longitudinal convolutions, and 
kod little indication of sylvian fissure. Of the American spe- 
asa five are known from the Wasatch, and four from the Bridger 


Nearly allied to Stypolophus is the genus Didelphodus Cope, 
which only differs from it in the posses- 
sion of but three superior premolars. 
The single species, D. absaroke Cope, 
ts about the size of a skunk, and has 
o obtained in the Wasatch Eocene 
Bs of the Big Horn river, Wyoming 

18. 19), 


| aa 
this respect Esthonyx esembles some of the genera of 


352 The Crecdonta. 


Centetidz, and other recent families both of Creodonta and In- 
sectivora (Fig. 23). Of the genera with large canines, Chriacus has 
already been mentioned as having a simple fourth premolar 
with only an internal cusp to distinguish it from the genera 
of Sect. 1 of the family. Its true lower molars have an anterior 
V of three connected cusps. This is also the character of 
the inferior molars and fourth premolar of Deltatherium (Fig 
20), which is also peculiar in having but 3 premolars, and @ 
diastema. In the three genera which remain, the anterior ot 


Fic. 20.—Deltatherium fundaminis Cope, skull and Tamus p "o fA 
natural „size, from the Puerco beds of New Mexico. a mi f i 
; Fig. d from a second animal. Fig. < , Tight side 0 ie side. 
below ; c, mandible, part, nde above; 4, left ramus, ow 
U. S. Geol. Survey Terrs., Vol. 11. Origin nal. 


fifth cusp of the true molars is rudimental. They ©” 
each other in the structure of the third spe f 

In Ictops Leidy, this tooth has two external and i 
cusps; in Mesodectes Cope, there are one cusp 
nal cusps, and Leptictis Leidy, there is no ermal 
external one is simple. 


There are certainly three, and proba ably foun, a 


nh 


1884.) Anatomy and Physiology of the Family Nepide. 353 


acus. The typical and largest species, C. pelvidens Cope, is from 
the Puerco Eocene of New Mexico; the smallest species, C. an- 
gulatus Cope, is from the Wasatch beds of New Mexico and Wy- 
oming (Fig. 14). Perhaps it is near this genus that Tricentes 
Cope, should be placed. The latter only differs from Chriacus in 
the possession of but three superior premolars.’ I have sus- 
pected that it belongs near Microsyops and Mixodectes in the 
Lemuroid series. There are three species, none larger than a 
skunk. The type, T. crassicollidens, is known from parts of two 
crania. The T. ineguidens was not larger than a gray squirrel. 

The Deltatherium fundaminis Cope (Fig. 20), is one-half larger 
than the Virginian opossum, and much more robust. Its molar 
teeth are very opossum-like, while its canine teeth are relatively 
larger and stouter. The crowns of the canines are especially 
effective as weapons, from their vertical direction and form, their 
sharp anterior and posterior cutting edges, and their sides grooved 
like many blood-letting instruments. The sagittal crest is high, 
and the muzzle is short and wide, so that a decidedly bull-dog 
expression belonged to this animal. It is the most specialized 
form of the family and of the Puerco epoch, and was one of the 
most abundant. There are two other less known species of Del- 
tatherium. 

(To be continued.) 
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FAMILY 
NEPID. 
BY WILLIAM A. LOCY. 
(Continued from page 255.) 

The Salivary Glands.—The most anterior appendages to the 

alimentary canal are the salivary glands. These are especially 


iia ea ay eee ee 


‘wo pairs, each pair consisting of a small gland and a large one, 
ag by ducts near the commencement of the cesophagus. 
86 large glands, which are about five times the length of the 
Pan ones, extend back to the first abdominal segment, and are 

"e united to the stomach by threads of tracheæ. At the ante- 
"Mii of the large glands are two round pouches, which prob- 
r the storage of small quantities of saliva. 
OM. American Philosoph. Society, 1883, p. 315- 


be XVIIL—no, rv. as 


354 Anatomy and Physiology of the Family Nepide. 


Connected with the salivary system, but separate fon k 
glands, are two sigmoid pouches, called salivary reservoirs, whid 
are supposed to serve for storing larger quantities of saliva. The 
are applied to each side of the stomach, at its commencemest 
and are continued backwards by a tubular appendage, which eå 
blindly in the first abdominal segment, being there attache! 
the stomach and to the large salivary gland by tracheary three 
The ducts of the reservoirs are kept open by a trans 
ated ribbon, coiled in a spiral manner, and thus are si ! 
tracheæ in structure. i 

The salivary glands are coud and, thete ir 
order. The globules are closely packed,- sessile, and 
upon tubules, which join with others of like origin, and 
their contents into a common duct. 

Comparatively speaking, the glands in Ranatra are nota T 
as those of Belostoma, and the salivary pouches, at the wit 
are lacking. The salivary reservoirs are lenticular, 
cecal appendages are longer than in Belostoma, : 


The Malpighian Tubules—-The Malpighian ete 
from their discoverer, Malpighi, are appended to” the 
They consist of two tubules, of small and uniform size, 
four insertions to the bulbous enlargement of the inte i 
insertion is mediate, 7. ¢., connected with a pouch 


extending also over the stomach and into t 
count of the difficulty with which they are U ae g 
E of their tengt we been mane F 


acid and ie urinary products — Se 
them a urinary function. It is nie chat sort 
unite with this urinary function the secretion 0 ® 
opinions of anatomists of the past half century res 
tion are various, By Cuvier, Dufour and eo yee 
uss-Dirckt 
believed to be biliary, and by Stra iene were, i 


omists urinary, These contrary opi 
reconciled by the views of Lapopiattss who 


” 


PLATE IX, 


ATs 

RETA D AOA Wye 
ebsites 

oe 02," WA 

EN 

TrA 


i 


+ 

i i 

j i i 

i ; | 

j | i ; 

' 4 : | 

1 ə 3 ! i 

x 2 i W \ 

š | EEA N 

eT 

; rie t 

3 F ~ k 


b 


& 
SALIVARY RESERV. 


Ai 
iS) 


Ea: 


A| r 
UT s.; 
rn) a Dp Pe, 
Ee pag fom 
ieee 


cabs 
= 
ee 


== 
el 


~Y 
Pome 
(ctr 


Wiis 
ay 
ro 


-~ 


A 
ay 


= 
D 


s 


Ui 


os 
MEUM yh 


j 


Tus 


Ke 
: 
g 


1884.] Anatomy and Physiology of the Family Nepide. 355 


to differ according to position on the alimentary canal, of which, 
in the Insecta, there are three—on the stomach, biliary alone; on 
the post-ventriculus, urino-biliary ; at the extremity of the alimen- 
tary canal, urinary alone. According to this view they would be 
urino-biliary in the Nepidæ. I am not prepared to speak con- 
cerning their function, as I have made no analysis of their secre- 
tions, 

The Fat Body—The internal organs are entirely enveloped in 
a fatty tissue, called the fat body, which divides the heart and the 
nervous system from the other organs of the body. It is com- 
posed of connective tissue holding in its meshes globules of fat. 
This fat body is always a serious encumbrance in tracing the res- 
piratory system, and it also obscures other internal organs. The 
fat may be dissolved in sulphuric ether, after which the branching 
of the tracheæ may be studied. This tissue is most strongly de- 
veloped in the abdomen, and in the Nepidz I have noticed that it 
is thickest in the fall, and becomes thinner when the insect is de- 
prived of food; it is probably, therefore, a storehouse of nourish- 
ment, and may also serve as a protection to the internal organs. 

The Odoriferous Glands:—In Belostoma, the odoriferous glands 
are two cecal pouches situated in the metathorax, under the 
commencement of the stomach. They are convoluted several 
times upon themselves, and the distal and anterior ends are close 
together, both concealed under the nervous cord; the exter- 
nal opening is between ths coxz of the posterior legs. When 
extended, they will reach to about the fifth abdominal segment. 
The smell emitted by these glands is pleasant, resembling that of 
well ripened pears or bananas, 

The Glands of the Head.—\n the genera, Belostoma, Perthosto- 
ma and Ranatra, I have observed two glands within the head, 
Similar in position to the green glands of the Crustacea, which I 
shall Provisionally name the cephalic glands, since they are not 
mentioned in any authority to which I have access. (Plate 1%, 
à w 2 and 2a.) They are on the floor of the head cavity be- 

eath all the other organs, and therefore are most easily ap- 
ne from beneath. Their external openings are on each 
€ of the head, between the eyes and the base of the beak. The 
are short, and seem to be composed of a number of united 
nee "a originate in individual cells. Under the microscope 
Slands show a thin homogeneous enveloping layer, and an 


ducts, 


356 Anatomy and Physiology of the Family Nepide. [ 


epithelial layer composed of five-sided cells, each containing 
prominent central nucleus. In some cases two nuclei are pr 
When these insects are irritated, a secretion is freely thrown € 
around the base of the beak, which produces death very quick 
when introduced on a needle point into the body of an insect. 
“cephalic glands” may be the source of this poisonous secrel 
on the other hand their function may be entirely different; 
question may be decided by the chemical analysis of the sect 
of these glands, that is now being made in the University of Midi 
igan. 
II. THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 
After the food is reduced to chyle in the alimentary can 
passes by osmosis through the walls of the intestines into 
general circulation; it is conveyed in this way to various pars 
the body, and converted into tissue. The. circulation a 
blood and the structure of the heart in insects is constet 
of the most difficult points in their physiology, on account 3 
delicacy of the structure involved, and the confusion that 
arisen among authorities from the absence of true arem 
i i i is attached to this 
veins. So much interest and importance 1s a 
ject, that I give below a brief history of it. — 
About the middle of the seventeenth century Sw Hi 
and Malpighi, each independently, discovered in the 
tain insects a rhythmically contracting vessel lying l 
back, which they considered a heart. In the cour 
Lyonet threw some doubt upon this conclusion in his 
work on the larva of Cossus ligniperda. This doubt "o 
by Cuvier, who, after a special study of circulation F 
as his opinion that no such thing as a regular ae 
in this class of animals. Thus naturalists came to ©" ” 
sects had no circulation. | 
In the early of the present centu : 
the true Panay of the circulation of blood ga 
his proof was too strong to admit of question. > Jot 
aid of his microscope, in a small transparent ee 
the heart, circulate through the limbs, wings ® 
return to its starting point, thus tracing the pe ae 
His results were published in the year 1827, 48" ” 
firmed by other naturalists. m L 
In studying this subject in the Nepide, + y 


an 


ire LE 


ry, however, 


1884.) Anatomy and Physiology of the Family Nepide. 357 


larve of Belostoma, Perthostoma and Ranatra in flat glass boxes, 
and, with the microscope, have studied the heart, and traced the 
circulation through the transparent integument. 
The heart here described is from dissections of Belostoma. It 
consists of a long tube extending from the sixth abdominal seg- 
_ ment to the supra-cesophageal ganglion. In the abdomen, it is 
divided into chambers, and this abdominal portion is considered 
the heart proper, and the anterior tubular portion, the aorta. 
There are five chambers in the abdomen of the adult, with affer- 
ent openings on each side, called by some auriculo-ventricular 
apertures. At the beginning of the sixth abdominal segment, 
the heart is attached to the integument by means of muscles. 
(Fig. 4.) 
The first pair of afferent openings are thus thrown into the fifth 
abdominal segment, and the three following segments have one 
pair each, making a total of four pairs. These openings are 
guarded by valves, the action of which will be considered later. 
These apertures are all anterior to the middle of the body segment 
inwhich they are situated. In the larve of Belostoma, I have often 
i one of these auriculo-ventricular openings in the sixth 
r inal segment, and muscular attachments behind it in the 
anal prolongation. It is my belief that this additional chamber is 
dropped in the adult form, since I find it in none of my dissec- 
tions, It is a matter of great difficulty to be sure, whether one of 
these chambers may not have escaped notice. According to my 
he ions, however, there are five chambers in the adult 
stoma and six in the larva. At the junction of the thorax 
id the abdomen, the heart bends downward as it extends for- 
` passing under the large muscles of the thorax. 
The triangular Muscles of the Heart —The heart is attached to 
Pie integument in the abdomen, by a number of triangular mus- 
With their apices pointing outward. I have counted eight 
of these attachments in the adult Belostoma. They are 
$d opposite each auriculo-ventricular orifice, and continue 
anteriorly, and posteriorly, beyond these openings. At the 
Naas 1e fibers composing the triangular muscles are closely 
“© into a sort of ligament. These fibers diverge laterally as 
approach the heart, and also divide into two sheets, one pass- 
om e and the other below the heart. Thus a triangular cav- 
left on each side of the heart, which is called the pericardial 


Ai: 


358 Anatomy and-Physiology of the Family Nepide. (April, 


sinus. According to Milne-Edwards this has some claims to be 
considered the auricle of the heart, since its muscles help fore 
the blood through the afferent openings into the heart. In add 
tion to the triangular muscles, the heart is attached in the w 
by a single triangular piece of connective tissue. 
The heart beats rhythmically, its activity depending gray 
upon whether the insect is quiet or excited. As near asl 
conclude, the normal number of beats in Belostoma larve is abot 
forty-five per minute. In those confined in glass boxes the num 
ber of beats were from thirty-four, to sixty-three, pc minute. 
The contraction of the different chambers is not quite synch 
nous; the back chamber contracts first, then the others fallow 
nick succession, so that the blood is kept constantly moving for 
wards. At the beginning of the diastole of the heart, tlà vals 
guarding the afferent openings bend inward witha quick, almot 
jerking motion, and permit the entrance of blood fon A 
cardial sinus; upon the systole of the heart the peri i 
receives an accession of blood from the chambers teac 
the closing of the valves of the afferent openings gh 
return of blood from the heart to this cavity, It has ws 
mined by the investigations of Dogiel,and others, that the il 
kept beating by ganglionic corpuscles, like the heart in ve ne 
The course of the blood is forward in the heart ma 
vous ganglia of the head, where the aorta ends in oa bat 
expansion. From here the blood is thrown into E E 
which are regular channels leading through the conn a 
and among the organs of the body. Although there ou : 
arteries and veins, the course of the blood is reg ari 
lacunæ, and the heart may be easily injet by: of ht 
into the body cavity. I have often inj heart 0 Theil 
ide by throwing carmine into the ventral oe 
passes into the legs, wings, antennz, etc 
two large currents passing backward along 
ultimately it gets back to the pericardial sinu 
the heart to begin its course anew n the circ" 
The Pulsatile Organs of the Legs. . —Accessory the three PF 
is a special system of pulsatile organs, found in just 
the tibia J 
legs of these insects, generally situated in ial k 
articulation with the femur. In the raptora ^ 
however, the organs are in the clasp joint, 
articulation with the tibia. 


PLATE X. 


SAL RESERVOR ES 


nA 


PA VESIE pes ita 


a 


1884.] Anatomy and Physiology of the Family Nepide. 359 


Observations on their influence over the circulation, etc., will 
be found in the January number, 1884, of the AMERICAN NATU- 
RALIST, where my investigations and results are given, that lead to 
the three following conclusions on these organs: (1) They are 
separate from the muscular system of the legs ; (2) they influence 
circulation ; (3) they are automatic. 


III. THe RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. 


Connected with the respiratory system of the Nepide there is 
a breathing apparatus, which is peculiar to this family of insects. 
This characteristic consists of an anal respiratory siphon formed 
by the apposition of the grooved faces of the caudal sete. Some 
aquatic larva have an analogous, though differently constructed 
breathing tube, which always disappears in the adult. The cau- 
dal setze of Belostoma and Perthostoma are comparatively short, 
but in Ranatra are conspicuous for their length. In breathing, 
these insects rise to the surface and thrust their respiratory siphon 
out of the water. At the bottom of this tube are two anal stig- 
Mata opening into the two main lateral trunks of the respiratory 
system, In the adult insect,the anal stigmata are the only open ones 
in the whole abdomen. In addition to these Nepa and Ranatra 
have, on the ventral surface of each of the third, fourth and fifth 
abdominal segment, two prominent stigmata, which are closed by 
à sieve-like membrane and, according to Gerstaecker, perform the 
functions of tracheary gills. 

In the adult Belostoma, the abdominal stigmata are so nearly 
obliterated that often their scars can be scarcely found with a lens; 

t the case is strikingly different in the larval forms, which have 


5X prominent stigmata on the last five ventral segments. The 


ist abdominal segment bears two pairs, and each of the four fol- 
Wing, 


one pair each. T noticed in some cases, a spot on the 
oe between the first abdominal segment and the meso- 
orax, which is, perhaps, an additional stigmata, though the work 
a this point is not very definite. The stigmata show a vestibule 
" cross section, and lie in a hairy track with their openings 

guarded by hairs. 
Tite chief external differences between the abdomen of the 
and of the adult Belostoma may be summed up as follows: 
ie m ventral surface is covered with rather coarse hairs, 
Surface smooth, the stigmata prominent and all open, 


360 Anatomy and Physiology of the Family Nepida. [i 


the sixth abdominal segment comparatively small, and the c 
setæ undeveloped. gis} 
Adult—The ventral surface is smooth, the dorsal surface pi 
cent, the stigmata totally obliterated, and the caudal sete 
oped. -A 
The tracheary branches are distributed to all the organs 
body, so that the chemical processes of respiration are 
throughout the body instead of at special points. From i 
stigmata,two main trunks extend along the abdomen on € 
of the heart, giving off and receiving branches which af 
among themselves. The large trunks are connected by 
of tubes running below the intestines. In the larva, 
from the spiracles join the main trunks, and in the adult, at 
obliteration of the spiracles, these branches are still foun 
attached to the integument. The distribution of trache® 
muscles and organs of the forward part of the body, 1s \ 
tiful; large branches extend into the legs and wings. 
mesothorax the nervous ganglion rests on a triangle of 
Here, too, connected with the trachea, are several air sacs, © 
are inflated before flight. The dorsal and ventral walls 
abdomen are connected by two vertical rows of muscles, 
are doubtless concerned in respiration. | 
Three kinds of trachea: are found in these insects: tM 
icular and parenchymatous. All the main trunks ane 
of the respiratory system are composed of tubular 
as shown by Minot, consists of an external nucleated 
with two internal layers, in one of which is bee 
thread that keeps the tube open. This spiral filamen! 
tinuous, but separate in each branch, and conte 
parallel pieces, each of which tapers to a point at 
and thus is lost. The vesicular trachea of the air 
differs from the tubular trachea, in lacking pe 
have made no study of the parenchymatous 
Dufour as occurring in Nepa. It consists, @ 
author, of several pouches covered by a fine, 
within which, minute tracheary branches a° Si 
pouches are situated in the thorax under the >m 
B. Tue Function oF REPRODYY 
The function of reproduction, which includes 
development, is here confined to generation: « 


PLATE XI. 


1884.| Anatomy and Physiology of the Family Nepide. 361 


brata so in the Insecta, two kinds of organs are concerned in this 
process, the mutual action of whose products upon each other, is 
usually necessary for the formation of new individuals. These 
organs are the male organs or testes, producing spermatozoa, and 
the female organs or ovaries, producing eggs. 


I. THe MALE GENERATIVE SYSTEM. 

The testes of the male Belostoma lie in the anterior portion of 
the abdominal cavity, on each side of the pyloric end of the 
stomach. They consist of a rounded body, which in reality is a 
membranous sac, mounted on a sort of receptacle composed of 
five pieces closely packed together. From each of these five 
pieces, arise spermiferous tubes which are much matted in the 
membranous sac. (Fig. 12.) The vas deferens, which leads back- 
ward from the testes, is thread-like for the first half of its course, 
and then enlarges into a tube, which joins with the one from the 
Opposite side to form the ductus ejaculatorius, which conducts the 
spermatic fluid to the organ of intromission. (Fig. 11.) This is 
ormed by two pieces, a pick-shaped structure above and a spoon- 
shaped one below it; both organs are situated on the genito-anal 
Prolongation, which corresponds to a dorsal and ventral part of a 
seventh abdominal segment. The prolongaticn is provided with 
copulatory hooks, which in the femiale are rudimentary. 

In Ranatra, the general arrangement of the generative appa- 


atus is the same, though in detail, somewhat different. The 


“permiferous tubules are confined in an elongated sac, which is 
much farther forward than in Belostoma, and the vas deferens, 
SE enlarging, is coiled several times upon itself before passing 
nto the ductus ejaculatorius (Fig. 10.) The coils are compact 
a: form a lenticular enlargement on the vas deferens, some- 
mes mistaken for the testes, 
Il. Tut FEMALE GENERATIVE SYSTEM. 

The Ovaries of the female consists of two series of five tubes 
Fads one on either side of the body. These terminate in the 
Ti where their small pointed ends are joined together by 

ma threads, which serve also to attach them in the thorax. 
mere ng outward they gradually grow larger until they all 
aay fhe calices, the tubes of which unite to form the vagina or 

ct. These organs vary greatly in size according to the sea- 


So) . ‘ ; z . 
n, Sometimes quite contracted,and sometimes so distended with 


362 Anatomy and Physiology of the Family Nepide. (April, 


eggs as to fill nearly the whole abdominal cavity. The tubes 
of the ovaries double upon themselves in the first segment of the 
abdomen, the flexure reaching back nearly to the third segment. 
(Fig. 14 2.) 

As already noted, the females of Perthostoma carry their eggs 
upon their backs until hatched, the young then escaping by 
means of a trap door at the top of the egg. The number ofeggs 
borne by any insect is variable ; I counted them in four individ- 
uals with the following results: 207, 185, 184, 183, and other 
females were dredged bearing less than half as many. The eggs 
of Ranatra and Nepa are crowned with sete, two on the eggs of 
Ranatra and six on those of Nepa, while the eggs of Belostom 
and Perthostoma have none. | 

The female generative organs of Ranatra lack the flexure that 
occurs in those of Belostoma, but in other respects are quite sim- 
ilar. Their chief differences may be seen on reference to Figs 
8 and 9, Plate x1, which are drawn on the same scale. 


C. Tue Function oF RELATION. 

To secure a just harmony in the activity of the differs ) 
of the body, a combining organ of some kind is necessary: © 
food must be adequate to meet the waste of the body. betwee? | 
gence to know when food is needed, and to discriminate ies | 
nutritious and innutritious food is essential ; rep Thee | 
regulated to supply enough oxygen, but not too prc at 
and all other processes of animal life must be sete eles f 
tion with each other, otherwise the organs woul >| 
This round of duties, which is performed by the ner fur f 


ee nstitutes the E 
and the muscles, over which it has control, mit ant fun A 
tion of relation, In some respects it is the m oe 


tion, since it directs all the others. 


I. Tue Nervous SYSTEM. 
shrewd 


The insects of this family are keen and heit pat 
their prey, and energetic in procuring 1t, eo weds onsi 
vous condition must be an active one. ieee ganglia have ° 
degree of cephalization, all the abdom! sth others 
vanced to the mesothorax, where they unite es ganglia 
a complex thoracic ganglion. The remaining $ called 
conglomerate masses, one below the eop me the 
cesophageal ganglion, and the other above, “°°” 


i 


1884.] Anatomy and Physiology of the Family Nepide. 363 


phageal ganglion, sometimes considered the brain. This brain 
consists of two “ cerebral lobes ” slightly overlapping, and sending 
two large commissures around the cesophagus to the infra-ceso- 
phageal ganglion. The optic lobes, which are somewhat pear- 
shaped, extend obliquely from the summit of the “ cerebral 
lobes ” toward the eyes, and give rise to the numerous fibers of 
the optic nerves, 

The cerebral ganglia send nerves to the antenna, and also 
send a small branch to the frontal ganglion. This ganglion is a 
small knot of nervous matter situated on the median line of the 
head, just in front of the cerebral ganglia. The frontal ganglion 
supplies the cesophagus anteriorly, with nerve filaments and pos- 
teriorly, by filaments from a main branch extending backward un- 
derneath the “cerebral lobes.” “The respiratory ganglia,” 
which I did not find, are described by Dr. Leidy as “ two small 
ganglia behind the brain, on each side of the cesophagus and 
connected with each other and with the ‘cerebrum’ by exceed- 
ingly delicate commissural filaments.” From each side of the 
infra-cesophageal ganglion a bunch of nerves originates, which 
sends branches to the muscles and the organs of the prothorax, 
and to the anterior legs. 

A double commissure connects the infra-cesophageal ganglion 
with the complex ganglion of the mesothorax. The latter gives 
off branches anteriorly, laterally and posteriorly. The anterior 
branches partly supply the prothorax ; the lateral branches sup- 
ply mainly the organs and muscles of the meso- and metathorax 
and the posterior legs; and the posterior branches, the muscles 
and organs of the abdomen (Fig. 17). 


II. ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 
Although there is good evidence of the existence of the spe- 
cial Senses among insects, considerable speculation exists con- 
cerning the location of all, except the sense of sight. 

Touch—In these insects the sense of touch through the integ- 
ument must. be very blunt, and the real organs of this sense 
Probably are the tactile hairs found on different parts of the 

> These hairs communicate with the terminations of the 
prii fibers beneath the integument. I have often been impressed 
pe the tufts of hair found at the extremity of the 

Nepi i ans to give it a delicate 
Sense of ey epide, are especial organs gi 


364 Anatomy and Physiology of the Family Nepide, (Apt 


Taste and Smell—The work on these insects as far as carried — 
out, furnishes no suggestion as to the location of the sensesol 
taste and smell, and, as far as my knowledge goes, their existence 
rests wholly on analogy. In some insects, as the Silphida,smel — 
is obviously present and directs them to their food; and tastes 
probable in insects possessing soft tongues. 

Hearing —Hearing i in the Insecta is usually located wak: 
mists in the antennæ. This is made very probable by investige | 
tions similar to those of Mayer, the physicist, on the mosquito. l 
This observer, by watching through the microscope the hairs oo 
a mosquito’s antenna, found that they responded by vibrations to a 
certain sounds that he produced; the hairs, being of different 
lengths, responded to several sets of vibrations, but pe | 
strongest to the note emitted by the female mosquito. 

Other experiments of a similar nature, and the fact skp iene , 
insects appear deaf when the antennæ are removed, add force t f 
the conclusion that they serve as organs of hearing. per 
sects, the Orthoptera, for instance, have special organs for i z 
reception of sound, either on the thorax or at the base of o l l 


terior legs. d t 
In the Nepidz, there are certain conditions in the i sei l 


the antennæ that seem to me favorable for the increase 
vibrations. The Belostoma and Perthostoma have each of 
antennæ enclosed in a vaulted cavity, which is suggestive 
resonance chamber. Each chamber extends into the eye 
it, and separates the fibers of the optic nerve into two 
and its opening below the eye is partly closed, so i 
_ toward the median line of the head, through which 
may be protruded or withdrawn. The antenne are 
with sensitive hairs (Fig. 18), which doubtless 


roughened surfaces come together. 

Sight—The Nepide have two prominent cont” 
on each side of the head, but no ocelli. They are 
nally by a modification of the integument, which ans! 
nea of the vertebrate eye. This is divided i 
hexagonal facets, underneath each of whi 


PLATE XII. 


OPTIC NERVES 


case Seecomect 
Darrer TEEPA 
Bry ie PEE 


ir 
Bary, 
Dorm, 


eye 


1884.] Anatomy and Physiology of the Family Nepide. 365 


cone with the apex directed backward. The filaments of the 
optic nerve are branched at their extremities (Fig. 15); each of 
these branches probably enters a cone. The theory of mosaic 
vision is so generally discussed that no repetition of it is needed 
ere. 

II. Tue Muscurar System. 


To bring an animal into true harmony with its surroundings, 
muscles are necessary to move the body from place to place, so 
that the animal may court agreeable, or favorable conditions, and 
shun disagreeable, or unfavorable conditions. 

No special study of the muscular system of the Nepide has 
been made, but a few points that incidentally appeared during 
dissection are mentioned. 

he most striking mass of muscular tissue is in the meta- and 
mesothorax, the muscles of which are mainly concerned in flight 
and in moving the limbs. The muscles of the legs are well de- 
veloped, and may be studied through the integument if it is scraped 
thin. The elevators and depressors of the beak, and the muscles 
of the beak bristles, are easily demonstrated in the head and in 
the prothorax. The respiratory muscles of the abdomen,and the 
muscles of the pharynx, have already been described. In many 
ame Special provisions for the attachment of muscles are pro- 
vided by means of chitinous processes and chitinous threads. 
The latter are very conspicuous in the prothorax of Ranatra and 
in the retractor muscles of the sete. The chitinous processes 
are found plentifully in the meso- and metathorax, and two prom- 
nent ones are borne on the back of the head. 
_ Conclusion —Even in this cursory view of the family Nepide, 
the adaptation of organism to function is often too obvious to 
Pe eg Notice. The influence of food and surroundings, the two 
a ‘mportant factors in modifying structure, is seen producing 
reat similarity of internal organs, under variable external form. 
The adaptive characters are also very apparent in the raptorial 

‘legs, the beak, the sucking pharynx, the respiratory siphon 
h n many other structures. The general principles of their 
Paysiology is the Same as that of the vertebrates. There is the 
aar conflict between waste and repair, the identical processes of 
Pet food into muscle and nerve, the same general chemistry 
__spiration, etc., etc. They are not endowed with mind, but 
Possess Sufficient nervous sense to meet their requirements, and, 


| 


366 Anatomy and Physiology of the Family Nepide. [April 


although built on a simpler plan, are as distinctly physiological 
machines as are all vertebrates. 


DESCRIPTION OF PLATES IX, X, XI, XII. 


Fic. 1.—Head of Belostoma aie seen from above, dissected so as to show the 
cephalic glands. In front is seen the beak with the sheath and bristles with- 
drawn, and the bristles aisd to the left. 

FIG. 2.—Side view of beak and portion of head of Perthostoma, with pumping appè- 
ratus and one cephalic ie attached. In this case the sheath extends into the 
beak, as is natural. The bristles are not show | 

Fic. 2 a4.—View from above of the cephalic gland gf adult Belostoma, x about 29 | 
diameters 

Fic. 3. Ligii apparatus of Ranatra (X ). The Malpighian tubes are repre- 
sented in part only, portions having been removed in dissecting. 


Fic, — of adult Belostoma (X 2), showing triangular muscles, the different 
bers of the heart and the afferent openings. Some of the muscular sE 
should be represented as crossing above the heart. Anterior to the muscles 


Fic. 5.—Digestive apparatus of Belostoma (X 2). The salivary ms 
ilium are represented as foo wide. Part of the Malpighian tubes were 
before the drawing was made. 

Fic. 6.—Portion of the head ot Belostoma with the sheath and the pumping te 
ratus attached (magnified at least twenty diameters). The cesophagus vet? 
pumping apparatus from the left. The oblique lines represent the tit 

reads for muscular attachments. 

Fic. 7.—Cross-section of the pumping apparatus (magnified as above). 


Fic. EA es generative apparatus, extended and spread, from & ae 

Belostoma (X 2). Compare with Fig. 14 @. eachovaty 

Fic. oi Faulk generative apparatus of Ranatra (X 3). Three a 
in sight. Below is seen the caecum and a part of the intestine | 


ight. 
Fic. 10.—Male generative apparatus of Ranatra (X 3)- 
elo 


enlarges : 
ejaculatorius. 5 y l ot Det 


Fic. 11.—Male of intromission, Belostoma, consi 
with the camera lucida. 
Fic, 12.--Male generative apparatus of Belostoma (X 2). Menr e 
in, showing tubes within; on the left the sac is removed 
as in Fig. 10, Vas deferens not > d 
Fic. 13.—-Side view of genito-anal prolongation, one seta is 
elevated to the rigkt. On the ae ” the genital sr prolngsion 
latory hook, eo 
Fic. 14.—Genito-anal prolongation and caudal set, front view. 


1884. ] Topographical Phenomena in Indiana. 367 


Fic. 14¢—Female generative apparatus of Belostoma (X }), showing the flexure 
of the ovaries and immature ova in their upper part. 

Fic. 15.—Portion of brain and optic nerves of Belostoma, to show the branching at 
the extremities of the optic nerves. 

Fic. 16.—Cross-section of head of Belostoma from above, to show the auditory 
chambers and parts of the enclosed antennæ. 

Fic. 17. Nervous system of Ranatra (X 4). The branching of the nerves in the 
abdomen partly diagrammatic. 

Fic. 18.—Antenne of Belostoma. 

Fic. 19.—Antennz of Perthostoma, 

Fic. 20,—Antennz of Ranatra. The last three figures from camera lucida sketches, 

Fic. 21.—Cross-section of pumping apparatus, showing how the muscles are attached 
to the chitinous threads, and how they divide into two sheets as they pass up- 
wards, 


:0: 
TOPOGRAPHICAL PHENOMENA IN INDIANA. 
BY JOHN T. CAMPBELL. 


sete fifteen years ago I was engaged in helping to make 

several surveys in Western Indiana and Eastern Illinois for 
railroad purposes. In such work one is apt to notice topography 
sharply. While thus employed I observed that the hills along 
all the east-west flowing streams on the up or table-lands 
Were steep and abrupt facing northward, and on the opposite side, 
facing southward, they were gentle slopes. This was true 
throughout the glacial drift region. As the streams in nearing 

e Wabash river wore down below the drift, the slopes reversed, 
and the steepest hills faced the south, but the difference in slope 
'$ not nearly so noti¢eable as the opposite in the drift. 

At the time I first observed this peculiarity of slope, I had read 
no work on geology, and had but a very limited idea of dynami- 
cal geology, derived from a meager recollection of a few lectures 
on the subject, heard several years before. I supposed these phe- 
nomena were not only observed and described, but accounted for. 
In my subsequent reading on the subjects which ought to cover 
_ “us, T have been nota little surprised to find that these facts have 

-n ily not been accounted for, but not observed. After my 
a > to find it where I expected, I inquired of men eminent for 
ras knowledge of such subjects as should include this, and have 
that not one out of nine seemed to have observed or heard 

iten Om d a doubt of the ex- 
oi a — Erom several even expressed a 
my subsequent readings and inquiries, I have greatly 


368 Topographical Phenomena in Indiana. 


extended my observations and investigations of the subject, and 
confidently believe that I am offering something new in what fol- 
lows for the consideration of the scientist and philosopher. 

In the month of May, 1881, I was employed on a railroad sur- 
vey from Indianapolis, Indiana, to a point on the Ohio river. 
Nearly all this time was spent in preliminary lines in Brown 
county, about fifty miles south of Indianapolis, to find a practica | 
ble line across the several high ridges running east and west 
across this county. These ridges, according to Dr. John Collett, 
State geologist, headed off the glacial drift from this place. Cer — 
tain it is there is no glacial drift south of the first or most noti: 
ern ridge, though both east and west of these ridges the drift ex- 
tends nearly to the Ohio river, and beyond it on the east side of 
the State. These hills or ridges look like small mountains bit 
they are only hills, there being no upheavals. The strata can% — 
traced through all the ridges. These hills are composed almos 
entirely of Waverly sandstone, or knob-stone, as Indiana geolo- | 
gists call it. Valleys have been eroded over 400 feet deep, by i 
small west flowing streams. The stone dissolves easily on eS) 
sure to the weather, hence the great amount of erosion by the 
small streams, much greater than the same water-shed shows ® l 
any other part of the State. 

In this region the steep hills face the south, though the difer 
ence between opposite slopes is not half so great as 1M the 
regions to the north. Lg 

In the glacial drift region, especially on the high or ie $ 
where the stream valleys are shallow, the east-west E 
streams lay up close against the foot of the hills on pov ie 
side, and these hills are often as steep as a pr ecipice, while de 
north side (facing southward) they are often not over TE 
grees from a horizontal. h-facing pilisi 


north-facing hills, or on the steeper east and 

In Brown county, before mentioned, I could not 
difference in the lean of the trees on the hillsides. ; 
these east-west ridges is composed of the deco pillsides 
before mentioned, and is very thin, especially 08 me facing 
this region the streams wash against the north ener r 
ward) noticeably more than the south side (facing E — — 


1884.] Topographical Phenomena in Indiana. 369 


reverse of what is so plainly seen in the glacial drift region a few 
miles to the north. 

Another fact of much importance, and quite as striking as the 
slope of the hills, is that in the large creek and the river bottoms 
the trees lean down stream, regardless of direction; that is to 
say, they lean in the direction of the flow of the water which de- 
posited the ground on which they stand. In every case I have 
examined (I think several hundred), wherever the trees lean up 
the general course of the stream, there is found the trace of an 
ancient bend of the channel, turning back up itself for a short 
distance and abandoned on account of a subsequent cut-off. This 
tendency of the trees to lean down stream (where the flood de- 
posit is six feet or more) is the same in the drift region and south 
of it where I have observed, and I presume it is in obedience to 
a law that is general over the world. At the upper end of the 
bottoms, where the deposit is old, the leaning tendency decreases, 
and is greatest at the lower end in the most recent deposits. 

In this age it is not easy or comfortable to merely accept these 
facts and ask no questions. This problem-solving age wi ask, 
What law is at work that makes all the north-facing hills from, 
Indianapolis west to the State line steep, and the south-facing 
gentle, while in Brown and the east part of Monroe counties, the 
steep hills face southward and the more gentle northward? The 
same clouds have rained on both localities; the same cold winds 
have frozen, and the same sun and warm winds have thawed both 
localities. The weather effects on topography would not change 
in the short space of ten miles; but we find a change as soon as 

we pass south of the southern terminus of the drift. 

l offer an explanation of these phenomena for consideration 
ey criticism, but wish to say here, that being aware of my lim- 
ited knowledge on such subjects, I have submitted my facts and 
: Med to as Many eminent geologists as I could reach, and sought 
x. Pinions. All have signified that this feature of the subject 
J eyi Several have strongly denied my deductions; others 
eA ag the facts, while still others have given an agnostic 


. 


eir heads—“ We don’t know.” None have offered a 
Be explanation, and my diligent search has found nothing to 
Tak, nct my theory. As I have no scientific reputation to lose, 
- Fin — the little elephant that tries the depth and swift- 


24 


370 Topographical Phenomena in Indiana. [April 


The explanation I would suggest is, that sedimentary de- 
posits from running water have always a tendency to move or 
slide in the direction of the flow of the water making the deposit, 
and this sliding tendency is in proportion to the swiftness of the 
water. 

I assume that if a trench should be cut across the flood plain 
of a river at right angles to the current that made the deposit, 
and as deep as the bed of the river, the up-stream side would in 
no long time assume a slope of low inclination, while the dowi- 
stream side would remain steep, and drop down in falls whenevèr 
any change should take place. 

Big Raccoon creek, a stream 200 feet wide, enters the Wabash 
river from the east in this (Parke) county, and flows westward 
across the Wabash bottoms for one and a half miles. The banks : 
are twelve to twenty feet high, and those on the up-stream side 
(of the Wabash current) are easy slopes which a foot-man @t 
easily descend to the water’s edge, while all the way acros 


: 
| 


ward), is like acontinuous precipice. The trees growing = 
the north bank stand from the top of the bank well down to i 
water’s edge, lean down hill from ten to forty degrees, 
the south side they stand erect till so far undermined that 
fall into the stream. The current persistently beats eee 
left or south bank all the way across the Wabash bottom, the l 
as in the upland drift. ] 
In this country the roads are mostly laid on th 
causing nearly all of them to run due north, south, €a 
This takes them over ridges and down and up steep 
ing deep cuts and heavy fills. These cuts, where they 
the glacial drift deposit, show the same condition ge 
banks before mentioned, the south-facing side of the cu 
f ; rs at each 

gentlest slope. The water flowing down the gutters 4 
of the roadway bear most against the south bank sage 


The north bank (facing southward) shows much the ol 

ide down like 5? 

side drop 
J have 


e section lis 
an 


ticed that the little blocks or cubes into which a in the 
arates in time of drought, have a dip south 
their “season cracks,” as we may call if. 


1884. ] Topographical Phenomena in Indiana. 371 


rains the water percolates through these cracks, rendering the 
cubes soft and slimy, and aiding the plastic slide in the direction 
of the dip of the cube cracks—southward. 

In support of the theory I advance—well, call it speculation— 
I submit the following facts: -If a lump of putty, say twenty-five 
pounds, with a consistency that would maintain its shape, should 
have a number of small sticks or common matches stuck into it 
in an erect position, as shown by the dotted line in Fig. 1, these 
would represent trees growing on a hillside. If one side of this 
putty should be exposed to the heat of the sun or a fire, its con- 
sistency would be reduced and it would slide as shown by the 
solid line in Fig. 1, and the matches (trees) would lean down hill. 


Fic. I. 

‘ The trees always grow vertical unless inclined by some exte- 
Nor force. On hillsides we find the young trees growing verti- 
cally, inclining down hill with age, the oldest inclining most. 
Without doubt the old trees started in life with good intentions, 
and tried to grow with the plumb line. When a tree is suddenly 
inclined as much as forty-five degrees, it will send out saplings 
from the upper side of its trunk. See tree 4 in Fig. 2, which 
figure illustrates the different slope of north and south-facing hills 
in the glacial drift, and the lean of the trees thereon. 

_ Fig. 3 shows the profile of a railroad survey north and south, 
ma crossing east or west streams and ravines in the drift 

Fi 


et 4 shows the lean the trees would take at the bends 


Pha bottom as indicated by the arrows, and the slope of the 


wie north and south side of east and west flowing streams 
Tavines in the drift region. _ 


372 Topographical Phenomena in Indiana, [April 
As proof that the slope of the hills is not due to the surface 


Sets — 
p ‘ "a 
~~ a ann 
TY ms 
B= 
£ Aas 
ex) 
i ee 
EA a A 
PN è * 
SEA Y Py i 
RPH > 
; É] 
» " 
VA SA 
SX » 
A 
a 
oH 
y% 
yi ~y : 
N 
AR 
3 ¢ 


washing, or action of frost, we find the roots of the of the B® l 
about equally exposed at the top, side and foot l 


1884.] Topographical Phenomena in Indiana. 373 


whereas, if it was a surface movement, the roots would become 
bare at the hill top, and covered at the hill’s foot, as shown in 
Fig. 5. 

Where this is the case, as it sometimes is, the dotted line rep- 
resents the surface when the trees began life, and the solid line 
the surface after rain washings. 


Fic. 4. 
ue hen explanation of the less inclined south-facing hill in 
© drift is apt to be the lateral push of freezing. That the sun 


hawing out the south-facing hill so much oftener than the oppo- 
Site, to be refrozen, gi : 


= be no sunshine. These will affect both hills alike; beside the 
both Part of every thaw comes from beneath and would affect 
Pee alike, - T have seen. too much power attributed to the 


374 Topographical Phenomena tn Indiana. [April, 


lateral push of freezing. A careful analysis of its process will 
show that it can have but little lateral push on level, or even much 


FIG. 5. 


on inclined ground, The first freeze is a thin crust on top, n 
thicker than paper (and about as powerless as paper), d 
thickens downward as the freeze goes on. The next oaee 
freeze below adds nothing to the lateral force of the m 
does the next, and the next. The only force freezing a E 
the ground is an uplift. There are no cracks in frozen oul 
we find in thick ice, which clearly shows that the vey ot 
fact of much lateral expansion in the under freeze of ice “ae | 
apply at all to frozen ground. Cellar and other walls ee . 
pushed in by freezing for the plainest reason. The freeze of 
on the face of the wall, extends back through it to the ground q 

that the uplift, a 4 in Fig. 6, becomes a side push, 4 £. E 


os & 
Tera 
iF rit ree 
SSS 
pa, eae z 
—— OSS 
Fic, 6. 
. . i a 
This inpush from a freeze never occurs Wh 


warm, but the retain or guard wall of an outside > ay salle 
other outdoor walls, are often thus pushed. eon 


that the different slopes of the north and south 


375 


Tudiana. 


Topographical Phenomena in 


1884. | 


= 

= 

ov 

ohn 

+ 

t=) 

(2) 

on 

S 

5 

v) 

ia] 

> 

v 

g 

z> 

5 

an * 
on 

2s 
N 

w 

=] 

Ze 


men, who all 


> oe eavet ve 7% 


nquiry of railroad section 


j 


-west railroad embankment 


than the south side ; but the 


Ml me that the 


cast. 


omenon as the hills. As they 


north side of an east 


during rains and slides more 
West cuts show the same phen 


376 Topographical Phenomena in Indiana. [April 


are constantly repaired the passer-by cannot see the natural efied, 
but section men say that the ditch on the north side of the cut 
fills much oftener than the other. Why does a railroad embank- 
ment slide one way, while the cut out of which it was taken slides 
the other? Because they were built by different processes. 

Farmers in this country know that when they thresh their grain 
and stack the straw by carrying it forward from the thresher and 
throwing it over the forward or outer end of the stack, it will 
continue for months to slide in that direction, though it would be 
hard to detect the oblique stratification in the build of the stack. 

If a railroad embankment should be built across a valley, wit 
excavations from the adjacent hill carried and poured over the 
forward end of the embankment till completed, it would be in fact 
as it appears in Fig. 7, except that the eye could not detect the 
oblique stratification unless it was due to a change in the color of 
quality of the earth. 

If, after this bank had become well settled, a “ was 
occur, carrying away the culvert, ¿c Fig. 7, it woul 
walls standing, as shown in Fig. 8. 

The earth is obtained from an excavation at t 
to the right, so that the oblique stratification will dip to 
as shown in Figs. 7 and 8. The bank on the right side of 
“washout” would have to break across the line of the Dr : 
stratification, hence it would project, or “ overhang,” pak | 
pice, while the opposite side ‘vould break more with these | 
would be inclined to slope, as illustrated in Fig. 8. T 
I Id break at 
n the course of a year or so the right bank woul reeptl 
drop down in falls, and the left would gradually and 1mpe ; 
slide like soft putty, and form a slope as shown in Fig. 9 ond of 

Where a bank is built by pouring the earth ovef i 
side, it will continue to slide in that direction long < Thi 
think every engineer of much experience will agree to a the 
bank, as shown in Fig. 9, shows the same condition We © de repre” 
north and south-facing hills in the drift region, the lets 
. senting the south-facing hill. 

Flood plains, or bottoms of streams are de . : 
The bars at their up-stream ends are level with lo "own st 
even extend up stream under the water, while at ne nd, 3 pate 
end they are elevated as high as the older bottom BET 


. 


which they ultimately become. The swiftest curt 


hout” should 
d leave tW? 


he left and carried 
p to the right | 


377 


Topographical Phenomena in Indiana. 


1884. ] 


upper end of these bars, consequently only the heaviest pebbles 


7) 


Sia / / 


Fic. 9. 


AN 


f 


FIG, 10. 


there; the next heaviest being dropped next farther 
and so on to the lower end where the bars always termi- 


are 


ova, ands 


378 Topographical Phenomena in Indiana: [April, 


nate in fine sand, with a pour over the end as shown in the rail- 
road embankment in Figs. 7 and 8, and more definitely in Fig, 10. 
In Fig. 10 the dotted line, a 4, shows the longitudinal section 
of the bar, as left by the last preceding flood. The line, a7, 
shows it as left by the next succeeding flood, and the lines a" 4” 
and a’” 6’ show the conditions after still later floods. Hence — 
bars and bottoms are always building down stream and being 
worn away at their up-stream ends. While they are, in fact d- 
posited in an oblique order, it is rarely that the eye can detect it 
in a longitudinal section of the bottom. | 
A bottom built in this order would be expected to have a sliding : 
tendency like the straw stacks and railroad banks before men- 
tioned. The fact that the trees which grow thickly over the bar 


duce the result we see. The trees do not get their ~ ar | 
from the pressure of the floods. These bottom e Besi 
idly, and in ten years are able to withstand the epee pidi | 
the current is always weak at the lower end of thé a edine 
generally prevail there, otherwise there would be 29 i 
dropped. 

When a growing tree is bent or inclined, it 


are te E 


1884. ] Renumeration of the Spinal Nerves, etc. 379 


grow vertical from that time (and point) upward, and at maturity 
shows the curve and tangent as in Fig. 11. 

Nearly all the trees growing on the down-stream end of bot- 
toms, show the lean as in Fig. 11, and some show the bend at the 
bottom. The young trees, at ten years, show very little inclina- 
tion as compared with the grown and old ones. 

I saw a case in the north-east part of Brown county, before 
inentioned, on the south side of Jesse Walker’s farm (section, 
township and range forgotten), where a “worm” rail fence had 
been built on the south boundary line across the bottom of a 
small stream or brook, the bottom not over 300 feet across. The 
fence had been built straight, and about eight rails high. The 
sediment carried from the fields on the adjacent hills during rains, 
was caught by the grass and so silted up that the bottom rails 
Were submerged. The proprietor kept adding rails to the top as 
fast as they were submerged at the bottom, so as to keep-the 
necessary height of fence. This continued about fifteen years, 
when the original eight rails had been entirely covered or sub- 
merged, when it was noticed that the fence had been swayed 
down stream about four to five feet from the original straight line. 
The sedimentary deposit had certainly moved like a glacier. 
This coincides with the other facts before stated. 

In conclusion, the drift was deposited here by the waters from 
a receding glacier. The general course of the flow, as indicated 
by the striations, was about south 1 5° to 18° west. If my theory 
‘S correct, the tendency of the deposit of the drift would be to 
slide southward. I do not wish to be understood as confidently 
affirming the correctness of my theory, but that the slope of the 
hills, the lean of the trees on south-facing hills, taken in connec- 
tion with the other facts I have cited, strongly suggest my theory 
às the explanation of the facts. If this theory does not explain 
the Phenomena, what other does? Are there any well-established 
facts which contradict this theory? If so—what ? 


A’, 
Ve 


RENUMERATION OF THE SPINAL NERVES AND 
RECONSTRUCTION OF THE PLEXUSES 
IN THE HUMAN SUBJECT. 


BY DR. ELLIOTT COUES. 


THERE being a pair of spinal nerves to each vertebral inter- 


Space down to the coccyx, and the pair counted first being 


380 Renumeration of the Spinal Nerves and Reconstruction { April, 


above the first cervical vertebra (between atlas and occiput), it ob 
viously follows that the seventh cervical pair is above the seventh 
cervical vertebra. There being but seven cervical vertebra, 
“eight cervical nerves ” cannot properly be said. For the newe 
enumerated and known as “eighth cervical,” issuing as it does 
above the first dorsal vertebra, is actually first dorsal, according 
to the count we start with. 

If we agree in the beginning to number and name spinal nerves 
by the number and name of the vertebra next delow each one ol 
them, then to reckon eight cervical nerves to seven cervical vèr 
tebrz sets the whole series of succeeding nerves wrong by ee 
The irregularity is obvious, requiring no comment; but how t 
was brought about is not explained in the ordinary text-books, ) 
and the student learns the plexuses with difficulty, instead of with . 
the ease with which he can be taught to know them if the nerv 
which enter into their composition be counted correctly. Sufi- 
ciently complicated as it is at best, the matter may nevertheless — 
be much simplified by a fair count. : ! 

The case affords a curious instance of survival of the unfittes 
—a singular oversight of early anatomists having been perpet 
uated to the present day, and become ingrained in the est 
numbering and naming of the spinal nerves as grouped poi 
vical, dorsal, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal sets. It arose cet 
way: When the cranial and spinal nerves were num : ‘ak ] 
true first spinal (suboccipital, between occiput and gr je | 
reckoned a cranial nerve; then that one which issues st 2 
atlas (between atlas and axis) of course became “ first one 
and succeeding ones were numbered consecutively, per d 
which issues Je/ow the seventh cervical vertebra being yee . 
“seventh cervical.” Next, when the cranial nerves p: a a 
the suboccipital was correctly excluded from the par servic l 
included in the spinal series, being added of course to: ae 
nerves. Thus there then came to be “ eight cer vical ‘ But 1 
the same lower limit of the “cervical” series was " peing ea ] 
their collective number and their respective numbers ee Mee 
raised by one nerve, it was as if their respective ag 
each dropped down one vertebra; so that, for example, W 
before been seventh and last cervical nerve became then 
and last (between last cervical and first dorsal as 
Strangely enough, however, the other spinal nerves 


left 


1884.] of the Plexuses in the Human Subject. 381 


they had been before, the renumeration required to shift the sev- 
eral sets into proper position not having been made. Hence 
arose that irregularity which has doubtless tried the wits of many 
a student, puzzled to discover how there can be reckoned eight 
cervical nerves to sevez cervical vertebre, though there is one 
nerve apiece to the dorsal, lumbar and sacral vertebra, and yet 
no break in the whole series ; how it can be that the first cervi- 
cal nerve issues adove the first cervical vertebra, yet the last cer- 
cal nerve issues de/ow the last cervical vertebra; how it can be a 
second cervical nerve which issues between the first and second 
cervical vertebrae, yet a “ first dorsal” which issues between the 
first and second dorsal vertebre; and so forth. There is evi- 
dently something wrong about this; yet it has become so tho- 
roughly ingrained in our nomenclature and descriptions of these 
nerves, that a very poor piece of arithmetic somehow looks like 
a necessary anatomical fact. 

The required correction is self-evident, and wrong numbering 
is very easily rectified. To make the count straight we have only 
to do for the dorsal, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal nerves what 
was done for the cervical when the suboccipital was added to that 
series—drop them all down one vertebra or, what is the same 
thing, raise them all up one number.! Just as what had been in 
the first place first cervical nerve has now become second cervical, 
and what had been seventh cervical nerve became eighth cervical ; 
šo now, what has hitherto been eighth cervical nerve (8th of the 
whole series) becomes first dorsal; what has been twelfth dorsal 
(20th of the whole series) becomes first lumbar; what has been 
fifth lumbar (25th of the whole series) becomes first sacral; what 
has been fifth sacral (30th of the whole series) becomes first 
Soccygeal, and what has been first and last coccygeal (31st 
of the Series) becomes second and last coccygeal (see table 
at end). Of course neither the total of the spinal nerves 
(31), nor the several sums of the sets of dorsals (12), lum- 
bars (5) and sacrals (5) is altered; but there are seven instead 
of eight to be reckoned cervicals, and two coccygeals instead of 
one; and the boundaries of each of the sets shifts up one verte- 
bra. By this simple rectification every spinal nerve is regularly 
Numbered and named by the vertebra above which it issues (since 


1 ear ere 
A nerve Ìs raised numerically when, z. g., a sixth becomes a seventh ; but it is then 
lowered in position 


382 Renumeration of the Spinal Nerves and Reconstruction (Apel, 


we begin that way), instead of being reckoned irregularly, some 
times by the vertebra above it, sometimes by the vertebra below 
it; and the sets of nerves are all brought into uniform relation 
-with the sets of vertebra, from occiput down to coccyx. The 
difference between the reckoning hitherto in vogue and that now 
proposed may be easily brought to the eye. In the following ex- 
amples of old and new styles the letters are the vertebra, tht 

lower figures being their own numbers, but the upper figures att | 
the numbers of the nerves; thus êd, is first dorsal vertebra ani 
so-called eighth cervical nerve. It will be seen that in the fist 
row no numbers correspond with those of vertebre after “oy, and 
that in the second row all the numbers correspond as longa 
nerves hold out. It will also be seen that the lumbar and sacral 


brings these plexuses into order with their respective V 
{the composition of plexuses being of course the same im 
case): 


Gan 


cv. plex. brach. plex. intercostal nerves. 


AR TE pa eaan P oe fs eves g 
8, 9d. d, ba 9 
Old sty le— c], Ca, Cg Cg Cg Cg Cy ; 8d Md g,2dq,°dy,4d,,Pdg,ody,"dg, dy» ae 
| 9q_ 10, 7. q 
New style—tc, 2cy,8es,4¢4,5c5,%cg,"Cy 5 1d, Pdydytdp'dy "byt te e | 
YL ~- D Noni a 


cv. plex. __ brach. plex. intercostal nerves. 


lumb. plex. sacr. plex. 

a ; ba, Masih, Bey) CCa? C4. 
1 71,,31541,°1, 5 Is, ,255,3s5,45,,555 5 16, 2C5,%Cs,%C,. 
ee 3 
lumb. plex. sacr. plex. i ho 
It is incumbent upon one who proposes inovatia A 
good reason for interfering with established usages- RU oy 
ent case it will be found, on sufficient examination, that 1% bt 
is the numeration of the spinal nerves properly reg b 
the several sets of nerves coincide with the sets of ach mort 
also that the construction of the plexuses may be-t 
easily appreciated and much more simply descr ibed ae he 
fore this rectification is made. Moreover, without ¢ “the [a 

recognized limits and composition of the plexuses m st! 
particular, we make them seem much more natura"? > 
by simply correcting the numeration of their resp 
Furthermore, the proposed rectification is ea 
other animals than man; and in these it is highly 


ag 


. 


et ae EERON 


3 
a 


1884. | of the Flexuses in the Human Subject. 383 


have some fixed method of counting nerves, especially those 
which compose plexuses, with reference to their distribution in 
cervical, dorsal and other sets. If we agree to know and name 
any spinal nerve dy the vertebra above which it issues, we can 
hardly go astray. 

The principal points touching the plexuses of the human sub- 
ject may be noted in comparing the old with the new style. 

1. The cervical plexus is not affected (first four cervical 
nerves). 

2. The brachial plexus falls between the cervical and dorsal 
sets of nerves in either case, but there is a distinction in favor of 
the new numeration. The plexus is said to be formed by the 
last four cervical (5th—-8th) and first (1st) dorsal nerves ; and it is 
said that three of the cervical (5th-7th) unite to form the upper 
cord, while the last (8th) cervical and first (rst) dorsal unite to 
form the lower cord. I should say that the brachial plexus is 
formed by the last three (sth-7th) cervicals and first two ( rst-2d) 
dorsals, the former uniting in one cord, the latter in another. 
Thus the remarkable partition of the brachial plexus into two 
cords, which extend to the axilla, coincides with its derivation 
from the two sets of nerves; and further details, such as the 
union of the two dorsals as soon as they leave their respective 
foramina, show that the division of the two sets of nerves here 
made is the natural one. 

3. The so-called last (12th) dorsal or intercostal nerve (that 
‘ssuing between the last dorsal and first lumbar vertebra) is gen- 
erally noted in the text-books for various peculiarities which 
relate it to the lumbar series, besides its actual connection with 
the latter, This nerve is really first (1st) lumbar. The lumbar 
xus IS variously described as consisting of the last dorsal (12th) 
and four (Ist-4th) or five lumbar nerves (1st-5th), according to 
Whether or not its sacral connection is taken into account. I 
eo Say simply that the lumbar plexus is formed by the 
umbar nerves proper (1st-sth), with communicating loop to 
ell Sacral: plexus, Matters are here greatly simplified by the 
numeration, It is well to remember that a% contiguous plex- 
oes a communicating loop, both above and below; thus 
the Io oS between the cervical and brachial, and one between 
mbar and sacral; but such loops separate plexuses as well 


. 


384 Renumeration of the Spinal Nerves, ete. [ April, 


4. Another good effect of the renumeration is, that the great 
nerve called fifth lumbar, issuing between the last lumbar and 
first sacral vertebræ, and so remarkably distinguished from the 
rest in size and disposition that is already known as the “ lum- 
bo-sacral cord,” is taken out of the lumbar series altogether and 
put where it belongs, in the sacral series, as first sacral. The 
sacral plexus is commonly said to be formed by the lumbo-sacral 
cord (5th lumbar) and the four upper sacral nerves (tst-4th) 
which issue from the completed anterior sacral foramina, or by 
these and the next nerve below. I should say simply that the 
sacral plexus is formed by the five (1st-5th) sacral nerves proper 
There is of course the loop of communication with the lumbar, 
as above said, and there is also connection with the coccygeal 
nerve or nerves ; but these are not to be taken into account in 
defining the plexus. The natural division of this very large but 
comparatively simple plexus is not into a lumbo-sacral cord (Ist 
sacral) and four (2d—sth) sacral nerves, but into the four as 
upper nerves (1st-4th sacral proper) and the much smaller (5t) 
sacral one. 


5. The remaining very diminutive nerves are connected re , 
the preceding. There being no inter-coccygeal foramina, | 
are obliged to appear together between the sacrum and coccy® | 
Nor are they constant in appearing. It is scarcely ma! 
whether we consider them merely tributary to the eee 
plexus, or together forming a little coccygeal plex a : 
it is customary to take them into the sacral plexus, 1 
this great plexus is made up of four large coras ae e point Ë 
ones, and a single coccygeal is left alone. The chief and 
here, that any nerve or nerves issuing between the wer and 
coccyx must be coccygeal, whether there be one or WoT . 
whatever disposition be made of it or them. spoke 

To strip the subject of verbiage as far as possible, : ee yndet 4 
of the plexuses as formed by the nerves. It is of COUN ae 
stood that I mean their anterior branches in every i 


Se NO ES er Ny ee ee ee 


are 
communications between posterior branches of spina’ the 
not generally treated as plexuses, unless it be those aie ad 
1st-3d cervicals, which some writers formally recogni “ crasil 
name. The same may be said of connections Nora ay É 
and spinal nerves, as that of the hypoglossal ~~ ate 
the sympathetic plexuses here brought into qu 


estion. 


1884.] Progress of N. A. Invertebrate Paleontology for 1883. 385 


It remains to formally tabulate the renumeration of spinal 
nerves and the reconstruction of the plexuses which I recom- 
mend for adoption : 


OLD STYLE. 


Plexus, Cervical 
[Four] 


Intercostals } 
[Ten] 


Plexus, Lumbar 
ive 


[Five] 
[Lumbo 


4 Sacral 


‘ 
f 
1 
: 


sacral 
cord] 


Prepared 


N. Cervical First. 1| 
* & Second. 2| 
? x hir 3 
+ (f - Fourth: 4 
7 dg Fifth. 5 
veic Sixth. 6 
n “ Seventh. 7 
m “« Eighth. 8 
N. Dorsal First. 9 
gd as co 10 
sd AUNA Oe 
H w Fourth. -rs 
es p Fifth. 13 
s m Sixth. 14 
ig " Seventh. 15 
y oe ighth. 16| 
= os Menthe £7 
= “ee Tenth. 18 
os “ Eleventh. 19 


a “« Twelfth. 20/20. First Lumbar N, 
N. Lumbar First. 21 Second “ E 
kg y cond. 22| 22. m s - 
tis cent Ry eS re 05 
Ao on a Romthoag] 34. Pifh | tron 
eeta sec EFifth, 25125, First Sacral N. 
N. Sacral First. 26| 26. Second : 
Mee neend 27 ar Tad S S 
K crs Third. 28128. Font zi . 
ng “ Fourth. 29 | 29. Fifth e Hi 
n . Fifth. 30 | 30. First Coccyg. N. 
N. Coccyg. First. 31 | 31. Second “ A 


N N w e o e y y y e e 
ea ae a aa Soe Bah a 
n ae 


New STYLE. 


First Cervical N. 
Second * “ 

1 ir “ “ 
Fourth “ “ 
Fifth u ie 


. Eleventh “ ex 


Twelfth “ hin 


„At 
. 


BY J. B. MARCOU. 


Cervical Plexus 
[Four] 
[upper 
cord] 
hial 


Brachi 
[lower Plexus 
} cord] [Five] 


_ Intercostals. 
[Ten] 


larg 
Sacral 
Plexus 
small [Five] 


A REVIEW OF THE PROGRESS OF NORTH AMERI- 
CAN INVERTEBRATE PALAZZONTOLOGY FOR 1883. 


I HAVE taken up the task of preparing this brief review at the 
_ Fequest of Dr. C A. White, who, for several years past, has 
laws fies Similar one, but whose numerous avocations do not 
aot ‘Sufficient time for continuing his publication of such a review. 
ring the latter part of the year invertebrate palzontology 
YOL, xvin. —wo. ry. 


25 


386 A Review of the Progress of North American  [April, 


has lost two of its most eminent students, Professor Oswald Heer, 
of Zurich, whose descriptions of the cretaceous dicotyledons of 
Nebraska and of the arctic flora, assure him a prominent place 
among the pioneers of American paleontology ; and Mr. Joachim 
Barrande, whose publications of a number of our -older fossils 
also entitle him to a prominent place in the history of the progress 
of North American palzontology. 

At the meeting of the American Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science for 1883, a number of paleontological papers 
were read, of which brief notices appeared in Science, Vol. 1, No. 
31. Professor James Hall read a paper entitled “ Preliminary not 
on the microscopic shell structure of the paleozoic Brachiopoda” 
Professor J. W. Dawson read a paper on “ Rhizocarps in the paleo 
zoic period.” Mr. E. W. Claypole read a paper on “ Rensellaeria 
and a fossil fish from the Hamilton group of Pennsylvania,” be 
also read a paper on “A large crustacean from the Catskill grou? 
of Pennsylvania.” 

H. Booth, in the American Journal of Science, for Novembet 
has a note on the “ Discovery of Utica slate Graptolites on the 
west side of the Hudson.” ished 7 

S. Calvin, in the Amer. Journ. of Science, for June, publ i 
an article “On the fauna found at Lime creek, Iowa, and a l 
lation to other geological faunas.” In this article he points ws l 
a few errors made by Professor. H. S. Williams, in the Amer. oe 
of Science, for February, on “ The fauna at the base of the S 
mung group, in New York.” Mr. Calvin, while admitting oe | 
similarity of the Lime creek fauna with that of High Point : 
considers their equivalency very doubtful. er 

John M. Clarke, i in she ne Journ. of Science, for ae | 
published a paper on “ New discoveries in Devonian ¢ i: wi 

E. W. Claypole, in the AMERICAN NATURALIST, ye ‘ao 3 
3, published a paper “ On the occurrence of fossiliferous 5“ a 
the lower Ponent (Catskill) group of Middle Pennsy cat | 

J. W. Dawson, in the Canadian Naturalist and Qua 
nal of Science, Vol. x, New Series, No. 7, has a “ 
notice of new fossils from the Lower Carboniferous ° 5 t 
Nova Scotia and Newfoundland,” in which there 
of six new species from Nova Scotia, and of w 
foundland. In No. 8, of the same paper, Pr 
a “ Notice of graptolites of the Quebec group, 
James Richardson for the Peter Redpath museum.” 


1884.] Invertebrate Paleontology for 1883. 387 


of the Royal Soc. Canada, on May 23d, 1883, he presented a 
paper on the “Cretaceous and tertiary floras of British Columbia, 
and the Northwest territory,” illustrated by eight quarto plates ; 
he mentions the occurrence of a few plants from the Ft. Pierre 
group, which are apparently different from a flora found in the 
same group on the Upper Missouri by Mr. Lester F. Ward in 
1883, and yet unpublished. 

Walter F. Ferrier, at the fourth meeting of the Natural History 
Society of Montreal, session 1882-1883 (published in the Cana- 
dian Naturalist and Quarterly Journal of Science, Vol. x, New 
Series, No. 8), read his “ Notes on a fossil track from the Potsdam 
sandstone of Northern New York State,” and Dr. Dawson said 
that the impressions belonged to the genus Gyrichnites, proposed 
by J. F. Whiteaves for similar impressions from the Erian of 
Gaspé, 

Wm. F. E. Gurley published his “Bulletin, No. 1, New Car- 
boniferous Fossils;” this is a private publication, apparently 
printed for private circulation—the descriptions are very indiffer- 
ent, and the absence of any figures renders it difficult to say 
Whether his species are new or not. It would be well for Mr. 
Gurley, if he wishes his species to be recognized, to seek publi- 
E through some of the regular channels, and to accompany 

is descriptions with proper illustrations. 
ge Heilprin, in the Proc. Philadelphia Acad. of Nat. 
nr TORRA a “Note on a collection of fossils from the 
iik pi evonian) group of Pike Co., Pennsylvania.” This is 
neaei site genera identified by Professor Heilprin in a 
i inepe : y Drs. E. Hine and J. Holt, and is welcome as 
eee to our knowledge of the palzeontology of a State, 

| oR which we know comparatively little. 
Collett . he a report of the State geologist, Mr. John 
which s v “2 ps ourteen plates of the Van Cleve fossil corals, 
reviewed by P : whole very creditable productions; they were 

Woki p R James Hall, who also republishes here 

Vii -beck = ` own corals, most of which are referred to as 
eaa aa ed in the advance sheets of the thirty-fifth 
| ma i New York State Museum of Natural History 
lished, The yet appeared), but five of the species were unpub- 

OTN Sewin Hill Brachiopoda, published by R. P. Whit- 

have also h ulletin No. 3, of the Amer. Museum of Nat. Hist., 
“~en reproduced here. 


. 
f 

4 
¥ 
: 


388 A Review of the Progress of North American [Api 


Illinois —The seventh volume of the geological survey of Illi- 
nois contains descriptions of fossil invertebrates by A. H. Worth 
en, and S. A. Miller, and by Chas, Wachsmuth, and W. H. Bartis, 
illustrated by five plates, together with an article on a new genus 
and species of Blastoids, with observations upon the structured 
the basal plates in Codaster and Pentremites by Chas. Wachsmuth, 
and descriptions of some new Blastoids from the Hamilton group 
by W. H. Barris, in which four new species are described. The 
crinoids described are mostly from the Lower Carboniferous, being | 
from the Keokuk, Warsaw, Chester, and St. Louis groups, with 
the exception of two or three species from the Upper Ca ift- 

ous. 

U. P. James, on April 16th, published the seventh numberof 
his “ Palæontologist,” with illustrated descriptions of three ne 

species of fossil corals from the Cincinnati group of Ohio an 
Kentucky. Inthe Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural 
History, Vol. vı, December, he published “ Descriptions of fossils 
from the Cincinnati group,” illustrated by one plate, No. X; only 
two species are described. ai 

Leo Lesquereux, in the proceedings of the U. S. Nap ý 
Museum, Vol. v, pp. 443-449, has published a “ Contribution l 
the Miocene flora of Alaska,” ‘illustrated by five plates, iy 
containing descriptions and figures of some new species, kam. | 

enumeration of some species already described, but not yet’ i 
-in the flora of Alaska. w 


‘ : : - Au l 
S. A. Miller, in the Amer. Journ. of Science, for nahal 


Springer on the genera Glyptocrinus a ) 
the Journal of the Cao Foa of Natural History: Le 
December, 1883, he published an article entitled “Gly Se 
re-defined and restricted, Gaurocrinus, Pycnocrinus, ame i id l 
crinus established, and two new species described. aT 
is illustrated by one lithographic plate of indifferent a 
John Mickleborough, in the Journal of the Cincinnati ~" 
of Natural History, for October, Vol. VI, published wp 
the “ Locomotive appendages of Trilobites.” The ¢ 
scribed is of great interest, and corroborates the pei -a 
by the Canadian Asaphus, described by Mr. E. Bi 
tunately nothing is proven with relation to the 
and branchiez. The plates or figures, and a 
were republished in the AMERICAN NATURALIST, 


weer, 
“ye 
i Sey 


1884.] Invertebrate Paleontology for 1883. 389 


J. S. Newberry, in the Proceedings of the U. S. National Mu- 
seum, Vol. v, pp. 502-514, published “ Brief descriptions of fossil 
plants, chiefly tertiary, from Western North America.” No illus- 
trations accompany these descriptions of fossil plants, mostly col- 
lected by Dr. F. V. Hayden, though many were collected by 
Professor T. Condon, by Professor J. J. Stevenson and I. C. Rus- 
sell. Fuller descriptions with illustrations will appear in a vol- 
ume which is to form one of the reports of the U. S. Geological 
Survey. ; 

New York.—The second part of Vol. v of the Palæontology 
of New York, by James Hall, has appeared. It contains descrip- 
tions and illustrations of the Gastropoda, Pteropoda and Cepha- 
lopoda of the Upper Helderberg, Hamilton, Portage, and Chemung 
groups, illustrated by a volume of 113 very good plates. Profes- 
sor Hall has also published a few copies of the plates of part first, 
of Vol. v, of the Palzontology of New York: “ Lamellibranchiata, 
plates and explanations.” There are twenty pages of explanations, 
and eighty plates of very good drawings, especially those drawn 
by J. H. Emerton, of Lamellibranchiate shells from the Upper 
Helderberg, Hamilton, Chemung, and Waverly groups, Professor 
Hall Still retaining the latter group in the Devonian. “The 
author has been allowed to purchase, from the Secretary of State, 
100 copies of the plates already lithographed, for this volume, 
which are published in this form in order to make them available 
for the use of Scientific institutions and students in palzontology. 
The text and additional plates of the volume, whenever published, 
will be sent to the parties receiving this portion of the work.” 

S. H, Scudder, in the Proceedings of the American Academy 
y Arts and Sciences, presented on October 10th, a paper on the 
ossil white ants of Colorado from Florisant ;” six new species 
and one new genus are described ; and Mr. Scudder argues that 
‘heir presence at Florisant is indicative of a much warmer cli- 
mate than the locality now enjoys. 
: R. E.C. Stearns, in the AMERICAN NATURALIST, Vol. xvir, No. 
9, published an illustrated paper “ On the shells of the Colorado 
ay and the region farther east.” 7 
Hist eae in the Journal of the Cincinnati Soc. of Nat. 
148, "April, 1883, No, 1, p. 82, and for July, 1883, No. 2, P. 
“ Published his “ American palzeozoic Bryozoa.” (Continued 
Vol. v, 1882, p. 297.) 


390 A Review of the Progress of North American (April, 


The twelfth annual report of the U.S. Geological and Geo 
graphical Survey of the Territories, by F. V. Hayden, contains 
“Contributions to invertebrate paleontology,” Nos. 2-8, by Dr 
C. A. White, an author’s edition of which appeared in (July) 15% 
It also contains a brief article on the “Palzontology of the Flor- 
sant basin,” by S. H. Scudder, which is a reprint with addition 
and illustrations of the article published in the Bull. of the Survey, 
Vol. v1, Art. x1. It also includes a monograph of the Nott 
American Phyllopod Crustacea, in which the fossil Phyllopods 
and Phyllocarida are enumerated. | 

Charles Wachsmuth and Frank Springer, in the Amer. Four. 
Science, for April, published “ Remarks on Glyptocrinus and Retk 
crinus, two genera of Silurian crinoids.” The same authors," 
the November number of the same journal, published an artic 
on “Hybocrinus, Hoplocrinus, and Berocrinus.” . 

M. E. Wadsworth, in Science, Vol. 1, p. 422, published a note 
on “ Molluscan rock-boring.” | 

C. D. Walcott, in the advance sheets of the thirty-fifth rep 
of the N. Y. State Museum of Natural History, published ¢ l 
scriptions of new species of fossils from the Trenton eo 
New York,” illustrated by one plate, No. xvii. In the A gi 
of Science,he published a note on the “ Injury sustained by See, ) 
of a trilobite at the time of the molting of the shell.” cae | 
Vol. 11, No. 46, p. 808, the same author published “F cof ill : | 
shells from the palæozoic rocks of Nevada.” This 1s pE t 
trated note of three new species,and one new genus of s E 
the carboniferous strata of Nevada. 

L. F. Ward, in Science, Vol.1, p. 358, published a 
on “ Plant life, past and present.” 

C. A. White, in the AMERICAN NATURALIST, sia 

. is“ læontology "" 
published his “ Progress of invertebrate pa : for Ma 
for the year 1882.” In the Amer, Fourn. of Sa : 
he published “ Late observations concerning the jpe in the 
and the geographical extent of the Laramie gro ” 
journal for August, he published a note on the fase 
ancient faunal and modern floral types in the Be of ti be 
Dr. White has also published, in the annual repo th 2? a 
Geological Survey, 1881-1882, separately paged, vr met 
“A review of the non-marine fossil mollusca of tn Ames 
It is an important and lasting contribution to North : 


priet ač | 


Vol. xvit, No. 


1884. ] Invertebrate Paleontology for 1883. 391 


zontology in a very useful form. In his preliminary remarks, Dr. 
White calls attention to his original view of the origin of non- 
marine mollusks, through the land-locking of marine types, and 
derives our present non-marine fauna of the Mississippi drainage 
system directly from the fauna of the old Laramie sea. In the 
Proceedings of the U.S. National Museum, Vol. v, pp. 94-99, 
Dr. White published, “ New molluscan forms from the Laramie 
and Green River groups, with discussion of some associated forms 
heretofore known,” illustrated by two plates, Nos. rm and Iv; 
these descriptions already appeared in his review of the non-marine 
fossil mollusca of North America. In the same publication, pp. 99- 
102, he has also “ The molluscan fauna of the Truckee group, in- 
cluding a new form,” illustrated by one plate, No. v; this also 
appeared in the review of non-marine mollusca. 

J. F. Whiteaves, in the Canadian Naturalist and Quarterly Jour- 
nal of Science, Vol. x, new series, No. 7, published a note on the 
“Occurrence of Siphonotreta scotica (Davidson), in the Utica 
formation, near Ottawa, Ontario.” This paper was read before 
the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Mon- 
treal, 1882. 

R. P. Whitfield, in the Amer. Journ. of Science, for May, pub- 
lished “Observations on the fossils of the metamorphic rocks of 
Bernardstown, Mass.” 

H. S. Williams read before the American Philosophical Society, 
April 2oth, 1883, a paper on “A crinoid with movable spines.” 
In the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Science of Phila- 
delphia, Part 1, 1882, p. 17, Professor Williams published “New 
crinoids from the rocks of the Chemung period of New York 
State,” illustrated by one plate, No.1. In the Amer. Journ. of 
oe for February, Professor Williams published a paper on the 

F; auna at the base of the Chemung group in New York,” in 
no he gives a list of species found at High Point, Naples, 

iX and comments on their similarity to the fauna of Lime 
creek, Towa, referring it to the Kinderhook group, and argues 
a they are equivalent, and that as long as the Chemung is to 

retained in the Devonian, the western beds should also be re- 


- Calvin’ as Devonian; he has apparently overlooked Professor 5. 
nn’s 


article in the Amer. Journ. of Science, 1878, Vol. XV, P- 
Which the species mentioned are recorded as occurring 
at the base of the Devonian in Iowa, showing them to have 


392 ; ` Editors’ Table. [April 


a wide vertical range, and bearing out Dr. White’s view, that the 
Devonian of Iowa belongs to a single epoch, probably the Hamil- 
ton. In the Amer. Journ. of Science, for’ April, p. 311, Professor 
Williams, in a note, acknowledged that he was wrong in speaking 
of the rocks of Lime creek, Iowa, as referred by Western geolo- 
gists to the Kinderhook group, but maintained his view, thatit 
fauna was represented in N. Y., at the base of the Chemung. 

Wisconsin. —Vol. 1v, Part 111, of the Geological Survey o | 
Wisconsin, contains descriptions of fossils, by R. P. i | 
illustrated by 27 plates of very good figures; some of the specs — 
are new, but most of them have already been described; the 
described are not offered as a complete representation of the fauna 
of the several geological horizons of the State, but only as a few | 
the more prominent known species, together with some of the most i 
characteristic new ones of the several localities from which th 
have been obtained; the volume also contains a general list of the 
fossils recognized within the State, including those described, 
showing the formation in which they occur, which arethe Pota 
Lower Magnesian,Trenton, Galena, Hudson River, Niagara, ut Z| 
Lower Helderberg, and Hamilton. Professor Whitfield cit | 
tention to the marked differentiation of the species epee | 
dam in different localities, according to the change 1 the 
logical character of the matrix. hid 

The first volume of the Wisconsin Geological Sana 
has been the last to appear, also contains a list of Wiscon™ 
fossils, and in the general geology contained in the mae 
are a large number of figures, many of which are reprod 7 
of Professor Whitfield’s plates; the other figures are © ae 
rom various sources, and answer their purpose for a schoo 1 
book fairly well. i 1 

If those who notice them, will kindly call my attentio’ w 
omissions, I will insert them in next year’s review,as tet 
to make this record as complete as possible. 


10: 
EDITORS’ TABLE. 
EDITORS: A. S. PACKARD, JR., AND E. 


—— Professor Martin’s address at the opening e als 
logical institute at Baltimore, lately published 1 ste d supe | 


p. COPE. 


. 


n 
attention emphatically to the lack of consideration 


ns 
k 
) 


BE ing ns TEE E T S E E E E EFT EE 
ay S AF POBE Ee 
é 


1884.] Editors’ Table. 303 


given to physiology in this country, This science is the basis of 
all sound medical practice, and the time cannot now be far distant 
when every reputable medical school will be forced to seek a pro- 
fessional physiologist to enroll among its professors. Few depart- 
ments of science have changed more fundamentally within recent 
years than physiology. It is not long since it was barely more 
than a series of anatomical deductions enriched by a slight 
knowledge of the functions of organs, whereas it is now an exact 
and experimental science, which employs both the apparatus of 
the physicist and the reagents of the chemist as well as many in- 
struments adapted to its own special needs, and which can be 
carried on only in the laboratory. Dr. H. P. Bowditch estab- 
lished at the Harvard Medical School the first well-equipped phys- 
iological laboratory in the country, and the example then set 
has since been followed elsewhere. It is to be hoped that the 
ample endowment of the Johns Hopkins University will be in 
part used to enable Professor Martin to develop his laboratory to 
the highest standard, and that it may exert a far-reaching influ- 
ence towards promoting not only pure but also medical science, 
so that it may never fall behind its competitors, but become the 
Worthy compeer of the Harvard laboratory. But while we wel- 
come the auspicious opening of this department of the young 
university at Baltimore, we cannot escape a feeling of regret that 
ne professor of biology, instead of aiming first at a secure posi- 
ton in medical physiology, even at the sacrifice of much else in 
biology, should not have fixed upon a higher ideal more worthy 
a great university. Morphology, botany, general physiology 
and biology are all to wait, content to be the handmaidens of 
medical physiology. The magnificent opportunity to accom- 
the immediate development of a school of scientific biology 

~ been deliberately renounced. We deplore what we consider 
Serious mistake, and are unable to justify the postponement 

_ Proper university work in order to favor one class of profes- 
Sonal men. Professor Martin’s address must, we fear, disap- 
Ag oped of the high hopes raised by the early aspirations of 
x Johns Hopkins University. It is too explicit a statement of 

Purpose too one-sided. 


the Phi > many years a number of the scientific members of 
eo phia Academy of Natural Sciences have endeavored 
~ Preserve the institution for the use of a high standard of orig- 


394 Editors’ Table. { Apri 


inal research. They long since foresaw what has many time 
been demonstrated, that its present organization means destruc 
tion to all important scientific work, and the substitution therefor 


In view of this indefinite postponement of the development 


by some of the friends of the University of Pennsy! tment 


an endowment. One objectionable feature in this sc ick 
proposed directorship by one man. There should rathél C 
eral directors or professors, each in charge of a parr 
man will necessarily be biased in the direction of hi at 
cialty, and others will be more or less neglected. af ot 1 ext 


y tin tS 
Another organization is suggested, which shall repre Ae 
twenty men are now living in this State who OY 
for original researches in various fields of pure oe would 
body would supply a felt want, and its manager 
from the objectionable features which depress A jong with? 
existing institutions. It would not probably t the A 
both museum and library. It is well known bine f ime 
of Natural Sciences is not likely to be the recip ge true 
collections under its present organization. It 1s 


Such 3 
pe 
ae 


1884.] Recent Literature. 395 


publications of the leading twenty scientific men of Pennsylvania 

would secure a magnificent return in exchanges for its library. 
—— We inform interested persons, that the NATURALIST does 

not publish long obituaries ; also, that no obituary notices of sci- 

entific men of a length of a page or less, has ever been de- 

clined by its editors. 

10: 


RECENT LITERATURE. 


Ryper’s OBSERVATIONS ON EMBRYO FisHEs.!— The Bulletin 
of the United States Fish Commission contains a series of articles 


pointed in front, and the external layer becomes thicker, while the 
Pericardial membrane becomes funnel-shaped to fit the anterior 


Co Weer 's the venous end of the heart. As the peculiar amber 
- (2st around the yolk persists to the last, it is probable that the 
_ =attal clear portion is transformed gradually into it. 
1 ʻi à : 
of eae of the United States Fish Commission.—Observations on the absorption 
vestigation 00d, feeding, and development of embryo fishes, comprising some 


Pp. 179-205. conducted at the Central Hatchery, Armory Building, D.C., in 1882, 


396 Recent Literature. [April, 


This is the history of the yolk-mass after the embryo is hatched, 
but as it grew in size before hatching, yolk absorption must have 
taken place before the heart was sufficiently developed to be an 
active agentin the process. This must be by intussusception, andin 
the amber yolk-covering it is undoubted that a process of cell and 
blood-cell differentiation takes place. Mr. Ryder concludes that 


the body cavity, and the outer covering of this, though ni) 
ab of an inch in thickness, contains epiblast, mesoblast, and ! 


preponderance of characters was toward the female parent, 
teeth were more numerous and the gape of the mou! 

The fungus or alga, that is so fatal to shad “oe x 
wherever there is any imperfection in the circulation 0" - 


bodies of some large gold-fish that had become infe rely. 
(probably derived from dead shad-eggs) failed comp 
Livingston Stone states, that a strong solution of mr 
while Mr. Behler recommends a saturated solution 


young fish come out all right, the asphalt gradually ig 
A fifth note relates to feeding young shad with Dap 
when transferred from. the carp-ponds to the aquari" el 
served to die rapidly. The lower temperature w th 
cause, but the principal reason was doubtless the A 
tozoa, algæ, etc., which form the proper foo l 
crustacea. 
Another note refers to methods of handling r 
_ of the white perch, and another to the proved ¢ rere 
sticklebacks to shad larve. Twenty-five of pany 
in half an hour by four Afeltes quadricornis, 


PLATE XII. 


View on Great Salt Lake Desert, showing mountains half buried by lake sediments, 


1884.) Recent Literature. 397 


and coleopterous larve ate also capable of destroying young shad. 
Transparency is no safeguard against any of these enemies. 
' Well worthy of the attention of all naturalists are the original 
observations and categorical facts brought together by Mr. Ryder 
to prove that there is between ova, even of allied genera, con- 
siderable difference, and that at no stage is there a positive iden- 
tity. 
The mechanical construction, as it may be termed, of ova 
affects the course of their development. The Teleost ovum has 
a relatively enormous yolk, which must be included by the blas- 
toderm in order to be absorbed, and this relatively large yolk has 
much to.do with the difference observed between its development 
and that of a Marsipobranch or Amphibian. The eggs of the 
Salmonidæ have an abundance of oil drops in the vitellus, espe- 
cially just under the germinal disk. These, by their buoyancy, 
cep. the disk constantly directed upward. The cusk, the crab- 
eater, Spanish mackerel and moon-fish have eggs which arè buoy- 


almost exactly opposite to the germinal disk, and thus keeping 
it face downward—just the reverse of what occurs in the salmon- 
oids. Even after hatching, the young are at first unable to right 
themselves on account of the presence of the oil-drop. The cod 
ovum has no oil-drop, yet floats with the germinal disk down- 
wards. That of Morone americana (white perch) is adhesive and 
fixed, with a very large oil-sphere which keeps the disk on the 
lower side of the vitelline globe. The shad egg is non-adhesive, 
and heavier than water, and the germinal disk has.a constant 
tendency to arrange itself at the side of the vitellus as viewed from 
ve, though there is no oil to influence it. In Fundulus and 
Syngnathus the oil-drops appear uniformly distributed. The num- 
ber of proto-vertebrae or primary somites differs so much that 
while Tylosurus has as many as seventy-five pairs, Alosa has only 
eighteen to twenty. Our author ventures this bold remark: 

When our knowledge is more complete, we shall perhaps be 
able to distinguish the species apart by the eggs alone, just as 
botanists have used the characters presented by seeds to distin- 


oF shall or ought to hold to the doctrine that the protoplasm 
of which a man is made is different from that of which the body 
a dog or fish is composed,” ; 
Laaneti similar bricks may be formed into widely different 
kind A but it does not follow that the clay differs. same 
es or clay may enter into the grandest erection and the mean- 
a Raie two very similar buildings may be made of different 
è Something the same, we conceive, occurs with protoplasm. 


398 3 Recent Literate, 


Its chemical constitution may differ, but the difference of anima 
species is mainly morphological, and there is no reason why dt 
ferent protoplasm may not occur in similar species, while species 
differing widely morphologically may be formed of similar 
protoplasm.— W. N, L. 


WHITE’S GEOLOGY OF THE SUSQUEHANNA RIVER REGION 
While such a report as this is necessarily filled with details, Pro- 
fessor White has elicited some results (epitomized in the prefato 
letter of Professor Lesley) especially bearing on paleontology 
and glacial geology, which are of general interest. Professor 
White finds fossiliferous beds high in the Catskill formation, 
some of the fossils of which appear to be of Chemung type. The 
discussion of this point is a most interesting one. 

The geology of the great terminal moraine, the general cours 
of which is outlined in the prefatory letter of the director of Ù 
survey, is discussed. As the ice-sheet, he says, CoV 
whole country, the high mountain plateaus and the low valleys 
alike, the moraine is in some places 2000 feet above ocean 1 
as in the North mountain ; in others only 500 feet, as at a 
Professor White’s observations on the floods of pip | 
the formation of the terrace-plain of part of Columbia 
are of much interest. : mo 

The limits of the glacial drift in the counties Bhs dd 
carefully given. “Glacial drift, as a sheet of unstra he oe 
gravel and boulders, covers the whole region back of esos 
raine, and is finally exposed along water-courses. from the 
of this unis rsal mantle of ice-borne trash, br out ae d 
north, is aby ıt fifty feet; but where it is banked into cee 
hollows of the country, filling up ancient river valleys, | hae 

* ok * in other aren 
ickness fer 
orainê. #5 


ret 
fiy tE 


average be finally accepted, it must set at s: a pSr 


and plains of Pennsylvania and New York, the 
basins and the plain of Canada. Were the ave 
the drift twice fifty feet, it would be egia tuo 


power of the ice-sheet has been immensely ° 


ogress Ci A 

1 Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania; Report gE bb akso” js 
of the Susquehanna River region in the six counties d. Č. WHITE. bar 
serne, Columbia, Montour and Northumberland. By ee in the text. 
geological map in two sheets, and thirty-one page plates ae 
1883. 8vo, pp. 464. 


PLATE X 


1884.] i Recent Literature. 399 


what erosive power it had was exhausted in merely polishing off 
_ and puttying up the topography of the continent.” In this para- 
graph we havea reiteration of Professor Lesley’s well-known 
views, which, though somewhat extreme, are based, doubtless; 
_ on the condition of things in Pennsylvania at the former thin 
_ €dge of the continental glacier. Where, as in the Great Lake 
region, the ice was undoubtedly thicker and remained a much 
longer time, the erosion probably went much deeper. We still 
_ greatly need a systematic review of all the facts bearing on the 
_ thickness of the morainal matter in different localities over the 
_ €ntire glaciated area of North America. In the Rocky Mountain 


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t the whole country de/ow the level of 800’, or 750’ above tide, 
More or less covered with a post-glacial stratified deposit of 
modified drift, derived from the moraine and from the glacial drift 


with : were reéxcavated. Unimaginable floods poured southward 
“i, cessation along all the valleys, and spread out over the 
(R their burdens of moraine stones, rounded and smoothed 


~ ver and its affluent streams cut down through these post- 
deposits, as shown by the terraces which now border their 


400 Recent Literature. [April 


banks.” Here again the inquiry arises, How could these tumultu- 
ous, “ unimaginable floods ” have poured southward “ without ces- 
sation” if the ice-sheet was so thin and meager as Mr. Lesley 
imagines? The hyper-cataclysmal language here used for one 
series of phenomena, the result of a melting of an ice-sheet which 
was merely thick enough to “polish off” the: topography ofa 
continent, appears somewhat illogical and extreme. Should it 
not apply to the ice-mass as well? Farther on, to account fr 
“vast heaps of rounded boulders” and other drift deposits onthe 
tops of crests, ridges and hills at elevations of near 1000 feet i 
the counties above named, the director of the survey remarks: 
“ It seems to me necessary to suppose some sort of submergence 
of the region beneath sea-level, or, what will amount to the same 
thing, a general rise of ocean-level to 800’ or 1000’, A. T. 
would flood all Southeastern Pennsylvania to within a few hur 
dred feet of the crests of its mountains, and account for most of 
the terrace deposits in this region.” i A 
While Northeastern New England has evidently been 
merged some 500 feet, as marine fossils clearly indicate, are re 
any facts which show that this submergence extended much, 
any, below New York city? We have supposed that ae 
this point the oscillation of the coast line was confined to Qut 
few feet, as witnessed by the position near sea-level of the | 


tions as have been brought up in the present able report. 


Seconp Report or THE U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. — ee 
this report has been issued for some time it has not bet priate? 
in this magazine. It is a bulky royal octavo volume, } as (f 
on good paper, with excellent and abundant ile axeciti@ 
one plates and thirty-two wood-cuts); the mechan ee 
being much superior to the average Government | geology 
more notable contents are the reports on the physice onion 
the Grand Cañon district by Capt. C. E. Dutton, » 
to the history of Lake Bonneville, by G. K. rege 
a report on the geology and mining industry of Comstock 
F. Emmons; a summary of the geology of the oduction of 
and the Washoe district, by Geo. F. Becker; Pf King; 2 
precious metals in the United States, by Ca 
method of measuring heights by means of the oo 
K. Gilbert. the Grand @ 

The splendid report of Captain Dutton on ae our Di 
district having been published in full, we shall dete E 

1 Second Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey æ 
81r. By 


7 1882- 
the Interior, r880~' 8r J. W. POWELL, director. Washing! l 
8vo, pp. 588.. 


PLATE XV. 


Tabernacle Crater and lava beds, 


pee 


1884. | Recent Literature. 401 


it to another occasion, and meanwhile draw attention to Mr. Gil- 
bert’s elaborate essay on Lake Bonneville, a subject which he has 
studied for a number of years past. 

The sediments of this ancient Quaternary lake rest upon Plio- 
cene rocks, which are hard enough to be used as building stone, 
and in many places have been upturned, faulted, while portions, 
separated from their continuations in the valley, have been carried 
high up on mountain flanks, where they have been eroded into 
typical mountain forms, 

From his study of the lake sediments and ancient beaches, Mr, 
Gilbert suggests the following history of the lake: 

1. A long period of dry climate and low water, during which 
the mountains of the desert were buried and the alluvial slopes 
of marginal mountains were formed (PI. x111). 

2. A period of moist climate and high water, during which the 
yellow clay was deposited and the shore was carried within ninety 
feet of the summit of the lowest barriers of the basin. 

3. A period of extreme dryness, during which the lake disap- 
peared and its salt was buried. 

4. A relatively short moist. period, during which the white 
marl was thrown down, and within which the water overran the 
— , diminishing by erosion its height at the point of dis- 

arge. 


5. The present period of relative dryness. 

‘he volcanic rocks of the lake valley are basalts; of these 
Pavant Butte (PI. xrv), situated between Fillmore and Deseret, 
'sthe most conspicuous. It is entirely composed of tuff. Mid- 
way between its base and its summit it is encircled by a terrace 

ned at the highest stage of the lake. The mountain was a 

acustrine volcano; its cone having been completed during 
the highest stage of the lake. 
hag gate other hand another volcano, the Tabernacle (Pl. xv), 


oF thee volcano began to be formed there during a high stage 
ott below the level of the vent; while facts show that the date 
dene aast eruption from the vent was just before the final subsi- 
then, of the water. The period of volcanic activity has lasted, 
leas through the entire history of the lake, and perhaps the end 
ee been reached. “No one,” says Mr. Gilbert, “ who 
Preece ae fresh, black, unworn surfaces of the most recent 
mes still absolutely barren of vegetation, could be affected by 
cent fires it should some day be announced that the now quies- 
Ein had again broken forth”. o es 
ville 22'S that there is a difference in the height of the Bonne- 
now snd Provo shore lines, nejther of the two shore lines. being 
been or, or parallel; hence it is inferred that there have 
~~ graphic movements both during the existence of the last 


ba Xv. —yo, Iv. 26 


~ 


402 Recent Literature. [April 


high stage of the water and since the final subsidence; and it 
seems that the region of the eastern margin of Lake Bonnevillehas 
recently fallen and is still subsiding. Mr. Gilbert has also 
that a recent fault has taken place along the Wasatch range, notyet 
completed in the rear of Salt Lake city, and that the Wasatch 
range, the greatest mountain mass of Utah, has recently increased 
in height, and is supposed to be still growing. 

The remains of Lake Bonneville is now but a great shallow 
brine pool, and resting on the surface of a broad plain. “Is 
mean depth is scarcely fifteen feet, and only a slight oscillatory 
movement of the plain would be necessary to decant its waters 
into another portion.” It thus appears that the Mormons are & 
posed to the liability not only of losing their lake, but also their 
chief city ! 

HOoPLEY’S SNAKES, CURIOSITIES AND WONDERS OF ipl 
Lire.!—This pleasantly written book ought certainly to cure — 
its many readers of their inherited hatred of snakes. pea 
duction brings out amusingly the confusion of names an oad that 
which prevails among humanity, and the publisher s dread š 


i : kes in his 
he should lose subscribers if he put snakes 1 f these pp 
e 


scribe from the life how snakes feed ; what the tongue restrict tel ; 
how snakes breathe and hiss ; how they climb and pe arrange? | 
prey; and how their teeth and fangs are constructed gr spot 
The author avers that a few years ago she knew Po i 
snakes, and it is this fact, joined with sound Nieto’ speaks 0 
observation, that has enabled her to write a book t uestions # 
those who do not know. When she discusses such K ;" aa 
“Do snakes drink?” “Do they incubate their eer critical 
“Do they afford a refuge to their young?” she ei of het 
examines the opinions of others, but adds obse iow Jamai 
own that seem convincing. For example, the y Ns snake kef 
boa’s method of imbibition, is thus described: joo 
its mouth just below the level of the water, an 
or movement seen was at the back of the head, 


gulps. This is the ‘suction’ which writers € 
in of the liquid; but the lips do not take part m ne 
Catherine C. Nes 

1 Snakes, Curiosities and Wonders of Serpent Life ew 


, — BY. 
Farran, St. Paul’s Churchyard, London, and E. $- 
York, 1882. 


1884. } Recent Literature. 403 


therefore, we read that snakes drink both by lapping and by suc- 
tion, we may surmise that the former is for the benefit of the tongue.” 
The incubation of Python sede is described, and the viviparity or 
oviparity of snakes generally, is clearly shown to depend simply 
upon the longer or shorter retention of the eggs within the body 
of the mother, and to vary in the same species. That some 
species afford a refuge for their young, is regarded as proved, and 
the author believes that this occurs in viviparous snakes, or in 
those in “which from some cause or other extrusion has been so 


locality I on the 


€ general reader will find the book a fascinating one, while 
the more scientific student will rise from its perusal with the con- 
pi es that, though he might have previously known a great 


eal about snake anatomy, he has learned something new about 
snakes themselves. 


Sey sr OF THE BUFFALO Society OF NATURAL SCIENCES.— 

> final number of the fourth volume of the organ of this active 

oe has just been received. It is a brochure of nearly 140 pages, 

and is devoted to an enumeration of the cryptogamic plants of 
lo and its vicinity, in continuation of the catalogue of phzn- 

Rn tla plants, by David F. Day, forming Part 11 of the same 

eet The first two numbers contain entomological, palzon- 

gical and ornithological papers of value. 


dite STANDARD Natvrav History.—Nos. 7 to 10 of this valu- 
a have reached us. In No. 8 the’account of the 


yed Crustacea, prepared by Mr. J. S. Kingsley, is finished ; 

eh, Succeeds the sessile-eyed ten the groups of Arthro- 
bites doubtful position, including the Pycnogonida, the Trilo- 
pared by - Merostomata, as well as the Pentastomida, all pre- 
it, lage Kingsley, who then offers an introduction to Class 
: the part closing with the commencement of an account 


404 Recent Literature. [April, 


of the first sub-class, Malacopoda (Peripatus). This, like the 
other parts, is illustrated with well-printed wood-cuts. 


SEA D 


PE 


den 
succeeded by Dr. Gill’s account of the "nsestivors an 
The work is both modern and popular in i 
not fail to adequately fill a hitherto empty n! ic 
ist’s library 


RECENT Books AND PAMPHLETS- a E Hay? 
Hayden, F. V.—General geologic he area explored P aibi 
and the surveys under his chie, P eo to 1880 srement a! 


ticulie! 
he cepa Z.—Petit Faune singers ogique du Cana ada m Soe, es Hy set 
province de Quebec, Vol 11. Les Orthoptéres, les t eairopte 
npg | Ousbes, 1883. Reon the author. 


1884.] Recent Literature. 405 


A — Rerum. 1883. Norwich, F. A. Robinson & Co. From the 

ae are shers, 
ler, H—The fertilization of flowers. Translated and edited by D’Arcy W. 
gar Aa mpson, B.A, Macmillan & Co. London, pets From the publishers, 

Taylor, T.—Naphthaline as an insecticide. Read at th ofthe rap orn i of the Bio- 
logical Society of Washington, Dec. 28, 1883. From the 

——The Photographic Times, Feb., 1884. From the editor, 

Peckham, G. W. and E. G.— Descriptions of new or little-known spiders of the fam- 
ily Attidæ, 2 various parts of the United State of North America. 1883. 
From the author 

Johnson, S. W.— aise ~ of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station. 

1883. From the direct 

Graff, G. G.—The Book of "Plant Descriptions, or record of plant analyses, For 
the use of teachers and students. Science and Health Publishing Co., Lewis- 
burg, Va. 1883. From the publishers. 

Bureau of Education. eain of the Commissioner of Education for the year 1881. 

e departmen 

Traquair, R. H.—On a a fossil shark (Ctenacanthus costellatus). Ext. from the 
Geol. Mag., Jan., 1 

~——Notes on the pe Gyracanihus Ag. Ext. from Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist., 

1884. Both from the author 
Geinitz, H. B—Ue be enige Kiesublagerauges und die diluvialen Saugethiere des 
Königreichs Sachsen. 1883. 


apem zu den Fanden i in den PEN eal von Helmstedt, Buddenstedt 
3. Both from the author 


Viton, E. eis —The mesenterial Bini of the Alcyonaria. Abd. aus der Mi- 
theil, Zool. Stat. zu Neapel. From t 


—A supplement to the fifth volume of the Terrestrial air pene 

mollusks of the United States and Territories. Cambridge, 1883. From the 

Wortman, J. Z.—Fossil horses, from W. H. Clarke’s work on Horses’ Teeth. Re- 
vised edition, 1883. From the author. 

» T. S.—The geological history of serpentines, including studies of pre-Cam- 
brian an rocks. From the Trans. Roy. Soc. of Canada. Montreal, 1883.. From 
the author. 

“naa Mey. 5; ewes! and topographical maps of the oil sands of Japan. 
smin Pha Ae maps of the Hinckley and New York and West- 
moreland coal tracts. 1883. From the author 
-—Progress of industrial education kad at a meeting of the Phila. 
6, 1883. 


1883, Sooty naga survey of Alabama. Agricultural features of the State. 


Gardner, J. SOn the Gault Aporthaide. Ext. Geol, Mag., April, 1875. 
—On 
Papam a Id., Sept., 1875. 

ropoda 


Cretaceous Gastro: opoda. Id., 


On Briti be Feb., 1880. 
: Journ, ratty vo soroas Patellidæ and other Patellid Gastropoda. Ext. Quart. 


Soc.. May, 1877. 


On the Cretaceous Dentalidæ. 1d., Feb., 1878. 


405 General Notes. [April 


Carnes J. S.—On the Lower Eocene section between Reculvers and Herne bay, 
t. id., May, 1883. 

nae moe and correlation of the Bournemouth beds, Part 11. Lower or Fresh- 

water series, Ext idem. Feb., 1882. All from the author. 

Day, F. aaki microscopic examination of yA with regard to its strength. 

Read before the Amer. Philos. Soc., Dec. 21, 1883. 

Scott, F. B.—Oral centers and morphological pragersehoe geometrical estimates of 
intelligence and nerve force and chemical change. Buffalo, 1883. From 
the author. 

Mégnin, Paul, Trouessart, E. L.—Note sur la morphologie et sur la classification 
des Sarco ptides Plumicoles. ZOET 1884. From the aut 

Ribot, ™ ’#.—The diseases of memory. Translated by F. Ba A.M. New 
York, 1883. From the a or. 

Fewkes j W.—On the development of certain worm larve, Bull. Mus. Comp. 

è Zool., Vol. x1, No. 9, 1883. From the author. 

T Benj —On the anatomy of onan pe wisi. and A. lacustris, Rep, Proc 

t. Sci., Phila., 1883. From the a 
te ” ` C.—Re apat of progress ee Geological and Nat. Hist. 
of Canada. Montreal, 1883. 

——Maps to accompany the see Both from A. R. C. Selwy sd a 

Clevenger, S. V.—Our insane. = Spray delivered before the Chica Philos. 
Jan. 19., 1884. From the a dans Ia terre $ 

Van Beneden, P. 7 —Note sur on ous de cag ie ver ans 
brique e du iit de ph Bruxelles, 1883. From the author 

White, C. A,.—Certain phases in the geological history of ns Nort er 
nen, biologically considered. Peis nijal address, Biological "society syal 

ington, Jan. 25, 1884. From the auth 


GENERAL. NOTES. 
GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS. 


AFRICA.— The Ancient Gulf of Triton —Dr. Rouire (Re £ 

Geog., Janv., 1884) believes that he has satisfactorily iden enti 
ulf of Triton mentioned by Herodotus and other — 

ie Kelbiah, and the country between it and the this gult 
Chotts of the Tunisian Sahara can scarcely have wearer not 
since the bar of Gabes, which divides them from the . y more 
alluvial, but is composed of older geological bee prehistorie 
than 130 feet above sea-level. Moreover, remains © hof : 
; o 


some four miles long, separating the “ Sebka a and of 
the sea. Further back rises the elevation of Pi Jeadiog 
each side of this passes a branch of the dry Oued miles long: 
into Lake Kelbiah, a sheet of water about thirteen Hm by : 
Beyond this lake is the valley of Kroussiah, peers signs 
abrupt cliff some 200 feet high, presenting indub! oe 
having been an ancient coast line. In rainy season® ne 
the Oued Bagla pour into Lake Kelbiah, which all the 97 
valley of Kroussiah is inundated, and the waters sh 
channels of the Oued Menfes, or communicate 

1This department is edited by W. N. LocKINGTON, philadeiphis 


i. aaa AAA TS «caer Retin a 


; 
i 
A 


1884.] Geography and Travels. 407 


For awhile the Gulf of Triton is formed as described by Hero- 
dotus. At the mouth of the gulf is the Island of Phla, equiva- 
lent to the temporary Island of Djémiah, between the branches 
of the Oued Menfes, and further inland the waters of the lake 
bathe the shores which, before the narrow sand bar was thrown 
up, were permanently washed by the sea. The Little Syrtes of 
Scylax is thus identified with the Gulf of Hammamet, Hadrum- 
etum with Sousa, Leptis Parva with Lemta, and Neapolis with 
Nabel-Kedimi. Communication between the Sahel and the in- 
terior of Tunis is even now difficult and dangerous during much 
of the year, for, except to the south, towards Sfax and Gabes, the 
bed of the ancient sea, still marshy and apt to be flooded, must 
becrossed. These identifications necessitate a new interpretation 
of many historical passages referring to the history of Carthage. 


The Wolofs and the Kingdom of Cayor—The Wolofs were for- 
merly united into one kingdom, but now form three. Of these 
Cayor extends southward from St. Louis to a little beyond Cape 
Verd. It has no river, but a chain of fresh-water lakes or 
marshes a few kilometers from the ocean gives rise to a luxuriant 
vegetation ; and the rest of the country, watered by abundant rains 
from July to October, yields an abundance of fruit and vegetables, 
though water can only be obtained from wells. Contact with the 
French and the Moors has made Christians of some Wolofs and 
Islamites of others, but Gen. Faidherbe (Bull. de la Soc. de Geog., 
1833) confesses that the former are more drunken, and the latter 
more false, than their heathen brethren. 


Asia.—Kafiristan.—Mr. McNair, who penetrated Kafiristan in 
disguise, to escape the opposition of the surrounding Mohamme- 
dans recently given to the Royal Geographical Society an ac- 
Count of his visit. | 

ristan contains 5000 square miles, is bounded on the north 

by the Hindu Kush, on the south by the Kunar, and on the west 
by the Alishang and its tributary, the Alingar. On the east its 
Pecgentd is not clearly defined, but may be roughly said to run 
rom the Dara pass to the source of the Kalashgum, down that 
ioe to its junction with the Kunar, and down the latter to its 
of = the Kabul. There is also an isolated tract north-west 
á Dara pass. The three main tribes are the Ramgals, Vai- 
pA and Bashgals, each occupying one of the large valleys. 
with tribe has a district of its own, and, as a rule, has little to do 
tiesia other valleys. The Vaigals are reckoned to be most 


- tribute l. Three of the five tribes of the Bashgal pay a nominal 


to the Mohammedan rùler of Chitral, but the other two are 
soul pendent. The entire population is estimated at 200,000 
men have sharp Aryan features and keen, penetrating 


j ; aap re 'y brown, but occasionally blue. Brown eyes and light, 


den hair often occur in combination. The complexion 


408 General Notes. [April 


varies from extreme fairness, almost pink, to a bronze, as dark as 
that of a Pathan. The cast of features seems the same in both, 
but the fairer men will say that they came from the north, and 
their darker brothers from the south. They are short of stature, 
daring, but lazy, leaving the agricultural work to the women, and 
spending their own time in hunting. They are passionately fond 
of dancing, in which both sexes join in the evening round a blaz- 
ing fire. The houses are generally built on the slopes of the hills; 
the lower story is of stone, from twelve to fifteen feet high, andis 
used for storage of wood and of the ordure of cattle, which is 
used for fuel. The upper story, or house proper, is built of wood, 
and contains only one or two rooms, which are neat, but very 
dark. The door and door-frames are roughly carved with figures 
and scrolls, and there is but ‘little furniture. They all sit on 
wooden chairs or wicker stools. Their bread is ordinarily 4 
very thick cake, but thin, broad cakes are made when guests are 
entertained. Meal, boiled in a large iron caldron, 1$ served in 
deep, circular wooden vessels, hollowed from a tree. Tables ner 
to be used only to place drinking-vessels upon. — The cheese is 
the nature of cream-cheese, is made daily, and is given to yrs 
between two cakes, embedded in hot butter. Their beds are e 
fixtures of poles, one end of which rests in the walls, the other 
on two legs. This story is reached by a ladder, which can 
drawn up. Sometimes there is a third story, als¢ po 
platform surrounds the upper stories. The roof is of flat sto 
laid on beams and covered with mud. : J and 
The temples are square chambers of timber, with rai sees 
colored doorways; inside are several stones, apparently ae 
om the river bed, but no images were seen, except those 
nected with funeral rites. The temples seem to be chie s 


ts. . a 
stick up two tufts, which look like horns. Slavery a . 
certain extent. Polygamy is the exception; a mild pet heads 
ishment is inflicted on unfaithful wives, and a fine of catti¢ á 

is exacted from the rnale offender. The dead are a bur canel 
placed in coffins in a sort of cemetery, often on a hill-s! f 
wooden figures are placed at the heads of the coffins ee is 
of rank and note of either sex. One Supreme Being ( 
universally acknowledged. They drink much wine, 
mented grape-juice. Their arms are bows, arrowS,“ = put they 
A few matchlocks have found their way into the country, 
maké none. i 

The country is picturesque, densely wooded, 


unket- : 


and wild in BF : 


a eee See ee ee ere 


1884.] Geology and Paleontology. 409 


extreme. Mr. McNair is the first Englishman who has penetrated 
into Kafiristan, and even he, owing to the penetration of his dis- 
guise through the treachery of a supposed friend of the British 
government, did not go beyond the outskirts. 

The Swat valley, reached by the Malakand pass (3575 feet), has 
avery rich soil, but is unhealthy. In it are many Buddhist topes, 
some quite as large as the famous tope of Muni Kiyala. There 
are also many excavated caves. Colonel Yule (in the discussion 
which followed Mr. McNair’s narrative) stated that this valley, 
the natives of which had become Afghanized, was eighteen to 
twenty centuries ago one of the most sacred spots of Buddhism. 
At Dir Mr. McNair received a seal, which proved to be of Baby- 
lonian workmanship. 

he Kafirs are ever at war with their Mohammedan neighbors, 
and are said to pray: “ Ward off fever from us. Increase our 
Stores. Kill the Mussulmans. After death admit us to Paradise.” 
Yet many have been, during the course of ages, converted to 
Islamism. Sir H, Rawlinson said that there was no foundation 
for the belief that these Kafirs or infidels, as the Pathans called 
em, were descended from Alexander’s soldiers. Their lan- 
guages are of the Perso-Indian branch of the Aryan family. 
he pass leading from Swat valley is 7310 feet above the sea ; 
the fort of Dir 5650 feet; the Lowara Kotal pass, leading to the 
valley of the Kunar, 10,450 feet; and Chitral, at the head of the 
Shushai valley, 5151 feet. The dorsal ridge of the Hindu Kush 
here a mean elevation of about’16,000 feet, while the Tirach Tir 
mountain is 25,426 feet high. 


GEOLOGY AND PALAIONTOLOGY. 
T. S. Hoyt on CAMBRIAN ROCKS OF NortH AmeErica.—The 


e 
rome of the Silurian, and by others called Cambro-Silurian, 
Prefers the term Ordovician, now accepted by many British and 


: Treental geologists. This includes in New York the Chazy, 


ton, Utica and Loraine divisions, the Oneida marking the 


: Nap urian or third fauna. The Cambrian rocks of the great 


i The american basin may be studied in four typical areas : 
4 The Appalachian ; 2. The Adirondack; 3. The Mississippi; 
Cordillera area. To the first of these belongs the im- 


7 fae ome of greatly disturbed sediments along the whole 


Tn border of the basin constitutin i cke and 
< ‘ ; g the First graywacke a 
= Sparry limerock of Eaton, being the Upper Taconic of Em- 

» and the Potsdam group and Quebec group of Logan. 


1 Abst 
Read before Boston Soc. Nat. History, Feb. 20, 1884. 


410 General Nctes, (April, 


They are distinct from the unconformably underlying Taconian 
quartzites, marbles and schists (Lower Taconic) which the author 
regards as Precambrian, and the still older crystalline schists of 
the Atlantic belt, including those, chiefly of Huronian age, whi 
have been called “Altered Quebec group.” The name of Taconic 
cannot be retained for the Appalachian Cambrian, which was, a 
- early as 1861, correctly claimed by Emmons as belonging to the 
period of the first fauna. The Hudson River group, as originally 
defined, included the whole of the Appalachian Cambrian, with 
some portions of the underlying Taconian, and others of overlying 
Ordvician strata, from which in the Appalachian area their char- 
acteristic limestones are wholly or in great part absent. It is 
from solely this association with the Cambrian graywac 
strata of Loraine age that the Hudson River group has come to 
be regarded as the paleontological equivalent of the Loraine. 
In the stable and little disturbed area around the Adirondack 
mountains, including the Champlain and Ottawa basins, the a 
brian is represented only by the quartzites and magnesian !M& 
stones of the Potsdam and Calciferous divisions, which pre 
low-water deposits, corresponding apparently to small Pili = 
only of Cambrian time. The physical conditions of the pa 
sippi area appear to have been similar to that of the Adiron = 
region. As seen to the west of Lake Superior the lowest kent 
dam beds of Hall rest unconformably upon the great Aa 
or copper-bearing series. This, although containing, ©” jije 


fauna. In this north-western area we find, moreover, 
Cambrian horizon, representatives of the Laureni 
Norian. The latter in the typical norites or so-call nian else 
which, near Duluth, are directly overlaid by the Kewet re also 
where resting on Laurentian or on Huronian rocks. i 
are found in Wisconsin petrosilex rocks of Arvoniat YP? ty 
quartzites, rising from beneath the Cambrian sanda his afeh 
ical Montalban and Huronian rocks also occur ere Animikie 
besides the group which the speaker long since ca rlaid i 
This great series, of many thousand feet, which !s e rdiag © 
formably by the Cambrian sandstones, and also, artzites ad 
Irving, by the Keweenian, consists chiefly of qu sponge b? 
argillites with beds of magnetite. The remains of ae at Thomp 
been detected in a calcareous mass got by the spea a late com 
son, Minn., from the argillites of this series, whi Í ia referred 


munication to the National Academy of Science, stated bis . 
to the Lower Taconic or Taconian horizon. + a en Animik? 
conclusion, drawn from various facts, that while ths onia, 


. u $ 
rocks rest unconformably in this region upon yE the coma? 
two series have hitherto been confounded unde 
name of Huronian. 


— 


1884.] Geology and Paleontology. 411 


As regards the Cambrian of the fourth area, that of the Cor- 
dilleras, the speaker alluded to the important observations of 
Powell and the recent studies of Walcott. Great local variations 
may here be looked for, and discoveries which will enable us to 
understand better the relations between the Appalachian Cam- 
brian and the other areas mentioned, as well as those on the 
a coast in Massachusetts, New Brunswick and Newfound- 

d. 


THE GEOLOGY OF ALGIERS—-FORMATIONS BELOW THE TERTIARY. 


formation of the mountains. Between these two parallel ranges 
lie an elevated zone of plateaus, which was uplifted at the same 
time. To the south of the southern crest extends an immense 
region through which the strata lie horizontally. This is the Al- 
gerian Sahara. Beyond this, on the confines of the Soudan, traces 
of dislocation appear, with eruptive rocks,and some vegetation. The 

ferent geological strata are disposed in long belts parallel to the 
coast, and the same arrangement obtains in Tunis and Morocco. 
The country is thus divided into zones, bearing each its distinct 
soil and climate, productions and people. The principal axis of 
the Algerian chain is that of the north, and it is this which has 
determined the direction of the Mediterranean coast. Previous to 
the uplift of the mountains, repeated and considerable outflows of 
‘sneous rocks had taken place, but the greatest outflow occurred 
in the Quaternary epoch. A great part of the effects of this plu- 
tonic outburst are hidden beneath the sea, but the northern coast 
of Sicily to the east, and Madeira to the west, are in the line of 


€ basalts of the African coast. The rivers which flow north- 
ward an a 


gorges by which these chains are intersected. The 
Tia Strata are crystalline schists, granite gneiss, mica schist, etc- 
Pe ati upon the coast, and form mountain masses or islands. 
provi € strata are not extensive, but are most developed in the 
Phitic of Oran. Some schists, with vegetable impressions, gra- 
PS Crane etc., are referred to the Silurian, and the pudding- 
of the m conglomerates with polyps, encrinites and foraminifera 
M. <r of Ain-Talba, are referred to the Carboniferous by 
her. The Devonian does not seem to be represented in 
irra et it undoubtedly occurs in Fezzan. No traces of 
, tan have yet been found, and the identification of certain 


412 General Notes. [April, 


beds with the Triassic rests solely upon their position below the 
Jurassic, and has no palzontological proof. Most of the horizons 
of the Jurassic are represented, but organic remains are rare, and 
the strata are sometimes metamorphic. The oldest Jurassic strata 
exist in the mountain region, and are marked by characteristic 
species. The Upper Jurassic (coradlien) appears to form a long 
band running from east-north-east to south-south-west across the 
high plateaus. The Neocomian, or Lower Cretaceous, is met with 
in the Tell, or mountain region, in the high plateaus, and as far as 
the confines of the Sahara, yet does not occupy large areas. The 
Urgo-Aptien (as our authority styles the strata between the Neo- 
comian and the Gault), occupies large areas in the south of the 
country. The Gault (A/dien) acquires in Algiers a thickness of 
150 to 300 meters, and is in great part composed of rocks 

posited mechanically.. It presents distinct characters in different 
parts, and is tolerably rich in fossils. The Cenomanian Is one of 
the most important and widely spread formations of Algiers, 
reaches a thickness of 500 meters, and enters into the formation 
of almost all the mountain masses, except those of the coast. 
Wherever this formation extends the surface of the country ® 
particularly uneven, full of ravines and peaks, or rocky aang 
difficult ascent, and almost completely sterile. These strata 


extremely rich in fossils. Though the Cenomanian occurs re 
north, its greatest development is in the parallel chains | 
- separate the long depression of the chotts from the : a , 

The Turonian is also extensive. It is composed of a com : 
able mass of limestone with Rudistes, and of some other l 
tween this and the Cenomanian. It occurs in the 


tones, ee and l 
black, and the fossils consist to a large extent of ga inp ] 


lamellibranchs, especially oysters, and echini. In ge ee e 
of this stage neither sandstone, sand, dolomite, kot: ed ina 


sponges, polyzoa and brachiopods are entirely y? ee 
are very rare, and cephalopoda represented by 
principally of Ceratites. 


URES. 
mobranchi of the Coal Measures, and I haw re 
ring also in the Permian. Mr. S. Garman 1as Mi 
an account of a shark supposed to have been 


ee NE 


ees S 


1884.] Geology and Paleontology. 413 


of Japan, which he names Chlamydoselachus anguineus; referring 
it to a new genus and family. He figures the teeth, and these 
are,as I have pointed out,? identical with those of the genus 
above-named.’ The species should then be called Didymodus 
anguineus. 

Crania of species of Didymodus are not uncommon in the 
Permian formation, and a description of the character of this part 
of the skeleton forms the subject of a paper recently read by the 
writer before the American Philosophical Society of Philadelphia. 

e palatopterygoid arch is suspended to the postorbital pro- 
cess of the cranium as in the existing Hexanchide. The genus 
would then be referred to the sub-order Opistharthri of Gill, but 
for the following peculiarities : The skull is segmented, so that car- 
tilage-frontals, parietals and occipitals can be distinguished, together 
with an element which has the position of the intercalare. The occi- 
pital supports a large vertebral cotylus. There are membrane bones 
extending from the nose over the orbits, which are either supraor- 
bitals or frontals. The tissue of the bones is granular, which leads 
to the belief that the granular ossification which covers the chon- 


in this genus. Hence the basicranial axis consists of the sphen- 
oid and presphenoid bones. One at least of the nares is on the 


ce to the structure seen in the Lepidosirenide. 

The structure points to the type from which the true fishes 
(Hy Opomata) diverged from the sharks. The characters are 
thought to define an order of the sub-class Elasmobranchi, 
“quivalent to all the other known forms. To these two divisions 
were given the names of Ichthyotomi and Selachii.—Z. D. Cope. 


qpe SQUEREUX ON CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY PLANTS.— 
ory eighth volume of the final reports of the U. S. Geologi- 

and Geographical Survey of the Territories on the Creta- 
ceous and Tertiary flora of the Western Territories, by Leo 


Was cts, has been in type at the Public Printing-office in 
“hse et for over six months past, and will be issued soon 
wi 


ill prove to be a very important contribution to the 
Ms pe logy of the United States the following brief 


des the description of species, the text gives general re- 
ao the geology of the Dakota group, on the characters of 
Plants in regard to climate, and their affinities with forms of — 


Mins: ae PRSA VOL. XVI. 
loge dymod: a De! hk i 
Agass., name oe Academy Philadelphia, 1883, p. 108. Dip- 
preoccupied in recent fishes. 


414 General Notes. [April, 


ing all the species known until the present time, of the flora of 
the Cenomanian in Europe, North America and Greenland, points 
out the relation with the plants of different localities. Atawe for 
Greenland; Moletin Inedlinberg, Needersham, the Quader sand- 
stone, &c., for Germany ; and the Dakota group, with species ob- 
tained in Nebraska and Kansas, and those found also in Colorado 
at the base of the Rocky mountains. The above refers to the 
first part of the report, the Cretaceous flora, with seventeen plates 
The second part comprises a revision of the plants of the 
Laramie group: Ist. Introduction, considering the relations of 
these plants with those of Europe, to establish the age of 
formation. 2d. Descriptions of a few new and well-marked 
species from very fine specimens, with three plates. 3d. A table 


other stages of the Tertiary, and were not grouped distinctly 


ora. 
The third part comprises the flora of the Green pe gas 
The characters of the plants separate the formation into as" 
sions. The plants of the Green River and Alkali. stations, of 
Randolph county, being different, most of them, from sod 
Florissant, mouth of White river and Elko. The descripto" 


Florissant, Elko, Green River station, Alkali station, Sage d 
Barrell’s springs, in relation with the Miocene re Miocene : 
Alaska, the Oligocene of France and Germany, and ks and oot 
of Europe. The table is followed by general remar 
clusions derived from the comparisons. ; E 
The fourth part relates to Miocene plants described from spe 
ens received from the Bad Lands, California, ty. The 
. from i 


Alaska, Carbon, Washakie, the Bad Lands, Oreg% fjand, S 
Fort Union group, with the Arctic Miocene, Vt 
bergen and that of Europe. receding 
This eighth volume is E REER of the two erates 
sixth and seventh. It describes, figures or enu da pa 
plants which have been found up to the presse taal A 
mations of Mesozoic and Cenozoic epochs of ig in VOR 
and, therefore, contains most valuable ma and theo? 
palzontology for the direction of future resen A 
fication and determination of the fossil flora 
F. V. Hayden. 


1884. ] Geology and Paleontology. 415 


GEOLOGICAL Notrs.—General—The Revue Scientifique (Jan. 
19) contains a geological map and description of Borneo, ac- 
cording to the recent explorations of Dr. T. P. Tivadartol. 
Situated in the midst of a volcanic region, this great island 
contains no active volcano. The five central mountain chains, 
which radiate from a common center and attain some 4000 
meters in height, consist of amphibole-gneiss, mica-schist, 
and talc-schist, with intercalations of peridote and serpentine, 
very strongly folded. The cincture of undulating hills around 

ese mountains is arenaceous, and is believed to be eocene, 
and the vast plains between these hills and the sea con- 
sist of ancient and’ modern alluvium. Some arenaceous clays, 
impregnated with salt, serving as a substratum to the vast salt- 
marshes of the lower parts of the island, seem older than the 
ocene hills, and may be of secondary age. The Alps of New 
Zealand, according to Mr. Green, were probably uplifted in Juras- 
sic times. The oldest rocks—granites (or possibly in part 
granitoid gneisses) appear on the western side; these are over- 
lain by crystalline schists, to which succeed slates, grits, etc., of 
Silurian and later ages. The highest rock on Mount Cook 
(12,349 feet) appears to be a quartzite, and Mr. Green mentions 

occurrence of some volcanic tuffs lower down the mountain. 
——Mr. E. T. Hardman has obtained the data for a geological 
sketch-map of 12,800 square miles in the Kimberley district of 
Western Australia, The lowest rocks are quartzites, schists an 
om metamorphic rocks, which he provisionally classes as Lower 
Silurian, but which may be Archean. These are succeeded by 
| Mestones and sandstones with gypsum, etc., supposed to be 
pper Carboniferous. The newest deposits are Pliocene sands, 
| sagan conglomerates, and marley limestones (called ‘‘ pindar”’ 


ae natives), overlaid by river gravels, extensive plains of 
bei m, and, along the sea-còast, by raised beaches. Certain 
of ir and felstones of uncertain age also occur. The report 
tw le Geological Survey of Prussia, for 1882, contains twenty- 
® important papers, by members of the staff and others, with 
-three plates of maps, sections and fossils. 
~7élaceous—M. Sintsoff has contributed to the Novorossian 
opni of Naturalists, at the University of Odessa, a monograph 
of. 


Sponges from the chalk of Soratoff. He describes a number 
a new species and four new genera. The same author has also 
igs aed on Mesozoic fossils from Simbirsk and Saratoff in which 
and bes two species of Ammonites, Aporrhais striatocarinata, 
—— other mollusca. 
fN "M. Sintsoff has described several tertiary mollusks 
tinia, V. i ossia, including species of Dreissena, Hydrobia, Neri- 
teau has d, Trochus, Amnicola, and Phasianella——M. Cot- 
tertiary gae mined twenty-one species of Echinide from the 
a Strata of St. Valois (Seine Inferieure). Eight of these 


416 General Notes. [April, 


have been found at other localities, in the Lower Eocene, Among 


Echinocyamus subcaudatus of the tertiary of Antibes (Var), but 
which differs from that species in the constant position of its 
periproct and other characters; and Guwaltiera orbignyt, a typ 
remarkable for its ovoid, posteriorly truncated form, by the a 
rangement of its ambulacral areas, which are severed at two-thirds 
of their length by an internal fasciole, and above all, by the pro- 
tuberances which surround the peristome, and are pokaj” 
along the center of the posterior interambulacral area, tOr 
these strata echini predominate, and other fossils are eee Me 
only by a few mollusks. Mr. Thomas has recently studied t 

terrestrial and lacustrine tertiary and quaternary beds of vm 


stead of preceding it,as is the case in Europe. 
the Pliocene. 


antelopes, a sheep, a mouflon, a camel oe erg in dentition, 


preserves some resemblance to Hippotherium. 


MINERALOGY". nas givet 
AN INTERESTING MINERAL FROM Canapa.— The roi W 
a preliminary notice of a very interesting minera” h-white squa 
Ontario, Canada. It occurs as white or e glazed on Ù 
crystals, sometimes an inch in breadth, and 0 neared comes 4 
outside. They are nearly square prisms weer gcapolite 
the general appearance being that of a partly o The angles 


pointed out to the author by Professor E. S. pera ie! 
similar to those of sarcolite, the following rey The pine 

O, i-i, I. 2, 2-i, 2-2, 6-3, the last two he 

- 1Edited by Professor H. CARviLL Lewis, Academy of Natural 

delphia, to whom communications, papers for rev! 
ss roceedings Mineralogical and Geol. Section, 

1993- ! , a gA 


* =e 
he me: 
n 
ia AN 
p 


—Through a mistake, the mineralogical notes in the 

Seas: of February were sent to press without any proof- 

ing; as a consequence numerous errors crept in, which are 
here corrected : 


On np. 182, ae > for a read gmelinite. 


por ions. 
z 2 $h “pr Ties ** gmelinite. 
pas 13, ¢ - ania sda read scalenohedro 
Peer re Gy: SO. SiO,, and for F Qy Fe,Oy. 
“a s 19, é: S us ma Sig 
x z 0e gruelinite - gmelenite. 
“ gee ty 4 Mey 
“ 2. N 
On p. 183 line 12, ee mineral “« minerals 
ý 17, bytainite “ bytownite 
xy : 31, “ stibrite sti 
= » “ racognized “ recognized 
ne 184, line 22, « idochase ge ona 


7 crase. 
uP: 185, line "a Friederich’s “ Friedrich’s. 
oe sc 


zs 36, « esia “alteration. 
Prechi “Precht. 


1884] Mineralogy. 417 


appears to bear the same analogy to sarcolite that gehlenite does 
to meionite. The crystals are distinguished by an almost entire 
absence of cleavage. Hardness 5-6, spec. gravity 3.050-3.057. 
Luster vitreous to resinous. The composition, as determined by 
Mr. R. Haines, is as follows, the enclosed calcite being subtracted 
from the analysis : 

SiO, Al,O, FeO, CaO MgO KO NO PO- H,O 

36.74 19.79 1.33 38.16 77 A at, 240. can Se. 10 

From this the quantivalent ratio of basis to silica is calculated 
as 9 :© or 3: 2, thus placing the mineral among the subsilicates. 

The mineral is insoluble or only partially soluble in acids, but 
gelatinizes with them after ignition. 

Before the blowpipe it fuses at 3 with intumescence to a white 
glass. With the fluxes a slight reaction for iron is obtained. 

thin section examined under the microscope shows an ad- 
mixture of calcite, which causes momentary effervescence when 
the mineral is placed in acid. The ground-mass is a gray amor- 
phous, non-refracting substance resembling altered feldspar. Scat- 
tered through this are the unaltered crystalline fragments of a 
$3, transparent tetragonal mineral, doubly refracting except 
in sections across the axis. The whole appearance resembles that 
of certain Specimens of melilite, and shows alteration to have 
occurred hroughout the whole of the crystals. 

The microscopic characters are not those of a simple mineral. 
Dr. M. E. Wadsworth regards the colorless mineral (isotropie or 
tetragonal) as having replaced the gray amorphous substance, as 
though the latter had once occupied the entire space. 

The crystals are imbedded in blue calcite, and are associated 
with pyroxene, graphite, cubical spinel (see below) and other 
pricing They were given the author by Dr. A. E. Foote, who 
) tained them from the locality. 

3 diferc Species appears to be isomorphous with sarcolite, but its very 
. tine = physical and chemical characters indicate either a dis- 
wie Pecies or a pseudomorph. The absence of cleavage and the 

: ogeneous microscopic characters argue pseudomorphism. 
d emicaliy it is allied to gehlenite. The temporary name caco- 
kiesi referring to its imperfect cleavage, was suggested. The 

‘ mens are still under investigation—H. C. Lewss. 

FG i SPINEL—Close to the locality where the above mineral 
f te big » Were cubes of a hard, dark mineral, the corners of which 


film italy nearly black, and were frequently covered with a 

a transmitted oxide. Small fragments were transparent, and by 

rarely sm light black or smoky sea-green or bluish-green color, 
x T amethystine. It scratched quartz, and as shown by 
iae E a E 


voL, 
; 27 


418 General Notes. 


the following analysis, was evidently a true spinel of novel crys 
talline form: 4 


iO, FeO CaO MgO AlO 
(by difference) 
0.65 3.00 1.20 27.18 7.97 =) 100 a 
—H. C. Lewis, — 
Tue ORIGIN or THE DrAMonp.—W. H. Hudleston! has advanced 
an extraordinary theory to account for the origin of thed : 


of South Africa. As is well known, the diamonds occur inasot 
of soft, earthy breccia, made up of fragments of many kin‘ of 


i 

part of the enclosed pebbles consist of basalt and other igi i 
| shells also occur in thè 

diamantiferous breccia, the matrix of which is a soft e 


ferro-magnesian silicate. Dykes of dolerite, gabbro andother 1 


character of the diamond rock.” He thinks that su in i 
steam was the eruptive agent, and suggests the analogy ; 
volcanoes. ` 
Since no diamonds have been found except in this soft 9 ah 
he suggests that the diamonds were formed in the bre ae 
having been formed at a considerable depth and then one SM 
ward with “ the rise of the viscous fluid in the pipe "k ae 
bon is supposed to have been derived from certain Ca rhea 
shales, which were distilled under enormous Pres tine form 
carbon would have “ nochoice but to assume the mbar š 
Certainly this theory requires more evidence than 
presented to support it. oft 
URraxorTHORITE.—In 1876 Nordenskiöld found oe contait 
the form of zircon, am e 
nium. The ee 
t Hitterd, Norway 
d by Collier in betag 
of Lake Champlain, and called by him uranothorilé, STER 


Collier regarded the uranium as combined a tre ora 
but as L. F. Nilson believes,” this was a mist ne ‘the ur jum 
isting as UO% Now Zimmerman has proved t and the tho 

her i 


proportions. The mineral of Arendal 
rich in uranium of the thorite of Brev! 
Berzelius in 1829. ft ele 
As the properties of the Lake Champlain, minera sson 
with those of the Norwegian thorite, there 15 Ys 
name uranothorite. tas 
1 Mineralogical Magazine, Vol. v, No. 25, P+ 199 
? Ann. a. Chimie et Physique, Nov. 1833, P- 429: 


1884.] Mineralogy. - 419 


Topaz IN NEVADITE FROM CoLorADO.—The “ nevadite” 9 Chalk 
mountain, Colorado, is a porphyritic rock showing large glassy 
sanidine and many smoky quartz crystals imbedded in a grayish 
ground-mass, and is an eruptive rock, of probably early Tertiary 
age. Mr. W. Cross finds in certain druses very perfect crystals 
of colorless, transparent topaz. Although these crystals are 
very small (% to 3 millimeters in length), they are interesting on 
account of their occurrence in an eruptive rock, all previously 
known occurrences being in granite, gneiss or some other meta- 
morphic rock. In the present case, as indicated by the associated 
minerals, the topaz may be a sublimation product. 


TELLUR-SULPHUR.—There has long been recognized in Japan, 
as being distinct from ordinary sulphur, a full orange-red variety 
under the name of seki-rin-seki (massive red sulphur). This has 
been examined by E. Divers and T. Shimidzu,! who find that 
while it is allied to the selen-sulphur of the Lipari islands, Naples 
and Hawaii, it differs from it in composition, being a tellurium 
sulphur. Analysis yielded 

Te Se As Mo S (by diff.) 
O.I 0.06 0,01 trace 99-76 

When the tellurium sulphur was treated with carbon bisulphide, 
the arsenic remained as sulphide. This red sulphur appears to 
occur at all the deposits of volcanic sulphur in Japan, having been 
ound at a number of localities. It contrasts strikingly with the 
associated yellow sulphur. It would be of interest could the 
chemical state of the tellurium be determined. Meanwhile the 
mineral may be regarded as a variety of sulphur, and might be 
known as tellur-sulphur. 


piney occur at the same locality, which promises to be of finan- 
ence regarding the production of material for gems. 
abo a locality for emeralds has been found in North Carolina, 
Out a mile south-west of the locality now worked at Stacy 
‘Sa The crystals are pale-green, and occur in decomposed 
F. Kase ® associated with quartz, rutile and hiddenite. Mr. J. 
EAR States that this new locality shows that the deposit of 
Gee North Carolina is not an accidental one, and that 
Sa encouragement for future exploration for gems in that 


y pa GICAL Nores.—During the year 1883 sixty mull 

| Ee pares were extracted from the Lake Superior mines. 

= Ozokerite thas been found in the Island Tscheleken in the 
Chem, News, Dec, 21, 1883. 


420 General Notes. 


Caspian sea. It is a brownish-black, sticky mass, almost entirely 
soluble in boiling benzine. On extracting it with ether, a hard 
residue remains, which contains a paraffine whose melting point 
is 79°, and sp. gr. 0.939. This paraffine forms lustrous crystals 
and is very stable. It has been named leken.——Celestite has 
been found in three localities in Kansas, as announced by W. 


terite. The iron was all in the ferrous condition ——™ 
occurs in brilliant, dark-blue crystals in the cavities of human 

bones taken out of a supposed Roman well near the ie aS 
of Rio Tinto, Sierra Morena. Professor M. F. Hed Pi 
found topaz associated with thorite, magnetite, angst ae : 
in the syenite of Ben Loyal, Sutherland, Scotland ——/ ale 
a greenish-yellow color, and of unusually interesite > 


Vesuvius, Norway and elsewhere contains one per a 


oe f Fi i xaminé Hon ode 
glistening swellings of the pedicels. Further a somapgen st 
these swellings upon most of the pedicels, and their sligt: 


ness to the touch quickly suggested their | reper re 
They were accordingly taken to the laboratory Su 


studied. 


the remaining and interior parts, as 5$ 3 

accompanying camera sketches. ed the gland 
A higher power of the microscope show His 
1 Edited by Pror. C. E, Bessey, Ames, Iowa. 


1884. ] Botany. 421 


to be made of columnar radially-placed cells, which, from their 
relation to the contiguous tissues, are c early to be regarded as 
modified epidermal cells. They were filled with minutely glandu- 
lar contents (Figs. 2 and 3, @) of a faint amber color. Beneath 
the ee there are several layers of chlorophyll-bearing 
cells (å). 


these becoming gradually thinner as they pass inward, as shown 
in Figs. 2 and 3. For comparison, a superficial view of the ordi- 


J hive —A cross-section of a glandular swelling; a, gland cells; 4, green cells; 
» and g, fibrovascular bundles; ¢, fibrous tissues. FIG. 2.—Cross-section of gland 
r 


Spe >a d een cells, IG. 3.—Longitudinal radial section of same. € 
Begar 73 view of gland cells. Fic. 5.—Superficial view of ordinary epider- 
o 


lucida coke pedicel, taken just above the glandular swelling. From camera 


eh Epidermal cells of the pedicel, taken just above the glandular 
ae IS here reproduced in Fig. «. 

apo T glands remind one, in their position, of the sticky belts 
is 7 the pedicels of certain species of Catchfly (Szene) and one 
2 €mpted to ask whether they have not the same functions in 
ie Sey. . 


s es.— C. E. Bes 
aA ALITY. IN ZYGNEMACE®.— A paper was read [before the 
aa Society, Nov. 15, 1883] by ME. A. W. Bennett, on the 
As it ag of the Zy gnemacee, as a solution of the question— 
Since io character? De Bary, twenty-five years ago, an 
o ual differ. Wittrock, have instanced what they have deemed sex- 
Writers ee between the conjugating cells, though most later 
Beane nt Snore essential physiological distinctions. Mr. 
has directed his investigations chiefly to the genera Spi- 


422 General Notes. [April 


rogyra and Zygnema, and from these he supports the inference 
of the above-mentioned authors. He finds there is an appreciable 
difference of length and diameter in the conjugating cells, that 
deemed the female being the larger. The protoplasmic contents 
he also finds pass only in one direction, and change first commences 
in the chlorophyll-bands of the supposed male cells with accom — 
panying contraction of the protoplasmic material. The genea 
Mesocarpus, Staurospermum, and the doubtful form Craterospe- 
mum have likewise been examined, and, though showing differ 
ences, yet on the whole substantiate the view above enunciata 
of cell sexuality.” —Nature. l 
[In the case of hybridism in Spirogyra, described in the pei 
ary NATURALIST, there were resting-spores in doth filaments, 1 
cell A, of the figure there given, was in the case of iy 
functionally the male, but the next cell to the right cone | 
resting-spore, as is shown in the figure. Moreover, the right ce! us 
to the left of B ‘not shown in the figure | contained 8 : 
spore. This case would indicate that bi-sexuality must be co a 
fined in A, at least to individual cells, otherwise, we should : 
to consider this a case of conjugation between two female platts, y 
which is manifestly absurd.— C. Æ. Bessey.] cs 
Some Recent Boranica Apvances——Among the "n 
nificant of the recent discoveries in botany is that je: wE 
continuity of the protoplasm from cell to cell by ya W 
cate threads which traverse channels through the “higher plants 
had long been known, that in the’ sieve ” tissues of his shich i 
there was such continuity through par oe? she ae 
perfectly separated the contiguous cells. 1 tar punde 
seen by making longitudinal sections of a fibro-vascular DO 
of a pumpkin stem, staining with iodine, an 
toplasm by alcohol. Carefully made specimens ° -< o 
of many plants have shown a similar protoplasmic vestigato® 
where it had previously been unsuspected. Some "i ity ayy 
are now inclined to the opinion, that protoplasmic © eh 
be of universal occurrence in plants. i plays “1% 
Tschirch regards it as probable, that Chlorophy Le 
merely a physical, but also a chemical part 10 7 view, tit 
Per . ss > R TR sa sheim’s RE 
assimilation.” This is in opposition to Prings®® ge 
the function of chlorophyll is that of a screen OF * sak 
sex 
oplas: 


H 


regarded as “simply a strongly specialized instance Ce a 
tion of nutriment.” According to this jle 
zation, is but the feeding of a cell upon This rid 
i. e., material identical with its own substance. work” 
enables the cell, so greatly nourished, to perform m 
producing a new individual. n 


1884. | Botany. 423 


Borany In A MEDICAL Course.—From Nature we learn that 


morphology, histology, physiology, and life-history of plants, as 
illustrated by the following types: Saccharomyces, Protococcus, 
Mucor, Spirogyra, Chara or Nitella, a Fern, Pinus, and an angio- 
spermous flowering plant.” 
Is there any medical school in this country, where such an 
intelligently arranged course in elementary botany is provided ? 
00 often, alas, there is no botany at all in our medical courses. 


es ES 


Osituary.—The friends of science, and mycologists especially, 
will learn with regret of the death of Wm. T. Haines, Esq., who 
died suddenly at his residence in West Chester, Pa., on the 2d of ` 
February, 1884. Mr. Haines, in addition to his arduous legal 
duties, has for many years taken a deep interest in scientific pur- 
Suits, and especially in the investigation of the flora of his locality ; 
and the many interesting species contributed to the North Ameri- 
can Fungi, by him and his colleagues of the West Chester My- 
cological Club, will long keep his name in pleasant remembrance 
pte those who turn over the pages of that collection.—/. B. 

is. ; 


Boranicat Norrs.—A fine engraving of the foliage and mature 
cones of Dammara australis, the Kauri Pine of New Zealand, is 
Siven in the Gardener's Chronicle, for October 27th, last. The 
L Rumber for November 3d, contains well-drawn life-size figures of 
eur Yellow-water lily (Nuphar advena).—The October Quarterly 
J E of Microscopical Science, contains an extended article by 


to a sort of gummy degeneration of the tissues of some plant, 
the fungal threads present are saprophytic; the accom- 
e cause. n the same journal several new 


2 are 
: deicated ee by Mr. Scribner. One by Dr. Nagy is 


Holiday s ST Papers, one on Schweinitz (biographical), a Botanical 
oliday in Nova Scotia, Notes on the N. A. forms of Podosphera, 


424 General Notes. 


ing and description, but several-celled. 
ENTOMOLOGY. : 
THE SPRUCE-BUD Tortrix!—The habits of this insect while m 
confinement were first studied by Professor C. H. Fernald, 
Maine State Agricultural College, Orono, Me., and his accol® — 
published in the American NATURALIST for January, 


coast of Maine in Bulletin 7 of- the United States £ 
logical Commission, we refer to this insect, which we were 
to identify, as, after repeated search in the latter part ° 

F 7 mer, we failed to discover 
r ges. In 


inquiries and field-work carried on in June and Je y, P ak 
ferent parts of Maine, we now have little doubt ee State 
destruction of spruces and firs along the coast o w 
mainly due to the attacks of this insect. forest tri 
The different climatic causes sry to destroy [or 
general, would, in the present case, have inj tructi 
wood trees, as well as serves and firs, and the dest™ 
have been general; whereas the trees have been kil! aity 
pillar which we have never found upon pines for es 
spruce, fir, and occasionally the hemlock and 
trees, or clumps of trees, were attacked, whether pe? 
posed situations or in hollows ; occasionally from S¥ 
worms seem to have increased and spread from y 
all the trees in localities several square miles ae 
killed. Moreover, as we have seen in the oie giley) % 
_1Bxtracted from the report of the Entomologist (Pro e 
partment of Agriculture for 1883. . 


1834.] Entomology. 425 


the larch worm, the defoliation of spruces and firs repeated two 
and perhaps three summers is sufficient to either kill the tree out- 
right, or so weaken it that bark-boring beetles can complete the 


The spruce-bud worm, as we observed in Cumberland county, 
also at Phillips, and near the Rangeley lakes, on the road from 
Phillips to Rangeley, where the trees by the roadside, as well as 
in the woods, were attacked by them, so that they looked as if a 
light fire had passed through them ; feeds upon the leaves or 
needles of the terminal shoots, both the first and previous year's 
growth. The worm gnaws the base of the needles, separating 
them from the twig, meanwhile spinning a silken thread by which 
the needles and bud-scales are loosely attached to the twig; the 


tolling caterpillars, in a regular tube. 


a caterpillar sometimes draws together two adjacent shoots, 
ut thi 


è 
abundant where the dead or partially dead spruces abounded ; 
but individual worms could be obtained by beating any spruce or 

rın any locality, showing that in years of immunity from its 
insect is a common and widespread species. We 


rough all-the Rangeley lakes, and going from Errol, N. H., to 
in, Gorham, Jackson, and Conway, N. H., we found that the 
Tin and firs throughout Northwestern Maine and the White 


d i à 
ia at the water’s edge of the middle lakes were evi- 


dams q es sa the high water held in by the middle and lower 


(Apa, 
The spruce-bud worm attains its full size and stops feeding, 
ready to transform to a chrysalis, in Cumberland county, bythe — 
20th to 30th of June, and about the Rangeley lakes and inthe 
hite Mountain region a few days or nearly a week later. | 
When about to change to a pupa it remains in its rude shelter — 
or hiding-place under the loosened leaves of the shoot, whereit — 
turns to a chrysalis, without spinning a regular, even, thin cocoon. — 
It remains in the chrysalis state about six days. Those pupatiig 4 
at Brunswick, Me., June 28 and 29, issued as moths July 4 and $. ‘ 
When the moth is ready to break forth from the pupa, the latter 
) 


426 General Notes. 


wriggles part way out of. its hiding-place, and the moth issues, 
leaving the rent pupa skin projecting half way out of the end of 2 
the shoot. The moths then appear from the first to the middle of i 
July. July 16, after our return from an absence of two 

we found that the moths of both sexes had issued, and jaa $ 
females had laid their eggs in curious little patches on the i 
of the breeding-box. They must have issued about the sthto t 
of July, and immediately laid their eggs, as in one ep" | 
shells were empty, with a small orifice in the shell, out of pe a 
the larvæ had crept. Another patch was found with a daya 
in each egg, showing the head of the embryo caterpii , 
hatched July 18, 19. It thus appears that the embryo GY" 
and the caterpillar hatches, in about ten days after the egg* 
laid. 


The eggs are very curious and very one of 


moths. They are pale-green, scale-like, than 
moderately convex above, oval cylindrical, a little pp ‘ 
broad, and in all those which I examined, both those com 


From the form and size of the egg-mass it 15 €V! 
by the moth to a terminal twig. The caterpillars 
not, as Fernald observes, eat the shell. They 
soon after the middle of July, and it is most PP 
caterpillars become partly, perhaps almost ne terminal $% 
the end of autumn, and pass the winter among z wing June? 
of the tree, to finish their transformations the fo ri jet? 

uly. It is certain that there is but a single br NATURA 
Professor Fernald, in his article in the AMERICAN ps the wo 
scribes the process of egg-laying. e has bree ous P sites * 
an ichneumon (Pimpla conguisitor), several i rki 
a hair-snake. We have found the insect to without"? 
from parasites, having bred about 25 of the mO 
any parasites.— A. S. Packard, Jr. 


Pe fence ee 
E 


1884.) Entomology. 427 


NEST OF THE PseuDO-ScorPION. —In confirmation of the refer- 
ence to this subject in “ Packard’s Guide to the Study of Insects,” 
fourth edition, p. 658, I found, Feb. 5, 1884, a pseudo-scorpion, 
which had died in its nest, in the act of molting. The nest was 
made at the edge of a piece of paper lying on a beam in a garret. 
When the paper was removed, the nest still adhering to the edge, 
had its lower surface torn open, disclosing the dead insect. The nest 
(Fig. 1, under side, nat. size; :Fig..2, 

_ Upper side, enlarged five diameters), 
l was oval in outline, two-teriths of an 
_ inch long. Its lower surface was a 

» White web of extremely thin, 

translucent texture. Its upper sur- 


P 
SR 
3g 
oo 
rees 
eS 
> 4 
n 2 
cS 
Ò 
3c 
D + 
aE 
ES 
i = 
S 
kat 
3.5 
o= 
$5 


although wrinkled on the back, reach- 
ing nearly its original position at the 
= og ig Snip it was ruptured 
each side, from the head back- , 
wards toabout two-thirds of its length, aie + oa pepe ponies 
somewhat resembling a pair of open- enlarged. Fic.3.—Pseudo-scorpion 
Ng oyster shells. The empty cover- view from above. Fic. er 
ings of the lar ge maxillary palpi wese from the side.—F L. Zabriskie. 
ca in perfect condition, still bearing the prominent long 
rs on the forceps. But the molted palpi themselves were bent 
seenwards and backwards, with their tips extending under the 
men, where also all the legs were gathered with their tarsi 
Placed ther.— F. L. Zabriskie, Nyack, N. Y. 


eee 


Pseudo-Scorpion’s nest. 


i 
; 
i 


i OLOGICAL NeEws.—Papilio closes its third volume with 
_ |. Ment triple number. The transformations of Hemaris uni- 
l tes Darapsa chærilus, Cressonia juglandis, Sphinx chersts, 

bri Detopeia bella, Parasa chloris, Limacodes 


my 
a 
et 


: tee bed by H. Edwards and S. L. Elliott. Mr. H 
vation Ne Species of Euchetes, and shows by Mr. Elliott’s obser- 
Pam . larvæ, that Æ. collaris is a different species from 
OB ken The genus Arctia and its variations are discussed 
2 Dena, hogen n with the result of reducing several so-called 
Hagen’ to varieties. Mr. W. H. Edwards comments at length on 
vi To Om the genus Colias; while W. Schaus, Jr., de- 


er 


428 General Notes. [April, 


scribes the early stages of some Mexican Lepidoptera. We 
regret to notice that Mr. Edwards is unable to conduct this very 
successful journal, which will hereafter be published by Mr. E. 
M. Aaron, P. O. Box 2500, Philadelphia, Pa. -An elaborate 
essay on the thoracic muscles of insects, by C. Luke, appears in 
the Jena Zeitschrift, for Oct. 13,83. With the exception of the 
Thysanura (including the Collembola) insects of all orders have 
been examined. The Quarterly Journal of the Boston Zodlog- 
ical Society, for Jan., prints valuable notes on the habits and 
metamorphoses of Hydrocharis obtusatus and Magdalis olyra, by 
F. C. Bowditch—Dr. Hagen states in the Extomologist's Monthly 
Magazine, for Jan., that he saw at Wood's Holl Anax longipes 
preying upon Papilio asterias, catching them and settling on 4 
shrub to behead and devour them. This is a rare southern form. 
——A case of sex-dimorphism in the Psocidz is noticed by Ph. 
Bertkau (Archiv. fiir Natur., 183). In Z heteromorphus the 


; be. (Archiv. far 
Natur., 1883) characterizes forty-three species of Dytiscid@ per 
Madagascar, in the entomological museum of Berlin, aa si 
noses twenty other species found in Madagascar, aS well as 
found on the surrounding islands only. The usua 


gascar and the Oriental region than in Africa, = ion 
Species are nearer to those ot the Oriental and Australian | 
pone sr oe ae Ethiopian ; and, on the whole, th 


æ tha 
are nearer those of the two former faune that 


the greater part of which wi gued ties 
, e greater part of which will probably be Bee ; ry notices 4 


the latter’s notice it is stated that LeConte describe f the la 
500 genera and nearly 5000 species, three-fourths © notable f 
_ temaining valid; but, it is added, that his work was 

his breadth of view as well as analytical powers- 


1884.] Zoology. 429 


ZOOLOGY 


TREMATODE PARASITES IN AMERICAN CRrayFisH.— Professor 
Kellicott has recently called attention to the fact that American 
St he e subject to invasion by Trematode parasites.! His 
iy yi ats recalled to me some observations which I made in 
iA = ži E I now record, because in the interval the Dis- 
feteueg e tropean Astacus fluviatilis have been subjected to 
ge examination, and one of them has been accused as the 

eof the pest, which has, within the last five years, effected 


Two Distomes are found abundantly in Astacus—D. isostomum 
The 


BET. 
PeT i 


ra measures between 2 and 3™™ in 
i. ome is ey recognized by 
ity in diameter of it i 
ventral suckers s anterior an 
less to its h i 
, ost, 
that ca a and Zaddach thinks 
See 
rds my impression that I have also met 
: Sostomum in American crayfish, 


but th 
“are ‘ Ge have preserved 


i ; Fic. 1.—M, the mouth in 

The minute eac out Self impregnating. ‘he anterior sucker: m Ihe 

E Professor een led forms described by front of vs, the epin ox 

2 young stages tt, are very probably er; ic, one of the intestinal 

my of this species, _ coeca ; vd, vas deferens lead- 

One which ection of Trematoda I find '% directly from the anterior 
I mar d 


testis ? to cs; vé, the vitel- 
Z ked, when discovered, “D. logen; ż,the posterior testis, 
3 S from a cyst in the ovary the vas deferens of which 
This “us, probably appears to end in a vesicula 
> Species (Fis y ©. Propinquus. seminalis, between whic 


fh 1g. 1), belongs to a small andzd is the blastema for 
1 Proe. mes in which the anterior the ovary. 

: 2C.0. ay, mran, Chicago Meeting, 1883, p. 115. 
ae Bericht eae ee Krebspest, &c.” Wien, 1881. Rev. by Dr. v. 


Thiere in Archiv. für Naturg., 1883. 
1 Zodl. Anz., 1881, 398 and 426. 


430 General Notes. [April, 


sucker is produced into papillze, and is found free in the intestinal 
canal of various European fresh-water fish (Perca, Lucioperca, Esox), 
and encysted on the outer surface of the intestine in Acerina. 
V. Linstow? indicates Paludina impura as the intermediate host 
into which the cercariæ of D. nodulosum penetrate and encyst 
themselves, Their presence in an encapsuled condition in Acerina 
he explains by supposing that the cercariz have either wandered 
directly into the little fish, or that they have been swallowed 
while still free in the mollusk. 


fresh-water fish. It remains to be seen whether the crayfish 's 
normally the intermediate host. The researches of the late Pro- 
fessor Ercolani? have shown how easily some Trematodes accom- 
modate themselves to new surroundings, and it is quite poss 
that this solitary specimen of D. nodulosum had merely | Wal 
dered” into an unaccustomed host—R. Ramsay Wright, 

of Practical Science, Toronto. 


PTEROLICHUS FALCIGER MEGNIN, OBSERVED IN TH 
States.—The “ nymphe hypopiale” ( Hypoderas columb 


g Unite? 
Murray) 


g NLU 
of this mite has been noticed by the writer on several pre 
in the tissues of the domestic pigeon. As stated by Robe 
it occurs most abundantly in the connective tissue abou 
veins near the heart, but a few may be found under the 


Nymphe hypopiale of Prerolichus falciger, enlarged 
the two posterior pairs. No mouth-parts are visible 


1 


with oe 


Arch, für Naturg., XXXIX, 18 
Tisti ‘ » 1673, P- i 
3 Dell’ adattamento della specie all’ ambiente. Bologna, 1881-2. 


1884. | Ze ool ogy. 431 


Spencer’s I-10 inch immersion objectives, and as these appendages 
can be seen with ordinary objectives in very much smaller mites 
than this, it is safe to assume that there are none. The charac- 
ter of the legs, with their chitinous rings and highly-developed 
epimera, would seem to be sufficient to place this form with the 
Sarcoptidz, even if none of the other stages existed. The legs 
are not terminated by two hairs, as is supposed by some writers, 
but in the three anterior pairs by a long claw with a slightly 
swollen tip, which probably represents the tarsal sucker of the 
normal form.—H. Garman. 


On THE MORPHOLOGY oF THE “ LATERAL RODS” OF THE OPHIU- 
RoD PLureus.—Two groups of Echinoderms, the Ophiuroidea 
and the Echinoidea, have a larval stage in their development, 
which is known as a pluteus. In both of these groups the larval 
appendages, unlike those of the young of other Echinodermata, 
have the form of long calcareous rods, encased in a covering like 
that which forms the fleshy walls of the body. 

Homologues of all these appendages or rods of the Ophiuran 
Pluteus have been found in those of the Echinoid, with the excep- 
tion of by far the most prominent pair, which is first to appear 
_ and last to be absorbed and known at the lateral arms These 
are Not commonly mentioned as existing in the pluteus of the 


4 
‘ 
i 
i f 


4 inoid genera, and many authors say that they are unrepre- 
_ Stnted. On the other hand a pair of appendages, which seems to be 
_ Without homologues in the pluteus of the Ophiuran, exists in the 
| ee of certain genera of Echinoidea, as Arbacia, and are called 
© apical” or “anal” rods or appendages. The lateral rods of 
the Ophiuran larva bear so many resemblances to these so-called 
g the appendages of Arbacia, that it seems natural to homologize 
one pair with the other. 
“(sled pluteus from the Bermudas, a description of which I 
: rs angel to publish, seems to stand intermediate between that of 
and the young Ophiuran in respect to the size, and com- 


: veia ticulars the homology of these two appendages which I 
n b 

: a rel. 
sha Pluteus o Ophiurans takes place, and that when the apical 


which | bacia develop, may not seem to support the theory 
er eebe advanced in regard to their homology. The 


to develop, while the posterior pair of arms in Arbacia 
ag Oped, and the so-called antero-lateral are far along 
— Ore any trace of the apical rods appears. This 
oe development would seem a fatal objection to the pro- 

ip i 
P ve netlatre of the arms adopted here is that used by Balfour in his Com- 
ay SA ology, Volt, page 470. 


432 General Notes. [April, 


posed morphological identity of the two, if the time of their 
appearance is the only index of homology in Echinoderm larval 
appendages. The comparative anatomy of the rods of the body 
of the pluteus seems to me to point without doubt to an homol- 
ogy of the lateral arms of Ophiuran larval and the apical rods of 
Arbacia. All the appendages of the various forms of Echino- 
derm larvæ may be regarded as specially, er perhaps independ- 
ently acquired structures, which are destitute of any great value, 
comparatively speaking, as far as the phylogeny of the Echino- 
derms is concerned. If I am right in looking at them in this 
way, the stages of growth in which the larva of Arbacia and the 
Ophiuran was, when on the one hand an apical 1 pair of rods, and 
on the other the lateral arms appear, need not coincide an yet 
the two may be homologically the same.—/. Walter Fewkes, 


PLATEAU’S RESEARCHES ON THE ABSOLUTE FORCE OF THE MUS 
CLES OF Bivatves2—The great apparent force of the adductor 
muscles of lamellibranch mollusks is a fact universally knows, 
and which forms the basis of La Fontaine’s fable of the rat an 
the oyster. Fishermen and naturalists have made this the sub- 
ject of interesting remark. Thus Darwin, speaking of the gren 
Tridacnas of tropical seas, says, that any one imprudent enous. 
to introduce his hand between their valves, would be unable to 
withdraw it while the animal lived. Léon Vaillant relates that 
the divers whom he employed at Suez, and who procured 


B 


hi 


specimens of Tridacna elongata, advised him not to touch thes 
animals on the side of the opening of the shell. ‘ments 
Plateau then adds: “ I myself, in the course of erperimet 
related in this notice, have been witness, whenever I wished y 
Mya arenaria, of a fact at first sight very surprising; i a 
living mollusk we break, with the aid of a knife or pie 
small area of the shell in the neighborhood of the hinge, age 
ing noise is heard, and we see the valves open and od 
gether with a loud noise under the influence of the traction i 
adductor muscles.” ded 
Darwin’s observations on the transportation of Unio gee 
by its closed valves to a duck’s foot ; of a Cyclas fixed in the Si 
way to the foot of a water-beetle (Dytiscus), and of Cycle’. 
itself to the foot of a triton so as to amputate it, are a 
aad it eaking te f the observations of others who submits 
adductor muscles to experiment. i ' 
Noticing A, oggy ọn the elongatio®®, Vail 
which the adductor muscles of Anodonta; those T teral rods © 
1 From what has aid it is t the name c3 bent 
designate re appendage eis irasogses a be ODD 
as long been used. - Prem. Par. 
_, _ Recherches sur la force absolue des muscles des invertebrates. Par M. Pro 
orce absolue des les adduct des mollusques Lamellibranches. Belgiqn® ™ 
fessor Felix Plateau. Extrait du Bulletins de l’ Academie royale de 
1883, 8vo, pp. 36. 


Se Nea Na Po eke META SRSA SOAS See Mees SUNT SS SATE ee ey DTT Tle ee See BR cer eg te 


1884.] Zoology. 433 


lant on the measurement of the force displayed by the adductors 
of bivalves, he refers at some length to those of A. Coutance, 
made especially on the Pecten maximus. 

Plateau then describes at length his own interesting experi- 
ments, from which he draws the following conclusions : 

he only way to carefully compare the muscular force of 
lamellibranch mollusks with that of the higher animals consists 
inestimating the absolute forces of the muscles by the square 
centimeter of transverse section. 

2. The result of this comparison shows that the absolute 
force of the adductor muscles of Lamellibranchs is analogous 
to the absolute force of the muscles of vertebrates. The reader 
will probably make the remark that the fibers of the ad- 
ductor muscles of the bivalves are generally smooth, while, the 
muscles of animal life of vertebrates are composed of striated 
fibers. The, objection is a serious one; but with the result to 
place me in the best possible condition, since I have undertaken 
some researches of the same kind on the Crustacea. The mus- 
cles of these articulates are striated, and present a texture very 
near to that of vertebrates. 


Turke New FAMILIES oF FISHES ADDED TO THE DEEP-SEA 
FAUNA IN A Year—In addition to the family of Eurypharyngids, 
fully described lately by Mr. Ryder and myself, two new family 
types were added to the deep-sea fauna by the explorations of the 
pa Fish Commission on steamer Albatross in 1883. These will 

called Derichthyidæ and Stephanoberycidæ. 

The Derichthyids are represented by one specimen, which has 
an eel-like form, a serpentiform head, with well developed maxil- 


pi as well as palatines, both bearing bands of teeth, a well de- 
neck, and the scapular arches remote from the skull. The 


: e ote 
inal or sub 
ce iimerous spinous rays in the procurrent upper and lower 
sping? a Cavernous head, toothless palate, and scales with 
Fray faces. It includes my Stephanoberyx mong and Acan- 
rays, th lithe nit; the latter has abdominal yentrals and branched 
.7*, thus differing from Stephanoberyx, but it is not absolutely 
preg d on a small specimen. i 
“er interesting fish, from the same collection, is an Ale- 
n aid, with the body as well as head scaleless, which I shall 
aS Aleposomus copet.— Theodore Gill. 7 
XVITI.—no_ ry, 


- ee it may prove to be merely the mature form of the 


434 General Notes. [ April, 


ZootocicaL Nores:— Dr. C. Bulow (Archiv. fiir Naturge- 
schichte, 1883) gives the result of experiments on the subject 
carried on by him at Rostock. Bonnet beheaded a worm eight 
times, and regeneration followed each time, but the ninth time 
only a bud appeared. The results obtained by Reaumur, O. F. 
Miiller, and others, are recapitulated. From the results obtained 
it is concluded that the head of an earth-worm is composed of 
eight segments, occasionally of nine, but more often of a smaller 
number, especially when the animal is cut into relatively small 
parts. When the new head does not contain the normal number 
of head-segments, the mouth-parts always serve their purposes. If 
a worm be cut in pieces, each containing eight or nine segments, 
each piece is tolerably sure to become a perfect worm. When 
a worm was cut into fourteen pieces, one died, but the rest repro- 
duced both head and tail. Dr. v. Linstow (Archiv: für Naturg. 
1883) describes the Nematodes, Trematodes, and Acanthocephali 


of Nematode species (76) is large, compared with that of the 
Trematoda (15), and of the Acanthocephali (3), but this is ac- 
counted for by the fact that the larvæ of the two latter families 
live in aquatic invertebrates, which are scarce in the unwa- 
tered plateau of Turkestan. Eighteen new species of parasitic 
nematodes are described, including an Ascaris of the sturgeon, 
one of Silurus glanis, and one of Pastor roseus; a Physaloptera 
of Tropidonotus hydrus; a Filaria of Phalacrocorux carbo, and one 


species of Gordius and Mermis (8) appear to be new. Of the 
Acanthocephali two species of Echinorhynckus, from Petræca 
cyanea and Astur palumbarius, respectively, are new, as are six 
om of Distomum and one of Monostomum among the trema- 
todes. 

Amphibians and Reptiles —M. P. Albrecht notes the presence 
of true ossified epiphyses upon the spinous processes of many of 
the vertebre of Hatteria punctata, strikingly resembling the 
same epiphyses in mammals. The skeleton examined (an adult) 
had, besides the pro-atlas, 8 cervical, 17 dorso-lumbar, 2 sacral, 
and 15 caudal vertebre. The extremity of the tail was in neo- 
genesis. A pair of these epiphyses occur on the 7th and 8th cer- 
vials, and on the dorso-lumbars from the 2d to the roth, inclu- 
sive, and on the 14th and 15th of that series. The remaining 
two dorso-lumbars, the sacrals, and the first four caudals have 
a single epiphysis evidently formed by the union of the right an 
left elements. The epiphyses increase in size to the 16th dom 
lumbar, and thence diminish—D. J. v. Bedriaga (Archiv. Jir 


Oo 


1884.] Zoölogy.. 435 


land. He also devotes a large space to the external and internal 
characters, variations, and development of Megaplerna montana 
Savi, anda list of its numerous synonyms, which include the 
generic names of Triton, Molge, and Euproctus. He believes 
that the genus Triton should be held to include not only Triton 
proper, but also Hemitriton, Pelonectes and perhaps Euproctus 
and Megapterna. Other Corsican amphibia are Salamandra 
maculosa, Hyla viridis, Discoglossus pictus, Rana esculenta sub sp. 
s and Bufo variabilis. Our author distinguishes two species 
of Euproctus, Æ. rusconii, found in Sardinia, and Æ. pyrendica, 
a native of Spain, Portugal, and the Pyrenees. The Reptilia of 
Corsica are Tropidonotus natrix, Zamenis gemonensis, Platydactylus 
mauritanicus, Notopholis fitzingert ; Lacerta oxycephala, L. mura- 
, and L. viridis, Vipera aspis, Emys orbicularis, and Testudo 
ea. 


“oa away with an unfledged robin in its claws. Mr. J. W. 
a. records the observation of several persons near Cashport, 

o declared that the crows take up in their claws sea-urchins and 
a m up away from shore. “One intelligent person, not a 
their e id he had observed the crows zransporting them in 
king}, xorg ‘The nesting habits and eggs of the ruby-crowned 

nglet; of Myiodestes townsendi ; of the saw-whet owl; of the 


£ach’s petrel in Rona, one of the Hebrides, are described. The 
„ack-throated auk, a North Pacific sea-bird, is recorded as occur- 
ring in Wisconsin. 
Mammals—The beautiful chromo plates illustrating the first 
f the mammals of Brehm’s Thierleben, are well worthy 


O 2 lally the orang, chimpanzee and the gorilla, are as suc- 
New You . These plates can be had of B. Resteimann & Co., 


436 General Notes. [ April, 


PHYSIOLOGY. 

LOCALIZATION OF FUNCTION IN THE Brain. — The question 
at present of most fundamental interest in the physiology of the 
brain is, whether the various functions of the mind are delegated 
to special nervous centers of the cerebral cortex; in other words, 
is or is there not, localization of function in the brain. It is ad- 
mitted by all physiologists that ordinary involuntary actions, like 
those of respiration, deglutition, &c., are aroused by impulses 
proceeding from pretty definitely localized nervous centers; but 
it has been a question of serious dispute as to whether psychical 
functions are likewise anatomically distributed over the nerve- 
cell—containing cortex of the cerebrum. Dr. Ferrier, of London, 
and Professor Goltz, of Strassburg, have been the chief exponents 
of the two extreme views on the subject. The former, in accord- 


lation of it would call the function into play. The principal 
objection to Ferrier's experiments, that his animals were no 
allowed to live long enough after the operation to give fair chance 
of recovery from the effects of the shock, has been set aside In 
the case to be considered, that of a monkey which was killed 
and submitted to post-mortem examination after having lived in 
1ealth for seven months succeeding an operation on the left side 
of the brain. Professor Goltz, working on dogs, has come 1 


the purely psychical powers lost their acuteness until, whens 
e 

almost total annihilation of the powers of judgment and ae 
tion. According to Goltz, the sole function of the cerebru ae 
to serve as the seat of the purely psychical powers, and a a 
of sensation or of motion, which may result from injury ye 
the indirect effects of enfeebled perception. Goltz attribu ‘er, t0 
definite paralyses and losses of sensation, obtained by peo 
direct inhibition of these functions due to inhibitory ™ 
proceeding from the injured parts. 


; Michig® 
‘This department is edited by Professor Henry SEWALL, of Ann Arbo® 


1884. ] Physiology. 437 


At the meeting of the International Medical Congress, held in 
London, in 1881, Goltz exhibited a dog, and Drs. Ferrier and Yeo 
amonkey, both of which animals had months previously been sub- 
jected to cerebral operations, and had long been in complete 
health. After a study of animals by members of the Congress, 
a committee was appointed, consisting of Mr. Langley, Dr. Klein, 
and Professor Schafer, to make anatomical and microscopical 
examinations of the two brains. The committee has recently 
presented an exhaustive report on the subject submitted to it. 

The dog, when still alive, when let loose in a room, wandered 
with wagging tail, hither and thither, carefully avoiding obstacles 
and using his muscles in a perfectly normal manner, with the 
exception of an occasional slipping of the feet upon the floor, 
and rather general clumsiness of movement. It was clear that 


To use now the words of the report: “ Professor Ferrier, Lon- 
don, called attention to the condition of the monkey which he 


a occasion whatever, did it show any volitional action 
wa ir right hand or arm.” One of the chief difficulties in the 
of ty of the committee which made the post-mortem examination 
€ two brains, was to determine the homologies of the various 
The oc organs. This could not be done with certainty. 
extensj ction of the dog’s cerebrum was somewhat more 
have “ign the right side than on the left. There appears to 
three-fo complete and-deeply extended destruction of about 
; ste the substance of the cerebrum ; the ava of the 
i inferi ing intact included the anterior fourth, the superior 
hp : » median-latéral portions. Most of the so-called 
In th areas appear to have been included in the lesion. 
e monkey it was found that the greater part of the two 
“® ©onvolutions, together with adjacent parts of the frontal 


438 General Notes. (April, 


and parietal lobes, had been removed on the left side of the 
brain. Secondary disturbances in the body of the organ had 
probably made the lesion physiologically more extensive than 
appeared from the surface. The pyramidal tract of fibers in the 
spinal cord, which is in connection with the cerebrum, was found 
to be degenerated throughout its whole extent. 

To a disinterested person it seems, from the evidence here 
offered, that Goltz has shown conclusively the absence of locali- 
zation of function, as that term is commonly understood, for the 
brain of the dog, while Ferrier has failed to completely establish 
his theory of localization of function for the brain of the monkey. 
— Four. of Physiology, Vol. 1v, Nos. 4 and 5. 


WRITING with THE Voice.—At a meeting of the College of 
Physicians, last week, Professor Harrison Allen, of Philadelpha, 
showed a new and very interesting discovery by which spoken 
language can be represented by a series of curved lines on a rè- 


instrument designed by the professor, and which is very simple 
and easy of operating. By means of his device he is enabled to 
register upon the surface of the sooted paper the lines and curves 
that represent the various phonetic sounds of the human voice. 
His observations have proved that the discovery will undoubtedly 
be of great importance in diagnosticating cases of diseases of the 
palate, and in studying the causes of stammering. 

_ Professor Allen has already shown, by means of his interest- 
ing experiments, that many of the sounds which have long ey" 
considered by elocutionists to be formed by the direct action © 


: GREGARIOUS AND Sravisu Instincts.—In his very t” Mr 
Inquiries into Human Faculty and its Development ntl 
; ap ntiy 


1884] Psychology. 439 


that the conditions of the lives of these animals have made a want 
of self-reliance a necessity to them, and that by the law of natural 

ion the gregarious instincts and their accompanying slavish 
aptitudes have gradually become evolved. He then argues that 
our remote ancestors lived under parallel conditions, and that we 
have inherited the gregarious instincts and slavish aptitudes which 
have been needed under past circumstances, but which in our 
present advancing civilization are becoming of more harm than 
good to our race. 

Reference is then made to the camel, whose urgent need “ for 
the close companionship of his fellows was a never-exhausted 
topic of curious admiration to me during tedious days of travel 
across many North African deserts. I also happened to hear and 
read a great deal about the still more marked gregarious instincts 
of the llama, but the social animal into whose psychology I am 


the who 


If he is separated from it by stratagem or 
force, he exhibits every sign of mental agony; he strives with all 
Oe nail gain, and when he succeeds he plunges 
into its middle to bathe his whole body with the comfort of closest 
companionship.” 
tt Was found very difficult to procure animals capable of act- 
a le part of fore-oxen to the team, “ The ordinary members of 
ine vps herd being wholly unfitted by nature to move in so prom- 
nent and isolated a position, even though, as is the custom, a 
ale in front to persuade or pull them onwards. There- 
a fore-ox is an animal of an exceptionally independent 
fy tion. Men who break in wild cattle for harness watch 
shown wey for those who show a self-reliant nature, which is 
break į y their grazing apart or ahead of the rest, and these they 
« ax in for fore-oxen.” These wild oxen, Galton concludes, are 


: . ‘one of oy slavish, and seek no better lot than to be led by any 


their number who has enough self-reliance to accept that 


: herd, b No ox ever dares to act contrary to the rest of the 
~~; Dut he accepts thei 


r common determination as an authority 


440 General Notes. [April, 


binding on his conscience.’ He then goes on to say that “an 
incapacity of relying on oneself and a faith in others are precisely 
the conditions that compel brutes to congregate and live in herds; 
and, again, it is essential to their safety in a country infested by 
large Carnivora, that they should keep closely together in herds.” 
n ox feeding alone is easily surprised, yet a crouching lion 
fears cattle who turns boldly upon him, as they can make ugly 
wounds with their horns in the paw or chest of a springing beast. 
Hence, a cow who has calved by the wayside, and is restless and 
eager for the safety of her calf, even when temporarily abandoned 
by the caravan, is never seized by lions. Ordinarily, however, 
when grazing, their heads buried in the grass, or while ruminat- 
ing, they are peculiarly liable to attack. 
alton’s account of a herd of oxen and their relation to their 
environment is well worth quoting: “ But a herd of such ani- 
mals, when considered as a whole, is always on the alert; at 
almost every moment some eyes, ears and noses will comman 
all approaches, and the start or cry of alarmof a single beast isa 
signal to all his companions. To live gregariously is to become 4 
ber in a vast sentient web overspreading many acres; It's ae 
become the possessor of faculties always awake, of eyes that see 
in all directions, of ears and nostrils that explore a broad belt of 
air ; it is to become the occupier of every bit of vantage ground 
whence the approach of a wild beast might be overlooked. 
The protective senses of each individual who choses to live’ 
companionship are multiplied by a large factor, and he thereby 
receives a maximum of security at a minimum cost of restless- 
ness 3) 


d Natural selection tends to give but one leader to each suitably: 
` sized herd, and to repress superabundant leaders. m ; 
there is “a certain size of herd most suitable to the geograp" 


and other conditions of the country ; it must not be ae oe 
pe 

re similar 
all, or 
jmals 


are more easily approached by a lion or hunter than a large: rs 
s 


d by jions- 
flanks a 


Wwe may justly assert that the wild beasts trim and sere united 


body with a single well protected leader. That the dere its 


J 


of independence of character in cattle is thus suppresse 


1884.| Psychology. 441 


otherwise natural standard by the influence of wild beasts, is 
shown by the greater display of self-reliance among cattle whose 
ancestry for some generations have not been exposed to such 
dan ” 


What is said of cattle applies also to savages and barbarians. 
The inhabitants of the same country as the oxen described, are 
congregated into multitudes of tribes, all more or less at war with 
one another. “We shall find that few of these tribes are very 
small, and few very large, and that it is precisely those that are 
exceptionally large or small whose condition is the least stable. 
A very small tribe is seen to be overthrown, slaughtered, or driven 
into slavery by its more powerful neighbor. A very large tribe 
fills to pieces through its own unwieldiness, because, by the 
nature of things, it must be either deficient in centralization or 
Straitened in force, or both.” Reference is also made to the ex- 
traordinary power of tyranny invested in the chiefs of tribes and 
nations of men, which leads to slavishness on the part of the sub- 
jects. “The tyrannies under which men have lived, whether 
under rude, barbarian chiefs, under the great despotisms of half- 
civilized Oriental countries, or under some of the more polished 
but little less severe governments of modern days, must have had 
a frightful influence in eliminating independence of character from 

s uman race.” 

Our present natural disposition make it impossible for us to 
sa the ideal standard of a nation of men, all judging soberly 
st emselves, and, therefore, the slavishness of the mass of our 
all dea in morals and intellect, must be an admitted fact in 

‘chemes of regenerative policy. The hereditary taint due to 

Primeval barbarism of our race, and maintained by later in- 

“aces, will have to be bred out of it before our descendants 
and ag the position of free members of an intelligent society ; 
me aw add that the most likely nest at the present time for 
wate natures will be found in States founded and maintained 


q 
y 
ý 


igrants. 
aan ANIMALS To ConversE.—Commenting in Nature on 
lived artineau’s remark, that considering how long we have 


‘them, Moa than to learn from them, to convey our ideas to 
means of ve to devise any language, or code of signals, by 
the former ich they might communicate theirs to tis. No doubt 

i eT 


if adapted to the case of dogs. 


| 
442 General Notes. { April, ; 


“Accordingly, I prepared some pieces of stout card board, and — 
printed on each, in legible letters, a word such as‘ Food,’ ‘Bone, — 
‘Out, &c. The head master of one of the deaf and dumb schools 
kindly agreed to assist me. We each began with a terrier puppy, but 
neither of us obtained any satisfactory results. My dog, in 
was lost before I had had him long. I then began training à 
black poodle, ‘Van’ by name, kindly given me by my friend, Mr. 
Nickalls. I commenced by giving the dog food in a saucer, over 
which I laid the card on which was the word ‘ Food,’ placing also 
by the side an empty saucer, covered by a plain card. ‘Van 
soon learned to distinguish between the two, and the next stage — 
was to teach him to bring me the card; this he now does, and 
hands it to me quite prettily, and I then give him a bone, ora 
little food, or take him out, according to the card brought. He 
still brings sometimes a plain card, in which case I point out his 
error, and he then takes it back and changes it. This, hone 
does not often happen. Yesterday morning, for instance, Van 


selecting it from among other plain cards, though I changed the 
relative position every time. a 
“ No one who sees him can doubt that he understands the A 
of bringing the card with the word ‘ Food’ on it asa request pe 
something to eat, and that he distinguishes between ne 
plain card. I also believe that he distinguishes, for instanc® ” 
tween the card with the word ‘Food’ on it and the card wi 
“ Out’ on it. 
_“ This, then, seems to open up a method, which may be ¢ 
tied much further, for it is obvious that the cards may 


‘ . animals — 
my spare time is small and liable to many interruptio iho of 
also, we know, differ greatly from one another. N m 
your readers have favorite dogs, and I would express A anne! 
some of them may be disposed to study them 1n the m 
dicated, d inter 

“The observations, even though negative, woul its might | 
esting; but I confess, I hope that some positive iso insight 
follow, which would enable us to obtain a more cour ; 
into the minds of animals than we have yet acquired. 


* 


w 


ANTHROPOLOGY. l comme nced 
Tue Grann Traverse Recion.—Dr. M. L. Leach § Michige™ 
a series of contributions to the Grand Traverse Heraa, t 


; p. 
zashin 
1 Edited by Professor Oris T. Mason, 1305 Q street, N. W» Wasbingt™ 


1884.] Anthropology. 443 


on the 6th of December, having for their subject a history of that 
particular region. In the first few chapters the Aborigines occupy 
the prominent place. “Characteristic earthworks are found in 
Ogemaw county. Mounds are known to exist in Manistee county. 
round Boardman lake, near Traverse City, several small mounds 
formerly existed. Sites of ateliers are frequently discovered, as 
well as fragments of pottery. The Ottowas were the occupants 
of this region when it was first visited by the whites. Emmet 
county was the home of a small tribe called the Mush-quah-tas. 
They were of Algonquin stock and were a peacable agricultural 
tribe. Unfortunately they got into a war with the Ottowas by 
whom they were pursued and exterminated without mercy. ‘Dr. 
Leach reviews at some length the connection of the Jesuits with 
the savages of this country, especially Father Marquette and 
— the connection of the Ottowas with the conspiracy of 
ontiac. Of their military operations subsequently there is little 

_ Material for solid information.. In the 4th chapter the author dis- 
_ cusses the social life of the Ottowas. He draws attention to a 
| dye abel fact, that while in the French and Indian wars 
l ait Indians invariably sided with the French, they, in 1812, 
| se with the English against us, and exhausted their 
sre fg aggre: the most shocking barbarities. Again, the 
er bank Ae e bane without the blessing of civilization has 
Penis ition worse rather than better. The houses and 
| oe of the Indians are also described in this chapter. In 
en a’. two words to say respecting these letters. 
etre b Doo Every county should have its his- 
e ould not neglect the aboriginal record. Again, 
RTh ad better not be undertaken, than to de done imper- 

of Ce Tre may not be any more to be said about the Indians 
‘ oa verse, but Dr. Leach has given us a record all too 


os th Usoaty Se * poe a 


THE Fo 

Ae e OF SHAKESPEARE.—President Welling once 
ding histo end, in vacation, “I have spent my time mostly in 
omane [QTY and novels, but which is history and which is 
ate plays a. a loss to determine.” The works of Shakespeare 

Tead the would come under the class of romances ; but he 
tot discov, great dramatist’s writings only superficially who has 
Specting the Sac’, page the most precious information re- 
Plays of Shake history of his age. In carefully studying the 
Thistleto 3 espeare, in order to gather their folk-lore, Mr. T.F. 


444 General Notes. [April, 


magic plays. Now, we know that it did no such thing. Shake- 
speare’s fairies, witches, ghosts, and devils were all made for him. 
How in the world could people have comprehended him, embraced 
him, loved him, if the atmosphere had been peopled by his wand 
with unfamiliar creatures. But, when he evolved familiar spirits 
and gathered around him forms well-known to the vulgar mind, — 
the people bowed down and said: “ What manner of man is this 
whom even our underworld obeys?” The same is true of Shake- — 
speare’s love of nature. He was thoroughly scientific. He 
served nature; but he also observed how the people looked at 
nature. In Mr. Dyer’s work we are astonished on every page t0 
find references to things which are seen among all the savage 
tribes of éarth, and which had come down to the people of Shake- 
speare’s day as a part of that common legacy of usage, which 

to the lot of all. No man’s folk-lore library is complete without 
this volume. 


Eskimo anp Inpran Picrocrapfs.—Dr. W. J. Hoffman, a’ 
Bureau of Ethnology, has brought his varied talent as re 
physician, and sign-linguist, to bear on the interpretation of the 
numerous Eskimo pictographs in all our museums. Hisasi 
tion with Colonel Mallery in the preparation of his standard yis 
on the sign-language, has rendered Dr. Hoffman not only aer 
with signs as generally understood, but he has made good pa : 
his opportunities in learning to converse with the Indian a 
tions, one after another, when they have been called ove re 
ton. Starting out from the knowledge thus acquired, the au 


: ll 
conceives that pictographs on wigwams, blankets, robes, as We 


ter 
interpreted 
: see 
hing than to p | 


. ae 


The shaman presented the man with some fi 
to the top of his lodge, where he invoked the spi"! 
ver game. After coming down, he told the hunter and SC 
would kill five deer. Sure enough, the hunter went p: Dr. HE 
ceeded as the shaman had predicted.” The paper T actions 
man was first published in the second volume of the igs 
of the Anthropological Society of Washington, and ae eiler, % 
peared in pamphlet form, published by Judd & V 
Washington. + bas 
i 
MecaLiTHIC Monuments IN France.—For ari OF sti 
not been our pleasure to read a more entertaining @ oi Rennes 
‘Monograph than that published recently by P. Bere? 


1884.] Microscopy and Histology. 445 


entitled “Inventaire des Monuments Megalithiques du Départ- 
ment d'Ille and Vilaine ” [in North-west France]. Published by 
Societé Archéologique d'Ille-et-Vilaine, 1883, pp. 280, 29 
plates, and 2 maps. The plan of the work is as follows: Dol- 
mens, alignments, cromlechs, polishing stones, pierres a bassins, 
rocking stones, to the number of 425 are located and described 
minutely. This occupies 241 pages, and is followed by a table in 
which, by number, these megaliths are defined by communes, 
cantons, and arrondissements. The 29 plates are devoted to illus- 
trating the most prominent and notable of the monuments. The 
map locates, by means of the Mortillet and Chantre symbols, 
‘very monument in Sixt and St. Just, and the second map, in a 
general way, indicates the distribution of these works in the 
entire department above named. : 


Tae Anturopotocicat Society or Lyon.—The first part of 
Vol. 2 of the Bulletin of this society is at hand. Much of the 
contents has little interest for us. On page 72 isashort paper on 
Ti illustrated with two plates of arms and utensils. There 


| ment at our Centennial Exhibition. It is still in use quite 
_“Mensively in Northern Africa and Western Asia. On pages 
107 M. „Ernest Chantré describes carefully a necropolis ex- 
Pored by him in Koban (Caucasus). M. Cornivin has for a long 
ger been studying the wormian bones in the face of domestic 
- “imals—an abstract is given on page IIQ. 


MICROSCOPY AND HISTOLOGY.! 


| 
ts 
aa AS A FIXATIVE For MicroscopicaL SECTIONS.— 
. xed by means of a solution of collodion in clove oil, 


The 


raphe which is prepared by dissolving one part collodion 


sol is as follows 


tess is ke ee: If the film of collodion be too thick, cloudi- 
be tema), ©° arise between the sections. The cloudiness can 
s et use of a brush, wet with clove oil, after the 
es € been anhydrated by absolute alcohol. 


by e c.o. WHITMAN, Mus. Comp. Zool., Cambridge, Mass. 


Mee. 2 | Ueber ein Verfahren mikroskopische Schnitte auf dem Ob- 
“fixiren und daselbst zu färben.” Archiv. f. Mik. Anat. XXII, p. 689, 


abd 


446 General Notes. [ April, 


Gage’, who had begun to experiment with collodion before 
Schallibaum’s method was published, recommends that the collo- 
dion and clove oil be applied separately: 

“A solution of collodion is prepared by adding to 2 grams of 
gun cotton (that used by photographers is good) 54° of sul 
phuric ether and 18° of 95 p. c. alcohol. After the gun cotton 
is entirely dissolved, the solution should be filtered through 

ter paper or absorbent cotton. The slides are coated by pour 
ing the collodion on one end, allowing it to flow quickly over the — 
slide and off the other end into the bottle. The prepared slides — 
should be kept free from dust. As the collodion will not deter- 
orate after drying on the slide, any number of slides maybe 
prepared at the same time. Before using a slide it shouldbe 
dusted with a camel’s hair brush, and with another brush the — 
collodionized surface of the slide should be thinly painted with 
clove oil. | 

“x * * The sections are arranged as in the shellac method. 
The slide is warmed over an alcohol lamp and then heated ae. 
warm chamber so as to drive off the clove oil. After cooling," 


mass within half an hour, though the slide may remain in any he 


without loosening the sections. When the slide is rena 
from the naphtha, the sections are washed with 95 P-© ert in 
by means of a medicine-dropper, or by immersing the A a 4 
alcohol. If the sections are to be stained in Kleinenberg $ ithe 
toxylin or inany other stain containing 50 p.c. Or reg pete 


0 
ie Ae divin: t transferred to § ; 
e staining agent, otherwise it should be firs W enever the . 


and finally in 95 p.c. alcohol to completely anhydrate the ge i 
T ey are cleared with a mixture of carbolic acid 1 prei “o 
tine 4 parts. The balsam to be used is prepared by 
grams of pure Canada balsam with 2” of chlorolo 
clove oil. The latter very soon removes any cloudiness 
have appeared in the collodion film.” 


a 
Born’s METHOD or RE-CONSTRUCTING One pes 

scopic Secrions?— Dr. G. Born describes in deta 3 al 

l os» The Medic 

H. Gage and T. Smith. “Serial Microscopical Sections,” Zhe Me 

P- 14, November, 1883. : xxi 

2G. Born. “ Die Plattenmodellirmethode.” Archiv. f. Mik- Anat. 

1883. First described in Morphol. Jahrbuch 11., p. 578, 1879 


poe 


1884] Microscopy and Histology. 447 


ious method of constructing models of objects from serial sec- 
tions, By the aid of the camera the outlines of the sections are 
transferred to wax plates, which are then cut out so as to corre- 
spond in outlines as well as dimensions to the sections equally 
magnified in all three directions. With plates thus prepared, it 
is only necessary to put them together in the proper order to 

in a complete model. The method is simple and extremely 
useful, especially in investigating objects with complex internal 
cavities, 

Born has made use of the method in studying different parts 
of the vertebrate head; Swirski, in elucidating the development 
of the shoulder-girdle of the pike ; Stohr, in tracing the develop- 
ment of the skull of amphibia and teleostei; and Uskow, in 
studying the development of the body cavity, the diaphragm, etc. 

An illustratian of the method.—Born makes use of three rect- 
angular tin boxes of equal size, each measuring 270""%230"™ 
X2%™™". Sections should be made about 3™™ thick (never thin- 
ner than j™"). If we desire to construct a model of an object 
from serial sections 4™™ thick, which shall be magnified 60 
diameters, then the wax plates must be made 6o times as thick as 

sections, 2.2., 2™ thick. 

The surface of a plate that could be made in a box of the 
above named dimensions, contains 62,1000™™; and the volume 


f such a plate 2™™ thick would therefore be 124.2°™. The 


Specific 


pT as 5 MEET eg a ena ~ 


ONT 


Fo gravity of common raw beeswax amounts to 
d r> it requires only to be melted and a little turpentine 
o 


ag tin box is first filled 144° deep with boiling water, 
and eg the melted wax poured upon the water. If the water 


€ wax are quite hot, the wax will generally spread evenly 
ofa e; if gaps remain, they can be filled out by the 
has sti E tide drawn over the wax. As soon as the plate 
the walls i and while it is still soft, it is well to cut it free from 
box mi; ha the tin box, as further cooling of the water and the 
Lae Ganse it to split. By the time the water becomes tepid, 
can be removed from the water to some flat support, an 
completely stiffened. Half a hundred plates may thus be 
The Coia course of a few hours. : 
i of the section are transferred to the plate in the 


448 Scientific News. [April, 


wood and cut out by the aid of a small knife. Thus a drawing 
and a model of each section are prepared. The plates thus pre- 
pared can be put together in the proper order, and fastened by 
the aid of a hot spatula applied to the edges. 


:0: 
SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 

—A Scientific Swindler—A few weeks ago, a man calling him- 
self W. R. Taggart, and claiming to be a member of the Ohio 
Geological Survey, visited Philadelphia. He called on the prin- 
cipal scientific men of this city, and attended one of the regular 
meetings of the Academy of Natural Sciences. He seemed to 


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rather shabbily dressed. 
himself into the confidence of his intended victims, and then 

he could not steal, he would, under some plausible pretext, borrow 
valuable books or specimens to take to his hotel and forget to a 
turn them. His victims are to be found in nearly every 1mp? of 


faa ee Ey eyes ay 


phia he gave his name as E. Douglas, of Columbus, Ohio, men 
ber of the State Survey. In Auburn, N. Y., hew ri 
under the name of E. D. Whitney, U. S. Geologist, cent 
There he obtained a large quantity of valuable geolog! urg, 
and fossils from Professor Starr. In Harrisburg, Cham dianap™ 
Indianapolis, and Columbus, he was a deaf mute. At Indi 
lis he swindled the State Geologist out of $100 WO aii 
ks, among them Schimper’s “ Palæontologie Vege d private, 
as been permitted access to several museums, publica t them 
from which he has abstracted valuable specimens and 50 e of this i 
Any information in regard to the real name and residenc q 
man is much desired. t Colum- 4 
P. S—I hear from Professor Lesquereux that he as He got d 
bus, that hè has swindled some parties at Day ae Historica! d 
hold of valuable Indian relics from the Clevelan of Athens i 
Society worth $50 or more. From Professor Man and solè 
O., he borrowed some valuable physical instrumen 
them, &c., &c.—F. V. H. „tive notie 
- .— We reprint with pleasure the following apprecia rich Po 
ofthe late Mr. Robert B. Tolles, optician, of Boston, past he ” 
pears in the English Mechanic: During several ee tothe a 
devoted himself to the improvement of the microscoP”s his wo% 
production of telescopes of unusually short focus, 


1884. | Sctentific News. 449 


was characterized by great originality and excellence. He was 
one of the first opticians in America to construct object-glasses 
for the microscope on Amici’s immersion system, and he suc- 
ceeded in developing several original formule by which he ex- 
tended the apertures far beyond the limit previously attained 
in either Europe or America. One of the earliest examples of 
his work seen in this country was a one-sixth water-immersion 
object-glass, now in the possession of Mr. Frank Crisp, Secre- 
tary of the Royal Microscopical Society, and which was the 
subject of much discussion. in journals devoted to microscopy. 
Mr. Tolles claimed for this object-glass an aperture which was 
generally regarded as impossibly large. After much controversy 
ehad the satisfaction of receiving the support of Professor G. 
G. Stokes, Secretary of the Royal Society, Professor S. Newcomb, 
Director of the Washington Observatory, and Professor E. Abbe, 
of Jena University, for the general accuracy of his views. He 
Was an enthusiast in his work, and was almost incessantly en- 
gaged in making experimental object-giasses both for the micros- 
cope and telescope, many of which exhibited rare qualities, and 
Were eagerly sought for by amateurs of fine work. He made 
the highest power microscope object-glass produced in America, 
à water-immersion of Lin. in focal length. One of his latest and 
Most successful telescopes was a 51%4in. portable equatorial of 
very short focus for Professor Hamilton L. Smith, of Hobart 


gen S who has published his trials of the instrument, proving 


la ave done much to place American optical workmanship 
"n apar with the best in Europe. 


Ta March number of the American NaruraLisrt, Mr. Titian 
onn S repeats the old account of the Bowditch islanders being 
i Bt of fire at the time of their discovery in 1841. While 
x a e the advantage of being an eye witness of what he 
o ii NO om Wi 
| the Le Members of the Wilkes’ expedition had misinterpreted 
T Pia, Stouns of astonishment, for Hale, the ethnologist of the 
Tune. Psdition, gives the native word for fire, while the Rev. Mr. 
a that they he visited the island a few years later, gives evidence 
, Origin of their es acquainted with fire for so long a time that the. 


add adopted un 
sas 1m Washington and vicinity, and a committee was ap- 


450 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. {April 1884. 


pointed to draw up the necessary regulations, and to call a future 
meeting for organization, 2. Pickman Mann, Secretary. 


— The death of Dr. Hermann Schlegel, director of the Zoolog- 
ical Museum of the University of Leyden, is announced. He was 
born in Saxony. Under his direction the Leyden Museum 
became one of the most important iñ Europe, and its collection of 
skeletons is one of the finest known. It is especially rich in the 
forms of the Dutch Malaysian colonies. Dr. Schlegel published 
a number of zodlogical works, among the most important of 
which are the catalogues of the museum. He was distinguished 
for his carefulness, and for his extreme conservatism in questions 
of nomenclature. : 

— During the past season was founded in Providence the 
Rhode Island Entomological Society, with Mr. Calder as prest- 
dent, and F. E. Gray, secretary. The society holds monthly 
meetings, | ; L 

— Mr. J.L. Wortman has been appointed anatomist of the 
Army Medical Museum at Washington. | 


PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 


BroLocicaL Society oF WaAsHINGTON, Feb. 23. _ Comte 
tions were presented by Elliott Coues on the present ed 
North American ornithology ; by Charles D. Walcott ent! 3 
Further remarks on a rock specimen from Maine, coha 
corals (with specimen) ; by Marshall McDonald on natural ca 
influencing the movements of fish in rivers; and by Lester 
Ward on the diamond willow (with specimen). . ‘ 

New York Acapemy or Sciences, Feb, 4.—The oie 
paper was presented: The botany, geology and resour a nii 
a Far song by the Northern Pacific railroad (illus: 
with lantern), by John S. Newberry. Re 

Feb. 11.—The o papers were read: Theories i i 
to the causes of the recent red skies, by John K. Rees; ae 
rial notice will be read by the secretary of the late vice-p 
of the academy, Dr. Benjamin N. Martin. 


_ Boston Society or Naturat History, Feb. 0" ae its 
Bouvé read a paper on the genesis of the Boston pe ‘gi 
rock formations ; and Professor N. S. Shaler discussed 

of kames, — 

Feb. 20.—Dr. T. Sterry Hunt spoke of the Cambr 
North America; and the president described the fossil lary : 
the Triassic rocks of the Connecticut valley- ER 

American GEOGRAPHICAL Society, Feb. 18.— Mr. pan 4 


= pods 
eae from 


Browne, Jr., delivered a lecture entitled, The growing | 
! chile, in the Pacific (illustrated with views). 


THE 


AMERICAN NATURALIST. 


` 


Vou. XVuUL—MAY, 1884.—No. 5. 


THE MEZOQUIT? 
BY DR. V. HAVARD, U.S. A. 


Vame.—This tree, the most notable feature of our Southwestern 
sylva, belongs to the large order of Leguminose, suborder Mi- 
moseæ, It was first described by De Candolle under the name 
of Prosopis juliflora, which, therefore, has precedence. Prosopis, 
applied by Linnzus, is meaningless; the specific name (julus, 
à catkin) refers to the catkin-like spikes of the inflorescence. It 
's the Algarobia glandulosa of Torrey and Gray’s Flora (from Al- 
garoba, Mexican synonym of mezquit, the specific name referring 
to the stalked glands borne on the anthers), later changed into 
Prosopis glandulosa by Dr. Torrey, in the Flora of the Mexican 


dar Survey. 
ehe mezquit finds a congenial home through Mexico, 
= Papas to Chili and Brazil in South America. It flourishes 


Texas i thwestern, territory of the United States, specially in 
tük Yew Mexico, and Arizona, being by far the most common 
aaa of the immense desert tracts drained by the Rio 
» Gila, and Lower Colorado. It does not grow near the sea- 
wy cept at the mouth of the Rio Grande, If, from this 
; fear Proceed northward, we find that the mezquit disappears 
- ing at as and recedes inland twenty or thirty miles, remain- 
. bus; “agy distance from the sea up to Victoria and Colum- 
ig sie as line of its eastern limit runs directly north, pass- 
AN Out of Dallas; bending slightly westward, it then 
, with Magan misspelt and mispronounced, is, in its Mexican form, mezquite, 
De Rio Grande ine Penult, and the last syllable obscurely sounded. North of 
he its, Americanized form, it drops the final e, but otherwise retains 
accent and pronunciation, thus, mezkeet’. 
29 


A 
4 


$ na 
pei 


452 The Mezquit. {May, 


crosses the Red river, and, entering the Indian Territory, passes 
north of Fort Sill, crosses the Canadian, and strikes the 37th 
parallel where the 100th meridian intersects it. Near this point, 
Mezquit creek, from Kansas, empties into Cimarron river. The 
northern limit may be said, practically, to be the 37th parallel; 
that is, the southern boundary of Colorado and Utah. It takes 
in the southern point of Nevada, the large desert tracks of South- 
eastern California, and, at its extremity, bends down towards Fort 
Tejon. The western limit is the rather uncertain line made by 
the western margin of the Mojave and Colorado deserts, nowhere, 
as far as I know, coming close to the shore of the Pacific. 
Description.—Shrub, or tree, with thorny branches and deciduous 
a i 
Bipinnate leaves, single or in clusters, mostly armed with 8 
pair of stout, straight, whitish thorns. One, seldom two, pairs of 
pinnz; these 3-6 inches long, bearing 8-15 pairs of leaflets, w^ 
are linear-oblong, ‘rigid, 1-2 inches long, and 134-3 lines mr 
varying much in size according to soil and stage of growth 
Petiole 2-4 inches long, minutely stipulate, bearing at its ap™* 
cup-shaped gland and\filiform appendage. 
Flowers 5-parted, a line or more long, 
pedicels; in axillary, short-peduncled, cylindrical spikes, con 
inches long; greenish-white at first, later more conspicuously 
low from the exserted stamen3} very frequent. Calyx S™ ak 
short, hardly half as long as the Cdgolla, with short, acu i, 
Petals valvate, narrowly long, free, gheenish or yellowish 
smooth outside, woolly within and at the ‘apex. Stamens pat 
exsert, straight and diverging, at least twice a3 long as mr B 
with versatile anthers ; the large, blackish connective ™ oly : 
ing at its apex a stalked gland. Ovary shortly stipitat®, . 
style with small terminal stigma as long as the stam“ lot | 
Ripe pods white yellowish, mottled with red; : -8 went the 
‘10-20 seeded; from 2 to 12, seldom more thar 5 % petwet 
; : icted 
same peduncle; linear, compressed, falcate, cons"! l 
the seeds, indehiscent. Exocarp ligneous and tc¥e ’ fi 


on short but distint 


baa gta inc] Sins <i 
thickish and spongy; endocarp papyraceous, incl an po | 
ii 


in separate, flat casings, quadrate from natural press 
obliquely in the pod of which they occupy ný 
breadth. | 


Seed oval, smooth, suspended from the ape of the 


1884.] The Mezqutt. 453 


cell by a long, coiled funiculus, with ascending radicle and plane, 
foliaceous cotyledons. 

Size and Shape—In size the mezquit ranges from an incon- 
spicuous bush to a middle-sized tree. On high plains, alkali flats, 
or stony bluffs, it is a gnarled, stunted shrub, while on rich bot- 
tom-land it becomes a tree forty feet high, with an undivided 
trunk 2 feet in diameter, and from 7 to 10 feet long. Most of the 
arborescent mezquit, however, is only 6-12 inches thick; and 
shrubby mezquit, of all proportions, preponderates over the ar- 
boreal. The largest trees I have seen are in Southeastern Cali- 
fornia and Southeastern Texas. 

The trunk usually divides a short distance above ground, and 
gives off crooked branches at various angles and heights, so that 
most trees have a loose, straggling, unsymmetrical shape. Under 
very favorable circumstances the mezquit becomes even-spreading 
and round-headed, bearing at a distance some resemblance to the 
apple-tree, 

Foliage —The mezquit, naked and repulsive in winter, begins, 
arly in March, to clothe itself with verdure, giving life and fresh- 
ness to the dreary slopes and bottom-lands. Its early foliage is 
of the most delicate emerald-green, which gradually deepens 
without ever reaching a somber hue. The scattered leaflets, thin 
and rigid, sift the sunlight, and only throw on the ground a 
Speckled and illusory shadow, in which one vainly Seeks protec- 
tion from the heat. This thinness of foliage, apparently intended 
to prevent excessive loss of moisture, would prepare one to ex- 
ais comparatively few stomata on the surface of the leaves, they 

the open mouths through which aqueous exhalation takes 
Place ; but the fact is, that they are numerous, indeed far exceed- 
ng in number those found on plants growing in more favored 
upg - Thus the mean of several observations was, for the upper 
The €, 63,660, and for the under surface 143,235 on the square 
Pasi t may be noted that the leaflets stand in all positions, 
a ey ab vertical or oblique plane than horizontally, and there- 
posed to i difference between the two sides, almost equally ex- 
: ght, is also remarkable. 
Middle aoe Fruit—The mezquit begins to blossom about the 
the mj i and crops of flowers succeed one another until 
and ripen of July. The pods, or “beans,” form early in June, 
throughout July and August. In dry places they are 


454 The Mezqutt. {May, 


ripe before the end of June, while in other localities they are not 
yet mature on the first of September. 

Roots —The roots of the mezquit séem, in a great measure, to 
exist independently of the stems, and may attain large proportions 
when hardly any foliage is visible above ground. It is probable 
that when the branches have been destroyed by fire, or stunted 
by hot, desiccating winds, the sap brought up by the deep rootlets 
is mostly assimilated by the upper superficial roots, which grow 
thickand tortuous. Sometimes, in the Southwest, camps are pitched 
on plains where no timber or fuel of any sort is visible. It is 
then that the frontiersman, armed with spade and axe, goes “dig 
ging for wood.” He notices a low mound, on whose summit lie 
a few dead mezquit twigs; within it he finds large, creeping roots, 
which afford an ample supply of excellent fuel. These roots can 
be pulled out in pieces fifteen to twenty feet long, with a yoke of 
oxen, as practiced by the natives in the sandy deserts of New 
Mexico and Arizona, where no other fuel can be had. 

Mezquit roots are of two kinds. Some dip vertically into the 
ground, solely in quest of food; others spread laterally, often many 
yards, before sinking inwards, their object apparently eee 
extend the area of supply and steady the plant. These rine 
roots, radiating in all directions, form a loose netting in the i 
soil, helping to hold and compact it together. The heapins 
the sandy soil around the base of the stems, by the wind, eee 
secondary roots and branches to start, which entrap and ý 
more of the light earth, so that presently each tree OF shru nt ; 
pears as if growing from a mound. Of the vertical roots, yee ) 
root is often the only large and conspicuous One. It p stue 
down to a prodigious depth, varying with that at which mo : 
is obtainable. On the sides of gulches one can trace ar" ie 
down thirty or forty feet. They branch off and decrease ™ a i 
if water is near by; otherwise they, even at t 
about the same diameter, giving off but few unimpo 
How much farther they sink can only be conjecture’ 
valley of the Rio Grande, big mezquit trees grow at a6 l 
of forty and fifty feet above the river level. arbores d 

It would seem, then, that the mezquit, at least in the noi q 
form, does not depend for the water it requires upon ae strat 
of the subsoil, but is enabled to extract it from the This È 
and that its spongioles are bathed in permanent water. 


ha paeas ee 


1884.] The Mezqutt. 455 


useful practical knowledge. Thus, wherever it reaches the pro- 
portions of a tree, we may be reasonably sure that water is within 
forty or fifty feet, and, wherever it grows as a thrifty shrub, within 
fifty or sixty, whatever may be the character of the surface stra- 
tum. The most desolate parts of the Staked plains are the San d- 
hills—bare heaps of shifting sand. Between these are sometimes 
found large, vigorous mezquit shrubs, the only arborescent vege- 
tation there. The inference would be that water, although too 
deep for the ordinary shrubs of the country, is accessible to the 
mezquit, and should be reached at a depth of about sixty feet, a 
conclusion practically verified by the digging of wells along the 
Texas-Pacific railroad. 

When the roots have to dip down to a greater depth than sixty 
feet, the stems remain dwarf and scrubby. 

Climate and Soil—The mezquit is not very sensitive to cold, 
and frosts, if not below zero, do it no apparent harm. It thrives 
best, however, in a hot and dry climate; one with mild winter 
and high summer temperature, small rainfall and clear atmosphere. 
Such climate is that of the Southwestern States and Territories. 

ithin these there is hardly any soil, if not habitually damp, in 
which mezquit cannot grow; no hill is too rocky or broken, no 

too sandy or saline, no dune too shifting, no prairie too often 
burned, to entirely exclude it. It attains its full development on 
, loamy bottom-lands, where the soil is rich and porous, the 
water not too deep, and the prevalent winds shut off. On the 
haud it dwindles to its minimum size, a mere cluster of twigs, 
i hei grassy slopes and rolling prairies, often visited by fires 
Ways swept by winds. 

When once in possession of the soil, it becomes a sort of arbo- 
; “escent weed, of wonderful vitality, and most difficult of eradica- 
; ce I know of a military post where the bushy growth of 
Years but T the parade. was cut close to the ground twice a 
P ese successive mutilations only rendered, it more 
; Year. Aa that the labor of cutting and pruning increased every 
dom, ith rae emember a good-sized shrub which had tumbled 
tom of a rays overhanging edge to which it clung, to the bot- 
buried ika ne; there it lay prostrate, mangled, head under, partly 
Been pota os in the air. In its fall the main or top root had 
-ftom the RA two vine-like rootlets, ten feet long, issuing 
oo EO the ravine, still remained connected with it, and, 


456 The Mezqutt. [May, 


judging from the unfaded foliage, furnished enough nutriment to 
sustain life. 

Propagation and Growth—One, viewing the extent and dense- 
ness of mezquit woods, and the intricacy of the many creeping, 
superficial roots, would be likely to suppose that this plant propa- 
gates itself by subterranean runners. Such is not the case. Often, 
indeed, the base of shrubs, or small trees, becoming buried in the 
loose soil, secondary branches growing off the spreading lower 
limbs now under ground, may seem to spring from runners, but 
it is merely so in appearance; mezquit is propagated by seed 
only. 

It seldom happens that the pods, as they drop to the ground, 
are placed under favorable conditions for germination; they mostly 
decay on the soil, or are destroyed by insects; so that we may, 
in the spring, explore extended woods without finding a single 
yearling sprout. The spontaneous growth of seedlings occurs 
only in particularly propitious seasons, at irregular intervals of 
years. 

We often see spring seedlings, growing unbidden, in cultivated 
beds or plots which have been watered and fertilized; likewise 
around the edges of manure heaps after rains; SO that there 
should be no difficulty, with some care, to raise the plant vert 
the seed at will. The indehiscent pod should be broken oad a 
many one-seeded joints, and these planted at the beginmns 
the rainy season in well-prepared ground. Next year the yous 
seedling may be a foot or more high, and can be transplan 
wherever wanted, during the summer rains. In four or five yeu" 


it has become a goodly shrub. 
low. Wher 


Thereafter the growth of the mezquit is very 5 


A ` hes in diat- : 


about thirty years old, the stem is seven or eight inc 


eter; when about fifty, from eight to 10 inches; va the diame | 


enty-five, from ten to twelve inches; and wh ld. 
exceeds a foot, the tree is one hundred years or more z 
Generally sprouts grow in clusters, because 0 
of several seeds from the same pod. On rich 
strongest stem, in time, destroys the others, and 
into a tree; on higher and dryer land several of the if 
simultaneously, forming clusters of thick shoots o pills abot 
coalescing at base, a mode of growth common 0” si 


4 


1 


San Antonio. 


| 
l 
4 


1884.] The Mezquit. 457 


The dissemination of the seed, shut up in the closed pod, is 
always difficult. There are agencies, however, which may trans- 
port pods or seeds at indefinite distances. One is water, rushing 
with great force through many arroyos towards rivers. To it is 
due, in part, the fact that most valleys and bottoms are timbered 
with a large proportion of mezquit. Another is the fæces of horses, 
mules, cows, and native mammals which feed on the pods; they 
always contain the undigested pips in good condition for germi- 
nation. 

Uses—The foliage of the mezquit is practically useless. If at 
times goats or mules are seen to browse it, one may be sure 
there is no other food within reach. I have been told that, on 
the Lower Rio Grande, cows sometimes eat the young leaves in 
the early spring, and that their milk, in consequence, becomes 
bitter and unfit to use. 

The trunk is ordinarily too short, and often too crooked and 
knotty, to make it serviceable as timber. Mezquit posts, much 
used in fencing, are said to be indestructible, whether under or 
above ground. 

I believe this plant is capable of making excellent hedges. 

ings, as mentioned before, are easily raised, and if trans- 
planted in prepared ground during the rainy season, they should, 
in three or four years, develop into vigorous shoots, which, by 
Proper pruning and trimming, will form impenetrable hedges. 
: The wood is very hard, heavy, fine-grained, and takes a beau- 
tiful polish. Longitudinal sections are prettily marked with wavy, 
T veins; the very eccentric rings, although very close, are 
tinct; the serried medullary rays are hardly visible to the 
naked eye. The heart-wood is richly colored, its several zones 
ee from yellowish-red to purple, and contrasts sharply with 
pale yellow of the superficial layers. These qualities render 
mezquit wood valuable for cabinet-work. Unfortunately it too 
happens that the zones of the heart-wood are fissured, de- 
ko or detached from each other, so that it is difficult to get 

; less boards, 7 

Sy San Antonio and Brownsville, Texas, pavement blocks of 
rp are used on several streets, and said to answer the pur- 

excellently well, 
the wood, from both root and stem, is unsurpassed. 


lt is th 
the most commonly used from San Antonio, Texas, to San 


458 The Mezquit. (May, 


Diego, California, and often the only kind obtainable. According 
to Dr. Loew, the charcoal made from this wood is of the best 
quality for metallurgical and smelting purposes. 

During the summer months, from May to September, there 
exudes from the bark of the mezquit a gum which concretes in 
tears of variable size, and of a light amber color. It has the 
taste of gum arabic, makes excellent mucilage, and dissolves 
readily in three parts of water, the solution having a slight acid 
reaction. Chemically, it is distinguished from gum arabic in not 
being affected by subacetate of lead, which, in a solution of the 
latter, throws down a thick, white precipitate. 

This gum is mostly found in old, decrepit trees, with thick, 
cracked bark, and accumulates in knot holes and around fractures. 
More rarely is it seen on young, vigorous, and smooth-barked 
trees. The yield is increased by practicing incisions on the trunk. 
In these the gum which slowly forms above, under the cambium 
layers, demonstrates its derivation from the descending sap. It 
often happens that the exudation fails to concrete, and runs upon 
the bark in large, black, tarry streaks and patches. 

The quantity of gum naturally produced during the season by 
a large tree is small, probably not exceeding a third of a 
It is doubtful whether the yield could be increased to a pound by 
incisions. Therefore this gum, although of prime quality, @ 
hardly ever become an important article of trade. 2 

The fruit of the mezquit contains nutritive principles we 
make it a valuable article of food. Most herbivorous animals at 
fond of it, and thrive on it. In the field it is a welcome thong? 
imperfect substitute for grain. Horses and mules soon gar ii 
know the tree or bush, always abundantly fructiferous, "i 
soon as let*loose go in search of the fallen pods lying 1 theg hly 
under the thorny branches. While green, and until thoroug 
ripened, the “beans” are bitter and worthless as food. igi 
maturity they fall to the ground, when they should be 4 s 
collected before wetted by rain and stored in a dry m n Jet 
these conditions they keep well until the next crop. have 2 
on the ground they soon deteriorate and decay. They its 

$ z : hich lays 
particular enemy in a small coleopterous insect W we shal 
eggs in the seeds, so that in picking up an old pod the corre 
usually find each joint bored with a hole leading tO 
sponding seed, 


1884.] The Mczquit. 459 


If we take the dry pod, thoroughly triturate it in a mortar with 
water, and afterwards strain, we get an aqueous extract containing 
all of its nutritive elements. The residue, nearly one-half (forty- 
seven per cent) of the whole pod, consists of shreds of the epicarp, 
the broken endocarp, and the seeds; it is indigestible, and always 
voided with the fæces. The aqueous extract, containing fifty- 
three per cent of the pod, consists of vegetable albumen, gum and 
grape-sugar, with traces of fat and salts. Its pleasant sweetness 
to the taste at once reveals the presence of sugar; but, owing to 
some interfering principle, the usual reagents fail to show even a 
trace of it. It is only after extraction with alcohol, evaporation, 
and solution in water that Fehling’s test can be successfully ap- 
plied. A careful analysis yielded twenty-six per cent of glucose. 
Dr. Loew (Rothrock, Botany W. of the 1ooth meridian) found 
thirty per cent. 

Thus it is seen that mezquit “beans” differ widely from corn 
or oats in composition, and therefore cannot produce the same 
effects on animals. Only about one-half its weight being assimi- 
lable, itisa much more bulky food. It is rich in sugar and nitro- 
gen, but deficient in starch, fat and salts. Before the advent of 
<= » when grain was scarce in San Antonio, mezquit pods 
Were regularly brought to market and sold for a dollar a bushel. 
_They constitute a favorite food of Mexicans and Indians. The 
i nae 1S ground on the “matate,” the seeds picked out, and 

“ Coarse flour thus obtained is cooked into cakes, or, after sea- 
eh a in corn-husks like “tomales.” Mezquit “ atole” 

y throwing the pods into boiling water; when cooked, 
they are put in fresh water and pounded into a pulp, which is 
sient the liquor, containing in suspension and solution all the 

ment of the fruit, is drank ad libitum, and is a very pleasant 
oo" aa pods may be triturated first and the 
fishy mifusion of this flour can easily be made to undergo alco- 
: much used tation, whereby a weak beer is obtained, formerly 
by Comanche and Apache Indians. 


460 The Larval Theory of the Origin of Cellular Tissue, (May, 


THE LARVAL THEORY OF THE ORIGIN OF CELLU- 
LAR TISSUE. 


BY PROFESSOR ALPHEUS HYATT. 


T a meeting of the Boston Society of Natural History, held 
March 5, Professor Hyatt reviewed the history of investiga- 
tions upon the structure of the Porifera; concluding that though 
true Metazoa, they nevertheless still retained characteristics of 
Protozoa. They possess, in adults, the three typical layers, ec- 
toderm, mesoderm and endoderm, and reproduce by means of 
true nucleated eggs and spermatozoa developed in the mesoderm. 
The embryos in the lower forms develop, as observed by him 
and figured by Barrois in Halisarca, by passing through a hollow 
morula, as do also several species of the higher forms of Carneo- 
spongiz, having silicious spicules, which are now by most al- 
thors supposed to have only a solid morula. 

The differentiation of the egg is slightest in forms like Hali- 
sarca, and possibly also in Gastrophysema, one of the Calcispot- 
giz; if Haeckel’s figures of these really represent sponges. In the 
higher forms of both Carneospongiz and Calcispongie, especially 
the latter, the eggs become differentiated into endoderm and ecto- 
derm at a very early stage of segmentation, and all larval stages 
are much shortened, in accordance with the law of concentration 
and acceleration in development. This law is founded upon the 
fact, now generally established by observation, that the earn ei 
descendant types inherit characteristics and tendencies, or habits 
at earlier stages than those in which they first originated in a 
ancestors.! 

Thus the young of Sycandra is the exact structural parallel 4 
the adult of Leucosolenia, a genus of a lower order, Asan ie 
is at first a tube with thin walls as in Leucosolenia, and et a 
velops the characteristics of its own order, Sycones, pane 
thick wall, and the ccelomatic cavity branches into radia ae 
keeping up connection with the exterior through open paft all 
pores. The cells in the main cavity of the larva, ware 
flagellated and collared, lose their cilia and collars excep a 
the enlargements of the branches occur, forming the S thick 
essential characteristic gastric cavities of all sponge? r 
mesoderm. 

1 See Evolution of Cephalopods, Science, Nos. 52-53» 
alopods, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. XXII, p. 262. 


ica 


1884.] The Larval Theory of the Origin of Cellular Tissue. 461 


The three layers can be exactly compared with the three layers 
of all the Metazoa, the outer, the ectoderm, is essentially a pro- 
tective and respiratory layer, the inner, the endoderm, is devoted 
in Ascones to digestion, or rather consists wholly of feeding 
zoons, the central, the mesoderm, is a supporting layer secreting 
the primitive spicular skeleton, as in Hydrozoa, Actinozoa and all 
Metazoa. This skeleton, in its spicular character, is similar to 
the primitive condition of the skeleton in most and perhaps 
throughout all the Metazoa, the mode of formation being essen- 
tially at first spiculous and then solidified through the binding to- 
gether of the loose elements remotely comparable with the spic- 
ules of Porifera. It will be noticed also that in sponges the pro- 
ducts of the mesoderm are largely inorganic, as in the skeleton 
in the Metazoa, and the products of the ectoderm are also horny, 
asin the Metazoa. The skeleton of Keratosa, the well known 
webs of elastic threads, which compose the masses known as com- 
mercial sponges, are not products of the mesoderm, but really 
built by the ectoderm. 

The process of digestion in Ascones and in the ampulle is 
purely protozodnal. The cells capture food, living and in an un- 
prepared condition, from the water coming in through the pores. 
They must be admitted to have retained both the structure and 
the habits of the flagellate Protozoa, as has been shown by Clark, 
Carter and Saville Kent. They are really a distinct branch on 
the lower borders of the Metazoa, derived from the Protozoa, and 
equal taxonomically to either Hydrozoa or Actinozoa, forming in 
fact parallels to the first in their development of the ccelomatic 
cavity and gastrovascular system, and even uniting, in this respect, 
Ps two Systems of the Echinodermata, the water and gastric sys- 
=, into one system with two sets of tubes. They have, in fact, 
the incurrent or supply system formed by the ectoderm connect- 
"E with the cloacal outlet system formed by the endoderm in all 

fleshy sponges, Sycones and Leucones. 


— Sponge may, however, be morphologically considered, 


reduced to its simplest elements, as a sac of collared and 
fagellated cells surrounded by the mesoderm and inclosed in the 
oderm. This sac has but one opening, an excurrent and in- 
tive on perture, but this opening is not the blastopore or primi- 
at the a of the gastrula stage. It occurs by a breaking through 
* Opposite pole of the body after the attachment of the 


462 The Larval Theory of the Origin of Cellular Tissue. (May, 


larva, which occurs mouth downwards, as shown by Schultze in 
Sycandra. This primitive opening is also present at an earlier 
‘stage in the free larve of all the higher forms of Carneospongie. 
Haeckel’s parallel between the development of the egg and the 
evolution of forms among Protozoa, from the unnucleated to the 
nucleated, seems to be correct, and the morula can be equally 
closely compared with the colonial free forms of Flagellata like 
Uvella and Volvox. Recent investigations by Balbiani, Bütschli 
and Engelmann have removed almost every obstacle, which for- 
merly existed, to the close homology of the single cell among 
Metazoa with a full-grown adult Protozoön. We can now even 
closely compare the nuclei of the Protozoa and its changes during 
conjugation and subsequent casting off of part of the nucleus, to 
the casting off of polar cells in the egg. The heads of the sperma 
tozoon in the Calcispongiz have been shown, by Poléjaeff, to 
arise from division of a part of the nucleus, the other or central 
part either remaining quiescent or, as this author states, form the 
tails. Almost every author, especially La Vallette St. George 
the most thorough student of this subject, consider all sperm 
tozoa as derived from simple processes of cell division. The ei 
sential and general character of reproduction among Protos 
similar, being, as is well known to observers, fissiparous division 
of the whole body, but this division takes place in the adults > 
the end of a series of transformations, and is not character! 
larval stages. The building up of the tissue in Metazoa 1S due to 
the quick and rapid division of cells, and if it is granted that Meta- 
Zoa may be aggregates of Protozoa, they must be considered, 1 
fact, larval forms descended from Protozoa and inheriting the ten- 
dency to reproduction, by fissiparous division, at an early $ 
In other words, they reproduce while still larvæ and before re 
ing through any transformations, except the very primitive 
which precede and include the nucleated stage. 

We can account for the three layers, by suppos Metaz0a 
must have been among the protozodnal ancestors of me e d 
transitional forms which were colonial, and in which & mi 
the feeding zoöns, the collared and flagellated cells, pe 


stic of 


ing that there 


i i i w 
ferentiated into flattened protective zoons. The next $ sd 
be represented by another form, in which to these two cay ie 

rting 20° 


zoons, a third would be added in the shape of supp? 


and 
We can readily imagine all of these as attached ¢ 


olonies, 


1884.) Zhe Larval Theory of the Origin of Cellular Tissue. 463 


even think of the supporting zodns, which represent the inclosed’ 
mesoderm of Metazoa, as resting on the ground. The inclo- 
sure might have been simply due to concentration in the larve 
of descendant forms, which connected them with the Meta- 
zoa, since this would be a natural sequence of inheritance with 
concentration of the secondary formation of the mesoderm. 
Of course this picture can only indicate what seems to us the 
probable course of the morphology, and also our disposition to- 
regard as unfounded all hypotheses which have asserted that es- 
sential structural characters originate, as a rule, in larval stages, 
or are likely to occur without being derived through inherited’ 
concentration of characteristics from former generations. Simul- 
taneously with the differentiation of supporting or mesodermic 
zoons, we should also expect to find male and female zoöns aris- 
ing, if the results of investigations among sponges mean any- 
thing, from among the Supporting zoons, or becoming, at least. 
in the immediate transitional forms, confined to this layer.) 


It is not of course necessary to this hypothesis that no other 
transitional forms occurred leading to other types of Metazoa, or 
that all reproductive zoons originated in the mesoderm. As larval 

d the Spermatocysts would inherit the tendencies to sponta- 
neous fission of the nucleus at earlier stages in the successive forms, 
and the resulting cells or fertilizing elements would acquire the 
Pe and the habits of the full-grown ancestors, if they also- 

larval forms. The parallel between the encystment of the 
a “‘matocyst in the sponge tissue, and of the adult among Pro- 
takes <a ated similar. The process of spontaneous fission 

Place in both bodies in similar way after their encystment. 
— the above was wri 

‘St, 1884, in which Bü 
and female zoéns as individuals, and that the male pro- 


ale. Thus which, like spermatozoa, seek out and fertilize 
females. nS Bütschli has discovered the intermediate forms with males and 
ypoth 


tten we have received Biologisches Centralblatt for 


iin “i may add, in Vorticella. We cannot, however, at all join 
aires respectively mb Spermatocyst and the ovum as the morphological represent- 
om ue exclusive male colonies and female colonies of some 
F Mal, either male P This would be assuming every cell to be primarily unisex- 
-i ae primarily sexic« pone, our standpoint being with Minot and Balfour, that they 
3 Mependenit differeryiat a y that is hermaphrodites, and the sexes the result of 
e ' on, 


464 The Naturalist Brazilian Expedition, [May, 


The products in both cases are the tailed locomotive forms, which 
are, according to all observers, probably true single cells, which, 
from the earliest period of their discovery, have been compared 
or identified with the locomotive monads, the products of the en- 
cysted stage in many of the Protozoa. 

The essential difference between a spermatocyst and its homo- 
logue among Protozo6a consists in the fact that the latter has to 
become a full-grown feeding zodn before it is ripe, and proceeds 
to produce by division secondary males, which seek out the & 
male for the purposes of impregnation, while the latter, as its de. 
scendant, has acquired by concentration of development, the same 
powers and habits in its earliest stage, and its sole function is to 
become encysted and produce larval male cells for the impregn 
tion of the female zobn or ovum. The impregnation in both 
cases immediately precedes the reorganization of the nucleus of 
the female (ex. Vorticella), and are followed by a period of repro 
duction by division, which is infinitely more concentrated in the 
encysted ovum, as an encysted larval form, than in the free adult 
Protozoén. The former is thus a builder of close-set tissues oo 
posed of larval cells, and the latter of loosely associated colonies 
of adult feeding zodns. 


A’ 
se 


THE NATURALIST BRAZILIAN EXPEDITION 
Parer III.—SAo João po MontE NEGRO. 


BY HERBERT H. SMITH. 


run up this river from Porto Alegre nearly every day, 
at the various German colonies along the banks, pei 
down mandioca-meal, corn, beans, tobacco and other esr 

The Cahy is very crooked, and the lower portion 1$ 4 oftet 
by a wide flood-plain. The clay banks are steeply cat, eP the 
thirty feet high, so as to be beyond reach of all ae heavy 
strongest floods. They are covered in many places her anche 
forest, leguminous trees and myrtles being abundant a are oft? 
are draped with vines, and palms of one or twO kin 


1884.] The Naturalist Brazilian Expedition. 465 


seen, so that the scenery reminded us much of river-shores in 
equatorial Brazil. 

Twenty-five miles in a direct north-west line from Porto Ale- 
gre, but fifty as the river runs, the flood-plain is greatly nar- 
rowed, and picturesque hills appear on either side ; these are out- 
lyers and denuded portions of the table-land farther north; near 
Sao João none of them exceed 800 feet in height. The village 
itself lies on a higher portion of the flood-plain, at the foot of one 
of the hills; only a few of the houses and the Catholic church 
are on a spur of the highlands. The Cahy being subject to 
heavy floods, the streets are often overflowed, and once or twice 
ayear the houses are invaded; for this reason many of them 
have an upper story to which the inmates can retire when the 
ground floor is covered with water. Notwithstanding these fre- 
quent inundations the place is notably healthy, malarial fevers 
being quite unknown; colds and lung diseases are occasionally 
prevalent, but only during the cold weather. Nearly all the peo- 
ple of Sao João are Germans, and the German language is much 
more frequently used than the Portuguese; there is a German 

eran church, and a German school where many of the chil- 
dren appear in the characteristic peasant costumes of the Father- 
land, But for the whitewashed and tile-roofed houses scattered 
irregularly along the unpaved streets, and the semi-tropical scen- 


oy around the place, one might fancy that São João was a 
Country village in Germany, 


abit resided at first with some German friends, but after a few 
eA me a a house, arranging to have our meals brought in 
si Bice boring hotel. Here we lived quietly for several 
Tug a a ng very extensive collections of the animals and 
uy si strtounding country. The colonists soon learned 
pier aoe good prices for any animal which they brought us, 
every or snakes and insects, and some of them came nearly 
a fees ae aamen to sell; in this way we secured many 
mS. After awhile we hired two young Germans as hun- 

Sang tvants, and these afterwards accompanied us in 
vised rough rhe house resembled a laboratory; we had impro- 
| ard tables and shelves for our work, and they were 
oes with jars of snakes and fishes, boxes of in- 
built AR OR gas and so on. An outhouse which had been 
en was used for rougher operations, such as skin- 


and 
ft Seneral se 


466 The Naturalist Brazilian Expedition. [May, 


ning large animals and boiling and cleaning bones. Our daily 
life was varied only with new excursions, or with those pleasant 
excitements which attend the discovery of some rare species or 
interesting fact. Yet it would be hard to imagine a more agree- 
able existence than that which we led; our house was a real 
home to us, and our warm-hearted German neighbors became 
fast friends ; in the end we were very sorry to leave them. 

The country around São Joao is properly a forest region, but 
this varies much in its characters. On the hillsides it is very 
heavy, averaging eighty feet in height; the trees and plants, in 
the main, are of the same species as those found at Rio de Ja- 
neiro and in the Brazilian coast range. I noticed only two kinds 
of palms (a Cocos ? and a large, spiny Bactris, the latter growing 
only in swampy places) ; woody climbers are numerous, and there 
is much underbrush. Ravines and water-courses are so matted 
over with bushes and vines that one may often walk on top of the 
vegetation, several feet above the ground. 

The river shores and higher portions of the flood-plain have à 
vegetation which resembles that of the hillsides, but many of the 
trees are of different species, and they are generally more sprea™ 
ing in their growth, the branches being covered with parasites 
and trailing lichens; there is comparatively little undergrowtt 
and one may walk readily almost anywhere without cutting @ 
path. Probably this paucity of smaller plants is owing " she 
periodical floods, which are unfavorable to them. Most of 
herbs which cover the ground in such places are annuals. ee 

A third kind of forest is the fachina/, or “ faggot-woods, z its 
on dry, sandy soil, generally rather low land, but above the il 
of the highest floods. It is composed of low, gnarled sf 
either a continuous wood or forming clumps in open gr cde 
They are tangled but not dense, and the ground beneath eee 
ered with grass and dry ferns. Nearly all the plants of the ‘ 
fachinal are distinct from those of the hillsides and alluvial 
and where the fachinal adjoins other,forest the limits are arn 
well marked. In their general features these low woods the coast : 
me of those seen in the interior of Brazil, back of ons of ; 
range; probably they may be considered as outlying a 
the latter. dows 

Lower parts of the alluvial plain are occupied si excellent 
which are often swampy or half flooded; they for™ o 


iC See E 


1884.] The Naturalist Brazilian Expedition. 467 


pastures, though the horses and cattle are often obliged to pass 

many days with their feet in the water. The flowering herbs of 

these meadows were very interesting; but botanizing on them 

and in the fachinal forest was rendered difficult by spiny brome- 

lias, which covered the ground in many places. Ditches lined 

ka these plants were generally used by the colonists in lieu of 
ces. 


To the north of São João the fachinal and meadows disappear- 
almost entirely, and the whole country is covered with lofty for- 
est, This is continuous with that which clothes the whole coast 
range, but on the northern table-land it is broken by large tracts 
of grass-land. 

Passing south-west from Sao João, about three miles, the forest 
all - once disappears, giving place to rolling prairie like that 
which we saw at São Jeronymo. The change is very sudden and 
striking, and coming as it does unexpectedly, the effect is almost 
magical. Riding out of the silent woods, a new world leaps into 
TR; a world of great open landscapes, óf rippling light, ot 
glorious sweeping winds ; a world where every animal and every 
Api is different from those of the forest which we left behind. 
ie nan the fauna and flora go, this is, in fact, the end of Brazil. 
"eee point the prairies extend, with hardly a break, away to 
x pri de la Plata, and beyond it almost to Cape Horn. Only 
eas w favored places the forest reappears in small patches, Bra- 

islands in the pampean ocean. 
rs ag of the São Joao district is rather uninteresting. 
3 “i the north and west of the village are composed of 
aie e, reddish-brown sandstone, which by intrusions of 
“c and other igneous rocks has been thrown into irregular 
apace The lower portions are soft and often shaly, and as 
left in more readily washed away the harder upper layers are 
Picturesque cliffs. These sandstones and sandy shales 
s assag of at least 800 feet, and probably they are much 
* On the Serra de Sao Joao, near the village and else- 
k Soa harder upper layers are quarried, the stone being used 
re for sidewalks and for facings ; it is, however, too 
ka much value. 
: this hill the Strata dip north-east at an angle of about 15°; — 
tion, moy present almost every possible strike and inclina- 
tew information which I have, it would appear that the 
i “NO. V, 30 


Soft to be of 


468 The Naturalist Brazilian Expedition. (May, ) 


same sandstone extends northward almost to the limits of Santa 
Catharina. From the position of the beds there can be little 
doubt that they lie above the coal rocks of Sao Jeronymo, but 
beyond this I know nothing of their age. Careful search was 
made for fossils but without success. 

The Monte Negro is a singular cliff-crowned hill about 800 
feet high, lying near the river-shore about two miles south of the 
village; it derives its name from the somber color of its forest- 
covered sides when seen against the open campos. This hill is 
composed of a singular dark porphyritic rock, originally an erup- 
tive mass which cut through the sandstone; by the denudation 
of the latter it has been left standing like a tower, the upper paft 
rising perpendicularly, while the base, covered with talus, slopes 
away steeply to the plain. Other hills in the vicinity are formed 
of the same rock, or of basalt; where these occur in low, damp 
places the decomposition has sometimes given rise to agates like 
those of Sao Jeronymo. 

The flora of the country around São João is exceedingly rich. 
My wife, to whom the botanical collections were relegated, dè 
voted herself especially to ferns, gathering no less than 135 di 
tinct species! Among these were four or five tree-ferns, ĉ 
many very large brakes. The fachinal forest contained a m 
set of dry, stiff-looking species; others grew on the branches 
trunks of trees and in shady ravines. But by far the richest 
lecting places were the sandstone cliffs. Where streams fell : 


these they often presented magnificent pictures, great ti rocks l 


mingling with giant brakes, and lesser species carpeting the 
or hanging in fairy curtains from some projectin 
of the species take root at the ends, and we 
“ walking-fern,” which was regularly propagated i 

The settlers speak of over fifty kinds of excellent tim 


n this way. 


forest, and there are probably three times as many less many 4 


species. I made a collection of about seventy-five kinds, 


of which were equal in beauty to the finest cabine 
in the United States. With the present increasing , 
ornamental work, it is hardly possible that these fine 
woods should be long neglected. 
Our collections, both of vertebrates and inve 
1 Two hundred and fifty species have been collected at Rio de Janeiro 
more than at any other one point in the world. 


g ledge. Many 
found one tri J 


perin the 


t woods used : 


brat 


SO SS RD Sa Mase toes ME ae E 


doing Oh cea 


1884. | The Naturalist Brazilian Expedition, 469 


very large, but I will speak here only of the Mammalia. Of 
monkeys I heard of only four kinds, three of which we secured. 
The largest and commonest is a howler, called here dugiu ; it 
varies in color from a very dark reddish-brown to a bright red or 
almost ochre ; the light-colored specimens are always the older 
ones. The largest individual which we obtained was an old male 
which measured just two feet from the nostril to the root of the 
tail, the tail itself being twenty-five inches long; the girth was 
fifteen and a-quarter inches. ‘The bugius wander in considerable 
bands, nearly always among the branches, but occasionally on the 
ground ; they eat the fruits of forest trees, and perhaps birds’ 
eggs and insects. The females commonly have two young at a 
birth, and these, when traveling, cling to the long hair at the 
back of the mother’s neck; when sucking they are generally 
seated on a branch before her. This species wanders only in the 
daytime, sleeping on boughs at night.” The peculiar bony en- 
largement of the larynx, by which the hoarse cry or howl is pro- 
duced, is fully developed only in the males, the females being 
nearly dumb. When traveling the males of this Rio Grande 
Species are also silent; the emission of the cry is accompanied 
by a kind of dance in which the whole tribe takes part. This 
occurs sometimes during the day, sometimes at twilight, but in 
any case the figure of the dance is the same. The males leap 
rapidly, from branch to branch, in a circular direction, generally 
wing the outer boughs of some large tree; the females 

THa larger circle around the males. While moving the males 
li forth their peculiar cry, and the whole troop appear to be 

uch excited ; the performance may last half an hour. 

‘he howlers, it is said, can never be thoroughly. tamed ; in 
mopuyity they are morose and treacherous, often biting severely. 
There is a black AÆzeles found in the same forest, but much less 
commonly than the bugiu ; of its habits in a wild state I know 
nothing, but tame individuals are sometimes seen, and these are 
lacus and intelligent. Young ones have a curious resem- 

to human babies, amusing themselves with bits of straw 


lb i and moving their long arms helplessly ; when scolded 
A. they give vent to doleful cries, but never attempt to _ 


20ne ofan the Amazons. 
Piha nazonian species certainly wanders during the night. More than 
Passed overhea Es near Santarem, I have been awakened by the howlers which 
with their usual hoarse cry. 


470 The Exhalation of Ozone by Flowering Plants. (May, 


scratch or bite. They are very fond of caresses, and will lie 
quite still to receive them, crooning a little in a ridiculously satis- 
fied way. I knew a tame Ateles of another species which always 
met one with an embrace around the neck ; this was not an ac 
quired trick, but simply the natural expression of its affection for 
human beings. 

One individual of a large Cebus was brought in; it was a great 
rarity, and none of our hunters recognized it at all. There isa 
smaller monkey occasionally seen here, which I judge to be also 
a Cebus, but we did not obtain specimens. The marmosets do 
not seem to be represented, at least in the eastern part of this 
province. 

Bats were rather common, but by no means as numerous as M 
equatorial Brazil, and none of the species which we obtained wert 
- very large. So far as I could discover, the blood-sucking kinds 
are unknown here. 


"T° 
vv 


THE EXHALATION OF OZONE BY FLOWERING 
PLANTS. 

BY J. M. ANDERS, M.D., PH.D. 

(Continued from page 344.) 
E became evident that in order that this important questi 

might be set at rest, the conditions would have to be varied 

further observations instituted. I now set to work to devise the 
necessary apparatus to carry on such experiments. According!) 
I had made a glass case large enough to contain a 
thrifty growing plants in pots. Its dimensions were 4 
length, three anda half feet ; width, two anda half feet, an% y so 
two and a half feet. A portion of the top was left removab ni 
as to furnish an aperture through which the plants © 
placed in the case and again taken out. Such an arran 


follows: 


ro, 
this would admit the sunlight to the plants and confine their bi 


halations, and thus give the ozone, if any should T In all of the 


better opportunity of acting upon the test papers. 
remaining experiments here recorded I was greatly was 


Mr. G. B. M. Miller, my medical student. The app m pang 
first placed in the bay window of an occupied sitting tO rae | 


east. The plants here received the sun’s rays gi a in tH 
hours of the day. A dozen thrifty plants were par 


dozen or mor 


d height | 


1884.) The Exhalation of Ozone by Flowering Plants. 471 


case, which was then accurately closed by the removable piece 
of glass already spoken of; the test papers having been moist- 
ened and tacked on the branches or stems of the plants. In 
the first series of experiments flowering plants were used, 
twelve in number, each having several flowers and about 
four square feet of leaf surface. They consisted of varieties 
of geraniums, fuchias, begonias, hydrangeas and petunias. 
Upon these plants eighteen observations were made of about 
four hours each, during the latter part of the month of May, 
1883 ; weather mostly fair. The Schoenbein showed “very 
slight 5 indications for seven of the experiments and one “ slight ” 
coloration, there being ten negative results. The guaiacum 
papers gave more striking results, the change in the papers being 
braaa for ten of the experiments and slight for the remaining 
s ie one which was negative. Great care was taken to 
ee re eh experimented with in a healthy condition; they 
a a eft in the pots in which they had been grown. There 
Seal a which can be assigned why the results in these 
ieee. = were not very striking with the iodized starch test 
rit ua Sir nents were of too short duration; and secondly 
opr s ucted indoors, for the air of the case was originally 
an. i room, and a portion at least of the ozone which 
oe en generated by the plants would have been de- 
eas he impurities of the air in the case. 

Pamoka nowledge of the very unfavorable conditions un- 
their ce experiments were: conducted, but encouraged by 
res ae success, it was resolved to make a trial of odorif- 
tle floral — under the same conditions. Again our lit- 
bushes. four of er was filled with plants, consisting of seven rose 
a. tation pinks, and six heliotropes. The duration 
elei ieo te about ten diurnal hours each; weather mostly 
“vey tS Re cloudy, With the Schoenbein test there were 
one well « “nee in most instances, two “slight” and 
iho can, ed,” while the guaiacum papers were “ marked” 
periments o ape being “ slight.” The number of ex- 
naturally that Seg These investigations suggested the idea 
Cori orous flowering plants might be better ozone 

nt inodorous ones. The external atmospheric 
ceding gg very similar during the time of both the pre- 
of experiments, the maximum temperature ranging 


472 The Exhalation of Ozone by Flowering Plants, (May, 


from 85 to 88° Fahr. Repeated testing of the atmosphere of 
the room in which the case was situated gave no indications of 
the presence of ozone. 

The question now very naturally arose whether the colorations 
were due to ozone or to some of the substances which give 
same reactions with these papers; hence, further investigation was 
necessary in order to exclude, if possible, these interfering con- 
ditions, before it could be claimed for plants that they were capa- 
ble of emitting or converting the oxygen of the air into ozone, 
It was also deemed important to conduct future experiments out 
of doors as, for reasons already given, it was expected more de- 
cided results would be obtained. The case was removed to the 
back yard, which lies to the eastward of the dwelling: Here the 
plants received the sunlight for at least eight hours daily during 
clear weather, and the yard was of good size. In the first series 
of experiments in this locality the plants last named were ef 
ployed. 

After observations for seven consecutive days of clear weather 
the Schoenbein paper gave “ slight” reactions in four cases Ti 
“ marked” reactions in three. The guaiacum paper gave “slight 
indications in three and “ marked ” in four experiments. It wil 
be seen that these experiments gave more marked results the 
those made within doors. It may be stated that it was fo 
that the coloration of the Schoenbein or iodized starch test ¥ 
“ slight” instead of “ very slight” as indoors, and in three @* 
actually “ marked,” against one “ marked ” result in the preceding 
series. The guaiacum tests were nearly correspondingly of the 
marked. It is probable that the more surprising results © i 
last series are not attributable solely to the chan 
but also in some degree to the fact that the experimen 
longer duration. A piece of red litmus suspended 1n Pri 
during these experiments gave no indication of the yar l 
ammonia. Peroxides of hydrogen could not have been ape | 
actionary agent, since that substance is decomposed at ar l 
ture of 70° Fahr., while the temperature of the atmosphere r 
the case, which was carefully noted, was never found io 
Fahr. These observations were made during the first l 
June, 1883, the weather being very warm and the p externi ! 
of the air within the case being higher than that of perimet q 
air. Good reactions were, however, obtained in later € : 


1884] The Exhalation of Ozone by Flowering Plants. 473 


when the temperature did not mark over 70° Fahr. That the re- 
actions were not due to the nitrous oxides, perhaps the only 
remaining substances capable of producing like colorations of 
these test papers, will appear evident hereafter. 

It was next proposed to give foliage plants having soft thin 
leaves a trial. Seven asperdisteus, one fern and three dracænas 
were chosen for experimentation. These observations were con- 
ducted during the first week in September, 1883, for seven con- 
secutive days. The weather was extremely warm, the tempera- 
ture of the air within the case ranging from 85 to 100° Fahr., the 
sky was clear during four days and partly cloudy the remaining 
three. The Schoenbein test paper gave negative results through- 
out, while the guaiacum gave one “ very slight ” reaction, the 
rest being negative also. Thus it would appear that foliage 
plants have not this power of generating ozone, the function must 
therefore reside with the flower, but of its nature we shall speak 
hereafter, 


As our first experiments with inodorous flowering plants did 
not yield results striking enough to afford a basis for positive con- 
clusions, it was considered desirable to apply the tests to them in 
the open air, which was done. Seventeen thrifty geraniums were 
employed. The temperature was lower during these experiments 
than during those made indoors with inodorous plants. For six 
A secutive days, experiments being of ten hours each duration, the 

cenbein gave one negative, two “slight” and three “ marked” 
ia shades. The negative result occurred upon a rainy day, 
“nng which there was no sunshine whatever. This would indi- 
cate that sunlight, or at least good diffused light, is essential to 

Seneration of ozone by plants, for the plants were protected 
from the rain by the glass. There are other physiological pro- 
cesses carried on by plants which are almost entirely dependent 
ly the power of the sun's rays, 2. g., assimilation and transpi- 
ecu the above may doubtless be added the development 


io i ‘vations were continued upon these plants during the 
last Week of September, the result being about similar to those 
a sted, the Schoenbein gave two “marked,” one negative, on 
ty day, and the rest “ slight” reactions. The guaiacum 
As Snee: two “striking” and the rest “slight” colorations. 
Y intimated nitrous oxides, which are present in the air, 


474 The Exhalation of Ozone by Flowering Plants.  |May, 


change the color of these test papers very much as ozone does, 
To exclude the possibility of the change in color being due to 
the nitrous oxides, we tested the air during the latter set of ex 
periments on the outside of the case simultaneously, and found 
that the papers in this situation gave only one “slight” reaction, — 
and even though this occasional reaction on the exterior had 
been due to the presence of the nitrous oxides, they could not | 
have caused the much more striking and constant tests obtained 
on the inside. Again, it is not at all likely that the plants gem 
erated nitrous oxides, which in turn might have changed the test 
papers, for there is nothing in all vegetable physiology to support 
such an hypothesis. Moreover, it is all the more improbable that 
nitrous oxides caused the blue colorations, since they did not do 
so when foliage plants were employed. l 

We do not wish to say dogmatically that all the changes inthe 
test papers were due to ozone, but from the many beautiful reac- 
tions obtained, and the systematic precautions taken to preclud 
the action of other substances known to answer to like tests, 
will not be denied. that the chief agent in changing the papers ] 
was ozone. I was unable to detect the odor of ozone upon WAM | 
Professor Leeds lays so much stress, but Mr. Miller thought he 
could detect its presence. It must be borne in mind that W 
amount of plant life within the case was probably too small t 
generate sufficient ozone to make it perceptible to the sensè 
smell. 

It would appear certain from these experiments, that the gs 
which are so actively engaged in carrying on the ipon t r 
tions, as, for example, transpiration, have nothing whatever a 
with the production of ozone. But, on the other hand, it is t0 i 
flower that is delegated this highly important, though | 
hitherto unthought of, function in plant life. _ e : 

Can we, from the facts derived from these observations, por i 
any definite conclusions respecting the nature of this i 
Is the cause to be sought in the functions of the petals oF at 
formation of the seed? Let us here recall how o 
produced artificially, and it will be remembered that ca 
by suspending phosphorus in moist air. Now it !S pe hates. * 
the ashes of seeds contains large quantities of the phosp rapid 4 
follows that during the formation of the seeds the 
metastasis of phosphorites in the form of ph 


ba Gabi nee aed 


1884.] The Exhalation of Ozone by Flowering Plants. 475 


the phosphates to that organ of the plant, and it may reasonably 
be supposed that in the chemico-vital changes going on in the 
ovules, phosphorus is liberated and acted upon by the moisture 
which the leaves and petals are so actively transpiring. 

As corroborating this view we may allude to the phenomena 
of phosphorescence in plants as observed by M. Crié and others. 
In a communication to the French Academy, M. Crié states: “ It 
is well known that the flowers of phanerogams are capable, under 
certain circumstances, of producing phosphorescent light. The 
phenomenon has been verified, especially of the nasturtiums and 
the marigold. Some years ago I myself saw phosphorescent light 
emitted in stormy weather from the flowers of the 7; ropeolum 
majus cultivated in a garden.” Although an absolute decision 
may not be possible, the above facts, when taken together, are 
Suggestive of the correctness of this explanation. The subject, 
however, merits further investigation. 

In the light of the present experiments there can scarce be a 
doubt but that a manifest relation does exist between vegetation 
and the ozonic condition of the atmosphere. And this, it will be 
conceded, is not the least hygienic influence possessed by plants. 
During fair weather all flowering vegetation in nature is contribu- 
ting ozone to the atmosphere. In this connection it should be 
me in mind that vegetation is largely blooming, that numerous 
field plants, the forest trees, as well as all fruit trees put forth 

wers, and that during this period they all add their quota of 
T to the surrounding medium. Again, not all blooming 
Plants or trees produce their flowers at the same time of the sea- 
cee ala it happens that there are a certain proportion of dif- 
a flowering in turn from early spring till late in 
bas and hence the effect upon the atmosphere with reference 
Pe ibaa of ozone they give to it must be pretty constant 
We here — vegetative period wherever vegetation abounds. 

à ave another evidence of the fact that in His eternal 
of ee of nature has intrusted to plant life the task 

ay mng the harmonious composition of the atmosphere. 
Prevent it oe of ozone in the atmosphere is essential to 
ti k i becoming too much polluted for animal respira- 

~ "€ products of decomposition, particularly of azotized 
which are SA are known to be a fruitful cause of disease, igi 
‘pidemic Sgn by some to serve as carriers for the germs o 
contagious diseases. 


1 
3 
a, 
ž r 
Zi 
i 
j 


476 The Exhalation of Ozone by Flowering Plants. [May, 


= Upon this point Professor Kedzie observes: “I call ozone the 
most energetic of the constituents of the atmosphere. Its pres- 
ence or absence must have a controlling influence over the vital 
powers. And when we consider that this material is present in 
such variable amount in a medium which enfolds us every mo- 
ment of our lives, and where action ‘ pauses not for matin or for 
vesper, at noon of day or noon of night,’ it seems to me that no 
one can deny that its influence on human health must be most 
significant.” 

Professor Max von Pettenkofer says of the hygienic value of 
ozone in the air: “It is the constant purifier of the atmosphere — 
from all organic matter which passes into it and might accumu — 
late. The air would have been long ago filled with the vapors of | 
decomposition if it were not for ozone, which oxydizes all thats 
oxydizable, if only time be allowed for it and too much is not 
expected at once.’ 

How long it would be possible for animal life to exist were all 
the atmospheric ozone to,be suddenly annihilated, cannot be 
computed ; but that existence would sooner or later become 1m- 
possible on account of noxious substances which would accumu 
late in the air, and which it is the office of the ozone to destroy, 
cannot be reasonably doubted. How infinitely wise and benef 
cent, then, is the Author of nature in placing beside these destroy 
ing elements the means of reparation. And as flowering plants 
serve as natural ozone generators, they must be looked upon # 
worthy of being placed in the front rank as hygienic agents. 

Perhaps the most interesting phase of this question !S the a 
plication of the results of our observations to the benene! “6 
of the cultivation of plants in dwellings. As already incide 
mentioned, ozone is not detectable in living rooms for the 


dimensions of the one employed, give us a : pe a l 
not be doubted that a living room well stocked w! pce its 
plants would give off sufficient to be of hygienic pet vant is 
well known that we rarely or never find but a smal ious 
the external air, which yet serves to maintain it 1n @ with | 
condition. The air of dwellings is very generally © { 

1 Popular Scicnce Monthly, Feb., 1878. | 


1884] The Exhalation of Ozone by Flowering Plants. 477 


deleterious substances due to human respiration, insufficient ven- 
tilation, the presence of sewer gases, and many other causes. 
That the hygienic conditions of the air of living rooms is almost 
universally abominable is admitted by the best authorities, and it 
is also true that this bad air of our dwellings serves admirably as 
a culture fluid for the various disease-producing germs, How to 
obviate the ill effects arising from this unfortunate condition of 
things is a question of paramount importance. Since plants are 
capable of generating ozone, which has the power of destroying 
not only the organic impurities but even disease germs, it fol- 
lows that the requisite amount of flowering plants grown in our 
living rooms would, in a great measure, rid the air of these dele- 
terious substances, From these observations it will readily be 
conceded that the value of house-plants as hygienic agents can 
scarcely be overrated. That no possible objection can be urged 
against the practice of keeping blooming plants in our living 
rooms (excepting in the case of those having pronounced odors, 
as the tuberose, etc.) has been shown conclusively elsewhere, and 
the old time prejudice, we are happy to be able to state, is rap- 
idly dying out. 

Shall we discard the foliage varieties because they are incapa- 
ble of producing ozone? By no means; there are also important 
advantages to be derived from their presence. Not to speak of 
their esthetic influence, there is, as already pointed out, confided 
to the leaf the important function of transpiration or exhalation 
= Watery vapor. This process is carried on so actively by leafy 
Plants as to give them the power to raise the degree of humidity 
ofa closed apartment which is usually far below the health stand- 
ard, as the writer has shown in previous articles.’ It simply 
Sats to be said that, in view of these experiments, the 
rier! treasures of the green-house as well as foliage plants 
web be Welcomed into every household as being among our 
est sanitary agents. 


le eas : 

ae of piration of Plants,” Amer, NAT. for March, 1879; also “ Beneficent In- 

peutic Te Plants,” AMER. Nav. for Dec., 1879; also “ Hygienic and Thera- 
of House Plants,” Phila. Med. Times for May 8, 1880. 


478 The Creodonta. [ May, 
THE CREODONTA. 
BY E. D. COPE. 
(Continued from the April number, page 353.) 


To genus Ictops is found from the Bridger epoch up into the 

Oligocene or White River Miocene. It thus has much the range 
of the genus Hyzenodon, There are three species, of which I givea 
cut (Fig. 21) of the Z. dicuspis Cope, from the Wind River beds of 


: f ; iew of ti 
FIG. 21.—Jctops bicuspis Cope, skull, natural size. Fig. æ, oblique view © s 


andibular ramus es a 
From the Wind River Eocene, Wyoming. Original, from Report of Y. > 
Survey Terrs., Vol. 11. 


IG 
side; 4, do. of inferior side, injured posteriorly; c, m 


š Sei Gu ines 
Wyoming. In this form, as in Leptictis, the incisors and canine 


are spaced. The White River species is the Jctops presi 
Leidy. But one species of Mesodectes is known, the Colorado 


‘us Cope. from the White River beds of Northeastern i 

I discovered a good deal of its skeleton, which forn a 
of its general characters. Its skull, like that of the oe 
haydeni Leidy, possesses the marsupial character of a eae 
sal foramen (Fig. 22 ss), but the resemblance to this one 


„sternum, 
besides only the dentition. There is a large keeled ly urrowing 
stouter and shorter than that of a mole, suggesting ĉ hort, and 


habit, but the humeri are not robust. The neck is very $ cerebral 
the cervical vertebræ are without neural spines. are cere 
hemispheres of the brain leave the olfactory lobes and They £ 
bellum entirely exposed, and are wide and sho | was about 
smooth, but the sylvian fissure is visible. This animà s). 

the size of the European hedgehog (Erinaceus ae jayde 
` As yet but one species of Leptictis is known, e 


1884. ] The Creodonta, | 479 


Leidy (Fig. 22). This animal has been found in the White River 
beds of Nebraska. It is <5 

about the size of the 
Mesodectes caniculus. It 
resembles the gray fox 
of North America in the 
rib-like temporal ridges 
of its skull. 

The remarkable genus 
which I have called Es- 
thonyx, is exceptional 
in the family in the large 
development of its sec- 
ond inferior incisors at 
the expense of the oth- 
ers. One or more of 
the superior incisors has 
been supplanted by ‘the 
large development of the 
ene. that remains. The Fic. 22.—Leptictis haydeni Leidy, skull, natural 
Canines are moderately size, from the White FSi La ia 
NIE preinos. yon aes citadina Ta 
lars are 3 (Fig. 23). 


The last premolars of both jaws are more or less like true molars. 
the inferior true molars support two V’s, of which the anterior 
'S the more elevated. A good deal of the skeleton of the Æ. 
burmeisteri Cope, is known. Its distinct scaphoid and lunar 
bones are represented in Fig. 24 44’. It had five digits in the 
Manus. The cervical vertebrz are more robust than the dorsal, 
and the tail is long and large. The characters of this genus ap- 
Proximate it to the true hedgehogs (Erinaceus), and I formerly 
Placed it in the same order. The tritubercular superior molars 
Separate it Widely. Nevertheless I suspect that it stands in ances- 
relation to the Erinaceide. 

l have described five species of this genus, of which two are 
from the Wasatch of New Mexico, two from the corresponding 
mi of Wyoming, and one, Æ. spatularius, from the Wind River 
of Wyoming. E. acutidens, of the Big Horn pay 
“qualing a red fox in the size of the skull. e skeleto 
E burmeisteri shows, however, that, as in other Creodonta, the 


480 The Creodonta. [May, 


limbs are smaller in relation to the skull than in modern Carniv- 
ora. The least species is the Æ. acer of New Mexico. 


We. 23- Fig. 24- W 
t 
. 23.—Esthonyx burmeisteri Cope, part of skull with lower Pang? from A al 
satch epoch of the Bi orn, A beg T ikee natura al size; Tig. ©? 
view ; inferior ; The 


vertebra; 4, carpus from front; o. proximal view ; ¢, part 0 
ternal view. Original, from A ‘Report U. S. Geol. Survey Terrs., 
Vol, HI: 


OXYÆNIDÆ. 


The genera of this family are best explained by the — 
analytical table. The pertinence to it of the genus Te 
rium Filh., is not certain. The only genera W olar, a 
character of the narrow transverse third superior true MIN" 
Oxyzena and Pterodon. | 

I. Inferior molars with three anterior cusps. P i! ; 
Cusps obtuse; fourth premolar with tubercular heel ; formula x yett’ 0g | 
Cusps acute; heel of fourth premolar cutting; formula } 3+-++**""" : 
II. Inferior molars partly tubercular-sectorial, partly a , Prop 
Superior molars unknown Si 


1 These characters are derived from an examination of the oreas st 0 1 
preserved in the Mus. Jardin des Plantes, which the permission 44 which I pr 
enabled me to make. Other characters of the fourth premolar, 
hitherto copied from others, are inexac 


1884. ] The Creodonta. 481 


TII. Inferior molars sectorial. 
Last superior molars transverse; others with two median cusps; formula $ 3, 
Pterodon. 
Last superior molar subround ; others with one median cusp; formula $ $, 
Thereutherium. 


Fic, 25.—Oxyena lupina Cope, jaws, one-half natural size, from the Wasatch 
beds of New Mexico. Fig. a, maxillary bone with teeth, from below; 4, last supe- 
nor molar, from behind. Original from the Report U. S. G. G. Survey W. of tooth 
mer., G. M. Wheeler, 


Of the above genera Oxyzena and Protopsalis only are Ameri- 
eres Thereutherium Filhol, includes a species, P. thy/acoides, 
with a skull of the size of that of a skunk, which has been ob- 
tamed from the Phosphorites of France. There are two species 
of Pterodon, both robust flesh-eaters. The P. dasyuroides of De 
Blainville is one of the longest known of the Creodonta. The 
i onyetis gigantea Blv., is found in the plastic clays near Paris. 

dentition approaches that of Amblyctonus. 

do € Oxyænas have the characteristic peculiarities of the Creo- 
á nta and of the carnivorous marsupials in their general propor- 
Pes The head was relatively larger, and the limbs were smaller 
iain in true Carnivora. The feet were plantigrade, and had five 
m 7 and posteriorly. The hind foot was either divided 

> that the external two toes opposed the internal three, or were 

vergent and connected by.a median web. If not divided, the 
In mig directed outwards from the line of the calcaneum. 
opossu case the hallux may have been opposable, as in the 
sto m, but in a much less degree. The tail was long and 

ut (Fig. 26). 
in New = this genus were abundant during the Wasatch epoch 
tinent, an and Wyoming, and probably over the entire con- 
"i eens have not yet been reported from higher Eocene 

Sven occurring in the Wind River. A small species is 


482 The Creodonta. [May, 


found in the Puerco. A species (O. galliæ) has been recently de- 
tected in the Eocene of France by M. H. Filhol. 
The dentition of the Oxyzenas indicates sanguinary habits 
gym ' (Fig. 25). From the meas- 
urements, which are con- 
firmed by'more than one 
other skeleton, it can be 
seen that there is in the 
Oxyena forcipata (Fig. 3, 
p. 260), a remarkable dis- 
proportion between the 
size of the skull and that 
of the limbs. While the 
dimensions of the jaws 
are like those of the jt 
guar, those of the limbs 
do not exceed those of the 
cheetah, while the digits 
G. 26.— Oxyena forcipata Co e plicio are not only much so 
foot and (a) pests r tke Daai. natural, ás those of a plantigrade 
size. Figs 6, calcaneum, c, astragalus; æ, cu- animal, but are more slen- 
below. Figs. fgh i . The ungual phalange 
bones; 4,ungual phalange from above, right side pres erved, shows that the 
Horn, Wyoming. Original, from the Report U. claws had no prehens! 
S. Geol. Survey Terrs., F. V. Hayden, Vol. 111. power, an d were not " 


tive as weapons or for digging. This is a further indication that 
the species of Oxyæna were aquatic in their habits. 

But one species of the genus Protopsalis is know 
Cope, which shares with the Mesonyx ossifragus t 
being the largest of the Creodonta. It is from the 
beds, which possess a fauna mainly of Bridger character, but 
an admixture of Wasatch forms. 


tarsal, approximates this genus to the Felidæ more 
to any other family of existing Carnivora. The rẹ 
in the sectorial (Fig. 27 a) is, however, probably aet . 
is not the same tooth as the sectorial of the CamivO® E 


resemblance in the metatarsal is real, as the characters are aint l 
those of Canide or Hyznide, The feet are wi arenity $ , 


than in many of the Creodonta, as the proximal 


n, the Z. tigrims 
he distinction of 
Wind Rive 


a 


er meta 
The form of the sectorial tooth, together with that eer than 


1884.] The Creodonta. 483 


the metatarsal is as large as that of 
a lion. 

It is possible that the genus 
Patriofelis of Leidy belongs to this 
family, but its dental characters are 
not described with sufficient pre- 
cision to enable this question to be 
decided. The inferior molar series 
is short, including, according to 
Leidy, only five teeth. The 2 
ulta Leidy, has a jaw the size of the 
puma, It is from the Bridger beds 
of Wyoming. 


Miacip. 


: Fic. 27.—Protopsalis tigrinus Cope, 
Didymictis one-half nat. size. Fig. a, probably 
inferi ex- 


i ternal side; 4, penultimate inferior 
‘colar face looks partly up- molar, inner de; G inferior canine, 
Wards, here external side; d, femur, anterior view. 
know eae are twos genera From the Wind river of Wyoming. 
T Miacis Cope, with two in- Original, from Report U.S. G. Sur- 
ve I. 


F : 

tine coe of Miacis have been described, two of which are 
are dist; Wasatch and three from the Bridger beds. The former 
ia from the latter by the larger size of the second 


Which th b olar, which has two roots. The later species, of 
bas a M. parvivorus Cope, is one, have but one such 
NO, y 
31 


484 The Creodonta. | [ May, 


root. None of the species exceeded the gray fox in size, and the 
Bridger species at present known, are much smaller. 
Didymictis has a greater range in time than Miacis. Eight 
species have been described, two of which are from the Puerco 
horizon and six from the Wasatch. The genus is probably rep- 
resented by other species in the Bridger. There are three divi- 
sions of the genus. In the first the premolars are not lobed on 
their posterior margins ; here belong D. primus and D. haydeni- 


Fig. 28. Fig. 29. 

Fic, 28.—-Mia er a ono is ' Cope, eae mo ar ramus, two-thirds natural size. 
Fig. B eh side; side; c, fro From the Wasatch beds ds of the Big 
Hor 29.— mess mittee Cape, left “mandibular Minis ye emil 
pes a. from the Big Hor r, Wyoming. Fig. a ie 
side; ¢, superior view. Oyicinal, ioe the Report U. S. 
Ill. 


anus (Fig. 30) of the Puerco. The others have the lobes in 
tion, but two of them, D. curtus Cope, and D. massetericus 


ques 
Cope 


g. 39. from the Wi 
Fic. 30. "CEN dna gene PAR, natur. ral size; HMO se: b 
the Big Horn, Wyoming. Fig. æ, external sides K internals ; 
Figs. d. ¢, 7, Didymictis  ovdenianta Cope, jaw 
tion of New M maxillary bone sre "teeth 
mandibuli, ne side; 1 pi ‘from above. All original, 
Geol. Survey, Terrs., F. V, Hayde n in charge, Vol. 111 hile hat% 
: r, W 
(Fig. 29), have a short subcircular tubercular molar, 


1884.] A walk through the Nat. History Museum at Florence. 485 


the other species is an elongate oval. The tendency in the genus 
has been to complicate the premolars and shorten the tubercular 
in the course of time. The smallest species is the D. dawkinst- 
anus (Fig. 30), from both the Big Horn and Wind River beds, an 
abundant and acute-toothed species. The largest species is the 
D. altidens Cope, whose jaws are more robust than those of the 
coyote. 

I append the following table showing the distribution of the 


_ genera of Creodonta in the North American Tertiary forma- 


7 tq eee MPO CES N EEREN TEO A ne a & 


wp a8) yy aa EAN E am alam ae a Toe 


tions : 
EOCENE OLIGOCENE 
oy en `% ee M 


Puerco 
Bridger 
Uinta 
White 
River 


seen nes 


See wes 


© @ le ee 


Pee be 


See ew wie 


Gatien te 


"ry". 
oe 


A WALK THROUGH THE NATURAL HISTORY 
MUSEUM AT FLORENCE. 


BY JAMES S. LIPPINCOTT. 


; §ovTHwarp from the great Pitti palace in Florence, on the 


Ve Romana, which, like all other roads, leads to Rome, 


Of the «. ose exterior is but an indiffere: Xpo : 
the treasures within, Unlike the palace near at hand, which 


486 A walk through the Nat. History Museum at Florence. (May, | 
rises from cyclopean walls and spreads its wings grandiosely and 
lifts its vast stories forty feet in height, the structure to which we — 
propose to introduce the reader, is unpromising in the extreme | 
The eye of architectural taste would appear to have been effectu- 
ally closed while the façade was reconstructing, and every order 
and all order ignored. Windows of many forms and proportions — 
have been thrown together as though they were the remnantol — 
the stock of a dealer in old frames, and the singular effect thus — 
produced must be seen to be fully appreciated. The inevitable | 
barred windows in the piana terrena (ground floor) tell a story of 
former pretension to some dignity if not to opulent elegance, for 
the structure was once a palace. Though of unprepossessing & 
terior, this building is to us most interesting and attractive, and, 
we may add, one of the most creditable to the intelligence of Flor- 
ence, not because of any treasures of art that it holds, but for its 
treasures of Science, its illustrations of her struggles and x 
umphs: “ The life of nature is better than the dead bones of . 
Over a high portal and carriage entrance, observe an inscription 
and mark the purpose of this rude building, “ R. Museo di fisia | 
e Storia naturale.” Behold, we are at the door ọf the Academy 
and Museum of the Physical and Natural Sciences, and are | 
at once to enter. Within, a wide court open to the sky, appe 
and lofty gray columns around sustain the heavy walls above. fe 
. We find ourselves in an old-time palace, fortunately nol 
abode of opulent imbecility, but devoted to noble purposes 
gaze around: what is that great black globe that stands ere 
and alone in yon far corner of the colonnade? Approach! it 
“oe : ° : ar, a 
remnants of gilding, upon which a few faint lines app‘ ie | 
that it was once a terrestrial globe, and displayed, perhaps, +i 
geographical knowledge of the era which gave it birth. obe Bis d 
how sadly in eclipse does it now appear. That old g! tn ti 1 
revolved upon its axis for three centuries, and owes its onga | 
Ignazio Danti, a Dominican monk, who made the gee 
instruments still to be seen on the facade of the Church ‘ 
Novella. It once stood in the Palazzo Vecchio, ae go aod 
fingered by thousands, until the boundaries betweeen wh 
sea were no longer discernible, was passed over to the ration l 
and turned out of doors, happily, perhaps, for the rep" wed 
the geographer of the Grand Duke Cosmo I., whose i hor | 
of the New World in 1550, must have been rather hazy- : 


1884] A walk through the Nat. History Museum at Florence. 487 


ever attests the acceptance of the theory that the earth is a globe, 
and that men can stand at the antipodes, though we find no 
Scripture authority for this belief, once esteemed the uwxpardon- 
able sin, 

A weather-stained bust of Galileo, green with abundant alge, 
stands upon a pedestal at the rear of a court open to the sky, but 
in the halls above he is honorably enshrined. 

Broad easy steps invite us to ascend—but stay! We cannot 
pass that colossal marble statue whose face bears the impress of 
questioning thought. We need no name beneath to tell us its 
significance, the siphon barometer in his hand and his earnest 
introversion assures us that it is Toricelli reflecting upon the vac- 
uum that bears his worthy name. 

Ascend—if you are a naturalist, or love the book of nature and 
would read her story—you need no further invitation. At the 
head of the first flight, doors open into the hall of the botanical 
museum, lecture-room and herbaria, which lie in succession be- 
yond, On the left of the outer door stands a marble bust of 
Amerigo Vespucci, the appropriateness of whose position we did 
fot discover, In the first hall large glazed cases line the walls, 
in which are displayed magnificent specimens of fossil palms, cal- 
amites, &c. Among these may be named Phænicitis vettinoides 
A the Tertiary of Vegroni, three feet long ; Flabellaria major 

m the Miocene of the same locality ; Latanites gigantea, Sas- 
safras Ferretianium from Sinigalia; Laurus oreodaphnifolia, all 
from the Miocene of Italy ; Ficus tetrafolia from CEningen, Swit- 
rig A photograph of the fossil Pinites protolarix, thirty-six 

‘n circumference, and now in the botanical garden at Breslau, 
88 Upon the wall. 

Beyond the room we found a collection of natural vegetable 
oo illustrations of strange tropical and other plants of 
rently is ‘nary character, exceedingly interesting and appa- 
readily ac gs complete as that at Kew. . Here were exhibited, 

cessible, giant specimens of Dicksonia antarctica, split 
to show the peculiar growth of this New Zealand tree-fern; 
Raphig o errhea arborea, or grass-tree, of Queensland, Australia ; 


° thea fea from Madagascar, exhibiting remarkable clusters of 


brown, smooth cones from above large scales, leaf-like 


thee 
high ang Pe Amorphophallus titanicum from Sumatra, two feet 


“ight inches in diameter, resembling a giant cluster of 


- 


488 A walk through the Nat. History Museum at Florence, (May, 


ripening dates, an extraordinary product, preserved in spirits; 
Macrozamia spiralis from Melbourne, with its giant rhizoma, and 
others quite interesting and instructive.. Large horizontal cases 
filled with Fungi in colored plaster, and the minute fungi 
which attack the vine and the rose, Oidium tuckeri, &c., are 
represented in wax in gigantic proportions, the work of a mas 
ter hand. A magnificent illustration of the structure of the 
flower of a gourd and the process of fecundation of an orchid 
are also to be seen here, and can be readily studied. These 
offer admirable subjects for class illustration, while they are 
attractive to the least Scientific. The collection of specimens in 
these wall cases is rich in Coniferze, and many of this family from 
California wore quite a familiar aspect. The wonderful Welwit- 
schia from Africa may be seen among the Gnetaceze upon these 
richly-furnished shelves, 

On entering the halls, or saloons, containing the herbaria, my 
eyes first fell upon Loganiacez, named in honor of James Logs? 
of Philadelphia, the faithful friend and confidential agent of Wil- 
liam Penn, one of the most learned men of his day and author of 
a treatise on the sexual character of Zea mays (Indian cont} 
This treatise (Experimenta et Meletemata circa Plantarum Gi 
erationem, 1739) was so far in advance of the age as to be reje 
by the Philosophical Society of London, but having been pr 
by Dr. John Fothergill, at Leyden, it was admitted to be a . 
value to botanical science, which had not yet accepted. the i 
trine of the sexuality of plants. 

With kind courtesy I was conducted by Professor Theod n 
Caruel, the learned director of the botanical department, eo 
the great halls devoted to the preservation of the herbaria. s 
collections much exceeded my expectation, and the pers } 
which they are arranged should serve as a model for imita : 
similar institutions, On shelves around the walls of the nee T 
saloons, the fasciculi containing the dried plants are ar spect 1 
natural orders, and so classified that in a few iit pinned l 
men can be found; each is attached to its label, whic gand 1 
to a sheet of stiff paper so that the plant can be peor daa a 
ied without detachment from its definitely ascertaine® o 

since a 
number of species here arranged is not yet known, > y Prof 
lection is in process of reéxamination and entime m 
sor Caruel. Here may be seen those presented to uer | 


SPE re ee ee 


= 


1884.] A walk through the Nat. History Museum at Florence. 489 


Philip Barker Webb. This botanist had traveled extensively over 
a large portion of Europe and Asia Minor, accompanied by Ber- 
thollet, and together they published a volume on the Canary 
islands, where he had for several years resided. Having visited 
Florence, in 1848, he was so much impressed with the value of 
its botanical collection, and with the interest in the museum shown 
bythe Grand Duke, that he bequeathed his rare herbarium to 
the prince, and endowed the botanical section with an annual in- 
come to aid in its extension. His botanical library of 5000 vol- 
umes is fitly arranged in an adjoining room, and ranges from 
Theophrastus to Gray, through Bauhin and Miller and the bulky 
Herbals, and long lines of the Botanical Magazine and many 
other serials. I was glad to see that several recent volumes of 
the American NATURALIST, handsomely bound, had been added 
to the collection. 

The herbarium of Webb is said to have contained eighty thou- 
sand specimens, What tales they could tell of wanderings in 
the far-away wilds in which they grew, of weary travel amidst 
deserts, forests, swamps and on Alpine heights, by enthusiasts 
Prompted by the genius of science. None but the devotee to 

nical research or the mania for collecting, can know the joys 
of the discoverer of unknown plants. To find a species hitherto 
undescribed, or better still, the representative of a new genus, 
with the faint hope that some light of botany may recognize his 
i ton and immortalize him by giving his obscure name 
a. thrills him with a joy unknown to common mortals. 
ko : is fittingly commemorated in a marble bust placed in the 

ight of a window, in the hall devoted to the display of vege- 
table Products, and again on canvas in the gallery of his unique 


Tins e ancient Egyptian plants, Delphinium orientalis, Nymphaa carulea, 
the lotus and Carthamus tinctorius have been satisfactorily determined _ 
‘S and sepals which were found arranged in rows and attached to willow 


490 A walk through the Nat. History Museum at Florence. [May, | 


dedication in his own handwriting, to his patron, Bishop Tour- 
nabuoni, was made in Pisa in 1563. This herbarium has been 
bound in three thick folio volumes, and contains 767 speci- 
mens of plants. One of them, however, proves to be a zoophyte 
(Sertularia). No attempt at classification appears therein. Greek 
and Latin names are appended to many of the specimens, which 
are generally weil preserved, though a few have disappeared — 
_ This herbarium has been ably described and catalogued by Pro 
fessor Theodore Caruel, the learned, director of the botanical — 
department, in his work entitled, “ Theodori Caruelii, Ilustratio 
in Hortum Siccum Andree Caesalpini. Florentiae, MDCCCLVII” 
His dedication of this volume to his father’s memory breathes s0 
grateful a sense of filial regard, and is withal so beautiful, that 
we cannot refrain from presenting it to the reader. May it influ- 
ence other parents to encourage their sons to pursue the noble 
paths of natural science, and thereby save many a youth from the 
snares that beset adolescense: ‘Tuo nomini tuaque memoné 
Constans Theodore Caruel, parens optime venerande cujus poti- 
simum consensu et ope naturalium disciplinarum studia ab 1p% 
adolescentia excolui, primum huncce laborum meorum fructum 
pio gratoque animo volens libens inscribo.” 

In the cabinet which contains the precious herbarium above 
referred to, stand also upwards of sixty large folio volumes ee 
in parchment, a mode much in favor in Italy. These are 
manuscripts, &c., of Micheli, many of which have not been edi 
To this botanist we owe the discovery that Fungi are truly vege 
table organizations, and several colored drawings of these ae 
may be seen in his herbarium. As he lived during the first 


ing agit 
leaves (Salix salsaf) by means of thread of the date-leaf, the whole a pe 


land. ‘The dried fruit and yellow blossoms of Acacia nilotica We 


with stem, blossom and seed-pods complete. Upon another F a 

; i archipehg® | 
(Parmelia furfuracea), a plant indigenous to the islands of the cir 
and which must have been brought to Egypt B. C. 1100 or B. C. 1 
by the native druggists at this day 

j useum, 
These frail relics of the past have been arranged for the Boolak M 

and fill eleven cases—an unique collection. The hues of these rae 
are said to be as brilliant as those of their modern illustrators, aP 4 disting? 4 
the tables show them to be 3000 years apart, no ordinary nen 
between those buried with the Pharaohs and those gathered an 
seasons since. 


1884.] A walk through the Nat. History Museum at Florence. 491 


ty-seven years of the eighteenth century, he was a precursor of 
Linneus. Busts in marble of the elder De Candolle and of 
Micheli adorn this cabinct—the first of massive feature, the 
latter keen of aspect with his aquiline nose and cowled brow. 


In addition to Webb’s vast collection there may here be seen 
the plants of Pavon from Chili and Peru, those collected by La- 
billiardiere, who accompanied La Perouse to New Holland, and 
of Desfontaines and Mercier in Tunis and Algeria. Labilliardiere 
having been taken prisoner by the Dutch and his collection 
brought t> England, it was, through the generous intervention of 
Sir Joseph Banks, restored unopened, “lest,” as Sir Joseph wrote 
to Jussieu, “a single botanical thought should be taken from him 
who had gained them at the expense of his own life.” Noble 
Sir Joseph ! 

The Florentine museum is rich in fossil plants, some of which, 
't is said, are not represented in other cabinets of Europe. Among 
the 4000 valuable specimens the more noteworthy are from the 
Carboniferous near Volterra, and fossils from Sinigaglia, the Mio- 
cene of Tuscany and the Permian of the Brescian territory and 
sy splendid collection of palms from Verona and Vicenza, and im- 
Pressions of plants from the lava of Lipari. A great collection 

MR the Miocene of Switzerland, illustrated by Dr. Heer, is also 
exhibited conspicuously, 

One of the early and earnest co-laborers in the department of 
ka was Dr. Targione Tozzetti, grandfather of the present 
d 'nguished Professor Targione, director of the invertebrate sec- 

on of this museum. At the age of twenty-three he was appointed 
Soe of botany under Micheli at Pisa, and afterwards director 
: € botanical gardens at Florence. He was also librarian of the 
Magliabecchian library, and arranged the vast number of volumes 

ueathed to the city by the eccentric collector and wonderful 

ea whose name it bears. Dr. Targione Tozzetti traveled 

dugh Tuscany collecting materials for his great work on the 

CrO natural history, art and antiquities of his native coun- 

wae the more important work of this man of encyclopedic 
» Was his last, on the Progress of Physical Science. 


In the botanical museum Professor Parlatore, the late director 


lin 


Prof, 
Santa Goce Targione Tozetti and Micheli have received fitting commemoration in 
» the Westminster Abbey of Florence, 


492 A walk through the Nat. History Museum at Florence. [May, | 


of the botanical department, is commemorated in marble, and — 


stands in friendly opposition to the generous enthusiast Webb. 
A walk through the botanical gardens and greenhouse proved 


very interesting ; the former especially, since it served to indicate — 
the character of the winters that have permitted Chemerops hi- — 
milis to grow thirty feet high in the open air, grand clumpsof — 
Nerium oleander to flourish unscathed, and giant Lagerstremia in- — 


dica, rivaling our quince trees in size, to exist without protection. 


Pampas grass also endures the winters here unguarded from ; 


snows and cold. The Botanical gardens adjoin the Boboli gar 
den of the Pitti palace, but are not generally open to the strolling 
visitor. A much larger space has recently been devoted to the 
construction of new gardens for the scientific arrangement and 
study of plants, which lies near the “ Institute for higher studies: 
on the Piazzo San Marco. The street upon which it opens is 4 
propriately named Via Micheli. 

Passing for the present the grand Tribune of Gali 
entered at the western end of the corridor, the middle door 
which has given us access to the Botanical hall, let us ascend to 
the second piana (the third story of the American). Before us 
over the entrance toa series of rooms, we read, “ Re 
and observe on the right a marble bust of Fontana, eae 
entific projector and arranger of this museum, and on the le 


wide doorway invites, through which we discern 
between successive minor cepartments, whose W 
with glazed cases, in which are exhibited a large collectien 
jects of scientific interest. We enter unchallenged by the 


selves at the base of the scheme of animal existence, 
section of it that can be illustrated by mural specimens 
lar instruction. 

Having entered, we quietly soliloquize—here we 
museum in which some presiding mind has gui 
of the myriad objects that compose it. 


mighty chain of being, lessening down from Infi E 


to the brink of dreary nothing—desolate abyss P Be had comè 


onward, 


through my memory, and never before did I imagi pi 
so near to finding an answer to my query. As We P 


leo, whichis — 
ad | 


gno Animale” 
the early sc 


ien a dout- i 
and are within a small room devoted to zoophytes, and g tht 
or 


for pop’ 7 


have found ® q 
ded the aie d 
“Has any sect 7 
nite Perfecto" 4 
fren r 


..4.] A walk through the Nat. History Museum at Florence. 493 


insects, and some of their products appear, among which we notice 
the remarkable web of the Zinea granella, or granary moth, which 
most resembles a sheet of white tissue paper, two feet high and 
one foot in width. Enormous crustaceans, spiders, &c., may next 
be seen, all brought so near to the observer that he can study 
them readily. We soon find that we are following a “near ar- 
rangement, a system of classification which modern research and 
wider philosophy have shown is but an imperfect illustration of 
the thought of the Creator. 

Many learned naturalists have labored at the construction of 
systems of classification, but each succeeding scheme has given 
way before increasing knowledge of the relations of groups. 
Whether we Suppose relations represented in a linear arrange- 
ment or in a circular one, in which circle touches circle within cir- 
cle, or asa sphere in which is contained a multitude of minor 
spheres representing classes, groups or genera touching on many 
sides —all have proved artificial, all have failed to reflect the facts of 
nature, as later insight has proved them to be mutually related. 
The ey to the cause of the multiplex relations of animal forms 
not having been found, every effort to present them aright could 
but prove unsuccessful. Recent discoveries in embryology and 
Paleontology, having thrown a flood of light upon the intrica- 
i of this question, by their wonderful illustration of the doc- 
trine of development arrested and accelerated; the key to a correct 
system of classification in the vegetable and animal world, it is 
believed has at length been placed in our hands. 

The Study of living forms alone cannot guide us to the con- 

ction of a system that shall explain the relations of genera in 
ote and vegetable worlds. As the relation between the 
ily foh and vormen OF this generation can only be satistacto- 
ses : 7 rated by tracing their respective genealogies back to 
$ mmon ancestry, from which they have derived their simi- 
divé of Physique, physiognomy or mental traits, and their minor 
ec: So we must discover and study the originals which 
| to the multiform representatives of ages of development 
rom, as found in the genera and families in the world of 
mie lias arge. Palzeontology, therefore, becomes a guide a 
the deter mination of the order of successive forms through ag 
hahaa, €ssors of the living plants and animals have passed. i 
profound acquaintance with those ancient forms, and with 


494 A walk through the Nat. History Museum at Florence. [May, 


the changes through which they have passed, is demanded before 
a system can be made, perfectly adapted to the illustration of the 
infinite modifications of the living. How widely has expanded 
the range of the science that was once thought only worthy of 
triflers and silly enthusiasts! It has become co-extensive with 
the origin and destiny of all things, its limits are time, its range 
the universe ; its philosophy, all-comprehensive, is bound up with 
human progress and human destiny. 

But we will not longer detain the visitor anxious to advance. 
From enormous crustaceans we proceed directly to mammifers 
and the skeletons of birds, &c. Not such is the order of nature, 
we observe, and retire upon our philosophy to wait until evolu- 
tion shall have prepared for us the system that will show us how 
from the lower forms sprang fishes, from fishes reptiles, from rep- 
tiles birds, and how from batrachians were produced higher forms, 
culminating in mammifers and eventually in bimana and hence 
man. We gladly acknowledge that an outline of this system hes 
been effectively foreshadowed. 

In a large room the birds, ever pleasing, are displayed g ad- 

vantage, not being crowded into limited space, as is our unriva’ 
collection in the “Academy of Natural Sciences ” in Philadelphia. 
In another section Dr. Enrico Hillyer Giglioli, professor of oi 
ogy in the “ Royal Institute for Superior Studies,” and director 
the Museum of Zodlogy, has prepared and arranged in a pa 
noble saloons, a nearly complete exhibition of the fauma of Italy: 
This is the first of its kind for an entire kingdom that I 
seen, and I found it a very striking and rich treat.’ 


he present date 
of these ther 
need com 


1 This grand central collection of Italian vertebrates contains, att 
(May, 1883), 22,331 specimens of 1139 species of Italian animals. 
are 1500 mammals representing 108 species, and the collection 1s P 


twenty-one species, and this number includes every known species nN | Feo | 
Finally, there are the vast number of 14,048 specimens of fish, represe : 
lection of 554 species, which is pronounced nearly complete. ocean fauni 

To Professor E. H. Giglioli we are indebted for the discovery of pe er 
in the Mediterranean. It was during his researches in the steamer disposal, Ù” 
government vessel commissioned for deep-sea dredging, placed at nie 
he made the important discovery above stated in August, 1878. ‘ 
of this discovery appeared in Mature of 25 Aug. of that year, 
published in the “ Acts of the Third International Geographical T 
Venice, 1881. 


e | 
” Vol 


1884.] A walk through the Nat. History Museum at Florence. 495 


Professor Giglioli is a genial gentleman of English and Italian 
parentage, and his language proves that he learned it at his 
mother’s knee. His collection is worthy of the highest commen- 
dation, and his success should stimulate other kingdoms and peo- 
ples to emulate the example of Italy. To the generous kindness 
of Professor Giglioli I must acknowledge my indebtedness for 
Many courtesies, 

The anatomical preparations in this museum are interesting and 
of extraordinary character, unrivaled elsewhere. The art of pre- 
paring waxen models so that they can scarcely be distinguished 
from natural objects was brought to perfection by a Sicilian noble 
of Syracuse, named Zumbo, who was born in 1656. The report 
of his wonderful skill having reached the Grand Duke Cosmo 
IIL, Zumbo was invited to Florence. He afterwards left Tuscany 
for Marseilles, where he was patronized by Louis XIV., and died 
in 1703, 

The waxen Preparations exhibiting the internal structure of the 
Torpedo, are wonderfully life-like, having the appearance of real 
flesh. They illustrate the experiments made by Tain and Mat- 
teucci in animal electricity. Here are also magnified illustrations 
of the anatomy of the lobster, cuttle-fish, earth-worm and tongues 
of mollusks, the latter in gigantic enlargement. Also the internal 
anatomy of the silk-worm, of the domestic cat, goat, rabbit, cod- 

sh, and the several stages of the development of the chick from 
the egg of a hen, through the twenty-one days of incubation. 
The muscular fibers and trachez of a common fly are magnified 
900 diameters or 729 million times in volume. This exhibit is 
One of the most remarkable evidences of the transcendent skill of 
the artist, 
ie adjoining rooms are displayed, of life size, a multitude of 
rations of human anatomy. In one, the arteries of the entire 
Pek represented in true color, form and place, standing out 
thing im in another the veins appear by themselves, while ina 

4. wteties and veins are seen with all their intimate inter- 
sculations. In a fourth the observer is introduced to his nervous 
iat oy its wonderful net-work of white cords is seen inter- 
aid thc Snveloping the entire anatomy of veins, arteries, eg 

‘Witenes the Skin alone having been removed. Every stage n 
"i j tion is illustrated, every organ is represented, from the hair 
toe-nails, and the visitor might for a moment imagine him- 


496 A walk through the Nat. History Museum at Florence. (May, 


self transferred to the midst of a dissecting-room with all its ghast- 
ly surroundings. His consciousness that these animal forms and 
repelling developments are but waxen models, preserves him from 
losing his equilibrium, or he would be prompted to flee in horror 
from the scene. The sickening exhibition of several stages of — 
the progress of the plague, that once disgraced this series with its 
disgusting details, with other preparations, thanks to an awakened 
sense of propriety, have been removed to a private room. 

The value of these models can scarcely be deemed commenst- 
rate with the expense incurred in their preparation. Many, how- 
ever, who would not enter a dissecting room, who could not con- 
template the real organization, may here learn much respecting 
their internal economy—learn that they are “ fearfully and won- 
derfully made.” It cannot be of equal service to him who would 
know the inner workings of the human machinery, since he can 
be satisfied only by the dissection of the structure once endowed 
with life. It were better to limit their examination to the select 
few, rather than expose them to the gaze of the frivolous and 

ebased. 

The paleontological collection was formed by order of the 
government from material already in the museum, with additions 
made thereto in answer to resolutions passed by the third Scien- 
tific Congress held at Florence, which recognized its value and 
recommended the enlargement by an exhibition of repie : 
minerals and geological specimens from all parts of Italy. a | 
collection having outgrown the limits of the museum on the 
Romana, was removed to extensive rooms on Piazza San Marco, 
where also is located the “ Royal Institute for Higher ap 
established since the accession of Victor Emmanuel in A i 
Chairs of geology, metallurgy and mining were then estab ri 
under the charge of competent professors, for a new life has ; 
breathed into Italy. tthe | 

of the 


This museum abounds in fossil mammals from the valley 
m the Cretac 


g the migh i 


Upper Arno, and has also numerous fossils fro 
h also are aae : 


Some of the elephants are truly colossal, rivalin 
mastodon of North America, specimens of whic 
exhibited. and the 4 

Elephants must have abounded in the upper bas i 4 
abundant remains of this species and of rhinoceros, pottom o a 
mus, found in a deposit that probably once formed the a 


1884.] A walk through the Nat. History Museum at Florence. 497 


a fresh-water lake, indicate that their carcases were washed there 
by the flowing waters, and sank eventually to its bottom. The 
mammals of this section have been studied by Dr. Falconer, who 
has published numerous observations thereon. Among the more 
interesting may be named Elephas meridionalis (Nesti), Rhinoceros 
etruscus (Falconer), R. megarhinus (Christolf), Hippopotamus 
major (Cuvier), Bos etruscus (Falconer), Equus stenonis (Cocchi), 
Cervus dicranios (Nesti), C. ctinoides (Nesti), and Bos primigenius 
(Blum.), 

This museum has known its seasons of struggle with adverse 
circumstances, connected with the rise and fall of rulers during 
the latter part of the last and early in this century, and was not 
placed upon a firm foundation until the establishment of Victor 
Emmanuel upon the throne of Italy in 1861. 

Credit is due the Grand Duke Leopold of Tuscany, who em- 
ployed Fontaina to collect objects illustrative of natural history, 
Purchased the palace of the Bini and opened the museum to the 
Public in 1780, During the days of Bonaparte ascendency, the 
new Queen of Etruria added a school of “ public instruction” 
and founded chairs in astronomy, physics, anatomy, zoology, min- 
eralogy, botany and chemistry, which was maintained for seven 
years, until the downfall of the Napoleonic kingdom and restora- 
ton of the Grand Duke, when the school was suppressed. 
Nearly twenty years passed, and it was revived, and again at the 
accession of Victor Emmanuel, when the institution for more 
advanced studies was founded, and chairs of geology, metallurgy 
aad mining were added, and courses of lectures annually de- 
livered, 

The shackles of spiritual tyranny having been unbound and the 
ipa hard bands of classical devotion loosed, Italy has at length 

on We light her unwise rulers sought to hide, and a new life is 
wil in the veins of her children. If true to herself, and in the 

Ployment of her opportunities, if earnest in efforts for wider cul- 
A; ogi wise in her choice of science as the intellectual trainer 
T PAT mind, and if open to the reception of a sound 
eri $ faith, attended by a corresponding advance in her moral 
lies a € may happily take again the place she once had as the 

among the nations, 


498 Construction of Ancient Mexican Terra-cotta [May, 


CONSTRUCTION OF ANCIENT MEXICAN TERRA- 
COTTA PITCH-PIPES AND FLAGEOLETS 


BY H. T. CRESSON. 


HE smooth internal structure of the pitch-pipes! and flageo- 

lets of baked clay, or terra-cotta, manufactured by the ancient 
Mexican potters, suggest that they have been modeled upon 
forms of some material capable of receiving a high degree e 
polish, probably bone or wood. The pitch-pipes shown in Figs. 
2—5 (Plate xv1) have been made in this way, and are the most in- 
genious specimens of aboriginal plastic art in the coliection of 
musical and other Mexican antiquities made by the Honorable J 
R. Poinsett, United States Minister to Mexico in 1830. Figs. ! 
and 2 (Plate xvi) are the front and profile views of a pitch-pip* | 
which is more primitive in style of construction than those showa 
_ in Figs. 1, 3, 5, 6 (Plate xvii), hereinafter described. An analys 
of its construction shows that it has been made in three parts, 
viz, a clay reed, Figs. 1, R, 4, R (Plate xvi), a meck-piece © 
flap, Fig. 10 (Plate xvi), and a body, Fig. 4,7. A ca . d 
piece of workmanship is shown in the modeling of the first : 
named portion, or clay reed, Fig. 4, R, by means of which i 
the air from the lungs of the performer is conveyed into thè 
sound hole, Fig. 4, S, thus communicating with the body of the 4 
instrument, Fig. 4, T. This part measures one and three-quart i 
inches in length, by half an inch in width at its broadest p | 
(mouth-piece), gradually contracting as it approaches the acute 
hole, Fig. 4, S, to about six-sixteenths of an inch. These J l 
urements have been made from thirteen different clay reeds, | 
in the average, vary but little from one another. A section } 
through a neck-piece, parallel to the opening of the air pee l 
shows that the form upon which the clay reeds, Figs. n gated | 
(Plate xv1) were modeled, had the shape of a thin, n ig 
wedge, an outline of which is given by the dotted lines ™ `; 
4,R. The flaps, Fig. 10, F, were then cut out of clay 


heretofore ae 


e discovery ti q 
collection PS 
a 


? As the instruments which are denominated pitch-pipes have 
been called whistles, it will be necessary to state that since the 
musical powers (most of the retort-shaped pipes in the Poinsett 
stop-holes which, when closed, change the pitch of their respectiv® 
will be impossible to class them as such. The name pitch-pipe bs, es 
adopted. See “Musical Instruments in the South Kensington i 
Engel, page 285. (1385~"64.) 


, 


PLATE XVI. 


Ancient Mexican Musical Instruments. 


1884] Pitch-pipes and Flageolets. 499 
_ similar in shape to the outline shown in Fig. 10, and the clay 
_ reed, Fig. 10 B, enveloped therein. The dotted lines in Fig. r1 C, 
_ represent the clay reed, Figs. 1 and 4 R (Plate xvr), after the flap 
a Fig. 10 F, has been modeled around it. This, it will be seen, 
divides into two portions a little distance above the narrow end 
ofthe reed, Fig. 11 D, which overlies the sound-hole upon the 
body portion, Fig. 4 S, running to either side and protruding be- 
yond its terminal portion about two and a-half inches. This 
forms the notch into which the body of the pitch-pipe is intro- 
duced, Fig. 11 E (Plate xvi). A view of a section of the clay 
teed, made parallel to its aperture, Fig. 13 (Plate xvr), shows the 
exact size and shape of the air-passage. Specimens of these in- 
struments, which have been detached in sections, suggest that this 
covering of the clay reed by the flap, Figs. 10, F and 11, C} was 
accomplished while the reed was in a semi-dry condition. In 
order to understand the method pursued in joining earthenwares 
that have been made in pieces, it will be necessary to consider 
riefly the processes of our modern potters. Fictile wares, mod- 
eled upon the wheel or lathe, at a certain stage of the drying pro- 
cess possess a greater tenacity than at any other time, until they 
me baked—this is called by potters the green, or semi-dry state. 
While in this condition they are attached to the lathe by a little 

~ Moisture, and turned nicely into the: proper shape. This same 
degree of dryness, which admits of the clay being turned on the 
he, serves for attaching the handles or other appendages to 
a vessels. The parts to be attached, having been prepared, 
are Joined together by meañs of liquid clay (called slip, by the 
Potters), and the seams having been smoothed off and finished by 
aie modeling, are then ready for the kiln, which is to convert 
"i me Say into the hard biscuit. Having thus explained the 
it sth ty sea 3 jointures while the clay is in semi-dry condition, 
ii eod be inferred, as the process of the ancient Mexicans did not 
Pisma differ essentially from those used by our modern 
"either in material or other methods of manufacture, €x- 
the of Course the use of the lathe, that these old potters used 
semi-dry state to cover the clay reed with the clay flap, in 
Order to avoid í x y ik sk 
See Fio. id compressing the air-passage (which is very narrow, 
18: 13, Plate Xvi, where exact size thereof is given), at the 


é The oy 
When covered we in Fig. 11 C (Plate xvr) show the outline of the clay reed 
‘You, Pa protruding end thereof, Fig. ro D (Plate XVI}. 
leh v. 


32 


500 Construction of Ancient Mexican Terra-cotta [May, | 
me 


same time, allowing the form to be withdrawn before the clay 
reed had become hard and brittle. A section of the body po 
tion of a pitch-pipe, like Fig. 4, R, T (Plate xv1), shows the sh ] 
of its interior, indicating the use of a cylindrical form, about | 


noticeable in the interior of all these musical instruments ” 
striking contrast (especially in the more primitive specifi") 1 
L, 2,5), when compared with the rough modeling of thei: & 
portions; this would be absolutely necessary, as any iti > 4 


2% 


as 
emitted. A decided advance in the construction of primitive 
musical instruments was made by the ancient Mexicans beyond 
the simple tube or whistle, when their artisans produced such 
forms as Nos. 1,2,5 (Plate xvi). Take, for example, some of te ; 
primitive forms of whistles without finger holes, exhibited + the 4 
collections of the Smithsonian and Peabody museums, Figs. ’ 
and 7 (Plate xv1), which have already been described by Dr. C.C 
Abbott in the United States Geographical Surveys west of the 
100th meridian, p. 235 (illustrations Nos. 115, 116, 119 of toe 
work). These, when applied to the lips and a current of air i 
impelled therein from the lungs of the performer, were no pee 
(while in a perfect condition) capable of producing certain gh 
notes. Blowing through a very small aperture of the lips against | 
the edge or orifice of the sound-hole, thus directing the order j 
chiefly within the tube, naturally requires more practice pa 
to produce different notes. An invention was devised by vt by { 
Mexicans to overcome this difficulty of labial manipulat! sai ; 
means of which the sounds were made even and rest’ 7 
were easily produced. The modern fife is sometimes PF 2 
with a mouth-piece similar to that shown in Figs. ao the e 
xv1), which directs the current of air from the lungs «2 visite 
former, thus requiring less skill and labor to produce eon Fig 
volume of sound. It will be seen that this mouth-pic™ E 
9, W (Plate xvi), used upon the fife, is similar to that awd” 
the pitch-pipe which has been denominated the perkon wid 
1 When the pitch-pipe is blown into, by stopping the aperture e 3 
the finger, a note one-fourth lower than that given while open, © 
Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 
Aztec Music.) : 


PLATE XVII. 


a CO soe 


usical Instruments. 


Ancient Mexican M 


pi 


E 


1884.] Pitch-pipes and Flageolets. 501 


attached to the body portion of the terra-cotta pipe, shown in 
Fig. 4,T, by means of the notch formed by the clay flap in en- 
veloping the clay reed, Fig. 11, E (Plate xvi). A good illustra- 
tion of this can be made by attaching a metal mouth-piece to one 
of our modern fifes, Fig. 9 (Plate xvi), and then sawing it asunder 
between the sound-hole, F ig. 9, W, and the finger perforations, 
Fig. 9, Y, Y (shown by the dotted lines). This having been done 
the result would be an instrument similar to F igs. I and 4 (Plate 
xvi). i 
A pitch-pipe, showing an advance in construction upon that 
already described, resembling somewhat a retort in form, is shown 
in Figs, 1-3 (Plate xvir). It is modeled in four pieces, and the 
clay reed has been made in the same manner as those upon the 
Sections shown in Figs, 1oand 11 (Plate xv1), differing only in the 
form of the body, which is circular. In order to accomplish the 
modeling of the body portion, it would be necessary to use a cir- 
cular form, dividing it into two portions, Fig. 2 (Plate xvit), one 
half being modeled on one portion, Figs. 2, R (Plate xvi), and 
the other half upon the other side, Figs. 2, S (Plate xv). The 
two halves being made so as to correspond nicely when joined 
together. The double pitch-pipe, shown in Fig. 4 (Plate xvm) 
demonstrates that this method was pursued, from the fact that 
while in the kiln the two halves which compose the body have 
been Separated by the action of the heat, thus showing its con- 
struction, By careful examination traces of this jointure can 
im site Some of the pitch-pipes, although in most cases it is 
Hating to detect it, so nicely have the marks of jointure been 
tea by skillful modelings. Each one of the retort-shaped 
ments, Figs, 1-3 (Plate xvi) is pierced by a stop-hole,® Fig. 
Fash iy xvu), which is placed to the left hand side of a line 
the a Pre ly around the body of the pipe, passing through 
i er of the sound-hole (holding the neck-piece toward the 
ace ere not be overlooked that the clay reed is enveloped by the clay flap, 
‘The sia x aning the neck-piece. : 
Pitch-pines of ace. 1, R (Plate xvi) attached to the body of the ancient Mexican 
oF cotta, Figs. 1 and 2 (Plate Xvi), by means of the clay flap, Fig. 
W, is therefore 2” scsembling the mouth-piece of our modern fife, shown in Fig. 9 
í an invention of our. North American aborigines. 
Fig. 1, R FU patient are left open in the right-angled and retort-shaped pipes, 
one-fourth above ) and 1-3 (Plate xvit); if the instruments are blown into, notes 


No. 8 or oiave: those given when closed are obtained n all the pipes excepting the 


Pipe, which gives the interval of a fift 


502 Construction of Ancient Mexican Terra-cotta (May, 


performer. Underneath the retort-shaped pitch-pipes, close to 
where the neck-flap and body are joined together, Fig. 1, B (Plate 
Xvil), there is generally a button of clay, pierced by a hole through 
which a cord might be passed, forming a loop for suspension, of 
to attach it to the body of the musician. The primitive pipes 
shown in Figs. 1 and 5 (Plate xv1) do not have the button at 
tached, but are pierced by a hole, used for a like purpose, made 
through the thick part of the neck-piece, Fig. 2, Z (Plate xvi), near 
to its jointure with the body. 
A large pitch-pipe, Figs. 5-6 (Plate xvii), the character and 
outline of which are admirably shown by the artist, has been 
found among the specimens of the Poinsett collection since the 
publication of an article upon Aztec music by the Academy of 
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. The instrument in question, 
Figs. 5-6, is pitched in the scale of A (three sharps compared 
with the flute), and the construction of the neck-piece and other 
parts differs but slightly from those already described. The body 
portion, Fig. 5, C and 6, D (Plate xvir), is considerably elongated 
‘and well adapted to produce the rich, mellow sound which it 
emits when blown into. Traces of jointure in this specimen a 
admirably concealed, and demonstrate that the body of the m 
strument was made in two pieces (upon a form) similar to a 
‘shown in Fig. 7, R, S (Plate xvi); although much more elongate? 
The body is pierced by a stop-hole, Figs. 5, E and 6, F (Plate ote 
like other pipes, and may be classed, on account of its construe 
tion and the grotesque decoration of its exterior, with 
retort-like form, shown in Figs. 1-3 (Plate Xvi). 
The construction of the Aztec pitch-pipes in the Poi 
lection of antiquities having been described, it will be nece 
to say a few words upon their progression from p 
ments, which it may, in all reason, be assumed were P 
among other barbarian nations, while their ancestors 
savage state. As shells pierced by sound holes, 
of bone or cane (without finger holes) were ina 
most primitive instruments manufactured and u 


as they 


ever rude when first invented, gradually improved primitivë 
vanced toward the middle status of barbarism. * SA shid 
whistles already mentioned, Figs. 6, H, 7, H (P sae who johad | 


were exhumed from the graves of the savage tribes | j 


those of l 
nsett col 


rimitive inst 
roduceć® | 
weem? | 
and hollow tub 
i probability 8 
sed by igi 
cestors of the Aztecs, it may readily be granted that the® 4 


1884.] Pitch-pipes and Flageolets. 503 


ited the coast of California, may be taken as examples of pro- 
gression and improvement upon the simple tube and whistle of 
bone or cane, from the fact that they possess sound-holes, Fig. 
6, H, 7, H (Plate xvr) cut for labial manipulation. The clay reed 
or neck-piece, Figs. 4, R, 11, C (Plate xvi), which resembles the 
neck-piece of our modern fife, Fig. 9, W (Plate xvi), was probably 
thus invented, and when attached to the primitive whistles (like 
those, for instance, found in the graves of the California coast), 
increased the volume and regularity of sound, forming the simple 
mouth-piece whistle without a stop-hole. This afterwards became 
the right-angled Aztec pipe, shown in Fig. 1 (Plate xvi), an end 
of which was left unclosed (see profile view of pitch-pipe, Fig. 
2, J (Plate xvi), a strong proof that its inventor sought diversity 
of sound. The artisan who designed these ancient Mexican in- 
struments evidently sought to improve their qualities of sound, 
which at first were shrill and cacophonous. To overcome this 
defect, the body of the right-angled pipe, Fig. 1 (Plate xvi), was 
expanded into a globular shape, placed parallel to and in front of 
the clay reed, and then pierced by a stop-hole, thus producing 
the pipe, Fig. 3, A (Plate xvir). This stop-hole, which first ap- 
Pearsin the right-angled pipe, Fig. 2, J (Plate xv1) as before shown, 
$a Most important step in the development of musical sounds 
mong the Nahuatalacs, as it can be manipulated by closing and 
opening the same, thus depressing or raising the pitch of the in- 
strument. These stop-holes, doubtless, suggested to the terra 
cotta instrument-makers of later date their gradual adoption as 
finger-holes. It is interesting here to remark the increase in vol- 
e and sweetness of sound that had been obtained by the inge- 
mous Nahuatalac clay-worker or musical artisan, by elongating 
body of the retort-like pipe, shown in Figs. 1 and 3 (Plate XVII), 
> h it produced a somewhat unwieldy, still not ungrace- 
instrument, Figs, 5-6 (Plate xvit), which is narrowest at the 
‘nd of the body nearest the stop-hole, Fig. 5, E (Plate xv). 
A specimen not unlike this last-named instrument was found 
ea epee of Ometepec, in the Great Lake of Nicaragua, 
by Mr p Dr. Carl Hermann Berendt; a drawing of it is given 
. : Barber in his valuable article upon “Indian Music, pub- 
| ai in the AMERICAN Narurauistr of March, 1883. The elon- 
4 diate arpes Figs. 5-6 (Plate xvir), are perhaps an interme- 
4 of Pipe, between the retort-shaped instruments, Figs. 


504 Construction of Ancient Mexican Terra-cotta (May, 


1~3 (Plate xvii), and the four-holed Tezcucan flageolets,’ whose 
musical instruments probably attained the highest degree of per- 
fection known to the Nahuatalacs. 

Karl Engel, in his “ History of the most ancient Musical Instru- 
ments,” demonstrates that among ancient nations of the Eastern 
continent, wind instruments were gradually improved in construc- 
tion and power of sound. He mentions a pipe found by Captain 
Willock in the ruins of Babylon (Bis-Nimroud), as follows: “It 
resembles somewhat the flageolets and whistles of clay found in 
Mexico and Central America.” The pipe in question, Fig. 12 
(Plate xvi1), copied from Engel’s work, “ is about three inches in. 
length, and has only two finger-holes, placed side by side, and 
consequently equidistant from the end at which it is blown. The 
opposite end has no opening, the instrument, in this respect, rè- 
sembling a whistle. If both finger-holes are closed it produces the 
note C; if only one of them is closed it produces E; and if both 
are open it produces G. Besides these notes one or two others 
are obtained by some little contrivance ; thus by blowing with 
unusual force the interval of a fifth G may be raised to that of a 
sixth A, but the fixed and natural notes of the instrument are 
only the tonic, third and fifth. It is remarkable that the third 
which is obtained by closing the left finger-hole, is about a T 
ter tone lower than the third which is obtained by pt 
right finger-hole. Perhaps it was intended for the minor io 
This is, as far as I am aware, the oldest musical instrument h 
erto discovered which has preserved its original condition, yet 
is constituted of so fragile a material that were it to fall peor 
hand to the ground, it would most likely be destroyed 
But its notes cannot have been clearer two thousan@ 
than they are at the present day. The shape of mage This 
appears to be intended to represent the head of an am , 
interesting relic, described by Engel, is not unlike perar 
pitch-pipes, and like the Mexican pipe shows how = ; 


the { 
; found nest 
1 The four-holed flageolet of terra-cotta, shown in the pet aaa we are” 
city of Tezcuco, and is probably of Aclolhuan origin, 4 people T he A 
suppose were much more advanced in the arts than their bloot * Fig. 4 oe 


; ai late, 
An examination of the external contour of this instrument in eE e 
XIX), will show that the barrel or body of the flageolet 1s much i 


The i 
elongated than that of the pitch-pipe, Figs. 5-6, (Plate DA Fig. 3k (Pi 
struction shows an increased expansion underneath the sount” i see 


. xIx). 
XIX). and marked contraction at the bell end, Fig. 7 F (Plate XIX) 


PLATE XVIII. 


LYS 2352791 or 3-7-5. a29 Ff 
Jane A Fe) 


s Yonex o 


fy 0-7388 2s a 
ligg Z ECY or Sate ol Bp Naturat) | 
V8 3 3077 or Seated Dfe snap 
fig G4e7 0° 3 li Dudiewtiil, oan Jalia J | 
) ts other irtléresting Combinations h -=-= 
EGI. or Hipteats)...  £3°2°5-4 5E) | 
x "I. 7-{ Octave-rssing Gf stay OO BLW ESP 
J Doitile Whistle, see Fig 4 (Puce) 


Ancient Mexican Musical Instruments. : F 


Š 


1884.] Pitch-pipes and Flageolets. 505 


whistle may be made to produce a variety of sounds by the addi- 
tion of finger perforations. It also resembles them in its powers 
of producing different sounds, of a higher pitch, by blowing 
with unusual force.” 

As the manipulation of the ancient Mexican pitch-pipes of 
terra-cotta has never been fully described, some details upon the 
subject will’ be necessary. - It has been mentioned in a former 
article that the clay pitch-pipes which stand in the scale of E flat, 
may be played singly or in quartette. The single manipulation was 
accomplished by the well-known soloist on the Baehm flute, Pro- 
fessor J. S. Coxe (who having arranged the pitch-pipes in a card- 
board frame like a mouth organ), was enabled to play thereon 
numerous simple melodies. By this means results were obtained 
(by one performer) like those produced by four persons manipu- 
lating them alternately (holding one in each hand). A record 

as been kept of these manipulations by numbering the whistles 
from tonic to octave ( 1-8), and as a ninth, eleventh and twelfth 
exist (alto a double whistle) the numeration was extended to 
twelve. As it is necessary, in producing certain intervals and 
melodies, to close the stop-holes upon some instruments, leaving 
them open in others, the black dot placed alongside of the num- 
bers or letters indicate closed stop-hole, and the naught open 
stop-hole, The different signs or modulations for the blowings, 
‘own in Figs, ABCD (Plate XVIII) signify blow evenly (Fig. A 
“ign thus — turned upward) and blow hard, (Fig. B ~ turned 
downwards) 


ett it is necessary to blow very hard, double modulation signs 
in (turned upward). In blowing soft, and vice versa, in blow- 
vii hard (turned downward). By this means a method of pro- 
a 'S obtained by which all confusion can be avoided, and the 
a with facility. Ifthe note of the large elongated pitch- 
‘A hee (Plate XviI), Standing in A (three sharps), be taken 
followin y ERNI the intervals of two octaves! may be obtained by 
Xvin) Ti € enumerations and stoppings given in Fig. 5 (Plate 
several € scale of E flat is given in Fig. 6 (Plate xvii), also 
other combinations of intervals in other scales, such as F 

1 
me fn ethod of fingering and stopping is given in Fig. 5 ( Plate XVIII), by 
ever, owing to sor e intervals of two octaves may be obtained. This fingering, how- 
Clearly, Sto alas ection in one of the pipes, does not produce the intervals 

whistles have been impaired by their long burial. 


506 Construction of Ancient Mexican Terra-cotta [May, 


natural, Fig. 7 (Plate xvii1), D (two sharps), Fig. 8 (Plate xvi), 
and finally the intervals of the scale of A (four flats), Fig. 9 
(Plate xviii). 

That duplicates of these Aztec pipes of terra-cotta exist (in the 
Poinsett collection of Mexican antiquities) which are pitched in 
like keys, has been proven beyond a doubt, viz., three duplicates 
of the octave or No. 8 pipe (scale of E flat), two of No. 9, two of 
No. 5 pipes. It is certainly an interesting fact that in a collection 
of sixteen pitch-pipes, seven out of this number correspond with 
one another. This sameness of pitch cannot therefore be attributed 
to an accidental similarity of musical sounds. 

Terra-cotta pitch-pipes, similar to those shown in Figs. 1 and § 
(Plate xv1), which were excavated in 1852 from an ancient tomb 
near Vera Cruz, by the late Professor Charles H. Budd, are pitched 
in like tones to Nos. 8 and g in the Poinsett collection. 

The Indians of the present day, in various parts of Mexico, 
manufacture whistles of an inferior kind, which do not, however, 
in any way approach the ingenious clay-reed pipes of their ances: 
tors, either in construction, tone or decoration, still there is an : 
innate love for music among the descendants of the old Nahua- 
talac and Maya races, which has frequently been commented upon 
by travelers. Dr. Habel’s learned article entitled “ Archao- 
logical investigations in Central and South America,” published | 
by the Smithsonian Institution in their Contributions to Knowl- 
edge, page 45, speaking of the South American Indians, ee | 
that he found the pipe the only national instrument. It 8 
various dimensions, and almost every traveling Indian has one at 
hand, piping while he walks on the road or in the market. 

Whistles fashioned like birds, animals and monsters of oe 
tesque shape are quite numerous in the cemeteries of peor 
and Central America. They generally emit shrill sounds, wht 
Mr. Barber, in his valuable article on “ Indian Music,” has mt 
pared to a peculiar noise like the escape of steam (Anne : P 
Naturatist of March, 1883). Others examined by the m s 
this article give harsh sounds when blown into forcibly, a 
like the chatterings of macaws and parrots. They 

: i ; ig, 10 T (Plate 
modeled in three pieces, viz., the mouth-tube, Fig. oi 
xvu) and Fig, 1 T (Plate xvi) The body, wha = 
ingenious in construction, and bears an importa parts 
the production of the sound emitted, is made in two 


1884. | Pitch-pipes and Flageolets. 507 


or pieces, viz, the body and cover, Fig. 10 U (Plate xvir) 
and Fig. 1 A (Plate xvn). The grotesque whistle, Fig. 8 (Plate 
xvu), shows the jointure of its several parts, and for this reason 
it has been chosen for description. The mouth-tube, Figs. 10 T, 
9 H (Plate xvii), is of simple construction, having been made 
upon a round form, narrowest at the end approaching the body 
portion, see Fig. 10 G (Plate xvi). This illustration has been 
drawn from an instrument in which the body cover, or top, has 
been removed. It will be seen that the mouth-tube is held in 
position by the clay flaps, on either side, opposite a small hole in 
the body of the whistle, thus directing the current of air into its 
hollow interior. The body was, without doubt, modeled upon a 
Semi-ovate form, the perforated top being added after it was with- 
drawn. The position of the body varies in different whistles, but 
in most cases is tilted, with the flat top-piece (or cover of the 
semi-ovate body) forward and inward, thus placing the sound- 
mols exactly in front of the narrow end of the tubular mouth- 
piece, Fig. 10 G (Plate Xvi), conducting the air within, and 
making the necessary vibration to produce sound. The body 
cover serves two purposes, that cf uniting the body and mouth- 
tube firmly together, also that of reflecting sound outward, after ` 
ts production in the semi-ovate cavity. 
The four-holed Nahuatalac flageolet of terra-cotta, found near 
fzcuco, Fig. 4 (Plate xix), shows a superior knowledge in its 
construction, power and variety of sound to any other wind in- 
strument of music manufactured by the North American abo- 
“poes excepting, of course, those manufactured by the Inca 
tele An examination of the various parts of the four- 
"a t Aesenean flageolets of terra-cotta will demonstrate that 
(P o : ave been made in four parts. viz., the clay reed, Fig. 2 A 
„ate XIX), shown by the dotted lines; neck-covering, or flap, 
Ks eee XIX); the body, Fig. 3 D, and the bell, or foot, Fig: 
(Plate XIX). Sections of these instruments, Figs. 5, 6, 7 (Plate 
» Made in Profile, indicate that they were modeled upon round 
forms. That of the body portion is narrowest at the 
bell end, Fig. 7 F which 
Selig and 5 K. The shape of the form upon wai 
6, piece was modeled, is shown by the dotted lines in F ig. 
appr, cting at the sound-hole, and gradually expanding as a 
tsan the mouth end, F ig.6U. The finger-holes (four in 
er) have been perforated through the body Fig. 8, from the 


508 Construction of Ancient Mexican Terra-cotta (May, 


outside while the clay was in a semi-dry condition. A hollow in- 
strument seems to have been used for this purpose, leaving here 
and there small ragged edges of clay adhering to the interior of 
the barrel around the edge of the circular perforations. The bell, 
Fig, 4 F, is concave exteriorly, of circular form, and decorated 
with designs of unique patterns which have been stamped thereon 
by terra-cotta forms or dies. The internal portion of this bell is 
hollow, becoming convex as it approaches the edges, and con- 
tracting at the point of connection with the tube or barrel toa 
thickness of half an inch. Around this is formed a small cup- 
like cavity, Figs. 9 y, 10 y, which bears a most important part in 
manipulating the instrument. It can readily be seen, by an ex- 
amination of the careful drawings shown in Figs. 9 y, 10 Y (Plate 
XIX), that these are not accidental formations, as has been sug- 
gested, but have been adapted to the form of the finger ends 
serve a particular purpose, viz., that of finger-stopping the bell. 
The necks, Figs. 8 N, 4 N (Plate xix), and clay reeds, Figs. 4 ©, 
2 A, 5 C R (Plate xrx), of these four-holed flageolets, have been 
modeled in the same manner as those upon the pitch-pipes, * 2 
cepting that forms of greater length were required on account of 
‘ the elongation of the mouth-piece. 
The instrument shown in Fig. 4 (Plate x1x), viewed in front, 
quite broad at the commencement of the mouth-piece, Fig. 4 
(Plate x1x), contracting slightly as it approaches the division of the 
neck-flap, Fig. 4, N, F, and then expanding to its greatest ee 
ness opposite the sound-hole, Fig. 4, S, where the pone 
body portion have been joined together (see section Fig: 5, P 
xIx). From the sound-hole it gradually contracts until the a 
of junction with the bell is reached, Fig. 3, G, from thence g% 
ually increasing in size until near its lower portion (i s sng ng l 
proper), when the expansion and curvature is quite rapid, nie 
. z Le 
at last, a flat plane upon its outer edge. Viewed #3 prema re 
3, N, the neck is quite delicate, and like the reed 1D er de 
5, C, R (Plate xıx), gradually growing larger as the mido 
body, Fig. 8, M (Plate xrx) is reached. A gradual “gaol 
above downwards here unites the mouth-piece with : = 
which tapers gradually from this point until its junction : 
th 3 ‘ instrument of grace 
e bell, Fig. 4 F (Plate xix), thus forming an 1 7 
ful contour and artistic construction. 
The instruments in the Poinsett collection of 


antiquities ae 


PLATE XIX, 


A TENS eS 
xy) j eee ` 
a E 


j `, 
+ 


Aps 
SRAN ee eee. 
ws 


OSS SSS 


Se 


SNe N 


SS 


Ss 


IN, 


Ancient Mexican Musical Instruments. 


1884. | Pitch-pipes and Flageolets. 509 


somewhat in the color of the glazes by which they are covered. 
The flageolet shown in the illustration, Fig. 4 (which was found 
with several others at Tezcuco, in Mexico), is covered witha 
light-red glaze. In the B flat instrument the glaze is a dark-brown 
color, and in other fragments of pipes, of like kind and construc- 
tion, it is a heavy, vitreous glaze of a dark vermilion color, re- 
sembling that which covers the tips of the mouth-piece in the 
pitch-pipes. This glaze, in most cases, when the instrument is of 
alight color, is covered by one or two bands of a darker hue, 
generally placed as ornamentations between the first and second 
finger-holes, thus adding to the variety of the color, which would 
otherwise be monotonous. It is worthy of remark that orna- 
mental bands of paint overlie the original glaze in some cases, and 
pi as in the B flat instrument, they underlie and are covered 
it. 


Having considered the construction of the ancient Mexican 
pitch-pipes and four-holed flageolets of terra-cotta in all their 
Parts, externally and internally,.the student of aboriginal Ameri- 
= plastic art cannot fail to be impressed with the ingenious con- 
struction, artistic feeling and inventive power displayed by the 
barbarian people who fashioned them. This, it has been shown, 
was accomplished by modeling their terra-coitas upon forms (in 
ES probably made of polished bone or wood. The pieces 
or Sections produced upon the forms in question, were joined to- 
= while in a semi-dry or green state, by means of liquid or 
ae (which method is still used by our modern potters), thus 
ink the ancient Mexican clay-workers to finish their musical 
quite ments in parts. The use of piece-forms seems to have been 
be: common among the Nahuatalacs and the ancient clay- 

sts of Nicaragua,' Costa Rica and Peru in manufacturing 


1 The anci 
tion of go pottery manufactured hy those people who once occupied that por- 
aie tral America now called Nicaragua, suggests, by its superiority of exe- 
thes glaze, that the potter’s art here attained a higher degree of excellence 


vase, Figs, p 
Esq., wae and 4 (Plate XVII), brought from Nicaragua by the late F. G. Smith, 


i of US revealing its interior construction. It will be seen by an 
tion and legs Cenie drawing (showing a section thereof ) that the body por- 
illed in the ere hollow and filled by small clay balls, Itis the opinion of those 

Potter’s art that this unique tripod vase could not have been made ex- 


—§10 Editors’ Table. [May, 


certain kinds and portions of their intricate terra-cotta fictile 
wares. | 

In conclusion, it is also worthy of remark that a knowledge of 
the process of modeling in clay upon forms seems to have been 
known to most all of the savage and barbarian nations of America 
who were acquainted with the art of pottery, and more especially 
to those of our American aborigines, who occupied the middle 
status of barbarism. Many of the beautiful earthenwares from the 
mounds of Louisiana, Missouri and those parts of our Western 
. States at one time occupied by the mound-builders suggest the 
use of forms or shapes. Specimens of ancient water bottles from 
British Guiana and the (long-necked) bottle-shape jars and vases 
from the mounds of Indiana, Tennessee and Missouri in the Wil- 
liam S. Vaux and Haldemann collections, prove the truth of 
these assertions. 


70: 
EDITORS’ TABLE. 
EDITORS: A. S. PACKARD, JR., AND E. D. COPE. 


E pur se muove. The Philadelphia Academy has added 
two professors to its corps, and, it is said, will soon add a third. 
As the gentlemen selected are all capable, original investigators, 
important progress has thus been made. In fact, the organization 
adopted eight years ago may now be said to have the active sup 
port of the members of the academy. 

The institution having at length acquired a Sig 
new questions arise. Having escaped the Scylla of pan 
must avoid the Charybdis of being pressed into service which 
cept upon piece forms, and that the pieces modeled thereon were united pea 
semi-dry or green state. The clay balls in the interior of the legs and ere gihe 
are the best proof of this assertion, as they must have been placed therein ashe 
jointure of the vase, before the firing process (see Fig. 4, Plate — n 
tion of this vase is given, showing the position of the clay balls "m disks 
of earthenware that form the body). It will be seen that these 16% eee pel 
are united together and so fashioned as to leave a space "a ii 
lets of clay were placed. There is no connection Tanai the ding from the body 


center of vitality, 


into the legs. The legs, in their turn, are perforated by smal ie advanced 
thus allowing the heated vapors to escape during the firing. P 
by certain writers that the clay balls in the interiors of the after the fring, Ë 
other hollow terra-cottas) were detached by a sharp cutting mn 
an absurdity which no careful student of aboriginal American 


1884. ] Recent Literature. 511 


not belong to it. Some of its members desire to make it a school 
for teaching science to the young, a function which does not be- 
long to an academy of sciences, but to a university or other school. 
That the primary object of the academy has always been original 
research, is well known; and that it is the desire of most of the 
scientific specialists connected with it that it should be devoted to 
that purpose, is undoubted. Instruction to post-graduates might 
be given in connection with its laboratories of research, but not 
to such an extent as to interfere with the main object. 

The inaugural address of Professor Sharp was a clear exposition 
of the methods employed in some of the continental laboratories, 
and furnished an outline for work to be done in his own depart- 
ment, invertebrate zodlogy, in the academy. 

One reason for introducing this institution so frequently to the 
notice of our readers is, that it is representative of the average 
local American “ Academy of Sciences.” If these institutions are 
ever to resemble their prototypes of the old world, it will have to 
be by a process of growth something like that which the oldest 
academy in the country is undergoing. They will have to pass 
from the club stage to the working stage, and self-preservation 
will require a third more or less exclusive stage. The obstacles 
to be overcome will be very similar everywhere. 


4 8 
RECENT LITERATURE. 

S TERTIARY HISTORY OF THE GRAND CANON DISTRICT.’ 

aborate mono raph on perhaps the most imposing 


aha world, has been thoroughly well done and superbly 


Durroy’ 
—This el 


i a changes which have taken place and have produced 
re er wonderful scenic features of this region. Before the 
of te erous period thick beds of Silurian and thinner deposits 


haved 


i » €normously eroded and again submerged. Upon the 


strata over the entire Plateau province. The 

‘Ves osits may have accumulated in an ocean 0 

Werad Cali ai sii iy Z Survey. J. W. PowELL, director. Tertiary History of 

is Sa Gonera with atlas. By Captain CLARENCE E. DUTTON, U.S. A. 
t Printing Office, 1882. 4to, pp. 264. 


512 Recent Literature. | May, 


moderate depth, but the Mesozoic beds were all shallow-water 
deposits, and they sank as rapidly as they accumulated. 

“ Near the close of the Cretaceous, signs of the coming revo- 
lution make their appearance. The waters became brackish, in- 
dicating a restricted access of the ocean. At the close of the 
Cretaceous important disturbances took place, and portions of 
the province were uplifted and denuded. These were again sub- 
merged, but the new conditions differed from the old, for the new 
deposits (Eocene) laid down unconformably upon the Cretaceous 
and Jurassic are of fresh-water origin, indicating that a great lake 
was formed. The extent of this lake corresponds very nearly 
with that of the Southern Plateau province itself, but not exactly. 
Near the Middle Eocene began that slow action which has gra 
ually elevated the western portion of the continent, and which 
has prevailed until a recent epoch.” i 

During the Tertiary, erosion went on continuously, the thick- 
ness removed from some large areas amounting to about oe 
feet, and much the greater part of this denudation was probably 
accomplished by the close of the Miocene. _ i l 

“The Colorado river appears to have originated in very ¢ar y 
Tertiary time as the outlet of the great Eocene lake, and ie 
sisted in its course ever since. It has been the main Siig oe 
which the waste of the province has been carried to the fore 
At its beginning its bed lay in Eocene strata, and as the lan il 
it cut down its channel by corrasion, severing in ee: 
the beds of the Mesozoic and Carboniferous systems. Tha ie 
tion of it which constitutes the Grand and Marble canons 


afion represents oniy 


amount in Kaibab. The present Grand te into the Archea® 


the corrasion through the Carboniferous an ; ly when 
The older corrasion of superior beds becomes manifest rel been 
we restore, in imagination, the Mesozoic strata which i Grand 
denuded from the vicinity of the chasm. The apse one 
cañon, therefore, is the work of late Tertiary and Q 


‘ : sai xact 
time. Although we cannot fix with pareu p eds, we may, 
och near 

Ra z iocene.” 
ginning of the Pliocene or close of the peor besides ar 


some of very recent date. After describing the ana 
Mt. Trumbull and other masses, which are much ich Jook “3 
tion is then drawn to the fields of recent basalt, whi irty 
fresh as any coulée of Vesuvius ejected twenty Ce mpared with 
ago.” Plate xx represents one of these fields. ‘® ns are large 
the other later eruptions of the Uinkaret, its dimensi ith blocks of 
the ave It entire surface is covered W! very much 
pumice of the most delicate kind. It has a texture 


ions of ore i 


x} i 
ae + ‘ < g É 
“ 5 
wi nái ‘A 
PE ATA 3 
== = 


J Recent Literature. 513 


the lightest coke, the vesicles, however, being considerably 
er than those of the ordinary coke, and very uniform through- 
The septa between the vesicles are very thin, and the whole 
š is so light that wh .,|,., xecimen is varnished over to pre- 
access of water to  .3-.vities, it floats upon water like a 

* * * Any a... ipt, however, to fix the age of these 
> must prove quite fruitless. All that we can say is, that it is 
fecent, even when time is judged by the historic or human 
dard. It cannot be many centuries old, and it may be more 
the Spanish conquest. But there are reasons why 


wi regard chiefly to the action of running water and 

ang, will this volume possess permanent value. 

~y necessary to add that the pencil of Mr. Holmes, 

genus t sketching geological panoramas is almost unique, 
r 


with the illustrated paper which bears the second of 
1 below, and as a possible prodromus of others, it 
tion. The system of the Bulletin No. 1 of the Na- 
m (which is devoted to this subject) has been so gen- 
-= oy American herpetologists that it becomes neces- 
800d reasons should be adduced for the many dif- 
which the present system and list present. These 
ot been given, so far as we are aware, and we think 
nat none can be found. 
“sa these papers has clearly not been equipped for 
has undertaken. In the systematic department he 


Pecies ocurrin, north of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, with refer- 
etin of the Essex Institute Salen Jan» 1884, On th 


514 Recent Literature. [May, 


creates a number of new names, including two new generic names, 
which is an inexcusable proceeding, because the names are unnec- 
essary. His selection of genera for adoption is purely arbitrary. 
Most of the rejected stand on as valid basis as those adopted, 
some of them on identical characters, as, for instance, Eutenia 
rejected and Ophibolus adopted, both resting on the entire anal 
scutum. The adoption of specific names is equally arbitrary. Of 
both kinds of types the author not infrequently displays remark- 
able ignorance. Thus the genus Hypsiglena Cope, is ad 
but a species of that genus, Æ. torquatus, is placed in Sibon, and 
two distinct species of the latter genus are placed under the “S. 
torquatum” as varieties or sub-species. So with Sympholis lip- 
piens Cope, which appears in one place as a species of “ Gophis, 
and in another under the synonym Chilorhina villarsi Jan, asa 
distinct generic form. Contia episcopa appears under the sub- 
generic head Contia, while its variety, C. 2sosona, is placed | 
the sub-generic head of Sonora. The C. pyg@a is not in the list 
at all. There are, in fact, several omissions of North gore 
species, and so many Mexican species are omitted that the title € 
the paper is misleading. The arrangement of the species will 
the genera is confused, and does not in any way express, of 
mutual relations. As an instance we refer to the ole 
species he calls Geotriton. Four species of Spelerpes pe 
list, then an CEdipus (O. variegatus), then a Spelerpes, piani 
(Edipina, then four Spelerpes, then two CEdipus; then finally an 
Stereochilus, then a Eryinophilus, then a Spelerpes, and No sp 
CEdipus identical with the fifth on the list above named. N° P 
cies of Géotriton appears. When we compare this suppression ¢ 


which are worthless, the inconsistency is striking. ; 
ne ea 4 of applying 


i w 
The author of the catalogue has a singular plan work in whid — 


: ure of 
as that of the true author. Thus Dr. Deyis has ws Pl in 
learning that Ny Adelophis copei was described by yrr 


that the Diploglossus millepunctatus O’Sh., is 


nessy took it to be, and is not a Eumeces, as SUpPOS acle of 


Garman ; and that the list of species of Ophibolus is a 
As with the genera, the adoption of species 


but the 


least nine 


confusion. gall subspecies © : 


entirely arbitrary, and appears to depend on nothing ae 


PLATE XXI. 


A lateral Amphitheater of the second order in the Grand Cafion. 


È 
: 


f 
i 
; 
$ 
y 


1884.] Recent Literature. 515 


edge of the subject was more complete before attempting to 
publish, 


Gatton’s Recorp oF Famiry Facutriss!—This book is a 
series of blanks designed for those who may desire to forecast the 
mental and bodily faculties of their children, and to further the sci- 
ence of heredity. As stated in the preface, the natural gifts of each 
individual being inherited from the ancestry, it is possible to fore- 
*e much of the latent capacities of a child in mind and body, of 
the probabilities of his future health and longevity, and of his 
tendencies to spécial forms of disease, by a knowledge of the 
traits of his ancestors. When the science of heredity shall have 
become more advanced, the accuracy of such predictions will 
mprove, and meanwhile we may feel assured that fewer blunders 
wil be made in rearing and educating children, under the guidance 
ofa knowledge of their family antecedents, than without it. 

tis to be hoped that those at all interested in the improvement 
€ race in general, as well as their own descendants, will 
make a fair trial by keeping such a record as this, and we hope 


of h 


| ting the introduction, and looking over the blanks, we 
! Ng obtain some idea of what of a practical nature is involved in 
| of s of heredity, Itis the custom with many to make light 
„eredity, as if there were little in the matter; whereas, the in- 
—y_ sent observer is well aware that, together with variation, 
OY is one of the twin forces in the world of life. 


o 
ands an equal recognition of all the lines. We 
remot r the insignificance of any single ancestor in a 
a degree, In the fourth generation backwards there are . 


x Record - i 

Si gied Family Faculties, consisting of tabular forms and directions for enter- 

Mecnillan g an explanatory preface, Aay Francis GALTON, F.R.S. Londen, 

Tot, go? 1884, gto, 
XVin,. 

ge THO. v. 


33 


516° Recent Literature. (May 


generations back, contributes (on the supposition of no intermar- 
riage of kinsfolk) less than one part in 16,000,000 to the constitu- 
tion of a man of the present day.” 

Mr. Galton thinks that if the father of a family of children col- 
lects all the required data concerning his own parents and grand- 
parents, and similarly those concerning the parents and 
parents of his wife, then it is probable in most cases that their 
children, being informed about all their ancestry up to their eight 
great-grandparents inclusive, will be equipped with almost as 
much hereditary information as they can need. 

s far our ignorance, the author claims, of the conditions by 
which the level of humanity may be raised, is so great that 
believes “if one had some dictator of the Spartan type, who exer- 
cised absolute power over marriages, assigning A to be the wife 
of B, and C to be the wife of D, and who acted with the best im- 
tentions, he might possibly do even more harm than good to the 
race.” No man is isolated from his fellows, but is “a prolonga- 
tion of his ancestry in no metaphorical sense,” and the author 
claims that the compilation of these registers will extend this 
conviction very widely. In order to obtain statistics bearing ka 
heredity, Mr. Galton offers £500 in prizes to those British 9 
jects resident in Great Britain who shall furnish him with the best 
extracts from their own family records. 


BALBIANI’S LECTURES ON THE Sporozoa. —The class of Sporo: 
zoa was founded by Leuckart in 1879, by wher” a as ar 
i 


as a new group of Protozoa. Besides the Gregarines 
perms. 
1 


Bütschli proposed the name of Myxosporidia for the Pso 
vinle be 


the term Sarcosporidia for the utriculiform Psorosperms, ai 
places among the Sporozoa a fifth group, which he ry cilk- 
Microsporidia, comprising the vibrating corpuscles © 
worm and allied organisms, regarded for a long time 2° 
f ; ; -= nsei 
As thus constituted we have, for the first time, 1n this us 


work a succinct and interesting account of these strange pf < 
: tissues of all animals 


among the Protophytes. One of them causes ‘ 
rapid and extreme multiplication in the liver of the of them 
_ also once occurred in man, producing death. - epizo- 
propagate epidemically, and give rise to more OF ess po 
otics ; such are the Sarcosporidia of the sheep and po 
les 

1 Cours d Embryogenie comparée du College de France. Lecons e e Prolene 
Par G. BALBIANI. pine se par le Dr. PELLETAN. Rerott Tiik 
Avec 52 figures intercalées dans le Texte et 5 Planches li 
Paris, 1884. 8vo, pp. 184. 


1884. Recent Literature. 517 


sometimes decimate the sheep-folds and poultry yards. A great 
number of fresh-water fishes die owing to the development of 
Myxosporidia in their tissues, a cause of destruction of these 
animals in our fish ponds which is still generally ignored. Fi- 
nally, says the author in the preface, the epidemic invasion of the 
Microsporidia in silk-raising establishments gave rise to the dis- 
ease called pebrine, which for twenty years has nearly ruined the 
silk industry throughout the world, and cost France alone more 
than a millard francs. 


correctly classifying them, but following Leuckart in regarding 
them as animal rather than vegetable. These organisms live as 


s 
Pig, Otaria, etc., and Balbiani believes that they begin by living 
on the surface of their host. 


ai vegetable. This view Balbiani combats with considerable 
sketch and at considerable length, fortifying his position with 
Ser = maintaining that they are animal and belong with the 

Rerort oF tHe GEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY 
Canadi ch bears date of 1883. With it comes a catalogue of 
ine ot” Part 1, Polypetale, by John Macoun, forming a 

currence 192 pages, and containing interesting notes on the oc- 
expected and distribution of the species. We should have 
than we E find more detailed notes on-the Labrador species 


; dep, git Northwest Terr., with special reference to the coal 
Moose > Ur. R. Bell reports on the geology of the basin of 


518 Recent Literature. | May, 


reports are those of Mr. R. W. Ells on Northern and Eastern 
New Brunswick and the north side of the Bay of Chaleurs, as 
well as the Gaspé peninsula, illustrated by several folding maps. 
Artotypes and lithographic plates illustrate the scenery. 
Besides his introductory reports the director of the survey, Dr. 
elwyn, furnishes a chapter entitled: “ Geological nomen- 
clature and the coloring and notation of geological maps,” which 
will attract attention. 
RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS, 
Ashburner, C. A.—First report of progress in the Anthracite coal region. The geol- 
ogy of the Panther Creek basin. Second Geol. Surv. Pa. Harrisburg, 1883. 
From the ae 


Ril sade yà ‘Ki Pac. A. S., Thomas, C—Third report of the United States Ento- 
cal E auan. Washington, 1883. From the commission 
Ciian. n, dT. istory of the discovery « oa the circulation of the blood. Phila, 


H. C—Hi 
Blakiston & Co., 1884. From thea 
Gill, 7h.—The principles of pe phy. pr rontana adina a delivered at the 
m th 


gopa Soc. of Washington, Jan. 19, 1883. Fro 
Doilo, M. £.—Premiére note sur eh Crocodiliens de pk Ext, du Bull, da 
Mus. Roy. Hie Nat. de Belg., 1883. From the author 


Note sur la presénce du Gastornis ieee Lemoine, diá Vassise inférieure de 

Pétage Landenien a Mesvin, près Mon xt. idem, From 

Curtis, J. S— Abstract of ne on the E eA deposits z EAS Nevada, 
Ext. Ann. Rep. Director U. S. Geol. Surv. From the au 


Hyatt, A—Ge aen fe nah Leonie Ext. Proc. Bost. Soe Nat. Hist., 1883. 
Fro m the au 

Whitehouse, Cope. = myth of Fingal’s cave. From the author. ki 

Clevenger, S. V.—Clinical = ae ees of cases of insanity. Rep. 
the oe Med: Jou 1884 at 

——Paretic dementia in ac wi pe sian ef acase. Rep. from the Alienist 
arada 1884. Both from the author. bka 

cones PA L., and Ruffner, W. H.— ee ical survey in Georgin A York, È È. 


ssippi, Hoag nog line of the ipa eg Pacific Railway. 
Weeks 1883. From W. H. Ruffne k 
Christy, R. M.—On the EEr ce of insects visiting flowers. Ext. Linn. 
Jour., 1883. From the da 
BAENA, N. A.—A study sg si PARTS of gluten within the wheat grain. 
1883. 


oc. Nat, Sci. Phil., 
Trans, College Physicians o 


con 9 i on the fieces of starch-fed insects. Ext. 
ila., 1883. Both from the author. 
Roussel, A. E., and Randolph, N. A.—An examination of the fæces of twenty p% 
sons r se St inunctions of cod-liver oil. From the authors. f Syrphide: 
Williston, S. W.—On the North American Asilidæ, with a new genus ° 
Ext, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., 1883. ‘From the author. brain. Lecture No. 


Wi. on BG. rea Baas, ge kerata on methods of studying the brain. 
Ext nef tsa Beg 9, 1884. From the author. function £ 


Sik L H. ~Expern upon ears o 
equilibrium. Ext Jour ae Dholi 1883. From the aie notes 02 
Ryder, J. A—Rearing oysters from artificially-fertilized eggs, toget iggy per 


pond cure oo Ext. Bull, Fish Commission, 
oer of ip bese 
Worthen, W. AN i” 0., Miller, S A.—Geological iA 
Vil. Geology an d paleontology. Boston, 1883. st i 
P G. £.—A monograph of the Insectivora, tena <a 
H. London, J. Van Voorst, 1883. From the author. 


Geography and Travels. 519 


GENERAL NOTES. 
GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS. 


Asta—Perak and its Tin—The little state of Perak, upon the 
western shore of the peninsula of Malacca, is in a fair way to be- 


S 
mountains are separated by plains, the chief of which is traversed 
by the Soungi Perak, or river of silver, a fine stream some 150 
miles long, and navigable for Malay barks throughout most of its 

uropean ships of more than 500 or 600 tons cannot 
ascend beyond Dourian Sebatang, at which point the river turns 
westward toward the sea. 

e temperature is equable, rarely exceeding 95°, or sinking 
below 76°; the alternation from the wet season (September to 
February) to the dry producing no change upon the temperature. 

e mountain masses of Perak are granitoid. | Sedimentary 
rocks occur only in patches, but almost the entire surface of the 
plains iS covered with drift. The tin occurs in quartz veins in 


ren as Cassiterite. The encasing rock of these pee: 
case in Cornwall, is a porphyroid ranite, with large 
crystals of feldspar. si š : 
Island of Hainan—This large island is not salubrious. 
oil on the coast is marshy, and fever rages both in 
ashes and in the woods, The water contains much veg- 
ce and mineral impurity ; typhoons destroy the harvest before 
'S Tipe, and Cantonese Pirates make frequent descents upon the 
=e and seize the trading-junks of the merchants. The natives 
and KE appearance like other Chinese 
Th orrence by even the poorest boatmen of Canton. 
oy hae of Hoi-how, with about 12,000 inhabitants, has really 
is y r, b ut is exposed to typhoons and to the north wind. It 
Sra x nyer, and ships cannot approach within two miles of it. 
On th ee miles distant is Kiungchow, the capital of the island. 
center poa land opposite is the flourishing port of Pakhôi, the 
harbor ;. 2 large legitimate and larger contraband trade. Its 
from i 1S an excellent one, extensive, deep, and well protected 
(Ch. Labarthe, Rev. de Geog., Janv., 1884.) 
Geog ages of Indo-China—Dr. Neis (Bull. de la Soc. de la 
Mois, wh 3) recounts his adventures among the various tribes of 
Cochin eget the country to the north and east of French 
Late, and Thi and west of Anam. The Traos, Stieng, Shop, 
Sem to be loma are tribes of Mois, among which the Late 
i the most defenceless. They have no fire-arms, and 
This departmen 


tis edited by W, N. LOCKINGTON, Philadelphia. 


520 _ General Notes, [ May, 


when the Stiengs pursue them to procure slaves for the Laotians 
their only defence, except flight, is to plant sharpened bamboos in 


the paths. Our traveler also visited the remains of the Tsiampa, 


whose language resembles that of the Malays. 


The New Hebrides —M. Roberjot (Bull. de la Soc. de Geog, 
Paris, 1883), describes these islands, commencing with Annatom, 
the most southern. In the islands generally the males greatly 
exceed the females in number. In Annatom the latter are but six 


madreporic, and is the greatest source of sandal-wood. Sandwich 
island is also of coral. Near the village are seventeen hollow 
trunks of trees pierced with holes and a long slot on one side. 
By striking these a rude music is produced. In Mallicolo two 
upper incisors are struck violently out from all females of the age 
of puberty. Wooden tom-toms exist, with carved faces. eim 
habitants are about 6000. Ambrym is a volcano, 1067 m 
in height. $ 
Spiritu Santo is the largest island, and is bordered to rer 
by a chain of coral islands. Two rivers flow into the can 
tween these islets and the main island. In this island the pe 
assist in carrying burdens, which is not the case in the o 
islands. 


AFRICA.— South Central Africa—Mr. Anderson has ge. 
transmitted to the Royal Geographical Society ox a p 
and a map of the region between the Orange and Vaal riv of 
the Zambesi, from ocean to ocean. The chief sources 


nu- 
Vaal are in a district called New Scotland, where there are 
elevation 


range river under the name of Hygap. J. ogee the 
extends northward to the Chobe as far as its junc nearly south 
Zambesi, from which point its eastern boundary runs 


d 
to the Molapo, which it crosses further to the T cate north 


Okayanka Laagte, form the Tonka, flowing into n stretches 
Most of these rivers consist, during most of the Ya 
of water alternating with dry beds. The Zouga 5° ad it is s0 
Lake Ngami and the great Makarakara Salt Nich" ag July, 
level that in April and May it flows eastward; 1n J i, 
westward. From the Zouga, near its exit from nly outlet for 
Matabe runs to the Zambesi. This Matabe is the © 


US, ae Oe ee 


SS Se eae in 


Geography and Travels. 521 


the waters of the Zouga and of the lakes; but occasionally, when 
there is no overflow, it runs southward. 

Between the Hygap and Great Fish rivers, at about a7? Sitata 
flows the Back river, with two outlets. The Great Fish river 


country of granite, gneiss and trap, drained by numerous tribu- 
taries of the Great Fish river. The coast west of these mountains 
is a sandy desert, extending seventy miles inland. The upper 
courses of the Swakop, Kuisip and Omaruru are in a fertile coun- 
try, among granite mountains, some of which attain an attitude 
of about 9000 feet, but the lower courses of these rivers pass 


the Kalahara desert, is a high table-land, and is very healthy. 
Kalahara desert scarcely seems to be a desert in the usual 
sense of the word, but to be almost wholly a level, swampy region, 
with much jungle and many salt-pans. The rivers and salt-pans 
are, to a great extent, dry during much of the year, and the region 
s very unhealthy. Bushmen are the principal inhabitants. The 
‘ern part of the belt surveyed, north of the Orange river, is 
drained by the Limpopo or Crocodile river, the sources of which 
are on the northern slope of the great water-shed that runs across 


y and park-like valleys. Other important tributaries entering 
the Limpopo from the Matabele country to the north of it, are 


oy fey of which flow into the Zambesi. The country east of 
to the tah aich, rising in the Molopo mountains, flows eastward 
not been k ocean, is ruled by the Zulu chief Umzila, and has 


itich e x According to Mr. Im Thurn, whose travels in 
West of a have recently been published, there is in the far 
that Country, or over the Brazilian boundary, where the 

itself rises 5000 feet above the sea, a flat table-land, the 


mit of this Im Thurn believes may prove practicable. The sum- 
i 


_ ough plateau of Roraima seems to be forest-covered, and 
S known of t 


he fauna and flora of the district to make it 


522 General Notes. (May, 


certain that a naturalist would find himself well rewarded for the 
ascent. There are traditions of strange isolated tribes that live 
in this inaccessible region. 

Professor Geo. Davidson has communicated to Science the fol- 
lowing particulars of recent volcanic action in Alaska : 

‘he explosion of October 6, 1883, split perpendicularly in 
twain the mountain of St. Augustin, situated on the island of the 
same name, forty-nine miles west of the settlement on Port 
Graham or English harbor, in Cook’s inlet, Alaska. Vast col- 
umns of smoke were seen to rise from the summit of the moun- 
tain, a column of white vapor rose from the sea near the island, 
and a great earthquake wave, twenty-five to thirty feet high, came 
upon Port Graham, followed by two other waves, estimated at 
eighteen and fifteen feet. Had it not been low water all the peo- 
ple of the settlement would have been lost. The tides rise and 
fall about fourteen feet. Capt. Sands, who was at English harbor, 
states that if there were plenty of water in the line of rupture 
the mountain, it would be possible for a vessel to sail through. 
Capt. Culkie, of the schooner Kodiak, who approached St. 
gustin on Nov. roth, found a new island about a mile persis 
long and seventy-five feet high, that had been’ upheaved in pa 
ten-fathom passage between the island and the mainland. At 
same time two extinct volcanoes on the Alaskan peninsula, rè 
ported to be about west from the active volcano Iliamna ang 
feet high), burst into activity. A party of Aleuts, living on 
island, are supposed to be lost. 


THe Arctic.—Novaya Zemlya.—M. Grinevetsky, who Jour 
neyed across Novaya Zemlya in the spring of 1878, reports 
the southern island consists of three different parts. sepa 
ern part is covered by mountains that are quite pening is 
bounded to the south by the Pakhovaya river ; the mii hills, 
covered, on the west coast, by five or six par lel chami is 
the highest summits of which reach 800 feet, while to : chy 
a wide plateau; and the southern part is a plateau arr il 
450 feet high. There are two varieties of reindeer on Har land, 
one confined to the southern, the other to the nort 
and the latter variety greatly resembles the reindeer O a 
gen. This fact, taken with the feebleness of the cold e ss 
in Barentz sea, and the large amount of mud and Led the idea 
floating ice north-west of Novaya Zemlya, gives age age archi- 
that Spitzbergen is connected with Novaya Zemlya PY 
pelago. ition 

THE ARCHIPELAGO oF Care Horn.— The Prenga irap 
has been actively engaged in surveying the poan t 58° > lat. 
of islands, which extend south of Beagle strait abou ent af 
These islands present the same structure as h pore js aa 
which they are the continuation. Off their western © 


1884.] Geography and Travels. 523 


almost continuous chain of islets and detached rocks, separated 
from the coast by intricate and deep canals. The western coast 
itself is a line of snow-covered mountains, while the eastern parts 
of the islands, comparatively flat and of Tertiary formation, recall 
the pampas of the continent. 

It has been found that existing maps are in error in many points. 
The west coast only of Hoste island had previously been deline- 
ated, but now the entire contour is known. New Year sound, a 
great bay filled with islets and ending in four great arms, and the 
strait between Pothuau and Jaureguiberry islands have been fixed 
with precision, and the coast line of Wollaston group, composed 
of the three large islands, Grevy, Bayly and Wollaston, has been 

ermined. 

The islands consist of peninsulas joined to each other by nar- 
tow low isthmuses. Between these peninsulas run deep fjords, 
often terminating in glaciers that descend to the sea. Ponsonby 
sound, the largest of these fjords, penetrates twenty-eight miles 
into the interior of Hoste island. 


Grocrapuicat Nores,—Professor Hall has made a complete 
Survey of the Waddy Arabah and the Dead sea, with a traverse 
across Southern Palestine. Akabah was laid down too far south, 
and the south part of the Dead sea, as shown on the maps, is 
quite out of its true shape and position. The Lisan has to be 


and about the beginning of March to explore New Guinea. The 


bend of 50" . long.), has been followed up, and an immense 
and a this river to the west, due to a high chain of mountains, 
fe hee’ lake Shiva, 11,000 feet above the sea, to the west o 


this bend, will considerably modify the maps of the west of this 
and the wh € great Pamir chain has been crossed in four places, 
veys, whole region has been covered with a network of sur- 

~A letter from Dr. Rich. Böhm, dated July, 1883, 


te Pople of Caiza. The victims were killed upon the iden- 
killed, where, a few days before, ten or twelve Indians had been 
the river “urat and Blanco, who escaped massacre by swimming 
i » Were afterwards taken, and died after six months of 


524 General Notes. [May, 


captivity and suffering. Ceballos, the sole survivor, was a pris- 
oner for five months. M. Thonar, with his party, visited the scene 
of the massacre and traversed the mysterious regions of the 
Chaco with only the loss of a single man, spite of the hostile at- 
titude of the Indians. r. Chas. Winnieke has succeeded in 
exploring and mapping about 40,000 square miles of previously 
unknown country in Australia. Distances of from 200 to 300 
miles had to be traversed across the highest sand ridges before 
water could be obtained. Mr. O’Neill, who arrived at Mozam- 
bique Feb. 4, after having traversed 1400 miles of unexplored 
country between that place and Lake Nyassa, has discovered Lake 
Amarambu, the existence of which was previously unknown, He 
reports Lake Shirwa to be smaller than has been represented. On 
his return he followed the Likelungo valley, which he found to 
e well peopled. 


GEOLOGY AND PALAONTOLOGY. 


Tue Masropons oF Nortu AmERICA.— There are probably nine 
species of the genus Mastodon which may be clearly distin- 
guished as former inhabitants of North America. The genus 
first appears in the Ticholeptus beds and continues to, if not into, 
the human period. The statement that this genus occurs in the 
White River formation is erroneous! The oldest species 1$ aed 
ably the M. proavus Cope. The Loup Fork epoch con wie 
remains of eight of the nine species, while one only, the M. 
cus Cuv., is characteristic of later ages. ae 

The following table expresses the characters of these spect 
analytical form : 

I. Intermediate molars with not more than three crests. 
a. Crests acute, transverse. 
Valleys uninterrupted. 
Ê. y p rinni low aot sieri E 


: 

i 

Last superior molar with three crests and a heel; pee | 
M. ohiohos 


Last superior molar with four crests and a heel; crests elevated not ; 

BB- Valleys interrupted. . M. serridens ; 

Edge of crest tuberculate. ......0.0ecrsceesescsncenesseeeteeue. 3 

aa. Crests transverse, composed of conic lobes. ' 

f. Valleys ? uninterrupted. M. shepardi- : 

Last inferior molar narrow, with four crests; no accessory tabeschar = 2" 3 

f- Valleys interrupted. M. .1503 smaller 

Last inferior molar with four crests and a heel; symphysis short, * M. eles. ’ 

size sain cuales sete Mee A 
Last inferior molar with four crests and a cingulum ; symphysis ene product 
size medium..... Beech ec eiccsep coches eos) eee ‘Tong, M. 14505 57° 


a ot a ea ay ee «cides altenatiMg- 
“ aaa. Crests broken into conic lobes; those of opposite SI obscure 
Last inferior molar narrow, supporting four crests and a heel. . ate 


lel, Vol. & P 
1See Report of the U. S. Geological Survey of the 40th paralle 


Last inferior molar with five crests and a heel; symphysis very ©"), angustidens: 
largest . ! 


‘Dental tusk 


a 


1884. ] Geology and Paleontology. 525 


II. Intermediate molars with four transverse crests. 
A long symphysis ; crests well separated, tubercular, with accessory lobes interrupt- 
8, ale a Sp Slik. . campester. 


MRS O18 a aol ceuan e ei M. mirificus. 


The following notes may be made on these species : 

. proavus Cope.—The two crested molars of this species are 
nearly twice as large as those of M. ouoticus, leading to the sup- 
position that some of them may belong to the “intermediate” 
series. This is confirmed by the small number of crests of the 
last superior molar of an individual from the Ticholeptus beds, 


inthe expansion of the inner base of the external half of each 
crest, which thus gives a triangular section on wearing. A femur 
indicates that this is one of the largest species of the genus. 

M. ohioticus Cuv.—Probably a descendant 6f the preceding, 
which represents it in earlier periods. 

- Serridens Cope, sp. nov.—Founded on a first or second true 
molar from Texas. It is peculiar among American species in its 
acute elevated, entire crests, with tuberculo-serrate edges. ‘It 

us resembles the M, turicensis, but differs in well-developed 
tudinal crests at the inner end of the external half of the 
“rests, which consist of two tubercles on the posterior side of a 
d on the anterior side of the next succeeding crest. 

nd posterior cingula; edge of each cross-crest 
086 SIX Or seven tubercles. Length of crown, M. .130; width, 
; eeration, 061. ngth of M. ohioticus, but narrower. 


-—This species is apparently distinct from 

but its distinction from M. humboldti has not 
i A ascertained. California. 

andit Jpodon Cope, sp. nov.—Founded on a near ly perfect left 

pe ular ramus with last molar tooth and tusk, with entire pal- 

last molar teeth and tusks. The superior tusks are 

and have an enamel band, and the inferior tusks are large 


dens and as those of the larger American form of M. angusti- 
physis ü as ‘ong as that of M. ohioticus, but narrower. Its sym- 
sis, M. i Prolonged. Length of ramus posterior t6 symphy- 
; S much larger than that of M. productus or M. 
Hazard, s Diameter of its alveolus, .068. Kansas, Frank 


M. 4 
tus Cope.—Loup Fork Beds of New Mexico. 
onSustidens Cuv. var.—Lower jaws of four individuals, two 
eae nearly complete, show that this species is found in 


526 General Notes. [May, 


North America under a slight modification of form. The only 
difference between our specimens and those of Europe is the 
greater size of the heel of the second true molar, which is really 
tetralophodont, It is a larger species than the last two. 
best preserved ramus measures M. 1 080 in length, of which .420 
is symphysis. Loup Fork beds of Kansas, Nebraska and Da- 
kot 


a. 

M. obscurus Leidy.—This species rests on a lower last molar of 
uncertain origin. Its relations have yet to be determined. 

M. campester Cope—This very distinct species was found in 
the Loup Fork beds of Kansas by Dr. R. S. Hill, and described 
by me in 1879, in the Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Soc. 

M. mirificus Leidy—From the Loup Fork beds of Nebraska, 
found by Dr. Hayden. Resembles most the M. atticus Wagn, m 
dentition.—£. D. Cope. 


Marsa on Dirropocus.—In a late number of the American 
Fournal of Science and Arts, Professor Marsh describes such parts 
of the osteology-of the genus Diplodocus as are at his disposal. 

e genus is referred to the Dinosauria, where it enters the divis- 
ion Opisthoccela. It is remarkable in the position of the external 
nares, which are superior, and between the orbtts. The u 
is declivous in the typical species, D. /ongus, and the teeth are tew 
and slender, and are confined to the anterior parts of the jaws, 
the maxillary bones bearing but few of them. Two species © 


The former was probably forty or fifty feet in length. ig 
Professor Marsh believes that the Diplodocus longus was * The 


character of the dentition indicates soft food, and on f posed 
ing mastication. They might be described as a pair 0 T di 
rakes, like oyster-tongs. The position of the nostrils abo y of 


Lisstmus, 
d walked on the 
rticular pact: 
: , : anchors—_ 
matic floats, and their solid legs and tail acting as 

D. Cope. 

ZA recent af 


Arts, 
ticle by Messrs. Hague and Iddings (Amer. Four. Science — 


sper ? : their 
and base, and the greatest similarity 1S said to or Ae hori- 
blende andesite, and dacite. a sometime 
The basalt occurs as a light to dark gray ‘a! olivine cry> 
vesicular, and presents macroscopically only sma 


1884.] Geology and Paleontology. 527 


tals. Microscopically this rock is seen to be composed of ledge- 
agioclase, irregular grains of light brownish-green augite, 
colorless olivine, magnetite, and glass. The hypersthene andesite 
is generally a porous, sometimes pumiceous, rock, varying in color 
from blue-black to steel-gray, but sometimes red or reddish-gray. 
Inclosed in the ground-mass are numerous porphyritic feldspar 
crystals, with some augite and hypersthene. Microscopically the 
rock is seen to be composed of plagioclase, augite, hypersthene, 
magnetite, and a glassy base sometimes globulitic, more often 
filled with microlites of feldspar and pyroxene, and magnetite 
grains. The hornblende andesite is arranged into two varieties: 
one near the hypersthene andesite, and resembling it in appear- 
ance and structure, but contains hornblende; the other consists. 
chiefly of ledge-formed feldspars, minute pyroxenes, a little 
magnetite, with or without colorless glass, all inclosing porphy- 
ntic plagioclases and hornblendes. 
_ 4he most interesting rock described is the dacite. This name 
given to the rock styled by Richthofen, in 1867, xevadite or 
granitic rhyolite, of which Mr. C. King declared, in 1878, that it 
was “entirely made up of crystalline minerals, with only the 
slightest traces of vitreous binding material.” He also classed it 
with the thyolites, In 1881 the present writer pointed out that 
‘ait was mistaken in his statements of the small amount of glass,. 
ya referred the nevadite to the trachytes. 
as ague and Iddings say that they can not regard the rock as in 
ec entitled to be classed as a rhyolite, and that it is rich 
hara T base, so far agreeing with the present writer; but they- 
of ot under dacite (meaning a quartz-bearing andesite), a term: 
ich he fails thus far to see any need in lithology. Our au- 
k seem inclined to carry the term andesite in ite subdivisions 
dent at extreme that Zabó does the word trachyte—a not 
ansan proceeding on their part. The analyses that have been 
batisá po indicate that nevadite belongs to the trachytes, 
i iiaa to the andesites. ‘It is described by Messrs. Hague and 
through "yee amg of a colorless glass full of gas cavities, 
plagioclase ich are found relatively few microscopic crystals of 
zircon, fo » hornblende, mica, pyroxene, magnetite, apatite and. 
rming a ground-mass inclosing plagioclase, mica, horn- 
quartz, and rarely pyroxene. 
majority of 1 of Messrs. Hague and Iddings is in advance of the 
the cp, oo ee ones, inasmuch as it attempts to describe 
regarding oa not look upon them as small mineral cabinets, 


find thet - a few of the pretty minerals enclosed. Our authors 
al a ui above described rocks grade into one another— 
inthe pa. Orms existing between any two types—a view that, 


528 General Notes. [May, 


Mt. Hood.—Hypersthene and hornblende andesites. 

Mt. Shasta.—Basalt, and hypersthene and hornblende andesites. 

Lassen’s Peak.—Basalt, hypersthene, hornblende, and quartz- 
bearing andesites (dacite or nevadite). 

The paper, from the point of view of our authors and their 
method of study, is an excellent one, and they are to be congrat- 
ulated on the results. —M. E. Wadsworth. 


continent, will make a surface expansion and contraction of 
one mile, every year. This cannot go on forever as an irresistible 
force without making some permanent changes. It may only af- 
fect the upper stratas so much, and it may be relieved by fissures 
somewhat. But in time fissures may be obstructed, either by 
minerals deposited from water, or by other means, so something 
must give way. The upper strata may be gradually compressed, 
or may slip upon those below. Elevations may slowly rise, or m- 
supportable tensions may occur, causing earthquakes, or even 
volcanic action. 

less continuous and more striking result may come from 
the emergence of large areas from the sea. The ocean one 
cially where covered by arctic currents, must be of low tempera: 
ture to a very considerable depth. Shutting out the arctic current 
would raise the temperature, and elevation from the sea w 
permanently raise it from ten to thirty degrees to a great wr 
This, however gradual, would produce an expansion which w a 
be irresistible and certainly produce great permanent chani 
as bending and elevation of strata., The bending and el d less 
might be toward one or both margins, where the cold an 
elastic sea bed gave fixed resistance to further movement. aa 
haps the lines of elevation would be at right angles to e 
of thrust across broad plains of expansion, to which ag já 
be slightly curved. Such forms are shown in many 8. AO. 
mountain systems, as if to point to the source O 
thrusts producing them. cat such systems may be tavada 
the globe in such order as to apparently indicate variou 


. . kas ; i se. 
laws and considerations affecting the action of this ges st have 


produced elevatory and other changes in all geologic 1 eas 


inexorable iron grasp, while ice and winds and waves, ~ Sam J. 
and sea have worn away. I present it for discussion. 
Wallace, Keokuk, Iowa. 


GrotocicaL Notes.—General—The Geolog! Ireland will be 
of England and Wales is now completed; that of from comf 
finished in a few years; but that of Scotland is far l o at his O78 
The work was commenced by Hy. T. De la Pane the Geolog" 
expense, and it was through his efforts and tact t 


1884.] Geology and Paleontology. 529 


cal Survey was organized, and the Geological Museum and School 
of Mines established. 

Jurian.—In a specimen of Asaphus, from the Black Trenton 
Limestone, Dr. Hy. Woodward has discovered what he believes 
to be the jointed palpus of one of the maxillz, in the same posi- 
tion as is occupied by that organ in Apus, Serolis, etc. There 
a to be seven articulations in the palpus above the basal 
joint. He states his opinion that the trilobites should be placed 
near to, if not actually in, the Isopoda-Normalia (Geol. Mag., 
Feb). Dr. I. Mickleborough follows this with an account of a 
Specimen of Asaphus megistos, in which ten pairs of jointed limbs 
are clearly seen. Dr. Reusch, in a volume recently published 
at Leipzig, describes the Silurian fossils found by him in highly 
altered rocks in the Bergen peninsula, Norway. The shells of 
the fossils have disappeared, and only a reddish colored earth 
remains; yet the trilobites, Phacops and Calymene, and the corals, 
aim Halysites, etc., with some graptolites, can be 


| 


Triassic—Herr H. Kunisch describes and figures (Zeit. der 
Deutsch. Geol. Ges., 1883) the adult stage of Æncrinus gracilis 
the Muschelkalk; and in a succeeding paper, Herr K. 
me describes and figures Excrinus Beyrichii, a new species from 
Muschelkalk, near Sondershausen. All the joints of the 
~ are pentagonal.—At a recent meeting of the Geological 
ciety of London, Professor Owen described the skull and den- 
tition of Tritylodon longevus, from South Africa. The teeth re- 
semble those of Microlestes, from the Keuper of Wirtemberg, and 
se of Stereognathus, from the Oédlite. 
utes assic—W. H. Hudleston (Geol. Mag., Feb., 1884) contrib- 
Lie some notes upon the Gasteropoda of the Oxfordian and 
Pr er Oôlites, and describes four new species of Cerithium. 
London „~ ven, at a recent meeting of the Geological Society of 
the on, separated the Kimmeridgian Plesiosuchus Mantel from 


» teeth and vertebrae. It a h to th t 
crocodil : pproaches nearer to the recen 
Feb, 7) no than the older odlitic type.—)J. W. Judd (Nature, 


a re, England), of a stratum of odlitic limestone eighty- 


One : 

Ose se was crowded with fossils of the age of the Great 
dstone, evidently triassic, occurred under this stratum, 

eget 

The stata indicate the presence of an anthracite bed below. 

tified as -c and Triassic have never before been certainly iden- 


Herr W. Dames (Zeit. des Deutsch. Geol. Ges., 1883) 


Pike in Atti S pentelici and Mus Gaudryi, from the pliocene of 


Ca.—Restorations of the crocodilian Diplocyno- 


530 General Notes. [May, 


don ratelit, and the turtle Ptygogaster emydoides, have been made 
for the museum of the Academy of Sciences of Paris. The re- 
mains from which the restorations have been made were put aside 
eighteen years ago by M. A. Milne Edwards, when he wrote his 
great work on fossil birds, and were taken, like most of M. Ed- 
wards’ material, from the lower miocene of Saint-Gerand-le-Puy 
(Allier). Notwithstanding the smallness and great number of 
the pieces, M. Fischer has succeeded in joining together the 
head, all the vertebra, some ribs, most of the members, and a 
great part of the bony plates of Diplocynodon, which M. Vaillant 
believes to be nearly related to Jacare. In the Bulletin de la 
Société Geologique de France, Dr. Lemoine describes two casts 
of the brain mould of the crocodile Zhoracosaurus macrorhynchus, 
These remarkable specimens are much like corresponding casts 
of the modern gavial, but present relatively rather smailer cere 
bral hemispheres. 

Recent.—Herr D. Brauns (Zeit. des Deutsch. Geol. Ges., 1883) 
describes the diluvial mammals of Japan, and arrives at the a 
clusion that the geology, flora, pliocene molluscan fauna, an 
fossil land-fauna of Japan, prove that that country is most inti- 
mately connected with the Palzearctic region, and that it 1 ony 
very recently that it has become a disrupted portion of the 
ern continent. 


BOTANY.! 


AN ENORMOUS PuFF-BALL.—My friend, Professor R. aah 
has handed me a photograph of a puff-ball, the ee 1877, 
The fungus was found by him in Herkimer county, N. gd vate 
and as it was impossible to preserve it, careful mesim a 
made, and photographs of it were taken. It was tg abe- 
in outline, and much flattened, instead of approaching p 
cal form, as is common in the large puff-balls. Its a sis 
ter was five Jeet and four inches, its smallest four fe In refer- 
inches, while its height was but nine and a-half inches. than the 
ring to it Professor Call described it as “ much larger 
largest wash-tub we had at home.” ac known 3$ 

e specimen undoubtedly belonged to the species by fat the 
the giant puff-ball (Lycoperdon giganteum), and it was rements— 
largest of any of which I have been able to find measu 
C. E. Bessey. - are some 

NOTES ON Fune1.—Among the more interesting fung! of which 


of th io in the genus Polyporus, this 
e various forms embraced in the g he species of 


which the common mushroom is a well-known yD hey 
not less interesting in the great variety of the ae ri most com- 
and in the universality of their diffusion. The Po ape or logs 
monly noticed are probably those growing on dea 


l Edised by Pror. C. E, Bessey, Ames, Iowa. 


1884. | Botany. 531 


and standing out from the trunk or log like the front piece of a 
cap, and varying in size from one inch to two feet across, and 
varying in texture from a soft, juicy, fleshy substance, which de- 
cays almost as soon as it has finished its growth, to the hard, 
woody or corky species that endure for several years, and before 
the introduction of lucifer matches, furnished the tinder to catch 
the spark from the flint and steel. If one of these Polypori that 


rea transparent horns, each bearing at its tip a single minute, 


their attachment, out of the tubes in which they grew, in such 


rapa Species ; the color of the spores, however, in Polypori 


on of th 


of a vertical 
Ward tei are exposed instead of their mouths. This down- 


Os oh: is finely illustrated in a specimen of Polyporus igni- 
| Pe rs I lately found on the trunk of a dead oak that had 
Pa odged on another tree at an angle of about 45°. The 


ing, and ha, d d commenced its growth while the trunk was stand- 
parent fror continued to grow after the trunk had fallen, as was 
length of the. a bend or angle of about 45° about midway in the 
War ~] PU so as to continue their growth directly down- 
J-B. Ellis, Newfield, N. J. 


i Ling . STILIZATION IN LOBELIA, &c.—E. Haviland, in Proc. 
tat ofc S. Wales, vim, pp. 182-86, describes the develop- 
: DE Vn ao, ie and Pe n species of Lobelia. The anthers 


532 General Notes. [May, 


are closely united in a cylinder. The pollen is shed inside and 
pushed out by the hairs on the growing style. After the pollen 
has withered, the apex of the style splits and expands its lobes. 
The writer considers that cross-fertilization is the almost invaria- 
ble rule. He also notes (p. 28g) the contrivances for cross-fertili- 
zation in Leptospermum, a genus of Australian shrubs.—/. Æ. J. 


WATER FROM EUCALYPTUS roors.—In many parts of Australia, 
where water is scarce, the natives formerly procured it from the 
roots of the Eucalyptus and a few other trees. The tree most 
preferred throws out numerous lateral roots, which lie at a depth 
of from six to twelve inches below the surface. According toa 
writer in the Proc. Linn. Soc. of N, South Wales (Vol. viu, 1883), 
the native having ascertained, by means of prodding with a 
pointed stick or spear, the position of some of the roots, ` re- 
moves the superincumbent soil with his wooden shovel for twenty 

‘or thirty feet, and cutting the root off at each end lifts it out of 
the trench and cuts it up into lengths of about eighteen inches or 
two feet, knocks off the bark and stands the several portions on 
end in some receptacle to contain the water. ‘oe vo 
as these pieces are placed on end, the water commences to Crp, 
and when the whole of the root or roots are cut up and placed Mo 
end, the native, beginning at the first placed, puts the end a 
mouth and by a vigorous puff expels the remaining vare a 
The water is beautifully clear, cool and free from any unp 
taste or smell.” —/. F. J. ee 

STURTEVANT’s STUDIES oF Maize.—In a privately distr y. 

i ‘ 

Its of some 


structure of the mature kernels. An attempt 1S cal for hoping 

the varieties, and there appears to be some groun 7 

that it will not be-unsuccessful. From a careful stua í 
the expêrimæ | 

that at least ad 


These species are as follows : 


I. Zea * everta, the pop corns. 
2. Zea * indurata, the flint corns. 
3. Zea * indentata, the dent corns. 
a * amylacea, the soft corns. 
5. Zea * saccharata, the sweet corns. 1 to the embry? 
In the foregoing, if the kernels be split pa the flint cort 
the pop corns show only a corneous endosperm in the det 


o , 
: . issue; 
a corneous belt surrounds an interior softer tISSu®, 


1884. ] Botany. 533 


corns the softer tissue extends to the apex of the kernel, and is 
bounded by a column of corneous tissue on each side; the soft 
corns have no corneous tissue; while the sweet corns are com- 
posed of a translucent and more or less shriveled corneous 


er, 

Each of these species is divisible into several sub-species or 
races, which exhibit remarkable permanence. In fact, one of the 
unlooked-for facts brought out by these observations of Dr. Stur- 
tevant, is the permanence of the several types, whether of species 
or races, as indicated below. 

The following general conclusions are recorded: 

“Cross-fertilization of the current year is manifested on the 
Kernel and not on the ear, and this influence is not reciprocally 
strong as between the races !species] or even the sub-races, an 
the resistance to current hybridization is more strongly marked 
in some races [species], sub-races or varieties than in others. 

ma Hybridization in the seed used produces a variety of ears, but 
“acà ear in general is quite close to one of the parent types; an 
intermixture of kernel in no case seems to be produced. ` Recip- 
focal fertilization between two races [species] does not seem to 
be productive of equal effect.” 


aad SEVENTH FASCICLE OF NORTH AMERICAN PLANTS.—This 
come package, with its fine specimens, was distributed to 
tists in February. Like its predecessors it contains many 
ka e great interest, especially to Northern collectors. Most 
collects ATURALIST readers are aware that Mr. Curtiss has been 
: mind for many years in Florida, and that his specimens have 
ate way into most of the great herbaria of this country 
urope, 


ces ae the sake of the younger botanical writers to be able to 


ation for the 


3 
fo * l ; 
from Welle Pressions which have evidently been boldly copied 


have hag © 'Cliable text-book, the pupils in the schools would 
P ~ no reason for complaining; but, as is inevitable in such 
; Well; htni , the several parts so brought together do not fit 
4 The a, » We find statements in one part contradicted gon . 
Preparati nt is made on page 4 that the author has in 

~~ fa manual of the wild flowers of the northern United 


! Pei ®wever, had this questionable method of compilation 


534 General Notes. [May, 


States, a field now occupied by Dr. Gray’s and Professor Wood's 
manuals. It is to be hoped that Dr. Kellerman’s second book 
will be a less verbatim compilation than his first has been, 


BoranicaL Notres.—We have examined Professor Groff’s Plant 
Analysis, published by the Science and Health Publishing Com- 
pany of Lewisburg, Pa., and can commend it to those who wish 
a cheap and yet good help of this kind, Dr. Farlow, in the 
March Botanical Gazette, makes a number of interesting additions 
to his previous list of Peronosporee. In a recent number of 
Nature, Dr. Schweinfurth contributes an interesting paper on the 
flora of ancient Egypt. As is well known, the funeral wreaths 
preserved in the mummy cases have been objects of study by 
botanists for some time, and through these we now know muc 
as to the common plants of the Nile region thirty to thirty-five 
centuries ago. The evidence as obtained shows that some impor” 
tant migrations have taken place during the time which has elapsed 
since the wreaths were gathered. On the other hand, there !$ 


rietal characters as well. The last part (No. 7, 


He says in conclusion, after having examined many 
widely different genera, “It seems clear that, if not unio 
toplasmic continuity is very widely distributed in the : 

and further on, in explanation of this phenomenon, z mpletely 
of cell-division appears never to proceed so far as to c 


that they remain connected together by one or 
protoplasmic material.” 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


i rect iD 
, : is subject © 
Gitts oF Insecr Larv&.—In an article on th 


that 
Psyche (1v, 110, 1883), Professor G. Macloskie g ntaining 


systems of fine tracheal loops, somewhat a 
plurality of carbon-wicks in an Edison lamp. , 
however, of the rectal branchiæ of the larval 
rolled under the cover-glass, he found that t 
cheal ramifications ended ccecally ; all were 9 


In a 


ae ic body, ® 
separate the different portions of a divided pr rene fen of 


Se 


1884.] Entomology. 535 


length, their extremities recurved within the containing sac, and 
their tips not at all swollen, but rounded off. “ As they are elas- 
tic, and the closing sac distensible, we think it highly probable 
that with each water-inspiration the sacs enlarge and the tracheal 
spray (having air forced in by the forward compression of the 

rge tracheze) spreads out so as to bring the full tide of air close 
to the tide of water. Léon Dufour, seems to have had some pro- 


Felished in Feb., 1884!), states, that if a Cecropia caterpillar 


yellow knobs, or tubercles, will be seen to break easily from the 


peecis, and a clear, yellow fluid of disagreeable odor to ooze 
sy each opening left by the injury. By crushing the tubercle 
a 


and by 
that each tu 
fl 


wa n E odorous fluid pours, pushed by internal pressure. 

a ras which I have not examined carefully, but which I hope 

a study chemically, is strongly acid to litmus paper, but 

out et precipitate in carmine solution.” The odor given 
e 


| ey i cts on this subject. Among others it is stated that, 
: issues free to Witlaczil, the “ honey ” secreted by the Aphides 
k om the anus and not from the tubes on the sixth segment. 
Sated eon. Mu TURE oF Insects. — C. Luks has investi- 

racic musculature of insects of every group, except 


536 General Notes. (May, 


the Thysanura and Collembola. He finds, according to the Jour- 
nal of the Royal Microscopical Society, that the wing-muscles 
appear to have developed along two lines; in one, the indirect 
flying muscles were almost completely aborted, while in the other 
they were developed at the expense of the direct muscles. In 
close connection with the development and modification of these 
muscles is the extent of concentration of the rings of the thorax 
and the size of the wings. In the Orthoptera all the three seg- 
ments of the thorax are freely movable on one another, while in 
the Coleoptera only the prothorax is so movable. In the Lep 
doptera the prothorax loses its mobility, though retaining its dis- 
tinctness, while in the Diptera and Hymenoptera the whole region 
is converted into a firm thoracic apparatus, to which, in the latter, 
the first abdominal segment also becomes applied. As Graber 
has shown, we observe that in insects which by other points @ 
their organization intimate that they are more highly developed, 
one pair of wings tends to become aborted, as is seen in = 
Coleoptera, Diptera, and even Lepidoptera, where the hin 
pair of wings often become united with and share in the move 
ment of the anterior pair. 


RESPIRATORY CENTER oF Insects. — According to a 
the respiratory center in the bee is situated in the anterior Ang 
and therefore the respiratory movements are put an en ‘nds 
decapitation. Dr. O, Langendorff, from his investigatii 
that in the bee, wasp, and other insects, the faer ha 
ments are not destroyed by removal of the head, especially cided, 
by tearing, and not cutting it off, a great loss of blood "4 av pidity 

e respiratory movements show the same increase eM e 
with a high temperature, slowing with a low temperatur: 
headless insect as in the uninjured insect. Libellula de- 

number of experiments were also made upon E in 
ressa and other insects belonging to the Pseudont ae 
which group the segmentation of the body is very mar ax e respir® 
spondence with their ancestral type; in these inserta i oe 
tory center is not merely not localized in the hen respiratory 
segment is a complete center in itself, being capable o e to illus- 
movement, when entirely isolated. “A better gera hardly 
be imagined; each segment with its ganglion 1s a P aon are 
unity!” The results of a great number of obser i 
fully stated in the paper, and several diagrams are lt Roy. 
ings obtained of the respiratory movements.— JOu 
Society, February, the flat- 

MOUTH-PARTS or THE Hemrprera.—O. Geise r pi the Ry* 
` tened or more or less curved process of the clypeus- th ointed 
chota as the homologue of the labrum of bena he 


trat- 


ej 
sete tot 
groove corresponds to the labium, the two separable 


Sy Naty TSF p i re ee ee 
= EN Breas oe 


Maw pare yt, ee 


1884, ] 


mandibles, and the two setz, only with difficulty separable, to the 
maxilla of biting insects. He next considers the structure which 
Savigny regarded as the lingula, but to which most authors 
have applied Burmeister’s name of “ Wanzen-platte;” he himself 
proposes to speak of it as the pharynx, and describes it as being 
endowed with great elasticity, and as acting as a pump, which is 
set in action by the contraction of muscles attached to the body- 
wall, whereby the space in the walls in which they are inserted is 
eal „and a vacuum thereby formed. The structure and re- 
lations of these parts are entered into in great detail, but, says the 
Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, a full abstract of the 
Paper would be impossible without a republication of the figures 


Entomology. 537 


+ 


to which constant reference is made. The essay should receive 


the careful study of students of the anatomy of insects. 


aa pb study,” and M. Macchiati promises a fuller inves- 
on ot this interesting discovery.—/ournal of the Royal Mi- 


mites’ DEVELOPMENT OF CECANTHUS NIVEUS AND ITS PARASITE, 
ELEAS.—This is an extended, thorough, and well illustrated me- 


ny hail embryology of the tree cricket, and its egg parasite, 


7, in whose memoirs it appears, under date of 

monde, , 1884, forming a brochure of 56 pages, with eight plates and 

low; cuts n the text. Mr. Ayers endeavors to establish the fol- 
pes in the embryology of CEcanthus: 

Ovarian port the ovum in a germarium rather than from an 


- The. ; : : 
of secretion SS of yolk formation by cell-degeneration instead 


: beire ne Occurrence of a primitive segmentation of the embryo 


i The “Ppearance of the permanent segments. : 
| pene of a pair of appendages (some of them rudi- 


body “!duous]) on each of the seventeen segments of the 


Sages origin of the dorsal vessel as a pairéd organ, the lateral 
Which fuse and give rise to a median tube in the same 


538 General Notes. | May, 


manner as in some of the worms, and the origin of the blood 
corpuscles as nucleoli of endodermic cells. ° 

6. The existence of embryonic gills. 

7. The lack of any sharp distinction between a cell and its nu- 
cleus, and between a nucleus and its nucleolus. 

8. The existence of segmental enlargements of the mesodermic 
somites, similar to those from which the nephridia of worms take 
their origin. 

9. The origin and significance of the embryonal membranes 
among the insecta. 

10. The origin and significance of the dorsal organ among the 


sufficient number of cells to form the blastodermic membrane. 
This mode is the same as observed by Bobretsky in the Lepr 
doptera. There is no segmentation of the yolk. ell- 
The fact that at first the embryo is composed of pa 
marked regions, which the author designates as the thor 
maxillary, thoracic, and abdominal,” is interesting. The a 
does not attempt to compare this feature with the ean n 

of the spider with its protozonites, as discovered by 
but the resemblance is at least a striking one. ‘ped and 
clearly descr! ation 


figured. After giving a summary of the develope a organs. 


The novel points worked out are the origin of the her e 
discovery of so-called gills, and the relations a 
yers. ; i the 
The formation of the heart begins after the rev ee 
embryo; it is first to be distinguished in the abdom! «Jn the 
about the tirne of the closure of the dorsal pets u 
formation of the heart, the lateral plates of mesoderm an mediat 
around the mesenteron, and as their edges approach two plates 


dorsal line there is seen to be in each a tube. m on 
coalesce in the median line, and their tubes unite int 
heart, or dorsal vessel.” » which Mr. 


The discovery of the “gills or respiratory hci outgrow 
Ayers describes is rather startling. A pair he first abdo 
arise from the ectoderm of the pleural region of the 


1884.) Entomology. $30 


segment, and “come to lie just behind but dorsad of the base of 
the third thoracic appendage.” The internal cavities of each gill 
“are continuous with the body-cavity, and probably serve as 
channels through which the vascular fluid circulates.” In sections 
of the gill-organ before becoming atrophied or absorbed, both 
distinct canals and lacunar spaces radiate from the point of con- 
nection of the pad with the body; “and these, together with the 
arrangement of the cells, give the radiate structure characteristic 
of the fresh gill.” “The gill pad is essentially a single-layered 
sac, with a much constricted neck, evaginated from the pleural 
region of the abdomen.” It should be observed that these are 
not tracheate gills, as they contain no trachee. Mr. Ayres does 
not speculate as to their origin. 
While not accepting Balfour’s interpretations and general con- 
clusions as to the origin and significance of the primitive germinal 
yers among the insecta, Mr. Ayers confesses himself still in doubt 
as to their origin. But, he adds, “ when we consider the rôle and 
subsequent fate of these two layers, it at once becomes apparent 
that such a view does not accord with the facts, for the blastoderm 
ultimately forms the entoderm (mesenteron), and the ectoderm, 
arising from a small area of thickened cells on one side of the blas- 
toderm, encloses the yolk and endoderm by a genuine epiboly.” 
With some hesitancy he then proposes an explanation which may 
‘pply to the Orthoptera: “How did the embryonic membranes 
(amnion and serosa) arise? What is their function? Is their pres- 
ent function the primitive one? The answer to these inquiries un- 
doubtedly lies in the clear comprehension of the relations of the 
embryo to its food supply—the yolk. That the cellular embryonic 
membranes could have originated for protection, or from an early 
Sedysis, is, to say the least, highly improbable. Among the in- 
co egg is furnished with a protective membrane—usually in 
Gon of a chorion—before leaving the body of the parent. 
i erae the interesting and original explanation in full, the result 
aid + in Ecanthus the membranes fuse at or near the head, 
Yy a self-eversion through the opening caused by their rup- 
STS ath comes to lie outside of the amnion and serosa. 


Penanda its thick walls finally disappear by a process of 


540 General Notes. [ May, 


what we have called a “vicarious chorion,” and after the chorion 
or egg-shell splits, becomes a protective membrane. 

Mr. Ayers’ observations on the egg-parasite, Teleas, are full and 
valuable, showing, as he claims, the absence of embryonic mem- 
branes, and. the occurrence of a larval form intermediate between 
the blastosphere and the cyclops larva of Ganin. 

The illustrations are admirably clear, but the plates are too 
much crowded; this, however, is not the fault of the author. 


A PossiBLE SENSE ORGAN IN CAMPODEA.—Several years ago, 


be a possible sense organ. On the tip of this 
joint is a body closely resembling a couple of 
beans placed side by side and supplied by the 
tip of the antennal nerve. The general relations 
are shown in the accompanying figure. 

that I have no further observations which would 
tend to show the histology or functions of this 
organ. I mention it at this time to call the at- 
tention of others to it, in the hope that our 
knowledge of it may be increased. 


ES are 
My reason for supposing it a sense organ 


ard has considered as sense organs 1n the cauda 


stylets of Chrysopila and the palpi of Perla. — : 

A further feature which may here be mentioned is eae 
which Campodea has of retracting its antenn&. On asi 
are extended to their full length, and then pee a | 
appearance. The insect can, however, by the act resent 
priate muscles, so draw the joints into each other that my P mibr 
the appearance shown in my figure. I have rapa Recor’ 
capacity in Scolopendrella—/. S. Kingsley, in S fe, thirty- 

: poe farmer's wile, 

LUCILIA MACELLARIA INFESTING MAN September 27: 1875, 


with a headache and a flushed face. She stay ed at Wy ne in the 


a great distance from the house. Tuesday evening what 
began to run from the right nostril, which was ~~ 


1 See The Development of Limulus polyphemus. By A. 5. 
Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., March, 1872, p. 160, 161. 


1884.] Entomology. 54I 


the swelling extending on Tuesday over the whole right side of 
the face. On this day, the fifth of the complaint, four large 
maggots dropped out of the right nostril. When I was first 
called to the patient, Monday, October 4, only the right lip and 
nostril were swollen, the acrid discharge having somewhat 
blistered the lips below. After each discharge the maggots 
dropped from the nostril, until the twelfth day; one hundred and 
forty or more maggots having escaped. The majority of the 
maggots were three-fourths of an inch in length, there being 
only a few which seemed a line or two shorter; they were of a 
yellow hue, conical shape, and having attached to one end two 
horn-like hooks. The patient recovered fully. 

Monday, September 18, 1882, I saw a patient in the same neigh- 
borhood as the first, suffering from the same malady. At that 
tme two hundred and eighty maggots had been discharged, and 
at the close of the illness, over three hundred, There was a 
swelling on each side of the nose, with a small opening to each. 
llanced these openings, and more maggots came out / 

In the Indian Territory the so-called screw-fly laid its eggs in 

nose of man. In 1847, I heard of several deaths of men 
and children in Texas, near Dallas. The gad-fly was common 
inthe American bottom forty years ago. It laid its eggs in the 
noses of cattle, and in the ears of horses and deer, but never in 

human nose. The fly that I send is about four times as 
Bee as the common fly. Head a dark, glistening green ; a bronze 
acs, very lively in appearance. Is it the same that they called 
m texas or Indian Territory the screw-fly ? or is it the gad-fly 

ng a new field ? 


cn pial of 1875 is now alive and well. The sgcond case 


Maggots at 
mouthed vial 
the ground į 


Until a : Ira 
ou may new generation of flies is produced from them. 


think I have dwelt too long on these cases ; but if 


542 General Notes. [ May, 


you had to stand at the bed and had seen the suffering and de- 
spair of the patients, and found that the worms were eating them 
up, you would not think so. All these cases occurred in the 
month of September.—/red. Humbert, M. D., F. C.S. 

[Upon this communication Dr. C. V. Riley says, that the insect 
here referred to as attacking a human subject in Illinois, “is the 
Lucilia macellaria of Fabricius, the injuries of which to different 
animals are well known in the South and West, where the larva 
is called the ‘screw-worm.’ I have repeatedly endeavored to 
obtain the true parent of this worm. Dr. Humbert’s communica- 
tion is most interesting, but the specimens yet more so, as the 
flies he forwards are the first that have positively been bred from 
the: larve known as ‘screw-worms,’ and they confirm the above 
determination of the species. The larve agree with others which 
I have from Texas, taken from the root of the ear of a hog which 
had been bitten by a dog.”]—Froc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Sept, 1883, 
p. 103. Compare also Professor F. S. Snow’s article in Psyche, 
Mar, Ap., 1883, and S. W. Williston in Psyche, Nov., Dec, 1883. 
— Eps. NATURALIST. ; 

EnTOomoLocIcaL Nores.—G. W. and E. G. Peckham have pub- 
lished in the Proceedings of the Davenport Academy of Sciences 
f spiders of the 
de photo-litho- 
are en 
ire specimens of the 


beginning and should receive aid from all quarters.—— 
g g u i pinguina lis by the z 
W. Buckler, appears in the Extomologists’ Monthly Magas", 


then only do they desert their quarters, and may . 
y do they desert their q Y or papalo: 
ZOOLOGY. STATE 

NA 
ATAVISM CONSIDERED AS A CONSERVATIVE AGENT TO -i the 
rtant factor I" it 
he recogn nee lly 


. e it may still, 
intents and pu 


i 


Ee a a ee 


1884.] Zoölogy. 543 


be considered in its major and readily recognizable manifestations 
as a resultant of artificial selection, being a concomitant upon 
notable unstability of forms so produced; as it rarely, if ever, 
occurs in appreciable degrees in organisms which have been unin- 
fluenced by man’s fostering care. 
Because nature changes and develops her products so slowly 


from any of the requirements that preceded it; and the ten- 
cy is rather to gradually depart still further from the ancestral 
branch than to revert back towards it. 


and thus enable us, as has been done in the case of artificially 

exaggerated variability, to reason by analogy of its existence 

mg natural conditions and of its function and mode of action 
ere 


For while it is probably one of the most frequent and power- 
ve i 


confined within comparatively narrow limits, and 
nds rather upon continuous action, as with its collaborators, 
direct heredity and variability, each separate coéfficient, o 
which there may be several acting synchronously in the same 
individual, unites in producing evenly blending results with its 
nws, and is bounded by the first fixed varietal characteristics 

sree J in the immediate ancestral line. 
a domesticated varieties the nearest strongly fixed point, not- 
or ading the number of changes they may have undergone, 
€ length of time they have existed as such, is generally the 
lferal stock, which had become stable by reason of the 

This i7. of natural selection. 

be 18 especially manifest in the case of color for reasons to 
ü ‘ea further on. In nature its manifestations are so slight 
of escape the most critical observations, necessarily, from want 
or Conditions for study without trammeling and thereby 
ot ifying to a greater or less extent the species brought under 
Sre e characters produced by artificial selection, as 
mesticated organisms, become stable only in a 
their degree and by lesser causes, namely, on account of 
tinned ness to man, and are preserved only through his con- 
Mental peonision. That they would be, and are, as a rule, detri- 
cvident °° the Organisms if left to themselves, is, of course, self- 
character 0n quently, they can never become so potent as 
tics derived through the agency of natural selection, 


544 General Notes. 


and fixed by the primary cause of prepotency, usefulness to the 
individuals themselves. 

The function of atavism is in all probability that of serving as 
a restraining influence against what might otherwise be a too 
rapid divergence in any one direction, before surrounding and 
semi-dependent parts, and special instincts have become modified 
in such a manner as to functionate harmoniously with it. To 
illustrate; a too sudden change of color presenting itself, and 
becoming inherited in a species of bird, dependent upon it toa 
certain extent for protection, would, if occurring before its mental 
attributes had sufficient time to evolve with, and adapt themselves 
to it, tend towards the extinction of the individuals manifesting 
it, from a failure of the instinctive actions to properly 
their offices in producing the protective effects intended, while 
the individual cases of atavism of color, with unchanged in- 
stincts, would escape. So by the continual preservation nese 
a fixed law, acting as a governor to the organisms over which it 


variability, as to best serve their interests. Though in it we may 
also find the explanation of the extinction of some of the 
races of the past, in whom, on account of the want of se 
incentives to struggle for existence, they remained stationary ong 
enough to allow it to become thoroughly fixed, and thus b ve" 
so prepotent over the natural adaptive inclinations of variability 
by the action of selection to assume the new and n nter- 
modifications demanded by changes of environment, as to year be- 
act all such tendency, and, by so overreaching itself, in fact, 
come suicidal in its nature. ch an inheri- 


and 


cestors, as well as retaining landmarks of the more pr In 


‘in contact with disturbing, physic 4 
by which some change in the sy a i 


in one or more parts, takes effect at th oped. q 
certain stages of varietal divergence are being deve ree | 

An arresting of divergence does not noin wn 
power to develop to maturity, but will often produc vietal evol- 
be termed premature development. Therefore th; vertain varie 
tion being arrested by certain disturbing ion form or reve 
germs are aborted, and the product is a prepare? 


By ee ee? | Panag he 


ae Se A ee ee N 


1884.] Zoölogy . 545 


The principal reasons for this being, first, that it does not require 
for its production a correlative diversification of adjacent features. 


of the surrounding tissues and adjoining parts, thus requiring 

more time, energy, and force than a mere slight change of the 

color-secreting tissue. Second, as it is comparatively so easily 

affected, it has been subject to more of the passing whims and 
ies of mankind than any other part, especially as it does not 

pie the patience necessary to produce a change of form or 
re 


tation of his selective inclination. Being so susceptible to 
variation from the parental marking and coloring, it is also the 
part in which we should expect atavism to occur most frequently, 
as is the fact, 

As a theoretical illustration we will represent the development 
of a domesticated bird, from the beginning of life in the egg to 
the ult, by A to Y a, which will represent the young, and Za 

adult, a representing coloration. And a variety produced by 
7 Selection from the parent stock by Z z 6(z form, 4 color). 
1 ġ will, of course, have to pass through the same embryologi- 

nes? as Z a, because it was derived from that stock. 
is we regard the different variations of form of the species 
ugh which a variety passed before reaching its present char- 


roe it is rising to the peculiarities of the next or adult form, we 

ù perceive “Sop those special germs whose further sce 
rested will simply m i i tures without fur- 

ther evolution Pty mature with the prior fea 


. 


har pating to our illustration again, with Z z 4, we will suppose 


me abnormal condition an arresting of that feature most 
ty ae Teach the original preparental characteristic coloration 
if Wis . to the special varietal characteristics at X; now, 


Previous parent stock, and before the peculiarities 
© parentage have had an opportunity to domi- 


: “id i ile the tendency is 
of raed the May continue to mature while cy 


Yatious Parts commence to develop at different times, a check 


546 General Notes. 


upon development at one period might only retard such features 
as were then commencing to develop; and those which were al- 
ready too far advanced, and such as had practically no existence, 
would not be effected. Thus the other unaffected features would 
continue to develop until maturity towards those of the parents, 
while the feature which had been aborted would remain stationary, 
only maturing with the preparental feature, by correlation, at the 
proper time, and the result would be the form of Z z + the colors 
a=Z 1a—Eugene N. S. Ringueberg. 


same, or nearly the same, conditions of existence, would form no 
gemmules, as these would be superfluous, I applied by letter to 
Dr. Joseph, who forwarded some preparations to me, ene s 
same time kindly wrote, among other things, as follows: pees 
supposition that no formation of gemmules takes place nee 
for neither in September nor in April did I find any. of 
people may perhaps think that the Spongille of the Siac 
Gurk were not descended from ordinary Spongille, but “6 
from Monaclinellidz of salt water, perhaps at a time W r 
waves of the Tertiary sea eroded the grottoes of Carnio a 
Friuli. This would have much more probability than the mee 
sition that in consequence of uniform conditions of existence, 
dependent upon the seasons, retrogression as re rds 
mules has occurred in Spongilla stygia. 


N ABLE NERVOUS STEM T 
EW WORM WITH A REMARK a worm which 


A. A. W. Hubrecht describes under the name © 
nervosum. He gives a general accoun 


bly a sucker. No traces of sexual, excretory, OF ve three 
were found. The epidermis is thin The me verse or cit 


layers, a thick external longitudinal, a middle pis 
cular, and an internal longitudinal layer, various y 


It consists (1) of a fine network of delicate filaments, f (2) of S 


1884. ] Zoölogy. 547 


tered nuclei, belonging partly to connective tissue, partly to gan- 

glion cells. The layer forms a continuous tube from the-head, 

where there is no ganglionic enlargement, back through the 

ra the caudal region, where the layer is present dorsally 
y. 


New AND REMARKABLE PENTASTOMUM IN THE AIR-SACS OF A 
Gutt.—P. Mégnin describes a new and remarkable Pentastomum 
found in the air-sacs of Larus glaucus. About six centimeters 
long and one broad, it has at first sight the appearance of a Tre- 
matode; but a microscopic examination reveals the presence of 
two pairs of symmetrically placed hooks at the anterior end. The 
new species is remarkable for the attenuated form of the anterior 
extremity, and the absence of any external annulation. At the 
front end there are two tubercles which look like aborted antennæ, 
and below there is an indication of a kind of segment. 

On what may be regarded as the second ring there is a pair of 
small appendages, formed of two joints, which call to mind the 
characters of larval Pentastomes, The characters of these new 
species resemble greatly those of the Lernzidz, and especially of 
the Chondracanthidz, and seem to M. Mégnin to raise the ques- 
on of the systematic affinities of these parasites. If the resem- 
€ to the Lernzidz is a real one, the Pentastomide should 
ranged rather with the Crustacea than with the Arachnida. 


Tue Sipz ORGANS or Gastrostomus—Mr. J. A. Ryder com- 
Municates to Science a description and sketches of the curious 
nculated organs of the lateral line of Gastrostomus. These 
nè prend in groups of from two to five, forming an oblique row 

hinder margin of each muscular somite. The stalks are 
aa Miliy a sixteenth of an inch long, and project outwards 
the ti reeiy when the fish is immersed in alcohol or water. At 
whi P of each is a discoidal, more or less cup-shaped organ, 


is deepl i less dense than that of the surrounding skin, which 
disks is’ aae ed with black. The pigmented layer of the basal 
the Meda uous with the outer clear sheaths of the stalks, and 
Consist 


| ited. ‘cing water; but no larval fish as yet known has peduncu- 


35 


548 _ General Notes. [May, 


ZooLocicaL Notes.—Pyrotozoans.—Professor Haeckel, in a re- 
cent paper (Sitz. Jenaischen Gesell. für Med. und Wiss., 1883) 
divides the Radiolaria into four orders: Acantharia, Spumellaria, 
Nassellaria and Phzodaria. The first are distinguished by their 
organic acanthine skeleton, and never have a true silicious skel- 
eton. On the whole, they correspond to the Acanthometre of 
J. Miller, but include part of the Haliomma.  Actinelius, in 
which the central capsule is pierced by numerous simple, in 
nitely arranged spicules meeting in its center, seems to be th 
ancestral form, and to have arisen immediately from Actinospher- 
um by the hardening of the firmer axial fibers into spicules. The 
Spumellaria have no acanthine skeleton, but their central capsule 
is pierced on all sides by fine pores. The ancestral form i$ 
Actissa, the simplest possible Radiolarian. The Nassellaria have 
a simple area of pores at one end of the capsule axis. The skel- 
etonless Cystidium inerme is regarded as an ancestral form, from 
which others were derived by the development of a silicious skel- 
eton. The Phzodaria surpass all other Radiolarians in a 
singularity of form. The skeleton is usually composed of hollow 
silicious tubes. The common characteristic of the whole mart 
the pheodium, a dark body of pigment, lying excentrically Pane 
the central capsule. The ancestral form is the skeletonless 

ina. r the 

Celenterates—Dr. von Martens reports, from a letter pa 
African traveler, Dr. R. Böhm, that a jelly-fish has been pre 
ered in Lake Tanganyika. It belongs to the Craspedote m ai 
has a small, short, broad stomach, while the tentacles are 
numerous and of unequal length. esaat ou 

Ma i ssian SOCIE 

Polyzoans——The memoirs of the Novoro tions between 


the Endoproct and Ectoproct Polyzoa. In the Sof the earth- 


Paris, M. de Lacaze-Duthiers presented a note 7 
upon the operculum of the Gasteropoda. his in 
come to the conclusion, contrary to what 


that the entire surface of the foot does not take pa iland clearly : 


duction of the operculum, which is secreted by a sma 


limited portion of the epithelium. This m of the 
seems to be of a different nature from that of the byssus 

Acephala which is formed by a well-develope 
considerable part of the volume of the foot. 


carried on partly at the laboratory of Banyuls o from Rov 1 


at the laboratory of l'Ecole Normale, with anim x 


Crustaceans —The transformations of a Roar has occupied ] 


mode of fixation are, according to M. Ives Delage, 


nd, occupying? 


1884. | Zoblogy. 549 


three years at Roscoff in observations and experiments upon the 
subject, more wonderful than has been hitherto believed. The 
nauplius, after four days and five months, transforms into a cypris, 
which refuses for three days to fix itself. Then, always during 
darkness, it attaches itself to young crabs from two to twelve 
millimeters in width, seizing a hair of the crab with its prehensile 
antennz. It may become fixed to any part, but prefers the back 
of the tail or the base of the legs, never the ventral face of the 
abdomen. As soon as it is fixed, it is transformed by a molt 
into a sort of lengthened sac, suspended by its antennz, and with- 
out limbs. This sac secretes at its antennal pole a hollow dart, 
ending below in a funnel opening into the cavity of the sac, and 
above ina very sharp point. This dart passes through the cavity 
of the antennz that has seized the hair, and pierces the teguments 
ofthe crab at the soft ring at the base of the hair. The contents 
of the sac then commence to enter the funnel end of the hollow 
dart, and pass gradually into the tissues of the victim. The con- 
tents of the sac consist of cellules, of which the superficial ones 
"present the cellular skin of the larva, while the central ones are 
*sort of nucleus which existed in the nauplius and cypris, and 
 nstitutes the genital organs. When the Sacculina has thus 
Moculated itself into the body of the crab, it travels to the ab- 
dominal region, and the genital nucleus pierces its envelope and 
s ents of its host, and appears upon the outside of the 
skin Thus the portion of the parasite in the body represents the 

l of the larva. The name of Rhizocephalus is therefore inex- 
origa M. Delage proposes for the group the name Kentrogo- 

~» and considers them very different from either Lerneans or 
The parasite does not fix itself to the zoéa, nor to 
passed a certain age. Among the Crustacea 


Were th, the French expedition to Cape Horn, the most common 
f € large spiny Lithodes antarctica; another, Lithodes (L. 
| long limbs with shorter limbs; a Eurypodius, with extraordinarily 
_ and more z a small Halicarcinus, with a flattened body; a Galatea, 
-which rarely some shrimps and isopods, among the latter of 
Q genus Serolis was most common. 
states thar ; M. Ralph S. Tarr, in a communication to Science, 


Species ~ata Wales, Mr, Ch de Vis described the following new 
PYON of fishes from New Britain and the adjoining islands: 
= berguttatus and cruentus, Mesoprion flavirosea, Tetraroge 


550 General Notes. [May, 


vestita, Acanthurus zebra, Rhynchichthys nove-brittania, Harpage 
rosea (a new Berycoid genus), Salarias equipinnis, Amphiprion 
arion, Pomacentrus onyx and notatus, Nesiotes purpurescens (a new 
Labroid genus), Exocetus longibarba, Arius armiger, Herpetichthys 
cobra (a new Murenoid genus), Tetrodon insularium and levis. 
t the same meeting Mr. W. Macleay gave a list of the fishes 
captured by a beam trawl outside Port Jackson, in forty to fifty 
fathoms, and described the two new species, Rata australis and 
Lepidotrigla mulhalli. At a recent meeting of the Linnean So 
ciety of New South Wales, Baron M. Mikluko Maclay and Wm. 
Mackay contribute a paper on the Plagiostomata of the Pacific, 
and describe Heterodontus japonicus. The latter gentleman also 
describes Psilecranium coxii, a large fish of the family Cirrhitide, 
taken at Port Jackson. It is rather near to Chilodactylus.— 
Dr. T. Gill, in a communication addressed to Mature, January 10, 
1884, asks for further information respecting the Saccophary ngide, 
which he believes to be Lyomeri, with the branchio-anal portion 
much longer than the rostro-branchial, while the reverse obtains 
in Eurypharynx and Gastrostomus. ~ ae 
Repiles—_M. W. Mackay has described Ziaris boydi, a me 
from the Herbert river, Queensland, and three snakes ee 
same locality: a Tropidonotus, a Dendrophus, and Herber 
plumbeus, a new genus near Coronella. of the 
Mammals.—Baron Maclay finds the average tempas e 


of fish. M. H. Gervais has described a new species ep 


n 

| poH: = and the 
hemisphere; M. La/andit, inhabiting the South A lie 
species from the Persian gulf, a species which he mgr? globular 
In size this form equals M. doops, but the head # arg denset. 
and the bones thicker, as well as more compact 2 
The upper profile of the head is more curved, the ipitals project | 


ic process 1S Si 

om the northera °F 
d their one b 
sternum differs complet We ce 
form from that of any other whalebone whale. we? 
many other differences in the shape of the bones 
vertebra, ribs, etc., and the pectorals are proportio 
than in M. doops. 


PSYCHOLOGY. w Peter” 
re 

- Perer’s SEARCH FoR HomE—ANOTHER Ce en under of 

is the name of a small-sized cat now lying ae q condition 

kitchen stove, reposing in what might be ¢ 


1884.] Psychology. 551 


“solid comfort.” He is a most sagacious, affectionate little fellow 
some seven or eight years old. One of his “ specialties” is con- 


ing that cats are ever privileged to know. But here is his 
little story. 
A year ago last August he was taken to town, two miles away, 


/ Nothing 

and we all supposed that dear little “Peter” 

“ By the wayside fell and perished, 

Wearied with the march of life 1” 
Late one November evening, however, his mistress heard and 
Scognized his “ voice” out in the garden. But he had been so 
| is without a home, following such devious, hidden ways, that 
re caution of feral life had well nigh come back to him, and 
miii half afraid to come directly into the house. But a 
Persuasion finally overcame whatever doubts were flitting 
rough is little brain, and he allowed himself to be caught. 
kei getting into the house he was the most pleased, overjoyed 
Pomel ever saw. He talked, and talked, and talked, and “an- — 
: hiling questions ” until at last his vocal organs utterly gave out, 
to utter any sound whatever, and he could only open his 


i ight and pleasure, and settle down to his normal condi- 
ook demure, cat life. 


- partes fetum he was in good physical condition, but without a 
> trained is muscles were plump and round, like those 
he athlete, and it was evident that on his long march for 
i a lived upon such meat as he could catch—birds, mice, 
y Squirrels, &c. But the question was, How did he reach 
could y the bridges, or did he come around the bend ? 
box, and mug ow the way home, for he was carried off ina 
By shee, USt have been all this time wandering here and there. 
est one ed luck he finally achieved the object of his long 
= few hours before the first winter “blizzard” came 
Over the prairies, If his talk were only a little more in- 


552 General Notes. 


tures, his hopes and fears, the big dogs and other dangers from 
which he must have had narrow escapes, would form one of the 
most interesting chapters in natural history. 


ne other fact concerning “ Peter” also seems a little out of the 


way. I often take him on my shoulder for a horseback ride, and 
he seems to enjoy that sort of diversion very much, and is never 
afraid, while few other cats could be made to stay a single mo- 
ment.—Charles Aldrich, Webster City, lowa, March 9, 1884. 


THE TEN ComMANDMENTS.—1. If thou art not born an original 
investigator, thou hadst better teach or compile the works of thy 
brethren the original investigators. pi 

2. Thou shalt not say, lo! give me money and I will originally 
investigate ; for thy people knoweth that if thou canst not ongi- 
ally investigate without money, thou canst not do it with money 

3. If thou desirest to increase thy reputation by de 


. . M 
the reputation of thy jbrethren, know that this is not the object 


of original investigation. 


4. Thou shalt not pretend to discover the general laws of the 


earth and the things thereof until thou knowest the thing 
even the species. 


5. Thou shalt therefore not despise him who fornia : 


with the materials of thy thoughts, even him who descr! 
cies well. 
6. Thou shalt not believe that the bigness of 


ich he 
is proportioned to the smallness of the hole through which 


seëth the world and the things thereof. | f science 


. : 0 
7. Thou shalt not believe that the bigness of the man be 
is in proportion to the size and beauty of the pictures sa 
maketh. 


il, and believe 
8. Thou shalt not fall into the snare of the po to tor- 


that thou wilt wax great by the making of great 


ment thy people. Me 7 


9. Thou shalt not write obituaries until thou art 
in years. | ara 
10. Thou shalt not take the name of the bases 
Sciences in vain, for thy people knoweth that ın 

sirest to be a member thereof. _ 


Poetry In Drrams.—lIn a recent NATURALIS®». dividuals 
“poetry” said to have run through the minds gv 
dreams, and to have been afterwards recalled. ~ 
me” of an incident in my own experience. 
writing several “verses,” one of which I have a phate 
—or did I get hold of it by some other and forg 


(May, 
telligible, I believe that his account of his wanderings, his adven- 1 


the man of science l 


cademy % 
ardly thou de- : 


1 saw 0% 
“remit 
ce dreamed % 


s renee s t 


1884.] 


believe I “dreamed it,” and here it is. The four or five other 
verses Lam unable now to recall: 
“ The past has been a fleeting shadow, 
ike mist on the mountain side 
But through the future before me 
lowing visions swiftly glide!” 


Anthropology. 553 


nless I came across this in some book or newspaper, I shall 
always believe that I composed it in my dream. Next!—A., 7884. 


ANTHROPOLOGY. ' 


Tue NORTHERN FRONTIER oF Cunina. —When the Mongols first 
\epowerful under Chinghis Khan, Eastern and Central Asia 

was divided into four considerable empires: 1. The Kin or Golden 
Tartars occupied the six northern provinces of China, they were 
ancestors of the Manchus ; 2. Central Asia was subject to the 
empire of the Kara Khitai; 3. The Sung dynasty, controlling 
; China, was a purely Chinese empire; 4. The fourth em- 


i the subject of Part vr in a series of papers on the northern front- 
3gs of China, by H. H. Howorth, published in the Journal of 
the Royal Asiatic Society. . 


of the earth is at present regarded from two points of view. 

The first is 

“ee grand divisions. On the contrary, in the savage state, 

Sie oe of the facilities at our disposal, men have effected migra- 
a 


_ &essfully 
“any centers of human origin as there are races of men. 

Tae oe or Ecyprian Supan.—Professor A. H. Keane E 
its inhop ature of Jan. 24, a paper on the Egyptian Sudan an 
i p abitar its, an abstract of which is given below. Sudan is the 
Wie ent of Nigritia, Negroland. [Its sections are: (1) 

| u 


1882 Were: € provinces formed out of this territory in 
Wer Soin ) 
Cemar Magee: Kordofan, Bahrel-Ghazal and Dongola, with capital, ae 
Etwa) ny Khart , Equator (Hat-el- 
la 9. Capital Kha sai Berber, Fashoda and the Equ ( 
Sess z “Taka, Suakin and Massowah, with capital, Massowah. 
» Berbera and Harrar, with capital, Harrar. 


Professor Oris T. Mason, 1305 Q street, N. W., Washington, D. C. 


554 


General Notes. 


The following is Mr. Keane’s ethnologic chart. 


the Bulletin of the Paris Society of 


M-e 
Tue CoLoR oF THE Eyes AND HAI aea E Y 


RACE MAIN DIVISIONS. LOCALITY. REMARKS, 
(\Tibbu > Baele, Zoghawa, . & N. W. Dar- : 
any * SRE Ot T a Hamite, Kushite of some 
Bishari (Beja): Haden-|} Between Red sea writers, answering to mes ase 
doa , Halienga, Abab-|} and Nile, 15°-{can division of the 
. ranea 
j || deh, 25° ean or grea 
= Danabil: hance ` Dahi-|Between Abyssinian logic type. For 
= mela, e coast, 10 oN, of Tibbu from the Negro tə 
< : ‘ the Hamite race, see Nature, 
= Saho ; Bogos ; Habad ; Massowah aes 88 orth African 
Somali: Ídur ; Isa ; Mi-|) Gulf of Aden| March 1, 1883 $ poor 
jarten, etc. coast. Et agers 
Galla > (Orma): .Yeju, ) E. and S. of Go-|are zealous M 
Wolls, Mecha, etc. \ jam. 
(|Arab: 
Kabahish ; a IW. f. Nile, bet. Don-| The Arab Semites are recent 
Robabat, et gola & Khartum. intruders, mainly via 
i Homran ; “Rekhabin; 3|Senaar. Suez and . The Him- 
a Alawin. yarites are intruders from pre- 
SA Homran; Hanor; El- Kordofan and Dar-|historic times, from S. Arabia 
= ] Hanor; Habanich, etc.| fur via Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. 
a Ziaieh ; pane mid, N. Darfur. former Muhammadaos 
imyarit e latter monophysite Chris- 
Tigre ' Denibelas La-|N. and E. Abyssinia. ae 
E Harrari, E. from Shoa. 
ate betwee 
| Barabra (mixed)- Kenus,| Nile valley, Egypt es Nu page ich T — Hamite. 
Mahasi ; Dongolawi. gst No connec- 
True Nuba: Kargo; Kul- Sper ith Aa Fulah of W. Se- 
tan; Kolaji; Jebel) } Kordofan. — air Kordofan Nubss 
: Nuba, Tum an : k. Pagans. Those 
< g : : original stoc : 
m ur : ur; Konjara; ss ile, Negroid Chris- 
= Fongoro, etc. } Darfur. of the NUR vocent. S0 
Sub-Nuba : Takruri, |Gallibat. gar se ree Be 
i (Kuna-|Taka, Mareb _ val- They are the pew $ Egyr 
a ‘ tian records ; 
Funj; Hamagh. Senaar. later Nubatee 
(| Sudanese: Beikit; Masa- 
4 , Darfur. still 
lit, Abu-sarib, etc. Negri, a 
"pseu Shilluk, Dinka . White Nile and B. el sr of rate : 
g +1 Fallaugh Kumbung ; Sobat basın. rather ‘than tere e 
= Krej; Sa Bongo (Dor); About W. tributaries is is NEO Dinka, shows e- 
Mittu (Moro). of White Nile. pt : 
Bari; Madi; Lur;|B. el Jebel, N. of L L. matic 
Latuka. Albert Nyanza. 
Waganda;  Wanyoro . arer: S. frontier, in the Moudiri : 
5 Wasoga; Wagamba. oS of L. Vic- eant ateur a, Si 
Z oria rha eas = fa du - 
>] (Khartum, 1883). 
kow contr! 


oe 


1884.] Anthropology. 555 


440-457, a paper on the classification of the color of the eyes and 
of the hair. Our knowledge of the nature of pigment in man and 
the other mammals is unfortunately still imperfect; we do not know 
whether the coloring matter is unique or whether there are many 
elements by whose combination the great variety of color is pro- 
duced. M. Ikow, therefore, claims only to have made use of 
facts so far as they have been established. The following is his 


PRIMARY GROUP, 


1. First fundamental The iris is blue or gray of di-, Apparent color of the 
natural — The iris\verse shades, according to the iris, blue or gray, of dif- 
contains no pigment. [nature of the iris. ferent intensity (tone). 


2. Second fundamental The iris is in reality brown,| The apparent does 


natural group.— The iris\varying from yellow-brown to|not differ from the real 

contains pigment hiak nicki brown, color, although it seems 

ccupies the entire field, | of a little deeper inten- 
; sity 


SECONDARY GROUP, 

3. Intermediate group) The iris is composed of two! Color of the iris ap- 
between the two funda-jparts; 1. A central zone around parent sometimes 
tals, —The pigment isjthe pupil, brown or yellow in|green, sometimes yel- 
~ ag in the iris but|color according to the quantity low, sometimes bronze, 
than a thi occnpy morelof pigment; and 2. A peripher-jrarely gray-yellow. 
a third or two of itslal zone of blue or gray color. 
field, A i 

ment, 


peri zone is 
completely deprived of pig- 
` FUNDAMENTAL GROUPS. 
Color of the Hair, 


ae hair (color of flax). Pigment in small quantities. 
3 road pure black and shining). Pigment in considerable quantity. 
e, chestnut brown. Pigment in moderate quantity. 
estnut. 4, shaded chestnut. 

Tieg IMPLEMENTS FROM MiNNESOTA.—In 1881 Miss Frances E. 

of ogi Little Falls, Minnesota, made the important discovery 
keti implements and chips of quartz at the depth of fifteen 
i in the gravel forming the modified drift on the banks of the 


be . 


pi river at Little Falls, Morrow Co., Minn. Sincethen she 


: a all of which were found in a very limited area. : 
Of the “4 Specimens was exhibited at the Minneapolis meeting 


: U d 

drit, ang of the implements by Miss Babbitt, in the modified 
of man igs therefore owe to her the knowledge of the existence 
th tacts that ear y period in the Mississippi valley ; another of 
tiquity of ch are slowly but surely pointing to the great an- 


whi 
Man on our continent. After the meeting Miss Babbitt 


556 General Notes. | May, 


most kindly presented the whole collection on exhibition to the 

useum of Archzology at Cambridge, Mass., and since its arri- 
val I have again examined the specimens, and have no hesitation 
in pronouncing a large proportion of them as the work of man. 
Some are simple chips or flakes, split off in the process of work- 
ing the stones into shape. Others are pointed pieces of quarts 
which may in part be natural fractures, but which have received a 
few finishing blows from the hands of palzolithic men. A few 
others, including one or two not of quartz, are evidently natural 
forms, but in the collection are about a dozen unquestionably 
chipped implements, which, except that they are made of quartz 
instead of argillite, closely resemble the palzolithic implements 
found by Dr. Abbott in the New Jersey gravels. For the present 
I refer to Miss Babbitt's paper, now in course of publication by 
the American Association for the Advancement of Science for 
further details, but I hope at no very distant day to give illustra- 
tions of these specimens in our reports, as the museum has now 
become their owner.—/. W. Putnam. 


MICROSCOPY AND HISTOLOGY." 


METHODS OF STUDYING THE SO-CALLED potas sig Haut pe 
cEA.*—For the study of fresh tissues Dr. Frenzel placi 
piece of the organ pd the slide, zz the blood of the individna ES 
which it was taken ; or, in sea-water diluted until the salt pv i 
amounts to about 114-2 per cent (one part distilled pepe s 
part sea-water from the Bay of Naples). The so-called “ p i 
logical salt solution” (34 per cent) worked unfavorably, © 
maceration. fee : partly 

Various fluids were employed for killing and hae and 
for determining the effect of different reagents on the F orepating 
the protoplasm, and partly for finding the best means 0! p 
the object for sectioning. ‘ alcohol from 

ery good preparations were obtained with warm , gua n in 

seventy per cent to ninety per cent; while direct 1m vik 
absolute alcohol did not prove advantageous. thie the struc- 
gave good results for the cell protoplasm, but destroy for the cells 
ture of the nuclei. Still better results were obtained to se 
(not for the nuclei) by adding a few drops of iodine 


per cent alcohol. mmersing the : 
blimate from 


The most satisfactory results were reached by ! 
object in a saturated aqueous solution of corrosive cae 
ten to thirty minutes, then washing with water, an 
ing the water gradually with alcohol. - ved with corrosivé 

erenyi’s fluid gave best results when combine minutes i 
sublimate. The object was left from five to ten 

1 Edited by Dr. C. O. WHITMAN, Mus. Comparative Zoology, Cam 
`~ * Johannes Frenzel. ‘ Ueber die Mitteldarmdriise der Crustaceen 
Zool. Station, v, p. 51, 1884. 


pridge, MP 
” mitthell.* 


ERE SP E RA cen ee be oom ND E ea 


1884.] Microscopy and Histology. its 
first-named fluid, then transferred to the second and left for the 
ti 


same time, 

While these methods were good for the Decapods, ‘Amphipods 
and Phronomide, the Isopods required a different treatment. 
With these Kleinenberg’s picro-sulphuric acid, diluted with an 
equal volume of water, and allowed to act 15-20 minutes, gave 
much better preparations than the sublimate solution. 


A new Section FLATTENER.—The following device as an anti- 
roller has been recommended by Gage and Smith?! 

“The section flattener consists of a rod (4) of spring brass, 
about 5™" in diameter, flattened on two sides (B and D), extend- 
ing parallel with the edge of the knife, and projecting about 2™™ 

ond it. Opposite the cutting edge the space between the rod 
and knife is about 1™™ while nearer the back of the knife the dis- 
tance is greater (Fig. 1 D, a,b). At each end the rod is bent at 
right angles. Next the handle it passes through a hollow cylin- 
der (Fig. 1, d), into which it is secured by a milled nut (Fig. 1, c). 
At the tree end of the knife, the rod is hooked over the back of 
the blade (Fig. 1, A), the spring of the wire securing it firmly. 
a me two angles of the rod it rests on the blade, so that in cut- 
ting sections any amount of pressure may be applied at these 
Ponts. The rod js attached to the knife by means of a clamp, 
Which consists of two pieces clasping the tang and held together 
by a screw (Fig. 1, C). To clean the knife and rod, or to remove 
Aa ons, the rod may be raised as it swings freely in the hollow 
aa attached to (d). The rod may be removed by removing 

n 


- 


A Maag ™ section fattener attached to a knife. (2), blade of knife; (at), tang; 
Olinder; 7.) Ener; (c), milled nut; (d), the part of the clamp bearing the hollow 
ether, ” (e), part of clamp; (f), screw holding the two parts of the clamp to- 
` te eg "Owing the end of the flattener hooked over the blade ; B and D, sec- 
the knife. C the form of the rod (4), and its position with relation to the edge of 
a ction of the tang, showing the manner of attaching the clamp. 


i _~ Section-smoother introduced by Andres, Giesbrecht, and 
Settion Flattener for Dry Section Cutting.” The Microscope, February, 1884. 


558 General Notes. | May 


Mayer, described in the December number of this journal, is one 
of the simplest devices that has thus far been offered, and is per- 
fectly adapted to both large and small sections. It is provided 
with an adjusting apparatus, the absence of which is a defect in 
the above instrument of Gage and Smith, and is applicable to 
knives of different forms and sizes. 

Methods of Preparing the Alcyonaria-—Dr. Wilson" has employed 
with success the following methods in preparing the Alcyonaria 
for histological purposes: 

“After testing many preservative and staining fluids, the follow- 
ing methods were adopted as giving, upon the whole, the best 
results: The animals were suddenly killed by momentary immer- 
sion in a mixture of one part strong acetic acid and two parts of 
a concentrated solution of corrosive sublimate in fresh water. 


i a i t it must be u 
are obtained by the use of alum-carmine, bu mesoderm 
eous fluids. 


Nitric acid (10 per cent) “+9 
Cent BOON bias ck acn ce dea renee cobs sere t 
Chromic acid (34 per cent)......ccccccccceccesrsers aN 
This mixture assumes a violet hue after a short time. nty-fout 
: : ours; then twe 
per cent. 


iret Sao a 


1884.] Scientific News. 559 


and analine red dissolve directly in the fluid, while eosine and 
purpurine are first dissolved in three parts alcohol. 

Picro-carmine or borax-carmine mixed with the fluid, give ex- 
cellent staining. The addition of staining fluids causes a precipi- 
tate, so that before using the fluid should be filtered. 


:0:——— 
SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 


— In the death of Professor Arnold Guyot, who was born near 
Neufchatel, in 1807, we have lost our most eminent geographer, 
and a geologist whose reputation was worldwide. He began his 
life’s work as a student of Ritter, the influence of whose instrué- 
tion is seen in the “Earth and Man.” While a professor in the 


(186, was his “ Physical structure of the Appalachian mountains” 
1). He wrote a series of text-books on physical geography, 


wee finished ; as a man, singularly pure, simple-hearted, un- 
him and sincere. It was a benediction to come in contact with 


~ Dr. Geor Ei ] k b 2$ 
Frankfo ge Engelmann, who died February 4, was born 
United Seer the-Main, February 2, 1809. Removing to the 


S His botanical studies which made him famous, were 
Carried on i , i 


poan i ng in the reports of the Pacific Railroad and the Texas 
ion, utvey. He monographed the pines, and the North 
and Pena Stoup of Cuscuta, Juncus, Euphorbia, Quercus, Vitis 
gave. He ranked as a botanist only second to Dr. Gray. 


y of Science. He also was the oldest American 
his observations extending overa period of forty 


| : the | The Loblogischer Fahresbericht for 1882, so far as relates to 


Site pig a ates, Jit is of the same 
Size, with the eee made. its appearance. It is 


editors, as in former years, and is equally in- 


560 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [May, 


valuable to the American zoologist on account of its detailed 
summaries of papers and works devoted to zodlogy in all its rela- 
tions. The different divisions are for sale separately. No bio- 
logical laboratory, college, or museum library is complete without 
this work, as well as the briefer English Zodlogical Record. Itis 
earnestly to be hoped that, though the German Fahresbericht is 
published at great expense of time and money, it will not be sus- 
pended for want of adequate support. American zodlogists will 
find the work peculiarly valuable. 

— At the meeting of the Geological Society of London, held 
February 15, the society’s Lyell medal was awarded to Dr. Joseph 
Leidy, of Philadelphia, with the sum of 252., in recognition of his 
valuable services to palzontology, especially his investigations on 
the fossil Mammalia of Nebraska and the Sauria of the Uni 
States. The council also awarded to Professor Leo Lesquereux, 
F. C. G. S., the sum of 20/. from the proceeds of the Barlow-Jam- 
eson fund, in recognition of the value of his researches into i 
palzobotany of North America, and to aid him in further investi- 
gations of a similar kind. w 

— Drs. D. G. Brinton and Benjamin Sharp have been iT 
to the chairs of Archæology and Ethnology and gt a 
Zoölogy respectively, in the Philadelphia Academy of Natu 


Sciences. i 
— The University of Pennsylvania is about to establish a school 

of biological research, and has raised a fund for its endowmê 

:0: 

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 


Brorocicat Socrery or WasuincTon, March Somat 
tions: Dr. J. H. Kidder, U. S. N., Exhibition of spen T 
bacillus tuberculosis; Dr. D. E. Salmon, Exhibition of P The 
of infectious tuberculosis in cattle; Col. Marshall apin a 
influence of temperature upon the movements of fish m m 
Mr. Charles W. Smiley, What fish-culture has first to ak Roni 
Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, U. S. A., Remarks on the patella; , oa otice of 
Hitchcock, Exhibition of specimens of Orbitolites, wit 

ns of some 


Papers read by title: Mr. Robert Ridgway, a tee America® 
new North American birds. Description 0! Note on the 
Kingfisher. Note on Psaltriparus grind@ Belting. Diagnosis 
generic name Calodromas. Mr. Leonard st ee Commande 
of new species of birds from Kamtschatka and the nose 
islands. Dr. T. H. Bean and Mr. H. G. Drexel, ico. Mr.G 
three new species of fishes from the Gulf of wee Pediculate 
Brown Goode and Dr. T. H. Bean, A new genus ° 
fis 


hes. Na 


March 22.—Communications: Col. Marshall cai 
hibition of charts showing natural and restricted r1 


Donald, Ex 
distributio" 


ay 


1884.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 561 


of the shad (by special request); Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, U. S. A. 
Remarks on the patella; Mr. Romyn Hitchcock, Exhibition of 
specimens of Orbitolites, with notice of Dr. Wm. B. Carpenter’s 
investigations; Professor C. V, Riley, Personal reminiscences of 
the late Dr. George Englemann ; Mr. William H. Dall, Exhibition 
of corals from Alaska, with descriptions of new species; Mr. Rich- 
ard Rathbun, Exhibition of a peculiar growth of coral from Key 
West, Florida; Dr. M. G. Ellzey, The prepotency of the male 
parent; Dr. Leonard Stejneger, Exhibition of specimens of the 
great Kamtschatkan sea eagle, Halietus pelagicus. 


New York ACADEMY oF Sciences, March 10.—The following 
_ Paper was presented: Recent visits to the “Singing Beaches” of 
_ Scotland and America, by Professor H. Carrington Bolton. 

March 17—The following papers were read: Notes on a visit 
to some of the snow-peaks of Oregon, by Professor John S. New- 
berry; Observations on the geology of the vicinity of Golden, 
Colorado, by Dr. N, L, Britton. 

March 24—The following paper was read: The topography of 
Egypt between lat, 28° and 30°, from original surveys made in 

1882 and 1883, with especial reference to the erosions (—200 feet 

3 ‘the Reian and Qerin basins, and the natural eminences (+950) 

_ Ret) and the Pyramids (+ 650) in, at or near the storage-reservoir 
of Pi iM oeri (with lantern illustrations), by F. Cope White- 
» Ctc, 


Hyatt dice CIETY OF NATURAL History, March 5.—Professor A. 
3 yatt discussed the origin of the tissues, spermatozoa and eggs 
i hess Sponges (Metazoa), and the habit of cellular conjugation, 
: the Protozoa, Dr. M. E. Wadsworth read a paper on the 
; M of the earth’s interior. 
as arch 19.—Mr. S, Garman spoke on the use of polynomials as 
) Scientific names ; Dr. C. O. Whitman discussed the origin of the 
vertebrates; and Professor G. L. Goodale read a paper on certain 
__ “egetable monstrosities. 
: log PPALACHIAN Mountain Crus, Feb. 1 3.—Professor W. G. Far- 
1 trees in an account of some of the diseases and deformities of 


3 "ng a winter ascent of F ujiyama, Japan, as communicated 
Fi uel Kneeland, M.D.; A winter ascent of Mt. 
Pi Mr. W. H. Pickering. ; 
views. ae Rev. John Worcester described some of the mountain 
ate al and Palestine, illustrating his remarks with sixty or 
w 


to Samuel Kneeland, M.D.; a paper by | 
, The mountains near Ktaadn iron works, Me., was 


562 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [May, 1884 


to be presented; there was also read a paper by Samuel Knee 
land, M.D., entitled, A visit to the crater of Vesuvius at night in 
April, 1882. 


PHILADELPHIA ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES, Dec. 20.—Dr. 
A. J. Parker called attention to a previously unnoticed mode of 
reproduction in Avmphileptas fasciola. One end broke up into 
ameceboid particles, while the remainder, with its cilia, was active. 
The creature afterwards resumed its original form. The Rev, Dr. 
McCook spoke of the occurrence of Formica rufa in Dakota. In 
the center of the mounds was a mass of small twigs, forming à 
ball some eight inches in diameter, and galleries run downward 
from this for four or more feet. As the material of the nests 1$ 
largely composed of vegetable fragments, prairie fires burn them 
out, forming large cavities. ae 

January 10, 1884.—A paper by Miss Foulke, describing the 
reproduction of Clathrulina elegans, was read. Professor Lewis 
exhibited a mass of cast-iron which contained crystals of graphite, 
which again held particles of cast iron. The mass contain 
pieces of unaltered anthracite. The presence of such za E 
coal, unconsumed through lack of oxygen, was conside! b 
illustrate the way in which carbon may exist in meteorites 
chalcopyrite in trap. Dr. Sharp stated that he had ona = 
the presence of so-called retinal cells in the mantle of many es 
libranchiata, including Mya and Ostrea. The structure T pA 
same as that of the primitive eyes of Sølen ensis per 
scribed. The relation between these eyes and those gi ; 
could scarcely be traced. At the previous meeting, Hills ee 
called attention to specimens of tin ore from the Black Hill's, 
stated that he had been informed that a large quantity 
existed, the lif- 

Jan. 16.—Dr. Leidy, in the course of remarks upon oted the 
forms thrown up at Atlantic City by recent storms, 2 ae 
presence of the holothurian Caudina arenata. e cd Jersey 

3 eil- 
is i ound. Professor n 
coast. Examples six inches long were fi rte ‘Atlantic coast 


stated that the Vicksburg beds were, as determined by Olt 
probably of the same age as the Mayence 
mantellii was characteristic of both and of Oligoc 
ally. The strata immediately beneath the Vicks e 
strata which are the equivalent of the Ca/caire grenn d 
and contains Zeuglodon remains. In the Gra : 
far south of Alabama, Mississippi and Louisiana, “gi o 
invertebrate fossils had been seen. The Jackson Of sg by H 
extend farther up in Mississippi than had been su f eggs of | 
gard. Remarks upon the abundance of chaplets belief 

gur during the winter led Dr. Leidy to state his 
are laid in winter and cast up by the spring storms. 


THE 


AMERICAN NATURALIST. 


Vor. xvit.—fUweE, 1884.—No. 6. 


THE THEORY OF A GLACIAL DAM AT CINCINNATI 
AND ITS VERIFICATION. 


BY PROFESSOR G. FREDERICK WRIGHT. 


: E Prosecuting investigations upon the boundary of the gla- 
ciated area in the Ohio valley, one of the most interesting facts 
brought to light is, that the true glacial drift is found on the 

; ky hills a few miles south of the Ohio, opposite Cincin- 

| Mt. Granitic boulders, striated pebbles, and till are found all 
ver Brown and Clermont counties, in Ohio, down to the margin 
| of the Ohio river, where they cease. Nothing of the sort is 
l found on the hills in Bracken county, Ky. But on crossing the 
4 on New Richmond in Clermont county, Ohio, to a point 
ore tucky near the boundary of Kenton and Campbell counties, 
Blacial drift at once reappears upon the south side of the river at 
i an elevation of three hundred or four hundred feet, cover- 
me hills for two or three miles back from the river. Till sev- 


P here occurs, containing numerous granitic pebbles 
; an — boulders and excellent specimens of striated stones, 
1 native place is not far north in Ohio. 

a tea Personally go over the hills in the northern part of 
l : l county, but did explore Northern Kenton and Boone 
: Swith considerable minuteness, and found glacial deposits 
kamer the northern part of Boone county as far south as 
| About three miles east of Burlington, on the road 
ofa ace, there is, for instance, a notable collection of boulders, 
~~ I counted fifteen or twenty in the space of a few yards. 
“rad n a shallow valley of Gunpowder creek, a small stream 
; ‘the Ohio near the southern part of the county. This clus- 
3 ie: yi, 


564 The Theory of a Glacial Dam at Cincinnati, etc. (June, — 


ter of boulders was by my barometer 4 50 feet above the river, and 


the water-shed was at least a hundred feet higher. Two of the 
boulders are veritable specimens of the jasper conglomerate, $o 
abundant about the outlet of Lake Superior. Granitic boulders 
and striated pebbles were also found at numerous other points 
over the northern part of Boone county, from Greenwood lake to 
Bellevue. Glacial accumulations also occur upon all points of 
the river north of this down to the river valley. It thus appears 
that from Moscow, in Clermont county, about twenty-five miles 
above Cincinnati, to Petersburg, Ky., about the same distance be 
low Cincinnati, that is, for a distance of about fifty miles, the val- 
ley of the Ohio was for a short time during the glacial period 
filled with ice, forming an obstruction to the water at least 550 
feet high. The water: shed to the west, between the Licking and 
the Ohio, is nowhere less than this height. Walton station, se 
enteen miles south and a little to the west of the water-shed, !$ 
473 feet above the river, 913 feet above the sea. 

-= Throughout nearly its whole extent the Ohio river oe 
narrow valley of erosion less than a mile in width, and from 


hundred to five hundred feet in depth. There are epe 
in this trough wherever tributaries come in, either from the 1 
lleys of erosion 


or from the south, which also uniformly occupy v4 


; i size 
of corresponding depth, the width varying according to the 


of the stream. | 
this supposed 8è 


It is evident that during the continuance of pee" 
‘cial dam at Cincinnati, a narrow lake corresponding p d all it 
the ice-barrier, must have extended far up bedaa Licking in 
tributaries; among which may be specially noted. the a 
Kentucky, the Kanawha in West Virginia, the A le 
Monongahela in Pennsylvania. The difference w . 50 
of Pittsburgh and Cincinnati is about three hundres merge 
a barrier of six hundred feet at Cincinnati would Je 
city of Pittsburgh to a depth of about three hundre a 

It is also evident that if there was, for any — ught t0 
‘such a glacial back-water dam as is supposed, ther en 
arking 
margin. Such evidence was not long in com! 
is all the more significant because furnishe 
ties. In March, 1883, I read a paper before 
Natural History in which I reported the main 


the Boston 5 | 
facts just ree? 


1884.) The Theory of a Glacial Dam at Cincinnati, ete. 565 


Upon seeing this report, Professor I. C. White, of Morgantown, 
West Va., situated in'the Monongahela valley, and who has for 
many years been an active member of the Pennsylvania Geologi- 
cal Survey, informed me that the ice dam at Cincinnati was 
exactly what was needed to explain the terraces along the Mo- 
nongahela. It appears that from Pittsburgh as far south as Fair- 
mount, in West Virginia, a distance of 130 miles (which was as 
far south as Professor White had examined), the valley of the 
Monongahela shows signs along its edges of having been par- 
tially silted up with heaps of trash, such as clay, sand, gravel, 
boulders, drifted logs and other rubbish, brought in by its tribu- 
laries from higher land. The striking peculiarity of these terrace 
deposits is, that they “ suddenly disappear at an elevation of 1050 
% 1075 feet above tide; not a single rounded and transported 
boulder ever being found above that latter horizon, though occur- 
ing in countless numbers below this level. The hills above the 
"iver often rise three hundred or four hundred feet higher than 
the upper limits of the deposits, so that there can be no mistake 
about the elevation at which the terrace deposits disappear. * * 
k from the channel of the river, especially where the surface 
Configuration would make quiet water, there occur thick deposits 
of very fine, bluish-white clay in which great numbers of leaves 
are most beautifully preserved. This deposit is purest near the 
aver limits of the terraces. | 
In the vicinity of Morgantown terraces of transported mate- 
ocur at the following approximate (measured by barometer) 


First B Feet T Feet pone tide, 
š aat tiiit a a 75 865 
aga 175 965 
Fifth ik ec fie vins bi acne «<0 2p 200 990 
275 1065.” 
À ie Saag of the fifth terrace in this series are frequently 
Tn such inland from the Monongahela on the tributary streams. 


ing ee deposit near Morgantown, called the Flats, and cover- 

Eey; or four square miles, wells have been sunk sixty-five 

a aoa bed rock. This is 275 feet above the river 
i Other above tide, 

White « tributaries of the Monongahela, along which Professor 

oO has noted the clay and other deposits of the fifth terrace, 


566 The Theory of a Glacial Dam at Cincinnati, ete. (June, 


are Decker, Dunkard, Whitely, Muddy and Ten Mile creeks, 
and in each case the deposits disappear at the same absolute level 
at which they cease along the river.” 
Professor Lesley informs us also that the terraces along the 
Allegheny and its tributaries, preserve this same absolute level. 
Coming down to the Great Kanawha river, another branch of 
the Ohio, which drains an unglaciated region, Professor White 
finds water-worn boulder deposits disappearing at an elevation of 
from two hundred to three hundred feet above the present level 
of the stream. About fifteen miles below Charleston, West Va, 
there is a deserted river channel followed by the Chesapeake and 
Ohio railroad, which extends through Putnam and Cabell counties 
to the mouth of the Guyandotte, at Huntington. This deserted 
valley is from one to two miles wide, is two hundred or more feet 
above the Kanawha, and “is filled to a great depth with rounded 
boulders of sandstone, chert, cannel coal and other trash, w 
has plainly been transported down the Kanawha from above 
Charleston, so that it was clearly seen that the water of the Kas 
wha had once found an outlet to the Ohio by way of this valley, 
a distance of fifty miles. re 
During the summer of 1883, I explored a similar dese 
channel a little ways further down the river, in Greenup ene 
y. This valley extends from near the mouth of the Big rae 
to Greenupsburg, a distance of about twenty miles, and eae | 
one to two miles wide, is 220 feet above the present ie 


mark of the river, running parallel with it and about Sa o 
: s a valley% — 


distant. This, like all the valleys in this region, ! apie | 
erosion, the hills rising on either side from two hundre | 
th rounded 


hundred feet, and the bottom of it is covered wi i ; 
bles of quartz and quartzite, from an inch to two feet oad Squiet 
Coming to the Licking river, in Kentucky, Mr. G. sat ii 
informs me that near Owingsville, Bath county, = et is at 
tween Slate creek and the East Fork of Licking, including — 
extensive low tableland which is covered by pep? whid 
numerous water-worn fragments of sandstone and C0à' 
must have been brought down from the coal fie 
more to the north-east, and could not have been ! . 
as they are over this immediate tableland and a see still war 


yenty miles% 
lds tW rosti 


ing it, except there had been an extensive greece produce! 
occupying the area. This is just what would have 


<a 
| 


E 


1884.] Thé Structure of the Trachee of Insects. 567 


by the glacial dam which I have supposed to have existed at Cin- 
cinnati. The facts had so impressed Mr. Squier that before know- 
ing of my discoveries he had come to the conclusion that there 
must have been some such barrier as I have supposed. (See 
Science, Sept. 28, 1883.) 

Strong as these confirmations are, it is important that the 
hypothesis of an ice dam should be verified by much wider ob- 
servations in the field. All along the Ohio river, and in all its 
tributaries above Cincinnati, there should be found numerous 
facts, explicable only by this theory ; while the absence of terraces 
ofa corresponding level upon the eastern side of the Alleghenies, 
to which Professor Lesley has called attention, excludes the 
hypothesis that these high terraces in the Upper Ohio are due to 
à general Champlain subsidence. 

Nor must the phenomena below Cincinnati be overlooked. 
During the summer of 1883, I continued my investigations into 
Southern Indiana to the Illinois line in Posey county. But I will 
hot here speak in detail of the results attained. The problem of 
determining the southern limit of the glaciated area of this region, 

ever, has been complicated by what I supposed to be the 7 
results of the Champlain subsidence, amounting to five hundred 

or more in the Mississippi valley. Here, for the first time in 
my western investigations, I have encountered: the loess overlap- 
Ping and intermingling with the terminal deposits of the glaciated 
area it a very interesting and puzzling manner. I hope during 
another Summer to get additional light upon the subject. Mean- 
while, I am anxious to obtain any information or instruction which 
the experience or wisdom of other investigators may be able to 
furnish me, 


203 


THE STRUCTURE oF THE TRACHEÆ OF INSECTS. 


BY PROFESSOR G. MACLOSKIE, D.SC., LL.D. 


ge *rical—Blanchard’s theory of two tracheal membranes 
2 i 


ties, vu was accepted by Louis Agassiz and some other authori- 
- Caride s Set aside as obsolete. It was well refuted by Joly; and 


nterposed spiral thread, and of peritracheal circulation, 


©, in refuting its author’s cognate theory of a complex 


568 The Structure of the Trachee of Insects. [June, 


vascular system in spiders, showed that in both groups the circu- 
lation is essentially lacunar. 

Recent investigation has established the doctrine that the trach- 
ez and also the trachea-like salivary ducts are chitinous products 
of ingrowing processes of the epidermis. Bütschli deems them 
segmental paired invaginations of the epidermis, while Weismann 
finds that the tracheal wall is an intima secreted by ingrowing 
rows of cells, just as the chitinous cuticle is secreted by epider- 
mal cells? These discoveries are of fundamental importance, and 
must underlie the true theory of the nature of tracheal struc- 
tures. 

The views of some other investigators seem to me not so well 
established. Meyer, for example, finding that the intima (the 
name here used to designate the chitinous wall of the trachea) 
arises as a homogeneous membrane, holds that it subsequently 
splits so as to give off a spiral thread, and that the larger trunks 
have a double membrane external to the spiral.” Carl Chun sup- 
poses that the spiral thread is a true chitine layer, and not merely 
a thickening product of the intima, and superadds a splitting of 
the intima into a double membranet C. S. Minot represents the 
spiral filaments as solid threads imbedded in the substance of 
the chitinous intima, and adds some good observations = ee 
spiral threads (sometimes two to five or six together) ending = 
a few turns round the trachea, “ the single threads perma g 
abruptly but by tapering down to a point and so disapprai 
None of these observers seem to see, much less to grapple w 
the difficulty of conceiving how the spiral filament or me 
else can be formed external (morphologically) to the wig? 
secretion of the epidermis, or how such chitinous outgro 
split after they are once formed. oboscis ol 2 

2. Pseudotrachee of Muscide.—In examining the pr a 
1 Blanchard in Ann. d. Sci. Nat., Ser. 3, Vol. 1X (1848), and An 
Nat. Hist., Ser, 1, Vol. xx. Joly in Ann. d. Sct. Nat., Set 3+ Vol. yo Nate : 
Agassiz in Proc. Amer. Ass. Adv. Sci., 1850. Claparède in Ann, ¢. 
5, Vol. 11 (1864). 

3 Zeit. f. Wiss. Zool, XUI, XIV, XVI (1863-186 


‘ 
xx (187% 
Bütschli). l 


6, Weismann) , 


3 Zeit. f. Wiss. Zool., 1 (1848). pachten, T PIS 
t Inaugural dissert., “ U. d. Bau u. der Rectaldrüsen b. d. : 
1876. Recherchë = 
5U. S. Entomol. Comm. on Locusts, Report 11, p- 192 (1880), Ba is 
tolog'ques sur les trachées del Hydrophilus piceus, in Archiv. 4€ 


1884.] The Structure of the Trachee of Insects. 569 


the housefly, some years ago, I made a discovery, the important 
bearings of which were easy to appreciate ; but I did not refer to 
it in the paper then issued, as I wished to test it more fully. I 
found that the scraping-tubes (pseudotrachez) of this organ are 
flanked by chitinous thickenings of the cuticle, that these thick- 
enings are enfolded or wrinkled so as to resemble the C-like 
semitubes which serve as an inner skeleton for the pseudotrachee. 
The enfolded parts can be flattened out with the needle, and 
when liberated they at once spring back to 
their normal crenulated condition (Fig. 1, 
C). This suggests that the psexdotrachee 
(P) are likewise thickened crenulations of the 
chitinous membrane with which they are 
continuous.! 

This doctrine receives unexpected sup- is 
port from Kraepelin’s elaborate paper, 
just published, on the proboscis of Musca2 

pelin accepts the views published by 
myself, and confirmed by Dimmock, as to 


Hd of the anatomy of its parts. He pig, r—From distipro- 
aso adopts the explanation of its protru- boscis of housefly (Musca 


tracheze, and likewise that these roots them- *” inserted in a transverse 
Selves, are formed by secondary foldi f j 
y foldings o 
membrane, If he had followed out this observation he would 
Ome to the conclusion that the entire pseudotracheæ, be- 
py patios at the outset, are so throughout. This is the 
cams that I formerly reached, as stated above, from an in- 
: leg line of investigation, and hence I may take it as 
| E oer, so long a subject of interest, have 
explanation. 


iP 
a i 
> eg ption of these parts see my paper on the “ Proboscis of the House- 
3 i 


- me or two rows of 3-cusped teeth 


570 The Structure of the Trachee. of Insects. [June, 


3. Wall of Trachee—This discovery leads to wider results. 
The pseudotrachee so closely resemble the salivary duct and the 
proper trachez that all these structures have been frequently 
confounded together. The pseudotracheze being surface-produc- 
tions are open externally by a longitudinal slit. The salivary 
duct and proper trachez, being internal structures, do not admit 
of a lateral fissure, but they are ingrowths from the surface, and 
are morphologically of the same nature as the pseudotrachee. 
Hence we may expect them to be produced on the same princi- 
ple. If the pseudotrachezee are demonstrated to be thickened 
crenulations of the external cuticle, we are led to ask whether the 
spirals of the proper trachez and of the salivary duct are not 
crenulated thickenings of the intima. 

The fragment of a trachea of a centipede (Fig. 2) bears out 
this interpretation. Above A is a rent with a small fragment of 
the membrane supporting 
relics of spirals, which are 
probably phere ól 


losing themselves below. 
This is very unlike what 
would appear if the sp 
_Fic. 2.—Part of trachea (centipede) with were independent stric- 
sa * tures, Whenever the 

n is artificial, as the 
re what is comms" 
é remaining '™ 


separates from the membrane the separatio 
membrane is easily rent. We never find he | 
in plants, the spiral unrolling with the membran 


: o be continua” 
tact. In fact, membrane and spiral here appear r ie in to 
tions of each other, the membrane thickening and tu of 


ws 
form a fold, somewhat after the pattern of the bello ; 


accordeon. Minot’s observations about 
away, several together, and about their tape 
and gradually disappearing, find their exp 


ring down to apr 
on in this. * 


pattern of b 


pendent threads, and is identical with the ws 
which we 


the “ catch-drain ” of the pseudotrachee, 
to be crenulations. elves af 

A result of this éxplanation is, that the spiral i gea cours 
fine tubules, externally opening by a fissure along 


the spirals often CON 5 


The Structure of the Trachee of Insects. 571 


1884. ] 


They are so minute that we need not be surprised if direct obser- 
vation has hitherto failed to detect this structure. A cross sec- 
tion of them in my possession (prepared by W. M. Rankin) seems 
to me to confirm this view; but the outside diameter of the spiral 
is only .0025™™ (about a twenty-thousandth of an inch), and inter- 
ferences by. diffraction lessen the value of direct observations ex- 
cept as to general outline.1 I think that I can also see evidence 
of a lumen within the spiral, and of the fissure, in stained speci- 
mens of trachez prepared in the usual way.” Carl Chun’s figure, 
though not so understood by its author, is in accordance with 
our view (Fig. 3). What he supposes to be solid fibers cannot 
arise in the way suggested by him, inside and independently of the 


6 46 


intima, which is really the bound- 


Supposed to be the optical expres- _Fic. 3.—Cross-section of two spirals 
I 


Re re se Cee 


Beet eternal fissure... vor comeing menteney, B 
think I have also got the explana- outer membrane of later origin. After 
a the “outer membrane of 7 
ter origin “represented at M?, It is the first appearance of a 
intima Prepared to replace the functioning one after the pró- 
"ieot molting, 
oot of genesis of the spirals has been found by different 
Si to be first by the formation of homogeneous membrane. 
- (in these, i riom in fine branches and also in large air-sacs 
x brane soo, ‘owever, striation is usual). The homogeneous mem- 
Ter anes transversely striated by incipient crenulation. 
We can easily see new tracheæ in the striated condition 


So, ESAS 
Plined by } m What I take to be their lumen appears to me too sharp to be ex- 


a ù : on in solid fibrils, 
: eine Specimens viewed, as Fig. A, the circle of light at the margin of the 
bright and well defined as to indicate an inner cavity. 


572 The Structure of the Trachee of Insects. [June, 


enclosing older ones with well-developed spirals; a tube inside of a 
tube, the contrast between striz and spirals indicating the course 
by which increasing crenulation with thickening is turning the 
smooth membranous tube into the definitely strengthened 
trachea. 

4. Mode of Aération—The chitinous walls of the trachea are 
supposed to permit the transmission of air to the surrounding 
blood, but not the passage of fluids. If we bear in remembrance 
that the air within them is dry (sc., not dissolved in any fluid), I 
suspect that the direct passage through the wall is imaginary. 
Gegenbaur thinks that the fine extremities of the tracheæ my 
play some part in the function of aëration, and a consideration 
of the terminals of the tracheal branchlets may well make 
us ask if they do not perform the chief part. Boudelot 
has fixed the seat of the respiratory movements in the ab- 
dominal nerves, and therefore in the abdominal muscular move- 
ments.1 As the abdomen expands and contracts, the tracheal 
trunks rhythmically enlarge and diminish, causing inspirations 
and expirations of air; a partial vacuum and pressure being or 
nately produced around the trunks. The structure of the agi 
indicated above explains what was long a mystery to me, 
chitine, which is flexible but not tensile, can secure the ae 

- ment 
‘ment and reduction of volume essential to a tidal move with 
air. The opening and closing of the spiral ot om 
widening and narrowing of the external fissures, wer e 
oscillations of pressure, and hence the variations of volu 
the movements of air. 

The air reaching the numerous branchlets of the 
plies directly all the important tissues, the digestive 
nerves, limbs, eyes, mouth-parts, &c. The b i 
chitine at their extremities, enter directly into what “aed 100k : 
described (loc. cit.) as “ bags, which when highly Fee q whee 
like small lungs; the branchlets losing the spiral : res thes 
they enter these lungs.” Weismann descr ibes and e within 
terminals as long spindle-cells having a fine pes fi with aif- 
them ; and states that in the young larva they aa a 
Max Schultze has shown how in the glow-worm as and afè 
didula) the terminal cells of the tracheæ are yee combustio” 
abundant at the fat-bodies which by a process of slow 

‘Ann. d. Sci. Nat., Ser. 5, Vol. 11 (1864). 


canal, g 


1884.] Agricultural Botany. 573 


cause luminosity (Fig. 4). It may be pertinent to cite Quatrefages’ 
description of the luminosity of some ' 

marine animals.! I have observed that 
the light flashes in jets along the so- 
mites of these worms as if the seg- 
mental organs had something to do 
with its production and with the func- 
tion of respiration. I have also shown 
that in the housefly the air-cells in 
the proboscis expand at each act of 


driven into the tracheal end-cells, Fic. 4.—Stellate terminals (S) 
as into the chambers of our own Of trachea F, luminous lat cells. 
| : : After Schultze. 

ungs, and that in this way the 

Ussues are directly aérated. The slower process of aération by 
the intervention of the blood may suffice in some larve, as in 
Crustacea, but the chief function of the blood of insects seems to 
be the conduction of food from the intestinal walls to the various 

s, 


To sum up. The tracheæ of insects and similar organs are 
“upported by chitinous fibers which are crenulations accompanied 
by thickening of the chitinous intima with which they remain 
Sentinuous ; their dorsal fissure and flexibility providing for the 


) enlargement and reduction of the cavity; and the oxygenation of 
Cg has its seat chiefly at the extremity of the tracheal 
Mes es, and not by diffusion from the tracheal trunks into the 


x @ he 


AGRICULTURAL BOTANY. 


BY E, LEWIS STURTEVANT, M.D. 


: TH Secret of classification consists in the understanding of 


Motive, of which form and structure are exponents. The 
motive of plants is to secure existence and perpetuation, 


‘atural 


is And parts and habits are and have been so formulated as to com- 


Pass this 


kiai object as against difficulties of very varied character. 


idual plant is in a state of unstable equilibrium, ever 
i 

Ann. d. Se; Ne 

i + Nat., Vol, xix (1 
: Pyche, No. 100 (Aug., 882). 


574 Agricultural Botany, [June, 


tending in the direction of least resistance, and so modifying its 
own nature as to become better fitted to meet such resistances as 
cannot be avoided. Each change is subject to transmissal through 
heredity, and thus through successive accretions, “ Holding the 
gain and answering for the loss” plants become so differentiated 
as to react favorably with their environment, and in the course ol 
time most numerous forms are established, each expressing the 
common motive in changes designed to meet a complex environ- 
ment in which the various factors are of greater or less domi- 
nancy. The necessity for a constant struggle for perpetuation, as 
nature’s law is, has made the reproductive organs paramount as 
expressing the method in which the plant-motive has been ful- 
filled, and hence the reproductive organs are dominant with the 
botanist for the purposes of classification, and the beautiful natu- 
ral system of botany has becorhe recognized as a science. 

We have, however, a class of plants in which another motive 
than that of survival has become dominant, and in which the 
reproductive organs have become subservient, and this because 
under the protection and guidance of man, the necessity for the 
struggle for existence has been removed, and the plant has beet 
left free to respond to new motives which have beem impress 
upon it. Our domesticated plants exist for man’s service, ak 
their own, and accordingly such have developed away © 
nature’s requirements towards man’s requirements. The or 
from a plant the necessity of warfare, and the substituting re 
conditions of peace and plenty, modifies such plant to some 
gree, but when in addition the motive is brought to saci 
with the desires of man by means of the process ar vat 
plants become profoundly modified in form and habit, an jae 
allelism of form is obtained which well illustrates the domi™™ 
of the new motive. Thus the wild cabbage has furnish other 
divergent forms, and these forms in themselves ren A 
forms which occur in plants of different species, ee ee 
natural orders. We have parallelism of form between sleaved 
the kale and parsley (dwarf curled kale and peat cabbage 
parsley), the cabbage, lettuce, chicory, etc. (Tourlavil d chard- 
cabbage-lettuce, scarole en cornet), the cabbage sat the moti 
beet (Pak-choi cabbage, white-leaf beet) according ye be seen if 
has been for leaf, head or stalk. This parallelism !$ 
various others of our domesticated vegetables. 


Agricultural Botany. 575 


Just as the dominant motives in nature have secured fixity for 
types, so the dominant motives under art have secured fixity of 
type, but as the motives differ, so do the types differ. Hence 
natural botany cannot serve to secure classification for plants 
which have become domesticated, and for these latter we require 
anew botany, which we may call agricultural botany, and which 
must be devised alike in its principles with natural botany, but 
divergent in its methods of application in accordance with the 
divergent plant-motives. 

In agricultural botany as in the natural botany, heredity 
must be considered in arrangement, for a true classification must 
deal with the totality of plant structure, form and motives, yet 
while in natural botany the reproductive organs, the expression 

the paramount motive given to the plant by nature, must be 
considered paramount for the purposes of classification, in agri- 
cultural botany form must be considered as paramount as repre- 
senting the paramount motive supplied to the plant by man. In 
the natural botany, species, genera, orders and classes represent 
Stages in the development under nature, in the agricultural botany 
Successive changes in selection represent stages in the life history 
of the new plant. | 

Premising that our remarks will be understood to apply to 
agricultural plants alone, we can illustrate our position by out- 

a classification for roots. 

When a wild plant is brought, through its seed, to the garden, 
and grown in rich soil and protected from weeds, the change in 
Size of the root may be at once manifest, and the root may be 
Smoother and less branching than in the plant under natural con- 

ons, but the type of form of root remains the same even under 
woe of Continued cultivation, unless modified by the pro- 

Selection. These protected, yet not domesticated roots, 

ture in common: the diameter of the root in its 

“PPer Portion does not exceed the diameter at the stem and leaf 

alae Examples are the Scorzonera, salsify, Scolymus and 

aa... F; 1g. I, Scolymus, and salsify, represents the type, of 

ON salsify is at the farthest remove towards improvement. 
| Plants become feral without change in the type of root. 

2 ene res domesticated roots, we find two separate classes 

The aS with, in some measure, like selections within both. 

first includes the ta d the caudate 

P-rooted forms, the secon e 


576 Agricultural Botany. [June, 7 


forms. The parsnip is so little domesticated that its root-forms 
in general come within the first class, while the beet, carrot, tur- 
nip and radish present forms which can be referred to both classes. 


Scolymus. Salsify. | 
Fic. 1 nae | 


The first stage of the domesticated root is, that the upper por 
tion of the root has a diameter in excess over that of the stem, 
and Fig. 2 represents the type of tap-rooted forms, in which 2 
bulbous portion may be cone-form, cylindrical or almost g! 
ular, but in all cases the swollen portion tapers into the root. 

The second stage of the domesticated root is the caudate, mark 
the root starts 
ruptly from a flattened surface, and gives a caudate appearance 
The sub-stages within this stage represent the highest 
improved forms, and are represented in Fig. 3; 2, Or the wr 


a b c d z 

FIG. 3. iar Aion ch one 

shaped, being the mark of extreme domestication, an upon the 

of the types figured standing for the motive 1m] ik fom the 
plant through conscious selection, and widely pe | 
forms which appear in nature as having no relations 

with and for the feral plant. ; 
° anies 
On account of the inter-relations of the two botanic 


prougit 


1884.] Agricultural Botany. 577 


about through the hereditary relationships of plants, the wild 
plant being the progenitor of the cultivated, it becomes essential 
to employ a symbol whereby agricultural relationship may be 
expressed without expressing conclusions as to botanical relation- 
ship as true species. A * placed after the generic name is what 
I propose. Thus Tragopogon porrifelius would be the scientific 
name for the salsify in Fig. 1; Daucus * carota for the cultivated 
carrots in all their forms, in order to distinguish them from the 
wild carrot, D. carota, etc., and ultimately a name for each stage or 
sub-stage of selection which has acquired fixity of type, as 
D. * acuminatus, the tap-rooted or stage 1 carrots, D. acu- 
minatus teretus, the cylindrical tap-rooted carrot, etc., and within 
each of these agricultural forms, the varieties therein belong- 
ing to be grouped and described. It is thus seen that every 
type of cultivated plant-form which possesses constant characters 
under continuance of man’s protection, and which differs from other 
type forms, would form an agricultural species; and that the 
same specific name would serve with the various genera of plants 
that have been forced to assume the same motive in development 
of form, as Daucus * acuminatus teretus, the cylindrical tap-rooted 
cultivated carrot, Raphanus * acuminatus teretus, the cylindrical 
tprooted cultivated radish, etc. 
In the preliminary work in a new science much in the begin- 
mag must be provisional in its character, and hence we have 
selected for illustration a well-defined group of roots, leaving for 
later consideration the fascicled forms, as occur in the sweet potato 
E aa well as certain forms not as yet sufficiently studied. 
7 ut seek at this time a presentation of our views in order to 
ene tssion, and to secure coöperation, if our attempt is jus- 
ba from botanists whose studies include horticulture in 
Ous branches; for if we are correct in our reasoning, the 
aa keystone is motive, must necessarily be applica- 
ke orms of changes produced by man’s interference with 
y ; Of one thing we are assured through trial, that by using 
ae otive given to the plant by man as furnishing data for classi- 
Qence and by the study into the historical or probable Be 
á. ad stages of selection, we are enabled to form logical 
aes subdivisions in our garden forms, whereby identifi- 
ies varieties by description has been furthered, and thus the 
a“ domesticated plants in their economic relations has been 
oe More easy for us to pursue. 


578 The Naturalist Brazilian Expedition, [June, : 


THE NATURALIST BRAZILIAN EXPEDITION. 
Parer III.—SAo Jodo po Monte NEGRO. 

BY HERBERT H. SMITH. | 

(Continued from page 470, May number.) 


HE large Felidz are now rare near São Joao, but individuals 
of all the species are still occasionally met with. The Falls 
onca here roams indifferently in the highland or lowland forest; 
occasionally it attains a length of eight feet from the nose to the 
root of the tail, and in fierceness and strength it is probably not 
inferior to a lion. This species is characterized by black spots 
arranged in groups or circles of five or six each, onan ochre or 
tawny ground. Throughout Brazil there are two other aooe 
which heretofore appear to have been confounded with this one 
by naturalists. The first is the onca pintada, Uriauara or once 
cachorro of the Amazons. This is quite as large as the truf o 
and higher and thicker in proportion. The skin is readily disti- 
_ guished ; the colors are nearly the same as in the onca, but the 
spots are smaller and scattered evenly—never arranged in grove? 
The other species is the one which is known everywhere me 
tigre, or black tiger. It is even larger than the others, the 
being of a deep glossy brown-black, marked with stil! pan 
spots which are arranged as in the true onca. The skin of Z 
three species can always be readily distinguished, and the hun 
who, in such cases, are the best judges, declare that the m ay 
give birth to cubs which are similar in pattern and s 
themselves. Very rarely, it is said, crosses between two s 
kinds are seen, and it is possible that skins of these DES of 
pearing in European museums, have caused the Co us , 
species.” . el 
The puma, or /eao, as it is called here (Felis concolor) is S 4 
than the onca, and more common ; it kills sheep and ¢4 d 
never attacks a man unless driven to bay. The hunters es, The 
several varieties, but do not regard them as distinct speci®: 
puma does not cross with the three preceding kinds. 
1Called here simply onca, or jaguara ; on the Amazons, 
Matto Grosso, Cangussú. On the Amazons this species belongs 
plain, while the Uriauara is exclusively a highland form. that the? 
2 Prince Maximilian very clearly indicates tbe three species, Pat saute 
may be varieties, 


A ES A E PNS A 


1884.] The Naturalist Brazilian Expedition. 579 


The jaguaritica’ is a spotted cat, smaller than the puma; it ap- 
pears to be allied to the F. onca, but the spots tend to run into 
longitudinal stripes, and the animal is never more than five feet 
long. Two still smaller spotted kinds are known here, one of 
which is marked much like the jagwaritica, but on a grayish in- 
stead of a yellowish ground; the other has small black spots on 
an ochreous ground. 

Finally, there is a gray, unspotted species, not much larger 
than the domestic cat. All these small species are readily tamed 
if taken young. We had a jaguaritica kitten in the house for 
several weeks. When brought to us it was as large as a three- 
months-old domestic cat, and its eyes were not yet open. It soon 
learned to feed from an ordinary nursing bottle, and it became 
very affectionate and playful, following us around, and climbing 
into our laps when we sat down. Its cry was like that of a 
domestic kitten, but shorter and sharper. We had hopes of rear- 
ing it and carrying it to the United States, but after awhile, with- 
out any visible cause, it sickened and died. 

Foxes appear to be exclusively confined to the high prairies ; 
l believe that ‘the differeaces of color shown by individuals are 
only varietal A kind of wild dog is found in the forest, but we 
did nog obtain specimens, and I am unable to judge whether or 
not it is merely a form of the domestic dog which has run wild. 
The Mao pellado (literally bare-handed) is a reddish-brown dog- 

€ animal, one of the commonest mammals of this region; the 
legs are long, and on the lower part have only very short, scat- 

hairs, whence the name. It is nocturnal, wandering on the 
=“ woods and ravines, and occasionally visiting cornfields 
devour the tender ears. It also eats nestlings and eggs. Two 


1 
Onca vermelha on the Amazons; Pardo in Matto Grosso. Called also Suacu- 
- "a, 4 Guarany name meaning false deer, 


2 

Pes smaller spotted species and the gray one are called indiscriminately 
Lower o or forest cat in Rio Grande do Sul and in Matto Grosso. Ont e 
kind i the small spotted species are termed mavacajés, and only an uni- 
Thave not Snamed gato do matto. | 

ie apaya to name the species, partly because, writing in the field, I 
anasi Of reference at hand, and partiy because the nomenclature is still in 
Rites a spe eee will, of course, be much difference of opinion as to what consti- 
“parated, tia among these Felidæ, but so long as the various forms can be readily 


them as es: do not ordinarily cross with each other, it appears better to regard 
tion of t. Whether they are « species” or “races” or" varieties ” is a ques- 
very little im 7 


37 


580 The Naturalist Brazilian Expedition. [June, 


cubs are generally produced ata birth. The Mao pellado, if taken 
young, may be domesticated, but it never becomes thoroughly 
tame; it has a very strong, disagreeable odor, which makes it an 
undesirable pet. 

Of the Coatis (Nasua) two species are found here as in other 
parts of Brazil. The larger, called Coat-munaé,’ resembles a rac- 
coon, but stands rather lower, and is readily distinguished by its 
long snout; the Coazi-miry? is smaller. Both are rather nocturnal 
in their habits, and rather frugiferous than carnivorous; two cubs 
are produced at a birth, Tame coatis are often seen, but as they 
are very mischievous and rather ill-natured, they are generally 
kept chained. 

Two kinds of otters, the Joztra and the arivanha, are occasion 
ally seen about the rivers. The /ontra appears to be identical 
with the Amazonian species of the same name. It never wanders 
far from the stream or river in which it lives, and when al br 
it quickly takes to the water, swimming at the surface and raising 
its head to stare at the intruder with a short bark. These otters, 
if taken young, become very tame, and they may be taught to 
bring in fish. I knew of one on the Lower Amazons wie 
companied the village boys in their frequent baths, diving sat 
with them and evidently enjoying the fun. The ariranha is mu 
larger, and when swimming against the current it often aave 
by a series of leaps above the water; in this way It wil Ce 
a steamer. In Matto Grosso I have seen two of these ia 
keep before an ascending steamer in a swift river for more 
an hour, 

A small skunk is found along the borders 
not think that it is properly a forest animal. 
lar to that of the North American skunks, but thoug 


hace 


gland is well developed it is seldom used. meer 


living specimen was brought to us ina sac 

run about the floor and found that it had hardly any - 

odor; even when we killed it, it did not attempt to eres be 

teristic defensive weapon. It may be that the glan 

comes active at certain periods. y 
Capivaras? are still nis mon by the river-shore, where th? 


| 7In Guarany, literally the trap-coati; corrupted to Coati- 
? Guarany, little Coati. 


* From the Tupy-Guarany iaafé, grass; uára, that lives in or among. 


1884] The Naturalist Brazilian Expedition, 581 


subsist principally on grass and leaves; they are very stupid and 
tame, and so heavy in their movements that it is no difficult mat- 
ter to catch them alive. When pursued they generally take to 
the water, swimming with part of the head above the surface. I 
have frequently seen Capivaras running about with cattle, and in 
less populous districts they will allow a man to pass within a few 
yards of them without showing alarm. Living specimens are 
sometimes seen about houses, but they can never be thoroughly 
tamed. The skin is prized for making whips and cords; it has a 
black outer cuticle which scales off soon after the animal is killed, 
so that it is difficult to obtain a perfect specimen. The flesh is 
considered unfit for food, owing to its unpleasant flavor; but 
when the animal is skinned and cleaned soon after its death, this 
is not noticeable ; the meat is then very good, as I can attest, 
The female Capivara is generally seen with several young, all of 
different sizes, though it is said that they have only one or two at 
abirth. If the common reports are true, conception must take 
place several times during gestation. An intelligent hunter as- 
Sured me that he had found six foeti, all of different*sizes, in the 
womb of a Capivara; the largest was on the point of being born, 
and he succeeded in keeping it alive for several weeks. I have 
heard Similar stories from other quarters; but other hunters deny 
their truth, and say that from six to ten young Capivaras are pro- 
duced at one birth, i 

Allied to the Capivara, and resembling it in form, are two small 
rodents, the prié and the micé, both found on the Campo; the 
latter, it would appear, extends northward as far as the River 

| hyba, but it is rare in Rio Grande do Sul, where the pr7d is. 
common, — 


Pacas are the largest forest rodents, they are now rare in this 
Ee othe Province, their excellent meat causing them to be 
: ot after by the hunters. They are properly nocturnal, eat- 
l hiia and roots. -Of the allied Cotias there appear to be two 
e, and I am inclined to think that many species, differ- 
ght but constant characters, will be found in South 
other The Cotias are diurnal, and subsist on fruits. Of 

RS appa we collected only a small blackish squirrel, a por- 
of th and a curious forest rat with a very elongated body; all 
smal! © rare, and I could learn nothing of their habits. A 


: ing in sli 


MM rabbit is found on the Campos, and there is a kind of rat 


582 The Naturalist Brazilian Expedition. [June, 


(rato da taquara) which occasionally appears in immense num- 
bers, though it is generally very rare. 

Tapirs, or antas, are now very rare near São João, though they 
are common in the less settled parts of the province; in the equa- 
torial forests of Brazil they are among the most abundant ani- 
mals. They wander only in the high forest, coming to streams 
at night to drink and wallow; their food consists of leaves and 
ruits. 

Tapirs are readily tamed, and they are rather affectionate and 
intelligent pets. A friend of mine once suffered a terrible fright 
from a tame tapir. He was passing the night at a Brazilian house 
where one of these animals was allowed to roam about at will 
My friend slept in a hammock, whence, about midnight, he was 
very rudely ejected by a large animal which attempted to pass 
underneath him ; as the hammock hung low, the animal's back 
acted on it like an earthquake, and the sleeper tumbled out. 
Awakened thus suddenly, he threw out his hands, to find them 
in contact with a rough, cold skin. A yell of terror brought the 
other inmates of the house, and the offending tapir was ign 
iously dragged away ; but my friend did not soon recover from 
his fright. 

The te kinds of wild hogs found here seem to see 
with the species (taiassi and caititú) found on the Ane a 
in Matto Grosso. Both wander in small droves, eating fruits 
roots; they are seldom seen on the open lands, and "a ai 
there they quickly seek refuge in the forest. Once una% 
trees they are apt to show fight, facing the hunter and gnashing 
their long tusks. Their meat is very good. 

Two nd of ant-eaters, the large 7 amandua snes pi 
medium-sized Tamanduá pequeno are found here; the firs 
to walk only on the ground, but the ¢amandud aE: dish 
climbs trees in search of ants’ nests. The small a state the 
ing species does not appear to be found here. In opty irur, but 
tamanduás seem to feed only on termites and insect 


i ad. We 
they may be tamed, and they will then eat rice and bre a 
: the 

1Our word tapir, the Latin zapirus and the French taf” come from 

-Guarany name /apiira or tapiir. Anta in Portuguese means pR er ds or 
Banner ant-eater, in allusion to its broad, spreading tail, whic eat ant-ealet- ae 
its back; on the Amazons it is also called samandud-asst, pa i ant, and 
manduá appears to be derived from the Tupy-Guarany 444 y T 
trap. 


at ee ee es es Pe F eed i Soe 


are both 
and 


1884.] The Naturalist Brazilian Expedition. 583 


once kept a young Tamanduá pequeno in the house for two or 
three weeks, feeding it on milk, which it sucked or lapped from 
a saucer. It became quite tame, following us about awkwardly 
by walking on the sides of its feet; if allowed to do so it would 
climb to our laps, clinging tenaciously to trousers or skirt by 
holding the cloth with its strong hooked claws turned back on the 
palms. Though this specimen was a mere baby the claws were 
formidably strong, and after one or two trials none of us cared to 
trust our fingers to them. When first brought to the house it 
expressed its fear by short whines or grunts, and afterward it 
gave vent to similar cries when hungry. It was fond of heat, 
often stretching itself on the ground in the sunshine with all four 

wide apart. Like all young specimens this was much paler 
in color than the adults, approaching to yellowish-white. Occa- 
sionally old tamanduas are found with the same tint, and the 
hunters regard these as a distinct species, but I believe that they 
are albinic varieties, 


Three kinds of armadillos or tatis are mentioned by the 
hunters in Rio Grande; of these we obtained two, belonging to 
different genera, The larger, which sometimes grows to a length 
of three feet, seems to be almost exclusively a feeder on carrion; 
it makes deep burrows, breaking the earth with its strong 
claws, and sometimes it is said digging into graves. The other 
s Much smaller, never more than eighteen inches long, and 
it feeds on White ants, small fruits and so on ; tame ones make 
a amusing pets, running about the house and poking their 
MQuisitive noses into every crevice. This kind is eaten, the 
mas being White and very good; but it is a singular fact that 
i will not touch it. A still smaller tati, sometimes seen here, 

characterized by a truncated and somewhat hairy shell. All 

>S Species live in clearings, fachinal forest or open campo; 
never, I believe, in the main forest. 

A large Opossum is common in the woods, living in hollow 
and eating small birds, etc. It is strictly nocturnal, and 
i tly is quite unable to see during the day time; the 

senerally take it alive, carrying it by the tail. When 
“Sd it hisses much like a goose, and tries to bite. It is 

Sly tenacious of life, living after its back bone and skull 
br oken ; I have even known one to live for some time, 
: to walk and bite, after its heart was taken out. 


584 The Naturalist Brazilian Expedition. [June, : 


A female opossum was brought to us with six well-grown 
young ones, as large as three weeks’ old kittens ; they clung to the 
‘mother’s back, twisting their prehensile tails around hers, and 
apparently looking upon her as their protector; but during the 
‘succeeding night they all escaped through a hole, leaving the 
mother, who could not follow, behind. One or two small 
opossum rats are also met with; they climb over the small 
branches of trees and, like the large species, are unable to see in 
the daytime. I could learn nothing of their habits. 

Passing by some less interesting species, I may here devote å 
‘page to our tame monkey, Bildad or Billy as we generally called 
him. This was a very small gray marmoset from Pernambuco, 
which I had bought of a sailor in Rio de Janeiro. Being much 
petted, and allowed to run about as he pleased, he became very 
tame ; rather an unusual thing with this genus, for the marmosets 
are generally rather wild and timid. Even at his best Billy es 
somewhat fractious, always biting if we attempted to seize him, 
though he came to us readily enough if we offered a hand. He 
was especially attached to my wife, spending hours 45 ed 
shoulder or on her head, his four arms spread out and his se 
clinging fast to her hair; if she put her hat on over him so M e 
the better, if neither head nor shoulder could be had he wou 
crawl up a. sleeve or under a vest, always turning err 
his inquisitive face out to see if we were observing him. i 
in a playful mood he delighted, as a child might, ima gr as 
“peek-a boo,” dodging from side to side behind a ae 
and keeping up the game as long as anybody would a 
him. About once a day Billy was seized with a wild cee a 
and a tremendous romp took place. He would leap from Pe 
the other, rushing over us from feet to head, sipe 4 

: ‘ our 

‘noses, pulling our eye-winkers, playing bo-peep from ae l 
and throwing himself on his back to bite his own ene 
ecstasy of enjoyment. Suddenly, in the midst of a rush, ait 2 
stop short, draw back the corners of his eyes, epee 
indescribable face at one of his observers; seen for pau Bil 

time this always provoked us to shouts of laughter, W Some- 
would scuttle away and turn a somersault on a ie pet- 
times for a joke we would put him inside of a "a rather t° 
flower or in a lamp-chimney or tumbler, and he ppe he 
enjoy his imprisonment. When left to his ow ng tree | 
ran about the house, sunned himself in a neighboring 7 


dusans ire arty aie. oe inane 


1884] 


caught flies by approaching them very slowly and grabbing 
em with one hand. If long neglected he became aggrieved; 
then he would find some conspicuous perch and give vent to his 
troubles in a series of shrill screams. If still unnoticed he would 
scream yet louder, his face expressing, as only a marmoset'’s can, 
the depth of his feelings; the hair on his forehead standing on 
end, and his whole body trembling with rage, But the exceeding ` 
force of his vocal powers was only displayed when we punished 
him, or when—rare and dreadful occurrencee—he was washed; 
then indeed his lamentations became shrieks and every line of 
his face evinced his abhorrence and wrath. On such occasions 
Billy could only be appeased with a comb; for to be combed 
was his idea of perfect happiness. As soon as he felt the 
delightful touch all sounds would cease; with eyes fixed on 
vacancy and face expressive of speechless bliss, he would stretch 
out all four arms and lie quite still as long as we pleased to comb 
him. He would then submit to lie on his back while his breast 
ms combed, or he would cling with his two front hands to a 
friendly finger, and with two hinder hands to a chair, while his body 
Was stretched to its utmost length; he would even hang by his 
hinder hands with his head down, or let us hold him up by 
the tail, 
es Billy, having never known a wild life, cared nothing for liberty ; 
-if lost in the forest, as happened once or twice, he soon brought 
— MS to him by his screams. He slept in a little basket, but 
. s*nerally broke out before morning and climbed to my wife's 
| 
| 


The Naturalist Brazilian Expedition, 585 


» nesting on her shoulder. Sometimes we carried him in the 
basket while on our journeys, and he was always well contented so 
. long as he felt that he was moving ; but if we laid the basket 
: down he Presently broke into his usual heart-rending jeremiad. 
| : ~ first attempt to carry him on horseback resulted well until 
1 ~Y noticed the horse ; then a scream of terror was followed by 
a * wild rush for some hiding place, and he eventually took refuge 
‘ 2 the top of one of my great riding-boots. He was intensely 
of cats and dogs, but cared nothing about birds, turtles or 
e e had a tame land-tortoise which sometimes shared 
eet and the tortoise was frequently robbed of his dinner 
its room mate, who would sit on its back and cooly devour 
‘Pail. The monkey ate almost any vegetable, and even a 
et he was especially fond of almonds and of cheese, both 
Senerally resulted in indigestion. He also had an 


586 The Naturalist Brazilian Expedition. [June, 


undue fondness for tragacanth paste, which we sometimes used in 
our work, and if we covered the paste cup he would spend hours 
trying to pry the cover off. Being spoiled, he was rather saucy, 
considering that he had the first right to every dish on our table, 
and helping himself without ceremony, especially to the sugar 
and milk; brandy he would take if it was well sweetened 
Once or twice, while we were living at a hotel, Billy broke loose 
at dinner time and astonished the boarders by racing over the 
table to my wife’s chair, ending by sitting on her shoulder and 
making one of his inimitable faces at the assembled people. One 
day when he occupied his usual place near us a nicely ornamented 
boar’s head was brought in with grinning jaws and staring eye 
made of lemons and olives ; the monkey, who had never seen the 
like, put out both hands as if toward the apparition and retreated 
with a yell to the farthest corner of the room, whence he was taken 
trembling. 

When we first brought him home Billy’s curiosity was much 
excited by the looking-glass in which he saw, as he supposed, 
another monkey ; having tried in vain to reach his playmate kon 
the front, he looked around the glass and was evidently “T 
pointed at finding nothing there ; this performance was parai 
intervals for some days, but after awhile he became aoa ¥ 
to the phenomenon and did not notice it further. He was @ ý 
bright colors, gilt buttons, glass beads and the like; ~ 
tried to pick the flowers from my wife’s muslin dress ; Ci 
hoppers and beetles were a treat to him, though he see? 


; : - hel 
care more about tearing them to bits than eating them ; he ons 
ouch our collectio? 


ag much 
keeping mu 


oming out of the last he lay quiet for a momen a3 r hand te 
hopes of saving him; but, as my w! 
him, he stood up with an effort, made on pge 
her, and fell over dead. I suppose that there was n resented 35 
in the house when we buried him—my wife page 
sacrilege the idea of saving his skin for a s$ aog E pen 
agreed that no more playful and affectionate p€ lacing 
seen. Weeks afterwards I found my wife furtively P 
on his grave. 

1 I have tried to describe the marmoset’s habits accurately 
part of the account is exaggerated. 


and literally, eae 


halni a ee oe i ee) ee 


1884) On the Evidence that the Earth's Interior is Solid. 587 


ON THE EVIDENCE THAT THE EARTH'S INTERIOR 
IS SOLID. 


BY DR. M. E. WADSWORTH. 


T is well known that the facts of geology require some mode 
of escape from the now generally-received opinion that this 
earth is a solid globe. This is especially shown by the introduc- 
tion of so many hypotheses to avoid the logical consequences 
incident upon such a globe. Some of these hypotheses are lakes 
of still unsolidified material ; Masses of readily fusible materials ; 
aqueo-igneous solution of sédiments ; fusion of the earth’s inte- 
rior on the removal of pressure ; a solid crust and a solid core 
with a zone of liquid matter between, etc., etc. All these views 
are simply compromises between the known fact that some part 
of the earth must be liquid in order to account for geological 
phenomena and the Supposed physical and mathematical demon- 
Strations of the earth’s solidity. These compromises are unnec- 
“ssary if it can be shown that the claims for the earth’s solidity 
are not well based. 
facts of petrography likewise seem to the writer to de- 
mand the belief that all eruptive rocks have come from the 
‘arth’s interior, below any of the sedimentary deposits. Also 
that they must have come from material that has either never 
been Solidified or else has been reliquified. 
This Paper has arisen out of the fact that to the writer’s mind 
. “appeared a diversity between the commonly taught hypoth- 


a of the earth's structure and observed petrographical facts. 


therefore undertook an examination of the principal published 
cal x Ms rder to see whether the error resided in the petrographi- 


tions or i i lid earth. 
Tiek or in the data for the hypothesis of a soli 


and it + led to the writing of this paper nearly two years ago, 

now stands essentially unchanged. Its object is to place 

ee thie chief linés-of argument in behalf of á solid 

Sein, t to indicate that geology and petrography have as yet 

ent with eio ume any structure for the earth’s interior consist- 

‘nown facts, without regard to the so-called physical and 
monstrations of its solidity.) 


r de 
, : th ney of the Earth's Solidity derived from Precession and 
a : > 


the Tides—The most prominent of the early advo- 
+ 1883, 1,1 27-150, 


588 On the Evidence that the Earth’s Interior is Solid. (June, 


cates of the essential solidity of the earth, was Mr. William Hop- 
kins, who based his conclusion upon the phenomena of preces- 
sion and nutation. In order to mathematically investigate this 
question, he made two assumptions regarding the earth: 1. That 
it was composed of a homogeneous fluid mass contained in a 
homogeneous solid shell. 2. A heterogeneous fluid inclosed in 
a heterogeneous solid shell. In both cases the transition was as- 
sumed to be “ immediate between the entire solidity of the shell 
to the perfect fluidity of the interior mass.” He further assumed 
that the circulation would go on in every portion of the mass 
until it had lost its perfect fluidity throughout the entire mass at 
nearly the same instant. This of course could only be correct if 
the liquid was homogeneous. He did, however, state that a wis- 
cid condition of the liquid would prevent the descent of the 
cooled exterior portions towards the interior. With a globe con: 
stituted as above for his basis, Hopkins concluded that the phe- 
nomena of precession and nutation did not demand on the earth 
a crust of over 1000 miles in thickness, but they did require one 
at least 800 miles thick. In order to account for volcanic phe- 
nomena, he assumed that there were in the so 
of molten material whose origin was to be as 
fusibility of the material composing them, tha 
the surrounding solid crust.’ l 

Professor Hennessy later held? that in a fluid globe the p 
particles would sink through the lighter, while the lighter 


n of that forming 


mass would be reached, so that the globe ; 
series of spheroidal strata, each of uniform densi 


its own mass.” He further remarked : “ The exterior ding t d 
ré, acco g 1 


the fluid would cool first, until they would acqui 


: ` their cooling 
the particular circumstances which may influence ; general 3 
certain densities. If the effect of refrigeration be ney ae 
coo! 


acquired densities of the cooled matter. aa with the 
fluid would have its temperature reduced from i ge posi 
cold particles from above, and it would tend to ¢ we 


à . 4355 
Philos. Trans., 1839, pp. 381-423; 1840, PP- 193-208; 1842, PP 


? Philos. Trans., 1851, pp. 495-547. 


lidified crust, lakes 
cribed to a greatet 


1884,] On the Evidence that the Earth’s Interior is Solid. 589 


tion in a similar manner to the portions first cooled. As each 
cooled portion of the fluid descends, the three following causes 
= would therefore impede its descent : 

_ Ist. From the arrangement already indicated of the denser 
-strata about the center of the mass, and from the nature of the 
law of density of the strata, each stratum into which the cooled 
fluid would descènd, would be denser than the preceding. : 
2d. If the general effect of the refrigeration be to increase the 
density of the cooled matter, each stratum would have its den- 
sity augmented by the passage through it of the cooler matter 

above 


3d. The descending portions will have their densities dimin- 
ished by the increase in their temperature. 
- With an earth thus constituted for his starting point, Hennessy 
concluded that its crust could not be less than eighteen miles 
oF more than 600 miles. He further claimed that owing 
to friction, viscidity, and pressure’ it was probable that the fluid 
_ interior and the solid exterior would rotate nearly as if the earth 
_ "as solid from its center, thus denying the validity of Hopkins’ 
Conclusions, 


“ Professor Samuel Haughton, starting from the assumed prem- 
ni that the earth was “ composed of a solid shell, having the 
density of the rocks at the surface and a fluid homogeneous 
: mi? also having a fluid heterogeneous one, deduced 768 
a e the probable thickness in both cases ; 
The conclusions of Hopkins were sustained by Sir William 
He starts with the hypothesis that the earth is com- 
Posed of a thin shell which passes abruptly into a homogeneous 
‘ie ible fluid, mobile like water, which forms the interior. 
also assumes that this liquid interior is heterogeneous and 
“a Taking for his Starting points globes suchas these, he con- 
‘ti that the earth is more rigid than a homogeneous globe of 
26 4nd probably than one of steel. : | 
tanh = further claimed that it was demonstrable that the 
ù x solidified from the center, because melted rock contracted 


soon. we? and that hence the crust would sink to the center 
Soon as formed2 


> 1851, XXII, 251-273. 

1864, XXIII, 157-169; Phil. Mag., 1863 (4), XXV, I-14, 
3» PP- 573-582; Thomson and Tait’s Natural Philosophy, 
Geol. Soc. Glas., 1878, v1, 38-49. 


590 On the Evidence that the Earth's Interior ıs Solid. [June, 


Thomson's views were republished and reaffirmed in 18722 but 
in 1876 he says, regarding his previous argument from precession 
and nutation, as the result of a conversation between himself and 
Professor Newcomb : “ Trying to recollect what I had written on 
it fourteen years ago * * * my conscience smote me, and! 
could only stammer out that I had convinced myself that so-and- 
so and so-and-so, at which I had arrived by a non-mathematical 
short cut, were true. He hinted that viscosity might suffice to 
render precession and nutation the same as if the earth were rigid, 
and so vitiate the argument for rigidity. This I could not fora 
moment admit, any more than when it was first put forward by 
Delaunay.? But doubt entered my mind regarding the so-and-so 
and so-and-so, and I had not completed the night journey to 
Philadelphia, which hurried me away from our unfinished discus- 
sion, before I had convinced myself that they were grievously 
wrong.” i 

Thomson, however, strongly affirmed the correctness of his 
views regarding the rigidity of the earth as determined by T 
phenomena of the tides. It is permitted, since he still retains 
view that the crust when formed would sink, from its "n 
the center, to think that if he would affirm the pe T 
nutation theory, for fourteen years, sọ often as he had, wi 
giving it sufficient thought, that possibly with the very mp s 
tidal data at his command, he has not looked at this question 
all its bearings. 

Professor Teele indeed in 1872 pointed out that Ta 
had assumed a spheroidal homogeneous elastic shell fi ia 
incompressible fluid, and that all the latter could gine 
proved was, “ that the earth does not consist of an ae si 
envelope enclosing a mass of the ideal substance ¢@ 
compressible liquid.” Hennessy also justly calls i 
the fact that Thomson’s method of proving the rig! glass 
earth by assuming, first, that it is a homogeneous © g, as if om 
and again of steel, is an argument of the same kin siway trains 
should attempt to prove that rapid locomotion 1^ ra 
was impossible, on account of the shocks the passe? 

+ = 260, ee og 

9 ARPES big os Takas, a Hennessy advanced this gen im i) 
enteen years before Delaunay. See Mature, 1871, Ul, 420; Geol. 
VIII, 216-218. 

? Report Brit. Assoc., 1876, xvi (Sect.), I-12. 


ayn A ABER Ok eee! S sat ES EIN II eens ee | oie 


| we 
foo 


‘P il > AVII, 4 
; Trans,, 1880, CLxx, 1 


1884] On the Evidence that the Earth’s Interior is Solid. 59I 


be subject to, by assuming as his premise that the carriages were 
rigidly attached to one another, 

Delaunay further objected to the precession and nutation theory 
of Hopkins and Thomson, on account of the slowness of the 
motion and the viscidity of the liquid interior, which would 
cause the earth to act as if it were a solid body.’ 

From observations made on the deflection of the plumb-line 
by the Himalaya mountains, Sir George B. Airy held, “that the 
whole of that country is floating upon a dense fluid, and that the 
thick mass of the lighter mountain-matter sinks deep in the fluid, 
and that the displacement of denser matter neutralizes almost en- 
tirely the attraction of the lofty mountains. The form of the 
‘arth is not such as would be taken by a solid structure, but such 
as wouid be taken by a fluid mass with solids floating upon it.’ 

In the case of Mr. Geo, H. Darwin's papers, it is difficult in 


` Some cases to understand exactly what he regards as the consti- 


tution of his assumed mathematical globes, and to express his 
ideas in non-mathematical language. His investigations appear 
=n made on the suppositions that the globe is a viscous non- 
elastic spheroid, an elastico-viscous one, and one either elastic, 
i€ or viscous. All these, if he is rightly understood, are 
considered to be homogeneous. Darwin then states that the 
Practical result of this paper may be summed up by saying 
that it is “strongly confirmatory of the view that the earth has a 
very great effective rigidity,” the term earth being substituted for 
the etical globes mathematically investigated by him.’4 
Paper he says that the word earth is used as an abbre- 
te = “a homogeneous rotating viscous spheroid.” ; 
$ ater paper “On the stresses due to the weight of conti- 
T he assumes that the earth is a homogeneous elastic 
Sphere, of which two conditions are possible, one that it is in- 
p pressible, the other that it is compressible. He then proceeds 
that in an earth thus constituted a state of stress must 


k wing to the inequalities between the continents and sea 


R Sag the discussion of this supposed condition, he says: 
that if th i t, then at a thou- 
— 8nd miles f, e earth be solid throughout, the 


: rom the surface the material must be as strong as 

ip 3 1872, V, 288 289 

Geol. M i 1868 > ¿ 

ete (1), v, so7—5r1, 
I—44. 


~35, 147-593. 


Rib) 
i 


592 On the Evidence that the Earth's Interior is Solid. (June, 


granite. If it be fluid or gaseous inside, and the crust a thousand 
miles thick, that crust must be stronger than granite, and if only 
two or three hundred miles in thickness much stronger than 
granite. This conclusion is obviously strongly confirmatory of 
Sir William Thomson’s view that the earth is solid throughout." 

This statement of Professor Darwin seems to me misleading, 
for if his paper is understood aright, he has proved nothing of 
the actual earth, but only of a hypothetical homogeneous elastic in- 
compressible or compressible globe, and for this assumed globe he 
has substituted the term earth, the same as the algebraist uses the 
terms x and y. 

Is there a single geologist who believes that it is possible for 
this earth to have any such structure as that assumed for it by 
Thomson, Darwin and others? The difficulties placed by the 
physicists in the way of a belief in the earth’s liquid interior, 


seem to be of their own making. These difficulties arise from - 


the assumptions and limitations that the physicists have m- 
pose upon the problem to bring it within the range of sat 
ical analysis. They have taken premises that no geologist would 
take, and having proved their point regarding these asst 
premises, then claimed that they have proved. it f p 
What physicist has taken as his basis the most probable rer 
tion of the earth if its interior is liquid ; a heterogeneous, pa 
elastic, liquid interior, irregularly inter-locked with and grać 
passing into a lighter heterogeneous crust? The problem ee 
lieved to be beyond the power of any transcendental ee 
now known, and it is not believed to be possible m e 
to prove, at present, anything regarding the actual state 
earth’s interior. 

Our conclusions as to that state appear to be dependent 0° o 
evidence that can be derived from geological and pet 
cal studies. Professor Hennessy appears to have taken, 
basis for his mathematical discussion, data that @ aay 008 
probable constitution of the earth than those assumed by 
else, and his results are entirely consonant with the 
a fluid interior. 

It is as necessary that physical an 
the state of the earth’s interior should conform to 
as it is that geological theories should conform to 


eee 
d mathematical discussi? 


physical 


1 Philos. Trans., 1882, cLxxul, 187-230. 


or this earth. 


re nearer the 


facts, 
geological and 


1884.] On the Evidence that the Earth's Interior is Solid. $93 


mathematical laws. It is incumbent on the physicist to explain 
earthquake motion, the sinking and rising of different portions of 
the earth's crust, volcanic phenomena, the uniformity in composi- 
tion of lavas, the structure of volcanic rocks, sedimentation, fault- 
ing, vein formation, etc., etc., by his theory of a solid globe. 
Geological facts are just as positive as physical ones, and it is as 
necessary for the physicist to reconstruct his theory of a solid 
tarth to suit geological facts, as it is for geologists to reconstruct 
their theories to suit the so-called physical demonstrations of a 
solid earth—demonstrations that merely show that under the as- 
sumed conditions and hypotheses the physicist’s imaginary globe 
must be a solid one. 
Are not speculations, speculations still, even if threaded to- 
gether by a long series of mathematical formule, and are not all 
led mathematical proofs of the earth’s solidity the mere 
Working out of certain assumptions? Huxley was indeed right 
when he said, as the present writer would like to say: “I do not 
Presume to throw the slightest doubt upon the accuracy of any 
of the calculations made by such distinguished mathematicians as 
l who have made the suggestions I have cited, * * * but 
I desire to point out that this seems to be one of the many cases 
| in which the admitted accuracy of mathematical processes is al- 
-to throw a wholly inadmissible appearance of authority 
over the results obtained by them. Mathematics may be com- 
' Pared to a mill of exquisite workmanship, which grinds you stuff 
any degree of fineness; but, nevertheless, what you get de- 
| Ee on what you put in; and as the grandest mill in the world 
ten a extract wheat-flour from peascods, so pages of formulz 
| get a definite result out of loose data.” 
ae aly in mathematical and physical science, but in all sci- 
7 » 20 amount of discussion can give the conclusion any greater 
; ee the premises have, but attracted by the conclusion 
s ere thi in of argument, the data are apt to be overlooked. 
IS not the case many a structure, reared with great care 
: Sigal as established, would be found to rest on flimsy 
oo as the mathematical and astronomical determina- 
. 3 earth’s solidity are concerned, it would seem that 
“co Exists as to the correctness of the premises as applied 
Sarth, and hence like doubt regarding the conclusions. 


l address, Geol, Soc. London, 1869, p. 1. 


594 Vestiges of Glacial Man in Minnesota. [June, 


When calculations shall be based upon the best data obtain- 
able as to the materials of the earth’s interior and their arrange- 
ment therein, then, and not till then, will mathematical calcula- 
tions have real weight that geologists are bound to respect, but 
that day is a far distant one. 

In the mathematical discussion of the state of the earth’s inte- 
rior, it has been customary to select a homogeneous globe of 
uniform density, but when the earth has been assumed to be 
heterogeneous and of varying density, it has been regarded as 
composed of layers, the layers being of unequal density when 
compared with one another, but of equal density throughout 
their own mass. 

The more probable condition is that of a globe with a gradual 
increasing density from the exterior towards the interior, but 
with the materials heterogeneously arranged in the so-called lay- 
ers. While the heavier materials would increase in abundance 
and the lighter diminish as the interior was approached, and T 
versa, these materials at any one point would be found to ® 
mixed together in varying proportions, the same as they are p 
meteorites and terrestrial eruptive rocks. While the Po 
the series may, indeed, be free from one another’s ye egw 
the intermediate layers would contain more or less of get 
rials that predominate in the other portions of the 


interior. ; 
(To be continued.) 


:0: 

TA. | 

VESTIGES OF GLACIAL MAN IN MINNESO | 
BY MISS FRANC E. BABBITT. 


aba the open winter of 1878-9 and th 
diately succeeding it, the writer of this pap 
engaged in searching certain terrace surfaces of the tocality ut 
tiver for palzolithic remains supposed to exist at the 
der examination. Rudely worked quartze e 
discovered here by the State geologist of me are 
N. H. Winchell, by whom they had subsequently The field of 
and figured in the State geological report for 187 ete 

exploration lies in central Minnesota, about one d small villag’ 
northwest of St. Paul, and within the township an nt restricted 
of Little Falls, Morrison county. Its area is at P gi 


1884.] Vestiges of Glacial Man in Minnesota. 595 


to a narrow section of the Mississippi valley, stretching along the 
river a short distance from the central site of observation. 

The find reported by Professor Winchell consists of chipped 
objects of a class generally ascribed to what is called the rude 
stone age. Of these, many appear to be mere refuse, while others 
are regarded as finished, and unfinished implements. The Win- 
chell specimens have been assigned, upon geological grounds, to 
a prehistoric era altogether antedating that of the mound-building 
faces, and reaching back to a time when the drift material of the 
terrace-plain was just receiving its final superficial deposit. It is 
found that, at intervals, the surface soil of the terrace is permeated 
w these quartzes to a depth of not unfrequently three or four 


The lowest and newest formation at this place constitutes the 
actual flood-plain of the river. It is still in process of develop- 
ment, is of fluctuating width and thickness, and is, at certain 
points, yet subject to partial overflow at periods of exceptionally 
high water. In that portion of the township of Little Falls sit- 
tiated east of the Mississippi, this bottom land is limited on the 
tast by a higher ancient river terrace, which has, at the head of 
the rapid called Little Falls, an average elevation above the river 
of about twenty-five feet, with a width of a mile or more. 

This older terrace, like the present flood-plain, is of undoubted 
drift origin, and has been spread out by the immediate action of 

Mr; Warren Upham, assistant on the State geological 
“utvey, tells us that it consists of stratified gravel and sand; that 
it forms a part of the modified drift, deposited at the close of the 
Sst glacial epoch of the great ice age, by the floods descending 

ong this valley from the melting and retreating ice-sheet ; and 
i it was derived from the drift material which had been con- 
tained in the lower portion of the ice. It belongs to the great 
> of river-terraces, extending from an indefinite beginning on 
north, to the embouchure of the Mississippi on the south. 
tiiir from any cause the lower plain, or bottom-land, does 
pi the edge of the upper plain becomes, of course, the 
| Never of the river; at places where, on the other hand, the 
: is deposits appear in force, the ancient terrace-banks either 
. Send to the, upon them in a pronounced line of steeps, or de- 
ety em by gentle slopes. 

“per terrace of the Mississippi valley is, at Little F alls, 

POs hs, v1. ” 


ANE ard s 


596 Vestiges of Glacial Man in Minnescta, [June, 


defined on the east by a broken chain of uplands which take on 
different names in different parts of their course. Thus they are 
known in Wisconsin as the Kettle range, and in Minnesota and 
Dakota, as the Coteau des Prairies and the Coteau du Missouri, te- 
spectively. Geological authorities agree that the range indicated 
is a series of terminal moraines, and that it defines the limits 
attained ‘by the great northern glaciers, at the acme of their 
southern advance, during the last of the universally recognized 
glacial epochs of North America. The morainic belt is regarded as 
an accumulation of débris, due to long-continued glacial halts, and 
alternations of advance and recession; the rubbish thrown down 
by ice melting while stationary or creeping back,at one time, having 
been plowed up and redistributed at the next subsequent period 
of. forward movement. When the climate at length became per- 
manently warmer, and the glaciers withdrew for the last time to 
the frozen regions of the north, they left their outline traced, as im 
a scroll of huge hieroglyphics, across the open page of the 
continent. 7 

This morainic belt does not follow the lines of latitude, but de- 
scends to its southern limit in an irregular series of broad : 
often very long lobes. These touch each other, and merge pa 
one at their lateral borders, on the east and west, while fi 
southern terminus each preserves an independent outline, a 
on a rounded contour at the extremity, and ending 14 ag ii 
less elongated curve prolonged towards the south. pe 
have, in southern Wisconsin, the well defined moraine ppt 
glacier descending from Lake Michigan into northern xi 
the western edge of which was joined by the eastern margi? © 
a similar ice-current coming down from Green bay. . 
of their united edges moved forward along the mi ant | 
combined masses in a single line of aggregation, now payne 
a medial moraine. At the extremity, each glacier pye w 
pendently to the south, where the moraines of R 
the form of two large, irregularly rounded lobes, Joine® | 
of the medial moraine. eet pape ortheast 

Still west of the Green Bay moraine lies that o pets alls, bY 
glacier, the western edge of which is skirted, at ae described 
the terrace-plain of the Mississippi river, = hithe fie Missi* 
A few miles further west still, on the opposite ais si 
sippi, yet another moraine of the modern ep? or 


the ba 


down 


1884.] ` Vestiges of Glacial Man in Minnesota. 597 
the northwest, but without impinging directly upon that from 
the direction of Lake Superior in the latitude of Little Falls, 
where the two are separated by an interval of several miles. As 
we are assured, however, by Mr. Warren Upham, the two finally 
come together in Stearns county, some little distance south of 
Morrison county. Geologically considered, then, the field of 
study lies in an anvient terrace-plain east of the Mississippi river, 
is situated precisely between the northeast and northwest mo- 
raines, and is, so far as the quartz stratum to be described is con- 
cerned, buried under an accumulation of modified drift deposited 
by glacial waters. 

While occupied in examining the river bank in quest of 
Wrought quartzes, one day during the season of 1879, I had 
occasion to ascend a slope lying between the new flood-plain and 
the older one, by a pathway leading through a sort of gap, or 
notch, in the latter. Henceforth I shall, for the purpose of more 
emphatic distinction, denominate the lower and higher levels un- 
der consideration as Jottom-land and terrace-plain, respectively. It 
seemed that at some past period a cut had been effected here by 
drainage, and that the washout thus formed had afterward been 
deepened through being used a8 a wagon-track. In this notch I 
discovered the soil to be thickly strewn with pieces of sharp, 
paque quartz. These were commonly of a white color, and 
ranged in size from minute fragments to bits as large as a man’s. 

d, and in some instances even larger. 

There were many hundreds of these chips visible, scattered! 
ee area of the width of the wagon-track, and ten to fifteen 
Aah length. They were conspicuously unwaterworn and like- 
Wea in the main, unweathered, though occasionally a bit was. 
Picked up having some one of its surfaces weathered, while frac- 
| ao. Wrought faces appearing upon other parts of it, looked! 
: as if the work of yesterday. On the other hand, the 
Mass of stone rubbish upon and among which the quartzes were 

» 8 much waterworn, many of the pieces being well 

mh while none of them are wholly angular. 
Henni of these quartz pieces had, when first observed, a sort of 
eis exterior unlike that of the rusty-looking specimens sub- 
ently exhumed from the stratum adjacent ; but this was no 
a” t due to the complete superficial cleansing to which they had 
: Subjected by recent exposure to the elements. At all events, 


598 | Vestiges of Glacial Man in Minnesota. [June, 


the bleached appearance proved a merely temporary characteris- 
tic, for although the quartzes received a thorough washing up 
immediately after being collected, they directly began to take on 
anew a tawny yellowish tint which, within a few months, became 
decidedly pronounced. They were again carefully cleansed with 
brush and water, again to resume their rusty tone of color. Ina 
few instances the process of brushing clean was repeated at inter- 
vals of four or five months, a third and even a fourth time, with 
similar results. The degree of discoloration appears to vary with 
the quality of the specimens affected, the most compact varieties 
of mineral undergoing the least modification of tint. The color- 
ing also fluctuates, probably, with the fluctuating proportion of 
iron in the containing soil. 

It was soon ascertained that the notch, and the surfaces imme 
diately surrounding it, afford no boulders nor other supplies of 
quartz except these chips. Nor does quartz appear on the east 
shore within a radius of perhaps an eighth of a mile from the 
spot, although it occurs plentifully just north and south of these 
limits, both in the form of veins in the slate rock of the region, | 
and in that of waterworn river-wash and occasional boulders j 
Waterworn lumps of quartz are now and then found, it is Beg i 
the subjacent till, but the latter lies several feet lower than 
quartz-bearing stratum, beneath which it directly peon 
hence could never have yielded the specified objects thr ahon 
ural processes. An additional fact, worthy of note, is the im 
ably small size of the pieces disclosed. But a single f the 

: here at 
larger than a club-head has, as yet, come to light anyw iv 
notch, and that one was not imbedded in the undis dE. 
at the notch proper, but in the débris at its base and W ad 
Even could there have existed at this site masses of mee ne 
portant enough to furnish the tens of thousands of i sh . 
lumps with which the place has proved to be pa thus : 
wholly incredible that such rocky masses could have C The 
absolutely annihilated, except through human iner a 
waterworn stone rubbish below the quartzes pene | 
grated, therefore so we should expect the latter likewise : 
There is no known reason why, having been subject 
influences, the one should have been broken into sm escaped di- : 
even splintered into the tiniest bits, while the other Se 
integrating forces. 


is.) Se orale AA eT A 


to the same 


1884.] Vestiges of Glacial Man in Minnesota. 599 


In view of the circumstances cited, it was finally concluded 
that the quartzes must have been artificially transported to their 
actual position, perhaps in fragments, perhaps in masses which 
were afterward broken into fragments. For a period of about 
four years the quartzes were largely augmented in number at 
every succeeding freshet, during which they were washed out of 
the inhuming sand of the roadway by descending drainage. 
Their immense and continually increasing quantity finally seemed 
to warrant the belief that they had resulted from systematic oper- 
ations of some sort, once conducted, for unknown purposes, upon 
that particular spot. A portion of the studied specimens subse- 
E yielded evidence of having received shape from human 


The theory of neolithic origin was, from the beginning, beset 
with embarrassments. Certain incongruous developments be- 
came increasingly perplexing with the advance of investigation. 
The spot appeared to be peculiarly unfitted by nature for a 
base of quartz-working operations. It was unintelligible, for 
example, why an important industry of this sort should have 
been established at so great a distance from quartz boulders and 
quartz-bearing rock, especially as convenient plains occur about 

nearest exposures of this mineral. Again, why should 
= a manufactory have been set up upon a steep hill-side 
bing its approaches of such a character that all the mate- 
mal to be handled, as also the implements fashioned, would 

to be transported to and fro, up and down a consider- 
| ok acclivity? Above all, why should this workshop have 
æn relegated to the bottom of a natural drain, the solid con- 
S of which were necessarily overwhelmed, or swept away 
orad at every considerable rainfall and thaw of the year? As 
was stration of the superficial disturbance to which the place 

“S Subject, I may mention that at the close of a long but by no 
~ > exceptionally protracted rain-storm, I once collected from 
| pia by actual count, about one thousand quartzes, all newly 

p, Cut of the soil at that one time. Of this I was certain, as 

Thad Previous] : f an 

‘Size Within v; y cleared the ground of every quartz piece of any 
oT ee View. 

: cc. fact wholly irreconcilable with the hypothesis of neolithic 
edges ow the absence of quartzes from the surfaces at the superior 
f the notch, and along the terrace-plain adjoining. It was 


600 Vestiges of Glacial Man in Minnesota. [June, 


not for a moment to be believed that such remains would have - 
been thus distributed by aboriginal artificers. It was simply im- 
possible that the quartz-workers should have limited their manip- 
ulations to a strip of sand six or eight feet wide and thirty to 
forty long, less or more, heaping upon this narrow defile thou- 
sands upon thousands of fragments, yet leaving absolutely no 
small splinters nor chips beyond, neither up the slopes of the 
notch nor elsewhere in the vicinity. 

The above-cited peculiarities of distribution remained the puz- 
zle of the situation until certain of the accumulated objects began 
to range themselves under types which, though vaguely outlined 
in touches of extremely rude workmanship, were, nevertheless, 
distinctly palzeolithic in general tone. 

The quartzes were now, for the first time, conjecturally classified 
with the palzolithic implements discovered by Professor Winchell 
imbedded within the surface of the terrace-plain, and figured in 
his geological report of a reconnoissance in Morrison county. It 
was judged that, as had been the case with the Winchell speci- 
mens, these objects had been included, primarily, within an upper 
stratum of the terrace-plain, whence they might easily pee 
washed by the drainage water copiously discharged through po 
notch. Such pieces, it was argued, would naturally be a al 
near their starting point, yet at a level somewhat below, W" 
the finer enveloping sand associated with them would ire 
on and deposited at a more distant spot. It is necessary yi pig 
in view the distinction between post-glacial relics and the T 
found by Professor Winchell. The discoverer holds these w , 
objects to be essentially a part of the drift of the last K a 

i joned prior 
epoch, and considers them to have been fashioned P aa | 
spreading out of the uppermost material of the soe sb À 
they are, at various points, distributed. It goes gage” posed d 
that post-glacial remains, on the contrary, are w ie 7 
my attention princ 7 


pally to the surface of the ground; in setting up 4 $ Winchell, Í 
æolithic objects of the class described by Professo! to a depth 
examined vertical sections of the upper terrace-plain 
of several feet. te the KOAU un 
Prolonged investigation ensued, establishing aes 
suspected fact that the notch quartzes could n 


1884.] Vestiges of Glacial Man in Minnesota. 601 


- directly involved in the terrace surfaces. Had they once been 
thus inhumed, the superficial stratum of adjacent drift would 
assuredly have been found to contain a greater or less proportion 
of similar fragments, scattered throughout its substance. But 
this was not the case. On the contrary, no buried quartzes what- 
ever appeared in the superior exposures of the notch, nor within 
the horizontal surfaces at either hand, though such were sought 
with careful scrutiny. Since November, 1879, at which time the 
Studies here recorded were in active progress, the wagon-track 
hitherto mentioned in this paper has been converted to public use 
asa highway, and has been repeatedly graded in consequence. 
As might be conjectured, the ground has been much dug over, the 
stratum being, at present, almost broken up and destroyed, if not 
wholly so. During three successive seasons, the road has been ina 
State of almost constant repair, owing to its being continually used 
for the heavy work of dragging logs from the bottom-land to the 
top of the terrace-plain. From this and other disturbing causes, 
hot necessary here to specialize, the topography of the spot has 
been materially modified of late, while quartzes from the bed of 
the notch, as likewise from the stratum at first discovered, have 
been much mixed up with the surrounding soil. Primarily, how- 
“ver, as I permit myself to reiterate in the way of emphasis, I 
could not, with a great deal of painstaking, find any superficially 
inhumed quartz fragments at the point of observation ; although, 
a shown by Professor Winchell, and as I have myself had abun- 
Occasion to observe, such quartzes occur in the surface strat- 

niga of the terrace-plain at various isolated localities in the vicin- 
ity. So far as I have been able to judge, these appear in groups 
which are surrounded by considerable areas containing no ob- 
*trvable remains. The absence of chips above a plane a foot or 
two superior to that of their bed at the bottom of the notch was, 
Course, a marked circumstance, since they should have oc- 
ered plentifully in the superficial stratum, had the notch chips 
‘ ray as assumed, of the same age with Professor Winchell’s 


Ultimately it was ascertained that the notch quartzes had 
‘Ped to the level at which they were first seen, from a thin 
ZST of them, once lying from ten inches to two feet above, and 
je equent] y broken up through the eating out of the sand un- 
: by drainage, supplemented by the action of wagon- 


602 Vestiges of Glacial Man in Minnesota. [ June, | 


wheels. This layer or stratum was still intact on the north and 
south, and partially so on the east, in which direction it had, how- 
ever, at certain points suffered displacement by wagoning, It ex- 
tended in what at the time appeared to be a nearly horizontal 
plane, into the terrace, in the sloping edge of which the notch, 
opening in the west bank of the terrace and truncated at its edge, 
is cut. Its outlines, lying within the walls of the notch, were 
masked against ordinary observation by thin slides of soil from 
higher surfaces. Both the inferior and superior planes of the 
quartz bearing stratum were sharply defined. Its horizontal 
boundaries had not been distinctly reached in any direction at the 
time of excavating for the road, and they have since been, at 
least partially, and perhaps wholly, obliterated by the grading 
and digging over to which the spot has been subjected. At the 
west the stratum reached to the limit of the terrace, which is here 
bounded by a steep slope. The quartz-bearing layer averaged à 
few inches only in thickness, varying a little as the included 
pieces happened to be of smaller or larger size. The eg 
were commonly closely compacted, so much so that one might 
sometimes extract hundreds of fragments, many of them vey — 
small ones, of course, from an area of considerably less than 4 
Square yard. 

The quartz bed, as far as examined, rested u 
sandy soil which passed downward into a coarse Stone ; 
immediately overlying till. Upon the quartzes again, were 7 
imposed drift accumulations extending up to the surface 0 
terrace. These were characterized, by geological WPT 
sand above and sand and gravel below. The pebbles 


pon a few inches of 


IEE PERR I ERR ESL A Die EENT 


cabia | 
gravel were small and well rounded, and were svar d 
angular than those of the rubbish beneath. Bee wee plane 


quartzes lay at a level twelve or fifteen feet lower t cated i 
of the terrace top. The exposed deposit has ais y, but thest : 
toward the west, and apparently also toward the eae a j 

inclinations, particularly the former, may be y early stage 
due to the giving way of underlying rubbish. At fi ape 

of investigation the soil above the quartzes presente heas l 
no contrast in color with that of the soil below pie into the : 
penetrating some little distance, in a horizontal pages to show 
terrace, however, the superior and inferior pape g on a dull 4 
a plain divergence in point of tint, the lower one © : 


1884.] Vestiges of Glacial Man in Minnesota. 603 


yellowish red tinge. After a certain degree of exposure the dif- 
ferential color line fades out, perhaps through the washing into 
the edges of the excavation of foreign material. Still it has been 
found to be set up anew at every fresh cutting. 

At present everything indicates that these Little Falls quartzes 
were originally posed upon an ancient surface, since covered by 
what the glacialists term modified drift, now forming all the 
upper part of the terrace-plain. It will be remembered that the 
quartz chips and implements discovered by Professor Winchell, 
in this vicinity, are contained only in the upper stratum of the 
terrace-plain. Now the notch quartzes do not at all appear at 
the terrace top, and cannot have been derived from it. They are, 
on the other hand, confined strictly to a single thin stratum of 
the lower gravels closely overlying till, and sometimes, perhaps, 
merging into it on the west, as hereafter explained.. Hence the 
two sets of objects cannot be synchronals, though they may have 
been produced by the same race at different stages of its exis- 
fence. The notch quartzes must of course be older than those 
of the Superior stratum of drift by at least the lapse of time re- 
quired for forming and draining the deposit lying between the 
Qartzes below and those above. 

sR Professor Chamberlin, State geologist of Wisconsin, in treat- 
mg of the ancient vegetal deposits of his district, precisely indi- 
_ Stes what at the present moment appears to be the glacial posi- 
| ses the Little Falls quartz stratum. Speaking of the Kettle 
3 moraine of Wisconsin, which is continuous with the northeast 
_ ‘Moraine of this region, he says: 
“Some of these organic strata lie at the immediate foot of the 
: “ge beneath fluviatile and lacustrine deposits that, I am con- 
| men to be accumulated during the accumulation of the 
ne and through the agency of glacial floods.” 
Be ovations recorded above are offered in their present 
ki ea answer to inquiries and suggestions propounded 
They niter, from time to time, by archzological investigators. 
7 are likewise adduced as evidence that the theory of an 
vec, , uartz-paved surface is not the result of a mere hasty 
eda 15, on the contrary, the slow outgrowth of many par- 
remain ons and deductions. Certain of these, however, 
i. z to be stated. The facts above given will, it is hoped, 


EE 


the successive steps by which the present 


- 604 Vestiges of Glacial Man in Minnesota. (June, 


working hypothesis has been reached. They are arranged to 
show: 

First; why the notch quartzes are not attributed to natural 
causes now operating upon the present surface. 

Second; why these objects are not ascribed to modern races 
once inhabiting the region. 

Third; why they are not classed with the implements pre 
viously unearthed at Little Falls by Professor Winchell. 

Fourth; why they are referred to a palzolithic people once in- 
habiting an ancient till surface, which is at present buried beneath 
a sheet of modified drift. Of this, however, more hereafter. 

At present, palzolithic remains are assigned to three distinct 
eras: 

The preglacial, or anteglacial, including geological time wholly 
preceding the ice epochs. 

The interglacial, time between any two of these epochs. 

The intraglacial, time during such an epoch. 

According to the generalization of Geikie, a 
paper, postglacial relics, however rude they may be, 
palzolithic, although they may be popularly reckoned as gan 

It is not possible that the notch quartzes belong to the p 
these palæolithic classes. They cannot be preglacial beca 
they are based upon till, a deposit which is universally ac a 
to be a ground moraine, formed, in some way, at the bottom 
glacier, and left behind when the glacier wit 
ent case the underlying till must not only have 
must likewise have been permanently uncovered b 
of the producing ice, before the quartz-workers cow ; 
gained access to it, much less have set up their primitive 


tries upon its surface. These objects are furthern ; 
sheet of modified dri! 


dopted in this 


y the i 


postglacial, because they lie under a ) aei 
feet and less in thickness, which has certainly been p" 
one way or another by dissolving glaciers. ee ori ptet 


The question whether the quartz deposit 1s 1 : in the 
glacial in origin is one which is not so readily ansW 
present state of our knowledge. nee 
both perhaps; that is, it may have had a begs is 
final advance of the northeast and northwest glace" ime 
have continued to exist, and to receive eee me i 
time, up to a period during the second ice ag° _ 


are not truly 


ermore clearly 1% 


$ 
¥ 
i 
et 


: well bë 
Indeed, it: may Wo as 


hdraws. Inthe pre 
been laid down, but 


uld at all have . 


4 


j 


rA 
si 


Í 


1884.) The Genesis of Crystalline Rocks. 605 


were in process of final liquefaction. Certain elements of the 
geological situation recently developed by American scientists, 
and already touched upon in this paper, necessarily enter as es- 
sential factors into the solution of the problem before us. The 
following is a summarized recapitulation of glacial principles 
enunciated by authorities now engaged in deciphering the ice 
chronicles of the Northwest: 

That this whole region has been subjected to a period or peri- 
ods of glaciation antedating the last. 

That a longer or shorter era of deglaciation, known to scien- 
tists as an interglacial epoch, intervened between the deposit of 
the older tills and the readvance of the northeast and northwest 
glaciers during the latest ice period. 

That the general direction of glaciation was similar during the 
tarlier and later ice epochs, though it was not always precisely 
the same, 

That glaciation was far more extended in its range at the for- 
wer of these periods than at the latter; the ice of the former 
having Stretched fully three hundred miles south of the termini 
of the modern morainic lobes. 

That the modern morainic belt defines the limit of extension of 
the glaciers during the last ice epoch. 

Finally, that the Little Falls quartz stratum lies between the 

= Cmm moraines of the northeast and northwest glaciers, in a 
medial _morainic belt which is characterized by a system of 
overlapping tills, as described in Mr. Upham’s paper at the 

of this article, 

ae above elements sum up the glacial situation as understood 

Specialists, so far as concerns the quartz stratum under con- 

| sideration, The tills of Morrison county have, up to the present 
SARR been fully reported upon, and their special interrelations 

accordingly very imperfectly understood. 
(To be continued.) 


—— 0: 
THE GENESIS OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS? 
ee BY T. STERRY HUNT, LL.D., F.R.S. 
| g Writer began by an account of the various hypotheses 


Shans Proposed to explain the origin of the ancient crys- 
mine Stratified rocks, of which gneiss may be taken as the type, 


Oe of a paper read before The National Academy of Sciences, April 15, 1884. 


606 The Genesis of Crystalline Rocks, (June, 
(1.) The plutonic hypothesis, which conceives the rocks in ques- 
tion to have been formed by the superficial cooling of a molten 
globe before the precipitation of water upon its surface. (2.) The ; 
volcanic hypothesis, which supposes them to be derived from 
igneous rocks, like lavas, coming from a liquid interior through — 
the primitive crust. (3.) The detrital or clastic hypothesis, | 
_which conceives them to have been made of the ruins of plutonic 
or volcanic rocks, more or less disintegrated or decayed 
rearranged by water, and subsequently modified by chemical 
changes. Similar alterations, through subsequent action of water, 
are also invoked by the advocates of the plutonic and volcanic 
hypotheses. (4.) The chaotic hypothesis, which supposes the 
elements of all these rocks to have been at one time dissolved of , 
suspended in the water of a primitive chaotic ocean. i 
The difficulties in the way of accepting any one of thes . 
hypotheses being pointed out, it was shown that the rocks i : 
question include a number of well-marked and lithology l 
distinct groups, each of great thickness, giving pome : 
successive depositions interrupted by foldings and erosions, a : 
extending over vast periods of eozoic time. The new ike a 
proposed by the writer to explain the origin of these rocks, aa 
the first three named, starts from the basis of a pe ng a 
lobe consolidating at the center, left, it is conceived, 4 Í 
a of basic silicates, which has yielded all the fixed aa 4 
of the earth’s crust. This layer formed the first land and j e ef 
of the primeval sea, the acid waters of which, permeating ] 
partially decomposing it, became thereby chemically ar a 
This last-cooled layer, mechanically disintegrated, satu as 
water, and heated by the central mass, was the sourr s the at 
springs holding in solution the silicates which built up 
cient gneisses and similar rocks. ; 4 by the history 
This hypothesis of their origin was illustrate d . 
of granitic veins, and by the derivation of quartz e 
and of zeolites (which are hydrated feldspars) ca 
action from basic rocks. All such deposits are ae 
the process which generated the gneissic rocks. pee by 
of their formation from materials brought to affords, it 
mineral springs from the primitive basic me eke explanatio® 
claimed, the elements of a complete and inte ig 
of the origin of the eozoic rocks, and was bret Se 


184] 
writer in 1874 (Chemical and Geological Essays, pp. 298, 299). It 
may be conveniently designated as the crenitic hypothesis (from the 
Greek «py»ézys, pertaining to springs or fountains). All veinstones 
and deposits from mineral springs are of crenitic origin. 

It was farther shown that the upward lixiviation of the 
primitive mass, and the deposition over it of an acidic granite-like 
tock would leave below a highly basic material, and that the 
division of the mass thus established would correspond to that of 
the trachytic and doleritic magmas which have been conjectured 
to be the sources of two great types of eruptive rocks. Inasmuch, 

, as according to the present hypothesis these two layers 
of basic and acidic matters are the results of aqueous action, and 

Rot of an original separation in a plutonic mass, as imagined by 
Phillips and Durocher, their composition would be subject to 

Many local variations. The secondary origin of the materials of 

_ Stuptive rocks has long been maintained by the writer, who finds 
the source of certain of them in the underlying basic layer left 
by the partial solution of the primitive mass; which now forms, it 

- believed, a plastic stratum between the solid anhydrous nucleus 

nd the solid crust. : 


Editors’ Table. 607 


— 
EDITORS’ TABLE. 
EDITORS A. S. PACKARD, JR., AND E. D. COPE. 


or trofessor A. Weisman, who has recently published a 
_ “dure on inheritance, and another on the duration of life, has 
; = attacked from the biological, če. inductive point of view, those 
7 ultimate Problems which so often arise in the minds of thoughtful 
| i is life and death? His tract was when first read as an 
E gp iC Programme, entitled “On the Perpetuity of Life.” It is 
— the author that in the protozoa, or one-celled animals, 
i cannot speak of a natural death in connection with these lowest 
“anisms, for there is no observable end to their phases of de- 
mement which is comparable to the death of the higher, 
ap Sled animals. In the protozoa there is no origin of new 

48 resulting in the death of the parent, but as seen in the 
on of any infusorian, neither of the new individuals is 
°r younger. Thus there arises an unending series of 
, €ach one of which is as old as the species itself, each 


608 Editors’ Table. - [Jun 


one having the capacity of an unlimitable existence and of under- 
going an indefinite number of fresh acts of self-division. 

That the higher organisms, or the many-celled animals have 
not this power, Weismann thinks, is owing to their multicellular 
structure, and to the division of labor between the cells of their 
bodies. i 

The essay is certainly a very suggestive one, as is indeed nearly 
all of Weismann’s work. The space at our command only per 
mits us to give the author’s conclusions: | 

1. Natural death alone occurs in many-celled organisms, the 
one-celled forms do not possess it; the process of encysting of 
the latter is in no wise comparable to death. 

2. Natural death appears to first occur in the lowest Metazoa, 
i.e. the Orthonectides, through the adjustment (normirung) of the 
cells collectively in one generation, and of the somatic or pec 
liarly body-cells in a limited existence; then also in the higher 
\ Metazoa the somatic cells adjust themselves first to several, a! 

then many generations, and thus are correlated with or adjusted 
to an extended existence. pE 

3. This adjustment goes hand in hand with the differentiation 
of the cells of the organism according to the principle 
of labor in reproductive and in body-cells, and was ace 
by a process of selection. 

4. The biogenetic fundamental law applies only to the we 
celled beings, but has no application to the unicellular forms; 
also bears a relation on the one hand to repro cae 

division in the monoplastids (one-celled forms), on the 
the necessity through sexual reproduction of th walled) 
celled developmental stage in the polyplastids (many duration 

5. As in death itself, so also the shorter or longer peo 
life is solely a matter of adaptation; death is not depen 


omplished 


of divisioa 


e relation ofa 0® 
d 
oni 


primitive quality of living matter; it also is not nseguen® 


; : aie essary CO 
nected with reproduction, nor is it indeed a nec 


of the same. „i got? | 
t life is a perennial, 


Finally, our author maintains tha 
periodically interrupted state. When 
it went on without interruption; only its 
individuals of all, even the highest forms, W 
have descended in unbroken continuity from 
forms; there is a complete continuity of life. 


first introduced 08 ge 
forms change 
hich are livmg 


i 
: 
4 
tie 
zg 
4 


the cart 
im 
the oldest prime 


1884.) Recent Literature. 609 


— The study of these problems, we would add, will tend to 
throw light on the life and death of species, of genera, families 
and orders of plants and animals. 

At present the causes of the extinction of the life of species and 
higher categories are interwoven with those of the origin of species. 
To say that species like individuals have their appointed time is a 
mere platitude. It is now beginning to be understood that geo- 

ical extinction was due mainly to changes of land and water 
in the growing continents, and to consequent lack of adaptation 
to the new conditions on the part of those organisms which were 
unsuccessful in the struggle for existence. Thus the apparent 
lack of continuity in a part of the life which stocked the earth in 
former ages was due to the lack of adaptation. But life as a 
whole has always been continuous, perennial; the breaks were 
the result of more or less local breaches of continuity in the con- 
tinent-making processes. The youth, maturity and senility of 
ndividuals is, as Hyatt has shown, paralled by the youth, matu- 
nty and decline of the types to which they belong; and we can 
now begin to see how correlated and continuous are the phases 
of what we call life and death in the material world, and through- 
out all time, and all forms of life. 


20% 
RECENT LITERATURE. 


Braver’s Stupies ox Diprerous Larvæ'—This is a most val- 
uable addition to our knowledge of the early stages of the Dip- 
tera, and is the result of a large acquaintance with the early forms 
of this order, by one who has for over twenty years devoted spe- 
na attention to these insects. In his “ Monographie der (Estri- 
den, 1865, but more especially in his “ Kurze Characteristik der 
) en-larven,” 1869, wide gaps in our knowledge of the trans- 
| lons of the Diptera were filled. And now with the present 
- Work, in addition to the observations of the earlier entomologists, 
a recent writings of Fritz Miller, Dewitz and Wierzejski 
on th formations of the Blepharoceridz, and of Handlirsch 
tt Nemestrinide, we are in possession of a knowledge of the 
wi Stages of one or more species of all the natural families of 

era. After lengthy remarks on the systematic relations of 

t groups of Diptera, based on the larval characters, Brauer 
typical, inherited feature in the entire group 0 


ipteren-larven nebst einer zusammenstellung von Beispielen 
über dieselben und beschreibung neuer Formen. Von Prof. Dr. 

Tafeln. Besonders abgedruct aus dem XLVII Bande de 
l. k. Akad. der Wissensch. Wien, 1883; 4to, pp. 100. 


610 Recent Literature. [ June, 


sule (kiefer-kapsel), supporting some of the mouth-parts, and con- 
taining the cesophagus. Less important characteristics are then 
enumerated. A very unsafe character is the number of visible 
body-segments, since in some they are often not true segments, 
but intermediate rings arising from the lengthening of the mem- 
brane connecting the true segments (Polytoma); in others a sec- 
ondary annulation of the single segments, whose true limits in 
the living animal can be best determined by the markings rè- 
peated on the true segments (Ceraplatus); or they appear to be 
reduced in number through the coalescence of the anterior of 
hinder segments (Blepharocera, Liponeura, Culex, Simulium, etc.); 
or any external segmentation is almost wholly wanting ( 
Microdon, etc.). : f 

Thus we may count in the Polytomous larvæ behind the max- 
illary capsule (we do not know how better to translate Arefer np 
sel) 20-21 segments ; in the Cecidomyid larvæ 13 segments; 1 
the Tabanidæ and Stratiomyide 11 segments; in the sere 
11-12; in the Tipulide 12, as also in the Asilide, Nemestrin 
and in the Muscidæ. 

“In the Muscidæ, Æstridæ, etc., the larval body is jia 
12-segmented. This is based on the view that the anten 7a 
ment enclosing the mandible (mundhaken), which in E 
cyclorrhaphous larvæ remains membranous, while in the bal 
rapha (except Lonchoptera) it is above firm and pape byes 
ing a ring bearing the antennz and jaws, which we aye ion 
the kiefer-kapsel. On the other hand the cyclorrhaphou sť 

ly eleven true Pi 


or antennal segment must especially be rega 


though the terminal segment in a good d 
formed of two segments (Blepharoceride, etc.). di one, and 
While the view as to the head-segments 1S a pra 
of value from a systematic point of view, WE behest 
Brauer has not adopted the broad morpholog that the head 
the well-known facts in the embryology © her insects, i 
of any dipterous insect is at first, like that of ot frst 
posed of four segments, 7. ¢., an antennal, ma dificati 

illary and second maxillary ; the peculiar m0 a: the 
dipterous larvæ being the result of degra varying * g 
tion of form and structure in these larvæ to hak the ed | 
roundings being very sap It see i sae : 
Eucephala (Chironomus, etc.) represen i a : 
dipterous a the headless forms, Or magga ’ aia pot P 
of adaptation. It was, however, Dr. Brauer ee 
enter into these questions in the present essay, 


1884.) Recent Literature. 611 


scribe them for the practical needs of the entomologist. The ho- 
mologies of the larval mouth-parts with those of other insects 
he does not discuss, though he apparently does not consider 
them to show such homologies ; though Weismann regarded the 
mouth-parts of the muscid and other larve to be consolidated 


ibles. 
Brauer then lays down the characters of the dipterous larve in 
ral, and discusses the value of the larval characters in classi- 
tion. We have no space to condense the statements as to the 
characteristics of the metamorphosis of the different groups, or 
to present the convenient tabular view on p. 11. We note, in 
passing, that Dr. Brauer makes no reference to the Pulicide, 
which he evidently does not consider as Diptera; but with larva 
so closely resembling the encephalous larva (Mycetophilide), we 
do not see how some discussion of their affinities or even struc- 
ture could well have been avoided in an essay of the scope of the 


present one. 

Then follows a lengthy and interesting tabular view of the nerv- 
ous systems of the larval as compared with the adult Diptera. 
This is succeeded by a section on the characters of the sub-orders 
and families ; this occupies the greater part of the work, and is of 
prime importance. ‘It is followed by short descriptions of a few 
= of the families Tabanide, Leptidæ, Dolichopide and Em- 


The systematic list of descriptions of known dipterous larve 

à the bibliographical references (pp. 46-93), will be of the 
Sreatest use, especially to American entomologists; its compila- 
tion was a laborious undertaking; it appears to be very full and 
say though we notice the omission of any reference to the 
_Scription and figures of Chironomus oceanicus Pack., but such 
ST hed must be few. The full index to the genera is a valu- 
gae The plates, like all the author's artistic work, are 


insects vane Diptera are, without doubt, the most difficult order of 
| labor »and Dr. Brauer, in giving us these results of ten years’ 
their larval forms, has laid entomologists under lasting 
Mothe, he work will be of value to the systematist as well 
find it economic entomologist, while the general biologist will 
of a storehouse of facts bearing on the evolutionary problems 
M the day, 
-g DeCanpo 


i the author 
- habitat of 


of inquiry, antiquarian, historical and botanical this 
ed author, may be seen by glancing over the 


cultivées. Par ALPH, DECANDOLLE. Bibliotheque scien- 
» XLIII. Paris, 1883. 12mo, pp. 378. 


39 


~ 


612 Recent Literature. (June, 


footnotes.. The number of cultivated species mentioned amounts 
to 249, but the author adds that by the end of this century there 
will be about 300 species out of 120,000 or 140,000 species of the 
vegetable kingdom; but this is more than in the animal kingdom, 
where out of “some millions” [sic] of species there are only 200 
species of domestic animals, 

The author remarks in the opening chapter that selection—that 
great factor that Darwin has had the merit of so happily intro- 
ducing into science—plays an important role in agriculture once 
established; but at every epoch, and especially in the begin- 
ning, the choice of species has more importance than the selection 
of varieties. As to the earliest beginnings of the culture of usè- 
ful plants in temperate Europeand Asia, the following extracts 
are of interest: : 

“In spite of the obscurity of the commencement of culture in 
each region, it is certain that the earliest date of cultivated plants 
is very different. One of the oldest examples of cultivated _ 
is, in Egypt, a drawing representing the fig, in the mid 
Gizeh. The epoch of the construction of this monument Is at 
certain. Authors have varied between 1500 and 4200 years 


before th isti boi ose it to be about 2000 
efore the Christian era we supp But the com 


ed on byé 


sowed 


ve 
illet. These 


i i i tamia lead W 
constant relations of this last country with Mesopotam i 
a culture almost contemporaneous 


“ : i in India an 
Why should it not have been as gsi Bee and Malaya? 


Indian archipelago? The history of the Drav! obscurity: 


peoples does not go back very far, and present oid not beet 3 
the -borders 


ents 
but there is no reason to believe that agriculture 
among them a long time since, particularly on 


rivers. 


f the Mediterranean, an 


Western A5 
several species which were already cultivated pe that alres 
e shall see, in studying the history of some 4 in the no 


“The ancient Egyptians and the Pheenicians ge Ve Aya 


1884.) Recent Literature. 613 


of Africa. There are some words of languages anterior to the 
Aryan, for example, Finnish, Basque, Berber and Guanch (of the 
Canary isles), which “point to this conclusion. As to the remains 
called Kjokken moddings, the ancient stations in Denmark have 
furnished no proofs of the existence of agriculture, and likewise 
no proof of the possession of any metal. The Scandinavians of 
this epoch lived principally on fish, game and perhaps incidentally 
indigenous plants, like the cabbage, which are not of a nature to 
leave any traces in refuse or rubbish heaps, and which might have 
passed into cultivation. The absence of metals does not presup- 
pose, in this northern country, an antiquity greater than the age 
of Pericles, or even of the prosperous period of the Roman 
republic. Afterward when bronze became known in Sweden, a 
region far removed from the civilized world, agriculture was com- 
pleted by its introduction. There are found in remains of this epoch 
the carving of a plough drawn by two oxen and driven by a 
man. 


“The ancient inhabitants of Eastern Switzerland, where they 
had instruments of stone and not of metal, cultivated several 
plants, some of which were natives of Asia.| M. Heer has shown 
in his admirable work on the palafittes (lake-dwellings) that they 

communication with the countries situated among the Alps. 
They could also have received cultivated plants through the 
when 


“ia the lake-dwellers of Switzerland and of Savoy possessed 
nze 


lake-d i 


Tlondsee, indicate a quite primitive agriculture—no cereals at 
Jv and a single grain of wheat at Mondsee. The slightly 


histori- to the hypothesis, based on some statements of the ancient 
ki paS that the Aryans had first sojourned in the region of 
d that Thrace was civilized before Greece. In 
tore nce agriculture appears, in general, to have been 
ion in the temperate portion of Europe than we would 


» to make all progress originate from their own nation.” 
te chapter of Part I bears of how and at what epochs 
are from th; an in different countries; the preceding extracts 
dudes that 4, chapter. In the second chapter the author con- 
cies, we in order to ascertain the origin of the cultivated spe- 
n> We should combine botanical, archzological, palzontological, 


“gihe dem linguistic methods. 


Otic; Part comprises most of the volume, and treats of 
~ 8! of those plants cultivated for their racemes, bulbs or 


614 Recent Literature. —— 0m 


tubers; those cultivated for their stalks or leaves; those useful 
from their flowers or the parts enveloping them; fruits and 
rains. The third part is devoted to a résumé and conclusions, 


of the work, by Dr. Asa Gray and J. Hammond Trumbull, in the 
American Journal of Science for April and May, 1883, containing 
valuable additions relative chiefly to American plants. 


Jacxson’s VEGETABLE TecunoLocy!—This is evidently a most 
carefully prepared bibliography of economic botany, and must 
prove of great utility. The author purposely excluded all books 
devoted to silk and cochineal, as not being strictly with 
limits of the title as settled by the Index Society; and “m 
reluctantly the subject of the vine, its culture and products, pe 
ply on the ground of its enormous extent.” The bibliography 
the vine, he adds, in all its bearings would require a lifetime 
its compilation. He has also excluded books and papers of jee 


citation. The author does not claim that the wor a 
saying that “a complete bibliography of economic get wA 
require the labor of years.” The num tr t editions. 
ent book is 3580, exclusive of translations and differen 
The index fills nearly 100 pages, is comprehensive, an 
greatly, of course, to the usefulness of the work. i 
SMITH’S DICTIONARY OF ECONOMIC Prants? — The 2% 
this work is sufficiently indicated by the title; it 1S am ected, fof 
to the cultivated plants. The author was officially on thus prot 
more than forty years, with the Kew Gardens, mer ving plants 
tically acquainted with the largest collection O 4 to thos 
exotic and native, ever brought together. i each care, e 
points which DeCandolle has worked out wit Cael in the 
present work is deficient, still it is a useful book, 
form of an index or dictionary. : 
RECENT BooKS AND PAMPHLETS. 7 = Louis fot 
` Engelmann, Geo.—The mean and extreme daily temp ee St. Louis 
seven years, as calculated from daily observations. a 
F. E. Nipher. : of a vom 
cal resistance m ang Pe ae. 
1884. From . 
(eco pie 
the Int 


Peres ec ee ys be ree 


Nipher, F. E—On the expression of electri 
Ext. Trans. St. Louis Acad. of Science, Vol. IV» 
y . . 0 
1 Vegetable Technology. A contribution towards a bibliog sy Jackson: 
with a comprehensive subject-index. By eee io published for 
upon the collections of George James Symonds. Lon ni ot 
Society. 1882. 8vo, pp. 355. ; ; the natural eT 
14 Dicimady of popular names of the Plants which losi J Their eee i 
wants of man in all matters of domestic and arie : & Co. 1882 8yo» . 
ducts and uses. By Joun SMITH. London, Macmillan © - 


1884.] Geology and Paleontology. 615 


Barrois, Chas.—Memoire sur les Schistes Metamorphiques de lile de Croix (Mor- 
bihan). Ext. des Ann. de la Soc. Geol. du Nord, Lille 


——Memoire = les Dictyospongidz áá Psammites du Cindi Ext. idem. Both 
from the author 
n z EiNssatotogiéa Indica, Ser, x, Vol. 111, Part 1, Additional Siwalik 
Perissodactyla and Proboscidea. Calcutta. 1884. From the author. 


——Synopsis of the gash TO of India, and note on the Bijori Labyrintho- ` 
dont. From the author 


Cook, G. H.— Sa report rt of the ard is sah of New Jersey for 1883. Cam- 
den, 1883. From the State geolo 


tm AG . B.—Report of the siinid of Agriculture for 1883. Washington, 
i m ner. 
Vaillant, Leon.—Exposition Univ. Internat. pds Rapports du Jury International. 
Les Poissons, Crustacés et Mo usques. Paris, 1880. 
peg sur les affinités naturelles de Polsce Malacopterygiens Abdomi- 


nra “i genre Ptychogaster era Chelonien fossile de Saint-Gerand-le-Puy. 


——Nouvelles Archives du m D'Histoire Naturelle, — sur la Grande 
Salamandre du Jiris, Cryproðranchus japonicus V. D. Hoe 
— Note sur les Exemplaires Bagrus Buchanani un eas ‘te voyage de V. 


agra 
acquemont. Ext, Bull. i la Soc. Philoné: de Paris, 1882. 
Vaillant, Leon, et Bocourt.—Mission scientifique au Mexique et dans L’Amerique 
Centrale. 4me Partie, Etudes sur les Poissons. Paris, 1883. All from Leon 
t. 


eae et al.—Journal of Microscopy and Natural Science, April, 1884. 
R. P—Notice of some ig species of aiiiar tay is in a ehe collections 
of the Muse useum of Nat. Hist. N. Y. Ext. Bulletin of the Am 
C. H. —Geological sections across N mag pai ares oe it, Ext 
ag Bulletin of the Amer. Mus. Both from the Amer. Mus. N. Y. 
» S. H.—Two new and Besi types of Cistioul flees Myria 
| The species of Mylacris, a Carboniferous genus of Sy aa Both in 
, memoirs of the Boston Society Nat. Hist., Vol. 111, No. 1x. From the author. 
Sep W. K.—On the skeleton of the Marsipobranch Fishes. Part 1. The Myx 
moids (Myxine and i geet Part 11. bia Ext. Philos. panied 
Royal S ” II, 1883. From the author 
come n the structure and development of = skull i m e Crocodilia. Ext. Trans. 
Soc., Vol x1, Part 1x, 1883. Fro 


:0: 
GENERAL NOTES. 
GEOLOGY AND PALÆONTOLOGY. 
OH THE Fossi FLORA OF GREENLAND. —Through Professor 
a ..: researches, 617 species of fossil plants are now known 
to the meenland, of which 335 belong to the Cretaceous and 282 
tinct “miary epoch. The rapire plants occur in three dis- 
E he K described as the beds of Kom me, Atane and Patort. 
2nd Gym the Kome beds vascular pate (especially Gletcheni@) 
Sperms (namely, ten Cycadeæ, forms analogous to the 
“almost 27d twenty-one Conifers, including five Sequoiz) are found 
fp The Dicotyledonez are represented only by 
wr of * Tiisa primaeva. The general character of the 
which may be compared with the Urgo- 
ata, ices a subtropical climate. 


. 2 


616 * General Notes. (June, 


In the Azane beds there occur, besides vascular C 
(some of which are arborescent) and Gymnosperms (eight Cyc 
dez, twenty-seven Conifers; among others Cycas steenstrupi with 
well-developed carpels), ninety species of dicotyledonez, the ap- 
pearance of which was very sudden. Here, also, the flora indicates 
a subtropical climate. The Atane beds may be compared with the 
Cenomanian strata. 

In the Patort beds, twenty vascular Cryptogamia, eighteen Gym- 
nosperms, five Monoctyledonez, and sixty six Dicotyledones have 
been found. Among the Conifers the most abundant species is 
Sequoia concinna Heer (branches and fruits), nearly related to 
_the Tertiary Sequoia couttsie ; Sequoia langsdorfii Brgr., a Tertiary 
species, is also frequently met with. The Dicotyledons consist of 
birches, alders, elms, fig-trees, walnuts, oaks and planes (the last 
: two genera in great numbers); then come laurels, cinnamons 
azalias, magnolias, &c., &c. The Patort beds also contain marae 
animals, which enable us to make an exact comparison with the 
deposits of other countries, and approximate them to the Upper 
Senonian of Europe, consequently to the Upper Chalk. 

The Tertiary flora of Greenland is derived either from an Eocene 
deposit or from Lower Miocene beds. It includes inall pugs 
two of which also appear in the Chalk; twenty others are “i he 
from Cretaceous plants, but the rest show no relationship = 
Cretaceous flora. Moreover, tropical forms are entirely "S ‘ 
that the climate had been profoundly modified; the meant we 
ature of the year in Greenland at the epoch of the eee ‘i the 
must have been about 12° C. (= 53° ‘6 F.), as evidenced 9y kc 
presence of two fan-palms, magnolia, Sapindus ie: those 
The Tertiary flora of Greenland has 114 species ; p 355. 
Europe.— Bibl. Univ., Arch. des Sci. October 15th, 1883, $ 
- GEoLoGICAL Nores.—General— MM. Mojsisovies pe ilo- 

describe the t" 
mayr (Beitr. z. Palzont. Ost. Ungarns, 1883) 
bites of Bohemia. : : 5 

Cambrian and Silurian—W. Dames seat oro.” 
China, Paleontology) fifteen species of trilobites tron 
brian of Liau-Tung, near the Corean boundary. 
cit.) describes a few Cambrian Brachiopoda from dle and poet 


vser (04 


adds several new species to the fossils of the er work & | 
Silurian of the mountains of Tshau-tien. In the the UPPE 
orals from : 


Lindström describes numerous species of € 

Silurian of Tshau-tien.——J. F. Whiteaves has described 
ous fossils from a series of dolomites that lie bet 
and Onondaga formations, and are known cee pee 
“Guelph formation.” The species include pa 
brachiopods, sixteen lamellibranchs, two gaste 


bite that are new to science. Soc. Geol. de Fran, l 


Devonian—M. D. Œlhert (Bull. de la 
describes four species of Chonetes known 


S, Dalbergia, $5 


Liau- Tung, nd 


between the yan : 


the Cam ; 


eee ss eS E E 


hada Cg 


1884.] Geology and Paleontology. 617 


the west of France, and discusses the relationships of the genus, 
The same geologist also describes two new species of Acrocutia, 
A. protei and A. silent, from the Lower Devonian of Mayenne, 
——E. Kayser (Richthofen’s China) describes fourteen species of 
Devonian brachiopoda from Southwest China. Fourteen species 
of fossils were previously known from the Chinese Devonian. 
Carboniferous —C. Schwager (Richthofen’s China) describes the 
flora of the Carboniferous strata of China and Japan. 
ser (op. cit.) describes the collection of Upper Carboniferous fos- 
sils made by Baron Richthofen at Lo-Ping. This consisted of 
1000 specimens and over fifty species, including Leptodus richtho- 
feni, a new genus and species of fishes, Phillipsia obtusicauda, 
four nautili, two or three Orthoceratida and numerous lamelli- 


Eo Pleuropholis, with the following new species, P. egertoni, 

: thiolleri, P, obtusirostris, P. lienardi. The genus was first known 
from the Purbeck beds of England, and has since been found in 
M. P. J. Van Ben- 


milis, equaled B. juddi, With these cetacean remains occurred 
the sternebra of a great terrestrial mammal, probably that of Zo- 

rhinoceroides Geinitz. The same beds yield numerous 
et and teeth and vertebrz of plagiostomes, The latter had 
; Teferred to Zamna cuspidata, L. elegans and Myliobates 


scribes the Locard (Arch. Mus. d’Hist. Nat. de Lyon, 1883), de- 


“Nopsis. Melania and Dreissena are each represented by two 
bare Planorbis by one p 
Nes described the Echini of the middle Miocene of Brittany. The 
ies ee are Echinocyamus lebescontei, Scutella circularis, Nucle- 
Brissus anensts, Echinanthus armoricus, Echinolampas dinanensts, 
Indica humberti and Spatangus brittannus. Palzontologica 
2 Series x, volume ll, part 6, treats of the Siwalik and Nar- 
Mivora. Mellivora sivalensis is known from three speci- 
ined near the Ganges valley, while another ratel occurs 


618 , Gencral Notes. [June, 


species Lutra bathygnathius. To the bears he adds Ursus the 
baldi, which may probably be the ancestor of the aswail (U. labis- 
tus), but had better developed molars. Ayenarctos punjabensis 
and H. paleindicus are considered to be distinct from H, stvalensis; 
Amphicyon paiwindicus is added to the Canide and Viverra du- 
randi, the largest known civet, to the Viverrideæ ; Hyena colvini is 
separated from Æ. sivalensis, and is said to approach Crocuta, and 
H. macrostoma constitutes an important link between the more 
typical members of the genus and the viverroid and canoid Car- 
nivora. To the Felidæ are added Æ/uropsis annectans, and Felis 
brachygnathus and the occurrence of a hyænodon (H. indicus) in 
the Siwaliks is mentioned as a matter of extreme interest ——M. 
Lemoine (Bull. de la Soc. Geol. dè France, 1883), describes Mw- 
plagiaulax eocenus and N. marshit, from the Lower Eocene neat 
Rheims. The genus is distinguished from Plagiaulax by the 
presence of a single premolar only on each side. M. Lemoine 
considers it as intermediate between Plagiaulax and the recent 
Bettongia. , 
MINERALOGY.! 


Native IRon From New Jersey.—As a deep well was p 
bored on the Van Horn farm, in Raritan township, prea ) 
county, N. J., about three miles east of New Brunswick, in 
sic red shale, it was noticed that when the drill was ra fi 
the well there were numerous particles and small g “i Mr. 
adhering to its lower end. This attracted the attention aie : 
F. Hotchkiss, of Plainfield, who found that particles haben 
iron occurred not only in the well, but in the surface carti ai 
the farm. : : 

An analysis of an unwashed sample gave J. B. ene 
Iron Phosphorus Sulphur Silica P 

o 1.23 11.20 


m and 
Professor Cook also made repeated visits to i eae 4 
picked out particles of metallic iron with a magnet, 
that there was no mistake or deception in the case. cece pit 
He states? that while a few of the grains are 5 es Some of 4 
heads, most of them are smaller and much is ie H on the SUP | 
those brought up by the drill are but little se 12 oe ompletely 
face, while those found in the soil are rusted, © pr af 1 
as to leave only a small particle of metallic pie p pase er, and | 
the rusted grains. The metal flattens under a k occur in the | 
evidently native. Traces of copper are reporte a j 
iron. ; koont T i 
The observation is of great interest. It 1S non a a 
metallic iron occurs in trap, but its discovery ™ ee = 
Sci j 
1 Edited by Professor H. CARVILL LEWIS, Acain of Nant be sent. 
delphia, to whom communications, papers for review, € gs 

2 Geolog. Survey of N. J., Annual Report for 1883, P- 19%: 


1884.] Mineralogy. 619 


depth of fifty feet in the red shale, it cannot belong to the drift, 
but is evidently of Triassic age. The subject is very suggestive. 


FLEXIBLE SANDSTONE FROM PENNSYLVANIA. — H. C. Lewis? 
records the finding of itacolumite, or flexible sandstone, at two 
ocalities in Pennsylvania, in Paradise township, Lancaster county, 
at the “ Wolf rocks,” and, in White Marsh township, Montgomery 
county, north of Lafayette. In both localities the flexibility, 
which is much less than in the North Carolina rock, is evidently 
Gue to the decomposition of the cementing material in a formerly 
inflexible sandstone. By the removal of the feldspar each thin 

yer of sand is separated by small distances from the layers 
above and below, thus allowing of limited flexibility. This ex- 
planation probably applies to all flexible sandstones. The “ ball- 
and-socket” theory of the grains of sand is of course absurd. 


Some MAINE Minerats.—G, F. Kunz? states that nearly 1500 


near Auburn, Maine. These are often brilliantly polished, an 
are characterized by their beautiful pale color. Colorless, light 
pink, light blue, bluish-pink, pale green and other colors occur in 

“rent crystals or are sometimes nearly all seen in a single tour- 

ine. Good gems have been cut from these crystals. 

The apatite of the same locality is finer in color and form than 
elsewhere in America. It has the same pale shades of pink, blue, 
og and green as the tourmaline found with it, and has been 
Set lor gems, 

Other associated minerals are lepidolite, quartz, albite, ortho- 
clase, bery], garnet, cassiterite, gummite, autunite, muscovite, leu- 
“pyrite, Cookeite, biotite, amblygonite and zircon. 
hs Gorham some unusually fine crystals of andalusite have 

: found. e color is mostly a brownish flesh tint, and some- 
near] Stayish-pink. Occasional translucent pieces occur in the 
; Th. Opaque crystals, 

the ~_nteresting fact was observed that while the hardness on 
The of the prism is 6-6, 5, the hardness on the basal plane is 7.5. 
Which oo Occur in a quartzite vein in a brown mica schist, in 
| are small crystals of pyrrhotite. 
ih ar Nitrous Oxipe, or Laucnixe Gas—It is stated? 
, ence the Sreat Sierra tunnel, at Tioga, has developed the pres- 
~ “In the indurated mudstone, silicious limestone and arena- 
L 1 
: : ins, Aed. Nat. appe Phila., 1884. 

OF (Cilin see 184 


620 General Notes. [June, 


ceous shales of Tioga hill, of. protoxide of nitrogen, the exhilar- 
ating gas known as ‘laughing gas,’ with traces, also, of the 
nitrates commonly associated with several of the metals. Asis 
well known, the inhalation of protoxide of nitrogen produces 
exhilaration to intoxication, an irresistible impulse to muscular 
exertion, insensibility to pain, and develops the characteristic pro- 
pensities of the individual to a striking degree. Air is forced 
in the great Sierra tunnel through wooden boxes, and the dis 
tance, leakage and friction being great, the supply was inadequate, 
and hence the accumulation of this nitrous gas at the header, the 
inhalation of which had the characteristic effect upon those work- 
ing there as soon as one of them got an overdose. A muscular 
miner was brought out fighting, and it took four men to hold him 
until he returned to consciousness in the open air, A mail cat- 
rier went in and got a dose, and, when brought out, seized a cou- 
ple of bars of iron, lashed them to his feet with wire, leaped over 
the dump and went sailing down the mountain over the snow. 


Tin FROM Norra CAROLINA.—A valuable vein of cassiterit 
has been found at King’s Mountain, a small town pee 
county, N.C. The vein discovered is between four and five 
in thickness, and has been struck in two places. The ore yie 
869.2 pounds of tin per ton of ore. The finest ore in the rial 
tin mines, at Cornwall, yields less than half this per cent of MY 
the ton, and great expectations are therefore aroused conc at 
this new vein. Specimens of the ore, marked “ unkari ti 
on exhibition at the Boston Exposition last an . 
only lately that the place of the vein has been K. pe 

Tin occurs sparingly at many other places in the 
-` but has never been worked with profit. 


SwEDISH MINERALS.— Mangan-brucite.—L. J browns 
scribes some small grains of a honey-yellow oF absberg mii 
color which occur in the hausmannite ore at oi pa and arè 
in Wermland, Sweden. They are devoid of cle the outside. 


Analysis gave : 
MgO MnO H,O 
57.81 14.16 28.00 
The formula (Mg, Mn) [HO '; is given, and í 
brucite proposed. Apparently, however, it 1$ 
prodúct. ; t 
Talc-triplite—The same author finds in the peat amorphous 
i llowish-red transluc - sorals, P? 
berg certain small yellow or ye I wh other min 
grains which, although intimately mixed wit 


99-97 
Mange" 
the "E alteration 


1 Oefvers. af Kgl. Vet. Akad. Férhandl., 1882, pp. 83-9! 


, Igelström è 


eag 


1884.] ` Mineralogy. 621 


regards as a new species. Before the blowpipe it melts to a 
black, metallic glass. Soluble in acids. Composition: 
PO, FeO MnO CaO MgO 
32.82 16.12 14.86 14.91 17.42 

Berzeltite—Many rare minerals accompany the hausmannite of 
Sweden. Native lead, native copper, monimolite, atopite, gano- 
malite, chondroarsenite, hyalophane, ekdemite, hedyphane, braun- 
ite, manganophyllite, tephroite, manganosite, pyrochroite, man- 
— barylite, rhodonite are among the species found. 

e of the above are very questionable species. Recently 

Igelström? has observed the rare mineral berzeliite in the haus- 
mannite of Nordmark. It occurs both as a vein of a yellow 
Massive material, and disseminated in grains through veins of 

cite, 

Analysis of the pure yellow material gave: 

AsO; CaO MgO (with some MnO) Pband Cl 
57.80 25.25 16.95 traces 

The formula given by Dana (Mineralogy, p.544) is adopted. 

Another variety of berzeliite, found many years ago at Long- 
ban has the formula of an orthoarseniate and is singly refracting, 
while that now described is doubly refracting. The physical 
characters of the two minerals are identical. 

M. E. Bertrand? has made an optical examination of the two 
varieties of berzeliite, and finds that while thè optical characters 


Ssectrix 
belongs, 
line momalite—M. Sjögren’ has examined the silicate of lead and 
©, to which Nordenskiöld has given the name ganomalite. He 


Wo analyses are oj ; 3 
given, the first of the variety from Longban, 
the second of that from Jacobsberg : 
SiO? o QO. MO — Gangi 
PRAN 69.42 9.89 0.29 
N 18.33 68.80 9.34 2.29 1.24 ; 
port Ve i tly been 
found ~Very small crystals of tephroite have recently 
: at Longban. A crystallographic investigation has shown 


: n 
that all the forms are those known in chrysolite, and that, as 
i 
i Ball. Soc, Min. de France, 1884, p. 29- 
at., p. 31 


2 ™ . 
Geol, Foren. d. Stockholm, 1883. 


622 General Notes. [June, 


Descloiseaux announced in his “ Manuel de Mineralogie,” tephro- 
ite and chrysolite are isomorphous. | 
Pyrosmatite. — Alex. Gorgen! communicates an analysis of 
pyrosmalite from Dannemora which is of considerable interest in 
that it shows a close analogy in composition with a silicate of 
manganese from Adervielle, Hautes Pyrenees, described by Ber- 
trand under the name of Friedelite. 
The oxygen ratios of the two minerals are as follows: 
SiO, MnO FeO CaO MgO Cl Fe 4H,0 
ne ad 


Pyrosmalite 18.24 11.56 0.84 7.60 
Friedelite 18.37 11.42 0.80 8.53 
Both minerals are remarkable for the energy with which they 
retain their chlorine and water. Both are hydrated chlorosili- 
cates, and present chemically the same analogy as Berti d e 
shown to exist between their crystalline form and their opti 
properties. An 
HaypenitE.—H. N. Morse and W.S. Bayley’ have reëxamined 
the variety of chabazite known as haydenite, found in the om, 
quarries near Baltimore. Cleaveland named the species p ia 
but its independence as a separate species was doubted er ' 
in 1839, showed it to be, as he supposed, monoclinic. ‘hat the 
afterwards showed Levy to be in error, 
i in 
mineral was rhombohedral, occurring -deatical, although the 


Anae Spee EE i = 


chabazite. ; lyses): 
- The composition, as now ascertained, is (mean of two analyse 


SiO, AlO, FeO, CaO MgO. BO KO Bega 
49:24 18.07 0.84 5.16 0,86 1.47 ay at3 ike mag: 
By regarding the iron as in the ferrous condition ee 
nesium and barium, replacing calcium, the analys ; 
with the recorded analysis of chabazite and "e a tedi id 
formula for that mineral. Haydenite is thus un ue 
respects identical with chabazite. é 


BOTANY.’ 


| 
i 


s CELL E 
F THE GERM q 
AN OBSERVATION OF THE eames 2 he bè on the oth 1 


g 


oF EQUISETUM ARVENSE.—The spores Wert ~: seem 
April. For some reason, for a time growth did not 4 
and they were neglected until the last of J rae amale, the lat : 
they had developed large prothallia, both matea — 

1 Bull. Soc. Min. de France, 1884, p. 58. ye 


-2 Amer. Chem. Journal, March, 1884. 
3 Edited by Pror. C. E. Bessey, Ames, Lowa. 


1884. J Botany. 623 


much larger, and with longer and more forking branches. Young 
were first noticed June 30th, exactly two months from the 
time of sowing the spores. 

n examining the prothallia, numbers of fresh archegonia were 
found at the base of the branchse, the germ cell being imbedded 
in the tissue of the prothallium. 

On the third of July, I was fortunate enough to witness the 


_ entrance of the antherozoids into the archegonium. 


Finding an archegonium that from its appearance was evidently 
on the point of opening, a portion of a male-prothallium, contain- 
ing a ripe antheridium was placed upon the same slide. 

For some time before opening, the four upper cells of the arch- 
gonium became much distended with water (Fig. 1) so as to 
present a somewhat bulbous appearance. These four cells gradu- 
ually separate until finally they diverge widely. This open- 


ery Fic. 1. Fic. 2. : 
ing is accompanied by the discharge of a considerable quantity 
of nsparent mucilage that collects in drops near the opening. 
Within a few moments after the archegonium opened, an an- 
therozoid made its way to the opening, and penetrated a short 
distance, but for some reason did not remain. Very soon, how- 
ra a large number collected around the mouth of the archego- 


| Thee Soon one penetrated far down, followed by several others. 


— ne could 


entrance was effected by a peculiar sinuous or spiral move- 

ment, but on account of ike Erra size of the antherozoids, but 

archegoni pass down at a time, the diameter of the neck of the 
poose being small (Fig. 2) 


Serm-cell, being buried in the tissue of the prothallium, 


LD my seeing clearly the union of the antherozoids with 


Campbell, gt Alfred street, Detroit, Mich. 


the A NCHIUM BERMUDIANA.—The following paper appeared in 


Such -= number of the London Journal of Botany, and is of 


hi : 
: dae Seeing the specimens of Sisyrinchium collected in 
u 


that they 08. by Sir J. H. Lefroy and Mr. 


624 General Notes. [June, 


known as Sisyrinchium bermudiana, and after comparing them 
with numerous specimens of the plant so calle m eastern 
North America, I was convinced that such was the case. Refer- 
ring to the literature of the subject, I found this view supported 
by all the early writers who had actually seen the Bermudan plant. 
The history of the two species concerned is soon told. Towards 
the end of the seventeenth century Plukenet figured and briefly 
described what he termed the Bermudan and the Virginian Sisy- 
rynchii, the types of which are still preserved in the Sloane Her- 
barium at the British Museum. Dillenius, who had opportunities 
of seeing living plants at Eltham, followed Plukenet in distinguish- 
ing these two species, and published better figures and mor 
complete descriptions of them in the ‘Hortus Elthamensis 
Linnaeus, who we assume did not see the Bermudan plant, as there 
is no specimen in his herbarium, united the two, as varieties 
one, under the name of S. dermudiana, Miller, who seems to 
have been the most accomplished English botanist of his day, w3 
the first to restore the two forms to specific rank. ps ee 
1771. In 1789 Curtis figured the true Bermudan plant and i 
upon its specific rank, remarking that he had living plants ard 
him of both the species figured by Dillenius. Unfortunately 
gave it a new specific name, for which he afterwards € veil 
his regret. The first DeCandolle wrote the text to the eked 7 
figure of the Bermudan plant, which was published in ihe 
‘ Liliacées,’ at the beginning of the present century, an taket 
. A : ee $ 1 have not 
ticularly points out its distinctive characters. sos aft 
the trouble to turn up every book in which the two spect 
likely to be mentioned, and I ae no PA : 
i i ; o see 
first botanist to reunite them; but the Sof Si sinc 


ceived by its behavior during a very mild wi n : 
that the Bermudan plant was hardy, an pao pre of his 5 4 


The synonymy of the Bermudan plant wert 5 tant Milles 
SIsYRINCHIUM BERMUDIANA Linn. Sp. Pl., ed. 1. p. 954 sp“ caah 
ict., ed, 6; Lamarck Encycl. Method. Bot. 1., P- 408; mistis; 1% 
Sisyrinchium dermudense floribus parvis, ex cæruleo A rgs ytogts t 61, figs * T q 
goides quorundam; Plukenet, Amagestum, p. 34° =; Herb. P- peT | 
Bermudiana Iridis folio, fibrosa radice, Tournefort, Inst. Rei ae 
Dillenius, Hort. Elth., p, 48, t. 41, fig. 4 
Sisyrinchium iridioides Curtis, Bot. Mag., t. 94+ 


1884.] Botany. 625 


Siprinchium bermudianum, var. 1, Baker in Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond., xvi., 
p. 117. 


Endemic in the Bermudas. 


Besides the Bermudan specimens alluded to above, there are 
cultivated specimens at Kew from the herbarium of Bishop 
Goodenough, presented by the corporation of Carlisle. 

Sisyrinchium bermudiana differs from S. angustifolium in being 
much larger in all its parts, and strikingly so in its broad leaves, 
which are equitant at the base ; hence Curtis’s name iridtotdes. It 
grows eighteen to twenty-four inches high, and is stout in pro- 
portion. The flowers are large, and the broad segments of the 
perianth are obovate-mucronate; but I have not been able to 
compare the flowers, as there are none of the Bermudan species 
in a satisfactory state. However, a comparison of the figures 


a Should be sufficient to convince anyone of their specific 
versity 


States for considering them as such, Miller’s name, being the 
farliest, is the oné to adopt. 


SisyRiNcHiIUM ANGUSTIFOLIUM Miller, Dict., ed. 6 (1771). 
Sityrinchium anceps Cavanilles, Dissert. vi, p. 345 t. 190, fig. 2 (1788). 
Sisyrinchium gramineum Curtis, Bot. Mag., t. 464 (1799). 

um mucronatum Michaux, FI. Bor.-Am. ii, p. 33 (1803). 
Sisyrinchium bermudiana Linn., Sp. PL, ed. i, p. 954 excl, f- dermudense. 


Sisyrinchium bermudiana, A. Gray Man. Bot. Northern U. S., ed. 5, p- 517; Chap- 
may ci Southern U, S., p. 474; Baker in Jour. Linn. Soc. Lond., xvi, p. 117, 
. Var. I, 


inchium cæruleum parvum gladiato caule Virginianum ; Plukenet, Almagestum, 
P- 348, et Phytogr., t. 61, fig. 1. 


na graminea, flore minore cæruleo : Dillenius, Hort. Elth., p. 49, t. 41, 


en in the Eastern States of North America, from Massa- 
‘and A to F lorida, and naturalized in the Mauritius, New Zealand, 
a ustralia. It also occurs in Ireland, where it is reported to 

mretding; and as it so readily colonizes, it has been con- 
+d as an introduced plant, though, on the other hand, the 
American Eriocaulon septangulare is generally admitted to 
indigenous in Ireland. Since the above has been in type, 


626 General Notes, (June, | 


BaILey’s CATALOGUE OF N. A. Cartces.—This compilation isan 
attempt at a complete catalogue of the North American species 
of Carex. It includes two hundred and ninety-three species and 
eighty-four varieties. It contains the latest authentic nomencla- 
ture, besides a number of reductions by the author as a result of 
his personal studies in the Harvard University Herbarium, For 
convenience of reference, the arrangement is alphabetical, and in 
every case the general distribution is briefly given. 

In comparing it with the latest edition of Gray’s Manual, the 
more important changes which we note are the following: 

C. stellulata (No. 36 Manual) C. echinata Murr. 

. fenea (No. 43 Manual) C. straminea Schk., var chlorostachys 
C. limula (No. 472 Manual) C. vulgaris Fries., var. hyperborea. 
C, stricta (No. 51 Manual) C. angustata Boott. 

C. gynandra (No. 56 Manual) C. crinita Lam., var. gynandra, 

C. lanuginosa (No. 117 Manual) 
C. paludosa (No. 123 Manual) 
C. comosa (No. 126 Manual) 

C. lupuliformis (No. 133 Manual) 
C. olneyi (No. 145 Manual) 

C. rotundata (No. 149 Manual) 
C. pulla (No, 150 Manual) 


C. bullata Schk. 
C. miliaris Mx. 


C. saxatilis L. 
itted from this catalogue. 


e a a 
$ Q 
ar 
$ ree 
È 
Š 
t 
g 
= 


C. pauciflora of the Manual (No. 4) is om 


Exchanges (and notes) in Carex, especially Western hare d 


solicited by the author. Copies of the catalogue may 
for five cents each, or in exchange for desiderata by addressing 
L. H. Bailey Jr., Botanic Gardens, Cambridge, Mass. 


GRANT ALLEN’s CoLors oF FLowers.—The hou 


lan & Co. has brought out in neat form a suggestive Flores” 


by Grant Allen, bearing the title of “The Colors of 


ae CE A toe 


illustrated in the British Flora.” The book is an ae oS 


n the Cornhill Magazine, 


article originally published 1 f the gener 


adapted to the wants andcapacities > ie re 


The general style of the book sai fia judg 

paragraph from the introductory chapter: "me gs SA 
“The flowers that most people observe and e 

are the few highly developed forms which posma eta tio 

colored surfaces to allure the eyes of their insect that we shal 


with’ flowers in this more popular and ordinary spe rp objet 


little treatise; 4 


have to deal mainly in the present a 
i wed p hey are all as 4 group should 


must be to determine, not why t 


colored, but why this, that, or the other particular is the buttet 1 


possess this, that, or the other particu 


the harebell blue? hy is the purple cee of ie ee l 


with lurid red spots? Why are the cent a doe 
yellow, while the ray florets are pinky-white ? we 


1884.] Botany. 627 


prevail among all the veronicas, while vellow predominates in the 
St. Johnsworts, and white in the umbellates? These are the sort 
of questions which we must endeavor briefly to answer by the light 
of modern evolutionary biology, from the point of view of the 
function which each color specially subserves in the economy of 
the particular plant which displays it.” 

We should like to quote more from this fascinating little book, but 
enough has been given to make every reader wish to possess and 
read the whole book for himself. 


PG pe if we push our inquiry a step further back, we shall find 


| Par geet stocks, is true also of the parent stocks themselves in 
has been t from an earlier common ancestor. Each of them 
Qvoreg produced by the selective action of nature, which has 
yong certain individuals in the struggle for existence at the ex- 
Of new ene? and has thus finally resulted in the establishment 
now wane a having peculiar points of advantage of their own, 
iy are y distinct from the original species whose descendants 
ked at in this manner, every family of plants or 

Sme — omes a sort of puzzle for our ingenuity, as we can to 
Points nt reconstruct the family genealogy by noting in what 
tious members resemble one another, and in what 


“hot ae 


oy 


40 


628 General Notes. [June, 


munity of descent—is the object which we set before ourselves 
in the present paper.” - . 

The book may profitably be read by all classes of intelligent 
people, not excepting the scientific botanists, who at least may 
learn from it how to write science insimple English for non- 
technical readers. 


Norra American Funor.—Mr. Ellis delivered the 12th and 
13th centuries of his now well known North American Fungito his 
subscribers about the middle of April. We have repeatedly com- 
mended the successive centuries as they have appeared, and need 
only say that there is no sign of a falling off in their value. A 
notable feature of these centuries is the collection of Slime 
Moulds (Myxomycetes) which will be welcomed by many sti- 
dents. 


Tue Frora or Burrato.—The Buffalo Society of aire 
Sciences has done a good work in issuing a catalogue of 
native and naturalized plants of the city and its vicinity, par 
by David F. Day. It enumerates and gives localities for up 
of 2739 species and varieties, all of which have been stom 
within a radius of fifty miles. These are distributed a ae 
phanerogams 1217; vascular cryptogams 53; mosses 105; 
worts 24; lichens 204; fungi 869; algæ 207. 


: to 
EnsıLace Movutp.— Attention has been called, in niy 
the various moulds found on Ensilage. Ina late num t 


; im describes a form 
Gardeners’ Chronicle, Greenwood Pim de sh mycologists. x 


allied species. The great heat, in connection W1 
moisture of such a mass of decaying veg 
modified the growth, as will readily be un 
have attempted various cultures of moulds. py Mr. Pim is well 

However this may be, a suggestion made by i er unlikely, 
worth the attention of our collectors. See 
ngi, the conditions 
which the fodder has been placed, being so entirely | 


usual c pungi 
u 

A Parasitic Cur-Funcus.—The habit of is ee of thea 5 | 
of the genus Peziza is such, that we mess we may ore | 
assuming the rôle of parasites. However, oo y Chronicle, 
recent note by W. G. Smith, in the Gar a a posumi ont 
abundant growth of the mycelium of i toes. The 
heavily manured land became injurious to Pol 


1884.] - Botany. 629 


ium completely exhausted all the moisture from the living stems, 
and reduced them to tinder, afterwards forming black masses of 
compacted hyphz within the old stems. The trouble is said to 
have occurred last autumn in many parts of Ireland. 


Rep Crover in New ZrEaLanp.—We have all heard much 
said about red clover and humble-bees, and of the non-produc- 
tion of seed by the clover in New Zealand, where humble-bees 
are not found. It is interesting to read the testimony of Mr. J. 
B. Armstrong, of the Christ Church Botanic Garden, New Zea- 
land. After an extended discussion of the subject, he says in 
conclusion, “I think that we may safely assume, that the following 
facts, in connection with the fertilization of red clover in New 
Zealand are proved: 1. That no clover does produce its seeds in 
this colony. 2. That some varieties are much more fertile than 
others. 3. That there is every reason to believe, that numerous 
individuals belonging to the species are self-fertile, and that they 
produce self-fertile progeny. 4. That all the varieties show a 
tendency to produce pale-colored flowers. 5. That the common 
hive-bee, and its variety, the so-called hybrid Ligurian bee, fre- 
quently gather honey from the blossoms of the red clover, thereby, 
no doubt, aiding cross-fertilization. There is also reason to be- 
lieve that the red clover is becoming modified in its structure, so 
aS to admit the visits of insects not known to visit it in England, 
and that such modification tends to render the plant self-fertilizing, 

ut at the same time enables it to be improved in constitutional 
vigor by occasional inter-crossing.”—Gard. Chron., Nov. 17, 1883. 


BOTANICAL Nores.—Dr. Vasey’s report as botanist to the De- 
partment of Agriculture, as published in the report for 1883, is 
a to the grasses, of which twenty-five species are figured. 

'S one of the most valuable portions of the report. A recent 
fake Wy Dr. JT. Rothrock, in the Am. Journal of Pharmacy 
k ratory Contributions from the course preparatory to medicine 

the University of Pennsylvania), indicates that in at least one 
medical school in this country there is an excellent botanical 
kaea The Houghton Farm Bulletin, No. 3 (series iii), just 
vali ved, contains Professor Penhallow’s record of orchard obser- 
pea and experiments, which have a botanical as well as horti- 
a ne interest — The catalogue of the North Carolina Exhibit 
le ain [1883] contains under the head of botany and forestry 
the ogs, discs and planks which were exhibited to illustrate 
waei flora of the State. Among them we note especially a 

Y (Hex opaca), 33 inches in diameter; service-berry (Amelan- 


cen "Botanists will find many rare books advertised, for sale 
by bae rates, in a catalogue of botanical works just issued 
u & Co., 37 Soho Square, W. London, Eng. 


630... General Notes. [June, 
ENTOMOLOGY. 


Eaton’s MONOGRAPH OF THE MAY-FLIES, Part I.—This is a 
-well-worked and finely-illustrated memoir, which will necessarily 
remain a classic. For the first time we have a thorough treat- 


would suggest. 2 
The facts stated as to the habits and mode of oviposition arè 
fresh, and will be doubtless novel to our readers. 
The popular superstition, says Mr. Eaton, that Ma fess 
strictly ephemeral, is fallacious in most instances. ‘Tt is 
that the adult insect cannot eat, owing to atrophy of its mouth- 
organs and to the condition of its alimentary canal; but, ce 
ed that the air be not too dry, the imagines of many uote 
live without food several days. Tradition states that Se 
a female Cloëon alive three weeks; this is an exception Ja 
period, for in general an individual in confinement becom th 


May-flies are 


more 

s, the latter lasts & 
takes place within ê 
h skin, its 


fugitive, passing away in the course of the evening Or ibimag? 
ing. In some genera of short-lived Ephem o S ie 
skin is partially or altogether persistent ın on al 

sexes; and such portions of it as may be shed are moleo the 
the insect is in full flight.” The longer- lived api the others 


The change from nymph to subimago is effecte p by gas hich 


the water with the wings erect awa! 
ing to shelter. Fluttering stea 


RTs eee ae Seep gn a me cae AEN, 


and : o 
e moult having beet 


transacted in the ordinary manner, the subimago, “ment A i 
ats aloft, 0 : 


1884.] Entomology. 631 


times to a considerable elevation, presently making its way to trees, 
walls or herbage, &c., likely to afford it a suitable resting place. 

it assumes the posture characteristic of its genus during re- 
pose. It may stand either upon all of its feet, or upon only the two 
hinder pairs; and the fore legs extended in advance, off the ground, 
may in this last case be held either close together or else apart 
from each other. The caudal setz, in most instances divergent, 
are sometimes placed alongside of one another horizontally, or 
slanting upward. 

The mode of flight of these graceful creatures is then described; 
usually, especially in the males, consisting of an intermittent ac- 
tion of the wings, which “ results in a dance-like motion almost 
vertically up and down,—a fluttering swift ascent. and then a 
passive, leisurely fall, many times repeated.” Other habits and 

occasional swarming of certain May-flies are referred to, 
and their reproductive habits. 

The facts regarding oviposition, must, we think be new to our 
readers. “ Some short-lived species discharge the contents of their 
ovaries completely e masse, and the pair of fusiform or subcylindri- 
cal egg-clusters laid upon the water rapidly disintegrate, so as to let 
the egg sink broadcast upon the river-bed. The less perishable 
Species extrude their eggs gradually, part at a time, and deposit 

in one or the other of the following manners:—either the 
mother alights upon the water at intervals to wash off the eggs 
that issued from the mouth of the oviducts during her flight; or 
else she creeps down into the water—enclosed in a film of air, 
with her wings collapsed so as to overlie the abdomen in the form of 
‘nacute narrowly linear bundle, and with her sete closed together 
~to lay her €ggs upon the underside of stones, disposing them 
‘a rounded patches, in a single layer evenly spread, and in mutual 
the euity. This has been witnessed by me several times, and in 
a ae of several species of Baëtis. The female on the comple- 
“on of her labor usually floats up to the surface of the water, 
all at vely swimming with her legs, and, on emerging, her wings 
flies a © are suddenly unfolded and erected; she then either 
Pg Y, Or (as often happens) if her setæ have chanced to be- 
~ Wet and cannot become extricated from the water, she is 
iver ard them until she is drowned. In some instances, how- 

| ' the female dies under water beside her eggs.” 
elipti e are indefinitely numerous, some subrotund, others 


oo 1 
| — L. Calori (1848) and Dr. E. Joly 1 1877) have 
derum, oa of larviparition observed by them in Cloéon dip- : 
from + though they supposed that the young were produced 

- Some week hated eggs retained within the mother, perhaps for 

Sility a: it may be conjectured with equal, if not greater prob 
T , €se were the produce of unfertilized ova advanced 


632 General Notes. : [June, 


to maturity within the nymph and hatched as soon as she became 
an imago.” 

The young are then described; and the term nymph, since the 
larval and pupal stages are so much alike, is applied to all the 
“subaqueous stages in the development of the young after it i$ 
hatched.” They mostly feed upon either mud or minute aquatic 
vegetation, such as covers stones and the larger plants; but 
(judging by their mandibles and maxilla) some must be pre 
daceous. The nymph of Palingenia is said to remain such one 
year. 


The character and peculiarities of the nymph are given in great 
detail; while the means of distinguishing the subimago from 
adult are stated. After a history of the classification of the Eph- 
emeridæ, the bulk of the memoir is devoted to the systemate 
description of the genera and species. The illustrations are ge 
worthy from the attention given to the venation of the wings 
other details, which, of course, add vastly to the value and el 
manency of the work; twenty-four plates being filled with 
sketches, which are drawn upon a large scale. 

Notes on Motus.—We have long had a specimen mahi 
rare Sphinx elsa Strecker, from Salt Lake City, Utah, en ie 
Mr. J. L. Barfoot, curator of the Salt Lake musei see 
originally described by Strecker wag Arizona, E 
in his “ Lepidoptera, indigenous and exotic. 1 
from the 3 a aa a peculiarly faded and banon 
pearance, probably resulting from the light soil and brig 
Utah and adjoining territories. 


Smerinthus imperator Strecker occurred in a coll i 
from Reno, Nevada, presented to us in 1877 by pres dly the sam 
It agrees well with Strecker’s figure, and is undou r á imens 
as the Arizona form; but until we have a suite 0 Ae H. Bat 
the Eastern S. modestus and the Western var. encore decide 
from the Pacific coast for comparison, it will be di f the Atlantic 
whether it is specifically distinct from S. modestus © 
coast. interest 

; ofin 

The following faunal notes on Bomby cidæ maya itigh 

Stenopis argenteomaculatus Harris, was taken agi ar silvery 
in Gilead, Maine, in July. The second one a arris’ figure 
spot is obsolete; but the specimen agrees idle has beet taket 
the style of marking. Stenopis argentata Pack., y pelonging t? 
twice in Providence, in 1883, in June. One eamh 

. G. E. Gray lacks the second outer silvery = have rece! 

From Mr. J. L. Barfoot, of Salt Lake Om W“ Utah, and ie 
Pyrrharctia isabella; from Dr. Palmer, in Soulner™ hite pleach? 
Mr. Siler, of Ranch, Utah, specimens © ve ects 35 wrong 
Pseudohazis hera, showing the same climatic € 


ection of moths, 


1884.] Entomology. 633 


upon Sphynx elsa, Euleucopheus gloverit, Gloveria arizonensis, etc. 
In P. kera the discal dots are linear. ÆEpicallia virginalis var. och- 
racea has been sent us from Southern Utah. 
In Colorado we collected several years ago Arctia achaia Grote, 
Idaho Springs, July 6th ; and with it occurred Leucarctia perma- 
Pack. Lycomorpha palmerii was not infrequent at Manitou, 
July 16th ; it was originally described by us from Southern Cali- 
fornia. In South Park Colorado, occurred Tolype velleda. 
The localities of the following Geometrids are new: Dasyfidonia 
a (Guen.) Reno, Nevada; and in the same collection 
m x marmorata ; from Colorado (Scudder) Selidosema 
tuturnaria ; the same, var. californiaria, from Beaver Mts., Utah 
(Palmer in Scudder’s collection). —A. S. Packard, $r. 


Tue Birp-Louse (Dermaleichus pici-pubescentis)—In Novem- 
ber, 1883, I found this interesting mite, first described by Professor 
Packard as occuring on Picus pubescens, on a specimen of the hairy 
woodpecker (P. villosus). They were especially numerous on the 
barbules of the feathers at the upper part of the throat, although 
xt were also found on the feathers situated on the under side of 

e wings. 

Besides the forms described by Professor Packard (see “ Guide to 
Study of Insects”), there was another form, which is probably the 

xapodous stage of the female, which has not yet been de- 

— Clarence M. Weed. 


US genus of Syrphidæ, with two plates. 
partment of Agriculture, division of Entomology, com- 


a of observations and experiments in the practical 


Professor C. V. Riley. It contains notes on the army worm, an 
Experiments wi x 
b 


ig y A. S. Packard, Jr. (containing descriptions of the trans- 
talec) “ONS of Eupithecia luteaia, Caripeta angustioraria and Cryp- 


Texas į : 
: Sata the spring and early summer of 1883, by E. H. Anderson ; 
ttn worm, by W. S. Barnard. The most important paper, 


- Sroup of moths which h in thi ry, is Dr. James 
AR ; as appeared in this country, 1S Dr. 
A Bailey’s “Some p 


634 General Notes. [June, 
in the life-history of Cossus centerensis Lintner,” containi 
excellent biological matter, and illustrated by two well-engraved 
plates. The publication of this Bulletin marks a new era in the 
work and development of the entomological division of the agri- 
cultural department, and we hope the publication will be well sus- 
tained. Psyche, vol. 1, Sept.—Oct., 1882 (issued late in 1883) 
contains a noteworthy paper by Dr. Geo. Dimmock, on some glands 
which open externally on insects. Vol. Iv, Nos, II 5-116 contains 
Mr. Lintner’s “ New sexual character in the pupæ of some lepidop- 
tera ;” a very just tribute to the memory of J. L. LeConte, by C. V. 
Riley; the gills of insect larvae, by G. McCloskie; the screw- 
worm-fly (Compsomyia macellaria), by S. W. Williston —The 
oldest Tracheates known are probably two fossil myriopods from 
the Lower Old Red Sandstone (Devonian) of Scotland, described 
. by B. N. Peach in Proceedings Royal Physical Society of Edit 
burgh, 1881.82. 


ZOOLOGY. 


OCCURRENCE OF CHLOROPHYLL IN Animats.—C, A. wag 
bases his conclusions as to the identity of animal and vegetable ei 
rophyll on the fact that the wave-lengths of centers of the (a 
the same solutions of animal and vegetable chlorophyll ate ‘is 
same, and that the wave-lengths of the centers of the | ik 
the same when the same reagent isadded tothe resperir ae E 
Without committing himself to accepting the views ol ae 
Sorby, he applies the term chlorophyll to that ss mor 
or mixture of coloring matters, which can be extrac ohol, of 


? 


green leaves, such as those of Primula, by means of e A 


alcohol and ether. The coloring matter, to which the w 
given the name “ enterochlorophyll,” and which can to 


from the liver or other appendage of the enteron of the 
was shown to be probably produced by, and in, ve a alge 
animal, and not food chlorophyll. The absence o ee old entero 
in sections of the livers of certain mollusks veo" ue to their 

chlorophyll, shows that this pigment ere ton’s observe 
presence. The writer further showed that Pock ingt 1872, on the 

tions, published in the Pharmaceutical ator x ides 


i d in 
presence of the principal chlorophyll band in the 
and alcohol solutions of the wing- OT addition % 
produced in the spectra of these solutions O indistin í 


certain reagents showed the presence of a body L 
from vegetale chlorophyll. Hence, Leydig i ao wer = 
the presence of’that coloring matter in insec the occurren® 
correct. However, in the case of green larve ntrated onthe 
a band in the red when a strong light 1s weg food chlo 
tegument may be merely due to the presence O 


1884.] . Zoölogy. 635 


in the intestine, for, on squeezing out the contents of the latter, 
green color and the band both disappear. It was then shown 
that chlorophyll could hardly be of much use in respiration, as 
oxydizing and reducing agents do not affect it; that for protective 
purposes or in mimicry a body of less complex chemical com- 
position might answer equally well, except that the eyes of some 
invertebrates may be more susceptible to rays of light of a certain 
wave-length than our own, especially as Sir John Lubbock has 
own that ants perceive the ultra violet rays of the spectrum 
which are invisible to us. It may possibly be the persistence of 


corresponds with the principal chlorophyll band between B and C. 
In the case of enterochlorophyll this coloring matter may be of 
use in furnishing material for the construction of other coloring 
matters, especially as this body and Lemochromogen exist side 
by side in the bile of some mollusks; and in the bile of the sheep 


parasitic algae, as in Spongilla and Hydra, and that it is in some 
pam Produced synthetically by and in the bodies of animals.— 
nal of the Royal Microscopical Society, December, 1883. 


king ons and their increasing complication in the animal 
tions a He gives a summary of facts deduced from observa- 
a various writers. ; 

pear £ functions of the endodermal ciliated chambers and cells ap- 
search be respiration and the prehension of nutriment, recent re- 
e, seeming to deny them the—at any rate the exclusive— 
the vie actual digestion. The mesoderm probably shares in 
E function; the claim of the ectoderm to this position is 
“fp, ndisputable. The occasional occurrence of lipostry and 
tothe, does not affect this question much, but relates chiefly 
of ep timer of disposing of the used-up water. The function 
| on is transferred in. lipostomy to other canals and 


636 General Notes. ` [June, 


pores; that of digestion in lipogastry is taken up by the ciliated 
chambers, or possibly by the ectoderm and mesoderm. The dis 
covery of digestive ferments (pepsin, trypsin) in the body of the 
sponge has its importance somewhat reduced by the uncertainty 
which prevails as to the exact distribution of these compounds ia 
the living animal. A reserve of nutriment occurs at certain times 
in several widely distinct sponges, and in some cases starch has 
been demonstrated between the cells, but there appears reason to 
regard this as derived from alge. Oily matters have been ex- 
tracted by chemical processes from sundry sponges, and traces of 
fatty matter have been observed. Though so commonly found 
dissolved in fatty matters in vertebrata, coloring matters are found 
abundantly in the sponges, although fats are so scanty in these 
organisms. They occur in the endodermal ciliated cells ( Spongelis 
avara, Calcisponges) or in the mesoderm ( Euspongia officinals, 
Chondrosa). Some forms (Calcarea), from being colorless, take 
a brown color when placed in spirit; others (Suberites, Hirciaia, 
and Stelletta, spp.) lose their color if exposed to the light. 4, 
sina aerophoba offers a remarkable example of change of blue. 
consequent on death, viz., from a sulphur-yellow to Prussian 
This is caused by changes in certain roundish, refar 
dermal cells, with bladder-like nucleus, and small -a a 
granular space. The color is preserved unchanged in , 
salicylic acid. -The substance which produces it 1s cons! 
be reserve nutriment. The same body (aplysinofulvin) ape 
to occur in Aplysilla sp. and Hircinia sp., but changes ™ ii 
Š j: 5 i # : because the 
rapidly in Aplysilla than in Aplysina, perhaps pe 
ducing ferment which hinders its conversion is decom paes 
slowly in the latter case. The horny fibers have eo have yet 


elathrus would seem to suggest. In connection m! n that, @ 
of sponges, it is remarked that Cavolin’s obs the old parts. 

having taken root, the pieces of sponge shed over 
mucilaginous mass, in which the skeleton appr The youngest 
might be utilized as giving a hint where were the study a ; 


parts, when these are sought after, and thus turta coget, DE 
tissue-development.—/ournal of Royal Murosco, g 
cember, 1883. 


the 
4 inks that 
Pepat GLanps oF MorLusca.—j]. Carriere thin hs are the 4 

amellibrane kee 


to De * 
orifices of various glands ; water does ne: by de kidney; 1%" 


blood alone can bring that about. 
the means for introducing water int 


1834.] Zoblogy. 637 


passage by means of which the fluid which passes into the peri- 
cardium from the blood can make its way into the kidneys. 
There are no indications of a water-vascular system in either 
Gasteropods or Lamellibranchs. In pursuing his investigations 
the author found great assistance from the air-pump, the use of 
which he learned at the Naples station. The thickest and largest 
pieces of the feet, which would otherwise have required several 
day’s treatment, were rendered easy of section after a few hours. 


—Fournal of the Royal Microscopical Society. 


SUCKERS oF CePHALoPops.—P. Girod describes the suckers of 
, Octopus vulgaris and Sepia officinalis, which are at first to be dis- 

tinguished from one another by their sessile condition in the 
= former and their pedunculated character in the latter; in the 
capod there is, further, a horny ring developed, but there is 
‘Not, asin the Octopod, any elastic cup or construction, the cavity 
of the sucker forming asingle chamber. 

In the Octopod the suckers act thus: The animal contracts the 
extrinsic infundibular muscles, the sphincter of the orifice, and 
the inferior muscular envelope, and the form of the sucker be- 
Then the infundibulum or upper portion 
of the sucker becomes conical, the acetabular chamber enlarges, 


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of the sucker, and so to increase the vacuum. In the Deca- 
pod there is a piston-like arrangement which becomes withdrawn 


mig be more completely displayed when he gives an account of 
mi : 
RESEARCHES ON THE Isopopa.—L. Huet, among the important 
additions which he has made to our knowledge of these Crustacea, 
Rae, n able to prove the existence of large salivary glands, and 
t not only in the terrestrial, but also in the groups that are es- 
stially marine, such as the Idoteide and the Cymothoide. 
Sith discovery is of especial importance when we remember that, 


the hy the whole group the results which he has found true for 
a 


With regard to the processes of respiration, the author made a 
> though: a €xperiments which resulted in showing him that, 
i gh there is a very close resemblance in the characters of the 

can, by which they are effected, there are but few found that 
Mont danger, exchange a terrestrial for an aquatic mode 


638 General Notes, [June, 


of life, or vice verséd. Of such we have an example in Ligia, but 
here, as in all, the air respired must be damp. 

Especial attention may be given to the sympathetic nervous 
system, the arrangement of which ‘is as yet only incompletely 
known. It is much more complex than that of the Decapod 
and the splanchnic system appears to be analogous to that of the 
recurrent intestinal nerves of Limulus, arising, as the nerves do, 
from the hindermost of the nerves of the body. On the other 
hand, there is a close resemblance between the minute structure 
of the nervous system of the Isopoda and the Decapoda. 


COMMENSALISM BETWEEN A Fisn anD A Mepusa—In pke 
signment from the Mauritius, G. Lunel found ppe th the 
melampygus and Crambessa palmipes. The fish stuc a eui 
greater part of its body in the apertures which are form 


trav- 
eo : ect a ; 
four columns uniting the stomach with the n bet not be 


ersed by the gastro-vascular canals. This union the 
serine’ by the hypothesis that the animal had pee be- 
other as its prey and means of nourishment; for the me but 
longs to a family which possesses no proper se e in very 
only a series of microscopic pores, which can me! taken up his 
finely-divided nourishment, and the fish had penn was only ea 
quarters in a natural hollow of the medusa, whic of the fish 
larged, but in no way injured, by the long residence i 
It was ascertained that the fisherman had take 


mone, and going in and out of it. 
fish had entered was living, for it could be seen 
ore 


. . . * 4 use i 
unknown peculiarity of their opa with particular neon | 


a diet more congenial to their age, asce 


ntless 
to the upper regions of the sea, to find 


there the cou 


Ee ST et Cee Py ee gee 


a the 


ar 
certain are = 


1884.] Zoölogy. 639 


pelagic animals on which they and their hosts are nourished. It 
is noticeable that the fish, in order to enter the medusa, must 
swim upon its side, therefore in a very abnormal position.— Fourn. 
Roy. Microscopical Society, 


SNAKES In Nepraska.—Miss C. C. Hopley writes thus in the 
London Field: From Nebraska a writer says that the number of 
snakes killed during the late overflow (July) of the Nemaha river 
is beyond belief. It is estimated that more than 3000 were killed 
near Falls City that had been driven by the water to the higher 
ground, They were chiefly Eutæniæ and Tropidonotus, with a 
few rattlesnakes. The writer, who had long been a resident. of 
the locality, and who knew the country well, was “amazed” at 
the number of reptiles, and where they could have previously 
hidden themselves, as the overflowed district did not average a 
mile in width, and he had thought it sparse in snakes. One 
curious and comfortable retreat was in the long hair of a horse’s 
mane, The animal had been confined in a pasture in the flooded 
district, and when released, several snakes were found thus hid- 

1, and apparently tolerated. 


The PeLvisrernum or Epentates.—M. P. Albrecht notes the 
Presence, between the pubes of certain Edentates, of elements 
which he believes to be pelvisternal. In Manis pentadactyla two 
small bones, cartilaginously united to each other and to the pubes, 
parate the latter; in Dasypus sexcinctus.and Cholepus didacty- 

à single bone exists ; in Bradypus cuculliger this single bone has 
attained a comparatively large size; in a B. tridactylus examined, 
the bony pelvisternum was soldered continuously with the pubes, 
with traces of the union on one side; while in many Edentates the 

šare united by a continuous bony bar, without a trace of the 
Juaction. M. Albrecht believes that these facts show the order of 


evolution of this part of the pelvis of the Edentata, and that the 


earn iS parallel with that of the body of the hyoid in Mam- 
ments and though it appears to be placed between a pair of ele- 
with iy, instead of mid-way between two pairs, as is the case 
of the td oid body, this difference disappears upon examination 
be seh 
; homologous with the pair of small bones found in the Eden- 
o Poan aaa pelvic sternebra finds, in the anterior limb, its homo- 

Precoraco: E S entative in the paired element which unites the 
L tå id with the coracoid, that is, in the epicoracoids. For 
MAp ponding parts of the anterior and posterior sternums, 
o techt proposes the names of omosternum and pelvisternum. 
2 Yash yi the cartilaginous pelvisternum of the salamander is 
Cartilage, whi 


ch Albrecht homologizes with the epi- 


640 General Ne tes. | June, 


pubic cartilage of Lacertilia and with the marsupial bones of the 
Mammalia, and believes to be homodynamic with the episternum 
(Wiedersheim) of the Anura and the pair of substernal bones 
found at the anterior extremity of the sternum of some mammals, 
and even in man. These elements are, therefore, styled by M. 
Albrecht pre-omosternum and pre-pelvisternum respectively. The 
element existing behind the pelvisternum in the Lacertilia is simi- 
larly styled post-pelvisternum, while the xiphisternum of the Anun 
is the fost-omosternum. These parts are considered by M. Al- 
brecht to be formed by the ventral parts of the limb bones, and 
thus are not homologous with any part of the costosternum, which 
is composed of copulz that link together the ribs. 

The pelvisternum of the Mammalia had been noticed by twoor 
three authors prior to M. Albrecht’s paper. 


ScaLes, FEATHERS AND Hairs.—The idea current among 


of Natural History. Mr. Jeffries considers 
Pe : s formed long before the 


smooth mucous layer, an epitrichial layer, an 
mediate layer of parenchymatous cells. In 


sides of the toes of many birds. Scuta bear page a toh bave 
appendages—scales never do, thus pointing to nm ` nal core, 
a mucous layer and outer horn coat with a me 
ir differ. 
the preter a 
epiderm of a large papilla. A hair does not ae : 
mucous cells, while a considerable portion a + hers aod scales 
of them. The supposed homology between i uyat absenti 
seems to fail before the facts that the ed eike 
the latter, and that Studer has shown laci : Me J eis aro 
i f uins is a fa . $ theo 
nature of the remiges of peng f the dermal l appe Fie At 
higher vertebrates, and asserts that the pean of any of the | 
phibia is a strong argument against the 1 


mmiais- 
avian appendages with those of reptiles oF mamm 


1884. Zoölogy. 641 


Dr. Coues’ RENUMERATION OF THE SPINAL Nerves.—The 
suggestion contained in Dr. Coues’ article in the last number 
of the NATURALIST promises to relieve the student of human 
anatomy of certain difficulties. in connection with ‘the spinal 
nerves and plexuses. More important considerations will, 
however, deter comparative anatomists from adopting the sug- 

n 


on. 

The renumeration goes upon the principle that a spinal nerve 

is a strictly “intervertebral” structure, and that it is indifferent 
whether we associate it with the vertebra in front or that behind 
it. Such is, however, not the case. Each spinal nerve belongs 
to a particular vertebral segment of the body, that through whose 
neural arch or behind whose neural arch it issues, and ought to 
be named after that segment. There are many of the lower mam- 
malia, Monotremata, Bruta, Ungulata, in which the spinal nerves 
perlorate the neural arches of the segment to which they belong 
instead of issuing behind them. Thus the first dorsal nerve of a 
horse perforates the neural arch of the first dorsal vertebra. If 
we adopt Dr. Coues’ nomenclature, we should have to say that 
the second dorsal nerve perforates the neural arch of the first 
dorsal vertebra—as unhappy an expression as any caused by 
reckoning eight pairs of cervical nerves. 
n this respect the older nomenclature was less objectionable, 
ere the first spinal nerve was described as “ suboccipital ;” the 
second as first cervical, the eighth as seventh cervical, the ninth 
as first dorsal, &c., to the vertebral segments bearing which 
names the nerves really belong. 

It iS unnecessary to dwell longer on the above line of argument, 
for it has been fully elucidated by Dr. Albrecht (ZoGdlogischer An- 
iger, vol. 111, 450 and 472), who regards the suboccipital nerve 
-i the sole remnant of a proatlantic vertebral segment, traces of 
ali ®Sseous elements of which he finds in front of the atlas in the 

'gator and hedgehog. Whether Albrecht’s proatlas be accepted 
2 anatomists, or whether it be more probable that the segment 
x epa the suboccipital nerve belongs has been swallowed up 
his Occipital region of the skull, does not affect the basis of 

Contention that a spinal nerve belongs to that vertebral seg- 

Of raha, de or behind whose neural arch it issues. 


' tary occipital nerves (with corresponding osseous ele- 
(Mon between the vagus a the first atest nerve in Amia 

coe Jahrb, ix, 190). Sagemehl concludes that all be 
homolo ; describes as the first spinal nerve of Amia is really 
singula the with the nerve of the same name in Teleostei, it 1s 
the latt that no traces of the occipital nerves have been found in 
peared jo iss, indeed, we are to assume that they have 
Toronto in the vagus.—R. Ramsay Wright, University College, 


ta 
nd 


642 General Notes. [June, 


ZOOLOGICAL Nores.—/yrotozoans.—Kunstler describes Tricko- 
monas vaginalis as extremely protean in external form. Pseudo- 
podia arise over the general surface, or are localized at the posterior 
end.——G. Klebs discusses (Bot. Zeitung, 1883), the relationship 
of the Flagellata to the Algz and Infusoria. Some Flagellata inthe 
older sense are referred to the lower chlorophyllaceous Alga; such 
are, in addition to the Volvocine, the Chlamydomonads. The 
fresh-water forms of the Peridinez are, with Leuckart, regardedas 
plants. The Euglenacee and Peranemez are separated from the 
Ciliata and placed among the Infusoria. ; 
Crustaceans.—A remarkable shrimp (Nematocarcinus gracilipes) 
was dredged by the Za/isman at a depth of 850 meters, which is 
analogous to certain blind cave phalangids in the enormous 
and slenderness of the antennz and legs. The eyes are lange 
and well developed, though the stalks are short. In a new form 
(Acanthephyra pellucida) the feet are adorned with phosphorescent 
bands 


Mammals.—Miklucho Maclay finds that the average temper 
ature of the body of Echidna hystrix is 78° F., or very little mor 
than that of fish, and about 25° less than mammals generally" 
So far as known, congenital deafness is only known to © 
besides man in the cat, and always in white ones, and most us 
in females. 

PHYSIOLOGY.’ — 


THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE CARBOHYDRATES.—In te nal 
Lancet of Januury and February, 1884, Dr. Pavy reco ae 
interesting experiments which prove the presence in the mee 
and intestines of znimal ferments which have been pani ; 
known. Dr. Pavy’s general object was to discover the s 
carbohydrates in the animal system : 

1. Solutions of grape sugar placed in contact ntly killed rabbit, 


ing the 
of reducing Fehling’s solution than grape mop i 


W p 
mals the ferment is not found in the true or o but in the 
corresponds to the single stomach of other anime’ 


three anterior chambers of the quadruplex organ- yield a ferment ‘ 


i i o 
2. The stomach and intestine are shown also t ya 
of Ann Arbor, : 


1This department is edited by Professor HENRY SEWALL, 


London 


i 
$ 


with the mucous — 


1884.] Physiology. 643 


which has the power of converting cane sugar into a carbohy- 
which reduces Fehling’s solution, but does so less completely 
than grape sugar; this product,as well as that previously described, 
has about the same reducing power as maltose. The stomach in 
animals generally contains much less of the cane sugar ferment than 
the intestine. This ferment appears to be contained not in the 
nds of the mucous membrane, but in the superficial epithelium 
of that coat. (It may be remarked that the cane-sugar-converting 
power of the mucus secreted by the lining epithelium of the 
stomach has long been known.) 


3. This conversion of cane sugar into a maltose-like body oc- 
curs under physiological conditions, for when cane sugar is injected 
into the stomach of a living animal, if the portal blood be ex- 
amined twenty or thirty minutes afterward, it is found to contain 
no cane sugar, but a carbohydrate like that produced from it by 
the action of the ferment already described. 


Human Paysiotocy, sy Henry Power, F. R. C. S.—This is an 

excellent little book of its kind, but the kind is very poor. 
contains statements of a great number of physiological facts 
condensed within a small space, and will therefore be welcomed 
the student who is cramming for an examination. But the 
teacher-physiologist who satisfies himself with the bare men- 
tion of facts, allows his subject to lose its chief importance as a 
discipline to the reasoning powers, and is liable to eventually 
miss his aim altogether, for isolated facts are with difficulty 
red when not strongly bound together into chains of 

Cause and effect, 


Tue FIBRIN-FERMENT.—It is a question of considerable interest 


. 


as to whether those peculiar bodies known as animal ferments, 


wy are of simpler chemical composition. Messrs. Lea and Green 


body that there is little doubt that the ferment is a non-proteid 


the clot ‘twenty-four hours, washing the clot until it is colorless; 
days j is then pressed, rinsed and extracted in the cold for two 
: ulation 3 p. c. sodic chloride. This extract produces rapid coag- 
freed. of diluted blood plasma, and it may be nearly completely 
> à watery  Proteids if a large amount of strong alcohol be added; 

Marked fer tract made from the precipitate thus formed will have 
o nt action —Journal of Physiology, vol. w., No. 6. 


faa 


644 General Notes. [Jume, 
PSYCHOLOGY. 


= Tue Practicat Types or Minp.—Men may be divided into 
three classes with reference to the practical use they make of ther 
intellectual powers, which use is generally an indication of th 
type of intellect which they possess. These types are the mer 
cantile, the literary and the scientific. 

Thg first is occupied in accumulating material possessions 
which often involves the deprivation of other people of them 
Their reasoning powers are much occupied in calculating values 
and in scheming to get control of the sources of physical power 
It is a necessary outcome of the struggle for existence and is best 
developed in those whose struggles are most recent. This isa 
good training school, but a bad state to be permanent. i 

The literary mind deals largely with the manner of things, 
while the other two minds deal with the matter. Its field is with 
the beauties and refinements of life, and by sugar-coating te 
severities, performs great service in our education. Symbols are 
its instruments, and these it is prone to mistake for things. 

The scientific mind occupies itself with realities, and 
value in the truth. This it seeks for and sets forth at all hazards. 
It finds its pleasure in mental rather than material 
and counts its wealth in ideas. It differs from the peer 
mind in this, that it gives away its commodity for te 
of others, while the mercantile sells to the highest bidder. oie 

Sometimes two or more types of mind are hears Coe 
same person, which may be a fortunate conjunction. —+ # 
poer.— haw 


CuRIOUS COMPANIONSHIP OF THE Se AND pe aT y 
ionally heard “cow boys” and others m "2" 


o . 
he’ A (Canis latrans) and the badger ken with th 
They report that the former not only tr vels in co a: 
latter, but often feeds and protects him. Up to rele imagi 
1883, I regarded these statements as ; 


i basis in fact. Observ o 
tions, and as having no ate relations at least | 


has compelled me to believe that rages 
i ist between these animals. 1 s 
casionally exist betwe yoe iit coe pany 


' culiar & 
Sy weep Eora ome re pape once under perii 


badger on three different occasions, . 
Rite IS I was engaged in maki geolog! Tert 
about fifteen miles east of t - ah 
tory, ina region of Miocene Tertiary bad la AE 
butte examining some fossils, 
me, a coyote and badger walking topenia 


ve 
ls, I saw, se and every f" =e 
in fro 3 


stopping and playing. The coyote wou gol wats tea 


ger, lay its head on the latter's neck, lick it, er ja 


give other expressions of ‘unmistakable joy. I dog playing * 


badger were very much like that of a young 


aoa ate 


1884.] Anthropology. 645 


another pup, or when meeting its master. The badger seemed 
equally well pleased. This playing and fondling of each other 
was kept up for over half an hour, and until they disappeared 


that neither coyote nor badger made their appearance, but why 
they abandoned my hospitable quarters is a mystery to me. In 
these instances the coyote carried off the breakfast that I had pro- 
vided, and I could not tell whether or not it was shared with the 
badger. It, however, became evident to me that these animals do 
Rot associate by accident; they must haye some affinity for each’ 
other, or else they would not thus come together. 
coyote is naturally sociable. Often when I have encoun- 
tered him amid the wilds of nature he stood and gazed after me 
wistfully, as if he meant to say, “ I wish I could have your com- 
any.” He soon learns to know that man is his enemy, and for 
own preservation gives him a wide berth. 
Itis not at all improbable that future investigation may show 
this fell wship to be a case of symbiosis. It is hoped that this 
will call out others who have had more extended opportunities to 


I the habits of these animals. One of the first from whom 

W of this intimacy between the coyote and badger was 
*- U .Hoftile, of Lander, Wyoming Territory. —Samuel Aughey. 

A ANTHROPOLOGY.’ 

: i Astor Lisrary.—The thirty-fifth annual report of the 

x larity library, for 1883, affords some information upon the popu- 


f 


646 General Notes. [June, 


were upon chronology ; 4559 upon heraldry and genealogy; 214 
upon the history of American Indians; 739 upon oriental litera- 
ture; 863 upon manners and customs ; 717 upon Orientalia; 4404 
upon philology and linguistics. Doubtless many other volumes 
were drawn for anthropological research, for instance, oa 
war, biology, domestic economy, ethics, geography, history, 
travels, etc. 

THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION ANTHROPOMETRIC CoMMITTEE—Ia 
1875 the British Association appointed a committee on anthro- 
pometry, of which Dr. William Far was chairman until 1878. The 
reports of the committee are as follows: 1878, 5 p, Annual 
182-6; 1879, 35 p., tid. 175—209 ; 1880, 41 p., wid. 120-159; 
1881, 48 p., bid. 225-272; 1882, 3 p., ibid. 278-280; 1883, fual 
report, 54 p., separate. The points to which inquiries were - 
dressed are: 1. Stature; 2, Weight; 3. Chest-girth; 4. Color y 
eyes; 5. Color of hair; 6. Breathing capacity; 7. Str : 
arm; & Sight; 9. Span of arms; 10. Size and shape of head; 
11. Lower limbs; 12. Measures of other parts of the Z 
These measures were applied to the different elements of i 
mixed population of Great Britain and compared with se 
other parts of the world: The results are partly shown @ 
following table: b 
Race or Nationality. Authority. Meers, P 

Samoa 1.85 La Perouse 
Tahiti & Pitcairn 1.782 Garnot, Beechey 
: Marquesas 1.76 
Polynesian 1 New Zealand 1.755 Various 

i I 


SRS 


Polynesians ; 
andwi 1.731 Lesson, Rollin na S 
English professional class Anthrop. Com. 90 
A 1.778 usters } 1.754 9 
Patagonians { 1.730 D’Orbigny a S 
Angamis (Naga hills) Woodthorp 1.752 x 
Negroes (Congo) Topinard 1.746 ssr 
Scotch Anthrop. Com, at Se 
Amakosa Kaffirs Sir A. Smith 1.735 s 
Iroquois Indians oul 17277 STS 
Todas (Nilghiries) Marshall 1.727 55 
egroes (Calabar) Topinard 1726 58 
. A. Indi xter 1.725 5 

h Anthrop. Com 19 : 

S. Whites er 1719 : 
English Anthrop. Com. oe | 
Norwegians 1.727 T pr sm 

“48 immigrants U. S. 1.717 Baxter 1.707 sts , 
Zulus poa 75 gpa 
English laborers Anthrop, 1.703 se 
Canadians, U. S., French immigrants axter 1.705 gép 
Tajiks of Feyhana & Samarkand Ujfalvy Beddoe 1.70 se 
Swedes, U. S., immigrants Baxter "L7 5 
Chippeway Indians Oliver 1.699 Linde 
Kabyles i Com. 1.695 566 

elsh oe is oo 5 
-4 ax i 
awa 5 U.S. immigrants Ba 163° 
ter 


Ee a 


Race or Nationality. 
English, U. S., immigrants 


; U. S, ts 
immigran 

wiss of Geneva oe 
wiss, U. S,, immigrants 
tussians, “ P 
teach, U. S., immigrants 
oles “ Dere 
French r classes 
mans 
reay 

of Algeria 
irabs a 
avanese 
sary Ae U. S., hg ae 
Sy ns (aborig. ) 


jalchas, a “coer erg 
te S, 


of Algeria 
are U. S., immigrants 


Ea ie e HFE 


rian ‘(military statistics) 


ITT 


HEF 
i 
] 


my 


Ff 
jt 


pit 


2 tare oh man 


Isbeks of Ferghana & Samarkand 


Anthropology. 


Majer 8 & Kopernicki 
sepa 


Davy 
Novara 


Novara 
An. di Statist. 1879 
ovara i 
Mayer & Kopernicki 
“ “ 
Novara 


Various 


S the tallest and tie shortest © 


nn o 
SRS g 


Bsed PRE 


Pn nnn natin nn 
= 
© 


648 General Notes. ) [ June, 


ANTHROPOLOGY AT THE NATIONAL CapiTat.—The city of Wash- 
ington is becoming such an important center of anthropological 
material and research, that students in other places are likely to 
become confused in seeking for any special information. To pre- 
vent embarrassment it is well to bear in mind the following facts: 

I. In the Smithsonian building proper is the Department of 
Antiquities, in charge of Dr. Charles Rau. Here are deposited 
all relics recovered from mounds, graves, ancient i 
caves, shell-heaps, etc., situated in our own country ; all relics of 
antiquity from abroad; and the artefacts of stone, bone, shell, ivory, 
etc., found in the United States and known to be the handiwork 
of the aborigines. Many other typical objects of culture are also 
on exhibition in Anthropological hall. Archæologists visiting 
the capital will naturally make this collection the central point of 
their investigations. A more minute description of Dr. Raus 
work will be given in a subsequent number of the NATURALIST 

2. Under its present organization the National Museum hasa 
Department of Arts and Industries, of which Professor G. Brows 
Goode is curator. One section of this department embraces 
savage and barbarous industries, and to this we now a 
cial attention. No professional ethnologist is in charge, pe 
J. K. Goodrich is engaged in arranging the material, and "E 
Albert P. Niblack. U.S.N., has been detailed to study goe par 
branch of the museum has, for a nucleus, the Wilkes colle m 
and it includes all the specimens formerly combined w Aa 

au’s department, but not representative of the stone oe G 
all parts of the world objects have come to enrich this re sinti 
treasury, and it would be impossible to mention eY Philadelphia 
of the contributors. The Centennial Exhibition at fm a 
was the means of greatly enhancing the store. ‘uae of the 
year most valuable additions have been made to this pa 
National Museum. ed in the Alas 


Mr. C. L. McKay, signal officer, recently npe ting and fish 


J. J. McLain, signal officer, gathered a typ! f Si 

tile work and a number of pipes from the vicinity = 150 sper 

Mr. W. J. Fisher, in the same service, donated id utensils from i 
mens of dance ornaments, weapons and househo far ; 
the same region. ‘ons on 

Mr. panaan signal officer, made fine collections 
isles, Commander group. ; i exchange — 

The National ewe has succeeded in eae den by Dt 
with the Leipzig museum, founded originally ioak and W 
Gustav Klemm, by which a large number O nssession- 
from the west coast of Africa have come into illustrati seni 

Lieutenant Ray gathered at Point Barrow an 
of Eskimo objects. 


| 


-Made up and I 


1884.] Anthropology, 649 


Collections of musical instruments have been contributed from 
Tiflis, and by Mr. J. H. Foot, of New York. 

The Bureau of Ethnology has just turned over to the museum 
its entire store of pottery, ceremonial apparatus, foods, textile 
fabrics, arms and implements from the Zunis and the Moquis. 
This gift includes many thousands of specimens. 

The most interesting addition made to the museum by any of 
its special agents last year, was that secured by Mr. J. G. Swan, 
of Washington Territory. It consists of miscellaneous objects 
gathered along the north-west coast from Sitka to Puget sound, 
together with exhaustive types from the Haidahs and the Ma- 

s. From the former come the beautiful objects in carved 
slate. Besides the miniature totem posts, with their allegorical 


enters into this industry among this tribe. 
3. The Bureau of Ethnology is under the direction of Major 
J. W. Powell. Its function is to study the anthropology of the 
1 American aborigines, living and extinct. The work of the 
Emna parts of this bureau will be more fully described in the 
ure, 

All of the institutions just described.are more or less officially 
connected with the Smithsonian Institution, under the direction 
of Professor Spencer F. Baird. The first named has for its 
medium of publication the Smithsonian Contributions to Know- 
ledge, Miscellaneous Collections, and Annual Report; the second 
makes nown its operations through the Proceedings of the 

onal Museum ; and the Bureau of Ethnology publishes its 
Annual Report, and Contributions to North American Eth- 


Da The Army Medical Museum, under the official direction of 
K Robert Murray, Surgeon-General, U. S. A., and in charge of 
- John S. Billings, is devoted to anthropology in its more 
ons dsense. Here are deposited crania, skeletons, prepara- 
hu of soft parts, microscopic sections, etc., relating to the 
man body. It is here also that the great Index-Catalogue is 
ndex Medicus is edited. 
Ms The Anthropological Society of Washington, numbering 
Sia Pundred and fifty members, holds its meetings at the 


and is in a flourishing condition. Major J. W. Powell is 


presi Jent for 1884, and Colonel F. A. Seely, U. S. pr Si ai 


aa: to whom all communications should be addres 
doloci] € Many departments of the Government where anthro- 


: sical material is gathered and where excellent contributions 


650 General Notes. 


are made to this science. Indeed, there is not a single depart 
ment of anthropology that is not well represented in Washi 
The Patent Office, the Census Bureau, the Roard of Health, the 
Department of Agriculture, the Signal Office, the Indian Office 
are only a few of these. Further reference to some of these 
stitutions and their operations will be made in future numbers of 
the NATURALIST. 


MICROSCOPY AND HISTOLOGY! 


Metuops oF InvesTicaTinc ANIMAL Cexts.—Dr, Brass Ms 
devoted several years of close study to the structure and lif of 
animal cells, and a detailed account of his methods appears in the | 
first number of a new journal of microscopy. The following a 
some of the more important of these methods: _ 

1. Protozoa-—As most Protozoa move very rapidly ee 
ery, it is well to feed them before attempting to study them roll 
the microscope. If well fed with powdered pieces of plants, aC, 
they usually remain quiet after a short time, and begin to assim 
late the food-material which they have appropriated. ie : 
dition of comparative quiet they can be easily examined pe 
powers. For this purpose they may be placed under a 
glass with considerable water and a number of small green 
to keep the water supplied with oxygen. a 

For higher eg Abbe’s illuminating apparatus aia 
useful. In some cases it is desirable to have a comp 
sided illumination, and this is best effected by pee | 
the illuminating apparatus a circular diaphragm-P re 
with a slit 3™™ wide that runs parallel to the edge 0 edoe of OF 
is best to have about 2™" between the slit and the hich = 
plate. Several diaphragm plates should be pr rant or mow | 
slit varies in extent from a half to a whole of a quadr 

The following mixture, which is Meckel’s fluid he oie | 
tion of a little acetic acid, is recommended above l 
agents as a preservative medium: g 


kcid - 
Platinum-chloride 


Unicellular animals die very slowly in this ie in ost 4 


acid or picro-sulphuric acid. ed with opm 

A special method is required for Protozoa i3 ee ctractare l 

i any cases the nucleus ane, as Me i 

foreign a 
method adopted in such cases is as follows : aa 

(1) Placed in picro-sulphuric acid 3-4 mm ‘lea 

1 Edited by Dr. C. O. WHITMAN, Mus. Comp. Zool.» Coe)? 

2 Zeitschr. fir wiss. Mikroskopie, 1, No. 1, PP» 39-5 a 


1884.] Microscopy and Histology. 651 


2) Transferred to boiling hot water for a short time. 

3) Placed in water and a little ammonia added ; this causes the 
contracted object to swell up to its original size and form. 

i 4) Neutralize the ammonia with a little acetic acid, and then 

6 Color with borax-carmine or ammonia-carmine. 
` (6) Wash and examine in dilute glycerine. 

The picro-sulphuric acid destroys the nutritive material; the 
ammonia dissolves any particles of fat that may be present; and 
thus the object becomes transparent so far as possible. 

A concentrated solution of corrosive sublimate may also be 
~ Used with success for killing Protozoa; but care must be taken to 
| wash thoroughly. 

Dr. Brass has obtained his best results without reagents or 


2. The nature of Chromatin—Dr. Brass has advanced an en- 

___ trely new theory in regard to the colorable portion of the nucleus. 
. Hitherto it has been very generally supposed that the chromatin 
: (Flemming) plays an important part in cell division, but Dr. 
Brass maintains that it represents simply surplus food-material. 
Opinion is supported by the fact that well-fed cells contain 
chromatin in abundance, while cells deprived of food for a con- 

le time appear to lose the chromatin. 


_ Prirzer's METHOD or COLORING AND HARDENING AT THE SAME 
_ TME’—To a saturated aqueous solution of picric acid add a 
_ Small quantity of an aqueous solution of nigrosin. This gives a 
deep olive-green mixture which kills very quickly and stains at 
the same time that it hardens. After a few hours’ immersion the 
ject may be transferred to water or alcohol for removing the 
a the oe which remains in a i eae 
: “end is very good for preparing small objects that have 
: to be killed, hardeed: Saied ae hater! the cover-glass. 
Picrerinc ReaGent Botrie2—The usual forms of filters of 
and cotton are not as convenient as one could wish, and it 
aheg a view to the production of a simple apparatus which 
deliver, perfectly filtered, any quantity of a staining-fluid, 
. ayid reagent from a single drop to a dishful, that I devised, 
3 bottle or eas ago, the bottle here described. A wide-mouth 
4 of convenient size is fitted with a cork through which three 


= apes ie ake the) a 


k are passed ; 
= the bottom of the bottle, while the other two tubes extend 
: On} ust below the cork 

beyond 


at d) is also fitted with a cork, through which passes a short 
piece of small tubing, which is slightly contracted at its distal end. 


ae Dtsch, Botan. Gessellsch., 1, No. 1, p. 44, 1883. 


ase ice the diameter of the first. The lower end of this larger 


YCEH 


652 General Notes. (June, 


Over the cork and open end of this short delivery tube, a piece 
of fine muslin (æ) is stretched, 
and the space (4) in the large 
tube is filled with a loosely 
packed plug of absorbent cot- 
ton, forming an e ; 
The second tube ends above 
the cork in a “thistle-bulb” 
funnel (e), the opening in which 
is formed into a neck of suf- 
cient length to enable one to 
cork it securely. Through this 
thistle-top tube the reagent 
may be readily poured from a 
dish or other vessel. The thi 
tube (g) is bent over the side 
of the bottle and a piece 
rubber tubing isattac 
may end either in a short glass 
Fic. 1.—Filtering Wash-bottle. mouth-piece or aT 
as the student may elect. In case the bulb is used it will be 
necessary to loosen the cork in the funnel-tube (e) when a 
cient quantity of the contents has been expelled, in order to tè- 
lease the pressure and stop the flow.. dri 
This bottle differs from the one described at Montreal wi 
the use of the thistle-top tube and common bottle, 1n got she 
more expensive three-neck or Wolfe’s bottle. The ess a 
tubes may be purchased for about fifteen cents apiece, wht 
Wolfe’s bottle would cost fifty cents or more. — 


-pi r at for a 
ton. A gentle breath at the moutlt-piece, pore steadily for ® 


ful of the reagent © 


obtained. er will ot bebt 


When the plug of cotton becomes foul, wie bet replaced tY | 


a long time, even with hematoxylin stain, it 


a fresh one. The cotton should be but loosely packe 


when it will be found that the succeeding 
filtered.—From the Am. Mo. Mic. Jour. March, pe 


easily. If the contracted end of the delivery | pin or fit . 
ed with ee bottle | 


1884.] Microscopy and Histology. 653 


NOTES ON THE USE OF THE FREEZING MicroToME.—The ten- 
dency at the present time is to make all microscopic sections by 
the dry method after paraffin infiltration and imbedding ; but no 
doubt there is a place, and an important one, for the freezing 
microtome in practical histology, and in this note I would like to 
call the attention of the readers of Science Record to what seem 
to me improvements in its use. Disliking greatly the disagree- . 
able “muss” made by ice and salt, it occurred to me to take 
advantage of the device of plumbers to thaw out water and gas 
ipes, to use strong alcohol with the ice or snow instead of salt. 


So a 
gS 
2 
5 
[ie] 
u 
5 
° 
= 
© 
5 
ch 
5 
LA 
r 
ao) 
° 
= 
& 
(g) 
a 
O 
0 
w 
tei 
(en 
z 
3 
2 
oh 
=< 
oO 
ge] 
oO 
“| 
6 
o 
= 
t 


for cutting, but this is not lost, as little evaporation takes place 
the dilution does no harm for many purposes, hence the 
Method is not wasteful, while it is much more pleasant and expe- 
_ ditious than with salt. 
ang linarily tissues are infiltrated with thick gum before freezing, 
re 


A 
j 
g 
3 

a 

or 
a 
fo 

B 

5z! 
5. 
T 
Z 
z 

= 

za 
o 
S 

a. 
5 
ya 

wn 

5, 
B, 
5 

CE 


Ba ction cutting, and then soaking in water to remove any 
> ution of very clean gum arabic. When ready to make the sec- 
the the Well of the microtome is filled with the thick gum and 
| th nssue introduced at the proper time as usual. Before cutting 
l a tga 'S cut away from the tissue, as in sharpening very bluntly 
| direct] Pencil, then as the sections are cut they are transferred 
y to the slide. After several slides are filled, a drop of 
pe at a ha to each section and the cover-glass applied. 
ically mounting in Farrant’s solution. 

instead of using gum ery Professor Sollas? recommends 

88 desc Prepared as for glycerine jelly. This is used in every way 
sli sigs for the thick gum, and the sections are placed upon 

In this and covered with glycerine and the cover-glass applied. 

nes yodification the sections are practically mounted in gly- 
Way for Y. The cover-glass may be sealed in any approved 
nel y. her of the methods just described.—S. H. Gage, Cor- 

"versity, March r, 1884. 


ENE Ce Er 


"From a 
Profas tence Record, No. 6, April, 1884. Sk 
tome, Q J. Sollas. An Sidi adas in the method of using the freezing micro- 
Ly Journal of Microscopical Science, Jan., 1884, p- 163. 


654 Scientific News, Len 
SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 


— In examining sponges Mr, H. J. Carter, according to the 
Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, finds that the 
quickest way is to soak a microscopic fragment of it in d 
tilled water for from twelve to twenty-four hours, then ter 
it to pieces on a slide, drain, dry, and mount with balsam # 
usual; but to be certain of the exact form of its spinules requira 
that they should be boiled out with nitric acid, which may ae 
be easily and quickly effected by placing the microscopic fag 
ment on the centre of a glass slide and covering it with pie 
two of nitric acid, then boiling this over a spirit lamp with 
flame till it is nearly dry, after which the same process must be 
repeated twice or thrice; and, finally, before the last drop d 
nitric acid is entirely dried up, removing the slide to the tabik 
when through gradually increased inclination and m 
careful edulcoration with distilled water, the residuum may 4 
freed from all remaining acid, drained, dried, and moa 
balsam; or if desired, another microscopic fragment, prepared 
first-mentioned, may be added to it previously, when the p i 
form of the spicules respectively, together with. heir position 
situ, may be seen at once, in the same préparation. toi 
— Mr. H. P. Aylward, according to the Journal of je pond 
Microscopical Society, has designed a set of eye oe te 
life hunting, the novel feature of which is that the ho A 
bottle is made of steel wire, one end grasping mee the tapt 
bottle, and the other end being a hollow spiral, in w The hook # 
end of any sized walking stick may be inserted, packs i28 
similarly attached to a spiral. The dipping dl is coe 
japanned cylindrical tin box, the upper half o a c epil 
posed of very fine copper gauze. When the the lower pa 


into this box, the organisms will be retained in 
into this box, rg sat This 


wards returned to the bottle. For special e irge sete A 
japanned box is supplied, containing sev‘ as a 7 
The size of the cylindrical box and its case coms’. 
is 5 in. x 2 in., that of the box with test-tubes, 5 
% 1 : nized 
—The Entomological Society of Washan a "frst vice P” 
the following officers: President, Dr. C. V. rhe Marx; | 
dent, Dr. J. G. Morris; second vice-president, secretary, LS 
committe, 


officers and. Dr. W.S. Barnard, P. R. pper n 
The first regular monthly meeting soc ee ee 

3d, in the council chamber of the U. S. National concerning 

following papers were read:-I. 


gts FS Te oi es eet 3 a S; A if 
1g i Re as Rui 


! 1884] Scientific News. 655 


late Dr. Townsend Glover, by C. V. Riley. 2. On insect collect- 
ing at Pt. Barrow, Alaska, by John Murdoch. 3. On the insect 
fauna of the District of Columbia, by E. A. Schwarz. 4. On 
the so-called “ mistaken parasite,” by L. O. Howard. 

The active membership list of the society numbers over tae 
names. Meetings are held on the first Thursday evening of eac 
month.—Z. O. Howard, corresponding sccretary. 

—The only American sea-side laboratory now open to 
students and investigators in general is that sustained by the 
Boston Society of Natural History at Annisquam, Mass. The 
session begins June 20th, and closes September 7th, 1884. 

The work in the laboratory will be under the immediate care of 
Mr. J. S. Kingsley during June and July, and Mr. B. H. Van 

eck, assistant in the laboratory of the Boston Society of Natural 
History, during August. 

ications for entrance should be made to Professor A. Hy- 
att, custodian of the Society of Natural History, Boston, Mass. 

—The final outburst of the Krakatoa volcano took place at 12 
minutes to noon on August 27th of last year, and a great tidal 

was created in the Straits of Sunda, At 1.30 p. m. of 
the same day a wave was felt at Pointe de Galle, in Ceylon, 3000 
distant, and at 2.15 p. m. one was felt at Mauritius, 
ers distant.. Calculating from these observations, 
de la Croix, a French physicist, estimates the velocity of the 
molecular disturbance through the water of the ocean to be 2000 
kilometers per hour, 550 meters per second higher than the rec- 
°gnized velocity of sound in air.—Zhe English Mechanic. 


D —The total amount appropriated to the French Institute in the 


; the year 1884, is 720,000 francs, of which the Aca- 
p Française receives only 98,000 francs, and the Academie des 
as much at 203,000 francs. Every member of each sec- 


: Uon of the Institute receives 1500 francs a year, the permanent 


of each section, 6000 francs; the remainder is for 


_ Work, Memoirs, prizes, etc. 


=M. Girard has bequeathed to the French Association for the 
of Science, a capital sum of 100,000 francs, the 


: meat st Which is to be devoted every five years to the 


researches into the antiquity of man, with especial - 


3 face to geological time.— The Academy. 


— 


ndon. Allen Thompson published only one 
nes of Physiology” (1847), but he wrote many 


$ 


656 Proceedings of Sctentific Societies. [June, 


papers, and contributed numerous pise to the cyclopædias. 
Thomson early saw the truth in the theory of evolution, and 
taught it when it was not fashionable. 

— Dr. George Engelmann, born at Frankfurt on-the-Main, 
ake 2d, 1809, died, in the midst of his scientific labors, a 

s home in St. Louis, on Monday, February 4th, 1884, in the 
seventy Bh year of his age. 

—The grand honorary Walker prize of $1000 has been awarded 
by the Boston Society of Natural History to Professor James 
Hall, of Albany, for his paleontological investigations. 

:0: 
PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 


NATIONAL ACADEmy OF Sciences, April 15-18.—The | number 
of members present was nearly forty, the session lasting four 
days. An interesting feature of the meeting was the cana 
ment that Mrs. J. Lawrence Smith has presented, as a memora a 
her husband, a member lately deceased, a harie of P gi 
promotion of research on meteorites, Five n ge 
elected, viz., Edward S. Dana, C. B. Comstock, °S, 1. 1 Smith 
Dutton and W. K. Brooks. 

The following papers were read : 

Ee: suffici “ges of t DETEN rotation to hang A river courses, G. K..Gilbert 
r 
On the protographs of the cack of Teni faked at the Lick observatory- oo 


Commis- 
Zoslogical rests of the deep-sea pi ti expedition of the U. S. Fish 
r Albatross. A, E. Ver aR Remsen. 


The 
sa Sa veers of halogen derivatives of carbon ped an I 
‘ e as peg 


The study of comparative biography, C. S. P ~ G, Peirce mÈ 
Whether rea is a minimum perceptible dhera a sensation. C. 


astr 

The askas of the heat radiated from the soil. 5. P. Langley If of Mexico, with #8 
On the depth of the western hae of the Atlantic ocean and Gu 

exhibition of a relief model. J. E. Hilgard. and Gulf of Mexi 
On the relative ig! of the wwesieri part of the Atlantic ocean P 

with respect to the Gulf Stream; J. E. Hilgard. nus of sharks of 

On the structure ah affinities of Didyma, a still living gen" 

Carboniferous period. E. D. Co 


On the North American species or Mastodon. E. D, Cope nd John A. Rr iat 
The characteristics of the Lyomerous Fishes. Theo. Gils oka i. Ryder (b7 
On ior Pariser of the soda fishes. Theo. Gill an J 

Theo. Gill. 


On de isiirhyotagieal PRR NA of a Te realm. 

On the fritts selenium Geo. F. B prè- 
On a lantern ta rol Geo. F. Bake. ior, Geo. J- 

w i i m Lake S jad 

ng a new panaan of the pan > Ri dge- B. Siia je 


the ety of tin ore in the rocks of the Bl on bet 
Krakatoa ic waves the question A a cont by invitation} 
etric poor xe wid atmospheric electricit nolo I 5” pilings 
t 


1884.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies: 657 


On the application of trinomial nomenclature to zodlogy. Elliott Coues. 
Some recent results of the oral and aural teaching of the deaf under the continned 
syst E. M. Gallaudet (by invitation). 
implements from Alaska. F. W. Clarke. 
t ress in electrical fuses. Henry L. Abbott. 
The volcanic sand which fell at Unalashka, Oct. 20, 1883, and some considerations 
concerning its composition. J. S. Diller (by invitation). 

Biographical memoirs of Gen. G. K. Warren, by Henry L. 
Abbott; of Professor Stephen Alexander, by L. A. Young; of 
Dr, J. Lawrence Smith, by B. Silliman, and of Dr. John L. Le- 
Conte, by S. H. Scudder, were read at an evening session of the 

my. 


_Biorocicat Society or WASHINGTON, April 5.—Communica- 
tions by Dr. Leonhard Stejneger on the shedding of the claws in 
ptarmigan; by Mr. William H. Dall on the fishery exports of 
Francisco in 1883 ; by Professor C. V. Riley on rusty oranges; 
r. F. A. Lucas exhibited a series of skulls of American Canide; 
Dr. D. E. Salmon remarked on the recent outbreak of the so-called 
foot and throat disease” in the West; Dr. E. P. Howland on 
the effects of anzsthetics on the animal organization, with experi- 
ments and clinic on animals, showing the peculiar effects of the 
new anesthetic, nitrous oxide and oxygen, administered in con- 
nsed air chambers. 
April 19.— Communications by Dr. Cyrus Thomas on the 
th of trees as a means of determining the age of mounds ; 
by Mr. John Murdoch on dredging and marine collecting at 
Point Barrow ; by Dr. Tarleton H. Bean on the distribution of 
the Salmonidæ in Alaska; Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, U.S.A., on the 
occurrence of a pair of free ribs on the occipital bone of the 
large-mouthed black bass, Micropterus salmonides, with specimen. 


New YORK ACADEMY oF SCIENCES, April 7—A paper on the 
Waraulics of the Mississippi from Cairo to the gulf was read by 

a L. Elseffer, C.E. 
il14—The following paper was read: The uniformity of 

geological climate, by Fokasa Choris B. Warring. 

| 28.—The following papers were read (in continuation of 

hee presented on March 10): 11. The “singing beaches of 
me Baltic ; Irr, The sonorous sand-hills of Arabia and Afghan- 
stan, by Professor H. Carrington Bolton. 


| Fred, Wa Society or Naturat Hisrory, April 2.— Professor G. 
boundary ar spoke of the glacial dam at Cincinnati, and on the 
Morse ' of the glaciated area of Indiana; Professor Edw. S. 
cussed the ancient and modern methods of arrow 


April 16—Dr. M | eee 

oe . M. E. Wadsworth presented a paper on the rele 
ie of the “ Keweenawan series ” a the “ Eastern sandstone T 

= “cnity of Torch lake, Michigan. 


658 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [June, 188 


APPALACHIAN Mountain Crus, April 9.—A paper by Professor 
W. W. Bailey entitled, “ Recollections of the West Humboldt 
mountains, Nevada,” was read; Rev. Luther Farnham read a 
paper entitled, “ Three Visits to the White mountains in 1837, 
1862 and 1883 ;” Information was given concerning recent ascents 
in New Zealand among the Himalayas. 

AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL Society, March 31.—Chief-Justice 
Daly, LL.D., delivered his annual address as president of the 
Society, entitled recent developments in Central Africa and the 
valley of the Congo. ; i 

April 25.—General Jas. Grant Wilson delivered a lecture ent- 
tled memorials and footprints of Columbus, illustrated with ster 
opticon views, 

PHILADELPHIA ÅCADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES, Jan. 31.—Dr. 
Leidy exhibited some fossil bones from the salt mine of New 
Iberia, Louisiana, including remains of Eguus americanus ya 
tibiz of an adult Mylodon. -A piece of matting had been N 
in association with mastodon teeth, but there was no end ie 
their contemporaneity. Dr. Leidy stated that he ag. n 
specimens of drift from Central Minnesota, two species 0 pay 
ifera so closely resembling Zextularia globulosa and Ro 
ulosa that no distinctive characters could be: determined. lier, 

Feb. 2—A paper by Miss Foulke, describing An con 
was read. The author united Apsilus, Dictyophora the disco- 
lophorus under Apsilus. Professor Lewis announced ie at 
ery of fossils in the Triassic. red shal near oni a 
stratum probably 1000 feet below those previ 
near that place. p ive species of lamellibranchs, a ooh oe ae 
plants were among the remains. The two species ed, Professor 
regarded as probably the most ancient yet discover ferous bivalves 
Heilprin stated his belief that some of the Carboni oe Ui 
which had been described under other names A ei ofthe 
Feb. 14.—Dr. McCook exhibited a drawing of sao alt 
flowers, and secures them by a maze of li aie af Cages : 
branc The speaker also described mf age the number Č 1 


ches on si side d | 


the suspended nests. The c PO 

passing animals, but this simply ai : ne af 
of Nephila plumipes from the silk of which SPS, Potts gt: 
Wilder had woven small ribbons, was exhibit Pe Philade?- l 
an account of the sponges found in the ie the sarcode? 
phia water-works, and announced his ene approach of yo 
fresh-water sponges does not slough off at pollute the wah | 
ter, and therefore that these organisms do not red into the | 
He believed that the whole of the sarcode reti 
blasts, from which it issued again in spring. 


THE 


AMERICAN NATURALIST. 


Vor. xviu.—/JULY, 1884.—No. 7. 


NOTES ON A NEW INFUSORIAN. 
BY DR. ALFRED C, STOKES. 


Fakty in the spring of last year (1883), I gathered a quantity 
of Lemna from a pond whose surface was so completely cov- 
ered by the little plants that they seemed to be jostling each other 
growing room. The water beneath must have been quite dark, 
being lighted probably only by so much of a faint green glim- 
mering of sunbeams as the Lemna could transmit, yet that shal- 
pond contained myriads of living creatures. For eight 
Months or longer the gathering has stood neglected upon my 
table, a little fresh water being occasionally added to supply that 
: evaporation, and it is still clear and untainted, although 
ery frond has lost its rootlets, and the greater number have 
Bone to decay, and though many generations of Infusoria, rotifers 
; E i bellarian worms have come and gone, and added their little 
2 residual detritus covering the bottom of the vessel. The 
; glass therefore, now living within the restricted habitat of this 
and Saucer cannot be considered as Infusoria of putrid waters, 
) ace recently appearing there in midwinter are probably from 
4 a e into development by a kind of hot-house process in 
a _ 00m. The same forms might be taken in season from 
esan Sal Pond itself. They seem, however, to have hitherto 
“which, observation, and as they possess structural peculiarities 
te} a far as the writer can learn, are limited ‘to their own lit- 
wi it is necessary to erect not only a new species for 


7, gen. et sp. nov., is soft and flexible, but persistent in 
TOU, XVM ~ao, vir, om 


660 Notes on a New Infusorian. (July, 
shape, its form being elongate-ovate, subcylindrical and slighty 
compressed, widest and rounded posteriorly, thence tapering evei 
to the obtuse mesially placed anterior point. The entire cutie 
lar surface is ciliated, the cilia being long and fine, their leagă 
often exceeding the short diameter of the body. They a 
arranged in rows that are more distinctly seriate on the domi 
aspect. Ventrally their arrangement is more irregular, a% 
here they seem to be constantly in motion. All are fexik 
and all are at times put into vibration, but each individu : 
filament upon the lateral and dorsal surfaces is capable of in’ 
pendent movement. When their tips are focussed, scattered ol 
are seen to tap and patter against the cover-glass, and the fouro 
five stiffer, more setose hairs projecting from the posterior & 
tremity quiver and occasionally lash the water as if the 
had hardly time to eat. One of these postero-terminal cilia bas 
its distal extremity conspicuously curved, as is shown i age 
ures. When the infusorian is at rest, the cuticular cilia, s 
the exception of those on the ventral aspect, do not gr 
stand out from the surface like long bristles; at such times wae 
only additional actively moving cilia are those of the 7 
and a single row on the left lateral body margin. As all ofthe 
ture is rapidly swimming, to distinguish whether any OF ® a 
cilia are in motion is next to impossible. It is only pAn 
moments preceding death by iodine poisoning that paes 
can be answered, as it is in the afirmative, not a cilium : 
idle. a 
_ In its movements the creature is wonderfully sone 
across the field so quickly that the looker-on a gosi 
something has passed by. Even when a pleasant pai pià | 
is discovered under the lee of an algous filament so 
of dirt, the lively animal cannot rest, but = half its jog? 
almost regular intervals darts forward for one in this f A 
and as quickly slips back to its former position. =. ss 
mic swing it seems to use the tips of the pin of the 2 : 


fulcra, thus converting itself into an ant ght and the pivot da 


class, where the power is between the weig 
In Fig. 1 Ctedoctema is represented in its 7 8 extreme 
with the camera lucida and magnified 700 figure, uam 


length is ,d, inch. The nucleus, as shown in the palf The 
and situated about mesially in the anterior 


: 1884] Notes on a New Infusorian. 661 


Sating vacuole, sub-terminally located below and to the right of 
_ the median line, contracts at intervals of six seconds, 
_ The infusorian has the inexplicable habit of protruding sub- 
terminally on the left dorso-lateral margin, a colorless, semi- 
transparent hemisphere of the body sarcode, in which there is 
often a circulation of the minutely granulate protoplasm. The 
_ object of this bubble-like protrusion, as intimated, I have been 
unable to determine. It was at first mistaken for the beginning 
_ of a temporary anal aperture, but such use of it has not been ob- 
served. It is frequently withdrawn, leaving a lighter smooth 
Spot in its place. 
But it is on the ventral surface that we find most of the crea- 
ture’s peculiarities. Originating at the anterior margin and ex- 


\\ 


Fig. 1. Fig. 2. 
: 2 rhe maga acanthocrypia, gen. et sp. nov. Dorsal aspect. X 700. Fis. 


tending almost centrally across the ventral surface, but somewhat 
Sbliquely backward and inward, for a distance equal to three- 
fourths of the animal’s entire length, is a shallow, narrowly ovate 
frove, at whose posterior and widest and deepest part the oral 
aperture is placed. This depression, narrowest at its anterior 

a and gradually and regularly widening to its rounded poste- 


oe i leng th I he 


peculiar glimmering appearance which they pro- 


662 Notes on a New Infusorian. 


air which one so soon learns to associate with the action of fine 
cilia. When the animal is swimming, those anteriorly placed 
are snugly packed away longitudinally in the adoral groove, 
Occasionally they are quiescent long enough at other times to 
exhibit their length and tufted arrangement, when they are held 
arcuately parallel with and below the adoral depression. 

Near the left hand margin of this elongated sinus is a single row 
of long fine vibratile cilia, whose points of attachment are much 
more widely separated than those on the general cuticular surface. 
Their vibrations seem to be at right angles to the course of the 
adoral groove, but the facility with which the direction of pti 
ment in such delicate filaments may be misinterpreted is remark- 
able. After those intervals, few and far between and at best of 
but momentary duration, when they become quiet and visible, 
their action certainly seems to be renewed, and they to fade from 
view, as the animal lies upon its side, not by a lateral wegen 
by a downward flashing of the whole series; that such 1s 
fact, however, I am not prepared to say ; it only seems so. 

Attached to the right margin of the adoral sinus wa 
in cilia which, so far as I am aware, is possessed by no other y 

: ; i : ony 0 Its 
sorian. It is really musical in the beauty and the harm meet 
arrangement. The ciliary constituents of this delightfu A 
factory series are each much coarser and stouter than Ta ; 
on the creature. Placed in a single row and ee 
over the adoral depression, they begin anteriorly whe it 
from the frontal margin equal to about one-third of gar 
length of the groove, the first and foremost cilium ae A 
shorter than the animal’s transverse diameter, the length i 
succeeding one becoming a little less than pa behind aS 
the last just rises above the surface i member 
somewhat to the left side of the oral aperture. with 
this comb-like appendage not only curves ee ya thickening : 
regular curvature of the series, but has a ae apparet 
its distal extremity whereby that free end is ian powet 
contact with its neighbor. Under insufficient M inte poste: 
this state of affairs presents the aspec -pofa 
riorly originating flagellum, or the lowermost — fe striking 
hood; and when thus examined the animal Poe we have only : 
resemblance to Pleuronema or Cyclidium. In oodelike vm 
to imagine the former as having divided its - 


1884. ] Notes on a New I[nfusorian. 663 


longitudinally and split up each moiety into transverse filaments, 
when the resultant creature would bear a strong likeness to 
Ctedoctema, and would probably be relegated to the same genus. 
As it is, the observer must be in some doubt as to the ordinal 
position of Ctedoctema. Does it, in common with Cyclidium 
and Uronema, belong to the Ciliata-Holotricha, or to the Ciliata- 
Heterotricha? The boundary between the two orders is so in- 
distinctly defined that the doubt becomes a serious one. 

However, the cilia which have led me into this side issue remain 
standing, like the sentinels they are, beside the adoral sinus. 
While the animal is feeding they are not actively vibratile, al- 
though the whole row has the power of bending in a body across 
the groove. I have seen them waving back and forth in an un- 
broken line like an animated comb. Each member of the group 
also has the ability of separately bending in a direction away 
from the median line, and it uses this accomplishment when a 
food-particle, too large or otherwise unacceptable, must be dis- 
carded, several often flirting themselves in unison outwardly when 
there is too great an accumulation about the oral aperture. When 

ir possessor is swimming they are drawn up against the ven- 
tral surface parallel with the margin of the adoral groove, and 
consequently in contact with each other, their free ends thus 
Pointing posteriorly. 

I have found it quite impossible to use the camera lucida in 
drawing the details of these active little animals, The figures are 
etefore more or less diagrammatic, with the exception of the 
frst, In the second (Fig. 2) an attempt is made to show the ani- 
mal ʻi its lateral aspect, with the coarse comb of adoral cilia, the 
anterior ciliary tuft and the single row of long, laterally-disposed 
te hairs, as well as the nucleus and the contractile vesicle. 
n Fig. 3 Ctedoctema exhibits its ventral surface, especially the 
aig &roove, with the ciliary comb on its margin, laterally 
above it and surrounding its termination posteriorly. 

of mon found, it is said, only in the flesh of members 
: iliata, are numerous in Ctedoctema, huge in proportion to 


hiti we of the infusorian, and possessed of peculiarities not 


noticed in connection with those of any other member 


Of the class : 

t... Fhe action of the recently-recommended solution 
fannie acid 
FSS conspic 


in glycerine for the purpose of rendering tricho- 
uous, is eminently successful and satisfactory. 


664 Notes on a New Infusorian, [July, 


When killed by this mixture, Ctedoctema becomes a nonde 
script object, woolly with distorted cilia, and having tricho- 
cysts like great darning-needles projecting from various parts of. 
the surface. They are occasionally so violently extruded that 
they leave the body and fall away free. The infusorian is iy inch 
in length; the trichocysts are hy inch long, precisely one-half 
Ctedoctema’s greatest length, and but a fraction shorter than its 
transverse diameter. Under suitable amplification they are vis 
ble within the living animal. Those of the posterior extremity 
are arranged nearly parallel with the median line; those of the 
posterior body half are directed forward, those of the anterior 
half backward, toward the center of the creature. They ar 
rigid and straight, and, for their length, coarse and stout, They 
project slightly beyond the cuticular surface and often give the 


Ti; =F were Y 
AN 
AULT {LLM 


Fig. 4 


Fig. 3. with në- 


Fic. 3.—Ctedoctema acanthocrypta, ventral aspect. FIG. 4.——Trichocyst 
ating processes. 


infusorian, in optical section, a minutely crenated 5 


though so skewered the body is still soft and flexible. 

From their distal end they taper evenly to an C think 
and seem to be prismatic. The structural parts a 
have hitherto not been noticed with those of any other 
consist of four, occasionally of only two linear p 


sign-posts at country cross-roads, as shown 1n 


projecting filaments, measuring ywo inch in pire > to ont 
delicacy, and take their origin at a distance a die i 
half their length below the distal p wr ort, bat 
. . * . i ms ht an es tot . : 
Their direction is not always at rig S saak project 


frequently, even in those of the same indivi 
angles of various C5” 
ward or downward, or form ang a distinct 


The oral aperture is not followed by 


ue boards of the 
from the body of the trichocyst, like the eee 4 The : 


of extreme 


i 


1884.] Notes on a New Infusorian. 665 


} passage, and although I have never observed food-particles enter, 
yet judging from the presence within the sarcode of small green 
corpuscles, which I have taken to be of vegetable origin, I sup- 
pose Ctedoctema is a vegetarian. Neither has an anal opening 
been distinctly noticed. Upon several occasions what has ap- 

to be an extrusion of excrementitious matters has taken 
place posteriorly to the oral aperture and back of the ciliary 
comb, but the flow of rejected food-particles brought by the 
adoral currents is so great and so constant, that the question is 
still an open one. 


as ee ee 


As to the fashion of its reproduction: Is it as whimsical in its 
manner of renewing its youth as in its adoral anatomy? In one 
respect, yes. In one respect it goes about that business in a way 
_ ‘surprise the on-looker who has become familiar with every 
style of fission and with several varieties of cystic sacs, and in a 
Way, too, that makes him pause a moment to admire the ex- 
haustless resources of a divine mind. 

That reproduction is by transverse fission goes without saying. 
But if only that, imagine, if you can, what becomes of all the 
~ Semplex ciliary arrangement about the oral region. The creature 
_ lobe fashioned from the posterior half of the mature body must 
have not only a ciliated adoral sinus and the comb-like append- 
age, all of which simple division crosswise would give, but it 
a Somehow obtain that ciliary fascicle at the anterior apex of 
: sinus. The posterior termination of the old Ctedoctema’s 
Sroove has no such tuft to give the new creature, and the latter 
cannot, at least does not, exude sarcode filaments that shall 
into cilia. Then, when and how? Oh, it is so simple and 
50 easy when it is once thought of! But no one ever would 
of it without seeing it. 
| Itis in this way: The cilia of that comb deliberately unite 
. “y and form a membrane. The anterior cilia of the 
| -am unite with it and lengthen the membrane to the front, 
a" newly-formed tissue being widest somewhat in advance of 
center, and narrowing toward both ends. The animal then 
ap» across the middle, forming two Holotrichous creatures, 
: = with a perfectly smooth, unwrinkled membrane vibrating 
— . obliquely along the center of its ventral surface, the 
th 3 , € of this tip-tilting tissue being distinctly and strongly 
3? scheme of classification has a place for them 


666 Notes on a New Infusorian. (Jey, 
now? If they and the systematist should have a temporary es- 4 
counter, what would he do with them? Would each bea fre — 
water Lembus ? Such questions give them no trouble, They — 
once proceed to form their ciliary appendages by splitting = 
their membrane to suit. The fringes unite to form the membrane 
the membrane divides to form the fringes, the thick edge the 
going into the thickened extremities of the adoral comb. In tw 
hours, more or less, the sweet-water Lembus is a sweet-watet 
Ctedoctema, of which the following may be taken as a descrip 
tion: 


Ctedoctema, gen. nov. (Greek, £/edon, a comb ; Atema, a possession 
free swimming, more or less ovate, persistent in shape, entirely aan 
verse to those of the cuticular surface ; oral aperture ventral, located at the postens 


va in length toward the oral aperture, which they surround, : 
extremities atileiodty thickened; several long, setose hairs projecting from Se 

posterior extremity of the body, usually a single one being distally curved; comma 
tile vesicle single, posteriorly placed; trichocysts large and numerous, 


ine; ruptos, concealed). —Bo#t : 
ing to an obtuse anterior 39h 


breadth, a hemispherical sarcode bubble usually present on 
eral border ; cuticular cilia long, fine, setose, a single postero- m picni s Š i 
distally curved ; oral aperture ciliated, remote from the anterior apex, 4 
posterior termination of a shallow, narrowly ovate, ciliated, adoral groove part ng 7 
longitudinally traversing three-fourths of the ventral surface, and bearing o 
hand margin a flexible comb-like appendage composed of large, coarse, theoralapetst. 
cilia, thickened distally and diminishing in length as they sre margins 
which they surround ; the adoral groove also bearing near its left iad long, : 
of long, fine, vibratile hairs, and throughout its entire le a : 
tile cilia, somewhat fascicled anteriorly and shortening as they border; poto 
contractile vesicle single, sub-terminally located near the pi e 
ovate, peera placed in the anterior body half; trichocysts larg, distally two or mot 
rently prismatic, tapering to an obtuse point, an and bearing 4 ich Leon. Leng? 
minute, radiating, linear processes. Habitat: Fresh water, | 
inch, bby 
The animal was studied with a homogeneous ‘ener 
Herbert Spencer, N. A. 1.35, and a homogeno i 
Bausch and Lomb, N. A. 1.43, two objectives 
works of art. 


| 1884.] The Theory of Sex and Sexual Genesis. 667 
THE THEORY OF SEX AND SEXUAL GENESIS. 


BY C. M. HOLLINGSWORTH. 


sexual genesis the germinal aggregate with which the devel- 
opment of the new individual begins is the product of the 
union of two generative cells. One of the combining cells—the 
female element, or germ-cell—is a very large one; while the 
other—the male element, or sperm-cell—is a very small one. 
Their union is effected by the sperm-cell, or its generative matter, 
penetrating into the body of the germ-cell ; and the former loses 
its identity and integrity as a cell in the act of union, while the 
latter does not. Sexual genesis, in its initial stage, is thus a dual 
process, consisting in the codperation or combined action of two 
factors, and these factors are comprised in the contents of genera- 
tive cells that are morphologically distinct. 

The fundamental problem in the theory of sexual genesis, with 
regard to the physiology of the process, is this: Are the two 

of the process represented in these two classes of morpho- 
logically distinct generative cells likewise functionally distinct, 
and complementary the one of the other? And, if so, What are 
the physiological differences between them, and what the need 
and rationale of their observed mode of coöperation in the gen- 
trative process ? 

Besides explaining the physiological differences anā relations 
to each other of the male and female generative elements, an 
adequate theory of sex and sexual genesis must also explain the 
‘related morphological and functional differences between male 
and female organs or organisms. 

: The Advantage of Genesis by Germ-cells—The development of 
àn individual organism may begin with the contents of a single gen- 
trative cell, which may or may not be the product of the union of 
: two cells, or it may begin with a bud or gemma composed either of 
z “88regate of untransformed cells or of portions of partially _ 
differentiated tissues. Leaving out of consideration for the pres- 
P Ad fact that in sexual genesis the original contents of the 
Moa er requires impregnation by a sperm-cell in order to enter 
that the oma! developmental changes, I wish here to point out 
+ the former mode of the origin of new individuals gives an 
important : oA : i far as per- 
Pctuation advantage in the perpetuation of species, So pe 


depends on the production of a great number of off- 


668 The Theory of Sex and Sexual Genests, 


spring. The explanation of this advantage may be given as fol- | 


lows: In order that a germinal aggregate may develop into a 
distinct individual, with a due codrdination of its parts about a 
distinct axis or center, the formative conditions within it must 
first be, in some manner and to a great extent, isolated from the 
formative conditions in the parts of the parent-body in connection 
with which its production as an aggregate has taken place; 
otherwise its unity of development as a distinct individual would 
be interfered with, or we may say would be impossible. For this 
reason the size which a bud is required to have in order to enter 
upon an individual development is much greater than the sit 
which a germ-cell is required to have. This follows from the 
manner in which a bud is formed. In the simplest case for mul- 
ticellular organisms, a bud is formed by the outgrowth by cell 
multiplication of an aggregate of cells from a layer of undifer 
entiated cells of the parent body. Thus in the first stages a 
growth of the bud, both the cells which compose it and the cë! 
of the layer from which it is produced, must be a, a plas 
formative state in order that the growth of the bud m pre 
ner may go on. And the isolation that is requisite to its 
individual development is only brought about by sheer 
growth away from the producing cell-layer. That m ; 
must necessarily, from the mode of its formation, attain iai 
erable dimensions before its independent development a 

On the other hand, where the development the form 
contents of a single germ-cell, the requisite isolation age 
tive conditions within it is brought about, not by E actly differ- 
but by the germinal mass becoming inclosed by.a di in the 

. And thus, 35 °°" 

entiated cell-wall, or capsule, or embryo-sac. ee opment maf 
higher plants, we find that the first stages in the d cel T 
take place with the new individual completely vor vital pro 
sides with tissues of the producing organism pee itself for 
cesses are actively going on. This suron a y much 
` a small bud, but one of low organization an of selman 
smaller than any bud that is fitted for for isolated ® 
nance. The eggs of animals in like manner jee organ be 
their formation, but are discharged from the p 
fore their development begins: greater mu 


. immensely : 
In consequence of these relations an "a opment can be 


ber of seeds or eggs fitted for a complex 


| 
: 
: 
J 
, 
a 
nae 
a 
: 


begins with OF 


| 1884.] The Theory of Sex and Sexual Genesis. 669 


produced by a plant or animal than of bulblets or gemme. 
Moreover, when produced they are better adapted for dispersal, 
in the case of seeds, to suitable situations for their growth; and 
in the case of eggs, may be deposited in favorable situations by 
the producing animal. 

This advantage of genesis by germ-cells over genesis by the 
production of buds, obtains in all the lower grades of organisms 
inwhich the perpetuation of species depends, to a great extent, 
on the production of a large number of offspring. For the 
higher animals, or for all terrestrial animals, there is the further 
consideration that the large buds which they would have to pro- 
duce, and the mode in which they would have to produce them 
in order to keep up the succession in this way, would so encum- 
ber the producing organism as greatly to lessen its powers of 
selfconservation. „As a matter of fact we do not find any terres- 
trial animal reproducing by buds. The highest aquatic animals 

do so are the Tunicata or Ascidians. In these the buds are 
produced from a large stolon, which the medium in which the 
animal, or associated group of animals, is supported, enables it to 
carry with it without any great interference with its self-conserva- 
tive actions, Besides, in the aquatic mode of life the whole body 
may be soft, and that high degree of differentiation of the tissues 
_ “Rot required, at least in all cases, that is required in terrestrial 
_ mals. But all animals and plants, except the lowest, that 
"produce by the formation of buds, also reproduce from germ- 
cells, In such cases, to whatever advantages the former mode 
-~ Senesis has in keeping up the succession, is added the advan- 
"8e, here pointed out, which attends the latter mode. 

The i of Sexual Genesis —Admitting that there is an 
advantage, of the kind above explained, attending genesis by 
Em-<ells, in the perpetuation of species, the further question 
T of what the advantage or need is of the addition to the 
i contents of the germ-cell of the matter of a s 
_ “order that the single mass may be fitted to initiate the develop- 
f ment of a new individual. No doubt a considerable advantage 
a from crossing. But crossing does not always take pie 
fang genesis. Besides, to assign this reason is not to give a 

at explanation. It leaves the physiological difference 
AS eae the two kinds of generative cells to be determined, and 
bea of the formative and developmental processes 

assigned which makes this difference necessary. 


(July, 
The germ-cell and the sperm-cell cannot be regarded as phys- 
ological or generative equivalents—leaving out of the account fr 
the present their morphological characters. They are physiolog 
ically differentiated, though not specialized in the sense in whid 
the component cells of the various tissues are specialized. Its 
the function of the cells of each of the different kinds of tissue, — 
as specialized cells, to form or secrete from substances derive’ — 
from the general plasma of the organism, some organic com- ; 
pound of specific constitution, which is either deposited in cos | 
tact with the protoplasm of the cell as a solid or semi-solid com 
ponent part of the structure of the tissue, or is thrown ones , 
liquid secretion by the bursting of the cell-wall. The functions 
of the two kinds of generative cells are not such that their dit | 
ferentiation from each other could be of a nature to rend 
them specialized in this sense. But since the office of sexua 
genesis consists in the production of organisms as wholes, a 
not merely of limited parts of organisms, we may fairly infer that 
in so far as the developmental process in general can be | 
into two essential factors, it is these two factors which pen 
the organic basis of the dual character of the function of i 
genesis, and therefore that it is with reference to these pare 
tors of the process that the two kinds of generative an e 
been differentiated, and not with reference to special prod ii 
the process. Two such general factors are Ci me i 
guished by biologists as comprised in and making up 
process of development, namely, growth ant 
since cell-division is the basis of differentiation, W of 38 
in the more strictly formative stage in the dee aie : 
organ or tissue, the two factors are cell-growth and one kind d : 
Hence the presumption on general grounds 1S, that t 
generative cells represents one of these factors, OF aod 
differentiation in the direction of one of these factor : 
other kind represents the other factor. indiate ® 7 
The facts sustained this presumption, and at youn 
which kind of generative cells each factor 1n an ex a 
belongs. peds 
Germ-cells attain a greater size than any other aggre 4 
Says Professor Minot: “ It is a rule, no exception than 
gaa „cell is much larger, 
lieve, is known, that the mature egg : N arosi : 
other cells in the body of the parent (Am. ’ 


670 The Theory of Sex and Sexual Genesis. 


1884) The Theory of Sex and Sexual Genesis: 671 


1880). On the other hand, sperm-cells are among the smallest 
cells of the producing organism. Mature germ-cells result from 
the extraordinary growth without division, of certain of the prim- 
itive germinal cells of the ovary, generally with the aid of the 
formative activity of other smaller cells by which they are sur- 
rounded. In animals “the spermatozoa are formed by the break- 
ing up of the male germinal cells, or of cells secondarily derived 
from them by division. The cells which directly give rise by 
division to the spermatozoa may be called spermospores, and are 
equivalent to the ova or odspores” (Balfour, Comp. Embryol., Vol. 
LP. 53). Pollen-grains in like manner are produced by the sub- 
ision of a mother-cell. In all except “the lowest forms of 
vegetable life * * * the two cells that take part in the act 
of sexual union * * # are strikingly different in size, form 
and physical properties. In these cases one of the two cells, the 
_ male cell, conveys to the other only a small quantity of material 
by means of which it produces an effect upon it; this other cell, 
the female cell, contains by far the largest proportion of the ma- 
_ terial which takes part in the development incited by the act of 
_ tion” (Sachs, Botany, p. 224). 
j Thus in the production of germ-cells there is evidently a rela- 
Wve preponderance of the factor of growth; and in the produc- 
_ fon of sperm-cells there is a relative preponderance of that fac- 
: tor of the developmental process which is more especially con- 
_ “emed in cell division. 
-We have next to inquire why this relation or differentiation be- 
: tween the two kinds of cells should be necessary to their codper- 
i ation in the initiation of a complex development. 
___Agerminal aggregate which is fitted to initiate the develop- 
: ent Of a complex organism must be an aggregate of considera- 
: ble size, in order that it may afford an adequate basis for the in- 
w formation of the different parts. The production of such 
i aggregate can only take place on condition of the absence of 
tendency in it to undergo segmentation, and thus enter upon 
Sevelopmental changes while it is yet small. It must be so con- 
end and So placed that there is a relative deficiency of the 
~or Of cell-division in the formative processes by which it is 
“oe, hen, When it has attained the requisite size, it is 
wis. ifitted for active development until this deficiency is sup- 
: and the proper’balance between the two factors is restored. 


672 The Theory of Sex and Sexual Genesis. 


This result is brought about by the accession to it of aspem 
cell, which represents a relative preponderance of the factor d 
cell-division, and the development is then begun with that dege 
of energy which is necessary to insure its going on to completion — 
In every species of organisms a certain mean adjustment of ther 
two factors to each other is suitable to the formation of ona i 
and tissues having the requisite structural characters, after Ge 
first stages of the development have been passed through M 
the germ-cell there is a departure from this mean standart ; 
of adjustment in one direction, and in the sperm-cell a departe® — 
in the opposite direction; the departure in the one case beag : 
necessary to the formation of a single aggregate of sufficient sit | 
to serve as the basis of the development, and the departure in te 
other case being necessary to the formation of germinal mate — 
fitted to restore the balance by its union with the larger agy> 


gate. This I believe to be the fundamental principle in the theory 
of sexual genesis. 1 
But in parthenogenesis the germ-cell undergoes developas 4 
without impregnation by a sperm-cell; and at first R may appe® > 
that the theoretical conclusion here arrived at 1s a 
with this fact. It may be shown, however, that it is not. : 
first place, parthenogenetic eggs or germ-cells are 
smaller than eggs that require fertilization. In the second re - 
whether they are smaller or not, the individuals den 4 
them do not generally if ever attain to as high a grade Pai a 
zation as those developed from impregnated ganai pat : 
spicuously is this the case in plants, that Sachs epee 
pretation of the phenomena and advantage of sex K 
this observed difference. In the third place, the normal a w 
between the two factors of the developmental pa + 
in nil 
restored in the germ cell, but not so completely ook oe? 
besides impregnation by a sperm-cell. This may from tht 
freer access of oxygen to it after it has been 1s! other ate 
producing organ ; by its absorption of water, with ey 
in solution, which have a tendency to set up active ap dts 
it; or by its being subjected to a higher tenp "desi 
which it was kept during its formation. By one ficient 
of these changes of conditions the balance gt not 50 
restored to cause the development to §° py 
pletely restored as it is by the accession to em 


l 
; 
} 
i 


The Theory of Sex and Sexual Genesis. 673 


sperm-cell, in addition to changes in some of the external condi- 
_ tions here mentioned. And in sexual genesis there is the further 
difference that whatever advantage there is in crossing, or in the 
_ union of two portions of germinal matter derived from different 


| The Redundant Sexual Type—In the early stages of embryonic 
_ development in the higher animals no distinction as to sex is 
= -*pparent even in the sexual organs. Having regard to this fact, 
__ the view which had come to be generally accepted among physi- 
= Slogists, before the advent of Darwin's theory, with respect to 
4 the morphology of the sexes, was, that there is a common type 
a for all the individuals of both sexes in a species. But by most 
_ Physiologists this type was not believed to be hermaphroditic. 

_ “The early type of the sexual organs is to be regarded as com- 
mon and single rather than double, as some have considered it” 
{Allen Thomson, Todd's Cyclop., Vol. 11, 1839, Art. Generation). 
In the article on hermaphroditism in the same work, Simpson 

_ dpots, as he says, “the opinion commonly received by physiol- 
Ogists of the fundamental unity of sex among all individuals be- 
Mailat to the higher animals ; or, to express it otherwise, we have 
_ ‘sumed that each individual is, when normally formed originally 


| Padiments are the rudimentary mammz in male mammals and 
the clitoris in females 


_Whea Darwin adduced the existence of rudimentary organs as 
fidence in support of the theory of descent, and as facts that are 
= on any other theory, he made no distinction between 
tedimeatary sexual organs and rudiments of organs that pertain to 
_ sual self-maintenance. The only possible or reasonable 
nition of the existence of the latter is that they are reduced 


‘tation in 
s may, I think, be made. In the first place, none of the 


674 The Theory of Sex and Sexual Genesis, (Jey, 


highest animals of the present time are functional hermaph 
dites. Says Gegenbaur : “ The hermaphrodite stage is the lowe, — 
and the condition of distinct sexes has been derived from it Tis — 
change is due to the decrease in size of one or the other orga l 
so that hermaphroditism is the precursor of sexual differentia — 
tion. This differentiation, by the reduction of one kind of s 
ual apparatus, takes place at very different stages in the develo» ‘ 
ment of the organism, and often when the sexual organs hat i 
attained a very high degree of differentiation. In these œs 
ontogeny exhibits the two kinds of organs primitively united, aat 
so causes the individual to be hermaphrodite at a certain staget 
development” (Compar. Anat., Eng. ed., 1878, p. 54): But this 
general hypothesis becomes inconsistent with the facts when cr 

ried out in its application to the higher vertebrate animals. kti 
in the highest animals that the most perfectly formed rome l 
are found, in each sex, of the sexual organs that in wr 
oped or functional state are proper to the opposite sex alone. # 
they are reduced representatives of organs that were once p 
tional, those organs must have been functional in animals of : 


perpetuate their species by a complete functional 

of the sexes, at the present time, should have been pe 
to do so as hermaphrodites at a former period. In 
place, the whole morphological type of the reproduc 


of either sex in any species of the higher anit 


both rudimentary and developed sexual organs, S°" i 
up a full complement of the developed sexual o “ 
sexes. Referring to the higher animals, > ‘dual OP 
hermaphrodite was defined by the ancients as yE of both ext. 
ble of fulfilling by turns the reproductive pra a male 
or at least one who simultaneously possessed ver, is 
female organs fully developed; such a being aie "a as 
only unknown among the authentic det pee of asi 
physically impossible in man and the higher the be 
without extensive alterations in the connections 


follows : 
“tst. It is single and homological in the external organs. 
"2d. It is double and heterological in the middle organs or 


“3d. It is partially double and heterological in the productive 
organs” (Quhin’s kamag 1876, Vol. in 814). e 
The morphological sexual type of either sex comes thus short 
of comprising a complement of the developed organs of both 
"xes, owing to the fact that for some of the organs, or parts of 
sexual apparatus, the same primary tissue develops into a 
Male organ or part, in one sex, and into a female organ or part 


in order to make all the phenomena of sexual develop- 
ras We wish to know why it is that useless rudi- 
‘Beats appear in one sex of organs that are only required to be 
i in the other sex ; and we wish to know how it is that, 
'n rare cases, each individual, presenting at first the com- 
embryonic type of the whole species, afterward undergoes 
Gn T in the adult sexual characters of one sex 
A the Other sex alone, and does not take an intermediate 
of dev between the two adult types. 

order that a germ-cell and a sperm-cell may effectively 
i the initiation of the development of a new indivi 

be an approximately complete 


“te 
aj 


676 The Theory of Sex and Sexual Genesis. 


would be for each female parent organism to produce two kinds 
of ova or germ-cells, one kind fitted to initiate the development 
of male, and the other the development of: female offspring, 
while each male parent organism produced two corresponding 
kinds of sperm-cells. The other way would be for only on 
kind of ova and one kind of sperm-cells to be produced ina 
species, but for each embryo to be deflected to a one-sided devel- 
opment—that of one of the sexes—so early and so completely 
that no perceptible rudiments of the sexual organs proper to the 
opposite sex should at any time be formed. The first method 5 
evidently too complicated ever to be established and maintained 
in any species by natural selection, at least without soa great 
advantage in the perpetuation of the species could be gained by 
it that could not be secured in any other way. The second 
method is actually exemplified in a great many of the lover 
monosexual organisms, where the requisite sexual oigan T 
simply of an ovary or pistil in the one sex and a testicle or ati 
in the other. In these no persistent rudiments of the orga ; 
the opposite sex are perceptible in individuals of either meer 
in the higner animals, where a complicated apparatus m oe 
correlation with the other parts of the body is required poe 
sex for the performance of its part of the reproductive 

so early and complete a deflection of the course of ee 4 
with respect to these organs, cannot take place. A 
sexual organs of the sexually redundant type must tural oo 
to a functional state in each sex; and the intimate stù y 
nection and functional coôrdination with the pra m jots, 
body demanded in the efficient performance ye F an cal 
makes it necessary that their development be ini ak: 


stage in the development of the embryo. pe = d the p 
great complexity can be evolved only on a -sod in the a 


a various 
he e ion—on condition that the s alasticilY: 
stages of the evolution—on time their plastic 
dered a5 


psd 


À 


rocesses, 


differentiation of the conditions of those P 
the development of the sexual organs, as een 
cause those organs that are functional in €t y 
only to enter upon a complete development, 


high 


But in 


1884. ] The Theory of Sex and Sexual Genesis. 677 


time cause the development of the organs that are redundant to 
that sex to be so completely arrested that not even rudiments of 
them should appear. This explanation agrees with and also ex- 
plains a law of variation enunciated by Darwin, namely, that 
“variations which appear early in life in either sex, tend to be de- 
veloped in both sexes” (“ Descent of Man,” p. 232). 

The existence of rudimentary sexual organs is thus, I think, 
satisfactorily accounted for, without assuming that they represent 
organs that were once functional in the sex in which they are 
found. In the course of descent of a species it is the common 
type of the species—which is redundant as regards the organs 
that are required to be functional in either one of the sexes— 
that undergoes modification by adaptive variation, and by the 
natural selection of irrelative variations through the succession 
of the best reproducers. Those organs of the redundant type 
that are functionally proper to either one of the sexes have their 
characters determined by natural selection acting within that sex. 
But if, owing to the conditions above explained, a developed 
Organ in one sex is represented by a rudiment in the opposite 
x, any modification of this part of the common type will not 
only appear in the developed organ of the one sex, but also and 
correspondingly in its rudiment in the opposite sex. Thus, for 
the higher animals at least, the rudimentary sexual organs are 
to be regarded as having been acquired as rudiments in the sex in 
ch they are found, and not as representing organs that were 


once functional in that sex. This explanation accords with the 
fact that such rudiments are most perfectly formed in the highest 
animals 


N 
tive į 


actual 


type aE urse of modification by which the present reproductive 
“YPE o 
of 


the species has been reached, has been by the reduction 
organs that were once functional to a rudimentary state, or by 


5 Eamon of the rudiments as parts of the common repro- 


© type of the species. 
(To be continued.) 


678 On the Evidence that the Earth's Interior is Solid. Ue, 
ON THE EVIDENCE THAT THE EARTH'S INTERIOR 
IS SOLID. 


BY DR. M. E. WADSWORTH. 


s, 
i 


(Continued from page 594, Fune number.) 


The Evidence of the Earth's Solidity derived from the behavin 
matter under the combined action of Heat and Pressure,—The key- 
note of this problem was given by Mr. William Hopkins in stating 
that if the tendency of the temperature to liquify the interior por 
tion of the earth increases more rapidly than the pressure tends 
to solidify it, that interior would be in a state of greater or lessper 
fect fluidity ; but if the tendency to solidify from pressure is greater 
than the tendency of the temperature to preventit, the earth woul 
solidify from the center. In other words, whether the earth's it- 
terior is solid or not, depends upon the relative increase of 
temperature and pressure, and on the behavior of the earth's m 
terials under increased heat and pressure. Some experiments wèt 
made by Hopkins to ascertain the relation of solidity and fust 
under the combined influence of heat and pressure on certain ME . 
stances. He found that for spermaceti, wax, sulphur, ewig | 
as the pressure increased the point of fusion was 7 pes 
irregularly, and with a diminished ratio, while metallic i 
showed no elevation of the fusion point. He did not regard P 
experiments as satisfactory, particularly those on the er a 

The subject was later discussed by Sir William ae 
held that from the “thermo-dynamic law of his bi ae 
Thomson, the earth must have solidified from the center 0% f. 
This law asserts that all materials which contract om wad that 
have their melting point raised by pressure, while press | 
expand on freezing have their melting point lowered pe inthe 

This law was experimentally verified by Wm. Thomsot et 
case of water. Hence, accepting Bischof’s | 
which indicated that the earth’s materials con ga et 
twenty-five per cent on solidification, Thomson clai acai e 
if the internal heat was very great, the -pressure the eath 
more rapidly than the tendency to liquify, and hence 2 
must have a solid center. a 

The discussion then rests largely on the question ie m 

Bunsen, AME T 


1 Report Brit. Assoc., 1854, xx1v (Sect.), 57» 58; see also 
Chemie, 1850, LXXXI, 562-567. 


TE 


1884.] On the Evidence that the Earth's Interior is Solid. 679 


the earth’s materials contract or expand on solidification ? Mous- 
son experimented further on the action of water according to 

Thomson’s law, and showed that it required enormous 
pressure to lower the melting point of ice a few degrees! 

So far then as any conclusion can be drawn from these experi- 
ments, it would show that the pressure must increase to an enor- 
mous amount to keep pace with the supposed increase of heat— 
à pressure that the earth’s specific gravity negatives, 

It can well be claimed that the known rate of the elevation of 
temperature, as the interior is approached, far surpasses the known 
fate of change of the fusion point by pressure in the few cases 
investigated. 

David Forbes has further pointed out that, since the substances 
mainly experimented upon by Hopkins and Bunsen are not, ex- 
cept sulphur, components of the earth, experiments made with 

do not necessarily apply to the materials of which the 
farth is composed. He also suggested that if the pressure is 
raised to great heights the reverse may be true regarding the 
effect of pressure on the melting point—it may lower instead of 
false it, He also thought that we should look rather at the results 
obtained by Hopkins from the alloys instead of those from the 
Wax, etc? 

In discussing the state of the earth’s interior, Dr. T. Sterry 
Hunt advanced the argument that the material of the earth, when 
M its former fused state, would solidify from the center on 
account of the congealed mass being much heavier than the 
ud: “We may say in a few words that the process of cooling 
à mass like this would be just like the cooling of a great bath 
metal or of sulphur; in other words, the condensation or con- 

would commence at the center and extend outward to- 
Ward the Surface, so that the temperature of the center would 
therefore be the temperature of congelation.”® 

David F orbes, in reply to Dr. Hunt’s argument, very perti- 

remarked that no one “had ever seen a mass of metal or 
sg crystallize or solidify in the interior first, since the inte- 
of such masses, it is well known, remain liquid after the 


1 
: Rien > TAR 1858, cv, 161-174; Everett’s Deschanel’s Natural 
Pry, & x 2, PP. 312, 313; 1883, pp. 331, 332- 
t Geot a €v. „1869, vIr, 121-130; Geol. Mag., 1867 (1), IV, 431-444. 
S26 1877 (1), 1, 357-369. 


680 On the Evidence that the Earth's Interior is Solid. Cl, 


crust has formed upon the surface; and furthermore, that the 
crust always remains upon the surface and does not sink.” 
He also remarked that “a crust of the specific gravity of 265 
cannot sink deep down into the fluid mass of a globe possessing | 
the mean density of 5.3.” , 
In looking over the data for the assumed contraction of thè 
materials forming such portions of the earth’s crust as we ar- 
able to examine, it will be seen that the early experiments of 
Bischof indicated a contraction in passing from the liquid to the 
crystalline state for basalt of some ten per cent, of trachyte 
eighteen per cent, and of granite twenty-five per cent; or tabu- 
lating the results, we obtain, according to David Forbes? 


4 
f 


hea o Glass. Crystalin, 
TA ass eens N ee 1000 963 w 
Trachyte E T T 1000 888 818 
ET P De E A E T eee 1000 888 148 
cooling, 


The question of the contraction of igneous rocks in 1% 
was further taken up by David Forbes,’ although none m 
observations appear to lead to any more definite cma 
that Bischot’s results were much too high, and that his w , 
too crude to be of any great value. ag 

In a later paper Forbes pointed out that in nature par | 
evidence of a contraction of from one-tenth to ont se d 
volume, such as Bischof had held, when the rocks in 
dikes, etc., were studied 7” situ—a statement that 
petrologist will sustain.* > aicen OF 

Some further experiments on the contraction ea ned tot 
terials in cooling were made by Robert Mallet. erat 
“that the difference in specific acude 
the result showed a seen red ok tne “a 


na 
SeN: 


TAr Fa 


, : +a crust 
admit of a thin or a thick terrestrial pores oe th 
ported by and upon the surface of the liquid & i 

r il ere 
1 Geol. Mag., 1867 (1), IV, 431-4445 Chemical News, 1868, 
110-113. r 
2 Neues Jahr. Min., 1841, pp. 565, 5675 1843. pp. 1-54 
XVIII, 191-1 
3 Chemical News, 1868, XVIII, 191-194. 
4 Geol. Mag., 1870 (1), V11, I~4- 


tion which intervenes between the peing pi 


; 


1884.] On the Evidence that the Earth's Interior is Solid. © 681 


lends no support to the view of terrestrial consolidation at the 
center first, by continual subsidence of such crusts, as imagined 
by Poisson, nor to the notion as to the nature of volcanic action 
which Sir W. Thomson has based on that assumption. * * * 
We * * * may be permitted to conclude that rocks consist- 
ing of acid silicates contract still less than those of basic silicates» 
and that a terrestrial crust of the former is still more capable of 
floating upon the same in fusion beneath.”! However much Mr. 
Mallet’s views may agree with those of the present writer, it is 
but just to point to the fact that the slags experimented upon 
differ essentially from basaltic rocks, and it is not permissible to 
assume that one certainly gives the law for the other, however 
probable it may be that they act alike under similar conditions. 
This also applies in less degree to Mallet’s comparison between 
plate glass and the rhyolites. 

urther studies were made, in 1874, by Mr. Mallet on the 
alleged expansion of various substances on solidification. His 
experiment of filling a conical wrought iron vessel with molten 
iron seemed to show that liquid iron when heated far above its 


‘Melting point has a specific gravity of 6.65, while the same iron 


in the cold state is 7.17. Mallet claims, therefore, that cold cast- 
iron is always heavier than molten iron. It is to be observed that 
no comparison was made between iron near the melting point 
and the same when just above that point. : 

He further tried some experiments regarding the flotation of 
solid iron upon molten iron, which must be regarded as conclu- 
“We upon that point. In all cases the iron either did not sink, or 
if when first immersed it sank, it afterwards rose again. Mallet 
“ys: “ A piece of cold cast-iron which floats on liquid iron of 
its own quality, if forcibly thrust to the bottom and rapidly and 
at once released, rises again rapidly to the surface with all the 
“pearance of a buoyant body, which it certainly cannot be.” 

same experiments made with lead showed that it always 
sank when immersed in the molten lead. In this case when flat 
Pleces were Carefully laid upon the fluid lead they floated until 
S equilibrium was disturbed, so that the fluid could wet the 
“a Surfaces when they sank. This flotation of the lead seems 
to be a case of the same kind as the flotation of a needle upon 
Water, Mr. Mallet endeavored to explain the phenomena in the 


ie + 
Philos, Trans., 1872, pp. 147-227. 


682 On the Evidence that the Earth's Interior 1s Solid. (July, 
case of iron and lead by the assumption of a repulsive fore, 
much the same kind of explanation as “Nature abhorsa vac- 
uum,” for here the repulsion exists for iron but not for lead. He 
seems to have lost sight of the true problem before him: ls — 
solid metal at or near the melting point of a greater or less spe 
cific gravity than the same metal liquid at or near the point of — 
solidification, and substituted for it the question is cold solid — 
metal heavier or lighter than the same metal when heated to amy — 
temperature above the melting point. Surely the tendency of 
most bodies to expand on the application of heat would, in the 
case of iron and rocks, cause the difference between the cold solid _ 
and the liquid states, to be greater than it would be between the iy 
hot solid and the liquid states, a point that does not seem to have 
been properly appreciated in discussions of the earth’s strane , 
Mallet’s experiments show clearly that iron near the point of : 
fusion is lighter than the same when melted, but that lead is 
heavier. He calls attention to one very important pail , 
owing to the difference in specific gravity in the various grades | 
liquid and 

| 


cast-iron, it is necessary that in these experiments the ; 
solid should be of the same quality, otherwise real buoyancy : 
the reverse may occur from this cause. Mallet further yee i 
admit that liquid slag will allow solid slag to float upon pi 
on account of a certain vesicularity, whatever care may be taneh ; 
or on account of his hypothetical repellant force.’ igle : 
Some other experiments were made by Centner, W. a be : 
and Joseph Whitley.? The general result of these wo a 
show that cold steel, iron, brass and probably 


come lighter and will float ; also that lead p 
sess a higher specific gravity when solid, whether i 
than the molten metal. Lagi by Mal- 
In 1875 Mr. W. C. Roberts made some expeti i in the 
let’s method, on the density of silver in the cold wi oe 
molten condition. These showed that it was mol’ ee 
former than in the latter state.’ : at 
. Nature, We 

1 Proc. Roy. Soc., 1874, XXII, 366-368; 1875, XXIII, 209-234 

156, 157. a 
2 Nature, 1877, XV, 529, 530; XVI, 23, 24; 1878, paperei 39 as Mamul 
Whitley’s experiments are erroneously credited to Muir ee 

Geology, 1880, 3d ed., p. 810. 

8 Proc, Roy. Soc., 1875, XXIII, 349. 350, 481-495. 


1884.] On the Evidence that the Earth's Interior is Solid. 683 


Sir William Thomson in 1878 again took up the discussion of 
the earth’s solidity, based on the assumed greater density of the 
solid than liquid rock. He seems at that time to have only been 
aware of Bischof’s experiments, but in a note subsequently added 
by him, Whitley’s experiments appear to be accepted as decisive 
against his views, Starting with the, to him, probable supposition 
that the solidified crust of the earth would sink towards the cen- 
ter, Thomson says: “ As soon as the surface began to freeze, and 
to freeze in sufficient quantity not to be floated up by mere super- 
ficial solidified foam, the mass of rock would fall down towards 
the center. More would then solidify at the surface. This also 
would fall down, and the same thing would go on again and 
again. Gradually a sort of honey-combed solid would be formed. 
By-and-bye [sic] a skeleton or frame-work through the whole 
would mount up to an extent sufficient to build up piers, as it 
were, to the surface, and the spaces between these piers, when 
close enough, would, in the continued freezing of the lava, be 
bridged across by solid rock thick enough in proportion to- 
breadth not to break down and sink. There would, again, be 
breaking away of the piers and upheavals of the liquid material 
below; but by degrees the honey-combed mass would become 
nearly like a solid throughout with comparatively small inter- 
ices of liquid lava. * * * The conclusion to be drawn 
‘sspecting the internal condition of the earth is, that we are not 
to infer liquidity of the interior, even if we should find evidence 
of a much higher internal temperature than that which would 
melt the rocks under ordinary pressure.” 

The interior heat, Thomson states, “may be 4000° F., or 
300°. It may possibly be 8000° or 10,000°.” 

In 1879 investigations were made by Messrs. J. B. Hannay and 
: Anderson on the expansion of cast-iron when solidifying. 
The chief method used was the flotation of a sphere of cast iron 
molten bath of the same. The latter was cooled near to the 

ng point afd then the solid spheres dropped in. “They 
found to sink at once when dropped in cold, and they 
ee under the metal till they had acquired a temperature 
. “PProaching visible red; but at that temperature they rose to 
_ ;. face, and as they gained more and more heat from the 
uid metal, their line of flotation rose higher and higher. Some- 


ina 


Were 


: i; 
| Tans. Geo 
. l. Soc, Glasgow, 1878, vi, 38-49. 


684 On the Evidence that the Earth’s Interior 1s Solid. (July, f 


times, if dropped in suddenly, the spheres did not float until they — 
had begun to melt, but this was owing to their having cemented — 
themselves to the bottom of the pot. When dropped in cau- — 
tiously, or suspended by a wire, they sank only for the space of ; 
twenty to twenty-five seconds, and rose to the surface when barely 
red hot.” : 
These experimenters found that liquid cast-iron expands at — 
least 5.62 per cent of its volume in solidifying. A result that — 
they regarded as under the truth, since the maximum density of 
the molten iron seemed to be little if any above the melting . 
point, while they were obliged to use it at a temperature above 
the point of maximum density.’ fe 
Experiments upon the relative volumes, solid and liquid, of 
tin, lead, zinc, bismuth, cadmium, antimony, iron and CORP 
been made by Nies and Winkelmann. These show that tin, 2m 
bismuth, antimony, iron and copper in passing from the figi 
the solid state expand ; that is, if both the solid and liquid a 
sities of the metals are compared when both are at a tempe? 
ture near the melting point, the solid has the less specific oi 
Hence these metals when hot and solid would float on w | 
and pressure, according to Thomson’s law, would i oe 
fusion points, thus they would remain liquid at a lower agi 7 
ture in the earth’s interior than on its surface,’ a fact Er | 
assist in explaining the eruptive origin of some pea * ] 
Further experiments by Messrs. Roberts and a 
bismuth and iron showed that “ iron expands rapidly (as andthe? 
six per cent) in cooling from the liquid to the plastic ppe appears ; 
contracts seven per cent to solidity, whereas bismu £235 
expand in cooling from the liquid to the solid state ab - 
r cent.* er 
Pp rom the above detailed experiments p she": expand i 
; ief portion ae 

rendered quite clear that the chief po rode poth having th 4 


density taken near the melting point. That further 
the rocks, also, there seems but little doubt, although a] 


1Proc. Roy. Soc, Edin., 1879, X, 359-362. 

2 Sitz. Akad. München, 1881, pp. 63-112. 
8 Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1880, XX, 470-479. 
4 Phil. Mag., 1881 (5), X1, 295-299. 


1884.] On the Evidence that the Earth's Interior is Solid. 685 


careful experiments are needed. Practically this seems to be the 
case in nature of the Kilauea lavas at least. 

The question which now presents itself is: What are the prob- 
able components of the earth’s interior ? 

So far as can be told from petrographical study, it appears 
probable that the portion of the interior mass lying nearest the 
center, concerning which we have any data, is composed of iron! 
either with or without nickel. As we recede from the central 
portions pyrrhotite is united with the nickel and iron. Then 
these minerals are found united with olivine or olivine and ensta- 
tite in varying proportions, until a portion is reached composed 
almost entirely of one or both of these silicates, with or without 
diallage. This portion passes on into the common basaltic rocks, 
then into the andesites and so on outward into the trachytic, 
thyolitic, and jaspilitic forms. 

However true this order may be for the liquid earth, that is, 
the liquid material would form rocks of this character, it is cer- 
tain that in the solid portions these materials are interlaced now 
with one another in every conceivable way, and in the chemical 
w sedimentary deposits they have now been intimately min- 

ed 


What may be the composition of the earth’s mass nearer the 
center, if there be any, besides the iron and nickel, we have no 
clue, except that it may be some of the rarer elements now found 
mixed with the iron. l 

Now, while we know experimentally almost nothing of the be- 
havior of such materials, as probably compose the earth’s interior, 
under the combined action of heat and pressure, it seems most 
Probable, from Thomson’s “ thermo-dynamic law ” and the exper- 
'ments on their relative hot solid and liquid densities, that the 
Pressure to which they are subject would cause them to liquify 
at a lower temperature in the earth’s interior than on its surface. 
X may also be justly claimed that if the earth’s interior is solid, 
= liquefaction may be brought about by an increase instead of a 


diminution of pressure. In this way a sinking area loaded with 
Sediments might thus liquify the rock beneath it. Is this not as 


stent a view as the theory of liquefaction through the remo- 
val of pressure > 


lw: : ; 
Bacon Metallic Wealth of the United States, 1854, p- 434, Judd’s Volca- - 
181, Pp. 307-324. 


The best test of the relations in density between molten and 
solidified rock is apparently to compare the density of the rock — 
just before fusion, or at least near that point, with the density o — 
the same rock after melting. This would give a comparison be 
tween the crystalline and liquid states, while the usual method 
only affords a comparison between the liquid and the glassy or 
semi-glassy states. It would also save any error arising from 
cells in the cooled rock, if a solid mass was chosen in the first 
place. Again the fresh unaltered varieties of a rock should be 
chosen instead of such old and altered ones as those usually et 
perimented upon. _ , 

In all discussions relating to the question of the liquidity of 
the earth’s interior, it is to be borne in mind that the chief portion 
of our knowledge of the properties of liquids is derived from the 
study of water, a mobile liquid—while liquid rock, as lava of 
melted iron, is viscous, and its laws and properties may om & 
periment be found to differ considerably from those of ye 
under like conditions. Also in these solids the passage gory 
solid to the liquid state or the reverse is not abrupt as ® the : 
case with water, for every grade of viscosity exists rsa 
normal solidity and the approximately perfect liquid eer 
This is especially the case with iron and seems to be so 
common rocks. 


686 The Tertiary Marsupialia, 


(Zo be continued.) 
:0: 
THE TERTIARY MARSUPIALIA. 
BY E. D. COPE. 
ti Cuvier discovered an opossum in t ; 1 
the knowledge of the Marsupials of the Tertiary bb 
Europe and North America has been gradually sigs ee they 
Europe they have been traced to the Middle wre thet 
disappear from that continent. In North America and are 
from Oligocene beds (White River), when they was gust 
only known as yet thereafter as members of the pe j 
Descending the scale we have them in the Ma Tisi South a 
and Jurassic in America and Europe, and in the per " 
Africa. Whether the Triassic Mammalia of the Under th head 
sphere belong to this order or not is pee ni 
of Creodonta? I have discussed the marsup! 
1 NATURALIST, March, April and May, 1884. 


he gypsum of be : 


1884.] The Tertiary Marsupialia. 687 


that division of Eocene mammals, showing that although their 
dentition is sometimes that of the carnivorous division of the 
marsupial order, they cannot be placed with them. 

The extinct marsupials belong to three types, as distinguished 
by the form of their superior molar teeth. These are tritubercu- 
late, quadrituberculate or multituberculate. To the first division 
belong the carnivorous types, or Sarcophaga of Owen; to the 
second the kangaroos and the wombats, to which Owen's name 
of Poéphaga may be applied! The third division is entirely ex- 
tinct, and is characterized by having at least three longitudinal 
series of tubercles in its superior molar teeth. To this suborder 
l apply the name of Multituberculata. The suborder Sarcophaga 
includes the opossums, and in North America the single extinct 
genus Peratherium *Aymard. This is also the genus which is 
found in the Oligo- 
cene and Miocene of 
France. It differs 
from Didelphys (the J 
true opossum) in the ASZ 
non-inflection of the Gj 
angle of the mandi- 

_ ble. Otherwise the 
two genera oe bid Fic. 1.—Peratherium fugax Cope, from the White 
the umber (esht) Stes Pier a, anterior part of Sal frm Below; A 32: 

GPU so oe t : : 

es a fn eee oo 

teeth. Five species the right side. 
_ have been found in the White River beds of Colorado. The 
a largest of these, P. fugax Cope (Fig. 1), had the skull as large as 
__ that of a mole (Scalops aquaticus). The smallest, P. huntii Cope, 
not exceed a small shrew in dimensions. 

č no extinct forms have been found in North 


— Multituberculata include three families, which differ as 


: Fourth superior premolar (at least) like true molars.,....-----++++ Tritylodontida. 
Poh » premolars (and probably others) more simple than first true mola 


_ ~~“ Premolars (and often others) developed into flat cutting blades : 
io ; 

Without suf a S the Phascolomyide in a distinct suborder, but, as it appears to me, 
oe treason. *Bulletin U, S. Geol. Survey Terrs, V, No. 1, p. 45- 


688 The Tertiary Marsupialia. [July, 


In all three of these families the incisor teeth are in reduced 
numbers, and are constructed on the rodent type, with an exter 
nal band of enamel. They thus approach the genus Phascolo- 
mys (wombat), one of the Poéphaga of the existing Australian 
fauna. The genus Tritylodon (Fig. 2), recently described by 
Owen, is from the South African Trias. It is a remarkably spe- 
cialized form, considering its geological antiquity. Its form 
above is, I. 2; Pm. 4; M. 3. The lower jaw is unknown. The 
median incisors are developed at the expense of the laterals, and 
are separated by a wide interspace. There is also a maxillary 
diastema. The molars and last premolars all support three rows 
of shortly conic tubercles (Fig. 7 4). The genus Stereognathus 


Ney f 


| J size; from 
anterior part of skull, wag 


Fic. 2.—TZyitylodon longevus Owen, below: 2, fram shor 


the Triassic beds of S. Africa. Fig. a, from 
Quart. Journ. Geol. Society, 1884, p. 146. : 
Charlesw., includes species from the English Oodlite. 
molars have three longitudinal rows of crescentic while tte 
6). The species are no larger than a small shrew, ak 
skull of Tritylodon longavus is as large as that ofa m 
formation as to the structure of the skeleton of these | 
forms has not yet been obtained. : 
There is on sa genus of the Polymastodontic®, oe 
todon Cope. It is known from three species, all pe has bons 
Eocene of New Mexico. The largest, P. soe majt. 
equal in size to those of the large kangar a p 5 jarge 
The jaw of the smallest species, P. foltatus (Fig. 5 io PI 
that of Hyrax capensis; that of the third speci®» o 


The know? 
cles (Fig: 


; 
| 


Sr aa aS en i ont ap OS ee ae a N ee Rae ee een Se a Se eee ae ae es 


1884.] The Tertiary Marsupialia. 689 


Cope, is intermediate in dimensions, and the dentition has some 
well-marked peculiarities. The characters of the skeleton, so far 
as known, are derived from the P. taoénsis (Figs. 3 and 4). 

The angle of the lower jaw is inflected, and the dental foramen 
is at the anterior apex of a large fossa,'as in most marsupials. 
There are but two true molars in each jaw, and a single simple 
premolar, below. The condyle of the humerus presents characters 
shared by Meniscoéssus of the Laramie, which are found in lizards, 
There is a strong and thick intertrochlear ridge in front, which is so 
swollen at one side of the middle line as to resemble the condyle 


Fic, 3.— Pol, SEPET a : i ; sizes fi th Lowes 
‘ymastodon taoénsis Cope, jaws, two-thirds nat: size; rom the 

ere beds of New Mexico. (ae Tight mandibular ramus right side; 4, do., 
S al side; c, do., from above; d, from below. Original, from Report U. S. Geol. 
€y Terrs., F, V, Hayden in charge, Vol. 111. 
femur. The trochlea for the coronoid process of the ulna, on 
x Posterior side, is narrowed so as to suggest a rotular groove 
(Fig. 427 ). The humeral cotylus of the ulna is adapted to this con- 
dyle by a flare on each side (Fig. 4c). The astragalus is without 


trochlea, as in most Puerco Mammalia, and the trochlear portion 
S gently convex anteroposteriorly. The head is much narrowed, 
ju -aSa Narrow navicular face which is convex in only one, the 
vertical, direction, On its outer side it bears a large flat facet for 
ie cuboid bone (Fig. 4a’). This form is much like that of the 
kangar oos. It shows that the peculiar structure of the posterior 


fi ; 
Aof the Macropodidæ already existed at this early day, though 


690 The Tertiary Marsupialia. 


perhaps in not quite so specialized a condition as at the present 
time. The form of the astragalus shows that the internal digits 


ee pesca Cope; parts of individual on Fig. $ 
two- aun na Fig. 4a, caudal vertebra, front; a’, do., left side; 4 
distal mo pee ‘teak: 6’, pos caine side. Fig. 4¢, ulna, proximal re de 
from above. Fig. 4d, astragalu us, from above; 2’, do., fr pong ce IIL 
from Report U. S. G. Survey Terrs., F. V. Ha yden in chaige, 


are of very reduced size, the first probably wanting, in hid 
todon, and that the external digits were large and constitu 
principal agent in pa 


That the animal had a 


sion. the few 


large tail is proven by 
- caudal vertebre 
(Fig. 42a’). 
- ‘The inferior molars have 


and the penultimate is 

larger than the last one. 

former tooth looks 4 we 

deal like a reduced 

rior molar of some rA 
b - Mastodon. The fam : ie : 

Fic. 5. BE igs fSoliatus Cope ; part of herbivorous habi 
of right mandibular ramus, natural size, Fig. a : 
5a, right side; 4, a do.; c, from above ; d, probab y ae is 


dental ’ 
orange view, show corp em ge Sea of the kangaroos. 
Mexico, Original, from the Report of the covery O 
U.S. Geol, Survey Terrs., F. V. Hayden, nus in ô r Lo 
Vol. mt. ge of the 08! 
he gan 


beds marks an important advance in t 


+ 


(July, 


ws of tu 
but two ro b a 


ia 
aes 
i: 


1884.] The Tertiary Marsupialia, 693 


of one of the most interesting of living forms. œ On the other 
hand, the Polymastodontidz may well have. derived their origin 
from the Tritylodontide, which were also of ‘herbivorous or 
granivorous habits, The family of the Plagiaulacidz is one of 
the most peculiar among those of the. Mammalia, whether we 
consider its structure or its relations to geological time. Com- 
_ mencing in the Jurassic period, it persisted through the Creta- 
= Cous to the Eocene. It then disappeared from view to remind 
= usonce more of its existence by its probable descendant, the ex- 
~ traordinary pouched lion of the Pliocene period of Australia, 
Thylacoleo carnifex Owen (Fig. 9). The family exhibits the usual 
= Successional relation of its component genera. In this respect 
__ itrepeats what I have already pointed out as a law of succession 
in placental Mammalia} a reduction in the number of premolar 
_ teeth. The following table exhibits these relations: 
| I. Tubercles of superior molar crescentic. 
Fourth premolar serrate, not ridged : Meniscoéssus 
Il. Tubercles of molars subconic. 


i 
l a. Four compressed premolars below. 
i Premolars serrate, not ridg ict eee Ctenacodon 
Premolars ridged and serrate . i AR Plioprion$ 
aa. Three compressed premolars. 
Premolars ridged. ..... ; Plagiaulax. 
aaa, Two premolars. y p 
a. ee a Prilodus, 
aaga. One premolar.* 
Fourth premolar ridged ...... SE ane pts Pa Ae es Neoplagiaulax. 
Fourth Premolar smooth., Pees eet eee eseees Liotomus, x 
= these seven genera but nine species are thus far known. 
lodus and Ctenacodon have two species each; and each of the 
gh but one. Ctenacodon, Plagiaulax and Plioprion are Juras- 
; Meniscoéssus is Cretaceoùs, and the remaining three genera 
owned Tertiary. The American genera are Ctenacodon 
Pe (Fig. 7 £g), Meniscoéssus Cope, and Ptilodus Cope. The 
„amed is the most generalized of the family. The Menisco- 
ESSUS con 


quisius Cope, has the distinction of being the only known 

of the Cretaceous period. 
Im- ra K 
Eaa family iS the equivalent of Marsh’s “ order” Allotheria. 
: Rulletin U, s Geol. i 


“ N 
Gen, ber unknown in Liotomus 
You. 


692 The Tertiary Marsupialia, [July, 


The genus first discovered was the Plagiaulax of Owen, of 
which the typical species was found in the Purbeck bed of the 
Isle of Wight, England. It was made the subject of a memoir 
by Falconer. Ctenacodon was next discovered in the Jurassic of 
Wyoming by Marsh in 1879. In 1880 Dr. Lemoine discovered 
the first Tertiary representative of the family, and in 1882 named 
it Neoplagiaulax eocenus (Fig. 6). In November, 1881, 1 dè- 
scribed the first American Tertiary form, which was discovered in 
the Puerco beds of New Mexico, under the name of Ptilodus 


ian beds of Rew 
Fic, 6,—Neoplagiaulax eocenus Lemoine, from the Comey represented i 
France; fae ser -a rami and teeth of three individuals which i sal i, aol 
the letters 2,6 and c. Fi , 6, and c, much enlarg Ta de France, 18 
size, Fig. 4’’’, from above. From Lemoine, Bulletin de Soc. 
i ther wit 
Its presence in that formation, tog? of the 
d the near homotaxy New 
th those of 7 


mediævus (Fig. 8). 
various other associated types, proved ta , 
beds explored by Dr. Lemoine. near Reims Wi 
Mexico.! S gid remained? 
Up to this time the great Crese peri 

blank in the history of Mammalian lite, : r 

gists had eae the fresh-water beds of this period 
malian remains without success. Among them, 


1 See the NATURALIST, 1883, p. 870. 


PRE ENT D A Ee d a eani i aa ON ie re aes Pr 


Other a] 


1884. | The Tertiary Marsupialia. 693 


sky,too soon lost to science, spent much time in the south of France 
among the formations which most nearly represent the American 
Laramie formation, but found no Mammalia. It remained for 
Mr. Wortman to crown a 
series of successful expedi- 
tions by the discovery of the 
Meniscoéssus conquistus in the 
Laramie formation of Da- 
kota, its loose teeth being 
found mixed with the teeth 
of dinosaurs and scales of 
gar-fishes. The characters of 
the molar teeth are highly 
appropriate to the geological 
age of the genus, the supe- 
rior molar resemblinhg bot 
that of the Jurassic Stereog- 
tathus and the Eocene Poly- „Fie: 7.—Fig. adtad serratus Man 
mastodon. Stercognathus obliticus, 2, from Owen. Fig c, 

right fourth upper molar of 77itylodon longe, 


à third premolar, In the living genera the fourth premolar 
resembles a true molar. It is necessary to remember this fact in 
Me attempt to ascertain the phylogeny of the Multituberculata. 
_ 'S not an entirely easy task, owing to the questions which 
‘rise as to the origin of the cutting premolars themselves. In 
s‘neral it is true of Mammalia that simple premolars precede the 
vmplex in time; but an exception to this rule is to be seen in the 
ig Superior sectorial tooth of some Creodonta and Car- 
Whether the premolars of this family are primitive or 
vative is not as yet known. If they be primitive they may 
a... Modifications of the serrate teeth of the herbivorous 

uria or Theromorpha. The complex character of the pre- 

in the older Tritylodon suggests the possibility of the 
ternative. The general history of the Plagiaulacide con- 


‘This 
? tooth ma possi k 
Neturatisr, ma. a ag to a Saurian. 


694 The Tertiary Marsupialia. [July, 


firms the theory of derivation from complex premolars, and we 
observe in the later form, Thylacoleo, a simplification of the true 
molars‘also.. The molariform fourth premolars in the existing 
Macropodidz confirm this view. In 
order to connect these latter with the 
ancestral form of the Plagiaulacida, 
on a former occasion, I posited a 
theoretical form which should com- 
bine three of the cutting premolars 
of the extinct family with the molar- 
iform fourth premolar of the Macro- 
podidæ. This I named Tritomodon. 
The discovery of Tritylodon hasadded 
confirmation to this view, at least as re- 

Bs Pat vards the prior existence of the molari- 
Fic. 8. — Péilodus medievus form premolars. The Polymastodot- 
Cope, left mandibular ramus, i ‘ the 
nat. Size; from the Upper Puerco tidz were probably derived from 
beds of New Mexico. Fig. e Tritylodontida by the usual process 
superior view, 3 nat. size. Orig. of reduction of number of teeth ; 
Miner "Pen PN a specialization of those that eer? 
in charge. 3 Thylacoleo? must be regarded as 
type of a family distinct from the Plagiaulacidz, since it has but 
one true molar tooth in the upper jaw. The composition of that 
tooth is unknown, so that it is not certain whether the anit 
Thylacoleontidz must be placed in the Multituberculata o - 
cophaga. That it is a direct descendant of the Plagiaulacid 
think there is no doubt. The following phylogenetic scheme K 
similar to'one I published in the NaTuratist, 1882, p. 525 b ) 
some addition, and the removal of Polymastodon (Cato: 
from the Plagiaulacide : 


1 NATURALIST, 1882, p. 5216 
* Owen, Quar. Journ. Geol. Society, London, 1883» 


mes 


The Tertiary Marsupialia. 695: 
Tritylodon 


paies RE 


“ Tritomodon” z 
ia t W 


Ctenacodon 


zd Meniscoés sus Plioprion Phascolomys 
Plagiaulax 


| 
Polymastodon Ptilodus Hypsiprymnus 
| . C 


PE à 
Neoplagiaulax Liotomus Macropus 


Thylacoleo 


; It appears from the preceding considerations that the dentition 
of the implacental Mammalia has had a history independent of 
that of the placental series so far as regards the herbivorous 
Ypes at least. I have shown that the primitive types of the pla- 
ntal series were tritubercular, and then quadritubercular, and 
then crested. In the herbivorous marsupials, on the contrary, we 
_Smmence with multitubercular forms, and it is yet an open ques- 
í e saa these have had a quadri- and tritubercular ancestry 
: i Plagiaulacide of the Jurassic period are of very small 
2 “2, none of them exceeding in dimensions the house mouse. 
. same is true of the species of the Eocene period hitherto 
sog in Europe. The American species are larger, the Ptilodus 
4 Pies equaling probably the Norway rat (F ig. 8), while the 
: tus ig ‘sartianus is one-third smaller. The Meniscoéssus conquis- 
a Still larger, equaling about the Polymastodon foliatus (Fig. 
ye Tangement of the crests of the fourth premolar in the 
‘ of Plagiaulacidze differs as follows: In Plagiaulax, Plio- 
ag pi iaulax this tooth is grooved. In Ptilodus the 
tibs ‘ig become so wide (Fig. 8) that the wide intervening 
a. oo narrow keels. In Meniscoéssus there are no 
s the margin of the crown is serrate (Fig. 7 4 £). 


Be E E ES EEEN, 


696 The Tertiary Marsupialia. [July, 


The Pulodus medievus further differs from the Veoplagiaulas 
eocenus in the more rodent-like character of its incisor teeth. In 
the latter species these teeth resemble more those of the kanga- 
roos in their anterior direction. The diastema is longer in Ptil- 
odus, thus increasing the rodent resemblance. The fourth pre- 
molar is strongly serrate in the Neoplagiaulax, resembling in this 
also the Mesozoic types. 

The discussion between Professor Owen on the one side, and 


1e 


Thylacoleo Jaa i Owen; skull from below, one-half nat. es 


tha’ Pliog aan heds of Aus From restoration by Professor Owen in 
Magazine, 1883, p. 289. 

Messrs. Falconer, Krefft and Flower on the other, 
of the food of Thylacoleo, is known to paleontologists. 
the form of the teeth alone, Professor Owen inferred the mee 
Orous nature of the food of this genus, while his oppone. et gfe 
ferred a herbivorous diet from the resemblance betwee? 
tition and that of the herbivorous Hypsiprymnus. I have poi 
out (7. c.) that the comparison of Thylacoleo with HypsiP 


3 1884. ] Vestiges of Glacial Man in Minnesota. 697 


isweakened by two considerations: First, the cutting teeth in 
the two genera are not homologous ; second, the grinding series 
of molars, complete in Hypsiprymnus, is almost wanting in Thy- 
lacoleo, It evidently does not follow that because Hypsiprymnus 
isherbivorous Thylacoleo is so also. Professor Flower refers to 
the reduction of the molars in Thylacoleo as slightly compli- 
tating the problem, and concludes that the food of that animal 
may have been fruit or juicy roots, or even meat. It is difficult 
to imagine what kind of vegetable food could have been appro- 
priated by such a dentition as that of Ptilodus and Thylacoleo. 
_ The sharp, thin, serrate or smooth edges are adapted for making 
cuts and dividing food into pieces. That these pieces were swal- 
lowed whole is indicated by the small size and weak structure of 
_ the molar teeth, which are not adapted for crushing or grinding 
anything but very small and soft bodies, It is not necessary to 
‘uppose that the dentition was used on the same kind of food in 
the large and the small species. In Ptilodus medievus the diet 
may have consisted of small eggs which were picked up by the 
incisors and cut by the fourth premolars. In Zhylacoleo carnifex 
t might have been larger eggs, as those of the crocodiles, or 
‘ven the weaker living animals. The objection to the supposition 
that the food consisted of vegetables, is found in the necessity of 
wallowing the pieces without mastication. In case it should 
have been of a vegetable character the peculiar premolar teeth 
Would cut off pieces of fruits and other soft parts as suggested 
| P rofessor Flower, but that these genera could have been 
herbivorous in the manner of the existing kangaroos, with their 


Series of molars in both jaws, is clearly an inadmissible sup- 
Position, 


p Oas 


VESTIGES OF GLACIAL MAN IN MINNESOTA. 
BY MISS FRANC E. BABBITT. 

a (Continued from page 605, Fune number.) 

| iaia notch quartzes hitherto examined have been differentiated 

‘ pda peculiarities of distribution, worth while to enu- 

i this place, 

: First; 

dove 


hay there were Originally no quartzes afforded by the soil 
: , SO there were none yielded by that lying im- 
y below ; although it would naturally be expected that 


698 Vestiges of Glacial Man in Minnesota. [July, 


the floor of a primitive manufacturing site of this character would 
be permeated to a considerable depth with chips and other refuse- 
If in studying the quartz bed, for example, the hand, introduced 
within it horizontally, was carried at all above or below the supe- 
rior or inferior plane of deposit, the fingers encountered no more 
fragments, except in spots where the layer had manifestly been 
thrown out of place by the growth of roots, and other recent 
agencies. 

- The uniform outline of the inferior plane of deposit, taken in 
connection with the total absence of chips and quartz fragments 
of every kind, from all explored portions of it, shows that these 
objects were spread out, primarily, upon a passably level surface 
of a compact, unyielding nature, such as might have been afforded 
by a firm sod, or by frozen ground. This peculiar feature of the 
situation, together with other facts hereafter to be stated, suggests 
the probability that the quartz deposit is somewhat in the nature 
of a cache, the nucleus of which was an ancient site of manufac- 
ture of stone implements. Appearances indicate that shortly 
after receiving position here, these quartzes were either solidly 
encased in ice or permanently sealed up in the modified drift at 
present superimposed upon them. Had it been otherwise, had 
the containing stratum, prior to its final inhumation, been long 
subjected to the climatic vicissitudes incident to the actual 150- 
thermal line of the region, results would no doubt have followed 
which, though differing possibly in degree, would certainly have 
been identical in kind with those now wrought out at the s 
point. Thus great thaws, soaking and softening rains, and, 1f 
short, local floods, however caused, could not have failed to affect 
exposed quartzes, to have effectually deranged and perhaps g 
gether broken up the original level of their bed, and to roa. he 
numbers of the involved: objects down to varying depths id u 
underlying stone rubbish, while sweeping others away bodi ee 
be distributed about the subjacent sands. It is desirable Z 
phasize the fact that the specified movements of so red 
merely a matter of speculation, but are the subject of dy 
observation. They are now in progress before our eyes a 

to day, not only at the quartz bed, but likewise at every egration 
point in the vicinity, at which quartz products. of disints that 
find lodgment upon a sandy substratum. Let it be ob pasis o 
the-present is not a case of degradation going on upon 4 


1884.] Vestiges of Glacial Man in Minnesota. 699 


rock affording permanent support to fragments detached. Even — 
_ were it such, however, the quartzes would still have been subject 
= toeolic influences whence we might look to see the successive 
_ products of ages of weathering widely disseminated and occupy- 
_ ing different levels in the neighboring sand. 
: Second: it was a further peculiarity of the quartz layer that it 
did not thin out toward the west, in the direction of the 
fiver, as it should have done had its area been still intact. 
Contrawise, the quartzes extended in full thickness quite up to 
the extreme edge of the terrace-plain, where the deposit termi- 
fated abruptly in an obscuring layer of surface soil derived from 
the drift above. Previous to the inception of grading operations 
upon the notch, by which this ancient cache seems to have been 
nearly and perhaps quite obliterated, it was no infrequent thing, 
heavy rains, to find quartzes, plainly extruded from the 
others, lying along the bottom-land west of their original bed. 
The terrace consists properly of three sections, one above the 
| other, which must have had their beginnings at three different 
_ Periods. First, we have the lowest and oldest, comprising the 
body of till and drift below the quartzes; second, the quartz- 
Yielding stratum itself ; and third, and newest, the accumulations 
of modified drift above the latter. This classification is based on 
existing geological conditions, and formulates the necessary 
= “quence of glacial events. It is, therefore, by no means an ab- 
or an arbitrary division. It is moreover not affected by 
the question whether or not the quartz layer is artificial in char- 
acter. Even were it a proven fact that these fragments are wholly 
onal forms resulting from the wearing down of quartz veins, it 
Nay still be true that the quartzes must, at the time of their 
deposit, have occupied a surface now no longer existing as such, 
: the present plane of the middle section. The truncated 
: Pe of the western edge of the quartz layer, coinciding with 
tk k the terrace-bank above it, points us back to a time when 
mt of these sections had as yet no existence, 
: Pared to lower one, projected west of its present limits, was pre- 
Aka "eceive upon its surface, as in time it actually did danik 
hag now above it. The middle section, that is the 


eek ts es ae 


Ward. Wartzes, must in its turn have had a like west- 
Hi „ Prolongation, The superior section, deposited later still, 
in the same general extension. When the Mis- 


700 Vestiges of Glacial Man in Minnescta, [July, 


_ sissippi finally withdrew permanently from the terrace-plain, and 
cutting out a lower bed for itself in the drift alluvium, formed the 
existing terrace-bank, it would naturally leave the quartz stratum 
what we find it to-day. That is, the western border having been 
cut off and swept away, the western limits of the remainder would 
preserve a general thickness uniform with that of the central por- 
tion, or nearly so. 

During a copious and long-continued rainfall in the summer of 
1881, the roadway leading through the notch was at one time 
washed out at its point of emergence and westward to a depth of 
four or five feet below the quartz stratum. The lower portion of 
the newly exposed surface was then seen to be stuck full of quartz 
chips intermingled with occasional quartz implements. These 
seemed to be vestiges of a former westward prolongation of the 
quartz-bearing stratum. An irregular block of quartz, from eight 
to twelve inches in dimension, was here found impacted in the 
stone rubbish at the top of the till. This is remarkable as being 
the only lump of quartz larger than a club-head ever encountered 
among the thousands taken from the place. The block was 
white, sharply angular, and wholly unwaterworn; it was associ- 
ated with subangular and rounded stones which had no other 
visible unwaterworn fragments among them; and it had, stil 
adhering to certain of its planes, foliations of some other mineral 
of so soft a nature that the blocks would inevitably have yielded 
to attrition had it ever been subjected thereto. Every a 
indicated that this was a mass which had been used t ae 
pieces from for further manipulation. It was imbedded among 
quartz bits and implements before mentioned. These were strewn 
about in the utmost confusion, being wedged into th ; 
bish at every imaginable angle. Many of the latter specimens, 
unlike those from the stratum, were more or less defaced, gai 
small, long bits nicked out of the surface. Among them r ch 
some few objects which belonged to stratum types; but w 
were nevertheless waterworn. 

Third : certain of the quartzes of the stratum 
arranged upon the floor of deposit in little rudely 
or groups of objects of some one particular type: 
sentative fact or two will very likely afford a clearer 
case than can otherwise be had, a few illustrative 
offered here. During the autumn of 1879, upon the 


o strike 


e stone rub- 


have been distinctly 
assorted heaps 
Asa 

view of the 
details ar 
day whee 


ree Riana? Seok aa oe 


Se 


ep ere eee 


EER GEST o aac SEE E DIC So i A ERA ee eS SO S ty a hate il ce a ea Wows: 


a for 
eng had simply had their natural angles smoothed down 


Sin 


1884. ] Vestiges of Glacial Man in Minnesota. * 701 


the existence of the quartz-bearing stratum was first definitely 
settled, I collected from it a half peck, or such a matter, of quartz 
pieces. Among these appeared a group of specimens numbering 
adozen or more, which belonged to a type unknown to me at 
the time, The most finished implements of this shape have deli- 
cate, fragile edges formed by a single thin leaf of the quartz pro- 
longed beyond the mass of the object in a series of irregular, 


minute notches. Further exploration of the site, continued up 


to the present time, has, so for as observed, failed to unearth a 
single specimen of the same class elsewhere. Whether we 
assume these small articles to be natural productions or artificial 
ones, or whether again we hold them to be natural forms more 
or less modified by the hand of man, there is no escaping the 
conviction that the grouping together of these and other like 
objects is wholly the work of intention. Previous to the discov- 
ery here narrated, I had more than once or twice chanced upon 
bunches of specimens of a common figure, lying in separate hud- 
dles in the sand at the edge of the stratum, and apparently just 
Washed out of it. 
Upon another occasion I found in my daily budget a small 
cluster of rude triangular points, quite unfashioned, as I thought, 
and averaging about an inch and a fourth, or a half, in length, by 
three-fourths of an inch in width. These being at first supposed 
to be unwrought figures, were thrown out as such. However, 
Persistent recurrence of identical forms in the day’s yield 
‘ventually suggested a meaning of its own independent of the 
aot workmanship. These bits were consequently put in 
— with fragments taken from waterworn quartz boulders 
the edge of the Mississippi river, artificially broken up. It 


__ SS found that certain of these boulders afforded by their fracture 
Study, whil 
— Siderab] 


Specimens of the same general shape with those under 
€ upon closer examination it was perceived that a con- 
„© Portion of the latter had at the base, upon opposite 
>S two very small roundish notches, such as would be re- 
Or securing the object to a slender shaft, or handle, of 
ne. None of the pieces seemed to have been flaked 
“Pt at these notches, and if they had been otherwise worked 


On upon some stone. 
ilar assortments of specimens having a common form have 


702 ° Vestiges of Glacial Man in Minnesota. [ July, 


been brought to light in different portions of the stratum. In- 
deed, whenever I unearthed any individual object of compara- 
tively large size, I very often, though by no means invariably, 
found it to be associated closely with others of kindred type. I 
have exhumed from this place groups of axe-like quartzes, of 
rasping stones, of broken implements, of long prong-shaped 
objects perhaps utilized by primitive man as weapons, and of 
other rudely fashioned things at the particular uses of which itis 
impossible to guess. However, there were also divers quartz 
shapes which were scattered about through the whole deposit, 
such as hammer-stones of different descriptions, sharp pieces 
adaptable as cutting-blades and a great many sharp and long 
splinters. Some of the latter have been more or less wrought, 
while others of ruder model appear to have been selected from 
accumulations of fractured quartz with reference to unknown in- 
dustries. 

The assorted arrangement of the stratum quartzes and the per 
fect preservation of even the very frailest of them are cognate 
facts, entirely congruous with the group of statements heretofore 
advanced. They show that this deposit did not suffer derange- 
ment before its final inhumation, nor at the period when the lat- 
ter was in progress. They point strongly to the probability that 
these rude objects represent a palzolithic workshop and cache, 
the floor of which was shielded from disturbance by an !cy a 
velop, or by the gentleness of movement of the encroaching 
waters, or by both of these causes combined, as is most Be 
Were it otherwise possible for the quartz bed to be a product ° 
disintegrating forces, it would still be incomprehensible that 4 
stratum presenting the specific features of this, could have si 
exposed to the tumultuous action of air and frost Deu 3 
time requisite for working out the degradation assumed. 
equally unintelligible that it has ever been attack 
powerful currents of an onward-moving flood. These q" pase 
seem rather to have been submerged by some such cet ie 
ing action of water as we should expect in the case of al 
expansion produced by the backing up of water from below: a 

Fourth : the stratum quartzes comprise many distinct ch have 
of the mineral, distributed among a mass of pieces is of the 
apparently been derived from the quartz-bearing _ nces if 
vicinity. These fragments show strongly marked differe 


eee yp te se 


ey oe ee 


1884.] Vestiges of Glacial Man in Minnesota. 703 


opaqueness, color, hardness, cleavage and admixture of foreign 
matter. The mode of occurrence of the more erratic specimens 
is noteworthy, and leads to the inference that they may have 
been fashioned from drift boulders, numbers of them, indeed, 
having béen evidently formed of waterworn pebbles. Objects 
shaped from some special variety of quartz not unfrequently pre- 
sent themselves in loose clusters, varying in number from two or 
three to a dozen or so pieces. Thus a single specimen of a 
tinted, mottled or otherwise distinguishable quality, has quite 
| 


| 
, 
| 
f 


commonly been found associated with others of the same species 

of mineral. When one of these is of comparatively large size, 
the remaining objects are in many cases proportionally small, as 

if they had been shaped from fragments of the largest. In one 

= Partof the stratum I chanced upon several small quartzes which 
i were, for the most part, longish splinters, and which had a pecu- 
liar sort of odlitic fracture closely resembling the grain of curly 
maple. I have never happened to find this sort of fracture in 
quartz from the Little Falls slates, though such may perhaps 
*xist; but in studying a few boulders from the till, artificially 

3 up, I discovered a single waterworn mass, ten to twelve 
inches in diameter, having the same fracture. I afterward, at 
various times, encountered pieces of similar character at the 
Stratum, three or four perhaps in a spot. These fragments have 

l believe, been inconsiderable in size. Now had even a small 

3 lump of this Special sort of mineral been either disintegrated, or 
; broken up upon the ground by human agency, a confused mass 
-of bits of different sizes must naturally have resulted—which is 
E oet It is therefore not unlikely that the peculiarity of 
cleavage unfitted this quality of quartz for being worked into 
ri implements, but that in accidentally reducing small boulders — 
"E the quartz-workers selected from the splinters such bits as 


: “uld in some way be turned to profit. 


LOM ey ne ee ee a ee ee ee eee! he Nt eo 


a Winchell says of terrace surfaces adjacent to the 

7 Te stratum: “There is no point throughout the whole region 

: oye where the slate conveying these quartz veins rises to 

: aa of the surface of this plain so as to.be within the range 

flo 8 k ing agències, whether of the water of the river or of 
Pines J e, ? 


q's statement concerning fragments diffused through the sur- 
* Soil is; of Course, not necessarily applicable to a plane a con- 


704 Vestiges of Glacial Man in Minnesota. (July, 


siderable depth below that surface. In fact, slate rock has been 
encountered a little distance east of the notch at a depth of only 
fourteen feet. It is certain also that exposures of slate veins have 
long since been eaten away by the Mississippi river on the west, 
and it is highly probable that all these once afforded the quartz- 
workers abundant supplies for industrial purposes, A great pro- 
portion of the pieces found here have actually been furnished 
from the quartz-yielding rock of the place. This being the case, 
however, it is still certain that the iinbedded quartzes could not 
have been drifted to their present position by currents of water, 
nor by ice. The facts above cited forbid the possibility of such 
transportation ; and, as shown, it is equally incredible that long 
continued disintegration in the open air should have left upon the 
fragments successively resulting, no trace of weathering nor of 
belonging to different planes of deposit. On the whole, the pre- 
historic record of glacial man at Little Falls, as understood at the 
present stage of investigation, may be briefly summed up # 
follows. 

The quartz-working people flourished at a day when the upper 
division of the terrace-plain had not yet been spread out. As we 
have seen, the basal section of the terrace consists of till coated 
with stone rubbish and covered with a thin layer of soil. It was 
precisely here, upon this old surface, that the quartz-workers lived 
and pursued their pitiful labors. In the fulness of time this van- 
ished folk, perhaps foreseeing the calamity of flood, posed upon 
the earthen floor adjoining their working-place, the quartz 
implements of the stratum. The impending disaster finally ed 
sued ; the movement of the muddy water inhuming these ecg 
was so gentle as not to break up the original arrangement : 
assorted groups, nor yet mar the most delicate edges and points 


of the imbedded pieces. The deposit of quartzes was, at = 
hermetically sealed. Except at the western edge it has 


3 oe h 
remained, quite in statu quo, up to the present time, althoug" 


there has been a constant tendency on the part of na 
cies to erode the drift above, and expose once more to 
the sun the rude remains of this primitive race. fei 

The floods at length abated, the waters of the swollen ao 
sippi wholly subsided ; the river abandoned the terrace-pla n im 
gether, it dug out a new bed for itself at a lower level. ye 
the latter process, or subsequent thereto, the current wash 


the light of 


1884] 


the western, or river, edge of the quartz deposit, and swept away 

all such products of man’s labor as were at that time exposed to 

its action. The operating forces having been exerted upon the 

west of the present terrace-bank, it follows that only the eastern 

edge of the stratum remains to us, the western border being cut 
and lost. 


Vestiges of Glacial Man in Minnesota. 705 


In finale, it is proper to reiterate the fact that the working 
hypothesis of the moment is one which the writer has been driven, 
in spite of preconceived notions, to adopt. All the internal evi- _ 
dence of the case, thus far elicited, harmonizes completely with 
the view enunciated, and with this view alone. The study here 
commenced is henceforth to be pursued along two distinct lines 
of investigation; one comprehending the dfift surfaces of the 
region, the other the objects exhumed. The latter, or purely 
archeological phase of the subject, remains to be more fully 

loped at some future time; but it may be stated in this place 


__ that the quartzes of the cache are to the last degree primitive in 


their general types and particular forms, and in their style of 
workmanship. 
A collection of something like a hundred of the quartz objects 
: in the notch at Little Falls has been submitted for exami- 
maton to Professor Henry W. Haynes, of Boston, Mass., who 
Writes of these specimens: “Some of them I believe to be im- 
Plements ; Many are only chips struck off in shaping implements 


_ id refuse pieces left from such work; many are natural forms, 


< it was a 
your implements such a preparation of them for holding 


N e Rae IEE EV E BO Mee eer MEE E A EA ET e era RR Oe E T E SOY A E AS O, E 


and one or two rolled pebbles. I think that such objects as 
appear to be implements, in your collection, were managed by 
being held in the hand, and that early man had not advanced far 
“Rough to devise handles for his first rude implements. The 
TR of quartz were fitted for use by having most of their pro- 
Jections battered off by another stone; and if anything was 
to soften the effect of the edges of stone upon the hand, 
mass of moss, or leaves, or such object. I trace clearly 


in the hand. Many of yours bear evident marks of use in 


at A condition of portions of their edges or of their points. 
elias over the whole collection that I have made from 


tocalities in New England of rude stone objects, mostly 


~ om e depth below the surface, and compare their gen- 
a rance with that of my collection of Indian objects, I 


70 Vestiges of Glacial Man in Minnesota. Duly, 3 


see plainly a. great difference. Applying the same test to your 
quartzes, I see that they belong, as a whole, to the older class. 
That you have discovered a workshop of early man there is no 
doubt.” Again he says: “I will merely repeat that I have nota 
shadow of. a doubt that the ‘ quartzes’ you have submitted to me 
are the product of an intentional breaking by the hand of man, 
and not the result of natural causes.” 

At the annual meeting of the American Association for the Ad- 
vancement of Science held at Minneapolis, Minn., August, 1883, a 
small number of objects from the stratum at the notch, and from 
its western line of extension along the terrace-bank, were placed 
for study in the hands of Professor F. W. Putnam, curator of the 
Peabody Museum of Archzology at Cambridge, Mass. It is 
with peculiar satisfaction I find myself able to.record his decision 
that a certain part of the quartzes examined by him have indu- 
bitably been fashioned by the hand of man. At the same meet- 
ing of scientists the following résumé of the glacial situation at 
Little Falls was contributed to this paper by Mr. Warren Upham, 
of the State geological survey, to whose personal researches and 
official reports we are largely indebted for the drift history of 
Minnesota. The geological data of the present article have, if 
great part, been drawn from notes kindly supplied for the purposs 
by Mr. Upham. Mr. Upham says: © 

“Two principal epo iation are clearly recognizable, 
in the eins of which si pees raed somewhat beyond 
the Missouri river and nearly.to the Ohio river, crossi “att of 
at Cincinnati, as recently proved by Professor Wright. Al i 
Minnesota was, at that time, deeply covered by ice, excepting 
tract next to the Mississippi river from Lake Pepin southeast ye 
which is included in a driftless area that extends 150 miles 7 
north to south, and is 100 miles wide, lying mostly in Wio a 
In the succeeding interglacial epoch there is good evidence per 
the ice was melted away upon this region, and that a tempe jie 
climate existed. Afterward came the second and last great. 
cial epoch, when an ice-sheet again covered nearly all of Minne 
sota and accumulated the terminal moraines that ha ie 
$ $ : a ta. The ice } 


covered by the ice of this last epoch is in the vicinity © 1 of 
Moines, about 300 miles north of its earlier limt. the Coteau 
southwestern Minnesota. lying beyond the crest of the =< 


1884.] 


Vestiges of Glacial Man in Minnesota. 707 


Counties, into Iowa. Two currents of the ice-sheet, one coming 
; from the northeast, the other from the northwest, were confluent, 
_ Pushing against each other, upon an area reaching from Crystal 
_ like and Lake Minnetonka 150 miles northwesterly to the Leat 
a hills, and even farther north to the lakes at the head of the Mis- 
- Sssippi ri n area, or belt, extending thus, with a width vary- 
o a hundred miles, has a junction and overlapping 
ght from the northwest and northeast, and series 
ls, which appear to prove that this region was 
by the ice of the last glacial epoch; that the line 
f its currents was shifted in the latter part of this 
) far to the east upon a large district southeast of Stearns 
oy, bringing till from the west over that from the east; and 
that during the final melting and disappearance of the ice, prob- 
ably at times when this was interrupted by its reidvance upon 
Ey of the ground from which it had retreated, true terminal 
woss were formed upon the sides of this belt which had been 
nine po covered through most of this epoch. The inner mo- 
„ound in southern Minnesota and upon the Coteau des 
Ez f hills, and the very distinct series of morainic 
Sin Morrison county—one of which, accumulated by the ice- 
thie L: ‘from the northeast, lies close east of Little Falls—are of 
kind, being terminal moraines formed at stages in the reces- 
‘As the ice at the last glacial epoch. 
Tean as the ice had so far retreated as to uncover the 
Valley of the Mississippi river in Morrison county, the 
“on of the modified drift, constituting the terrace-plain in 
pae found the quartz chippings, ensued, and continued dur- 
ya retreat of the ice? It seems very probable, that vegetation 
mals followed close upon the retiring ice-border, and that 
oan, who lived near the Atlantic coast in this closing stage 
the drift. Period, as abundantly proved by recent discoveries 
3 pemn near Trenton, N. J., may also have lived here 
=% Sand occupied the Mississippi valley directly after the 
Sarinah in min i ittle Falls quartz stratum 
kaea e eyeing Bee Draenei hn have occu- 
point of time when its deposition began. 
45 


- VII, 


708 Editors’ Table. 


ice-sheet retired. While the deposition of the valley-drift at Lit- 
tle Falls was still going forward, men may have lived there, and — 
left, as the remnants of their manufacture of stone implements, 
the multitude of quartz fragments here described. By the con- 
tinued deposition of the modified drift, lifting the river upon 
the surface of its glacial flood-plain, these quartz chips were 
deeply buried in that formation. The date of this valley-drift 
must be that of the retreat of the ice of the last glacial epoch, 
from whose melting were supplied both this sediment and the — 
floods by which it was brought. The glacial flood-plain beneath 
whose surface the quartz fragments occur, was deposited in the 
same manner as additions are now made to the surface of the 
bottom-land; but the flooded condition of the river, by whic 
this is done, was doubtless maintained through all the warm por 
tion of the year, while the ice-sheet was being melted away upon 
the region‘of its head waters. In spring, autumn, and winter, 0n 
in exceptional years, through much of the summer, it seems 
probable that the river was confined to a channel, being of insuf- 
ficient volume to cover its flood-plain. At sucha time this plain 
seems to have been the site of human habitations and industry, 
as shown in this paper.! After the complete disappearance of the 
ice from the basin of the Upper Mississippi, the supply of 
water and sediment was so diminished that the river, from that 
time till now, has been occupied more in erosion than in depost- 
tion, and has cut its channel far below the level at which it ses 
flowed, excavating and carrying to the Gulf of Mexico a gre 
part of its glacial flood-plain, the remnants of which are seen 
high terraces or plains upon each side of the river.” 


20; 
EDITORS’ TABLE. 


EDITORS: A. S. PACKARD, JR., AND E. D. COPE. 


in the 
The preservation of some herds of our larger gam© in í 
| Governmet! — 


parks which are under the direction of the Nationa sae 
is an object which has received the approval of various pe i 
persons from time to time. We believe that the constitution 
the Yellowstone Park Commission contemplates the pres? 

of the game within its borders, but does not provide i ing 
maintenance of herds of any size, or for any means of fie 
them within the limits of the protected territory. sected i 
however, that in point of fact the game is not bette pre 

the Yellowstone park than elsewhere. 


RE ee E e APE A E ee ee nT A 


a 

: : Sot ed this field 

1 Evidence is at present wanting that the quartz-workers verte spreading out o 

operations between the abandonment of the quartz stratum an 3 
the uppermost portion of the terrace-plain. 


1884] 


_ Itis well known that the larger game of the far West has been 
long diminishing in numbers. This is especially true of the 
bison, an animal which is unable to escape from its pursuers, and 
which can hardly be called a game animal. The once huge 
Southern herd has been reduced to a few individuals in North- 
western Texas. The Dakota herd numbers only some 75,000 
head, a number which will soon be reduced to zero if the present 
rate of extermination continues. The Montana herd is now the 
object of relentless slaughter, and will soon follow the course of 
the other two herds. When scattered individuals represent these 
herds, a few hunters will one day pick them off, and the species 
will be extinct. 
: Let the Government place a small herd in each of the national 
__ Parks, and let the number be maintained at a definite figure. Let 
the excess escape into the surrounding country, so as to preserve 
the species for the hunters. Let herds of moose, elk, big-horn, 
kand white-tailed deer, and antelope, be maintained in the 
| same way. Let the Carnivora roam at will; and in a word pro- 
‘ tect nature from the destructive outlawry of men whose prehis- 
: toric instincts are not yet dead. Let the newer instinct of admi- 
_ fation for nature's wonders have scope. Let the desire for knowl- 
edge of nature’s greatest mystery, life, have some opportunity. 
Let there be kept a source of supply for zodlogical societies and 
museums, so that science may ever have material for its investi- 


Recent Literature. 709 


i 
ae 


ee Le as Pe ge ee ee Se eet ee ene eee a eM hE ss Ht 


ss ar oe 


Sations, By securing the preservation of these noblest of nature’s 
3 orks, Congress will be but extending the work it has so grandly 
r sustained in the past, in the support of scientific research and the 
Sducation of the people. 
_ > carry this plan into effect it will be necessary to have an 
_~*" Corps of foresters and gamekeepers. Any poaching on 


E ag must be punished with exemplary severity by the Uni- 
ie State urts. 


a 


€S CO 


10: 
RECENT LITERATURE. 


— ZOOLOGICAL RECORD For 1882!—This volume is sixteen 
and. lo nger than its predecessor. The number of new genera 


ú 915, as against 1438 of Vol. xvir. The editor adds that 

os the Protozoa, which in the latter comprised 483 from a 

logical (gi cal Record for 1882; being volume nineteenth of the Record of Zod- 
K ure. Edited by E. C. RYE London, John Van Voorst, 1883. 


710 Recent Literature. [July, 


single describer (Professor Haeckel), the number is greater by 70 
in the present one. “These 1015 are divided as follows: 
malia, 29; Aves, 19; Reptilia and Batrachia, 34; Pisces, 23; 
Mollusca and Molluscoida, 67; Crustacea, 46; Arachnida, 64; 
Myriopoda, 5; Insecta, 598; Vermes, 32; Echinodermata, 30; 
Coelenterata, 27 ; Spongiida, 17; and Protozoa, 24. The unavoid- 
able delay referred to in the preface has necessitated the pubtica- 
tion of this long list of new names with scarcely any examination 
as regards prior occupation.” 

A number of changes have faken place in the staff of assistant 
editors, but we do not see that the quality of the reports has been 
lessened in value. d 

As regards Mammalia, the year 1882 did not differ materially 
from its predecessor in the large number of papers, anatomical, 
systematic and faunal, which appeared, though but few separate 
works of importance were published. : 

Of the ornithological publications of the year, special attention 
is called by the assistant editor, Mr. Sharpe, to the completion of 
Elliott’s “ Monograph of the Hornbills,” Sclater’s “ Jacamars 
Puff-birds,” Salvadori’s “ Uccelli di Papuasia,” and the atlas to the 
part “ Aves” of the great work on the natural history of Mada- 
gascar, by MM. Milne-Edwards and Grandidier. Attention !s also 
called to the valuable essays by Drs. Gadow and Krukenberg 
on the coloring of feathers, As usual the reports on insects fill 
nearly half the volume, 2. e., 292 pages. ee 

As regards the value of this work to working naturalists, 1n this 
country especially, where few have access to large libraries, ae 
can only repeat the statements heretofore made as to the uset” 
ness of such a record as this. The report is subsidized, and, 35 H 
matter of course, endorsed by the British Association for the a 
vancement of Science, as well as the Royal Society of London. 


Cortins’s MıneraLocy!.—The system of classification adopted 
by the author is identical with that of Dana so far as the pe 
classes are concerned. The book is reprinted from the Engi! 
edition, and like the first volume, published in 1878, was ea d 
for the use of “practical working miners, quarrymen a aoe 
geologists,” as well as “ students of the science classes ee a 
tion with the Department of Science and Art.” The work, 4 


author says, is little more than a dictionary of mine 


tious ba 

is that the class for which it is intended need fu 

the more common minerals and ores, their mode list with too 

and relations to one another, rather than a simple 1 

brief descriptions of or reference to all that are known. Ba 
1 Putnam's Advanced Science Series. Mineralogy. By J. H- pase [1884] 

Systematic and descriptive Mineralogy, with upwards of 400 illu 

12mo., pp. 328. 


Se) Aa 


d 


1884.] 

We still need a brief class-book of mineralogy for college stu- 
dents and beginners, one which shall lead the student to carefully 
examine at least the physical characters of not over, say a hun- 
dred, of our rock-making and other more important minerals, such 
as are constantly met with by amateurs, miners and prospectors. 
Such a book should also enter fully into the methods of study for 
the examination of minerals by their physical characters, com- 
prising a set of object-lessons which may be made of much value 
and interest to college and other classes. 


Recent Literature. 711 


THIRD Report oF THE U. S. ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.— 
This report forms a volume of 550 pages, with an appendix of 
nearly 100 pages, and is illustrated by sixty-four plates. It is 
divided into three parts. Part I, in reference to the Rocky Moun- 
tain locust, has five chapters. Chapter I comprises additions to 
the chronology of locust ravages in 1880 and 1881. Chapters 2, 
gand 4, by Mr. Lawrence Bruner, contain his reports and notes 
on the locust and cricket (Anabrus), giving the results of the ex- 

tions made by him under direction of the Commission, into 
orthern Montana and British America, Chapter 5 is an essay 
on “the data obtained frora solar physics and earthquake commo- 
tions applied to elucidate locust multiplication and migration,” by 
A. H. Swinton, of England, communicated by him and published 


ommission without its endorsing all the author’s views: 
Part II Comprises chapters 6-8, the 6th on the army worm; 


T oo forest insects, illustrated with numerous drawings by Dr. C. 
- Gissler, 


: PUT I2 p S! phi- 
locust g of North America, with remarks on the distribution of 


712 Recent Literature. ‘[July, 


Tue Coat AND Iron Counties oF NortH Caroxina.—The 
mineral resources of North Carolina have been exposed by the 


hand-book, which follows the foregoing, has been compiled by 
P. M. Hale, mainly from the reports of Emmons and of Kerr, for 
the purpose of calling the attention of the people of the State, as 
well as immigrants, to the mineral wealth of this naturally rich 
State. After describing the coal fields and iron ore beds in gen- 

eral, the coal and iron counties are separately described, the 
statistics Bains derived from the census reports of 1880. Itis 
accompanied by a colored map of the State. 


ZITTEL’S HAND-BOOK OF PaLEONTOLOGY.—The third part of the 
second volume of this important work is devoted to the Cor- 
daiteze, but more especially to the Coniferæ; and the mode of 
treatment as well as the excellent illustrations will make it of 
great value to the investigator and student as well as the teacher. 
Here we have represented forms of the Gingko and allied genera 
of broad-leaved conifers which will be quite new to most ot our 
readers; the same may be said of the fossil Araucarie, as well as 
the Taxodinez, nearly every genus of which is illustrated; 50 
also of the Cypressinez. 
plates of 
and soft 

d that 


BREHM’S THIERI EBEN.—We have received the chromo- 


RECENT Books AND PAMPHLETS. i 
Lydekker, R hog vik the Geological Survey of India. Palæontologi i 2 
Ser. ul. Part Iv. Siwalik Camelopardalide. Part 
Narbada iivaa. Calcutta, 1884. From the author ternary 
Russell, I, oy —Sketch of the matt ak history of Lake Lahontan, : Ry 
lake EA Nev ashin o T From the auth f 
aaa Suh pa Su New Py p —A of 
us Sphyræna. ka Pr roceedings Nat. “Sci. Pil Na Fro ey etter 
as ona SE of Beer from Hav t A beter Fs Mass. 
account of a new species (Si, —— Bice ) from vor 
Ext. idem., 1884. From the authors of North 
Jordan, D. S—Notes on species f fishes perget ascribed to the pg 
America. Ext. Proceedings Ti Sci. Phil., 1884. Fro y a he T 
——List of fishes from E Fla., in a museum o 
description of two new petri Ext, idem., 1884. From the aden longer ) 
Owen, R.—On the skull and ieee ofa Tyitasic REE (7 From the 
from — Africa. Ext. rt. Jour. Geol. Soc., Feb 4 
Vi 
` Socy. ee Naturalists, BUS, Liebe of the Society of Naturalists, ee 
, 1884. From the society. gg3. From the 
oe Jenlai of the Céstopieit Society of London, Nov. 1, 1 3 
society. 


l 


Geography and Travels, 713 


Chapman H. C.—History of the discovery of the circulation of the blood. Phila., 
1884. From the author. 
Sims, Wn.—Kansas; its resources and capabilities, its position, dimensions and 
topography. Prepared by the State. Board of Agriculture. Topeka, Kansas, 
1883. From the author. 
_ Brendel, Fredk.—Flora Peoriana. Die Vegetation im Clima von Mittel-Illinois. 
Ext. Termeszetrajzi Fuzelek, Vol. v, 1882. Budapest. From the aut 
, S. W—A new photo-micrographic camera. In “ Photography,’ 
May 1, 1884. From the author. 
Creme, C. A—An essay on insects injurious to vegetation. 
J. A, ontribution to the embryology of osseous fishes, with special refer- 
y to the development of the cod (Gadus morhua). Washington, 1884. From 
author. i 


or. 
’ Chicago, 


Zoi. Soc. Lendon.—Report of the council of the Zodlogical Society of London for 
1883. London, 1884. From the society. 
oa College. —Circular of the Pennsylvania State College of Agriculture, 


—Agricultural Bulletins. No. v. Experiment on timothy and clover. No. vi. 
Feeding experiments. No. vit. An experiment with native potatoes. 
Pewkins, Boyd.—The Channel tunnel. 1882. From the author. 
cu, Gr.—Anuarulu Biurotlui Geologicu. Anulu 1882-1883. Bucuresci, 
1883. From the author. 
, Ch. W.—Agricultural experiment station, N. C. Analyses and valuations 
of fertilizers. Made up to May 1st, 1884. From the author. 
—North Carolina Phosphates. 1884. From the author. 
“mon, W. G.—The physiological significance of vital force. From the author. 
i Ei ersifor.—Reply to a paper entitled “ Notes on the Geology of Chester val- 
x Brig and vicinity." Ext. Jour. Franklin Inst., April, 1884. From the author. 
White D. G.—Aboriginal American authors. Phila., 1883. From the author. 
J. W—The prevention of syphilis. Rep. Phila. Medical Times, Jan. 14, 
1882. From the author. 
rJ. S—The forty-second Missouri University catalogue, 1883-1884. 


came 
GENERAL NOTES. 
GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS." 


toh tA —Letters from Lupton Bey, dated down to November 
Pod ah much geographical information, and a map of the re- 
pp aeled over by Mr. Lupton or his agents, as far as the 
fn. large stream which is thought to be a tributary of the 


sion Hizon has written to the Geographical Society of Paris an 
tela his travels in the region of the Ogowe, its tributary 
Mayor mdi; the Luété, a tributary of the Niari; the lakes of 
Gena.” and the basin of the Kuilu. 
tribes ¿S the name of a central district occupied by Somali 
Sale On the west it borders on the Galla tribe of the Eunyas. 
With long a S Pect of the country is that of a steppe covered 
ana S3583, but with stony gaps. The shepherd inhabitants 
* fanatical Mussulmans, always at war among themselves or 


NS department is edited by W. N. LOCKINGTON, Philadelphia. 


714 General Notes. 


agricultural. Each encampment has its iman, and every tribe its 
extempore poets. 

Don Juan de Sosten (Bol. de la Soc. Geog. de Madrid) gives 
an account of his expedition in Eastern Africa. From Adowa 
(Tigre) he ascended the mountain Deyam, reputed the highest of 
the mountain range of that part, and found it to be 4631 meters 
in height. It was evident, however, that another peak, that of 
Bajuit, was higher; this was also ascended by Sr. Sosten, who 
found it to be 4917 meters in height, and capped with snow. Sr. 
Sosten afterwards explored the labyrinth of forest-covered moun- 
tains known as the district of Zebul (12° 12’ to 12° 47’ N. lat, 
40° 25’ E.lon.). This is united on the south by a range of hills 
to the Ethiopian table-lands, from which it is distinct in its geol- 
ogy and its flora. Our traveler then crossed the Galla country 
to the west of Zebul, and proceeded southward, crossing sever 
streams which pour from the eastern slope of the Ethiopian chain. 
Two of these, the names of which are written by him Mersé and 
Addifuha (Adifuya ?), are not to be found in any map, nor have 
they been explored. Lake Haic (11° 23’ N. lat., 40° 5’ E. lon.) 
is 1920 meters above the Red sea, is surrounded by mountains 
from 2000 to 2500 meters in height, and covers some sixteen 
square miles. The principal stream flowing into this lake com® 
from the south and was tracked by our traveler to a previously 
unknown lake called Ardibbo, 2088 meters above the sea. m 
lake is somewhat smaller than Lake Haic. The water discharg 
by Lake Ardibbo into Lake Haic is twenty-nine times ee 
than that which it receives from streams, and it is an unexplal A 
problem whence the water comes. From Lake Ardibbo ee 
traveler proceeded eastward till he reached the Melle near 7 
junction of the Addifuha. The Melle was then followed to its C0 
fluence with the Hauasch, which was seen to slope towards a E 
lake, probably Lake Ausa. At this point the bold oe s e 
tention to explore a route to the Red sea was frustrat ae 


were now stopped by a command from King John to apen 
fore him to answer the accusations of an enemy, W99 On 
that Sr. Sosten was a spy of the Egyptian government. ompa- 
return journey the tombs of Cristobal de Gama and wei King 
ions, who in the fifteenth century fell in the service of 
of Abyssinia, were discovered. ; dis- 
Tue Paciric Istanps.—Krakatau.—tThe late erup tion . 
membered the Island of Krakatau. Part of it pe consti- 
island, eight miles to the north, while another Focking oe 
tutes Calmeyer island, seven miles north-east, es 


Duly, 


with their neighbors. Toward the Webbe the people are more l 


J 
A 


7884.) Geography and Travels. 715 


east passage of the Straits of Sunda. Only the southern part 
of Krakatau remains, and there is nearly 170 fathoms of water 
: g in 


n. Vertical vibrations were noted at Batavia on May 
20th, and ashes fell at Telok-betong and Semangka, in Sumatra. 
The movements seemed to come from the west, but Krakatau 


_ Mnmng eastward, while the locality was some sixteen degrees 
_ West of Krakatau. As it seems impossible that this pumice came 
x from that volcano, it is supposed that its final explosion was prob- 
ably preceded by a submarine outburst in the Indian ocean. 


„On August 21st Krakatau increased in activity, and on the 26th 
sen a explosions took place, accompanied by high waves which 
i much damage. A night of pitchy darkness, and terrify- 
ig electric phenomena followed this. Between five and seven 
clock on the morning of the 27th came the first grand explo- 


: ke an 
Sumatra ys the whole western end of Java and the south of 


epctween ten and twelve in the forenoon of the same day the 
a. outburst occurred, and spread consternation across 
by the ¢ of 3000 miles. The great tidal waves were registered 
a to the tide-gauges four times round the globe; and from that day 
° aap time unusual phenomena have taken place that are 
MY referable to this grand explosion. 
' Chalm ntly returned from a voyage along the 
Guinea. He has discovered a new river, which he 


Moresby that probably 


716 General Notes. (July, 


D'Albertis in his voyage up the Fly river missed the main body 
of water. 

J. Peltzer writes from Tucson, Arizona, to the Société Royal 
Belge de Géographie, to prove that the Polynesians are not a 
Malay, but a pre-Malay race. This race he believes to be identi- 
cal with the Dyaks of Borneo, and to have spread from that 
island over Sumatra, Java, and other East Indian islands, previ- 
ous to the arrival of the Malays. Everywhere where they colo- 
nized they displaced the Papuan races, but when the Malays came 
as a conquering race from the coasts of Hindostan, towards the 
first century of our era, this people of Dyak origin was partly 
pressed in to the interior of the Jarge islands, but partly emigrated 
eastward in their prahus, colonizing the islands of Oceanica. 
The Malays, once Brahminists, are now Mussulmans, and every- 
where repudiate any relationship with the peoples of the interior, 
the “Orangs Benua” or “men of the land” of Sumatra, the 
“ Orangs Goenong” or “men of the mountains” of Java, or the 
Dyaks of Borneo. : 

M. Peltzer asserts that the Polynesian languages do not contain 
more than thirty words of Malay origin, a number which may 
easily be accounted for by the relations between the Dyaks and 
the Malays who conquered the coast of Borneo. There are great 
resemblances between the traditions and religious customs of the 
Dyaks and of the Polynesians. The Tabu of the latter is identi- 
cal with the Pamali of the former. Among both peoples igs 
has an inferior position, yet may become chief or queen 0 : 
tribe. Both peoples build large dwellings used in common. e 
Tahitians and people of the Marquesas expose their dead on pa 
forms, and the Dyaks expose the bodies of their chiefs in a 5! 
lar way. 


GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 
ascending Takht-i-Suliman, overlooking the Indus per 
triangulated over 50,000 square miles from its summit——~ 
furthest point inland reached by Lieut. Armil, though ‘te oo 
from Port Moresby, was probably not more than forty k 
southern coast. The natives were found to be very fie 
country was mountainous and difficult, but exceeding YT 
and beautiful——Mr. H. Drummond reports that the sol’ à: 
of Lake Shirwa is thin and poor, and the district quite unin 
It is evidently the dried-up bed of a much larger eree than it 
height of the lake was found to be lower by nearly 200 fee F 


; . ded in 
Major Holdich has mer a 


Th 
is given on Ravenstein’s map, where it is marked 2000 Shirwa, 
natives say that the Lujenda does not flow out of ergo a 
but is separated from it by a large sandbank. a ish miles 
reports land north-east of Spitzbergen, about 110 ris seen bY 
om Rep island. This is probably the same as tha 
Capt. Kjeldsen in 1876, and named White island. 


1884.] Geology and Paleontology. 717 
GEOLOGY AND PALAZONTOLOGY. 


LYDEKKER ON Extinct MAMMALIA oF Inp1A2—The noble 
ume below named, concludes the first part of the work of Dr. 
Lydekker on the Fossil Mammalia of India. It covers a part of 
the subject which was left very incomplete by Cautley and 
Falconer, and includes much new matter. It adds materially to 
our knowledge of the Mustelidz, Urside, Canidae, Viverride, 
_ Felidæ, and Hyznide. Dr. Lydekker shows that India, in the 
_ late Miocene period, was the headquarters of the genus Hyzna, 
there being no less than five species represented in the collection. 
Of Urside there are five species, viz., two of Ursus and three of 
yenarctus, of which one Ursus and two Hyenarcti are new. 
The latter genus receives thorough treatment, and Dr. Lydekker 
has added greatly to our knowledge of its characters. There are 
four species of Canidæ and nine of Felide. Of the latter, two 
Species are sabre tooths. Two species of Mellivora and one of 
Mellivorodon (gen. nov.) represent the Mustelidz. 
descriptions of the species are thorough, and the plates 
are excellent. Dr. Lydekker exercises a healthy conservatism in 
the Matter of species, and a rather greater degree of the same 
trait in dealing with genera. He is disposed to drop generic di- 
“sions whose characters are not of the highest degree of import- 
To this course we object, that if we begin to neglect 
. omical characters, we end in a disuse of all genera, or in purely 
ty divisions. The only reason for not regarding an ana- 
omical character as a generic definition, is the inconstancy of that 
rın the different individuals of the same species. The 
at of not using such an obvious character as the presence of 
additional digit on the fore foot, is seen in the author’s treat- 
ment of the genus Aceratherium. Having failed to recognize as 
a the steps which separate this genus from Rhinoceros, he 
w fain to confess that the existence of the intermediate forms 


“probably 
Probably 


: chyus, ah Amynodon to this series, and ultimately of Hyra- 
te: ancestor of the line. We have long been of the opinion 
tewon S BO Course open to the systematist, other than the 
3 genealogic, of the structural steps by which the stages of the 
W: cal lines are marked. (See “Origin of Genera, 1868.) 
ioys, Woor justly says that the name Ursus ursinus 1S ridicu- 
Ea f wish those who write Mephitis mephitica, Sialia sialis, 
a take a similar view. The adoption of generic names 


oR ; , 

Re © Vol oF eoin ot th i Gin; Sees, and 

Nathada c.2) OL 1, he Geological Survey of India; s 

Period, carnivora, Vol. 11 Siwalik Caclo rdalidæ, 1883. Vol. i. Additional 
actyla and Proboscidia, a 


Ma 


718 General Notes. 


which have been published without definitions finds little favor in 


this work. It is because the names of Bravard are mostly nomina 


[July, 


ji 
> 
i 


| 


done by Professor Gervais. The suspicion of cross affinities 


between hoofed animals and Carnivora is evidently entertained by 
Dr. Lydekker (p. 239). He says, “ It has lately been shown that 
there are some remarkable indications of affinity existing between 
certain extinct suina (Achzenodon) and the bear-like Carnivora.” 
We hold that such supposed affinity is impossible, and that the 
only way of tracing the connection between the Artiodactyla and 
Carnivora is by the way of the Amblypoda and Taxeopoda on 
the Ungulate side, and of the Creodonta on the Unguiculate 
side. The real position of Achznodon yet remains to be ascet- 
tained. 

A supposed species of Hyzenodon is described from the Siwal- 
iks. We venture the prediction that the animal (which is only 
known from an inferior premolar tooth), will turn out to be à 
member of a different genus and family, and to belong to the 


true Carnivora. The existence of an upper Miocene Hyznodon — 


must be doubted until fully demonstrated. : 
Some important additions to this work appear in the appendix 
as a result of the receipt of the latest publications. 
In the memoir on the Camelopardalide Dr. Lydekker describes 
seven species from the Upper Tertiaries of India. These pae 
to six genera; Camelopardalis, Vishnutherium Lydd., Hella 


primitive representative of the family. In a foot-note awe 
Murie, it is stated that Professor Cope believed that the pa > 
Megacerops is allied to the Sivatherium. This.is an oe prs 
was Leidy who expressed that opinion at the reference a 
Cope referred it to the group to which it belongs, the 
dactyla—E£, D. Cope. ; 

GEoLoGicaL Nores.—General—R. B. Foote (Mem. Geol 

and Tin 

ing at the SiC 


ed (teris), 
Kaukas 


raised coral reefs; 4. Lateritic conglomerates, gravels an : 


3. Gritty sandstones; 2. Gondwana rocks (Jurassic ie? lly 


sic rocks. The great hills of red sand in Southeast + 


1884] 


- form three or four small fresh-water lakes by damming back the 


Geology and Paleontology. ; 719 


___Inanother of the memoirs of the same survey, W. T. Blanford 
describes the hills on the Sind and Punjab frontier. The recog- 
_ tized strata in Sind are the Siwalik (Pliocene and Upper Miocene), 
_ the Gaj (Miocene), the Nari, Upper and Lower (Lower Miocene? 
_ Oligocene), the Khirthar (Eocene), the Ranikot (Lower Eocene), 
the Deccan trap (Transition or Laramie) and limestone with hip- 
_ puntes, probably cretaceous. Two Melanias, a Paludina, and four 
-Unios are described. 
___Paleozoic,—The first part of the fifth volume of the Palaontology 
_ of the Geological survey of New York is devoted to the Lamel- 
iata Monomyaria. The new species described are Avicu- 
i lopecten @quilateralis; six species of Pterinopecten; Fterinea 
4 grandis and interstrialis, Vertumnia reproba; eight species of Ac- 
_ Mnopteria; fourteen forms of Ptychopteria; six species of Lei- 
_ ptera; thirty species of Leptodesma, and three of Mytilarca. 
All are from the Upper Helderberg, Hamilton or Chemung 
Soups —S. A. Miller (Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist.) describes 
R aleaster magnificus, from the Lower Silurian of the Hudson 
ver group, and Gomphoceras faberi and cincinnatiense from the 


ie’ describes Streptelasma remeri, a new coral from the Wen- 
r : shale, also Cyathophyllum fletcheri, from the same forma- 
4 me report of Messrs. R. Etheridge, H. Woodward 
be - Jones On the fossil Phyllopoda of the Palzozoic rocks, 
; a rates thirty-three genera, with a short diagnosis of each, 
4 * 7 abl full description of Hymenocaris, Caryocaris and 
cM. J. F. Whiteaves (Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada 
ftom the and figures some supposed annelid tracks (Gyrichnites), 
aS POC sandstones, 

; —Ch. Barrois (Ann. Soc. Geol. du Nord 1883), gives 

= the Silurian fauna of Haute-Garonne. 

describes eM E. Sauvage (Annales des Sciences Geologiques), 
department © Ossi reptiles of a bone bed in the Rhetian of the 
mollusks. of Saone-et-Loire. The beds contain also numerous 


a 
iy 


z 
= 


720 General Notes. [July, 


Whiteaves of the fossils of the coal-bearing Cretaceous deposits 
of the Queen Charlotte islands. From the upper shales the only 
species described is /uoceramus problematicus. From the coarse 
conglomerate below the guard of a belemnite is the only fossil yet 
obtained, but from the lower shales and sandstones nineteen Ceph- 
alopoda and seven Gasteropoda, besides Lamellibranchs, are 
known. The majority of the species are new. n the Trans- 
actions of the Royal Society of Canada, Mr. Whiteaves describes 
some fossils from the Lower Cretaceous rocks of British Colum- 
bia. Though the equivalents of the Upper Cretaceous of Europe 
have been recognized over a vast extent of country in North 
America, the Lower Cretaceous, with the possible exceptions of 
the Dakota group and the Shasta group, has only been recognize 
during the last seven years by the researches of Dr. Dawson in 
British Columbia. It is now believed that the equivalents of each 
of the sub-divisions of the Middle Cretaceous, as well as of the 
“Neocomien superieur,” Lower Greensand, or upper sub-division 
of the Lower Cretaceous have now been found there. From this 
formation Mr. Whiteaves enumerates thirteen species of mollusks, 
three of which he describes as new. 

Furassic—J. Wohlgemuth (Soc. des Sciences de Nancy), pub- 
lishes the results of his researches among the middle Jarassi¢ 
strata to the east of the Paris basin, including the Bathoniaa, 
Callorian, Oxfordian, Corallian and Astartian strata. Both upper 
and lower Oxfordian are recognized. 


which, with Loven, he regards as synonymous with Echiot G 
conicus Breynius. The species is not a toothed echinid, as it ai 
usually been regarded; it has no auricles; the anus 15 not 
tirely infra-marginal; and there is no fifth genital plate in 
apical system. 

Laramie—M. Neumayr (Neu. Jahrb. fur Min. Geol. und Pal, 
Stuttgart 1884) notes the parallel position occupied by the of 
mie group in Northwest America and the Inter-trappea? 
the Deccan in Hindostan. Both are placed between th yi na Ï 
ceous and the Eocene, and the resemblance of the fossil fau 
well brought out in the subjoined lists : ; 


NAGPOOR. LARAMIE. 
Physa prinsepi Ph..copei 
Se y= var, elongata Ph. qisjuncta | 
Acella attenuata Ad. haldemanni — 
Paludina virapai Hydrob. anthonyt 
Unio carteri Unio Bonionotus 
Corbicula ingens, Corb. cleburnt 


—The Paleontological Hand-book of eps 
ser, 1883, contains a description of the fossil mamm l 


of Punit 


es and Kay” 


1884.] Botany. 721 


Ecuador, with a geological treatise by W. Reiss. The species 
noted are Mylodon (sp), Eguus andium, Protatichenia retssil, 
new genus and species; Cervus, sp., Cervus chilensis, Mastodon 
andium and Macherodus neogeus. The authors believe in the 
total extinction of the horse in America and its reintroduction by 


down in seas not exceeding fifty fathoms in depth, and states that 

Not the slightest difference can be detected between any of the 

‘sil species in the Pliocene formation which still survive, and 
r descendants of the present day. 


BOTANY.! 


Notes on Funei (Continued from the May number)—The dif- 
ferent Species 

-porus berkeleyi Fr., from which the specimens in North Amer- 
tcan Fungi w 


722 General Notes. (July, 


wasp hanging from the under side of a dead limb or stick, though 
the color is different. Still more remarkable is the species 

on spruce trees (P. volvatus Pk.) in New York, and afterwards on 
Pinus contortus in California by Dr. Harkness. In this species 
the projecting margin of the pileus is incurved so as almost to 
enclose the pores, leaving only a small opening, 14-1% of ani 
across. Very similar to this, but probably specifically distinct, is 
a Polyporus collected in Oregon . C. Carpenter, a corre- 
spondent of Isaac C. Martindale, of Camden, N. J. In the speci- 
men seen the pores are entirely inclosed and occupy the upper 
surface of the cavity. The specimen appears to have grown on 
the upper surface of a fallen tree or perhaps on a horizontal 
branch. It is oblong in shape, about one and a-half inches long 
by one inch high and broad, and is of a yellowish color. It ap- 
pears to differ from P. volvatus in its rather larger pores with 
acute white mouths. The area occupied by the pores also is not 
so definitely limited, the length of the pores gradually decreasing 
from the center till the marginal ones are mere points without 
any appreciable depth. This has been named provisionally Poly- 
porus inflatus Ell. & Martindale, but additional specimens and 
information will be requisite to describe more fully all its charac- 
teristic features—/. B. Ellis, Newfield, N. J. 


STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE PASSION FLOWER (Passifor x 
lutea) —The passion flower of Ohio is greenish-yellow, about ad 
centimeters broad, having a crown tinged with purple. From pe 
center of the crown, surrounded at its base by the honey gland, 
rises the column of stamens, united into a sheath which above 
again separates into five filaments bearing the anthers. Inclu 
by this column of stamens is a stalk which bears the haley 
There are three styles. In case the flower does not set i 
falls off at a joint a short distance below the flower (Fig. 4). 


Fig. r. Fig. 3. ee styles) 
_ Fic. 1.—Passiflora lutea, flower in male. state. Fic. geen ( state of 
as before maturity. Fr ns at maturity. Fic. 4-— on" 5. The 


G. 3.—Stame ai 

ower, stamens and styles only represented, a, one of the stam oe 
5 1D. 

plants grown in my room, none of which were access . 


sects, all the flowers fell off, but in the woods this was not the 
_ case. Since my plants were perfectly healthy, I concluded that 
this flower requires insect agency, and is sterile in case it does 
a ot receive it. The structure of the flower also ieads to this 


Botany. 723 


conclusion. 

In the bud both stamens and styles have an upright position, 

_ the anthers being intorse (Fig. 2)! The stamens begin to spread 
_ out, take a horizontal position and soon begin to recurve. The 
_ anthers at the same time become first vertical, 2. é., at right angles 
_ tothe filaments at that time. Then they bend a little further on 
_ the filaments, and when these have recurved they appear some- 
_ what as if they had been extorse in the beginning (Figs. 3 and 1). 
i In this condition they are prepared to leave pollen on the backs of 
_ Visiting insects as they take the honey from the cup-shaped 
gland surrounding the base of the column of stamens. ‘Fhen the 
_ amens, having fulfilled their mission, move slowly onward until 
ers are pressed against the column, in which shape they 

look decidedly as if they had at first been extorse (Fig. 4 a). In 
shape they are effete, since the pollen must fall on the back 
ct to fertilize the plant. The styles have by this time 


oer in Fig. 5. This then is the female state of the flower, 
e sti 


The stigmas never touch the anthers in this spe- 
Foerste, Granvilte, Ohio. 

DegtsrecrUs GENERUM DISCOMYCETUM HUCUSQUE COGNITORUM. 
bof: A. Saccarpo.—In this Conspectus the carpo- 
System of classification adopted in the first and second 
author ete Sylloge is applied to the Discomycetes. As the 


‘With oh adding to Mitrula the colored species of Geoglossum 
Matura] € sporidia, it would seem more in accordance with the 

k es of the species to remove from Mitrula to Geo- 
aome of the species with clavate or subcylindric heads 
sad Cooke in Mycographia. It may also be ques- 
to be it is well to found a genus on co/or alone, as ap- 
re ‘the case with the proposed genus Microglossum. The 
eb adopting the genus Neolecta is also doubtful, differ- 
i from Spathularia only in its globose spores, Helo- 


~ > not seem sufficiently distinct from Helotium, nor does 
XVNT.—xo, Vir 46 . 


724 General Notes. 


Pirottza seem necessary, differing from Mollisia only in its septate 
hairs scattered over the outer surface of the excipulum. . 
From the section Hyalodidymz of Pezizez, Bisporella and Lan- 
zia might be removed to Tapesia, Niptera to Mollisia and 
Helotiella taken back to Helotium, and under Stictez, Propoli- 
dium might be left under Propolis. To all these changes 
can be no valid objection, except tl iseptate sporidia, and itwould 
seem better to disregard this character than to remove these species 
from that place in the series where all their other characters would 
naturally seem to place them. For the same reason it would be 
better not to separate Hamatomyxa from Hamatomyces. 


+ 


y 
ese suggestions are made merely as the expression of my — 


opinion and not in any dictatorial spirit, knowing that each m 
do his work in his own way. Meanwhile, thanks are due to the 
learned mycologist of Padua for having condensed and made ac- 
cessible the scattered literature of the Pyrenomycetes in the two 
volumes of the Sylloge already published, and it is cegtain that 
the succeeding volumes will meet with a ready welcome.—/. 2. 
Ellis, Newfield, N. J., May 13, 1884. 


tinged with purple, burst from the small bud, showing the am 
as a mere edging near the border of the calyx. Later, at : 
the petals grow more rapidly and cover the stamens as 6 


if Kax 


Fig. 1. Fig. 2. 

Fic. 1.—Napea dioica, male flower. Fic. 2.—Female flov 
cium of the same, showing the sterile filaments (/) surrounding the styles, 
nectaries (72) at their base. 

*) from the 
2 4 j . flower. There 
bud in this way, but wait for the expansion of the flo usually 


Fig. 3- 
flower. FIG. 3—6 


sho the 


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organs being ineffective. The plants, as Sal 

sexes separated so that insect agency becomes eee 
fertilization of this species. I have noticed a eee! 
effecting this process, but the infrequency with whic’ $ together 


are carried out, and the few individuals usually oun one 
diceciousness of the flowers, account for the, hborhood- 


with th 


e . 
of this plant to compete with ordinary plants in its nelg 


1884.) 


A wasp generally starts with one cluster of plants, gathering the 
i honey until it has visited all the flowers it cares to, these are apt to 
é Ee ofone sex. Then it starts for another, which may happen to 
deof another sex. If so, its supply of pollen is much too small 
. to fertilize many ovaries, and these visits are not numerous 
-enough to accomplish a full fertilization. Generally but few seeds 
_ ae capable of germination. The corolla is white, 8" across, — 
_ Aug. F. Foerste, Granville, Ohio. 
Ee Borany AT THE APPROACHING MEETING OF THE A. A. A. S.—It 
= i$ desirable on many accounts that there should be a large at- 
3 a of botanists at the meeting of the American Association 
A Advancement of Science in Philadelphia in September. 
“he location of the meeting is favorable to a larger attendance 
| Sa ever of those interested in the study of plants, and this, to- 
7 gether with the Botanical Club of the Association organized last 
4 =~ fed eee polis, will, without doubt, bring out many who have 
4 l j ramiai the meetings. May we not urge upon every 
rage reader of the Natura .ist that he arrange his affairs so 
_ Sto be able to attend ? 
a May we not, also, urge that the botanists who come to the 
: TRA bring solid and condensed papers, both for Section F of 
: Ociation and for the Botanical Club ?—C. £. B. 
bie TuM.—In the article on Red Clover in New Zealand, on 
oy Awe (June number), line 13 from the top, should read, “ That 
oe ie er does produce its seeds in this colony.” The change 
e: an small word entirely changed the meaning of the sentence. 
k “seg NoTEs.— Professor C. R. Barnes records and figures 
ay Botanical Gazette the occurrence of cork between thean- 


Botany. 725 


726 General Notes. 


romance, but it contains very little about Linnzeus, and still less 
about botany.——-Dr. Parry’s paper on Chorizanthe, consisti 
of a revision and rearrangement of the annual species, first pub- 
lished in the Proceeding of the Davenport Academy of Sci- 
ences, has been republished in pamphlet form. It isa contribution 
of great value. 

ENTOMOLOGY. 

THE TRANSFORMATIONS OF Nota.—The position of the genus 
Nola has long been an uncertain one. By some of the older 
authors, notably Hübner, the species were placed among the Py- 
ralidz, and Stainton in his Manual of British Butterflies and Moths 
regards the genus as forming “Family 1x, Nolidæ” under the 
Pyralites, though he says: “ One little group, the Nolide, is by 
many recent authors, and perhaps with reason, referred to the 
Bombycina, being placed with family Lithoside.” The genus 1$ 


[July, A 


Jansen, McClurg & Co., of Chicago. It is a pleasantly written 


now generally placed among the Lithosians. In our Synopsis of 


Bombycidz we omitted to mention it, partly on account of want 
of specimens and partly perhaps from supposing it not to be@ 


true Bombycid. Mr. Grote was the first American author to enu- : 


merate it in his New Check List of North American Moths, 1884, 
and to include it among the Lithosiz. 

Having reared Wola ovilla, my attention has again been drawn 
to its systematic position, which seems without much doubt to be 


z. ¢., ten abdominal legs in all. 
Nhen I first discovered the larva of Nola ovilla I supposed t 
to be near Crocota. It was found to be common on the 


leaves of 


pairs of well developed abdominal feet ; the first pair being situ: 


ated on the fourth abdominal segment. The head is p 
large, three-fourths as wide as the body; black, with a le 


irregular lines. The body is dirty-whitish, with a ppo other 4 


dorsal line, a dark dorsal discoloration behind the head, 
in the middle of the body, and a third near the end. sgi 
The body is hairy, though not densely so; on each bat: 
are four dorsal tubercles from which radiate short daa iatea 
on the side is a larger and longer tubercle from which ne black 
very long hairs, being as long as the body is broad; s0 and most 
hairs are mixed with the dirty-whitish ones. The wga small- 
of the shorter hairs are simple, not barbed, but the short 
est hairs are finely though slightly barbed, the barbu 


w paler a 


wh ri kag ts e A 


= eae ata ea rae 


Jes short 


1884.] Entomology. 727 
The tubercles are dirty-white, concolorous with the rest of the 
. Length 13m 


m. 
_ Sept. 14-16 the caterpillars made singular boat-shaped flattened 
_ oval cylindrical cocoons closely attached to the surface of the 
leaves; they were spun with silk, but covered closely on the in- 
_ side with bits of oak leaves. The pupa appeared as soon as the 
| was completed, Sept. 15. The moths appeared May 31 
and June 1 of the following year. —A. S. Packard, Jr. 

An AFRICAN SOCIAL CATERPILLAR. —At the meeting of the 
Linnean Society of London, of March 20th, Lord Walsingham 
exhibited a large and remarkable nest of a species of Anaphe 
from Natal, containing a packed mass of cocoons, with specimens 
_ Of the moth and her larva. The nest and living larve were re- 
_ @ived in August. Many of the larve remained in the nest, but 
others, in companies of from twenty to forty, occasionally marched 
_ out, moving in closely serried ranks, much after the manner of 
_ the larvee of the procession moth. From December to February 


2 as the individual silky cocoons, markedly differ. The species of 
; Gold ¢ 
ANTENNAE OF A BEETLE UsED as DEFENSIVE Wearons.— The 
Senus Scorpionus (Cerambycidz) of coleopterists, is so called on 
&count of the peculiar shape of the last joint of the antenne 


long and half as wide across the,elytra. They are noc- 


728 General Notes. 
genus. The little wound produced by the insect caused a slight 
swelling and irritation, much like a mosquito bite, for an hour or 
two. Possibly this arises from a poisonous exudation from the 
surface of the joint; so far as I can discover there is no true 
poison gland. Ee 3 

I have never heard nor read of any case where the antenna of — 
insects were used as defensive weapons, and the fact appears to 
me to be of much interest. Many beetles have antennal spines, 
which are perhaps used for a like purpose. Certainly the femoral 
spines of allied species are defensive arms, and pretty formidable 
ones, as every entomologist knows who has tried to catch the in- 
sects with his fingers. So are the thoracic spines of many Cer — 
ambycide, the femoral spines of certain large moths, the hae 
and thoracic horns of Scarabzidze, and so on.—Herbert H. Smith — 


__ POLYMORPHISM OF MALE Lucanip&®.—At the meeting of the — 
London Zodlogical Society for Dec. 18, 1883, Dr. F. Leuthner 
read an abstract of a memoir which he had prepared on the Odon- 
tolabini, a sub-family of the coleopterus family Lucanida, remark- , 
able for the polymorphism of the males, while the females remained | 
very similar. The males were stated to exhibit four very distin 
phases of development in their mandibles, which the author pre i 
posed to term “ priodont,” “amphiodont,” “ mesodont, and s: 4 
odont.” These forms were strongly marked in some species, but 
in others were connected by insensible gradations, and had been , 
treated as distinct species. 


REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT oF ; 
AGRICULTURE FOR 1883.—Professor Riley’s report is shorter wt 


on insects injurious to the cabbage, except mention of preg 
pillars more specially injurious. The special agents in eae : 


fir and larch in northern New England, illustrated by two pla pt ve 


i ; his abiti sp. and Nematus tnt 
of Tortrix fumiferana, Gelechia abietisella, s #3 e Hubbard has 


continued his work at Crescent City, Florida, where he n 


on scale-insect insecticides. Mr. Bruner made in the 5 age | 
1883 an extensive journey from New Mexico to Mo ong the 
ing facts relating to the Rocky Mountain locust. Dr. S. W. 

other collaborators of the Entomological Bureau Tachinidae, two 
Williston, who is working up the Syrphidæ and Tac d Mr. Joba 

families comprising insects so useful to the farmer ; ge hopsa®ð 
B. Smith, who is engaged on the insects injurious to H% . 
‘cranberry, as well as a monograph of the Noctuide. 
_ Besides notes on the silk-worm industry, insects 


Entomology: 729 


-the cabbage, the imported elm-leaf beetle is noticed at length, as 
_ well as the lesser locust (Ca/optenus atlanis) which was destructive 
last summer in New Hampshire. The account of experiments 
_ with insecticides and the machines devised and figured by Dr. 
_ Barnard render the report one of high practical interest. 


= Extomotocicat Notes.—J. Chalande in an article on sensibility 
_ inblind cave-beetles (Anopthalmus) in the Bulletin of the Toulouse 
_ Society(xv, 1882), concludes with Piochard de la Brulerie, that their 
_ Sensibility resides in their hair and is proportioned to the amount 
_ ofthis covering. The species of Anopthalmus are less exclusively 
_ tave-frequenting insects than has been supposed, In the United 
_ States, on the contrary, no Anopthalmi have been found out of 
_ taverns——The insects affecting the strawberry are described by 
: S.A. Forbes in a chapter of fifty-two pages in the Transactions 
of the Wisconsin State Agricultural Society, Vol. xxt——E. 
Hoffer has published a paper on the habits of European humble 
bees (M. T. Ver. Steierm, 1881, Zodl. Record for 1882), in which 
_ he states that the old queen lays eggs which produce all sexes; 
‘those of the so-called small females produce only females and 
= Workers, He also speaks of the trumpeter, who rouses the nests 
in the morning. According to Dimmock (Psyche, 11, 392), 
; Witlaczil (Arbeiten Zool. Inst. Wien, 1882, 1—45), maintains that 
1 te so-called honey dew of Aphides exudes from the vent, rather 
than the cornicles. Dr. H. D. Walker takes the same view in his 
_ Notes on Aphides” in Bulletin of the Buffalo Naturalists Field 
: Club, 1, No. 6, remarking that the cornicles “ have generally been 
a as furnishing the honey dew of which the ants are so 
‘ond. This, however, I am satisfied from many observations, is 
‘Rot the case. The honey dew is simply the natural excretions of 


iptera and fig-insects. It seems that the 
y has acquired the drawings of the late Wm. Buckley 
acre and his voluminous MSS. - sapere 
£ ento Dably form the subjects for three or four votu 
‘omologists (not already members of the Ray Society), 


. 


lishes, in the studies from the Biological Laborato 


of Thalassema melita ; it is of a dull red color, wi 


730 General Notes. [July, d 


who wish to obtain these volumes, should send in their namesto 
the Secretary, Rev. T. Wiltshire, 25 Granville Park, Lewisham, 
London, S. E., England. We regard the publication of these — 
sketches and descriptions as a great boon to American entomol- 
ogists, in default of good figures of native larvæ.— —At the meet- 
ing of the London Entomological Society, October 3, Mr. Wailly 
exhibited a Samia allied to S. cecropia, and possibly a hybrid be- 
tween it and some other (unknown) species. “ The Butterflies 
of Maine” by Professor C. H. Fernald, is rich in new facts regard- 
ing the distribution and habits of these insects. Itis rather start- 
ling to read of the occurrence of Chionobas jutta at Orono and of 
Terias lisa in the Isle of Shoals, Euptoieta claudia near Portland, 
and Junonia coenia near Bangor. Sixty-nine species are enumer- 
ated.—— Dr. Heylaerts has nearly ready for publication a mono- 
graph of the Psychides of the world. In the Compte-rendu of 
the Entomological Society of Belgium, besides notes on European 


species, he describes four new species from the Argentine Repub- 


five of those of P. turnus, five of P. troilus and four of Z. rAr 
and five of P. philenor ; of the Nymphalines four stages of Welt 
tæa phaëton, three of Melitea marcia, three of M. nycteis, two ° 
Argynnis myrina. The paper closes with some general ares 
it will greatly interest American lepidopterists. The sket 

ry 


` alone tell a striking story. 


ZOOLOGY. 
Tue LIFE-HISTORY oF THaLassEMa.—Mr. H. W. Conn s 
ry of Jo 
Hopkins University (Vol, 111, No. 1), an abstract of his rese dee 
on the early stages of tbis Echiurid worm. The T name 
i i it unde 
observation he regards as new, and mentions it a a light yel- 
low preoral lobe. It has the habit of seizing upon emp $ of 
dollars and making its home in them. It enters-the cons 
the shell while very small, but once within it grows to 4 
erable size, and remains the rest of its life a prisoner. 
The most important points observed are the following : 
I. The origin of the ova and spermatozoa as ept eserva- 
toneal cells ; their growth in the body-cavity, and t seine’ 
tion in a sexually mature condition in the sexual pou hythm pè 
~ 2. Protrusion of two. polar globules exhibiting 2 T 
cisely similar to that of the segmenting ova. 


1884.]- Zoblogy. 731 


= _ 3. Segmentation, which is, exceptionally among Annelids, per- 
fectly regular. eae 
4. Formation of gastrula by a typical invagination. 
5. The early appearance of a preoral band of cilia and its sub- 
sequent disappearance and replacement by a row of longer, more 


cilia. 
6. The transformation of the gastrula into a trochosphere by a 
peculiar method of growth. 
7. Origin of mesoderm as two-fold, and the segmentation of 
mesodermal bands. 
8. Origin of ventral nerve chord from the ectoderm as a bilat- 
structure. 


ANaToMY OF THE STOMACH OF STALK-EYED Crustacea.—This 
Subject, lately treated by E. Nauck, is being discussed in a more 
extended manner by F. Mocquard in the Annales des Sciences 
Naturelles. As is well known the stomach of the Decapoda is 
armed at the pyloric end with numerous calcareous pieces which 
Project into the cavity and constitute, in the author’s opinion, a 
powerful apparatus for the trituration of the food, while the mem- 
branous invaginations give rise to a more or less complicated val- 
vular system, Nauck, who published his paper in the Zeitschrift i 
Tir wissen. Zoologie, described the gastric skeleton alone of the 
crabs, but Mocquard extends his investigations to all the stalk- 
eyed Crustacea, and also studies the muscles and stomachic 
serves, The figures already published appear to have benr cae: 
fully and clearly drawn. Meanwhile, F. Albert has an illustrated 
article on the same subject in the Zeitschrift fiir wissen. Zoologie, 
Published Dec. 21, 1883. 


THE Cravrisn Not DimorpHous.—It has long been supposed 
Saale Species of Cambarus were dimorphous, there being two 
abdominal appendages. But in a paper published in the American 
Journal] 

He received a lot of living Cambarus rusticus from Kentucky, males 
tig “first form” and females, which bred freely in confinement. 
ar pairing, three of the males moulted. These soft-shelled in- 
the “first form |” After attaining the “ first form” and after pair- 
, the same individual has reverted to the “second form. It - 
N clear that we are not dealing with a case of true dimorphism, 
as is well known among insects and plants, but it 27 
in the “4 that the two forms of the crayfish are alternating periods 

a tle of the indivi ‘ 
| the Pairing season, the “second form” during the intervals between 


7 32 General Notes. 


pinguus, a male specimen having been taken in the act of moult- ; 
ing. Faxon adds, that “such a change as this connected with — 
the reproductive period is unparalleled, so far as I know, among — 
the invertebrata; and even among the vertebrata, the cases of — 
partial atrophy of the generative organs or shedding of antlers — 


(as in the stag) after the rut is over are hardly comparable.” 
THe GLOTTIS oF SNAKES.—In the January number of the 


American Naturatist, Dr. C. A. White, of the National Mu- 
seum at Washington, gave some highly interesting illustrations 
of the peculiar structure of the epiglottis that he had observed in 
‘the bull snake (Pityophis), and to which he attributes the loud, 
hoarse, “bellowing” sort of “hiss” for which this snake is re 
markable. The individual which he examined is still alive, occu- 
pying a distinguished and exclusive position with two or three 
other snakes at the museum, and it amiably submitted to have its 
mouth held open while Dr. White kindly exhibited to me the 
very singular character of its epiglottis. It differs so obviously 
from that of any other snakes which I have had an opportunity 
_of examining, that I venture to offer a few words to describe my 


while feeding? (for the wind-pipe often so far forward 35 
to be easily observed), the glottis is closed tightly and remains 
closed, except when occasionally ope as if for the ana 
of respiration and closed again; and the action appears to 


ion requires. The 


. 


: is 
impression imparted to the observer is, that the action 4 


‘form and position of a parrot’s tongue; and in som ee 

u may occasionally discern the cartilaginous rings of Ee that 
through the delicate membrane. The orifice in those al than 
I have watched appears to be of a more simple pagina by Dr. 
in Pityophis, and the epiglottis described and illustrate slightly 


White is either entirely absent or represented only -a called 
developed lip or valve at the lower part of the on ghly 


ve 


by Duméril a petite languette, which assists to more 
close the glottis. a 
Dr. White informs me that he has not watched Pityophi 


a ee ae 


1884. ] -` Loblogy. 7 33 


v 
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comes requisite, and the difficulty is met by this adjustable 
wnd-pipe. Not unfrequently a snake is an hour or more 
swallowing large-sized prey, during which time the mouth 
and throat. are stretched to their utmost capacity, and then 
he May see the trachea projecting a full inch in the larger kinds. 
20 chap, vil of my work on “ Snakes” I have entered more fully 
is the subject than space will here permit. Professor Owen de- 
Hn € apparatus as the g/oftis, other writers speak of it as the 


SRR eT nL ee STORES ENS | oe OE eh ee a Ia ee Een SE Me hs Se aM, EEE ENSE Eg eee ee 


i aon See ae ee ee 


ect beyond the mouth. I have observed it in the large orien- 
constrictors, the rattlesnakes, several of the African vipers, and 


‘and th 


ee ee os 


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hha to persuade Pityophis to partake of a meal while we are 

> fen him, when there may be further observations to record. 

. herine C. Hopley. 

ORMAL DEER ANTLERS FROM Texas.—The accompanying 

An Phs of the skull and antlers of a deer were sent me from 
ntonio, Texas, by Dr. Mortimor Slocum, with the informa- 

the deer was killed by a hunter named Havey, on the 


Went St, while the velvet was yet on the antlers ; that the deer 
with antl : pounds, and that a companion was with the deer 
teen inch, Precisely the same as these. These antlers are four- 
ateach of. long, and eight and a quarter broad, with seven points 
Sum of the the ends, and both are very much alike. This is the 
m re € information given me of these remarkable antlers, and 
These sted to classify the deer specifically. 7 
antlers are now in the collection of Mr. Dosch of San 


734 General Notes. [July, 


Antonio. I examined this collection several years since, and must 
pronounce it the finest collection of deers’ heads and antiers I 
ever saw anywhere; most of these were well mounted, and well — 
arranged. Nearly all are of the common deer (Cervus virginianus) — 
and taken in Texas; but there were one or two of the mule deer — 
(Cervus macrotes) which I was informed were also taken in Texas. 
With the limited information before me it is not easy to classify 
this specimen with absolute certainty. If I had but the tail or 
the skin of a hind leg I could classify it with as much certainty 
as if the whole animal was before me, for these are so neatly 
alike on every individual of each species and so unlike every 
other species as to be absolutely reliable, so far as my observa- 
tions have extended. 
he first inquiry which naturally presents itself is, are these 
antlers of the form and position of any known species of deer 
in America? The palmetation first attracts our attention. We 
have three species of deer in America, which have habitually 
and distinctively palmetted antlers, the moose (A/ces) and the two 
species of caribou (7arandus). 
ese antlers most resemble that of the moose, being broadly 
palmetted, with points or spurs on their upper borders, but in Poe 
tion they are entirely unlike those of the moose. The antlers 0 
the moose are projected from the head in a nearly horizontal pa 
tion, sometimes a little depressed, and sometimes a little elevated, 
the latter position being more frequently observed on the A 
animal. The palnietation does not become pronounced ti 
after he is four years old. ; ver- 
The position of these antlers appears to be approximately 
tical, spreading, possibly, thirty degrees from the vertical. bbe 
Not the rudiment of a basal snag is formed on the antler 0 
moose. On these antlers the basal snags are large. hose 
The form of these antlers differs still more widely from ong 
of the caribou. These always have distinctive beams ya awi 
prongs which are liable to be palmetted at the ends, butt , 
distinctive characteristic is the brow tines which proj ds, with 


f, : ends, 
ward over the face, with broad vertical palms at + chen ene 


Indeed there can hardly be said to be a resemblance 
the antlers under consideration and those of the cane’ the lati 
But if the resemblance to either were never so striking, esti 
d the sugg 
All of these 


and Montana may be considered the extreme ose fou 3 
their habitat. I have seen fossil remains of the mo that they 


en ae eee ee ee EA 


ee SN See ee tate 


ec BEN a Scans <i a ee 


and wheth, 


, 
| 
| 
| 


ye Ee eka ee nce ae 


1884. Zoölogy. 735 

We may safely conclude that this deer is not a relative of any 
ofthe known species of deer which have habitually palmetted ant- 
lers. By no accident, or stress of circumstances could any of these 
northern species have been found as far south as Texas, and that, 
too, in the summer season. 

Is it a new species hitherto unobserved with normal antlers like 
these? If a distinct species, it must be more or less numerous 
and habitual either in the region where it was found or in some 
other region whence it was possible for it to have wandered. 

Now, this entire continent has been so thoroughly worked over 

ing the last half century by competent naturalists, to say 
nothing of more numerous hunters, who do not overlook any- 
thing new or unusual, that so large and so distinctive an animal as 
this could not possibly have escaped observation. We may ex- 
pect to find new species of birds whose habits are migatory, or 
Possibly some small and nocturnal quadrupeds, but so large an 
animal as this deer, with antlers so peculiar and distinctive as to 
attract the attention and even wonder of every beholder, could not 


have escaped detection. It is impossible to believe that there is a 


Whole race of animals anywhere on this continent habitually 
Wearing such antlers as these, else they would have been seen 
before somewhere. We are forced, then, to the conclusion that 
this eer was not the representative of a new species of deer, but 
an individual of some well-known species, with peculiar and ab- 
hormal characteristics confined to the individual. But Mr. Havey 
Says, there was a companion to this deer, with antlers precisely 


like 


| eae Not possibly be some error in this observation? Had he 


xed the other buck also, and critically compared them when ly- 


. G 2 
Wee but his view must have been taken when the deer was in 
» Standing at a greater or less distance off or when running, 
er there were intervening objects to impair the value of 


hi ; : 
us observation we are not informed 


ae need further information before we can determine what value. 
"= can plac 
1 


736 General Notes. [July, 


case as in this, the injury was to both alike and doubtless at the 
same time. 

Evidence of a serious injury to this deer is not wanting, even 
in these photographs. In the side view we distinctly see a pro- 
nounced disfigurement in the nose or face below the eyes, or 
what we call in a horse a Roman nose. Now this never occurs 
naturally in any- of the deer family, and so we may safely con- 
clude that this deer had suffered serious violence in or about 
the head, and this I think the most probable explanation of the 
cause of these abnormal growths of the antlers. 

This deer must have belonged to one of two species of deer. 
The Virginia deer is the most common species in that part 0 


Antlers of a deer shot in Texas. 


Texas where this deer was found. The mule deer is occasions 
met with in Texas, though its occurrence is not very COU 
If the ears were small, the tail flattish and of a lanceolate form, 
covered with white hairs on the under side and edges, ype 
naked black portion, covered with the reversed hairs eae’ ps 
lay the metatarsal gland on the outside of the hind pit of 
much more than one inch long and surrounded uy fe ommon 
white hairs, then we should know certainly that it sep LN deer in 
tail round and 

hairs except 


1884.] 


_ white hairs about it, then we should certainly know it was a mule 
_ deer. These tails are illustrated in the work above referred to, 
_ onp. 234, and the glands on p. 254. But these indicia of species 
_ are entirely wanting, and we only have a picture of these abnor- 
_ mal antlers to enlighten us. If the antlers were normal we might 
ine the species with considerable confidence. 
The antlers of the common deer are usually less spreading than 
_ those of the mule deer, though not always so, and in this respect 
these answer best to the former, though their position may have 
been altogether changed by the accident. The strongest evi- 
dence to show that it was a common deer I see in the basal snag 
near the butts of each antler ; these are very large and both bifur- 
cated, This snag is always present on the normal antler of the 
Virginia deer, and is usually present on that of the mule deer, 
IS very much smaller on the latter than on the former. 
On the common deer this member is frequently bifurcated on 
large old specimens but never on the mule deer, though on large 
Specimens we frequently see a rudimentary branch, but I have 
never Seen anything like an equal bifurcation or even a fairly de- 
veloped tine. But the bifurcations of these prongs are not as we 
min the natural growth. The prong divides into nearly 
equal parts very near its base and these separate at angles of 
wventy degrees or so.. In the few cases where I have seen the 
basal snags fairly divided into approximately equal parts, the forks 
grown up nearly parallel, but when the antler itself is so dis- 
figured as this we should not expect any member to be in its 
natural form. It is the unusual proportionate size of this nasal 
3 ee Which inclines me to attribute the specimen to a Virginia 


Zoology. 737 


7 ~ size of the deer suggests a larger species than the common 
RD which, as already suggested, is very considerably smaller 
ao than in higher and colder latitudes, but I have no doubt 

“Ser specimens than this is claimed to be are occasionally 


ES PRP E Sikes ha ia oe al ree E a A an SS ue 


“ne mule deer js aka iably 1 ies than the com- 
ppreciably larger species 1 
qon deer, and hence, the large size of this specimen suggest this 


Where th; ule deer; while the rarity of this species in the country 
“dhe was killed, and the abundance of the common deer 
Two oye atter as most probable. | 

all cube Sive Something for the ear or the tail of this deer that 


A iti i hese 
Bo. might be resolved; as it is I cannot tell to which of t 
ved eccles this deer belonged from the mere picture of a dam- 
and antlers of an unnatural growth. It is easier to tell 
T D. Caton. 


aral] Y the Editor —The case above cited by Judge Caton is 
"ed by a similar one which came under my observation 


738- General Notes. 


several years ago. A large and highly colored buck of the Cari- — 
acus virginianus was shot in Central New Jersey, in which the — 


horns of both sides were completely and symmetrically palmated 
as in the moose. This modification of horns of Cariacus is just 
what is to be expected in accordance with law of “ acceleration,’ 
and constitutes an actual transfer of such modified individuals to 
the genus Alces. The genera Alces and Cariacus agree with 


other American deer in the absence of the brow antler, and. i 


Alces stands at the head of the series by virtue of its palmation. 
If a similar change were to take place in a true deer of the genus 
Cervus, the result would be a Dama, a genus which agrees with 
Cervus in the possession of a brow antler, and differs from it as 
Alces does from Cariacus, z. e., in its palmation. Instances of 
this kind show the correctness of the position I took in 1868, 
that the change of generic characters is independent of that of 
the specific, and that one species may come, by acceleration i 
some of its individuals, to belong to two genera.—E. D. Cope. 


ForsytH Major on THE True Pics.—In the Zoologischer Aw 
zeiger, June, 1883, the above well known palzontologist gives an 
account of the recent species of true pigs with their extinct con- 
nections. He limits the existing species to three: Sus verrucosus 
M. and S. (Java, Celebes), S. darbatus M. and S. (Borneo), end : 
scrofa L. He regards the S. vittatus M. and S. as a form of 
scropha, and finds that it has seventeen synonyms. These often 
represent minor variations of character, which do not form wie! 
stant combinations. They are, as a whole, characteristic of im- 
mature conditions of the S.scropha of northern regions. o s 
Major regards the S. vit/atus as the primitive form. The te 
rucosus is nearly related to the S. giganteus Falc. of the Si 
and the S. strvzzit Menegh. of the Val d’Arno. 


ZooLocicaL Nortes.—Mollusks—H. L. Osborn ean per 
Lab. J. Hopk. Univ.), gives the results of his studies of the £! 
of some prosobranchiate mollusca. Starting with the a aby 
that the researches of Peck and Mitsukuri have made it to'® 
of some lamellib 
are derivable from a simple series of folds of the body closely 
summarizes thus: “ The gill of Chiton and Fissurella pee type 
like the ctenidium which Lankester considers the prim! 


. ersally, the gill 


of molluscan gill. In ctenobranchs, almost univ form com- 
is not a ctenidium, but a very much simpler organ Be d as 

pares closely with the gill which we have come to pior that the 
primitive lamellibranch gill.” He inclines to the beli 


lamellibranchiata are degraded from cephaloppa "i d , 
nctions besides Han a 


while their highly complex gills are due to 
the animal throwing upon the gills sundry fu 
of the gill proper. 

1 In “ The Origin of Genera.” 


1884] Zoölogy. 739 


___ Grustacea—H. W. Conn (Studies from the Biological Labora- 
_ tory, Johns Hopkins Univ.), contributes some thoughtful observa- 
_ tions and suggestions upon the signification of the larval skin 
_ with which the decapod zoea is covered on emerging from the egg. 
_ The apparent anomaly that certain low Macrura possess larve 

with a thorax, while the Schizopods havea zoea without a thorax, 
_ isexplained by the assumption that the zoea stage is an interca- 
lated adaptive form with the body shortened to enable the larva 
_ fo swim better, while the protozoea, represented by the zoea of 


_ Boas with that of Packard, and with the teachings of embryology. 
_ — Professor Greeff (Sitz. Ges. Natur. Marburg, 1882), gives an ac- 
_ Sount of the land and fresh-water crabs of St. Thomas and Rolas, 
_ in the Gulf of. Guinea. Gecareinus ruricola, known from the 
_ West Indies, occurs also in incredible numbers in the Guinea 
4 t is found even in the mountains, under stones, in holes 
_ inthe earth, and other damp places. Cardisoma guanhami, an- 
; other Antillean species, occurs with the former. Cwnobita ru- 
ga is common all over St. Thomas, and causes a great mixture 
s marine aud fresh-water shells. During their growth the crabs 
Wander inland, taking with them Murices, Bullidz and other ma- 
fine forms. Arrived at the mountains, 800 meters above the 
a ocean, met exchange these for Helixand Achatina in which they 
| Sard to the coast. The fresh-water species aré Pale mon olferst, 
3 Atya scabia and Thelphusa margaritaria. 

a s—On account of the possession of a drag-net adapted 
Sr the Purpose, the Za/isman was more fortunate than any pre- 
| ou exploring vessel in obtaining examples of deep-sea fishes. 
ice haul in 16° 52 N, lat., and.27° 50’ W. long.,and at a 


was Bythites crassus. Some of the species appear to in- 

very extensive zones of depth, thus Alepocephalus rostratus 
ra from 868 to 3650 meters, Scopelus maderensis from 1090 
re Meters, Lepioderma macrops from 1153 to 3655 meters, 
Wears to ; affinis from 590 to 2220 meters. This great range 
+e to Indicate a power of adaptation to the pressure of the 

ong the phosphorescent apparatuses found in these, 
of the €ep,/one of the strangest is that of Eustomias 
“a slender fish with a large mouth. From the under side 


t 


740 General Notes. (July, 


of Sicily. The species was described by Ruppel from the Red — 
sea, but has been taken at Palermo and on the Algerian coast 
It attains the length of six feet.——-The Marchese A. De Gre — 
gorio (// Nat. Sic., March), continues his notes on the Jurassic — 
corals of Sicily, and describes four new species.——Miss Roa — 
Smith (Bull. Col. Acad. Sci., 1884), describes Sgualius lemmoni, dis- — 
covered by Mr. J. G. Lemmon in Rillito creek, near Tucson, — 
Arizona.——Professor Greeff (Sitz. Ges. Natur. Marburg) describes — 
Gobius bustamentei from St. Thomas. 

Reptiles —Dr. Strahl (Sitz. Ges. Bef. Natur. Marburg, 1882-83) 
describes the development of Lacerta agilis, vivipara and vindi, — 
especially of the latter. The allantois, the changes in the ovum — 
and the formation of the vascular system in the germinal disk, — 
are given at length. 

Mammals.—Professor Lieberkuhn (Sitz. Ges. Natur. Marburg, — 
1882), gives the results of his researches into the development of 
the ovum and embryo of the porpoise; and in the same C 
ings, 1883, discusses the formation of the medullary canal in 
mammals generally. ; 


PHYSIOLOGY.! 


CorornG Matters oF BiLe.—C. A. MacMunn is led by his 
observations to dispute a generally accepted view that ba 


wide distribution of a coloring matter, which is beyond doubt å 
chlorophyll pigment; this it is proposed to ca 
phyll 


the chlorophyll in the state in which it occurs shodid E d 


ollusca, or in the pyloric cæca of star-fishes, &c. Be i 


body would appear to differ from plant-chlorophyll in h, ough j 
ined by the 1 

reduced “gt l 
“ probably due to the action of a ferment on the cn oe 


pectroscopic measurements show that the liver of see 
contains a coloring matter which, when treated in = r ution 
tion with nitric acid, gives the same spectrum as a sim! ar w 
of leaf-green when treated with that reagent. A large 
of other Mollusca have been examined. studied; 
Among the Arthropoda, Crustaceans have alone ee ot 
in the common crab enterochlorophyll was rarely, pars ae 


1 This department is edited by Professor Henry SEWALL, of Ann amn 


Psychology. 741 


stantly found; in the crayfish there was abundance of hematin 
in the bile. 

The pyloric ceca of star-fishes were found to function as a so- 

aalled liver; that is to say, they not only seem to prepare a diges- 
tive ferment, but they serve as organs for the storing and probably 
for the actual production of pigments for surface coloration; en- 
terochlorophyll is here also found. 
Hemochromogen, which is found in the bile of the crayfish 
and of the Pulmonate Mollusca, is apparently due to an animal’s 
mode of life, and does not seem to be “ distributed according to 
morphological considerations.” 

It is as yet too early to speak definitely, but there is much evi- 
dence to show that enterochlorophyll is synthetically formed in 
the body of its animal possessor. 

The second and third portions of this important paper deal 
with the vertebrate bile pigments, and some unusual urine pig- 
ments; the latter should be of interest to the physician as well as 
to the physiologist.— Journ. R. Mier. Society, Dec., 1883. 

PSYCHOLOGY. 

DARWIN’S OPINIONS on InsTINCT.—A posthumous essay on “ In- 

stinct,” by the late Charles Darwin, was read on December 6th, 


at the Linnean Society, before a very large and distinguished 
audience of fellows. The paper, which treated of the instincts 


never 
and a 
mj nkrence that though there were many aspects of the question 


a was inherited from ancestors who had to compass (for the 
of land iy or other causes) long distances, when the conditions 


; aivi considered how the more remarkable migrations could 


k teed by cold or want of food, slowly to travel northward, 
“that sae S28¢ With some birds in ti ' 

4 compulsory traveling would become instinctive, as with 
"Valleys in Spain. Now, during the long course of ages, let 


5 of the sea; and still he could well believe that the - 
Which leads the pinioned goose to scramble northward 
our bird over the trackless waters; and that, by the 
nknown power by which many animals, and savage 


742 General Notes. (July, i 


tive dread they subsequently acquire, for their own preservation, 
and transmit it to their descendants. At the Galapagos islands 
Mr. Darwin pushed a hawk off a tree with the muzzle of his gun, 
and the little bird drank water out of a vessel which he held in 
his hand. But this tameness is not general, but special towards 
man; for at the Falklands the geese build on the outlying islands 
on account of the foxes. These wolf-like foxes were here as 
fearless of man as were the birds, and the sailors in Byron's voy- 
age, mistaking their curiosity for fierceness, ran into the water to 
avoid them. In all old civilized countries the wariness and fear 
of even young foxes and wolves are well known. At the 
pagos islands the great land lizards (Amblyrhynchus) were ex- 
tremely tame, so that Mr. Darwin could pull them by the tail; 
whereas in other parts of the world large lizards are wary enough. 
The aquatic lizard of the same genus lives on the coast, is adapted 
to swim and dive perfectly, and feeds on submerged alge ; no 
doubt it must be exposed to danger from the sharks, and conse 
quently, though quite tame on the land, he could not drive them 
into the water; and when he threw them in they always swam 
directly back to the shore. Animals feigning death seemed to 
Mr. Darwin a remarkable instinct, but he considered that there 
was much exaggeration on the subject. It struck himasa strange 
coincidence that the insects should have come to exactly s 
the state which they took when dead. Hence he carelully BY 
the simulated positions of seventeen kinds of insects (including 
an Iulus spider, and Oniscus) belonging to the most distinct gen 
era, both poor and first-rate shammers ; afterwards he pori a! 
naturally dead specimens of some of these insects, others heki poi 
with camphor by an easy slow death. The result was that a xi 
one instance was the attitude exactly the same, and in seve e 
stances the attitude of the feigners and of the realig oe peek 
i i ird- i and te i 

unlike as they possibly could be. Bird-nesting 1 conclusion 
herited m 
stincts to suit varying circumstances, yet that these wee oie 


ducing to the “ survival of the fittest.” Although he did ae | 
lay in the sett 


sense to draw it in lengthways; ae Whi Paynes 
martins which year after year built their nests on agi 
and year after year they were washed down. The ane 
nicularius in South America makes a deep burrow in Mr umet- 
for its nest; and he saw these little birds vainly burroying taniy 
ous holes through mud-walls, over which they were not neatly 
flitting, without thus perceiving that the walls were of ie 
thick enough for their nests. After an exhaystive ace ai 


Psychology. 743 


rious traits of instinct, and difficulties in the way of his theory, 
explaining all of them, the paper closed with the following gen- 
: eral conclusion :—-“ We have chiefly considered the instinct of 
_ animals under the point of view whether it is possible that they 
_ could have been acquired through the means indicated on our 
theory, or whether, even if the simpler ones could have been thus 
acquired, others are so complex and wonderful that they must 

ve been specially endowed, and thus overthrow the theory. 
Bearing in mind the facts given on the acquirement, through the 
selection of self-originating tricks or modification of instinct, or 
through training and habit, aided in some slight degree by imita- 
tion, of hereditary actions and dispositions in our domesticated ani- 
mals, and their parallelism (subject to having less time) to the 

__ Instincts of animals in a state of nature , bearing in mind that in 
= Astate of nature instincts do certainly vary in some slight degree ; 
3 bearing in mind how very generally we find in allied but distinct 
animals a gradation in the more complex instincts, which show 
_ that it is at least possible that a complex instinct might have been 


4 diffculty tally to be profitable to individuals, I can see no overwhelming 


known—t eory. Even 
simple in hat of the Gils of the hive-bee—we have seen how a 
= with instinctive action may lead to results which fill the mind 
o enl is nishment. Moreover, it seems to me that the very gen- 
limits of the gradation of complexity of instincts within the 
ri the same group of animals, and likewise the fact of two 
: riide cies, placed in two distant parts of the world, and sur- 
Much by wholly different conditions of life, still having very 
for | 'n common in their instincts, supports our theory of descent, 
sne 2 Te explained by it; whereas if: we look at each instinct 
= Simi endowed, we can only say that it is so. The imper- 


Pisin. o mistakes of instinct, on our theory, cease to be sur- 
andae indeed, it would be wonderful’ that far more numerous 


* 


744 General Notes. [July, 
cuckoo ejecting its foster-brothers, ants making slaves, the larve , 
of the Ichneumonide feeding within the live bodies of their prey, 
cats playing with mice, otters and cormorants with living fish, not 
as instincts specially given by the Creator, but as very small 
of one general law leading to the advancement of all organe — 
bodies—Multiply, vary; let the strongest live and the weakest — 
die.” 4 

DREAMING IN VERSE.—Having a turn of mind for rhyming, I _ 
had frequently dreamed in verse. On one occasion my husband — 
heard me repeat distinctly two lines in verse. He asked mevery — 
gently, “ What is the next line?” I replied, in my sleep, “You — 
guess the next line, and I will tell you the last.” His merry laugh 
awoke me and, curiously enough, I could not recall my dreamor — 
the lines which I had spoken aloud.— Mrs. Prof. T. H. Rich, Bates 

ege, Me. 
ANTHROPOLOGY. ! 


Mr. Bancrort’s New Vorumrs.—Scarcely a week pass — 
in which the editor of this department of the NATURALIST $ — 
not importuned with some such question as this, “What one — 
work will give me the best account of ancient and modern Mexico 
and Central America?” To this question there can a 
one answer. By far the best and most comprehensive account ® 
that whole region is the monumental work of Hubert Howe 
Bancroft. We are not now discussing the style of the a 
tion, abounding in metaphors which only show the enthusiasm 
the writer. Neither are we saying that the author 1s always 
right—he himself, over and over again, admits that his groun cá 
not firm beneath his feet. But looking at the cos the intn a 
machinery of research, the painstaking, the unwearied and 


the preface, in which Mr. Bancroft sets forth the d 
new series, defines his methods, credits his assistants, critics. 1 
a lance at historical theorists, and, we regret, de gee q 
Then follows, pages xv-xx1, analyses of the xxVI ne 
into which the volume is divided. From page xxv to DOM i 
his characteristic manner, the author presents a bibliography a 
Central American literature, in which not less than bag large : 
given. Some of these are the names of works for wh 4 
sums of money have been paid, and all of them have Proved bf i 
roughly exhausted by the faithful corps of indexers employ’ e- 
the author. The introductory chapter relates to the. cos 
Spanish society when Spain began her American oration oa 
the close of the chapter is an encyclopedia of into not 15 
geographical knowledge and discovery prior to th ce 

! Edited by Professor Oris T. Mason, 1305 Q street, N. W., waT q 


ey 


eee 1 Re Sages ee ie CBee Soy tg A re De ee ra TOTS Pp 


1884] Anthropology. 745 


l pP- 67-154. We pass over chapters 11-xx11, devoted to the nar- 


rative of Columbus and his successors in Darien, Costa Rica, Nica- 
ngua, and Honduras, and come to operations of the Spaniards in 
_ the provinces bordering on Mexico. The Quiché empire rose in 
_ the xu or xit century of our era. Inthe early part of the xv cen- 


_ tury the Cakchiquels divided domination with them. In their turn 


_ the Zutugils separated from the Cakchiquels, having their capitals 
_ at Patinamit and Atitlan. The manner of conquest by which 


_ Pedro de Alvarado, the lieutenant of Cortez, and his faithful fol- 
lowers destroyed their power and appropriated their country, is 


4 the burden of the closing chapters of the volume. “ Henceforth, 


: taneously, 
` lows Vol. 1, The five periods of Mexican history as discussed 


Maximilian, and the later ‘development of peaceful industries. 


Menesourees. Furthermore it is not difficult to perceive that 


consulted. Not all the chapters in this volume are strictly 


The 


746 General Notes. [July, 


have revealed Cherokee and typical Mound-Builder implements; 
and (2) from both these classes of works have been taken brass, 
iron, and glass objects. Specimens of all these classes of finds 
were exhibited at the meeting, About the same time that Pro- 
fessor Thomas read his paper, Professor F. W. Putnam sent us an 
abstract of an account of his recent archeological excursions in 
Wisconsin.and Ohio, given at the meeting of the American An- 
tiquarian Society, October 22. Comparing the two papers, one 
could hardly fail to see that a great change of opinion has taken 
place among our American archzologists concerning the Mou 

- Builders, Indeed, most investigators would advise us to drop the 
capital letters. As long, however, as eminent archeologists are 
troubled to find out who were the Mound-Builders, there is cer- 
tainly a people called the Mound-Builders that remain to be fou 
out, Now it is precisely this lost people to whom the 
letters apply. That those researches have accomplished much 
toward dispelling many ancient illusions, no one will dispute. 
The Mound-Builders probably were not so numerous, so highly 
organized socially, nor so cultivated as many have held. Neither 
were their successors within the area of the United States 
so degraded as they have been made out. The chasm, pei 
so far as culture is concerned, between the two Opies, 
Mound-Builders and the modern Indians, has been bridged wee 
by Thomas Putnam and others. No one has ever seen a tribe 
homeless nomads on this continent. Mr. Morgan's investiga 
followed up more minutely by Mr. Dorsey, have shes 
intricacy of social structure truly astonishing even among t"! 
called nomads. in danget 

Now these discoveries may turn our heads ; and we are tal e 

of running into the other extreme of maintaining living 
Mound-Builders were the ancestors of our modern Indians es 
on the same areas—which cannot yet be proved. That pee . 
be said in its favor, that the attempt to prove it has awake $ 
lively interest in American archæology, and that the ean 
one of legitimate inquiry, no one for a moment can do 


WEST 
ON THE ATHABASCA DISTRICT OF THE CANADIAN jep 
enzi 


* TERRITORY.!—That which gives value to this paper pe : 
pologist is the table of statistics of the Athabasca an 
redskin population, including women and children. 


Great Slave Lake. : 245 

: Chipewyans 332-37 
Fort Resolution, 1863-64 , { Yellow Knives 78 
Fort Rae, 1864...... .. Dog-ribs 

Mackenzie ay | ge” 

Providence, 1871... . Slaves i 
Miike Lake Wwa 8A anaa aa Etcha- gm 
a a S N Eee ee Sold he 
Fort Simpson, 1873 ... e 

: 1883. Nom 


‘By the Rev. Emile Petitot. Map. Proc. Roy. Geog. Sot 
633-655. 


oy died by Dr. C. O. Wirtmax, Mus. Comp. Zool., Cambridge, Mass. 


Microscopy and Histology. 747 


Mackenzie. 
Slaves or Etcha-ottiné 97 
f Dog-ribs 
Forts Norman and Franklin (Bear lake), 1869.... | ountain Indians -i43 
Hareskins &5—272 
Fort Good Hope, Was E want E Hareskins 422 
Dindjie or Loucheux Quar- 
Fort Macpherson (Peel R.), 1866, including La relers, Kutchin 
Pierre’s House Eskimo of the An- 
derson 250 
i Eskimo of Macken- 
zie 550 
Forts Leard and Nelson.............+0e0 ows vs a Shaves 500 
Population of the Mackenzie ..... 4214 
Athabasca. : 
Forts Chipewyan and Smith, 1879 { ORATE n. i í 
Fond du Lac, 1879... ....  Caribou-eaters 318 
oa (Peace river), 1879 aati pig Gi, 
ort MacMurray (Ath i Chipewyans 31 
y (Athabasca river), 1879........ A ces 2 $3 
Fort Dunnegan (Peace river); 1875 Beavers & Sécanais 195 
Fort St, a rees 137—332 
John (Peace R.), 1879. Lesser Slave L.. Sécanais 195 
Population of Athabasca 1761 
Maximum total .... 5075 


MICROSCOPY AND HISTOLOGY.' 


SECTIONS oF Dratoms.—Dr. J. H. L. Flégel’s paper on “ Re- 
hes on the structure of cell-walls of Diatoms” was brought 
ore the meeting by Mr. J. Mayall, Jr., who, in his preliminary 
Page said that it would be remembered that some time ago 
of d; heard reports that some one abroad was making sections 
with oms, and he was requested by Mr. Crisp to institute inquiries 
the view of bringing the method before the society. He sub- 


Sa without which it was of course not possible to form any 


Weng Schröder, now resident in London, to write to Dr. 
orate subject, and in the result they had received a very elab- 
eringa accompartied by a dozen slides and a number of pho- 
and drawings in illustration. p 
wa aig examination of the slides showed that Dr. Flogel 
ughly familiar with the finest processes of mounting, 
l that had been done by Moller. One of the slides 


748 General Notes. [July, 


was exhibited in the room under a 4 in. objective by Mr. Powell. 
It was a section of Triceratium favus, and the excellence of the 
specimen gave rise to the impression that something even more 
difficult than this could be accomplished. Amongst the other 
specimens sent were some very clean-cut sections giving an ex- 
ceptionally clear image. It was stated by Dr. Flogel that as 
many as 174 transverse sections had been made of one diatom., 
all of which could be plainly identified as belonging to the same 
diatom. Mr. Mayall said that he could not pledge himself as to 
the correctness or otherwise of the theory set up by the author 
of the paper, as the subject was not one which he had made his 
own, although he had taken some pains to translate the paper for 
publication in the journal of the society. ` 

Mr. Mayall then read an abstract of the paper to the meeting, 
and the subject was discussed by Mr. Curties, Mr. Crisp and 
fellows. 4 

The chairman in proposing a vote of thanks to Mr. Flogel for 
his paper, said that he was sure the society would feel doubly in- 
debted to Mr. Mayall for the exertions which he had made to 
procure the paper, and also for the trouble he had taken in the 
matter of translation. 


Mr. W. J. Solias’s letter on the subject of cutting sections of 
diatoms was formally laid before the meeting. -It had reference 


of diatoms. My plan is to scrape off a green slime from om 
river mud, consisting chiefly of Pleurosigma sigzag, 5 


bringing ail the diatoms with it, but leaving the mud. “seniog 

lin with the diatom film is now immersed in the usual ers and 

and staining reagents. I have used a mixture of chromic @ 

osmic acids and absolute alcohol for hardening; borax d har- 
d S ned an 


i ; , “ab out passing 
be mounted direct in glycerine on a glass slide ba 


through water. By employing these two proces 


: 
; 
l 


1884.] Microscopy and Histology. 749 


out the internal structure of diatoms, and believe that I can 
detect fine protoplasmic threads proceeding from the protoplasm 
that surrounds the nucleus and passing through apertures in the 

i I am not yet, however, in a position to demon- 
strate this with absolute certainty, but hope to do so soon.”— 
Four. of the Roy. Micros. Soc., Feb., 1884. 


Kittinc Hyproip ZOOPHYTES AND POLYZOA WITH THE TENTA- 
the polyzoon to 
be placed in a small beaker or clear glass bottle, and allowed to 


mens may be kept in ninety per cent of the same until required 
for mounting. Experiments with alcohol upon hydroid zo0- 


the whole of the water assumes a golden-yellow color. The re- 
ae instant death, so that the specimens may be trans- 
five immediately to sixty per cent, and afterwards to seventy- 
for a cent alcohol, allowing them to remain in each solution 
- saad hours. Keep in ninety per cent alcohol. From four to 
fi noA immersion in Martindale’s picrocarmine staining 
4 aay to stain specimens killed by either of the above 
= °S.— Four. of the Roy. Micros. Soc., Feb., 1884. 
: E ONTING FLurp For Atca.—For preserving the cell-contents 
alge, G natural color and form of desmids,.volvox and other 
| act well W. Morehouse finds a mounting fluid made as follows to 
a ture of k Dissolve fifteen grains of acetate of copper in a mix- 
- distilleg owt fluid ounces of camphor water, four fluid ounces of 
tight “apa and twenty minims of glacial acetic acid; add 
Of lant ce ences Of Price’s glycerine, and filter. When sections 
hai ead or other vegetable specimens are mounted in this 
© ° “protoplasm is preserved. If in any case it is thought desi- 


750 Scientific News. July, 


rable to increase or diminish the specific gravity of the preserva- 
tive, the proportion of glycerine may be changed. as above, 
or modified as indicated, he thinks it also a trustworthy medium 
for mounting Infusoria and the softer animal tissues —/our. of the 
Roy, Micros. Soc., Feb., 1884. 


:0: 
SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 


— The thirty-third meeting of the American Association for 
the Advancement of Science will be held at Philadelphia, Penna, 
Sept. 4-10, 1884. 

The British Association has invited the members of the Amer- 
ican Association to join in the meeting at Montreal, and the 
American Association and the local committee of Philadelphia 
have invited the members of the British Association, with their 
near relatives who may be with them, to take part in the Phila- 
delphia meeting. 

series of receptions will be offered the association and its 
guests, including one at the Academy of Music after the pres 
dent’s address; a reception at the Academy. of the Fine Arts; a 
garden party at Haverford College, and a microscopical exhibi- 
tion at the Academy of Natural Sciences. The botanical section 
of the Academy of Natural Sciences will organize patiia 
cursions, and will also hold a special meeting at the Academy | 
Botanists. There will be visits to the Internatianal Elec ; 
Exhibition, the Zodlogical Gardens, Fairmount Park, Indepen 
dence Hall and other places of interest, and the various ore 
tions in the city will welcome the association to their halls. = 
eral excursions will be offered to take place during the wee 
to the sea-shore, the coal regions and other points of interest, 
possibly limited excursions to more distant points aft 
meeting. ia we 

The meeting will be called to order, in general ape of 
o'clock on Thursday morning, Sept. 4th, in the g n 
Music, by President C. A. Young, of Princeton, who wi 


probably be given up to excursions and receptions. Hie ‘hat at 

programme for the rest of the meeting will be simular i 

previous meetings. / si 
‘The headquarters of the association will be at the Academy 


1884.] Scientific News. 751 


Music, which is on Broad street, near the station of the Pennsyl- 
vania railroad and several large hotels. The sections will be 
amply accommodated in other halls in the immediate vicinity. 

The offices of the permanent secretary and local committee, 
the association post-office, etc., will bé at the Academy of Music 
alter Sept. 1st; previous to that they will be at the Academy of 
Natural Sciences. The permanent secretary will establish his 
ont in Philadelphia on August 22. 


the permanent secretary at his office in Salem, Mass., up to 
“gust 20. After this date and until the meeting has adjourned, 


the address of the permanent secretary will be HOTEL LAFAYTTE, 
Philadelphia, Pa. 


— Prizes given by the French Academy.—The “ Prix Fran- 
cœur ” for discoveries in real or applied mathematics, was unani- 
mously awarded to M. Emile Barbier, the laureate of 1882. 

The prize of 6000 francs for studies calculated to increase the 
ciency of the Navy, was divided between M. Taurines, to whom 
3000 francs was allotted for his forthcoming work entitled “ Steam 
= “gines: a historical and critical account of the dynamometric 
 Tesults of the working of marine engines,” M. Germain, to whom 


work entitled “ New Astronomical Navigation, 


J Prix Poncelet” was given to M. G. H. Halphen; the 

ing 12 prize was parted between M. Leon Francq for perfect- 

3 me's steam-engine, and M. L. Renouf for a mathematical 
ment 


naps the “ Prix Lalande” was awarded to MM. Bon- 


d Pe in, Bassot, Bigourdain and Callandreau, the members 
while the ig h Expedition to observe the transit of Venus in 1882; 


my: 
i te“ Prix Lacaze ” ( 5 M Heri Boc 
: physics) was awarded to M. Het 

tah engineer of roads and bridges, for the total of his works 

er Pri e Mon a ed the deceased 
-ie Montyon ” (statistics) was allotted to the dec 

Ca N olas, author of the important work, “The yy es 

Since the commencement of the xix century. is 


Luly, 


work is complete, of exceptional merit, and indispensable to 
political economists, statesmen and financiers. 

In chemistry the Jecker prize was given to M. Etard for his 
numerous and important discoveries in organic chemistry, among 
which may be cited his experiments upon the action of chloro- 
chromic acid on organic substances, his researches on strychnine, 

e 


752 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 


on the ptomaines and on nicotine. 

The “ Prix Lacaze” was awarded to M. L. Cailletet for his in- 
vestigations into the liquefaction of gases. He was the first to 
show the possibility of liquefying what are called the permanent 
gases, and science owes also to him a simple apparatus with 
which these experiments can be carried on without danger. To 
be continued. 


— The French Society for the Advancement of Science, which 
will meet at Blois in September (4-11), has before it the duty of 
distributing a sum of about 4800, being the first five years accu- 
mulation of the legacy left to it in 1878, by M. Girard, to enable 
it to give rewards once in every five years to the person or per 
sons who have most contributed to advance science upon the 
question of the antiquity of man with regard to geological for- 
mations. 

_ — The number of applications for tickets for the British Asso- 
ciation meeting this year is 772, and the council have ses 
not to receive any more prior to the meeting at Montreal, when 
members and associates will be elected as usual. 

— The Council of the British Association have resolved to re- 
ceive the standing committee and fellows of the American sca 
ciation on the footing of honorary members at the Montr 
meeting. 


eer ey 


PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 


BiotoGcicaAL Society oF WasHINGTON, May 3.—Commumica 
tions were made by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, U.S.A., 0 
rence of a pair of free ribs on the occipital bone of $ 
mouthed black bass, Micropterus salmoides ; by Mr. Se i Dr. 
der, observations upon the muskrat, Fiber sibethicus ; an 
Theodore Gill on the system of the Squali. 


Boston Soctety oF NaturaL History.—The ann 


ual meeting 
de by the 


curator, secretary and treasurer, followed by the ee 
officers for 1884-5, and of candidates for membership. | the com- 
award of the grand Walker prize was announced, an paste 
mittee on the annual Walker prize made its repon yan 
it to Dr, Tuttle for his essay on the anatomy and interesting 
of Lunatia heros. Mr. F. W. Putnam spoke of Some america 
recent discoveries relating to the antiquity of man 1n 


1884.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 753 


the Trenton gravels and in Nicaragua, and also gave evidence of 
the practice of cremation by an ancient people in the Little 
Miami valley. Dr. M. E. Wadsworth read a paper on the origin 
of ore deposits. > | 

e last general meeting was held on May 21. Mr. S. Gar- 
man spoke of certain works of the Indians, and Professor A. 
Hyatt discussed the affinities of Beatricea. . 


New York Acapemy oF Sciences, May 12.—The following 
papers were announced: The colored marbles of Lake Cham- 
g: (illustrated with a suite of specimens), by Mr. Arthur H. 
iott; a remarkable Ch orophane from Amelia county, Virginia, 
by Mr. George F. Kunz. 

May 26—The following papers were announced: Bees and 
other hoarding insects : their specialization into males, females and 
workers, by Mr. E. A. Curley; The origin of Puget sound and 
gaat system of tideways, by Professor John S. New- 


APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN Crus, May 14—The following paper 
yas presented: A photographic study of the Matterhorn, by 
Professor Edward C. Pickering. 


AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, Jan. 18.—Professor Co 

exhibited fossils of the family Oreodontidz, and described their 
characteristic Structure and geological relations. A drawing ofa 
“tcophagus in Memorial Hall, with a translation of the legend on 


Structu 


Jiver,an excellent lignite is mined. The wide valley of 
is p S Grande as far as the eastern ranges of the Sierra Madre 
moll ly of Laramic age, as Dr. C. A. White reports fossil 
a he that age from near Lampazas, at the foot of the moun- 
Mr. Arthur Schott (U. S. Mex. Bound. Survey 1, Geology, 
e 35), first observed these lignites, and Mr. Conrad pointed out 
. cit, “istence of Claiborne Eocene beds in the same region (loc. 
img 141). Professor Cope stated that the Claiborne beds rested 
Pa ‘ly on the Laramie at Laredo. 
and sket, £ (fessor Cope exhibited specimens of Creodonta, 
Feb ched the classification of that order. 
aaa. Sections of the anthracite coal measures, recently 


754 Proceedings of Scientific Socteties. [July, 1884 , 


age, lying sixty or seventy miles distant from any similar rock, 
and in a mountain pass famous in history. Size five to six by 
three to four feet high. The edges are full of sharp serrations, 
and the weight must be at least five and one-half tons. The stone 
has a notch by which the blood flowed off. ¿ 

March 7.—Professor Cope read a paper entitled “ On the Struc 
ture of the Skull in the Elasmobranch genus Didymodus.” 

Mr. Ashburner presented some notes “On the aneroid hyp- 
sometry,” and exhibited a self-registering field instrument. 

March 21.—A communication from Professor Claypole, entitled 
“On the Clinton and other shales composing the Fifth Group of 
Rogers in the first survey of Pennsylvania,” was read. 

April 4.—Professor Lesley read from a letter of J. F. Carll, a 
correction of the horizon of Eurypterus pennsylvanicus, described 

r. C. E. Hall, The fossil was found seventy-two feet above 

the mouth of the Pithole well, z. e., 167 feet above the Berea or 
Pithole grit. - i 

Mr. Blasius read a paper on the unhealthy condition of certam 
portions of great cities, owing to prevalent winds, and spoke 
the necessity of rapid transit. 


NATURAL SCIENCE ASSOCIATION OF STATEN IsLanD, May 10— 
In the absence of the president, Dr. Britton was elected chair- 
man pro tem. Three new members were elected and other bus 
ness transacted, after which Mr. Hollick read a paper upon ‘si 
cent discoveries of Indian Implements at Tottenville.” The sý 
lowing is a complete list of the different objects thus far foun 3 
one axe, one pipe, five hammer stones, ten arrow-heads, thirty 


and fragments. Itis but little more than a year sin U 
these was accidentally discovered while on a field pea? a 
the locality. Since then, whenever the place has been visite? & 

searched, relics have invariably been found. Mr. George + 
Kunz, of New York, who was present by invitation, then co 
sented the stone head found near Clifton, and gave the pan 2 

account of the same: As now preserved it shows the m je 
of which it was formed to be a brown sandstone, apparently posed 
compact than the common New Jersey sandstone, ae peb- 


hand piece of work by a stonemaker; the style m fg antiquity 


_ or Eastern; rendering it unlikely that it is a part more 
thrown away by some sailor; it is rather Mexican, and a it is 
resembles Aztec work. This leads to the inference fi that it 


probably of Indian origin, or if not, it is remotely poss! z 
was made by the early Dutch. 


f 
i 


THE 


AMERICAN NATURALIST 


VoL. xvi1— AUGUST, 1884.—No. 8. 


THE GLACIATED AREA OF NORTH AMERICA. 
BY REV. G. FREDERICK WRIGHT. 


| | AM asked to give, for the convenience of the readers of the 

Naturauisr, a brief summary of the present results of my 
-glacial investigations during the past ten years. This I am ena- 
1 bled to do more concisely because of the plates which I am per- 
_ mitted by my publisher to use so freely.) 

The Special marks characteristic of the glaciated region consist 
of striated rocks, striated pebbles, transported boulders and an 
wetatified deposit called “till.” These are now too familiar to 

need description, My investigations have chiefly had in view the 
_ “termination and study of the southern boundary of the glaci- 
ated area in Eastern United States. I have zigzagged the whole 
boundary from the Atlantic ocean to the State of Iliinois, the 
‘ results being given in the accompanying plates, the correctness of 

which the reader may readily verify for himself, for when one has 
~~ once familiar with the glacial signs indicated above, he 
annot fail to notice their conspicuous absence south of the 
-dary line indicated. 
twill be observed that in New England the rivers reach the 
: le the glacial limit, and they are all characterized through- 
ir whole extent by terraces of coarse gravel, varying 


For fuller details of my work see Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural 
a xIx, PP- 47-653, Vol. xx, pp. 210-220, Vol. XXI, pp. 137-1455 Ger- 
tof New Hampshire, Vol. Ill, pp. 167-170; American Journal of Sci- 
5 eg, 7 PP- 120-123, Vol. CXXVI, pp. 44-56; AMERICAN NATURALIST, Vol. 
7507 ; but especially my “ Studies in Science and Religion ”: Andover: 
» PP. 256-350, and the “ Glacial Boundary in Ohio, Indiana and 
~ Fund: Western Reserve Historical Society. 1884, pp. 86; Ohio 
Report, Vol. v, pp. 750-771. 
o. VIII, 48. s 


ee Ee Fe en IRN ey ON ee Be A Sx ee AR AW ENS Sons Be tie) a 


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A R e e 


1884. | The Glaciated Area of North America. 757 


West of New Jersey streams are continually encountered 
whose sources are in the glaciated area, and whose mouths are 
in the unglaciated. -Fig. 2 illustrates this in the case of the 
Delaware, which is of special interest because the glacial terraces 


| 


itt 


| Ip j I}! | 

r Alh Ey l ; 
Me ty AI | 
; Th itl it! 5 | tT] 
) TU ART A ey 

lie z TUT 
| pali ae! Minty! 
| | ide 
l UT Mma 
| iN Hi 
| 
: 


= ~ i 

; tint act cut (taken from “Studies in Science and Religion”) shows, in addi- 

Lehigh ange cciated area of New Jersey, the glacial terraces of gravel along the 
ove the Delaware rivers, and also the “ Delta terrace” at Trenton, fifty feet 
"er, in which Dr. C. C. Abbott has found palzolithic implements. 
traced continuously down the river from the boundary 

FA 

te: a "delta terrace” of large extent at Trenton, whose sur- 
. 'S fifty feet above the present flood-plain. It is in this glacial 
“C that Dr. C, C. Abbott has found so many palzolithic im- 


758 The Glactated Area of North America. [August, — 


plements.’ Professor Cook has also found in these same glacial 
gravels the tusk of a mastodon. In riding from New York to 
Philadelphia on the New Jersey Central railroad, the train passes 


ylvania. This and the re- 


O, Indiana and Kentucky,” published by the Cleveland 


y of glaciated area of Penns 


Fic. 3.—The broad, black line shows southern boundar 
maining figures are from the “ Glacial Boundary in Ohi 


Historical Society. 


en, and 
from the glaciated to the unglaciated region at Metuchen, * 


on the Bound Brook route at Plainfield, and in both g5 w 
boundary line is marked by extensive accumulations ; 


1 See his “ Primitive Industry,” Salem, Mass., 1881. 


1884.] The Glaciated Area of North America. 759 
height. 
Fig. 3 shows the boundary line across Pennsylvania with 
aremarkable bend to the north as it crosses the Appalachian 
mountains, passing through Northampton, Monroe, Luzerne, 
Columbia, Lycoming, Tioga and Potter counties, thence through 
Allegheny and Cattaraugus counties in New York, thence back 
again in Pennsylvania through Warren, Venango, Mercer and 
Lawrence counties, 


material rising in hills from thirty to seventy feet in 
1 


Pie. 4—Map showing southern boundary of glaciated area of Ohio. 


i In Fig. 4 the dotted portion shows the glaciated area of Ohio. 
' aas ls respecting the boundary in New Jersey, see the report of Professors 
a Smock for 1878, 1879, 1880. 

See the joint report of Professor H. Carvill Lewis and myself, soon 


tF 
be issued : 
x by Professor Lesley as a part of the State geological report. 


760 The Glaciated Area of North America. [August 7 


The accompanying list of counties is numbered to correspond to 
those in the plate : 


: 


1. Williams. 23. Hardin. 45. Pike. 67. Muskingum. 
2. Defiance. 24. Logan. 46. Adams, 68. M 

3. Paulding 25. Champaign. 47. Sciota. 69. Athens, 

4. Van Wert. 26. Clarke, 48. Erie. 70. Meigs. 

5. Mercer. 27. Greene. 49. Huron. 71. Gallia, 

6. Dark 28. Clinton. 50. Lorain. 72. Lake. 

7. Preble 29. Brown. 51. Richland. 73. Geauga. 

8. Butler. 30. Ottawa. 52. Ashland. 74. Portage. 

9. Hamilton. 31. Sandusky. 53. Knox. 75. Stark. 
10, Fulton. 32. Seneca. 54. Licking. 76. Tuscarawas. 
11. Henry. 33. Wyandot. 55. Fairfield. 77. Guernsey. 
12. Putnam 34. Crawford. 56. Perry. 78. Noble. 

13. Allen 35. Marion. 57. Hocking 79. Ashtabula, 
14. Auglaize 36. Morrow 58. Vinton rumball, 
15. Shelby 37. Union 59. Jackson. 81. Mahoning, 
16. Miami. 38. Delaware. 60. Lawrence 82. Columbiana. 
17. Montgomery. 39. Madison. 61. Cuyahoga. 83. 

18. Warren. 40. Franklin 62. Medina. 84. Harrison. ; 
19. Clermont. 41. Fayette. 63. Summit. 85. Jefferson. 
20. Lucas. 2. Pickaway 64. Wayne 86. Belmont. 
21. Wood. 43. Ross. 65. Holmes. 87. Monroe. 
22. Hancock. 44. Highland. 66. Coshocton. 88. W. 


The five figures numbered 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, give the section that ! | 
have zigzagged through Ohio on the scale of six miles to the 
inch. Upon the first two plates I endeavored to represent y 
boundary of what Professor Lewis and myself called the “ fring? a 
the broad dark line representing the limit of the more consider- 
able glacial deposits, the broken line the extreme limit of ar 5 
boulders out of reach of the water courses. West of l 
county I did not think it best to draw this distinction, and WY 
line marks the extreme limit of true glacial action. It will " 
interesting and important for other investigators to examine SF : 
fringe throughout the whole line, and inquire why in mee : 
it is so broad and in other places there is none at all. ator 
deposits of special amount are found at the following places ® 
near the margin in Ohio: Columbiana county—Palestie od : 
northern part of Centre township, and New Alexan aed 
county—two miles south-west of Canton, north eo 
Holmes county—a little north of the line throughout ee 
county— Danville, Millwood, Bladensburg; Licking = aye. 


— 


Wilkin’s run, Newark, Amsterdam; Perry county yr. 
Fairfield county— Rushville, the vicinity of Bern stana s 


=< ® a? 3 
San ? 


E 
eee s 
“A 5 
a OAS A 
> TEN 
‘G ‘ 
a oe 
> x 


76 


The Glaciated Area of North America. 


Fic. 5.—Glacial Limits in Ohio. 


an 
OVO. 


š par 
AO: 

w 

EN., 
— : 
gt a se 

Se WA 

0 a 
ee: 


D EE Í 
; we es . = 
EE PE Bs Oe | 
, 2s eee tt a 3 ee 


[August, 7 


The Glaciated Area of North America. 


762 


Fic. 6.—Glacial Limits in Ohio. 


763 


The Glaciated Area of North America. 
Fic. 7.—Glacial Limits in Ohio. 


1884] 


we 


Fic. 8. —Glacial Limits in Ohio. 


765 


The Glaciated Area of North America. 


1884.] 


ed WY D 


ViGGNY X21¥ 


Fic. 9.—Glacial Limits in Ohio. 


* 


The Glaciated Area of North America, 
Fic. 10.—Map of Southern lndiana, showing glacial boundary: 


766 


1884.] On the Evidence that the Earth's Interior is Solid. 767 


_ caster and Clearport ; Pickaway county—Tarlton ; Ross county— 
Adelphi, Hallsville and throughout Green, Union, Concord and 
_ Buckskin townships; Highland county—in Paint and Northern 
_ Marshall townships ; Adams county—the vicinity of Winchester, 
_ Kentucky—in the vicinity of Carthage, Burlington and Woolpers 
| reek. 


_ Figure 10 shows more distinctly the relation of the glacial 
a limit to the Ohio river at Cincinnati, producing the supposed ice 
_ dam discussed in a previous number of the NATURALIST (see Vol. 
xvm, June, 1884, pp. 563-567), and the line across Indiana traced 
q by me last summer. The northern part of Dearborn, the whole 
T of Ripley, Decatur, Jennings and Bartholomew counties are 
deeply covered with true glacial drift, and the extreme limit is 
‘Pretty easily ascertained, though the deposits in Jefferson, Clark 
and Scott counties are scanty as compared with the counties far- 
‘ther north. The highest point of the State is in Brown county, 
_ 150 feet above the sea. The ice deposits do not reach to that 
Point, but are very deep and extensive a few miles north over the 
_ Southern part of Johnson county. In Owen county there are 
a numerous striæ running 50° east of south, or nearly at right 
angles to the glacial limit. The glacial deposits in Southwestern 
4 are covered with “loess,” which is doubtless a water 
- kposit, and will, to the westward, probably greatly increase the 
“tie lty of tracing the exact southern boundary of the glaciated 


>i :0: 
ON THE EVIDENCE THAT THE EARTH'S INTERIOR 
IS SOLID. 
BY DR. M. E. WADSWORTH. 

(Continued from page 686, Fuly number.) 
Conclusions Starting with the common belief that the earth 
ence an intensely hot gaseous body, it follows that when 

from a gaseous to a liquid state, convection would cause 
gling of all the liquid portions only so long as the 


Kept every part at the same density. As soon as an espe- 
diference in density manifested itself (if it had not already 
one the gaseous state) the heavier materials would sink 
S the interior and the lighter pass outward towards the 
* So soon as these materials became viscous the inter- 


768 On the Evidence that the Earth's Interior is Solid. (August, — 


change would be retarded. Now, when convection no longer — 
caused the heterogeneous materials of the earth to mingle, the — 
cooling rate would change from the comparatively rapid rate of : 
convection-cooling to the very slow rate of cooling by the con- 
duction of liquids. 

It is to be remembered that to have convection in liquids at all 
there must be some external source which shall, at some point, 
continually supply an increment of heat, but for a cooling globe 
no such supply exists. These are facts that ought to be taken 
into account in all discussions relating to the age of the earth 
or sun. 

It would seem, however, that Thomson’s view of the age of 
the earth is based upon the supposition that the earth during its 
liquid state was homogeneous and cooled throughout by conver 
tion, and that later it became solid and likewise cooled by the 
ordinary conduction of a solid body. 

The writer would hold, in contradistinction, that after the 
earliest stages the liquid earth cooled by conduction ima hetero- 
geneous liquid, and after the superficial crust was formed, by con- 
duction not only through a heterogeneous liquid, but also à 
heterogeneous and, at least in its exterior portion, a more or less 
discontinuous or fragmental solid. . In this way it would seem e 
if biologists might gain a portion, if not all, the time desired, | 
which is now denied them by the physicist. 1 

In the same way, if the heavier gases tend to lie nat i 
center in a hot gaseous body, the exceedingly slow rate of z 
ing on account of the poor conductivity of gases ought to 
taken into account in all discussions relating to the ag° of Px 
body formerly gaseous. Another factor would be the heat 

: : form the mineral : 
engaged by the chemical unions necessary to tor ; 
combinations, now existant on the earth, out of the once ee 
FR garea. po Jå 

ut to return ; when the lighter surface materia! ©" ae 
had cooled sufficiently, a crust would be formed which, 
either to its lighter state in its hot condition, or to its sco 
character and the viscidity of the material beneath, wo" | 
sink, It is to be remembered that on account of the aie B 
rocks through the softened or viscous state to the solid, ta" 
viscous material immediately below the solid cru 
nearly the same condition and temperature as the 


st would be 


overlying crust 


1884.] On the Evidence that the Earth's Interior is Solid. 769 


into which it would gradually pass.. It is not probable that the 
crust would break up and begin to sink, because even if its sur- 
_ face grew cold it would always have this hot, solid base, lighter 
_ than the underlying viscous liquid, which, owing to the increasing 
specific gravity as the interior was approached, would probably 
be more dense than any of the overlying cold crust. 

Even if the crust should become heavier, break up and begin 
to sink, this sinking would be very slow on account of the vis- 
cosity of the liquid and its constantly increasing density, while 
the heat imparted to the sinking crust would tend to bring it to 

_ about the same specific gravity as the liquid, as the sinking mass 
_ feared its melting point. But above and beyond all, it would 
_ n reach a point at which the liquid, being of different compo- 
_ Sition, had a higher specific gravity than the crust, and no farther 
_ Sinking could take place. We should thus expect to have formed 
_ the earth’s surface a crust which never would sink, or if it 
_ Sank at all, would for only a comparatively short distance, giving 
nse at that point to a solid crust floating upon a denser hetero- 
_ Seneous liquid. While willing to admit that the crust when cold 
_ Would be heavier than the liquid out of which it was formed, it 
is denied that the exterior would cool to such an extent as to be 
heavier until solidification had taken place to sufficient depth to 
reader the contraction of the exterior portion of but little effect ; 
q that is the increased density of the liquid immediately beneath 
the hot lighter interior portion of the crust would more than 
_ ‘Sunterbalance the increased density of the cold exterior portion 
: of that crust. 
_ _ >i William Thomson's idea of a crust on solidification sinking 
+ center of the earth and building up a honey-combed mass, 
x omy applicable to a homogeneous liquid globe of but slight 
K ty, whose material contracts in passing from the liquid to 
ME Solid state. 
shar a condition of the earth as the writer supposes, a grad- 
ty rom the cooled surface crust towards the hotter inte- 
„n Portions of that crust, thence into the plastic and viscous 


TS AP Satin RT a a tly 


away of the nucleus from the rigid crust, but the entire 
Would contract as a whole, causing a linear shortening of 
“st through compression. This would occasion a crush- 
together of this crust, causing it to be depressed in some 


770 On the Evidence that the Earth’s Interior is Solid. (August, 


places and elevated in others. The depression of any portionof — 
the crust into the viscous liquid beneath would cause the eleva 
tion of an equivalent weight of the liquid material; as in the case 
of ice, the depression of the ice on one side causes the heavier 
water to overflow unless it can escape in some other direction. a 
The simple sinking of a portion of the crust on one side with its 
corresponding but less elevation on the other, with the attendant 
fissuring, affords all the dynamic agent needed to raise lavas to 
the top of the highest mountains ;! while if in any way the yield 
ing to the lateral compression should be sudden, instead of grad 
ual, owing to fracturing and slipping of the parts, an earthquake 
shock would result. 

If the general views of the compression of the material-in the 
interior of the earth are correct, then if from any cause the pres- 
sure were removed, the natural expansion of the material, if a 
liquid, would cause it to rise to some extent in any vent oF 
opening. 

During the earlier times when the crust was thinner and the 
internal heat stronger, a greater variety and amount of mat 1 
raised as lavas through the fissures would be expected, and not 
improbably outflows of two different kinds might take place : 
at the same time, as it would seem had taken place on Lake 4 
Superior. : 

The up thrust of the still liquid and yielding interior portions 
through the fissures in the overlying crust, and the subsequent 4 
solidification of the intruded material, would cause that crust to 
be tied through and through with the underlying mass. abe 
Neither is it to be expected that the contraction woul ie 
equal in every portion, while the depression of the ere 
the interior would give rise to unequal thicknesses of as as 7 
to which the liquid outfows would add. The great irreg® l 
of the under surface of thè crust, coupled with th d 
sage from the solid to the viscous liquid interior would pae “ 
to prevent any of the supposed slipping of the crust a a 
interior, as many physicists have assumed would take place 1! = 
earth had a liquid interior. 

If it is held that volcanic rocks are derived fro q 
faction of the original crust of the earth, would gee! oe ] 
theory be, in the light of what is now known of the 

? Whitney, “ Earthquakes, Volcanoes and Mountain-building,” P- * 


1884] On the Evidence that the Earth's Interior is Solid. 771 


- thenatural heat of the rocks themselves to cause their passage into 
the liquid state ? 
It has been claimed with apparent justice that the simple de- 
_ pression of any portion of the earth’s crust into the still liquefied 
portion of its interior, would tend to cause the base of the 
_ depressed portion to re-liquefy through the greater heat to which 
it would be then subjected to, thus making the re-fusion the nat- 
_ lal result of the earth's contraction. 
| Itappears to the writer that so far as any evidence now exists 
_fgarding the earth’s interior, it is allowable to assume its present 
‘liquid state. A state that in his judgment accords better with 
ahi of petrography than any other assumption that has been 


itis true that if the materials of the earth’s interior were solid, 
o but could be liquefied by diminution or increase of pressure, this 
a ion would perhaps be consonant with what is now known 
ofthe internal structure of rocks, especially the partial dissolving of 
the olivine of basalts, the hornblende of the andesites, the quartz 
X the thyolites, etc. One of the greatest difficulties in the way 
a thi Supposition is to understand why the same lava should 
uce different crystals when it was in the interior from those 
~ Sd on the exterior of the earth. 
_ Itis difficult to see how, if the earth is solid, that any relief 
Pressure could take place otherwise than from the crushing 
gether of the overlying rocks, the tearing up of these from the 
‘Ying ones, and elevating them into the air; that is, the 
Sol: n Pressure would come from an elevating instead of a 
te Process. In truth it would seem that eruptions and 
he an building or elevations arose rather from the sinking of 
large, Causing smaller ones adjacent to rise, or, as an- 
ocean 1 by Dana, the highest border is on the side of the greatest 
of 


It would seem that elevation followed subsidence, in- 
~ OL subsidence following elevation, If this is the case, it is 
“ito explain how subsidence could be brought about first 
*alid globe. 


772 On the Evidence that the Earth's Interior is Solid. (August, — 


We cannot imagine that matter so rigid as the earth's interior 
is claimed to be, could yield to the pressure of sediments, glaciers 
or lava flows, as has been advocated. This view is based chiefy 
on the fact that areas of thick detrital formations must have been 
areas of subsidence, hence, it is argued, the deposit itself has 
been the cause of the sinking. The reverse appears rather to be 
true, that only areas of extended subsidence can be areas of gret 
deposition. May it not then be claimed that the subsidence was 3 
the cause of the deposition instead of the deposition being the 
cause of the subsidence; and is not the former view more 
than the latter ? 
The deposition of sediment in any locality requires that one 
portion of the earth’s crust should be lower than another. la | 
the theory of a solid globe this would be brought about by the l 
„elevation of a portion of the crust, while in the theory of a liquié | 
globe by the depression of a portion of that crust. 
In a viscous mass, such as the earth’s interior next the crust ® 
here supposed to be, coupled with the irregular thickness of the 
crust, no especial connection could be expected to exist betwee d 
different vents, even if near one another, until after the lapse of : 
considerable time — the viscidity itself preventing any rapid 
motion of the interior mass. 
Whatever water was met, on the welling up to the sutface of 
the lava, would naturally render the latter more liquid, 5° wa d 
-it entered into the lava. The intervention of water ina yor’ 3 
eruption seems to be mainly its action on the lava during 4 
passage upwards, instead of its being the cause of ed 4 
It, indeed, plays a striking rôle in volcanic phenomena, gt q 
does not seem to be the primum mobile. It is difficult to hee 
lava in ascending to the earth’s surface could reach it sik 
meeting water somewhere on its way. When the water Dos 
could the results be different from those now witnessed? "i 
it not seem that water is the accident rather than the ad 4 
the eruption, and do not most observers transform an effect q 
a cause ? é 4 
_ It may be said that the physical evidence advanced in bebat : 
of its essential solidity is violated by the premises and while 
_ chosen as the basis of the mathematical discussion; ™” B 

 petrographical and geological facts demand either a8 interior 
is liquid or one that can readily become so. 


} On the Evidence that the Earth's Interior is Solid. 773 


_Itmay indeed be said with Professor Dana: “ Among geologi- 
al facts none appears to demand for its explanation a rigid globe. 
The demand has come through the supposed requirements of 
physical laws, studied with the aid of the highest mathematics, 
Whose methods and conclusions are sure only when all the modi- 
fying conditions of the problem are thoroughly understood. 
_ “It is now admitted by some of the best of physicists that no 
-“aguments have yet been present2d which prove the earth to be a 
_figid globe, or to have a rigid crust a thousand miles or so thick; 
and it is also admitted by some mathematicians and physicists of 

, including Airy, the astronomer royal, that the hypoth- 
is of a thin crust over a liquid interior is probably the true one. 
“The science of geology is, therefore, free to adopt the conclu- 
sion which seems best to suit known facts.”! 
_ For further discussions of the state of the earth’s interior 
the reader is referred to 
Barnard’s Papers, “ On the Internal Structure of the Earth considered as affecting 

_ the phenomena of Precession and Nutation,” Smithsonian Contributions, No. 

__ 44°; Pp. 33-48; No. 310, 16 pp. 
meys “Earthquakes, Volcanoes and Mountain-building,” 1871, pp. 68-107. 

he Earth’s crust,” 1881. 


Nature, 1870, 11, 264, 265 ; 1871, 1V, 28, 29, 141, 344, 345; Geol. Mag., 
w 0), vu, 421-424; Phil. Mag., 1859 (4), XVII, 327-332; XVIII, 259-262, 
H43545 1860, Xx, 194-196 ; 1862, XXIV, 409-417, 507-508; 1863, XXVI, 
“S495 1866, XXXI, 430-435 ; XXXII, 17-22, 313-315; 1867, XXXII, 10-16; 
18, XL, tom14 ; 1871, XLI, 307-309 ; XLII, 89-103, 280-290, 400. 


j 1871, Iv, 65; 111, 296-299. 
4 r Nature, Iv, 45, 366, 
Penn Monthly, 1876, vit, 364-378, 417-431- 
in. New Phil. Jour., 1827-28, 1v, 273-290. 

À 1828-29, VI, 84-89. 

ie Am. Jour, Sci., 1874 (3), Vil, 535-546. 
es PP- 147-227; 1875, pp. 1-9. 


s, New York, 1881, pp. 307-330. 
cal Sciences,” 


"eol, 1880, p. 812; see also Whitney’s “ Earthquakes, Volcanoes and 


Iiding 1871, P. 74. 


774 Shedding of the Claws in the Ptarmigan, ete. 


ON THE SHEDDING OF THE CLAWS IN THE PTAR- 
MIGAN AND ALLIED BIRDS. 


BY LEONHARD STEJNEGER. 


T fact of the ptarmigans shedding their claws regularly every — 
summer, seems not to have been observed personally by anyad 
the many excellent American ornithologists, and has, a 
been comparatively little known to them. It may consequently 
not be without interest to demonstrate this process, as I hwe — 
material at hand which shows the procedure very plainly. : 
The late Professor Sven Nilsson, the famous Swedish zoôl- 
gist, was the first to discover this peculiarity in the ptarmigass. 
His countryman, Professor W. Meves, afterward confirmed bis 4 
observations, and at the same time proved that this singular 3 
shedding of the claws also occurs in other birds of the family q 
Tetraonidz, as, for instance, in both sexes of Bonasa bones, — 
Urogallus urogallus, and also, in the female at least, of Lyre 
tetrix. 
As will be seen in the specimens of the Lagopus ridgwayi 
new species which I was fortunate enough to detect on the 
Commander islands, near Kamtschatka), shot in June. and 
August, before shedding, the middle claw measures 18-20 
while in the specimen shot on the 23d of August, and which bas 
just thrown the old ones off, the length of the new claw 1$ 9%% 
11™- More instructive still is a male, shot on the same day, 
as it has the claws only partially shed. The old claws have be A 
come loosened from their base and are forced 2-377 00t, S- 
covering the tip of the new ones, except on two toes, from ` 
they have already dropped off. Hence it is obvious that 
process is not a pathological one, in whi h the nail drops of 
pathological one, in whic 
soon as it is perfectly separate from its bed, and has 
receive nourishment through the blood-vessels. ne ditt 


one of the Shumagin islands, Alaska. About this ae 
Bean remarks in his “ Notes on Birds collected in Alaska, gt 
the Proc. U. S. Nat, Mus., 1882, p. 163, as follows: “THE, 
men (shot on July 21st) corresponds very closely in most July 
with number 33,548, a female from Norway, collected 
Read before the Biological Society of Washington, April 5th, iaa 


) Shedding of the Claws in Ptarmigan and allied Birds. 775 


_ #862; the claws, however, are considerably shorter than in the 
_ Norway example, and in all other specimens of albus in the Mu- 
eum.” Dr. Bean was kind enough to show me the specimen, 
it was apparent that the extreme shortness of the claws 
was due to the fact that the bird had shed them just before it was 
‘Shot, except on the right outer toe, on which the nail was so 
_ loose, however, that it dropped off, as I was a little too rough in 
handling it. 


will thus be seen that the shedding takes place in July or 

according to locality and other circumstances, at the 
When the toes are most denuded—in fact almost wholly 
_ taked—and the dark summer plumage is most complete. The 
daws grow very rapidly, however, and reach their full length long 
the white winter-plumage with the densely clothed toes is 


far as known, this process is confined to the members of 
family of Tetraonidz, mentioned above, when in the wild 


astern Asia. It is to be expected that we will soon hear 
ances from this Nearctic region also, when attention has 
been directed to it. 
ical investigation has been made to ascertain the 
and the development of this unusual process (at least I 
ware that any results of such an investigation have ever 
sshed), and consequently nothing is definitely known. 
mie use which <i birds derive from this extraordinary 


a the winter, to struggle with the snow upon which they 
to walk. The snow is often loose, and with a foot 
the common fowl, they would need much pem ex- 
their strength in order to keep themselves on the sur- 
as the ptarmigan by having the underside of the 


st. Acad. Forhandl., 1871, p. 772. 


776 Constitution of some Appendages of the Mollusca, [Auga 
toes thickly coated with feathers, which can be spread out, asi 
by means of the long and straight claws—which may be com- A 
pared with snowshoes—are enabled to run easily over the saom, 4 
the usefulness and the necessity of the lengthening of the sals — 
is self-evident. In the genus Tetrao (=Urogallus+Lyruret 1 
Bonasa) the lateral horny fringes of the toes render the same e 
cellent service, and may fitly be regarded as a kind of snowshows ; 
During the summer this whole outfit becomes superfluous, whid — 
may be the main cause of the periodical shedding.” It mayi — 
this connection be mentioned, that the horny fringes in Tetraone, — l 
and the thick feathering of the toes in Lagopodes mk. a 
during the summer, at which time the toes of the latter at 7 
almost wholly denuded of feathers. 4 


20: a 
ON THE CONSTITUTION OF SOME APPENDAGES OF E 
THE MOLLUSCA. a 


BY W. H. DALL, ’ 

r. is comparatively recently that the organic chemists have de 
voted any time to the investigation of the constitution d 

invertebrate organs or appendages, especially among brachiopods 

and mollusks. In the rare cases in which this has been done thë 

observations in many cases were overlooked by the biologi 


shells of certain brachiopods is almost a singular instance = 
the statement of such a fact has penetrated all the manuals 
text-books. 
The teeth and radula of mollusks, an apparatus 
characteristic of several classes of that sub-kingdom, me 
which classification has been largely based for at least Sa 


years : 
or “horny.” The jaw, which is developed in nearly all of pee 
is referred to in the latest general work on the Mollusks ( Ror 
clopedia Britannica, Art. Mollusca, p. 641), by Professor 
Lankester in the following terms: “ We find a usie 
present in the Glossophora a pair of horny jaws (usually a 

fied) developed as cuticular productions upon the ao 
the lips.” The same author refers to the radula as “a 
band beset with minute teeth,” “a horny cuticular product,” 

a “horny radula or lingual ribbon.” 


Constitution of some Appendages of the Mollusca. 777 


_ In various papers on the Mollusca, in which the dentition has 
been discussed, I have (and doubtless others have) called atten- 
Ša incidentally to the chitinous nature of the teeth of mollusks, 
méalso to the fact that those groups, believed to be of very 
ascent lineage, and to have been less altered from their early 
Matus than many others, have the teeth composed of chitinous 
Pts cemented together and to the radula with a horny cement 
which dissolves in boiling liquor potassa. This is the case in 
Docoglossa and Chitons. In these the base of the radula 
aad the above mentioned cement are probably of a truly horny 
stitution. In the Pulmonata the radula and teeth are of a 
higher character, and apparently purely chitinous, though in but 
of the groups has the jaw attained this constitution. 
itis well known that in some of the most highly organized 
‘B*ropods, such as Conus, the teeth are specialized, few in num- 
ber, in some cases tubular, barbed and furnished with a true poison 
| and and duct, by which a very severe injury can be inflicted on 
* assailant, even a conchologist. The secretion of sulphuric 
mal by the genus Dolium is doubtless connected with its habit 


its teeth and radular apparatus, and the secretion of such 
‘Stength that it must form a very efficient solvent, and greatly 
“sten the desired result. It may also be used as a poison against 
so-bodied adversary, but this is not definitely known. The 
Satement of Professor Lankester that the jaws of mollusks are 
"sually calcified,” is entirely erroneous. That some of them 
have a calcareous coating or reinforcement is possible, 
no such case is known to me, but at any rate it must be 
Very exceptional occurrence. 
Dr. 0. Loew, well known for his chemical investigations, when 
“acted with the Wheeler survey was kind enough to under- 
at my suggestion, some qualitative analyses of organic pro- 
for which I furnished the materials, about 1875- 
ig ine the nature of the molluscan jaw a number of the 
eh i cephalopods (probably Loligo) were examined. The 
Sak homy matter yielded very slowly to prolonged boiling in 
d liquor potassæ, but after this result a pellucid portion 
aned retaining the exact form of the jaw and about one-third 
total volume. This was boiled in strong acids and alka- — 
a long time without yielding or being visibly affected. 


778 The Theory of Sex and Sexual Genesis. [August 1 


Dr. Loew observed that chitine when treated with dilute sul- 


phuric acid gives a reaction of sugar, the present substance gave _ 


no such reaction, and is therefore different from chitine and prob- 
ably undescribed. It is probably closely allied to chitine but may 
contain a relatively larger amount of nitrogen. 

Having collected a large quantity of the epidermis of the com- 
mon brown mussel (Modiola modiolus L.) it was found to consist 
of purely horny matter, and dissolved with great ease in liquor 
potassez. The conchioline which cements the layers of the shell 
is probably of a more refractory nature, but difficult to isolate 
without much labor except in very small quantities, If the fresh 
mussels be put in a box in a hot place the epidermis spontane- 
ously scales off, and may be collected without trouble. 

The horny shell of a gastropod which is distinguished by not 
becoming calcified (Velutina coriacea Pallas) was found to consist 
almost wholly of horny matter, with a trace of phosphate anda 
little carbonate of lime. 

A large number of the shells of a brachiopod (Rhynchonella 
psittacea Ch.) were examined, and to our surprise yielded only a 
bare trace of phosphate of lime, 92 to 94 per cent of carbonate of 
lime, and the remainder consisted of horny matter. This raises 
a question as to the uniformity of the presence in other pee 
pods (Lingula, Discina) of the large proportion of phosphate 
lime, which has been detected in several analyses. 

I have brought up this subject not so much for the : 
contribution now made to it (which is small), but rather to aes 
ulate some of our chemical friends to work in a direction 
more promising for science than some which of late ~~ " 
more fashionable, and to call attention to our extreme ie 
of a great class of facts which, so to speak, lie daily before © 
demanding a solution. 


value of the 


—:0: —— 

THE THEORY OF SEX AND SEXUAL GENESIS: 
BY C. M. HOLLINGSWORTH. 

(Continued from page 677, Fuly number.) 

ok view taken by Simpson seems to me alt 

one, with regard to “the origin of those varie 


hermaphrodites in which there is an actual coéxisten 
or upon both sides of the body, or, in other words, 1 


ties of aout 


ogether aĵ 


nce upon on 
the same 


1884, ] 
segment of the sexual apparatus, of both the corresponding male 
and female organs. We can only refer all such instances to the 
laws which regulate the occasional production of local duplicities 
in different other organs of single bodies, and at the same time 
confess our present ignorance of what these laws are. We know 
that various individual muscles, nerves, &c , are not unfrequently 
_ found double, and that in the internal organs of the body exam- 
_ ples of duplicity in individual viscera are occasionally, though 
rarely observed in the heart, tongue, trachea, césophagus, intestinal 
canal, &c. In the several organs composing the reproductive 
_ apparatus, instances of similar duplicity would seem to be more 
common than among any other viscera.” That they should thus 
be more common is what theory would indicate without assuming 
that they constitute a recurrence to an ancestral hermaphrodite 


The Theory of Sex and Sexual Genesis. 779 


According to Darwin the sterility of hybrids is due mainly to 
an imperfect development of their reproductive organs. That 
there should be a greater derangement of the reproductive appa- 
ratus than of other parts, in an organism which is the product of 
à cross between two species, is what the theory of sex here pro- 
posed would indicate. For in the reproductive organs two redun- 
dant types have to be blended; and when a cross is effected be- 
a tween individuals of distinct species these two types represent 
Parts that are functionally distributed among four distinct forms. 

2. General principles pertaining to the formative conditions in 

; embryo also suffice to explain why it is that from a common 
onic type for the species each individual normally under- 
; 898s so pronounced a one-sided development, to ultimate in the 
a characters of one or the other of the differentiated sexes, 
Peat of developing equally and imperfectly the characters or 
een of both. In considering this question these two facts 
ould be borne in mind: 1. That where the same portion of 
: Primary tissue develops into one sexual organ in one of the 
AS aig into a different organ in the other sex, it is impossible 
TRN Organs to be developed in the same individual. 2. That 
a Patts of the body of the forming embryo upon which the 
-their | organs are immediately dependent for the conditions of 
the as luti on, considered as a nourishing apparatus, have not 

‘ 7 Pacity for supplying the conditions requisite to the full 
— of all the organs of both sexes, even if they were 
| of all Co€xisting in a fully developed state. 


780 The Theory of Sex and Sexual Genesis. 


(August, 
The determination to the development of the male or the 
female sexual gland is the essential or central fact in the whole 
sexual development of the individual. According to the latest 
views of embryologists, the ovary and the testicle in the higher 
animals originate from somewhat different parts of the layer of 
primitive generative cells which forms a thickening of a certain 
part of the walls of the peritoneal cavity on each side, when that 
cavity is formed. But since there is only a single mass of primi- 
tive cells from which either an ovary or a testicle takes its rise, 
we need not be particularly concerned here about whether itis 
the same part, or somewhat different parts, of the single mass 
that undergoes differential development, according as one or the 
other kind of glands is to be the outcome. In either case it is 
not difficult to understand why one kind of glands only and not 
both kinds is normally developed. If the conditions of develop- 
ment, as they immediately exist in the primitive generative cells, 
at the time when their development begins, are ever so little favor- i 
able to that course of development which will convert some of ! 
them into ova, they are by so much unfavorable to that couse 
which would convert them into sperm-bearing cells; and o 
versa. That is, the conditions that are suited to determine the 
development of one kind of generative cells are suited to arrest 
any tendency toward the development of the other kind. We 
are here dealing with the higher types of unisexual animals, 1 
which there is a much more active circulation of the internal 
medium than in the lower animals. In the latter, germ-cells m 
sperm-cells are sometimes developed in near proximity to 6 
other, but never, we may be perfectly certain, without an adequate 
differentiation of the conditions. | 
; os : ical, differs 

As there is a physiological, and therefore histological, ; 


ence in the stroma of the two kinds of sexual glands, analog a 


the same statement will apply to the glands as 
more, it is probable that the same adjustment of hich 
on which cell-growth and cell-division respectively depend, w he 
tends to initiate the development of one kind ra per 
other of generative cells and sexual glands, is adapted to fhe 
the course of evolution of all the other accessory sa w 
reproductive apparatus in the direction of the correspon wats co 
ual type. Then the later stages of the one-sided develop™ 


1884. ] The Thevry of Sex and Sexual Genesis. 781 


the individual in some of its sexual characters, and especially in 
what Hunter and Darwin have called the secondary sexual char- 
acters, is determined in great part by vital correlations between 
the parts thus developing and the sexual glands, established 
through the nervous system. This is clearly shown by the effect 
that is produced on the development of these parts by the remo- 
Val of the sexual glands. 

In moncecious and dicecious plants it is the reproductive mem- 
ber of the composite individual that undergoes a one-sided devel- 
opment. And the course of development is determined by a 
similar bias in the formative conditions—if not extending through- 
out the whole plant, at least in some manner initiated and main- 
_ tained at the point from which the flower is developed. The 
a peduncle and receptacle, one or both of which parts are common 
_ toall classes of flowers, and which are necessary to the develop- 
= ment of the sexual organs proper, have their developmental 
_ ‘Capacities in every case adapted to their required functions; and 
their functions in plants in which the sexes are separate consist in 
giving support and transmitting nourishment to a set either of 
male or of female flowers, but not to sets of both. A receptacle, 
‘specially, which is required to bear organs of one sex only, 
will admit of being smaller and of more uniform structure than 
one which is required to perform the double function of bearing 
~> Stamens and pistils ; and a difference of a similar kind must 
“st between the peduncles in the two cases, As the. required 
Structure of these parts in unisexual flowers is somewhat differ- 
Mir the two sexes, there is thus established not only a reduc- 
tion in developmental capacity of these parts, but also a sort of 
: Structural dimorphism. And as these parts are not in themselves 
mas, they tend, even when developing under conditions of an 
: “actly medium character between those most favorable to the 
‘Production of the male generative element and organs, on the one 
“hand, and those most favorable to the production of the female 
Parts, on the other hand, to assume the form suitable to one or 

the other alone. 
In the higher animals that bias of the formative conditions 
“termines the sex is probably initiated, in most cases a 
Mader normal conditions, in the ovum at the time of its fertiliza- 
? Or it may even depend on the constitution which one or the 
T the combining cells has, previous to their union. But it 


782 The Theory of Sex and Sexual Genesis. [ August, : 


does not become sufficiently pronounced to produce any percep- 
tible effect until a certain stage in the development of the embryo 
is reached. And the sex is no doubt subject to the controlling 
actions of external conditions for a time after the development 
begins, where the conditions of development, as they immediately 
affect the embryonic basis of the generative organs, can in this 
manner be considerably modified one way or the other. 

In some of the lower animals, as will be shown farther on, the 
sex is subject to control at a very late stage in the life-history of 
the individual; and toa less extent this seems to be the case 
also with plants. 

Causes Determining Sex—Since germ-cells are very large and 
sperm-cells are smail, it may at once be inferred that where they 
are formed in different parts of the organism, the parts in which 
germ-cells or their producing organs are formed must be parts m 
which the conditions are especially favorable to nutrition; and 
that the parts in which sperm-cells or their producing organs are 
formed, must be relatively unfavorable to nutrition and favorable 
to cell-division. Observation shows this to be the case; and 
from the causes thus indicated as determining the development of 
one or the other or of the two kinds of generative cells or organs, 
in different parts of the same organism, some of the causes mày 
be inferred which act to determine the sex of the individual, 
where the sexes are separate, and the truth of the inference tested 
by the results of observation and experiment. There is evidence, 
however, that the sex of the individual may also be determ : 
by the state of maturity at which the ovum has arrived peer? 
is impregnated ; and the true theory of sex must be capable 
explaining this fact. ; 

I will now give such evidence, of various kinds, as I have been 
able to obtain on the causes which determine the sex, for per 
pose of showing its agreement with the theory of ee pwe 
the earlier parts of this article. The hypothesis, it S$ ok 
remembered, is, that it is a relative preponderance of Ey p on 
tions on which cell-growth depends, or of the conditions 


: ation of the 
which cell-division depends, which causes the pele d 
female or male generati organs or determines tae eo 

g ive g Hak either fac 1 


the individual. If, therefore, the conditions on 7 
tor of the developmental process depends remain 
requisite preponderance, one way or the other, may 


con 


RE E SE Pe MTS a en, ME Ear eR, IF V EN NETS OMY T 


oa 
Nie 


sa 
still result : 


t 
Ee. 


Le Nee ee 


le Nae ee oe, ae 


oe 


To RO Pant pep nen ae eee 


inthe oute 


< aS hickory, walnut, &c., we find the female or pistillate 


stm 2 terminal peduncle, while the catkins of male or 


1884.] 


The Theory of Sex and Sexual Genesis. 783 


from variations in the conditions of the other factor. It should 
be remembered further that both factors are required to be pres- 
ent in the developmental process in the formative or initial stage 
of the development of all organs, the reproductive organs in- 
cluded, 

In the higher plants this initial part of the development is gen- 
erally effected at or within a very short portion of the extremity 
of each axis. But whether it is confined to this part or not, it is 
universally the case in “ perfect ” flowers that the pistils occupy 
the central position, with the stamens disposed around them. 
And that the central position is the one most favorable to cell- 
growth, and the outer position the one most favorable to cell- 


_ division, is shown by the fact that in the pith of exogenous 


plants the central cells are the largest—the cells decreasing in 
size from the center outward. The conditions on which this dif- 
rence depends are no doubt complex; but it is probably due 
mainly to the freer access of oxygen to the outer cells; since it 
has been shown that the oxygen consumed in these forming parts 
of plants is derived directly from the surrounding air, and is not 


j brought to them in the sap from other parts; while the nitrogen- 


US proximate compounds that enter into the formation of the 
‘xtending axis are derived mainly from other parts, and the whole 
Supply of the lower compounds of nitrogen necessary to the 
growth of the plant is taken in through the roots. The access of 
oxygen is required both for cell-growth and cell-division. But 
itis mainly to its nitrogenous constituents that protoplasm owes 


7 ts plasticity or instability as to state of physical aggregation ; 


and these Constituents are also chemically less stable than the 
other constituents. The more active respiratory changes induced 
r cells would, therefore, have the effect of causing 


_ to divide more rapidly than the central cells; or of prevent- 
mg them from growing to so great a size as that attained to by 


* Central cells before undergoing division. 


, dest onCecious plants it is the female flower, as a whole, that 
: i a part in which the conditions of cell-growth pre- 
the > and the male flower that develops from a part in which 


“onditions of cell-division predominate. In moncecious 


flowers are produced from lateral buds of the same 


784 _ The Theory of Sex and Sexual Genesis. [August | 


branch. In Ricinus, the castor-oil plant, the flowers are in a 
short panicle, with the female flowers at the terminus of the thick 
main axis, and the much more numerous male flowers borne in 
thick bunches on small lateral branches of the main axis. In — 
some endogens these relative positions are reversed, but only 
where the conditions of nutrition in the parts are also reversed. 
Thus in maize the staminate spikes or tassel form the terminal 
branches of the main stem; but they are far removed: by a long 
and slender portion of the stem from the assimilative organs— 
the leaves—of the plant; while the spike of pistillate flowers that 
forms the ear terminates a short and thick lateral br 

duced in the axil of a large leaf in the middle part of the stalk. 
So likewise where both male and female flowers are borne later- 
ally on a long and tapering spike, as in Stillingia, the staminate 
flowers occupy or form the upper part, and the pistillate the lower 
part of the spike. ; 

In the Composite it is generally the marginal flowers of the 
head that are pistillate, while the thickly-crowded flowers of the 
central part of the head, which are thus less favorably situated as 
regards nutrition, are staminate only, or in some cases > 
The same distribution obtains also in the Umbellifere. Here it 
is often the case that the same umbel or umbellet contains the 
three kinds of flowers, pistillate, perfect and staminate, clearly 
arranged according to the conditions of nutrition. Thus im ae 
cicely (Osmorrhiza longistylus) and parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) m8 
flowers are in compound umbels, and as regards the three see 
just mentioned, have the following arrangement: The cen i 
umbellets of the compound umbel are the smallest of all es 
often bear small staminate flowers only. Umbellets that oa 
neither central nor peripheral, but intermediate in position, ijae 
also intermediate in size, and generally bear small, sun seit 
flowers in their central parts and larger, perfect flowers 7 J 
outer parts. The outer or peripheral umbellets of the Kee : 
umbel are the largest and bear small, staminate flowers outer 
central parts and larger, perfect and pistillate flowers 1m therr i 
parts. Here we have a regular gradation from wholly pae 
wholly female flowers, with increase in the size of all ye ne 
sory parts, which difference in size must result from differen 
the conditions of nutrition, or growth. 


i pio 
While studying the inflorescence of the wild parsmp 


1884. ] The Theory of Sex and Sexual Genesis. 785 


curred to me that since in this plant the receptacle of the umbel- 
let is somewhat projecting in the center, and since the apex of 
the axis in growing plants is generally the point of most rapid 
growth, it might be the case that this central point of the recep- 
tacle would in some instances bear fertile flowers when parts fur- 
ther out and intermediate in position would not. And on more 
careful examination I found in many instances a single pistillate 
flower occupying this position, but showing this remarkable pecu- 
liarity, that it was sessile upon the apex of the receptacle; and 
from the considerable number of flowers in the umbellet, twenty 
to thirty, and the fact that cll the others were carried out beyond 
this one, by their extended pedicels, so as to partially conceal it, 
Thad previously overlooked it in making out the distribution of 
male, perfect and female flowers on the umbellet. 

As has just been shown, there is a strict correlation between 
the size of the umbellets of a compound umbel and the sex of the 
flowers they bear, the smallest umbellets bearing male and the 
largest predominantly female flowers. In Indian turnip (Arisema 
triphyllum) there is a similar correlation between size and sex for 
the whole plant, the largest plants being females, the smallest 
(that produce flowers) males, and many of the intermediate ones 
monæcious. So striking is this the case that I found that when 

€ plants are in bloom the sex can be inferred, with a great 
degree of certainty, from the comparative size of the plants alone. 
At this time the spathe so incloses the spadix on which the flowers 
are borne, that it cannot be determined by direct observation 
whether a plant bears male or female flowers, or both, except by 
opening the spathe. The plants reproduce by buds from corms, 
and by bulbs dropped from the receptacle, and are thus found 
neat frequently in groups, the plants in the same group varying 
steatly in size. The large buds from the older corms produce 

est plants, and the bulbs of the previous year the small- 
oo latter, however, do not produce flower-stalks the first 


be Prove the correlation between sex and size, I made exami- 
“og at one time of 213 plants, and at another of 137 p 
‘tested were in bloom. An inference was first made as tot ~ 
with le sex of each plant, judging from its size as compar 

A the others of the same group, or as compared with the 
© TAE size for the locality, each plant being pronounced either 


786 The Theory of Sex and Sexual Genesis. (August, : 


male or female, and thus no attempt being made to tell from the 
size which were moneecious. Then by opening the spathe the 
inference was found to be either right or wrong, or partly right 
and partly wrong, and was so recorded. Of the 213 plants 
seventy-four were judged, from their size, to be females, which 
proved on examination to be such, and ninty-six were judged to 
be males, which proved to be such; seven were judged to be 
females and ten to be males, which proved to be moncecious; 
thirteen, mostly of medium size, were judged to be females which 
proved to be males; and thirteen, mostly of medium size, were 
judged to be males which proved to be females. Of the 137 
plants fifty-seven were rightly judged to be males, and sixty-four 
rightly judged to be females; so that there were only sixteen out 
of the whole number whose sex was wrongly inferred from the 
size. Thus in the great majority of cases the sex was correctly 
inferred from the size of the plants; and in nearly all the cae 
where the inference was wrong the plants were of medium siz 
in which case there would necessarily be much uncertainty M 
attempting to determine the sex in this way. ; 
Here we have, I think, very conclusive evidence that the female 
sex is determined by a relative predominance of the conditions 
of nutrition or cell-growth over the conditions of differentiation 
or cell-division, as compared with the correlation of these condi- 
tions in the production of the male sex. All the external om 
tions of development, comprising temperature, the supply 
oxygen and carbon dioxide in. the air, and the supply @ EEEE 


A he 
and other matters in the soil, are precisely the same for zie : 
plants of each group. The only difference is, that g pea 


corms contain a greater quantity than the smaller ones 
rated and stored-up proximate compounds to be organiżed aro 
a single axis of growth. And from the larger aggregatio! fe 
nutritive matter female plants are developed; while from | 
smaller aggregations male plants are developed. : most : 
The observations or experiments of Knight furnish eee ) 
conclusive evidence we have of the nature of the ae “that 
tions which act to determine the sex in plants. Hate solely 
several kinds of moncecious plants can be made to pe light 
male or solely female flowers, by regulating the quani te er 
and heat under which they are grown. If the heat be F iv 
compared with the quantity of light which the pant 


: 
: 
: 
i 
ži 
A 
w 
: 
: 


1884.] 


male flowers only appear ; but if light be in excess, female flow- 
ers alone will be produced ” (Carpenter, Comp. Physiol., 1851, p. 
979). According to Sachs’ account of the conditions on which» 
cell-growth and cell-division respectively depend, these results 
_ obtained by Knight agree with the theory of sex here proposed. 
“In the case of the buds of the higher plants their reservoirs 

of reserve material are the bulbs, tubers, rhizomes, parts of the 
stem, cotyledons and endosperm; after the complete exhaustion 

_ Of these, growth ceases in the dark but continues in the 
_ light, because the assimilating organs can then produce new 
_ ‘material. This relation of growth, which is connected with cell- 
i division, to assimilation, is especially clear in algæ of simple 
_ Structure, which assimilate in the day-time under the influence of 
light, while cell-division proceeds exclusively, or at least chiefly, 

atnight. The swarmspores are also formed at night, but swarm 
only with the access of daylight. In some Fungi, also, the split- 
_ tng up of the protoplasm in the sporangium into a number of 
‘pores takes place only in the night, the -spores being thrown out 
: 


The Theory of Sex and Sexual Genesis. 787 


"a the access of light. While, therefore, in the larger and more 
highly organized plants assimilation and the construction of new 
- tells out of the assimilated substances is carried on in different 
_ Parts but at the same time, in small transparent plants, in which 
_ iS Parts where these functions are effected are not surrounded 
oh Opaque envelopes, they take place at different times ” (Botany, 
_ 753). The conditions on which cell-division depends are no 
_ _ ` Present both in light and darkness, but in the light there 
_*4 predominance of the conditions of growth. 
Speaking of the segmentation of the animal ovum, Stricker 
= “In the fecundated egg the spermatozoa must be regarded 
- he agents from which the first excitation proceeds. There 
fan be no doubt, also, that in the act of fission a high tempera- 
“uc Plays an important part” (Manual of Histol., p. 46). This 
ee words with the interpretation of the results of Knight's 
“periments required by the theory of sex here proposed. 
ae is evidence of a similar kind to that now given with 
tatt to plants, showing that in animals likewise the sex may 
_ “mined or controlled to a greater or less extent by condi- 
of nutrition, « According to Girou, female domestic anı- 
e~“ more females when well nourished and left in repose 
“8 much worked and on spare diet ” (Allen Thomson, 
*YI1.—no, VII, 


le aa Eg a a Fat a a Nok a TLE Salt get a R a nm aL 


50 


788 The Theory of Sex and Sexual Genesis.  [August, 4 


Todd’s Cyclop., art. Generation). But experiments that have | 
been made on the larvæ of butterflies and maths furnish the mot 


conclusive evidence that has yet been obtained of the determina- 
tion of sex in animals by conditions of nutrition. 

In the Am. NATURALIST for March, 1873, an account is given 
by Mrs. Mary Treat of experiments on this point, both with but- 
terflies and moths. Larvæ that were shut up in paper boxes soon 
after the last molt and deprived of food, nearly all developed into 
males ; while larvæ of the same lot that were highly fed on good 
food as long as they would eat, nearly all developed into females. 
Similar experiments have been made by Gentry with moths, and 
with the same results; and he adds the following facts which 
came under his notice in the course of his observations and ex- 
periments: 1. That males are the invariable result when the 
larvæ are fed on diseased or innutritious food; 2. That in the 
fall, when the leaves have not their usual amount of sap, , 
are generally produced ; 3.. That more males are produced late in 
the season than females ; 4. That the sexes in early life cannot 


be distinguished, the change being brought about late in life by : 
the conditions of nutrition” (Abstract in Pop. Sct. Mon., April, 


1874, of a paper communicated to the Phil. Acad. of Sci.). In 
the case of the well-fed larve there is a greater accumula 
nutritive material to be reorganized in the metamorphosis than 


there is in the case of the ill-fed larve; while the other condi- 


tions of development, temperature and the supply of oxygen a 4 


the same for both. 
The effect which the time of the impregnation of the 
in determining sex has yet to be considered in its beari 
foregoing theory of sex. Girou found that if the female flowers 
of dicecious plants be fertilized as soon as they are 
the pollen, the seed resulting produced mainly female 
and that if the fertilization be deferred to as late period as 
ble, the seeds resulting produce mainly male plants. ‘da 
from this idea, and supposing that the complete ma ah 
ovum might be very favorable to the production of the si 
and inversely, M. Thury, of Geneva (1863), caused gait F 
impregnated, sometimes at the beginning, sometimes at 
of the rutting period. In the first case he obtaine 
in the second male calves. The experiment was 
Swiss agriculturalist, M. Cornaz, who twenty-nine 


EER I a A E ANT AS PEN EE N E E E E E 


lation of — 


ovum has : 
ngsonthe 


fit to receive , 


“Starting 


d female calves: q 
ated by? s 


times in wer 


SA Re EEEN Se eT ee 


1884.] The Theory of Sex and Sexual Genesis. 789 


ty-nine cases, succeeded in producing at will such or such a sex” 
(Letourneau, Biology, p. 312). Experiments on the effect of late 
fertilization of the eggs of birds had previously been made by 
Knight, “ which,” he states, “to have been frequently repeated,” 
and which gave similar results. “ When the female was kept with- 
= out intercourse with the male up to nearly the time for laying, so 
_ that the eggs had advanced very far in their development at the 
. time of fertilization, the proportion of males among the offspring 
was very large, commonly about six out of seven” (Carpenter, 
_ peit, p. 979). 
= Inthe theoretical interpretation of these results, the important 
fact to be noted is, that the mature ovum, even without fertiliza- 
__ tion, generally undergoes segmentation in an imperfect manner 
__ before its death and dissolution takes place. Thus from the be- 
ginning of the period during which the ovum is capable of being 
_ impregnated to the time when segmentation begins, the proto- 
plasmic mass of the ovum undergoes a gradual change from a 
More stable to a less stable state of aggregation as a mass. This 
change is no doubt accelerated by .the access of the sperm-cell, 
at whatever time fertilization may take place. Still if fertilization 
takes place at a very early period, the interval of time which will 
follow before segmentation begins will be greater than it will 
when fertilization takes place at a later period. And there is evi- 
ice that during that interval the sperm-cell tends to become 
assimilated in its constitution to the germ-cell, and therefore, by 
hypothesis, to have its specific capacity or function of exciting 
cell-division to some extent weakened. Recent investigations 
_ fave shown that the act of impregnation consists in the forma- 
_ ton of a male “ pronucleus,” derived from the impregnating 
‘Perm-cell, which fuses with the female “ pronucleus” of the 
: -cell to constitute the single nucleus of the fertile ovum. 
i And Hertwig points out, “that considerable difference may be 
: in the occurrences which succeed impregnation, accord- 
: "Eto the relative period at which this takes place. When, in 
. 25; the impregnation is effected about an hour after the egg 
S laid, and previously to the formation of the polar-cells, the 
: Pronucleus appears at first to exert but little influence on 
eee Protoplasm, but after the formation of the second polar-cell 
‘he radial Strie around it become very marked, and the PSOR- 
"s rapidly grows in size. When it finally unites with the 


a oui = n a E A E a o a a 


> 


790 The Condylarthra. [August, 


female pronucleus it is equal in size to the latter. In the case 
when the impregnation is deferred for four hours, the male pro- 
nucleus never becomes so large as the female pronucleus. With 
reference to the effect of the time at which impregnation takes 
place, Asterias would seem to serve as a type” (Balfour, Comp. 
Embryol., Vol. 1, p. 68). 

Thus when impregnation takes place at a very early period, 
since the ovum in its own independent course of development has 
not yet reached the segmenting stage, the immediate effect of the 
union of the female and male elements is a modification of the 
male element by which it is to some extent assimilated in charac- 
ter to the female element. In consequence there is established in 
the fertilized ovum at the outset a relative preponderance of the 


factor of cell-growth, in its developmental tendencies; and this, 


by the theory, determines to the production of the female sex. 
But where impregnation takes place at a late period, when the 
ovum in its development has reached the segmenting stage, its 
modifying action on the male element before the union is com- 
pleted is less ; and in consequence there is established in the fer- 
tilized ovum at the outset a preponderance: of the factor of cell- 
division, which the male element represents ; and this, by the 
theory, determines to the production of the male sex. ' 

It appears, therefore, that the theory of sex and sexual genesis 
that is here proposed, affords a reasonable explanation of the ob- 
served effects of the time of impregnation in determining sai 
And so far as all the known causes on which the determination of 
sex depends are incapable of being equally well explained on any 
other theory, they may be taken as giving support to this theory. 


PIRES EDIE O ET 


THE CONDYLARTHRA. 
BY E. D. COPE. 
teeth of 


i a paper on the homologies and origin of the molar re 
the Mammalia Educabilia, published in March, 1874 


1 Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. vious that 
which I used is as follows: “I trust that I have made it sufficiently o a> ur 
the primitive genera of this division of mammals [Mammalia Ba ee 
guiculata and Ungulata sensu lata] must have been bunodonts with 
plantigrade feet,” 

e nearest approaches to a similar anticipation on the part of 
which I have been able to find, refer to the number of toes only, and 


other naturalis® 
are of restricted 


ie 
‘oq 


a Ot a re 


sa es 


NSS a 


ee eee, ee So he 


D Leas Pam Shey ne 


x 


1884.] The Condylarthra. 791 


tured the generalization that the primitive types of the Ungulata 
would be discovered to be characterized by the possession of five- 
toed plantigrade feet, and tubercular teeth. No Perissodactyle or 

rtiodactyle mammal was known at that time to possess such feet, 
nor was any Perissodactyle known to possess tubercular teeth. 
Shortly after advancing the above hypothesis, I discovered the 
foot structure of Coryphodon, which is five-toed and plantigrade, 
but the teeth are not of the tubercular type. For this and allied 
genera I defined a new order, the Amblypoda. 

In 1873' I described, from teeth alone, a genus under the name 
of Phenacodus, and although a good many specimens of the 
dentition came into my possession since that date, I was long 
unable to assign the genus its true position in the mammalian 
class. The teeth resemble those of suilline ungulates, but I. had 
never had sufficient evidence to permit its reference to that 
group. Ailied genera, subsequently discovered by me, were 
stated to have a hog-like dentition, but their position could not 
be determined until the structure of the feet should be ascer- 
tained? : 

In his explorations in the Wasatch Eocene of Wyoming, in 
1880, Mr. J. L. Wortman was fortunate enough to discover nearly 
entire skeletons of Phenacodus primevus and P. vortmani, which 
Present all the characters essential to a full determination ot the 
Place of Phenacodus in the system. The result is, that this 
Senus must be placed in a special group of an order which in- 


application. Thus Kowalevsky remarks (Monographie der Gattung Anthracother- 
ium, Palæontographica, XXII, p. 1452): “So we can assume a tetradactyle foot as 


2 , but I communicated the substance of the generalization in 
Westion to the Philadelphia Academy the day it was read, Nov. 18th, 1873» which 
Was Published in the Proceedings of the Society, Jan. 13, 1874 (see p. ii). 
! Palæontological Bulletin No. 17, Oct., 1873, p- 3; also Report G. M. Wheeler 
- S. Engineers Expl. W. 100 mer., IV, p. 174, 1877. In the figure of the superior 
teeth in this work, the last molar is misplaced. 

eds. Amer. Philosoph. Society, 1881, p. 495. 


2 


792 The Condylarthra. [August, 


cludes also the Hyracoidea.! This order realizes fully the antici- 
pation which I expressed in 1874, for the greater number of its 
species are pentadactyl and plantigrade, both anteriorly and pos- 
teriorly, and have tubercular or bunodont dentition. The order 
to which I have referred Phenacodus, the Taxeopoda, has been 
already defined in these pages.? It includes those curious mam- 
mals the Hyracoidea or conies, and is divisible into two sub- 
orders by the following characters : 

A sors ego aac no fibular facet of calcaneum, but an interlocking ors 

ee 


tion bet fibula and ei hn ungual phalanges truncate. ... yrat 
A mity process; no fibular facets on either calcaneum or naiiai ; a third 
. Cond} 


trochanter of the femur; sate phalanges acuminate 


IG, 1.—Dentition of EREE rhabdodon Cope, two-thirds 
a, safetie molars from below; 4, inferior molars from above 


natural size. Fig. 
m the Puerco 
beds of New Mexico. Original. From Vol. 11, Report U. 5. Geol. Survey Terri- 
tories. 
The astragalus in the sub-order Condylarthra is absolute 
distinguishable from that of the flesh-eating groups C Ti 
and Carnivora. The humerus also presents a character 0 


ly un- 


unguiculate orders, in possessing an epicondylar foramen, . 
is elsewhere unknown among ungulates. The humeral con i 
as the Ambly- 


have the generalized character of the same type d 
poda, and of the lower Perissodactyla, in lacking an p lows! 
crest’ The Condylarthra may then be further defined as si) 
Astragalus with one uniformly convex distal articular face 
merus with epicondylar foramen. This sub-order has aS 

1 AMERICAN NATURALIST, June, 1882 (May 17). American philo- 

2 AMERICAN NATURALIST, 1882 (May 2oth) p. 523. Proceeds. 
soph. Society, 1882, p. 444. 

3 AMERICAN NATURALIST, April, 1882, p. 334- 

4 AMERICAN NATURALIST, 1881, p. 1017, Nov. 29. 


F 
4 
i 
: 
i 
d 
‘ 


hafa RA 


A ee 8 


1884. ] The Condylarthra. 793 


only found in the lowest horizons of the Eocene period, the 
Puerco and Wasatch, and only on the North American continent. 
Appropriately to this position in time, its structure indicates that 
itis the most primitive type of the Ungulata. A number of gen- 
era and species belong to it, and these fall into three families, 
which are defined as below. They conform to the definitions of 
the order in possessing the full mammalian number of teeth, 
and a third trochanter of the femur. The approximation to 
the Hyracoidea is greater than that of any other group of 
the Ungulata. That order agrees with the Condylarthra in the 
simple articular extremity of the astragalus, which is, however, 
less convex ; but it has a very peculiar articulation with the ante- 
tior face of the extremity of the fibula, seen in no other group of 


ungulates. In the manus of the Hyracoidea the lunar bone 


agrees with the Condylarthta in not being divided below into two 
facets, as in most other ungulates, but it is peculiar in extending 
to the trapezoides (the intercalare), and to the unciform. In this 
Point the Hyracoidea come nearer to the Amblypoda. In Hyrax 
there is also no epicondylar foramen. The three families of Con- 
dylarthra are defined as follows: 
Dentition bunodont; toes 5-5; astragalus without trochlea ; neck very short; pre- 
molars very simple above and below Periptychida 
Dentition bunodont; toes 5-5 ; astragalus with trochlea; neck longer; premolar 
teeth different from the molars above and below . . Ph lontid 
Dentition lophodont, with crescents and deep valleys; premolars partly like molars 
` below; neck longer ? Meniscotheriid 


The bunodont dentition, with very simple premolars, flat astrag- 
alus and five toes on all the feet, give the Periptychidæ the lowest 


Place in the sub-order and order, as the most generalized type 


wn. The Meniscotheriidæ have a quite specialized dentition, 
and until I learned its Condylarthrous character, I was at a loss 
to account for the presence of such perfection in so old a type. 
number of the toes is yet unknown. The family appears to 
have had no descendants, and is a good illustration of Dr. Kow- 
alevsky’s views as to the persistence of the “ adaptive ” over the 
non-adaptive ” types of articulation. Kowalevsky observed that 
the types of Ungulata, which have the carpo-metacarpal and 
tarso-metatarsal articulations simple and not alternating, have 
Ome extinct. In those which persisted, the metapodials artic- 
with two bones of the carpal or tarsal series. Ihave dis- 


E ed that the same rule has generally applied in the ungulates 


794 The Condylarthra. [August, 


to the middle carpal and tarsal articulations. The orders with 
the double articulation continued, while the Condylarthra, with the 
single articulation, have disappeared, leaving only modifed de- 
scendants. The Proboscidea, which have the same simple distal 
_ articulation of the astragalus, still remain, however, to show an 
exception to the generalization. They have, however, an alterna- 
tion in the second series of the posterior foot not present in the 
Taxeopoda. The relations of the genera of these three families 
are as follows : 
PERIPTYCHIDÆ. 
In Periptychus only are the posterior feet known. The carpus 
is yet unknown. The successional generic modifications are seen in 


FIG. 2.—Periptychus rhabdodon Cope, jaws represented in fig. 1 seen in profile; 

koth natural size. From the Puerco beds. Original. 
the addition of cusps to the inner sides of the premolars aan both 
jaws, and to the true molars of the upper jaws. In pee 
we have the largest number of dental cusps and lobes, pis 
Periptychus the next. In Anisonchus the inferior premolars 
their inner ledges, and the true molars their anterior i pe 
lobes. The molars are still further reduced in Hemithlæus, 
the premolars in Haploconus. 

The characters of the genera are the following : 

I. Three pr 

Fourth apio hiaai like molars; inferior premolars without internal get 


and 
anterior 
II. Superior molars with intermediate tubercles, and tubercles 


posterior to the internal cusp; four premolars. 


4 


1884.] The Condylarthra. 795 


or s . . . 
Superior molars with an external cingular cusp ;`inferior premolars without internal 
ORD Som ET Py conus. 


ledge 
x cto 
o supplementary external cusps, inferior iata with ‘lena Jedgea: “Poripiyclns. 


I 
IL. aia tubercles wanting; four inferior premolars, without internal 


Su 
perior molars with posterior mes cusp only, besides internal V; last two 
superior premolars with internal lobes ......---++++> «o o o Anisonchus. 
Superior molars with internal V mik: no other interhal lobëš; ; á two superior 
se premolars with internal cuspS.........seeeeeeeseeeeee i ‘emithleus 
perior molars with posterior internal es only, haika apex of V; fourth supe- 
rior premolar only with internal lobe.........-- Haploconus. 
ir oo ee 
Superior molars unknown ; inferior eae No. Iv ? with two opposed 
crescents and a heel. 
Inferi : 
nferior molars with one or two pairs of opposed crescents...eess-+++++ 
All t . ; 
| he known species of the Periptychide are from the beds 
the Puerco Eocene. 
From 
the preceding table it is obvious that the yeeie of this 


iÍ ea) y : 


- 


D 


ee e q 


m pes Puerco beds of 

o. from below. 
é A ¢, distal end 
U. S. Geol. Survey 


Fic. 2. 
New al sag mg molestus Cope, two-thirds natural size, = 
Fig, 4, sieht ci 1g. ay right maxi ary bone, externa view ; 
of ‘ mus mandibuli, — ge 6’, do. from ahs 


V. Ha ayden i in charge. 
sly presen considerable diversity in the degree of complica- 
or less sj w molar teeth. In all of them the premolars are more 
while in S e, and in Hexodon they are but three in number, 

In Hex paged genera there are four. 
of the d odon Cope the type is most deve 
ental prehension. With the shortening of the jaws c 


loped in the direction 
omes 


796 The Condylarthra. [ August, l 


the loss of a premolar. The only species, Hexodon molestus, is 
known from the superior and inferior dentitions of a single indi- 
vidual. It differs from the Æ, ditrigonus in the short, rounded inci- 
sive region and closely-placed incisor teeth, the small posterior 
superior molar, and the more robust and more vertical canine 
teeth (Fig. 5). It is about the size of the red fox, but much more 
robust. It is one of the few species of the family which is armed 
with large canine teeth, and evidently stood preéminent in its 
powers of offence and defence. In the typical specimen the teeth 
are all worn by the mastication of hard or tough substances, s0 


that the structure of the crowns of the true molars is not entirely ; 


known. 


In-Ectoconus Cope, we have the most complex structure of — 


the molars in the family, or that the tritubercular type of supe- 
rior molar is known to present. There are eight cusps on each 
crown, viz., one external cingular; two external; two interme- 
diate ; one internal; two (anterior and posterior) interior cingular. 
The typical species is the Æ. ditrigonus Cope, an animal about the 
size of the collared peccary. Its upper lip, and probably muzzle, 
are prominent, since the premaxillary bone is produced, an the 
small conic incisor teeth are widely spaced (Figs. 4-5): The 
limbs were robust, and had the general character of those of 
Periptychus. Thus the astragalus is flat, and the humeral con- 
dyles are wide, and resemble those of a carnivorous animal. 
Several individuals have been obtained by Mr. David Bete 
In the genus Periptychus Cope, we have the largest and n 
specialized forms of the family. The molars only differ from 


Se e a o E i 


those of Ectoconus in the entire absence of the external cingu 


cusps (Figs. 1-2). The two genera agree in possessing is a 
cingular lobes of the superior premolars. The inferior premo 
of Periptychus are a little more complex than in the other sn 
era. The canine and incisor teeth are relatively small. Pie 
further characterizes the species of this genus is the extraor : 
sculpture of the teeth of the entire molar series. This ae 
of strong grooves separated by convex ribs, which extend *™ 
the base towards and to the apex of the crown, the num 


Pos to the Con’ 
1 This species is represented by a specimen which is referred by y urvey of the 
nyctes comma, in the Vol. 111 of the Report of the U. S. Geo ech came. Bettet 


Terrs.,p. , and are represented in Figs. 1-5. Plate XXIII of 
specimens of the C. comma show that the canine (or ? incisor) tee 
ferent character from those of this animal. 


h are of 907% 


ESTEE: aN T LEE SNAS BA HES lg AE a PRE rae NE DD Fe To RTO I SES ee EPIR ER 


1884. | The Condylarthra. 797 


coming less as they ascend or descend to the latter. This sculp- 
ture is unparalleled in the class Mammalia, the nearest resem- 
blance being found in the genus Ichthyosaurus among reptiles. 
A weak development of this sculpture is seen in the Ectoconus ditri- 
gonus on the one hand, and the Haploconus lineatus on the other 
(Figs. 1-2 and 10). 


<= 

Fic. 4.—Ectoconus ditrigonus Cope, two-thirds nat. size; Fig. a, maxillary and 
gern ary bones from below, retaining a good deal of the matrix. Fig. 4, last 
ae inferior molars worn by use. Fig. c, three deciduous, with first permanent 

olar, of a young animal. Original. 

A fragmentary skull shows a postglenoid crest, and the robust 
Posttympanic and paroccipital processes united, and leaving the 
meatus auditorius externus widely open below. The os petro- 
sum is small and not inflated. The foramen ovale is not sepa- 


sins Sats of tibia of Ectoconus ditrigonus ; a, head > b, oe sk aye A “y 
thirds erate Mao individual partially represented in Fig. 3- rig > 
fated from the meatus auditorius below. There are a postglenoid 
foramen and a supraglenoid foramen. There is also a well-mark 

mastoid foramen, The mastoid bone is extensively exposed. 
The cranial walls are thick, and there is a strong sagittal crest. 
_ _ ®© cervical vertebrze are much shorter than in Phenacodus, be- 
Ng deeper than long, and wider than deep (Fig. 6). They are 


798 The Condylarthra. [ August, : 


very slightly opisthoccelous. The caudal vertebrae are quite 
robust, indicating a powerful tail. Dorsals not found, 

The tuberosities of the humerus are small in proportion to the 
size of the head. The condyle is much like that of a creodont, 
with internal flange and external cylinder, without intertrochlear 
crest or ridge. The internal epicondyle is large, and is pierced 
above by an epitrochlear foramen (Fig. 72). The olecranon is com- 


ra 
"i 


Ip a in 

Fic. 6.—Periptychus rhabdodon Cope, cervical vertebra of individual ice 
figs. cd f, which belong to another ss e 

Fig. a,atlas; 4, axis; c d e f, third to sixth cervicals; all fro Original 
3 


hook and the spine rises abruptly from the neck (Fig. 74). i 
In the P. rhabdodon the femur is not materially larger pr 
humerus. The great and little trochanter are well — al | 
the third trochanter is situated low down, as in Phenaco us, | 
not opposite the little trochanter as in Creodonta (Fig. er 4 
Portions of two posterior feet preserved display five ™ nae 
and several phalanges. The distal carina of the former ji but 


gulate, 


i arrow for an un 
rior and weak. The latter are rather n stal ones are 


are not elongate, and are rather depressed; ee Eas usual i0 
more robust, and are rather more narrowed distally digt 
of an exter! r 


Ungulata, and the neck of a broken phalange ' t 
is nearly round in section, The third digit 1$ longes 


1884.] The Condylarthra. 


first, shortest; it is not very short, and is quite slender. Sesa- 
moid bones are probably present. The posterior foot is that of a 
plantigrade animal (Fig. 8). The astragalus is much like that of 
the Proboscidea in form (Fig. 8 4). The head is moderately long 
and is depressed. Its distal extremity is regularly convex from 
side to side. The trochlea is horizontal, and is not grooved medi- 
ally, but is very slightly concave. Fibular face vertical; malleo- 


`~ 
iss 


ewer anna eo e= sn, 
ca Sn ee 
a =; 
be 


pr 
ma 
-onnere™ 


6 nde 8, ex n figs. 
7 . 6, two-thirds nat. size. Fig. æ, T right humerus, kt iph- 

ot umite eri w; a’, do., distal view. Fig. 4, left s external 
A , internal erig of proximal end h another left scapula. aas e Puerco 
New Mexico. Original, from Report U. S. Geol. Survey 0 ydy Vol. 111. 


oe slightly oblique, and occupied by a deep central fossa. 
is not as convex as in Phenacodus, but is more recurved 
on both si 


799 . 


800 


many Creodonta, but which cannot be said therefore to overlap : 
the astragalus, as in the Amblypoda. 
I have obtained a cast of the top and sides of the cerebral 


F bdodon Cope, 
bones, two-thirds nat. s Fig. a, right 
femur, posterior view. Fig. 4, left astrag- 
alus, from above; 6’, do., distal end; c’, 
calcaneum, distal end; d, cuboid, from 
below ; e, metatarsals, lacking M. L., from 
below; f, penultimate phalange; g, un- 
gual phalange, from below. Original. 


but the internal cusp is more distin 


The Condylarthra. 


_ describe it in detail in another 


[August, 


cavity, and the proximal por- 
tion of the olfactory cham- 
bers, from a skull of a Perip- 
tychus in which the teeth are 
preserved, and prove the spe- 
cies to be the P. rhabdodon, | 


place, but state here that the 
olfactory lobes are enormous, 
and the hemispheres small 
and very flat. The mesen- 
cephalon is entirely exposed. It 
is probably the lowest known 
mammalian brain (Fig. 9). 
The posterior three premo- 
lars are preceded by tempo — 
rary teeth in both jaws. Of i 
these the anterior is protr : 
at about the same time as the 
first true molars, and is the 
last one shed, remaining until 
after the last true molar 1s "7 
protruded. The last milk pre — 


molar differs from the - a 
one in its : 


is very ant 
sembling a perman 
molar, except that 


i edor. 
nia i little more = 
n isa The 


1884.] The Condylarthra. 801 


penultimate milk premolar is more like the corresponding perma- 
nent tooth, but is a little more flattened and elongate, and the 
heel is not tubercular. The first milk molar is a little more com- 
pressed than the corresponding permanent tooth, and the edge of 
the heel is not tubercular. Otherwise they are similar. 

I have dwelt on the characters of this genus more fully than 
on those of some of the others, as it constitutes a type of striking 
importance in the Early Eocene fauna. Its discovery I consider 
to be an impertant event in the history of palzontological 
Science 


But three species of the genus are known thus far, the P. coarc- 
tatus (Pig. 10), P. carinidens and P. rhabdodon Cope. The first two 
-have the jaws and teeth about the size of those of the collared pec- 
cary, while those of the last named are frequently larger than those 
of the white-lipped peccary. In all three speciesthe premolars are 
larger than the true molars. The Periptychus rhabdodon must have 
_ hadapeculiar appearance, and 
one unlike that of any known 
mammal. The long legs with 
plantigrade feet must have 
given it the form of a bear, 
but its very short neck is 
only paralleled by that of the 
elephant. While the shorter 
legs forbid near resemblance 
to that animal, and the shape 
of the head is very different, 
yet the resemblances in the 
` re cannot be overlooked. 


Cast of superior wall of brain-case 


. FIG. 9. a 
had a long tail, stout at a Pevistechas rhabdodon, nat. size. Fig. a, 


animal t was a smaller from above; 4, left side. Origin 
the than the Phenacodus primevus, but the head was of nearly 
Same size. The dental system does not furnish any weapons 


2 of offence or defence, and none are known from any other part of 

a the skeleton. Its large premolar teeth are compressed at the 

. are capable of inflicting a severe bite. ee E 7 

Or cutting flesh or even of crushing bones or other 

4 Substances, Its jas may be supposed to have included sub- 

‘ _ Slances of this character, derived perhaps from both animal and 
“able sources. The Periptychus rhabdodon was the most 


802 The Condylarthra. [ August, 


abundant species of the Puerco fauna, and must have had an im- 
portant place in its economy. 


IG. 10.—FPeriptychus coarctatus Cope, mandibular teeth, nat. size. Fig. 4, 
two prem dla “deep first true molar, external view; 4, do., from above; c, do., inner 
side; d, canine tooth. From Puerco beds, New Hee Original, from Re port U. 
S. Geol. Survey a, F. V. Hayden in charge 

With the genus Hemithlzus we enter a series of forms with 
simpler molar teeth and of smaller size. The intermediate tuber- 
cles of the superior molars are wanting in this genus and in Ani- 
sonchus and Haploconus, and the inferior premolars are abso- 


Haploconus OOF 
11.—Jaws of Periptychide, nat. size, except fig. ad’, Fig. a, Hi side, 
fig Sha maxillary pic. from below. Fi ig. é, right mandibular eres of 
ica aaa ; BI, do. from above. Fig. c, Hemithleus kowai rere ; 
right maxillary bone fo below. Fig. d, Ze todon sponge baer Origin o ate 
lar ramus from si ig. d’, do., — nat size, from 
port U, S. Geol. etn Terrs., "Vo Lt 


lutely simple in all three. es is 
rior true molars a diminutive of Periptychus. 


ee foe SE mire IE ER. 


otherwise in its SUP 
The internal cusp 


o NNE EEEE ETE = ENEE SS 


Ea a gee ee O 


MESES ko NET PO agent ee ey ee me ee ee E nee a - 


1884.] The Condylarthra. 803 
like angle is flanked in front and behind by a cingular ridge, 
which is homologous with each accessory internal cusp of Perip- 
tychus. There are two species of the genus. The type, #. 
howalevskianus, is about the size of the Virginian opossum, and 
is abundant. Its premolars are robust and conical (Fig. 11 ô). 

In Anisonchus the posterior cingulum of the superior true 
molars supports an accessory cusp, and there is no anterior cingu- 
lum or cusp. The normal inter- 
nal cusp is, as in the two allied 
genera, the apex of a V, whose 
branches terminate close to the 
two external cusps. The supe- 
rior premolars three and four, have 
internal cusps whose different 
forms distinguish two sections of 
the genus. In the type, A. secto- 
nus Cope (Fig. 12 a 4), the form 
is, as in the known species of Per- 
iptychus and Ectoconus, that of _3 
an elevated concentric cingulum ; 
While in the A. coniferus, (Fig. 12 ¢) 
and A. gillianus, it is conical. The 
A. coniferus is the largest species, 
Probably equaling the wolverine 
in size, while the A. gillianus Cope, 
S not larger than the Bassaris 
astuta, The A. sectorius is an 
abundant species of the Puerco 
ae Ze teeth are smaller than 

of a placental mammal of iptychidze, nat. * 
corresponding size, and the cran- ler ect ta = — 
um is produced posteriorly, and part of nak aa a’, same, 
'S narrowed posterior to the orbits. external view. Fig. 4, right othe 
Ithas a well-marked sagittal crest. martapa peine er tate 
Its length is about that of the side. rie ei ‘Anisonchus conif 

Pe o from below. 
skull of the red fox. Two other ,CoPeright impet rie 
Supposed species of Anisonchus New Mexich.s od. a 4 
Were not larger than squirrels. Te 
$ ea figure is made by combining portions of oppos 

original (Report U. S. Geol. Surv. Terrs., 11, Pl. XXIV S, 


n 


ite sides of the same skull. 
Fig. 6) the artist 


' duplicated one of the tooth bases, an error which is now corrected. 


YOL xvi, —yo. vir. 
Ca 


804 “The Condylarthra. x [August, 

There are four species of the genus Haploconus. Theyal 
differ from the species of Anisonchus in the entire simplicity o 
all the superior premolars, excepting the fourth. The inter 
nal cusp of the latter tooth presents the same variations as tha — 
of the species of Anisonchus. In the type, H. lineatus, the - 
cusp is an elevated cingulum, and in AH. entoconus (Fig 
II a ò) it is conical, The latter is the largest species of the i 
genus ; the former comes next in size, and is the most 
In both, the premolars are larger than the true molars, a character 
especially conspicuous in the Æ. dineatus (Fig. 13a). This spe — 
cies is abundant, though the Æ. enzoconus is not rare in the lower 
Puerco beds. In some of the species of this genus the posterior — 
internal accessory cusp is so produced as to become the apex of 
the triangular superior molar. In the Æ. xiphodon Cope, the 
inferior premolars are elongate and much compressed, so as to be 
quite sectorial in function (Fig. 13 c). 


Fic. 13.—Species of Haploconus, natural size, from the Puere ea iad: wie a 
z m A 
Mexico. Fig. a, Haploconus lineatus, anterior part of craniu eaey ini ; 


from below. Fig. 4, left mandibular ramus of same species, d of right ramis 
inner side ; 6’, do, from above. Fig. c, Haploconus xiphodon, et Ters, F v. 
mandibuli, from above. Original, vit Report U. S. Geol. Survey . 
Hayden in charge, Vol. 111. - 
a inferior molat: ; 

In the genus Zetodon we have a distinct form of i nts in pai 
Each crown is theoretically composed of four cresce! coh 
in each of which the concave faces are present 
other, an arrangement unknown in any other gen 


us of 


i 


eee: aR a a a 


.1884.] Editors’ Table. 805 
In the fourth premolar there are two opposite crescents in front, 
like those of the true molars, but the posterior part of the crown 
isnot double. The only species, Z. gracilis Cope, is a small ani- 
mal with jaws not larger than those of a hedge-hog (Arimaceus 
europeus, Fig. 11 d)? 

All the specimens of the Periptychide now known, were dis- 
covered by my assistant, Mr. David Baldwin, in New Mexico. 
Not only these, but the eighty species of Vertebrata now known 
from the Puerco epoch, are the results of the untiring, and some- 
times dangerous explorations of this gentleman. Few palzonto- 
logical collectors can show such a record. 

(To be continued.) 


——0: 
EDITORS’ TABLE. 
EDITORS A. S. PACKARD, JR., AND E. D. COPE. 

— In ‘one of its late issues, our esteemed cotemporary, 
Science, advocated editorially the creation of an International 
Scientific Association, which should have its congresses, at intet- 
vals to be determined on, in the different countries of the civilized 
world. 

Various objections may be urged against the organization of 
new scientific bodies, most of whiċh are derivable from a consid- 
eration of the imperfections of those which exist. Should such 
an association be composed solely of persons distinguished for 
actual work done in pure science? or should experts in applied 
Science be admitted to membership? or thirdly, should any per- 
Son interested in science be eligible for membership? On the 

termination of its founders in respect to these fundamental 
Points, the usefulness of such a body would depend. On its 
Probable usefulness would depend the advocacy of many of the 
friends of science. 

The utility of the meetings of scientific workers when properly 

, is generally conceded. The occasional emergence of 
the student from his studio to mingle with others engaged in 


kindred pursuits, has a stimulating and encouraging effect. It 
1 Corr, umber 


as distinguished b i i lar teeth 
: y their superior molar teeth. ‘ 
dhadrituberculate or multituberculate.’’ As some of the extinct marsupials are 
quadri idæ, the above language should be changed so as to read, trituberculate, 
uberculate, multituberculate, or derivative forms, 


EA 


806 Editors’ Table. [August, 


serves especially to keep alive an esprit du corps, which may 
counteract the effect of the isolation in which the worker in ste 
ence finds himself in many communities. The associations also 
impress the public with the active existence of the scientific — 
workers, in a prompt and efficient manner. And more maybe — 
learned by a few hours of personal intercourse between special- 
ists, than in many weeks or months of exploration among books. d 
If the associations are under proper management, they have the 
especial advantage of impressing the dignity and importance of — 
the objects of scientific labor on all concerned. These are the — 
advantages of such bodies. 4 

The disadvantages of course would flow from bad management q 
If the amateur or dilettante element enter largely into such an | 
association, its life will be feeble and its influence small. fhe — 
time necessarily involved in its material support and conduct wil l 
be largely wasted. So will be the time occupied in attending 16 | 
sessions. Such a body would become the prey of the advertiser d 
of themselves or of their wares, and a field for the exercise l 
political manipulation. 

An international association of the actual workers in 
ence would have our support, should it prove to be practical — 
And here we make a suggestion. An International Association 
of Geologists already exists. It originated in a movement 1B 
Philadelphia at the time of the Centennial Exposition. Its first 
meeting was held in Paris at the time of the French . 
of 1878. Its second meeting was held at Bologna in 7 
the third meeting will be held in Berlin on the 25th of Septet 
ber of the present year. The congress has been so tar & ? a 
Why should not this body be developed into the Iotama | 
Association of Science? It often is easier to expand 4 
build anew. It is less expensive. The members of the Geolog" | 
cal Congress cannot be spared from the more comprehensi 
association, and they cannot attend the meetings of two *” 
bodies.— C. : gär 
The tercentenary celebration of the University of n 
burgh was notable not only from the inherent interest m 
occasion, drawing together some of the most disting" te 
versity men of Great Britain and the continent, but #0! 
scientific flavor pervading this popular and na a theol 
According to a correspondent of the ation, “ $0 cael 


pure scr 


1884. | Recent Literature. 807 
ogy or even letters holding the foremost place at the celebration, 
it was chiefly natural science that was glorified, and the scientific 
men who bore away the palm of applause and curiosity.” 

_ May this occasion be prophetic of the period, not now we 
hope far distant, when the physical and natural sciences will have 
an equality in rank and importance with letters and elementary 
mathematics in all universities and colleges; when entrance ex- 
aminations to\these institutions will demand as much preliminary 
training in the observational sciences as in language or mathema- 
tics. Then will dawn the era of a truly liberal education; an 
age of many-sidedness in contrast with the onesided “liberal” 
ucation of commencement dinner speeches. 


are 


; 
RECENT LITERATURE. 


“a fs were derived from authority. It will be seen at the out- 
aom the plan and treatment of the book is essentially dog- 
noel ag a priori, i, e., theological rather than inductive or 


of After illustrating the idea of the unity of nature from the point 
view of physics, astronomy and chemistry as well as bitigi 


— animal instinct in its relation to the mind of man; the 
ts and truthfulness of human knowledge; the elementary 
Constitution of matter in relation to the inorganic and organic; 
in > the representative of the supernatural ; the moral coos 
religi man; the degradation of man; the nature and origin 
On, and the corruptions of religion. 
Rew „Work on the whole may be regarded as an attempt to n 
7 wine into old bottles. We should prefer to begin with the 
1 
Pig Unity ef Nature. By the DUKE OF ARGYLL. 
VO, pp. 571. - 


i _ P. Putnam’s Sons, New 


808 Recent Literature. 


[Agt 


simpler facts of creation, to employ the inductive, scientiie — 
method; give more stress to the teleological argument, and to 
illustrate the unfolding or evolution of life-forms and of mental 
and intellectual traits, and thus arrive, by a cumulative argument, — 
at the idea and proof of the existence of an Author of creation — 
This line of argument would have great force with those whe 
tend to materialistic or agnostic views. 


was what is usually termed a savage, and that language, theartsof 
life, and civilization had a natural growth. The Duke of Argyl 


pieced-out with medizeval bricks and mortar. A work of ths 
sort will have to be done over again, with modern tools and mate — 
rials, if it is to be adapted to the modern mind. 


Tue Stanparp Naturat. Hisrory.—Parts xn, xt aad xi @ : 
this excellent work are occupied with an account E 
lates, which has been prepared by Professor R. Ramsay — 
It is one of the most valuable of the chapters in the wor mt 

en prepared with care, is well written, and is autho ie 

ll as fresh in its mode of treatment. For the first pra ; 
as we are aware, we have in English some account of the 0%, 
species of horse discovered by Przevalsky in Central pegs i 
described as Eguus przewalskii by Powakof, and a it 
swg have been indigeno™ — 
Aye Pat Ayoh prenialiki. may nav o . 


After descending with man from the more favored sate e 
they may have together entered the plains, where aren inte 
appears to have been of a more recent date, P been, EP” 
bronze and iron period. But however this may have * p be 
preewalskit is the sole wild species having close : 
horse (our domesticated Eguus caballus).” of the o* a 

The treatment of the wild and domestic races 


PLATE XXII. 


H G. 
aera) 
ORN fe: 


M ) 
4 


2 wes 
Napa VAD \ 
Sv yy 
— 


The American Bison. 


1884. | Recent Literature. 809 


excellent, though brief. The illustrations of the peccary and 


American bison are examples of the wood cuts, a large propor- 
on of which are borrowed from Brehm’s Tierleben. 


Recent Books AND PAMPHLETS. 
te 
Tee > i > ; : ` $ 2 s 4 
i N y. P.—Description of three fossil spectes of insects. Ext. Jour. Cin. Soc. 
Ga; “at. Hist., 1884. From the author. 
pa A j n k 
apus H. —Pharyngeal respiration in the solt-shelled turtle. 
T Ady, Sci., 1883. 
——Catalocui : : 
x guing, labeling and storing micros 
mer. Soc. Micros., 1883. ` 
Cage S. H. ey ; . nti C 
At» and Smith, Tk —Section flattener for dry section-cu 
Scope, 1884. 


Ext. Proc. Amer. 


€ 1c De . f 
yp 1 prepar tions Rep F roc. 
ME 1 r i aM z 


tting. Rep.“ Micro- 


810 Recent Literature. 


specimen jars, Rep. Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., 1883. All fro 
seprei Museum. EE nth an ities annual reports i ee pac Mu- 
m, Vol. 11, Nos. 3 an 
es —Bio ain a catia on the origin and nature of life. Boston, 1884. 
From the author. 
Baker, F.—The rational method of teaching anatomy. Rep. Medical Record, 1884. 
From the author 


Flower, W. H.—On the characters and divisions of the family Delphinidæ. Ext. 
Proc. Zoo 1. Soc., London, Nov., 1883. 
——On a specimen of vat el s srorgual peri ei gay” iai lately taken 
on the Essex coast. Ext 
na J. eo anei Satie à the Colonia ator y AER and Bo- 
Zeala 


nic Garden. New nd. From 
la keponi of pea ie an sat pry Wellington, New Zealand, 
1883. From the author 
Miller, > A ceteseriptica d a beautiful starfish and other fossils, From the 
author. 


Missouri, Univ.—Public lectures dana in the chapel of the University of Mis- 
souri, 1878-9. From S. O. Law 

Geikie, Arch.—The aA x coral feet Ext. Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc., Edinburgh, 
1884. From the au 

Bermudez, Fr—In ae que rinde hi a de la Escuela. N. de Ingenieros 
1882. Mexico, 1884. From 

sae TF W. G .—Speech in the bid a ‘Sik April 15th, 1884. From 


Hicks, H.— On the Cambrian compe in Anar and Cærnarvonshire. 
Ext. Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., 1884. From the author 

Delgado, J. F.—Rapport de la Sons. commission porai de nomenclature, 1884. 

Dawson, G. M.—Notes on the coals and lignites of the Canadian Northwest. Mon- 
treal, 1884. 
Descriptive note on a general section from the kepei axis to the Rocky 
mountains north of the 49th parallel. 1882. From the or. 

Newton, E. T.—Note on Corypko he os aH the woei beds, Croydon. 
Rep. Proc, Geol. Assoc., Vol. v From the author. the 

Baur, ret —Der Tarsus pe Vogel ad Chases Leipzig, 1882. From 


Whiteaves, , J. F-—Mesozoic fossils; Vol. 1. Geol. and Nat. Surv. Canada, Mon: 
eal, 1884. From the author d 
the Lower Cretaceous zoki of British Columbia. Ext. Trans. Roy. 

Canada. From the author, c oe 

Coleman, W. a ee fourth report of the public schools of Missouri, 


From the a h, Elect 
Laws, r ra see Saiit of man, or sapre ra a 
an ology. New York, 1875. From the 
Clarke, Ben.—A new arrangement of the ang of wait founded "y the pt 
tion of the oviducts and ovaries. Lond „1879... Faga Sa Chicag® 
Clevenger, S. V.—Clinical and pathological ae on cases of insanity. 
1884. From the author 


i insects. 
Smith, J. B., et aliis.—U, S. ‘De t. of se. mages ‘Reports on injarious 
ington, I art 


Worthen, A. H.—Bull, Illinois State Gaai itas . Hist. Descriptions ce 
sate vea and Crinoids from the Carboniferous. Spring 
au . 


[August, 


Gage, S. H., and She: Hoge ri — Use of Sean to prevent ig Sos oe from 


4 
ve 
i 
5 
- 
Y 


TS, ee to A ae EET SRON 
e ee a Pee eee S 


1 


s A a SG ee 
Rey eee gi te et ee Oe ee NRE eg So Ree eS ewe ce So) | a eS a ares e seen Sees Cr 7. pan any ee aves PFN oP 
AER AL E SNS FOET, AELA A EAE A, Sirs <i c's 5 e NENE ERS = TAE = : 


Geography and Travels. 811 


GENERAL NOTES. 
GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS! 


The Cameroons:—The Polish explorer Rogozinski, leaving his 
ship at Santa Isabeila (Fernando Po) proceeded by canoe to the 
Bay of Ambas, at the foot of the Cameroons mountains, and 
fixed his station at Mundaleh or Mundoleh, one of the islands in 
this bay. This island was ceded to him by treaty. He then set 
himself to explore the great Cameroons river, the embouchure of 
which is a vast estuary into which empty themselves three other 
‘vers, the Mungo, from the Cameroons mountains to the north, 
the Lungasi and the Qua-qua or Edee. He was not able to pro- 
ceed more than sixty-five leagues up the Cameroons, on account 
of the opposition of the people and of the king of the country. 
Meanwhile his ship was destroyed by a hurricane, yet he contin- 
ued to work upon the establishment of his station, and on August 
oy a Started with, M, C. Lomezek on an exploration of the 
Mungo he travelers succeeded in discovering the upper 


Ov. 27 they marched, accompanied by 600 men of the tribe of 
the ferenganyas, to the frontiers of that tribe, but their hope to 
fe into the interior: was destroyed by the defeat of the 
dol nganyas by the hostile Mokonyés. On his return to Men- 
Po M. de Rogozinski traversed the Cameroons mountains 
_-Toughout their entire length. It is his intention, after recruit- 
LE to again attempt to penetrate the interior and reach Lake 


vis Colra—Dr, Emil Riebeck, with Dr. Schweinfurth and others, 
ted Socotra in 1881, and the results of their observations have 
Pe appeared in pamphlets upon the people and the flora of the 


afinite Dr. Schweinfurth. The animals and plants have strong 


; This department is edited by W. N. Lockiveroy, Philadelphia. 


812 General Notes. [ August, 


Mr. Godwin Austen, of the British expedition, are doubted by 
the Germans. 

The true Socotrans of the interior of the island are by Dr. 
Schweinfurth believed to resemble most closely the Mahra and 
Qara tribes of middle South Arabia. This is borne out by the 
resemblance of their language to that of the Mahras. e peo- 
ple are ten to twelve thousand in number, and there seem to be 
two races, one dark with curly hair, the other lighter with straight 
hair. 


Tue Arcric—Mr. Edward Whymper states that the height of 
the glacier-clad interior of Greenland in lat. 70°-71° considera- 
bly exceeds 10,000 feet. He describes it as presenting, every- 
where between 68° 30’ and 71° 15’, a high level ridge, so ab 
lutely covered by snow and ice that not a crag breaks the line. 
Many of the highest mountains are strewn with drifted rocks to 
‘their summits. 

Dr. Thoroddsen has recently explored the peninsula of Reyk- 
janes, Iceland. This little-known region is almost covered with 
lava, and perforated in every place with craters, sulphur vents, 
and hot springs. The interior is formed of a large plateau yi 
hillocks, crossed by valleys, and totally devoid of vegetation 
water. r. Thoroddsen has discovered thirty volcanoes, ar 
and small. Only two, Thurrarhraun and Trédlladyngia, were pre 
viously known. Five of these volcanoes at léast have been of 
_. eruption in historical times. The eastern and ‘southern Leger 

the peninsula is chiefly built of palagonite breccia, pay 
northern is covered with doleritic pre-glacial lava-stigarot a ee 
were previously supposed to exist only at Ok and ie? a 
javik.. In some places new lava overlays these materia. Be 
Thoroddsen examined also the geological conditions of sare 
jardarsysla and its hot springs, traveled across the great i 
table-land of Iceland to the Langjökul, and explored the vo we 
Skjaldbreidur, which is 3400 feet high, and has a crater 90 
across. skjold 

The eastern coast of Greenland has by Baron No shal- 
been proved to be separated by a comparatively narrow ea 
low cold current from a warm current coming from the es Ae 

Lieutenant Holm, chief of the Danish Expedition to ae pe 
coast of Greenland, states that the natives of that rg "gl 
come to the western coast to exchange their bear, fox a d 
skins for European merchandise, cannot support te s These 
that coast, but fall victims to disease, especially so oe of 
eastern Greenlanders are more like the Eskimo than isi é 
western coast. The men are tall and bearded, wage western 
good looking, and the women better looking than t summer if 
compatriots. They live a nomadic life, wandering 7 a several 
search of hunting and fishing grounds, while 1n a 


| 
| 
i 


í 
: 


—. y, 


“yop ae eer 


Ser eee ee bees ees A ee oe L ole oe 


1884. ] Geography and Travels, 813 


families unite to live in huts made of earth covered with turf and 
stones. Lieutenant Holm penetrated to 61 . lat., and found 
the coast indented by deep fiords which are not marked on the 
maps. South of 61° N. lat., and even for many miles to the 
northward, the interior ice cannot be seen. The interior of the 
country, as viewed from a mountain 3000 feet high, consists of 
mountains rising 7000 feet and more above the sea. 


Tue Pacific Istanps.—MVr. Forbes’ Visit to Timor Laut—The 
trip of Mr. Forbes and his wife to Timor Laut has, to some ex- 
tent, cleared the character of the natives of those little-known 
islands. Three months were passed at the village of Ritabel 
in the Island of Larat without any but friendly relations. The 
natives sold their visitors a site for a house, and did their very 

t to teach them their language. To this end the young 
women and men would bring objects and make them repeat the 
names. The houses seem all roof and floor. They are raised 
four or five feet from the ground, and entered through the floor 
by a trap door which is shut down at night. The dodokan, or 
seat of honor, with ornamented supports and a high carved back, 
is placed in front of the door. On the top of the back is an 
mage, with a platter by its side. On this the natives place a 
little food every time they eat. When they drink they dip their 
finger and thumb inthe fluid and flick a few drops upward with 


Proper food, for the natives would give nothing away, were suspi- 

= of gold, because they had been cheated with false gold, and 

tenis to purchase articles of which they felt the immediate 
sity, 


Kag name Timor, Laut is Malay. The natives have no ae 

the group. The principal island, extending from 7° to f 
"a latitude, west of 131° W. long., is Yamdena, north-east 0 
Varia. Tat, and south-west of it Selaru. d on Larat or 


o 
island a rises over about 200 feet, and the whole of the latter 
R G 


iSc 


nd Probably of most of the others, as 
» which forms cliffs often sixty or eighty 
About Egeron strait, between Selaru an 


814 General Notes. 


cliffs are said to reach 400 feet. The soil is very thin. North 
and north-west of the larger island are a number of others, among 
them the peak of Laibobar, probably an extinct or dormant cra- 
ter, and some 2000 feet high. There are no rivers or streams, 
the so-called fresh-water is skimmed-off holes in the coral, and is 
brackish. The natives are constantly at war. In Larut, Ritabel 
and Waitidal are at feud with Kaleobar and Lamdesar. 


forehead retreats slightly, the brows are low, and tne a 

ere are two forms of nose, in one 0 ki ie 
the tip is upturned and both nostrils visible in front, while Tiek 
other the tip is depressed and the a/e nasi much inflate eee: 
is a tendency, in many cases, for the upper jaw and e a by 
hang the lower. The ears are small, but much REN 
elaborate earrings. 

ç climate is highly insalubrious, and the tra 
severely from fever. i ut 
Some sixty species of birds were brought from the bs A 
or Tenimber islands by Mr. Forbes. Among these ps and 
finds twenty-three that have not been found out of that ¢ r 
twenty of these are new. The birds as a whole are 
than Australian. Many are also found in Aru, bwe 


velers suffered 


occur also in Timor and even in India. derancé "o 


- The insects of Timor Laut show a great prepon 


Timor forms over those of Aru or New Guinea, pr vailing winds. 


they are more influenced than the birds by the pre 
Several new lepidoptera were found. 


[Aidit | 


Sy i ee ee 


Se a ee ees eT ee 


PNN Ss £2 


Sees wes 


FeO ee bt eae ik Re ne Re me E 


= eel ae gah ths, SEM ome pe ees te 


i 
TE 


Geology and Paleontology. 815 


The plants of Timor Laut are mostly coral island plants, but 
with some peculiar forms, one species belonging to the flora of 
New Hebrides, and one to that of Australia. Cocoanuts, ferns, 
clerodendra, solanums and malvaceous shrubs occur. The low 
shrubby forest is, in some places, almost impenetrable from its 
spiny character. The largest trees are fig trees (Urostigma) and 
stereulias. The latter is near to the fire-tree of Australia, and 
their crowns of bright scarlet flowers, thrown out in advance of 
the foliage, are very conspicuous. Leguminous trees and myrtles 
abound; there is a pandanus, and a few palms. A green carpet 
of Commelyna hides the rough coral. Artocarpus incisa is not 
uncommon. There are no casuarinas, phyllode-bearing acacias, 
eucalypti or melanolencas. . 
Lieutenant Beresford has ascended the volcano of Ambrym, 
in the New Hebrides. The active crater is about a quarter of a 
mile wide, but there is a large extinct one three or four miles 
across, and other smaller extinct ones. All the hills seem to be 
mere cinder heaps. 


GEOLOGY AND PALAIONTOLOGY. 


under the title, “Etude sur les Charactéres Génériques du 
imædosaure, reptile nouveau de la faune Cernaysieme, etc., 
1884.” The results obtained by Dr. Lemoine are very inter- 
esting, and quite anticipate the information which it was hoped 


a summary of the preceding I propose to refer the genus Champ- 
Sosaurus to the order Rhynchocephalia provisionally. It differs 


On these grounds it may constitute a distinct 
ig under the name of Choristodera.” Dr. Lemoine states 


Cope, Proceedings Philadelphia Academy, Dec., 1876. Simedosaurus Gervais, 


1 

Tesa de Zoologie, Feb., 1877. 
Proceedings Phila. Academy, p. 350. 
*Etude, p, 37. 


816 General Notes, [August, ; 


In the first place, Lemoine shows that the genus is streptostyl- 
icate, and that the quadrate bone has much the character of that 
of the Pythonomorpha, It can, therefore, only be properly com- 
pared with that order, the Lacertilia and the Ophidia. The sin- 
gle rib-heads and the separate odontoid bone are entirely con- 
firmatory of this affinity. There is therefore no longer any pro- 
priety in comparing it with the Rhynchocephalia or the Croco- 
dilia. Is it a Lacertilian or a Pythonomorph, or to what division 
of the streptostylicates is it to be referred ? 

r. Lemoine has discovered what he regards as a distinct cran- 
ial segment (“vertebra”) interposed between the occipital and 
parietal segments in this genus. This is very remarkable, and 
constitutes a strong mark of distinction between the Choristodera 
‘and Lacertilia. It will depend on future investigations to show 
whether such difference exists between this order and the Pytho- 
nomorpha and Ophidia. In this question everything depends 
on the interpretation of the pieces. The new segment consists, 
according to Lemoine, of an “anterior basioccipital” as axis, 
which is surmounted by the opisthotic, and this by the epiotic on 
each side. It is closed above by the supraoccipital (Etude, p. 14). 
The segment in front of this Lemoine identifies with the sphe- 
noidal. Its axis, then, becomes the sphenoid bone, and its = 
eral pieces the proôtics. According to Lemoine’s figure aes 
latter elements meet on the middle line above, and the pare" 
lies above them. A notch on the lower part of the front p a 
of the so-called prodtic is identified with the foramen 0 
trigeminal nerve. ; : 

ithout access to similar specimens it is impossible to eed 
whether any of the axial pieces of this skull is a parasphener 
not. In any case we shall learn something by comparison © 
the snake and pythonomorph skull. Each of these, as abid 
known, presents a decurvature in front of the prootic igen t fifth 
reaches to the sphenoid or presphenoid. The foramen 0! zj by 
nerve is posterior to this, in the position of the one amg Fd 
Lemoine to the eighth nerve. If now we identify pee [g 
Otic with the lateral or “alisphenoid ” plate of the ae cranial 
ment of the above orders, we have the normal number 0 roôtic, 
segments remaining. The “opisthotic ” (fig. 4) beot is the 
and the “ anterior basioccipital ” becomes sphenoid. tylicate rep: 


ner of the anterior elements described by Lemo ‘to that of the 
To the resemblance which this structure bears ‘of the 
Ophidia must be added the absence of true roots 0! 


1884. ] Geology and Paleontology. 817 


These points, together with the natatory limbs, indicate that the 
position of this group is with the order or suborder Pythonomorpha. 
The characters which distinguish it are, the distinctness of the 
anterior pieces, which may be called, for the present, alisphenoids ; 
the amphiplatyan vertebrz, and the presence of condyles of the 
phalanges. The Choristodera will be distinguished by these 
characters wherever placed. 

The dentition is remarkably like that of the bony gar, Lepi- 
= dosteus, and Dr. Lemoine has enabled me to identify specimens 
i zia whose place I have, hitherto been greatly pùzzled.—Æ. D. 

Eeer 


THE FORMATION OF STATUARY MARBLE.—From numerous ex- 
periments conducted separately by MM. Berthelot, Bonssingault 
and Dieulafait, it appears that the chalk must be very rich in 
Manganese. Fifty-six examples from the chalk of the Paris 
basin, Operated upon last year, gave this result without exception, 
and twenty examples from England and various parts of Europe, 
have since then yielded the same results in the hands of M. 
Dieulafait. The presence of manganese was evident in half a 
ramme of chalk. Manganese is also found ina state of com- 
piete diffusion in the marbles of Carrara, Paros and the Pyrenees. 
Important geological consequences result from the discovery. 

ven as low as the lower gneiss, limestones exist, often arranged 


be come lost in the enclosing rock, This arrangement 
Proves that the cipolins are cotemporaneous with the rocks en- 
Closing € examination of samples of the rocks from 


ese, the iron will be precipitated almost pure, while the Saeed 


ass would dis- 


uid be deposited in concentric layers in the midst 
Ssic rocks. 


818 General Notes. [August, 


THE GENUS PLEURACANTHUS.—In the AMERICAN NaTurAList for 
April, 1884, p. 413, I gave a brief abstract of the characters of 
the skull of Didymodus, and proposed to regard it as the type of 
a new order to be called the Ichthyotomi. I now give a plate of 
the skull of D. compressus and D. platypterus, sp. nov.—E. D. Cope. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXIII. 
(I owe this plate to the American Philosophical Society, who will publish it in 
the forthcoming number of their Proceedings.) 
All the figures two-thirds natural size exoi fig. 5, which is one-half larger than 
nature. 
FIG. ba —Skull from above, right frontal bone displaced and its ain 
roken off. Posterior apex bro rey from right frontal — bone. 
or supraorbital b that of the right side sipia aag e one A 6 
post inata facet for pagan ery d, frontal fiss E 
Fic, sy pe part of skull of another individual, Ta above; a, occipital 
; 4, parietal; c, cornua of frontal bon 
Fic. 3. Elies erior view of fig. 2, displaying peh f brain case; a, frontal or pati 
etal cartilage bone; 4, sphen oid; c, brain cavity; d, frontoparietal fontanelle ; 
e, hyomandibular condyle (? pate Akhi bone 5. 
Fic. 4.—Anterior part of skull, from below, of a third individual, displaying orbits 
and postorbital processes 
Fic. 5.—Tooth of mee compressus Newb., natural size, posterior view. Er 
Fic. Aem My ry gi ia and mandibular arches of a fourth individual, from 
with 4m, hyomandibular. ie 
Fic. 7- L Superior tooth of external row, without apices of two of fen re din 
e palatine Ree sieges specimen represented in fig. 5; one- half larger 
ook ay anterior ae 
Fic, 8.—Tooth of Dima platypternus Cope, nat. size, from above Lae 
Fic. 9.—Tooth of a second specimen of Didymodus platypternus, from 7 


ORIGIN oF Corat Reers.—Professor A. Geikie sums pte 
eee ese amount of evidence which has iconii gra to 
orth, ‘s i 
owth of coral incom 
nection with subsidence of the sea bottom) is by no ae adele 


orals ; the form of the 


the shore of calcareous débris derived from dead pas of six% 
These are so abundant as probably to represent ¥ wa 2 
‘teen tons of carbonate of lime in suspensio vi tl 
one hundred fathoms of every square mile of the o reaching the 
deepest water these appear to be dissolved — thus furnish 
bottom, but wud accumulate on shallow bottoms, an 


' 


+ 
L 


‘American Naturalis 


1884. ] Geology and Paleontology. 819 


foothold for sponges, various ccelenterates, &c., which in return 
die and bring up the bottom to the level of reef coral growth, 
This, taking place on a submerged bank,would produce the atoll- 
form of island, which would tend to widen by death inside, and 
by the consequent solution of the dead coral by the carbonic acid 
of the sea-water. Special cases, such as elongate chains of atolls, 


Fourn. Roy. Microscopical Society, April. 

GEOLOGICAL NEws.—Carboniferous——Dr. R. H. Traquair (Geol. 
Mag., Feb.) describes Aganacanthus striatulus from selachian 
spines found in the Blackband ironstone of Borough Lee, near 
Edinburgh. the January number of the same magazine, 
Dr. Traquair describes Ctenacanthus costellatus, a shark from the 
Lower Carboniferous rocks of Eskdale, Dumfriesshire. It appears 
to be a Cladodont. In the same issue Dr. Traquair describes 
Elonichthys ortholepis, a ganoid fish from the Lower Carboniferous 
of Eskdale, Dumfriesshire——— Mr. J. Young notes upon the 
hinge line of Spirifera trigonalis, a denticulated structure like 

at upon the hinge line of Arca. He regards these denticles as 
originally formed of aragonite, which is harder than calcite. In 
the fossils, however, the aragonite has decayed, and has been 
replaced by a coarser calcite (Geol. Mag., Jan.)—-—At a recent 
meeting of the London Geological Society, J. W. Davis described 
the fishes from the Yoredale series at Leyburn. Of the thirty- 
four species twenty are identified with known Carboniferous lime- 
stone forms, one, Megalichthys hibberti, is a coal-measure species, 
while the remaining thirteen are described as new. Eight of 
these are regarded as types of new genera. Dr. E. Tietze 
(Jahrb. Kais. Kon. Geol. Reichanstalt, 1884), contributes an 
extensive account of the geology of Montenegro. Twenty- 
three peaks rise to elevations varying from 2000 to 2500 
meters. All the principal formations from the palæozoic to 
the quaternary can be identified with tolerable certainty, but 
their members are not so well made out. The palzozoic strata 
consist largely of black or quaternary strata, occur east O 
Dulcigno, east and north of the Scutarie-see, and at various 
rolated points. Marine neogene strata are only found between 
Dulcigno and the coast, and fresh-water strata of similar age do 
hot enter the boundaries of the little principality. The various 

rtiary strata are grouped along the Adriatic shore, and include 
nummulitic beds. The Cretaceous strata occupy the largest area, 
wale in the north the Trias is largely developed——Among the 
70st recent of the memoirs of the Museum of Comparative 
gy is an account by C. E. Hamlin, of the results of an ex- 
rt tion of the Syrian molluscan fossils, chiefly from Mount 


OL. XVIII.—No. vIn. 52 


820 General Notes. Aa - [August, 


five Gastropoda, seventeen are new, and of the thirty Lamelli- 
branchiata sixteen are new. The shells are from the Tertiary, 
Cretaceous and Jurassic. 


BOTANY.: 


ADDITIONAL Nores on Passion FLowers.—The following notes 
and drawings of peepi kindly furnished me by Professor 
Wm. Trelease, of Madison, Wis., are of interest, and should have 
appeared in connection with my paper on Passiflora Tutea ia the 
July NaTurRaLIST.—Aug. F. Foerste, Granville, Ohio. 


arnata diagram 
sion flowers. 1.—Passiflora gracilis. 2. —P. in és ma te E coy 


Sections of pas: 
matic). #, nectar gland ; ng, nectar guard ; FA inner corona; 
corolla ; B sepals. ay Nes 
rovision made 
e gland, b but the sagt 


pollination, if it should not succeed in the 
to occur, as the flowers close at night and so _ 
stigmas together. ”2 Bot. Gardens, Cambridge, Mass. 


1 Edited by Pror. C.. E. Bessey, Ames, Iow hich 
? This power of self-fertilization does not pie ast pi of other portone 
in the rs of nectar and possibly by prepotency in te demo rable. 
if one may reason from the cases in which F peculiarity i Se ee 2 
Henslow suggests (Trans. Linn. Soc., 2d s , Bot., 1, p- 309) Jated ace: 
for self- Solin) ai case crossing is not effected] here than in re 
found in the that P, gracilis 1s an anpu 


1884. | Botany. 821 


. Passiflora incarnata!—The three clavate styles radiate outward, 
curving downward so as to bring their bilobed brown stigmas 
between the anthers, though they. usually stand a little higher 
and farther from the center of the flower. From the action of 
bees and wasps, nectar appears to be secreted between the inner 
row of short filaments, and the base of the column. Large and 
small bees and wasps visit these flowers and alighting on the 
colored corona creep in beneath the anthers and insert their 


ownward, on the anthers, and often touch the stigmas.” Daw- 
son’s Sta., Alabama. 


A NEW Species oF, Moss.—I send you the description of a new 
Species of moss which has. been named by Monsieur Renauld, of 
Tarbes, France, an eminent bryologist. In my studies of Ameri- 
can mosses I came across two species which seemed to be un- 
described. This is one of them: 

Hypnum (Amblystegium) Barderi, Renauld, species nova.— 
Monoicum, dense cæspitosum. Caulis erectus 2-4 cent. longus 
rufo radiculosus subpinnatim ramulosus ramuli sæpe eruti fastigiati. 
Folia erecta, parva (14—1™™ longa) lanceolata sensim acutata, de- 


culi parvuli numerosi, 4-8 antheridia. Perichætium radicans, 
lia externa ecostata apice recurva interna majores erecta tenuiter 
costata margine sinuosa. Capsula in pedicello purpureo lævi 
3-4 cent. longo, suberecta, vix curvata, collo distincto instructa. 
Operculum convexo-conicum apiculatum et sæpe rostellatum. An- 
_ Pulus angustus simplex. Peristomium magnum, pallide luteum, 
membrana basilaris elata, processus subintegri. Cilia . . . -? 
a Habitat in loco humido, provincia Utah, Am. bor. í 
The other moss, which I found in Fairmount (west park), 


AM, NAT., xiv, P 564: . 


822 General Notes. [August, 


proved to be a new variety of Améblystegium serpens L., which M. 
Renauld has called var, Barberi. 


1.—Folium. . 2.—Capsulum et operculum. 
Specimens of the Utah species are enclosed.—Z&. 4. Barber, 
4101 Walnut street, Philadelphia, Pa. 


P. canadensis illustrates which do not appear to have been not 


ety is about one-third more common than the purple. y does not 
The modus operandi of the fertilization of this species shat- 
differ essentially from that of its English representative, B. o Re- 
ica, which was described by Dr. Ogle in the Popular Scvenct ects 
view for 1870. The upper part of the tubular corolla p pistil 
forward forming a hood which contains the stamens aM he an- 
Lubbock! describes the rest in the following words: n anther 
thers open on their inner sides, and the edges of the ei th and 
cells on the one side of the flower exactly correpta on the 
are applied to the corresponding edges of the y e 
other side of the flower; each pair of anthers thus tor sightly 
were, a closed box. The outer sides of the anthers a nood ate 
attached to the walls of the hood. But the sides fee humble 
somewhat too near together to admit the head of © pushes 
bee, and the insect, therefore, in order to reach the petting down : 
them a little apart, thus opening the anther box 3 


1“ British wild flowers in relation to insects,” p. 141- 


1884. ] Botany. 823 


a little shower of pollen which is prevented from spreading by 
the fringe of hairs on the lower edge of the anther, and thus falls 
on to the head of the bee, at the very spot which a moment before 
had touched the stigma, and which will again touch that of the 
next flower she visits.” 

The “ path-finders” of the flowers of this genus have been de- 
scribed by Dr. Kerner in his interesting treatise on “ Flowers and 
their Unbidden Guests,” although he makes no mention of P. can- 
adensis, The inside of the lower part of the corolla is studded 
by numerous short, sharp bristles toward the mouth of the cor- 
olla. These form an effectual barrier against any insect passing 
its tongue to the nectar via the short route; were it not for this 
the fertilizing mechanism would be but seldom utilized, as the 
humble bees could reach the nectar without poking their heads 
between the sides of the hood. Ants and other undesirable visi- 
tors are excluded by long hairy trichomes pointing outward. 

There is a point in the structure of the flowers of 2 canaden- 
sis of which I find no mention as occurring in the European spe- 
cies. It is the curvature of the hood of the corolla; a device 
which materially aids the bee in reaching the nectar. Supposing 
a person standing with his back to the stem of the plant, the 
hood, in the great majority if not all cases, curves to the left. In 

l instances observed, the bees took advantage of this and lit 
upon the left. 

e flowers are more largely visited by species of bumble-bees 
(Bombus) than any other insect. It is by them that the most of 
the flowers are fertilized. In one instance observed, a single bee 
visited one hundred and forty-four flowers in succession, and 

er observation convinced me that this was less than the 
usual number visited at one time. As the flowers are arranged 
spirally on the stem of the plant, the bee usually alights upon 

e lower flower and follows the spiral upward. In some cases a 
bee would come to a plant just after another had left it, but would - 
seldom try more than one or two flowers. Finding the nectar 
gone from these, it seemed to realize that all on the plant had 
been plundered, and left for greener pasu res s 

e next most numerous visitors are butterflies of the family 
Hesperidæ, which during the later portion of the flowering sea- 
son visit it freely. It is doubtful, however, to what extent they 
aid in fertilization, as in many cases they do not bring the fertili- 
zing mechanism into use. The same doubt exists as to the fer- 
tilizing benefit of the humming birds which visit it to a ag 
extent, Probably in the case of the latter the prickly areal 
ers are of but little use. Besides the Hesperide a few Cai 

lodice were observed. , isd 

In the Popular Science Review for 1870, p. 41, Dr. Ogle e 

ibes the manner in which humble bees rob the pim of the 
cow-wheat by biting through the calyx, and adds; “The very 


824 General Notes. [August, 


small calyx admits of this robbery, whereas in red rattle (P. syl- 
vatica) the large leafy calyx acts as a safeguard.” While this 
may be and doubtless is true of the English Pedicularis, it is not 
so of our species; notwithstanding the leafy calyx, a large num- 
ber of the flowers of P. canadensis are bitten in just this way. 
Dr. W. J. Beal informs me that he has observed the same thing 
in P. lanceolata. wes 
This species illustrates an interesting point in regard to the 
relative time of secretion of nectar and the opening of the flower. 
In most flowers it is naturally supposed that the nectar is not 
secreted until the corolla is about to open. Dr. Ogle has shown 
that this is the case in the cow-wheat. In P. canadensis, however, 
the bee and butterfly visitors habitually plunder the buds by 
thrusting their tongues in between the folds of the corolla. Very 
often they thus plunder buds in which the corolla projects less 
than a quarter of an inch from the calyx, at least several days 
before the flowers will open. They certainly would not do this 
did they not obtain nectar. That a certain amount of honeys — 
also secreted after the corolla falls off is shown by the number of 
ants which visit the empty calyxes, as well as the occas P 
honey bees which visit them.— Clarence M. Weed, Lansing, Mic 


ENTOMOLOGY. ae 
HABITS OF AN AQUATIC PyRALID CATERPILLAR —The habits ® 
the caterpillars of the Hydrocampine, a group of Pyralid m pw 
are unusually interesting, and deserve special attention 1n = 
country. We quote from Guenée the following account i 
“ The principal title of the family of Hydrocampide to she 
of observers, resides in the habits of their caterpiiath Cue 
most popular entomologists, Réaumur, De Geer a | 
have observed and described them with all the details pag | 


on 
cylindrical tube of silk, and strengthens it with leaves 
the upper side. The case oy ogy AE that of Hydro wo 4 
_ that the tube it constructs is not like a sheath and forme“ ened 
bits of leaves, but is broadly cylindrical or oval, and Stre rerpilt ] 
all around by small leaves of Lemna, Moreover the d 


PLATE XXIV. 


yer ee 


er ar SAES eS E ee a ear 


Transformations of Hydrocampa formosalts. 


As. ddi ee ee aa 


1884.] Entomology. 825 


lives submerged in the water and attached to the under surface of 
floating leaves. Its case serves as a cocoon within which to pu- 
pate, and it is attached to some aquatic plant. The chrysalis is 
soft, with the ventral sheath prolonged to the end of the ab- 


The most curious caterpillar is that of Paraponyx, living on 
plants wholly submerged ; it is provided with gills which allow 
them to decompose the air contained in the water; and they are, 
as De Geer showed, truly amphibious, because they are provided 
at the same time with stigmata to respire ordinary air, like other 
caterpillars. 

The caterpiltar appears, at first sight, as if furnished with 
respiratory filaments of different lengths, three or four arising 
irom a common tubercle. It is the only lepidopterous larva 
known to be provided with tracheary gills. 

The chrysalis lives also wholly submerged, constructing be- 
tween the submerged leaves of the plant which nourishes it, a 
cocoon composed of a double lining of silk, wherein it changes 
into a chrysalis. The imago has to pass through the water on 
leaving its cocoon, so that it is at the beginning of its existence 
also amphibious, « 

the last genus, Hydrocampa, has caterpillars which are rather 
thick, attenuated at each end, flattened beneath, with a small 
retractile head. They live under the leaves of pond lilies in a 
aes © sac formed of two bits of leaves stuck together at their 
edges, 


The accompanying drawings, made by Dr. C. F. Gissler, un- 


abundance May 20, 1882, in its case, made from the leaves of 


ots by two lateral fleshy lobes and a posterior fleshy bead; on — 
fae Succeeding segment is a smaller cle 
the sides of the same segments. da 

e few caterpillars which I carried home began to spin 


826 | General Notes. [August, 


cocoon within the case from June 4-10th; the moths being 
noticed June 12-13th. 

The pupa (Fig. 2-2c), 2, natural size, bulges out considerably on 
the 4th and 5th abdominal segments. There are only three pairs 
of spiracles, z. e., on the 2d, 3d and 4th abdominal segments. One 
of these spiracles (highly magnified) is represented at 2c ; their 
relations to the body at 24, 

The moth was not directly raised from the pupa, but the for- 
mer were so thick that I have little doubt but that the Hydro- 
campe captured at the same spot a few days after the larvæ were 
found, were the imagines of the larvæ under consideration. Seek- 
ing for them the next year, none were to be foufd, though very 
prolonged search was not made for them for want of time. 

The moth found so abundantly, and seen on the following sum- 
mer at the same date as above recorded, was Hydrocampa formo- 
salis of Clemens (Fig. 3. The drawing is a very poor one). i 

e have in this country four species of Hydrocampa, five 0 
Cataclysta and five of Paraponyx, and it is to be ho tha 


A. S. Packard, Jr. 


Nores on SALT-WATER Insects, No. 111.—Our first iy a 
this interesting subject appeared in the Proceedings of m ieee 
Institute, Salem, v1, 1869; a second article was publishe pret 
American Journal of Science, 1, Feb., 1871. The present ey 
bution will be a brief one, being a description of a dipterous ahd 
found in the ocean Aug. 28th, on the coast of New Jeti vies 
forwarded to us‘ alive by Professor A. E. Verrill seve i tp 
ago; and also of a new species of mite, received at 
time and from the same source. Pr ‘ grad- 

The body is white, long and slender, cylindrical, tapering 

ually from the penultimate segn" 


: J towards the head; Bins hat 
a twelve segments behind x out 
š The segments are A es 
thickened at the hiidet SE 

sutures being distinct. t 

i i d transpare! 

ment of the body is conica ; s 

Te x from beneath it is nearly o sab 
a ter longer than broad, a furo 
Fic. t.—Salt-water maggot. which diminishes in siZ : 


to beyond the middle of the segment, where it fades out. 


the middle 


1884] 


of the same segment project two supra-anal, conical, fleshy, res- 

iratory tubercles, one-fourth the length of the entire segment, 
which separate and close together at the will of the animal. 
These two tubercles (4) give rise to two main longitudinal tracheæ 
which extend to the head; they end in a tuft of fine sete. 


i 


Entomology. ee 


c 
Fic. 2,—Bdella marina Pack. 


When extended the prothoracic segment is considerably pi 
others. The head is one-third as large as the proth 


b 


828 General Notes. | August, 


ments. The trachez are not nearly so regular as in the larva of 
Anthomyia ceparum, by the side of which I placed it; though the 
present larva scarcely appears to belong to the Muscidz, as there 
are minute antennz present, there being no trace of them in the 
muscid larve as a rule. 

As represented in the figure at 4, dorsal view, and d, lateral 
view, two main trachez end each in a large dorsal tubercle, each 
with a tuft of fine respiratory sete; the cleft ventral plate being 
fleshy at the tips. One of the respiratory tubercles is represented 
as seen from the side atc; it gives rise to a fan-like series of 
radiating fine setæ, which are directed upwards and a little for- 
wards towards the base of the tubercle. 

new species of mite was also received from New Jersey 
through Professor Verrill, which was found living in the sea. It 
may receive the name of Bdella marina (Fig. 2: A, upper; B, 
under view; C, enlarged view of the proboscis and 2d pair of 
cephalic appendages, the so-called maxillæ). 

The body is slender, pear-shaped ; it is apparently eyeless, and 
the legs are no longer than the body is broad. The proboscis 1$ 
long, conical; the maxille long and slender, acute; extending 
some distance beyond the end of the proboscis. The age 
palpi are 4-jointed; the basal a third longer than the two follow- 
ing ones taken together, while the 4th (and last) is a little shorter 
than the basal joint. (The right palpus is not correctly "e 
The description is drawn up from camera drawings, the speci r 
having been lost or mislaid. I cannot state the exact př s 
color of the animal. It was collected on the shore, but lvins 
immersed in the salt water, as I understand from Professor 
rill—A. S. Packard, Jr. 


EntomotocicaL Nores.—An extraordinary helix-like Psych 
case, from East Africa, is reported and figured by Mr. R. The case 
lan in the Extomologists’ Monthly Magazine for June 
is high and resembles shells of the genus Cyclos o left 
dina in a wonderful degree. In some the spira 
to right, in others from right to left. The texture 1S, of the 
hard and firm, and somewhat fibrous. he Bul an eai] 
Brooklyn Entomological Society, No. 2, is occupied 7 Rev. E 
preliminary to a monograph of the genus Catocala, t external 
D. Hulst. -It is illustrated by a plate of details of He 5 
‘anatomy of these moths, especially the femoral shige useful 
and tarsal claws of different species. This society 1S w E iready 
work in publishing such synopses and monographs ith 

ave and are promised to appear. We quite agree a position 
Hulst in his remark that the genus Catocala occupies Prougtt 
between the typical Noctuids and Geometrids, and tha i 


to be placed closer to the first than it is, near Ypsia, gr k a 


its allies, and that these, “ with Euclidia, ought t° 


T A T A E A EA T E EE ENE T NE EASE Se ES EA TEENE N N RAE) 


- guishe 
guished 


inp bing it as single without exception. 
a the figure ( S C 


Zoology. 829 


ifnot quite, at the end of the Noctuide.” Francis G. Sanborn, 
well kn as a zealous and enthusiastic collector of insects, and 
a useful museum assistant, died suddenly June 5th, aged 46, while 
on a visit to Providence, at the house of George Hunt, Esq. He 
was one of the curators of the Natural History Society of Wor- 
cester. He was an amiable, generous man, and lepidopterists 
owe much to his willingness to communicate the rarities which 
he captured. According to the researches of M. G. Carlet, the 
muscles of the abdomen of the bee are more numerous than they 


_ Were supposed to be and, with the exception of the aliform mus- 


cles, which subserve circulation, are employed in respiration and 
consequently in calorification, which is important in the bee’s 
economy. Thus the mechanism of respiration is more compli- 
cated than was before believed, since there is not only a length- 
ening and shortening of the abdomen, but an alternate approach 
and separation of its dorsal and ventral walls. M. Ch. Brong- 
mart, in his work upon the fossil insects of the coal beds of Com- 
mentry, describes a gigantic neuropter of the curious group 
of the Dictyoneura. This group contains insects which measure 


at least half a meter in length and 0.70™ or about two feet four 


inches in spread of wings. 


ZOOLOGY. 
A NEW INFUSORIAN BELONGING TO THE GENUS VorTICELLA.— 
The following heretofore undescribed infusorian occurs sparingly 
on the leaflets of Ceratophyllum in a pond near to, and often con- 


"ected with, the Delaware river at Trenton, N. 5 


Vorticella odii, sp. nov.— Body when expanded broadly campanulate, not 


S everted and equal in breadth to the entire length of the body; subspherical when 
Contracted, and anteriorly crenulated ; ciliary disc not elevated ; cuticular surface 
numerous scatter. mispherical or ovate elevations, diverse in size and 
we collected about the equatorial region into irreg:larly disposed series each 
closing a nuclear nodule ; parenchyma finely granular; contractile 

somewhat above a 


box b i 
together, of the pedicel =1,, inch. Habitat, pond water. Solitary or iew 


The characteristics by which this form may be readily distin- 
from all Vorticellæ, are the existence and structure of 


cuticular prominences and the undoubted presence of two 


_ Antractile vesicles, The latter are in contour and position as 


duality e but the writer would emphasize the fact of their 
ap > Hitherto no member of the genus has beef observe 
ŝis describi 


Fig. 1, magnified 400 diameters) is somewhat dia- 


co matic, as both cannot be brought into focus at the same 


830 General Notes. [August, 


time. When the circular outline of one is distinctly visible, the 
pulsations only of the other 


lar, giving an amplification 
of nearly a thousand diam- 
eters, the systole of each 
can be seen alternately by 
manipulating the fine 
justment screw during the 
diastole, or vice versa. 
The cuticular elevations 
are arranged in a series on 
the margin of the peristome 
border, but the nuclear 
bodies are there small 
frequently obscure or ab- 
sent. The prominences 
vary much in size even 
where most abundant. In 
contour they are §' 


A X 400 


Fic, 1.— Vorticella lockwoodii, sp. nov. FIG. .: ine is 
2,—Cuticular elevations much sokarped sionally their outl ure 
ovate, the two forms oce 


hemispherical, but occa- 


ing on the same individual. The shape of the enclosed nuciels — 


is uniformly the same in both, being that of a small ci 
but that these internal bodies are disciform and not 
have not been able to positively determine. They are, 
probably spherical. i ; 
_ The anterior and posterior regions of the body are, 1n ig 
individuals, almost naked, while the cuticular promin 


spherical, 


usually more numerous centrally, with a tendency to €o he ole 
a more or less conspicuous equatorial zone. Some of the, 


however, : 


ect into 


stituents of this belt, with their apparently disc-shaped nuclei, a? | 


shown greatly enlarged in Fig. 2. mem 


t affords me much pleasure to dedicate this peer PhD, 


ber of a remarkable genus to the Rev. Samuel Lockwoo#, 
an illustrious naturalist by whose friendship 
Alfred C. Stokes, M.D. 


T aat honot — 
of the 


PECIES OF ĪNFUsORIAN.—[In the Proceedings occur 


_ asbelonging to the shortened type. The 


: in which i 


: vhs Posterior portion, in the shortened form it is parali y 
a I was not able to detect in the shortened a the 
cona Contractile vesicle, situated posteriorly, was anpi tho- 
h 3 a anterior vesicle seen in a normal form was ss ag 
a elapse i Since it was not observed until after ae oe be- 
«Since the animalcules had been placed in confineme 


1884.] Zoölogy. 831 
study of which has convinced me of the correctness of my sup- 


Only one species of Metopus has hitherto been described, M. 
sigmoides Cl. & L., and under it Stein includes several varieties 
characterized by difference in form, but passing into each other 
by gradations, the same individual assuming different shapes at 
different periods of its existence, so that a mere difference in out- 
line cannot be considered as a sufficient cause for the establish- 
ment of a new species. Stein describes three well-marked forms, 
the normal, the shortened and the rolled up. The individual 
described in the paper mentioned above was of the normal shape, 
those I have lately found may be described i 


annexed figure represents one of them 
tolerably correctly, 
y measured about .o8™™ while the 


bent-over portion constitutes about one- 


half 
plane parallel to that of the posterior por- 
h 


§ f 
o 
slightly : . $ 
pyriform outline. The axis of bas 
å nt-over portion, ör “ stirn-kuppe,” Fic. ee T 
anos at right angles with that of the posterior portion. In 
stirn-kuppe ” are a number of strongly refracting granules, 


the 
Seay by Stein, and the body is terminated posteriorly by a ` 


1 of bristle-like cilia. 
te chief points wherein this shortened form differs from that 
descri by Stein are as follows. 
Ist. The greater bending over of the anterior portion of she 
So that it is at right angles to the posterior portion, ; 
2d. The greater breadth of the body in comparison to its 
length, and the abrupt tapering posteriorly. 


iv ae Striation of the border of the bod 


y. 

description of the normal form I indicated the features 

it differs from Stein’s ; certain of these are still recog- 

I did in the shortened form, others have disappeared, and seg 
Xe hen t have an opportunity of deciding upon. The plane 

bent-over portion in the normal form is at right angles to = 


but 


ca 


832 General Notes. [August, 


low the cover-glass. The striation of the border of the body was 
well marked in both forms, an s one of the most noticeable 
features. It has not been represented in any figures of M. sig- 
modes, and it may be concluded that it was absent, for if present 
it could not fail to have been delineated. On account of this 
peculiarity, present in both the forms, which resemble each other 
so slightly, but which are evidently the same species, I propose 
to name the form M. striatus. Although certain features charac- 
teristic of the normal form are thus absent from the shortened, 
still the normal form and that of M. sigmoides have very distinct 
differences, and so with the two shortened forms, and there is 
therefore a strong probability of the distinctness of the species. 
may mention here that for killing Infusoria, provided only a 


temporary preparation is required, I find a saturated solution of 


corrosive sublimate in water the most useful of any I have tried’ 
A drop or two run under the cover-glass produces almost instant 
death without any of the shrinkage so annoying even with osmic 
acid. After this treatment I find that staining with aniline blue, 
black or Bismarck brown takes place very rapidly and very satis 
factorily.—/. Playfair McMurrich, Agricultural College, Guelph, 
Canada. 


TAIN MITES. — 
i , Mr. A.D. 
Michael, in a paper read to the Linnean Society of Lo 
cludes that true “ Hypopi” are not adult animals, d allied 
stage, or heteromorphous nymphs of Tyroglyphus an +h latter 
genera. Nor do all individuals become “ Hypopi,’ whi 


LIFE-HISTORY OF THE HYPOPUS STAGE OF CER 


tive of adverse conditions. “ Hypopi” are not truly F new 


adult form described is called by the author Dispartpes nnadiev’s 
he believes there are other species of the genus., certain if 
bee-parasites are admitted to be adults, though it 1s un 
they are identical with Dufour’s Trichodactylus. 
} i the NATU- 
Dors THe Crow Brackpirp EAT CRAYFISH ?— In 


RALIST for November, 1881, this question is asked by Ae 
F E. 


p have aot 32 


1 Meckel’s fluid with acetic acid, as recommended by Brass, 


4 
i 
i 
j 


 pllusks, 
2 ety of Helix have been ascertained by M.P. de Meuron to 


1884. ] Z olog: eý: 8 33 


ZOOLOGICAL RESULTS OF THE ROMANCHE EXPEDITION To CAPE 


terus, and the genus Lepidochnictys are new. Fresh-water fishes 


; are represented by Galaxias maculatus and Notothenia tessellata. 


The predominating genera of mollusks are Oscabrion, Patella and 
Mytilus. All the large species are edible. The large mussel 
oem fixed upon a stone handle, are used by the Fuegians as 
nives. 


Among the mollusks are Chitons, Volutes, Succineas and 
Chilias, many of them new, but there are no fresh-water shells, 
and only three or four small Helices. Echini, which are a value 
article of food to the F uegians in July and August (the end of 
winter) are abundant, and the starfishes include Ladidiaster radio- 
sus, which has evident relations to Brisinga, and Crenodiscus aus- 
tralis. The collection of insects is not only interesting on account 
of 1€ new species, but because of numerous forms which’ were 
ian known only from parts of South America near the 

or, 


three families Syconidz, Leuconidz and Teichonide. 


7 ae HW. Conn and H. G. Beyer (Stud. from the Biol. 


J. Hopk. Univ., 1883), describe the various nerve structures of 
Porpita, These consist of nerve ganglion cells, about 2% of an 
‘ht in diameter , usually tripolar, but sometimes bipolar, with yi 
process from each pole; and of some hundreds o 
mall €ctodermal pockets arranged around the edge of the velum. 
of «pockets are formed of much enlarged ectodermal cells, ald 
ee have a distinct nucleus and nucleolus. They wou 
to be organs of touch. fiat 
—By far the greater part, if not the whole, of the primi- 


odermal origin. The walls of these organs have all the 


eit a p ` a K ning 
“Sts of regular epithelium, there is a wide external opening, 


834 ` General Notes. [August, 


and M. de Meuron is convinced of the existence of an internal 
orifice furnished with. vibratile cilia directed backwards. The 
true kidneys in the same genus are composed partly of an ecto- 
dermal invagination, and partly of mesodermal structure. The 
two parts unite early and so closely that they cannot be distin- 
guished. The kidney then increases rapidly and takes the shape 
of the letter S, one extremity terminating at the bottom of a fold 
of the pallial cavity, while the other opens into that of the peri- 
cardium. M. Grobben considers the cavity of the pericardium as 
the remains of the primitive cceloma, but M. de Meuron sees in it 
the cavity of the posterior of the two somites of a mollusk. The 
primitive kidneys thus represent the excretory organ of the first 
somite; and the true kidneys that of the second somite——Pro 
fessor H. L. Osborn (Stud. from the Biol. Lab. J. Hopk. Univ), 
gives an account of his studies upon the structure and growth of 
the shell of the oyster. A thin circular glass was inserted be 
tween the outside of the mantle and the inside of the shell, and 
the secretion examined. After twenty-four hours a thin gummy 
deposit, with in some cases a few lime crystals, was found, This 
was clearly a viscid secretion from the surface cells of the mantle. 


brown membrane, like the epidermis of a shell, but containing 
calcium carbonate in solution. A film six days old had lost 1s 
leathery character and become strong, and after three or four 
weeks the glass is completely coated with white shell, principally 
formed of the mother-of-pearl layer. w 

Crustaceans —The Challenger report upon the Cirripedia 8 
by Dr. P. P. C. Hoek. Seventy-eight species are rep 


fathoms. Forty species of Scalpellum were added by the ee 
er 
Ten es ol 
bution of this genus 
of i ay ; 
The Challenger report of Dr. S puding 


mostraca, chiefly Copepoda, and the cold waters of the Pha 
gions seem even more favorable to these animals than trop a 


1884.] - Physiology. 835 
undoubted deep-sea species is Pontostratiotes abyssicola, dredged 
in 2200 fathoms. This was previously described in MS. by Dr. 
von Willemoes Suhm as Lernea abyssicola: and was found on 
Ceratias uranoscopus dredged in 2400 fathoms. . 

Tunicates —M. L. Roule has studied the genus Rhopalea, an 
_ ascidian abundant near Marseilles at a depth of fifty to sixty 
_ meters. Rhopalea does not reproduce by budding, and may be 
_ considered as forming a link between the simple and the com- 
_ pound tunicates. 
Batrachians—M. G. Calmels finds in the poison of batrachians 
_ small portion of methylcarbylamine, which gives to the liquid 
= some of its odor and toxic qualities; it also contains, in larger 
= quantities, an acid from which the methylcarbylamine is formed. 
Birds, —Herr Stieneger informs Vazuren that Kamtschatka has 
four species of sea-eagle, Halaétus hypoleucus, H. albicilla, H. leu- 
_ ephalus;and Thalassaëtus pelagicus. The first of these is dis- 
_ tinguished from the others by the dazzling whiteness of some 
_ Parts of the body and by its generally lighter color. Among the 
cetacean crania collected, three seem to belong to a new species. 
tammals.—Dr. P. Albrecht, in a communication to the An- 
__ thropological Society of Brussels, maintains that there are primi- 
4 tively four intermaxillaries, and that hare-lip, which is never cen- 
3 tral, takes place by the separation of the inner and outer inter-. 
_ Maxillaries of one or the other side. As proof of this, he figures 
_ “ses of double hare-lip, in which the two inner bones (endogna- 
_ «t8)stand out as a separate bone anchylosed in the median line, 
a While each outer intermaxillary, bearing its incisor, is united to 
the Maxillary. In the Ornithorhynchus, as figured in a commu- 

nication of the same observer to the Pathological Society of 


l physiological action. He found, moreover, “that — 
l 


Salts of the metallic elements the iatasity of thar 


2 ag | tis edited by Professor Henry SEWALL, of Ann Arbor, Michigan. 
OL. xy; 


Nino. yi, 45 


836 i General Notes. [August, 
groups, the action of substances in the same isomorphous groupis 
a function of the atomic weight, the greater the atomic weight 
the smaller the quantity required to produce the same physiologi 
cal action.” The author divides the chemical elements into ten 
groups, in each of which, among the metals, with one exception, 
the salts are isomorphous and have characteristic physiological 
actions which are described in detail.—//. of Physiology, Vil. Y, 
No, z. 


THE ACCELERATOR AND INHIBITORY NERVES OF THE HEART OF 


conduction power of the muscular tissue. Such Opposing ita | 
are evidently due to one of two causes, either (1) to the J aa 


to inhibit the cardiac functions according to varying condit 


: veen 
of the nerves or of the heart itself. In order to deride S 


iy inhibitory: 
ned on Y eniai 
m closely 
i were 


fully answered; the accelerator nerves of t : : 3 
main sympathetic chain at a large ganglion corresponding td : 
rently to the ganglion stellatum of warm-bloodec ae cava, 
accompany the vertebral artery up to the ur yein anas 
where they leave the artery and passing alongside t ood of the 

tomose with branches of the vagus in the neighbo of the ah 
. heart. Stimulation of these nerves increases the rate oF : 


1884] Physiology. 837 


diac rhythm and augments the force of the auricular contractions, 
while stimulation of the vagus slows the rhythm and diminishes 
the strength of the auricular contractions.” 

Guided by these facts the author was successfully led to 
attempt to isolate the sympathetic nerve twigs which join the 
cranial vagus in the frog near its exit from the skull, and the fol- 
lowing are the physiological results obtained : 

“Stimulation of the sympathetic before its entrance into the 
combined ganglion of the sympathetic and vagus, produces purely 
augmentor (accelerator) effects. Stimulation of the vagus within 

_ the cranial cavity before its entrance into the ganglion, produces 

_ purely inhibitory effects.” 

___ The communication is of special value in removing a doubt as 
to whether the action of individual nerves is physiologically in- 

variable or capable of being altered under changed conditions. 

Jl. Physiology, Vol. v, No. 1. 


THE TIME TAKEN BY THE BLOOD IN MAKING THE CIRCUIT OF 
THE Bopy.—Dr, Smith, in describing a new method for deter- 
mining the velocity of the blood current, calls attention to the 
__-Maccuracy of the old experiments by which it was sought to find 
; the rate of circulation by measuring the time elapsing between 
l the injection of an iron salt into one jugular vein and its appear- 
ce in the jugular on the other side of the neck. Various 
4 chemical substances in solution make this circuit in very different 
Pe ods, because, apparently, of their different diffusibility. 
: According to the method now considered, de-fibrinated pigeon’s 
: i aio oo hen one 4a eee vein E an animal ymo Soo 
2 o drop from the other jugular into a series 0 - 
g placed in a circle upona able which is revolved by clock- 
‘ Work, Microscopic examination of the blood thus collected is 
1 aaa determine in which watch-glass the oval corpuscles of 
the Pigeon’s blood first appear ; then knowing the rate at which 
. table ts turned it is easy to estimate the time taken by the 7 
passage j lood in passing from one jugular to the other, s a 
but th it has probably traversed not only the heart and lungs, 
1 capillaries of the head as well. The mean of six experi- 
dirs. Sives the time of circulation in the dog as 17.5 seconds, 
time © Which the heart made 51.5 pulsations. In the rabbit the 
31 Of circulation was 11 seconds, during which there were 
aurea beats. When solid particles are injected into a egies 
this t as the blood, the heavier ones are carried at a faster rate 
the the lighter, because the former are more readily drawn into 
ao tly Moving axial current. Thus in the living blood-ves- 


tora! current, while the li ur chiefly in the 
OR S ghter leucocytes occ in 
Parl inert” layer. The author finds that very finely pijo 
Particles suspended in a fluid require twice as long to - 


838 General Notes. [August, 


pass from one jugular to the other as do the corpuscles of 

pigeon’s blood, and the mean velocity of the current lies some- 

where between the two rates determined.— Am. Ji. Med. Sci, No. 

CLXXIV. 
PSYCHOLOGY. 


Tue Nature oF Instinct.—This subject has lately been dis- 
cussed by Messrs. Romanesand C. Lloyd Morgan. As to the view 
that there is a science of comparative psychology as held by Ro- 
manes and others, Mr. Morgan inquires, in Nature for Feb. 14, 
(1) Whether there is a science of comparative psychology; (2) 
discusses the place of consciousness; (3) the lapse of conscious- 
ness; (4) a psychological definition of instinct; (5) a physiologi- 
cal definition of instinct; (6) the origin and development of in- 
stinct. Mr. Morgan thus concludes: . 

1. While fully admitting the great interest that attaches to the 
study of the inferred mental faculties of the higher brutes, I be- 
lieve that, from the ejective nature of the animal mind and 
necessary absence of verification, no science of comparative psy" 
chology, except such as is restricted to “ objective psychology, 
is possible. ; 

2. Of the four views of the place of consciousness in the ant 
mal world, only one—that of free zi//—renders the study of the 
actions of animals incapable of scientific treatment. 2i © 
other three I believe determinism to be the most sinn i 
According to this view both neuroses and psychoses are subject 
to law.. But from our necessarily ejective knowledge o Pe tfc 
ses, we are forced to confine our attention (from the scient i 
point of view) to the objective phenomena of neurosis, an 
as manifested in conduct; of the psychoses, we can, know pet 
ing with certainty ; of the neuroses we may learn a little; 0 
duct we may learn much. a 
consciousness ok 
corollaries may be drawn : (a) That it is difficult or impos% ae 


lapse of consciousness in the species ; and (c) that the ood oe 
that instinctive actions are unconscious is incapable o! í = 

4. On the general ground given in 1, and on the special oo 
given in 3, I see great difficulties in accepting the POY ich js ite 
theory of instinct—that instinct is reflex action into Wei 
ported the element of consciousness. on physio- ; 

5. In accordance with the principle thus advocated, 4 defini ty 
logical definition of instinct must be sought. Some ctions pe : 
tion as this may be proposed: Jmstinctive actions are of a special 
formed by the individual in virtue of his possession °°" 7 


1884.] Anthropology. 839 


type of nervous organization, that is, a type of organization com- 
mon to his species. 


nal manifestations of internal structures. To the question as to 
the relative importance of direct and indirect equilibration I 
could give no definite answer within the limits of this article, and 
therefore gave quotations from Darwin and Herbert spencer. 


wolf on the snow; the trap was thrown to some distance. Evi- 
dently the bear had put his paw in the trap and had managed 
to jerk it off. The next night the forester hid himself within 
shot of the carcass to watch for the bear. The bear came, but 
first pulled down a stack of firewood cut into seven-foot lengths, 
selected a piece to his mind, and taking it up in his arms, walked 
on his hind legs to the carcass. He then beat about in the snow 
all round the carcass with the log of wood before he began his 
meal. The forester put a ball in his head, which I almost regret, 
as such a’sensible brute deserved to live.” 


ANTHROPOLOGY.' 


UNIFORM Crantometry.—In September, 1877, a craniometric 
conference was held in Munich (Correspondens6latt, 1878, No. 7), 
nd a second conference in August, 1880, in Berlin (Correspon- 
denzblatt, Bericht uber die x1., Allg. VersammL., pp. 104-106). At 
‘the thirteenth general meeting at Frankfort, August, 1882, a 
pe d scheme was proposed. This is published in Archiv für 
Anthropologie, xv, pp. 1-8, 1884, and signed by sixty-seven of 
e most eminent anthropologists in Germany, Switzerland, Aus- 
tria, Italy and Russia. ; 

e Horizontal—The line selected for the horizontal of the 
skull is that extending from the lower edge of the orbital cavity 
ni middle of the ear cavity or the upper edge of the internal 

S; 

The linear measures of the cranium are 16; of the face, 15. 
The capacity of the skull is taken with shot, if possible. The 
Cranial indices are as follows: : 

lichocephal dou caansenses® > 75 and under. 
y J Raedas: ; ete ae 781—799- 


yi 
bux se cow bi oe wees ter” 


840 General Notes. . [August, 


Greely oe 
ieee z -751 and over. 
EA Ia wit E wrpmsicce oa} TE amide 6 so gate ene to 82? 
erent or orthognathy .. 83°—g0° 
Hyperorthognathy . 91° and over, 


Other indices are ave on the height of the face, orbital cavity, 
nasal cavity, and palat 

The following table í is drawn up. for the purpose of indicating 
the manner of reporting measurements 


i Number 
| 
ME 
A 
8 
C op F 
LiL eng 


B|Width i 
B?|Width of forehead 4 


$|Sagittal circumference 
QjLateral circumference _ 7 
GH Height of tace 
G'H|Height of upper face 
GB} Width of face 


2 
T 
a» 
= 
= 
=) 
ee 
aes A 
g 
= 
q 
aon 


PL Facial angle 
E a cade L :B Length and height Ţ 

L: H| Length and heig j 
B:H Breadth and height index Z 
GH: GB 4 
Gi: GB Upper face J 

ee O, Orbital cavity 

G,:G,|Palat 

Erunotocy or British Gurawa.—On the rst of Ja 


appeared the first number of a semi-annual journal, pub P: gr- 
aeran, bearing the following title: Zimehri: being re i 
re “ we teem and Commercial | Societ M 
suiana. Vol. 1, Pt. 1, June. Edited by E. F. i urn, 
ee by J. Thoinson, The fifth ces lees has pie sae pub- 


ished, bringing the e journal up to date. Mr. im Trae ketches 


dished, in i in 1883, x Atong the Indians of Gu jana,” being 3 


SR 


1884. | 


chiefly anthropologic, from the interior of British Guiana, with 
$3 pee illustrations and a map. London, Kegan Paul, French 

445, 53 ill., map. Let us loale ea at Time The 
Ae Timvetbri or Timeneeri is Carib for certain marks on “rocks, 
corresponding to our pictographs, found throughout Guiana. The 
papers g ethnologic matter will be given by title: 


Anthropology. 841 


E. F. im Thurn. Tame an owd pe the Red men of America (1, 25). [The 
Indians of Guiana find means to tame nearly all the wild animals of the ger 
try, not for love of pets, bat to increase their wealth, They even know how 


change the color of parrots from green to yellow. At one oe use ageh writer oo 


parrots, macaws, ane 0 birds, ibe monkeys, toucans, curassow peng 
sun bird and man others. Mon rm me dant in some settlements, deer of 
two sorts are sometimes tamed, a Ma s peccaries, quashies, jaguars, tapirs, 


labbas, wai ter-hogs, acouries, ducks, troupials, bell-birds, hawks, owls, herons, 
plovers, cock-of-th the-rock and iguanas. ] 
West Indian Folk-lore, na 145. 


E. F. im Thurn. Notes on West Indian stone implements, 1, 257-271, 1I, Br oad 
[The implements eia are am celts, large ornamented axes 
miform stones. ] 


The Di-di or ni mamma, I, 298. 
Indian privileges, 1, 306. 

vade, I, 310-314; II, 159, 355- 
Jonah myths, 11, 161. 
Local Medicinal paks, Il, sen 


we 


“Among the Indians of Guiana.” The first five clapiers (p. I-I 5 135) 


tof the volume describes minutely the tribes, aliie os 
tems, dress, houses, social life, arts, feasts, religion and antiquities. 


The following t : 
ribal names occur: 

S Branch or Stock 
Ackawoi ... Carib. 
AE ie BROT sais Geet SE iad BM A eS Wapiana, 
Arawaks......_. Ara 
Arecuna ib. 
Arecuma \ z iye 
Atarois. . .». Wapiana. 
Caribisi A 
Caribs J ae.. Carib. 
Cari 

nya, Caribs call themselves (people). 
Çobrungrus, hybrids between Indians and Negroes. 
aurais, same as Atarois. 
rimda hybrids between Macusis and Arecunas. 
Lipohn, Ackawois call themselves (people). 
M ono, Arawaks call themselves (people). o eae 


Maiongkongs, bevond the British border. 
faopityans, unclassed. 
Nikar ikarus, h ybrids between Macusis and Brazilians. 


aunan “ane sub- tribe of Ackawoi. seeeeeeseoesese `... Carib. 
Fava sub-tribe of Macusi eereree . Carib. 
nana, beyond the British border. 
Parco in bids. 


aruma, shade a with Moapityans. 
Same as Atar 


$42 General Notes. [August 7 


Branch or Stock, 
Waccawai, same as Ackawoi. ; 
Wapiana Wapiana, 
Warrau... Warran, 
ma, hybrids. 
Woyowai, only the name is known. 
Zurumutas, sub-tribe of Macusi Carib, 


To give a faint conception of the rich veins of ethnologic lore 
in this volume it would be necessary to quote many pages. We q 
have so few collaborators in South America, that Mr, im — 
Thurn is to be congratulated for his energy and wise use of his 
time. 


THE CATLIN CoLLECTION.— The editor of these notes had the i 


preservation, having the merit of being collected forty years ago 

and taken from the hands of those who made and used them. — 
But, sad to tell, time, neglect and insects have played d nE 
havoc with many beautiful and rare things. It was hard to real- i 
ize that so few years could work such changes, yet such is — 
the case, and many more fine collections will go the same path. 


MICROSCOPY AND HISTOLOGY. 


MetHops oF Impeppinc.2—Dr. Blochmann reviews the various 
methods of imbedding, describing in detail those that pte | 
into general use, and pointing out the advantages and gisa : 
tages of each. oy FE aa 

In every method of imbedding the principle 1s w | 
namely, to saturate objects with substances which not ¢ y ie 
out the larger internal cavities, but which -also penetrate ka l 
sues themselves, rendering them (after cooling) sufficiently 
or the process of sectioning. 

Glycerine and Gelatine.— 1 part. 

Gelatine. siiis ; sree 
Distilled waler saii parts. 


For preservation a little carbolic acid (1 gram for i00 oy d 
_ of the mixture) should be added. Objects are tra : wee 


imbedded in paper boxes. After cooling the objects thus} 5 rine 
are hardened in alcohol, then sectioned and mounted in Bo iit — 


; ho meron 
Schiefferdecker s method of imbedding in Cellotdine. err 
1 Edited by Dr. C. O. WuitTMan, Mus. Comparative Zoology, anes 
*F. ae “Ueber Einbettingsmethoden.” Zettschr, fp We A 
1 : 1880. 
l is recommended by Kaiser. Botan, Centralbl., 1 P 25» i 
* Arch. f. Anat, u. Phys., 1 Abth., p. 199, 1882. 


1884.] Microscopy and Histology. 843 


is prepared in plates, and may be obtained from Wittich & Ben- 
kendorf, Chaussee Strasse 19, Berlin N. 

Schiefferdecker uses two solutions, one of a syrupy consistency, 
the other somewhat thinner. The celloidine plate is cut into 
small pieces and dissolved in absolute alcohol and ether (in equal 
parts). Objects are transferred from absolute alcohol,’ first to the 
thinner solution, then to the thicker. After remaining a few 
hours (or days, according to the character of the object) in the 
latter they are imbedded in paper boxes. As soon as a hardened 

Im forms on the solution in the box, the whole is placed in 82 
per cent alcohol for 24-48 hours, and thus rendered sufficiently 
hard for cutting. 

Blochmann recommends imbedding on a cork rather than in a 
paper box, as less celloidine is required, and as the cork is held 
more firmly in the holder. One end of the cork is made rough 
and surrounded by a strip of paper, which is made fast by a pin, 
as shown in the figure. The roughened surface of the cork is 
wet with absolute alcohol and then the object im- 
bedded in the usual manner. In order that this 
sthall box may sink in alcohol, in which it is placed 
for hardening. the celloidine, it may be weighted 
with a small lead ball fastened to the cork by a nee- 
dle (see figure). 

In cutting, the knife is kept wet with alcohol (70 
per cent). The sections may be placed in water or 
in alcohol, and afterwards stained with carmine or 
hematoxylin, in which the celloidine is only a little 
or not at all, stained. Aniline dyes color the cel- 
loidine, and therefore should not be used. 

he sections can be mounted in glycerine or in | 
m; but in the latter case they must be anhy- 
drated with 95 per cent alcohol, as absolute alcohol dissolves ‘the 
celloidine. They should be clarified in bergamot oil or origanum 
oil (clove oil dissolves the celloidine). 
_ Objects imbedded in celloidine can be preserved, ready for cut- 
ting, for a long time in 70-80 per cent alcohol. 

Imbedding in Paraffine —The object is transferred from abso- 
lute alcohol to chloroform, and left till the alcohol has been en- 
tirely replaced ; it is next placed in a shallow vessel with a small 


* 


quantity of chloroform, and enough paraffine added, in fine 


and the chloroform evaporates, so that the object is brought very 
gradually into pure melted paraffine. In this way the object be- 
comes completely saturated with the paraffine. 


l ‘If the objects are penetrated with difficulty, they may be transferred from abso- 
ute alcohol to ether, then to the celloidine solutions. 


844 General Notes. 


It is essential that the mixture be kept at the propér tempera- 
ture until a// the chloroform hes evaporated. A simple test is to 
place a hot wire in the paraffine, if no bubbles arise, it is safe to 
conclude that the chloroform has entirely escaped, . 

After evaporation of the chloroform, the object may be placed 

i he paraffine 


in any desired position, and the afine 

allowed to cool. After cooling the object 

: g can be cut out and fixed to a larger block of 

Pe ee paraffine fitted for the holder of the micro- 
c z « tome. ; 

Boxes for imbedding may be made of red: 

angular pieces of paper of the thickness of 


postal cards in the following manner: fn 
paper is first broken in the lines a a’ and 07, 


the same side). Then in every corner a break 


E erelh 
— 


box are next bent up and the corners at t 
same time turned outward and back behind 


of the knife. The middle 
is so fixed that it will be paralel 
with the edge of the 


Nini 


then cc’ and dd’ (by bending always towards 


Ce A BBC OF D DVM made by bringing 
A cand A a together. The four sides of the 


a spring clip grasping panies 


z the ends A B a é and eet P: tera the 
upper edge of these ends is bent down over the corners. es 

Bubbles around the object may be removed by means of a 
heated wire. 


knife and at 


: ccmpemnaaanianeinmiens , ; i x this f- 
a distance of about a hundredth of an inch from it. desist A its 


pose the writer has found an ordinary hairpin, dept! 
lacquer, about the right size. and the blade 


edge micro 


applicable to the knife when used in any form it Sterling 


for the ends nie 


at og Kingsley, Science Record, 11, No. 5, p. 112, March 15, 1884 


ee perenne Be ras ole eet ae eee 


f 


1884. ] Scientific News. 845 


On THE USE OF VASELINE TO PREVENT THE LOSS OF ALCOHOL 
FROM SPECIMEN JARS.1—The petroleum preparation known as vas- 
eline is known to be practically unaffected by ordinary tempera- 
tures and by most substances. In the Journal of the Chemical 
Society, July, 1882, p. 786, it is said to be “sparingly soluble in 
cold strong alcohol, and completely in hot, but separates out on 
cooling.” After trying various substances, wax, paraffine, oil and 
glycerine with but partial success, the use of vaseline was sug- 
gested by the two authors independently and nearly at the same 
time. The experiments tried this spring indicate that, during 
three months, at ordinary spring and summer temperatures, there 
is no appreciable loss of ninety-five per cent alcohol from glass 
vials or jars, whether upright or inverted or on the side, provided 
corks are anointed on the bottom as well as on the side, provided 
ground glass stoppers are anointed and firmly inserted, and pro- 
vided the rubber rings of fruit jars and the specimen jars made 
by Whitall, Tatum & Co., are anointed on both sides and the 
covers well screwed down. 

_ We have also used the vaseline for preventing the loss of other 
liquids, excepting chloroform and spirits of turpentine ; as a lubri- 
tor of drawers, and to prevent the sticking of the covers or stop- 
pers of cement vials; and for the prevention of rust upon steel 
instruments, 
——:0:—— 
SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 


among the best known regions. a : 
A second prize of 2000 francs fell to M. Peron for his “ Geologi- 


In botany the “ Prix Desmazieres ” was awarded to the memoir 
of MM. G. Bonnier and L. Mangin, entitled “ Researches on the 
respiration and transpiration of Fungi.” This work marks a 
great advance both in the special physiology of fungi and in gen- 
tral physiology. ; 
An “ encouragement” of 500 francs was accorded to M. Klein 
for his memoirs on “ Vampyrella” (which he places near the 
Myxomycetes) and on the “ Crystalloids of marine Alge. 


1 i 
Wilder and Gage. Proc. A. A. A. S., XXXII, p. 318. 


__ The Fons-Melicocq prize for the best work upon the botany of — 
the north of France, was not awarded, but an “encouragement” 
was given to M. Ch. Magnier for the ensemble of his works. __ 

The “Prix Bordin” for the best work upon the influence of | 
the environment upon the vegetative organs; the changes under 
gone by terrestrial plants when grown in water, and by aquatic — 
plants, grown in air; and the causes, as ascertained by direct 
experiment, of the special forms of some species of the maritime — 
flora, was allotted to M. Costantin, whose memoir, the result of l 
three years.of labor, contributes largely to the development of 
experimental anatomy. Two other anonymous works were sub- 
mitted, and to the one of these bearing the motto, “Hoc opus, 


840 Scientific News. 


. 


hic labor est,” a prize of 1000 francs was given. | a4 
e “ Prix Morogues,” to be given every decade for the work | 
which during that term may have been most beneficial to the pro- 
gress of agriculture in France, was awarded to the “ Biotogica 
Chemistry” of M. Duclaux, forming part of the “ Chemical En- 
cyclopedia” published by M. Fremy. In giving this award espe 
cial notice was taken of the author’s researches upon milk, with- 
out losing sight of the fact that his labors were carried into 
almost all agricultural industries. range 
For the “ Grand Prix” in anatomy and zoology, to be given © 
the best memoir upon the histological development of insects i 
during their metamorphosis, M. Viallanes was the only pages 
but his work was of such excellence that the prize was 
mously decreed to be his. ; Slogical 
The “ Prix Bordin,” for researches in botanical or 200 pe 
palzontology in France or Algiers, was awarded to * Flora of 
Eury, for his two works entitled, “ The Carboniferous and * ne 
the department of the Loire and the center of France, ete 


The Montyon prizes in medicine and surgery 
Ax aes value of 2500 francs, and were daon pin 
aul for his treatise upon “The diagnosis and (reall ches 
eases of the Heart;” to 3 Dr. H. Roger for his “ Clinica ris te 
upon the diseases of Infancy ;’ and to Dr. E. Vallin se 
tise on “ Disinfectants and Disinfection.” Napias and A. 
Prizes of 1500 francs were given to Doctors H. me ogress of 
J. Martin for their treatise upon “ The study an i Remy for 
hygiene in France ;” to Doctors L. meen ont | to the 
their memoir on “ Absorption by the Peritoneum , nor 
“Treatise upon Uterine ocean ” of Dr. P. Denuce p co 
ble mention was given to six other works rk upon 


Dr. Constantia 1 
tment 


reant prize was awarded to Dr. Fauvel for ct of the 
the etiology and prophylaxy of cholera, a contin The sum of ; 
labors which gained him the same prize in 1870. © : 


1884.) Scientific News. 847 


10,000 francs was divided among the four pupils of Pasteur, M. 
= Strauss, Roux, Nocard and Thuillier, who composed the com- 
_ mission which in the past year studied the cholera on the spot in 
. Egypt. The last gentleman fell a victim to his devotion to sci- 
ence and humanity. 
| The “ Prix Godard” was decreed to Dr. Guelliot for his mono- 
_ graph on the “ Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology of the Ves- 
| iculæ Seminales.” Honorable mention was made of the wor 
_ of Dr. Desnos on lithotrity. i 
The “ Prix Chaussier” was given to Dr. Legrand du Saulle for 
his “ Medico-legal studies of epileptic and hysterical subjects.” 
These four volumes, both in France and abroad, are constantly 
-~ Cited as authority upon the legal aspects of emotional insanity. 

Honorable mention was made of the remarkable work of M. 
A. Layet on the “ Hygiene and maladies of the Peasantry” and 
to M. A. Luton for his work on special and general therapeutics. 

The “ Prix Lallemand” was not awarded, but its value was 
divided between M. B. Ball, author of ‘‘ Lessons on Mental Dis- 
eases,” and M. Aug: Voisin for his “Clinical lessons on mental 
and nervous Maladies.” 

The Montyon prize in physiology was awarded to Dr. P. Reyard 
for kis experimental researches om the pathological variations in 
respiratory combustion; and the “ Prix Lacaze” was given to M. 
Balbiani for the total of his works upon embryogeny and general. 
physiology during the last twenty years. 

The “Prix Penaud,” for zrostation, was parted into three 
equal portions, and given to MM. Gaston Tissandier, Duroy de 
Bruignac and V. Tatin. 

Among the general prizes the “ Prix Tremont ” was decreed 
. J. Morin for his mechanical inventions; the Gegner prize 
was divided between MM. Ed. Lescarbault and Ch. Brame; the 
“Prix Petit d’Ormoy” (mathematical sciences) was given to M 
on Darboux; the “Prix Petit d’Ormoy” (natural sciences) 
was unanimously awarded to M. Henri Filhol for his researches 
among the Tertiary mammals of France; and medals of honor 
from the Petit d’Ormoy funds were given to the various members: 
of the Talisman exploring expedition, and to those who, in err 
ormed part of the French expedition to Cape Horn in the 
Romanche. { 

The “ Prix Laplace ” is each year the prize of the first scholar 

of the Ecole Polytechnique, and thus fell to M. A. C. Rateau. 


—We have received from Dr. Henry C. Chapman an interesting 
brochure entitled “ History of the Circulation of the Blood,” in 
Which he concludes that the discovery of the circulation of the 


blood belong to no one age, country or person. Its history, ex- 


a ARA 


- 


Le eat he iT tae re Bae 


4 


= 
i 
a 


t 


848 Scientific News. 


experiments or observations may appear at the time, every new — 
fact once well established will sooner or later assume its appro. 
priate place as a part of some future generalization; the chain of — 
facts leading to a great discovery being united together like liv- i 
ing things, each linked, those that have passed away with those 
still to come.” 


— Two Japanese naturalists, I. Iijima and C. Sasaki, have pub- 
lished in English an appendix to Memoir, vol. 1, part 1 of ti ] 
Science Department of the University of Tokio, on the Okadaira — 
shell mound at Hitachi. The contents of this mound are com- 
pared with those from the Omori shell mounds described and j 
figured by Professor E.S. Morse. The pottery, stone and horn and 4 
bone implements are of the same primitive nature as those from : 
the Omori mound. Among the great quantity of bones onlya 
single human one was detected. This was a femur roughly broken 
off at each end, and from the fact that it was broken in the same 
way as the bones of other mammals, the authors suggest that it 
might be taken as an evidence of cannibalism. Bones of the mo 
also occurred, which are regarded as “ cases of intrusion unless . 
we suppose the wild ox has existed in Japan.” The illustrations Í 
are well drawn and printed by Japanese artists. 


— The Zoôlogischer Jahresbericht for 1882, 1v, PEEN a 3 
tebrata, has been lately received (June 23). It forms a volumeo — 
300 pages, and has the same excellencies as have paul aa 
its predecessors, 7. e., the full abstracts of articles and wor ek | 
general nature, as well as matter pertaining to systematic 20010 


— The French Société d’Acclimatation has geben the goli : 
medal offered by the minister of agriculture to Dr. arte Aa 
famous embryologist, for his researches in artificial incu 


: m 

—Alphonse Lavallée, head of the very enten rene 
at Segre, near Paris, died in June last at the age ple and 
He was the leading European collector and student a we d wat 
the author of the Arboretum Segrezianum ; his lates atis, while 
an illustrated monograph of the large flowering Clem an illus- 
at the time of his death he had nearly ready for the press, 1 
trated monograph of the genus Cratægus. f Lipp- q 

— A brief memoir of the late Dr. Hermann wif thesale 
stadt, has been written by Ernst Krause, the prone e brochure 
of which are to be added to the “ Müller Fund. sed, and the 
contains an excellent autotypic portrait of the Geer aia write 
memoir is accompanied by a chronological list o . a 
ngs. 


* þotan- 
_ —The death is announced at Breslau of the pia th year. 
ist and palæontologist, ‘Dr. Géppert, in his eighty-f0 


1884. ] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 849 


PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 


BiotocicaL Sociery oF WASHINGTON, May 31.—Communica- 
tions were read by Mr. James E. Benedict on the recent cruise of 
the steamer A/batross in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean sea; . 
by Ensign E. E. Hayden, U.S.N., on a new method of figuring 
fossil leaves and other objects by the aid of photography ; by 
Mr. John A. Ryder on the development of viviparous minnows ; 
and by Mr. Romyn Hitchcock on a collection of Foraminifera 
belonging to the genus Lagena. 


New York Acapemy OF SCIENCES, June 2.—A new process of 
cutting intaglios and cameos, so as to produce the finer effects of 
the ancient glyptic work, illustrated with specimens and with the 
present and the proposed machinery, was described by Mr. George 

unz; Mr. Edward W. Martin remarked on photo-microgra- 
phy, processes and results, with illustrations. 

June 9 —The scenery of the Rocky Mountain parks was de- 
scribed by the president with a series.of lantern illustrations. 


APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN CLUB, June 11.—The following papers 
Were presented : Notes taken on a recent trip to Black and Koan 
mountains, N. Carolina, A. E. Scott; A trip to the Sourdnahunk 
Mountains, near Ktaadn, Geo H. Witherle; The mountains near 
ate Willoughby and Memphremagog, C. E. Fay, J. R. Ed- 
Mands, 


| 


Pee AG Raise a ee NT rc 


ee en er re reagan eR 2 


report of the Conchological branch; No. 4, “ Notes on and 
description of some fossils from the Trenton limestone,” W. R. 
Billings; “ A note on Triarthus spinosus Billings,” H. M. Ami; 
‘port of the Palzontological branch and report of the Ornitho- 
"end and Zodlogical branch; No. 5, “ The ducks of this local- 
kd . P. Lett; report of the Botanical branch and report o 

7 Entomological branch. 

Three excursions were held during the season of 1883: To 
King’s Mere on 8th June; Deschene’s mills on 2d September 
righam’s quarries on 21st October. ‘ 
the € council caused to be printed the transactions (No. 3) 0 

© club for the year 1881—82, consisting of sixty-six closely 
fae oe jakies and two excellent plates. The transactions con- 
list” in addition to the papers and reports read before the club, a 
St of the birds so far recorded from this locality. 

i AMERICAN Puitosopnicat Society, April 18.—Extract from 

Report on the Ham's Fork coals of Wyoming Terri- 


5 
F 
; 
i 
i 


850 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [Aug., 1884 i 
‘ 
tory, by P. W. Sheafer, were read. Mr. Lesley exhibited 
models of the Nittany valley and Bald Eagle mountain, and 
of the Jones mine, made by Mr. Harden. Dr. Hunt gave an 
account of his examination of the Jones and other iron 
` mines, and assigned them all to the horizon of H. D. Rogers 
primal slates, though they lie in immediate contact with the Trias. 
Dr. Frazer said that facts show that some of the mines penetrate 
the Trias, yet the triassic iron-ore deposits may be merely the 
redeposited detritus of more extensive primal slate iron ores. 
ay 2.—Mr. Phillips made a communication “Ona s 
Runic inscription near Yarmouth, N. S.,” and exhibited a pho — 
tograph and a squeeze from it. Mr. Ashburner exhibited recently 
printed sheets of cross sections made by the Geological Survey — 
in Schuylkilland Lucerne counties, and explained some of the — 
peculiarities of structure. 


PHILADELPHIA Acapemy oF Natura Sciences, Feb. 2l— — 
Mr. Meehan described an abnormal Halesia tetraptera, with 
separate petals and leaves like those of the apple. The plant — 
grew under similar conditions to numerous other normal e 
and was the offspring of the same tree. Mr. Lockington consid- 
ered this a case of reversion. Professor Heilprin exhibited spèc — 
mens of carboniferous fossils, with Phillipsia, and along with them — 
an ammonite, the oldest yet discovered, which he named Amn i 
nites parlat. : ie 

Feb. 28.—Dr. Leidy directed attention to specimens of a 
toma from the mouth of the alligator. Distoma oricola nbag 
posed as the name. Examples of Filaria horrida, from the pa 
of the American ostrich, were shown, and also some filaria fom 
the marsh owl. The last accorded so closely with the 4wa ae 
biata of the black stork of Europe and North Africa, that ry : 
speaker believed them to be the same species. Dr. Rane nave ig 
tailed the results of experiments upon the digestion of bo! wo 
unboiled milk, and announced his conclusion that the lae tiie’ 
the advantage as a nutrient. ee Aji 

March 3.—Dr. Leidy stated his belief that the whee others 


es k ; himself 
lus dictyophora, and Cupelophagus described by ħi the distinctness 


were really but one species. Miss Foulke maintained 
of the forms described by Forbes and Meznichow, an water 
Trachelius leidyi, a ciliate infusorian found in Schuylkt of ob 
Dr. McCook described the cocoons of the few asi Geis: 
weaving spiders which make more than one cocoon. crispala 

_ March 13.—Mr. Ford exhibited specimens of Zirh Me Soa 
found in driftwood at Atlantic City. Professor Heilpr r Tryon = 
the finding of Porpita linn@ana near Cape May, we City. 
remarked that in 1876 he found an example at 24 sponge 
Mr. Potts stated that the stems of Urnatella on the oF tp show 
crust collected by him at Fairmount had commen To 
signs of life. 


THE 


AMERICAN NATURALIST. 


VoL. xvii. SEPTEMBER, 1884.—No. 9. 


NOTES ON A NEVADA SHELL (PYRGULA 
NEVADENSIS). 


BY R. ELLSWORTH CALL AND C. E. BEECHER. 


4 PS form was described by Dr. R. E. C. Stearns! from mate- 
rial furnished in part by one of the present writers. The 
description was based upon the external characters presented by 
the shell alone, for at that time material containing soft parts had 
not been discovered. Since the printing of the description 
Opportunities were afforded us to make extensive collections of 
recent and Quaternary shells in the Great Basin, and the biologic 
_ 4nd climatologic results of our study are now being formu- 
__ lated for publication under the auspices of the United States Geo- 
logical Survey. l 
= _ The examinations made along the south and west shores of ~ 
Pyramid lake, Nevada, demonstrated the existence of this form, 
: la, in countless thousands in that remarkable body of water. 
Ata single locality more than a gallon was obtained, associated 
vith many hundreds of Pompholyx effusa Lea, and many Physa 
humerosa Gould. From this material a large number of speci- 
mens, containing the dried animals, was assorted and sent to Mr. 
Beecher, who has successfully worked out the dentition, and 
__ “Seribed it as below 3 
Pc The genus Pyrgula has not received a uniform treatment at the 
hands of Systematists, none of whom have yet studied the denti- 
_ ‘Proc, Phil g i re. 
tions be i a a ke r pile as here given. His work is 
os and painstaking, and we hope jointly to present, in the course of time, 
_ Nery much more of his careful work in dentitions. 
_ VOL, XVEIL—No. 1x, 54 


852 Notes on a Nevada Shell ( Pyrgula nevadensis). [September, 


tion, and most of whom have never seen even the shell. Nearly 
or quite all who have based their opinions upon actual study of — 
shells, have been obliged to content themselves with such exter- 
nal characters as the shells furnish, and these are often most un- 
Satisfactory. Pyrgula is operculated, carinated, and with the spire 
well elevated, thus presenting features which might excuse a 
reference of it to the Melaniidz, which has been actually made by 
most authors. Until the work of Stimpson’ on the Rissoide the — 
genus appears to have been placed in some most remarkable — 
positions. At that time nothing was known except the obvious — 
characters furnished by the test, and some observations by Mo- f 
quin-Tandon on the form common to the rivers of the mountain- 
cus portions of France, —P. bicarinata Bourg. a 
In the system here provisionally adopted from Stimpson, — 
Pyrgula lies between Paludestrina and Tryonia, having super 
ficial characters intermediate to those genera. Dr. W. H. Datt, 
has suggested, in a recent letter, that possibly the Pyramid lake 
shell would be found to rank in Amnicola, basing his ua 
upon the operculum, which certainly possesses some Am ns 
characters, and upon the produced anterior part of the aperture, 
as mentioned in the generic description by Christoforo and Ja. 
But now the work of Mr. Beecher for the first time enables i 
correctly place it among the Rissoide. My. or 
made no comparisons with figures resulting from the Tu 
others, and I hence introduce here a few notes based parr 
observations of Troschel, Moquin-Tandon, Stimpson and my" 
The formula for the rhachidian tooth of the genus Amnic? 
is <4. The tooth itself is about three times broader parr 


Sacer hes oe bee a a E ae MRS cas E E eae Reed Met IN Cac ot 
SRS SERRA Sanh a ea pe Pia ll fle aE ERT EST STO a pS alt en ee ee 


= o #364 uliar ton 

being +. The pecul Pam: 

process of this tooth e ji 

i ing in Pyrgula, an w 
Rhachidian tooth of Ampi. C CY wanting ! fi r ilate, Plie 
cola porata Say. Enlarged lobes are more Gen arge e | 
reee trina has a similar formula OF FT 


chidian tooth—*1-4—but differs in other important pat 


; that genus 
of Pyrgula; the formula mer i 
cola is e 


* Researches on the Hydrobjinæ and allied forms.” Smi SE a 
No. 201, 1865. a : 
3 Loc. cit., p. 47. 


1884.] Notes on a Nevada Shell (Pyrgula nevadensis). 853 


Comparing these formulz, the necessity of complete separation 
rom Amnicola is sufficiently obvious. Whether the produced 
aperture of Pyrgula, as figured by Chenu; is of generic value is 
quite uncertain, for Pyrgula is most certainly a vegetarian. 
Though the genus is said to be confined to the fresh waters of 
the mountainous areas which it inhabits, it is, in the North Amer- - 
ican localities, found in brackish water-lakes alone. 
_ It may profitably be further noted that the dentitions given by 
Troschel, Moquin-Tandon and Stimpson differ very much, even 
more than should be allowed to pass without comment. It has 
been found by Mr. Beecher, and corroborated by the senior 
author, that many descriptions are imperfect and will need revis- 
ion. To this end we invite collectors to send to our addresses 
any of the smaller species of fresh-water univalves which may 
chance to occur in their localities. 
Following is the description of 


THE DENTITION OF PYRGULA NEVADENSIS, 
Jaw thin, membranaceous. 

Odontopore .62™™ in length, and .15™™ in width. There are usually fifty-five 
transverse rows of teeth, arranged according to the formula 3-1-3, which is common 
to the family Rissoidæ, 

Rachis distinct, occupying one-fourth the width of the ribbon. Rhachidian tooth 
(Fig. 1) short and broad, with the infero-lateral angles produced and slightly arcu- 
» On each side of the anterior face is a strong, short, conical 


aa tral lobe truncate. Cusp curved forwards and extended into a strong denticle with 
four smaller ones on each side. The formula of the denticles for this tooth would 
therefore be spate 
Body of intermediate tooth (Fig. 2) subrhomboidal, with the infero-interior angle 
slightly produced and with an angulation in the margin above. From this point 
there is a thickening or ridge extending towards the fixed end. Peduncle longer 
th body of the tooth. Upper margin abruptly curved forwards and marked 
by'seven denticles, of which the third inner one is usually the largest; the formula 
or this tooth may be written 3434-4. 
lateral tooth (Fig. 3) spoon-shaped, with the infero-interior margin angular. 
Upper anterior margin marked with a fringe of about twenty-four denticles decreas- 


l Outer lateral tooth (Fig. 4) falciform, straight along the peduncle. Anterior mee 
gin and extremity denticulated with thirty minute denticles, usually decreasing in 
length towards the distal extremity, but subject to some variation. The denticulate 
margin extends more than one-third the length of the tooth. Peduncle slender and 
nearly straight, 


*Manuel'de Conchyliologi i 
Ga yliologie, Tome 1, 294, Fig. 2029. 
Ellsworth Call, Des Moines, Iowa, or to C. E. Beecher, 273 Hudson ave., 


854 Notes on a Nevada Shell ( Pyrgula nevadensis). (September, 

The formula for the denticles is 30~24~7—" tit 4 7-24-30. i 

There is a marked variation in the character of the denticles on the intermediate 
and lateral teeth. On the intermediate they are large, angular and somewhat irreg- 
ular. The lateral teeth are uniformly marked by a regular fringe of slender denticles, 
which are much smaller on the outer lateral. 

Some portions of the membrane and different specimens show considerable varia- 
` tion in the length and strength of the denticles on the lateral teeth, and sometimes 
their number seems subject to some mutation. The numbers given in the formule 
were averaged from several enumerations, and represent the comparative denticula- 
tion of the teeth, 


Lingual dentition of Pyrgula nevadensis Stm., X 500 (Beecher). 
DESCRIPTIONS OF FIGURES. 
Fic. 1.—Rhachidian teeth. 
Fic. 2.—Intermediate teeth. 
IG. 3.—Inner laterals, | : 
Fic. 4.—Outer laterals, their natural a 


Fic. 5.—A portion of the odontophore representing the wekt 
tion. All enlarged to 500 diameters, 


PLATE XXV. 


ee eS eS at ee Se Ge 


es Se ee 


= 


eS ee 


Chart Showing Variations of Pyrgula nevadensis. (Each dot represents a shell.) 


1884.] Aspects of the Body in Vertebrates and Arthropods. 855 


Pyrgula nevadensis varies in size within rather wide limits. 
Twenty-five specimens, taken at random, present the following 
averages: Length 4.83™™"' breadth 2.65™™- These proportions are 
best shown graphically, as are also the extremes of variation, by 
the accompanying plate, xxv, in which 2™™ is adopted as the 
origin of the codrdinates. Each small square represent a .10"™ 
The dot underlined represents the average of the specimens . 
measured. At some future time more complete notes on this 
species, and on those inhabiting the salt springs and lakes of the 
Great Basin, from a biological standpoint, will be presented the 
readers of the NATURALIST. 


to: 
ASPECTS OF THE BODY IN VERTEBRATES AND 
ARTHROPODS. 


BY A. S. PACKARD. 


NDER the title “ Aspects of the Body in Vertebrates and 

Invertebrates” (London, 1883), the venerable and distin- 
guished English anatomist and palzontologist, Professor Sir 
Richard Owen, renews in a vigorous way the old discussion 
originally begun by Geoffroy St. Hilaire. The view in question 
1s tersely presented in St. Hilaire’s answer to Dugés, quoted by 
Professor Owen, when he replied by reference to “ Fig. 2 de la 
septième planche: La se trouve effectivement représenté un 
homard couché sur le dos et montrant distinctivement ses vis- 
céres dans la position où le sont les viscères des mamiferes 
Placés sur le ventre.” This view was combatted by Cuvier, and 
in this respect he has been followed by Gegenbaur. 

In his able essay Professor Owen places himself on the side of 
St. Hilaire, and the special point in vertebrate anatomy which he 
brings forward to support this opinion is the homology of the 
conario-hypophysial tract, which he regards as “the modified 
homologue of the mouth and gullet of invertebrates ;# and at 
the end of chapter I he concludes that “ the surfaces or aspects 
of the body which are truly homologous in the snake and cater- 
pillar are the meural and the hemal, not the dorsal and the 
ventral,” 

In his second chapter, entitled “Cerebral homologies in verte- 
brates and invertebrates,” Professor Owen quotes our statement’ 

"Second report U. S. Entomological Commission. Chapter XI. The brain of the 
Locust, p, 224. 1880 


856 Aspects of the Body in Vertebrates and Arthropods, | Septem 


that “the brain and nervous cord of the fish or man is funda- 
mentally different, or not homologous with that of the lower or — 
invertebrate animals ;” and then proceeds to criticize it. T 
The chapter on the brain of the locust was written for the un- — 
scientific as well as the scientific reader, and the introductory 
part was presented in a terse, perhaps dogmatic way, for the sake 

of clearness, ee 
The author, without taking time and space to discuss at length 
this broad question, which requires a far wider acquaintance with 
anatomy and embryology than he claims to possess, would beg 
leave to briefly present some facts and considerations which seem a 
to him to support the view he adopted as to the lack of homology 
between the nervous system of arthropods and vertebrates, 
These facts relate to the histology and the histological topog- 
taphy as well as general morphology of the system in question, 
and the general relation of the viscera to the body-walls of arthro- : 
pods as compared with vertebrates. pee 
1. Histology—There are but two histological elements ™ 
brain and spinal cord of vertebrates, 7. e., ganglion-ceis ©” 
nerve-fibers proceeding from them. In worms (and mollusks s0 7 
far as known) and especially in the brain (procerehiiaty t ; 
may call it to distinguish it from the cerebrum of vertebrates) a 
other ganglia of Crustacea and insects, besides these two 
4 


i 


re 


there is a third substance, the punktsubstanz, discovered per 
dig, and farther described by Dietl and Krieger, and for se 
we would suggest an English equivalent, the myeloid ’ i n 
2. Histological topography.—The arrangement of ap i 
cells and other tissues in the ganglia of arthropods 1s s i post- 2 
ogous with that of vertebrates. In the brain or any of ee 
cesophageal ganglia of arthropods, there is a central me JD 7 
of the myeloid substance, which is enveloped by 4 ail 
of mostly unipolar ganglion-cells. The fibers from the boa? 
cells pass into and emerge again from the myeloid iis 
which is a tangled mass of minute fibrilla. The a 
tain of the ganglion-cells we have clearly seen to pass" rom- 
over the myeloid substance and to form both the erar 
missures of the brain and also the two main longitudinal om ¢ 
sures connecting the chain of ganglia. But the "a to break 
majority of the ganglion-cells appear, as Leydig —_ when cot 
up into the tangled mass of extremely fine fibers, WM" 


i 
: 
, 
j 
4 


Saab TS 


1884.] Aspects of the Body in Vertebrates and Arthropods. 857 


through presents a dotted or granulated appearance. This myel- 
oid substance remains unstained, while the ganglion-cells readily 
stain by reagents. 

In the brain and other ganglia of vertebrates, on the other 

hand, the ganglion cells are internal, the fibers arising from uni, 
bi or multipolar ganglion-cells passing outside, In invertebrates, 
at least arthropods, there is no “ white” or “gray” substance ; 
none such has been described by Leydig or the later students of 
the central nervous system of arthropods. 
- Histogenesis—If we look at the genesis of the ganglia of 
arthropods, we see that they consist at first wholly of spherical 
cells; the fibers and myeloid substance being secondary products, 
and their position is not homologous with that of the ganglia in 
vertebrate embryos. The reader is referred to Fig. 246 in Bal- 
four’s Comparative Embryology, Vol. 11, p. 343. The section of 
the spinal cord of a seven days’ chick there figured, shows that 
the cord is early differentiated into the internal gray mass, consist- 
ing of round cells, enveloping the spinal canal, while the cortical 
white substance or column surrounds the mass of ganglion-cells. 
In the annelidan worms and the arthropods, the embryonic gan- 
glion is a much simpler structure, consisting of a mere mass or 
ball of ganglion-cells, with incipient fibers passing from them. Cer- 
tain of these fibers grow longer, forming the commissures, trans- 
verse and longitudinal, connecting the ganglia. At first, then, the 
nervous system of the higher worms (those with a ganglionated 
chain) and arthropods, consists of a series of disconnected ganglia, 
which eventually become connected by secondary products, the 
commissural fibers. The fact that in worms the brain is at first 
separate from the rest of the ganglia, as stated in Balfour's Em- 
bryology (I, p. 291), is not of particular significance since all the 
ganglia, at least in Crustacea and insects, are at first disconnected 
from each other. 

Embryology appears to give no countenance to the view held 
by some authors that the brain of an arthropod may represent the 
nervous system of the vertebrate, and the post-cesophageal chain 
of ganglia the sympathetic system of the vertebrates. 

There seems to be a unity of plan, so to speak, in the develop- 
ment of the nervous system of the arthropods, and how radically 
different that is from the mode of genesis of the vertebrate ner- 
vous system may be seen by reference to Balfour’s work (u, 


858 Aspects of the Body in Vertebrates and Arthropods, gao cali 


250-252) or that of other observers. While the nervous 


of all animals arises from the ectoderm (epiblast), as Balfour : 
Chordata 


states: “In all 


| as the medullary plate, — 
1-Early stage of Ascidian embryo, show- becomes isolated from the 
ing the nervous tube #, open in front and sinata remainder of the layer to 
dors vow 4 above the a sea pat tube (4), asi the central 
tebrates give rise to 

nervous axis ;” in tunicates as well as vertebrates this plate is con- 
verted into a tube or canal, which lies wholly above the alimen- 
tary tract. It is this striking feature in embryo tunicates which 


mainly seems to justify their elimination con the worms and 


cture ; the 
Pia: 2.—Embryo of an Pree showing the vertebrate plan of on sore 
nervous system 4’, 4 with the spinal nerves (s) being situated dorsally 
notocord (c) and A odotaa anal (ġ, 7). 


ams pea 
indicates their proximity to the vertebrates, as this "o 


more truly vertebrate feature than even the possession 0! ofa e 
cord. ~ = 
Balfour states on p. 342° a 
spinal cord, gps after the 
sure of the medullary 
in all the true Vertebrata, pe 
form of an oval tube; the W 


of which are of a -= «d d 


Ci 
= ate of ven 


an axial strip of the dorsal — 
epiblast, extending from 
the lip of the blastopore — 
to the anterior extremity 
of the head, and known — 


zai z ` Š ` á 
EE E Mea a ep T E eee Er E E, a NAN URA 


canal, has, 


E ES EEE N 


1884.] Aspects of the Body in Vertebrates and Arthropods. 859 


prolonged in transverse section, and the central canal which it 
contains also becomes vertically elongated.” Then follows the 
differentiation (1) of the epithelium of the central canal, (2) of the 
gray matter of the cord, and (3) of the internal coating of white 
matter. “The white matter is apparently the result of a differen- 
tiation of the outermost parts of the superficial cells of the cord 
into longitudinal nerve-fibers, which remain for a long period 
without a medullary sheath. * * * The gray matter and the 
central epithelium are formed by a differentiation of the main 
mass of the spinal cord.” 

There thus appears to be a lack of homology in the histologi- 
cal topography and origin of the nervous system in Chordata as 
compared with the annelidan worms and the arthropods, 
The relation of the nervous system of arthropods is constant ; 
after the stomodzum has been formed, commissures from the 
brain pass down and connect the latter with the subcesophageal 
ganglion, which is ventral. This relation of the postcesopha- 
geal nervous system to the ventral side of the body is as constant 
as the disposition of the ventral surface of the embryo of insects 
before the revolution a 
of the embryo, or of 
the embryos of anne- 
lid worms and Crus- _ € 
tacea. The position Ao 
of the arthropod em- ~~ 
bryo is the reverse of 
that of vertebrates. j Sw ho a = 4 

pi i |= an em (6 
Thevertebrate dispo” ota te pal anaE 
tive EDEK St E e We malphigian tubes; mesen, 
_ tive nervous system Sidintetine; At, heart; md, mandibles; mx, mz’, ISt 
is also seen in the and 2d maxilla. ’ From Ayers, with changes. 
embryo tunicate (Figs. 1, 2). 
Morphology —The brain of the Arthropoda is contained ina 
structure which throughout is lacking in homology with that of 
vertebrates. The crust, the segments, and the appendages espe- 
cially, have nothing in common with vertebrates, though the func- 
tions are, in a degree, the same. The origin and homologies of 
the sensory organs are, ad initio, different. For example, the eyes 
of arthropods are not truly homologous with those of vertebrates ; 
the cornea is simply a number of epithelial cells, while in verte- 


We BONES 
XA cP O00 O 


EEA ea 
` x 


= y 
d È) uy Qs 


a 


i 


860 Aspects of the Body in Vertebrates and Arthropods, [September, id 


brates the eye externally is an ingrowth of the epiblast. As the 
wings and legs of insects and organs of hearing and of smell are 
not the homologues of the parts which function as such in verte- 
brates, so we are not inclined to regard the heart and nervous — 
system of arthropods as truly homologous with the correspond- — 
ing organs of vertebrates. If there is such a fundamental difer — 
ence in the two types as regards the relations of the viscera to the — 
body-walls, and if this relation is common to all arthropods and 
the Annulata, we shall have to go back to the hypothetical — 
common ancestors of the tunicates and vertebrates on the one . 
hand and of the Annulata and Arthropoda on the other, for 
the means of comparison, It is not impossible that in animals 
allied to the planarian or nemertean worms, whose nervous sys- 
tem consists of a pair of dorsal ganglia, with two or more pais — 
of nerves passiag backward, that the common origin of the pr — 
chordate nervous system, and that peculiar to annelids and arthro- | 
pods, may yet be discovered. fe | 


ee ate oe 


So also the resemblance of the brain, dorsally situated, of the 
cephalopods, enclosed as it is in an imperfect cartilaginous @P 
sule, is interesting, but the relations are those of gael 
adaptation, and not of affinity. The mollusks, the annelids, 
arthropods and the vertebrates appear to be highly 
branches, and where there appear at first sight to be direct, cro 
homologies, so to speak, between them, these are rather pap 4 
dent structures, the result of adaptation rather than of w | 
descent. Examples of such, we believe, are the eye, the os 
and the heart of the cephalopods. a. rather it l 

The unity of organization in the animal world is seen origi" 
the homology of the cellular structure, and in the c 
of all from unicellular forms; and among the uar the 
identity of the morula and gastrula conditions, OF at origin it 
germ-layers ; and as regards the nervous system, 1N m à 
the epiblast, rather than in any special parts Or pa py the : 
highly elaborated and specialized types as are rep ‘ 
lobster, or butterfly, or fish. + followers 

The dispute between Cuvier and St. Hilaire and apse! sce 
was in part metaphysical. The old-time problems hee 
dental anatomy, such as comparing a lobster to a pee question 
its back, the problems of fore-and-aft symmetry, snd if we a 
of torsion in the fore and hind limbs of mammals, have 


1884.] The Northernmost Inhabitants of the Earth. 861 


not mistaken, lost much of their interest and value in the light of 
modern evolutionary problems, and savor more of scholasticism 
than of science. 
At all events the present problem is, as embryology shows, so 
remote in its bearings ; the common point of origin of arthropod 
and vertebrate, the fork in the primitive developmental path where 
the two branches began to diverge, is set so far back in the ani- 
mal scale, and is so remote in geological time, that with our pres- 
ent knowledge we are inclined to regard the consideration of such 
problems as belonging rather to metaphysics than to pure science}; 
although it should be granted that farther researches among the 
lower worms may yet result in the discovery of facts bearing 
upon the origin of the singular differences in the disposition of 
the arthropod and vertebrate nervous systems. 
In conclusion, therefore, we are led to endorse the following 
opinion of Gegenbaur, in his Comparative Anatomy (English 
translation): “The greater size of the cephalic ganglion com- 
pared with that of the ventral ganglia, has been already seen in 
many of the Annulata; in the Arthropoda it is ordinarily still 
More distinct ; this condition may be partly explained by its rela~ 
tions to the more highly developed organs of sense, if we recog- 
nize in the dorsal cesophageal ganglion something similar to the 
brain of the Vertebrata. Led by an idea of this kind, some have 
compared even the ventral ganglia, or ventral medulla, with the 
dorsal medulla of the Vertebrata, and have striven to carry the 
comparison still farther; these attempts ignore the complete 
difference between the type of structure of the Arthropoda and 
_ Of the Vertebrata,” p. 252. 
:0:— 
$ THE NORTHERNMOST INHABITANTS OF THE 
EAR 


An ETHNOGRAPHIC SKETCH.’ 
BY EMIL BESSELS. l 
TE Greenland coast bordering the entrance of Smith sound 
1S peopled by Eskimos who are the northernmost inhabitants 
ae ; ; RSE 
Ni present ethnographic sketch forms chapter XIX of “ Die Amerikanische 
binge Expedition,” by Emil Bessels (Leipzig, Wilhelm Engelmann). It was 
“indly t: 


na ranslated by the author for the NATURALIST, as of special interest at pa 
trated. a of the station at Lady Franklin bay. The original is more fully illus- 
s f" DS. 


862 The Northernmost Inhabitants of the Earth. (September, 
of our planet. Like most other tribes of Eskimos, they call 
themselves Inuit, or men, not being familiar with the expression — 
Eskimo. 
This name was first given, as it seems, to the Inuit of Labrador _ 
by the Nascopi Indians and by other families of the Algonkins. 
In the language of the Abnaki, for instance, es#i-m coha* means he 
raw eats it; and according to the “ Dictionnaire et grammaire de : 
la langue des Cris,” by A. Lacombe, aski = cru and mowew=il 
le mange; askimowew would therefore signify raw he eats it. In 
his valuable paper “On Algonkin names for man,” published in . 
the Transactions of the American Philological Association for 
1871, Mr. J. H. Trumbull informs us that the Algonkins of New 
England were in the habit of calling the Mohawk tribe of the 
Iroquois Mohowang-suck or Manquén-og, namely, cannibals Ke 
man-eaters. For moho means to eat and moowhan, according to l 
Eliot’s Bible, he eats what lives. The formation of the word 
Esquimantsic, which is found in most text-books on ethnology, 
is probably erroneous. Í 
It is Captain John Ross to whom we owe the first intelligence l 
of these remote people. In the narrative of his exploring E 
up Baffin bay, during the year 1818, he makes mention of = 
as “ Arctic highlanders,” a name which should hardly wae ' 
ted, since these Eskimos invariably inhabit the coast. Ross had 
his companions were evidently the first strangers these people nao i 
beheld. The two men-of-war they considered to be paa I 
sters with wings, while they thought that the sailors themsew® — 


Squadron, wintered in their vicinity in Wolstenholme $0 po ] 
the remaining vessels of the fleet now and then came 10 ba | 
with these Eskimos. Kane was the first to remain pei pe 
for any length of time, as Hayes did later. Since then í i ate 3 
met occasionally by English whalers who, on their wee x4 
caster sound, stopped at the fast ice of the coast 1n the v i 
Cape York while waiting for open water. . 


| 


Pe A 


1884. ] The Northernmost Inhabitants of the Earth, 863 


Kane estimated their number at 150, Hayes at 100, and our 
own census led to a result closely comparing with the latter. We 
personally saw 102 individuals, but the entire tribe did not exceed 
this number by more than eight or ten. 

For the sake of brevity we will name these ‘‘ésyato: avdpay"’ 
Itanese, the name being derived from Ita, their most northerly 
settlement at the head of Foulke fjord. It remains to be said, 
however, that the entire tribe is not permanently established 
there, a part of them scattering over several other localities. 

Their extreme northern migrations approximate the 79th par-. 
allel; southward not farther than Cape York. Hedged in from 
the north by the huge Humboldt glacier, from the south by the 
long continued precipitous edges of other ice streams, which up 
to the present time have not received any names, it is evident that 
the field of their rambles must necessarily be of very circum- 
scribed area. Eastward they cannot move because from that 
direction they are barred by the inland ice. In addition to this, 
Superstition as regards evil spirits prevents their venturing far in- 
land. Occasionally, it seems that they cross Smith sound and 
Visit the coast of Ellesmere land. Such expeditions, however, 
are not frequently undertaken, because the ice is exceedingly 
hummocky and scarcely passable on sledges, even should the cur- 
tents and the high winds in this narrow sound permit the forma- 
tion of a continuous ice-covering. 

Doubtless their ancestors inhabited this barren coast for many 
centuries before them. It is hardly possible to determine the 
time at which the latter settled there ; any attempt to do so 
Would lead to useless speculations. It has been believed that not 
only the century but very nearly the year might be determined 
during which the Inuit first set foot upon Greenland ; but in the 
absence of all reliable data we must mistrust such assertions. 

This much we may say, however, with certainty, that the Inuit 
at the time they reached Greenland were typical Eskimos, and 
that since that time, where the influence of the white men has 
not reached them, they have scarcely changed their <u and 
habits, So trifling indeed is the progress which this people has 
made in the course of centuries, that the implements of tribes 
which have been separated from each other for many ss iene 


_ ‘Similar that discrimination between them is almost impossible. 


On the other hand we find a remarkable resemblance between the 


e 


864 The Northernmost Inhabitants of the Earth. [September 


primitive weapons of the palzolithic man of Europe and those at — 
present used by the Inuit. Did we not know to what extent the — 
complicated human organism is to be regarded as a productof — 
adaptation to its surroundings, we might conclude from the simi- _ 
larity of the implements, that the Inuit are the nearest relatives 
of palzolithic man. We learn, however, from comparative — 
anthropology how strikingly similar are the motives developed — 
by nations even when separated by such great distances that 
practically they might be inhabitants of different planets, One — 
of the most prominent English anthropologists felt himself called — 
upon to defend this view. He even regarded such relationships — 
as certain, but failed to furnish the requisite proofs. - 

Assuming as genuine the two well-known carvings in reindeer i 
antlers, found in the Charente of France, which represent human 
figures, we must conclude that the physiognomy of palæolithic 
man was totally different from that of the Inuit. “ L'ensemble 
de la tête parait intermediaire entre le type conventionel de Mephis- i 
tophéles et la tête de François I?” These are the words used with 
referenċe thereto by Mr. de Mortillet. 

The physical type of the Itanese corresponds so thoroughly ” l 
that of other Eskimos that it is not necessary to give amy Spc 
description. We may state, however, that we saw 4 number a 
men, brothers, whose height was almost six feet. In this instance 
the stature was inherited from the mother, who measured 5.6 fet : 
whereas the father was of medium size. ue 

By the courtesy of different corporations, institutes we : 
persons, I had the privilege of examining and measuring a 
Eskimo skulls than any one of my predecessors. In this oer : 
I obtained from the Academy of Natural Sciences of 
phia and from Dr. Hayes all the skulls collected by the 
the vicinity of Ita. l l 

The alle of Itanese crania which admitted of atie 4 
measurements amounted to 101. Of these 100 spec peer : 
be used for the determination of the mean index of l 
This amounts to 71.37. The mean index of height index of | 
the measurements of 99 crania is 76.91. The q of height — 
breadth was found to be 79.8; the maximum index | ie 
81.8. The respective minimum indices were 63-4 and 780: io 
` The complete record of these measurements may be ned table 
Vol. x of the “ Archiv für Anthropologie.” The subjo! 


latter it 


1884.] The Northernmost Inhabitants of the Earth, 865 


contains a series of mean indices of breadth and height of various 
other Eskimos : 


; Index of | Index of | Number o . 
—— Breath. pend shoul mons ad, Arthority 
own 70.4 737 24 Welker. 
Danish settlements in West Greenland] 72.6 73.7 21 Bessels. 
COANE i SSS OS, 7I 75 I0 - Davis. 
Northeast America:., ....... 050.00: 72 75 6 Davis. 
eead cont cee ce ccees 71.8 70.5 5 Virchow. 
East Greenland . 72.9 74.2 4 
Pomhwest America ...,.065....0.08 72 75 4 Davis. 


Samuel Kleinschmitt, among the authorities on Eskimo lan- 
guages, distinguishes two main dialects in Western Greenland, 
the northern and the southern. “The former is harsher but at 
the same time clearer in enunciation, more particularly of the vow- 
tls. The latter is softer but at the same time more indistinct.” 
_ According to this statement the dialect of the Itanese resembles 
_ ‘More closely the southern. The vocalization is remarkably clear, 
the accent singing and gently waving, while the consonants, espe- 
-Cally at the end of a word, are most obliterated. 

As regards costume, that of the Itanese approaches in charac- 
ter the vestments worn by the inhabitants of Danish Greenland. 
Both sexes wear, during winter, underclothing made of bird- 
) skins, the feathered side next the skin. A jacket (jumper) with 
hood attached, and the short breeches are made of the skins of 
the seal, reindeer, bear or dog, the pelt of the fox rarely being 
Used. Double or triple fur stockings are covered by waterproof 
boots manufactured from tanned sealskin, but once in a while the 
Outside covering of the foot is composed of bear-skin. The men 

ten their boots a little below the knee by means of a draw- 
String just above the lower end of the breeches, while the women 
eed higher boots which almost reach to their hips. This con- 
Stitutes the main difference between the male and female costume. 
: The hood attached to the jacket of the man is rounded at its 
apex, but that of the woman is pointed. Married women wear 
this hood of considerable size, because their children are carried 
therein. until two or three years of age. Gloves are made of 
. x seal-skin or furs; mittens are the most usual form worn. 
During the summer the heavy jackets of bear-skin are exchanged 
~ made of seal-skin, and the underclothing is either left 
- entirely or worn without any exterior garment. 


866 The Northernmost Inhabitants of the Earth. [September 


Their dwellings are arched huts of either snow or stone, or 
they are leather tents, During the cold season, as a rule, the 
structures of snow are inhabited, though occasionally those of 
stone ; tents, however, are resorted to exclusively during the 
summer, 

The invention of the dome, which was probably made inde- 
pendently in three different zones of our planet, may be consid- 
ered of even greater credit to the Eskimo than the invention of 
the sledge. The Itanese are experts in the architecture of these 
semispherical or hive-shaped snow-huts, Their size depends on 
the number of inhabitants. About twelve feet may be regarded 
as the average diameter of the floor, the height being approxi- 
mately one-half of this. Two feet to two and a-half is the length 
of the blocks of snow used in their construction ; their height 's 
from ten to twelve inches; their thickness from eight to ten 
inches. Longitudinally the section presents three different forms. 
Prominent amongst these is a trapezia with two sides slightly 
diverging ; next an elongated oblong, and finally a trapez. The 
greatest angle of this last rarely exceeds 109°, and the smallest 
is not less than 70°. ; ‘ ) 

To prepare these blocks a sword-shaped snow-knile 1s m 
made either of wood, of the lower jaw of the narwhal, or 0! 3 
walrus tusk. 


- Fic. 1.—Snow knife, one-fifth nat. size, made of the wood of Dr. iil 
Advance, collected by Dr. I. I. Hayes. BET 
Usually two persons are employed in the cosi 
snow hut. While one is cutting the blocks the other e 
together. The row forming the foundation consists pv higher 
lar pieces standing upright and forming a circle. ounced 
layers, however, form a spiral which is particularly r hs 
on'the apex of the dome. Each successive convoluti y 
greater angle of inclination than the preceding One. + of this 
door is cut out in the form of a gothic arch. In "a huts af 
a short arched gang-way. Occasionally several am 
connected. 


| 
’ 
E 


oy 


1884.] The Northernmost Inhabitants of the Earth. 867 


The interior arrangement of these dwellings is exceedingly sim- 
ple. Opposite the door we find a low platform made of snow and 
covered with furs, which is used as a sleeping place. In case the 
hut is made of stone this platform is composed of the same mate- 
rial, Most important among the household utensils is the flat 
stone lamp which furnishes both light and heat. According to 
the size of the dwelling, one or two of these lamps are used. 
They are placed upon blocks of either snow or stone imme- 
diately by the side of the platform. Above the lamp is sus- 
pended, with cords of raw hide, an oblong stone cooking pot. 
Small racks, made of bone, serve for drying garments. 


aes 


Fic. 3.—Cooking pot of the same material. 

The wick of the lamp consists either of fibers of moss or of 
the dried catkins of the arctic willow ; likewise are these latter 
used as tinder, and are ignited by the sparks produced by the 
friction of a piece of pyrite and quartz. We also find in use the 
Well known fire drill, the stem of which is placed between an 
ivory mouth-piece and a fragment of soft wood. By means of 
the bow the drill is set in rapid niotion, which is continued until 
the dry wood takes fire. 

: In addition to those above enumerated there are but few uten- 
Ss: flat dishes made of water-proof sealskin; a few knives, simi- 
lar to our chopping-knives, and exclusively used by the women; 

Primitive implements for sewing, and finally, several scrapers 
bone, ivory or stone to soften the skins, but the main work in 
this respect is done with the teeth. 


VOL, XviIt,—no, 1x, 


868 The Northernmost Inhabitants of the Earth, (September, 


Although the temperature inside the dwellings rarely rises 
above the freezing-point, the warmth appears almost oppressive 
to any one entering from without. For this reason adults usually 
discard their clothing with the exception of the short breechlets, 
while children frequently are left naked. 

Domestic life offers much that is attractive as long as there is 
no danger of famine. The people are free from care and happy, 
and all their emotions are mirrored in their expressive counte- 


nances. Entire freedom from all restrictions and easy epo : 
constitute the rule. by 


Nowadays the sledge is the only means of conveyance os 


is : 
tened together with canoe of raw hide, but no x ji copied 
quently used. Fig. 4 represents one of these old a 
from Ross, Fig. 5 one made of wood. 


SEEP E TEA 


iS ———_ 


oh Oe eee se | 


+ SS ee 


l 


ag 


et eR 


1884. ] The Northernmost Inhabitants of the Earth. 869 


The Itanese have neither boats nor bows and arrows, although 
the words denoting these objects still exist in their language. 
This is an important circumstance, considering that they are a 
tribe of hunters, a circumstance indicating decided retrogression. 
At all other localities we find the Inuit to be brave seamen, devel- 
oping great dexterity in the management of their frail skin-boats ; 
everywhere else they are excellent archers, and handle the rifle 
with considerable accuracy in case the latter has replaced the 
more primitive weapon. 

Jimmy, a southern Eskimo whom we found living with the 
Itanese, was the only one who possessed a bow and arrows, which 
he had brought from his home. They had frequently been 
mended, and were in a rather dilapidated condition. The bow 
was made of four pieces of reindeer horn lashed together with 
sinew, and was but slightly curved. -Its length was thirty-three 
inches, The bow-string was four ply and made of the cervical 
ligament of the reindeer. It was fastened around two neatly 
Carved bear-heads at either end of the bow. The arrows, of 
which he only had three, were provided with iron points. Their 
shafts were made of splinters of wood lashed together and feath- 
ered with raven quills. Including the point their length was from 
eighten to twenty inches, 

The weapons used by them are the lance and the throwing- 
Spear, which is provided with an air bladder, but is used without 
the throwing-board common to the other Inuit. In addition to 
these they have a bird-spear. r 

Together with the figure of a lance (Fig. 6), copied from Ross, 
I have illustrated another one (Fig. 7), about one-tenth natural 
size. The shaft of this one is composed of wood. Fig. 8 shows 
the upper part of the same weapon somewhat larger. 

- AS soon as the lance has reached its aim, the shaft turns over 
to one side, sliding into its socket from the round base of the 

€-head. This ingenious mechanism, illustrating the principle 
of the ball and socket joint, which could not long remain a seeret 
to hunters, together with the fastening of the shaft-rest, is illus- 
trated by Fig.9. F ig. 10 represents a shaft-rest more completely 
finished, 


Two detached spear-heads are shown by Figs. 11 and I ie The 
Opening of the latter is broken and has been mend ha p 
thongs in order to prevent an accidental separation of the hea 


The Northernmost Inhabitants of the Earth, [September, 


870 


SSS Se 


eo Wee as = 


SSS S 


SSA pen SS SE 


Fig. 1r. 


Fig. 12. 


a E 


1884. ] 


The Northernmost Inhabitants 


of the Earth. 


871 


872 The Northernmost Inhabitants of the Earth, (September, | 


from the shaft. In both of these illustrations the long line has 
been severed near the loop, The first one of these figures shows 
immediately below the rivet two horizontal grooves, which must 
be regarded as rude ornamentation. They are similar to the 
lines observed on many palzolithic implements from the Dor- 
dogne, which were generally considered as marks of ownership. 
Probably these latter are likewise rude ornaments only. They 
may perhaps have served to record numerically certain occur- 
rences, aS, for instance, the killing of a reindeer, a bear or some 
other game. It is not a matter of necessity that a primitive peo- 
ple should require special markings to designate their property. 
It stands to reason that if everyone manufactures his own wea- 
pons that these will possess a certain individuality like the hand- 
writing of a person. The power of observation of an Eskimo 
who accompanied me on a sledge journey was so very acute that 
he was enabled to distinguish among eleven sledge tracks we came 
across whose sledge had made each one of the impressions in the 
hard snow. And this man was by no means more intelligent 
than his tribal relations. Whoever can discriminate to such an 
extent will certainly be able to recognize his own weapons with- 
out difficulty among others. ; 
Fig. 124, represents a knife, copied from Capt. Ross’ narrative. 
Figs. 13, 14, 15 and 16 are inserted solely for the purpose of show- 
ing ornamentations as used by western Eskimos. The illustra: — 
tion of a stone spear-head, taken from an old grave in North 
Greenland, is here reproduced of two-thirds natural size. 


Fig. 17. 


m . * i 
With such primitive lances, supported only by their ¢ A 
Itanese will dauntlessly attack the polar bear, who ee the 
turns out to be a most disagreeable adversary. 


old hunters of the tribe bore on their bodies traces pi be 
laceration. They will fearlessly cope with the pe wat 
come victors over the huge bearded seal, and will patientY 


= 


1884:] The Northernmost Inhabitants of the Earth. 873 


for hours and even days, in spite of cold and drifting snows, at 
the breathing-holes of the lesser seals. 

Whatever is captured by one belongs to the entire community, 
the skin only is the exclusive property of the successful hunter. 
With the blubber and meat his own family together with those 
living in the same hut are first supplied; after that the others 
receive their shares. As long as the provisions last every table 
is set. 

During the winter the Itanese live exclusively on the meat of 
the various marine mammals and of bears and foxes, while in 
summer various species of aquatic birds and their eggs form an 
important portion of their diet. Fish are obtained only acci- 
dentally, the use of the fish-hook being unknown to them. The 
meat is eaten either raw or boiled, always, however, without the 
addition of salt. A hunter returning to his home, hungry and 
weary from his labors, will eat eight or ten pounds of meat with- 
out the slightest inconvenience. And indeed he does not regard 
it as an excessive quantity. With the left hand he grasps a large 
chunk, stuffs as much into his mouth as possible, and cuts off this 
huge mouthful immediately in front of the lips. Then he masti- 
cates simultaneously on both sides, noisily smacking his lips. 

Contrary to the western Eskimo, who frequently have several 
wives, we find that the Itanese are monogamous. Somewhat 
communistic tendencies however seriously interfere with the sanc- 
tity of marriage. 

The average number of children in a family is two. In some 
emergencies the infants are frequently killed. In some instances 
the mother will expose her offspring at some isolated place to 
cold and starvation ; in others she will produce death by strangu- 
lation. Little regard seems to be had for the sex of the infants. 

When one of our native friends died, his wife strangled the 
youngest of her three children, a boy several months old, and 

uried him with his father. Two of the Polaris crew endeavored 
to save the little creature. They succeeded in lengthening his 
life by several hours, but during a. short time, while they were 
Not watching the mother, the latter accomplished the deed. 

In general the children are treated tenderly ; sometimes even 
with exaggerated affection. Thus we saw a mother who not only 
carried her boy, six or seven years of age, in her hood on her 
back, but now and then she even nursed him. Corporal punish- 


874 The Northernmost Inhabitants of the Earth, [September, 


ment ‘is almost unknown among the Itanese. The little ones 
grow up like lap-dogs. Once I undertook to give the half-grown 
boy of one of the hunters a well deserved chastisement, to the 
great disgust and anger of my good-natured friend, his father, 
The only method of punishment that I ever observed was ex 
ceedingly original. The squalling babes, scarcely able to walk 
and totally divested of clothing, were placed on the snow by their 


Fic. 18,—Kalutana, the patriarch. 


mothers until they stopped crying. And this happe pr ei 
times when the temperature was more than twenty degrees 
zero. dren 

It is a very easy matter to satisfy the demands of M ; 
regarding their amusement. Usually the boys play ™! rowing. 
sleds, and after they are a little older practice pees with furs, 
The girls have dolls carved from ivory or bone and cla rite play 
or they have small figures representing animals. ar 


a 


1884. | The Northernmost Inhabitants of the Earth. 875 


things are young pups, who are tortured with entire disregard to 
their feelings. 

Several of the western Eskimo tribes are in the habit of tat- 
tooing their young girls ; this, however, is not done by the Itan- 
ese. Jimmy’s wife, who came from the west, showed a simple 
pattern of tattooing on her face, and was for that reason often 


i 
i 


n i ji NW 
7 Fic. 19.—Mother and child. 
ted the face of 
ch caused her 
g-glass. The 
anently fixed, 
I washed off 


ridiculed by the other women. At one time I pain 
a girl about ten years of age with water-colors, whi 
to cry bitterly when she saw herself in a lookin 
mother of the child, supposing the color to be perm 
threatened to assault me, and was not satisfied until 
the marks. 


876 The Northernmost Inhabitants of the Earth, 


As soon as the boy has reached his twelfth or fourteenth yea 
he is allowed to accompany the hunters when catching seals, an 
learns to drive the sledge dogs. After the period of puberty the 
girls, in their fifteenth or sixteenth year, have already become — 
sufficiently expert to assist their mothers in the preparation of 
clothing. This together with the propagation of their race att 
the two main occupations of these northerly women, Their 


cooking requires but little knowledge, neither do their other 
domestic duties, except the dressing of the game. — | 
At the time the young man is able to provide for the necessa: — 


ries of life, he takes unto himself a wife. Generally the marriage 


is one of love, rarely of convenience. In case the marriage i$- 
not ordered by the parents, then the consent of the girl's parents : 
is all that is required. The widely spread ancient custom {0 
apparently abduct the girl of his choice, although she may be 
perfectly willing, is the rule. | 


i 


Among the Inuit the communistic mode of life is so p'™ 


nounced that the dower scarcely comes into consideration. 
sledge, a team of dogs and the rude weapons are essenti 


ayik 


5 wee 
total personal property of the man, while the woman owns ¢ — 


lamp, a cooking-pot, a knife and a few needles. 
this we may mention the scanty wardrobe. 


‘ 
Under such circumstances the individual phytic! po me : 
enter largely into the motive of selection. Added to Met” 


to 


In addition to 


A 
; 


those qualifications which may enable the individual # ficiently : 


for his existence. Our knowledge at present 1s not 


advanced to fully enable us to characterize the ideal of physical 


beauty as conceived by savage tribes. The differenti 


ation of this 


ideal, however, will necessarily stand in most intimate Te “adi ‘ 


with the division of labor between the sexes. Wherever 
division is but slight, there we will find the expression 


of cout 


tenance but slightly differing in man and oe teal In how fat : 


As a rule the Eskimo seems to prefer full for 


individual taste may herein be consulted remains to © e 


r vod hunter, %7 
lished. The woman expects the man to 4 of thie requiste 


his endeavor is to obtain a companion possesse 


aptitude to perform her domestic duties. käk only be 


Although marriage is very easily entered into, wr 
annulled with certain ceremonies, Several of our ¢ 
sion to witness a divorce : 


had 00% 


1884.] The Northernmost Inhabitants of the Earth. 877 


Manek, one of the young girls of Ita, had been forced by her 
father to marry Inuk the hunter. But her heart was another’s. 
To him she conceded, after her marriage, the privileges that 
should have been her husband's, and perhaps those of other mar- 
ried hunters of the tribe. Inuk, driven by jealousy, pursued her 
with a knife and slightly wounded her side. This determined her 
father no longer to oppose her affections. In the future Manek 
was to be the wife of the man she loved. She was divorced from 
her husband who had been unable to gain her affection. While 
Inuk was stretched in his hut lamenting his fate and stubbornly 
refusing meat and drink, Manek underwent the ceremony proper 
in the hut of a neighbor. With her knees drawn up to her chin 
she was lying on her back on the bench. Around her head was 
fastened a leather thong, the end of which one of the oldest 
women of the tribe held in her hands, murmuring unintelligible 
words in sing-song tone. She kept steadily pulling at the thong 
so that Manek’s head rose and fell at intervals for more than two 
hours, Of Manek’s relations her brother-in-law was the only 
witness, After the completion of the ceremony he put the woman 
on his sledge and took her to a neighboring settlement. Waiting 
for her she found her lover, who clasped her in his arms and led 
her to his hut. A few days later Inuk paid usa visit. He was 
completely reconciled to his loss. When we inquired about his 
former wife we received the unexpected answer that Manek was 
a very wicked person. 

Shortly after this divorce a burial took place. The corpse was 
wrapped in furs, placed on a sledge and buried in the snow with 
its face turned westward. After it had been covered the sledge 
was placed across the mound and the weapons of the deceased 
laid beside it. This done the men put plugs of hay in their right 
nostrils, the women in their left. These plugs were worn for 
Several days and only taken out when entering one of the huts. 

Not always, however, are their dead treated in so careless a 
manner as in this instance. It is true that a regular grave 1S 
never made in the frozen soil, but as a rule a hollow mound of 
Stones is erected over the body should frost and deep snow not 
prevent this. : 

It is not an easy matter briefly to treat of the religious views 
` of the Itanese, who believe in the immortality of the soul. Other 
questions also we must refrain from discussing in order not to €x- 


878 The Northernmost Inhabitants of the Earth, [September 


ceed the limits of these pages. Whoever desires to become : 
familiar with the legendary treasures of the Eskimo will find — 


the Eskimo.” The traditions given by him readily prove that 
the mental power of this primitive people is by no means of an 
inferior order. Vivid as their imagination is, they endow with — 
genius and life the rigid rock and the soughing wind, the twink- 
ling stars and the flashing aurora, in short, the various astral 
telluric phenomena. 

Inasmuch as this psychological process involves one 
leading principles of beauty, it may not be without interest 
to examine in what manner the conception of beauty m 
itself among the Eskimo. 

e discussion of this question is rendered the more im 
if we remember the remarkable similarity between the weap0t 
and utensils of the reindeer petiod of Europe and those oF 
Eskimos, Still more importance must be granted considel 
fact that the extinct race of Europe existed under analogot 
cumstances, And we may regard it as an indisputable $ 
like causes produce like effects. a 

At the present time the question whether the engra 
carvings of the Palzolithic period found in Southern Fi : 
Switzerland are genuine, has become one of great 
Since it has been found that some of the Thayingen 
are counterfeits, the tendency has prevailed to deny the 
tion of beauty to all so-called primitive people. pa H 
larly doss this apply to their ability to depicture animal | 
To the advocates of this view it seems difficult to conceive ® 
people able only to manufacture rude stone impian 

the requisite talent to engrave upon horn and g 
figures of animals bearing a certain artistic character both ; 
line and disposition. hi toric 

A view like this may partly be justified since, in PR i gd 
times, the ability to make pictorial representations id e 
denly and just as suddenly was lost. It remains to be é spe 
ever, that up to the present day but a very small number st begut 
imens of this kind have been found, indeed we have J™ 
to unearth them. The deterioration of this soch a pat 
art is in itself no matter of surprise, and it is not W! 
allel. 


1884. ] The Northernmost Inhabitants of the Earth. 879 


That pictorial representation of natural objects has not devel- 
oped uniformly in the course of time, is an established fact. Do 
we not find numerous paintings by old masters in which the 
landscape is crude and totally neglected, while upon the human 
figures all possible care and attention has been bestowed? Are 


Fic. 20.—Interior of a hut. 


of 


the soul, 


there not great compositions in existence in which the action 
the human figure portrays the innermost secrets of 
While the animals associated with them, were it not for their color, 
Would certainly even puzzle a zoologist? 

Whoever considers these circumstances will probably come to 
the Conclusion that the gap between a stone knife and an orna- 
mented piece of bone is not as unsurmountable as it seems. 


880 The Northernmost Inhabitants of the Earth. 


We need not be surprised to find that the sense of beauty is 
less developed among the Itanese than among more highly 
favored southern Eskimo tribes. Wherever the existence of mn 
is hampered by a severe struggle for his physical welfare; wher 
ever the energy of the individual as well as that of the commu- 
nity must solely be directed towards the satisfaction of bodily 
wants there remains but little time to enjoy beauty of form orto 
create such. ue 

In spite of all this we find varying ornamentation of the dot 
ing and utilization of differently colored skins and furs which 
might even satisfy a taste educated in art. oS 

During the winter several of the hunters carved in our preseace 
animals and human figures which were exceedingly characteris 
With very slight means they succeeded in representing the typ- 
eal physiognomy of the Inuit as well as to express that of i 
white man. Many of their animal forms were unmistakable. y : 

In spite of all this the talent of the Greenland Eskimo fo 
plastic representation is less developed than that of the weet 
tribes. More particularly among the tribes of Bering am 
are excellent carvers in ivory whose productions, in some © 
stances however, clearly show the influence of the neighboring 


Indians. To investigate the degree to which one p : 


ple may in this respect be influenced by another would 
of no little interest. ` numerous 

The National Museum of the United States contains na many 
carvings of these north-western Indian tribes. Among Pex 
specimens which may be considered as barbaric, are a 1 
ciently good to claim our attention. Whoever has me 
to observe the expressive countenances of the wooden st po 
No. 713 and 714, representing Indian figures, would certainly pa 
be tempted to consider the “ browsing reindeer ” an ex'S° | | 
production. in 

An ivory torso exhumed by Dr. Hayes from an old T a i 
the vicinity of Ita, is the subject of the appended illust not do fill. 
is a matter of regret that the annexed wood-cut aN ows 
credit to the subject. The original, as seen from a detail; 1 
a very pretty side view, the back is totally devoid extremiti® 
the vicinity of the hips, however, and in the komer i a 
the anatomical form has been well reproduced. Fig. p wing 

After I had myself made a series of experiments A 


1884. ] The Northernmost Inhabitants of the Earth. 881 


ivory with stone and metal, I came to the conclusion that the 
above-mentioned torso was not produced by means of stone im- 
plements. 

It would be reasonable to suppose 
that among a nation of hunters who 
possess any appreciation of music, at 
the same time using bow and arrows, 
we should find primitive stringed in- 
struments. The incentive to the con- 
struction of the latter would be given 
by the twang of the bow-string. 

None of the Eskimo tribes, how- 
ever, which make use of this weapon, 
possess instruments of such character. 
The drum, made of a rude bone hoop 
covered with an elastic skin, was the 
only musical instrument found. Com- 
monly a femur of a walrus or seal is 
used as a drum-stick. ` 

But little is to be said in favor of 
the music of the Itanese. At irregular 
intervals he mercilessly pounds his in- 
strument, moving the upper portion 
of his body to the right and then to 
the left, singing a tune which lazily 
Proceeds with slight gradations upon 
a slightly varying key-note., 

The following may give some idea of the character of this 
song : 


a 


Fig. 21. 


pees > = 


O P P E A L E 


882 Opinions upon Clay Stones and Concretions, [ 


It must be stated, however, that this reproduction is correct 
part only, because many of the intervals amount to less than 
semitone, and cannot therefore be expressed by the customary 
system of musical notation. o 

Among the Eskimos near Bering strait the intonatióa a M 
similar. A sergeant of the U. S. Army who was stationed near 
Norton sound, repeated the songs to me. Even the senseless 
text is the same with the exception that the a in ah ja is more 
like a”: with other words it is entirely nasal. It seems that in 
former times the southern Greenlanders had a similar song. The — 
well-known Eskimo Joe sang for me a series of notes the shades | 
of which could doubtless be analyzed with the aid of a series of : 
Hemholtz’s resonators. Parry furnishes in his “Second voyage — 
for the discovery of a Northwest passage” (p. 542), the song of 
the inhabitants of Winter island. Although decidedly lugubrious 
some of these phrases nevertheless move over two and a half in- 
tervals. The text is Amna Aya Aya Amna ah, similar to that of 
the Itanese and the other inhabitants of Greenland. 

From these brief remarks it may be seen. that the Inuit from 
West Greenland to the shores of Bering strait possess a common : 
ancient song, a song which in the course of time has undergone 
less modification than even their language. ; 


ae = 
A SS oa SE Re = r S et ay a 


:0: { 
OPINIONS UPON CLAY STONES AND CONCRETIONS i 
BY L. P. GRATACAP. i 


“Besa! dogs, clay stones or clay concretions are terms ge : 
ently applied to a singular class of objects which occ 4 
clay beds of recent or Quaternary age, in spots where a | 
favorable for their development have existed. They © ps 
strike the eye as remarkable in their curious mimicry sity d 
shapes of birds and beasts, and in the capricious comple Hor 
their forms. The question inevitably provoked by them 

were they made? has received an answer of a generic ¢ : 
including under one process the phenomena of sp ae at 
lava, septaria in iron ores, flints in chalk, nodules in ‘seit 
peastone in limestones, the hexagonal columns of basalt, the sag ya 
ture of granite boulders, geodes of quartz, me a ape 
pyrites and the simple and complicated shapes sho Pig once 
accompanying plates, viz., by concretionary action. “0 - 


1884. | Opinions upon Clay Stones and Concretions. 883 


action has been assumed to indicate a cohesive and attractive 


property in matter when finely divided, and when its particles 
possess some or considerable freedom of motion, whereby mole- 
cules of the same sort gather together in bunches or globes. 


‘sometimes coat over coat, the whole enlarging until the limit of 


cohesive action around that center has been reached, or the ex- 
panding circumference of one concretion meets and impinges 
upon its growing neighbors in a mass affected throughout by this 
“toward-a-center” movement. This is a partial confession of 
ignorance as to what the essential nature of the process is. We 
are led to believe from the analogy in all these cases enumerated 
above, that the action is the same, and perhaps it is, but modified 
by varying conditions and the constitution of the substance 
influenced. 

It is doubted whether basaltic columns can ascribe their forma- 
tion to concretionary action, and it is plainly stated that geodes 


arise from the entrance of saturated solutions from without, 


through fissures, into the cavities formed within clay or other 
nodules, by internal shrinkage, of which process the familiar hol- 
low iron ore balls are a good illustration. 

The authorities are not inclined to throw much light upon this 
curious phenomenon, regarding it as an ultimate fact in nature. 
Dana gives no explanation of this process (Manual, 1879, pp. 85, 
86, 87, 88) but illustrates it in various figures. In the Manual, 
1875, he speaks of concretions “ having the form of, or containing 
spheroidal concretions; some varieties are also called globulifer- 
ous when the concretions are isolated globules and evenly dis- 
tributed through the texture of a rock; others are oolitic when 
made of an aggregation of minute concretions not larger than 
the roe of a fish.” He speaks of one example as “a crystalline 
rock with spherical concretions imbedded in its mass and not 
separable from it * .* * each layer (of the three forming 
each concretion) consisting of different minerals, for example, 
garnets the center, feldspar the middle layer and mica the outer, 
and all making a solid mass. The constitution of such con- 
Cretions is very various. In rocks containing feldspar they 
Usually consist largely of feldspar and sometimes of feldspar 
alone or of feldspar with some quartz. The concretions in pitch- 
Stone and pearlstone (called spherulites) are almost purely feld- 
spathic, and often separate easily from the rock.” He figures 


VOL XVIII.—No, IX. 


884 Opinions upon Clay Stones and Coneretions, [S 


concretions in sandstone, and one notable one where in 
lets included between the cracks of an argillaceous sar 
concretions have formed, bounded by the polygonal sides of the 
cell. Unfortunately there is no word said as to the nature of the 
concretion, whether entirely like the rest of the rock, nor whether 
the entire sandstone partakes of this nature. Hè also alludes © 
crystallized bunches of quartz and pyrite as instances of comet 
tionary action, remarking that “this tendency in nature too 
centric solidification is so strong that no foreign nucleus ® 
needed.” i 
In the Text Book for 1883 he says much the same thing ® 
abbreviated form, referring with more doubt to the concretions 
character of basaltic columns, but defining the process as “te 
_ result from a tendency in matter to concrete or solidify aros | 
centers.” j J 
Le Conte, in his Manual of Geology, devotes three pages ® 
concretions, explaining them as occurring “ whenever any so : 
stance is diffused in small quantities through a mass of entire 
different material. Thus if a stratum of sandstone or clay we 
small quantities of carbonate of lime or carbonate of iron w 
through it, the diffused particles of lime or iron will gar 
a process little understood, segregate themselves into — 
less spherical or nodular masses, in some cases almost aas 
generally inclosing a considerable quantity of the material of 
strata. In this manner lime balls and iron ore balls n 3 
. ; In like maso 
so common in sandstones and clays, are formed. ; 
the flint nodules of the chalk were formed by the segregates 
silica, originally diffused in small quantities through the are 
sediment. Very often some foreign substance forms the | 
about which the segregation commences.” a 
Dr. Dawson, in a note upon cone in cone structures '® 
, po “ “they are 
Acadian Geology, says of ordinary concretions, + toe difai 
general attributed to the mutual attraction of particles wih 
through masses of sediment and aggregating te and 007 
solid bodies as nuclei, or flowing into cavities of fossils 
places of least resistance.” wat 


wm 
tates: “ That nodules are being formed in the e va f 
rocks now in the course of deposition. It is usual oe 


1884. ] Opinions upon Clay Stones and Concretions. 885 


this process as concretionary action. There is no objection to be 
raised to this phrase, and it or some similar term may be safely 
and conveniently used to express the fact that certain matters 
have been separated out of the body of the rock and collected 
together in balls, provided always we bear carefully in mind that 
by giving the process a name we do not get any nearer to under- 
standing the manner in which the result has been brought about. 
If any one asks us what made the nodules, we may, if we like, 
say concretionary action; but if the awkward question is put, 
What is concretionary action? we should be somewhat puzzled 
for an answer. We know that one of the ingredients of a mix- 
ture has been extracted from the surroundings and gathered into 
lumps; how exactly this was done we do not know. The term, 
in fact, is only a way of stating our ignorance, and, unless due 
precaution be taken, a somewhat dangerous way, because to cer- 
tain minds it looks like an explanation.” 

This remark of Professor Green echoes the German couplet : 

“Denn eben wo Begriffe fehlen 
Da stellt ein Wort zur rechten Zeit sich ein.” 

Archibald Geikie says (Text Book of Geology): “ Concretion- 
ary, containing or consisting of mineral matter which has been 
collected either from the surrounding rock, or from without, 
round some center so as to form a nodule or irregularly shaped 
lump. This aggregation of material is of frequent occurrence 
among water-formed rocks where it may be often observed to 
have taken place round some organic center such as leaves, cones, 
shell-fish remains or other relics of plants or animals. Among 
the most frequent minerals found in concretionary forms as con- 
stituents of rocks are calcite, siderite, pyrite, marcasite and vari- 
ous forms of silica. In a true concretion the material at the 
center has been deposited first and has increased by additions 
from without, either during the formation of the enclosing rock 
or by subsequent concentration and aggregation. Where, on the 
other hand, cavities and fissures have been filled up by the depo- 
sition of materials on their walls and gradual growth inward, the 
result is known as a secretion.” 

: M. Virlet, on the 20th January, 1845, presented to the Geolog- 
ical Society of France, a paper upon this subject, in which he 
Claimed that concretionary masses had been formed subsequently 
to the deposition of the rocks or layers in which they were found, 


886 Opinions upon Clay Stones and Concretions, [September 


by a molecular displacement, the particles of the concreting sub- 
stance being gathered together by some action similar to electri- 
cal action. The paper elicited from M. Becquerel assent in the 
following words: “ A mass of geological facts adequately show 
that there has been and is yet, in different rocks, centers of action 
around which foreign substances and their compounds gather. 
There is no doubt that these transferences of molecules may have 
been effected by forces analogous to electricity, but it is not suffi- 
cient to suppose that the phenomenon has an electrical origin, it 
is necessary to prove it; this is what I have already done ina 
certain number of cases by reproducing these compounds,” &c. 
M. Virlet, in the same paper, compiles a chronological state- 
ment of the views held by geologists and chemists previous to 
his own publication, from which the following notes are taken. — 
In 1816 Mr. Buckland speaking of nodular siliceous beds and 
the flints of chalk, says they seem to have been formed whilst 
the material which encases them was yet soft, and to have reached 
their hard or solid condition almost contemporaneously. The 
separation of the silica from the calcareous mass would have 
been achieved through the attractive forces which drew the 
siliceous particles towards certain centers. In 1834 M. de La 
Beche remarks, “that we see in the rocks of mechanical origin 
certain very remarkable aggregations which must have heen Be 
duced by the mutual attraction of the molecules which com- 
pose them.” He remarks that these nodules contain mort cat: 
bonate of lime than the marls and argillaceous schists whi S 
round them, and in allusion to their laminated chanos g 
“that we can scarcely doubt that they have been formerly the 
continuation, one of the others. The molecules of pae 
matter have separated themselves from the marls to ey yi | 
now see them, and we would not probably be mistaken igre 
we assumed that the beds of the particular deposit, aie pi 
taining sufficient carbonate of lime to form SuCCeROIES ed in the 
tain nevertheless too much of it to remain dissemina} | 
marls without being gathered into small masses. ee 
Mr. Babbage showed that siliceous particles form woe” 
ary-like bodies in the clay preparations used in the n 3 
of porcelain, M. Virlet objects to the finding of any é 
the two cases, as the pottery mass has been for 
the natural beds have been deposited slowly ove 


med at once ant 
r long periods. ce 


1884. | Opinions upon Clay Stones and Concretions. . 887 


Sedgewick considered concretions very interesting, inasmuch as 
they indicate that the determining causes are due to some débris, 
either animal or plant, or some small invisible grain which he 
remarks is in accord with what experience has taught us in the 
precipitation and crystallization of salts, which ordinarily are 
determined by the presence of foreign bodies in the midst of a 
saturated solution. The same action, as seen in the formation of 
calculi in the bladder, he discerns in nature, and regards the pres- 
ence of strange bodies as formative of concretionary centers, 
where the material separated from the different beds has gathered 
together. The principle of all this he suggests may be bound up 
in the assertion that like seeks like. | 

M. Turpin, speaking of siliceous concretions in the chalk, says 
if we admit that the nodules of flint owe their transformation to 
the decomposition of innumerable plants or animals, which live 
either in salt or fresh water, and upon these marine or lacustrine 
floors the débris or the entire bodies of these beings fall and pile 
themselves up upon each other, so as to form great beds, more or 
less thick,, made up of everything, if we recall that these animals 
are made up in great part, first, living organic matter, second, cal- 
careous material, third, silica, these two last having been absorbed 
and secreted molecularly and confusedly in the interstices of the 
first; if, in this pasty bed, gelatinous and very liquid, that we may 
call darégine, a bed where all is mixed, we admit, as appears 
proven, the separation, more or less complete, of siliceous parti- 
cles, and the conglomeration of the first amidst the second, as the 
globules of blood and those of milk, for sake of comparison, 
Separate from the serum to form clots, we ean imagine that any 
Natural object, organic particle, &c., might form the center of 
their concretionary growth or be enveloped in their outward ex- 
tension. M. Virlet thinks M. Turpin proves too much, and that 
if such an attraction were universally so, clay beds or siliceous 
limestones would not be homogeneous but form themselves into 
beds of nodules of silica and lime. 

Lyell, in his Elements of Geology, thinks that the molecules 
were held in suspension in water; once deposited, those which 
have a similar nature appear to exercise mutual attraction upon 
each other and gather in certain spots, where they form heaps, 
nodules and concretions. He instances the celebrated beds of 
magnesian limestone in the north of England, where the size of 


888 Opinions upon Clay Stones and Concretions. {September, 


the spherical concretions greatly varies from that of a pea to 
those many feet in diameter, while they are intersected by the 
laminz of the original deposit. 

The stones of Imatra, which have attracted much attention 
and are like our clay dogs, have been studied by M. Parrot, who 
has ventured to classify the irregular shapes under the names of 
monotypes, ditypes, tritypes, tetratypes, pentatypes and poly- 
types. Hypotheses to explain these have been various; first 
comes the gyration theory, which is inadmissible ; the stalactitic 
theory explains them by infiltration, the vegetable theory regards 
them as fossil toadstools, another theory considers them as copro- 
lites, the animal theory, which M. Parrot defends, considers them 
as the remains of petrified animals similar to Meduse. . 

Bowerbank and Parkinson attributed many flints to a coralloid 
origin as being alcyonaria which had attracted silex and had been 
covered with a gray crust presenting no trace of organization, and 
that they had then been penetrated by chalcedonic flint, red or 
purple, which had replaced the molecules of the animal matter ® 
it decomposed. : ? 

In Vol. 1v, 2d series, Transactions Geological Society of Lot- 
don, Dr. Fitton, in his paper upon the strata below the chalk, 
says, “all stages of gradation can be perceived from distinctly 
separated concretions of stone to others so nearly uninterrupte? 
that the next step into perfect continuity can be easily Ss 
again he writes, “in all these cases the concretions yer 
been formed after the deposition of the sand which pent 
them, and probably beneath a great depth of compacted J 
rials. In such a mass, shut off from the free access of pe , 
change of temperature, there is no obvious reason for dist n 
of affinitits which maintained the original form of the co | 
nents, except the decomposition of the animal a it sie | 
remains diffused among the stony substances, yet and gravel | 
not only solid limestone, where nothing but loose sand and 9 
were before, but firm siliceous concretions pervading, d tha 
identified with the separated particles of the quartzos¢ oof BE 
the whole is nearly homogeneous. If the decompositio loog 
organized substances, continually acting throughout “ye a 
periods of time be not sufficient to produce the ae we 
effects, perhaps it may be supposed that electricity ye ee 
which sets free the elemeats and disposes them anew. 


i 
f 
f 


PLATE XXVIL. 


1, 
NN ii iiti Mn io sl My 
\\\ WA Wy 


1884. ] Opinions upon Clay Stones and Concretions, 889 


In the special instances of concretions known as clay stones— 
carbonate of lime, clay, sand and iron—two writers have treated 
of them at considerable length. Parrot, in the Memoirs of the 
Academy Sciences St. Petersburg, Vol. v, 6th series, gives a very 
extended examination of the stones of Imatra, which ends very 
inconclusively with assigning them to an organic origin. His 
figures are very interesting, and differ considerably from the 
familiar forms of the Connecticut valley. 

Professor Hitchcock, in the Geology of Massachusetts, devotes 
considerable time to them, and his remarks are most important. 
He considers them as formed by the crystallization of calcite in 
clay, that lateral accretion predominates, from the easier movement 
in the clay particles sideways, that different localities have different 
forms, and that they are laminated by growth from segregation 
in successive layers of the clay bed. He seldom finds nuclei. 

The writer’s examination of a collection of these objects seems 
to warrant the following conclusions: 

_ Ist. That in their formation they have passed through a pre- 
liminary or soft stage, before hardening, more or less long (Pl. 
XxvI, Fig. 7; Pl. xxvii, Pig. 1). 

2d. That the process of a concretion has formed a center about 
which others gathered; has, as it were, precipitated and induced 
More extended action of the same sort (Pl. xxvi, Fig. 5). 

_ 3d. That the approach to solidity of a concreting mass is 
attended with a development of new centers around which con- 
cretions form (PI, xxvii, Figs. 7-8). 

4th. That the tendency of matter is to concrete around a center 
from all sides equally, but that if there is deficiency of material, 
on the side where the material is plentiful, the form will corre- 
spond (Pl. xxvi, Figs, 2, 5, 6). 

5th. That concretions lie parallel to the bedding, are flattened 
vertically, are wider than high (Pls. xxvi, xXXVv11). 

6th. That the upper surfaces are varied and in relief, while the 
bottoms are apt to be flat (Pl. xxvu, Fig. 8). 

7 th, That the concretion is often plainly built upwards by the 
“uperimposition of many films (Pl. xxvut, Figs. 2, 3, 6). 

8 - That the amount of carbonate of lime varies: according to 
Hitchcock, 43 per cent to 56 per cent; Parrot 51 per cent to 55 
Per cent; Swedish, 60 per cent to 61 per cent; the writer, 45.63 
Per cent, 


890 Opinions upon Clay Stones and Concretions, [ ote 


gtl. That the concretions vary in specific gravity: Pa 
2.49, 2.54, 3.34; the writer, 2.60, 2.57, 2.67, 2. 59. 
1oth, That many show periods of growth (PI. XXVI, Figs 4, 
Pl. xxvu, Fig. 5). 
Further, the results of microscopic examination tae 
these: A horizontal, equatorial section of an oblate concre- 
tion, when examined with an one-eighth objective, showed an 
densely crowded with crystalline points of calcite, so í 
packed as to resemble a patchwork of fine mosaic, of which t 
separate pieces varied in apparent size from 1% to ⁄™™ 
was seen in polarized light. No apparent variation in their nu 
ber between the center and circumference of the disk was n 
but there were evident crowds or congeries of these s 
specks in places, though usually their distribution was uniform. 
Between crossed Nichols irregular and loosely connected dark 
blotches or clouds appeared over the field between which, int 
lacune, shone transparent plates of calcite varying in size. Black 
lines in labyrinthine reticulations seemed to outline the cal 
crystals, the latter lying in their meshes. a 
A cross vertical section revealed no linear arrangement 
calcite crystals, and in the slide in question the minute ~~ 
of the horizontal section was repeated upon a possibly dense 
more microscopic scale, whilst between crossed Nichols thes 
loops and blotches of clay became very noticeable. 
A horizontal section through a group of three concr 
showed the subjoined outan ae 
lane surface was ground tor ee 
din to the glass, the outlines oi te : 
side concretions being very faint. 
The section presented, under the microscope, no opeet y 
tures from those examined before, unless the groupings °°" 
specks were slightly more marked. The clay lines 
larger and more meshy, like a net. On removing 
with hydrochloric acid the clay remaining on the slice | 
a surface of perforations. The apertures varied in ca re 
the comparative size of the calcite crystals ge up i 
though many such openings were previously the remove 
packed calcite lenses. Sometimes the holes left by ike a bY” 
calcite were inclined tubes, and the fenestration thoai 
zoan surface, The acid washed on the thin film ; 


| 


1884.] Opinions upon Clay Stones and Concretions. 891 


strong, did not entirely remove the calcite, it lingered still, en- 
trapped in the clay particles. 

The assumption which may combine these features and accords 
with microscopic examination seems to be this: That in the 
clay beds where these dogs occur there were variously shaped 
spots or irregular separations between layers where moisture 
remained for a long time, keeping the ‘clay in a plastic, more or 
less liquid form, and that with the withdrawal of water to these 
points, the soluble carbonate of lime was also gathered there. 
This latter became concentrated by the contraction of the magma, 
or through introduction of more carbonate of lime in solution in 
percolating waters. i 

Upon concentration the carbonate of lime crystallizes within 
the mass and one crystal speck thus appearing would form a 
center of growth around which the new crystals would gather, 
drawing in clay with them. If this action occurred in a narrow 
seam-like plane the concretions would be flat, if in a wider area 
more spherical Sphericity of growth seems an ultimate princi- 
ple, but contraction of space and thinness of the concreting layer 
for the most part causes the concretions to expand symmetrically 
all around. : 

Where spots of this character coincide one over the other in 
rising layers of the clay beds, a pillar is formed, where they con- 
nect obliquely a slanting pile of disks is made (Pl. xxvii, Fig. 6). 
As the material in one of these areas becomes consolidated, we 
may suppose the upper surface to become denser and crystalliza- 
tion beginning at a number of points the surface is broken up in 
a number of separate forms. Thus the small wart-like bodies 
would seem to have formed quickly and to have become fixed 
at once. 

This growth may have been quite gradual or quite rapid, but 
in all cases due to the concentration of the calcite solution in the 
clay magma and then its crystallization. It could have been in- 
terrupted, irregular, more on one side than another, two or three 
or more concretions may have originated at the same time and 
grown towards each other, or interfered and enveloped each other 
in endless diversity of ways. One concretion may have become 
the center around which others grew, or a small concretion may 
have formed in the midst of a larger one, the quantity and state — 


_Of the carbonate of lime varying from point to point. A certain 


892 The Condylarthra. 


necting concretions or overlapping them (PI. xxvi, Figs. Sand 
or underlying them. 
he peculiarity noticed in many of the concretions of ie 
apparent growth upward by films or from a side, is analogous to 
the habit of crystallizing fluids which begin to form crystal 
along the line of attachment, and this in some cases seem depen- 
dent on the lamination of the clay beds. 
It is singular, and I find Professor Hitchcock makes the same 
observation, that in the Fontainebleau limestone, with as much 
or less carbonate of lime in their composition, the calcite has ca 
ried the sand into its rhombohedral forms, which it has failed to 


points through a plastic mass of clay. 


Note.—In Pl. xxvii, fig. 8a is the under view of fig. psf 
surface, 


10: 
THE CONDYLARTHRA. 
BY E. D. COPE. 
(Continued from page 805, August number. J 
PHENACODONTIDÆ. 

PHE genera of this family display a uniformity in the | 
ture of the true molar teeth not seen in the Peri y€ 
Their range of grade is seen in the premolars, 
the superior series. Thus in Protogonia, all o ; 
but a single external lobe. In Phenacodus the cn 
external lobes. In Diacodexis the second, third an and fo K 
have two external lobes. The premolars are unknown a 

codon. While Protogonia is primitive in its superior pre" | 
1 It is necessary to notice two errata which occur in the part of this ari 

published in the last number of the NATURALIST. In pay 


order Hyracoidea, page 792, line 10, fibula is printed inst ‘side ditrigons 
error occurs on page 793, line 13. Second, the figures of - 
natural size, and not two-thirds of it, as stated, 


1884. ] The Condylarthra. 893 


its inferior true molars come nearer to developing Vs than any 
other genus of the family. The definitions are as follows: 


Last superior premolars with but one external cusp; inferior molars with Vs. 


Protogonia. 

Last superior premolars with two external cusps; inferior molars with well-devel- 
o usps Phenacodus. 
Inferior molars with flat grinding faces; no cusps Anacodon 


Second, third and fourth superior premolars with two external’ cusps; those of infe- 
rior molars well devel ] Diacodexts 
È Zz 


Of these genera the only one which is restricted to the Puerco 
epoch is Protogonia. Some species of Phenacodus are Puerco, 
but the majority are Wasatch, while the two remaining genera 
are Wasatch. 

The two species of Protogonia are known in the Puerco fauna 
as the only ones, with three species of Phenacodus, which possess 
regularly quadrituberculate superior molars. The simplicity of 
their fourth premolar and the absence of the external cingular cusp 
of the superior true molars proclaim them the most primitive 
Species, as they are the oldest, of the family. The smaller spe- 
cies, P. plicifera Cope’ (Fig. 14), has a skull as large as that of a 
terrier dog. The P. subguadrata is 
larger and otherwise different. 

In the genus Phenacodus Cope, we 
have the best known representative of : q 
the order Condylarthra, and the one 
to which the largest number of spe- 
cies is referred. Almost perfect speci- 
mens of the P. primevus (the type) 
and the P. vortmani, were found in the 
Wasatch Eocene sandstone of the Big Fic. 14.—Protogonia plicifera ; 
Tom tiver of Wyoming: (see Plates pis 0h riaa. From the Pues 
XXIX and xxx), beds of New Mexico. Original, 

The dentition includes the normal fopa Labs sa cated 
number found in the least modifed- ° ` 
Mammalia, viz., 1.3; C. ł}; Pm. 4; M.3; and the series is not ín- 
terrupted by important spaces. The canines are weak, and none 
of the premolars in either jaw resemble the true molars. è The 
latter are quadritubercular, with intermediate tubercles both 
above and below. The last inferior molar has a fifth lobe. 


ao 


* The best specimens of this species are not yet figured. 


894 The Condylarthra. 


The skull (Fig. 15) is distinguished by the posi ri y 
tion of the nasal ones, 
which extend to between 
the orbits in P, primem 
(Plate xxv), con 
a slightly nearer approach 
to the living genus Tapir 


+ 


than exists in any 


to the frontals. There are 
no postorbital processes 
either of the frontal or 
malar bones. Sagittal crest 


perior molar, and the py" 
midal processes of the pal 


H Posttym 
Fic. Vs aden a 3 ts skull of widel 


cimen late xxix and figs. front 
17-20; one- hell An ore size, from below, From postglenoid ee 
Wasatch aT eds of Soy tenem PB tgs fam. meatus 
Radu in Wes from the 


hind by the robust bases of both processes. Petrous bones pri a 
ably small. eo 
is 
The axis has a cylindric odontoid, and its venir oad the 
developed. A vertebrarterial canal. The articu 
succeeding cervicals are oblique and slightly s viat 
The second dorsal has rather elongate a igre 
metapophyses; the neural spine is marrow = 
vated. The metapophyses are quite elevated on a opistho 
part of the series, and the centra become some 


PLATE XXVIII. 


Phenacodus primavus cue 


one-half nat. size. 


f 
A 


Bie 


_ and Mesonyx. The epi- 


1884.] The Condylarthra. 895 


coelous and depressed. No anapophyses on either dorsals or 
lumbars. The latter have well-developed flat diapophyses, and 
the centra are keeled below. The postzygapophyses are not rev- 
olute, but they become oblique, so that the external parts of the 
surfaces are nearly vertical. The caudal vertebrae were probably 
numerous; the proximal have strong transverse processes, and 
the median are robust in the P. primevus. Some of them have 
chevron bones. ` 

The tuberosities of the humerus (Fig. 16, 4 4’) are as well 
developed as in tapi- 
roids, The condyle has 
no intertrochlear ridge, 
but the cylindrical part 
is smaller, as in Oreo- 
don, Anoplotherium 


trochlear foramen is a 


transversely oval, with- 
out inferior interlock- 
ing angle, The distal 
extremity is truncate, 


distinctly separated. 
The distal extremity 
of the ulna is a com- 
Pressed tuberosity 
which is produced be- 
yond the radius, to 
which it is oblique 
(Fig. 16, d). 

The distal keels of 
the metapodial bones Fic 
are distinct, but are” 
quite short and en- front; B/, do. head; ¢, head of radius from below; 

a ar end; 2’, do., distal end. Original, 


tirely posterior. 
Th A ê, tibia, p , Revon U 
e pelvis is of nor- from Wasatch epoch gi Nr From Repo a 
x ol. S ‘ H. 
mal proportions. The S. Geol. Surv. Terrs., I 


896 The Condylarthra. [Septenbe 


ilium is not much expanded, but its posterior superior borte: 
thinned out. The anterior border is decurved in front ™ 
peduncle is distinct and rather short, and has a triangular sca 
the narrower face being anterior and only apparent net © 
acetabulum (Fig. 18). 

The posterior foot was not entirely plantigrade, but was n® 
more so than in Tapirus, adding a digit on each side to the thee 
possessed by that genus. These digits are arranged in te= 

of a circle, so as not to give unusual wid?® 
the foot, The third is longer than the se 
and fourth, and the fifth is longer than & 
first. The astragalus has much the bm“ 
that of a carnivorous mammal. The lis 
crests are well developed and of unequal È 
vation, the external being the most sd 
The median groove is wide and deep. ie 
neck is distinct, and is — and is % 
slightly inwards. The head iS 

val, fe its articular surface is a 
convex in all directions (Fig. 17). The j 
langes are not shortened, and the ungu“ 

Fic. 17. Phenacodus Well developed, flat and obtuse. ot da 
primevus; carpus and Tt is thus evident that the detail 
tarsus, one third nat. 5 are as poe 
size, from animal ce ters of the skeleton of this genu inal acl 
Fig. a, arpus, proxi ‘ial itive as those derived from the 


the k 

a a ai A cast of ii- crinii ca sot the bait 
and calcaneum, distal lowing as the general characte prs 
cunetform “aie Mens, The cerebral hemispheres al sorter 
imal v small, each one being less by one a $ 
the cerebellum. They are separated from the ae an terior 0 | 
large olfactory lobes by strong constrictions. ae groo 
is occupied by a thick tentorium. In like manner pi 
for a robust falx separates the hemispheres ripe 
` resents the Sylvian fissure, and the lobus mere AA 

The vermis of the cerebellum is i by "r 
fetes lobes are large. They are impressed r col 
rous bones, as in various ruminants. The — ae 
the medulla are not visible. There are traces of com 
the hemispheres (Fig. 19). 


PLATE XXIX. 
NN Y NSI S 3 E ‘ MAENAN 
: x S N 


ff 
f 
/ 
A 
j 
4 
5 
o 
p 


IN 


1884.] The Condylarthra. 897 


The characters of the brain are very primitive, though the 
cerebral hemispheres are better developed than in the Ambly- 
poda, which are themselves superior in cerebral structure to the 
genus Periptychus (Fig. 9). 


S; 18.—Phenacodus primevus ; sacrum and right innominate bone minus much 
Oe Pubis, individual mE ace fo in Plate xxIx; one-half nat. size, from below. 
ginal, from Report U. S. Geol. Survey Terrs., Vol. 111. 


I refer nine species to this genus. Of these only two, P. prim- 
Zvus and P, vortmani are sufficiently well known to render the 


898 The Condylarthra. [ 


generic reference certain. The others are mostly kne 


tions—three from the former 
six from the latter. 


9 
a 
=| 
> 
= 
i 
° 
= 
wn 
3 
P 
Q 
5 


reached the ground, w 
FIG. 19. — Phenacodus primævus; first and fifth projected 


cast of brain case of specimen figured . ike the 
in Plate xx1x, one-half nat. size. Fig, and posteriorly, like se 


a, left side ; 4, superior face; z, inferior claws of the hogs. The 


ace, riginal, from W; 5. vier than £ 
Geol. Surv, Terrs., Vol. 11, F, V, Hay- longer and heavier è 
den in charge, any of the living hoofed 


resembling in its proportions that of the cats. The eye 
small, and the muzzle, though long, was singularly soft 
Whether this soft part was pierced by valvular nostrils, e 
hippopotamus, or was produced into a short prosor 
saiga or in the tapir, cannot be certainly ascertained, bu 
are indications of the insertion of important cartilag 
muscles, on the superior faces of the premaxillary bo 
Plate xxvit1). ; 4 
The animal was probably omnivorous in its diet. > ; 
furnished with any weapons of offence or defence pe! k 
the osseous system, so that it must have sought ie n 
The well developed muscular insertions of its limbs, an® ’ 
igrade character of its step, indicate that it may have ™ 
siderable speed. 3 
Its bones have been found wherever the beds of the 
epoch occur, but most abundantly in Northern Wyo 
the Wind River valley Mr. Wortman brought two k 
and ten from the Big Horn basin. A figure of he T 


1884.] The Condylarthra. 899 


published in the NATURALIST, 1883, p. 535, one-seventh natural 
size, and is here reproduced (Pl. XXIX). 

Of the Phenacodus vortmani Cope, Mr. Wortman brought por- 
tions of four mandibles from the Wind River bad lands, and 
thirteen from those of the Big Horn (see Figs. 20, 21). 

The limbs of this species are rather elongate for an Eocene 
mammal, and the anterior limbs are distinctly shorter than the 
posterior. The size of the animal is that of a bull-dog, but the 
head is smaller and the neck rather shorter, and not nearly so 


g. 21. 

epresented in Pl. XXX, one- 
The skull is somewhat dis- 
Original. 

n Plate XXX, 
b, do., dist na and radius from 
; 2, left metatarsus an part of tarsus, exter- 

iew; f, metatarsus, proximal view, hallux displaced. 

robust. The limbs have about the same proportions to the body 
as those of a bull-dog, but the anterior ones are shorter. The 
Ere nops of the parts of the limbs, and of the fore and hind 
imbs to each other, excepting the feet, are much as in the col- 
Phe cary. The feet of the latter animal are longer than in 
nacodus vortmani (Plate XXX). sue 
We can thus imagine the Phenacodus vorimant as an‘animal o 

VOL, XVIII.—nNo, Ix, = s 


the comparatively slender build of the bull-dog, with; 
head proportioned more as in the raccoon, and with 
more elevated than the withers, as in the peccary. 
resembled those of a tapir or rhinoceros, but had a pair 
toes on each side which did not reach the ground. 
add a tail much like a cat’s in proportions, and the pi 
The diet of this animal was omnivorous, 
smaller proportion of animal food than the hogs, for i 
The food is more likely to have resembled that of 
What means of defence this species had, i 
easily surmised, as the canine teeth and hoofs are not large | 
I have named this species after Mr. Jacob L. Wortman, 
Junction City, Oreg., whose explorations in the West have 
more than usually productive of important results. : 
The species of the Puerco epoch, of which the superior 7 
are known, differ from those of the Wasatch in the absence 
the small external cingular tubercle which marks the spi 
between the external tubercles. 


complete, 


use. 
quadrumana. 


22. — Phenacodus puercensis ; 
parts of upper and lower jaws, three- 


quarters ig. 

molars from below; 4, left mandibular 
ramus, external side; c, inferior mo- 
lars from a . From the Puerco 
pania of New Mexico. TOPe 


1 eee ‘habe heres that in spite af the near resemblance 
primevus in most respeets, it presents two important diferen 
instead of four sacral vertebræ, and the ungues are wedge-shaped an 
I cannot avoid the belief that the species should be 
from Phenacodus, and therefore propose that the name of Tris 
the new genus in case its distinction be substantiated. 


rounded, 


The Condylarthra. 


mat. size, Fig. a, superior 


These are the P pu 
and P. suniensis Ce i 
the former is very s 
and about the size of Pot 
mani (Fig. 22). o 

The molar teeth of an! 


placed by flattened s 
the valleys represente 


tain bears. 

ursidens Cope (Fig. 23), $5 

the size of the 
mævus, and has been 


the Wankah beds of Wyomlls’ 


or be u 


| 
1884.] The Condylarthra. gol 


Diacodexis laticuneus Cope (Fig. 24, dc), is a small species, 


Fic. 23.—Anacodon ursidens Cope, inferior molars from above, three-fourths nat. 
size. Original; from the Wasatch epoch of Wyoming. 

Horn region of Wyoming 
(Fig. 24), The skull is prob- 
ably as large as that of a gray 
fox. If properly placed in 
this family, it is the most spe- 
cialized form, on account of 
the bicuspid premolar teeth. 


MENISCOTHERIID. 


This family includes: the 
single genus Meniscotherium. 
Superior molars with external Vs, 

and with intermediate tubercles ~ 
the latter with the anterior cres- 
centic, the posterior oblique, 
forming a crest with the posterior 
Inner; anterior inner conic. In- 


fourth superior pr : om above; 4, do. wit mus,external 
emol À x eee í a 

exter: ta go e TB ie side. Figs. 6 c, Diacodexts laticuneus Cope ; 

-Meniscotherium. }, maxillary teeth from below; 4’, do. from 


As already indicated, with outer side; c, last ewe from above. 
this seus we enter a new fam- Original, from Report U. S. Geol. Surv. 
ily of the Condylarthra, úni Terrs., Vol. 111. ; 
one which superadds to its general structure a considerable, 
specialization of the molar teeth. The present genus is the only 
one of the family yet known, and it is represented by but three spe- 
P. With present knowledge it must be asserted that the range 
of this genus was limited both in time and space. The remains 
of the species have been derived from the Wasatch beds of New 
pen and from a horizon from near its base which overlies the 
of th 0. The genus has not been found in any other of the areas 

e Wasatch deposits, but it occurs abundantly in its locality, 


s ei ; i 
ia p it is possible to determine its general structure (Figs. 


902 The Condylarthra. 


< Dental formula, I. 3; C: 1; Pm.4; M. 8; without diastema 
Incisors and canines in both jaws small. The superior molars of 
this genus have some resemblance to those of Hyopotamus, but 
the inferior molars are different, and of the Anchitherium type. 
The temporary last superior molar differs from its successor, the 
permanent fourth premolar, in its more complex character. Tt is in 
fact identical in structure with the true molars. The second and 
third milk molars differ from their successors in their greater 
anteroposterior extent. The third has an internal lobe opposite 
the posterior half of the external wall (Fig. 25, 4c). : 


ee 


size. 
;4 


25.— “api ee «shinite parts of crania, hare nat. 
Fion. the Wasatch epoch of New Mex Fig. a, cranium from peti 
‘do. No. 2 from below 5 c; do, No, 3, aifepiayiig deciduous pme; im and! Tay 
ie Weis can: from Report U. S. Geol. Survey Terrs., oo Rs v. H 


Ouits widely open posteriorly. Palate excavated betiveen the 
molars posteriorly. A postglenoid process. Auricular we 
widely open below. Post-tympanic and paroccipital 
united. Occipital and sagittal crests. Foramen ovale 
‘separated from f. lacerum anterius. Mandibular sya ” 
sified. Mandibular condyle uplooking. Brain not so ay 
in Phenacodus. | 

The cervical vertebra are, like those of Phenacodus, of neti 


have 
length and slightly opisthoccelous. They, with the lumbars, 


1884.| The Condylarthra. 903 


an inferior keel. The disparity in size between the anterior dor- 
sals and lumbars is marked, The odontoid process is cylindric. 
Metapophyses of lumbars well marked. No anapophyses. Neu- 
ral canal rather large. 

The head of the scapula has a curved coracoid process. The 
spine rises abruptly from the neck. The humerus is much like 
that of Phenacodus or a carnivore. The tuberosities are not pro- 
duced, and there is no external epicondyle. The internal epi- 
condyle is large, and sends upwards the bridge that incloses the 
epicondylar foramen. 


“i 1 we 2S ~ 


_ Fis. 26.—Meniscotherium, three quarters nat. size. Fig. a, M. ferrerubre, lower 
jaw, right side; a’,do. from above, the incisor teeth just protruding. Fig. 4, M. tapi- 
acitis, lower jaw right side. All from the Wasatch epoch of New Mexico. Original, 
from Report U. S Geol. Survey Terrs., II. 

The pelvis is not well preserved in the specimens. The ilium 
Shows a rather narrow, triangular narrow, neck, a well-marked 
anterior inferior spine, an open acetabular groove. The femur 
Shows a fossa ligamenti teris, and the third trochanter on the middle 
of the shaft, and well developed. The tibia has an anterior crest, 
and no notch on the antero-external edge of the head. The in- 
ternal malleolus is a prominent tuberosity, and the astragalar face 
is scarcely grooved, and is oblique, as in the Creodonta. The 
distal extremity of the fibula articulates with the sides of the 
astragalus, but not with the calcaneum. The calcaneum much 
resembles that of Phenacodus. It is elongate and the astragalar 
facet is not longitudinal, but is very oblique. The astragalus has 

trochlear keels of unequal height, and a shallow groove between 


» 


904 | The Condylarthra. [ September, 


them, much less marked than in Phenacodus, but not so flat as 
in Periptychus. The neck is elongate, and the distal articular 
surface is convex in every direction (Figs. 27, d, 28, ¢). 

The number of toes in Meniscotherium is unknown. Meta- 
podial bones preserved are rather nar- 
row, leading to the supposition that the 
digits are similar to those of Phenacodus 
and Periptychus. The posterior keels of 
the distal extremities of the metapodials 
are distinct. eee 

This genus is an interesting exempli- 
fication of a general truth. That is, that 
at any given geological epoch a few gên- 
eral types predominate, and that to ai 
few must be referred forms whose varie’ 
characters would, on. superficial exami- 
nation, lead to a belief in an equally 
varied representation of higher divisions. 
Thus Meniscotherium exhibits a ene 
tion decidedly Perissodactyle, and to t ‘ 
order I accordingly referred it roe 
BA originally discovered it. But the pie 
dence of abundant material shows > 
be undoubtedly Condylarthrous, wea 
it enters the same order as thew i 
- Thus the only possible Pere 

Fic. 27. — Meniscotherium has been removed from the Puer 
lerrerubre ; limb bo | 
front; fon tee Three species of the genus are aig 
and calcaneum an ot be all from the Lower Wasatch be 
mal xcs efron We. New Mexico. The type, M. elame 

j “xico. Cope is undoubtedly Wasatch. eS 
terrerubre is about the same size. It is about the size of Be 
but with a very different physiognomy. The profile 15 ye 
the muzzle short, and the eyes large. The body is not 50 


der as in Phenacodus or a fox, having the more robii E ot 

tions of a raccoon. The fore and hind legs were a the 

and of equal length, so that the rump was flattened 3 (linea! 
9g. There was a large tail. The species is one-third o 

_ larger than the Ayrax capensis. It was probably a V 
(Figs. 25-26), 


PLATE XXX. 


ge4 The Condylarthra, [September 


them, much less marked than in Phenacodus, but not so flat as 
in Periptychus. The neck is elongate, and the distal articular 
surface is convex in every direction (Figs. 27, d, 28, e). 

The number of toes in Meniscotherium is unknown. 
podial bones preserved are rather mr- 
row, leading to the supposition that the 
digits are similar to those of Phenacodus 
and Periptychus. The posterior keels of 
the distal extremities of the metapodials 
are distinct. i 

This genus is an interesting exempli 
fication of a general truth. That is, that 


varied ‘representation of higher divisions 


be undoubtedly Condylarthrous, and ai 
it enters the same order as 
Thus the only possible gerr 
Tea oe. an BAA beai roO from the eee 
terrarwhra ; » Nab bones, mat. fauna. ers 
= Fig. php tet Donem, Three species of the g° ceo ei 
primal “end; d, actragales all from the u | 
mal, ex ’ New Mexico. d 
poe Dei di iie From Ws r Cope is undoubtedly Wasatch a a 
terrernbra is about the same size. It is cae the size 0 * 
but with a very different die i is 
the muzzle short, and the eyes large. The boty 
der as in Phenacodus or a fox, having the he more n 
tions of a raccoon. The fore and hind legs were fattened 


and of equal length, so that the rump was. 
dog species iš is 


. There was a large tail, r 
larger than the Ayrax capensis, Mt was probably 
(Figs. 25-26). 


1884. ] The Condylarthra. 905 


The M. tapiacitis Cope, is the least species, and presents some 
dental peculiarities (Fig. 26, 4). 

With this genus and family we close the Condylarthra. That 
the order gave origin to the Amblypoda is highly probable. Be- 
sides this order, the Proboscidea and Hyracoidea must be traced 
back to it. It stands as the remote ancestors of the Perissodac- 
tyla and Artiodactyla, through the Amblypoda. They are the 
primitive hoofed mammals or Ungulata, and probably existed, 
like the Plagiaulacidze, in Cretaceous time. 


* The discovery of the Condylartha is a good illustration of 
what may be derived from persevering scientific research. Prior 
to this event the history and affinities of the great division of the 

oofed Mammalia were, for its earlier stages, a total blank. Few 
but specialized forms were known, and the affiliations of these 
with the two aberrant groups of Proboscidea and Hyracoidea, 
and with each other, could not be guessed. Now the phylogeny 
is, in the main, certain, and the point of connection with the 
clawed (unguiculate) orders, not difficult to discern. 


| S ep tember, F 4 
The following table exhibits the distribution in time of the | 
species of the suborder Condylarthra: | 


906 Editors’ Table. 


PERIPTYCHIDA. 
Puerco ep. Wasatch ep, 

SNE ETR AE ase skein ecw di e.0s cook saaa] I 
E A i o E eve auras I 
Periptychus LEN 3 
Hemithlæus ...... E TEE W Primate. (ae KAA 2 
Anisonchus.,... ADEE e he toh ee i es ste teen 5 
Hinploctaus i dik dia. 4 ] 
e R Rp a ae I Nea 

PHENACODONTID&. 
Ro A EA E a eins cd I 
Protogonia Gorice oe... . 2 
a E N .ouN 2 7 
a T I E icc ccc I D 

MENISCOTHERIIDÆ. 
Meniscotherium ,.... ined l 3 bo 

33 


: EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 


PLATE XXVIII. \ 
Skull of Phenacodus primevus, from specimen figured in Plate XXIX, -E 
nat, size. Fig. a, right side of skull; 4, top of skull; e, right mandi 

ramus from above. 


PLATE XXIX. 


Skeleton of Phenacodus primævus, one-seventh nat. size; found by Mr. e 
man, mounted by Mr. J. Geismar. From the Wasatch beds 1883 
Horn river, Wyoming. (This plate was published in the ae 


PLATE XXX. | 
_ J. Le Wot 


Skeleton of Phenacodus vortmani, two-ninths nat. size, found by Mr J ‘santed by 
man in the Wasatch beds of the Big Horn river, Wyoming, and m 
r. J. Geismar. Mus, Cope. Fig. a, manubrium sterni. 


—o:— 
EDITORS TABLE. 
EDITORS: A. S. PACKARD, JR., AND E. D. COPE. 


The use of trinomial nomenclature in biology has ge | 
revived in the United States during the last ten years, 
adoption has been easy because it supplies a want. : 
are often very recognizable, as are in fact species which inosch : 
late with other species at the present time, so as to be ins Ei 
by definition. For the recognition of such forms the trino™ 
nomenclature is indispensable, 

All the innovations in nomenclature from this side the wate! 


1884] ~ Editors Table. 907 


have not been, in our opinion, so happy. We note four such 
which have not been generally adopted, though they have advo- 
cates in some quarters: (Firs?) The type of a genus shall be the 
species which stands first on the list made by the original de- 
scriber. This method has been generally discarded, and the law 
of exclusion been adopted in its stead. That is, the species 
remaining after others have been subtracted as representing new 
genera, bears the earliest generic name. (Second) When an exist- 
ing specific name has been used for a genus, the same name shall 
continue to be used for the species instead of a new one. There 
result from this method such names as Sialia sialis, Mephitis 
mephitica, Calamus calamus, Scomber scomber, etc. It would 
seem superfluous to object to such names were it not that they 
have advocates. Dr. Lydekker’s assertion that they are “ ridicu- 
lous” seems to us to cover the ground. We know of no argu- 
ment in their favor. (Zkird) Any generic name which is attached 
to the description of a species shall be regarded as the generic 
name of that and other congeneric species, whether-such genus 
has been defined or not. This proposition has been negatived by 
the almost entire vote of American naturalists who responded to 
the circulars of the Dall committee on nomenclature of the 
American Association for the Advancement of Science for 1877. 
Nevertheless some American naturalists adopt such nomina nuda. 
(Fourth) That a name once used cannot be used again, though it 
be an evident synonym. To discard a name because it may be 
found in some list of synonyms seems to us to be increasing 
rather than diminishing confusion. To put the present system of 
nomenclature through a process of renovation such as this propo- 
sition requires, would be impracticable. Hence we disapprove of 


i Such names as Zapus, Amphisaurus, etc. 


We add a consideration respecting the adoption of the names 
of higher groups, as families, orders, etc. We propose the fol- 
lowing rules as agreeing most nearly with present practice, and 
ns fulfilling most nearly the object of all rules, the securing of 
Justice to persons concerned. We propose that names of all 
divisions higher than genera : 

1. Be only adopted when accompanied by a definition. 

_ F That they be preserved for the division for which their orig- 
inal proposers intended them as nearly as possible. 

Note.—What their proposers intended them for can as often 


908 Recent Literature. [Septemb ole 


of priority which is now often neglected in the case of the higher 
divisions. 


—— Good illustrations are an important part of scientific lit- 
erature, and in some of the departments essential. This is espe 
cially true of embryological and histological work. The difficulty 
encountered in the United States is the comparative expensive 
ness of the ordinary processes. For several years American nat- 
uralists and institutions have been seeking for cheaper methods | 
The Smithsonian Institution and the National Museum have been 


cure the best illustrations at cheaper rates than are now ga 
If we do not do so, there are strong symptoms that the 
American work will seek European channels of publication. 


:0; 
RECENT LITERATURE. 


Biocen, sy Dr. Coues.'—The present 12mo volume consists 
a lecture delivered before the Philosophical Society of st 


s graphic and entertaining style. The lecture pe 
agreeable reading. As to the philosophy of the ate nal, 


which are conclusive. However, towards the end of h 
he takes the real and impregnable position of the vita 


1 Biogen. Speculation on the origin ahd nature of Life. By Prof i 
Coues. Boston: Estes & Lauriat, 1884. i 


. 


1884. ] Recent Literature. 909 


phenomena of consciousness and mind. Had Dr. Coues been 
contented to let his case rest here, he could not have been an- 
swered. But he goes further, and discusses that difficult problem, 
the relation subsisting between mind and matter. He here com- 
mits the usual error, the confusing of attribute with substance, 
He talks about “ mind-stuff” and “‘soul-stuff” and denies it the 
qualities of matter. His immaterial matter he calls Biogen. 
‘Biogen” he says (p. 55), “itself of course is alive, it 2s life; and 
biogen may be defined as spirit in combination with the minimum 
of matter necessary to its manifestation.” The best way to exhibit 
the fallacies involved in this sentence, is by a paraphrase viz: 
Heat of course is in motion, it is motion; and heat may be de- 
fined as motion in combination with the minimum of matter nec- 
essary to its manifestation. The appendix is chiefly devoted to 
an exposition of this doctrine. 
i Professor Coues’s arguments for the distinctive importance of 
mind in nature” are excellent; and his reasons for believing 
that the chemical constitution of protoplasm is not all there is of 
life, are weighty. It is when he tries to wed mind and matter 
that he falls into the difficulties that have floored many others 
before him, on both the materialistic and idealistic sides of the 
question. 


Barrois’ Patasozoic FORMATIONS OF ASTURIAS AND OF GALI- 


zinc, mercury, manganese, cobalt, and coal, and on account of 
these riches more than sixty geologists, commencing with P. Gas- 
par de Ibarra in 1644, have written upon the province of Oviedo. 


evonian and Carboniferous faunz. No foraminifera have been 
noted in the Devonian limestones; madrepores, and especially 
K : Recherches sur les Terrains Anciens des Asturies et de la Galicie, par Chas. 
iois, Lille, 1882. Ouvrage accompagné d’un Atlas de 20 planches. 


910 Recent Literature. [September, 


reef-corals, are common in both Devonian and Carboniferous, bi 
other orders of Anthozoa are rare or absent. Crinoids are absent 
in the Silurian of Asturias, but the Devonian furnishes genera 
identical with those of the Rhine, and the Carboniferous is rich 
in species. Echini occur in the Carboniferous, but have not been 
found in the underlying formations. Bryozoa occur in both De 
vonian and Carboniferous, and 112 species of Brachiopoda are 
enumerated by our author in the three formations, by far the 
greater part of them from the Devonian. The Lamellibranchiat 
Asiphonida are better developed than the other divisions of 
bivalves, and the Gasteropoda Siphonostomata are entirely absent 
Cephalopoda, so greatly developed in adjoining countries, play 
an insignificant role in Asturias ; and the crustacea are limited to 
trilobites, one ostracodous carboniferous species exc w 
The sixth chapter treats of the earth-movements, denudation, 
etc., which have modified the palæozoic strata since their frst 
a 


ce. 

This volume, remarkable in itself as a monument of research, 
becomes still more so when the multiplicity of the labors ani- 
comparative youth of the author are considered, T 


4 : 
FRIEDLANDER’S BIBLIOTHECA Historico-NATURALIS ET Mata : 


EMATICA.—This is a bulky strongly-bound octavo volume appt 


natural science has become specialized may be learned by 
works 


is the great disproportion between the number of general pit 
i notes, brochures and memoirs. 


engaged in the same line of study as his pr n 
years of the century, the fit 
The book is illustrated by a portrait of the founder oan 
Julius Friedlander, who traveled in the United States, W whos 
tor’s dissertation was a mathematical thesis, and among Z 


Berlin friends was Alexander Humboldt, He died in on os 


1884.] Recent Literature, gtr 


The catalogues are separately paged, and the system of classifi- 
cation is a natural and convenient one, beginning with the history 
of zoology, “ Miscellanea zodlogica,” zod-geography, faunz, com- 
parative anatomy, including embryology and morphology, as 
well as “ Darwinismus.” A separate catalogue is devoted to 
man, and nearly each large class of the animal kingdom has a 
separate catalogue. So with the vegetable kingdom; then follow 
the lists of works relating to paleontology, geology, mineralogy, 
etc. The catalogues are not of course designed to be complete 
bibliographies, but represent the enormous stock carried by the 
firm. At the same time not only is such a catalogue useful to 
aril and bookbuyers, but it is valuable for reference by spe- 
Cialists. 


BEssEL’s SMITH SouND AND ITs ExpLoraTion.—This is both 
a timely and authoritative essay, which the learned and experi- 
enced author has compiled from a long list of authors whose 
works are enumerated at the end of the brochure. As the com- 
piler and editor of the voyage of the Polaris had only a few 
meager journals and a log-book at his disposal, Dr. Bessel’ has 
dwelt at length on that voyage, frequently using entire passages 
from his own narrative, the map being a photo-lithographic re- 
production of that contained in his “ Amerikanisch Nordpol Ex- 
pedition.” 


_ At the close of the essay Dr. Bessels remarks that’ “the posi- 
tion of Greely and his party is not a dangerous one, although it 
is critical. He probably has provisions sufficient to last until the 
autumn of 1884, without taking the fourteen musk-oxen into con- 
sideration ; these, according to his own statement, would provide 

im and his men with meat for seven months, even though issued 
as often as three times a week. Captain John Ross, not as well 
equipped as he is, spent four consecutive years in the Arctic re- 
gions, and still made good his retreat; but at the same time we 
must not forget that he wintered in lower latitudes, where the 
ve is not so long below the horizon as in Lady Franklin 

ay.” 


: . . . ae 


Finally he claims that we should not be disheartened by 
r 


C- 


latitudes is much less than it was twenty years ago. 

adds that “our knowledge of the distribution of land and 
Water in the vicinity of the Poles is almost as imperfect as it 
was at the time when Cook made his memorable voyage towards 
the South Pole, and when Forster, his scientific companion, tried 
to convince him that the vast ice-floes obstructing their passage 
Were not of meteoric origin.” The essay is reprinted from No. 30 
of the Proceedings of the U. S. Naval Institute. 


912 Recent Literature. Sept 


LECHE’S ANATOMY OF THE PELVIC REGION IN THE INSECTIVvoRA! 


Crossopus fodiens, Blarina brevicauda, three kinds of Crocid 
and Chrysochloris inaurata. Thus every family of Insecti 

represented, excepting the Myrhomyide and nodonti 
The os acetubuli or fourth bone of the os inonminatum is figurei. 
in various carnivores and rodents as well as in insectivores, and 
is stated to be present in marsupials and edentates. This | 
was first noted by Cuvier, and called by him “os cotyloidiet 
but has since been very generally ignored by naturalists. 


Gaupry’s “Les ENCHAINEMENTS DU Monpe ANIMAL.” — Though 
this able and eloquent French palzontologist states that the am 
of all researches among extinct forms is to find the plan of cre 
tion, he yet admits the evolution of the animals of one | 
from those of the preceding, and believes that the full scheme í 
life-development will one day be discovered. ai 
of articulates, fishes and reptiles, are reviewed with the purpos 
of bringing into prominence the relations w : 
tinct fauna with each other and with recent forms. aa 

But while our author admits that the passage from sE 
species, genus to genus, and family to family is fully prove 
states that palzeozoic fossils have not yet furnished positive P' 
of the passage of animals from one class to another, smo k 
principal classes of marine invertebrates were present 1m ©* 
Cambrian, and the Permian reptiles are as unlike fishes as p% 
sible. oe 

Report oF THE U, S. Commissioner oF FisH ANP peti 
FOR 1881.—This bulky volume is not inferior in siz€ to. any 


predecessors in the series, and in fact is rather a | 
with 


the 
ee 
$i 


list by Professor H. E. Webster and James twer 
cheetopod worms discovered at Cape Cod, panii der rel 
species being described and figured. Mr. Jobn Ae direct s0 a 
on the protozoa and protophytes as the primary OFM ge 
1 Zur Anatomie der Beckenregion bei Insectivora mit besonderer ie 
gung ihrer morphologischen Beziehungen zu derjeni ok 
Wilhelm Leche. Mit 10 tafeln, Stockholm, 1883. e psi 
* Les Enchainements du Monde Animal dans les temps 8 lok 
primaires. Par Albert Gaudry, Paris, 1883. ; 


1884.] Recent Literature. 913 


of the food of fishes; also on the retardation of the development 
of the eggs of the shad, a very interesting essay ; and Mr. H. J. 
Rice also writes upon the same subject, while Mr. S. A. Forbes 
‘reports on the first food of the common whitefish, which consists 
of the smallest species of Entomostraca. 


THE Woops AnD TIMBERS OF Nort CAROLINA.— This is a com- 
pilation by P. M. Hale, from the botanical and geological reports of 

rs. Curtis, Emmons and Kerr, to which are added information 
obtained from the Census Bureau, with reports from the several 
counties. A recent visit shows great improvement in the business 
activity and condition of the State. The Agricultural Depart- 
ment, by its museum and timely, authoritative: publications like 


famous for its vast forests, and this hand-book is an interesting 
and valuable résumé of the characteristics and distribution of the 
forest trees of the State. The book owes its value largely to the 
original report of the Rev. Dr. Curtis printed in Emmon’s Re- 
port on the Geology of the State, and reproduced in full. 


A Boranist’s Vacation.1—A delightful little book from the 
pen of the genial Professor of Botany in the University of Penn- 
sylvania reaches us just as the annual longing for rest and recre- 
ation comes to every brain-worker. It is a sermon in the gospe 
of relaxation, and it is so well preached that every reader will 
want to get a boat and follow the sailor-botanist down and up and 
across the Chesapeake and Delaware bays. There is a good deal 
of botanical inspiration in the book, and it is well worth reading 

T Ek yi proposing to take a few week’s run on the water. 


RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. 
Davis, ; as M.—Whirlwinds, cyclones and tornadoes. Boston, 1884. From the 
author, 


National Academy of Sciences.—Report of the National Academy of Sciences for 
the year 1883, Washington, 1884. From the Academy. 

B arrois, Chas.—Memoire sur les Gres métamorphiques du massif granitique du 
Guémé:é (Morbihan). Ext. des Annales de la Soc. Geol. du Nord, Lille, 1884. 
From the author. 

Dollo, M. L.—Note sur le Batracien de Bernissart. Ext. du Bulletin du Musée 

Royal d@’ Histoire naturelle de Belgique, 1884. From the author. 


Belgique. Ext. idem., 1883. From the author. 


de Belgique, 1884. From the author. : 
Of E: D-The Batrachix of the Permian period of North America. Ext. Amer. 


1 
Vacation Cruising in Ch By J. T. Rothrock, 
M.D esapeake and Delaware Bays. by i 
erag Professor of Botany in the University of Pennsylvania. Ilustrated. Philadel- 
à J. B. Lippincott & Co, , 1884. 12mo, pp. 262, 


a 


914 Recent Literature. 


Stanley, H. M.—On the classification of the sciences. Rep, from “Mind,” 
XXXIV, 1884. From the author, 
Paul Yaa on Final Causes. Rep. from the ‘ New Englander,” May, 1 

From the author, 
Cincin. ng sg Hist.--The Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History, — 
April, 18 h Y 


L jiki, R. H.—Report of the cotton production of the State of Arkansas, 
Report of the oe production of the Indian Territo 
ieoi of the pia tiari of the State of Texas. "All reprints ton Ys, 
v of the a census reports. From the auth 3 
Gurley, W. F. E—New Carboniferous fossils. Bulletin No. 2, 1884. Foo te | 
author k 
Hopley C. C. —Do snares ein’ pen young in their throats? Letter to “ Sia 
June, 1883. From the auth 


3 
Fischer, F. G.—Uber einige afrikanische — Amphibien und Fische des 
aturhistorischen Museums in Hambur 1884. From the aut thor. i 
Putnam F. W.—A new stand for skulls, os by Ed. F. jae i ; 
ERE oo ormal human skulls from stone jpam in Tenne Both from Prot. 
mer, Assoc, Adv. of Science, Vol, xxxii. From the peer T 
Germantown Independent —Sketch of Moe G. Gentry. 
Newton, E. antelone emit in newer Pliocene beds in Britain. Bt 
Quart. Journ, Geol. Soc 1884. From the author 
Gage, S. H.—A starch Gane. alan Ext. N. Y. Medical Journal, 1884. From 
the author Ga 


rue, E. W.— Cat alogue of the aquatic mammals exhibited by the United is 
U iaioa Museum, 1884. From the author ee 
Capellini, Giov.—I1 Chelonio Veronese TENTER veronensis). me Ki > 
1952 nel cretaceo superiore, Reale Accademia dei Lincei , 1884. je 

hor. 


Bice P.—Sur la fossette vermienne du crane des mammifères. 108% A 
naa i 


Murray, J.s leet Renard, A. Pa Les caractères microscopiques des cendres vl 
iques et des poussières cosmiques et leur role dans les sédiments de 
am 
——Notice sur la classification, le mode de formation, et la distribution £ al 
ique des sedim ments de mer profonde. Ext. du Bull, du Mus. Roy. de 3e 
1884. From hor 
Whitehouse, F. C.— ome Piciénde inyi of Fingal’s cave. Ext. Proc. Aner, l 
Adv, Science, 1882, From the author. 
Clevenger, S. V.—Clinical and pathological reports £ cases of insanity. Re 
Chicago Medical Journal and Examiner, June, Me 
Ramsay, F. L. S.—Catalogue ol = T of PEN in the Australian 
Sydney, 1883. From the wane 
Spencer, J. Wan Niagara fecal, s, p r Cea of the Upper Sil a 
11. Stromatoporide of the Upper Silurian. Part 11, Fifteen new 
Niagara fossils. May, 1884. Fie ay uthor. the 1 
Kneeland, Sam.—The subsidence theory of so DH 1883. Eroa j 
Soc. Geol. de France.—Programme de la Reunion extraordinaire de la So 
ique de France, of the 
Meek, S. E., and Goss, D. K.—A review of the American species 
Trachyn notus. From the authors, From 
ve S £.—A review of the American species of the genus Sym oie 


G Whitman, nd Emmons, S. F.—Qn Hypersthene Ande se 
Pyroxene i in Koshi rocks. Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 1, 19°3 


1884.] Geography and Travels. 915 
Shufeldt, R. W=—Osteology of Ceryle Alcyon. From the Journal of Anatomy and 
hysiology, Vol. xvir. From the author. 

Ijima, 7., and Sasaki, C—Okadaira shell-mounds, an appendix to Memoir Vol., 
Part 1, of the Univ. of Tokio. rom the author. 

Lemoine, M. V.—Etude sur les caractères génériques du Simedosaure, reptile nou- 
veau de la faune Cernaysienne des environs de Reims. From the author. 

~— Note sur l’Encephale du Gavial du Mont Aimé etudie sur trois moulages natu- 
rels, Ext. Bull. de la Soc. Geol. de la France, 1884. From the author, 

Baur, G—Der Carpus der Paarhufer. From the author. 

4. A. A, S—Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Sei- 
ence, 1883. From the association. 

Baird, S. F.—Report of the U. S: Commissioner Fish and Fisheries. 1881. Wash- 
ington, 1884. From the commission. 

Coues, E.—-Key to North American Birds, Boston, 1884, From the author. 


ee 
GENERAL NOTES. 
GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS:! 


America.— The Greely Expedition.—It is impossible to give in 
the Naruratist a full account of this unfortunate yet successful 


Proper discipline is maintained. It is said that the scientific work 

ne by this expedition far surpasses in importance, completeness 
and scope that accomplished by any other. This is not the place 
to enter into a criticism of the actions of the leaders of the two 
telief expeditions which so signally failed to accomplish their pur- 


* This department is edited by W. N; Lockincron, Philadelphia. 
VOL, XVITI.—nNo, Ix, 58 


916 General Notes. [Septer ù i 


that relief was on its way. The surprise and disappointment e. 

perienced when they found themselves without efficient prote 
tion and with totally insufficient provisions, compelled to endir 
the rigors of a third winter, must have exceeded anything t | 
can be conceived by those who did not share the experien 
Reduced to feed on seaweed, rock-lichens, sealskin and shri, 
of which latter the supply was very limited, it is no wonder tit 
they gradually weakened and died. Sergeant Cross died in Ja | 
ary, in April he was followed by Christiansen (half-breed), Eè 
wards (Eskimo), Lieutenant Lockwood and Seargeants Lim, 
Rice and Jewell; four others died in May, and seven i paa | 
cluding Dr. Octave Pavy, the surgeon of the expedition, at) 
Lieutenant Kislinburg. Dr. Pavy was an experienced an 
traveler. He took part in an expedition sent out by France, 


Arrica—Madagascar.— This island, according to ore 
Grandidier, was discovered by the Portuguese on the re 
August, 1500, instead of, as usually stated, the Ist Oe 
I It was well known to the Greeks and Arabs, an of the | 
of the doubts of commentators, arising from ignorate id 
regularity of the winds and currents and the usa Th put- 
navigation, it is doubtless the Menuthias of Ptolemy. . 49° wit 
atta days’ journey given by this author, pei oie and will 

at r iyrati ese peaa e 
+7 reached by the boats now navigating thes nd roductions 


y tae 
aps 


t ean given by Arrian respecting the aspect Fi adaga 


tak” marks it upon a planisphere (date 1153), under the MY 
Chezbeza, by the lide of i oae of islands whi 
accompanying description, are the Comoro islands. - 
dier has made a fac simile of this planisphere, the 
known map on which Madagascar is shown. The fir 


maps of Apres de Mannevillette (1770), and Ower (3825) Fy 
the coasts with tolerable exactitude, but the disposit! ! 


ramifications, separated by wide valleys, while the entire 3° age 
forest-covered. The facts are widely different. The 4 „ounta 
ern part of the island is occupied by a much disturbe Ce 


1884. ] Geography and Travels, 917 


mass, the watershed of which is not very distant from the Indian 
ocean; while the forests form ‘a continuous girdle, only a few 
leagues in width, concentric with the coast and surrounding a 
vast area which is entirely without trees, and in its mountainous 
portions, that is to say, throughout two-thirds of its extent, is 
even without shrubs. The western part of the island is flat. 

Cosmos gives an account of Captain Crema’s journey in Morocco 
in 1882 with a map which corrécts many defects in previous maps, 
and supplies many omissions. In the same issue G. Bianchi gives 
an account of his explorations in the Gurageh territory in 1880, 
with a map of the Galla territory south and east of Shoa. 

The Aruwimi —It is known that the Congo, at the head of 
‘its bend to the north of the equator, receives a great trib- 
utary, the Aruwimi, from the north-east, but the course of this 
river is still unknown. A large river called the Welle, with nu- 
merous tributaries, the Gadda, Gurba and ‘the considerable river 
Bomokandi, has been thought to be the Aruwimi, but Dr. Junker 
hopes to be soon able to adduce proof that it belongs to the sys- 
tem of the Shari, flowing into Lake Tchad, while he feels inclined 
to identify the Nepoko, a large river with numerous tributaries 
bordered by vast treeless swamps, with the Aruwimi of Stanley. 


Asta—The Nan-schan Mountains —The explorations of Col. 
Przewalsky in the north-eastern part of Thibet have unraveled 
_ the complications of the mountain-chains of this region. The 


tains are the basin of the Koko-Nor and the ring-like plateau of 
saidam. The Nan-schan consists of at least three parallel ranges 
and forms an alpine region of considerable width, broadest nort 
and north-west of the Koko-Nor and at least forty versts wide in 
the meridian of Ssa-tcheon. Ssa-tcheon, situated in an oasis, 1S 
the chief town of the north-westerly prolongation of Kansu that 
extends between Mongolia and Thibet. Col. Przewalsky has 


given names to the subordinate ranges, one of which, the Hum- 


Rum and Artemisia campestris, like that of the desert. The > “ta 
schan mountains are rich in gold, as are also the sands of the 


he river, which rises’ on their slope. 


918 General Notes. [ September, 


The Thousand Caves.— Col. Przewalsky, in his account of — 
the Nan-schan mountains on the confines of Mongolia and Th 
describes the “ Thousand Caves” excavated by the Buddhists in 


it 
and adorned with mosaics, and in some places remains of the 
larger images exist. Each of the smaller caves is from twenty- 
eight to thirty-five feet long, twenty-one to twenty-eight wide, 
twenty-eight high. The larger caves have twice these 
dimensions, the figures in them are sometimes twice the natura 
size, and in their center stands a colossal figure upon a pedestal, 
surrounded by smaller figures. Two of the largest of these 
colossi are Da-fu-jan, eighty-five to ninety feet high, and some 
forty-five feet wide, with feet twenty-one feet in length, and forty- — 
two feet apart between the great toes; and Dsho-fu-jan, which is 
about one-half these dimensions. In two of the caves there are 
upon the walks colossal idols in a recumbent position; one of 
these, called Schi-fu-jan, is surrounded by his seventy-two chil- 
dren. The head, the hands which are clasped over the breast, 
and the bare feet of this figure are gilded, and the garments striped - 
with red. These figures are finished off with a mixture of chy 
and chopped reeds. At the éntrances of the larger caves 4 a 
sometimes in the interior, are representations of heroes, often with 
grotesque or animal faces, and with swords, snakes, etc., 1n a 
hands. In one cave such a hero is mounted upon an Ciepm™ 
while in another a similar figure rides upon a fabulous beast. 4 
The Pamir —The Proceedings of the Royal Geographical minke 


ciety (March, 1884), give a map illustrating the Russian XP" 
tions in the Pamir, the “ Roof of the World,” and highest regiat 4 


Ibn Reschid, emir of this region, has recently defeated 
Ibn Saoud, the heir to the Wahhabite throne. 
was escorted from Damascus by three horsemen sent 


7 E 
D 
‘ 
: 


purpose, and is lodged in one of the finest houses of the “i 
has collected much geographical information, and has 0? 


1884.] Geology and Paleontology. 919 


hundred new inscriptions. He is about to depart to determine 

the position of the mountain mass of Jebel Agée, and proposes 

to traverse the entire Hedjaz. The results of his first journey 

ie in preparation for publication by the Geographical Society of 
aris 


aa wD oe ee 


The Aval.—M. Konshin states as the result of his explorations 
that the immense depression of Sara-kamysh, in some places 2 
feet below the Aral, formed in a geologically recent time one basia 
with that lake, The fossils of this depréssion are identical with 
species found in the Aral and Caspian lakes and show that its 
waters were brackish or salt. The lake had an outflow into the 

pian. 

Cuina.—M. Hosie, who has made a journey of nearly 2000 
miles from Chung-King in Szo-chuan to Cheng-tu, capital of that 
province, and thence by Tali in Yunnan to Yunnan-Fu, returning 

y another route, states that the European maps of these districts 
are exceedingly defective, although fairly good native maps can 
procured. 


GEOLOGY AND PALÆONTOLOGY. 


THE ProroconcH oF CEPHALOPODA. —The accepted divisions 

of the Cephalopods have been founded by authors wholly upon 
characteristics of the adult form of the shell, whether straight, as 
in Orthoceras, curved, as in Cyrtoceras, coiled up with open 
whorls, as in Gyroceras, or with the whorls in contact, as in Nau- 
ti These modifications, together with the outlines of the 
aperture and other minor characteristics, have, heretofore, deter- 
mined thë group to which any given shell was referred. 
„ -9e examination of the young of all the closely coiled Nau- 
tiloidea shows them to be as a rule uncoiled, and in the earliest 
stages simply arcuate as in the adults of the group of the Cyrto- 
ceratites, and having a scar on the apex which represents the 
beginning of the stage in which the animal commences to con- 
Struct the true or secondary shell. The young of all the Ammo- 
noids have, on the contrary, with the marked exception of some 
patæozoic species and some varieties of species,closely coiled whorls 
at the corresponding stage of growth, and upon the apex is a tiny 
bag or embryo shell, which has been very appropriately called the 
Protoconch by Owen. 

In my Embryology of Cephalopods, Bulletin of Museum of 
Comparative Zodlogy, Cambridge, No. 5, Vol. 111, the position 
Was taken that the scar of the Nautiloidea showed that a proto- 
Conch had existed in the embryo of Nautilus, but had disappeared 
during the growth of the shell, the scar being uncovered by its 
removal. This supposition was endorsed by Professor Richard 
Owen, but rejected by Barrande, who insisted that the general 

ce of a protoconch was a fatal objection. There exists, 
however » On the apex of some Orthoceratites, an excrescence or 


920 General Notes, [September $ 
bulb of a withered and somewhat irregular and variable shape | 
De Koninck, in his magnificent work upon the “ Calcaire Carbon- 
ifere de Belgique,” curiously enough cites these very forms as the | 
principal proofs against my conclusion, because in them the sta 
is absent. According to my examinations and drawings, howevt, 
the scar ought to be found in such examples underneath the bul | 
of the apparently complete apex, which is simply the withered | 
and shrunken remains of the primitive protoconch. This was 
evidently originally a soft, embryonic shell, composed of conch 
olin, and not of calcareous matter as in the Ammonoidea | 
have seen and figured several examples in which a bulb ws f 
present on the apex and no scar visible, and onecase in which the 
bulb (protoconch), had evidently been taken away, leaving tht 
scar visible below, surrounded by the broken edges of the outer 
most shell layer, which formerly connected the apex with, and 
covered the protoconch, The external layer of shell and its 
longitudinal ridges from the apex up, on to the so-called plug 
the cicatrix described by Barrande, have also been traced, - 
thus every point in the evidence appears to be complete, and the 
fact that the bulb is covered bya true protoconch continuous 
with the shell of the apex seems to be established.—Alpheus Hyatt. 


Fossit Man in Mexico.—Dr. Mariano Barcena, director id 
department of Geology and Palzontology of the National hi 
seum of Mexico, recently discovered the facial and mandibu 
parts of a human skull in a hard rock not far from the city : 
Mexico. The specimen was found in a hard siliceous lime the 
near the border of Lake Texcoco, at some elevation above a 
level of the water of the lake. Overlying the bed of ene 8 

is a lacustrine deposit, which is similar to that made by the m 
ent lake, and contains the same mollusca, etc. W ae 
limestone be a still more ancient deposit of the lake, has not yi 
been determined by Dr. Barcena, but the overly ing depa a 
cates the former wider extension of its waters. It is also €v! its 
that since the entombment. of the human skull, both ian 
have been elevated several feet, and separated from the aet od “ 
under the lake by a fault. This was probably accomplis y 
the time of the projection of an eruptive hill near the i 


GEOLOGY oF ALGIERS.— Tertiary —The three tertiary, me 
say M. Peron, can usually be easily distinguished in Ape "The © 
they present themselves in isolated and independent Sardinia, and 
systems of upheaval of the Pyrenees of Corsica and Sar l jers, 
of the western Alps, have all played an important part 1n, pe 
and have so separated the tertiary areas as to render me i 
fication relatively easy. The eocene is in many places â 
without fossils, and in most others offers nothing to the 


1884.} Geology and Paleontology. Q21 


tologist but immense numbers of nummulites. Sandstone is the 
chief constituent, but there are thick bands of claystones, flint, 
gypsum, etc. -The total thickness cannot be less than 400 meters. 
This formation is the most important factor in the mountains of 
the Tell, and a multitude of summits are composed of the sand- 
stones and nummulitic limestones. It is superposed on various 
formations, and is usually highly unconformable with the stratum 
on which it rests. The eocene appears in two interrupted belts par- 
allel to the coast, one in the Tell, the second in the north of the 
high plateaux. It does not occur iñ the south, and is more de- 
veloped in the east than in the west. The miocene,.on. the 
contrary, is most developed in the west, and, though frequently 
composed of rocks very similar to the eocene, can usually 
distinguished by its highly fossiliferous character. In the depart- 
ment of Constantine part of the deposits are lacustrine or fluvia- 
tile. Miocene strata occupy large areas in the Tell, apparently 
filling depressions produced after the deposit of the eocene, and 
in the province of Oran they reach their highest development, 
and are rich in fossil echini. 

The area occupied by the pliocene is much more limited, and 
is composed of some isolated lacustrine deposits in the province 
of Constantine, with perhaps certain belts in the Saharian region, 
and of small enclosed patches of marine origin filling depressions 
near the coast.. The quaternary covers enormous areas, and be- 
longs to different epochs. The strata are terraced in the valleys 
hollowed out during the quaternary period, or fill the great de- 
Pressions of the high plateaux and of the Sahara. These are of 
lacustrine, fluviatile or continental origin, but marine beds occur 
in many spots along the coast from Tripoli to Morocco. The 
great superficial development of these beds in the plateaux and 
the Sahara, and the thickness they attain in the depressions, cause 
Some to refer them to the upper tertiary, and some to believe them 
to be the work of a gradually drying-up interior sea. Several of 
the characteristic mammals have been found, but it cannot be 
Said that these beds have been thoroughly explored. 


k Tue Carsonrrerous Frora oF Ruope Istanp.—The following 
is a list, with descriptions of two new species, of such of the fossil 
tboniferous plants of Rhode Island as are contained in the 
useum of Brown University, Providence, R. I., and which have 
€n sent me for identification, and of those which I have had 
Opportunities to see in different collections, especially that of the 
Museum of Comp. Zoöl. of Cambridge, and of Mr. R. D. Lacoe 
Pittston. Those from Valley Falls, R. I., have in part been 
collected by Mr. Thomas Battey, and those from Rhode Island, 
near Portsmouth, were. collected by J. H. Clarke, Esq. A few 
Species have been collected at Cranston, R. IL, by Professor A. S. 
Packard, 


922 General Notes. [September, l 


A few species from the Rhode Island coal series were enumer. i 
ated and figured by Dr. C. T. Jackson in his Report on the Geol 
ogy of Rhode Island, published in 1840. A few others have 


pom of Pennsy 


The following. list cote, eighty-eight species, of which l 


fifty-six are ferns : 
FILICACE, 


e ori t apex, open or reflexed 
The whole em recarheg d originally soft, is deformed by compression. 
m is oth, like all the parts of the plant, 2™™ broad; that of 
the lateral pin af a a ; that of the pinnules a little more than ond 
in diameter ; ee gs 3mm long, aaa RE a little more, ar 
T curv all simple and e 
Thi sae close oo resem er Sphenaperi laxa St., Fl. d. Vorw. 1, Ph > 
g. Pp I, p. 58; elegans Bogt, "differing essentially in 
the laciniz apinn ‘simple aot itas nor ma: paf at the apex. 
Wisner fend. murrayana Lesq.— empra cristata St, 
T part inna. K enopteris elegans Brgt. 
Sphenopteris irk i Brgt. Sphenopteris j Aam ingħausii Bret. 
Sphenopteris cherophylloides Brgt. Hon opteris ris tides Brgt. 


uropteris cordata ji 
i egan hirsuta Lesq.—With a Cyclo hws round or re wf ot large leaflet, 
small round basilar ones; all detached from the rachis ak representing 


on werk agassizii Lesq, Neuropteris pesisers Brgt. 
Neuropteris A kae ? Bret. Cyclopteris spe 

eiropa ed ee sigan seg alae Hoffm.—aAs fg 
Neuropteris Goepp. ured vehl. 


Mamroptepis y vase Brgt. 


sisson sips sp: noy. ? or variety of Athena bt: Brgt.—Main nt 
what large, 3-4™™ in diameter; ultimate pinn 


ite, separated to the base, connate at the base only, oblong- ; middle 

vee or blunt abei, sea dualiy astasing from the base upw the apex 

nerve inflated in the lower part, effaced above the middle or under Cae 

ot veins oblique, somewhat curved back, forking once 

very long, the en preserved is nearly 12™™ long, bro 

below the apex so that no ultimate pinnule is observable ; they. e ca 
my 


which the species resembles in the form of the pinnules. As t 


nule, which in the European species is very long and wrt oe 


oe the identification is not possible. The differen 
er pinne, the more pointed pinnules ‘and mre pet texture. 


Poi eris alpina Gein.—Large leaflets. Peco wert cyathea Bgt. 
rey alata Les Pecopteris pa Brgt. 
ontopteris brardii Br gt. Peco pteris oreopteridis Schlt. 
Ferat deformata Lesq. copteris candolliana Brgt. 
Pe Sic neuropleroides Newby. Peci pteris dentata Bret 
ontopteris patens Lesq. Pecopteris arborescens Brgt. 
P: reports s polymorpha Brgt. Pecopteris aspidivides Brgt. 
ecopteris acuta Brgt. Pecopteris clarkii Lesq. 
Pecopteris aiias Brgt. Pecopteris erosa a Gutb. 


a long, close, narro, | 
nearly at right angles; thet a kanlas pA gie inclined upwari : Woke 8 


aes 
oa 


1884.] Geology and Palgontology. 923 
Pecopteris penneformis Brgt. Pseudopecopteris anceps Lesq. 
Fecopteris platyrachis Brgt. Pseudopecopteris muricata (Brgt.) Lesq. 
Pecopteris quadratifolia Lesq. seudopecopteris spinulosa Lesq. 
is (Goniopieris) unita Bret. Rhacophyllum affine Lesq. 

Pecopteris ( Goniopteris) arguta Bret. Rhacophylium clarkii Lesq. 
Pseudopecopteris cordato-ovata (Weiss.) Khacophyllum filiforme Gutb. 

. - Rhacophyllum filiciforme Gutb 

briat 


Pseudopecopteris nervosa (Brgt.) Lesq. Rhacophyllum fimbriatum Lesq. 
Pseudopecopteris dimorpha Lesq. Rhacophyllum hirsutum var. affine Lesq. 
Pseudopecopteris pluckneti (Brgt.) Lesq. Rhachiopteris sp.—Rachis of fern. 


CALAMARIE. 
Calamites suckowii Brgt., var. nodosus Annularia longifolia Brgt—A large 
St.—A fine specimen, 
Calamites approximatus 
twisted fragment. 
Calamites ramosus 
branches 


orm, 
Schloth.—A Annularia calamitoides Schp. 
nnularia inflata Lesq. 
nnularia sphenophylloides Brgt. 
Å 


Brgt. — Crusled A 
Sphenophyltum oblongifolium Germ. 


Calamites cistii Brgt. Sphenophyllum schlotheimii Brgt. 
Asterophyllites sublevis Lesq Sphenophylium emarginatum Brgt. 
Asterophyllites equisetiformis Brgt. Sphenophyllum filiculme Lesq. 
Asterophyllites grandis St. Sphenophyllum longifolium Germ. 


Asterophyllites rigidus Gein. 
LYCOPODIACEA. 
Lepidedendron longifolium Brgt.—Tult Lepidophyllum fallax Lesq. 

of leaves, Lepidophylium hastatum Lesq. 
Lepidodendron dichotomum St.—Leaves. Lepido; Ayllum majus Lesq. 
Lépidodendron (Bergeria) guadratum St Lepidophyllum oblongifolium Lesq. 
aodendron aculeatum St. Lepidophyllum stantoni Lesq. 
Lepitophyllum lanceolatum Lepidophyllum tumidi 


ipium Brgt. é um Lesq. 
maria ficoides St,—Leaves obliquely crossing clay, and specimens of other leaves, 
CORDAITE, 
Cordaites borassifolius Unger. Cordaites diversifolius Lesq. 


— Leo Lesquereux. 


and Huxley as to the near affinity of this fish to Osteolepis and 
Diplopterus, 
urassic—Mr, J. W. Davis (Ann. & Mag. Nat. His., June, 1884) 


are well-developed and the head is protected by sculptured sur- 
face-enameled plates. 


known as “ Flysch” are identical with those of the creta- 
i ous rocks of Liguria and Tuscany. He recommends that the 
rm “ Flysch ” be dropped from geology.——I'wenty-two years 


924 i General Notes, [September, 


fossil animal were found. The report spread that it was a fossil 
man, and the proprietor asked an enormous price for it, untilhe 
was at last convinced it was a reptile. It then fell into the hands 
of Dr. Capellini, who found it to be a tortoise of the Sphargis 
group. M. A. Gaudry recently presented to the Paris Academy — 
of Sciences a note upon a new sirenian found in the Paris basin, 
and named by him Hatiterium chongueti. It occurs in the Ostrea 
cyathula marls, and must not be confounded with H. schinzi. 
Trias—At a recent meeting of the Royal Geological Society 
Professor Owen described Riytidosteus capensis, a \abyrinthodont | 
amphibian from the Trias of the Cape of Good Hope. The speci- 
men consisted of the anterior part of the skull with a portion of 
the mandible attached. a 
Tertiary —E. T. Newton has recently written upon the antelope 
remains from the newer Pliocene beds of Britain, and has described 
a gazelle which, though near to G. bennettii, he regards as new, 
and entitles G. anglica. | 
Quaternary—M. G. Rolland has presented to the Academy of | 
Sciences of Paris a series of objections to the theory of a quater 
nary Saharian sea. One of these is the absence of any true 9e 
of marine fossils in the recent strata of the Sahara, since Cardium 


- formation of the Sahara as continental in origin, and dé gee eo 
diluvial waters in an age when the Sahara was abundantly | 
plied with rivers. 


MINERALOGY. 


New Minerats.—(1). Aimafibrite (Igelstrdm)—Among © 
manganese minerals of Nordmark, Sweden, are several peT led 
cies, described by Igelström end others. Aimafibrite, 5° ydo- 
from its blood-red color and fibrous structure, is a basic ide of 
arseniate of protoxide of manganese with a little protox mbic 
iron, magnesia and lime. Its crystalline form is an orth \obules l 


prism, the crystals radiating from a point and hadi 8 Fich at 


aos Om 
1 Edited by Professor H. CARvILL Lewis, Academy of Wee Coe 


delphia, to whom communications, papers for review, etc., sho 
? Bull. Soc. Min. de France, vit, 1884, p. 121. 


arsenite, and the most basic, aimalolite 


| 
i 
| 
i 
| 


1884. | Mineralogy. 925 


the tube, fumes of arsenic on charcoal, readily melts without 
decrepitation and gives decided reactions for manganese. 
Analysis gives: 
As,O; MnO FeO MgO CaO H,O 
29.94 46.98 4.65 2.00 1.50 403 Se 100 
Formula: 2(3MnO As,O;) + 7MnO HO + 6HO 
(2) Aimatolite (Igelstrom)—At the same locality, associated — 
with the last, is a blood-red transparent mineral having the ap- 
pearance of precious garnet. It occurs always in crystals and is 
imbedded in limestone. The crystals are from one to two milli- 


trand, occur in rhombohedrons, and have a perfect basal cleavage. 
It has the same blowpipe characters as aimafibrite. 
Composition : 
As,O; MnO FeO MgO CaO H,O 
25.70 34 55 13.05 8.10 2.52 16,08 == 100 
Formula: 2(3MnO As,O;) + 8MnO HO + 6HO 
(3) Allaktite® (Sjogren).—This is another arseniate of mangan- 
ese fr ocality. It is of yellow to green color and 
occurs in flat tabular crystals, belonging to the monoclinic sys- 
tem. Crystallographically it is regarded as related to the vivian- 
ite group of minerals. It has a hardness of 4 to 5, and spec. grav. 
3.83-3.85. 


Composition : 
As,0; MnO FeO MgO CaO HO 
pn 
28.57 i 9.01 = 100.65 


3 HIS 
- Formula: 2(3MnO As,O;) + 8MnO HO + HO 
For comparison with the three formulæ here given that of a 
fourth hydro-arseniate of manganese from the same locality is 
added. The formula». of chrondroarsenite 1s 2(5MnO AsOs) 
+ 5HO. Of these four minerals the least basic 1S chrondro- 


(4) Braggerite (Blomstrand).—This mi neral is yet another from 
the same prolific locality. It is an uranium mineral allied to 
uraninite. It occurs in black crystals of the isometric system 
and in crystalline masses. The octahedron is the common form. 
Hardness 5-6; specific gravity 8.73. 

Composition : 

UO, UO, PrO ThO, CeO, Y,O; FeO CaO SiO, H,O i. 

38.82 41.25 8.41 5.64 0.35 242 1.26 9.30 0.81 0.83 pae 
(5) Colemanite (Bvans)—J. T. Evans has given S10 TEE 


1 Bull. Soc. Min. de France, vil, 1884, p. 121. 
? Geol. För. Förh. Stockholm, vil, 1884, p. 109- 
“Gen, För. Förh. Stockholm, vil, 1884, p. 59- 
Bull. Calif. Acad. Sciences, No. 1, p- 57- J 


~ 


926 f General Notes. iai 


(called after W. T. Coleman) to a hydrous borate of calcium 
Southern California. It is described as possessing monoclinic 


thin, smooth and polished laminæ. Hardness 3,5 in the amor- 
phous to 4.25 in the crystalline variety. Specific gravity 2428. 
Colorless, transparent, sub-translucent to milky. Rather brittle, 
It decrepitates violently and then sinters in the blowpipe flame. 
Readily soluble in acid, giving abundant flakes of boracic acid. 
Admixtures of soda were found even in the clearest crystals. 
-= Disregarding the soda the composition is: 
xo CaO H,O 
[50.98] 27.18 21.84 == I00 
The formula 2CaO 3B,0, + 5H,O is deduced. 

It is closely allied to priceite and is perhaps identical with i. 
Analysis of the massive mineral are stated to give results closely 
agreeing with the formula of priceite. j aay 

6) Manganostibite (Igelstrom).—This mineral occurs at Nord- 
=- mark, Sweden, with other manganese minerals in primitive lime- 
stone (Laurentian). It occurs in small black grains, resembling l 
magnetite or hausmannite. It is compact with difficult cl be 
and with greasy luster. It is supposed to be orthorhombic. 2e 
fore the blowpipe it is infusible, and with carbonate of soda giv 
fumes of arsenic and antimony. Reactions for manganese ae 
readily obtained. It is perfectly soluble in chlorhydric acid, but 
in nitric acid gives insoluble oxide of antimony. - 


Composition 
Sb,0, As,O, MnO FeO CaO MgO en: 
24.09 7-44 55-77 5.00 4,02 30s ae 
Formula; 5MnO (Sb As), O; va | 
(7) Salmite? (Prost). — This is described as a eee els, " ; 
variety of chloritoid, occurring in irregular masses a ` E 
Belgium. Color gray; hardness 5-6 ; specific gravity 33 
Composition : 
SiO AlO, Fe,0,, FeO MnO CoO MgO CaO H,O 
19-14 33.66 3.38 13.05 7.14 0.04 1.79 ogo 6.32 15+ for 
(8) Utahitë (Damour)—Damour has proposed this nal 
a hydrous basic sulphate of peroxide of iron, which the mines 
minute hexagonal crystals of micaceous structure 1N ere take 
of Eureka Hill, Juab county, Utah. The specie. A ut 
to France by Ochsenius, and first described Ra: se 
amour, The crystals of this miner’) | i 0 


aye 


ea = 


named by Dam be 
yellowish-brown color and so small as hardly to 

1 Bull, Soc. Min. de France, vil, 1884, p. 120. 

? Geolog. Soc. Belge. 

* Bull. Soc. Min. de France, vil, 1884, p. 126. 


1884.] Mineralogy. 927 


the naked eye. They form a crust on compact quartzite. They 
occur in regular hexagonal prisms and have a micaceous basal 
cleavage. They are optically uniaxial, and belong, therefore, to 
the hexagonal system. : 

Jeated in a matrass, acid water is disengaged, and the mineral 
becomes red. In the blowpipe flame it fuses to a black scoria. It 
is attacked by chlorhydric acid heated to the boiling point, but 
not by nitric acid. 

Analysis gave (Damour) : 

O, AsO; FeO; H,O 

28.45 3.19 58.82 9.32 

Formula; 3Fe,0, 350; + 4H,0 
FLEXIBLE SANDSTONE.—In a note in the June NATURALIST on 
' flexible sandstone from Pennsylvania, its flexibility was regarde 
as due to its decomposition. As regards the itacolumite of 
Brazil, Mr. J. C. Branner, formerly of the Geological Survey of 
Brazil, writes to us as follows: 


so much leather, and only a few fragments would be broken off 
about the mouth of the hole. On account of this difficulty in 


ace. But in the deep gold mines in the itacolumite this 
flexibility was never found very far beneath the surface. ret 
to say that I made no exact measurement of the depths at which 
it ceases. I may say, however, that at a distance of about a hun- 


characteristic flexibility had disappeared entirely. ; 
‘Again at a certain stage of decomposition more advanced 

than that indicated by flexibility, this sandstone simply fell apart 

when broken in the hand, or could be cut through more easily 


of decomposition of itacolumite by noting the depth at which 
it ceases to be flexible.” 

Mineratocicar Notes.—A union has been effected between 
tiie Mineralogical Society and the Crystallogical Society of Great 
Britain, The Crystallogical Society brings with it several miner- 
alogists of high attainments, who will be likely to make the 


928 General Notes. 


Mineralogical Magazine a more valuable journal than it has been 
heretofore. Several of the articles in that journal have been more 
notable for quantity than quality. Like the other English socie- 
ties the Mineralogical Society has gravitated to London, although 
originally intended as a peripatetic society. Native lead has 
been observed in cavities in red carbonate of lead from Maulmain, 
Burma, India. It occurs in small masses associated with minute 
crystals of white cerussite. The bright red color of the cerussite 
containing the native lead is probably due to an intimate mixture 
of minium. _ A. Miers, of the British Museum, has meas- 
ured with a Fuess goniometer several crystals of the rare mineral 
meneghinite. It occurs in slender needles, and the end planes are 
very' small. The needles are deeply striated or chan 
making measurements difficult. A number of new faces were 
observed, and the crystals determined to be orthorhombic, with the 
axial lengths a: b : c = 1.89046: 1 . .68664. Associated with 
galena, and filling cavities in quartz, an interesting form of kaolin- 
ite occurs in Ouray county, Colorado. The mineral appears as 4 
mass of glistening white scales visible to the naked eye, and 
under the microscope show as perfect transparent crystals having 
well-defined pyramidal planes. Dr. M. E. Wadsworth has 
issued a descriptive catalogue of one hundred thin sections © 
American and foreign rocks for the use of students of microscopi- 
cal lithology. The collection consists of European rons de- 


one centimeter long. The inner stamens are the longest as 
the first to appear on the opening of the bud (Fig. 1). paer 
the outer or shorter pair of anthers develop and take a per” 


Fic, 1.-—Section of opening flower. Fic, 2.—Section of open fower, P ne 
The same, front view. Fic. 4.—Side view of flower with the stigma-10 Š 
close to the upper lip, the inner or longer stamens me (Fig: 
so that the filaments of the two sets cross each ot the corelh 
The inner stamens therefore are near the lower lip of 

1 Edited by Pror. C. E. Bessey, Ames, Iowa. 


1884.] Botany. 929 


and diverge considerably, while the outer pair stand erect and 
close together near the upper lip (Fig. 3). During this time the 
stigma lobes are closed and the style has grown to the length of 
the longest stamens and assumed a position almost erect, inclined 
rather to the back of the flower (Fig. 4). The flowers are there- 
fore proterandrous, but not purely so. In the bud all. the sta- 
mens and the style curve forwards under the lower lip. 

The distinguishing feature between this and the ordinary 
Labiate consists in the crossing of the filaments, by means of 
which the longer inner stamens take the appearance of being the 
outer stamens, and in the curvature of the style. The style of 
the Labiate usually bends forwards at maturity, so as to meet 
the body of the visiting insects. In this species it seems to bend 
backwards, often much more than represented in Fig. 4. In truth, 
however, this bending occurs before maturity, and either remains 
so at the time the stigma matures, or the curvature forwards is 
rather slight, leaving it behind a line vertical to the individual 
flowers, 


The visiting insect begins at the lower part of the interrupted 
spikes, receiving pollen on its sides from the longer stamens, and 
under its body as it crawls over the smaller ones to the next 
flower, at the same time leaving pollen on the stigma lobes. The 
flower has accommodated itself to the crawling habit of its 
Visitor. 

To explain more fully, the flowers of most Labiate are so 
arranged as to necessitate the entrance of the insect from one 
particular position, compelling them generally to leave the plant 
each time and thus fly to the individual blossoms it chooses to 
visit. Hence the curvature of the style forwards is adapted to 
touch the insect in one particular spot each time. In the case of 
Lophanthus the flowers generally are blossoming throughout the 
whole length of the spike at the same time, and from the short- 
ness of the tube and lips of the flowers the bees readily crawl 
rom one flower to the next in a rather indefinite fashion. The 
backward curvature is here the best adapted to the circumstances 
since it does not offer any unnecessary resistance to the body of 
the insect. Still the arrangement of the flower must be consid- 
ered as of a low degree of specialization —Aug. F. Foerste, Gran- 
ville, Ohio, 


THe Injurtousness oF Porcupine Grass.—Our inquiry as to 
whether porcupine grass has ever been known to injure domestic 
animals in this country is answered as follows by Dr. M. Stalker, 

€ State veterinarian of Iowa: 

You ask whether the fruits of porcupine grass (Stipa spartea) 
_ fe ever a source of inconvenience or injury to living animals ? 

“ls may be very emphatically answered in the affirmative. In 
Many of the north-western counties of Iowa this grass grows in 


930 General Notes. 


STRUCTURE OF THE FRUIT OF PORCUPINE Grass.—The mature 
* fruit ” of this interesting grass consists of a narrow cylindrical 
grain (Fig. 3) about 1° long and 1™™ thick. This is enclosed in 


Fic. t.—Entire “ fruit” of ize, showing the y 
porcupine grass, natural size, p 
pv Beg 2.—Lower portion of the same, enlarged. Fic. 3- Grain of 


the two hard persistent palets, the larger of which bear ii 
awn from 12 to 16™ Jong (Fig. 1). This larger palet con 
encloses the smaller one, and at maturity it is quite Gm 


i 


1884.] Botany. . 931 


the naked eye, to make out its overlapping margins. Its lower — 
portion is densely covered with stiff hairs (Fig. 2), as is also the 
short pedicel upon which the whole flower rests. .This pedicel is 
tapering, curved and greatly indurated, and at the maturity of the 
fruit it separates at its lower end from the rest of the axis. At 
its point of. separation, which now becomes the lower end of the 
“fruit,” it is very sharp, readily piercing clothing or even the 
skin of the back of one’s hand. The hairs prevent the with- 
drawal of the point, and tend to cause it to enter more deeply. 
The awn, which is at first straight, is channeled on two nearly 
opposite sides. Both the channels, as well as the general surface 
e awn, are provided with short stiff hairs which act as barbs. 
At maturity the awns begin twisting throughout a little more than 
their lower half as shown in Fig. 1, but the upper portion remains 
straight or nearly so, and soon becomes bent at nearly a right 
angle to the twisted part. This twisting facilitates the entrance 
of the barbed pedicel and palets into the soil, and, as lately pointed 
out, into the skins of sheep, dogs and other domestic animals. 
The greater weight of the lower end of the whole “ fruit ” makes 
it, before the twisting of the awn, an excellent dart, and on fall- 
ing out of the glumes it invariably strikes point downwards.—C. 
E. Bessey. 


AN ABNORMAL Fucusta BLOSSOM.-—I have lately had an oppor- 


Sepal, the leaf half only being separated and modified so as to 

represent below a leaf-petiole. This separation extends down to 

the base of the calyx-tube, and even to the base of the green 

receptacle below this. 

Abnormalities similar to this seem to be of not uncommon 
nce. 


— 


932 General Notes. 


into foliage-leaves and separated as far down as the base e 
receptacle, similar, accordingly, to the condition observed by 
Liebe. TORE 


Boranicat Notes.—The June Torrey Bulletin contail 


It promises to be a work of great interest to pterido 


1884.] Entomology. 933 


Oberlin College is fortunate in coming into the possession of the 
extensive collection of plants made by Dr. Beardslee, of Paines- 
ville, Ohio.——In an important paper read before the Ameri- 
can Philosophical Society, Oct., 1383, and printed May 12, 
1884, John C. Branner discusses the course and growth of the 
fibro-vascular bundles in palms. He reviews at length the various 
theories which have been held as to the course of the bundles in 
the palms, a subject well known to be surrounded by many diffi- 
culties. The discussion is based upon direct personal observa- 
tions and study of a large number of specimens of no less than 
seventeen different genera———The long looked-for Manual of 
Mosses, by Lesquereux and James, has at last been issued by 
Cassino & Co., of Boston. An adequate notice will appear soon. 
——Wnm. Boott describes several new sedges in the June Bot. 
Gazette. In the same number the announcement appears that 
Professors Coulter and Barnes are engaged in a special study of 
the North American species of the genus Cyperus, and desire to 
receive specimens. ‘“ Loaned specimens will be retained for as 
short a time as possible, and carefully returned.” he “ Ques- 
tions on botany,” prepared by Professor Spalding for the use of 
students who have attended the general lectures on botany deliv- 
ered in the departments of pharmacy and medicine in the Univer- 
sity of Michigan, indicate that in another of our medical schools 
the importance of biological botany is fully realized Mr. R. 
M. Christy read a paper recently before the Linnean Society of 
London on the power of penetrating the skins of animals pos- 
sessed by the seed of Stipa spartea. “ Inquiry among butchers 
and others showed conclusively that large numbers {of these 
seeds] were often found beneath the skin of sheep, especially 
about the shoulders.” This grass is abundant in the Mississippi 
valley (where it is known as Porcupine grass), and we have been 
familiar with it for years, but have never before heard of its pene- 
trating the skins of animals. Has this been noticed by NATU- 
RALIST readers ? é 


ENTOMOLOGY. X 


LIFE-HISTORIES OF SOME GEOMETRID Motus.—These and other 
unpublished notes on Lepidopterous larvæ haye been prepared in 
Connection with work on our forest trees done for the Entomo- 
logical division of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, and to 

incorporated in the fifth report of the U. S. Entomological 
Commission, 
Aplodes coniferaria, n. sp—We have reared six moths from 


> Curious 14-flapped larva found feeding in August on the fir 


and hemlock, and described in Bulletin vu, U. S. Ent. Comm., p. 
238, and referred by us to Aplodes. The caterpillar is dull 
brick-red, with seven pairs of bread dorsally situated flat flaps on 
each side. It bears a striking resemblance to the small reddish 
twigs of the fir with the leaf scars. ’ 


[Se embe A 
From the 4th to the middle of September the caterpillars mad, 


between the twigs, a loose, slight, open cocoon of bits of smal 
twigs and leaves, held together by silk, within which the pupa 


934 General Notes. 


rested through the winter. 


being spotted with black. In another specimen the wing. covers 
were red and the body, including abdomen, horn-colored; the ter- 
minal spine is short, moderately stout, with eight unequal curved | 
slender spinules. Length g-10™™ ee) 
Walsh's description of the larva of Aplodes mimosaria, whith 
he bred from the oak, is too brief for comparison, but our spec 
mens do not disagree with his diagnosis, though we have neve | 
found it on the oak, but frequently on the coniferous MAE 
tioned. 


smaller; compared with one of the latter the hind wings uror l 
angulated, while the outer white line on the same wings’ of 
bent in the middle. The lines on the fore wings are ere 
mimosaria, but vary in distance apart. The head and abe ie 
“are marked as in A. mimosaria ; the male hind tibie are 4 p 4 
species. It differs decidedly from the two other species ies 
size, A, approximaria and Jatiaria. s wil 

On sending specimens to Mr. J. A. Lintner, to prac 
his types of the species in his possession, he kindly wie" 
follows : + vo being 
_ “Differs from smimbsaria in the outer line of front ih? n the 
‘nearer to the margin, and the inner line being angulate’ es ® 
submedian instead of curved. The outer line of secon re 
nearer to the margin than in mimosaria, and is more regut ot 

“ It approaches nearer to /atiaria, but the two mee subme 
‘approximate, and the inner line is more angulated on the alia 
dian. It also has an inner line on the secondaries which 4° 7 
not,” 


hite 
en 


wider than the segment behind, rounded, rather deep cig 


Endropia textrinaria—The caterpillar was found on 


e 
ps 
e 


1884.] : Entomology. 935 


ment. On the hinder part of the 3d abdominal segment is a large 
double dorsal dark knob-like hump. On the 6th is a conspicu- 
ous dark transverse rounded ridge, enlarged and higher at each 
end. The 8th segment has large warts, and there are also large 
warts on the sides of segments 7-10. The supra-anal plate is 
triangular but short, with four hair-bearing warts above and four 
at the end. Anal legs large and broad. - The short penultimate 
segment has a transverse row of eight large warts; these warts 
are obsolete on the front half of the body. 

The body is of exactly the color of an oak twig, being dark 
gray shaded with light, and of the same color beneath as above; 
while the knotted appearance of the segments behind the head 
and in the middle of the body assist in the deception, the cater- 
pillar being remarkably like a bit of oak twig. The anal conical 

` dorsal tubercles are large and distinct. 
ct. 10 it began to spin a thin slight web at the bottom of the 


May. i 
Paraphia deplanaria.—The caterpillar of this moth was found 
at Brunswick, Me., June 23d, on the fir. The body is cylindri- 
cal with no tubercles, and in color and appearance like a bit of 


caterpillar found on the hemlock at Brunswick, Maine, Aug. 25. 
Head flattened, square in front but not notched, slightly full on 
each side of a slight median impressed line. Pale gray, with a 
diffuse straight vertical band on each side, the middle being clear 
whitish gray. These dark latero-frontal bands and the pale gray 


cle; 
above tawny-brown. On the rst and 2d abdominal segments 1s 
a pair of swollen infra-spiracular rounded tubercles, concolorous 
with the body. The body is dull reddish-brown. The two pilif- 
erous warts are connected and converted into a transverse tuber- 
cle, becoming larger towards the 5th abdominal segment; the 


936 General Notes. i 
tubercles behind rather large but not connected. From the 
abdominal segment to the end of the supra-anal plate extends 
black median line. Along the sides of the abdomen, on seg- 
ments 2—5, is a lateral raised short brown line edged below with 

pale gray ; these are situated in front of the spiracles. Below are 
three large gubercles on each segment, and there is a tuberclebe- 
neath. Hence the caterpillar represents a large rough twig, with - 
leaf-scar-like tubercles. Anal plate sharp, triangular, tuberculated. 
Anal legs large. Length 38™™ ; 


S 
The pupa is rather thick; the body in front, incl 
wings, horn-brown, speckled with blackish; abdomen reddish- 
brown. Spiracles distinct black. Terminal spine large, ending — 
in two long straight acute spinules. Length 17™™ 2 
The moth appeared in the breeding box April 25. Tetradis 
crocallata feeds on the sumac, according to Mr. Saunders, 
Metanema quercivoraria-—This was raised from the oak, but 
the larva unfortunately not described. The pupa is rather sler 
der, reddish horn-brown ; spine acute, large and flat. Length 
13™- The mcth issued May 3. Several were taken at Keene | 
Flats, Adirondacks, June 12, in a locality where no oak trees 
were seen.—A, S. Packard, a 


20 of Mr. Ogle’s translation of Dr. Kerner’s interesting treatise 
on “Flowers and their unbidden Guests,” the author, after 


by Bombus mentanus, says: “It appears that the humble bee 
always devote themselves at one time to the plunder of one 

cies of plants,” to which the translator adds: * It is curious tha 
a similar observation as to the habits of bees should have beet 
made by Aristotle, ‘a bee,’ he says (H. An., 1X, 49), 


to dandelion. Another was working on vetch, 

flew to the flowers of a trumpet honeysuckle (Lome 

visiting in succession flowers belonging to three different 

and of three different colors—Clarence M. Weed, 
e. 


Colleg 


EXAMINING THE Heaps oF InsEcTS, SPIDERS, &C. a ey 
. T. Draper recommends a cone of pasted papel ™ 


1884. ] - Entomology. 937 
rather larger than the specimen, with the apex cut off. A vigor- 
ous spider will soon project its head through the aperture; when 
in this position it should be blocked behind with cotton or wool 
slightly wetted. The cone can then be gummed to a slip, apex 
upwards. 

Many insects can be arranged in the same way for the obser- 
vation of facial movements, and such front views admit of inter- 


attribute a full share to the terminal whorl of hairs to which the 

oney adheres, and therefrom is withdrawn. Mr. Briant, on the 
other hand, from experiment and study of the structures, is in- 
clined to the view that the honey is drawn into the mouth through 
the inside of the tongue by means of a complicated pumping 
action of the organ, aided by the closely contiguous parts. 

We might add that Réaumur states that the bee does not suck 
up the liquid sweets but laps them up with its long slender hairy 
tongue, A better view than Mr. Briant’s is, it seems to us, that 
of Shuckard, quoted in our “ Guide to the Study of Insects.” 


Entomotocicat Notrs.—The number last issued of the Trans- 
actions of the American Entomological Society, the first of Vol. 
XI, is no less valuable than its predecessors. It contains Dr. 
S. W. Williston’s tables, or rather synopses, of two groups of the 


and figures new species of Psocidæ from near Philadelphia, 
among them a brown variety of Atropos divinitaria, and a new 
form, Atropos purpurea; also a new genus, Dorypteryx (D. pal- 


938 General Notes. [Sento 7 


Entomologist for Aprilis one on “ the survival of the fittest ” among 
certain species of Pterostichus as deduced from their habits, in 
which Mr. J. Hamilton gives some facts bearing on the extinc- 
tion of species of these ground-beetles in the vicinity of large 
cities. Of the sixteen species mentioned four must soon become 
extinct, and six may possibly exist in the future as rarities, four 
will occur not uncommonly, while two (stygicus and lucublandus) 
will remain as now, common. Under the caption “ La feuille 
qui se transforme en insecte,” M. Preudhomme de Borre figures 
the larva of a singular mimetic form of Orthoptera (Cheradodis 
rhombicollis Latr.) from Quito, which is popularly supposed to 
change into a leaf——Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Zoologie, for 
June 27, contains a lengthy article, with numerous illustrations, 
on the adhesive apparatus on the tarsal joints of insects, by G. 
Simmermacher, to which we shall again refer. Mr. Hulst's 
monograph of the genus Catocala is apparently completed in the 
third number of the Bulletin of the Brooklyn Entomological 
Society. It contains a brief synopsis of the species, filling four 
closely printed pages ; then-follows synonyms and descriptions 
of the species, the latter rather too brief, but yet comparative. 
While the paper hardly fulfills the requirements of a monogra 

it is an excellent synopsis. In his “ Contributions a l'histoire 
des metamorphoses des Longicorns de la famille des Prionida, 
M. Aug. Lameere describes and figures the pupa of Parandra 
polita Say. A case of development of the imago in an ichneu- 
moned pupa is recorded in the Extomologists’ Monthly Magasin — 
for July, by A. F. Griffith, who, in a pupa of Tzeniocampa, found 1 
that “the moth had apparently died, as so often happens, when 
just ready for emergence, but within the body was a parasite — 
alive, also just ready to emerge.” | 


ZOOLOGY. 


By sectioning the cephalic segment of an Arenicola previously 
fixed by the injection of a solution of osmic acid of 0.50 pe cent, jl 
the auditory capsules were shown in some sections and eas!) | 
recognized by their little calcareous corpuscles. The otocystsaf — 
situated in the thickness of the integuments, far from the hypo- : 
dermis and in the midst of muscular bundles; they are fixed 9 
the connective envelope of these bundles, which surrounds them. : 
They are not in direct contact with the cesophageal commis ] 
but connected with them by several nerves. They are placed ih. 
wards the dorsal surface. ae 

The nerve fibers composing the commissure and the ba 
very fine and striated longitudinally. Nerve-cells exist through - 
out the length of the commissure, some in its interior, buta h | 


1884.] Zoology. | 939 


greater number between the commissure and the hypodermis, 
often intimately connecting these two parts. 

The otocysts are spherical. The diameter of their cavity is 
w millim., and that of the sphere formed by the outer capsule 2, 
millim. The thick walls consist of a layer of fusiform cells, a net- 
work of fibrillæ arranged in a dense plexus, and a connective 
envelope. The cells form the greater part of its thickness; they 
are very delicate, spindle-shaped, slightly inflated towards the 
middle, where the nucleus is situated ; they also increase in thick- 
ness towards their inner extremity, where they are surmounted by 
a thick plate. The plates of all the cells are closely soldered to- 
gether, forming a cuticle, which, in sections, is often detached 
from the cells which produced it. No layer of vibratile cilia was 
to be seen distinctly, but indications ef them seemed to exist 
upon. portions which had been long in osmic acid. The cells 
taper at their base and at the same time bend in different direc- ` 
tions; and these basal prolongations anastomose and form a very 
delicate network of fibrilla, which, by their union, constitute at 
the base of the epithelial layer a regular little zone, intermediate 
between the nerve-fibers and the foot of the cells; a few nuclei 
are distinguishable in it, This plexus rests against the connective 
envelope, which is formed by a thin and dense membrane, pre- 
senting perforations through which the basilar plexus enters into 
oo with the nerve-fibers.— Comptes Rendus, March 24, 1884, 

757+ 


following two principal remarks: 

I. The animals which are truly pelagic from their birth to their 
death always swim freely in the water, never going either to the 
shore or to the bottom of the lake, and never touching the sur- 

€ of the water, so as to avoid coming directly in contact with 
the atmospheric air. 

2. The true pelagic animals carry their ova (with the exception 
of the winter egg) either attached to the exterior of the body or 
in a Sort of incubatory cavity until the young individual, whether 
‘mmediately like its mother or subject to transformation, can quit 
the envelope of the egg or the incubatory cavity, and lead at once 
the mode of existence of an accomplished swimmer. _ 

He author has studied the pelagic fauna of the following lakes: 


940 General Notes. [September, 


Zurich, Zug, des Quatre, Contous, Egeri, Katzen, Greifen, Mag- 
giore, Lugano, Como and Garda.— Bibi. Univ., Arch. des Sai, 
October 15, 1883, p: 349, and Journ, Roy. Micr. Soc., April, 1884. 


THE “ MAN-EATER SHARK,” Carcharodon carcharias (Fig. 1 and 
Plate xxx1)—The various descriptions given of this species are 
so very imperfect and confusing that it is safe to say, with Profes- 
sor D. S. Jordan in a recent letter to me, “ There is no good 
description of the animal extant. The earlier writers spoke of it 
without knowing it, and all had more or less confusion between 
it and C. lamna.” 

This shark was taken by me on the fourth day of August, 
1883, about two miles off Great Point lighthouse, Nantucket, 

ass. 


The experienced fishermen of Nantucket, with all their oppor- 


Fic. 1.—The Man-eater Shark ; position of attack. 


tunities for investigating this interesting family of fishes, We" 
‘enorant of the correct name of this specimen, and they regard 
it as a rare species in the waters of that vicinity. It therefore 
Sega to me an object of special interest and study. % 
© specimen which gives me the data for this note, I have 
placed in the museum of Vassar Brothers’ Institute in this Cit: 
Sec oF Aa A in the Proceedings of the American Philosophical 


PLATE XXXI. 


ph. 


1884. | ss Zoblogy. 941 


The accompanying -cuts are taken from photographs. — W. D. 
Stevenson, M.D., Poughkeepsie, N. Y. 


WATER-PORES OF THE LAMELLIBRANCH Foot.—H. Griesbach 
has maintained the existence of pori aguiferi in the lamellibranch 
foot, while J. Carriére held the contrary view. J. T. Cattie has 
studied ą considerable number of species, and does not find the 
least trace of aquiferous pores ; and F, Barrois arrives at the same 
results. He discusses the work of Carriére and himself, and finds 
that they have studied most of the forms where the presence of 
aquiferous pores has been claimed, and in every case finds pores 
absent, or in such position that it seems they are either connected 
with the functional byssogenous organ, or, where such is absent 
in the adult, with the remnant of the same. Barrois sums up his 
views thus: “ No pores exist for the introduction of water into the 
circulation ; the only pores of the foot are those connected with 
the byssus organ, which never communicates with the interior of 
the foot. The blood may have water introduced into it, but this 
may be effected by osmosis, or in some manner not discussed,”— 
Journal Royal Microscopical Society, April. 


Two Spectres oF MANATEE IN BrAziIL.—The mammals collected 
by Natterer, the Brazilian traveler and naturalist, are being worked 
out by A. von Pelzeln, two parts of his memoir having, according 
to a notice in ature, appeared of the Sirenia. Natterer met with 
a manatee high up the stream of the Amazons, in the Rio Negro, 

tio Brancho,and Madeira, and maintains in his notes that the spe- 
cies which inhabits these farinland waters is quite different from the 
Manatus americanus of the South American coast. Natterer called 
it Manatus inunguis, from its nailless fingers,and sent home to the 
Imperial Cabinet of Vienna three complete specimens and several 
skulls of the animal. Natterer also met with two species of 
dolphin in the Amazons and its tributaries. 


ABNORMAL Foop oF Cats.—Strange as it may seem, little has 
been published upon the abnormal appetites acquired by many of 
our domestic animals. A moment's thought shows that all the 


cats which were obliged to capture the fish for themselves, al- 
though I have seen a manx (or so-called tailless) cat bring home 
fishes, even eels, which she had the courage to capture in shallow 
Pools of the tail-race of a saw-mill when the mill was stopped. 
From the natural food of cats, the flesh of vertebrates, one 
might readily expect them to catch and eat insects. | Adolph 
Miller mentions! that his cat regularly hunted at twilight the 


* Zool. garten, Aug., 1880, jahrg. 21, pp. 253-54- 


942 General Notes. [September 


moths, chiefly Noctuidz, in his garden. About 1870 I had a cat 
that, nearly every hot afternoon in summer and autumn, caught 
grasshoppers (Caloptenus and Oedipoda), and brought me her 
insect captures alive before eating them, with as much pride as if 
she had taken mice or birds. During the past summer I noticed 
several cats capture and eat beetles of the genera Lachnosterna 
and Prionus; the odor of the beetles of the latter genus seems 
sufficiently pungent and repulsive to drive away cats, since they 
dislike most pungent odors, but I have seen two cats that appar- 
ently regarded Prionus a delicacy, for they would eat dead, mu- 
tilated, sometimes half-decayed beetles of this genus, which they 
found about the yard. 

Tempted by the butter or other kinds of fat upon mashed po- 
tatoes, or by the meat mixed with the potatoes in certain sorts of 
hash, the domestic cat has learned to eat potatoes, but most cats 
dislike them; cats have been in similar ways forced into accept- 
ing bread, but it still remains true that the majority of well-fed 
cats will reject bread unless buttered or soaked in milk. Still th 
cat likes a few peculiar flavors; their extreme passion for catnip 
(Nepeta cataria), and their fondness for valerian (Valeriana), have 
been long since observed and noted. Kleberg says’ that the a 
likes golden bread, 7. e., a bread flavored with saffron and spices; 
that it likes ginger-bread, rose-water rolls, and raisins. I have 
seen several cats that ate raisins, and one cat that won a 
raisins, peanut-candy, lumps of sugar, figs, and nearly all ree 
of nuts, but this cat was an especial pet and tasted of alm 
everything which its mistress ate, eating some of her food when 
the flavor did not prove too disagreeable. 3 
Last summer I was greatly surprised, however, knowing er 

pathy which cats generally have to amylaceous food, 


he idea naturally suggested itself at first that the butter on the 
corn led him to eat it, but he eats it greedily without butter, 
often dinner of from- one-half to a whole a 
of corn, while meat remained on his plate untouched. Raw em 
1S not very acceptable to him, although sometimes eaten; = w 
farmers should be thankful, since if the feline appetite ni an 
corn was as good as it is for cooked corn the cats might aise 
cornfields, eat the corn from the ears, and thus become 4 sen 
foe to agriculture. 

The belief that corn-eating was an individual peculiarity pei 
cat was soon dispelled by experiments with a number pir er 
cats, all of which ate green corn with equal readiness. Furth 


n 
Zool. garten, July, 1878, jahrg. 19, pp. 211-213. 


1884.] Zoö:0gy. re 


i 
experiments showed that brown-bread, johnny-cake, and pastry 
made chiefly of Indian meal, are eaten readily by cats, and that 
oat-meal, in its different forms, is more agreeable to them than is 
food which consists mostly of wheat flour. This appetite for corn 
explained why I had seen, a number of years ago, two half-wild 
kittens stealing daily the uncooked meal mixed with water and 
given to chickens, and it shed light on the reason for the pecu- 
liar avidity with which some cats feed upon popcorn. I had 
previously attributed the appetite which cats have for popcorn to 
the preference that they exhibit for crisp food, for food that crackles 
while being chewed. 

lt would be entertaining and instructive if some one would 
take advantage of the cat-shows which are held now and then in 
our large cities, where a considerable number of pet cats are col- 
lected together, and write out a series of notes on the strange 
appetites acquired by the feline race from its intimacy with man. 
Statements should be based upon actual experiments made in 
each case by the writer, and not upon the assertions of the owners 
of the cats. The percentage of cats that would eat corn, raisins, 
candy, and other substances not ordinarily eaten by cats, could be 
determined readily in that way.— George Dimmock, Cambridge, 
Mass, March 14, 1884. 


_ ZoorocicaL Nores.—/nfusorians.—Dr. A. C. Stokes describes 
inthe American Journal of Science for July, several new species 
of infusorians from fresh water taken from the sediment at the 
bottom of an aquarium. Loxodes vorax Stokes was observed to 
make a choice in its food. Of the new genus Apgaria, three new 
Species are described ; of the new genus Ileonema a new species, 
and of the new genus Solenotus, two species are described ; all 
are figured, 

Celenterata—M. Bedot has investigated the nature of the 
organ usually called a liver, situated between the two lamellz 
nat form the pneumatocyst of Velella. The principal part o 
the organ consists of a mass of cnidoblasts, Above this mass of 
cnidoblasts is a layer of small tubes closely packed together, and 
Containing cellules, some of which are black or dark green. The 
less closely placed canals below the mass of cnidoblasts have but 
few ins. M. Bedot believes that this organ is that which 
forms the cnidoblasts, and he finds in the lower lamella of the 
floor of the pneumatocyst numerous openings, by which the 
Stinging cells find their way into the ectoderm. If any part of 

Organ subserves the purpose of a liver, it can only | 
superior portion in which the dark cellules occur. W. K. 
Brooks (loc. cit.) contributes some notes upon the larval forms of 


The first of these remains attached to the stem for some time after 


944 General Notes. [September, 


the rupture of the perisarc, and has, when set free, eight tentacles, 
a thin globular bell, and a simple proboscis. In examples two weeks 
old, the stomach is suspended some distance below the sub-umbrel- 
la by a transparent mass of large cells, and the lower surface of the 
wide velum is pushed out to form eight hemispherical pouches, 
four perradial and four interradial. C. octonaria, as stated by 
McCrady, lives in its young state as a parasite within the bell of 
Turritopsis. The medusa of N. dachei L. Ag., is derived from a 
fixed hydroid closely related to Bougainvillea and Eudendrium. 
In the simplest stage of the medusa there are four tentacles, but 
others bud from the same points, forming clusters. In P. gi 

the medusz escape, one at at a time, from a gonotheca containing 
three or four. The apical process in Amphinema is not present 
in the larval medusa, but commences to develop on the third day, 

Worms. — A recently issued part of Semper’s “Reisen im 
Archipel der Philippinin” contains an account of the Sipunculids 
by Drs. De Man, Bulow and Selenka. Seven colored plates ac- 
company the text. A magnificent atlas of the Rhabdoccelida, 
containing twenty highly finished and colored folio plates, has 
been issued by Dr. L. von Graff, to accompany his extensive 
monograph of the Turbellaria, the first part of which contains 
descriptions of 259 species of Rhabdoccelida. The otocysts 
of Arenicola grubii, according to M. Et. Jourdain, are situated on 
the dorsal aspect in the midst of muscular fibers, and are fixed 
by their conjunctive envelope, which is prolonged over them and 
surrounds them, They are not in immediate contact with the 
cesophagean commissures, but are simply united to them by sev- 
eral nerves. : 

Mollusks—Sowerby’s “Thesaurus conchyliorum” has reached 
its forty-second part. The last issue contains monographs of 
Teredo and Kupheo, Gastrochzena, Fistulana, Saxicava, the Ptero- 
poda, and numerous other genera, including Tridacna and 
popus, the varieties of which are very fully figured. 5j 
Drouet (Bailliere, Paris), has put forth a monograph of the bor 
ionidæ of Italy, which comprise forty-three forms of Unio, SIX ° 
Microcondylus, and thirty-one of Anodonta. The basin of zri 
Po and Upper Italy is one of the richest districts in Europe biota 
respect to this family. 

Arachnids.—At a recent meeting of the Academie Royale des 
Sciences of Belgium, M. MacLeod gave a preliminary commu- — 
nication upon the anatomy of Trombidium, Argas, Hydrachna 


and Gamasus. The suckers of the two first genera differ fee 


Hip- 
Henri 


canals of the salivary glands has been followed. Certain granul 
contained in the terminal intestine of Argas are formed in 


1884.] -= — -Fhysiology. 945 


tubes which present much analogy to the Malpighian canals of 
the Araneidæ described by Plateau. 

Crustaceans.—E. A. Birge (Stud. from the Biol. Lab. J. Hopk. 
Univ., 1883), describes and figures various stages in the develop- 
ment of Panopeus sayi. The zoea moults a large number of times. 
In the change to the megalops stage all trace of the long spines is 
lost. In this it differs from Cancer, in which the megalops retains 
the dorsal and frontal spines. The last megalops stage is reached 
after at least four moultings. 

Birds—The osteology of the kingfisher (Ceryle aleyon) is de- 
Scribed and well figured by Dr. Shufeldt in the Journal of Anat- 
omy and Physiology, xviii, 279. After touching upon the general 
characteristics of kingfishers, their distribution, mode of life, and 
the views of the leading authorities upon their taxonomy, he then 
examines the skeletons. The account is rendered a comparative 
one, as Alcedo is compared with Ceryle, and sometimes with 
Geococcyx and Coccyzus. 

Mammals —M. A. Milne-Edwards announces the discovery of 
a new species of Hydropotes, called by M. Hende H. argyropus. 
It is a’ native of Corea, and differs from H. inermis in the lighter 
color of its hair, and in some cranial characters. 


PHYSIOLOGY." 


BIOLOGICAL Action OF THE SALTS CONTAINED IN SEA WATER 
ON THE EXISTENCE OF MARINE ANIMALS. —An essay on this subject 
y H. A. Coutance, has been translated and published in the last 
report of the U. S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries. Ma- 
nne animals are organisms of excessive sensibility, and in their 
distribution are dependent on the composition of the salt water, 
the nature and quantity of the gases dissolved, and the tempera- 
ture, force and operation of the currents. M. Coutance experi- 


pening does not shut tightly, and into which the water can easily 


enter by the canal at the mouth of the shell. 


ITH; oe 
This department is edited by Professor Henry SEWALL, of Ann Arbor, Michigan. 


946 General Notes. (September, 


The salts of soda and magnesia still maintained life when the 
animals had succumbed in the salts of potash. Solution No, 9, 
for instance, the principal element of which is chloride of mag- 
nesium, preserved its inhabitants alive much longer, and the same 
applies to the sulphate of magnesia alone, and in solution No. 11, 

The resistance of the palourdes in the Vichy water shows the 
favorable action of salts of soda on the preservation of life in 
marine animals; for forty days the palourdes lived in this mineral 
water ! 

It was in the sulphate of magnesia and the sulphate of soda 
that life was sustained longest, the latter excelling the former. 
On the 12th of March I tasted some of the Venus decussata, 
which had been kept in sulphate of soda for sixty days, and 
found their flavor excellent and without any trace of a bitter 
flavor. This observation might prove useful in alimentary econ- 
omy, as the palourde is a highly prized shellfish, and sulphate of 
soda can be bought cheap. : 

It is a fact worthy of remark that it was only in the solutions 
of sulphate of soda and sulphate of magnesia that green alge 
commenced to make their appearance at the end of sixty days 
The conditions favorable to marine animal life are then apt to 
develop vegetable life. There is nothing surprising in this par 
allelism, but it receives from the present circumstance a curious 
confirmation. One singularity appears: the solution of chloride 
of sodium (impure marine salt) did not sustain life as long as the 
solutions of salt of magnesia and sulphate of soda, and yet salt 
is an essential element of the sea water. This proves that the 
mollusks are adapted, not to pure salt, but to that peculiar mix- 
ture which constitutes the natural sea water; and that the sec- 
ondary elements, as regards their quantity, play an important 
part. This gives us reason to suppose that the accidental er 
fications of the water of the sea during the different geologi ‘t 
periods must have had a great deal to do with the extinction 
Various species, > 

The Venus remained closed in most of the solutions, the natur® 
of which they doubtless learned to know by opening their "i 
a very little. Meanwhile, they occasionally put their siphe a 
outside the shell, for instance, in the sulphate of magnesia a 
fhe sulphate of soda. In the solution of chloride of sodium 
in the sea water they had their siphons out nearly all the Ome. i 

The palourdes can live for more than a month in the air 1 © 
cool place. For about twenty days they remain shut; latet pi 

A "a 


gether have no longer the strength to do this, although the S™ the 
Muscles which retain them will still do so, when one aon 


1884. ] . Physiology. 947 


The weakening of the muscles showed itself first in the striped 
part of the adductors, which draw the valves together, and later 
inthe smooth part of the same muscles, which held the valves 
artificially closed for a constantly decreasing period. 

he Venus reticulata, or clovisses, showed the same phenomena; 
the order of extinction of vitality in the different solutions was the 
same; but these mollusks.did not live as long as the preceding 
ones. They succumbed a month after they had been placed in the 
solutions, first in the salts of potash, then in the salts of magnesia, 
and finally in the salts of soda. 

he periwinkles resisted longer than the bivalves, and showed 
a repugnance to the sulphate of soda, in which they lived forty 

S, 


The great buccin succumbs much quicker, as it cannot close its 
shell hermetically like the periwinkles. At the end of twenty- 
four days it died in most of the solutions employed, especially in 
the salts of potash. Its life was prolonged forty-eight hours in 
solution No. 12, in the sulphate of magnesia, and in the sulphate 
of soda, but soon came to an end. 

During all the time these experiments were going on, from 
January 10 to March 15, the palourdes and the periwinkles lived 
in the sea water of the laboratory, the Venus reticulata and the 
Mussels not quite so long, and the buccins only a few days. 

Itisa very important fact, to which we direct special attention, 
that the salts which constitute the sea water and the different so- 
lutions which we employed gave to the water the faculty of dis- 
solving variable quantities of atmospheric air. We proved by 
direct experiments that the solutions of salts of soda retain more 
ar when agitated by it than the solutions of salts of potash. This 
would, therefore, prove that the poisonous character of the salts 
mentioned in our experiments is caused in part by the circum- 
stance that they do not let their solutions become sufficiently 
aerated; their action produced asphyxia. This explains why the 
sulphate of potash and the sulphate of soda, neutral salts to which 
the mollusks are by no means adapted, act so differently upon 

em, the salts of potash killing them quickly and the salts of 
ps Preserving them for some time. 6s 

tom thes ir i onclusions have been 
reached . e experiments the following c 


~ _ L The saline elements of the sea water act very differently on 
mollusks, ; 
2. Every modification in the composition of the sea water finally 
becomes fatal to the life of these animals. ' 
_ 3 Their greater or less resistance depends on their organiza- 
ton. Bivalves resist better than spiral shells, and in these two 
Sroups the results vary according to the different species. 
4. Salts of potash are less favorable to the life of mollusks than 
VOL, XVI, —NO, rx, 60 


948 General Notes. : [ September, 


salts of magnesia, and salts of magnesia are less favorable than 
salts of soda. 

5. Outside of the salts dissolved in sea water the sulphate of 
soda seems to possess a well-established preserving neutrality. 

6. The death of bivalves is caused by a general weakening of 
the muscles. 

7. As the muscles can no longer draw together or open the 
valves, the animal is exposed to the unfavorable or poisonous 
action of the element. 


A New EXPLANATION OF THE Process OF INFLAMMATION.—In 
the last number of the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science 
there is a translation of Dr. Elias Metschnikoff’s paper “On the 
Mesodermic Phagocytes of certain Vertebrates,” originally pub- 
lished in the Biologischer Centralblatt. Metschnikoff has shown 
elsewhere that certain amceboid cells in the tissues of the inver- 


these organisms were especially abundant in the “ hæmophag® 
cytes” or white blood corpuscles of the spleen. This fact, i 
together with the probability that the spleen has no very import 
ant physiological function, since animals live without much af 
parent discomfort after its complete excision, seems to indicate 4 
prophylactic function for the spleen, it being merely a protectial 
against septic bodies such as bacteria, the removal of which from 
the body is its function. 

_ To apply these facts to the process of inflammation. Whea 
inflammation was induced in the tail of a newt, the first oe 
enon was the collection of connective-tissue “ phagocytes’ TOU", 
the injured cells, followed by the passage of “ haemophagocy*® i 
or white blood corpuscles through the walls of neighboring capil 
laries, both collecting apparently for the purpose of devoun 
and so removing the ruptured, dead and dying cells. ie 

In fact the essence of the whole inflammatory process May 


1884.] Psychology. 949 
- 

said to be a conflict between the “phagocytes” and the septic ma- 
terial, whether the latter be a dead or dying cell, bacteria or other 
foreign body. In the invertebrates, where connective-tissue cells 
are abundant, the vascular system does not participate in the pro- 
cess, only doing so among vertebrates, where the extra-vascular 
“phagocytes” are not sufficiently numerous to combat the inju- 
rious structures, a call for assistance being then given to the “he- 
mophagocytes.” The first effect of irritation is on the connec- 
tive-tissue “ phagocytes,” the changes produced in them subse- 
quently influencing the capillary walls, and allowing the transit 
of the white corpuscles. 

The theory has much to recommend it, being founded on logi- 
cal, á priori grounds, and affording simple explanations for many 
obscure points in connection with inflammation. For instance, it 
affords a simple explanation for the presence of the large num- 

rs of connective-tissue and white blood corpuscles that have 
been observed in induced keratitis, and also it explains how in 
certain epidemic fevers—famine-fever for instance—numerous 
sprilla, etc., can exist in the blood of as yet unaffected individuals, 
without causing any symptoms of the epidemic. At the same 
time the theory is quite compatible with all definitely ascertained 
pathological facts, a circumstance which alone would give it con- 
goa weight.—Professor McMurrich, in Canada Lancet, May, 
1884, 


PSYCHOLOGY. 


SINGULAR FRIENDSHIP BETWEEN TWO Birps.—During the sum- 
mer of 1880, I purchased from a Chicago bird dealer a number of 
birds for my aviary, and in making my selections, the dealer, after 
considerable parley, permitted me to separate a male “African cut- 
throat finch” from his mate, which, with the others, some thirty 
birds, were shipped here. Of the number was a male white Java 

parrow, whose principal occupation seemed to be the pecking and 
pulling out of feathers of the cutthroat finch. The separation of 
‘nese two birds was the only way to have peace in the cage, but 
upon their being brought together the old feud was resumed. 
ile in the cage with the rest of the birds there was but one that 
took any part in the conflict or attempted to shield the cutthroat, 
and this was an indigo finch (P. cyanea). 

The moment that the two were placed in the one cage the Java 
would at once fly upon the frightened finch and nearly kill him, 

t he would rush from one side of the cage to the other, eagerly 
trying to find some place of retreat; perhaps behind some other 
bird, but only for the moment, for the vicious Java would drive 

from his shelter to again chase him to his heart’s content. 

In the meantime I ordered more birds, a mate for the Java and 
à number of finches from Africa and other countries, and upon 

“ir arrival the experiment of watching their reception by the 


950 General Notes. | [September, 


birds of the avairy was at once proceeded with. The heretofore 
abused cutthroat was also placed in with the rest. 

Immediately upon his entrance his former manner was changed, 
and so suddenly, as if by magic. His former expression denotin 
fear was now abandoned, and the little fellow, with all the sprightli- 
ness of the monarch of the aviary, a flit of his wings, a chirp, and 
he was bythe side of a small finch I had not as yet identified. The 
new-comer was crouched upon the floor of the cage, in fear, and 
partly perhaps through exhaustion. 

It was at once evident that these birds were friends, for there 
was a caressing of bills, a few notes from the bird, which proved 


, 


_the ruler of that cage, when the cutthroat, with a wild harsh cry, — 
flew upon his assailant and catching him by the lores pulled away | 
like a bull-dog. Another change of position and the finch wa — 


upon the sparrow’s back, and away they both went, to all parts 


the cage, the little one keeping his hold, while each of the other 


Occupants excepting the female cutthroat and indigo finch sought 


refuge by clinging to the top and sides of the cage, as far as poss — 
ble from the scene of shot Even a Baltimore oriole that had 


many times taken pleasure in pecking his sharp bill at the help- 
less cutthroat, now sought refuge, and even more eagerly than 4 
smaller birds. At last the female cutthroat chirped more loudy 


than before, and though in the heat of the battle the little matè | 


left his abuse of the sparrow and flew to her side. | 
At this procedure there was some hurried chirping and instantly 


the male hopped over to the opposite side of his crouched matè. — 


Then with his bill he laid aside the feathers of her wing, ee 
his bill well up into her feathers, thence hurriedly withdra wat 
another cry, and once more, more viciously than ever, he 7 bi 


. in his 


| 
. 
d 


4 
l 


1884.] Psychology. gst 


And strange to say that while this last scene was being enacted 
in the aviary, the indigo finch went to the side of the wounded 
bird as if to be of greater security, which was needed during the 
bird’s indisposition. 

Such was the change in this motley flock of birds, that all but 
the indigo finch and the female cutthroat feared her mate. 

For fear of accident I removed the two finches, male and female, 
to a cage by themselves, where they remained for some days, when 
at last the female died from injuries sustained, as I believe, through 
the attacks of the female Java sparrow while the birds were en- 
route from Chicago here. 

After her death, I again placed the disconsolate mate back into 
the large cage where, for many weeks, no song was heard from 
him, and at anytime one could witness the two friends, the indigo 
and cutthroat finches, sitting as closely as possible to each other 
upon the perch, and as far as possible from the other birds. 

And again, many times did I permit the door of their cage to 
be left open that all the birds might fly about in a large room if 

y so wished, and in every instance one of these friends did not 
leave the cage without the other one following, and when tired of 
flying about they would nestle together, side by side, upon some 
Picture frame and there in mutual sympathy commune by thought 

one 


Truly these were friends and their sympathies went out to con- 
sole one another. There was no more fighting in this cage and 
ough a long time passed before a song was heard from the af- 
eg mate, when it did come it was but a feeble melancholy 
I . 


Several of the birds in this cage were kept together for nearly 
two years, of the number, the four above referred to, and in all 
that time there was no more fighting nor was there any lack of 
friendship between the two bird friends referred to here. 

At last, when I found I could no longer care for my birds as I 
ought to, they were forwarded to St. Louis, Mo., and though some 

upon the way, I believe the most of them are at this day in 
= Zodlogical Gardens of that city —D. H. Talbot, Sioux City, 
a. 


952 General Notes. [September, 


their mothers on the opposite bank, one ran around neighing sor- 
rowfully. Soon this foal of three months came to the bank, and, 
gazing over the stream, perceived his mother, who was already car- 
ried some thousand feet down stream. With a piercing, indeseri- 
bable cry, and a prodigious bound, he sprang into the water. For 
an instant he disappeared, then came into sight swimming vigor- 
ously towards his parent. Unable to see her for the waves, the 
young creature, who just before had feared to enter the water, 


seemed again to care for life. The foal reached its mother, al- 
lowed her head to rest on his shoulder as he swam towards shore, 
and succeeded in saving her. “The horses here have more moral 
sense than the people,” says M: Briot. He who reads the daily 
papers will be likely to come te the same conclusion as regards 
‘other countries than Albania. 


ANTHROPOLOGY .' 


Bureau oF Erunotocy—The second annual report of the 
Bureau of Ethnology to the secretary of the Smithsonian Insti- 
tution, 1880-’81, by J. W. Powell, director, is just issuing from 

e Government press, bearing the date 1883. The volume will 
be uniform in appearance with the first, and will contain XXxvII— 
about 500 pages, 77 plates, 714 figures and 2 maps. The ollow- 
ing is the table of contents : 

Report of the director, pp. XV-XXXVII. 

Zuñi fetiches. By F, H. Cushing. pp. 9-46. 

Myths of the Iroquois. By Erminnie A. Smith. pp. 47-116. 

Animal carvings from the mounds of the Mississippi valley. By H. W. Henshaw. 
pp. 117-166. 

Navajo silversmiths, By Dr. Washington Matthews. pp. 167-178. 

Art in shell of the ancient Americans. By W. H. Holmes. pp. 179-306. 

Catalogue of collections, etc. By James Stevenson. pp. 307-422. 

Catalogue of collections, By James Stevenson. pp. 425-466. 

The editorial work on the volume has been in charge of m, 
James C. Pilling, and the reader will feel his obligation to him on 


ties, viz., arts, institutions, languages and opinions. The facts H 
each field of research throw Goch Teit dpo each other field p 
one cannot be neglected without injury to the others.” The p 

of the bureau is carried on mainly by specialists in its employs 
but collaborators in all parts of the country assist in many woy” 


; : JC 
l Edited by Professor Oris T., Mason, 1305 Q street, N. W., Washington, D 


1884.] Anthropology. 953 


In addition to the monographs published in the annual report, 
works of larger range are in preparation for the series of contri- 
butions by Dorsey, Gatschet, Riggs, Pilling, Smith and Mason. 
Field work is reported by Henshaw, Hinman, MacCauley, Smith, 
Cushing and Stevenson. The following brief abstracts will give 
some notion of the papers above mentioned : 

Since 1879 Mr. Cushing has been a member of the Zufii tribe 
of Indians. No other individual in our time has enjoyed greater 
advantages of becoming familiar with the inner life of savagery. 

The Zuñis suppose the sun, moon and stars, the sky, earth and 
sea, plants, animals and men to belong to one great system of all 
conscious and interrelated life, in which the degrees of relation- 
ship seem to be determined largely, if not wholly, by the degrees 
of intimacy, It naturally follows that worship relates espe- 
cially to animals, more nearly related to man than are the remote 
powers of nature, yet more nearly related to these powers than 
to himself. Zuñi fetichism’ seems to have arisen from these rela- 
tionships. The use of fetiches is chiefly connected with the 
chase, and the six prey gods are the mountain lion, the bear, the 
badger, the wolf, the eagle and the mole, answering to the four 
points of the compass, the upper and the under world. The Zuñi 
Iliad preserves in archaic phraseology the body of this mythology. 
It is impossible here to repeat any of the charming myths, which 
must be read in full to be enjoyed at all. We call the attention 
of archzologists to the constant presence of the arrow point in 
the wrappings of the gods and also to what is said about gashes 
in arrow-shafts on page 10. : 

Mrs. Smith pursues the same line of study as Mr. Cushing, 
and having spent much time in the tribes of the Iroquois stock, _ 
has been able to collect many new myths. The remarks of the 
author with reference to a belief in the “ Great Spirit” and to the 
Hiawatha myth are of great importance. Hinu, the beneficent 

under god, holds a conspicuous place in the Iroquois pantheon. 

Next to him stand the West Wind, the North Wind, Echo and 
the Great Heads. Atotarho and Hiawatha are classed as demi- 
sods. The stories of the stone giants are full of interest, as are 
also those relating to the pigmies. In the chapter on sorcery the 
author enumerates the varieties of incantation. Chapter 1v 
relates to the origin of phenomena, to which study Major Powell 
has given the name of savage philosophy ; and chapter v 1s a collec- 
tion of stories. Chapter vı closes this most interesting produc- 
tion with a brief discussion of religion, : 

Mr. Henshaw, an accomplished zodlogist, examines carefully 
the Products of handicraft belonging to the Mound-builders, in 
order if possible to identify the species. The following are his 
Conclusions : pues 
“ That of the carvings from the mounds which can be identi- 
ed there are no representations of birds or animals not indigen- 

Ous to the Mississippi valley. 


: age 
i 


954 General Notes, [September, 


“That a large majority of the carvings possess only the most 
general resemblance to the birds and animals of the region they 
were doubtless intended to represent. 

“That there is no reason for believing that the masks and 
sculptures of human faces are more correct likenesses than are 
the animal carvings.. 

“ That the state of art-culture reached by the Mound-builders, 
as illustrated by their carvings, has been greatly overestimated.” 
_ Just as, at a hurdle race, the crowds gather at the wickets to 
see the horses make the leaps, so the archzologists will be anx- 
ious to know how Mr. Henshaw gets over some of our archæo- 
logical hedges and ditches. Well, the first animal to block the way 
is the manatee, and all will agree that the leap is effective. The 
next myth attacked is that relating to the toucan, and what is left 
of it “is easy of identification. The bird is a common crow or 
a raven, and is one of the most happily executed of the avian 
sculptures.” The paroquet is treated more kindly, this species 
having abounded in the Mississippi valley; but the particular 
paroquet of Squier and Davis is made to step aside. Passing 
over the remarks upon various well-known forms and the skill 
shown in the carving, we come to Mr. Henshaw’s attack on the 
elephant mound, concerning which he doubts whether an effigy 
without ears, tail, tusks or extended trunk can stand for a masto- 
don, The author throws discredit on the authenticity of the ele- 


of new methods among savages, like the unfolding of the embry _ 
discloses the very life history of civilization. ee 
Mr. Holmes’s monograph is a masterpiece. Commencing WN" — 


Same subject printed in the transactions of the Anthropo 2o 
Society of Washington, Vol. 1. The forms discussed and n 
trated are the cross, the scalloped disk, the bird, the spider, the 
serpent, the human face, the human figure. It seems almost ag- — 
Sravating that in the same volume wherein Mr. Henshaw : 


1884. ] Anthropology. 955 


and effectually disproves the Mexican origin of many animal forms 
in the mound-pipes, new forms should be described, concerning 
which the author says that they “ must be the offspring of the same 
beliefs and customs and the same culture of the arts of Mexico.” 

The last two papers are by Col. James Stevenson. In themare 
minutely described and profusely illustrated his four thousand 
specimens of stone implements, clay vessels, and objects made 
from vegetal substances, collected in Zuni, Wolpi, Laguna, Acoma, 
Cochiti, Santo Domingo, Tesuke, Santa Clara, San Juan, Canon 
de Chelly, Cuyamunque, Nambé, Pojuaque, Jémez, Silla, Santa 
Ana, Sandia, San Ildefonso, and from Taos. An excellent map, 
locating the Pueblos, both ancient and modern, accompanies the 


per. 

To the archeologist this collection will have great value, but it 
will still more impress the student of the unfolding of culture. 
The curious blending of old ideas with new ones is everywhere 
manifested, and the enormous amount of material will furnish data 
for sound comparisons. 

Anthropologists will thank Major Powell very heartily for this 
1 cen e and wish that the one for 1881~’82 will not be long de- 
aye i 


-ru AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN.—The third number of Vol. v1 of 
“us standard periodical contains the following papers : 
Ane Bridges of Ancient Rome. . C. Roberts. 

cient Mexican and Cent. American Codices and Inscriptions. By Cyrus Thomas, 
Thc: Polytheism, 11. By F. G. Fleay. : 
‘anslations of the Obelisk in New York. By A. C. Merriam. 

ee Folk-lore and Mythology. By J. Owen Dorsey. 

€matic Mounds. “By S. D. Peet. 
As usual, the correspondence and notes are of great value. 

. +h€ editorial article of the present number is upon relic-hunt- 

Ng Versus archeological survey. The NaturatisT has always 

strenuously held that the most rigid scrutiny by accomplished 

W: rvers should accompany every archæological investigation. 
, Mithout any knowledge of the merits of the present case, the 


956 General Notes. [September, 


writer of this note earnestly implores all concerned to examine 
cautiously their ground before hurrying onward. Perhaps Mr. 
Peet is a little too fond of the old explorers and a little to hard on 
Mr. Thomas and Mr. Carr. However that may be, it can do no 
harm to put the gentlemen on their guard. 


Peasopy Musrum.—The 16th and 17th annual reports of the 
trustees of the Peabody Museum, forming Nos. 3 and 4, of Vol. 
III, contains the following anthropological papers: 

Report of the Curator. 
List of Additions to the Museum and Library. ee 
Social and Political Position of Women among the Huron Iroquois Tribes, By Lo- 
cien Carr, Assistant Curator 
i Ca 


Human Remains from Caves in Coahuila, Mex. By C. A. Studley. 
The White Buffalo Festival of the Uncpapas. By Alice C. Fletcher. 


Ohio. With reference to the large mounds near cemeteries the 
author is led to suspect that they are simple monuments marking 
burial sites. The spool-shaped copper ornaments found in collec- 
tions are identified as earrings. But the most notable revelation 
is that with reference to the discovery of wrought meteoric a 
This may lead to the revision of some late discoveries. 

r. Carr, having examined the literature of the subject, a 
to the conclusion that “ the Indian woman was not the overworke 
drudge she is usually represented to have been.” parse 

The most fascinating part of the report is that containing t 
papers of Miss Fletcher. A young woman of rare intelligenc®, 
filled with benevolence, and thristing for knowledge, lives for a 
years in the wigwams of the Omahas and Sioux for the wits 
purpose of doing them good and of learning their social cone! 
tion. We have no doubt she was successful in the former, wee 
certain of her complete success in the latter. Indeed, some oft 
rites mentioned in Miss Fletcher’s papers are for the first time 
described and illustrated, jon 

The long lists of donations and accessions to the cole 
show how complete has been the success of the Peabody Museu™ 


MICROSCOPY AND HISTOLOGY.’ 


R- 
MOUNTING AND PHOTOGRAPHING SECTIONS OF Contat An 
VOUS SYSTEM oF RerriLes anp Batracuians.—Dr. J. J- from 
salon the methods he employed in mounting the sections 
which the plates illustrating his book? were “ artotyped. 
: Saer. Dr. C. O. WHITMAN, Mus. Comp. Zool., Cambridge, Mass g pate 


ae tructure of the Central Nervous System of certain Reptiles an 
chians of America, 1879, 1882. cf. 111, p. bg 


1884.] Microscopy and Histology. 957 


Both the brain and spinal cord were entirely separated from 
the body, and, with their membranes, placed in iodine-tinted al- 
cohol until they had acquired a slight degree of consistency—from 
six to twelve hours, They were then transferred to a 3: 100 so- 
lution of bichromate of potash, with a small piece of camphor, in a 
tightly-corked wide-mouthed bottle, and allowed to remain until 
ready for cutting, renewing the solution every two weeks. 

The time required for the hardening process varies considerably 
in different animals, and this variation is more dependent upon 
the class of animal, than upon the relative dimensions of the 
specimens, 

For example, on the same day I placed the brain of a large 
rattlesnake with that of a small salamander in the same bottle, 
andat the end of six weeks the former was ready for section, 
whilst the latter was not sufficiently hard until a month afterwards. 
By thus employing the same reagent in all cases, I have been 

le to note constant differences in the action of both the hard- 
ening and the coloring agent, carmine. : 

Perhaps the most striking illustration of this is furnished by the 
nervous centers of tailed batrachians, which, while they stain very 
readily, invariably require about a third more time to harden than 
specimens from the other orders. Specimens from ophidians stain 
less satisfactorily than those from any other of the classes which 
I have studied, while with the spinal cords of alligators, turtles, 
aai frogs, failure to obtain good results in this particular is very 


In all cases the sections have been stained after cutting, injury 
from excessive handling being wholly avoided by the use of siphon 
tubes to remove the alcohol and washings. For producing trans- 
parency, oil of cloves has been used, and the mounting has been 
done under thin, clear covers, in a solution of Canada balsam in 
chloroform, 

All the negatives have been made on glass thoroughly. cleaned 
and lightly coated with a solution of wax and benzole, so that the 
collodion film, previously made adherent to thin sheets of gela- 
one could be safely removed from the plate. The flexible nega- 

us obtained are well adapted to the artotype process, and, 
as they can be indefinitely preserved between the leaves of an 
oy scrap-book, are very desirable for a series of illustrations. 
gone, the original negatives on glass, the ‘wet collodion 
aiie dr the sulphate of iron developer, has been exclusively 
oyed. | 
li he prints correspond exactly with the negatives, both in out- 
ne and detail. No distinction occurs as in silver printing in 
erst process the paper is subjected to prolonged washing. 
._ 1. Many of the photographs the gray substance appears lighter 
in shade than the white substance. This appearance 15 due to a 
aes degree of transparency of the gray substance in these sec- 


958 General Notes. [September, 


tions, resulting from the action of the oil of cloves, followed by 
an increased action of the transmitted light on the sensitive col. 
lodion film of the negative, and hence by a thinner deposit of ink 
over corresponding parts of the positive plates from which the 
artotypes are printed. 

` With regard to the process employed, Dr. Mason says that 
after experimenting with various methods he found that satisfac- 
tory prints could be made in ink directly upon plate-paper, and 
that these impressions were as perfect in fine detail as any of those 
obtained by the silver process of printing. The plates (all printed 

y the artotype process), are as durable as steel-engravings. 
While a photograph cannot often show all that can be discovered 
by more direct microscopic observation with a judicious working 
of the fine adjustment, high authority has stated, and perhaps 
correctly, that a good photograph with a low power, say from 
three to one-half inch, is a better means of illustrating the ana- 
tomical structure of the nervous tissues than hand-drawing. Some 
of the plates with high powers leave much to be desired both in 
distinctness and tone, and in general it may be affirmed that the 
same defect as regards distinctness always exists, and for obvious 
reasons, in photographs of sections with powers much above one- 
half inch—/Jour, Roy. Mic. Soc., 1v, part I, pp. 149, 150. 


A Srarcu Injection Mass.—A coarse injection mass which 
is cold-flowing, may be forced nearly to the capillaries, rapidly 
hardens after injection, leaves the vessels flexible, does not dull 
dissecting instruments, is suitable for permanent dry or alcohout 
preparations, is simple in its manipulation, cleanly and economi 
cal, seems to be fully realized in the starch mass introduced by 
Ad. Pansch, of Kiel, and since recommended, with vanots 
modifications, by Wikszemski, Dalla Rossa, Meyer, and Brownt- 
ing, 


As starch is insoluble in alcohol and cold water, it ba 
hard when injected into the blood-vessels simply by the exu 
tion of the liquid with which it is mixed. (That the starch grat 
forming the mass remain entirely unchanged may be € uel 
onstrated by making a microscopic examination of the r 
of an injected vessel.) ‘tad of 

e mass originally recommended by Pansch consisted d 
wheat-flour and cold water, to which was added a sufficient 4 è 
tity of the desired coloring matter, Later experiments 1" 
shown that pure starch is better than flour. r 

? By Professor S. H. Gage. 

See Ad. Panch, “Archiv, für Anatomie und Entwickl.,”” 1877, PP- t 
and 1881, pp. 76-78; Wikszemski, same Journal, 1880, pp. 232434 83, PP 25r 
same, pp. 371-377; Herm. von Meyer, same, 1882, pp. 60, 61, and p ; 
; Browning, “ Annals of Anatomy and Surgery,” 1884, pp- 24 Ez 


1884. ] Microscopy and Histology. 959 


MASS FOR ORDINARY INJECTIONS, 


Dry starch (“laundry ”’ is good)... ..ceeeeeeeee eesseesseees 1 vol. 
r cent aqueous solution of chloral hydrate.........ses-.+0 es 

Dever cent BICUHON. fo. Scie ec eee La EES s adie 

Color. i 


Since almost any animal injected may afford some organ worth 
preserving, it seems better to employ permanent colors for tinge- 
ing the mass. Among those which are available, probably ver- 
milion, red lead, ultramarine, chrome orange, yellow, or green, 
are preferable. 

PREPARATION OF THE COLOR. 


MM eae CU Ce eck Succ h cel ca ceb ret le T ies t vol. 
NEO, Seis Vee UU E avi o's pees cs E EA E ie 
See aa n AEE dieid uk bs oa bic ARH el ee P S Lets 


To avoid lumps, which would clog the cannula, or small ves- 
sels, the color is thoroughly ground with the liquid in a mortar. 
It is stored in a well-stoppered bottle, and is prepared for use 
simply by shaking. 

Special Mass——For the injection of brains, and, perhaps, for 
other rapidly perishing specimens, it seems best, as suggested by 
Professor Wilder, to use strong preservatives in preparing the mass: 


Corn starch (that used for food): ¢ eers A eo ek Ok 
per cent aqueous solution of chloral hydrate ........--++++++++ E 

Os P cent atoh a Oca see oes ibe sabes wees eee ees 4% 

OM. Sales cia Vis aegis side vin is heels chan Ses OE ae p s 


dation of the liquid. In this case some mass containing double 
= ordinary amount of starch can be advantageously injected in 
© hours or longer after the first injection. 
* The chloral and alcohol prevent fermentation in the mass when it is kept in 
Stock; the alcohol also acai the fluidity and likewise the mcre rapid hardening 
im the vessels; both, of course, act as a preservative upon the animal injected. 


960 Scientific News. [September, 


Dry Preparations.—Finally, if vessels injected with the starch 
mass are dissected free, soaked a day or two in Wickersheimer's 
preservative, and then dried, they retain their form, and, to a great 
degree, their flexibility—/rom the New York Medical Journal, 
June 7, 1884. 


——:0:—— 
SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 

— The Paris Museum of Natural History.—We are accustomed 
to think that they do things better in France, yet it appears that 
the troubles which beset American museums are not unknown 
there. The total sum annually at the disposal of the Museum 
d'Histoire Naturelle is but 918,942 francs, or about $180,000. Out 
of this nineteen professors, fifty-six assistants and a great number 
of gardeners, draughtsmen, librarians, clerks, secretaries, curators, 
laboratory helps, etc., as well as the entire cost of maintaining the 
Jardin des Plantes, with its conservatories and menagerie, have to 
be paid. “Thus, according to M. Freney’s report there are no 
laboratories for the chairs of botany, geology, mineralogy or com- 
parative pathology ; only 40,000 francs are available for the pur- 
‘chase of animals ; the new zodlogical galleries are unfurnished; there 
is no botanical gallery, though there is a considerable botanical col- 
lection; there are no available funds for the utilization of the groun 
that has been acquired in the Bois de Vincennes for the purpos® 
of culture; there is no marine zodlogical station attached specially 
to the museum; the galleries of palzontology and anatomy? 
improvements ; an additional assistant is required to classify the 
insects and crustacea, and another for the annelids, mollusks an 
zoophytes ; and the anthropological gallery and library need er 
largement. The library has 100,000 volumes, while the p 
which contains it was built to receive 30,000. Moreover, some 
the aides-naturalistes ought to have superior positions opened t? 
them, for, as occurs elsewhere, men desert the pursuit of natural 

story because of the insufficient remuneration it affords. 

— A cable despatch announces the death in Vienna, of Ferdi 
nand Von Hochstetter, the noted German traveler and geolog: 
Herr Hochstetter was born at Esslingen, April 30, 1829. He 

; . f 


er via to 
position of geologist, to a scientific commission - i 
: hemia, On his return he was made professor of geo pa” 
the Vienna University, and in 1856 he accepted an o 


made 


. d iti we 
tion around the world. On his return from this expedition seni 
1 


1384.] Scientific News. 961 


gathered many important and interesting data, in Switzerland and 
Italy in 1863, European Turkey in 1869, and in Russia and the 
Ural mountains in 1872. Herr Von Hochstetter was elected 
president of the Vienna Geographical Society in 1866, and a 
member of the Academy of Sciences in 1870. e became in- 
tendant of the Vienna Museum of Natural History in 1876. 
Among his works are “ Carlsbad, a Geological Study,” “ The 
Mammoth Fossil Birds of New Zealand,” “ The Geology of New 
Zealand,” “The Palaeontology of New Zealand,” “ A Voyage in 
Roumania,” “ The Geology of the Eastern Part of Turkey in 
Europe,” and “ Across the Urals.” 

— The distinguished Danish entomologist, Professor J. C. 
Schiédte, died at Copenhagen early in June, aged sixty-nine years. 
He was the author of a beautifully illustrated essay on the mouth- 
parts of certain Isopod Crustacea, and especially of numerous 
memoirs on the transformations of the Coleoptera, published in 
successive volumes of the zoological journal which he so care- 
fully edited. This is the continuation of Kroyer’s Naturhisk- 
torisk Tidsskrift, and for the value of its contents and the beauty of 
its copper and steel plates, is second, perhaps, to scarcely any 
other periodical published in Europe, unless we of course except 
the Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Zoologie. We had the plea- 
sure, in 1872, of visiting Professor Schiödte, then in charge of 
the entomological department of the Royal Zoölogical Museum 
of Copenhagen, and well remember the superb collection illus- 
trating the transformation of beetles which he had amassed. In 
a entomology loses one of its most careful and able 

udents. 


merica, that the marine laboratory of the Johns Hopkins Uni- 
versity has for six years been open to all qualified persons. “I 


should have added that we had reference to beginners rather than 
advanced students, supposing that the Johns Hopkins University 
hool was open to the latter alone.—Èps : 
i — In an article entitled “Pile-dwellings on hill-tops f in Nature 
or June 19, Mr. S. E. Peale gives a new and rather prosaic cause 
or reason for building houses on piles, ze. “ the absolute neces- 
Sity of keeping out of reach of the ever-present pig!” This ap- 
p's to the hill-tribes of Assam and vicinity; these pile-builders 
Pad 4 probably descended from the pre-Aryans of the = 
om Assam to the Indus. There is no building-stone where the 
Piles are used, 


— Through the efforts of M. Marion, the mayor and municipal 


962 ; Scientific News. [Sept, 1884 


council of Marseilles have decided upon the publication of the 
Annals of the Marseilles Museum of Natural History, and have 
established a marine zodlogical station at Eudoume Point, This 
establishment, devoted to the study of the Mediterranean deep seq 
fauna, will have an underground aquarium, protected from the — 
abrupt changes of light and temperature. | 

— The report of the National Academy of Sciences, for the 
year 1883, has been issued by the Government Printing Office, 
Appendix D is a list of official reports made to the Government 
by the academy, and of scientific papers presented to the acad- - 
emy from 1863 to 1883. Succeeding appendixes contain reports i 
on methylated spirits and on glucose. i 

— Bulletin No. 20 of the U. S. National Museum is devoted to 
a list of the published writings of Professor S. F., Baird, The 
number of articles is 1063, including the notices, abstracts and 
reviews in Harper’s Magazine, Harper's Weekly, and reprinted in 
their Annual Record of Science and Industry. 

— The death of Dr. G. von Boguslawski, known as a geog- ` 
rapher and hydrographer, occurred in June. Professor J. H. R. 
Goeppert, well known for his works on fossil plants, died at Bres- | 
lau, May 18. Professor Schoedler, author of “ Buch der Natur, 
died at Mainz, April 27. ; 

— Among recent deaths is that of H. G. Vennor in June last, 
at the age of forty-three. He published a useful work on the — 
birds of prey of Canada, and was connected with the Canadian 
Geological Survey. He was popularly known by his attempts at _ 
“weather prophecy.” oo eg 

— M. Fournier, a French botanist, recently died, leaving his — 
“Flora of Mexico,” which he was preparing for the French gov- 
ernment, and that of Brazil, which he was collecting for the — 
emperor, unfinished. f 

— The fifth annual report of the curator (Edward T. Nelson) 
of the museum of the Ohio Wesleyan University, shows that a 
curator’s usual activity has been manifested in increasing, label 
ing, and arranging the collections, particularly of shells. E 

— At the last session Congress appropriated $501,470 for te d 
U. S. Coast Survey ; $467,700 for the U. S. Geological pee i 
$244,500 for the U. S. Fish Commission, and $149,500 for the 
National Museum. mre | 

— The Paleontological expedition of Princeton College is = d 
year exploring the Eocene basin of the Big Horn under direction 
of Professor W. B. Scott. class 1 

=u Professor HÈ, Lèwis gave field instruction to a large dae 
ad the water-gap of the Delaware river, Pennsylvania, 4 
ummer, 


— Dr. H. E. Sauvage, of the Jardin des Plantes, has og 1 
pointed director of the Agricultural Station at Boulogne $v loa? : 
P abies O. A. Derby is successfully exploring the ge” a 


THE 
AMERICAN NATURALIST. 


VoL. xvut—OCTOBER, 1884.—No. 10. 


THE NORTH AMERICAN GEASTERS. 
BY A, P. MORGAN. 


HE Geasters are the most beautiful and: attractive of the 

puffballs, yet they seem not to be well understood. Most of 
them grow in woods about old stumps. and rotten logs; others 
grow among the old leaves, and are found expanded on their 
surface; G. minimus grows in meadows and grassy lands. 

They begin in a globose or ovoid form with a pointed apex ; 
they make a slow growth just beneath the surface of the ground 
Or under the leaves, often remaining closed for a long time; 
finally, with abundant rains in late summer or early autumn, 
they expand their segments and lift their puffballs into the 
ar. They dry up quickly and disappear with the clearing 
weather, so that specimens must be secured promptly after they 
have expanded. G. /imbatus, however, with us is found very late* 
‘autumn and during the mild rainy weather in winter. 

species are more or less gregarious in habit, though 
Some of them often occur singly. I have found more than twenty 
of the great G, triplex in one nest together. G. saccatus is found . 
commonly scattered about upon the leaves, sometimes in great 
numbers ; its mycelial threads run out over their surface from the 
little eggs, | 

Several of the species appear to be generally distributed, as 

 ambatus, minimus, fimbriatus, saccatus, hygrometricus, and 
When the species are better known it is quite likely others will be 
found in every part of the country. G. fornicatus, radicans, rufes- 
“ems are southern in their range. The beautiful G. umbilicatus 
has been found only in New. Jersey by Mr. Ellis; it is No. 110, 


G. mammosus Chev., of the N.. A. Fungi; but this is not possible 


XVIII—no, x ór 
Į 


964 The North American Geasters. [ October, 


on account of the size of the spores, which in the latter are — 
.oog™" G. bryantii is reported from New York by Professor — 
Peck. G. fibrillosus grows in Pennsylvania and Carolina, G. 
lľinkii does not appear to have been recorded since the time of the — 
great de Schweinitz. G. #7plex grows abundantly about Cin — 
cinnati, and Mr. Foerste found it near Detroit. G. striatus, vittatus, 
lageneformis have been found only in the Miami valley, but the 
two latter appear to me to be only fairly marked forms of G. sac- 
catus, and will probably be found along with it elsewhere. 

Our G. limbatus is the G. multifidum DC., of the Scottish 
cryptogamic flora and on the cover of Grevillea ; but the G. lim- 
batus of Grevillea, Vol. 11, Plate xvii, must be something else. 
The wonderful G. coliformis Pers, with many pedicels and numer- 
ous mouths, has not yet been found in this country. 

Geaster Mich., Earth Star-—Receptacle double, consisting of 
an outer and an inner peridium, growing separately and pef- 
sistent. Outer peridium fleshy-coriaceous, . thick, stellately 
divided into several segments ; inner peridium papyraceous, de- 
hiscing by a mouth at the apex; spores globose, brown, mostly 
echinulate. 

I. ForNICATI. 

Outer peridium double, separating 
into an outer and an inner cod 

1. G. fornicatus Fr—Inner cot 
vaulted, the segments  reflexe® 
inner peridium pedicellate, the 
mouth conic-striate (Fig. 1). 

The two coats of the outer per 
idium separate even to the tps 
the segments; the outer coat "™ 
mains firmly attached to pr? 
D while the inner becomes val r 
over it by the bending backward 
its segments; the inner peridi 
is thus uncovered and lifted a 


4-5, rarely more; inner peridium 
subglobose or depressed, MO" 
. less contracted at the bases” 
* et ac mouth always prominent oan 
cylindric, %4~1 inch in diameter ; spores .0035-.0040™™ 


Fig. 1, 


1884.] The North American Geasters. 965 


2. G. radicans B. & C.—Inner coat vaulted, the segments re- 
flexed; inner peridium subpedicellate, the mouth ciliate, fimbriate. 

The inner coat is lifted up and vaulted on the tips of the outer 
coat as in G. fornicatus. The outer peridium arises out of root- 
ing fibers ; inner peridium reddish, very shortly pedicellate, about 
¥, of an inch in diameter; the mouth silky as in G. fimbriatus. 

3. G. triplex Jungh.—Inner coat detached about the middle 
and forming a cup; inner peridium sessile, the mouth ciliate- 
fimbriate (Fig. 2). 


Fig. 2. 

In this species the inner coat is not separated at the base 
or on the upper portion of the segments, but simply breaks 
away enough to form a cup about the inner peridium, Outer 
peridium 4-6-parted, the segments revolute ; inner peridium pal- 
lid, globose or depressed, 34-114 inches in diameter; Spores 
0050-.005 crs 

2. STRIATI. 

Outer peridium single, multipartite, the segments revolute ; inner 
peridium subsessile, the mouth sulcate-plicate. 

4. G. striatus DC.—Inner peridium subpedicellate ; the mouth - 
Prominent, conic, sulcate-striate : 
(Fig. 3). 

2 Segments of the outer perid- 
‘um 7-9, nearly equal, acumi- 
nate; pedicel various, often very 
‘ort. Inner peridium globose, 
Smooth or at first punctulate, 
umber-brown, 14-3% of an inch 
in diameter ; the mouth promi- 
nent, plicate; spores .0035- 
‘Ooqgo™™ 


966 a The North American. Geasters. [ October, 


ner peridium sessile; the mouth pli- 
cate-striate, in a compressed margin 
ate disk (Fig. 4). 

Segments of the outer peridium 
7-10, unequal, sublanceolate. Inner 
peridium globose or depressed glo- 
bose, blackish umber, about 1⁄4 an 
inch in diameter; the mouth conic, 
plicate-striate, in a circular depressed 
marginate umbilicus; spores .0035-.0040™™ 


3 LIMBATI, 
Outer peridium single, expanded, multifid ; inner peridium pedi- 
cellate. 
6. G. bryantii Berk.—Inner peridium pedicellate, the pedicel 
with a circumscissile sheath; mouth conic, sulcate-plicate 
(Fig. 5). À 


Rig. 5. 

Outer peridium concave or vaulted underneath the base; $8 
ments 8-10, unequal, acute, inflexed at the apex; a tubu — 
sheath surrounds the pedicel, which bursts as the plant expands, . 
the upper part remaining as a ring about the summit of the ped ie 
cel. Inner peridium subglobose, brown, 34-1 inch in diametes, 


the mouth prominent, conic, plicate ; spores 0040-00457" 


7. G. limbatus Fr.— Inner peridium pedicellate, the: pa : 


solid; mouth depressed, subacute, fimbriate pilose (Fig: 6). 


The outer peridium is concave or vaulted, and the segme'” 


inflexed as in G. dryantii, but there is no tubular sheath about 


he 


pedicel ; the pedicel is short, a little thickened upward, pa?" > : 


into the inner peridium. Inner peridium subglobose, brownish, 


: 


a 


, 


1884.] The North American Geasters. 067 


often constricted above base so as to form a Circular groove, 
3-1 inch in diameter; spores .0040-.0045™™ 


Fig. 6. 

8. G. minimas Schw—lInner peridium subpedicellate, white ; 
the mouth plano-conic, ciliate (Fig. 7). 

Outer peridium with a vaulted base, white be- 
neath; the segments 7-9, “elegantly revolute,” 
brownish where they touch the soil, with an ex- 
panse of about % an inch: Inner peridium ovoid Fig. 7- 
with a plane base, glabrous, pure white, about 14 of an inch in 
diameter ; spores .0040-.0045™™ 


4. FiMBRIATI. 


Oxter peridivrsi multifid, the segments revolute ; inner peridium ` 
Sessile, the mouth ciliate-fimbriate. 

9. G. fimbriatus Fr— Inner peridium globose or depressed 
globose; the mouth inde- 
terminate, piloso-fimbriate 
(PIP 8)... - 

Segments of the outer 
Peridium 6-8, equal, acute, 
flaccid, the superior strat- 
um receding. Inner per- 
idium wanting the paler 
Circle in which the deter- 


> gx 


in diameter ; Spores .0030—.0035"™ ue 
10. G. vittatus Kalch.—Lower surface of the segments longi- 


968 The North American Geasters. [ October, 


tudinally rimose, so as to appear white-vittate ; inner peridium 
globose or depressed globose, the mouth determinate, 

Outer peridium vaulted at the base; the segments 6-9, regu- 
lar, long acuminate, the inferior side subglabrous, alutaceous; 
the vitte simple, linear, somewhat parallel, 14—34 of an inch in 
diameter ; spores .0030-.0035™™ | 


11. G. saccatus Fr—Outer peridium saccate; inner peridium 
: globose or depressed glo- 
bose, the mouth determi- 
nate (Fig. 9). 
The outer peridium has 
a roe-shaped base inclosing 
the inner as ina cup; me 
outer cuticle has a leathery 
softness as well as color; 
segments 6-9, from a 
rather broad base tapering 
to a long and narrow point, 
more or less erected or inflexed in dryness. Inner peridium pal- 
lid or brownish, 14-34 of an-inch in diameter ; spores 0030- 
j o o ae 


12. G. lageneformis Vitt.—Inner peridium ovoid, the mouth 
determinate ; spores smooth (Fig. 
10). i 

Segments of the outer peri 
ium 6-9, nearly equal, ovate, 
acuminate, the inner mess" 
ceding. Inner peridium sie 
brownish, 14 an inch oF gee 
diameter ; spores ,0030-.0035 

5. DENTATI. 

Outer peridium multifid, the 5° 
ments revolute ; inner peridium sessile, the mouth dentate. | 
13. G. rufescens Pers—Inner peridium subovoid, the m 
determinate (Fig. 1 I). : 
Exterior peridium firm persistent, at first saccate, at length 3 
resolute. Exceedingly variable in size; a rufous color vi 

in the flesh of the segments and the inner peridium; SP? 
-0040-.0045™"™- 


969 


Fig. I1. 


6. HyGROMETRICI. 
Segments of the outer peridium becoming rigid and inflexed ; 
inner peridium sessile, the mouth lacerate. 
14. G. hygrometricus Pers—Outer peridium multipartite, thick, 
glabrate ; inner peridium subreticulate (Fig. 12). 


Fig. 12. J 

Outer peridium exceedingly thick and rigid; externally canes- 
cent, somewhat woody ; lined inside by a stratum, thick, subdis- 
crete, brownish, waxy, cracked when dry. Inner peridium scurfy 
or reticulate, brown then canescent, 34-1 inch in diameter ; 
Spores large, .008—.010"™ 

15. G. fibrillosus Schw.—Outer peridium multipartite, exter- 
nally fibrillose-scaly ; inner peridium smooth. 

Related to the preceding, but the segments more num 
acuminate, externally often elegantly areolate, with fibrils, rufes- 
cent within. Inner peridium not reticulate, subglobose. It 1s 
said to be about two inches broad when expanded. 


erous, 


970 On Catagenesis. [October l 


16. G. inka Spréng.—Both the inner and outer peridia at frst — 
fleshy then rigid and multifid. 

Schweinitz found this species not rare in Pennsylvania; he de- 
clares it does not belong to the Geasters and gives it as Actino- 
dermium sternbeckit Spf. He says it frequently grows cæspi- — 
tosely, 3-4 individuals connected by roots; the expanded seg- 
ments sometimes attain a breadth ‘of more than half a foot. It 
must be a remarkable fungus. 


“he 


ON CATAGENESIS.! 
BY E. D. COPE. 
I. THE EVOLUTION OF ORGANISMS. 


1: general proposition that life has preceded organization in 
the order of time, may be regarded as established. It fol- 
lows necessarily from the fact which has been derived from palæ- 
ontological investigation, that the simple forms have, with few 
sporadic exceptions, preceded the complex in the order of ap- 
pearance on the earth. The history of the lowest and simplest 
animals will never be known on account of their perishability; 
but it is a safe inference from what is known, that the earliest 
forms of life were the rhizopods, whose organization is not even 
cellular, and includes no organs whatever. Yet these creatures 
are alive, and authors familiar with them agree that they display, 
among their vital qualities, evidences of some degree of sensk 


ility. 
The following propositions were laid down by Lamarck, 3 
established by facts known to him, in 1809 ? : 
1. “In every animal which has not passed the term of its 
development, the frequent and sustained employment of an rk 
gradually strengthening it, develops and enlarges it, and gives * 
power proportional to the duration of its use; whilst the cO 
disuse of a like organ insensibly weakens it, deteriorates it, pr 
gressively reduces its functions, and finally causes it to disap? i 
u. “All that nature acquires or loses in individuals, through 
the influence of circumstances to which the race has been exposed 


goat 


1 An address delivered before the Biological Section of the American b tS 
for the Advancement of Science, at Philadelphia, September 4th, 1884 ?Y 
Cope, vice-president, 


* Philosophie Zodlogique, Pt. 1, p. 235 (Edit, 1830). 


On Catagenesis. 971 


for a long time, either by the predominant ues of an organ or by 


| 


the disuse of such part, she preserves by generation among new 
individuals which spring from it, provided the acquired changes 
be common to both sexes or to those which produce new indi- 
viduals.” 

The same proposition was previously enunciated by Lamarck 
in the following condensed form (Recherches sur les Corps vivans, 
p. 50): 

“Tt is not the organ, that is, the nature and form of the parts 
of the body, which have given origin to its habits and peculiar 
functions, but it is, on the contrary, its habits, its manner of life, 
and the circumstances in which individuals from which it came 
found themselves, which have, after a time, constituted the form 
of the body, the number and character of its organs, and the 
functions which it possesses.” 

Several years ago, not having read Lamarck, I characterized 
the above hypothesis as the “ law of use and effort,’! and I have 
subsequently formulated the modus operandi of this law into two 
propositions. The first of these is, that animal structures have 
been produced, directly or indirectly, by animal movements, or 
the doctrine of Ainetogenesis ; the second is, that as animal move- 
ments are primitively determined by sensibility, or consciousness, 
that consciousness has been, and is, one of the primary factors in 
the evolution of animal forms. This is the doctrine of archesthe- 
tism. The doctrine of kinetogenesis is implied in the speculations 
of Lamarck in the following language (Philosophie Zoodlogique, 
Ed. 1830, p. 239): “With regard to the circumstances which 
[nature] uses every day to vary that which she produces, one can 
Say that they are inexhaustible: The principal arise from the 
influence of climates; from diverse temperatures of the atmos- 
phere and of the environment generally ; from diversity of loca- 
tion; from habits, the most. ordinary movements, and most fre- 
quent actions,” &c. The influence of motion on development is 
involved in Spencer’s theory of the origin of vertebrz by strains ;* 
and I have maintained the view that the various agencies in pro- 
ducing change mentioned by Lamarck are in the case of animals, 
simply stimuli to motion’ The immediate mechanical effect of 

, Method of Creation, Proceedings American Philosophical Society, 1871, p- 247- 

ae of Biology, 1, p, 195- ‘ : 

“On the Relation of Animal Motion to Animal Evolution, AMERICAN NATURAL 
IST, Jan., 1878. 


972 On Catagenesis, (October, 


motion on animal structure has been discussed in papers by 
Ryder, Hyatt, Clevenger and myself, and I have cited the evi- 
dence of vertebrate paleontology as conclusively proving such — 
an effect.’ 

The object of the present paper is to pursue the question of 
the relation of sensibility to evolution, and to consider some of 
the consequences which it involves. It is scarcely necessary 
to observe that in the early stage which the subject presents a 
the present time, I can only point out the logical conclusions 
derivable from facts well established rather than any experimental 
discoveries not already known. And I will say here to those who 
object to the introduction of metaphysics into biology, that they 
cannot logically exclude the subject. As in one sense a function 
of nervous tissue, mind is one of the functions of the body. Its 
phenomena are everywhere present in the animal kingdom. 
Moreover, when studied in the inductive, @ posteriori method, 
metaphysics is an exact science. As Bain observes, it is a good 
deal easier to foretell the actions of a man than those of the 
weather. It is only want of familiarity with the subject which 
can induce a biologist to exclude the science of mind from the 
field. 

For the benefit of those who are not familiar with the doctrine 
of archæsthetism I give an outline of its implications. In the 
first place the hypothesis that consciousness had played a leading 
part in evolution would seem to be negatived by the well known 
facts of reflex action, automatism, etc., where acts are often pE 
consciously performed, and often performed in direct opposition 
to present stimuli. But while it is well understood that these 
phenomena are functions of organized structure, it is beli h 
that the habits which they represent were inaugurated eee 
the immediate agency of consciousness. It is not believed i 
a designed act can have been performed for the first time "a 
consciousness on the part of the animal, of the want which ; 
act was designed to relieve or supply. This opinion accords ie 
our knowledge of ourselves, and by irresistible inference, with an 
belief regarding other animals. From such familiar observ we 
we also know that so soon as a movement of body or mind has 

1 The Evidence for Wlatión 


; in the History of the Extinct Mammalia, Am 
Adv. Sci. 
AMER 


» 1883, p. 32. 
eT nrUsASINE, 3882, p. 4 poldt, 
Lite. same view is expressed by Ribot, Diseases of the Will, p. 38 (HUM 


4. 


1884.] On Catagenesis, 973 


been acquired by repetition, consciousness need no longer accom- 
pany the act. The act is said to be automatic when performed 
without exertion, either consciously or unconsciously, and in those 
functions now removed from the influence of the unconscious mind, 
such acts are called reflex. The origin of the acts is, however, 
believed to have been in consciousness, not only for the reasons 
above stated, but also from facts of still wider application. The 
hypothesis of archzesthetism then maintains that consciousness as 
well as life preceded organism, and has been the primum mobile 
in the creation of organic structure. This conclusion also flows 
from a due consideration of the nature of life. I think it possible 
to show that the true definition of life is, energy directed by sensi- 
bility, or by a mechanism which has originated under the direction 
of sensibility, If this be true, the two statements that life has 
preceded organism, and that consciousness has preceded organ- 
ism are coéqual expressions. 
II. Consciousness, ENERGY, AND MATTER. 

Regarding for the time being the phenomena of life as energy 
primitively determined by consciousness, let us look more closely 
into the characteristics of this remarkable attribute. That con- 
sciousness, and therefore mind, is a property of matter, is a neces- 
sary truth, which to some minds seems difficult of acceptance. 
That it is not an attribute of all kinds of matter is clear enough, 
but to say that it is not an attribute of any kind of matter is to 
utter an unthinkable proposition. To my mind the absence of 
tridimensional matter is.synonymous with nothingness or abso- 
lute vacuity. To say that phenomena have a material basis, is for 
me only another way of saying that they exist. It being granted 

en that consciousness is an attribute of matter, or a certain 
behavior of matter, it remains to trace its relation to energy, 
Which is here used in the sense of motion. Consciousness is 
Clearly not one of the known so-called inorganic forces. Objects 
which are hot, or luminous,‘or sonorous, are not, as is well 
known, on that account conscious. Consciousness is not then a 
necessary condition of energy. On the other hand, in order to 
be conscious, bodies must possess a suitable temperature, and 
must be suitably nourished, So energy is a necessary condition 
of consciousness. For this reason some thinkers regard con- 
Sctousness as a form or species of energy. For my own part, in 
Classification, I prefer to keep very different things apart. To 


Bs 


974 . On Catagenesis. [October, 


classify consciousness with heat, light, sound, &¢., does violence 
to my sense of fitness and to all proper definitions. This is well 
shown by Professor Clifford in the following passage: “It will 
be found excellent practice in the mental operations required by 
this doctrine, to imagine a train the forepart of which is an engine 
and three carriages linked with iron couplings, and the hind part 
three other catriagés linked with iron couplings; the bond be- 
tween the two parts being made out of the sentiments of amily 
subsisting between the stoker and the guard.”? This satire, 
whether intentionally or not on the part of its learned author, 
expresses at once the distinctive character of consciousness in esse 
and the impossibility of dissociating it from energy im posse. Pot 
it is sufficiently clear that while the conscious feelings of the 
Stoker and the guard could by themselves do nothing for the trait, 
stich a state is essential to the energy displayed by them when 
they are at work for its benefit. We all understand the absurdity 
of such expressions as the equivalency of force and matter, or 
the conversion of matter into force. They are not, however, 
more absurd than the corresponding proposition more frequently 
heard, that consciousness can be converted into energy, and k? 
versa, 


The energetic side of consciousness, however; may be readily 
perceived by a little attention to its operations. Acts performed 
in consciousness involve a greater expenditure of energy than the 
Same acts unconsciously performed. The difficulty of a given pon 
of labor is in direct proportion to its novelty ; that is, is 19 direct 
proportion to the amount of endeavor we use in its performance: 
This is another way of saying that the labor is directly as the 
consciousness involved. Another evidence of the dynamic char 
acter of consciousness is its exclusive and therefore complemen 
tary character. Two opposite emotions cannot occupy the mi 
at the same moment of time. An emotion excludes all high 1n- 
tellectual work, and.vice versa, 

But there is no fact with which we are more familiar than that 
consciousness in some way determines the direction of the a 
which it characterizes: The stimuli which affect the movements h 
animals at first only produce their results by transmission throug 


: ae ; edt 
the intermediation of consciousness. Without consciousness, €f i 


cation, habits, and designed movements, would be impossible: is 


* Scientific Basis of Morals, Humboldt Library Ed., p. 21. 


1884.] On Catagenesis. 975 


far as we know, the instinct of hunger, which is at the foundation 
of animal being, is a state of consciousness in all animals. This, 
incontestible fact is overlooked by the materialists properly so- 
called, 
On the other hand, as consciousness is an attribute of matter, 
itis of course subject to the laws of necessity to which matter 
and energy conform. For instance, it cannot cause two solid 
bodies to occupy the same space at the same time, nor can it add 
one body to one body and thus make three bodies, No more 
can it make ten foot pounds of energy out of five foot pounds of 
energy, and it cannot abolish time more. than it can annihilate 
space. These are fundamental truths which are overlooked by a 
majority of mankind, Moreover, nothing is more common than 
to hear life or mind spoken of as though it of itself is a “sub- 
stance,” and not as it should be as an attribute or condition of 
substance or matter. 
What is then the immediate. action of consciousness in direct- 
ng energy into one channel rather than another? To take an, 
illustration : Why, from a purely mechanical point of view, is the 
adductor muscle of the right side of the horse’s. tail contracted 
to brush away the stinging fly from the. right side of the horse's: 
body rather than the left adductor muscle?» Why was the con- 
traction-provoking energy deflected in. to the right interspinal. 
Motor nerves rather than into those of the left side?) Why is the 
ar of the horse turned forwards to. catch the sound in front of 
him and backwards to gather the sound coming from behind ? 
The first crude thought is, that consciousness, supplies another 
‘nergy which turns aside the course of the energy required to, 
Produce the muscular. contraction; either as the man with the 
‘ein in his hand turns aside the. horse’s head, or as the shield he 
tids deflects a moving body. But consciousness, fer se, that is, 
garding. it in its, proper and distinctive definition, is not itself a 
force (~ energy), How then can it exercise energy? Certainly: 
Ro More than the bare goodwill of the train hands can pull the 
train. Such an explanation is to admit the possibility of making 
Something out of nothing, 
HI. Tue RETROGRADE METAMORPHOSIS OF ENERGY. 

Ae key to many weighty and mysterious phenomena lies in 
the planation of the so-called voluntary movements of animals. 
È say “so-called,” because true will is not at all involved in 


976 On Catagenesis. [ October, 


the question. I mean the acts directed by consciousness, the 
acts which would not take place at all if the animal were 
unconscious. That there are many such acts yow well know, 
The explanation can only be found in a simple acceptance of the 
fact as it is, in the thesis, that energy can be conscious, Tf true, 
this is an ultimate fact, neither more nor less difficult to compre- 
hend than the nature of energy or matter in theirsultimate analy- 
ses. But how is such a hypothesis to be reconciled with the 
facts of nature, where consciousness plays a part so infinitesi- 
mally small? The explanation lies close at hand, and has already 
been referred to. Energy become automatic is no longer conscious, 
or is about to become unconscious. That this is the case is mat- 
ter of everyday observation on ourselves and on other animals, 
What the molecular conditions of consciousness are, is one of 
the problems of the future, and for us a very interesting ont. 
One thing is certain, the organization of the mechanism of hab- 
its is its enemy. {t is clear that in animals, energy, om the loss of 
consciousness, undergoes a retrograde metamorphosis, as it does 
later in the history of organized beings on their death. This loss 
of consciousness is first succeeded by the so-called involuntary 
and automatic functions of animals. According to the law of 
catagenesis, the vegetative and other vital functions of animals 
and plants are a later product of the retrograde metamorphosis 
of energy. With death, energy falls to the level of the pole 
tensions of chemism, and the regular and symmetrical movements 
of molecules in the crystallization of its inorganic products. Let 
us now trace in more detail the energies displayed by animals 
and plants. 

: It has been already advanced (see page 971) that the phenom 
ena of growth-force, which are especially characteristic of living 
things, originated in the direction given to nutrition by conscious” 
ness and by the automatic movements derived from it. 
remain, however, some other phenomena which do not yield of 
readily to this analysis. These are: first, the conversion by ga 
mals of dead into living protoplasm; second, the conversion ie 
Inorganic substances into protoplasm by plants; and third, j 
manufacture of the so-called organic compounds from the imor 
ganic by plants. To these points we may return again. z3 
also well known that living animal organisms act as producers, by 
_ Conversion, of various kinds of inorganic energy, as heat 
ENTE electricity, motion, etc. It is the uses to which the 


1884.] On Catagenesis. : 977. 


forces are put by the animal organism, the evident design in the 
occasion of their production, that gives them the stamp of organic 
life. We recognize the specific utility of the secretions of the 
glands, the appropriate distribution of the products of digestion, 
and adaptation of muscular motion to many uses. The increase 
of heat to protect against depression of temperature; the light to 
direct the sexes to each other; the electricity as a defence against 
enemies; display unmistakably the same utility. We must not 
only believe that these functions of animals were originally used 

y them, under stimulus, for their benefit, but if life preceded 
organism, that the molar mechanism which does the work, has 
developed as the result of the animal’s exertions under stimuli. 
This will especially apply to the mechanism for the production of 
motion and sound. Heat, light, chemism and electricity doubt- 
less result from molecular aptitudes inherent in the constitution 
of protoplasm. But the first and last production of even these 
phenomena is dependent on the motions of the animal in obtain- 
ing and assimilating nutrition. For without nutrition all energy 
Would speedily cease. Now the motion required for the obtain- 
ing of nutrition has its origin in the sensation of hunger. So 
even for the first steps necessary to the production of inorganic 
forces in animals, we are brought back to a primitive con- 
Sciousness, 

To regard consciousness as the primitive condition of energy, 
contemplates an order of evolution in large degree the reverse of 
the one which is ordinarily entertained. The usual view is, that 
ife is a derivative from inorganic energies as a result of high or 
complex molecular organization, and that consciousness (=sen- 
sibility) is the ultimate outcome of the nervous or equivalent 
energy possessed by living bodies. The failure of the attempts 
to demonstrate spontaneous generation, will prove, if continued, 
fatal to this theory. Nevertheless the order cannot be absolutely 
reversed. Such a proceeding is negatived by the facts of the 
necessary dependence of the animal kingdom on the vegetable, 
and the vegetable on the inorganic for nutrition, and consequently 

existence. So the animal organism could not have existed 
Prior to the vegetable, nor the vegetable prior to the mineral. 
The explanation is found in the wide application of the “ doctrine 

the unspecialized,” so clearly demonstrated by palzontology. 
__' The term specialized, introduced into biology by Professor Dana, has been used 
connection with energy in creation by the author, Penn Monthly, 1875, p. 569. 


978 On Catagenesis. (October, 


From this point of view creation consists in specialization, an 
expression which describes the specific action of the general 
principle described by Spencer as the conversion of the homo- 
geneous into the heterogeneous, To be more explicit, it con- 
sists of the production of mechanism out of no mechanism, of 
different kinds of energy out of one kind of energy. The mate- 
rial basis of consciousness must then be a generalized substance 
which does not display the more automatic and the polar forms 
of energy. From a physical standpoint protoplasm is such a 
substance. Its instability indicates weakness of chemical energy 
also, which suggests that the complexity of its molecule may be 
due to some form of energy not properly chemical. The readi- 
ness with which it undergoes retrograde metamorphosis shows 
that it is not self-sustaining, and furnishes a good illustration of 
creation of specialized substances by a running down in the scale 
of being. Loew and Bokorny' suggest that “the cause of the 
living movements in protoplasm is to be sought for ia the intense 
atomic movements, and therefore easy metamorphosis of its 
aldehyde groups. of components;” the molecular movement 
becoming molar, to use the language of Lester Ward, The posi- 
tion which I now present requires the reversal of the relations of 
these phenomena. Generalized. matter must be supposed to be 
capable of more varied molecular movements than specialized 
matter, and it is believed that the most intense of all such move- 
ments are those of brain tissue in. mental, action, which are fur 
thest removed of all from molar movements. From this point 
of view, when molar movements are derived from molecular 
movements, it is by a process of running down of energy, not 
elevation; by an increase of the distance from, mental energy, 
not an approximation. to it. 

The fact that the physical basis. of consciousness is composed 
of four substances, which are respectively a monad, @ dyad, @ 
triad and a tetrad, doubtless has something to do, as I have ee 
gested; with its exhibition ofthis, remarkable attribute. It might 


__ be supposed that the presence of carbon had the effect of restrain- 


: ing the chemical and. physical molecular tendencies of the three 
(other substances. From. this. standing-ground. we. may imagine 


Pe Kos , Chemische Kraftquelle in Lebenden Protoplasma, von O. Loew u. T. Bor 
korny, Munich, 1882, 1 


Penn Monthly, 1875, p. 574., 


ee 


1884.] On Catagenesis. 979 


that other substances besides protoplasm might support conscious- 
ness and life. In other parts of the universe, other substances 
they would have to be, if consciousness exist there. 

The manner in which protoplasm is made at the present time 
is highly suggestive. It is manufactured by living plants out of 
inorganic matter, the hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen and oxygen 
contained in the atmosphere and in the earth. As dead plants 
will not perform this function, this action is regarded as in some 
way due to the presence of life. The energy peculiar to living pro- 
toplasm, and derived primarily in part only from the sun’s rays, 
directs energy so that the complex molecular aggregation proto- 
plasm is the result. This is the only known method of manufac- 
ture from inorganic matter, of this substance. The first piece of 
protoplasm had however no paternal protoplasm from which to 
derive its being. The protoplasm-producing energy must, there- 
fore, have previously existed in some form of matter not proto- 
plasm. This is also suggested by the fact that it really antagonizes 
the chemical forces, and might be called, from this fact, antichem- 
ism. The protoplasm-sustaining energy of animal protoplasm 
may be a less energetic derivative, or vice versa. In terms of the 
theory of catagenesis, the plant life is a derivative of the primi- 
tive life, and it has retained enough of the primitive quality of 
self-maintenance to prevent it from running down into forms of 
nergy which are below the life level; that is, such as are of the 
inorganic chemical type, or the crystalline physical type. A part 
of the energy does so run down, as can be seen in the few auto- 
Matic movements of plants, and the phosphorescence of some. 
Also symmetrical crystals are made by some. But M. Pasteur 
has shown! that whenever the crystals are of the organic type, 
+. £, Contain carbon, they are not symmetrical but are unilateral, 
or, as he terms them, dissymmetrical. This indicates that the 
Presence of carbon has restrained, a little, the absolute symmet- 
rical automatism of the formative force. 


IV. ORIGIN oF LIFE ON THE EARTH. 


If then some form of matter other than protoplasm has been 
capable of sustaining the essential energy of life, it remains for 
future research to detect it, and to ascertain whether it has long 
“xisted as part of the earth’s material substance or not. The 


2 eVue . . 
Revue Scientifique, 1884, Jan., p. 2. 
VOL. XVIIIL—no. X. Üi 


980 On Catagenests. [Octobier, 


heat of the earlier stages of our planet may have forbidden its 
presence, or it may not. If it were excluded from the earth in 
its first stages, we may recognize the validity of Sir William 
Thomson’s suggestion that the physical basis of life may have 
reached us from some other region of the cosmos by transporta- 
tion on a meteorite. If protoplasm in any form were essential to 
the introduction of life on our planet, this hypothesis becomesa 
necessary truth. Here let me refer to the fact that hydrocar- 
bonaceous substances have been discovered in meteorites. Here 
also the remarkable discovery of Huggins claims attention.’ This 
veteran spectroscopist has detected the lines of some hydrocar- 
bon vapor in the spectra of interplanetary spaces. The signifi- 
cance of this discovery is at once perceived if we believe that 
hydrocarbons are only produced under the direction of life? 
Granting the existence of living protoplasm on the earth, there 
is little doubt that we have some of its earliest forms still with us, 
From these simplest of living beings both vegetable and animal 
kingdoms have been derived. But how was the distinction be- 
tween the two lines of development, now so widely divergent, 
originally produced? The process is not difficult to imagine. 
The original plastid dissolved the salts of the earth and appt 
priated the gases of the atmosphere and built for itself more of 
toplasm. Its energy was sufficient to overcome the chemist 
that binds the molecules of nitrogen and hydrogen in ammonia, 
and of carbon and oxygen in carbonic dioxide. It apparently 
communicated to these molecules its own method of being, # 
raised the type of energy from the polar non-vital to the adapti"? 
vital by the process. Thus it transformed the dead mine : 
world, perhaps by a process of invasion, as when a fire oo 
municates itself from burning to not burning combustible T 
Thus it has been doing ever since, but it has redeposited some 
its gathered stores in various non-vital forms. Some of these arè 


1 See address of C. 1882; Malurt, 


- W. Siemens, Prest. British Ass. Adv. Science, 

1882, p. 400. ; ) 

: os), 
*Says Mr. S. F. Peckham (American Journal of Science and Arts, 1884, P. 195 


* 2 > n . i i . 
on m origin of bitumens: “ These chemical theories [of the origin of aa 


* i ic com 
. * In the chemical processes of nature complex organie comit ! 


resultant 


1884.] On Catagenesis. 981 


in organic forms, as cellulose; others are crystals imprisoned in 
its cells; while others are amorphous, as waxes, resins and oils. 
But consciousness apparently early abandoned the vegetable line. 
Doubtless all the energies of vegetable protoplasm soon became 
automatic. The plants in general, in the persons of their protist 
ancestors, soon left a free-swimming life and became sessile. 
Their lives thus became parasitic, more automatic, and in one 
sense degenerate. 

The animal line may have originated in this wise. Some indi- 
vidual protists, perhaps accidentally, devoured some of their fel- 
lows. The easy nutrition which ensued was probably pleasura- 
ble, and once enjoyed was repeated, and soon became a habit. 
The excess of energy thus saved from the laborious process of 
making protoplasm was available as the vehicle of an extended 
consciousness. From that day to this, consciousness has aban- 
doned few if any members of the animal kingdom. In many of 
them it has specialized into more or less mind. Organization to 
subserve its needs has achieved a multifarious development. 
There is abundant evidence to show that the permanent and the 
successful forms have ever been those in which motion and sensi- 
bility have been preserved, and most highly developed. 

This review of the history of living organisms has been epito- 
mized in the following language ;! “Evolution of living types 
is then a succession of elevation of platforms, on which succeed- 
"E ones have built. The history of one horizon of life is that 
Ns own completion but prepares the way for a higher one, furnish- 
ing the latter with conditions of a still further development. 
Thus the vegetabte kingdom died, so to speak, that the animal 
kingdom might live, having descended from an animal stage to 
Subserve the function of food for animals. The successive types 
of animals first stimulated the development of the most suscepti- 
ble to the conflict, in the struggle for existence, and afterwards 
furnished them with food.” 


V. CATAGENESIS OF INORGANIC ENERGY. 

Tf the pr inciples adopted in the preceding pages be true, it is 
highly Probable that a// forms of energy have originated in the 
Process of running down or specialization from the primitive 

gy. 

! AMERICAN NATURALIST, 1880, p. 266. 


, 


982 On Catagenesis. [October, 


In the department of physics I am not at home, and touch 
upon it merely to carry out to a necessary conclusion the hy- 
pothesis presented in the preceding pages. It may be that phys- 


icists and chemists may find value in the suggestions which — 


come from the side of biology. A cursory perusal of the general 
hypotheses current in these departments, shows that the dooris 
wide open to receive light from this quarter. What can be 
offered here is of the vaguest, yet it may suggest thought and 
research in some minds, 

In the first’place it is highly probable that one of the problems 


to be solved by the physicists of the present and future, is that of | 


a true genealogy of the different kinds of energy. In this com 
nection a leading question will be the determination of the essen- 
tial differences between the different forms of energy, and the 
material conditions which cause the metamorphosis of one kind 
of energy into another. 

In constructing a genealogy of energies, it must be observed 
that we will probably obtain, not a single line of succession, but 
several lines of varying lengths. It must also be remembered, 
that as in the forms of the material world which are their expr 
sion, a greater or less extensive exhibition of all the typ 
remains to the present day. n 

That the tendency of purely inorganic energy is to “run down, 
in all except possibly some electric operations, is well know® 
Inorganic chemical activity constantly tends to make simples 
compounds out of the more complex, and to end ina satisfaction 
of affinities which cannot be further disturbed except by acces 
additional energy. In chemical reaction the preference of energy 
is to create solid precipitates. In the field of the phy. sical wag 
we are met by the same phenomenon of running down. 
organic energies or modes of motion tend to be ultimately co” 
verted into heat, and heat is being steadily dissipated into grt 
Therefore the result has been and will be the creation of the mY 
eral kingdom; of the rocks and fluids that constitute the masses 
of the worlds. | a 

The process of creation by the retrograde metamorphosis ; 
energy, or what is the same thing, by the specialization of g 
may be called catagenesis. It may be denied, however, tat 
process results in a specialization of energy. The vital « a 
are often regarded as the most special, and the inorganic 3 


1884.] - On Catagenesis. 983 


most simple. If we regard them, however, solely in the light of 
the essential nature of energy, 2. e., power, we must see that the 
chemical and physical forces are most specialized. The range of 
each species is absolutely limited to one kind of effect, and their 
diversity from each other is total. How different this from the 
versatility of the vital energy. It seems to dominate all forms of 
conversion of energy, by the mechanisms which it has, by evolu- 
tion, constructed. Thus if the inorganic forces are the products 
of a primitive condition of energy which had the essential char- 
acteristics of vital energy, it has been by a process of specializa- 
tion. As we have seen, it is this specialization which is every- 
where inconsistent with life. 

With these preliminary remarks we may now consider very 
tentatively the relations of the different kinds of energy to each 
other and to consciousness, In practice it is sometimes difficult 
to draw the line between conscious and unconscious states of 
energy. One reason is, that although a given form of energy 
may be unconscious, consciousness may apprehend the action by 
Perceiving its results. The distinction is rendered clearer by the 
reflection that we can perceive by sight or touch any action of 
the body of whatever character. The energy of the conscious 
type is therefore altogether mental. The relations may be ex- 
Pressed as follows: 


A. Designed (always molecular), Examples. 
I. Conscious. 
Peres elie of Sie “ Voluntary” acts. 
h ion. 
* Not involving effort is esse agp ho i 
II. Unconscious. : 
3. Involving mental en eee pei eh oe ge are oe Unconscious automatic. 
4. Not involving mental process . Reflex. 
Not designed. 
I. Molecular. 
5- Electric, 


7. “aaa } Crystallific and non-crystallific. 


II. Molar. 
8. Cosmic, 

The only strictly molar energies of the above list are the cos- 
mical movements of the heavenly bodies. The others are molec- 
ular, although they give rise to molar movements, as those of the 
muscles, of magnetism, &c. Some molar movements of organic 


984 The Crystalline Rocks of the Northwest. — (October, 


beings are not, zz their last phases, designed; as those produced 
by nervous diseases. 

The transition between the organic and the inorganic energies 
may be possibly found in the electric group. Its influence on life, 
its production of contractions in protoplasm, and its resemblance 
to nerve force, are well known. It also compels chemical unions 
otherwise impracticable, thus resembling the energy of the pro- 
toplasm of plants, whose energy in actively resisting the disinte- 
grating inorganic forces of nature is so well known. Perhaps this 
type of force is an early-born of the primitive energy, one which 
has not descended so far in the scale, as the chemism which 
holds so large a part of nature in the embrace of death. 

Vibration is inseparable from our ideas of motion or energy, 
not excluding conscious energy. There are reasons for supposing 
that in the latter type of activity the vibrations are the most rapid 
of all those characteristic of the forces. A center of such vibra: 
tions in generalized matter would radiate them in all directions 
With radiant divergence the wave lengths would become longes, 
and their rate of movement slower. In the differing rates of vibra- 
tions we may trace not only the different forms of energy, but 
diverse results in material aggregations. Such may have been 
the origin of the specialization of energy and of matter which 
we behold in nature. ap 

Such thoughts arise unbidden as a remote but still a legitimate 
induction, from a study of the wonderful phenomenon of am 
motion; a phenomenon everywhere present, yet one which re 
treats, as we pursue it, into the dimness of the origin of things 
And when we follow it to its fountain head, we seem tO have 
_ reached the origin of all energy, and it turns upon US, the king 
and master of the worlds. 


*ry*. 
sVe 


: l 
THE CRYSTALLINE ROCKS OF THE NORTHWES! 


BY N. H. WINCHELL. A 
e 
DESIRE to call the attention of Section E to some a f 
interesting problems that beset the geologist who undertak ally 
to study the crystalline rocks of the Northwest, and pap 
that part of the Northwest which is included in the $ 


. 4 a 
ANON delivered before the section of geology and geography ae 
Assoc. Adv. Science at Philadelphia, Sept. 4, 1884. 


ea 
$ 
F 
. 


1884.] The Crystalline Rocks of the Northwest. 985 


Minnesota. Until very recently it has been the practice of geol- 
ogists, almost without exception, to refer every crystalline rock 
inthe Northwest either to the Huronian or to the Laurentian. 
Thus, when the survey of the State of Michigan was reinaugu- 
rated in 1869, the geologists of the upper peninsula were com- 
pelled to choose between a confession of their inability to estab- 
lish the age of the rocks they were studying and the adoption of 
some of the recognized designations, In Wisconsin the case 
was similar, with the additional fact that the Michigan geologists 
were collaborators, The same was true again in Minnesota. 
What more natural than that the Michigan and Wisconsin rocks 
should be found to extend, with nearly the same features, into the 
State of Minnesota, and that their familiar names should at once 
be applied to them ? 

But when on more careful examination, both in the field and 
in the literature of the crystalline rocks, and over a wider extent 
of territory, and especially in the light of more recent researches 
in New England, New York, Pennsylvania and Canada, it is 
found that the nomenclature is imperfect, and furnishes but a tot- . 
tering scaffold to support the workmen of a great and ever- 
Spreading structure, we are thrown into such difficulty and doubt 
that we are prone either to reject the old scaffold and build anew, 
or to clear away the accumulated rubbish about the foundation 
and examine on what basis the old one stands. To-day, how- 
ever, we intend to do neither of these, but rather set forth a few 
of the incongruities and difficulties of the actual situation. 

We are indebted, unquestionably, to the geologists of Michi- 
§an and Wisconsin for the most exhaustive and satisfactory de- 
Scription of the crystalline rocks of the Archean age that has 
yet been published in America, In order that some of the diffi- 

ties of the situation may be made clear, I desire to review 
concisely the broad stratigraphic distinctions of the crystalline 
rocks that have lately been studied in Michigan, Wisconsin and 
Minnesota, By the aid of the published results of the surveys 
of Brooks, Wright, Irving, Rominger, Pumpelly and others, a 
generalized statement can be formulated. To these I shall add 
Such published results and unpublished field observations from 

innesota as may be furnished by the survey of that State, in 
Order that the scheme may cover correctly the crystalline r ocks 
of the entire Northwest. 


986 The Crystalline Rocks of the Northwest. (October, 


Omitting the igneous rocks, which in the form of dikes cut 
through the shales and sandstones of the Cupriferous formation 
and are interbedded with them in the form of overflows, we may 
concisely arrange the crystalline rocks, disregarding minor difer- 
ences and collating only the broad stratigraphic distinctions, in 
the following manner in descending order : 

There are six groups: 


First GROUP. 

Granite and gneiss with gabbro—This group is represented in 
Minnesota by the gabbro and red syenite at Duluth, and by the 
extension of this range of hills north-eastwardly nearly to the 
international boundary. Its thickness is unknown, but certainly 
reaches several hundred feet. The outcrop of red granite near 
New Ulm, lying under the conglomerate and red quartzite, is 
probably in the south-westward line of extension of this group. 
This group is represented by No. xx south-west of Lake Michi- 
gamme, by No. xx at Menominee and by No. 1 and 1a at Black 

river. 
SEconD GROUP. 
Mica schist—This group consists of schists that are micaceous 
- and often staurolitic as well as garnetiferous. It can be seen 18 
Minnesota on the Mississippi river at Little Falls, and at Pike 
rapids. The schists are variously associated with beds and veils 
of granite and gneiss. This is No. xıx at Marquette, XVII ton 
at Menominee, xx to xxi at Penokee, and has a maximum thick- 
ness of 5000 feet. 
THIRD GROUP. ; 

Carbonaceous and arenaceous black slates, and black mica sclas 
—These sometimes pass into roofing slates, with beds of iron 
ore, quartzite and diorite. This group includes the black ee 
of the Animikie group in Northern Minnesota, of Knife lake, 
Knife portage on the St: Louis river, and carbonaceous slates 
lately discovered near Aitkin on the Mississippi river- It incl 
Nos, XIV to XVII at Marquette, Nos. vi to xvii at Penokee, 3% 
Nos. xv and xvi at Menominee. Thickness 2600 feet. 


FOURTH Group. 
; Hydro-mica and magnesian schists-—Soft and obscuré, we of 
ing quartzose and also hematitic, also with numerous 


1884.] The Crystalline Rocks of the Northwest. 987 


diorite. In Minnesota this is the iron-bearing horizon at Ver- 
milion lake. Itis Nos. vı to xıv at Marquette, Nos. rv to vr at 
Penokee, and Nos. vı to xı at Menominee. Maximum thickness 
4450 feet. 

FIFTH GROUP. 


This is the group of gray quartzite and marble. It is repre- 
sented by No. v at Marquette, Nos. 11 to v at Menominee and 
Nos. 1 to 11 at Penokee. In Minnesota this horizon seems to 
run along the south side of Ogishke Muncie lake, near the inter- 
national boundary, and perhaps includes the great slate-conglom- 
erate which is there represented. Normal thickness from 400 to 
1000 feet ; but if the great conglomerate of Ogishke Muncie be in 
cluded here, the thickness of this group in Northern Minnesota 
will exceed 6000 feet. 


SIXTH GROUP. 


Granite and syenite with hernblendic schists —This lowest recog- 
nized horizon has frequently been styled Laurentian. In Minne- 
sota it is found on the international boundary at Saganaga lake, 
and large boulders from it are included in the overlying conglom- 
erate at Ogishke Muncie lake, showing an important break in 
the stratigraphy.» Thickness unknown but very great. 

These six great groups compose, so far as can be stated now, 
the crystalline rocks of the Northwest. Their geographic rela- 
tions to the non-crystalline rocks, if not their stratigraphic, have 
been so well ascértained, that it can be stated confidently that 
they are all older than the Cupriferous series of Lake Superior, 
and hence do not consist of nor include metamorphosed sedi- 
ments of Silurian or any later age.’ 

This statement of the grand grouping of the crystalline ter- 
ranes of the Northwest may be varied by the addition of detailed 
and minor distinctions and by subdivisions, but its correctness 
resis upon careful observations and reports of competent geolo- 
gists and cannot at present be gainsayed. 

Examining these groups more closely we find: 

I. We have, beneath the red tilted shales and sandstones, a 
Steat granite and gabbro group. This has been variously regarded 
by different geologists. While by many early observers it was 

"The term Silurian here is understood to cover nothing below the base of the 
Trenton. 


988 The Crystalline Rocks of the Northwest. [October 


classed as older than the series which has latterly been designated 
Huronian, and by others styled igneous and local, it has, by 
Brooks, been placed with that series and denominated “the young- 
est ” of the Huronian strata, though no such rocks had ever before 
been mentioned as pertaining to the Huronian. By Irving it has 
been made the base of his Kewenawan. By Hunt it has been paral- 
lelized with the Montalban. It includes, in my opinion, the fels- 
ites and porphyries which have been styled Arvonian, and itis 
very certain that in many places it has passed for typical Lauren- 
tian. The gabbro is very generally admitted to be of eruptive 
_ origin, and in its great development in Canada it was once styled 
Upper Laurentian, and later was known as Norian. While the 
gabbro is certainly eruptive, the associated granite and gneiss 
exhibit evidences of being metamorphic in their nature. In 
Northern Minnesota this horizon of granite is characterized by 4 
red color and it has an aggregate chemical composition almost 
identical with that of some of the associated felsites. The mag- 
netite of the gabbro is often highly titaniferous and so abundant 
that the rock has attracted attention as an iron ore. The gabbro 
does not always appear where the granite is present, but extensive 
areas of granite are spread out without any sign of variation, 10- 
terruption or alternation with the gabbro. In other places these 
two rocks are intricately and intimately mingled both horizontally 
and perpendicularly ; but the gabbro can be considered in general 
as the underlying formation. Both these rocks seem to, have 
been molten, and simultaneously so, in some places ; but ın the 
great mass of the red, granitic rock, there is a gneissic structure, 
and in its finely crystalline state, when it seems to vary to felsite, 
it exhibits a laminated structure which is evidently due originally 
to sedimentation. Along these laminations, and coincident e 
them, is a finely lined striation which exhibits the “stre ; 
structure, sometimes appealed to, to show the igneous nature an 
origin of the rock. These felsites are occasionally arenact™ 
with ir regularly rounded or sub-angular quartz grains, and em 
times are porphyritic with quartz and orthoclase. Veins of a 
granite intersect the gabbro, and the gabbro surrounds isola 
masses of the granite. Transported, boulder-like masses of i 
_ are found embraced in a common paste among the later igneo : 

outflows of the Cupriferous, where their existence is aS pai 
puzzle as that of pebbles of red felsite and quartz-porphy!y 8 
red conglomerates. This red granite, so far as I have obs 


1884.] The Crystalline Rocks of the Northwest. 989 


generally consists largely of orthoclase, and in several instances 
passes imperceptibly into red felsite. It contains also quartz and 
hornblende, the latter generally changed by decay. The gabbro 
when unaffected by proximity to the red rock, consists of the 
three essential ingredients, labradorite, diallage and magnetite, 
with some necessary products of alteration, but in the vi- 
cinity of contact with the red rock it also holds orthoclase and 
quartz, 


Il. Below this granite and gabbro group is a series of strata 
that may be designated by the general term mica schist group. 
This is the principal, but not the only, horizon in which mica 
schist exists. This division is penetrated by veins and masses of 
red biotite-granite which appear to be intrusive in somewhat the 
same manner as the red granite in the gabbro overlying. How- 
‘ver, whether this granite is exotic, or can be referred to aqueo- 
igneous fusion and transmission of the sedimentaries in a plastic 
State through fissures in the adjacent formations, is a question 
which still is a matter of earnest investigation. The existence of the 
great associated igneous gabbro is suggestive, if not demonstrative, 
of the presence of an adequate agent for such a metamorphism— 
unless it be claimed, indeed,that such an extravasation of molten 
rock could take place without any marked and traceable effect on 
the contiguous formations. These granite veins penetrate only 
through the overlying gabbro and this underlying mica schist. 
They are wanting or comparatively rare throughout the rest of 
the crystalline rocks. On the other hand there is an abundance 
of diabase and other doleritic rock, in the form of dykes, through- 
Out all the crystalline strata. This points to the mere local nature 
of the Origination of these granitic veins, and hence to the meta- 
Morphic nature of the granitic mass with which they are con- 
nected, It has been shown by Dana that granite suffers a change 
to mica schist in Western Massachusetts; Brooks as well as Em- 
Mons has shown it interstratified with limestone in St. Lawrence 
county, New York. They both also state that the Potsdam sand- 
stone becomes gneissic. The same has been affirmed in Ver- 
mont by Dr. Hitchcock, and by Dr. Frazer in Pennsylvania, 
Hence there is no impropriety in supposing that some great 
change has passed over the sedimentary strata of this horizon 
throughout a wide extent of country reaching from the Atlantic 
to Lake Superior, and that in the emergences of upheaval and 


990 The Crystalline Rocks of the Northwest. (October, 


dislocation the sediments of one formation were enabled to pene- 
trate transversely into the strata of another. 

This mica schist formation has an aggregate thickness of 
about 5000 feet, and sometimes is hornblendic rather than mica- 
ceous. 

- III. The next lower grand division, which is the third, might 
be styled the Zack mica slate group. This group contains much 
carbon, causing it to take the form of graphitic schists, in which 
the carbon sometimes amounts to over forty per cent? These 
schists are frequently quartzose, and also ferruginous, even com- 
posing valuable ore-deposits, as at the Commonwealth mine in 
Wisconsin. Associated with these black mica slates, which often 
appear also as dark clay-slates, are actinolitic schists, the whole 
being, in some places, interstratified with diorite. Their estimated 
thickness is 2600 feet. 

IV. Underneath this is a very thick series of obscure, iydrom- 
caceous and greenish magnesian schists, in which, along with beds 
of gray quartzite, and clay slates, occur the most important de- 
posits of hzmatitic iron ore. The lower portion of this series, 
which at Marquette is represented rather by hornblende and chlo- 
ritic quartz-schists, and more rarely is mined asa magnetic qu 
schist, at Penokee is known as “ the magnetic belt.” This divs- 
ion of the crystalline rocks has numerous heavy beds of diorite. 

V. Below this series of soft schists, which terminate downward 
with the magnetic iron ores, is the great quartzite and marble 
group. The marble lies above the quartzite, and in the Mane 
nee region has a minimum thickness of at least one thousand feet; 
while at Marquette it graduates into a dolomitic quartzite of in- 
definite extent, the whole group there being essentially 4 quay 
ite. This isa most persistent and well-marked horizon. The 
quartzite sometimes holds feldspar, thus having an appearance 
granulite. In northern Minnesota, the great slate-conglomerat® 
of Ogishke Muncie lake seems to represent the lower portion 
the great quartzite of this group, and to be the equivalent of 
lower slate-conglomerate of the “ typical Huronian” in Ca with 
In both places this conglomerate is sometimes speckled 
masses of red jasper. The marble of this group appears mane 
to the conglomerate south of Ogishke Muncie lake, and in SY 


£ * À 
< eens analysis of a specimen from near Aitkin, Minnesota, showed be" 
“two and forty-three per cent of carbon. 


1884.] The Crystalline Rocks of the Northwest. 99I 


a position as to overlie it, exposing a thickness of at least twenty- 
two feet. 

Now, the difficulties of the situation arise when we cast about 
to find names for these parts. What are the eastern representa- 
tives of these western groups, and by what designations shall 
they be known ? i 

Since the geological survey of New York, and the publication 
of its final report, the progress of geological science in Europe 
and America has rendered it necessary to revise some of the dog- 
mas which were regarded as fundamental by the New York geol- 
ogists, and to reject entirely some others. Among these may be 
mentioned the then current theory that the term “primary ” 
should be applied to any massively crystalline rock, and that all 
such rocks belong to the bottom of the chronological scale of 
geology. If the apparent structural relations of the forma- 
tions, as seen in the field, did not agree with this theory, some 
violent movement in the earth’s crust was at once conjectured so 
as to bring nature into accordance with the true theory. Latterly, 
however, it has been shown abundantly by Dana and others, that 
the Trenton, Hudson River and other Silurian rocks are converted 
into crystalline schists ; by Whitney that the Tertiary rocks be- 
come crystalline; by Brooks and Frazer that the Potsdam sand- 
stone becomes gneissic ; by Reusch that the clay slates, interbedded 
with the granites and gneisses of the Bergen peninsula of Nor- 
way, contain characteristic upper Silurian fossils, and by Hitch- 
Cock that the Helderberg rocks of New York are involved in the 
crystalline terranes of New Hampshire. 

These more recent crystalline series, however, can all be con- 
Sidered as excluded from the scope of search for any parallels to 
the crystalline groups of the Northwest. Our inquiry will in- 
Volve only the well-known names Laurentian, Huronian, Taconic 
Montalban, Arvonian, Norian. 

We meet at the outset with the question which has now become 
as historic in American geology as the Cambro-Silurian contro- 
versy in England, and which concerns very nearly the same geo- 
logical horizon, viz: Is there a formation such as claimed by Em- 
mons—the Taconic? On this geologists are yet divided. We 
Conceive, however, that the division is caused, not so much by 
doubt as to the existence of a sedimentary fossiliferous formation 


* Lesley, Report C4. 


992 The Crystalline Rocks of the Northwest. (October, 


below the New York system, and separating it from the “primary,” 
as by doubt as to which and how many of these sub-Silurian strata 
are to be included in the designation of Taconic. Having now 
however, given the subject very careful consideration, I am ready 
to state my very positive conviction that Dr. Emmons was essen- 
tially right, and that the Taconic group will have to be recognized 
by geologists and adopted in the literature of American geology. 

Dr. Emmons, in 1842, issued the first that appeared of the vol- 
umes of the final report of the New York survey. In that volume 
he formally sets forth the Taconic system, although, as he admits, 
in an imperfect manner, the area in which the rocks exist not be- 
ing in his (the second) district. In this first presentation of the 
system he extended it geographically too far east, and unfortu- 
nately chose a name for it which is appropriate only to a part of 
that eastward extension. We are indebted to the researches of 
several volunteer geologists, Wing, Dana, Dale, Dwight, for the 
disentanglement of the overlying Hudson River rocks from the 
true Taconic rocks, and the demonstration of the incorrectness of 
Dr. Emmons’ eastward extension of his system in southern ve 
mont. Dr. Emmons’ claim, however, in all its essential points, 
remains intact. This consists in the existence of a series of sedi 
mentary deposits, largely metamorphic, below the Potsdam sand- 
stone, and separating the Potsdam from the crystalline rocks 
known as “primary” in an orderly chronological scheme. 

In his report on the agriculture of New York, issued four et 
after that on the geology of the second district, he makes mor 
definite and convincing statements, going over the whole subject 
de novo. He gives diagrams showing the Taconic slates lying 
below the Calciferous sandrock unconformably, at Whitehall, 1 
Washington county, a region that had been colored by M 
and Hall on their geological maps as Hudson River, and lying 
the general area described by Emmons as Tacouic. He gives o 
also from the hills of Greenbush, opposite Albany, not far an 
the locality in which Mr. Ford has since discovered primordi i 
fossils, where he also shows the Calciferous lying unconformab y 
upon the Taconic, the former being fossiliferous. He also describes 
_ the Hudson River slates as lying unconformably on the T 

a fact which cannot be called in question since the recent peer 
eries of Wing, Dale, and Dwight, and the stratigraphic investig® 
tions of Daria. In fact, the investigations of these geologists, A 


| 
| 
| 
| 


1884.] The Crystalline Rocks of the Northwest. 993 


stead of destroying the Taconic system, are only confirmatory of 
the published statements of Dr. Emmons in 1846. 

Although the existence of the Taconic in Maine and Rhode 
Island, as claimed by Dr. Emmons, may not be maintained by 
further research, it is certain that he had the approval of Dr. 
Douglas Houghton in extending it into the State of Michigan. 
In later years, he also traced these rocks through Pennsylvania 
and Virginia into North Carolina. In Michigan his identifica- 
tions have since been set aside and the same rocks have been de- 
nominated Huronian by Brooks, Wright, Irving and others. In 
North Carolina Mr. Kerr has, in the same way, substituted the 
name Huronian. The conclusive fact that these slates had been 
seen, by Dr. Houghton, in many localities, to pass beneath the 
Potsdam sandstone, was considered ample to supply the only im- 
portant point of evidence lacking in the Hudson valley. Dr. 
Emmons closes his discussion by stating his theme thus, referring 
to the facts obtained from Dr. Houghton: “ It would be difficult 
to add to the weight of this testimony in regard to the separate 
and independent existence of a system of fossiliferous rocks, of 
an age anterior to the Silurian or New York system.” 

It is not necessary to refer to the controversies that arose 
from the creation of the imaginary Quebec group, nor to char- 
acterize in deserved terms the attempt to bury the Taconic 
in the Quebec coffin. It is not necessary to quote the sup- 
Port which Emmons had from Barrande, nor to recount the 
discoveries of Mr, Ford nor the observations of Brooks in St. 

Wrence county, N. Y., and Rogers in Pennsylvania, though 
these last both affirm that beneath the Potsdam sandstone are 
extensive beds of semi-crystalline strata.! 

ere may be reasons why the current literature of American 
Stology is almost silent respecting the great work of Emmons, 
and why the Taconic is not known among the recognized geolog- 
ical formations ; but we have nothing to do with these at this 
time. We have now only to say that it seems necessary to admit 
that when Dr. Emmons insisted on a great group of strata be- 
longing to the age of the Lower Cambrian, lying below the Pots- 
dam sandrock in New York, he had some foundation more sub- 
stantial than imagination or mere hypothesis. He may have 
chosen an unfortunate designation. He may have but imper- 


"Address of H, D. Rogers, 1844, hefore the Assoc. Amer. Geol. and Nat. 


994 The Crystalline Rocks of the Northwest. (October, 


` fectly understood the extent and importance of his discovery, and 
he may have incorrectly described its range and scope, but none 
of these faults, nor all of them, should deprive him of the credit 
of having made the discovery. He did more, he defended it to 
the last day of his life, and averred that “the Taconic system 
stands out as boldly as the Carboniferous.”! The argument 
against the Taconic system which appeals to imperfect or incor- 
rect definition by its author, will apply with equal force against 
the Silurian system and also against the Cambrian; also against 
the Huronian and the Laurentian, and perhaps with still greater 
force against the Hudson River, since none of these were correctly 
and properly defined at first by their authors. 

If the equities of geological nomenclature, in the light of the 
results of later researches, demand of geologists of this genera- 
tion a fair consideration of the claims of Dr. Emmons, that com 
sideration must be granted. No amount of error, though heaped 
to the sky and supported by the highest authority, can long sub- 
sist. The truth, though tardy in asserting itself, will finally throw 

off the burdens under which it labors, and will shine the brighter 
for the darkness which preceded it. 

If we examine the descriptions, given by Dr. Emmons, of his 
Taconic system, we shall find that he makes the following broad 
stratigraphic distinctions. 

I. His highest member’is what he designates d/ack slate, ges | 
he declares, in some cases, plunges apparently beneath the at- 
cient gneisses” and contains a considerable amount of carbon 
aceous matter. In this slate, at Bald mountain, were found two 
genera of primordial trilobites that were described by Dr. Em- 
mons, the much buffeted Avops trilineatus? and Elliptocephala or 
phoides. 

II. Under the black slate his next grand distinction wa e 
so-called Taconic slate, which he described as argillaceous, 
iceous and “ talcose,” the upper part being suitable for roo) ; 
and other portions adapted for flagging. It is gre 
grayish and sometimes of a chocolate color. Its grain Nes 
fine, but in some places it is arenaceous rather than ar gillaceous 
Thickness about 2000 feet, 

* Letter to Jules Marcou, dated Raleigh, N. C., Nov. 6, 1860. 
* According to Mr, Ford this is Conochoryphe. 


1884.] The Crystalline Rocks of the Northwest. 995 


III. Below this great mass of soft schists, he described, in the 
first place, a mass of 500 feet of limestone, designated “ Stock- 
bridge limestone,” which graduates downward into “talcose” or 
magnesian sandstones and slates, the whole having a thickness of 
about 1700 feet. à 

IV. Under this limestone is his “ granular quartz rock,” more 
or less interstratified with slates, and becoming, in some places, 
an immense conglomerate with a “chloritic paste.” In this con- 
glomerate are fragments of the underlying gneiss, or 


V. A formation which constituted, in his scheme, the “ ancient 
gneiss” on which the Taconic system was said to lie uncon- 
formably. , 

Now it requires but a glance to perceive how closely this order 
coincides with that which has been independently and laboriously 
worked out in the Northwest. We have in both instances a 
“black slate” which in one case is said to be at the top of the 
system, but to pass apparently beneath the “ancient gneisses,” 
and in the other is reported to be overlain by a group of mica 
schist and the “ youngest Huronian,” a mass of gneiss and gab- 
bro. Below the black slate in both cases is an immense series 
of soft, hydro-mica and magnesian schists. These again are fol- 
lowed by limestone which in the Northwest often forms marble, 
and in New England sustains extensive marble quarries. This 
has various transitions to slate and to a hard sandrock, but in 
both places it becomes known, in its lower portions, as a great 
bed of quartzite ; and finally at the base is coarsely conglomeritic 
Vith masses of rock from the great underlying series of gneiss. 
Were there no other precedent this very parallelism would at 
once be taken as demonstrative, or at least indicative, of equiva- 
lence of age. The “Stockbridge limestone,” however, at Stock- 
ridge, seems to be of the Trenton age, according to Professor 
Dana; and where it appears in the Taconic mountains, farther 
South and west, it is assumed by him to be of the same forma- 
tion. But no one can affirm safely that the Taconic range of 
Mountains is made up of the Trenton and Hudson River forma- 7 
tions till the crucial test has been applied to them successfully in 
the discovery of the characteristic fossils, and assuredly not, in 
the absence of this test, in the face of the foregoing parallelism 
with a limestone Soe to lie much lower ; and in the face of the 
discovery of primordial fossils in Bald mountain some miles fur- 


VOL. XVII.—NO. x. 63 


996 The Crystalline Rocks of the Northwest. [October, | 


ther north in Washington county, New York. It is to be remem- 
bered, also, that the schists of Mt. Washington are distinctly 
different from those of Southern Vermont containing the Tren- 
ton fossils found by Mr. Wing, “a change ” taking place in them 
not far south from the point at which the fossils were found, con 
tinuing thence to the southern extremity of Mt. Washington! 
We are now, however, confronted with another difficulty, The 
geologists of Michigan and Wisconsin have set aside Dr, Em 
mons’ identification of the Menominee rocks with the Taconic 
in 1846, and have called them Huronian, the same that has been 
done in North Carolina by Mr. Kerr, parallelizing them with the 
Canadian system, which in 1855 was so named by Dr. T. Sterry 
2 


It becomes necessary, therefore, to ascertain of what the Hu- 
ronian consists. Dr. Hunt sets out with the statement that it 
was designed to include the younger and unconformable series of 
metamorphic rocks found on the shore of Lake Huron andin 
the valley of the Thessalon river, “and also the so-called vol- 
canic formations of Lake Superior.” Thus the avowed intent 
was the same as that of Dr. Emmons in erecting the Taconite 
system. If we seek for the actual stratigraphic and mineralogi- 
cal characters of these rocks, we shall find them in the geological 
reports of the Canadian survey, particularly that of 1863. 

In descending order the original Huronian consists of the fol 
lowing strata, disregarding the diorites and other “ greenstone 
all of which are thought by Logan to be of igneous orgit 
though included in the thickness given. 


ONE a ce cheese she stuns mr 
TOE Ee Dos? eae E ies Pipers Ce . . 200 “ 
White q a ess whe bea E bec Uieicbeeeess nae 
Limestone, siliceous and cherty..........ccseceeeceeeseee?* ee 3 
White TONO aa ee Cone nccevervecscerer® 2979 
Red jasper conglomerate ,... het gaat rT ah ; 
E a aala ae E La 2300 Í 
Sate opone Mee a Cee goo 
E a as eiie r E adie st 
ee as .. 1280 “ 
White quartzite......... kareak aR O EPR E E T o 1000 s 
E SO epidotie a A L E ees 2000 : 
E 5 Se ccicis iss cvsbooote ath 
—_— 
aaa A 18000, 


1 Dana Am Jour. Sci. ( 
Bo mien. g wong ~ Het. (3), XVII, 376. 
2 s - Fi . 4 
Equisse geologique du Canada; Azoic rocks, Rep. E, p. 72» 


i 


' 


f 


; 
: 


1884.} The Crystalline Rocks of the Northwest. 997 


Of this series of 18,000 feet goo feet consist of limestone ; 
2000 feet consist of “chloritic and epidotic slates,”:and 17,100 
feet consist of quartzite and conglomerate. Perhaps 5000 feet of 
this thickness may be considered intrusive, consisting of diorite 
and other forms of “ greenstone.” This will leave 12,000 feet, at 
least, for the aggregate thickness of quartzite and conglomerate, 
being nearly double that observed in the same horizon in North- 
ern Minnesota. 

It is plain to see that if there be any parallelism between these 
beds and the various groups made out in the Northwest, the 
whole of these strata must he made the equivalent of Group V, 
or the quartzite and marble group. The 2000 feet of chloritic and 
epidotic slates, represented as near the base of the original Hu- 
ronian, followed as they are by an immense thickness of con- 
glomerate and slate-conglomerate, are anomalous unless there be 
below them other slate-conglomerates. This, indeed, is very prob- 
able, since on the shore of Lake Superior, near the mouth of the 
River Doré, according to the same authority, the lowest part of 
the Huronian is seen to consist of a green slaty conglomerate, 
containing “ boulders ” of granite and gneiss. 

The extension of the term Huronian from the horizon of the 
original Huronian, upward through the overlying groups, may be 
Justified by the expression of the original intent in the application 
of the term, but it certainly seems not warranted by any descrip- 
tion of rocks by the Canadian geologists, nor by any claim that 
has usually been put forth by the authors of the name. 

There is, therefore, a conflict between the Taconic and the 
Huronian, both in respect to the horizon which they are intended 
to cover (both being referred by their authors to the Lower Cam- 
brian) and in the horizon of rocks which they actually compass. 

e Huronian, however, in its original and typical description, 
can be parallelized with only the very lowest of the strata that 
a included in the typical and original Taconic; while the Ta- 
conic stretches upward at least as far as to include the fourth and 
third grand groups made out in the Northwest, that is to say, the 
hydro-mica and magnesian schists, and the carbonaceous and are- 
naceous black slates. 

: This leaves two series of rocks untouched by the scope of 
either the Huronian or the Taconic, as these systems were at first 
defined ; namely the mica schist group, and the granite and gneiss 


998 The Crystalline Rocks of the Northwest [ October, | 


with gabbro group. In the term Montalban proposed for these 
groups by Dr. Hunt, the two are united and the constant distinct 
ness which they seem to maintain is not recognized. The granite 
and gabbro group has affinities with the onlying Cupriferous rocks, 
and perhaps, as Irving has suggested, should be considered the 
base of that series which Brooks has named “ Kewenawian,” 
whereas the mica schist group has affinities with the underlying 
groups, and has, without exception, been assigned to the same 
system and age as those underlying groups, The granite and 
gabbro group has likewise been designated differently. The gab- 
bro, being an igneous rock, varies much in its prevalence and ia 
its apparent relation to the granite. Its greatest development 
produces in Minnesota a range of low hills which extend north. 
eastward from Duluth. Under similar circumstances, this gon 
has received the name Norian, though at first called Labradonan, 
and thought to be a part of the Laurentian! The granite and 
gneiss, also, associated with the gabbro, have received, under one 
of their modified conditions, the special designation Arvontan, on 
the supposition that these rocks where they so appear, are not 
modified conditions of granite and gneiss, but represent indè- 
pendent strata that lie near the bottom of the “ Huronian” equal 
in rank to any of the other groups. I think I have shown ele 
where? that the Arvonian rocks are interstratified with the Cupr- 
ferous, and also that they are modified sediments of the Cuprifer: 
ous. Instead of being near the bottom of the “ Huronian f 
the Northwest, they overlie all the groups that have been assigned 
to the Huronian by Irving, and constitute a part of the great sè- 
ries of “ younger gneisses ” which by Brooks has been ranked 
the “youngest Huronian.” he 
The interesting variety of nomenclature as brought out byt 
foregoing remarks, can be seen by a glance at the accompanying 
tabular arrangement, where the various parallelisms and the co 
flicting nomenclature are placed in adjoining columns. d 
It is evident from this table that at present it is a hazardo p 
and perhaps an impossible, undertaking to assign the grok 
the crystalline rocks of the Northwest to any of the terranes i 
have been named further east, without violating somebody 7 
tem of nomenclature. Some of the ground has been | 
* It was described by Emmons under the term “ H ypersthene rock.” 


7 A. A. A. S. Cincinnati meeting; Minnesota Survey Rep. for 1880, P. BOGE 
1881, p. 110. a 


1884.] The Crystalline Rocks of the Northwest. . 999 


several times by different names, but on different hypotheses of 
structure, origin, and parallelism. Respecting the horizon known 
as “ Laurentian” there is an approach to unanimity and agree- 
ment. This, however, consists more in a tacit consent to style 
the lowest known rocks Laurentian, than in any agreement among 
geologists as to the nature and composition of the strata. The 
Taconic of Emmons, which has been buffeted and combatted from 


marble group), so as to include all the crystalline rocks lying 
above that group, spreading from the Laurentian to the unchanged 
Sediments of the Upper Cambrian. This has in some cases be- 
fome so obviously wrong, and has included groups of rocks so 
plainly extra~Huronian, that a double and triple nomenclature has 

en applied to.a part of these upper rocks, for the purpose of 
relieving the term of the heterogeneous burden which it was 
otherwise compelled to carry. These new names, with the ex- 
ception of the name Montalban, seem to be of value only as re- 
gional designations, the strata which they represent being igneous 
or metamorphic, and hence liable to be wanting in some places 
and to be non-crystalline in others. They further complicate the 
stratigraphic nomenclature, since they are probably only the lo- 
ad modified lower parts of the New York system. Their geo- 
graphic distribution in the Northwest not only indicates their 
stratigraphic horizon but also their limited and local existence. 

n conclusion, the chief points brought out in this discussion 
may be stated more concisely : 5 
_ 1- The crystalline rocks of the Northwest are comprised under 
six well-marked, comprehensive groups. 


3. The Huronian of Canada is the equivalent of the lowest of 
the Taconic groups, and the perfect parallel of only the lowest of 


. + ihe uppermost of the groups in the N l 
its existence, and exceptional in its characters, and has received 
‘relore a variety of names. sae 
- there is, therefore, confusion and conflict of authority in the 
application of names to the crystalline rocks of the Northwest. 


[October 


The Crystalline Rocks of the Northwest. 


1000 


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1884] Man in the Tertiaries. IOOI 
MAN IN THE TERTIARIES.! 
BY EDWARD S. MORSE. 


MAS: profoundly interested in his origin and antiquity, finds 
himself hampered in his investigations by the opinions and 
prejudices that have grown up with him. 

He finds it well-nigh impossible to step outside of himself and 
regard himself as a mammal among hundreds of other species of 
mammals. 

The formidable dogmas which he has erected, and perpetuated 
through centuries, to explain his origin, have become obstructive 
barriers which have had to be assailed, one after the other, to 
clear the way for rational investigation, and the arrogance, fury 
and final desperation of their defense have been only faintly por- 
trayed by history. 

The most formidable, and indeed the chief of these barriers 
was the one interwoven with theological dogma. Its foundation 
was laid fifteen centuries ago, and each century added its accumula- 
tions, until finally by violence and otherwise it became a part of 
man’s inheritance, to assail which was to imperil his most 
cherished convictions, With the partial removal of these barriers, 
one becomes mindful of the precious evidences of man’s antiquity, 
which have been overlooked, or forever lost; evidences all the 
More precious because so difficult to obtain. 

ese barriers being no longer obstructive, other barriers arose, 
having for their foundation evidence, and having for their builders 
men who belonged to that class which had been mainly instru- 
mental in clearing the ground of previous obstacles. 

The most important of these barriers was the one erected by 
Cuvier in the idea declaring that man being the last and highest 
of Creation, and intimately associated with the present fauna, could 
never have been contemporary with the extinct species of mam- 
mals found in the quaternary beds. Fortified by this barrier, 
science repelled for a time all evidences brought forward to show 

man’s remains were synchronous with those of extinct mam- 
mals, and the authors of these evidences were treated with neglect 
and even ignominy. 

The assaults of this barrier are now historic. The final and 

"Address deliy i i S. Morse, before the Section of An- 
thropology ae Saera Adv. Science, Sept. 4th, 1884. 


1002 ; Man in the Tertiaries. [October, 


triumphant vindication of Perthes, Schmerling and others, and the 
consequent overthrow of Cuvier’s massive authority in this matter, 
are familiar to every student of archzology. 

No sooner had the Cuvierian barrier against quaternary man 
been demolished, than smaller barriers of precisely the same nature 
were erected against the tertiaries, 

Gaudry, while admitting the authenticity of the worked fliats 
discovered by the Abbé Bourgeois in the miocene of Thenay, 
could not admit that they were those of man, because he says, 
“There was not in the middle of the miocene epoch a single 
Species now extant. Considering the question from a palæon- 
tological point of view it is difficult to believe that the flint carvers 
of Thenay remained uninfluenced by this universal change.” 

Professor Dawkins! in a similar line of argument assumes that 
“man, the most highly specialized form in the animal kingdom, 
cannot be looked for until the lower animals by which he is now 
surrounded made their appearance. We cannot imagine him to 
have been living in the eocene age when animal life was not 
sufficiently differentiated to present us with living genera of 
placental mammals, Nor is there any probability of his having 
appeared on the earth in the miocene, because of the absence of 
placental mammals belonging to living species. It is most um 
likely that man should appear in a fauna in which there was n0 
other living mammal. 

“ He belongs to a more advanced stage of evolution than that 
presented by the mid-miocene of Thenay, in which flint splinters 
fashioned by man are said to have occurred. Up to this time the 
evolution of the animal kingdom had advanced no farther than 
the Simiade in the direction of man, and the apes then haunting 
the forests of Italy, France and Germany were the most highly 
organized types. We may also look at the question from another 
point of view, If man were upon the earth in the mior 
it is incredible that he should not have become something 
while those changes were going on in the conditions of life by 

which all the miocene land mammalia have been so profo i 
affected that they have either assumed new forms or been extet 
minated. It is impossible to believe that man should have beef 


an exception to the law of change,” and for similar reasons , 


Professor Dawkins says we cannot expect to find traces of ma 
1N. A. Review, Vol. 137, No. 4 


; 
| 


1884.] Man in the Tertiaries. 1003 


in the pliocene age. The student fully imbued with these opin- 
ions, the same in kind with those of Gaudry, is inclined to re- 
pudiate or modify the interpretations of all evidences bearing on 
man’s existence before the quaternary. 

That such barriers are really obstructive is plainly evident. In 
thus authoritatively setting a limit to man’s antiquity a check is 
not only put upon research but, if firmly grounded in the minds 
of some, evidence, if met with, is mistaken or ignored. 

The history of palzontology is strewn with these barriers, bar- 
riers not only limiting groups of animals to certain horizons, but 
repeatedly placing a limit to the dawn of life itself. How well do 
we recall the timeworn geological terms characterizing the differ- 
ent geological periods as they were recognized in our younger 
days, and how many thousands of vertical feet have been recov- 
ered from the Azoic and brought into orderly sequence, defined 
by names which are getting to be equally familiar. 

As the objections to the occurrence of man in the tertiaries are 
in every case purely theoretical, they may, with perfect fairness, be 
combated on theoretical grounds. 

In the theological barrier the objection to man’s high antiquity 
rested solely on the fact that it was in direct conflict with Mosaic 
Cosmogony, and yet this barrier, unsupported by the faintest 
scrap of evidence, thwarted the study of man’s antiquity up to 
within very recent years. 

In the Cuvierian barrier man was assumed to be structu- 
to the highest mammal, and consequently must have appeared 


In the analogous barriers of Gaudry, Dawkins and others, the 
assumption is that since orders, families and genera have become 
extinct, it is inconceivable that man should have remained un- 
changed while those profound modifications and extinctions were 
going on, 

This position has been greatly strengthened by the idea that 
man has been evolved from the higher apes, and that his nearest 
relations among these creatures are those which are supposed to 

ve appeared last in the sequence. The troublesome fact, how- 
ever, confronts us that we find the evidences of man associated 

“With extinct apes, and the gap between them is by no means 
closed in these earlier horizons. 

Assuming that man has sprung from the same stem with the 


1004 Man in the Téertiaries. [ October, 


higher apes, and assuming, moreover, that he is limited to the 
Quaternary, we do not find in the earlier deposits what we should 
have a right to expect, namely, generalized forms of man, that is, 
creatures that while markedly ape-like in character were unques- 
tionably man. In the earliest remains of man, thus far recog- 
nized, we do have the most pronounced ape-like features, as in 
the well-known Engis and Neanderthal, and in the more recently 
discovered Tilbury and Podhaba skulls. But all these forms are 
still man, with a fair brain case whatever may be inferred regard- 
ing the depth and number of his cerebral convolutions. The 
modifications toward an ape-like structure, slight as they may 
appear, have the deepest significance in clearly indicating the 
direction from which he sprang. 

If paleontologists are right the first anthropoid ape has been 
found in the Middle Eocene, and later still a more generalized 
form called Oreopithecus which, according to Gervais, had affini- 
ties with the anthropoid apes, macaques and baboons. Side by 
side with these early apes are found chipped flints, if we are to 
accept the authority of their discoverer, Bourgeois, and the opit- 
ion of Mortillet and others. 

If man existed then, and on theoretical grounds there is n0 
reason to believe that he did not exist, where are we to look kt 
the approach of these two groups? Surely far beyond the limits 
where these evidences had hitherto been found. We must not 
be content to trace out the evidences of man in his work, for be 
fore the rudest flint was fashioned by him he must have used nat- 
ural fragments of sticks and stones, and even this faculty must iP 
indicated an advance far beyond that of his progenitors, who f 
not acquired even the habit of handling weapons. Thee 7 
evidences must be sought for in his remains, and not in his wor 
and here we meet with a difficulty which unfortunately not j 
accompanies the remains of man and those creatures having s 
affinity with him, but of other groups of animals as. Fi 
conditions which have rendered the preservation of their 
mains a matter ot chance; conditions duly recognized by the 
zontologists pertaining to their perishable nature, life habits of 
composition of the rocks in which such and such forms a i 
areon have occurred. While the remains of certain groups” 
animals are scattered through the rocks in the greatest profusio® 
of other groups, Perhaps equally numerous in individ 


1884.] Man tn the Tertiaries. 1005 


scantiest traces are met with. The very conditions of life which 
characterized early man and his associates, render the preserva- 
tion of their remains a matter of extreme improbability. The 
Herbivora, in herds, seeking the shelter of watery places to avoid 
heat and insect annoyances would, in dying, become mired, and 
thus preserved in a matrix for the future explorer. The heavier 
mammals, like the mastodon, would become engulfed by their 
own weight under conditions which would preserve them, and 
these are not supposititious cases, but in accordance with facts 
connected with their discovery and preservation. Aquatic forms 
are infinitely more abundant as fossils than land or aérial forms. 
Professor Marsh, in his monograph on the fossil toothed birds of 
America, testifies to the extreme rarity of the remains of land 
birds over those of aquatic habits. 

_ The arboreal ancestors of man, and the probable habits of man 
himself, would leave their bones to bleach in the field or forest, to 
decompose and disappear long before an entombment were possi- 
ble. It was only when man acquired the art of sepulture or 
sought refuge in caves that the preservation of his remains be- 
came assured, 

Even after man sought the shelter of caves or acquired the art 
of burial, surface changes have been so widespread and profound 
as to nearly obliterate all evidences of those places. Professor 
Dawkins, the eminent archeologist and geologist, says that 
while there have been caverns in all geological periods, they have 

been obliterated by “the rain, the alternations of heat and 
cold, the acids evolved from decaying vegetation and the breakers 
on the seashore,” and this abrasion and destruction has been so 
extensive and thorough that Professor Dawkins recalls only two 
caverns that can be said to.be as old as the Middle Pliocene. 

Even when these caves have been preserved, the harvest from 
them has been of the most meager description. 

Schmerling, who examined nearly fifty caves in Belgium, found 
Auman remains in only two or three of them. Lund, who exam- 
ined eight hundred caves in Brazil, found only six containing 
human remains, It would seem as if the elements had conspired 
to efface every record of that creature who alone takes any inter- 
est in his own origin. We survey large areas rich in the works 
of man, yet find no traces of the bones of man himself. The 
Swiss lake-dwellers we know minutely from the débris of their 


1006 Man in the Tertiaries. [October, 


ruined villages. Grain and even the bread they made being pre- 
served, and yet human bones are of scanty occurrence. The 
Danish peat-beds have as yet never yielded human bones, though 
stone implements and objects of various kinds from these depos- 
its enrich the museums of Denmark. i 

The shell heap deposits all over the world rarely contain human 
bones. It is said that none have been found in the Danish shell 
heaps, though Wyman found a few in the Florida shell mounds, 
and the deposits in Japan reveal similar traces. 

Chief among the agencies in destroying the evidences of man 
have been the glacial floods, and these, if the glacialists are right, 
have occurred, one, during the earlier pliocene, and the other at 
the beginning of the quaternary. To these overwhelming and 
annihilating ice torrents, grinding, sweeping and inundating the 
north temperate zone, must be attributed the almost complete ob- 
literation of records we hold most precious. And in their 
gradual recedence no less destructive agencies were at work in 
scooping out valleys, inundating immense areas and covering 
broad tracts of land by their detritus. eos 

Even man to-day with his colossal works of engineering skill 
would in the face of a glacial flood yield the last traces of the 
evidences of his existence. A few corroded boulders of metal, 
and bits of glazed pottery alone might survive. What must pP 
a torrent have been to primitive man with his simple and ru 
appliances ! ° 

It would seem from many facts that early man lived in the 
vicinity of water, either on the banks of rivers, or along the coast 
line. The reasons for this are obvious enough; food was i 
Procurable at every receding tide and when man acquired the i 
of boat-making natural thoroughfares were always available a 
4 greater necessity from the dense forests which covered 
and. 


iivit is just these regions that have been most profoundly 
modified since glacial days and indeed in all times. 
_ Ancient river beds have been widened, lowered and obliterated 
Coast lines have changed, great tracts have disappeared ers of 
the waves and degradations of the coast lines by the pounding 
the waves has been universal, calls 
| Professor George H. Cook, state geologist of New Jersey, the 
attention to the universal subsidence of the coast line from 


f 
i 
l 
i 
i 
! 


1884.] Man in the Tertiaries. 1007 


Carolinas to Greenland. The erosion of all the shores and islands 
along the coast of New England is very marked. Shell heaps 
are everywhere met with, cropping out and crumbling down with 
the decaying banks, and the records of man thus lost can never 
be regained. 

If Saporta’s idea is correct then, of course, the traces of these 
primitive people are buried under paleochrystic ice. Saporta 
suggested the idea that man, originating in the north, had been 
pushed southward by successive waves of people till the primitive 
wave was forced into the extremities of the Southern continents, 
and that the remnants of this ancient wave are seen in the Tas- 
manians, Bushmen and Fuegans. 

That such a wave could be forced the length of the world, 
through such vicissitudes of climate and accompanying condi- 
tions, unmixed and unbroken seems incredible. Far more prob- 
able would it be to assume an antarctic continent under genial 
conditions in which these primitive races lived, I will not say 
originated, and from whence successive waves emanated, becom- 
ing modified by their new surroundings as they receded from 
their point of origin. The submergence of this region leaving 
remnants of these extraordinary, low and uniformly dolichoceph- 

ic types as we recognize them in the Patagonians, Tasmanians, 
Australians, Bushmen, Veddahs and others, and precisely where 
we might expect to find them, If either supposition is true the 
earlier traces of these people are forever buried beyond recovery. 

In the face of all this destruction and effacement must be 
reckoned also the prejudices of man himself, which have caused the 
loss of precious material, or of opportunities which can never be re- 
gained. Ancient skeletons have been exhumed only tobe promptly 
buried again; others encountered in excavations and left undis- 
turbed through superstitious fear. Even at the present time the 
recognition of all evidences bearing on the high antiquity of man 
ts checked by a scrutiny that oftentimes becomes well-nigh ridic- 
ulous, The collection and study of the remains of other fossil 
mammals goes on unchallenged. Material is collected and allotted 
to its proper -horizon without dispute. The archæologist, how- 
ever, is beset by a class who repudiate his facts, look upon his 
evidences as deceptive or fraudulent, and within very recent times 
have not hesitated to apply terms of equal opprobrium to the in- 


vestigators of these things. 


1008 Man in the Tertiaries. [October, 


We are continually warned that caution should be exercised in _ 
accepting evidence not verified by scientific observers; at the 
same time we should be on our guard to repudiate all protests 
against the high antiquity of man made by those not equally wel 
informed. 

From the preceding pages it is evident that ‘the discovery of 
the remains of early man, or rather of primitive man, is highly 
improbable; nevertheless we need not despair; other forms of 
animals have been equally rare for a time until some unlocked: 
for discovery has brought to light a rich mine of material. Until 
this good fortune comes to us we must be content to reason from 
the known to the unknown, 

In regard to the physical characteristics of man, it has been 
wondered by Gaudry, that man could have remained unchanged 
while so many other forms have been modified or become extinct. 
That slight changes in the osteological structure of man have 
taken place he must admit, and that mammals of huge form and 
great variety have become extinct, and others profoundly mot ; 
ified since his appearance, is equally certain. 

These facts he recognizes so far as pleistocene man is concerned, 
but the great disproportion in the changes that man may w 
undergone, and the known changes of other mammals since mi 
cene days, seems too improbable to be accepted. On the other 
hand it seems reasonable to believe that the moment the ancesto® 
of man possessed the power of banding together in communitie, 
and of using weapons, they became capable of rendering 
operative the very influences which were So active in moe 
or exterminating their mammalian associates. 

How far these conditions were settled in the quaternary 
be seen in the fact that while man could endure an arctic 
his anthropoid and more distant pithicoid relations bathed 
tropical heat. Indeed the latter disappeared from Euroen ; 
on the approach of the cold wave, while man survived. | 

The fact that man and his near associates have ied to t 
as, structurally, the highest forms of mammal, hase% 
natural belief that they must have been last evolved. 

That man is preëminently the highest form intelle 
without the saying. In the words of Topinard, “ is 
which our very exalted intellectual faculties secure to U5," 
firmed to us by the existence of an exceptional 


1884. ] Man in the Tertiaries. 1009 


the organ which is its seat.” Man has three or four times more 
brain than the highest ape. This excessive disproportion, even 
taking the capacity of the earliest crania, must presuppose a long 
line of ancestors in which this capacity was less and less. 

The same progress that man and his near relatives have shown 
in an unparalleled degree in the development of the brain, is also 
remarkably conspicuous in other mammals and vertebrates lower 
down in the scale, as shown so admirably by Marsh. 

The size of the brain case went on increasing from the earlier 
to the later geological periods out of all proportion to other 
modifications of structure. 

In relation to this subject it seems that sufficient importance 
has never been given to the generalizations of Cope wherein he 
considers the relations of man with tertiary mammals, and until 
sufficient recognition has been accorded to these generalizations 
I feel justified in again bringing them forward. In these consid- 
erations Professor Cope shows that “the mammals of the lower 
ocene exhibit a greater percentage of types that walk on the 
soles of their feet, while the successive periods exhibit an increas- 
ing number of those that walk on the toes, while the hoofed ani- 
mals and Carnivora of recent times nearly all have the heel high 
in the air, the principal exceptions being the elephant and bear 
families.” He then calls attention to the progressive osteological 
changes of the foot from the earlier to the later types through 
several lines of descent, and says: “ The relation of man to this 
history is highly interesting. Thus, in all generalized points, his 
limbs are those of a primitive type so common in the eocene. He 
iS plantigrade ; has five toes ; separate tarsals and carpals; short 

l; flat astragalus, and neither hoofs nor claws, but something 
between the two; the bones of the forearm and leg are not so 
unequal as in the higher types, and remain entirely distinct from 
each other, and the ankle joint is not so perfect as in many of 
ee In his teeth his character is thoroughly primitive. M 

* His structural superiority consists solely in the com- 
Plexity and size of the brain. A very important lesson is derived 
from these and kindred facts. The monkeys were anticipated in 
the greater fields of the world’s activity by more powerful rivals. 
€ ancestors of the ungulates held the fields and the swamps, 
and the Carnivora, driven by hunger, learned the arts and cruel- 
ties of the chase. The weaker ancestors of the quadrumana pos- 


IOTO Man in the Tertiaries. [October 
sessed neither speed nor weapons of offence or defence, and nob 
ing but an arboreal life was left them, when they developed tte 
prehensile powers of the feet. Their digestive system unspeca 
ized, their food various, their life the price of ceaseless vigilans 
no wonder that their inquisitiveness and wakefulness were stim. 
lated and developed, which is the condition of progressive intt 
ligence.” And Professor Fiske shows, on other grounds, that 
when variations in intelligence became more important than var: 
ations in physical structure, they were seized upon to the relative 
exclusion of the latter. ; , 
I am not aware that these postulates have ever been gainsiù 
and their admission answers the objections urged by Gaudry aii 
others, and explains on rational grounds why man has continued 
to persist for so long a time with physical characteristics © 
slightly modified, while other forms were changing or becoming 
extinct. : 
As to his structural affinities with the higher apes, it has been 
shown that his relations are not only with these forms but scat 
tered through the whole range from the gorilla down, and ost 
ologically even with the half-apes, the lemuroids, and these # | 
turn have affinities with those perplexing forms, the ayoayeani 
tarsier. ae 
As to his osteological affinities with the Lemuroide, mss 
upon by Mivart, it i hy of hat these forms have bet 
pon by Mivart, it is worthy of note t 2 
discovered in the Lower Eocene of both continents. a 
If these st iti i e must look f 
ructural affinities are valid, then w oe 
beyond and below the present higher apes for the ee 
branches of man’s ancestry. Among the many evidences x 
early origin of man is the one that reveals the early 
ment of well marked types which must have required p 
mous lapse of time to have established. Repeatedly © ? 
dences are brought forward, by different investigators, ce 
various types of skulls are met with among the cari iy 
man, Without mentioning the comparatively recent | 
ers of Switzerland, among whom Dr. His believes he 
ered four different types of skulls, we turn tot 
Kollman, who has made an exhaustive study of t 
various races in both hemispheres. The results of thes? 
have established the existence of races of people beat 
unchangeable characters so far back as the remains ©” 


1884.] Man in the Tertiaries, IOI 


been detected. Among these races living to-day he calls atten- 
tion to the Malay and Papuan existing for so long a time under 
similar tropical influences, and yet so markedly different in their 
racial characters. 

From a study of the skulls, both ancient and modern, of the 
native races of North and South America, as well as those of 
other parts of the world, Dr. Kollman comes to the opinion that 
the sub-species of man became fixed in the preglacial period, 
and through the vicissitudes of time a greater or less influence 
has been exerted upon varieties in different areas. 

Mr. Keane, in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute for 
February, 1880, shows that the great Asiatic types, known as the 
Caucasian and Mongolian, have from prehistoric times occupied 
the Chinese peninsula. And these evidences are continually mul- 
tiplying, not only in regard to the diversity of type among early 
faces, but to their equally wide dispersion as well. 

urthermore, the evidences go to show that early man had be- 
come sufficiently differentiated to acclimate himself to widely 
different regions of the earth’s surface, ranging from the torrid to 
the arctic, while the apes were still confined to the torrid zone. 
The remains of his feasts show that he had early become omniv- 
orous, 

These facts in themselves indicate a wide gap then separating 
man from the higher apes, and add further reason for his ability 
t remain unaltered amid the universal change going on about 

im. 


The most powerful argument, in favor of the belief that man 
Must have existed in the tertiaries, lies in the very important fact 
that his earliest remains are not confined to any one region of 
the earth which might have been a centre of distribution—a 
paleolithic garden of Eden—but are found in all four quarters of 

1e earth, as the rapidly multiplying evidences are testifying. 

To go no farther back than the river drift men, if, with Dawkins, 
We admit that these are the first reliable traces of man, we find 

t these people were not confined to any one special region of 
€arth’s crust, but, on the contrary, are found impartially scat- 
tered from tropical India, through Europe, to the continent of 
North America. They could not have been distributed through 
the northern approaches of the continents unless this distribution 
Occurred in preglacial times, because, as Dawkins shows, an ice- 
VOL, Xvi11.—no, x, 64 


1012 Man in the Tertiaries. (October, 


barrier must have spanned the great oceans in northem bi - 
tudes. | 

It seems an almost fruitless speculation to inquire into tk 
= manner of their dispersion, yet one is tempted to surmise that! 
they originated in the tropics, then submerged continents mus 
be restored to offer the means necessary for such a dispersi 
If, on the other hand, their home was in the north or south tem- 
perate zone, and the distribution circumpolar, which seems mort 
probable, then we have another evidence of the wide separation 
which the race had undergone, at that early day, from: its tropical 
relatives, the apes. Whatever the facts may ultimately show, this 
unparalleled distribution of a people in the lowest stages d 
savagery proves beyond question that man must have preéxiste! 
for an immense period of time, for, with the known fixity of low 
savage tribes, the time required to disperse this people over the 
whole earth can only be measured by geological centuries. 

The farther we penetrate into the past, and ascertain Som 
definite horizon of man’s occurrence, other observers in widely 
different regions of the earth bring to light traces of mani 
existence in equally low horizons. The remoteness of mats 
existence in time and space is so vast that, to 
nomical term, no parallax has thus far been es 
which we can even faintly approximate the CC 
in which he first appeared. By this fact we are pe a 
assumption that the progenitors of quaternary ae under i 
genera possibly, must be sought for in the tertiaries. riii 

Science will not gain by the erection of any theoretical i 
against tertiary man, until such definite forms are met Wh” 
shall reasonably settle the beds in which he first oct 

We know in what rocks it would be obviously absurd e 
for his remains or the remains of any mammal. : 
ever, as forms are found, in the lowest beds of th an 
: j ; st not cease” 
ing the remotest affinity to his order, we Tee padi 
care in scanning unbiased, even the rocks of this pe 
traces of that creature who until within a few short pee g 
garded as five thousand, eight hundred and some 0 bis 
and who despite of protest and prejudice has pee that 
to an antiquity so great anda dispersion so pl pas be 
far no tendency to a convergence of his earliest ee 
demonstrated. 


1884.] Editors’ Table. 1013 


EDITORS’ TABLE. 
EDITORS: A. S. PACKARD, AND E. D. COPE. 


—— Our esteemed contemporary, Science Record, in its issue 
of July 15th makes the following editorial observations : 


“It is a well-known fact among naturalists that much valuable 
scientific work is not the result of the labors of the man over 
whose name it appears. There are several in this country (and 
many in Europe) who employ assistants who do all or nearly all 
of their work, including even the composition of their articles, 
but the names of these assistants are never mentioned, Their 
employers get all the credit for their work. It would seem that 
this shows a lack of common honesty, as it builds up a reputa- 
ea at w expense of the subordinate who really accomplishes 

e wor p 


We have heard these sentiments occasionally expressed since 
the days of our early experience, and have never been able to 
give them our assent. Everything depends on the nature of the 
contract existing between the employer and the employed. If 
the latter agrees to furnish brains to the employer at so mucha 
Month, he will not, if he be a man, complain if the employer 
get credit for possessing greater ability than he is actually pos- 
sessed of. This is, however, a kind of contract which few per- 
Sons on either side of it would desire to make, and only necessity 
could furnish an inducement to enter into it. An employee in 
such an establishment is no more entitled to the credit of the pro- 
Prietor than an intelligent and perhaps necessary clerk is to a 
share in the profits of the business of a mercantile firm. Never- 
theless some persons would rather do this kind of work than be 
an accountant or a farm laborer. It doubtless gives more or less 

cation, and furnishes a stepping-stone to something better. 

A really reprehensible practice is that of appropriating with- 
Out credit the results of the work of others which has sot been 
Paid for. There can be no diversity of opinion on this pomt, 
and he who does it defies his environment, and will not only gam 
nothing by it, but will lose a good deal of good report which he 
might otherwise possess. 


1014 Recent Literature, [Oc à 
RECENT LITERATURE. 


NOTES ON THE BIRDS OBSERVED DURING A SUMMER CRUISED 
THE GULF oF St. LAwreNce. By WILLIAM Brewster. —Thisi 
the title of an important paper of forty eight pages recently 
issued by the Boston Society of Natural History. By wayd | 
introduction Mr. Brewster states that the expedition was orga 
ized by Professor Hyatt, and that the scientific work accomplished 
was done in the interest of the Boston Society of Natural His 
tory. The party, which consisted of Alpheus Hyatt, William 
Brewster, Samuel Henshaw, E. G. Gardiner, W. H. Kerr and È 
R. Warren, set sail from Annisquam, Mass., on the moring o 
June 17, 1881, “in the Arethusa, a schooner-rigged yacht of ser- 
enteen: tons, belonging to Professor Hyatt.” The gulf waser 
tered on the 24th. The places visited were Gaspé, Perce . 
the Magdalen islands, Anticosti (Fox, Wreck and Ellis bays ai 
West End), and the Mingan island on the north shore. 

Persons familiar with navigation in the Gulf of St. Lawrent | 
will not be surprised at the statement: “ The weather durig 


two, and some of these were more or less interrupted by 


was by no means uncommon to spend several days waiting * 
opportunity to land on some tempting shore, and woe? 
thing like tho 
work.” The time and patience required for the preparati 
preservation of bird skins on a small yacht during 
must be experienced to be fully appreciated, and 
in order to save specimens previously procured, W 
forced to remain on board while the other members © 
were on shore. 


technical character. 

Concerning the song of the fox sparro see 
“ What the mocking-bird is to the South, the mea@ csat 
plains of the West, the robin and song sparrow to nglatt 
and the white-throated sparrow to Northern Nev Calf 0 
fox sparrow is to the bleak regions bordering a 
Vol. xr, Oth 


shiis 
u 


1 Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, 
PP. 364-412. Not issued till June, 1884. 


1884.] Recent Literature. 1015 


Lawrence, At all hours of the day, in every kind of weather, 
late into the brief summer, its voice rises among the evergreen 
woods, filling the air with quivering, delicious melody, which at 
length dies softly, mingling with the soughing of the wind in the 
spruces, or drowned by the muffled roar of the surf beating 
against neighboring cliffs. To my ear the prominent characteris- 
tic of its voice is richness. It expresses careless joy and exultant 
masculine vigor rather than delicate shades of sentiment, and on 
this account is perhaps of a lower order than the pure, passion- 
less hymn of the hermit thrush; but it is such a fervent, sensu- 
ous and withal perfectly-rounded carol that it affects the ear much 
as sweetmeats do the palate, and for the moment renders all other 
bird music dull and uninteresting by comparison.” 

he ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus), long known as an inhabi- 
tant of Labrador, was not met with, but Mr. Brewster “ obtained 
some information affecting its northern range, which, if true, is 
important.” He was told by several witnesses, whose trust- 
Worthiness is not called in question, that the species occurs, 
though sparingly, as far north as Hudson straits. 

Ahe greater yellow-legs (Totanus melanoleucus) was found 
breeding in numbers at Fox and Ellis bays, Anticosti, and about 
the mouth of the Mingan river. Concerning its actions on the 
breeding grounds, Mr. Brewster remarks: “ Previous to the 
experience just related, I had supposed myself well acquainted 
with these birds, but I am free to confess that when I first met 
them at Anticosti I had to shoot several before I could believe 

lat they were really greater yellow-legs. Not only were their 
flight and action; peculiar, but all their notes differed from any 

had ever heard them produce. In addition to the cry 
already described, they uttered a rolling pheu-pheu-phé, pheu-pheu- 
phé, repeated a dozen times or more in quick succession ; a mel- 
low pheu, heu, pheu, resembling the whistle of the fish-hawk, and 
a soft, hollow hoo, whoo, whoo, very like the cooing of a dove. 
€ latter note was given only when the bird perched on the top 
of some tall spruce, a habit by no means uncommon here, but one 
bn I think has never been previously reported for this 

les,” 


Mr. Brewster says of the famous gannet rookery at Bird 
rocks: “In 1860 the number of gannets breeding on the top of 


there were some fifty nests at the northern end which had 
gered.” a few days before and about which the birds still lin- 


1016 Recent Literature. [October 


A couple of young kittiwake gulls (Rissa tridactyla), taken 
alive by Professor Hyatt, were the occasion of a veryi 
discovery. “We could not induce them to drink,” writes Mr 
Brewster, “ and in spite of every attention that could be thought 
of they pined rapidly. On the second day one of them diet 
The survivor was failing fast when some one placed himina — 
basin filled with salt water, hoping that a bath might prove ben 
ficial. To our great surprise he instantly began to drink, swab- 
lowing draught after draught with evident satisfaction. After 
that there was no further trouble. He had a dish of sea water 
constantly within reach, and it was frequently resorted to; bit 
we could never tempt him to take fresh water, although the 
experiment was tried repeatedly. * * * In view of such a 
development it is highly probable that the same practice obtains 
with other oceanic birds. Sik | 

“To return to our pet. He grew apace, and at the end of the 
fourth week was able to fly; but although he was occasionally 
thrown overboard for a swim, he showed no disposition to leave 
us. is manners from the first were singularly affectionate at 
confiding, and he never objected to being handled, but, on thè 
contrary, received all caresses with a gentle playfulness that ; 
quickly won the heart of everyone. After the return of the a 
thusa he was allowed full liberty at Annisquam, but althyagh e 
made daily flights down the harbor, he invariably returned m : 
vessel at sunset and spent the night in the pail in which ot 
been reared. I saw him last about the 25th of August a 
I reached the shore he was sitting on the water sev a a 
yards away, but in response to a familiar call he rose at ei 
directly to me, alighting near at hand and allowing. got al 
him up with every appearance of satisfaction. In his k beh 
plumage he was a beautiful bird, and his gentle ways werg 
pressibly winning.” (Oceanis 

Concerning the breeding of the Wilson's petra ae 
oceanicus) Mr. Brewster suggests a novel theory a” a bet 
by evidence that must be regarded as conclusive. The 
one of such importance that it demands reproduct a 
author’s words. Mr. Brewster says: the bree 

“But a still greater mystery is that which envelope set 
ing of Wilson’s petrel. I am not aware that any 0” i spends 
identified its egg or even certainly found it nesting it rence 
the entire summer along our coast from the Gulf o a is ved 
to Cape Henry, Virginia, and over much of this its breet 
more numerous than Leach’s petrel. Why then eer por 


A 
5 
4 
4 

i 


i , | , ach's 
ing grounds remained undiscovered while those bag 7 


are so well known? Before attempting to answer, 


“A number of Wilson’s petrels, shot at am fly č 
places between the dates June 17 and July 25, wem o 


& 
j 
| 


- 


1884.] Recent Literature. 1017 


sected with a view to ascertaining their time of breeding. With 
all the condition of the sexual organs were similar, viz., at the 
very lowest stage of erotic development. The testes of the 
males were scarcely larger than dust shot, while the ovaries of 
the females presented the appearance of whitish sacs in which 
the separate ovules could not be clearly seen without the aid of a 
lass. I examined the females for signs of recent ovulation or 
incubation, but could find none. Furthermore, a male, taken 
June 18, showed every indication of being a young bird about 
eight or ten weeks from the nest. Its plumage differed apprecia- 
bly from that of some adults shot the same day, and its skull and 
es were soft, the skull having that flexible, skin-like character 
found only in young birds. 
“ These facts confirm a suspicion which I have entertained for 
a long time, viz., that Wilson’s petrel breeds in winter or early 
Spring in tropical or sub-tropical regions, and visits the coast of 
the Northeastern United States only in the interim between one 
breeding season and the next. In support of this theory are the 
following facts: (1) That although the bird literally swarms off 
our coast during June, July and August, no one has ever found it 


old, thus indicating a date of breeding when the species is not to 
be found in our waters. If the above conclusions prove correct, 
the case, as far as we now know, will be unique. But there are 
reasons for suspecting that the same thing obtains with other 
North American Procellaride, especially our two common spe- 
cies of Puffinus.” 

We are told that the common guillemot (Loma troile) still 
breeds at Bird rocks in amazing numbers, but that the number is 


_ Tapidly decreasing, owing to the introduction of a cannon which 


's fired every half hour during foggy weather. Mr. Brewster 

Writes: “ At eaclr discharge the frightened Murres fly from the 

rocks in clouds, nearly every sitting bird taking its egg into the 

air between its thighs and dropping it after flying a few yards. 

This was repeatedly observed during our visit, and more than 

Once a ie shower of eggs fell into the water around our 
ee ` H. M. 


SEEBoHM’s SIBERIA IN Asia.—Though it is over a year since 
appearance of this book, we desire to call attention to it as one 
of the best recent books of travel. The author is well known as 
a distinguished ornithologist. This work not only shows his 
TEO esay in East Siberia, with de- 
stgcion of th aa hen mnan of birdo, ce. By Haway Sessoms. Wi 
map and illustrations. John Murray; 12mo, pp. 298. 


1018 Recent Literature. [October, 


talents as an observer, but as a traveler and a narrator, The 
is told in an exceedingly interesting way ; the illustrations, by 

Whymper, are dainty, well drawn, and add vastly to the interest 
and ethnographic value of the book, the author having an eyeto 
the social peculiarities of the Asiatic tribes he’ met as well as ther — 


was made overland by winter (1877-8), from St. Petersburg to 
the River Yenesay at Krasnoyarsk, going northward down the 
river to its tributary, the Koorayika. Mr. Seebohm spent the 
spring there waiting for the ice to break up and leave the river 
so as to release the steamer belonging to his companion, Captain 
Wiggins, who had planned to take her laden with wheat around 
through the Arctic sea to England. It may here be said that the 
steamer was stranded in the Yenesay, and that the two retummel 
overland. es 

The phenomenon of the breaking up of the Siberian nvers® 
an exceedingly interesting one. lt should be borne in mind that 


streams. es 

The winter lasted till the first week in June, ice forming “0° 
night in May. “ On the Ist of June a revolution took p ; 
ice. There had been scarcely any frost during the night. 


wind was south, not very warm, but the sun was unu» Li r 
As we turned out of the cabin after breakfast, we were J the 
time to see a small range of mountains suddenly form and the 
lower angle of the juncture between the oo-ray ka night, 
Yen-e-say, The river had risen considerably during e anet 
and the newly-formed strip of thin ice, on each side of i fe a 
ice, was broader than it had ever been. The pressure tong atd 
rent underneath caused a large field of ice, about a mile long 
a third of a mile wide, to break away. Ab h ; 
a passage down the strip of newly-formed thin ice, pee ep 
water behind it; the other half rushed headlong 0^ i i 


5 


© 


ains, fifty or sixty feet high, and picturesque ong, 


1884.] Recent Literature. 1019 


of white ice. This was hard as a rock, and had no doubt been 
caused by the flooding of the snow when the water rose, and its 
subsequent freezing. On the top of the white ice was about 
eighteen inches of clear snow which had evidently never been 
flooded. Everything remained in statu quo during the rest of 
the day. The river was certainly rising, but slowly..* * * 
We turned into our berths at half-past nine, having first in- 
stituted an anchor-watch in case any further movement of the 
ice should take place. We had but just fallen asleep when 
we were suddenly roused by the report that the river was 
rising rapidly, and the ice beginning to break up. We imme- 
diately dressed and went on deck. The position of affairs 
Was at once obvious. The melting of the snow down south 


chattels to their comrades ashore, until finally an immense ice- 
floe struck the ship, is well told. “ At length an immense ice-floe 
of irresistible weight struck the ship. There was no alternative 
but to slip the anchor and allow her to drive with the ice. Away 


Until we were finally jammed into a slight bay, wedged between 
blocks of pack-ice. Soon afterwards the river fell some five or six 


relieve the whole of the pressure. The water in the Koo-ray -i-ka 
once more rose rapidly. The immense field of pack-ice began to 

up stream at the rate of five or six knots an hour.” The 
stream rose and fell during the day; by noon of the next day, 
alter various vicissitudes to the ship, the water had sunk five or 
Six feet, and the vessel lay on her side, with her bow at least three 


- of ice had drifted into the forests, and when the water 


1020 Recent Literature. [October 


feet aground. “These sudden falls in the level of the water wee 
no doubt caused by the breaking up of the ice lower down the 
river, which dammed it up, until the accumulated pressure from 
behind became irresistible. Some idea of what this pressure mut 
have been may be realized by the fact that a part of the rivers 
thousand miles long, beginning with a width of two miles, and 
ending with a width of six miles, covered over with three feet of 
ice, upon which was lying six feet of snow, was broken up atthe 
rate of a hundred miles a day. Many obstacles would causea 
temporary stoppage in the break-up of the ice; a sudden bend 
the river, a group of islands or a narrower place where the it 


5 


twenty miles an hour. The battle of the Yen-e-say raged r 
about a fortnight, during which the Koo-ray-i-ka alternately r 
and fell. Thousands of acres of ice were marched around W 
stream for some hours, then the tide turned, and they we 
marched back again. This great annual battle between Brees 
and winter is the great event of the year in these regions, i 
rising of the Nile in Egypt. * * * This sudden cueg E 
the short space of a fortnight, from mid-winter to mid-summ 
scarcely, by courtesy, be called spring. It isa revolution 
ture, and on a scale so imposing, that the most prosaic 0° l 
cannot witness it without feeling its sublimity” ae 

e ice was still straggling down stream, while Oe ae 
was flooded for miles on each side of the river; hundreds 0 


frozen blocks would probably be stranded among the trees? 
gradually melt on the ground a few days later. It was 
ing to see the quantity of wood that was floating down,” 


all came. In many cases the banks were undermined u 
eight feet; in some places they had fallen in, an 
ing upon them were hanging down in the water. 
nothing but sand and éarth; the river evidently wi 
year, and carries an immense quantity of mud d sai 

Among modern travelers Nordenskiöld has given ©% ri 
ble information regarding the tundras, but he pe 
the seashore. Here are two pictures of these vast ra 
the treeless portions of Siberia. “ I went as tu 
ascertain what bird-life was to be found on the tma 
climbed up the steep bank, and found ourselves ™ å 


1884.] Recent Literature, 1021 


country full of lakes, swamps, and rivers, a dead flat in some 
places, in others undulating, even hilly. This was the true Sibe- 
rian tundra, brilliant with flowers, swarming with mosquitos, and 
full of birds. In sheltered places, dwarf willows and weeping 
birch were growing, and (we were only some fifty versts from the 
forests) here and there a few stunted larches., Winding through 
the tundra was the track of what had once been the bed of a 
river, nothing now but a small deep valley forming a chain of iso- 
lated lakesand pools. * * On some of the northern slopes, 
large patches of snow were still lying.” 

“The history of animal and vegetable life on the tundra is a 
very curious one. For eight months out of the twelve every trace 
of vegetable life is completely hidden under a blanket, six feet 
thick, of snow, which effectually covers every plant and bush— 
trees there are none to hide. During six months of this time at 
least, animal life is only traceable by the footprints of a reindeer 
or a fox on the snow, or by the occasional appearance of a raven 
or a snowy owl, wandering above the limits of forest growth, 
where it has retired for the winter. * * * Then comes the 
south wind, and often rain, and the great event of the year takes 
place; the ice in the great rivers breaks up, and the blanket of 


snow melts away. The black earth absorbs the heat of the never- » 


setting sun; quietly but swiftly vegetable life awakes from its long 
sleep, and for three months a hot summer produces a brilliant al- 
pine flora, like an English flower garden run wild, and a profusion 
of alpine fruit, diversified only by storms from the north, which 
Sometimes for a day or two bring cold and rain down from the 
Arctic ice. 

That the tundra is the former bottom of the Arctic ocean 
seems to us to be proved by the shallowness of the Arctic sea 
north of Siberia as shown by Nordenskidld’s map, also by the 
Presence of hills of shells found by Seebohm, at least 500 feet 
above the sea, belonging to species still living in the Arctic 
ocean, the fossils occurring near or in a bluish, sandy clay. Space 
18 not left us to speak of Seebohm’s discoveries regarding the 
migrations of birds in Siberia, and the new facts he discovered re- 
garding their hybridity and nesting habits. The volume will sup- 
plement Nordenskidld’s narrative. 


Wiscuett’s Wortp-Lirz}—The mode of formation, growth 
nd decay of the worlds that people the universe is the loftiest 
theme upon which the human mind can exercise itself, but from 
its very loftiness is one upon which, as Professor Winchell would 
himself be one of the first to admit, certain knowledge has not yet 
been attained. When rival theories dispute for precedence, or 
1 World.Li : EXANDER WINCHELL, LL.D., Pro- 
tear of Geology and Paan ia the University of Michigan. Chicago, S. 
* Srggs & Co., 1883. 


1022 Recent Literature. [October 


when a generally accepted theory has been weakened by the pres 
entation of an array of objections, he does much for science why _ 
shows that these objections, valid perhaps against the first cru 
form of a theory, do not really invalidate it, though they may 
render necessary some modification and addition. This is 
cisely what Professor Winchell performs, in this ably written vok | 
. ume, for the well-known nebular theory of Laplace, which hasa 
late years been attacked by a series of objections, such as the ex- 
istence of retrograde motions; the length of the periodic times 
the planets, which have been stated to be in some cases longerjia 
others shorter than the nebular theory allows; the absence of an 
adequate cause for rotary motion; the want of coincidence in the 
planes of the planetary orbits, their ellipticity, and their distance 
from each other. To these objections are added others based 
upon the relations of the planetary masses and densities; the 
geologist’s objection that his science shows that more time than 
the nebular theory allows has been occupied by the earth in 
arriving at its present condition; and various others based on the 
relations of comets, stars and nebulz. : 
Without disputing that these objections are fatal to the idea of 
nebulous matter contracting into rings, and ultimately into worlds | 


1 dust, or meteors, tt 
d nebulæ of varits 
kinds. The universe is supposed to be eve 
with the crude material out of which worlds are forme 
ideas of Newton, Humboldt, Williams, and Siemens are ire 
Then follows the theory that swarms of small er abot 
matter, circling in numberless orbits, and in all p about the 


th the planetary ols 


Profe i ‘te if not entirely new: -| 
ssor Winchell as not yet trite, if n aa hel bridge 


1884.] Recent Literature, 1023 


difficulties that others have magnified. At pages 111-113, reasons 
are given why, in a contracting, rotary spheroid, “an annular 
mass of relatively considerable amount would separate, and a 
secular interval would intervene before the separation of another 
annular mass.” This ring would be completed when the cen- 
trifugal force at the equator exceeded the centrifugal force plus 
the attractions of the separated ring. At page 121-3 the causes 
of the rotation of the mass derived from a ring, and those 
which influence its direction, are treated of. In treating of the 
general cosmogonic conditions of a cooling planet Professor 
Winchell appears to coincide with the theory which would make 
the center of the earth solid; he gives reasons why “ sub-meri- 
dional trends” should be early established upon a cooling globe, 
so that all the primitive wrinklings of the crust should extend 
across its parallels; explains the craters of the moon by the tidal 
outflow of molten matter; and gives reasons for believing that 
planetary tides cause the development of much heat. The floor 
of the primitive ocean had, says our authority, an igneous origin, 
but it no longer exists on this earth, having been destroyed by 
sedimentation from above, and by fusion from below. Professor 
Winchell supports the older theory of a shrinking globe and a 
wrinkling crust, against the objections of LeConte, Dutton, Fisher, 
and others, 


divergent from that of the earth, and probably an atmosphere 
admitting light aud heat to about an equal extent with that of the 
tarth; and Jupiter to be still lingering in the high thermal stages 
of planetary life. The next chapter treats of planetary decay, of 
€ final disappearance of the continents beneath the ocean by the 
Operation of erosion and the cessation of elevatory forces, and 
of ultimate planetary death from refrigeration and other causes. 
E the third part the systems outside of our own are dealt with. 
Tuptive action on an incrusted globe is spoken of as the most 
Probable cause of variable and temporary stars. In the last part 
the Speculations of the great philosophers, of Kepler, Descartes, 
itz, Swedenborg, Wright, Kant, Sir W. Herschel, Laplace, 

are brought together and compared. It is shown that eet 
ofa - 


Newton and the great mathematicians of the eighteenth century, 
While the etailed theory of world-formation is principally due to 


1024 Recent Literature. [October 


Laplace and Kant. The book is written by an earnest thinker f l 
the use of earnest thinkers, by whom, even if not in all poiats — 
agreed with, it will be held in high esteem. 


= Dosson’s MONOGRAPH OF THE INSECTIVORA. —The well know 
and able author of a “ Natural History of the Chiroptera” hasin 
this monograph, two of the three parts of which are now issued 
extended his labors to the more complicated group of the Insee- 
tivora. His classification is, ostensibly, founded upon 
Mivart, and Gill, and recognizes two sub-orders, one of whid 
(Dermoptera) contains the flying lemur or Galeopithecus, while 
the other (Bestiz), includes all other insectivores. The Besti 
are ranged in two groups and five super-families, viz: Tupaioides, 
Erinaceoidea, Soricoidea, Centetoidea, and Chrysochloridea. The 
Tupaiide and Macroscelide are ranged in the first super 
family; the Talpidæ and Soricide in the third; the Centetide, 
Solenodontidæ and Mythomyidz in the fourth. The other supe 
families contain but a single family each. The Erinaceide a 
selected to commence the study of the order, on account of the 
fact that they afford the largest species to be found in the first 
three super-families which form the first group, and are characte 
ized by molars with broad W-shaped crowns. The Centetide, 
equally typical of the second group with V-shaped molar crowns, 
and also of large size, follow the true hedgehogs. | Two ae 
of Gymnura are recognized, viz: raffesii and suilla, the = 
differing mainly in the shortness of the tail, and in tts s i 
size. Of Erinaceus nineteen species are enumerated, maes 
which are African, while all the others occur in AS 
only in the Palzarctic region in both Europe and Asia. : 
genera of Centetide contain but eight species, all Ma 
though Centetes ecaudatus is found also in the Comoro pro 
and also in Bourbon and Mauritius, in which islands it has pro 4 
ably been introduced. The sub-family Oryzorictine spec 
only Oryzorictes hova, a species at present known by two sf, 
mens in the Paris Museum. Microgale with two sg he 
.Geogale with one, are recent additions to the Cent Ç pare 
though Solenodon cubanus is enumerated as distinct from material 
doxus, it is allowed to be so ċlosely allied that adea habits a 
may prove it a local variety. Nothing is known of he sole aid : 
this genus in its wild state. Mythomys velox 1S still C o ntetidt 
little known example of its family, which differs from pes 
and Solenodontidz in the absence of clavicles, and has the sÉ 
of the molar teeth intermediate between the V-shap®t rom is 
oye Tal ide. From ~ 
these families and the W-shaped ones of taip good swit: 
large, laterally flattened fish-like tail, it is evidently a go" : 
mer, as stated by Du Chaillu. 


" : i tomical. By 
A eae we, the Insectivora, Systematic and Anato 7382.83 


ED 
M.A., F.R arts I and 11. London, J. Van Voorst, ; e 


884] Recent Literature, L025 


The Chrysochloridæ include only the five species of the typical 
genus, and are limited to Africa south of the Equator. Although 
formed for digging, the modifications of the body and limbs for 
this purpose are quite different from those of the Talpidæ, since 
the former have long clavicles and a hollowed-out thorax instead 
of short clavicles and a lengthened manubrium. 

The family Talpidæ includes twelve genera and eighteen spe- 
cies and has a wide distribution in the Palæarctic, Nearctic and 
northern part of the Oriental regions. Though most are fossorial, 
some (Myogale) are natatorial, or (Uropsilus) cursorial, but all 
agree in the remarkable peculiarity of a double articulation of 
the humerus with the scapula and clavicle. The incisors, canines 
and premolars vary extremely in form, but the molars are uniform 
in number (33), and nearly so in shape. The fossorial habits of 
the Talpidæ are correlated, in the fore-limbs, with an elongated 
manubrium and small quadrate clavicles, and, in the hinder, by 
an inward curvature of the os innominata, This is carried to 
such an extent in some species (Mogera wogura, e. g.) that the 
bones meet between the acetabula. The genera are distinguished 
principally by the teeth. 

he anatomy of Gymnura, Erinaceus, the Centetidæ, Soleno- 
don, Mythomys Chrysochlora, Myogale and the typical moles, 
1S given in detail, with special attention to the myology, a depart- 
ment too much neglected in the majority of monographs. The 
two parts are illustrated with twenty-two well executed plates, 
thirteen of which are colored, and are principally designed to 
illustrate the muscular system. 


the older Key, of which the present is an amplification. The 
original volume, published in October, 1872, formed an imperial 


collecting, preparing and preserving birds. Invaluable as the 
advice of one whose life has been largely occupied in the pro- 
1K > : tit i r f every living and 
.~¢y to North American Birds, containing a concise account ot every z 
fossil bird at present known irom the pea north of the Mexican and United 


States boundary, inclusive of Greenland, By ELLIOTT Coues, M.A., M.D., Ph.D, 
ston: Estes & Laureat 


a 
a 


1026 Recent Literature. [October, 


ties, which, in the old Key, closed the descriptive parag aoe 
are omitted, and the space thus gained is utilized for refer 
the nest and eggs, song, flight, migratory or other habit ae 
Species, so as to epitomize the life-history. Geographical 
bution is prominently and thoroughly treated, and consi" 

attention has been paid to descriptions of the plumage 0 cent. 
and of young birds. The specific names are marked for â 


aici 


ound in with one of the editions of Gray's Mant 
since not only gone out of print and become difficult © 
* Manual of the Mosses of North America. By Leo Lesquereu® | 
James, with six plates illustrating the Genera. eaa S. E. Cass 
884. 8vo, PP- VI, 447, 6 pl. : 


1884. ] Recent Literature. 1027 


but it had also become largely obsolete. When, therefore, 
it became understood some years ago that Sullivant and Les- 


(the schizocarpous mosses) and Bryacez (the true mosses). The 
Phascacez are considered as forming a tribe (the lowest) of the 
Bryaceæ. This is, in our opinion, an error. eir indehiscent 
Capsules and minute size ought to entitle them to ordinal rank 
as much as the Andrezeacez. Bryacez, moreover, are arranged 
in three series, viz: Acrocarpi, Cladocarpi and Pleurocarpi, an 

these include, all told, twenty-three tribes. The last of these 


tri , 
represented by 195 species distributed among twerty-eight sub- 
wa l 


treated in Sullivant’s little work. In the words of the surviving 
author it “ is believed to include descriptions of all the species of 
Mosses that are as yet known to occur in the North American 
ae the limits of the United States and northward.” 


RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. 

Amer, Assoc.—Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Sci- 
ence, thirty-second meeting, held at Minneapolis, Aug., 1883. Salem, 1884. 
From the Amer. Assoc. ; 

Tre Alpk.—Fossil Cephalopoda in the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy. Ext, 

roc. Amer. Assoc., Aug., 1883. 
Sage larval theory of the origin. of Cellular Tissue. Ext. American Naturalist, 
Fe ay, 1884. Both from the author. 
wage o W.—Catalogue of the aquatic mammals exhibited by the United States 
ational Museum. Washington, 1884. From the author. 

Nat. Acad. of Sciences.—-Report of the National Academy of Sciences for 1883. 

Washington, 1 Fy 


884. 
——Constitution and membership. July 10, 1884. From the National Academy, 
Curley, Wo. F. B.—New Carboniferous fossils, Bulletin No. 2, Feb., 1884. From 


— XVIIT.—no, x 65 


1028 Recent Literature. (October, 


san J. S.—Aln us richardsoni, a fossil fruit ne the London clay of Heme 
Ext. preal Society’s Journal, Vol. xx, 1883. 
fe re Cretaceous Nucalide. Ext. Quart. pa Geol. Society, Pit 
kro ee, Ext. Proc, Geol. Assoc., Vol. vur, No. 6 
uthor 


Seuiier 5. p7 —A oe age to our knowledge of Palzozoic Arachnida, Ex, 
c. Amer. Acad, Arts and Sciences, 1884. From the author. 


PERDA S. F., and Cross Tiia — Bulletin No. 1 U. S. Geol. Survey. Tnt- 
ductory geological catch of Buffalo peaks. On Hyperttheti alia 
1883. From the authors 


Clevenger, S. V.—Nervous ad Tasco physics. 1884. From the author, 
Peckham, G. W., and E. G.—Descriptions of new and meter spiders of the 
family pugei from various parts of the U. S. N. A. Fro authors, 
eae, J. W.—Niagara fossils. Bulletin of the museum of thé pate of the 

State of fon 1884. From the author. 
Een Do —The subsidence pai wi aasaga Abst, lecture at Cooper 
Union, N. Y., Nov., 1883. From uthor. 
pi a P.—Catalogue aye . collection of fossils in the Australian Museum, 
Av abut id $33. From the a 
ll, /.—Descriptions of the species Sot fossil reticulate sponges constituting the fm- 
pied Dictyospongidz, N. Y. Mus. Nat. Hist 
aia History of ‘New York, Vol. v, Part 1 and Part 11. Text and plis. 
from the author 
claw Aug. —Le Purbeckien du Jura. Ext. Arch. des Sci. Phys. et Nat, Mer, 
1884. From the au 
Geinitz, H. B.—Uber ile neuesten geologischen Forschungen in Nordameñis, 
rom the author. ie 
Mason; O. T—Address by O. T. Mason, A.M., Ph.D., before the Section of 4 
thropology, Amer. Assoc, Adv. of Sci., Aug, 1883. sib 
——An account of the progress in anthropology in the jiy 1882. Ext. i 
sonian Report, peee , 1883» Both from the author Ma p 
Trembley, J. B.—Reports and sististics of = meteorology a the city of 
Cal., ior the years 1882-83. From the author. Be 
Winchell, yo H.—The geological and aladi ret survey of Minnesota, 
enth annual report (for 1882). From the . 
Vieni , H. C.—Case of poisoning from the bite me a a doppitl i 
P OPERNE of new v asep of reptiles in the U. S. National pee m 
ma s . Mus sal Se 
Hulke, J. W $ y np raire delivered at the aive E of the a 
ciety of London 4. Fromt t 
ag J: ob g inal pases of life. A lecture delivered in St. Andrew’ si 
asgow. From the author. 
Lydekker, R.—Palxontologica Indica, Ser. x, Vol. 11. Sivalik and Narada ? 
odont Suina. Calcutta, 1884. From the author væ ait, 4 
sie an a to ilog of Wici: Survey of 1873-79 


83. From the author. a 
i F.— U, S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries. Commissioners 
1881. From the commissio 
the Philos. Trans. Roy. 


Wilson, E. or development of Renilla. From 
Part Ill, 1883. ole Gaui 

Delchmiiller, J V.—Nachtrage zur Dyas 111. Branchiosaurus a 
Kassel, 1884. From the author. 

Gentry, T. G.—Origin of Sany names, From the Irish. From rom thea 

Meek, S. ae ated the American species of the genus Symi 3 
Nat. Sci., Phil., 1884. -jaana the author, 


1884.] Geography and Travels, 1029 


Meck, S. E., and Goss, D. K.--A review of the American species of the genus 
Trachynotus. Ext, Proc. Nat, Sci., Phil., 1884. From the authors. 
Wilder and Gage.—A starch injection mass. From the authors. 
Newton, E. T.—On antelope remains in newer Pliocene beds in Britain. Ext. 
Quart. Journ, Geol. Soc., May, 1884. From the author. 
Murray, J.s Renard, A. F—Notice sur la classification, le mode de formation 
et la distribution géographique des sediments de mer profonde, 
~——Les caractères microscopiques des cendres volcaniques et des poussières cos- 
i et leur role dans les sediments de mer profonde. Ext. du Bull, du 
Mus. Roy. d’ Hist. Nat. de Belgique, 1884. Both from the authors. 
meen irrena 
GENERAL NOTES. 
GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS.! 

Awerica.— Results of the Greely Expedition.—On May 13th, 1883, 
Lieut. Lockwood and Sergt. Brainard reached an island which 
has been named after the former (lat. 83° 24’ 30” N. long. 44° 45’ 
W). From an elevation of 2000 feet no land was seen to the north 
or north-west, but Cape Robert Lincoln in Greenland (lat. 83° 
35’, long. 38°), was seen to the north-east. Animal life was found 
to be abundant, with scanty vegetation, like that of Grinnell land. 


iz glacier. Sixty miles of land intervene between this and 


thought to be separate from Grinnell land, and named Arthur 

d. In 1882 Dr. Pavy followed the Markham route, and was 
adrift in the Polar sea north of Cape Joseph Henry. Abandoning 
‘verything, he escaped to land. In 1883 Lieut. Lockwood was 
turned back by open water on the North Greenland shore. In 


age fiord, and thence into Conybeare bay and ; 
rom the summit of Mount Arthur (5000 feet) the contour o 


' This department is edited by W. N. LOCKINGTON, Philadelphia. 


1030 General Notes. [October 


the land west of the Conger mountains convinced Lieut, Gredy 
that Grinnell land tends directly south from Lieut, Aldrichs — 
farthest in 1876. Ruggles river was open at its mouth in Apal 
Winter quarters of Eskimo were found, and some relics showing 
that they had possessed dogs, sleds and iron. Mount Arthurs 
the highest point in Grinnell land, which has two ranges 
mountains, the Conger and Garfield ranges, parallel to and be- 
yond the United States range. Hares, birds, and musk-oxts 
were seen in plenty on this journey. In March of this year Ser- 
geant Long, while hunting, looked from the north-west side of 
Mount Carey tu Hayes’ sound, and saw on the northern coast 
three capes to the westward of the farthest seen by Naresin 1870 
This sound extends twenty miles farther west than is shown by 
the English chart, but is possibly shut in by land, which showed 
up across the western end. 


Geysers of the Ycllowstone-—Science tells us that a compari 
of the thermal activity of the geysers’in Yellowstone in 1878,wit 
; | 


“= 
— 
ee 
iy) 
je 
= 
(g 
g 
"5 
e] 
as 
wn 
5 
& 


diminution in intensity. PS 
geyser in the Fire-hole basin, and another in the upper Bee 
basin. The first, situated on the broad inter terrace nortan 
the mounds of the Fountain geyser, has a pool 90 to 100 Be 
across. The vent is near the west border, and throws up at us 
first burst a column of water eight feet in diameter and A 
five or thirty feet high. There is apparently a second seit 
lesser power. Dr. Peale, in 1878, suggested that this mipi S 
geyser. It is named the Surprise. The new geyser 1n the 4 
Basin is Spring No. y of the Emerald group, and peers 
water to a height of from thirty to fifty feet. This 1s catt 
Cliff geyser. ce 

Arrica—The Bahr-el-Ghazal--Letters from Lupton od 


dated November sth and 6th, 1883, proves that up to that: 
he was alive and well, and actively engaged in fighting pares 
Although these operations, with the impossibility ne expla 
tion with Khartoum, have greatly hindered geograph routes, a 
tion, Mr. Lupton has transmitted a sketch of his rome — 
some valuable determinations of latitude, height, ete 

The river Kuta, which at Barusso (about 22°: 50 Ba yt 7 
5° 15 N. lat.) is from two to three miles broad, is iv 
junction of the Welle and the Mbomo. These two a 
the headwaters of the affluents of which rise close to niam 
tributaries of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, and water the pga art 
Mangbutta countries, unite at Mabele, about thirteen ketch ma 6 


east of ni an and the Kuta is shown on the $ ee Loot 


from 
opposes the theory that the Kuta is the Sham y 
fact that the latter river is only half a mile wie ™ 


1884.] Geography and Travels. 1031 


flows into Lake Chad. The rivers Pango, Kuru and Biri do 
not flow into the Bahr-el-Arab, as marked on Dr. Schweinfurth’s 
map, but into the Bahr-el-Jur, which, joining the Bahr-el-Arab, 
a little east of 29° W. long. and a little north of 29° N. lat, forms 
with it the Bahr-el-Ghazal. It appears that the death of the Dutch 
traveler, Mr. Schuver, was the penalty for his own rashness, The 
Nazir of Meshra, knowing that the hostile Denka blocked the 
road, wished to detain him, but he insisted on the right to free 
travel given him by the governor-general, and started for Jur 
Ghattas. The next day he and his party were killed by the Janghe 
orDenka. The tribes that have revolted are the Denka, Nuer, 
Dembo, and Mandala, who are mixed up with the Arabs. 


The French on the Congo—M. Dutreuil de Rhins, the represen- 
tative in France of the French “ mission” in West Africa, states 
that surveys have been made for 800 kilometers up the Ogowé, 
and thence from Francevilie to the Alima. At the station of 
Alima-Leketi, work is progressing upon stone houses and sheds 
in which boats for the navigation of the Congo will be built. The 
Nconi, the Luete, and the Quillu have also been explored; and 
numerous journeys made in before unknown regions. The treaty 
concluded with the International Association has removed some 
of the greatest difficulties. 

The Upper Congo.—Messrs. Bohm and Reichardt continuing 
their route after the death of Dr. Kaiser, November 19, 1882, have 
founded the station of Mpala. A map of the region between Ta- 


ents of the great river, 


comes into sight, being filled with water from the canals of the 


Khanate. After a course of ninety miles, the Daudan is swal- 
lowed up by sand, but after crossing the Shamrat canal, it agam 


1032 General Notes. [ October, 


becomes a regular water-course and persists as far as the Sarika- 
mish basin. Dry side canals, with traces of past cultivation, exist 
on the banks of the Daudan. The Kunia-Daria leaves the Amu 
Daria as a small water-course, winding in the broad hollows of 
the old channel, and extending as far as the dam of Kizil-Tokar. 
Beyond this stretches a dry water-course, but at the town of 
Kunia-Urgenj it again becomes a river, and is called the Urun- 
Daria. Dams for irrigation exist on this river. When the Amu- 
Daria is high it frequently overflows into the Karia and Urun- 
Darias. In 1878 the water thus poured into this channel raised 
the lakes of Sarikamish twenty-eight feet. South of the lakes 
-of Sarikamish a broad flat valley is formed out of the saline 
marshes, and farther on this assumes the character of a river-bed. 
This is the Uzboi—the old course of the Amu-Daria. Deposits 
of a former river, masses of earth washed down by it, decayed 
roots and weeds on its banks, ruins of an aqueduct and other 
buildings, combine with its regular banks to prove it the former 
water way. M. Sviridoff concluded by stating his belief in the 
possibility of deflecting the Amu-Daria into its old bed, via the 
Uzboi, to the Caspian. 

Mr. Carles's Journey in Corea.—Mr. Carles reports that Chi- 
mulpho, the port of Jenchuan, is rapidly building up. The Han 
river, distant twenty-four miles from Chimulpho, is navigable for 
junks of 100 tons to Mapu, the port of Soul. Mapu extends | 
some miles along the northern bank of the river, and is four miles 
from Soul. Soul, a city three miles long by half that width, is €n- 
closed by massive walls of stone, twenty-five feet high, with bed 
story towers. The houses are of one story, built of wooden pl 
lars which support a thatched roof. The spaces between the p 
are filled in with mud walls, which in the better class of ers 
are faced with stones, tied together with millet stalks and points” 
with cement. The houses contain but little furniture, but ae 
cleaner and warmer than those of Northern China. There ® 
marked absence of color in streets and houses. coded 

In the north-east and north of Corea the country is well-w oe 
and watered, and fine timber is brought down the Ya-lu ant | 
ported to China. The highest peaks of the backbone of CS 
seem to be to the south-east. The light porous soil of we ae a 
leys is highly cultivated, but the mountains north of gee 7 
strikingly barren. It seems to be impossible to purchase e 
thing in Corea except during a fair. Mr. Carles says cottol 
people everywhere have plenty of food, firewood, “a mud : 


clothes, of which they wear strikingly little, with substan 
dwellings; beggars are rare, and the working mere af 
e 


than in China; but great riches are uncommon. von ae 

kept in marvelous seclusion. i 
Arabia Petrea—Mr. Hull has completed his journey “ible fo 

Wady-el-Arabah, the entire length of which he was 7° 


1884.] Geography and Travels. 1033 


traverse on account of the hostility of the Bedouins. From the 
lines of now abandoned beach which he has discovered at a 
height of sixty meters in the Gulfs of Suez and of Akabah, Mr. 
Hull believes that a communication existed between the Red sea 
and the Mediterranean in the time of the Exodus. He also be- 
lieves that the level of the Dead sea was formerly 425 meters 
higher than it now is. 


Evrope.—The three provinces which have been added to Greece 
by the treaty of Berlin have at last’ an organized administration. 
They are named, after their chief places, Trikkala, Larissa, and 
Arta, but the two former are properly Upper and Lower Thes- 
saly, and the last is a small portion of Epirus. Trikkala has 117,- 
229 inhabitants; Larissa, 144,621, and Arta only 31,178. 

Australia—Mr. Lindsay’s explorations in Arnheim land, north- 
west of the Gulf of Carpenteria, have resulted in the discovery of 
much good land, and of some new rivers. Following the coast 
northwards from the Roper, a river called Parsons or Rose was 
found, with good ground at its head. The Walker, a river not in- 
dicated in the survey map of 1880, was followed for forty miles 
through a mountainous and beautiful country. Across the water- 
parting from this river, another fine river was reached, and was 
followed until it was found to be the Goyder, the mouth of which 
was all that was before known. The district around this river is 
fitted for grazing, agriculture or sugar-growing. The Blythe is 
another fine river, but the Liverpool, which looms large on the 
chart, does not run at twenty-miles from the sea. The party had 
much difficulty with the natives, who speared four horses, and 
suffered much from want of water on the Liverpool, and in other 
places between the rivers. . 

Grocrapuicat Notes.—Mr. E. G. Ravenstein has contributed 
to the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society a résumé 
of all that is known respecting Somal and Galla Jand, embodying 
information collected by the Rev. Thos. Wakefield. Mr. A. 

ackay has undertaken a boat voyage from Uganda to 
Kagege, along the western shore of Lake Victoria Nyanza, and 
has explored Jordan’s Nullah, the position of which is errone- 
ously marked on all published maps. He believes that the height 
of the lake given by Stanley (3800 feet) is 300 feet too much. 
Mr. Selons has recently explored a tract of elevated country 
lying near the headwaters of the Sabi, and between the 


7 


1034 - General Notes. | (October, 


Karema on account of the hostility of the natives. He descended 
the Luapula for some distance, and found that, as shown in Raven- 
steins map of Eastern Equatorial Africa, this river flows out of 
the south-west side of Lake Bangweolo. Dr. Pogge died at St 
Paolo de Loanda on March 17th. The bay of Angra Pequeña, 
27° N. lat., on the coast of Great Namaqua land, has recently 
been taken possession of by Germany. It is curious that upon 
the maps, even on those of the Germans themselves, this spot is 
marked as belonging to England, Robert Flegel continues his 
explorations of the Niger and the Benua. While waiting for funds, 
he joined the Swiss explorer, Zweifel, in a voyage upon the lower 
course of the Niger. This exploration has given us a map of the 
Niger and its affluent the Amambara. On his return to the coast 
M. Flegel found himself able to continue his work, and reached 
Loko on September 11th. 


GEOLOGY AND PALAONTOLOGY. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE PHYLOGENY OF THE ARTIODACTYLA 2 
RIVED FROM AMERICAN Fossizs.-—I have maintained’ that th 


The testimony of palzontology is also in its favor since 1n 
America the oldest Artiodactyle, Pantolestes, is Bunodont. Kow- 
alevsky, in the phylogenetic table given in his monograph o 
Anthracotherium’ does not commit himself as to this point, 
allows the development of the two types of dentition to appear 
to have been contemporary and from some common origi. is 
then derives from such a common point of departure, j 
Hyopotamidæ, whigh first appeared in the Eocene, and te s. 
the ancestors of Anoplotheriidæ. From the Hyopotam! ‘ide. 
derives all the modern Selenodonta, exclusive of the Came hig 
The latter group he omits from his table, doubtless pare d 
information on the subject was insufficient. The main "ate 
origin of the Selenodonta is divided early in the Miocene t™ 
the genus Gelocus giving origin to the Pecora, and the 


more generalized type than Gelocus, and in its distinct sa 
and distinct metacarpals represents an early stage in the de ak 
mental history of that genus. It also presents affinity to fi vided 
lier type than the Tragulidæ which sometimes have the i gd 
metacarpals, but the trapezoides and magnum coossified. +8 ihe 
Poébrotherium as direct ancestor of the camels, indicates that 


: Portion of a paper read before the Amer. Asso’n Adv. Science, Phila. g 
Journal Academy Nat. Sciences, Phila., 1874. 


rnal 
> 1873 (? 4), p. Ii 
* Bulletin Ù. S. Geol, S 


. Surv. Terrs., Vol, 1, No. r; p. 16, Jan., 1874- 


t 


1884.] Geology and Paleontology. 1035 


existing Ruminantia were derived from three lines represented by 
the genera Gelocus, for the typical forms, Poëbrotherium for the 
camels, and Hyæmoschus for the Tragulidz.” 
These views being then established on sufficient evidence, it 
remains to make such additions as the facts cited in the first part 
of this paper indicate. First in importance comes the place in the 
phylogeny of the Selenodonta, of the Oreodontida. The peculiar 
inward extension of the unciform bone already ascribed to them, 
characterizes also among extinct forms the genus Leptomeryx, 
and probably Hypertragulus. Among recent ruminants it is only 
seen in the Tragulide. If we arrange these types in serial order 
we find the modifications of forms to be generally identical with 
those cf the other ruminant lines, in the codssification of the 
bones of the legs and feet. This series may then be regarded as 
phylogenetic. The peculiar structure of the carpus of the Oreo- 
dontidæ puts them out of the question as ancestors of any type 
of existing ruminants other than the Tragulina. Whether they 
themselves can be traced to a five-lobed, or to a four-lobed buno- 
dont ancestor, remains an undecided question. It is not, however, 
probable that a five-lobed form has been intercalated in a series, 
both of whose extremities are four-lobed. If this be true, the 
Oreodontidæ must be regarded as an ancestral type of Seleno- 
donta, coéqual with the Hyopotamidz, and it may well be ques- 
tioned whether the latter can have been ancestors of the existing 
Ruminantia, whose molars are four-lobed. 
o the present investigation does not disclose the ancestral 
stock of the Pecora. In North America we have not progressed 
rther in the solution of this question than I reached in 1877; 
after a study of the genera Cosoryx Leidy, and Blastomeryx 
I had already* suggested that the former genus is the an- 
cestor of the Cervida, but subsequently* remarked “it is not prob- 
able that this genus is the immediate ancestor of Cervus, from the 
that the molar teeth display in their prismatic form a higher 
degree of specialization than belongs to that genus. It is prob- 
able that the true ancestor combined the dental type of Cervus 
the distinct roots and short crowns of the molars, with the 
type of horns here described.” I at that time included a species 
(Cosorye gemmifer Cope), in the genus provisionally, which has 
the type ing discovered another larger 
Species which has the same type of molars, I at once distinguished 


Blastomeryx, as a genus, and in describing the species ( B. bore- 

alis) observed as follows: “In brief, its molars differ from mre 
i Among Perissodactyles it occurs in Tapirus a ie PAEO 
$ Proceedings Amer, Philos. Soc., p. 223. 

oceed. Acad. Phil., 1874, p. 149. 

z Expl. and Surv. W. of rooth Merid. U. 
Ð. 


ft; i S., Geo, M. Wheeler in charge, 
7 pi. 349, 1877. 


of Cosoryx (“ Dicrocerus’’) as much as those of the deer difer 
from the molars of the antelope. While Cosoryx (“ Dicrocerus’) 
was probably the ancestor of Antilocapra, Blastomeryx was the 
ancestor of Cervus or Cariacus.” This opinion expresses all the 
information I possess on the subject at present. It remains te 
ascertain the structure of the anterior feet in Hypisodus, whichis 
the earliest genus of Ruminantia known to have prismatic molars, 

The following table will represent the views expressed in the 
preceding pages: 


1036 General Notes. 


? Bovide, Tragulide., Camelidz. 


Hyopotamidz. Oreodontidz. Poébrotheriide. 


Quadritubercular Bunodonts 


Selenodonta. 


~ 


Tritubercular Bunodonta. 
Pantolestide). 
—E. D. Cope. 


ERUPTION oF Krakatoa.—It will be remembered, says =< 
Gossip, that the Dutch government appointed a commission 2 
vestigate the nature and results of the eruption of Dr. Ver 
August last. The report has just been presented a ant 
adventure. At the same time it shows that the eruption wa 
a scale which might almost be called catastrophic. K actos 
the Straits of Sunda. Dr. Verbeck thinks that sow 
have been admitted thus to the molten matter bene lcanic plo- 
form steam at high pressure. The sound of the VOCA sixth o 
sion of August last was heard over a space 
the earth’s circumference. So violent were 

d 


and a quarter times round the circumference O 
large tidal wave appears to have been caused by 


1884.] Geology and Paleontology. 1037 


of the mountain giving way. There only remains the south- 
ern part, which has been cut in two from the very top, and forms on 
the north side a magnificent precipitous cliff more than 2500 feet 
high. In the place where the fallen part once stood there is now 
everywhere deep sea, in some places as much as 1000 feet deep. 
The ashes thrown out by the eruption must have been enormous, 
especially if we are correct in assuming that the brilliant sunsets 
are due to the finer parts suspended in the atmosphere. Within 
acircle of fifteen kilometers’ radius from the mountain, the layers 
of volcanic ashes thus ejected cover the ground from sixty to 
eighty meters thick. The known surface over which the ashes 
were ejected, as calculated by Dr. Verbeck, is 750,000 square kil- 
ometers, apart from other unknown areas where they also de- 
scended. He thinks that the finer particles, propelled by the wind, 
have made a journey round the world. The vapor was condens 
to water, and froze in the cold currents. The refraction through 
these innumerable ice crystals, Dr. Verbeck thinks, caused the 
beautiful and red glows of our phenomenal sunsets. He calcu- 
Jates that the quantity of solid substances ejected by the volcano 
was eighteen cubic kilometers. Dr. Verbeck and his staff thor- 
oughly explored the island last October, when the heat was so 
great as almost to stifle them. : 


trapezoidal. Ichthyorodulites conjectured to belong to twenty- 
two forms, mostly new, are also described. The volume con- 
cludes with descriptions of the carboniferous invertebrates, by A. 
- Worthen, S. A. Miller and others. Thirty-seven species of 
Poteriocrinus, and eighteen other crinoids, are en 
essrs. Wachsmuth and Harris describe Heteroschisma pes 
pw genùs and species of Blastoidæ, and two other speci 
: nstoids. The Asteroidea are enriched by the addition of Comp- 
aster formosus and Cholaster peculiaris ; b 
Tremataster difficilis, and the Echinoidea by Hybochinus spectabilis, 
a new Peristodomus and three species of Archzocidaris. 
even molluscan species are given. 


1038 General Notes. 7 [October, 


GEOLOGICAL Notes, — General—The age of the formations 
around Keff, in Tunis, has been determined by M. Maris by the 
aid of the fossils. There is a regular superposition of upper crè 
taceous, eocene and miocene. The middle eocene, or nummuliti 
beds, rest directly upon the Senonian or chalk, without the inter 
position of.a lower eocene. The uppermost part of the cretacs 
ous is very rich in fossils, especially in small echini related to 
Faujasia, and may belong to the Darian stage. The most inter 
esting of the lower beds are those which enclose Heterocerus pol 
plocum, and correspond to the upper Senonian beds of Tercis, ia | 
Westphalia, and to the chalk of Meddon. 

Lertiary.—M. Dieulafait’s conclusions regarding the origin ol 
the phosphorites and ferruginous clays of France are as follows: : 

(1) The quantity of phosphate of lime existing in the cavems 
of the south-west of France does not represent a tenth part of 
that which existed in the limestones, the removal of which pro- 
‘duced the caverns. , a 

(2) The ferruginous clays, which accompany and often cover 
the phosphates, have the same composition as those which are 
obtained by attacking with a feeble oxydating acid, the rocks cot | 
stituting the walls of the phosphorite caverns. 1 

3) Tar substances, sk $ manganese, nickel, cobalt, zing, l 
copper, and iodine, which exist in the normal rocks of he 
phorite districts, are found in a relative state = concentration 1t 
the phosphorites and in their accompanying clays. a 

These results point to the possibility that the phosphorites 
the calcareous plateaux of the south-west of France have, lor 
most part, if not entirely, been extracted from the eiaa “x 
solely by the influence of the chemical reactions of 

method. 


MINERALOGY:! a g 
ALLANITE, APATITE AND TYSONITE Crysrars— Profes ne 
ue 


Dana? has given careful crystall hic descriptions 
of given carefu crys ograp: > a tyso 


pe y 
The apatite crystal, of a deep blue color, was small (%4 ted by 


+ Edited by Professor H, CarviLL Lewts, Academy of Nee Be sent 
delphia, to whom munications, papers for review, etc., sho 
"Amer. Fourn. Sc., 1884. 


Mineralogy. 1039 


angle between O and 1, which was regarded as the fundamental 
angle, was determined to be O A 1, o001 A 1011 = 38°25/ and 
38°24%4'. The length of the vertical axis is then c = 0.68681, 
and from this the other angles are calculated. 


Curtous Gotp Crystats.—W. P. Blake! has described some 
curious forms of crystallized gold from Montana. There isa solid 
octahedral nucleus or head, with a long divergent brush-like ap- 
pendage on one side, resembling the drawings made of certain 
comets. The appendages are many times longer than the octahe- 
os ag the whole crystal is not over an eighth of an inch in 
ength. 

He also describes hexagonal prisms of gold terminated at one 
or both ends with pyramids. The planes are brilliant and the 
crystals show no signs of twinning. They are from Sonora, 
California, 

ALKALiEs IN Beryt—S. L. Penfield has shown that, so far as 
he has tested, all beryl contains more or less alkalies, sodium and 
lithium being always present, and sometimes cæsium. Water is 
also always present, and must be regarded in the formula. The 
alkalies, sometimes amounting to five per cent, are shown to re- 
place the beryllium, and the formula Al, Be; Hg Sin Os, is proposed 
as the one agreeing best with the analyses. 

New Minerat Anatyses.—F. W. Clark and T. M. Chatard, in 


Eskimo ; (2) saussurite, from Shasta county, California ; (3) al- 
lanite, from Topsham, Maine, where it occurs in slender black 


LOLLINGITE AND OTHER MINERALS FROM Cotorapo.—At several 
mines in Gunnison county, Colorado, associated with barite, sid- 


1 
2 i" Fourn., Sea 1884. 


$ 


1040 General Notes. 


esite, galena, chalcopyrite, argentite, proustite, etc., there oou 
small, steel-like crystalline forms of radiated structure, often stel 
late, which have been shown by W. F. Hillebrand! to be a ca l 
tiferous variety of lollingite,an arsenide of iron. The J 
are often interpenetrated, and form twins and trillings, which agan ‘ 
interpenetrate to form complex radiating masses, several 
inches in diameter. The specific gravity is 7.4, and analyse 
showed the presence of over four per cent of cobalt, with small 
percentages of nickel, copper, bismuth and sulphur. 
A related mineral, which occurred in thin blades with the li | 
lingite, was shown to be an arsenite of cobalt, but not enough | 
was obtained for analysis. | 
Cosalite was found in La Plata county in irregular masses ol 
small size, having irregular fracture, a grayish-white color, and 
hardness o 
A sulpho- bismuthite of copper and silver, probably a nee 
mineral, was found in a quartz vein in Park county. It wasi 
bluish-gray substance, sometimes occurring in minute, slender, 
striated crystals. It will receive further investigation, ; 
Hiibnerite occurs in Ouray county in large a 
vertically striated and imbedded in quartz. A 
black color, pale yellow in tn thin crystals. The oa 
agrees with the formula, MnW 


Evansite.—The rare eels evansite, a phage phosphate o 
alumina, heretofore found only in Hungary, W t5 
brought i in 1856 by Brooke Evans, after whom D. Forbes n 
the species, has recently been found by A. S. Woodware in 
Cheshire, England. It occurs in fissures in a fossiliferous 5 
and it is probable that like the vivianite of the New Jerseys 
sand beds, it is in part derived from organic matter. In pi 
characters the mineral agrees with the original evansite. 

Tin From Norta Carorina.—In a recent number oa the Nar 
URALIST reference was made to the discovery of tin at "i 
mountain, N.C. Dr. C. W. Dabney, Jr., has sent us ut 
ticulars concerning its occurrence at that place. 

e cassiterite is mostly massive or crypto-crystalliNe is 
gravity 6.6-6.9; color generally dark brown, but varying 


black to almost colorless, follows: 
e partial composition was ascertained to be as 10 
(2) 
I ry 
Silica L (r 4 a ; 
Arsenic.. ` ip 
a E T o + ies pe 4 
Ree S, os “ ari 
Tin > Ja. va (by wet method) kes (by 
Iron and manganese PRAT undetermined uor 


1 Amer. Fourn. Sc., 1884. 
. Mivctiagica? Magazine, Vol. V, p. 333. 


1884. ] Botany. 104I 
Specimen (1) was of a light grayish color, specimen (2) was 
k brown 


Associated with the cassiterite is tourmaline, menaccanite, 
mica, zircon and rutile, the two latter scarce. Much of the cassi- 
terite is in small grains with tourmaline. 


NICKEL FROM Nevapa.—Important deposits of nickel ore have 
been discovered in Churchill county, Nevada. Some thirteen 
veins, varying in width from ten to thirty-five inches, traverse a 
ledge of rock, the gangue separating the veins consisting of sil- 
ica, iron, lime and magnesia. As recently determined by S. B. 
Newberry’, the ore at the greatest depth (eighty feet) consists of 
nearly pure niccolite. Nearer the surface oxidation products 
appear. At the ten feet level the ore is mainly the hydrated 
arseniate, or annabergite. There is every prospect that the nickel 
mines of Nevada will eventually become a prominent source of 
supply of this valuable metal. 


VANADINITE.—Vanadinite in brilliant red and yellow hexagonal 
crystals is reported by F. H. Blake? as occurring in Pinal county, 
Arizona. Wulfenite occurs at the same locality. The vanadinite 


crystals are small and are generally simple hexagonal prisms 
whose prismatic planes are striated vertically, the opposite of 
what occurs in pyromorphite. Some few modifications also 
occur, 


BOTANY.’ 


STRUCTURE, DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF STOMATA IN 

UISETUM ARVENSE.‘—The stomata develop less rapidly on the 
stem than on the leaves, and hence in order to study them in 
their earlier stages, it is best to cut a section of epidermis from a 
very young stem. 

In the earliest stages I could find, the mother-cell of the stoma 
occurred as a cell of equal rank with the others, but was divided 
into four guard cells lying side by side, their longitudinal axes 
being parallel to that of the stem (Fig. 1 a). As the ordinary 
€pidermal cells develop they grow more in length than in breadth, 
While the stomata grow equally in both directions, and crowd 
upon the surrounding cells (Figs. 1 and 3). In the meantime the 
Outer pair of guard cells arch over the inner pair (Fig. 1 4) and 
finally completely cover them (Fig. 3). When mature, the guard 
cells are loaded with silica arranged in radiating bars (Fig. 3), 
and usually the inner pair is entirely hidden ; but if a thin cross- 

14 
Bia, Fourn. Sc., 1884, 
Edited by Pror, C, E. Bessey, Ames, Io 


. ’ Wade i 
* Selected for publication from original work of students in the botanical labora- _ 
tory of the University of Michigan, 1883-84. 


r042 General Notes, [October i 


section of a mature leaf be obtained, the two pairs of cellsen 
be seen, one above the other (Fig. 2, æa, upper pair of guad 
cells; ġġ, lower pair). 

With reference to the distribution of the stomata, Sachs 
the general statement that in the genus Equisetum they ae 
always found in the furrows and never on the ridges; but £ 
arvense seems to be a partial exception to this rule, as upon the 
leaves the stomata are invariably on the ridges. 

Taking the fertile plant, we find the leaves arranged in sheaths 
at the nodes of the stem; these sheaths are entire at the base but 
broken at the top into numerous teeth, which begin to divergeia 
the deeper furrows (Fig. 4 ee). Fig. 4 shows an outline section 
of a leaf taken about half way up; the upper surface is the outer 
one, on which the stomata are always located. It will be seen 


the leaf where they are most abundant. Where the leaves jot 
the stem the furrows, ¢ e, are continued (Fig. 5 ¢¢), the furrow # 
disappears, becoming continuous with the highest part of the 
ridge of the stem (Fig. 5 m). Fig. 5 is a section of one of the 
ridges of a stem; aa are the cells containing chlorophyll; whee 
these touch the epidermis there is a slight elevation 
general slope, and on these places the stomata occur. 

The distribution of stomata on the stem and stem gasie a 
alike on the fertile and sterile plants, but the branches have anon 
method of arrangement. On the leaf of the branch (Fig. 
there is no central furrow, but its place is taken by 4 tat rA 
(Fig. 6 m),and the ridges and furrows of the leaf are 4t SY 


either side of the ridge (4 4), but on the stem they pass don 
the furrows and lie on either side of the lowest part. 5 tote i 

This arrangement of stomata in Æ. arvense 15, the $ : 
species, for in Æ 4imosum and E. hyemale they lie, on "3 
exclusively in the furrows. 

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXXII. 

FIG, 1.—Epidermis of stem (preserved in alcohol). 
Fic. 2.—Cross-section of a stoma. 
Fic. 3.—A mature stoma. 
Fic. 4.—Cross-section of leaf of fertile plant. 
Fic, 5.—Cross-section of ridge of stem. 
Fic, 6,—Cross-section of leaf of branch. 


—Lffie A. Southworth, Ann Arion, Ms 


Tae Desmips or THE Unirep States.—A om i 
be given to the study of these beautiful plants by r nited S 
of Rev. Francis Wolle’s book, Desmids of the ©” and" 
lately received. Over four hundred and fifty species 


eed he a FS 


Sa afd 


eat 


PLATE XXXII. 


Sty “4 
Sv. vale 

. 
@gricriat 
a ‘eine 


OS, it 
ONAE 


ee 
wee 
ore ê . 

s 


sog 
ate 


Stomata in Equisetum arvense. 


1884.] Botany. 1043 


marked varieties are described and figured with a fullness as to 
detail and coloring which leaves little to be desired. The fifty- 
three colored plates contain eleven hundred figures, most o 
which are magnified 500 times, relatively few being magnified 
375 and 250 times. The making of these plates alone involved 
an amount of labor for which botanists will certainly be very 
grateful to the industrious author. That the work has been 
largely a labor of love is evident from the fact that it is sold for 
five dollars. 

The following directions for collecting desmids (page x11) will 
show the author’s style, and may serve to incite some of the 
NaTura.ist’s young collectors to search for these beautiful and 
interesting plants : 

“The outfit need not consist of more than a nest of four or five 


length. Should a boat be needed it can usually be hired on the 
spot. After selecting what seems to be a good locality, drag the 
net a few feet among the grasses and mosses, allow the bulk of 
the water to drain through the muslin, and then empty the resi- 
due into one of the cans ; repeat this process as often as may be 
desirable. Ten or fifteen minutes after the cans have been filled, 
Most of the surface water may be poured off and the remainder 
transferred to a glass vial, where the solid contents will gradually 
sink and the superfluous water can be again poured off and the 
vessel filled up with deposits from other vials. In shallow places 
what is known as swamp-moss (Sphagnum), bladderwort (Utricu- 
laria), water-milfoil (Myriophyllum) or other finely cut-leaf water 
plants are likely to abound; these should be lifted in the hand 
and the water drained or squeezed from them into a tin can to 
be Subsequently treated as already stated. A few drops of car- 
bolic acid in each vial, just enough to make its presence percepti- 
le, will preserve the contents for months, and even years from 
deterioration ; the green coloring matter (ci/orophyll) may fade, 
but this, in the case of desmids, is of little importance; never- 
theless, when practicable, always examine the materials when 
fresh. When dried on paper for the herbarium the specimens - 
Can still, after being moistened with water, be microscopically 
examined, but not with the best results, since the drying up is 
ape to collapse or otherwise distort the cells. 
The collector will not know the value o 
been brought drop by drop under the lens of his microscope, an 
Cut of the entire mass he may discover nothing to reward his 


be expected prior to mee 
reward. His interest in the study will be greatly en 
keeps a record of it in sketches of what the microscope 
66 


VOL. XvIIt.—no, x, 


reveals. 


1044 General Notes. [October, 


to him. These sketches should, of course, be very exact, and ia 
order that they may be so, it is necessary that the mi 

should be provided with an eye-piece micrometer with which to 
measure the length and breadth of the figure to be sketched, 
* * It is so difficult to separate specimens from their accom- 
panying foreign matter that it is seldom amateurs can mount 
them satisfactorily on slides, and therefore this method of pre- 

dation.” 


serving specimens is not open to recommendati 


New Mexico and Montana. Two varieties of this species are 
noted, viz., var. sericea (O. sericea Nutt.) from Wyoming to tha 
and Arizona, and var. digelovii ( O. lamberti Torr., in Pacific R. 
Rept., 1v, 80) on the Upper Canadian river. All the other i 
cies are from the Rocky Mountain region and Alaska i 
the foregoing we have also Notes on some American pene 
Saxifraga, by the same author. Joseph F. James one 
tions to the Flora of Cincinnati, in the Jour, Cin. Sw, he’ cin- 
contains many interesting notes on certain plants of a # ie 
nati flora. In an interesting paper, “ Untersuchungen ear 
Bildung von centrifugalen Wandverdickungen an P sp nck 
und Epidermen,” just received, the author, Heinrich er | 
discusses the thickening of the cell-walls of hairs and ep! 
cells. A large plate with numerous figures illustrates the m 
- Drugs and Medicines of North America is the ee ‘ig: 
promising new quarterly illustrated journal devoted to gad 
cussion of the botany, pharmacy, chemistry and therapet orthy 
the medicinal plants of North America. It appears to isa Cin- 
. of support. It is published by Lloyd Bros., 180 Elm ai 
cinnati, Ohio, for $1 per year. 


ENTOMOLOGY. = 
Lire History oF Locumaus TESSELLA.— The caterpillar oe 


organs. This caterpillar is also interesting from its power 
touched of forcing out a dense cloud of fine spray tom sit- 
near the head; exactly where this repugnatorial apparatu 


1884.] Entomology. 1045 


uated is difficult to say ; as yet I have been unable to find it with 
a hand-lens, It is very common on the oak, from Maine south- 
ward, in August and through September. 

It is a large-bodied, pale green caterpillar, thickest in the mid- 
dle, being somewhat spindle-shaped. The head is moderately 
large, flat in front, subconical, with the vertex high and conical, 
pale green, edged very irregularly with roseate on the sides. 
small double reddish tubercle on the top of the prothoracic seg- 
ment, from which a median white or yellow dorsal stripe, here 
and there marked with roseate spots, runs to the supra-anal plate. 
The anal legs are represented by two slender filaments held out- 
stretched, which are nearly as long as the body is thick. There 
are seven pairs of oblique lateral faint yellowish slender stripes, 
the last pair extending to the sides of the anal filaments, All the 
legs are pale green and concolorous with the body. Length 
4o™ including the filaments. 

_The young before the last moult have much higher prothora- 
ci¢ dorsal tubercles and much larger anal filaments than in the 
adult, and they are tinged with reddish. The cocoon is of silk, 
not very thick, spun between the leaves, and in confinement the 
moths issued in November, though ordinarily not due until June, 
—A. S. Packard. 


on ei ridge, ending on each side in a dark warty tubercle. On 


situated near together. Behind these two tubercles, and situated on 


livid white. The head is marbled with transverse parallel waved 
lines, Length 30-32™™ August 8-9, at Brunswick, Me., it spun 


1046 General Notes. [October, 


a white web with minute meshes; the cocoon not being a loose 
one; and on the oth it assumed the pupa state. The chrysalis is 
brown, sometimes green on the head and thorax, including the 
limbs: and wings; with an obscure dorsal row of irregular spots, 
forming a nearly continuous line or band; and a lateral row of 
large obscure spots. On the second segment from the end of the 
legs are two warts. The spiracles are unusually distinct. Length 
15™". The moths issued in May in the breeding boxes.—d, 5. 
Packard. 


Tue Limes oF Insecrs—In his inaugural dissertation Dr. F, 
Dahl considers the structure and function of the limbs of insects. 
After the usual historical preface the author considers, withouten- 
tering into anatomical details, the external structure of the leg, but 
devotes more space to the mechanism of the muscles. The insect 
limbs are then regarded from the point of view of their special func- 
tions, 7. e. the limb as an organ of motion, whether on the ground, 
in water, or in the air. Under this head are given histological de- 
tails, with figures filling three plates and showing the fine anatomy 
of the tarsal joints, claws and pulvilli as well as hairs, as well i 
the external appearance of the last tarsal joints of insects of d 
ferent orders. ; i 

he limbs are then treated of as organs of prehension, includ: 
ing reproductive purposes as well as their uses in ceon oe 
combing the head, antennze and mouth parts, with sketches bees 
different kinds of combs growing on the fore-legs of beetles, 
and wasps, etc. 


Poison GLANDS IN THE SKIN OF THE CECROPIA Ca 
Dr. Dimmock, in the course of a valuable article cn “ Some § 
which open externally on insects,” in Psyche, for fate 
October, 1882 (published in February, 1884), states that, 2 i 
cropia caterpillar “be examined carefully, the black spines Up 
its red, blue, and yellow knobs, or tubercles, will be seen to able 
easily from the tubercle, and a clear yellow fluid of agg ati 
odor to ooze from each opening left by the injury. By o very 
the tubercle with a pair of forceps, the same strong odor ae in 
noticeable, and by this mode of treatment one has no i , 
proving that each tubercle, small or large, blue, y ehon a sec- 
contains the odorous fluid. The red tubercles are seen, x 
tions cut with the microtome, to be divided into com chase 
the cavities of each spine opening into a compartment at vile, $0 
end. The spines themselves are quite rigid and very in the 
that they break away at a slight touch, and leave a boe 
tubercle, out of which the odorous fluid pours, pushed bY refilly, 
Pressure. This fluid, which I have not examined CW ig 
but which I hope later to study chemically, is stro ne ine 

o litmus r, but causes a purple precipitate suggests a 
utions.”” ‘The y : 


t 
sol odor given out by these glands § 


1884. | Entomology. 1047 


once their protective function. Similar glands, 7. e., with no 
outlet until one is produced by external agency, are not rare in 
bombycid larve. Karsten, in 1878, described the anatomy of the 
ison glands at the base of the hairs of an American Saturnia. 
he secretion is “ perhaps formic acid or a formate in solution.” 
e paper is crammed with interesting facts on this subject; 
among others it is stated that, according to Witlaczil, the “honey” 
secreted by the aphides issues from the anus, and not from the 
tubes on the sixth segment. : 


MALPIGHIAN VESSELS oF LeprpopTeRA—-M. Cholodkorsky has 
lately added Lineola bisel/iella to the list of the few insects that are 
nown to have only two Malpighian vessels; these are of some 
size, and are folded along the course of the digestive canal, and end 
by a distinct enlargement. Luckow has described four Malpigh- 
Jan vessels in a species of Pterophorus and of Hyponomeuta, but 
later investigations show that they really agree with the great 
Majority of the Lepidoptera in having six. As embryological Te- 
search has shown that a small number of Malpighian tubules is a 
primitive character, and that with progressive development the 
number'increases either by branching or by histolysis, succeeded 
by a fresh development of a larger number, it is clear that the 
Microlepidoptera in which there are but two, while their cater- 
pillars have six, exhibit just the reverse to what we should ex- 
pect, or in other words we have here a case of atavism, and one 
which as it obtains in the imaginal state only, is here a periodic 
rather than a constant atavism.—/ournal of the Royal Microscopi- 
cal Society, June, 1884, P. 373. 


TRANSMISSION, PRESERVATION AND MOUNTING OF APHIDES.—G. 
B. Buckton gives the řesults of his experience as to the best mode 
of transmitting living Aphides, and also the best method for kill- 
mg and preserving such like insects for future examination. 

is to transmission, the chief thing to be guarded against is 
desiccation, and no plan seems to be so ee gO hy ppa ETEA 
sure in ordin uills stopped by plugs of cork and pellets o 
beeswax, The substance of tthe quill is sufficiently porous to pre- 
vent mildew on the one hand and a rapid evaporation on the 
other. In this way small insects may be sent through the post, 
and in a far better condition than can be secured in any tin boxes, 
even though they be filled with leaves. If a slip of somewhat 
oo leaf be rolled round each quill, to retain moisture, a 

e will convenient! through the post. ° : 

For Preservation (aithen elit on a slide) the best plan is to drop 
the insects into small flattened glass tubes partially filled with a 
Suitable liquid, then draw the tube to a fine point, break the end 
off, and warm the empty space (or, better, expel the air by a 
Pump), and the tube can be entirely filled with liquid, and then 
Sealed with the blow-pipe. 


1048 General Notes. [October, 


For mounting microscopically, five or a dozen spots of fluid 
Canada balsam should be dotted on a slide from the head of a 
pin, and by means of a hair pencil as many living insects trans- 
ferred to them. The specimens at once adhere, and if the spots 
are small the insects spread out their limbs naturally, with a view 
to escape. They may be fixed on their backs or otherwise, ac- 
cording to the views desired. 

A very thin glass cover, or, if very high magnifying powers are 
wanted, a small disk of clear mica, is laid over the insects, and 
then one or more drops of the fluid balsam are delivered from a 
glass rod at one of the sides of these covers. The balsam runs 
slowly under by capillarity, and it drives all the air before it, the 
small weight of the cover assisting it to spread, until the whole 
area is filled. No pressure is to be used, or the elastic bodies of 
the Aphides will change shape; and besides this, the juices will 
be forced through the cornicles and pores. If the balsamis thick, 
a very gentle heat, hardly exceeding that of the cheek, may 
applied, but as a rule, the temperature of a room is better than 
that which exceeds it. The insects die immediately they are cut 
off from air, and in almost every case their position will be good 
for examination. To spread the wings of a small insect, the above- 
mentioned small dots may be made in a row. The belly of the 
specimen is applied to the middle spot, and by a bristle one wing 
may be applied to a dot on the one side, and the other wing to 
the third dot. The cover is then placed as befare, and when tie 
balsam runs in it will not disturb the position of the spread wings. 

It will be noticed that very soon after live insects have 
mounted in a resinous substance that will not mix with es 
white cloudiness forms around each specimen. This !s fore 
the watery juices of the insect, which chill. the medium and 
it opaque. : 

This cloudiness, however, entirely disappears after perhaps 
month, the moisture being slowly carried outwards. oe 
to be said of stray air-bubbles. The oxygen of the air unites cut 
the balsam, and thus hardens it ; but what combination 1S eff oil 
with the nitrogen is not so clear. However, air-bubbles 11 ere 

isappear in time, provided the former is not in too hard a 
dition. : small 

_ In cases when the above small pressure is undesirable, oe 
circles, cut by round punches of different sizes out © var 
sheet lead, will be found more convenient to insert between s 
glass slip and its cover than circles of card, which are spe 
recommended. The thin sheet lead from the Chinese pase it 


yields no air-bubbles by heat. which it 


would appear that all the characters of form and colour er 
be preserved in Aphides and other insects. The method com" 


1884.] Entomology. 104) 


of a rapid death and drying of the insect by means of a current 
of heated air. The Aphis, previously attached to some suitable 
support, is suddenly and momentarily subjected to the heat of a 
spirit or other flame, by which it is immediately killed and caused 
to retain its natural position. Several examples are then carefully 
roasted in a current of hot air, such as that passing through an 
inclined glass tube duly made hot, or dried on a sheet of paper 
moved over a heated metal plate. 

When dry, the specimens are mounted on card by attachment 
with gum tragacanth, or, as Mr. T. W. Douglas suggests, more 
conveniently on mica, called “talc,” in the shops, which, as it is 
incombustible, is well suited for a support both before and after 

tying. 


Methods and operations in science, like events in history, re- 
peat themselves. Fifty years ago films of mica were used to cover 
objects for the microscope, and before the manufacture of the thin 
gass now so commonly used, it admirably answered its purpose. 
Under deep magnifying powers, such as one-half inch, it will be 
fourid even now of great service. The mineral may be split by 
the lancet into films much thinner than glass can be blown in a 
flat state. Small unscratched pieces may be selected which are 
perfectly transparent, and their cost is quite trifling. 

On account of the high refracting power of Canada balsam, 
the colors of recently immersed Aphides show themselves very 
brightly ; and it sometimes happens that tints, quite lost through 
irradiation or glance on the surfaces, become distinct by treatment 
with this resin. z 

The bright colors and markings of some species are due to the 
hue of the internal juices of the insects. These cannot be pre- 


Society, June, 1884, p. 467. 


1050 General Notes. (October, 
ZOOLOGY. 7 


THE ORIGIN OF FRESH-WATER FAUNAS, A STUDY oF EvoLUTION. 
—Under this title Professor W. J. Sollas read a paper at a late 
meeting of the Irish Royal Society, which is reported in Nature 
for June 12.. As no reference has been made apparently to work 
done in this country, it will supplement Dr. C. A. White's essays 
on the same subject. The poverty of fresh-water faunas as com- 
pared with marine is commonly attributed to a supposed inadapta- 
bility on the part of marine organisms to existence in fresh-water, 
That this explanation is inadequate is shown by the existence of 
fresh-water jelly-fish, such as Limnocodium, and still more 
directly by the experiments of Beudant, who succeeded in accus- 
toming several kinds of marine mollusca to a fresh-water habitat. 
The view of Von Martens that the severity of a fresh-water 
climate is prohibitive of the existence of most marine forms it 
rivers is insufficient, and a more thoroughgoing explanation 1$ 
necessary. This is to be found in a study of the means by which 
the distribution of marine animals is secured. In the case 
stationary forms free-swimming embryos are distributed over 
wide areas by currents, and they can never pass from the sea into 
rivers, in which the current is always directed seawards. Nor, 


j lar 
mollusks do not enter upon a free existence until they are dal d 
to their parents, and Paludina is viviparous e suppress 


. tto 
yolk, and other kinds of nourishment furnished by the p d 
with 

the drudgery of working for its own existence, and supp 


nutriment in a form that puts the least tax on its digestive Popi 
a larger balance of energy remains available for metame 


probably leads to the lengthening of the adult life, an 


1884.] © Zoölogy. 1051 


chances of variation and selection forward into the adult stage. 
Thus animals which hatch out in a complete state will most 
probably suffer modifications of that state, and not of previous 


non-locomotive forms. Hence the origin of fresh-water inverte- 
brates is connected with the great movements which have affected 
the earth’s crust. The earliest well known lacustrine areas are 
those of the old red sandstone, in one of which we meet with the 
earliest known fresh-water mollusk, Anodonta jukesti (Forbes). 
The lakes of the Permo-Triassic period contributed additions to the 
fresh-water fauna of the globe. The Neritidz and Melaniide are 
So closely connected with them they may be regarded as their 
collateral or direct descendants, and thus may have originated in 

riassic lakes, but not earlier. Other genera probably arose at 

€ same time; the occurrence in Cretaceous deposits of Unio, 
Physa, Valvata and Limnea in the Nearctic, Palzarctic, and Orien- 
tal regions, suggests a high antiquity for these genera ; and they 
may have existed in Paleozoic times. The lakes of the Tertiary 
Period furnished probably further contributions to our fresh-water 
fauna, such as Lithoglyphus and Dreissena. Thus, existing fresh- 


SHELLs oF Anticostr.—When leaving Ottawa in the summer 
of 1883 to study the flora of Anticosti, Professor Macoun promised 
me that he would endeavor to make as complete a collection as 
Possible of the land and fresh-water shells of that little know 
island. The result of his labors is most gratifying, and : vt 
that they were energetically and intelligently directed. His col- 


1052 General Notes. [October, 


lection was some time since placed in my hands for determina- 
tion, and I have now much pleasure in submitting a list of the 
shells to the many students of science who take an interest in the 
distribution of the Mollusca. 

Land Shells: Helix hortensis Miull.; Macrocychs concava Say; 
Hyalina nitida Müll., Patula striatella Anthony; Conulus fuivus 
Drap. ; Vallonia pulchella Müll. ; Helicodiscus lineatus Say; Vitrina 
limpida Gould; Cionella sudcylindrica L.; Pupa muscorum L.; P. 
pentodon Say ; P. hoppii Möller; Vertigo gouldii Binney ; Succinea 
obliqua Say; S. ovalis Gould; S. avara Say; S. verrilli Bland. 

Fluviatile Shells: Zimneæa stagnalis L.; L. palustris Mill; R 
emarginata Say ; Physa heterostropha Say ; Bulinus hypnorum L.; 
Planorbis bicarinatus Say; P. campanulatus Say ; P. deflectus Say; 
P. parvus Say; Valvata sincera Say; Pisidium abditum Hald. ; 
Anodonta fragilis Lamarck. 

Professor Macoun was informed that a large kidney-shaped 
mussel occurred in Fox river—a locality which he was unable to 
visit. This shell no doubt is Margaritana margaritifera—alrealy 
recorded from Anticosti by Professor Alpheus Hyatt. , pine? 
nula harpa Say, was not observed, although from being foun 
on the mainland opposite, in Gaspé, and inward along the St. 
Lawrence to Montreal, its presence might be expected. Both i 
plain and banded forms of Æ. hortensis were collected, but none 
var. nemoralis. Vallonia pulchella is the strongly ribbed at 
(costata Miill.), which has not, I believe, been found crates 

anada, where the typical form is very common, but whi a 
known to occur at various points in the United States. Succi 


. . . bd = res 
verrilli does not seem distinguishable from S. avara, ee 


doubtful, but is probably that species. The Anodonta h Ti 
distinct from the pale, thin forms of fuviatilis which it's i e 

tom to call fragilis, and probably more nearly approac oe 
marck’s species—originally described from Newfoundlan 


ica and Europe. Of these Conulus fulvus has the most mre 
distribution north and south, while others of them— Crone e 
cylindrica, Patula striatella, Bulinus hypnorum, Limnæa st Jand. 
and L. palustris—range with it across Canada to Vancouver z 

— rank R. Latchford, Ottawa, Ont. 


GILL on THE Hanits or Fisnes—Professor Gill give Oe 
lowing notes in a late number of Forest and Stream: h found 
an interesting instance of the female of one type of ss riod- 
in South America, the Aspredinidæ, in which there occur ar are 
ical swellings of the skin of the abdomen in which the ege 
received, and therein they are nourished for some time. 


1884. | Zoology. 1053 


inthe same group, or order of catfishes, but in another family, 


aspecies of Chromis. And the same peculiar habit is likewise 
manifested by species of the same family living in South America, 

e Geophagi. The belief was also long current, and found ex- 
pression in most of the old books, that fishes not only did not take 
care of their young, but were invariably oviparous. We all know 
now how false such a statement is. In one class, the Selachians, 
the larger proportion of forms are viviparous. For example, of the 
sharks proper, three-fourths or more are viviparous, and the same 
statement holds good with respect to the rays or skates. Thus, 
out of 150 species of rays, over 100 are viviparous, and another 
noteworthy fact is that the oviparous rays are nearly all included 
in one family—the common skates or rays brought to our mar- 

ets. This feature of viviparity was known to the ancient natu- 


a Were viviparous, while all scaly fishes were oviparous. There, 
owever, he erred, for there is no such limitation. Many of the 


these cases were almost unknown. ` I agree with the statement of 
Mr. Ryder that confinement frequently affects the power of pro- 


dom in Zodlogical collections, but they do not bring forth young, 
their eggs are sterile. There are many exceptions to this rule, 

ut many cases of sterility for which we can assign no other 
cause. Somewhat analogous is the peculiar pathological condition 
of animals living in confinement, in which the bones become soft- 
ened or rickety.” 


1054 General Notes. (October, 


HIBERNATION OF THE GRAY GROUND SQutrRREL.—On January 
18, last, I was fortunate enough to have brought to me, bya 
farmer residing near here, a gray ground squirrel, Spermophilus 
franklini in the hibernating state. 

The squirrel, or gopher, was rolled up ina perfect ball, his head 
resting forward of the root of his tail,and the tail curled carefully 
up on the body of the ball. The gentleman also brought with 
him about one-half of the nest in which the gopher was found, the 
gopher still resting in it. The nest was made of common low- 
land grass (cured), and was merely a nicely collected ball of hay 
without any sign of a place of entrance, but had instead every 
appearance as though some brother gopher had built the nest 
around the body of the hibernator. This ball of hay or nest, was 
about twelve or fourteen inches in diameter, and was found by the 
farmer and some workmen in a hay stack on his farm. The nest 
was in the center of the stack, which was large, and had stood in 
the field two years. No other nest was found. When paa, 
man who was pitching hay from the stack, came to this ball 
hay, he kicked it to one side, but the farmer considering it @ 
strange discovery to find frozen hay in the center of such a larg 
stack, though water run down into it, carried it home "ne 
nation, and in turn was so well pleased with the diana m i 
sleeping marmot, that in his enthusiasm he brought the ani : 
me the next day; forgetting, by the way, to consider that a change 
> of temperature might kill it, as he kept the animal ex to 
very cold freezing weather we had at that time, during th 
and until noon the next day, the time of delivery to me. 


observation no one could deny that life existed, and that ein 
g to test the 


various degrees of bodily heat-temperature as spring gf weight 


ture as I supposed the haystack to have been, I plac h 
I thought I could come the nearest to it; but in whic 


must have failed, for upon examination after ten days ose from 


j had 
position I had several times noticed during the ten wa lid 
had it, his feet were withdrawn from their sy -a the 
position upon each side of the center of the junction ° i pads? 
and the hinder parts of the body, which the tail previous vie 
perfectly covered; the body was now limp, and. thet outh and 
dence of a hemorrhage, having come through the ™ 


1884.] Zovlogy. 1055 
) 


nostrils; but otherwise the appearance of the animal was as life- 
like as when I first saw it. At various times thereafter I exam- 
ined it, but only to discover no change to prove that death had 
taken place, until about the 15th day of March, when I discov- 
ered that putrefaction had set in; the body was then disposed of. 
The question with me now is, Did this gopher die upon his 
being changed from the temperature of the haystack to the exces- 
sive cold of the night and day following, or did he merely become 
affected sufficiently with the other changes that followed to pro- 
duce hemorrhage, and in this reduced condition did he not 
then have vitality enough to carry him through the hibernating 
condition, and died because wanting this power ?—D. H. Talbot. 


Tne Varyinc Hare.—This species derives its name from the 
well-known circumstance that it changes color in spring and fall 
—being dark reddish-brown in summer and snowy white in win» 
ter. Concerning the method of the change much difference of 
opinion exists, and some of the ablest of recent writers pass the 
point in silence, 

ennant says: “ These animals, at approach of winter, receive a 
new coat, which consists of a multitude of long white hairs, twice 
as long as the summer fur, which still remains beneath.” „Dr, 
Richardson stated that, in his opinion, “ the change to the winter 
dress takes place by a lengthening and blanching of the summer 
fur; whilst the change in the beginning of summer consists in the 
winter coat falling off during the growth of the new and colored 
fur.” This opinion comes very near the truth, but does not ex- 
press the whole truth. The first clause is absolutely correct; for 
in the fall the change certainly does occur “ by a lengthening and 
blanching of the summer fur,” the individual hairs changing color 
after the first fall of snow. This species, like the great majority of 
mammals, is clothed with two kinds of hair—a fine soft fur which 
densely covers all parts of the body, and longer, stiffer hairs, 
scatteed through, and projecting beyond the former. These long 
hairs are black in summer and white in winter. In the fall of the 
year, when the change begins, they become white at the tips first, 
the black gradually fading from above downwards, until the entire 
“ir is white. In spring the process is reversed, the exposed por- 
tion of the long hairs becoming black (though the extreme tip 
Sometimes remains white until the change is far advanced), which 
color gradually extends downward, at the expense of the white, 
until the entire hair is black. Sometimes the displacement of the 
White is temporarily interrupted, the two colors appearing 1n alter- 
nate zones. And during the latter part of March, when the body 
" the animal is still white, it is not uncommon to find hundreds 
of black hairs scattered over the back, many of them with the ex- 
treme apices, and a narrow zone between the middle and base, 


pea ; 
Arctic Zoology, Vol. 1, 1792, p. 110. Lepus americanus. 


1056 General Notes. [October, 


white. In fall or early winter the soft fur becomes tipped with 
white, the white portion increasing somewhat in length and diame 
ter. In spring a curious phenomenon takes place, The whit 
portion of the fur loses its vitality, becomes brittle, and breaks of 
on slight friction, so that the animal, in brushing through the un- 
dergrowth, soon rids himself of it. As a rule the long hairs 
change first! Both in spring and fall the time of the change 
seems to be governed by the presence or absence of snow, and is 
not affected by the temperature. It occurs independently of the 
moult, and the new hairs assume the prevailing color of the ani- 
mal, or the color toward which itis tending at the time of their 
appearance.—C. Hartt Merriam, from advance sheets of the Trans- 
actions of the New York Linnean Society, Part ú. 


Foop or Cats.—The note by Mr. Dimmock, of Cambridge, i 
the September number of the Naruratist, upon the food a 
impels me to speak of my pet kitten. She refuses milk utterly 
she can be supplied with anything else. She eats coo shat 
corn with a relish. In this connection a friend informs me ‘ill 
he has frequently fattened cats this way. Indeed, they pee 
steal the cobs out of swill pails. My kitten will catch geen 
moths and the water bugs of the kitchen. Her patience n 


de 
mounted to the top of a step-ladder and from tT 
springs at the window. The moth was all unconscious 
very slight yet effective interposition of the screen. f 
ave known cats to eat clams to such repletion ta 
died. Fishing cats are by no means uncommon.— . 
Providence, Aug. 25, 1884. 


thoroughly described and lessons of homology cor of a horse 


ch 215% 
*Specimens in my museum, killed in Lewis county, December 1% i spring 
and April 3d, well illustrate the above described conditions of pe aoe feeble that 
while the change is in progress, the attachment of the white tips 15 or less Í 
undreds may be blown off at a single puff. The change occurs u on the beads 
larly over the greater part of the body, but is usually symmett 
giving rise to a very pretty pattern. 


1884. ] Zoology. 1057 


just born show the temporal divided into squamosal, quadrate 
and mastoid, while the malar is, in the idiot skull, divided by a 
vertical suture into a premalar and postmalar (post frontals, ante- 
rior and posterior). The “ Japanese bone,” formed by a horizon- 
tal suture, cuts off a hypo-malar, which M. Albrecht identifies 
with the guadrato-jugal, 

This treatise, like all others from this investigator, deserves 
careful attention, However he may appear to controvert cur- 


of lower vertebrates, some of which have hitherto baffled mor- 
phologists. 


Celenterates—Dr. Claus (Arb. aus dem Zool. Inst. Wien., 
1883) describes the ephyra-stage of Cotylorhiza and Rhizostoma, 
 Worms.—M. G: Pruvot has, at Banyuls-sur-Mer, investigated 
the nervous system of the Eunicide, and finds: (1) That the cere- 
bral mass is composed of two distinct parts; a cerebral and a 
Stomato-gastric ; (2) That the antennz and sense-organs are 
Supplied with nerves entirely from the cerebral center, and that 

odd posterior antenna represents a pair of appendages that 
have united on the median line; (3) that the stomato-gastric cen- 
ter furnishes all the nerves of the palpi and the stomato-gastric 
connections; (4) That the stomato-gastric system has essentially 
the same disposition as the general nervous system ; 
< a sub-cesophageal center, an cesophag 


chain, 


1058 General Notes. [October, 


which appears to be formed by the union of two——M. Poirier 
and Rochebrune have carefully described Lophobdella quatrefagesi, 
a hirudinean which resides in the mouth of Crocodilus vulgaris, 
cataphractus and leptorhynchus, and also upon the lingual papil- 
læ of Gymnoplax egyptiacus and in the pouch of Pelecanus cris- 
pus and onocrotalus. 

Mollusks —Dr. Carl Grobben contributes to the Arbeiten aus 
dem Zo6l. hist. Univ. Wien, 1883, the results of his studies of the 
urinary and generative organs as well as of the body-cavity of the 
Cephalopoda. Herr Von Vincenz Hilber (Sitz. der Ki 
Akad. der Wiss. Wien, 1883) describes the land-snails of China, 
gathered by Ludwig V. Loezy, geologist of Count Szechenyis 
expedition. Twenty species are detailed, of which eleven are 
given as new. The memoir is accompanied by a complete bibli- 
ography. 


logues the species found in the Baltic and North seas. Thirteen 

species, in eight genera, are enumerated, including a 

virens, nov. gen, and sp. In another article in the same issue © 

Müller describes Longipedina paguri, a copepod which resides in 
d 


of the heads of both, from above, below, and laterally r pt 
examples of A. cinerea, from various parts of Spain and Po oi à 
as well as from Morocco, were examined, and the species 1S 


of which is evident, is common at Smyrna, when the T yi 
examined were collected, and Dr. Bedriaga believes that 


prove to be really A. strauchi, The skull and soft parte ot 
Naja has been found in Tunis, A fine example 1.55” long W% 
taken by M. Valery-Mayet at the well of El-Aia. : the 
. Mammals.—M, Paul Albrecht, in a communication pane 
Anthropological Society of Brussels, describes the. Fossett 
fossette ” of the skull of mammals. He finds that this and 
Situated between the right and left cerebellar papers 
marked externally by a protuberance, is common to vi marst- 
general. M. Albrecht has found it in the monotreme > detik 
Pials, edentates, ungulates, Cetacea, Sirenia, Carnivora, pe skull 
Insectivora, bats, and most monkeys. The thickness ws 


4 
1884.] Physiology. 1059 


in ungulates prevents this central fossette from appearing as an 
eminence on the outside of the skull, and in the dolphins the crest 
een it and the cerebellar fossettes is not prominent, but the 
vermian fossette is absent only in the orang, chimpanzee, gorilla, 
and man. In all these it appears occasionally. It was first four 
in man by Cesare Lanbroso (1871), in the skull of a criminal, 
and has since been frequently noted in criminals, madmen, and in- 
ferior races, especially among the Aymara, whence it has been 
called the “aymarian fossette.” Its occurrence in the higher 
apes and man must therefore be considered as a mark of atavism. 


avillage. It was about ten feet above the ground, resembled the 
nest of a large bird of prey, and was unprotected above. The 


n 
Microscopical Society, June 11, Mr. Hazlewood called attention 

uman spermatozoa with two tails. I 
July 7, before the French Academy on the results of his dissec- 
tion of a Bosjesman from twelve to fourteen years old. The mus- 
cular system was in a more or less rudimentary state, which exists 
in a normal condition in various anthropoid apes and monkeys, 
and in some instances even in mammals of other orders. M. de 
Quatrefages in his remarks attempted to point out that these facts 
Supplied no fresh arguments in favor of man’s descent from a 

imitan prototype. 


PHYSIOLOGY.’ 


IN vain chiefly on account of the large number of diverse forms 


of bacteria found in the intestines of cholera patients. But finally 


"This department is edited by Professor Henry SEWALL, of Ann Arbor, Michigan. 
VOL. xvin, —xo. x, : 67 


1060 General Notes. [October, 


a peculiar comma-shaped bacillus was settled upon, and founi | 
thereafter uniformly present in the intestines of subjects dead from 
cholera or in the evacuations from cholera patients. This “choler 
bacillus” cannot be obtained from healthy people, though other 
bacteria occur in their evacuations, and it is absent from patients 
‘suffering from other diseases, such as dysentery, which resemble 
and often precede cholera. Says Dr. Koch, “ In the last report | 
could already state that the peculiarities of the cholera bacteria 
were so well determined that they could safely be distinguished 
‘from others. Of these characteristics the following are the most 
striking: The bacilli are not perfectly straight, like other bacilli, 
. but slightly curved, like a comma. The bending may go s0; 
‘that they take the form of a half-circle. In the pure cultivation 
from these bent rods often arise S-formed figures, and more or less 


of locomotion, which can best be seen, and in most marked a 
gree, ina drop of cultivation-liquid suspended ona covenga 
in such a preparation, one sees the bacilli vat with ie g 3 


bowels. In vomit, they have, as yet, only been noticed i 


' these the bacteria, had got into the stomach. In the bowels di 
atient a 


cholera bè 


tions are again foecal, the comma bacteria disappear jae 
and are, after convalescence, no longer to be founa. a Jera ba- 
found to hold in cholera subjects. In the stomach no ¢ yong 
cilli were found. The bowels varied, according aS pad 


the intestines was still.free from submucous extravasab n ‘leet 
. the contents consisted of a colorless, odorless liquid; the 
. bacilli were present in enormous masses, and near ly Pv raki 
distribution corresponded exactly with the degree a T 
_ the inflammation of the lining membrane, the bacil , 
_ erally not so thickin the upper intestine, but increasing 
_ lower end of the smaller intestine. When, howeve rtant reat 

taken place later, the intestines show signs of an impo’ all intes 
` tion. The lining is dark red in the lower part of he a 


rs 


1884.] | ~ Psychology. 1061 


tine, impregnated with extravasation of blood, and often dead on 
the outermost layers. The contents of the bowels are, in such 
cases, more or less blood-colored, and, in consequence of the re- 
appearance of the bacteria of putrefaction, putrid and fetid. The 
cholera bacteria at this stage begin to disappear, but continue still 
to be present for some time in the solitary glands, and in their 
vicinity—a circumstance which first called attention to the pres- 
ence of this peculiar bacterium in the bowels of the Egyptian 
cholera subjects. They entirely fail in such cases, only when the 
patient has lived through the cholera, and dies from the after- 
weakness. The cholera bacteria act exactly as other pathological 
bacteria. They ‘occur only in their peculiar disease; their first 
appearance is when the illness begins; they increase in number 
with the severity of the attack, and gradually disappear as the ill- 
hess wanes. They are found where the trouble exists ; and their 
number atthe height of the disease is so great, that their injuri- 
ous effect on the lining of the intestines is explained. * * * 
In the linen of cholera patients the bacteria increase in the most 
remarkable manner, when the clothes have been soiled with the 
evacuations, and then, for twenty-four hours, have been kept in a 
moist condition. This explains the known fact that the people 
having to do with such affected linen are often attacked. * * * 
Another peculiarity of thé cholera bacteria is, that they die, upon 
drying, much more quickly than most others. Commonly all life 
S extinct after three hours’ drying. It has been noticed that their 


line reaction. A very small amount of free acid, which would 
have little or no effect on other bacteria, puts a marked check on 
their growth. Ina healthy stomach they are destroyed, which is 


animals which have been constantly fed on cholera bacilli, and 
= A * Pe 


PSYCHOLOGY. 

Romanes’ Menrat Evoution IN ANmars.'— This volume is in 
continuation of the author’s Animal Intelligence, and as the 
title indicates, it is largely speculative. The argument assumes 

the theory of evolution, and that phase of it known as 


Mitted to the latter theory, since, on p. 62, he insists that “ moar 
Method of nervous evolution has everywhere been uniform,” a 
1 Mental Evolution in Animals. By GEORGE JOHN ROMANES, with a AERE 


taa? 0n Instinct. By Cuartzs DARWIN. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1 
MO, Pp. 411, $2. 


1062 General Notes. 
statement which is not only too dogmatic, but, if wet 
the author’s meaning, is opposed to many facts; 
markable cases of reasoning power in orders and 


gence in groups where they are, so to speak, nor 
And it is these sudden or, so to speak, capricious 1 
the occurrence of sports or new varieties of plants an 
which may or may not be perfected and transmitted, 
the convenient expression “saltatory evolution” 
suggest the occasional sudden origin of mental 
principle of sudden, saltatory evolution be grante 
accounting for the rise and transmission of mental t 
if not. much more simplified, at least more readily api 
accepted. It will be more in accordance with ma 


“ uniform in its upward development? 
his countrymen, is a devout and blind fol ver of ti 
win, and, like most disciples, carries out his speciai! 
ural selection with more of dogmatism and unwa 
his master. 
Barring then the particular working theory 
AY is grounded, we find little to criticise and m 


As others before him, Mr. Romanes deci 
a mind when it makes an intentio 
choice is a conscious one, as opposed to relex s 
voting a chapter tothe structure and functions t 
author next turns to the physical basis of m : 
a necessarily inconclusive way, from the a 
selection, i. z., uniformitarianism exclusively, th! 
the mass of the brain and degree of intelligence 

e root principles of mind are seen 1n. a 
nating between different kinds of stimuli, | 
tive degrees of mechanical intensity, 
performing adaptive movements suited t 


1884] Psychology. 1063 


crimination.” These two powers or faculties are seen in the 


actions of the Amceba; when their elaboration has proceeded to a 


certain extent, they begin gradually to become associated with 
feeling, “ when they are fully so associated, the terms choice and 
purpose become to them respectively appropriate.” Then follow 
chapters on consciousness, sensation, pleasures and pains, memory 
and association of ideas, perception and imagination. Six chap- 
ters are devoted to the consideration of instinct; chapter XIX is 
upon reason, and the last one, the twentieth, relates to animal 
emotions, and ends with a summary of intellectual faculties. 

_ Dr. Romanes’ views as to the comparative standing of animals 
in the intellectual scale are interesting, and we shall reproduce 
them hereafter. The essay by Mr. Darwin was one omitted from 
his Origin of Species, but will still be read with interest. 


Do Lasrapor Docs Bark ?—In his Mental Evolution in Ani- 
mals, Romanes remarks as follows (Appleton’s edition, p. 250), 
regarding the barking of dogs in Labrador: “ Lastly, it is now 
well known that the dogs of Labrador are silent as to barking.” 
I find the following notes in my journal of a summer spent at 
Caribou island, Straits of Belle Isle, on the Labrador coast in 
1860. “Some of the Esquimaux dogs are full-blooded, others 
are quarter, others half-Newfoundland. They keep up a constant 
howling. They are savage beasts. One without any provocation 
leaped up and bit a man twice in his hand, and very badly 
lacerated the under side of his arm.” I cannot’ now remember 
that these dogs actually barked, but they were often heard to 
‘owl and were noisy creatures. In'1864, at Chateau bay, I heard 
the Newfoundland dogs on the vessels in the harbor barking. At 
Hopedale, the Eskimo dogs of' the Eskimo of this settlement 
Were thus characterized by Rev. Mr. Wasson in an article entitled 

Ice and Esquimaux” in the Atlantic Monthly for April, 1865, 
P. 442, “ Prick-eared Esquimaux’ dogs huddle, sneak, bark, and 
snarl around, with a free fight now and then, in which they all 
fall upon the one that is getting the worst of it”’—A, S: Packard. 


brought up a handful of fish, and sat and ate them with great 
Bily alive with little trout and red-sided suckers, and some black 
Suckets, He did not eat their heads. There was quite a pile of 


1064 General Notes. [October, 


them on the log. I suppose the oil in his paw attracted the fish and 
baited them even better than a fly hook, and his toe nails were his 
hooks, and sharp ones, too, and once grabbed the fish were sure to 
stay. They also catch frogs in these forest brooks, and drink of the 
pure water in hot summer days, and love to lie and wallow in the 
muddy swamps as well as. our pigs in the mire. They often cross 
narrow places in lakes by swimming, and also rivers, and seem to 
love to take a turn in the water. I once saw one swimming from 
the mainland to the big island in Moosemaguntic lake, with 
just a streak of his back out of the water, looking like a dog 
moving along. Sometimes you see only their heads out of water; 
at other times half their bodies are to be seen. We account for 
this difference by condition. If fat, the grease helps buoy them 
up; if lean they sink lower in the water.—Lewiston Journal. 


Cunninc AS A Fox.—The term “cunning as a fox” is by no 
means an ill-jointed figure of speech. Those who know best the 
_ habits of the fox are the most ready to accord to him the well- 
earned epithet “ wily reynard.” Not only is he careful of his owt 
reputation and life, but he has a sort of a masonic solicitude for 
all of his craft. Two incidents, as related by eye-witnesses, will 
serve well to illustrate this. : 

Near the boyhood home of one of the writer’s old college pro- 
fessors there was a high hill. Its rocky sides were covered with 


tide of civilization to, 
more desolate solitudes. One old fox seemed to hold undisputed 
sway of the wily throne. On a smooth surface of the rock neat 
the summit she would remain for hours planning her campaign 
and nightly chy on neighboring farmyards, while (oan | 


be seen by the 
family, hence she reasoned that if fowl disappeared from ce 
the theft would be charged upen her, and her life bg 
sought. own [0 — 
Whatever her mental processes, she was never eee go 

molest the farmyards nearest her retreat, but would 0 ed 
miles from her home and there make havoc at the retain het 
some poor farmer. Her cunning enabled her to surely ee 
home and prolong her days. vew 

Another incident will show the solicitude that foxes P 
for another. In Northwestern Maine there lives an old hts is t 
has become an expert trapper. One of his chief delig hie 
distance any other man in the number of foxes capturs™ 


Pos 


1884.] Anthropology. 1065 


on a vacation last season I chanced one day to fall in with this 
famous trapper, and had from his lips the following : “I became 
satisfied years ago that foxes often helped their fellows out of 
trouble. Not long ago I went out as usual in late autumn an 
set some traps for foxes. Sickness called me away from home, 
so that I did not get an opportunity to visit my traps for more 
than a week. In the meantime there had been a light fall of snow. 
When I had a leisure half day I shouldered my gun and went out 
to see what the sport was. My traps were all unmolested except 
one, that was nowhere to be found. I began to circulate around 
the place where it had been, taking a wider and wider sweep every 
time. At length, about a quarter of a mile distant from where it 
had been placed, in a dense piece of woods, I found my missing 
trap and a fox in it, fast by the leg. The old fellow was remarka- 
bly fresh and active, although he had been in the trap apparently 
for some days. The snow about him was well trodden down, and 
lying all around him, within in his reach, were an abundance of 
dead mice. If his fox friends could not release the captive, they 
were determined that he should not starve.” —3B. S. Rideout, in 
Forest and Stream, Fune 26th, 1884. 


ANTHROPOLOGY .' 


ANTHROPOLOGY IN France.—Dr. E. T. Hamy, curator of eth- 
nology in the National Museum at Paris, has sent us several bro- 
chures, of which he is the author, and whose contents will be 
briefly noticed : 

La croix de Teotihuacan, Mém. lu al’Acad. des Inscriptions 
et Belles Lettres, Nov., 1882.” Paris, E. Leroux, 23 p. This 
Pamphlet describes two cruciform figures exhumed by M. Char- 
nay in 1880, at Teotihuacan, north of the San Juan river and 
West of the avenue leading to the palace of the moon. After 
giving a comprehensive sketch of Spanish authorities upon the 
Sculptured crosses of Mexico, Dr. Hamy ‘defends the opinion 
that the Mexican crosses in question are the, symbols of Tlaloc, 
god of rain and storm, and of the mountain. Other types 
Crosses are derived from the tree, the serpent, or from fancy. The 
transfer of the cross symbol from Tlaloc to Quetzalcoatl is ex- 
plained in the closing chapter. 

ote sur les Figures et les Inscriptions gravées dans la roche a 
adj-Memoun, near Figuig. Paris, E. Leroux, p. 11. 

Note sur une Inscription Chronographique de la fin de la péri- 
ode Aztéque appartenant au Musée du Trocadéro. Paris, E. Le- 
roux, 1883, p. 14. This brochure is devoted to the description of 
a tablet of polished obsidian, 5 x 16 x 21 cm.,, collected by M. 

art, and bearing a chronographic inscription, which Dr. Hamy 
concludes to be December 9, 1483, the date of the commence- 
ment of the great teocalli of Mexico. 


! Edited by Professor Oris T. Mason, 1305 Q street, N. W., Washington, D. C. 


1666 General Notes, [October | 


Quelques Observations sur la distribution geographique des 

Opatas, des Tarahumaras et des Pimas, survies d’une note dy 
Toponymie Tarasque (Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop., Nov. 1883). Paris, 
A, Hennuyer, 1884, p. 11. This pamphlet is illustrated with a 
map, and confirms the opinions of the linguists as to the relation- 
ship of the Opatas and J Sanus, but not with reference to 
the Pimas, Cahitas, and Tépéhuane 

, Commentaire sur un Bas-Relief aye te de Ja Collection Uhd. 
Paris, E. Leroux. . Plate v, Monuments anciens du Mexique 
represents a bas-relief in hard rock, brought by Uhde from Ana- 
huac and copied by Waldeck. M. "Hamy has analyzed the cos. 
tume carefully and decides, the sculpture to represent a priest of 
Tlaloc performing some ceremony. 


Ra OF THE Purippines——Dr. Montano, who has madea 
voyage to the Philippines, gives the following classification of 
the races in the Bull. Scc. AaS Paris, Vu, 3 ser., p. 51° 


” Race. Local name. Habitat. , 
i ? 
A. Negrito, pure Balaan are Luzon 
B. Mamanua “ Lake Matait, . E. of Min-)30c-400 
Negrito dan ; 
! C. Negrito, mixed Near "Tiwi, Albay prov., S. E.|100 
f Luzon 


(|D. Manthra 
E. Knabui | Negrito blood ' fee 
F. Udai predominat’g Forests N. and E. of Malacca}. 

G. Jakun į: 


| 
p: ‘Actas : Forest, o Camarines Ha ? 
. A ! EA: 
, ʻI. Bicol Paay pii Camar & 350,000 . 
| | oS, part of Taberas 5 (bin), sain 


A Chinese bl’d 
: J, Tagaloc ats Manilla jee center of Luzon. 
k. at ( aeuaan 8 | |Bisaya Is., and coast of, Min- se 


; ¿danao o fot. 
jx Neen trace of Arabic/Soulou archipel. and Id. Soa 


M. a ‘Mixed’ In!) Davee, gulf, S. E. of Min- 


L |N. Kal : donesian 
fno. Buled I Ipi ih Isagalind oped Kinobatangan, Asi 
; neo 
| P. Samal Samal Is., Davao gulf J 
; T Bagovo S. and E. of Apo volcano, f| 
Tale z an gulf p 
Poly- 8. Gpianga aonn ne 
nesians 1°. N. W. of Apo _. he ah 
i pals T. Tagadi E. of psd ent ira 
$ vs Tagabawa N: of D A ' 
|V. Manobo Dayao par isn of the Aj | 
san, peninsula of Surig20 4 
j x. Mandaya ^ s parren ibs basin, E. coast of Mi 
UY. Bilan io -s W. of f Davao guif age : 


Is addition to the foregoing table Dr. Montano gives 
tables o Measures upon the living and of crania. 


1884. Anthropology. 1067 


_PsycuicaAL REsEARCH.—In the year 1883 was organized in Lon- 
don the Society for Psychical Research, Professor Henry Sedg- 
wick being the first president. The society’s published proceed- 
ings, part v, having appeared in April of this year. Volume 1, 
contains the following papers: : 

Address of the president at the first general meeting. 

First report of the committee on thought-reading, with notes by Professor Bal- 

arrett. 


e. 

Abnormal conditions of the mind. Professor W, F. Barrett. 

Second report of committee on mesmerism. i 

Experiments in thought-transference at Liverpool, By Malcolm Guthrie and 
James Berchall. 

Note on muscle-reading, ak 

On dreaming and allied states. A circular letter. 

_In part v the investigations upon mesmerism and thought trans- 
ference are continued. Professor Barrett also writes on the ex- 
istence of a “magnetic sense,” and Mr. Gurney on hypnotism. 
The most of the number is occupied with inquiries respecting the 
divining rod, 

OKADAIRA SHELL Mounp.—To the courtesy of H. Kato, presi- 

nt, we are indebted for a pamphlet of seven pages and eleven 
; folded plates, bearing the title “ Okadaira Shell Mound” at H ita- 
chi, being an appendix to Memoir, vol. 1, part 1, of the Science 
Department, Tokio Daigaku (University of Tokio). By I. lijima 
and C. Sasaki, students in biology. kio: Tokio cigar 
2543 (1883): Hitachi is about thirty miles from Tokio, an 
upon the banks of the lakes and other water courses of the vicinity 
are shell mounds rich in ancient remains. The readers of the 


graph acknowledge their obligation. .The objects found in the 
daira mound were cooking vessels, hand vessels, bowls, pots, 
cups, and fragments, all of pottery; axes, celts, wrought ‘grr 


_Paystotiocicar Inourrtes.—The committee of the Paris ae 
Pological Society have issued an eight page pamphlet, entitled, 
Projet de Questionnaire d’Anthropologie Physiologique, which, 
i brief, contains the following inquities: —— ee 
, I. Genéral—Name, age, nationality, birthplace, po 
Toer Z Heigl lor of hair and eyes, tempera- 
> 4#ysical— Height, weight, color o a Eyes, ; 
ment, alimentation a A, nature, alcohol, decoctions, 


1068 General Notes. [Oct 


smoking), senses (length of vision, endurance, hearing, smel 
taste), sleep (hours, profundity, dreaming), muscular activity 
walking, manly sports, handedness, voice, health, maladies, it- 
firmities, deformities), hereditary resemblances (to which progeni- 
tor or ancestor most marked ?). 

3. Psychic characters ——Disposition (sad or gay, calm or violent, 
constant or changeable, energetic or irresolute, penchants, re- 
ligious habit, literary taste, aptitude, music design, mathematics 
poetry, elocution), memory (strength, peculiarities, intellectual 
endurance, manner of doing intellectual work, daily occupations, 
hereditary resemblances (to what relative degree of transmission) 

4a. Heredity Descendant—Name of wife, age, birthplace, date 
of marriage, death, peculiar maladies, fatal malady, color of eyes 
and hair, height, temperament, physical and psychical aptitudes, 
number of children, and for each the age, sex, color of eyes aid 
hair, date of death, chief diseases, fatal disease, character an 
temperament, memory, mental aptitudes, character, like which 
parent or ancestor or relative, and in what particulars. | 

4b. Heredity Ascendant—Father, mother, grandparents and 
great grandparents, uncles, aunts, great uncles and great aunts 

4c. Heredity collateral—Brothers and sisters, date and place of 
birth, height, color of eyes and hair, profession, temperamet, 
physical and psychical aptitudes, intelligence, principal maade 
fatal malady. For each characteristic determine whether ee 
any physical or psychical resemblance to any ancestor OF 
tive. 


_It seems to the editor of these notes that nothing is more dè 
sirable at this time than a laborious effort to place í ae 
human physiology and psychology on a firm basis. As T 
like the one presented by the Paris Anthropological — 
vigorously pushed will soon show its own defects. hag h i 
difficulty will be to get persons to answer the questions, ye | 
which may be deemed impertinent. Baie 


MICROSCOPY AND HISTOLOGY 


almost to boiling, is poured over them. In this way 5 


times, in order to remove all of the sublimate ; n 
needle-like crystals, which impair or ruin the preparin 
! Edited by Dr, C, O. WHITMAN, Mus. Comparative Zo sch 


.? “ Entwicklungsgeschichte der Süsswasser- Dendrocælen. 
ogie, XL, p. 359, 1884. 


1884] Microscopy and Histology. 1069 


grades of alcohol (“ weak, strong, and absolute”) are used in hard- 
ening, in each of which the object should be left at least forty- 
eight hours before staining. Borax-carmine (probably the alco- 
holic solution) is recommended as a staining agent; a dilute solu- 
tion is used in preference to the full strength, and allowed to act 
from three to four days. 

For preservation as museum specimens, they arekilled with strong 
nitric acid (about fifty per cent), in which they die fully extended. 

Freparation of the Ova—The egg-capsules of fresh-water Pla- 
narians are generally attached to water-plants by means of a white 
secretion. The ova are very small and few in number, and are 
Scattered among an immense number of yolk-cells. The ova are 
completely naked, and a little smaller than the yolk-cells, and are 
not easily isolated. When cleavage begins, a large number of 
yolk-cells surround the ovum, and form with it a mass large 
enough to be seen with the naked eye. Mr. Iijima adopts the 
following mode of isolation and preparation: By the aid of two, 
sharp dissecting needles, the egg-capsule is opened on an object- 
slide in dilute acetic acid (two per cent). The contents flow out, 
and the empty capsule is then removed.. The slide is next shaken 
in order to isolate the ova so far as possible from the yolk-cells. 
This process detaches many of the yolk-cells, but not all; eac 
ovum will still have yolk-cells adhering to it, and will now appear 
to the naked eye as a minute white mass. A cover-glass supported 
by wax feet, or by slips. of paper is now placed over them. After 
about thirty minutes the acetic acid is carefully removed by the 
aid of small pieces of blotting paper placed at one side of the 
cover, and replaced by alcohol (seventy per cent). The with- 
drawal of the acetic acid must be as slow as possible, otherwise 
the ova will be lost. After an hour the alcohol is replaced by a. 
Stronger grade (ninety per cent), in which the ova shonld remain 
two hours. . Finally, the alcohol is replaced by a mixture of gly- 
cerine and water in equal parts, and this in turn by pure glycer- 
ine. The preparation is now complete, and the cover-glass may 
be fixed in the usual way by means of lac. 

In order to obtain sections of embryos which are too small to 
be treated individually, the contents of the capsule may be hard- 
ened in toto in chromic acid (one per cent), which renders them 
less brittle than corrosive sublimate. 


laid capsules, which showed the germinal vesicle still unchanged ; 
ers were found to have two nuclei, supposed to be derivatives , 


certain when fecundation takes place, whether in the cocoon or 
before its formation. , 


1070 _ General Notes. 


THE CONNECTIVE SUBSTANCE IN THE HIRUDINEA—The anatomy 
of the Hirudinea has been treated monographically by Mr. Boure. 
The following remarks on the connective substance are taker 
from his paper. 

e amount of this tissue which is developed is in direct pr 
portion to. the “limpness” of the leech. Clepsine and Nephelis 
have very little of this tissue, and are consequently relatively fim 
and rigid to the touch while living. Hzemopis and Aulostoma 
present the other extreme, remaining flabby or “limp” inal 
states of muscular contraction; while Hirudo, Trocheta, and 
Pontobdella present an intermediate condition. Pepe 

The connective substance consists of a hyaline, jelly-like mass, 
interspersed with cells. The intercellular matrix is probably 4 
veloped by ectoplastic modification of the cells lying in it The 
cells themselves undergo various modifications which take lae 
simultaneously, and to a certain extent overlap one another. Four 
principal lines of modification are mentioned. pei’ 

1. Lntoplastic metamorphosis,—Vacuolated cells and fat cells 
Vacuolation is brought about by the formation of droplets of 2 
semi-fluid substance, which give the cell a reticulate app a l 
résembling mammalian areolar tissue. Fat accumulates m Wi 
tain cells in small globules, which may remain separate or ok 
together, and form a large globule. The fat-cells do not occur it 
the Gnathobdellide. eit 

_ 2. Ectoplastic metamorphosis—Elongated ot branched eT | 
tive tissue cells occur in all the Hirudinea. It is the poo irid 
tr daana 
3. Ect-entoplastic metamorphosis —The cells develop p 
In Pontobdella, Clepsine, Piscicola, and Branchellion th 


the vascularized cells (botryoidal tissue, vaso-fibrous tissue), ™ 


cular system on the one hand, and with the sinus system Of 
other, forming ‘ botryoida ee 


_1A.G, Bourne. Contributions to the Anatomy of the Hirudinea 
Mic. Sci., xxiv, July, 1884, pp. 440. 


1884. ] Scientific News, 1071 


would suggest, interpreting my own and Professor .Lankester’s 
observations, that capillaries of the botryoidal tissue become con- 
verted into capillaries of the ‘ vaso-fibrous’ tissue.” 

The capillaries upon the gastro-ileal portion of the alimentary 
canal are not derived from botryoidal tissue, but are probably 
formed by vacuolation of primitive connective-tissue cells. 

Calomic aud Vascular Spaces——The contractile vacuoles of Pro- 
tozoa, the ducts in nephridial cells, the newly developed vertebrate 
capillary, and all such intracellular spaces, are formed by meta- 
morphosis of the cells themselves, and are thus distinct from 
ceelomic spaces. The formation of intracellular spaces may be 
distinguished as “ endocytic calosis ;” and the formation of inter- 
cellular spaces as “ paracytic cælosis” 

Sensory Cells—Mr. Bourne has traced the connection of the 
nerve with elongated cells, the bodies of which lie beneath the 
epidermal layer. He has overlooked the existence of certain 
peculiar cells, which are probably sensory, as I have shown else- 
where. These sensory cells lie completely beneath the epidermis, 
and are precisely like those found in the eye. 

Mr. Bourne regards the small papillæ, which have a regular 
segmental arrangement in the leech, as tactile organs, and in this 
agrees with Leydig. In speaking of the eyes as “ derivatives” of 
these papillæ, Mr. Bourne might have given me credit for calling 
his attention to this point—C. 0. W. 


:0:—— 
SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 


— On Tuesday last, the 2d inst., a meeting was held in the 
lecture room of the Zodlogical Department, British Museum, at 
which Dr. Coues was invited to attend, in order to explain his 
tg and those of his compatriots on the question of nomencla- 
ure, 


The chair was taken by Professor Flower, F.R.S., and amongst 
the speakers were the following, in the order named: Mr. R. B. 
Sharpe, who opened the proceedings by reading a paper “ On the 
expediency or otherwise, of adopting a trinomial nomenclature in 
zoology ;” ‘Mr. Seebohm, who read a second paper on the sub- 
ject; Dr. Elliott Coues, who explained the system advocated, and 
its application as proposed by him; Dr. Günther, F.R.S., who ap- 
Proved the scheme conditionally; Mr. P. L. Sclater, F.R.S., who 
Pointed out that the method was not a néw one, but thought it 
deserving of adoption by zodlogists, provided the limits of its ap- 
plication were properly defined; Mr. Blanford, F.R.S.; Professor 
BiG]. Bell; Mr. Kirby ; Lord Walsingham; Dr. Sharp; Dr. 
Woodward, F.R S, ; Mr. H. T. Wharton; Mr. Howard Saunders; 

Mr Jz E, Harting, and Dr. Traquair, F -RS. - ‘ 

Various difficulties inthe way of adopting a trinomial nomen- 
clature were pointed out by different speakers ; but, on the whole, 
the Majority appeared inclined to a favorable consideration of the 


1072 ’ Scientific News. [October, 


scheme, with a view to its adoption with certain limitations. Dr, 
Traquair, Dr. Sharp, Mr. Blanford, and Mr. J. E. Harting spoke 
_ strongly against the proposed change, declaring themselves satis- 
fied with the bincmial system, which recommended itself by its 
extreme simplicity, and which in practice had been found to 
- answer well enough by workers in all classes of the animal king- 
_ dom from the days of Linnzeus to the present time. On bringing 
the proceedings to a close, the chairman (Professor Flower) said 
he hoped that Dr. Elliott Coues was satisfied with the way in 
which his views had been received. Although there were some 
uncompromising binomialists present, many had declared them- 
selves what might be termed “ limited trinomialists,” and some ap- 
peared to go as far even as Dr. Coues himself. In nature, dis- 
tinctly defined species undoubtedly existed in great numbers, owing 
to extinction of intermediate forms, and for these the binomial 
system offered all that was needed in defining them. On the 
` other hand, there were numbers of cases in the actual state of the 
earth, and far more being constantly revealed to us by the dis- 
coveries of palzontology (and nowhere so rapidly as in America), 
where the infinite graduations defied the discrimination of a bino- 
mial system.—From the Field. 


og! 
Re Cr Clark 
enumerates the coal plants of Rhode Island. Mr. Bayley wa E 
Ft is illus- 
trated by an artotype from a sketch made by the paste . k 
Willis notes the presence of ocean terraces about 1600 pie i 
the present sea level; and remarks “ there are certainly eg & 

I do not know 
exactly how many there may be on the south-east, but, ye 
ciers of the White and Carbon rivers, the two of the Ni ually 
of the Puyallup, the one of the south fork, that of the Asq 


__ — Professor GW, Hall’s interesting address on “The Pie 
graphic Conditions of Minnesota Agriculture,” is aroti which 
_ among others of our modern school of scientific agriculu ences 
tends to show the intimate connection between the natu 


1884.] Scientific News. 1073 


and agriculture, and evincing the progress making in this country 
towards laying a scientific basis of agriculture. The subjects 
treated are the following: Minnesota, the center of the conti- 
nent; land and water, arable, prairie and forest areas; forest trees, 
river basins, altitude of rivers, towns, lakes, their kinds and dis- 
tribution ; drift, soils, rainfall, temperature and climate, and con- 
sequent conditions of successful farming in the State. To have 
subjects like these brought to the attention of the younger and 
more active farmers of any State, is to immeasurably advance 
their interests and to increase the attractions of a farmer's life, en- 
larging the scope of his powers of observation. 


— Ata banquet lately given by a number of anthropologists 
to M. G. de Mortillet, the hall was decorated, says Nature, with a 
life-size picture of a prehistoric Gaul, executed according to the 
last discoveries of M. de. Mortillet.. The man is represented as 
having no hair on his body; his arms are very long and muscles 
very powerful, but his toes are not opposable, although they could 
be used in climbing the trees of the primitive forest. His jaw is 
strongly prognathous, but not at all equal to that of an anthro- 
poid ape. His chest is strongly compressed laterally, and his 
abdomen prominent. The skin is not negroid, but of our present 
color, The expression of the face is in intelligence on a level with 
that of an Australian. In the Paris salon also is a large picture 
representing a prehistoric tribe preparing in their cave to feast 


Upon a cave bear which has been killed with their stone imple- 
ments, 


— The sixth volume of the Bulletin of the Philosophical Soci- 
ety of Washington, just issued, contains the minutes of the So- 
ciety for 1883, and of the mathematical section from its organi- 
zation on March 29 to the close of the year. Among the papers 
are the annual address of the president, J. W. Powell, on “ The 
three methods of evolution,” and abstracts of communications by 

- E. Dalton on the geology of the Hawaiian islands and “The 
volcanic problem stated ;” by J. W. Chickering on the thermal 

lts of North Carolina; the geology of Hatteras, by W. C. 

err ; ore deposits by displacement, by S. F. Emmons; glacia- 
tion in Alaska, by W. H. Dall; the drainage system and loess of 
eastern Towa, by W. J. McGee; the Cambrian system in the 
United States and Canada, by C. D. Wolcott. 

— The twelfth annual Report of the Zodlogical Society of 
Philadelphia, shows that our foremost garden of animals is not 
less prosperous than in former years. The list of additions 
during the ‘year is a full one, as is the list of animals bred in 
the garden during the year; among them a hybrid wallaby, a 


native animals. Among the more notable additions, were six sea 
hants, and a chamois. 


1074 Scientific News. (Oct, 18% 


— Mr. -Arthur F. Gray has compiled a complete list of th — 
scientific papers of Thomas Bland, F.GS., from 1852 to 18% ~ 
printed at Salem, Mass. The entries are seventy-two in number, 
and Mr. Gray acknowledges the material aid of Mr. Bland in the 
preparation of the list. It is to be hoped that the labors of one 
of our most distinguished conchologists, may go on and necessi- 
tate the issue of a future addendum, as long and as creditable as 
the original list itself. | 

— The fifteenth annual report of the American Museum of 
Natural History shows increased money receipts, increased num- 
ber of visitors, with valuable additions to the collections of mon- 
keys and apes, including the gorilla and chimpanzee, and fft 
other monkeys from all parts of the world. Progress in the om 
thological, entomological, conchological as well as archeological 
departments is reported. 

— Professor Flower has the title of “ Director” of the Natural 
History Museum instead of “Superintendent,” which was E 
R. Owen’s: official designation. The staff will consist of ' 
keepers of departments (botany, geology, mineralogy, zoology 


two assistant keepers, eleven first-class and fourteen second-class 


assistants, a staff which would appear to be ample for the work 10 
be done. 


— The fourth number of the Bulletin of the Chicago rete Y. 


-minifera, including three forms identified by Professor Leidy, 


states that these forms are still living in the Atlantic ocean. 


— In another direction equally useful, though differentin ci 
acter, is Mr. E. Haworth’s contribution to the geology. 


‚lead and zinc mining district of Cherokee county, en rte 


sented to the Kansas State University, with an apeli¢ ero 
degree of master of science; the author being a rest en 


e question as to the authorship of The Ves pon 
, f the famo 


— It has been reported that Professor D. S. Jordan, ogical cok 


ito- London to take charge of some part of the ichthyol > as usto 


i 


i a: ` It has t 
‘in Berlin on September 25th, of the present year. -punt ofthe 


invasion of the cholera in southern Europe. 


lection of the British Museum. Professor Jordan authorize, that 


state that the report is untrue. We congratulate our ® 
this is the fact. f e 
.— The Triennial Congress of Geologists was to have 


a 
w 


ed to the corresponding time next year 


THE 


AMERICAN NATURALIST. 


VoL. xvit.— VOVEMBER, 1884.—No. 11. 


RECENT STUDIES OF THE SPADE-FOOT TOAD. 
BY CHARLES C. ABBOTT, M.D. 


P a sink-hole in a dry upland field near Trenton, New Jersey, 
on April 10, 1884, there suddenly appeared a large colony of 
hermit spade-foot toads (Scaphiopus holbrooki), which, by their 
remarkable cries, attracted the attention of every one passing by : 
So unlike the cries of any other of our batrachians were their 
utterances, that all who heard them were attracted to the spot, 
and wondered, when they saw the animals, that so great a vol- 
ume of sound could issue from so small an animal. On pan 
not wonder, however, on this point if they will but examine the 
development of the 
animal’s vocal cords. 
The machinery for 
Producing sounds 
equal to an ordinary 
steam whistle are ap- 
parently contained in 
the throat of this rare 
and curious batrach- ¿ 
tan. * Holbrook, in his 
diagnosis of the genus 
“caphiopus, refers to i " 
e “sub-gular vocal ee ea 
sac ” of the males : but it must not be inferred that the oe 
are voiceless. That they are not so noisy is ese ge 
sion requirin g, they can readily make themselves moet a sates 
€ spade-foots remained in the shallow waters O 


VOL. Xv111.—no. XI 68 


1076 Recent Studies of the Spade-foot Toad. [November, 


hole until April 15, when the weather becoming considerably 
cooler, they as suddenly disappeared as they had come. In May, 
1874, these toads appeared in like manner in the same locality, 
remained but a few days and were gone. In the intervening ten 
years not a specimen was seen or heard, although careful search, 
annually, was made. I supposed, when they appeared in April 
of the present year, that they spawned previous to their sudden 
disappearance, but neglected to investigate the matter in conse- 
quence of a press of work in other lines of investigation. The 
spade-foot toads were soon forgotten. The wealth of birdlife 
that came trooping in from the South during May, and their sub- 
sequent nesting, occupied my thoughts and were the prominent 
objects sought during my daily rambles. 

It was not long, however, before the spade-foots again became 
the prominent feature of the fauna of the neighborhood. During 
the night of June 25-26 a violent north-east storm arose, and 
rain fell in torrents. The sink-hole, which for weeks had been 
nearly dry, was again flooded, and on the afternoon of the 26th 
was literally alive with these rare toads. Sitting upon every pro- 
jecting stick or tuft of grass, or swimming with their heads above 
the surface of the water, were spade-foots by the hundred, and 
every one apparently uttering those shrill, ear-piercing groans 
that only these batrachians can utter. Not only during the day 
but all night their cries were kept up. The following day ga 
was no abatement, but during the night the sound decreased. i 
the morning of the 28th not an individual was to be seen 
heard. | 
During this brief interval these animals spawned, the oa 

being attached to blades of grass and slender twigs. a 

hatched on the 2d of July and a large series were gathere 

week later. ed from 

To return to the eggs. During the time that interven 
the laying of the eggs until I gathered specimens of thet se 
there occurred four moderately heavy showers, so that H he. 
in the sink-hole at no time disappeared, but was much mare : 
level that it reached during the protracted rain-fall of J ay 

Very much, therefore, of the spawn that was laid was high pies 

dry for from two to four days before hatching, and I suppose 

troyed, hole : 
-9a the evening of July 9 I found the water in the sink = 


A 


1884.] Recent Studies of the Spade-foot Toad. 1077 


confined to a few very shallow pools of limited area, and in these 
pools were a few hundreds of Scaphiopus tadpoles. In compari- 
son with the abundance of eggs seen June 26, and of young seen 
aweek later, it is evident that a large portion of the eggs were 
destroyed and a vast number of very young tadpoles were 
killed by the soaking away of the water. 

I have never known any like disparity between the eggs of 
frogs or common toads and the young in the tadpole state ; and 
it is at once very evident that if the spade-foot toads habitually 
or usually deposit their eggs in temporary pools, then we have 
an obvious reason for the positive rarity of the animal, as appa- 
rently it is the rule, rather than the exception, for the egg to be 
destroyed or the young perish. : 

The tadpoles gathered July 9, which were then seven days old, 
were curious creatures. At this time the hind legs were well 
developed, although small, and did not interfere with the animal's 
natatorial locomotion, The bodies of these young Scaphiopi 
were short, stout and oval, and, when viewed in the water, deep 
velvety black; but when closely examined it was found that the 
two irregularly parallel yellow dorsal stripes, that are so promi- 
nent a feature in the coloration of the adult male, were plainly 
discernible, 

The movements of these tadpoles were not different from that 
of the young frogs and toads in this stage of their existence. 
Those that I had in an aquarium moved in companies as though 
following a leader, and occasionally one would drop out of the 


_ Tanks, come quickly to the surface, eject a bubble of air, and dive 


again quickly to the bottom of the tank. Like all tadpoles they 

d enormous appetites, and when fed with bits of raw meat 
quickly attached their sucking mouths to the food offered, and 

id not remove it, I think, while a particle of blood remained in 
the mass. 

A week later, July 16, the majority of these tadpoles had 
acquired their front legs, and the tail had perceptibly diminished 
ìn size, but still was used by them when moving through the 
Water. At this time, however, the movements of the animal are 
far less active than before or soon after, and for a few days, if 
exposed to the attacks of any enemies, would suffer far more 
than at any other period of their lives. 

A very curious feature in the growth of these animals is now 


1078 Recent Studies of the Spade-foot Toad. {November, 


to be noticed. Of the specimens I had under examination, in an 
aquarium, about five per cent did not progress beyond the condi- 
tion in which all were in July 9. These “retarded” tadpoles 
proved to be voracious cannibals. They seized their more ma- 
tured companions by their tails and legs, swallowing the member 
and thus sustaining their own lives at the expense of their fellows. 
They generally killed their victim in the course of twenty-four 
hours, and often in less time, and then promptly seized another. So 
bloodthirsty were these few “retarded ” tadpoles that I was com- 
pelled to protect the lives of the little hoppers, their brethren, which 
now, in spite of stumps of tails, sat in frog-like fashion on their 
haunches, and were in all respects miniatures of the adult spade-foots 
thatin April and June made night hideous with their unearthly cries. 

Having tested several specimens, a few days previously, ane 
-their ability to assume the land-life of adult Scaphiopi, by placing 
them upon damp sand, and finding that they throve fairly well, 
on the 25th of July I removed the water in the aquarium and put 
in earth to about an inch in depth, and very carefully smoothed 
the surface. Upon this the young spade-foots were placed, 
in less than one minute many had commenced digging little bur- 
rows, into which they disappeared as the excavations deepen 
In all respects these burrows were like those made by adult 
spade-foots, oval in outline, oblique in direction, and generally 
with a slight angle in the course. In twenty minutes all but two, 
of forty-four specimens, were below the surface of the 
stratum I had placed in the aquarium. 

It now became monotonous in the extreme to watch then. 
Not a movement occurred that was other than might be expected 
of adult toads or frogs of any species. be 

I did not see them eat, but as only living food would M 
accepted by them, it was simply because minute insect life S 
not come within reach; but while yet in the water these 
Spade-foots found some food, as shown by the examination 0 bs 
stomachs and intestines of several specimens. Dr. A. C, sto a 
kindly made this examination, at my request, and reported fy 
follows: In the stomach of one was found fragments da. a 
and of a small moth, and in the intestine a mass of sand e 
cemented together by dark brown amorphous matter, e 
numerous rhizopods (Arcella) and several diatoms. Tn the s he 
ach of another a species of Thrips, and a few diatoms 19 
intestine 


1884.] Recent Studies of the Spade-foot Toad. 1079 


These two species had been thirty-six hours out of the water 
when the examination was made. 

During this simple series of observations of young Scaphiopi 
in confinement, I watched also the development of those left in 
the sink-hole. The water there soon was confined to mere pud- 
dles concealed in the dead leaves, and before the young had their 
limbs fully developed the depth was nowhere sufficient to permit 
of swimming, Three days in advance of the maturing of my 
confined specimens, I saw, in the sink-hole, a few individuals 
which had fairly assumed the land-living, air-breathing stage of 
existence. Supposing that, like those I had at home, they would 
burrow in the earth where they were, I did not visit the locality 
from the 21st to the 31st of July, on which date I made an ex- 
haustive but unsuccessful search for them. Not a trace of either 
young or adult could I discover. It cannot be said that they 
were overlooked. My search was too careful and comprehensive 
for this, and I believe that these spade-foots, both old and young, 
wander farther from their breeding grounds than is supposed, or 
else dig far deeper into the earth than a depth of six or eight 
inches, as stated by Holbrook and DeKay. 

I have already referred to the wonderful noises made by these 
animals when they congregate in pools for the purpose of spawn- 
ing. At no other time do they appear to be vocal, and the ques- 
tion naturally arises, why, when the animal leads a life that 
requires no such power except for two or three days in a year, 
should its utterances be far louder than any or ali the frogs and 
toads of the same locality combined? Although the animal is 
strictly crepuscular and not diurnal, it could readily find a mate 
guided by sight, and the purpose of the deafening epithalamium is 
somewhat hard to determine. If it could be shown that they call 
to each other from far distant points, the difficulty would disap- 
Pear, but this they are not known to do. Apparently it is not until 
they are congregated in some available pool that they sing, if 
singing it can be called. No words yet in use in our language 
can fairly describe their utterances, which, it may be presumed, 
are expressions of delight at meeting. : 

A word in conclusion with reference to the peculiar spur-like 
Process which gives the common name to this batrachian. Hol- 
brook describes it accurately as follows: “ On the internal mar- 
gin of the metatarsus is a horny spade-like process, containing a 


Sata Ae | ete ear ema = ore tM ie ge FS 
$ EE 


1080 Recent Studies of the Spade-foot Tead. {November — 


bone, which moves by an imperfect joint: the breadth of this 

process is about a line and a half, its length one line; the cutting 
edge is jet black.” Fig. 1 represents the left foot of an adult 
specimen, seen from beneath, and showing the “ spade.” It wil 
also be noticed that the little toe terminates also in a horny knob, 
a fact which has hitherto, I believe, been overlooked. ) 


Fig. 1.—Nat. size. Fig. 2.—X 10. 


Fic. 1.—Inside of adult left foot, snipe size. Fic, 2.—Left foot of yomg, 
showing spur at earliest stage of gro 

I have already mentioned how quickly the young hoppers 
little tunnels for themselves when placed upon the earth. gers 
ced, as Wi 
seen by the drawing, Fig. 2. This is now a white, soft, 
inous process, differing greatly from the same feature On an i is 
foot. It can scarcely be of use in digging, at this time, wad 
leads us to infer that the young choose more yielding © 
remain nearer the surface than do the adult spade-foots. i 
a case the older the creature and better developed the spade, i 
deeper are the subterranean homes wherein they seem to pulse 
so closely, and from which, moved by some common im 
they mysteriously come forth, in multitudes, to startle the P 
_ by with their weird cries, and then as suddenly to disappea® 
one knows where. 


1884.] Notices of some new Parasitic Infusoria. 1081 
NOTICES OF SOME NEW PARASITIC INFUSORIA. 
BY ALFRED C. STOKES, M.D. 


— making a microscopical examination of the intestinal 

and stomach contents of young spade-foot hermit toads 
(Scaphiopus holbrooki), whose life-history Dr. C. C. Abbott is 
studying, I observed two forms of apparently undescribed endo- 
parasitic Infusoria so crowding the rectum that it seemed only a 
thin walled tube surrounding a semi-solid, writhing mass which, 
viewed with a low power objective, brought to mind the idea of 
a shimmering cloud of heated air, or a wavering flame of colorless 
fire, through which here and there glistened a yellow spark. 

The rectum of toads and frogs has long been a kind of happy 
hunting ground for endoparasites, especially for the Opalina ; 
but so far as I am aware only colorless species of the genus have 
been observed. In this instance, however, the yellow points 
within that living mass proved to be Opalinz of a lemon-yellow 
tint. The periphery and, to a much less extent, the deeper por- 
tion of the endoplasm are tinged, the color, which appears to be 
a stain and not an aggregation of particles, being collected in a 
layer near the cuticular surface, with a quite sharply defined line 
| of demarkation between the lower margin and the internal body- 

Sarcode. 

The infusorian is broadly ovate, soft and flexible and some- 
what changeable in shape, assuming at will a subpyriform or 
subglobose figure. The surface is indented by obliquely disposed 
striæ which bear the long and fine vibratile cilia clothing the 
creature, Scattered through the endoplasm are numerous refrin- 
gent corpuscles mingled with many larger spherical bodies hav- 
ing the aspect of vacuoles. The former may be portions of the 
nucleus, as that constituent is known to break into corpuscular 
Parts with age, and to become scattered as the infusorian matures. 
Nothing else corresponding to an endoplast was observed, even 
after using reagents. There is no trace of a mouth. Nutriment 
is probably absorbed from the intestinal fluids in which the animal- 
cule delights to live. The contractile vesicle is also absent. 

Its numbers are not great; perhaps a dozen were noted in the 
Contents of the rectum. Neither is it always to be found. Com- 
Pared with its more numerous associates, however, this yellow 

a is a giant among pygmies, and it rotates through the 


ieee ay) “i eae TESE A 


- 


- the active animal their rapid motion suggests the existence 5 


1082 Notices of some new Parasitic Infusoria. [November, 


mass with a carelessness as to results quite in keeping with its — 
bulk. It measures from 43, to ¿p inch in length. 

On account of the color it may be named Opatina flava, and 
the following description, in connection with its habitat within 
the rectum of the rarest of our batrachians, will probably be 
sufficient for its identification. It is shown in Fig. 1 magnified 
about 235 diameters: 

Opalina flava, sp. nov.—Body ovate, inflated, often as long as broad, or subpyri- 

= orm, widest and rounded posteriorly, the length once and 

one-half to twice the breadth ; the right and left hand bor- 
ders evenly rounded; striations of the cuticular surface 
obliquely disposed and bearing the long, fine, vibratile cilia; 
nuclei (?) numerous, small, scattered ; sarcode enclosing many 
refractile corpuscles and larger spherical bodies apparently 
X 235 vacuolar ; contractile vesicle none; parenchyma lemon-yellow, 

Fic. 1.—Ofalina the color darkest near the periphery, where it is disposed in a 
flava, sp. nov. layer, the central portion of the sarcode being comparatively 

colorless. Length, 7}, to sty inch. Habitat, the rectum of the spade-foot hermit 
toad, Scaphiopus holbrooki. 

The intestinal fluid seemed thickened by the throng of bacteria, 
bacilli, vibriones and spirilla accompanying the Opalinæ; and 
associated with them was not only the undescribed flagellate 
zooid to be referred to presently, but a large species of Opalina,. 
which I have, after some hesitation, identified with 0. eat 
Purk. Their appearance and structure are those of the latter, 
but the size is much less. They are quite active. AS they 
pressed each other beneath the surface or forced each other af 
ward, the aspect of the field of view was comically like a pool 
furiously boiling soup with big dumplings bobbing about. 

Associated with this crowd was a somewhat more a 
flagellate infusorian. It, in common with most endoparasites, 

colorless, and very soft and flexible. Its structure 15 50 differe® 
from all other creatures in so many particulars that a new ae 
is needed to receive it. In its habitat it seems restricted Hi ee 
rectum, Very seldom, if ever, is it captured wandering e i 
upper intestine. Its form is more or less ovoid, usually par 
to a somewhat pointed anterior extremity, and its consis pe 
seems scarcely greater than the white of an egg. The we 
terior vibratile flagella, about equaling the body in nae ne 
-extreme tenuity, their three-fold aspect appearing only 4 In 


Most careful scrutiny of the weakened or dying infuso i of 


1884.] Notices of some new Parasitic Infusoria. 1083 


cilia, or, when momentarily seen, they appear as a single fila- 
ment. 

Extending along the entire length of one lateral border is a 
narrow, rapidly undulating membrane, very readily mistaken for a 
spirally twisting flagellum. Its free edge seems to be thickened, 
and its line of insertion on the body has the appearance of a dis- 
tinct filament or ridge. That this usually conspicuous line is not 
a flagellum is proved by its invariable adherence to the surface. 
It has never been observed to lift itself or to exhibit independent 
movement; it always follows the contortions of the body and 
always keeps the same relative position in reference to the margin 
of the undulating membrane. It is, however, very liable to be 
confounded with a long, thread-like filament which springs from 
the terminal margin of the membrane. This appendage, unique 
in its position, seems to have no individual freedom of motion, 
but follows and completes the undulations of the tissue to which 
it is attached, as the lash follows the brandished whip-stock. 
That it has no other connection with the body proper I am con- 
vinced, although it is as fine and as difficult to satisfactorily ex- 
amine as are the three anteriorly inserted flagella. 

The parenchyma is usually more or less vacuolar. It becomes 
conspicuously so when surrounded by water, the vesicles varying 
in size and often changing their position rapidly. A true pul- 
sating vacuole is absent. The nucleus is also obscure. Occa- 
sionally a small refringent disc, usually structureless, rarely gran- 
ular, is noticeable near the center of one lateral border, and may 
be the endoplast. 

Longitudinally traversing the zodid from the apex to the pos- 
terior extremity, where it conspicuously projects, is a flexible, 
somewhat curved and rod-like body, enlarged at its origin, thence 
of a constant width to the distal end where it becomes suddenly 
acuminate. The point of exit from the sarcode is well marked, 
the cuticular surface occasionally appearing to surround it for a 
short distance like a sheath, When the animal is immersed in 
pure water it becomes shortened and permanently fusiform, and 

is rod then protrudes an increased length which small pror- 
Plasmic drops often cover. What the function and constitution 
of this motionless and refringent structure may be, it is difficult 
to conjecture. 

No oral aperture is visible. Very rarely a few small dark- 


1084 Notices of some new Parasitic Infusoria. [November i 


bordered granules are noticeable within the body, but if theyar | 
of external origin their mode of entrance is unknown. 
Although existing in such ‘profusion I have observed ther | 
reproduction in but a single instance. The cause is probably tie | 
ease with which they lose their health in water. They are tem | 
cious of life, however, individuals living for twenty-four hous | 
within a rectum in a life-slide, but water does not agree with 
them. Multiplication took place with amazing rapidity. A do | 
of sarcode separated from the posterior extremity of the body 1 
quickly followed by another, both immediately assuming a sphe f 
cal form and both almost immediately rupturing and with me 
force shooting out a zodid less than one-fourth the parent's sit . 
and with the undulating membrane less developed, but otherwise 
resembling it. Fission, encystment, rupture and escape were all | 
accomplished in less than’two seconds. I have witnessed this but 
once, as stated, yet before seeing it I had repeatedly observed at 
_act whose significance I failed to appreciate until it had ie 
examined in the reflected light of the completed process. Its 
that a portion of the posterior extremity of the animaleule fre 
quently becomes separated, but immediately uf 
dergoes disintegration or diffluence, and pil | 
bly represents an attempt at reproduction T 
incomplete by unpropitious surroundings. a 
multitudinous young are much sale | 
adults, more spindle-shaped and more ©" i 
Fig. 2 represents the mature endoparastt 4 
magnified 1100 diameters. ; a ] 
EXECHLYGA (efeyys, projecting PT ; eee ar "i ; 
gen. nov.—Animalcules free-swimming, ul aced 08 


we 


along one lateral border mi në ! 
ing the zodid longitudinally and projecting as esicle abse 
rior extremity; oral aperture none; ' 
Habits, endoparasitic. 
Exechlyga acuminata, sp. nov.—Body Ke ted anteriot 
rounded posteriorly, tapering to the somewa E E 
Fio. 2E xech. “PAFS length two and oime = é a : 
lyga acuminata, parenchyma often vacuolar, colorless; ® dulating 
gen. et sp. nov, as long as the body, subequal and fine; ua 
narrow, its margin apparently thickened, 
— usually conspicuous, and its posterior border terminating me fine 
~ to the zodid in length; internal rod-like body curved, anteriorly ; 


1884. ] Notices of some new Parasitic Inufusoria. 1085 


extremity of the posteriorly projecting portion suddenly acuminate. Length of, 
body yyy inch. Habitat, the rectum of the spade-foot hermit toad, Scaphiopus hal- 
brooki, 


Another infusorian, which lites more or less in the light of 
the sky, but suffers and often dies when forced to leave its host, 
occurs not uncommonly as an ectoparasite on the social rotifer 
Megalotrocha. I have taken it in considerable numbers on col- 
onies obtained from widely separated localities and at long in- 
tervals. This season the rotifers have seemed especially abund- 
ant and the colonies particularly luxuriant. The infusorian 
glides rapidly over the surface of the host, often passing from 
one individual to another, and running to the edge of the ciliary 
disc, whence a current from a neighboring rotifer occasionally 
Sweeps it into the surrounding water. If carried so far beyond 
the influence of the currents that it fails to find its way back to 
the colony, it soon begins to show evidence of uncongenial sur- 
foundings. Its form changes, it becomes swollen, pale and 
ghostly, its cilia act irregularly and the creature speedily dies, the 
rotifers’ cuticular secretions seeming necessary for its welfare. 

The ectoparasite referred to belongs to Stein’s Hypotricha and 
to Ehrenberg’s genus Chilodon. It differs from the cosmopoli- 
tan Chilodon cucullulus (Mull.) Ehr., in form and size, in the 
absence of the sharply pointed anterior extremity or lip, in the 
greater curvature of the pharynx, in the course of the adoral 
channel, that of C. cucullulus being directed forward and out- 
ward from the pharyngeal orifice, and especially in its ectopara- 
sitic habits. The convexity of the dorsal surface varies. In 
Some individuals it is evenly rounded; in others conspicuously 


flattened and often traversed by irregularly transverse grooves or 


channels, The curvature of the pharyngeal armature is also 
variable, 

When the parasite is gliding over the host's surface it is not 
Possible to observe the manner of taking food. But individuals 
having been swept into the water and been brought back by the 
return current, have occasionally settled on the cover- glass in 
Such a position that the process was apparent. When feeding 
from the side of a rotifer or from the retracted and rounded 
extremity, the anterior end becomes much narrowed and elon- 
Sated, while the pharynx is protruded and closely applied to the 
Surface which it infests, 


1086 Growth, its Conditions and Variations, (Noven, 


Reproduction is by both transverse and longitudinal fission 
In Fig. 3 is represented the ventral, and in Fig. 4 the lated | 
aspect magnified about 600 diameters. To designate the species 
it may appropriately bear the name of the host and be Chilate 
megalotroche. 


Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Hi 
Fic. 3.—Chilodon megalotroche, n. sp , ventral aspect. X 600. FIG. 4: 
x 600. 


don megalotroche, lateral aspect. 
x 2 ont 

Chilodon megalotroche sp. nov.—Body soft, flexible, ovate, the length wy a 
and one-half the breadth, somewhat widest posteriorly ; the anterior and | 


lip short, obtuse, inconspicuously directed toward the left; : é 
naked, the ventral one flat, finely striated and entirely clothed with ee : 
cilia, those of the anterior extremity somewhat more conspicuous ; thea Ji andet 
shallow, directed backward and outward from the pharyngeal Oren P Ei 
insufficient amplification presenting the aspect of a single projecting "e í 
ovate, granular, mesially placed in the posterior body-half; pharyngeal of body 
more or less curved; contractile vesicles numerous, scattered. u a 
zz to zig inch. Habitat, ectoparasitic on the social rotifer Megalotr 


10: 
GROWTH, ITS CONDITIONS AND. VA 


BY CHARLES MORRIS. | a 
re remarkab : 


E the story of organic life there is nothing Mor 
- than the extraordinary diversity in size between 


RIATIONS 
mature an | 


while another gains the bulk of an elephant or whale or, the 
the lowly moss fails to attain the size of its giant bro i 
- oak, It might be simply answered that this 1s 4 we 
tion of nutrition, some forms being better adapted = of o 
food than others. But the question cannot be disposed ey 


1884] Growth, its Conditions and Variations. 1087 


readily. Other elements than mere nutrition enter into the prob- 
lem, and its full consideration requires a review of all the condi- 
tions of organic life. 

As we ascend in the scale of life we find animals to be pos- 
sessed of constantly more efficient food-taking organs. From 
the cilia of the Infusoria and the Sponges we pass to the Ccelen- 
terate tentacles and thread cells, the sucking disks of the Cephal- 
opoda, the pincers of the Crustacea, and the limbs and teeth of 
the Vertebrata, with numberless intermediate implements of cap- 
ture. There is a like range of efficiency in the weapons of each 
sub-kingdom and class of animals. An Octopus, for instance, is 
a thousand fold more efficiently armed than an oyster, and a man 
thanamouse. There is a like variation in the rapidity of motion 
of various animals, some being completely sedentary, others ex- 
ceedingly active. Their mental powers vary in like manner, from 
utter obtuseness to great quickness of intellect. 

All these differences enter into the question of difference of size, 
yet they only partly suffice to solve the problem. Great diver- 
sity occurs between animals of equal organic efficiency, muscular 
activity and mental quickness. A rat, indeed, is superior in all 
these requisites to a cow or a hippopotamus, and a mouse is cer- 
tainly a more highly organized animal than a whale. It has 
more efficient and better armed limbs, a greater variety of move- 
ments and diversity of habits, and probably superior mentality. 
In this latter respect, however, the ant is in advance of many 
Massive vertebrates, yet it remains one of the smallest of its own 
class of insects, the largest of which are certainly not the 
shrewdest, 

: If we take a close survey of the animal kingdom, one interest- 
ing fact quickly appears, namely, that all the animals below man 
exist but for three purposes, to obtain food, to escape danger and 
to reproduce their kind. No other marked purpose in their lives 
can be seen. They rest and sleep to regain strength, they occa- 
sionally employ their excess vigor in play, and curiosity and 
imitation are now and then displayed, but only strongly in the 
Monkey tribe, Yet the great purposes of their lives, and of 
lower man as well, are the three above named. Only in higher 
man do the faculties of curiosity and imitation unfold into the 
desire for knowledge, and the designed effort to attain advanced 
conditions, which are the basic principles of the higher mental 


1088 Growth, its Conditions and Variations, [Nove 


evolution. Through the persistent exercise of these faculties mat, 
while retaining in strong measure the three life purposes of te $ 
lower animals, has added to them many others of a higher grade. 
But the faculties which have led to man’s mental evolution 
exist only undeveloped or but slightly developed in the lower 

life kingdom, and the whole vigor of these lower creatures is 
given to the purposes named. 

These purposes in reality may be reduced to two. , Assault 
and defence are devoted to a single end, the preservation of ind- 
vidual life. Reproductive activity is devoted to another end, the 
preservation of race life. These two purposes are, to a consider | 
able extent, in opposition. The animal that is efficient in either 
is apt to be deficient in the other. The one great object tobe 
attained is life continuance. Any animal tribe that declines m- 
both nutritive and reproductive powers dies out. Only those a | 
are successful in one of these powers can hold their here j 
life struggle. But it is simply impossible that any tribe e 
markedly successful in both these directions, for two y 
the first place great reproductive powers interfere with ee 
food taking, by increasing the number of applicants for the gos 
supply. It sets up a struggle for existence within the ta Bare, 
the tribe itself. In the second place there is a physiological o 
position, a struggle for existence between the powers desi T 
vidual. Great activity in food getting reduces the a 
energy. Great reproductive vigor exhausts the muscular " 
nervous strength, Thus no animal can possess sapeti 
both these directions, and to the extent that it succeeds in . 
direction, its powers must decline in the other. ; d k 

This opposition is displayed throughout the whole ranp e 
animal kingdom. As a general rule the smaller and re ae 
lived the animal the greater its fecundity. But smal aa p 
short life indicate that its powers of obtaining nutri 
ited, or that its destruction by enemies is great. ‘The, e orale 
existence of the tribe, in this case, can only be gained z are 
reproduction. Again, some animals kave efficient food 8” 
powers while in the larval state, as in the case of ce ai 
larve, while their nutritive advantages are greatly reduce t a 
mature state. In such cases we find the larve to feed ane w 
rapidly, while the imago scarcely feeds at all, but deve” : 

. 


powers to reproduction, But in the case of certain Ins 


1884. ] Growth, its Conditions and Variations. 1089 


are well adapted to procure food in the mature stage, as in ants, 
the reproductive powers fail to develop at all, except in one or a 
few members of the tribe, while individual life may be continued 
for years. 

The opposition between these two powers is clearly displayed 
in other cases. Wherever nutriment is abundant and easily ob- 
tainable individual life at once gains an advantage over race life. 
The reproductive period is retarded. But if nutriment become 
deficient reproduction is hastened. This has been fully proved 
by experiments on plants, which, if abundantly fed, grow pro- 
fusely in leaves and branches, but delay flowering. But if sub- 
jected to a starvation process they flower early, and remain 
stunted individually. Instances of the same kind may be ob- 
served in animals, and asa rule deficient nutrition may be said 
to cause reduction of size and early reproductive activity, while 
abundant nutrition has the opposite effect. 

In this regard an interesting conclusion may be drawn from a 
general survey of the conditions of animal life. Reproduction 
means the separation from the body of cells which are the 
epitome in structure of the whole organism. This separation 
bears a constantly decreasing relation to the bulk of the whole 

y as we ascend in the animal series. In the Protozoa the 
serm-cell takes the half of the body, or in some cases the whole 
of the body is converted into germs. In the Metazoa a lesser 
Portion of the body is shed as germs. The proportion is great 
m the lower animals, in some cases extreme, but small in the 
higher Classes, and very minute in the highest. The fact that 
the shedding of germs is hastened by deprivation of food sug- 
Sests a reason for this difference. Every higher animal is ina 
certain sense a colony of coherent cell individuals. This cohe- 
Fence is an indication that they are favorably situated for nutriti- 
tion. If food fails to come to them they will go to seek it. In 
other words, the offspring of the coherent cells will become wan- 
dering cells. This is very probably a constant effect of the 
§towth of animals, since with every increase in bulk the ability 
to supply the whole mass of cells with food decreases. In con- 
Sequence we may surmise that wandering cells are budded off 
by the fixed cells more abundantly as size increases, with the 
effect of checking the growth of the animal, and eventually of 
Preventing any further increase in bulk. 


1090 Growth, its Conditions and Variations, [Novembe, 


At the same time the profuse existence of wandering cells isa 
necessary preliminary condition to reproduction. These cells, as 
the writer has already advanced in a former treatise, conjoin and — 
subdivide until from the union of cells, each of which possesses the 
structural peculiarities of only a minor portion of the organism, — 
are produced cells containing the structural characteristics of the — 
whole organism, and consequently suited to become the germs of | 
new organisms. | 

Such is presumably the general character of animal life opera 
tions. The food-getting powers of Protozoa are very slight 
Their cilia are inefficient organs, and only suited to the capture 
of very minute prey. As they increase in size their power of 
obtaining sufficient nutriment decreases. Hence division takes 
place and the offspring become wandering cells, since their 
chances in the life struggle are thus improved. With higher 
animals special conditions have rendered the colonial aggregation 
of cells advantageous, and cell-coherence becomes the rule. By : 
combined effort each cell succeeds in obtaining more food than it 
could have done by its unaided efforts. But in every case as the | 
size of the individual animal increases, its ability to satisfactorily 
supply all its hungry cells with food diminishes. The point x 
which the limit in this direction will be reached depends on the 
degree of efficiency in the food-taking organs, and also pen ihe 
quantity of available food, more nutriment being requisite ie 
greater the bulk of the animal. The 

When this limit is reached, individual life growth ceases. $ 
organic powers remain stationary for a time and then deterom 
tion sets in. This deterioration is apparently a necessary © jal 
in all organisms, arising from a gradual failure of the : ger 
life powers, or from inimical organic processes which e 
arise. Thar this is really the case, however, is not sure. Itis g 
means certain that an indefinite continuance of individual an! n 
life might not be possible if the reproductive process "a : 
pletely checked. It might reasonably be conjectured that toi” 
were possible it would have occurred somewhere 1m ee 
range of animal development, during which such an € a 
diversity of form and condition was produced. But such on 
of animals would certainly be at a disadvantage in the E 
gle, Its powers of continuous life must gradually suce? 


‘ ICAN NATURALIST, June, July, August, 1882. 


1884.] Growth, its Conditions and Variations. 1091 


starvation, accident, the violence of foes and all the external con- 
ditions which oppose individual life continuance. Therefore some 
degree of reproductive activity is necessary to the continued exis- 
tence of any animal race, and it is probable that any degree of 
this activity is incompatible with continuous individual life. 

The shedding of wandering cells appears to take place through- 
out the whole life of the higher animals. They may be found as 
amceboid corpuscles in the blood at all periods of growth. Only 
in the lowest forms, however, can they be developed as germs of 
new individuals at all periods. In all forms above the lowest 
some organ for their temporary reception must be first produced, 
in which the earlier stages of development can be passed, since 
the higher the animal the more unsuited is its germ for immediate 
self-nutrition, When the sexes become separate this grows more 
necessary, and individual development must pass through certain 
phases ere the organs necessary for reproduction are unfolded. 
Over this unfoldment of organs the nutritive conditions exert an 
important influence. Very active nutrition acts to check struc- 
tural development. The writer has treated this subject at length 
in a former paper, and need simply here refer to the case of 
insects-in which structural development is retarded during 
the active nutrition of the larval stage, and is only actively 
resumed during the innutrition of the pupa stage. Thus with 
insects the conditions requisite to reproduction are only com- 
pleted in the imago stage of development. ; 

It is not alone reproduction that checks growth, since repro- 
duction, under certain conditions, might long continue without 
that cessation of growth which usually accompanies sexual 
maturity. But reproduction, to be effective, must be of such a 
character as to assure the preservation and mature development 
of at least two offspring to every two parents. This can be done 
in one of two ways, either by the production of germs in great 
numbers, if they are left to take their chances of destruction by 
enemies or hostile natural conditions, or by the production of 

er germs, which are kept under parental protection until the 
young are able to shift for themselves. Both these processes are 
exhaustive of vitality. In the case of fish, which shed into the 
Water immense numbers of sperm and germ cells, the p hysica! 
Strength is reduced by great abstraction of vital material. In the 


Growth and Development, AMERICAN NATURALIST, July, 1883. 
VOL. xyn1.—no. xz, 69 : 


case of land vertebrates, which produce much fewer eggs but fir- 
nish these with greater nutriment and give them special care, 
there is similar exhaustion, as also in the case of mammals, ia 
which a considerable development of the young takes plat 
within the body of the parent. Thus asa rule growth ceases 
shortly after the period of sexual maturity is reached. The leat 
exhaustive phase of this process is that displayed by the males of 
mammals, which lose but little vital material and waste little 
vital strength. They consequently exceed the female in size, yet 
not inordinately. The conformity in hereditary conditions, an 
in size of the initial life stage, act to prevent any undue excess in 
growth of males over females. 
The conflict between reproduction and individual energy, how- 
ever, is but one of the influences affecting the sizes of animal. — 
There are conditions which affect the members of each separatt | 
tribe to which we must next advert. Whether two animals shal | 
attain the same size does not depend entirely on whether they are | 
able to obtain the same quantity of food. This is but one elè- ? 
ment in the problem. Another equally important element isthe | 
amount of exertion, physical or mental, necessary to obtain A 
food. The food is not applied within the body to the single pe 
pose of growth. Itis partly consumed in the production of = 
mal heat, partly in recovering from muscular waste, esi 
similar nerve recovery, and partly in reproductive activity, Ls 
only its excess goes to the formation of permanent new aie | 
As a rule it might be conjectured that cold-blooded animl ; 
would exceed the hot-blooded in size. They obtain their ™ 
from without, and use up no nutriment in this purpose k 
they are less active and efficient in the pursuit of food, and x 
more than lose the advantage which their nutrient su pa 
might give them. Muscular activity is very exhaustive 0t 1 
ment, and we find that the more active animals are us bine 
smaller. Thus throughout their whole range the Hee i 
exceed the Carnivora in size. And of each of these class be 
most active species are the smaller. The great Carer 
lions and tigers, are only occasionally active. The a 
‘sluggish in movement. The smaller Carnivora, as pee 
family, are incessantly active. It is the same with the af ot 
The elephant, rhinoceros and hippopotamus are | us pi a 
_ Moving creatures, The ox family is more active, and : 


irog Reena Growth, its Conditions and Variations. [November 


i 
i 


a 


pe 


+ 


1884.] Growth, its Conditions and Variations. 1093 


chased deer and antelopes are kept in frequent swift motion. In 
fact the smallest Herbivora are those that trust to flight for safety, 
the medium sized those that need rapid motion in food getting 
but are safe from the attacks of Carnivora, or able to defend 
themselves, while the largest are those which need rapid motion 
neither for flight nor food getting. The desert-living camel, for 
instance, must be able to move very rapidly from oasis to oasis. 
And the horse needs swift motion over the partly barren plains 
which form its native home. But neither of these has occasion 
to fly from enemies. 
Nervous activity is also repressive of growth, and the larger 
animals of each tribe are usually the duller mentally. But this 
is not the case where mental shrewdness replaces activity in the 
obtaining of food, or where the more intellectual animals possess 
highly efficient food-taking organs. The cuttle-fish is the largest 
and probably the most intelligent of mollusks, but its remarkably 
powerful weapons of assault enable it to obtain much food with 
little exertion. The same is the case with the elephant, whose 
trunk gives it special advantages in food getting. In these cases 
such mental energy as is exercised is correlated with physical 
sluggishness. In another case, that of the ants, the mental and 
Physical energies are both in high activity, and this is perhaps a 
main reason why the ants, with plentiful food and no reproduc- 
tive exhaustion, remain such small members of the insect race. 
But a still more important agency in the growth of animals is 
the efficiency of their weapons of assault and their powers of 
motion in obtaining them a plentiful supply of food. In all cases 
the larger animals are those best adapted and situated for obtain- 
ing food with the least exercise of muscular and nervous func- 
tions. In this latter particular the sedentary animals are at an 
advantage, but it is far more than counterbalanced by the ineffi- 
ciency of their means of capture. Unable to go in search of 
food, they are restricted to such food as they can bring to them 
by making currents in the water, or which they can capture in 
Passing. To the former purpose the cilia of Protozoa, sponges, 
the lower mollusks, &c., the winnowing arms of barnacles, &c., 
are applied; to the latter the. tentacles and t 
Ceelenterata. Parasitic animals are also included in this category. 
None of these animals can grow to a great size, since the quan- 
tity of food they can obtain is necessarily very limit 


1094 Growth, its Conditions and Variations, [November — 

With respect to active animals their food-taking powers depend | 
on one or more of three requisites, speed of motion, mental — 
quickness and power of weapons. The largest animals among | 
the Carnivora are those which have the highest development of | 
this third requisite, and thus can obtain equal quantities of food — 
with less organic exhaustion. It is not necessary to make a com 
parison of the weapons of various animals in this connection, a 
it is evident that there is a steady progression upwards as we 
` pons grow more powerful, from the Protozoan cilia to the Mam 
malian claws and teeth. 

But a highly important influence in this connection is that of 
special adaptation of animals to particular kinds of food, together 
with the comparative abundance of this food, and its comparative 
resistance to capture. The food of carnivorous animals does net 
tamely submit to destruction. It makes earnest efforts to escape 
or to defend itself. With animals that depend for safety on 
flight, and for food on pursuit, the great muscular exertion acs 
to check growth. Yet if these animals are capable of obtaining 
plentiful food they may become of considerable size. The wee 
sels and their congeners are adapted to a kind of food which ® | 
small in bulk and is only to be obtained by great agility or cu 
ning, often by pursuit through underground burrows. e” 
their size is necessarily restricted, since overgrowth w uld food ; 
them for their life habits, and thus still further reduce theit 10% 
supply. Their burrowing prey also are necessarily of gao 
from the exigencies of their life habits and the small q E 
of food which they are capable of obtaining. On the other 6 
the much chased deer are grass eaters, and are thus ie 
an abundant food which can be obtained without exertion ~ 5 
therefore attain a considerable size despite the great as 
exertion which they need for safety. At the same time the a 
Carnivora, which feed upon the timid Herbivora, pe grt 


large masses, and grow in bulk accordingly, despite. : 
activity. = close 
With the Herbivora the same rule holds. Their bulk is ie 
governed by the degree of agility necessary to olita mi 
resistance of this food to capture, its comparative abundanc® ie 
the exertion which they need to escape carnivorous wage 
nut-eating rodents, for instance, depend upon food ne a 


ine 


_ Capture, and which can only be obtained in small qué : 


; 


1884.] Growth, tts Conditions and Variations. 1095 


by considerable labor. Thus their food supply is greatly limited. 
The gnawing teeth of rodents are inefficient weapons as com- 
pared with the cutting teeth of Carnivora and the grinding teeth 
of the large Herbivora. The same remarks might be applied to 
the food and weapons of the Insectivora. Again, among rodents 
and in fact among all classes, the tree livers are smaller than the 
ground livers. They need great agility, their food is usually of 
reduced quantity, if vegetable food it is usually placed at the ex- ° 
tremity of the small branches, if animal it escapes to this exfrem- 
ity, so that great bulk would either reduce the food-getting 
power, or the safety from danger. The largest arboreal animals 
are the climbing cats, which obtain their prey by springing, 
and these are much smaller than the ground-lurking cats. On 
the contrary the coiling and crashing serpents attain their great- 
est size in trees, which seem to offer them a special advantage in 
the capture of large prey. 

In regard to those grass and leaf-eating Herbivora which have 
learned to defend themselves by weapons instead of by flight, and 
thus to avoid the excessive exertion of their timid relatives, their 
size is greatly influenced by the degree of exertion necessary to 
obtain a supply of food ;- that is, on the abundance of food native 
to their habitat. The camel, for instance, is native to sandy 
deserts dotted with occasional grassy oases, so that it needs 
swift motion and great powers of endurance of hunger and 
thirst, to enable it to shift from pasture to pasture. The horse 
also is native to broad, level plains, but sparsely provided with 
pasturage, and needs swift motion to obtain a sufficient food sup- 
ply. A similar argument applies to the American bison and the 


larger deer. These animals, while attaining a considerable bulk, 
_ are much smaller than the slugglish tropical Herbivora, the ele- 


Phant, rhinoceros and hippopotamus, which live among super- 
abundant food, and have little occasion to fear enemies. 

Again, as tree-living animals are necessarily small, so are 
mountain animals of reduced bulk. Though they are in no great 
danger from carnivorous foes, their food supply is small, and can 
only be obtained by great exertion. Reference may here also be 
Made to the tribe of birds. These are necessarily smaller than 
land animals. The element in which they live requires great 
Muscular activity, which increases in a rapid proportion with 
increase in bulk. Their food supply is also limited, and only to 


1096 Growth, its Conditions and Variations. [November 


be obtained by great exertion. But unlike land animals the 
largest birds are the Carnivora, since the food to which they are 
adapted is far more abundant than can be obtained by the peck- 
ing fruit-eating, or the insectivorous birds, But the largest of all 
birds are those that have lost the habit of flying, and with it the 
necessary muscular waste. And of these land birds the largest 
known to us were those sluggish inhabitants of the Pacifc 
‘islands, whose habitat was untenanted by large Carnivora, and 
their food abundant, so that they did not need the activity of the 
desert-living ostrich. 
If now we consider water animals, the considerations here 
taken receive a remarkable exemplification in the whale, with i 
_bulk so greatly in excess of that of any land animal. An exami- 
nation of the structure of the great Greenland whale would m 
lead to this conclusion. It has lost all the weapons on which its 
land kindred depend. Its teeth have vanished. Its hind limbs 
have disappeared. Its fore ones are only used for swimming. 
Its food-getting powers seem singularly reduced, while the food 
upon which it depends consists of minute, almost microscopi 
animals. Thus a natural conclusion would be that the whale 
should be of small bulk instead of gaining such monstrous pre 
portions. But on the other hand its food is supersint 
quantity, and is utterly defenceless against its huge foe. 

. uld be 
whale needs no weapons to capture its food. These wo dy 
useless and have been lost. All it needs is to rush set 
through the water with open mouth and swallow the food w 5 
it thus collects in great masses. Intelligence would be useless 
it, and is greatly lacking. Its muscular waste is compti 
small, since swift motion through the water needs far less > 
tion than on the land. It has no foes whom it endeavors 
escape by flight. Thus there is nothing to hinder its a 
inordinate bulk. In this whale, and related species of pape 
general habits, the powers of growth attain their ultimate | 
opment, | 


j; 


The same consideration applies to the great sperm w 
which is adapted, indeed, to a food of different hae 
seems to obtain as abundant a supply with as little exertion. 

remaining water mammals are smaller. They trust to 0%" | 
is less abundant, and which needs more exertion to pane itis 
seals cannot obtain their fish food without great agility, 


- 
H 


1884.] Growth, tts Conditions and Variations. 1097 


probable that the huge size of the great sea elephant arises from 
its being adapted to some less agile and more abundant food than 
that sought by its smaller kindred. With fish the same rule 
applies. The powerfully armed sharks far exceed any others in 
bulk, fish, as a rule, being inefficiently armed and adapted to 
small sized prey. 

If we leave the vertebrates and consider the articulated animals, 
the same rules hold good. The insects are specially adapted to 
a restricted food supply, and their weapons are usually such as 
enable them to obtain food only in small quantities. The suck- 
ing, boring and rasping implements with which they work are of 
no great efficiency, and the largest insects are the strong-flying 
carnivora with their powerful pincers and jaws. The spiders are 
equally small, from the minute quantity of food which their cun- 
ning brings them. By far the largest articulates are the crusta- 
ceans, in whom the pincers have developed into powerful wea- 
pons, and who find in their water home larger, more abundant 
and more easily overcome prey. But in all these cases the size 
of any particular species is largely the result of the efficiency of 
its weapons, the size and quantity of the food to which it is spe- _ 
cially adapted, and the degree of energy or cunning which it 
needs to capture its food and to escape its foes. 

Thus it would appear that the size of every species of animal 
has a natural limit, about which it may fluctuate, but from which 
it cannot widely depart in either direction unless there occurs a 
marked change in the surrounding conditions or in its organiza- 
tion. Its size depends strictly on the efficiency of its food-taking 
Weapons, the abundance of food to which it is specially adapted, 
or the mass of food material which it can obtain, the degree of 
exertion, muscular or nervous, which it needs to obtain this food, 
the degree of exertion which it needs to escape its foes, and the 
vigor of its reproductive energy. The latter, however, isa fluc- 
tuating element, which acts like the governor of a steam engine. 
The former conditions control the average size at any fixed 
period. But if, through a change of conditions, nutrition becomes 
more abundant, reproduction is correspondingly checked and 
size increases, while the reverse occurs if nutrition decreases. 
Thus by a correlation of its two powers of nutrition and repro- 
duction each animal manages to hold its own in the struggle for 
existence, If, through any causes, an animal tribe falls below the 


1098 ` Growth, its Conditions and Variations. [Novel | 


requisite level in both of these powers, it is in danger of extinction i 
If it rises above the level some other tribe is in danger of extin — 
tion. This latter is a highly important fact, to which further 
attention will be requisite after some other points have been con- 
sidered. 

We may here speak of the great influence which larval meta- 
morphosis seems to have on the ultimate size of animals. With 
the invertebrates, as a general rule, the young come into the 
world half born. They are thrown upon their own resources in 
a partly developed state, and have a high wall of metamorphosis 
to climb ere they can reach the stage af maturity. During this 
larval period they represent animals of a lower grade of organi- 
zation than the mature form, and more imperfectly adapted to 
food getting, except in those cases in which the mature form isa 
degenerated one, or in those other in which the mature form has 
lost its original adaptation to the food conditions, and thus is 
forced into immediate reproductive activity, as in the case o 
many insects. If we take, for instance, the actively feeding cater- 
pillar and compare it with the butterfly, we find the latter, ot 
leaving the pupa case, to be not more than a tenth of the sized! 
its larva, while the new food stock, to which it has become — 
adapted, is much less abundant and easily obtained than that 
open to the caterpillar. Thus growth force ceases, reproducti : 
activity supervenes, and death of the mature animal quicky 
follows, | 

Vertebrates are tided over these larval stages, which they pas 
either in the egg or in the maternal womb. Th 


e loss of it 
vigor in their case falls upon the mother, not upon the —_ 
The marsupials, in which the young are born imperfectly oo 
oped, are all comparatively small in size. This may ate 
ever, arise from the cause specified, since the young obian | 
from the mother without personal exertion until they have 
through the larval stage. As a rule, as pointed out by ae 
Spencer, the initial size of the animal exerts a vigorous i 
upon its ultimate size. If it begins its individual life wih 
bulk and great food-taking and consuming powers, its ed 
will be proportionate. He instances the diversity in si° off 
and oxen feeding in the same pastures. : . 
ee Intelligent selection, as exercised by man upon dan “ 
: _ mals, is capable of producing great variations in siae 


A 
ca 


Growth, its Conditions and Variations. 1099 


domestic dog, for instance, a remarkable diversity has been in 
this way produced. The same effect, though less marked, ap- 
pears in the other domestic animals. It has become strikingly 
produced in the horse without design, but merely through diver- 
sity in quantity of food, and in the necessary exertion to obtain 
it in different localities. In these instances we recognize the in- 
fluence of heredity in preserving variations of chance occurrence. 
It may be remarked here that man is not the only animal which 
practices intelligent selection. Bees and ants pursue the same 
process with their own young, and with remarkable results. Thus 
with the hive bee a special feeding of one of the worker larve 
Yields not only increased size but an important organic develop- 
ment. From being a sterile worker it becomes a functional 
female, or queen. In the ants the sterile forms often differ widely 
in size. Dr. McCook measured in one nest nine distinct sizes, 
the largest being seven times the length of the smallest. Whether 
this is a result of designed difference of nutrition of the larve 
does not appear, though there are two or three distinct duties in 
the nest to which ants of distinct sizes apply themselves. 

But we have now to consider another phase of the subject 
which has been of extreme importance in its history. In addi- 
tion to the influences whose effect upon the sizes of animals we 
have considered, there is another of equal, if not greater, efficacy. 

€ look upon the tentacle as a weapon of minor power, yet in 
the cuttle-fish it has become an exceedingly powerful instrument, 
and through its aid giant animals have been produced. The same 
may be said of the weapons of the Crustacea, which sufficed, in 
an early geological period, to yield crustaceans of six feet in 

Even the Medusæ, with their apparently feeble food- 
taking powers, occasionally attain to great bulk. They are per- 
haps situated like the whale in the midst of an abundant supply 
Pi defenceless food, which can be obtained without special exer- 
ion. The defenceless prey of these great sluggish animals are 
those small creatures which trust to’excessive reproductive pow- 
aa for continuance of their race, and thus have less need of effi- 
cent personal defence than with the less prolific. 

These cases point to the condition now to be reviewed, that of 
comparative ability to share in the limited food supply. The 

le for existence is by no means confined. to the power of 
attack and defence, but also takes the form of a struggle to obtain 


1100 Growth, its Conditions and Variations. [November l 


a full share of the naturally supplied food. This has been one 
of the most potent agencies in the history of animal develop- 
ment. The living tribes of nature sit down to a bountifully sup- 
plied table from which each eagerly seeks to gain a “lions 
share” of food. Of those that are adapted to a certain kind 
of food, on a certain part of the table, the best armed and 
situated will obtain the most, and increase in size over their less 
fortunate competitors. On another part of the table animals 
equally well armed are served with a more meager repast, and 
thus need greater activity to obtain equal or smaller quantities of 
food. They consequently decline in size below their better situ- 
ated relatives. The degree of competition, however, is reduced 
by the fact that many tribes are adapted to food of quite different 
kinds from that sought by others. Yet every class of foods 
eagerly sought for, so that there is everywhere a sharp compe 
tion, and the animal so organized and situated as to obtain the 
most with the least exertion of body or mind, is sure to outgrow 
all rivals of equal advantages and initial powers of organization 
It may be here remarked also that at this great feast of nature 
the food often resists capture, and is not to be taken without sp 
cial exertion. Some offers no resistance, some is enclosed in 
hard or spiny armor, some has active powers of mones 
needs to be pursued. Thus the competition is great m a 
and in variety, and the sizes attained by the different gues “g 
pend greatly on the quantity of food they succeed in ey 
in fixed periods, and the waste of tissue necessary 1 
struggle. i a 
This competition, while highly influential in keeping epee 
animals each to its limit of size, was probably, in the geol of ati 
periods, the most efficient agent in controlling the saen fi 
mals, far more so than the direct struggle between eure ae 
their prey. A rapid review will show this. In tracing oe 
cession of animals in former ages one fact of impo a slow 
This is, that the members of ‘the animal kingdom only by a 
degrees advanced in the utility of their weapons of 3 const” 
defence, in their agility and in their mental ability. r period 
quence of this successive development the geolog! i aniol 
present us with some highly interesting conditions Successit 
life, which are of interest in the present connection. 


waves of life have passed over the earth, each swelling t08 = 


1884.] Discovery of the Germ of Swine-Plague. 1101 


minating point of height and then declining, to be followed by a 
new wave, and each of superior structure than the preceding. Each 
wave of life, in fact, has been forced down by the succeeding 
and superior one, until now the’ human wave has risen and is 
forcibly breaking down that which last preceded it. 

(To be continued.) 


:0: 
DR. D. E. SALMON’S CLAIMS RESPECTING THE DIS- 
COVERY OF THE GERM OF SWINE-PLAGUE. 


BY H. J. DETMERS. 


N No. 53 of vol. 111, of Science, pages 155 and fol., appeared an 
article by Dr. D. E. Salmon, in which he claims priority in the 
discovery of the cause of swine-plague with reference to my own 
researches. Since my claims, recently admitted by Pasteur, and 
in 1880 by the professors of the Royal Veterinary School at 
Berlin (see page 464 and. 465 of the Archiv für wissenschaft- 
liche und practische Thierheilkunde, vol. vi, part 6), are thus di- 
rectly disputed, it is incumbent upon me to vindicate them. That 
Dr. Klein discovered in 1876 microorganisms in the carcasses of 
hogs that had died of swine-plague, I have nowhere disputed ; 
neither have I expressed any doubt that Dr. Klein may have seen 
the very micrococci which constitute the cause of the disease. In 
fact, I have never seen Dr. Klein's report. Only brief extracts of 
the same have ever come to my knowledge, from which, how- 
ever, I have not been able to learn that Dr. Klein demonstrated 
the causal connection of these bacteria with the disease. This 
Proof, absolutely necessary in order to show the parasitic nature 
of the disease, I was the first to furnish. In special report No. 
12,and in the annual report for 1878, of the commissioner of 
agriculture, can be found a detailed account of my researches. 
In these I discovered a specific microorganism in the fluids, mor- 
bidly affected tissues, and morbid products of the diseased ani- 
mals, as well when killed by bleeding, as also in the perfectly 
h carcasses of those that had died of the disease. These 
bacteria were cultivated outside of the animal body, in innocent 
media, such as milk, mutton broth, and other fluids (see page 37 
of the commissioner’s special report No. 12, or page 347 of his 
annual report for 1878). 


An inoculation with the bacteria, thus cultivated, reproduced 


1102 Dr. D. E. Salmons Claims respecting the [November, l 


the disease in due time in healthy pigs (see history of exper- 
mental pig C on pages 37, 38 and 39, or pages 347 and 348 oi 
said reports). The quantity of bacteria employed in infecting 
the sterilized culture-fluids was so small, compared with the bulk 
of the latter, as to render them harmless by dilution, had the bac- 
teria not multiplied in the flasks. After three days’ (from Sept 
23d to Sept. 26th, 1878) cultivation the fluids swarmed with the 
identical bacteria with which they had been infected, while no 
others could be found by close and searching microscopical ex- 
amination. Staining fluids, it is true, were at that time, 
ber, 1878, not employed, but even should these cultures have been 
contaminated to a minimal extent, the validity of the proof that 
they reproduced the disease would thereby not be affected 
Moreover, I have given abundant proof in my reports that à 
vegetation of putrefaction bacteria, the very ones most likely to 
intrude into a culture fluid, destroys, if taking place in the same 
medium, the pathogenic properties of the swine-plague D 
a fact admitted by Dr. Salmon himself in his later reports. AS 
the disease produced by inoculation with an exceedingly sml 
quantity of the cultivated material was typical swine-plagus ê 
more decisive proof of the bacteritic nature of that disease cal 
not be furnished. Still, although further proof is not realy 
needed, I may yet mention that an inoculation with blood seri 
from diseased lungs, after it had been freed from the swine-plag" 
bacteria, remained ineffective, notwithstanding that every Inne 
lation with the same material, if not freed from SWYs © 
bacteria, invariably took effect (see history of eprint 
A, inoculated Oct. 14th, 1878, pages 38 and 39 of special ad. 
No. 12, and pages 348 and 349 of the annual report for ! » 
But, while I will not relinquish my claim of being reall 
has proven the bacteritic nature of swine-plague, I Oe 
admit any mistake in the description of the bacterium: a 
sufficient instrument then at my command, a $ a 
stand, and three Hartnack objectives, a No. 2, 4 pee 
No. 8, made the coccus-chains appear like moniliform ( The 
rods. Hence my error in naming them bacilli. Altho sega 
since corrected this mistake in the nomenclature in  ™ s 
February 28th, 1880 (see page 60 of special report me 1a 
_ Page 412 and fol. of the commissioner's annual repo ag 
_ frequent repetition of my observations has not forced me 


1884.) Discovery of the Germ of Swine-Plague. 1103 


sider anything wrong in my first description beyond the drawings 
of the bacteria. Better lenses, afterwards employed, easily re- 
solved the apparently moniliform rods into coccus-chains. The 
same reports of the commissioner, which contain the results of 
my first researches, also contain Dr. Salmon’s first observations 
on swine-plague, in which he does not make a single reference to 
bacteria as the cause of the disease. 

In the following reports, special report No. 22, and annual re- 
port for 1879, I corrected my mistake as to the appearance and 
the naming of the parasites; while the subsequent report of the 
commissioner, special report No. 34, or annual report for 1880, 
which was published a year later, or two years after I had proved 
Swine-plague to be a bacteritic disease, contains the first account 
of Dr. Salmon’s observations in regard to swine-plague bacteria. 
However ingenious his methods were, however exactly he copied 
Pasteur’s method of experimentation, his results are nowise in 
advance of mine, published respectively one and two years earlier. 
I can safely let the reader estimate the value of his and my claims 
of priority. In my various drawings I have tried to represent 
what I actually saw in the fluids, morbid tissues, etc., of the ani- 
mals, and hence have shown different forms of the bacteria, among 
them Billroth’s helobacteria. I have not seen these forms in my 
cultures, neither have I ever said that the same were proven to be 
related to the disease, however likely that may be. On pages or 
and 62 of special report No. 22, or the corresponding pages of 
annual report for 1879, after quoting from Billroth, I remark : 
“As nearly all these various changes and formations have been 
repeatedly observed, it may de that these club-shaped formations 
or helobacteria of Billroth, which I was inclined to look upon as 
foreign to the disease, are only a higher development, or another 
form of the swine-plague Schizomycetes.” 

Dr. Salmon’s insinuations have no foundation whatever, and 
his accusations that I have confounded the true parasites (diplo- 
cocci) of swine-plague with other bacteria cannot be substantiated 
from my writings. 


Cittcaco, Int., March 2oth, 1884. 


1104 The Segmental Sense-Organs of the Leech, [November 
THE SEGMENTAL SENSE-ORGANS OF THE LEECH 


BY DR, C. O. WHITMAN. 


3 Mesa only sense-organs hitherto known in the medicinal leech 
are the five pairs of eyes and the so-called “ goblet-shaped” 
organs located in the edge of the lip (cephalic lobe). A number 
of writers have noticed and described some small spots occurring 
on every fifth ring of the body; and one author has suggested 
that they may have a respiratory function. But no one, so faras 
the published accounts inform us, has intimated that they repre- 
sented sense-organs, or suspected that they were the serial homo- 
logues of the eyes themselves. These spots, when examined 
closely with a low magnifying power, will be found to be slight 
elevations with rounded summits, and for this reason and becaust 
they are regularly disposed on the first ring of each segment 
(somite) they may be called segmental papillæ, a name which 
does not prejudge the question of their function. In our large 
pond leech (Macrobdella) these papillæ are comparatively small; 
and the same may be said of the medicinal leeches of Europe 
and Japan, and their nearest allies, Hamopis and Aulostoma. In 
some of the Asiatic medicinal leeches, for example, those 
Saigon, Singapore (H. maculosa), Java (H. javanica) and Ceylon 
(H. multistriata), they are much larger and have an oval form 
with a median ridge or crest. In the land leeches they are very 
conspicuous, having the form of small cones with rou 
summits. 

In all the ten-eyed leeches of Japan, including b 
fresh-water forms, twelve of these papilla are foun 
ring of each complete somite, six on the dorsal and six 4 
tral side. In most of the medicinal leeches, however, 45 well e 
Hæmopis, Aulostoma, Macrobdella, &c , there are eight 0 
dorsal side and six on the ventral. , as tea ae 
_ A careful study of the arrangement of these papilla in @ ut 
number of species, and of their histological structure, has o 
out in a most conclusive manner their serial homology ee 
eyes ; and has led, indirectly, to the recognition of ee sal 
tant points in regard to the metameric composition of t er 
of the leech. The accompanying diagram will enable a 
brief. The eyes are represented by five pairs of large ar the 
the segmental papilla by smaller dots. The numerals: sa 


oth the landand | 
d on the fist 
on the vel 


1884. | The Segmental Sense-Organs of the Leech. 1105 


left give the number of somites, those on the right the number of 
the first ring of each somite. The position of the seventeen pairs 
of nephridial pores is shown by short dashes (zst p-r7th p). With 
the exception of the genital and nephridial pores, the diagram 
shows only what belongs to the dorsal side. It will be seen that 
there are twenty-six transverse rows of papillæ—one for each 
somite ; and that, owing to their uniform and symmetrical ar- 
rangement, they form also eight /ongitudinal rows. We have 
two median rows (m) formed of twenty-five successive pairs ; four 
lateral rows, an inner (il) and an outer (of) on each side of the 
median line; and zwo marginal rows (mg). The first two eyes 
hold the position of a pair of median papillz, while the remain- 
ing eyes replace as many inner lateral papille. About this cor- 
respondence in position there is not, in my opinion, any room for 
doubt. In the diagram the outer lateral and the marginal papil- 
læ are to be seen as far forward as the first eye-bearing ring, the 
Marginal ones alone being absent on this ring ; but in most species 
of Hirudo both of these rows of papilla are very indistinct or 
entirely absent on the first three eye-bearing rings. They are 
present in Aulostoma, and are very distinct in the large medicinal 
leeches of Saigon, Singapore, Java and Ceylon. 

The median rows of papillz, if their position is not misleading, 
must be regarded as the metameric equivalents of the frst pair 
of eyes; the inner lateral rows hold the same relation to the 
second, third, fourth and fifth pairs of eyes. There is a possibil- 
ity that the first pair of eyes are derivatives of the inner lateral 
Papillæ, the median papillz of this ring having been lost and the 
tyes brought nearer together so as to stand in line with the 
median papilla of the following somites. However, as all the 
papilla have the same structure, there is no objection on this 
Score to the opinion that the eyes are derived from both the 
median and the inner lateral papillz. 

The structure of the papilla confirms the homology above in- 
dicated, if one feature alone be excepted. The eye of the leech, 
as is well known, is a cylindrical mass of cells, three or four 
times as long as wide. The central or axial portion is made up 
of Peculiar large glassy cells, in general appearance entirely un- 
like the other cells of the body. What the peculiarities of these 
cells are cannot well be explained without illustrative drawings ; 
but for Present purposes it will be sufficient to say that each of 


1106 The Segmental Sense-Organs of the Leech. (Novena, 


these cells has a vacuole-like space occupying a central position 
which is probably filled with some kind of fluid. Whatever this 
fluid may be, it is not colored by any of the dyes in common we 
The protoplasm of these cells forms a thick peripheral envelope 
with a rounded thickening on one side which projects into the 
vacuolar space. The very small nucleus is usually located near 
the base of this internal protuberance. This axial portion consist- 
ing of clear cells is enveloped by a thick layer of pigment onal 
sides except the external end. The epidermal cap covering thes 
cells is convex, and entirely free from pigment, forming thusa 
window-like opening into the black pigment-cup which holds the 
large transparent cells. An optic nerve enters the eye near is 
deeper end, and runs along the axis fora larger portion of its 
length. It is probable that branches of the nerve connect with 
the clear cells, but precisely how has not been ascertained. 

In sections of the segmental papillae we find all the elements of 
the eye except the pigment. There is a branch of the 
nerves that runs to each; and from four to six or more of those 
peculiar large glassy cells are found a little below the epidermal 
cap, which is convex and free from pigment. 

The absence of a pigment-cup holding the glassy cells makes 
it doubtful whether the papilla can be regarded as light peset 
ing organs, but it does not, to my mind, weaken the oa 
their serial homology with the eyes. It is generally found on 
the posterior eyes, especially the fifth pair, are smaller than Ho 
preceding them; and I have noticed cases in which oily a 
trace of pigment could be seen in one or both of the last if 
eyes. While it appears doubtful what the function of the pi pe 
is; still, the presence of large cells precisely like thos E a 
eye, situated just below a window-like opening in the surface ai 
ment, and their obvious serial equivalence with the F 
it not improbable that they represent incipient organs oka 

Although the evidence appears to me conclusive that et 
and the segmental papillæ were, originally, morpholog! a en 
as physiological equivalents, it does not of course follow nece 
sarily that both now have the same functional signi i 
original papillæ may have represented sense organs of a p 
less indifferent order, among which, in the course of the p 
~ Cal development of the leech, a division of labor was "ig 
~ a few at the anterior extremity becoming specialized aS orga : 


f 


1884. ] The Segmental Sense-Organs of the Leech. 1107 


vision, the rest either remaining in their early indifferent condi- 
tion, or becoming specialized in some other direction. 

In order to get a clearer and fuller idea of the fact that the eyes 
are metameric organs representing merely structurally improved 
forms of the segmental papillæ, let us look more closely at the 
ringsand the somites composing the body. As a glance at the 
diagram will show, there are in all 102 rings between the first 
pair of eyes and the posterior sucker; the last two or three are 
more or less imperfect. The papillate rings show us precisely 
how many somites there are. Of the żwenty-six somites, sixteen 
(7-22 inclusive) have each five rings, while the remaining ten 
have from one to three rings. Of these abbreviated somites siz 
form the anterior and four the posterior end. We notice that the 
abbreviation is greatest at the extreme ends, from which it is plain 
that it began at these points and progressed towards the center of 
the body. The first two somites have each a single ring, the 
third is represented by two rings, and the fourth, fifth and sixth 
each by three rings. The first six somites then include only thir- 
teen rings, less than half the number contained in six complete 
somites, such as are seen in the middle region of the body. The 
twenty-third somite embraces three rings, and the twenty-fourth, 
twenty-fifth and twenty-sixth each two rings. The last four, 
Somites contain only nine rings. The abbreviation not only ex- 
tends to a larger number of somites at the anterior end than at 
the posterior, but it has been carried farther in the individual 
somites, at least in the first and second. At both ends the papil- 
late rings have been preserved, while the less important non- 
Papillate rings have been in part or wholly suppressed. The sup- 
Pression of rings takes place by consolidation, two successive 
"ings gradually coalescing. The papillate ring may coalesce 
either with the preceding or the following ring. In the medicinal 

h the fifth ring, bearing the fourth pair of eyes, is now in pro- 
“sss of uniting with the sixth ; while the eighth is absorbing the 
seventh. The evidence that these two rings are being swallowed 
secs is seen first of all in the rings themselves, and secondly, in the 
different conditions which they exhibit in different species and 

In Hirudo and several allied genera the sixth and Aides 
nth rings are comparatively narrow, and the grooves ee 
them from the fifth and eighth rings are entirely obliterated on 
the ventral side, so that here the four rings appear as two, On 


| 


1108 The Segmental Sense-Organs of the Leech. (November, 
the dorsal side they are still distinct, but not so deeply marked — 
off from the fifth and eighth rings as from each other. The sam — 
process of consolidation is seen in Hzemopis, Aulostoma and — 
Hemadipsa, but in different stages. In Macrobdella all fou | 
‘rings are distinct on both sides, but the consolidation has already 
begun, as the grooves separating the fifth from the sixth, and the — 
seventh from the eighth, are not so deep as the groove between 
the sixth and seventh, or that between any two of the succeeding _ 
rings. 
If the abbreviation is centripetal, we should expect the fourth — 
ring to disappear before the sixth and seventh. This course of 
events has already been completed in the land leeches, in none of 
which is there a ring intervening between the third and fourth | 
pairs of eyes. 

Two non-papillate rings may also unite with each other; at 
- instance is seen in the twenty-third somite of Macrobdella, where 
the second and third rings are well nigh consolidated. ° 

The syncopation of rings has been carried farther in the acelab 
ulum than in either of the posterior somites. In some spect | 
the segmental papilla are quite distinct on the disk, and in thes | 
their arrangement shows that papillate rings alone have been pè 
served in this region. l 
_ The sacrifice of rings has been greatest in those parts z 
have been compelled to do the most work, namely, the aa 
tremities. In the anterior somite the papillate rings have i 
preserved and functionally improved in proportion to the 
of the less important non-papillate rings eliminated. In the s l 
terior disk the loss of rings is not correlated with an i 
ment of the sense-organs, but with an increased development a 
muscles. The habits of the land leech have favored ae 
opment of a still greater muscular power in the disk, and ge 
been attended with a loss of five rings, leaving only four" pat 
its four terminal somites to offset nine rings on the aqua 

If the historical development of the leech has been ee | 
sive course of abbreviation such as we have described, sont 
dent that an ancestral form must have existed in which sc dert 
were more nearly alike from end to end. The embryon! 7 
opment confirms this view, for in its earlier phases peer 
oe form a chain of very nearly equal parts. It is somewne is off a 
ee "~ (7-8) of the posterior somites become constric™ —— 


PLATE XXXIII. 


-30-31 
ieee sh, 
——-—39 

——44 

~--—49 

54 

-59 
64 
------69 

aml 

79 

4 

9 


we 


Seomental Sense-Organs of the Leech. 


1884.] The Segmental Sense-Organs of the Leech. 1109 


consolidated into the sucking disk. The somites at the anterior 
end are the first to arise and hence the first to exhibit special- 
ization. 

Among existing species three in Japan have departed less from 
the hypothetical ancestral form than has Hirudo. They agree 
with the medicinal leech in having twenty-six somites, but differ 
from it in having eighteen instead of sixteen complete somites. In 
one of these species there are plain evidences that abbreviation 
has already begun in one of the eighteen somites. 

The segmental papilla then enable us to give a tolerably com- 
plete analysis of the body, to read some chapters in its past his- 
tory, to predict some portions of its future, and to draw a few safe 
conclusions respecting the phylogenetic relationship of different 
species and genera. The discovery that these papillz are sense- 
organs might lead us to speculate on affinities of a more distant 
and uncertain nature; such as are supposed by the writer, in 
common with many others, to exist between annelid worms and 
vertebrates. At all events the existence of such organs in the 
leech furnishes a broader basis for the discussion of the question 
whether the vertebrates and annelids have been derived from a 
common form possessing metameric sense-organs.” 

Assuming that the sense-organs of the lateral line of the ver- 
tebrate and the segmental papillæ of the leech may be traced to 
a common origin in some remote ancestral form, it does not fol- 
low that they should now present close structural resemblances. 
It is far more important to show that they possess certain general 
features in common. The most important of their common fea- 
tures is undoubtedly their metameric origin. The nerve-supply 
forms another feature of fundamental importance, in which ac- 
cording to the interesting observations of Mr. Beard on “ the seg- 
mental sense organs of the lateral line” (Zool. Anz., vil, Nos. 161, 
162) of the vertebrate, there is essential agreement. The devel- 
, OPmental history of these lateral organs in the fish, where they 
Make their first appearance as segmental papilla in the strictest 
Sense of these words, cannot at present be explained on a more 
Satisfactory hypothesis. 


! Dr. Eisig of the Naples Station is the original expounder of this view. 


1110 The Amblypoda. 

THE AMBLYPODA. 
BY E. D. COPE. 

HE Amblypoda is that order of hoofed mammals in which 
the internal bones of the carpus are in linear series, the mag- 
num supporting a part of the lunar only, and not reaching the 
scaphoid; and in which the tarsal bones are interlocked, as in the 
later types of hoofed Mammalia; that is, the cuboid bone articu- 
lates extensively with the astragalus, as well as with the calcan- 
eum (see Figs, 1-2). 


See Me NY OTE ee 


C 

Fic, 1.—Right manus of “See eg a hg ap from Proc. Amer. Philos. 
ety, 1882, p. 441. Sc, scaphoid; Z, lunar; Cu, cuneiform mpeni; 1 aN 
zium; Zo, trapezoides ; Mo, magnum (tase broken wok Un, unciform. i pp l 
ae specimen, See Report U. S. G. G. Survey W. ~ yet pas 
hale = at. 2- Right posterior foot of Woof jes of Corypho M. Wheeler, ra i 

Various other characters are associated with these, ef | 
which may be coéxtensive with them, and therefore to Š 
garded as characters of the order. Thus all the known ae 
have five toes on all the feet, and a flat astragalus without k 
of groove. The unciform bone is extensively in conta wl 
lunar, as in the Diplarthra. The hemispheres of the brain job 
singularly small size, and are separated from the ge is 
and from the cerebellum by their crura. The feet 
short and plantigrade. the pe 1 

Ordinal characters of wider significance are seen in 


J 
a 
d 
F 
i 
i 
. 

j 


1884.] The Amblypoda, IIHI 


ence of a postglenoid process; the presence of enamel on the 
teeth, and the absence of any teeth growing from persistent pulps. 
The superior molar teeth are constructed on the tritubercular 


Mammalia presenting the above combination of characters first 
appear in the Puerco Eocene epoch, and continue through the 
Wasatch and Bridger epochs, and then disappear. They have 
not been found in later deposits. The Puerco species are small- 
est in dimensions, while those of the Bridger epoch are the 
largest of Eocene Mammalia, equaling in the size of some of 
their bones the largest of living terrestrial Mammalia. Besides 
their great size the species of the Bridger epoch prove the ancient 
exuberance of their growth-energy in the development of extra- 
ordinary processes and horns on the head and large and formida- 
ble canine teeth. 

Three suborders represent this order. Each one is confined to 
a distinct horizon of the Eocene period, with one doubtful excep- 
tion. The characters are as follows: 

Astragalus with a head; a third trochanter of femur; superior incisors. . Tadigrada. 
No head of astragalus; a third trochanter; superior incisors......-++.- P. 

No head of astragalus, nor third trochanter, nor superior incisors.....- 
The Taligrada only occur in the Puerco epoch, the Pantodonta 
are confined to the Wasatch, and the Dinocerata belong to the ~ 

dger epoch, one species having been found extending down- 
wards into the Wasatch, unless there be some error.’ 


Tue TALIGRADA. 

The Taligrada are represented by one family, and one genus, 
Pantolambda Cope.? This form is interesting on various accounts. 
It furnishes the only known example of a tritubercular seleno- 

nt superior molar dentition. That is, each of the three cusps 
of which the crown of the superior molar is composed, is a well- 
formed V (Fig. 34). We shall see later on, that this form ex- 
Plains the origin of the peculiar molars of some of the Panto- 
donta, Its astragalus is of remarkable form, which is interme- 
diate between that presented by the other members of the order, 
and the diplarthrous ungulates, as for instance, the rhinoceroses 
(Fig. 3, fig. d a” a"). It has the flat tibial face characteristic of 
all the Puerco mammals, and of many of those of the Wasatch 

«This is the Bathyopsis fissidens Cope. 
See NATURALIST, 1883, p. 406. 


III2 The Amblypoda. [ November, 


epoch. The inferior molars are much like those of Corypho- 
don, but differ in 
certain details. The 
premolars are even 
more like those of 
that genus (Fig. 6) 
The humerus differs 
from that of all other 
members of the or 
der in having aa 
epicondylar foramen 
(Fig. 5 a) In this 

respect, and in its 
—Bones and teeth of Pantolambda ripe > 


Fic. 3.— : i 
Cope, two-thirds nat, size. From the Puerco beds of New large internal pr 
Mexico. Fig. os part of Say and malar yeten from condyle, the form is 


owing true molar 
th és coerce vertebrae, skii ; & and c’, do. from like that of some 
ow. Fig. d, astragalus from ‘above d’, from front, Creodonta. The il- 
shewiy feet for cuboid; @’’, w; a navieular 
bone from below. Original, ae Report U. S. Geol. ium differs remark- 
Survey Terrs., F. V. Hayden ably from that of the 


other genera of the order in its narrow form, with 


N 
“Fic he acdsee buthmodon Co 
Puerco beds of New Mexico; individua wiper gts 
Fig. 4, w 


mates the oe in i this respect also. 


1884.] The Amblypoda. 1113 


In all respects Pantolambda presents primitive characters. The 
V shape of its molar tubercles only presents us with the highest 
known modification of the primitive tritubercular molar, except- 
ing those which succeeded 
it in time in the remaining 
suborders of the Ambly- 
poda 


Of the genus Panto- 
lambda two species have 
heen discovered, both by 
Mr, David Baldwin, in New 
Mexico, The smaller of 


size of a coyote, the larger, |, $ 
P. cavirictus Cope (Fig. 6) $) 
is as large as a South 
American tapir, ‘or nearly 
equal to the smallest spe- 
cies of Coryphodon. The 
ungues of the P. dathmodon 
which have been found 
(Fig. 5 c) are narrower than 
those of the P cavirictus, 
but they may differ in pro- 
Portions on different digits 
as in the species of Phena- 
Codus. Both species are 
furnished with formidable 
canine teeth, but they are 
of normal form, and do not 
Present any of the peculiar- 
> of those of the Panto- Fic. 5.—Pantolambda hathmodon on Cope, bon pra 
nta or Dinocerata. In of individual 1 pee tae of a, two 
the lower jaw of the P. Se or ales A “anterior side. Fig. 4 po 
cavirictus (Fig. 6) they are emi gies side. aes ee: ve unguis. 
Somewhat recurved, fur-* a 
nishing a formidable seiz- 
ing and holding weapon. The lower edge of the mandibular 


1 On this subject see Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1883, P. 324 


1114 The Amblypoda. Nona | 


ramus is prominent anteriorly, leaving a concavity of the lateral 
face posterior to the root of the canine. This resemblesagood — 
deal what is seen in the cat-like genus Nimravus and allies, which 


“Ss: 


ramus fos outer si 
Serve, Torre- r. 


right 
s Geor- 


1 F> 


two thirds natural size. Fi 


mi 


ra 
Ociginal, from Vol., tne Report 


Cope, mandibular 


from above. “et ecrent Puerco bed. 


sacra 


—_ Pantolambda cavirich 


The corte | 


are probably the ancestors of the saber-tooth tigers. b 
sponding form in Pantolambda in the same way foreshadows | 
paa development of mandibular flange, and of the 
_ Canine, seen in the Dinoceratous group of this order. a 


1884.] The Amblypoda., IIIS 


The homologies of the parts of the teeth of the different gen- 
era of the Amblypoda are not determined without considerable 
study. The greatest difficulties are presented by the superior 
molars, and in order to understand them it is necessary to study 
the inferior molars first. 

If we compare the 
inferior molars of the 
Pantolambda cavirictus 
with those of the Bazh- __-— 
yopsis fissidens (Fig. 7) STA 
(one ofthe Dinocerata) be 
the following modifica- 
tions will be observed: 
(1) The two limbs of 
the anterior V in the 
true molar of the for- 
mer are represented in 
the latter by a single 
crest with two appress- 
ed apices at the inner 
extremity. These 

apices represent those 
of the two limbs of the 
V. (2) The posterior 
limb of the posterior V 
is much diminished in 
elevation, and does not 
Join its anterior limb 
at the apex on the ex- 
ternal side ofthecrown. 

we now examine the 
corresponding parts of 
another Dinoceratous 


Original, from 


Wind River (? Bridger) of Wyoming. From Vol, u1 Report U. S. Geol, Survey Terrs., F. V. Hayden, 


\ 


size, from above: a, from front, 


Fic. 7.—Bathyopsis fissidens Cope (one of the Dinocerata), mandible anterior to the coronoid process ; incisors and 


canines and first premolar lost from both sides, two-thirds nat, 


find the process carried 5 . h 
still further. The crown has only two crests which saa 
each other but do not join at the apex on the inner side. e 


1116 The Amblypoda. [November, 


posterior limb of the posterior V has disappeared, and a small 


G. 3.—Loxolophodon Sp., mandible anterior to coronoid process, one-fourth 
nat. size; from Bridger beds of Wyoming. From Osborn, memoir on Loxolophodos 
and Uinta therium. 


cusp represents the posterior crest of the anterior V. 


| podon 
Fic. 9.—Teeth of Pantodonta, two- te nat. size. gd Cort epott u5 
Cope; from the Wasatch beds of Wyoming. Original, fs m Yosir molat 


Geol. Surv, Terrs. Fi ig. % peice cupidatu pss ag 
y 


above, anterior V broken; from epor aoh ‘ ‘A us 
tooth mer., G, M. Wheeler, ori on Pa t superior R 
atus Cope, from below ; Baak Wy Pig. fs Origi inal, from va E 


quadr 
Geol. Ter Teia.. F. V. Hayden in aie. 


1884] The Amblypoda, 1117 


we us now compare the superior molars of Pantolambda (Fig. 
p a agi of Coryphodon (Fig. ga). The two external Vs of 
hp rare represented in the latter by a cusp and a partial V, 
si a aA ridge on the external half of the posterior 
“8 ooth. This arrangement is already imitated on the 
molar of Pantolambda, where one of the Vs has disappeared 
and the one that remains is very oblique. ; 
Prd pain V ee its form better in the superior molar 
age e ratus (Fig. 9f); while in the genus Metalo- 
94 se it is reduced to a cusp, forming the inner extremity 
va ron e Hiri (A figure of this genus will be given in the 
saioak of the NATURALIST.) The interior V of Panto- 
opte = DEP by a corresponding angle at the inner side 
ie aio sso oryphodon (Fig. 9 a), and the two ridges which 
rO e external base of the crown are well marked. 
Teo ere is developed on the anterior side of the base 
rong cingulum. This is 
wane on the posterior side, 
but is present in a feeble form 
in Pantolambda (Fig. 3). I have 
Sometimes called these the su- 
perior and inferior anterior. cin- 
gula respectively. In Corypho- 
don the posterior superior cin- 
eae is unsymmetrically 

ni rf x saf its _ end, and D> ! l Ti N ae 

on it devel Tae | YDA 

cusp at this point, the pa I S N > ; 
thus becoming quadritubercular _ F's. 10,—Dinocerata teeth, one-fourth 
(Fig. 9 f). nat, size. Upper figures superior molars 
oh on gy el meg ey 
Pa? iip compare these of thw ut tipinio represented in 
pon ae those of Uintatheri- fig. 8. From Osborn, memoir on Uinta- 

g. 10) we have little diffi- “*""™ aad Losier 

ase determining the presence of the two anterior cingula. 
kac culty is to ascertain the homology of the posterior trans- 
: crest. It is difficult to see in it the two external Vs of 


Panto! ; 
antolambda confluent into a simple ridge, yet such it seems » 
rison with the figure 


1118 The Amblypoda. [November 
of a cusp posterior to its internal extremity in the Dinocent 


presents a further obstacle to such a determination. This cuspis 
probably homologous with the posterior internal tubercle of Man- 


x 


Fic. 11.—Last three temporary molars, and first true molar partly protruded, of 
a Coryphodon from New Mexico, nat. size. Original, from Report U. S. G. G. Sur 
vey W. of 1ooth mer., G. M. Wheeler, Vol. Iv, pt. II. 
teodon (Fig. 9 f), and is, therefore, the posterior internal of the 
quadrituberculate molar type. The internal extremity of the pos 
terior crest of the crown in the Dinocerata cannot, therefore, bè 
that cusp, and that ridge is not a posterior transverse crest, such 
as is present in most Perissodactyla. e 

It is interesting to observe that the fourth superior deciduous 
molar in Coryphodon (Fig. 11) has essentially the same structure 
as the true permanent molar of Pantolambda (Fig. 3). 

The origin of the Amblypoda has not yet been tr i 
was known on this point, as well as on the question of pei 
scendants of the order, was stated as follows in my pipa 
classification of the ungulate Mammalia, published in 1882: 

“ As regards the inner part of the manus, I know of me 
which presents a type of carpus intermediate between that m 
Taxeopoda and Amblypoda on the one hand, and the Pen probe 
tyla and Artiodactyla on the other. Such will, however, wot 
bly be discovered. But the earliest Perissodactyla, as for 13 a 
Hyracotherium, Hyrachyus and Triplopus, possess the ~~ 
the later forms, Rhinoceros and Tapirus. The order ~a while 
occupies an interesting position between the two groups, | of the , 
it has the carpus of the primitive type, it has the ere 
later orders. The bones of the tarsus alternate, th less 
decided advance on the Taxeopoda. This order 1S © i 
primitive than the latter, although in the form of ~ wie of the 
no doubt retains some primitive peculiarities which "a : 
_ ¥Palzontological Bulletin No. 35- Proceedings Amer. Philosoph. panei 
aao 


1884] The Amblypoda, 1119 


known Taxeopoda possess. I refer to the absence of trochlea, a 
character which will yet be discovered in the Taxeopoda, I have 
no doubt. 

“The Taxeopoda approach remarkably near the Bunotheria, 
and the unguiculate and ungulate orders are brought into the 
closest approximation in these representatives. In fact I know of 
nothing to distinguish the Condylarthra from the Mesodonta, but 
the ungulate and unguiculate characters of the two divisions. In 
the Creodonta this distinction is reduced to very small propor- 
tions, since the claws of Mesonyx are almost hoofs. Some of the 
genera of the Periptychidz present resemblances to the Creodonta 
in their dentition also. 

“The facts already adduced throw much light on the genealogy 
of the Ungulate Mammalia. The entire series has not yet been 
discovered, but we can with great probability supply the missing 
links. In 1874 I pointed! out the existence of a yet undiscovered 
type of Ungulata, which was ancestral to the Amblypoda, Pro- 
boscidea, Perissodactyla and Artiodactyla, indicating it by a star 
only in a genealogical table. This form was discovered in 1881, 
seven years later, in the Condylarthra. It was not until later? 
that I assumed that the Diplarthra are descendants of the Ambly- 
poda, although not of either of the known orders, but of a theo- 
retical division with bunodont teeth’ That such a group has 
existed is rendered extremely probable in view of the existence 
of the bunodont Proboscidea and Condylartha. That the Taxeo- 
poda was the ancestor of this hypothetical group, as well as of 
the Proboscidea, is extremely probable. But here again neither 
of the suborders of this group represent exactly the ancestors of 
the known Amblypoda, which have an especially primitive form 
of the astragalus not found in the former. In the absence of an | 
ankle joint the Amblypoda are more primitive than any other 
division of the Ungulata, and their ancestors are not likely to 

e been more specialized than they. It is probable that a third 
Suborder of Taxeopoda has existed which had no trochlea of the 
astragalus, which I call provisionally by the name of Platyarthra. 

“The preceding paragraphs were written in May, 1882. On 

*Homologies and Origin of Teeth, etc., Journal Academy Nat. Science, Philada., 
1874, p. 20. 

* Report U. S. Geol. Survey W. of rooth mer., p. $82, 1877. 
*This hypothetical suborder has been called Amblypoda Hyodonta. 


1120 The Amblypoda. (November, 


my return home, September Ist, after an absence of three months, 
I find that various parts of, the skeleton of Periptychus have 
reached my museum.’ On examination I find that the astragalus 
of that genus fulfills the anticipation above expressed. Jt is with- 
out trochlea, and nearly resembles that of Elephas. As it agrees 
nearly with that of Phenacodus in other respects, I only separate 
it as a family from the Phenacodontide. One other type re- 
mains to be discovered which shall connect the Periptychide 
and the hypothetical Hyodonta; and that is a taxeopod without 
a head to the astragalus—unless, indeed, the ‘ Hyodonta’ should 
prove to have such a head. I think the latter the less probable 
hypothesis, and hence retain the term Platyarthra for the hy- 
pothetical taxeopod without trochlea or head of the astrag- 
alus.” This group as at first defined had been already discovered, 
but in the above paragraph I added another definition, endeavor 
ing to preserve an apparently useless name. 

The existence of Amblypoda Hyodonta is rendered almost 
certain by the discovery that the genus Pantolestes of the We 
satch epoch is an artiodactyle with tritubercular bunodont sup 
rior molars. The ancestral type of such a form must have best 
a tritubercular bunodont amblypod. Pantolambda is such a aie 
with the tubercles modified into Vs. Moreover, such a ye: 
(Amblypoda Hyodonta) would be derived from a per iptychid Tax | 
opod with but little modification of the latter. A distinct fact 
ing of the astragalus for the cuboid bone, and probably a one 
of the carpus by an articulation of the unciform and lunar ~~ | 
would be all that would be necessary. The discovery of we : 
lambda has increased the probability of such change having% 
place in the hind foot, since the astragalus is intermediate = ei : 
between those of Coryphodon and Periptychus. This is part pee , 
seen in the form of the head, which is not separated by 4 | | 
in Periptychus, but is more prominent than in other Am ta wil | 
(Fig. 3). Thus it is possible that Amblypoda Hyodon wat 
be found to have a short head of the astragalus, ee p 
supposition above expressed. The headless astragulas ; af 
Amblypoda and of Proboscidea is perhaps a derivative © : 
not a primitive character. 


. 1 See NATURALIST for August, 1884, for figures. 


1884.] Editors’ Table. 1121 


in 1882 in the paper above quoted, modified so as to be more in- 
telligible : 


TAXEOPODA 
Condylarthra 
Hyracoidea 


AMBLYPODA 
Hyodonta 
Taligrada 
Pantodonta 
Dinocerata 


PROBOSCIDEA 


LARTHRA 


Perissodactyla 
Artiodactyla 


(To be continued.) 
:0:— 
EDITORS’ TABLE. 
EDITORS: A. S. PACKARD AND E. D. COPE. 
The American Association for the Advancement of Sci- 
‘nce met this year in Philadelphia, between September 4th and 
; = inclusive. Omitting Saturday, which was given up to Ex- 
cursions, and Sunday, there were six and a-half days of work. 
tH first of these was devoted to the addresses of welcome, and 
of the vice-presidents, or chairmen of the sections. The 


1122 Recent Literature. [November 


members in attendance were more numerous than at any previous 
meeting, rising to about 1300. Of these about 300 were mem- — 
bers of the British Association, which adjourned at Montreal a 
day before the American Association convened. About 30 — 
papers were read, and their average of excellence was compara 
tively high. Some of the best were read by our foreign guests. 
A few excellent papers were read by ladies, notably in the chemi- 
cal, biological and anthropological sections. The address of the — 
retiring president, Professor C. A. Young, treated of the great 
problems of celestial physics, and will prove both informing and 
stimulating to a wide circle of readers. The arrangements made 
by the local committee were admirable. The only drawback to 
the complete success of the meeting was the sickness of the 
distinguished president, Professor Lesley, which prevented him 
from taking part in many of the meetings. The postponement 
of the Congress of Geologists which was to have been held this 
year in Berlin, prevented immediate action on the question of at 
international scientific association. The committee having the 
subject in charge was continued and enlarged. Committees 00 
the investigation of parasitic plant diseases, on the nomenclature | 
of the brain, on methods of presenting statistics, and on ferments, 
were appointed. Propositions to meet, at some future time, 1 
Toronto, Canada, and London, England, were brought forward 
for future consideration. The convention adjourned to meet next 
year at Bar Harbor, Me., or at Ann Arbor, Mich., as a aa : 
tive. In spite of the high temperature which prevailed, heat : 
much of the time above 90° F., the meeting was an rE a 
one, and the citizens of Philadelphia will reap some peia | 
benefit from its occurrence among them. : 


RECENT LITERATURE. 


i O18 e 
Forges’ Seconp Rerort oF THE Noxious INSECTS OF rele | 
—This excellent report is like Mr. Forbes’ first om i 
original matter with full references to the work of a illustt 
sors, so far as it is useful to his readers, and with gor 
tions, some of them borrowed, while the table of coe 
index are full and detailed. The arrangement and style § to 
simple and to the point. The report is mainly devo ; 
1 Thi, . ‘ous and sence 
te ete eet et ance ber 
pringfield, ll., April, 1884. 8vo, pp. 205, XXIII, 15 plates. 


Recent Literature. 1123 


account of all insects known to be in any way destructive to the 
strawberry, but also contains accounts of the wheat-bulb worm, 
the wheat straw worm, notes on insects affecting sorghum and 
broom-corn. The black-headed grass maggot, a species of Sciara, 
is also described, the fly not having been bred. The report closes 
with notes on the black fruit weevil, on the green apple-leaf hop- 
per and the lesser apple-leaf folder. The life-histories of the fol- 
lowing insects are new to science: Meromyza americana, Cacacta 
cbsoletana, Lygus lineolaris, Dereocoris rapidus, Scelodonta pubes- 
cens. The new species described are Calinius meromys@, Chai- 
tophorus flavus and Siphonophora minor. i 

„The field work, the laboratory researches and the practical 
hints in this report offer little subject of criticism. It is to be 
hoped that a long series of such reports will be issued by the 
State, as those which have thus far appeared are in every way 
creditable to the State and its entomologist, and we know they 
e Said appreciated by the entomological and horticultural 
public. 


explanation to the cultivators of the subject, in order to account 
for € very imperfect condition in which 


referring to the type specimen of the Megaptera osphyia Cope, ae 
t in mounting the specimen all the wn a aS 
atlas, have been reversed. He then adds, “ I am convinced, s 
careful measurements, that the great height of siper T 
lumbar neural spines, on which the species 1S mainly an 
iS a misapprehension,” etc. The following quotation from my 
"From the re i es exhibit in the International Fi eries Ex- 
tibition of London in 1853. Washington, 1 
VOL Xvit,—no. xı, 71 


29 hs eh i ge a T wa aie ERS es. 
: 


1124 Recent Literature. 


description of the species, shows that Dr. True is guilty ofan 
inaccuracy as to the grounds on which the species was diss — 
guished: “The shorter head and fins, the peculiarly high new — 
spines and peculiarities of the cervical vertebra, would seemty — 
distinguish this [species] from the /ongimana.” 1 add that sine 
my description was written, the museum at Niagara Falls, wher — 
the specimen is preserved, has been rebuilt, and the skeleton very 
probably remounted by an inexperienced person. 
Dr. True and others are correct in the supposition that my 
Hyperobdon semiunctus is a Ziphius, as I have known for a long 
time, and had supposed I had published. The Agaphelus gibh- 
sus must be withdrawn from the list of authentic species. The 
bones which I referred to it are probably those of Balenopient 
rostrata. The characters of the animal in the flesh were given 
me by persons whom I supposed to be trustworthy, but who may 
have been mistaken. The species may, however, be the Balew 
gibbosa of the old authors. Dr. True is not always consistent m 
his nomenclature. Thus he adopts the name Phocena brachycuum, 
the first name of ‘the species which was published with a desc 
tion. The species had previously been named P. americana W 
description. The history of the name Balena cisarctica is the sane | 
It was first described under this name, though it had probiby 
already received the catalogue name B. discayensis, "o ve 
scription. Dr. True adopts the latter name. e name oak 
arctica should, by the rules of nomenclature, be allowed wee 
and is.also much the better one. It has been adopted by + ? 
can authorities, as Gill, Allen, Holder, etc.—£. D. Cope. ae 
WINcHELL’s REPORT ON THE GEOLOGY OF MINNESOTA 


more notable features of this annual report are Steng jared Ge : 


on the glacial lake, Agassiz, the area and depth of whi r 
described, its old beaches being well described and ind! A 
amap: “ When this glacial lake attained its greatest melting : 
just before it found an outlet into Hudson bay, over Ve greet 
ice-sheet, its length from south to north was probably £ tht | 
than Lake Superior; but its area was only half or tw vat the tise 
of Lake Superior because of its less average vie ia 
of the formation of its highest beach, the depth of Lake 
above the Lake of the Woods was some 200 feet; abo 
River valley, at our northern boundary, 450; an ae 
Winnipeg about 600 feet.” i 
Mr. Upham does not accept Gen. Warren s v elevation d 


drainage of this region was directed southward by an 


1884. ] Recent Literature. 1126 


Winnipeg, but “that the surface of the continent had nearly the 
same form then as now, and that the continental ice-sheet, resting 
on the land in a solid mass of great depth, formed the northern 
shores of Lake Agassiz and was the barrier that prevented its 
flowing into H udson bay. 

n p. 138 is not Mr. Upham a little sweeping? Has trans- 
ported drift been found on Mt. Katahdin above a point 3500 feet 
above the sea, and was the summit of Mt. Washington glaciated ? 
The occurrence of the single boulder found by Professor Hitch- 
cock scarcely proves so much as that. 


Tue STANDARD, Naturat History.—This work is being rap- 
idly real and a appears to be well sustained in point of treat- 


‘XO INDAY 4L 


Hi i iis DE E TT 
l ipanga i i 
ment by the different contributors, as well as in illustrations, pape 


1126 Recent Literature. [November, 


and presswork, The seventeenth number finishes the chapter on 
Carnivora. The portion relating to the Arctoidea has been pre- 
pared by Rev. Samuel Lockwood, the other groups by Mr. W. 
N. Lockington; though these writers are not specialists in mam- 


y 
AR al 
KT 
a W 


sh 
Fr 


AW J 

CN, 

Ng 
Tah aie on 


aS 


= 


3 
; . tements 
malogy they appear to have been accurate in their sta 
iacts, x 


The accompanying figures of the arctic fox a Breht: 
which are, like most of the other illustrations, taken j 


will give a fair idea of the nature and value of the illus 
parts 14~17, 


1884.] Recent Literature. 1127 


GEOLOGICAL Survey oF ALaABAMA.'—The first quarter of this 
volume of more than six hundred pages is devoted to a tolerably 
full consideration of the soil in its chemical and geological rela- 
tions, and its relations to vegetable and animal life, with an ac- 
count of the various manures and of their suitableness and action 
upon different kinds of soil. The second and larger part treats 
of the main agricultural features of the State, including an out- 
line of its physical geography and geology. The Coosa and 
Tennessee valleys, coal measures district, oak. and pine uplands 
and other regions of the State are described in detail, a list of the 
characteristic plants of each region is given, an the work con- 
cludes with descriptions of the agricultural resources of the coun- 
ties, and cultural and economic details of cotton production. An 
agricultural map and maps showing the rainfall, temperature, area 
planted in cotton, etc., add greatly to the usefulness of the work. 


RECENT BooKS AND PAMPHLETS, 


— Soc. of New York. D ena = . the Linnzean Society of New York, 

From the socie 

Collett, J.—Geolog y and Na tural ales a eee 13th report, 1883. Part L 
Geology and Raai History; Part 1r, Palæontology. From the State geolo- 


Lacy, w M.—An examination of oe Po of the unknowable, PETE 
ii Herbert Spencer, ra m the au 


7 thse A.—Sur un Mabuya d’espéce nouvelle, eu Note § r un poisson de les 
famille des Cyprinodontide. Ext. du Bulletin de la See. " Philomathique de 
é 1881. or, 


Paris, Mars, he authc 
Lydekker, R.—Mem. Geol. Surv. India. Palæontologia Indica, Ser. Z ta u 
Part. 3. Rodents and new ruminants from the Siwaliks, and Synopsis of Mam- 


malia. Calcutta, 1884. From the author. 
Rasse, C., Kliver, M., Schlosser, M., Schenk, A— Abate «agate Beitrage zur 
e : . Cassel, 1384. m M. Schlo ai 
Schlosser, M.—Die ager de europäischen Tertiars nebst aka über die 


ee c 
Organisation und die re Farida der Nager überhaupt, Cas- 
sel, 1884. From the author 
Guldberg, G G. A. ae Vexistence d'une quatrième espèce du genre Salers 
dans les mers Septentrionalis de l’Europe. Ext. du Bulletin Acad. Roy 
Belg. gme seri , tome vil, 188 
——Sur la présence e, au mps anciens et modernes de la "a ze — (on 
i Noristper) sur les ni de Norwége, Ext. idem. Bo th fr ur 

, M. E.—Methods of instruction in Mineralogy. Abs papers 
ag Soc Nat. E. U. `., Dec, 27, 1883, also letter to Science, a food. 
Notes on ie rocks and ore-deposits in the vicinity of Notre Dame bay, New- 
foundland. Ext. Am. Jour. of Science, Vol. xxvill, Aug.. I oa 
Sas aeea parallel sick Ext. Proc. Bost. ay Ka Hist., Vol, XXII, Oct.» 

3. Š 
On the evidence that a =— interior is solid. Ext, Amer. Nat, June, 

‘ All from the auth 


pena Survey of Alabama. Report for the years 1881 and 1882. By Evu- 
E ALLEN SMITH, Ph.D., State geologist., 1883. 


1128 General Notes. 


[November 
Albrecht, P.—Sur les spondylocentres épipituitaires du crane, la non-existence de 
la poche de Rathke, et la presence de la c 


Sur le valeur morphologique de la trompe d’Eustache et les derives delas 

mandibulaire et de larc hyoidien. Both from the author. 

Jordan, D. S., and Swain, 7.—Descriptions of Scaroid fishes from Havanaand Key 
West, including five new species, Ext. Proc, U.S. Nat. Mus. From ihe 
authors, 

Putnam, F. W.—Remarks on the antiquity of Man in America. Rep. Proc, Ame 
Ant. Soc., April 30, 1884. From the author. | 

Lawrence, G. N.—Characters of a new species of Pigeon of the genus Engypila 
from the Island of Grenada, W. I. From the Aak, Vol. 1, No. 2, April, We 

Descriptions of new species of birds of the genera Chrysotis, Formicivora and 
Spermophila, Both from the author. 

Milne-Edwards, A.—L’ Expedition du Talisman faite dans l’Ocean Atlantique, Ext. 
du Bull. hebdom. de l’Assoc. Sci. de France, Dec., 1883. From the author 

Ryder, J. A.——On the preservation of embryonic materials and small organisns, 
with hints on mounting and imbedding sections. 1884. From the author. 

Allen, H.—Allen’s Human Anatomy. Section vi. Organs of sense, Organ ' 
digestion and genito urinary organs. Phila., 1884. From the author. 


Fat 


GENERAL NOTES. 
GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS! 


Asia.—Recent Travels in Arabia.—No more adventurous jour 
ney has been undertaken for many years than that of Mr. ae 
Doughty through the heart of Arabia, among wild ae 
had never previously been visited by an Angleysy and wi 
an Englishman and a Christian, as our traveler me 
himself to be. Although this honest avowal caused Mr. he matt 
to be in peril of his life on more than one occasion, yet 3 
friends among the nomads, and claims that his bold c ki 
been the means of making the name of Christian res ak 
stead of abhorred, in the vast stretch of country trave 
him. Petra, the 

In the early part of 1875 Mr. Doughty was ae halls of 
remains of which he believes to be those of a few pu?’ to 


tant by the Haj or pilgrimage road from Maan, a station pe jn the 
He at once formed the resolution to visit these ruinẹ, ; yin Salih 
autumn of 1876 accompanied the Haj to the spot. : 
is a level plain, sixteen miles long and as many broad, 


P 
= . 


1884.] Geography and Travels. 1129 


Hejr, or Hejra, was an emporium on the old gold and frankin- 
cense road of the Sabaeans. The houses, probably of clay, have 
vanished, and their site is marked only by bits of broken glass 
and pottery ; but the sepulchral chambers, hewn out in the soft 
sandstone cliffs, still remain. The fagades, full of cornices and 
pilasters, show a strange mingling of Egyptian and Greek. On 
the top of each is the stepped ornament so common at Petra. 
The pediments usually have at their sides urn-like ornaments, 
others have griffin-like figures. In some cases the tympanum 

s a man’s head with the braided side-locks now called “ horns” 
by the Arabians. In a gorge near by is a hall (the only excavated 
chamber not a sepulchre) with a number of engraved “tablets, 
The inscriptions are in a Nabathean-like character. 

_ Eleven miles further south, near the village of el-Ally, was the 
site of another old town. Here were a number of other inscrip- 
tions, not Nabathean but Himyaric in character. Baith Naam is 
the name handed down by tradition, and Mr: Doughty suggests 
that it may be the Badanatha of Pliny. 

The “ Harra” of Arabia is the “butte” of our own arid re- 
gions, a platform of sandstone preserved from erosion by a capping 
of basaltic lava. In one of these to the north of Medyin Salih 
the lava attains a depth of more than a hundred fathoms. The 
platform is studded with craters at the summits of cones rising 
from 200 to 600 or 700 feet. The highest, Jebel Anaz, rises 1000 

t or more. 

Teyma is a village on the site of an ancient city of the same 
me e houses are gone, but the old city wall, three miles 
around, still stands, together with the remains of somè columns. 
Inscriptions were found here in a character which Sir H. Rawlin- 
Son thought to be allied to the Phcenician. The next spot ex- 
amined after a vist to Hayil was Khaybar, which was reached by 
traversing another Harra known as the Harrat Khaybar. Near 
the middle of this region the altitude is nearly 6000 feet, and this 

and west in Northern 


+ 


trough, it would be ‘an affluent of the Euphrates. The Wady-el- 
umth was previously unknown to eke 8 e m k 


<e steppes beside Tayif, and its mouth on the 
el-Wejh and el-Haura. Boreyda and Aneysa, the two ng 
— in Nejd, have a population respectively of 5000 

with a caravan 
hty saw, on an 


be his way from Aneysa to Jidda, in company 
ral pasture he 


pen with samma or clarified butter, Mr. Doug 
“tevated steppe on a basis of granite, the best natu 


1130 General Notes. 


had seen in Arabia. The presence of the pastures 
annual tropical rains, which fall for five or six weeks tog 
commencing at the end of August or the beginning of § 
ber. This region is occupied by the great Bedouin 
Ateyba. In the last days of the journey the caravan 
alongside of the great southern Harras, where the lava had 
poured out upon granite. 
Arabia is a land of sepulchres and ruins.. The A 
neither bores deep wells and builds stone houses, as did th 


buildings of huge Cyclopean blocks. The façades at 
thought by Mr. Doughty to date from the earlier centu 
Christian era. Barrows of prehistoric or uncertain age 
ous. Mr. Doughty has made drawings of three renos 
stones of the ancient Arabians. He also discovered an 
which is new to science, and lives in the sandy deserts of 
rat, Kahtan and Muna. 4 
The geology of Arabia is simple. A central cone of 
rocks is overlaid by sandstones, and these again by 
sometimes with flints, The latter rocks, which appear 
tween the Dead sea and Jerusalem, are, Mr. Doughty bi 
nearly the same age as the chalk, while the underlying 
represent the greensand. , moe 
Mr. Doughty's journey was concluded in the au 
although his account of his adventures is comparati 
year ago the celebrated orientalist, Professor Julius Buti 
versed much of the same ground, discovered a large 
column at Teyma, and obtained numerous inscriptions 
Salih and El Ally ; but a report spread among the 
his box of copies of inscriptions contained pure 
with difficulty saved his life. He previously discover 
unknown Jewish temple at Palmyra. 


tral Asia Minor, is a plateau which rises grain 


ie da eastward to Erzerüm. 
ranges, as the Phrygian mountains 


1884.] Geography and Travels. 1331 


Dagh, rise above the general level, and there are some remark- 
able mountains of volcanic origin, among which Mount Argaeus, 
near Kaiserieh, is the loftiest and best known (13,090 feet). 

The streams of the central and southern part of the plateau 
are lost in salt lakes, or supply fresh-water lakes, the waters of 
which find their way beneath the Taurus and reappear as noble 
streams running to the south coast. Thus the waters of Eregli 
lake reappear as the sources of the Cydnus, whilst those of the 
large lakes, Beyshehr and Egirdir, swell the volume of the Melas 
and the Eurymedon. Many hot springs occur, marked often 
by the ruins of Roman baths, and still used by the Anatolians. 

The climate is much like that of New England, cold in winter, 
hot in summer. On the south coast the winter is delightful. As 
three sides of the country are surrounded by water, there are 
three summer sea-breezes, from the north, west and south. hese 
Opposing breezes produce a calm belt of intense heat in the cen- 
| ter, In winter intensely cold northern winds with torrents of 

‘Tai and heavy falls of snow- prevail. At the break-up of the 
winter a dry south wind rapidly thaws the snow, and by the 
€vaporation produces a feeling of intense cold. Forests flourish 
Most in the north, but the entire country has tracts which are no- 
where Surpassed for agricultural and fruit growing purposes. 
the enormous mineral wealth of the country, gold, silver, lead, 
iron, chrome, rock-salt, kaolin, etc., is as yet undeveloped. 

It is usually supposed that Anatolia is the home of the Turks, 
but it seems as though whenever the modern so-called Turk is 
examined, he is found to be the descendant of the native races of 
the country, and to differ from the Christians of the region only 
in religion, In Anatolia the Galatian and Cappaduan are still 
well-marked. Since the Greek war of independence there has 
been a great movement of Greeks to the western sea coast, result- 
ing in the almost entire displacement of the Moslem population. 
The so-called Greeks of the interior are, however, of Pentic or 

appadocian origin. There are a few villages of true Turks in the 
Angora and Brusa districts : they occur also in the towns, and form 
Most of the official class. Around the head of the Gulf of Scan- 
derûn is a knot of mountains in the valleys between which flow 
the Cydnus (Teraus Chai), Sarus (Sihtn) and Pyramus (Jian). 
The Cydaus is formed by the junction of three streams which 
nse in deep gorges at the foot of the Taurus, here called the 
Balghar Dagh. The Sihûn is formed by the junctio 


1132 General Notes. [November, a 


Cilician plain, where it is joined by several important tributaries, 
The Giaour Dagh runs from the Taurus south-west to the Med. 
terranean south of the Gulf of Scandertn. The great Cilician 
plains is thus enclosed by the Taurus and Giaour Dagh. The plan — 
of Issus is parted off from it to the east by the hills of Jebel Nur — 
east of the lower course of the Jihtn. The Cilician plain com — 
sists of a rich stoneless loam brought down by the rivers, butthe — 
plain of Issus is stony and uncultivated. The Giaour Dagh, the — 
Ansariyeh mountains, Lebanon, and the hills of Western Pales- | 
tine form one side of the great hollow in which lie the valleysof 
the Orontes, Leontes, and Jordan, with their continuations to the 
Red sea. The eastern wall of this depression is formed by the 
Kiart-Dagh and the Anti-Lebanon. When the accounts of the 
movements of Darius and Alexander are compared with the | 
topography of the plain of Issus, accessible only by three “gates, 
and narrow at its southern portion, it is probable that the Pinarus | 
(on which Darius’ army was encamped) is the stream W 
enters the sea south of Piyus. 


GEOGRAPHICAL Norgs.—M. Aumoitte gives, in L’Exploration, 
a record of his journey from Hanoi through Bac-Ninh to Lang- 
Son, on the Chinese frontier. At the meeting of the prora 
of Bac-Ninh and Lang-Son the country becomes mon 
the roads are bad and the brigands have almost depopulat the 
district. The first mail of the season from Kadiak m : 
news that the eruption on Augustine island, Cook's inlet, w — 


i lit in two, nor waè 
much exaggerated. The island was not spi it has fallen, 


the north of Victorià 
t of Kilimanjat®, 
shows signs of activity. Mount Kenia, though a m 
trees, stands in a desert. The customs, dwellings, e 


— 
from those of other African peoples known.to Mr. Tho o 
ives t 
hical e 
gress, which meets at Turin from Aug. 15 to 19. m 
subjects for discussion are, “ What ethnological conc p a 
to be drawn from recent anthropological and philolog! «What 
regarding the indigenous populations of East Africa 
are the best means of organizing an independent Hatia schoo! 
tion to the Antarctic seas ?” “ On the need of prep arato pishing : 
. for training travelers,” and “On the importance of a iniog 
Commercial stations in the Barbary States as a means 


f 


1884] Geography and Travels, 1133 


access to the Sudan.” 


rig nek died March, roth, peg to exp 
sent Lieut. Jansen and Herr Lorenzen to : stop 
skirting land of Canina between Holsteinburg and Sae the 
Pen, a part as yet unvisited by Europeans. An ne sponte 
fast coast of Greenland will be undertaken by Lieut. oe and 
country of the Phou’ons, situated between sh: ys. bara 
Laos the upper waters of the Song-Ca and sania th Nam- 
ries of the Gulf of Tonking, and on the upper parts a the 
m and Nam-Muon, affuents of the Mekong, ex ie Ho or 
ten years suffered much from the invasions of t 


1134 General Notes. [November 
Chinese, who are driven onwards by the misery and excesso — 
population that exists in the southern provinces of China— 
Sir Buonfanti, in his recent expedition across North Africa, was 
compelled to desist from his attempt to penetrate the unexplored — 
region south of Adamawa, and finally, making his way to the 
Niger at Say, midway between Timbuktu and the Binue confu- 
ence, ascended the river to the former place. As this feat, before 
believed impossible, was performed in the dry season, the fact has | 
considerable commercial importance. From Timbuktu theex — 
plorer passed through Massina and Bambarra to the almost un- — 
known territory of Tombo, where the expedition was plundered 
and dispersed. After great sufferings, Sir Buonfanti reached 4 
Catholic mission in the Bussanga country north of Dahomey— 
In the western part of the Straits of Magellan glaciers exist on te 
slopes of a range of mountains the highest peaks of whichar — 
not above 4500 feet. The winds from the Pacific, eternally blow- 
ing from the west, and full of moisture, keep up a constant cote — 
densation, and the glaciers exist wherever the broken ground 
allows them a foot hold. The largest observed by Mr. W.J. 
Wharton was the Northbrook glacier, with an area of from fifty 
to seventy square miles.——The Russian government has under 
consideration a plan for an expedition to the North Pole. | a 
will be established at the Jeannette, Bennett and Henriette islands. 
From these islands the journey will be continued to Franz-) 
Land by steamer, and thence on sledges and on foot. 


GEOLOGY AND PALAIONTOLOGY. 


BLANFORD ON HomoTaxis OF GEOLOGIC Penions—In his 
dress before the British Association for the Advance oi 
ence at Montreal, Mr. W. T. Blanford devoted considerable ats" 


x Re 4 of 
tion to some remarkable exceptions to the rule that sim ee 


several of them Indian, in which the syst 
age of various formations by the fauna or 
dictory results, and then showed where th 


as Miocene; but they overlie strata with well-pro Himalaya 
marine Mollusca. The Siwalik beds that flank the Oy 
north of Delhi are still classed as Miocene by most “ey, 08 
writers, but are regarded as Pliocene by the Indian 1 
evidence found by tracing them west and south into >"? 


1884] Geology cnd Palaeontology. 1125 


Gondwana system of Central India, a great sequence of fresh- 
water beds probably of fluviatile origin, over 20,000 fect thick, is 
of unusual interest on account of the extraordinary conflict of 
paleontological evidence it presents. 

Its subdivisions are numerous, and vary in almost every place 
of occurrence. One (the Talchir beds) contains rounded bould- 
ers chiefly of metamorphic rocks up to six feet across, embedded 
in fine silt, others are characterized by an intermingling of floras 
and faunas that give rise to a mass ot contradictions ; beds with 
a Triassic fauna overlying others with Rhætic or Jurassic floras. 
The Australian coal-measures and their associated beds present 


over, Barrande’s conclusion is disputed by other observers. 

In Most of the cases he had named the conflict is between the 
evidence of marine and terrestrial organisms. Manifestly one or 
the other of these leads to erroneous conclusions, and in making 


in the Gondwanas of India has been detected amongst poner 
formations of which the sequence was unquestioned. Further, ! 


fresh-water animals and plants at the present day, we shall find a 
very striking difference; and it is possible that this difference 
may afford a clew to the conditions that prevailed in past times. 


ees 
lly admitted. 
No circumstance has contributed more widely to the belief than 
the supposed universal diffusion of the carboniferous flora. s 
Evidence that the plants which prevailed in the a A 
Europe were replaced by totally different forms in Australia, 


1136 General Notes. [ November, 


spite the closest similarity in the marine inhabitants of the two 
areas at the period, will probably go far to give the death blow to 
an hypothesis that rests upon no solid ground of observation 
In a vast number of instances it has been assumed that similarity 
between fossil terrestrial faunas and floras proves identity of geo- 
logical age; and by arguing in a vicious circle, the occurrence of 
similar types, assumed without sufficient proof to belong to the 
same geological period, has been alleged as evidence of the exist- 
ence of similar forms in distant countries at the same time— 
Science. 


, THE Graciers or New Zearanp.—The June issue of Peter- 
manns Mittheilungen is occupied with an elaborate description of 
the Tasman glacier of New Zealand, and of its surroundings, 
Dr. R. V. Lendenfeld. A map is given of the central part of the 
Alpine region of New Zealand, showing the glaciers, water-part- 
ings, rivers and lakes. Of these glaciers the Tasman escends 
lowest, the river of the same name flowing from its foot at an 
elevation of 730 meters. From the foot of Murchison eur 
(1120) meters, the Murchison river flows beside the lower part : 
the Tasman glacier, and unites with the Tasman river neat hs 
foot. A little lower down the Tasman river is joined by 
Hooker, flowing from the foot of Hooker glaciers ($02 her’ 
The network of streams forming the Tasman debouch a m 
Pukaki at an elevation of 523 meters. From the Godley ost ' 
at an elevation of 1031 meters, flows the Godley, which umititg 
with the McCauley from an elevation of 1333 meters, ee 
Tekapo at a height of 743 meters. This lake receives pet 
Cass, flowing from the foot of the Huxley glacier. The ni 
and Pukaki, flowing from the lakes of the same nam a 
form the Waitangi, which receives also the Ohau, itsel 
spring of the Hourglass and Richardson glaciers 1n i 
1239 meters respectively, and the Ahuriri. The Want a À 
taroa, Waiau, Weheka and Karangarua flow from the gla ide ol 
the western coast. The rivers and glaciers of the we Syn 
the Alps are shorter and smaller than those of the easter ® 
The Tasman glacier is twenty-eight kilometers long, 
largest of the glaciers of New Zealand. : 

Tue OrIGIN oF THE Mammatta.—The question as wae" : 
gin of the Mammalia has remained unsettled, and ape 
have been divided as to whether the class has arisen by oes ; 
cation of the Batrachia or of the Reptilia. Although er class 
cogent reasons why the descent should be from the ee jg it 
the evidence obtained up to this time from paleonto. 6 The 
favor of the hypothesis of derivation from the Repti . 
first evidence of this kind has been empirical and not conei a 


* Synopsis of a paper read before the Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Phila» ? 


1884.] Geology and Paleontology. 1137 


This consisted in the characters derived from the long bones of 
the limbs. Professor Owen first called attention to this resem- 
blance in the genus Cynodraco, which is a Theromorph reptile. 
I next pointed out corresponding peculiarities in the bones of the 
American Theromorphs. I afterwards showed the resemblance be- 
tween the pelvis of the Pelycosaur division and that of the Mono- 
tremata. This was followed by a demonstration of the resem- 
_ blance between the coracoid of the Pelycosauria and the Mam- 
malia Monotremata, especially to that of the genus Platypus. 
The present note now adds that the structure of the posterior foot 
approaches near to that of the Monotremata in having distinct 
navicular and cuboid bones, and that the astragalus and calcan- 
eum are essentially like the corresponding part in the Platypus 
anatinus. The last two points are essential and fundamental. The 
three great distinctions between the Mammalia and the Reptilia 
in the skeleton are : (1) In the quadrate bone; (2) in the cora- 
coid bone, and (3) in the occipital condyle. Of these the first is 
of less importance than has been believed, if, as maintained by 
Peters and others, it is to be excluded from the series of ear- 
bones. Its relations to the zygomatic arch in some Pclycosauria 
look as if Albrecht’s view, that it represents part of the squamosal 
done of Mammalia, is correct. The last character is weakened 
in importance by the fact that in some of the geckoes the condyle 
is double, which is due to the reduction of the basioccipital ele- 


auris. No reptile is yet known where that element is divided 
ted incus, orbicularis, and stapes as in the Mammalia and some 


oe: CERATIOCARIDE OF Pennsytvanta-—This brochure, 
r, C. E. Beecher, comprises descriptions of 

S as constitute the family Ceratiocaridz, which have been ae 
lected in the rocks of the Chemung and Waverly poo. aa 
‘“ansylvania, and is extracted from report of progress ibed 
Seological survey of that State. Several new forms are pasi t 
and well figured, and considerable structural details relating A 
the genus Echinocaris of Whitfield, with excellent figures aig 

Special attention is called to the terminology, wmc 


1138 General Notes. 


illustrated by a woodcut; while a table is added giving the geo 
logical range of the genera Echinocaris, Elymocaris and Trop. 
docaris. a 

Two new genera (Elymocaris) with a new species (Æ. siligua), 
Tropidocaris with three species (T. bicarinata, T. interrupta and 
T. alternata) are described, also Echinocaris socialis, n. sp. The 
illustrations are excellent. Every distinct, well preserved formal — 
this group is of the greatest interest, and good figures of them , 
are of special value. The point of greatest value in the paperis — 
the identification and illustration of the mandibles, as Mn 
Beecher claims them to be; they are very large, heavy and rè- — 
markably different from those of Nebalia, the existing type of the 


order. 


Niagara Fossits—Descriptions of a number of new species 
of Niagara fossils are published in the Bulletin of the Museum of 
the University of the State of Missouri, Vol. 1, No. 1, dated May, 
1884, and with the above title. es 

The paper is written by Professor J. W. Spencer, of the Uni- 
versity of Missouri, and contains sixty-two pages and nine p i. 
It is divided into three parts, as follows: Part I. Graptolitidæ o 
the Upper Silurian system; Pt. 1. Stromatoporidæ of the Upper 
Silurian system ; Pt. 111. Fifteen new species of Niagara fossils 

The great majority of the specimens upon which the new sp% — 
cies are based are from the Niagara shaly dolomite rocks : 
Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, and the types are in the private cak — 
lection of Professor Spencer. A 

Among the Graptolites twenty new species and one rg go 
are described: Phyllograptus ? 1, Dendroga aa e 

i us 2, AGa ha, aE 
graptus 3, Dictyonema 2, Calyptograpt eee ae new spe 
cies of the Dictyonema is from the Clinton group. - ae 

Four new species of Stromatoporide are described fr N 


From the Hamilton, Ontario, beds fifteen new pet eee 
ing to the following genera, are described: Paleeaster, F Crania, 
Polypora, Rhinopora, Clathropora?, Lingula, went | 
Pleurotomaria, Conularia, Orthoceras, Cyrtoceras, pee “Jn th 

In regard to the Graptolites the author remar ks ones pet 
following descriptions I have often been compelled f bran 
almost entirely upon the size of the stipes and mode 
ing, as the cellular structure has been oblitera co ae 
of cases, even where the general form of the fr ond is PF 
distinct.” : son 

This remark draws attention to the evident imperfec’ is ve 
of most of the specimens described and figured, “_ 


* 


1884.] Geology and Paleontology. 1139 


unfortunate for any paleontologist who may in future have occa- 
sion to consult the paper or to identify kindred forms. 

The paper will constitute No. 4 of Vol. 1v of the Transactions 
of the St. Louis Academy of Sciences. Much. careful study is 
exhibited in the details of the paper, and it is only to be regretted 
that the material at hand was of such imperfect nature. 

The author regards the genus Inocaulis as a diprionidian grap- 
tolite, having found the axis central in specimens of 7. plumulosus, 
this indicating a cellular system on both sides the stipe, although 
there is no distinct evidence of the lateral cells. 

The genus Cyclograptus is established for a single discoid spe- 
cies with radiating stipes having central solid axes. This form is 
particularly interesting from its resemblance to the types of the 
Quebec group. 

_A large Conularia is described under the name C. magnifica, 
similar to but much larger than C. niagarensis, The specimen, if 


_ perfect, would be twenty-four centimeters lon 


g. 

The author informs us that “ the long buried treasures of the 
e geological survey of the State” (Missouri) have been un- 
earthe 


It would be of value to science if some future Bulletin of the 
Museum would publish a list of the species contained in the 
museum which served as types for the numerous species described 
by Messrs. Shumard, Swallow, Norwood and others from the 

tate of Missouri —#. S. Williams. 


like those of the adjacent countries. Dr. Lehmann has come to 
the conclusion that the whole of the crystalline schists within the 
Sranulite area are metamorphosed Palæozoic sediments, 

t Cambrian or Silurian age. Their metamorphism : 
took place during the crumpling and upheaval of the area, whic 
took place later than the Devonian and older than the Ca 


= prominent fact is the corresponding advance 1n the gore 
Ta At the same time the muscovite, which alone 


Present in the outer ! i laced further in 

ape parts of the area, 1s rep the 

by biotite, Where the crumpling is greatest most biotite occurs. 
YOL xvut.—wo, x1. 72 


1140 General Notes, [ November, 


Dr. Lehmann believes that gabbro is an eruptive rock, younger 
than the granulite but older than the granite. It has been im 
volved in the general metamorphism, and so has assumed schist- 
ose modifications. The Geological Survey of Scotland has re 
cently arrived, independently, at similar conclusions with fi 
to the diorites and amphibolites of Aberdeen and Banff. 
problem in Europe is linked with that presented by similar rocks 
in this country. 


Devonian.—Dr. J. S. Newberry not long ago described the new 
placoderm genus Myzostoma, with two species, variadilis and ter- 
reli (Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1883). The teeth consist of strong 
and massive tables of bony tissue resembling enamel above, 
disposed in pairs in both jaws. Those of the lower jaw are three 
to six inches long, and more than an inch wide. They 
the teeth of Ceratodus. Only the teeth are yet known. 


Carboniferous—F. Roemer (Zeit. der Deutschen geol. Gesell.) 
describes Belinurus silesiacus from the coal measures of Upper 
Silesia. The cephalic shield is broad and strongly curved, ter 
minating laterally in two horns, and the abdominal shield is 
short. 

Cretaceous—Dr. G. Schweinfurth (Zeit. der Deut. geol. Gesell.) 
contributes a geological map of the strata of the ya 
mountains, near Cairo, showing the nummulitic Cretaceous a 
the Eocene strata with few nummulites, and the Pliocene rè | 
sandstone, rich in pholades. W. Dames (Zeit. der. Deut. = 
Gesell.) contributes a monograph of the genus Ancistrodon. 14è 
teeth called by this name are pharyngeal teeth. 
only found in marine beds, it can scarcely be- i 
among known pharyngeal teeth belonging to marine te Bit 
the only one resembling Ancistrodon are those of Balistes. has 
Plectognaths seldom occur in the older formations, whereas 
cistrodon is found in two formations and in both ne 
No well-grounded conjecture as to the exact 
these teeth can be made. Five species are en 
mosensts, libyanus, texanus, armatus and vicentinus, | 
fourth of which are new. The first three are fro respectively 


vicentinus from the Oligocene of Upper Italy.— 
lignites of the Canadian Northwest are, according t° ©” "i 
Dawson, all of Cretaceous or Tertiary age. Th be 


lr ek eee ee Gr A ae ~ “tt. 


1884.] Mineralogy. 114! 


by M. de Lacvivier on his admission as doctor of the -faculty of 
sciences, upon the Cretaceous beds of l’Ariége, is the result of 
many years of labor. The strata below the Cretaceous are not 
neglected. The writer describes new and interesting Devonian 


beds which he has discovered, chiefly marbles with remains of 


Goniatites. The Carboniferous is absent in the department, but 
the Trias and Jurassic are present, and to the latter must be re- 

rred a mass of dolomites and marbles which were previously 
believed to be Palaeozoic, but which contain’ Jurassic fossils. The 
uneven surface of the Jurassic beds is filled by a ferruginous de- 
posit (bauxite) forming the base of the Urgonian, which is suc- 
ceeded by the Gault. Many new fossils are described from the 
Urgonian, and the Gault is highly fossiliferous. The Upper Cre- 
taceous (Cenomanian, Turonian, Senonian) is completely uncom- 
formable with the Lower. Some pieces of pumice, thought 
to have come from Krakatoa, have been picked up at Mayotte, 
off the north-west coast of Madagascar. 

Tertiary —M. E. van den Brock has discovered fragments of 
Scandinavian rocks in the Post-tertiary deposits of Belgium. The 
only known piece large enough to be called an erratic block is of 
granite, measures 0.8 x 0.5 4 0.6 meters, and is imbedded in 


ina. . 
Lorenzen (Zeit. der Deut. geol. Gesell., 1883) after a study of the 
so-called meteoric masses of iron in Greenland, conclude that 
Masses are telluric, and that the presence of nickel can no 
More be considered as an infallible evidence of meteoric origin: 


MINERALOGY: 


New Minerats.—Rinfite (Lorenzen)—Joh. Lorenzen, of Co- 
en, has given this sae toa si mineral from Kangerdly- 
nh in Greenland, in honor of Dr. Rink, recently director O 
= Danish Explorations in Greenland. ‘ a : 
À occurs in crystals with arfvedsonite, ægirite, eudialite, steen 
strupite, lithia mica, etc. : ge 
Monoclinic. Color golden-brown. Translucent in thin = 
Hay rhen unaltered; straw-yellow and earthy when altered. 
Tdness 5. Specific gravity 3.46. 
‘Edited by Professor H. CARVILL Lewis, Academy of Natural Sciences, Phils. 
Leitsch, Sir Kryst., 1864, 1X, p. 248. 


1142 General Notes. 


A mean of five closely accordant analyses gave: 
Fl SiO; TiO, CeO LaO DIO YO FeO Cad Na,O 
Ra SEE pts i aa % 
5-22 29.08 13.36 31.25 0.92 0.44 23.26 8098 = int 
The formula as deduced is : $ 


mav : 
2 RRO, 4+ NaFl 


II 
wherein R = Ce La Di Y Fe Ca 
and R = Si Ti 


Before the blowpipe it is fusible with difficulty to a black cin- 
der. It dissolves in borax in the oxidizing flame to a bead which 
is deep yellow when hot, pale yellow when cold. In the reducing 
flame it becomes colorless when cold. In salt of phosphorus 1t 
shows a skeleton of silica, and gives the same reaction when hot 
as with borax ; when cold, after heating in the reducing flame, it 
becomes violet. Supersaturation of the bead makes it opaque 
white. These reactions are due to titanium and cerium. its” 
decomposed by weak acids, with separation of silica and titanic 
acid, | 

The crystals exhibit in polarized light a twinning pang 
allel to the orthopinacoid. This structure is also shown by 
occurrence of fine striations on the orthodomes and aon ep 

Polylithionite' (Lorenzen).—At the same locality a pare | 
occurs in handsome pale green or white six-sided tables! isa. 
in albite. These tables are divided into sectors by pS plane , 
striations resembling those of zinnwaldite (lepidolite). pi e 
of the optic axes is at right angles to the striations, an The E 
crystals to be composed of three or six individuals. aa 
between the bisectrix and the vertical to the base is call their 
greater than that given for zinnwaldite, although practi a ‘he two 
optical properties are identical. The other characters : 
micas are very similar, cennet 

Chemically: the mica from Greenland has a larger per ‘ 
fluorine and of lithia and less alumina than most lepidouts 

A mean of three analyses gave: 

Fl SiO AIO FeO KO Mô He 
PSP as -isor “003 s37 7063 W of lithiè 

The name polylithionite refers to its large per oen an 
The mineral, however, is not sufficiently distinct pira soard. 
to warrant giving it a specific name, and shoul ee 
merely as a variety of that mica. Mins 


ik 


; ol 
| Goyazite* (Damour).—In the diamond-bearing a 
seraes, Brazil, certain rounded, transparent grains 0 


| Zeitsch. fiir Kryst., 1864, 1X, p. 2 
+ fiir , P- 261, 
~ *Bull, Soc. Min, de France, 1884, vil, No. 6, p. 204. 


Z 


Mineralogy. 1143 


low mineral occur which Damour has shown to belong to a new 
species. The grains have an easy cleavage, and in the polari- 
scope exhibit a cross and series of rings, such as would be given 
by a section of a uniaxial mineral. The hardness is that of apa- 
tite, the specific gravity 3.26. | 
Heated in a matrass it gives off water and becomes white and 
opaque. Thin splinters can be fused in the blowpipe flame. Mois- 
tened with nitrate of cobalt, a blue color is obtained. It is not 
attacked by acids. 
Composition : 
P.O, Al,O, CaO H, 
14.87 50.66 17.33 16.67 = 99.53 
The formula P,O, 5 Al,O, 3 CaO + 9 H,O is deduced. 
ihe name is taken from that of the province containing the 
principal diamond localities. 


ous or silky luster, and is white when pure. Hardness = 6. It 
ses with difficulty to a slightly magnetic scoria, gives reactions 
r Manganese, and is not dissolved by acids. pos 
As seen by the following analysis it is essentially a bisilicate of 
the protoxides of iron and manganese: | 


SiO, FeO MnO CaO 
48.25 28.17 12.08 5.86 3.22 = 97-58 


j 


According to Bertrand the optical properties are those of the 


amphiboles. The two cleavages make an angle like that of am- 
phibole, the form is monoclinic and the orientation of the axes 
is like that in the amphiboles. The composition is also psc 

t of an amphibole. Similar species have already — 
scribed under the names of silfbergite, dannemorite, — 
This mineral differs so slightly from these varieties of hornblen 

a new name does not seem to be necessary. 

excellent illus- 
ed from photo- 


1 
al Soc. Min. de France, 1884, VII, No. 6, p. 232- 
ol, 884. 


Iv, No. 3, P. 493, 1 


1144 


idea at all of the natural appearance of the mineral. For purposs_ 
of determination, and especially for illustrating fine specimens 4 
is probable that photography will, before long, be made use ol 
A complete set of photographs of typical specimens would be 
highly valued by mineralogists. 


SZABOITE.— In 1878 Professor A. Koch published a description | 
\ of a Transylvania mineral which, occurring in minute, thin tabs 
crystals in cavities in andesite, he named szadotfe, m wr 
Professor J. Szabó, of Budapest. The mineral was described® 
triclinic, and as related in composition to babingtonite. | 
. A. Krenner, of Budapest, has recently published an extended ae | 
article! on szaboite, in which he comes to the conclusion 


identical with those of hypersthene. The hardness Professor : 
gravity are also similar. Chemically it appea fey? the io, 
Koch was both mistaken as to the state of oxide ought, | 
the iron existing as protoxide, not sesquioxide, as centage 9 
and also that his analysis failed to give the a 
magnesia. 


hypersthene, and may replace one another, it is held that ‘a 
question is as to the precise variety of hypersthene m 
szaboite belongs. -a Minera 
Mrineravocicat Norrs.—A Text-book of Des ne (Lor 
ogy, by Hilary Bauermann, of the Royal School of his Tet 
don), has just been issued as a companion volume Nature 
book of Systematic Mineralogy, already noticed in the © ae 
Ist. The present volume is a concise presentation fe to the class 
ters of all the principal minerals, and will be valuab ie jour 
for which it is intended. Am amateur miners a 
published monthly “in the interest of mineralogists ® Miner 
tors of antiquities of all kinds,” and entitled The Young The e&t 
ogist and Antiquarian, has reached its second number: < 


1 Zeitsch. für Kryst., ıx Band, 3 Heft, 254. 


1884.] Botany. 1145 


tor, Mr. T. H. Wise, of Wheaton, Ils., is a boy seventeen years 
of age. The journal is very creditable, and will doubtless be 
useful to young collectors. A. V. Leonhard has published in 
the Transactions of the St. Louis Acad. Science a descriptive 
catalogue of the minerals of Missouri and a list of the more im- 
portant localities of minerals in that state——-—Dieulafait has ex- 
amined the so-called “ cipolin marbles,” which occur in lenticular 
beds in gneiss in various parts of the world. He finds that a 
trace of manganese is invariably present, and argues from chemi- _ 
cal reasons that these marbles and the surrounding gneiss are 

contemporaneous deposits. Geological investigations have led 
to the same conclusion. Amalgam has been found at the 
Friedrichssegen mine near Oberlahnstein. Specimens of native 
Silver and native copper from the same locality have been found 

Sandberger to contain traces of mercury. 


BOTANY.! i 

SELF-PLANTING OF SEEDS OF PorcuPINE Grass.—In connection 

with the two notes relating to the fruit of the porcupine grass, it 
may not be without interest to state that while engaged in geo- 
logical work in Dakota, north of the Northern Pacific R. R., we 
were much annoyed by the fruit of this grass. Indeed I found 
the only way to walk with comfort through this grass was to roll 
my pants above my knees and my socks down over my shoes. 
_ Talso observed, on several occasions, these seeds planted two 
inches deep in the soil with the awn protruding from the ground. 
It is plain that with the point of one of these fruits once entered 
below the surface of the soil the swelling and shrinking, due to 
varying amounts of moisture, would work the seed directly into 
the ground.—F. H. King, River Falls, Wis. 

THE ADVENTITIOUS INFLORESCENCE OF CUSCUTA GLOMERATA.— 
The flowers of this dodder are in dense clusters, which at matu- 
rity are so much crowded that it is impossible to make out their 
mode of origin, hence they have been described as cymose, pani- 
cled or as densely clustered, with no hint or suggestion as to their 
adventitious origin, A study of their development the past sea- 
Son shows them to be strictly adventitious and, as a consequence, 
endogenous as to origin. 

A Short time Slee the flower clusters appear the dodder stems, 
Which are in close contact with their hosts, begin to beanies, 2m 
shown in Fig.’ 2, eventually becoming slightly lobulated. 
this time a longitudinal section of the stem be made, the cau 


'S reduced from a camera sketch. Ina cross-section of 


! Edited by Pror, C. E. Bessey, Ames, Iowa. 


1146 General Notes. 


essentially the same condition is shown at this 
both figures the epidermis and the sub-epid 
sues are shown to be pushed out by the deve 

As the buds increase in size the epidermal a 
is pushed out more and more until at last 
what regularly along each side, and the ic pe 
and crowded back by the mass of buds. 


EXPLANATION OF THE PoU 
Fic. 1.—Portion of a stem of Cuscuta glomerat 
from whose axil there grows an abortive flowering t 
nary branch, ¢. 
ith a dodder € 
Fic. 2—A fra of a sunflower stem, w1 
larged at mento separately at 4) by the oases 
natural size). oni 
tli ketch of asm 
ey hm ae the fib fibro-vascular bundle of ror 5 
cortical tissues which have been pushed out ! 
nifed). 


of t 
If of a cross-section 
Fi 4—Outine seth of hal of co ee he 


, 
ushed out by the adventitions bud, ¢; 
: flo wer stem; /, hairs of sunflower $ stem. 


t th 
while I have not been able to make ou 2 
there can be little doubt, from their posit tion 


| 
. 
l 
! 
; 
f 
f 


1884.] Botany. 1147 


ture, that they really are rudimentary flowers or flower-clusters, 
homologous with those of many other dodders as well as those 
of the morning glories.—C. E. Bessey. 


BOTANY IN THE A. A. A. S—The botanical papers read during 
the recent meeting of the American Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science, in Philadelphia, were as follows: 

The affinities of Dionzea. By Joseph F. James. 
A Penisa: study of the mite gall on the petioie of Juglans nigra. By Lillie J. 
artin 


The torsion of leaves. By W. J. Beal. 

The fossil fora of the globe, three papers. By Lester F. Ward. 

Polarity of the leaves of Ærigeron canadense. By W. J. Beal. 

tricularia vulgaris, with young teleostean fishes entrapped in the bladder-traps of 
that plant. 

The influence of cross-fertilization upon the development of the strawberry. By 
Wm. R. Lazeuby. 


~ 


Stomates on seeds. By Geo, Macloskie. ; 

The adventitious inflorescence of Cuscuta glomerata. By C. E. Bessey ; 

Demonstrations of perforations in the cellular-walls of plant cells. By Louis 
Elsberg, 


The last named paper was, by a curious ruling of the standing 
committee, assigned not to the section of biology where the bot- 
anists were, but to the section of microscopy where the botanists 
a a rule were not. - 


known but not previously seen correspondents. _ RI 
ing of the Botanical Club and the Botanical Section of the Phil- 


forth much favorable comment. 


N _—Excbasidium sym- 
EW SPECIES OF NORTH AMERICAN FUNGI d sublobate, 


ploci ; 
3-334™ in diameter; conidia hyaline cylindric, nearly seie l 


i subsessile, 35 X 5#; 
yellowish, 2-nucle- 
akal serrulata. Cove 


1148 General Notes. 


Asterina subcyanea.— Perithecia hypophyllous, superficial, de- 
pressed convex, 250-350» in diam., of cellular structure, the cells 
subspherical, 5-7 in diam., of a deep greenish-blue, connected in 
a moniliform manner and extending out from the base of the peri- 
thecium on all sides so as to form a thin membranaceous border 
closely appressed to the surface of the leaf; ostiolum papilliform, 
collapsing when dry and with a broad circular opening; asc 


iate, oblong-clavate, uniseptate, hyaline, 20 x 5-74. On living 
leaves of Quercus laurifolia. Cove Springs, Fla., March, 1884. 

Asterina discoidea-—Perithecia hypophyllous, orbicular, slightly 
depressed’ in the center, olivaceous, thin, 14-34™™ across, with an 
indistinct reticulated margin; asci obovate or globose, 30-40 x 
30-35; sporidia crowded, clavate-oblong or pyriform, uniseptate, 
12-16 x 4-5. Much resembles Asterina intricata E. & M., but 
color different, asci of a different shape and sporidia larger. O 
living leaves of Quercus laurifolia. Cove Springs, Fla, March, 
1884. 

Asterina lepidigena—Perithecia black, subglobose, at length 
applanate, very thin and fragile, 200-300% in diam., seated on â 
hyaline scanty mycelium; asci ovate, 8-spored, 30 x 154% 
longer and narrower, 42 x 12; sporidia obovate, hyaline, ik 
tate, about 12 x 4#. Attached to the epidermal scales on living | 
leaves of Andromeda ferruginea. Cove Springs, Fila, 

1884. . 

Asterina pustulata.—Perithecia imperfectly developed, pape | 
200-500 across, consisting of a central nucleus of lor : 
pacted, subglobose, brown cells which, around the circum a 
pass into a fringe of closely packed brown, branching NP) os 
forming altogether a circular membranaceous disk (34-% diam.; 
the surface of the leaf; asci subglobose, 8-spored, 55# in diam. 
sporidia obovate, hyaline, uniseptate, 30-40 x 10-124 UM ! 
of Quercus laurifolia. Cove Springs, Fla., March, iS B anting; i 

Ascomycetella floridana.—Hypophyllous ; perithecium Wt 
asci compacted in yellowish-white specks 500-600% 1M gu spor 
with a subradiate-floccose margin ; asci obovate, 75 X I a 
idia clavate-cylindric, multiseptate, 40-45 x 6-74 “n hite flor 
Quercus laurifolia. The fungus first appears as a mere Wh m 
cose speck, barely visible to the naked eye, but soon 10% glot 
diameter and becoming more compact and of a pale case 
This is evidently referable to Professor Peck’s genus Springs 
tella, but is quite distinct from his A. quercina. Dr. Ge 
Fla., winter of 1884.—/. B. Ellis, Newfield, N. J, ™ a 
Martin. oul | 

by Dre 


: Boranicat Nores.—Experiments lately made by * tare 
_ the State veterinarian of Iowa, prove that Crotalaria its 
the Rattle-box, is a “loco-plant.” In the Missoun "© — 


1884. ] Entomology. 1149 


greedily eaten by horses, and produces great nervous and muscu- 
lar disorder, in most cases resulting in death.——J. C. Arthur's 
Contributions to the flora of Iowa, vi, in the Proc. Davenport 
Acad, Nat. Sci., Vol. 1v, adds twenty-four phanerogams to the 
previous lists, and now for the first time enumerates the pterido- 
phytes, thirty-four in number. Of the latter twenty-three are 
fern, The Journal of the Linnean Society for August con- 
tains a curious plate representing pollen cells and an anther of a 
poppy (Papaver rheas) from a funeral garland from the coffin of an 
Egyptian princess of the twenty-first dynasty, that is about 1000 
B.C. Both pollen-cells and anthers appear to be slightly larger than 
those of recent plants, but otherwise the resemblance is very 
close——H. N. Patterson, of Oquawka, Ill., has issued a neat 
Check-list of North American Gamopetale made to agree with 
atay’s Synoptical Flora. It will be a convenience in the herba- 
rium.——J, C. Arthur has observed a distinct polarity in the 
leaves of garden lettuce, according to a note in the botanical 
Dr. F. Hauck’s Meeresalgen, being the second vol- 
ume of the new edition of Rabenhorst’s Kryptogamen Flora, has 
reached part v1, which contains the Phæozoösporeæ, Oösporeæ 
and Chlorozoésporez. Luerssen’s Farnpflanzen (Vol. ut of 
Rabenhorst) has reached part 111, devoted to a continuation of 
the Polypodiacez. The illustrations in both the foregoing are 
Most excellent. 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


MODE oF OVIPOSITION OF THE COMMON LONGICORN PINE. BORER 
(Monohammus confusor).—The exact mode of deposition of their 
eggs by the longicorn beetles is not well known, so far as we are 
aware. We have been fortunate enough to observe the female 
beetle while at work making the incision with her jaws, though 
we have not observed the act itself of deposition of the eggs. 
While examining the fir trees on the western shores of Birch 
island, Casco bay, Maine, on a warm sunny afternoon of August 
30th, I saw a male Monohammus confusor standing on the bark a 
a living fir about nine inches in diameter, within the distance © 
less than two inches from a female, whose jaws were buried in 
the bark of the tree on the western side of the trunk which was 
exposed to the full rays of the sun. h 

n beginning to make the incision each of the sree y id 
Strong jaws of this beetle are pushed directly into the bark ; they 
hen apparently brought together, and the result ae E s 
curvilinear gash which descends obliquely in the bar N 
Probable that the beetle’pries up the pad thus formed, mo ae 
shly cut edges are exposed, and an opening is 
which the egg is thrust. While watching the 
male dropped to the ground, and his consort, beg g 
Withdrew her jaws from the incomplete incision, when 


1150 General Notes. [November, ) 


her. To the end of her abdomen were attached a few fragments 
of the reddish inner bark of the fir, and two or three small green 
pellets, probably excrement; but this showed that she hai 
already deposited at least one egg, and that the labor of oviposi- 
tion was slight, the end of the abdomen probably being simply 
extended and thrust intọ the gape of the incision. 

By prying up the pad formed by the jaws, a shallow but roomy 
cell or chamber is made for the egg, which lies nearly or quite 
horizontally, not vertically, to the trunk of the tree. 

The egg is very large, ovo-cylindrical, well rounded but taper- 
ing somewhat at each end, of a dirty white color, and in length 
is Oe ca : 

On visiting the tree a week later and removing a portion of 
the bark and examining it Sept. 6-8, the eggs had in some cases 
hatched and the larvæ had begun to descend slightly into the 
bark. On hatching they begin at once to gnaw a mine, throwing 
their castings out through the gash originally made by the 
so that it was easy to ascertain, without disturbing the bark, 
whether the eggs had hatched or not. The larva indifferently 
lies with either side, dorsal or ventral, presented outwards. be 
days after (Sept. 12) several had bored through the pieces of a 
making the usual flattened oval hole, but probably in nature? 
larva remains hidden in the bark through the winter, not begin- 
ning to penetrate the wood until the following spring. xi 

The length of the larva when freshly hatched was 5-6™ 

e body was rather stouter than in the full-grown larva. but 
many eggs are laid by the female is not known, Dut | 
probably, judging by their large size, comparatively few. hundred 

Another female was found on the same tree. Over a? ai 
gashes had been made on the western side of this fir n | 
space four feet long. The gashes were so fresh that they pe w 
been made on that and a few previous days. They Y th their 
conspicuous and could, after one had become familiar ee i 
appearance, be detected at the distance of at least five or wring 

r his 


hes, whita 
€ region where they were thickest, forty were oe pass 
Square foot, Of course when they hatch all do not AV seeks 


os ets of Mär hiding places. So far as my observation 


1884.] Entomology. 1151 


gone, the holes made by the woodpecker in forest trees are for 
the purpose of getting at the inner bark rather than for insects. 
But a careful examination in September of woodpeckers shot in 
coniferous forests would throw light on this subject. 

In regions where the white pine grows, it is infested by this 
Monohammus. The spruce is also often infested, but I have not 
seen clear cases where either of those trees have been killed out- 
right by this destructive borer. But during the past summer I 
have seen on the islands in Casco bay, and taken out the full- 
grown larve from at least six or seven living firs, which must 
have been killed by the attacks of this borer, which has been the 
evident cause of the death of many firs in Maine. I have also 
been told by lumbermen that fir trees are killed by this borer. 
Near Rangely, Maine, an extensive tract of firs was killed out- 
tight, I was informed, by “ the borer,” undoubtedly this beetle. 

I have seen hundreds, perhaps nearly a thousand, dead firs 
whose trunks were riddled with the holes of these borers. The 
Spruce is less frequently killed, but I have taken from a dead tree 
two pieces of spruce bark, each about six inches square, one con- 
taining sixteen and the other eighteen holes, through which the 
beetle had escaped.—A. S. Packard. 


Ecc-Layinc HABITS oF THE MAPLE-TREE Borer.—Fresh from 
the foregoing observations I looked, Sept. 12th, for the eggs or 
freshly hatched larve of Glycobius speciosus, and found the latter 
atonce. The Rev. Mr. Leonard, of Dublin, N. H., many years 
ago, in a letter to Dr. Harris, stated that the maple-tree borer, on 
hatching, remained in the bark through the winter, Upon exam- 
ining a rock maple about two feet in diameter, it was found that 
twenty eggs had been laid in different parts of the bark from 
near the ground to where the branches originated, a distance of 
about ten feet. The site of oviposition was recognized by a rusty 
irregular discoloration of the bark about the size of a cent, and 
specially by the “frass” or castings which to the length of an inch 
Or more were attached like a broken corkscrew to the bark. On 
Cutting into the bark the recently hatched larva 5-7 ™™ im length, 
Were found lying in their mine or burrow at the depth of from a 
tenth to the sixth of an inch, : 

The burrows already made were about an inch long, some a 


little longer ; i d. eggs were 
ger; the larva usually mines upwar 2 

found id i hes about a fifth 

, but they are Jaid in obscurely marked gas E 


% an inch long, usually near a crevice in the i 
and castings A readily discoverable, and it would be saad T 
Save these valuable shade trees by looking for them in the a 
‘umn and winter or early spring, and cutting them out. oe 
beetles were not uncommon at Brunswick in July and August o 
the Past year. z 
g" six grubs which I cut out one-half seemed unhealt A pa 
d by the water which had penetrated their min 


1152 General Notes. [November, á 


I have recommended protecting valuable shade trees by wrap 
ping the trunks with bands of cloth well saturated with kerosene 
oil, in August and September, so as to drive off the beetle, and 
to destroy the freshly hatched grub, but since discovering how 
easily the gashes and castings of the freshly hatched worms can 
be detected a few days or weeks after the eggs have been laid, it 
seems obvious that the easiest and surest preventive is to cut out 
the grubs when laying in their autumn and winter quarters just 
under the surface of the bark. 


twelve extended upward. Hence it is useless to try to find the 
hole and inject oil into it. There now seems no reason why val 
uable shade maple trees should not be saved by an hours close 
observation and removal of the young grubs, say m September 
or October.—A. S. Packard. 


PALMEN’S PAIRED OUTLETS OF THE SEXUAL ORGANS OF INSECTS- 
In an investigation of this kind it is natural that the anatomist 
should seek the most primitive condition of almost any organ M 
insects, in that primitive generalized group, the Ps 
tera and especially the Ephemerina. The double nature 


given, and in the third chapter the author's own very ict 
observations are recorded, while in the fifth chap roptet 
and oviducts of other insects, principally certain Pseudoneu oi 
Orthoptera and Neuroptera, are described. The dra 


microscopic sections are well rendered, and on plate Y "a E 


useful diagrammatic figures illustrating the morphovoey of it- 
ovaries and oviducts of selected types of the lower ore of the 
sects as compared with the ovaries and segmental organs 
_ worms and Crustacea. 

Professor Palmén’s conclusions, drawn 


Ephemeride, are as follows: eir whole 


1. The genital ducts are in both sexes throughout A ie te 
extent independent of each other and also paired. f under 


minal sections become united only by the integument 1 


from his studies 08 the : 


nsecten. 


* Ueber paarige Ausfiihrungsginge der Geschlechtorgane bei I Helsing! 
jes o 


che untersuchung. 


i ogis Vv . A. Palmén. Mit5 tafeln. 
1884. 8vo, pp. 108 "3 sie 


1884.] Entomology. 1153 


them; in the males the two ducts open out in the partly formed 
outgrowths of the integument forming the two penes; in 
females they are united by means of a transverse ingrowth of the 
integument, the genital intersegmental fold. 

2. The entire apparatus consists also of two heterogeneous com- 
ponents: internal parts which are developed from the genital 
germs of the embryo, and are simply cellular, and external, teg- 
reac parts (the chitinous cuticula) which slough off during 

wt 


growth. 

These two components arise from two different sources: the 
internal are differentiations of the embryonic epithelium of the 
body cavity; the external, like the integument generally, origi- 
nate directly from the epiblast of the embryo. 

3. In the terminal section of the passages leading outward 
(ductus ejaculatorius and the oviduct) no chitinous cuticula has 

observed. : 

4. The male ducts open behind the ninth, the female behind 
the seventh abdominal segment mata 

5. In the passages leading out, the principle of division of 
labor is only partially carried out. Accordingly the correspond- 
ing sections of the ducts differ little from each other morphologi- 
cally, and differentiations in the shape of peculiar forms of appen- 

€s are, as a rule, not present. 

_ As regards the fourth point the Ephemerina differ from other 
insects (in which it opens behind the eighth) in having the ovi- 
duct open behind the seventh abdominal segment. This indi- 
cates, Palmén thinks, a high phyletic age for this group. 

Graber’s statement that the sexual passages in the pupa o 
Chironomus are paired, is referred to, and Palmén adds that this 
is the case with Corethra and other dipterous pup. Finally 
it appears that anatomical and embryological modes of investiga- 
tion have brought about similar results. 


‘Pper side; the hindermost pair are at fi 
= walls muscular fibers(?). The outgro 
estive tract, where they arise are of 


1154 General Notes. [Nove 


Among the epithelial cells are to be distinguished two kinds, 


smaller oval cells filled densely with large colorless nuclei, and 3 
larger club-shaped ones whose contents, among other things, com 
sist of small crystals and larger drops of yellow, brown, grem — 


colors. ; 


The principal effect of the secretion of these glandular celsii 


the solution and digestion of fibrin, digested protoplasm, etc. 


The spiders take no solid nourishment. They dissolve the — 
assimilable, solid constituents of their prey, muscles, etc., and they 
suck the flowing blood. This passes into the ultimate branches — 
of the intestinal outgrowths. The hind gut or terminal section — 


of the digestive canal begins immediately behind the last pair of 
the intestinal outgrowths or diverticula. 

The malphigian vessels are dispersed through the intermediate 
tissue. Their excretions are guanin or an allied substance. 


same or an allied substance is found in many kinds, both depos 
ited in the external layer of the intermediate tissue and distrib- | 


uted prominently in the coloring and markings of animals. 


In the present condition of our knowledge it is fitting i 


ply the name “ liver” in the Arachnida by “ chyle-stomac 


We do not feel entirely satisfied with the last main conclusion. — 


onvê- 
There seems to us no good reason for not, as a matter of c 


nience, applying the term “liver” to the enormo 
outgrowths of the Arachnidan chyle-stomach. 


“liver” of a spider with its source, the chylc-stoma AEE ee 


would suggest, good morphology. Moreover, embryo 


that the diverticula are secondary outgrowths from the mid-gut 


of the embryo, which becomes finally the chyle-stomach of 
adult animal.—A. S. P. 


‘THE SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF THE Empup#.—lt al : 
membered that this singular group of insects 1S usu y placed 


next below the white ants (Termitidæ). Mr. J Wood-Mason fol 


added to our knowledge of these insects, and con tal i 
lows regarding their affinities: “In anticipation of t ae 


detailed account of the numerous and important dif 
tween them and the Perlidz which is in preparation, 
published as soon as the drawings needed to render MY = 


tions intelligible are ready, I may say that the Embiid& "M pion 


edly belong to the true Orthoptera, that they are in MY $ term 
in some respects the lowest term, and in others th 
but one, of a series formed by the families Acridioidea, so the 
dæ, Gryllide and Phasmatidze, and that their resemblan™ =r, 
much lower Perlidæ, which may well be direct descen 
form closely related to Campodea, are due to their per 
_ in the division of Orthopterous insects to which they 


will be re : 


Cos Pe 
rd wil 


the lowest tert - 


| 


1884) 


à re-classification of the rotifers. His paper, 


Zoölogy. 1155 


do not imply any such close genetic relationship to them as has 
been suggested” (Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1884). 

Mr. Mason has detected the females, before unknown, which 
are wingless and of larger size than the males. He also discov- 
ered in India larvæ of a species apparently living in society. 


Entomotocicat Nores.—A case of sexual attraction in Prionus 
is noticed by Anna K. Dimmock in Psyche for April. A female 
bout to oviposit was caged, when one male after another flew to 
the cage, so that a great many males were taken in the afternoon. 
“On account of the presence of so many males a number of females 
made their appearance, showing an attraction of the female to the 


nicated to the Paris Academy of Science, as the result of his 
researches upon the movements of the heart in insects during 
their metamorphosis, the statement that this organ continues to 
beat during the phenomena of histogenesis. In Volucella zonasia 
and Eristalis æneus it was observed that when movement was lost, 
on the twelfth day in the first species and the ninth in the second, 


pe 
the heart is occupied in the histological changes of that organ, 
above all in the formation of an aortic region corresponding to 
formation of the thorax.——The researches of M. Carlet 


rop 
the wound and produces a new afflux of liquid at the roar 
Sting, which is thus at once an aspirator and an injector: 
ZOOLOGY. 
ro CLASSIFICATION OF THE Rorrrers—Dr. C Taly, ateanpts 
uarterly Journal of Microscopical Sce spinak 4 js illustrated 


VOL, XVITI.—no, XI, 73 


1156 General Notes. [November, 


with figures of nearly each genus, will prove very useful to 
American microscopists. After remarking upon and criticizing 
the systems of Ehrenberg, Dujardin, Leydig and 
offers one of his own. The class Rotifera falls, he thinks, into 
four natural orders, according to their modes of locomotion. 
“There are some that swim only; others that both swim and 
creep like a leech’; those that both swim and skip; and lastly, 
those that when adult are fixed; and these orders differ in the 
main from each other in the form and use of the foot, Ineach 
order, too, there are typical genera, round which the rest may be 
grouped, differing from each other in the shape of the trochal 
disc and the position of its ciliary wreaths, as also in the struc- 
ture of the manducatory organs, and sometimes in other impor- 
tant points as well.” : 

The form of the mouth-parts affords good family characteris- 
tics, while a difference in the shape and disposition of the troch 
disc and its ciliary wreaths generally accompanies a difference in 
the manducatory organs, the two together serving “as eae 
guides to a re-classification of the rotifers into families, W 
the author attempts to do. 

Dr. Hudson’s system is as follows : 


CLASS ROTIFERA. 
wrinkled, non-retrec- 


Order I. Ru1zoTa.—Fixed forms; foot attached, transversely j; Fam. 2 
tile, truncate. Family 1, losculariade (Floscularia, Stephin ae 
Melicertade (Melicerta, Limnias, CEcistes, Cephalosiphon, Lacin 
galotrocha, Conochilus), eg a 

Order II. BDELLOIDA.—That swim and creep like a leech ; pia = | 
telescopic, termination furcate. Fam. 3. Philodinade ( 

Callidina), Rhino); 
Order III. PLörMmA.—That only swim. Fam. 4. Hydatinade (Hya (Noton 
_ Fam. 5. Synchetade (Syncheta, Polyarthra) ; Fam. - Motomme Fam. 7. T 

mata, Diglena, Furcularia, Scaridium, Pleurotrocha, Distemma) ; Brock: 

P 


arthrade (Triarthra); Fam. 8. Asplanchnade (Asplanchna); Fam 9. (ie 
onide (Brachionus, Noteus, Anuræa, Sacculus); F Diplax, Mone 
11.. Euchlanide (Euchlanis, Salpina, “1P™ Dig- 


dina, Pompholyx) ; Fam. 
styla, Colurus, Monura, Metopidia, Stephanops, Monocerca, 
ocharis). aa 
Order IV. ScIRTOPODA.—That swim with their ciliary wreath, ar ee | 
of hollow limbs with internal locomotor muscles, Fam. 12. / 
alion), 


demy É 


Tue Nature or Ecuinoperms.—At the Paris Acade the 


1884. ] Zoblogy. 1157 


tive individuals grouped around a nutritive individual. The last 
theory accounted for facts which could not Be explained by that 
of Haeckel. M. Perrier communicated the details of his re- 
searches upon the anatomy of adult Comatulæ. From these 
researches, based upon more than two hundred sections, it ap- 
pears that the organization of a Comatula is singularly like that 
of other echinoderms, notwithstanding the apparent wide diver- 
gence. If a sea-urchin is considered as a crinoid, the arms of 


disk, and the mouth of which is placed at the point of insertion 
of the disk upon the stem, the nervous and ambulacral systems 
will have the same relations as in the Comatula. It is worthy 
notice that at this spot the calyx of many crinoids is invaginated, 
and presents points nct without analogy with the dental apparatus 
of the sea-urchins. 


a communication made by Dr. Day to the Zodlogical Society of 
London (Feb. 5, 1884) it appears that an elongated Isopod (Con- 
ilera cylindracea), some of which attain a length of one and 
a-quarter inches, devour the soft parts of the dog-fish, muscles 
and entrails. On one occasion 100 dog-fish were netted,and “nearly 
every fish was found to have been eaten in a like manner by the 
lice.” These “ lice,” as the fishermen call them, “ in the summer 
months are found from fifteen to twenty miles from land, gener- 
ally on soft and sandy bottoms. When the fishermen in foggy 
weather get on this bottom, they call it ‘lousy ground,’ Where 
the lice are abundant they drive away the congers and other fish. 
Often a shoal of bream will come and eat them up.” 


part of the nest, but simply the result of digging.” On the coe- 
trary, I am convinced that the crayfish duds his chimney OF 
tower ; that he often studies the locality with care and ag Aad 
suit the chosen site. My reasons for this conclusion are: 

a large series observed during the present year were SO piore t 
a steeply sloping bank of a ditch, that if the materials of wii? 
the towers were composed had been simply reject agit ie 
nved from tunnelling, then it could have been rolled sie fas 
ditch without trouble, while in fact an artistic garners 
inches in diameter and varying from eight to eleven =n 
peight, was erected; and in several horace agora kried 
ower was specially provided for by having 

ane Semethea pee the picnic masses of puddled clay were 


1158 General Notes. [November, 


put in position. Of a series of forty towers built by the Cam- 
barus diogenes that observed on the banks of a ditch, not one 
could have been the result of accident, as suggested by Mr, Tarr, 

The towers that were found in the meadows, at a considerable 
distance from open water, were invariably broader at the base, 
and never so high as those described as found on the edge of 
flowing water. These open-meadow towers or chimneys, how- 
ever, were all found to be composed of pellets of clay so arranged 
as to render it highly improbable that their positions were fortui- 
tous. Indeed, in the majority of instances it would have been 
practicable to have rolled the little balls of clay to a considerable 
distance from the opening of the tunnel. 

Perhaps there is a bearing on the question of design in tower 
building in the fact that often half-grown or even smaller cray 
of this species build the most elaborate structures. Some of the 
finest examples, 7. e., the most slender and tallest were the work 
of diminutive little fellows which certainly could have avoided a 
deal of labor if the chimneys or towers were not designed. 

I have never seen a Cambarus diogenes in the act of a 
building, nor been able to determine why they tunneled at all. 
When this is determined I believe the towers will be found to 
have a close connection with the purposes of the subterranean 
haunts of the burrowing crayfish.— Chas. C. Abbott. 


THE CRUSTACEA OF THE TaLisMAN Expepition.—the Taks- 
man brought home a fine collection of Crustacea from all dept of 
Swimming crabs appear to be rare at great depths, yet p ene 
Bathynectes were found at from 450 to 950 meters off a 
and the Cape Verde isles. Anomoura were abundant a 
great depths and usually belonged to transition forms. 0! 
these have a very wide distribution, thus Homola wage 
viously thought to be exclusively Mediterranean, was pe vibed 
the Azores and Canaries, and a species of Dicranomia ppe 
by Milne-Edwards from the Antilles, was found at the eE 
Some Galatheas were taken from the interior of the qaer 
the genus Aphrocallistes. Galathodes antonu and ie, were 
Jormosus, a species with its abdomen twice coiled upon It era and 
dredged at 4¢00 meters. A considerable number of gen 
species of Eryonidea were taken. : 7 i 

A remarkable new shrimp is Nematocarcinus gracilipes, W 
wonderfully attenuated feet and antennæ. In Giyphus of the 
alis, another Caridean, the female has the lateral por recep- 

minal segments developed into a sort of pouch for 
tion of the eggs. F Day 
RACES AND HYBRIDS AMONG THE SALMONIDES DM dings 
publishes additional facts on this subject in the Proc e 
the Zoölogical Society of London for 1884, p. 17. ee pie 
observations, published in 1882, tended to show that te” 


1884. | Zoölogy. 1159 


of species existing in Great Britain had been unduly multiplied 
by local races or varieties which were considered as species. Dr. 
Day first describes a hybrid between Salmo salar and S. levenen- 
sis, the Loch Leven trout. Here it may be said that he has 
raised several parrs “ with comparatively large ova, which were of 
a deep reddish color, thus almost disposing of the statement that 
‘no parr has ever been found with mature ova’ | Gunther's Intro- 
duction to the study of Fish, p. 639]. Certainly the ova were 
not mature, but would have been had the fish not met with an 
untimely end while the parr-marks were present, and so likewise 
were the silvery scales of the smolt. And as I shall show, we 
found at the end of November other females with ova, in all of 
which the parr-marks were visible.’ 

His observations also “ conclusively show that the females, 
without descending to the sea, may develop eggs in fresh water. 
And though we know that in the case of rivers in which their 
access to the sea has been cut off, or their migrating to the ocean 
prevented from any cause, these fish have usually disappeared 
from such streams, still we are aware that land-locked salmon are 
found in various parts of the globe.” ; 

ooo ova were taken from an American 
charr (Salmo fontinalis) which were fertilized with milt from a 
Leven trout; many of the young were more or less and 


rom 

Leven trout-milt, The same reason which appears to militate 
against trout-eggs being impregnated by salmon-milt probably 1s 
he cause, z. e., the size of the spermatozoa. Thus the compara- 
tively large Loch Leven trout-eggs were fertilized from the milt 
of the charr; but when the converse was tried the success was 
much less, As the American charr-eggs are much smaller than 

ose of the Loch Leven trout, it is reasonable to suppose “a 
Spermatozoa are also smaller, and consequently were readily a 
arty but when it was attempted to seh sg" the ee a 
’ the milt of S. /evenensis probably the large Spe 
did not readily find entrance, thus accounting for the great pro- 
Portion of unhatched ova. * * * * kether 
we possess several or only one species of river trout. The fore- 
Soing descriptions of hybrids show that although prt the sal 


icted to the brook trout), 


i : investigations at Howietown have likewise s 
mode of color may occur in o 
Males,” y 


rio o General Notes. [November, 


After detailing experiments in raising young from eggs of 
American charr fertilized by Scotch, Dr. Day finally remarks: 
“Considering that these fishes have shown no tendency to 
monstrosities, have been well formed, and grown fairly in propor- 
tion to the young of the true American charr hatched at the 
same time, I cannot resist thinking that it may be possible that 
these two fish, although so widely differing in color, may be 
merely varieties of one species, descendants from one common 
stock. This question, however, will be more appropriately dis- 
cussed when we possess fish a year or two older.” 


ACCELERATION IN DEER ANTLERS.— Besides the white-tailed 
deer mentioned in my note in the July, 1884, number of the Nat- 
URALIST, I have in my collection the antler of a Cervus macrotis 
found near Carter, on the Rocky mountains, which is abnormally 
flattened, which shows no indication of having been injured, and 
so tends to support your position. It is doubly bifurcated. ae 
four inches above the burr it is cylindrical and five and a-hal 
inches in circumference. There it throws off a basal snag re 
inches long. Thence it commences to flatten, and at the 2 
bifurcation, seven inches above the snag, it is six inches pris 
whence the upper prong extends seven inches to its fork, w as 
it is four inches wide. Above this the tines are seven Inc rt 
long, and gradually assume the cylindrical form to their epee 
This description would answer for the lower branch except 
it is not so wide by half an inch. le deer, and 

It is the largest antler I have ever seen from a mule eich 
is the only one I have ever seen showing a tendency to rae 
There is not the least indication of distortion, but it 1S Pe 
symmetrical in all its parts—/. D. Caton. oo 

[Noze by the Editor —This case is paralleled by one ae 
by myself in a store in St. Paul, Minn., during the rag sed 
1883. This is a black-tailed deer which has one wae 
completely palmated as in Alces, while the other $ ee jsi 
less palmation. As I explained in the July NATURAL the cree 
a case of the process of acceleration, which resulted 1n : 
tion of the genus Alces.—Z. D. Cope.] 

HABITS OF THE PANTHER.—I was much interested, as I E ga 
many others were also, in the carefully written and, as (Felis oor- 


bers 


the Forest and Stream. As any information rega rding Oe tal 
and formidable animal is usually read with avidity by orests and 


mountains, I am tempted to add a few items of my own 


~ especially as my experience in one or two minor poine 
_ Somewhat from the conclusions of Mr. Stone. 


=i 
a 


ree} Zoölogy. oe 


ats cry. 
e mo . : 
; re I learned of them in their native haunts the more 


instance į ed an attack. In one 
instance, in the Cascades near the Hood, I knew a panther to 
kets, but as soon as 
istance, the animal 
over we 
er had seen the man 
him for some less for- 

ed to 


him he t} 

Se mie tang the job at once. As for those. stories 

Miles, in anf h ut their chasing a man on horse 

being devo ich the writer assures his readers that he only esca 
ured by being providentially mounted upon the fastest 


1162 General Notes. [November, 


horse in all that section of the country, they appear so absurd to 
to all hunters acquainted with the animal in question, that they 
are looked upon at once as extracts from “ Dashing Dick of the 
Wild West,” in the dime novel series. 

That the panther will run from and tree before the smallest 
yelping cur that can be induced to follow his trail is true, but! 
am satisfied that instinct in some mysterious manner warns 
of the hunter behind the dog, and that it is the latter only which 
they hold in fear. This I have demonstrated to my own satisfac- 
tion, and have had it corroborated by others. Upon one occa- 
sion I followed a panther that was being chased by a settler's dog 
in the dense hemlock and spruce forest through which the Clas 
canine river, in Oregon, runs, and although the plucky little cur 
treed him at least a dozen times, I did not succeed in obtaining 
the slightest glimpse of the brute, and after chasing him from 
early dawn until late in the afternoon, through the most terrific 
wilderness of almost impenetrable thickets, immense fallen trees 
and giant ferns, I found myself so completely used up that I was 
forced to relinquish the pursuit from sheer fatigue. _ 

In this instance the panther must have paid but little attention 
to the dog after he treed, but put in the time listening rapa 
proach, and as soon as that was ascertained he would jump ‘ 
once to the ground, continue his flight for perhaps half a ‘thing 
more, when he would again take to a tree and the poi gm 
would be repeated. Two or three times, where the grou 
particularly favorable, I got near enough to hear hi ion 
tree, which he seemed to do just as readily as if there ha 
no dog there. : 

In regard to their manner of climbing, they ascend te oe 
trees near the mouth of the Columbia, which are freq the first 
feet high, and sixty, eighty or evena hundred feet to wee 
limb, precisely as a cat would climb them, and, when pete a’ 
will sometimes go to the very top. In one instance pros. shat 
small glade in the forest where, from the sign, 1t Was € rs sur 

. ke kittens 5% 
two or more of them had been gamboling, and like the tras 
rying around in the grass, and then bounding against they bad 
of a tree at a point at least ten feet from the groun ” of bark, 
ascended apparently on the run, tearing off great piece? ™ 


soon be explained. Like al! of the cat tribe they are Pae they 
warmth, and upon days when it is rather cold in the shade, 


1884. ] Zoilogy. 1163 


frequently come out of their lairs in the middle of the day and 
ie upon the rocks near by to bask and drowse in the warm sun, 
and as the ranges there are generally very sparsely timbered, they 
are occasionally discovered by hunters, when the chances of get- 
ting within shot are better than under almost any other circum- 
stances. But for all that, they are animals that are seldom shot, 
no matter how abundant they may be, and their disappearing so 
rapidly before the march of civilization is a mystery that I can 
only solve by the conclusion that being such a large and entirely 
carnivorous animal, they are immediately affected by the least 
thinning out of the large game, and are driven by hunger to seek 
places where the rifle has not begun its deadly work, unless, as 
they seem to have done on the McCloud river, they turn their 
attention to the stock of the settler. 

Many of them are poisoned by the sheep and cattle men of 
the southern counties, when their visits to the flocks and herds 
become too frequent. I have often seen their hides nailed to the 
walls of the lonely cabins of the stockmen there, and, upon in- 
quiry, have found that they were poisoned in at least three cases 
out of four. ` 


With a single incident to illustrate the idea that it is the hunter 
and not the dog the panther fears, I will close this already lengthy 
article. In the summer of 1868 I was in Port Gamble, on Puget 
sound, A trail leading to Port Madison, eight or ten miles dis- 


Hepes to take the dog without stopping in a flying leap across 
trail—Forked Deer, in Forest and Stream. 
y WO0LOGICAL Notes. —Fishes—In Switzerland, according ein 
- Fatio, the minnow reaches an altitude of 2400 meters, an ee 
miller’s thumb one of 2200 meters. The perch stops a 
‘ers, and no others pass above 800 meters, although the carp, 


1164 General Notes. [November, 


tench, rudd, roach and chub have been successfully introduced 
into waters at from 1000 to 1700 meters in altitude. Gobius 
viatilis has ascended the Po to the confines of Switzerland, and 
Blennius cognata occurs in abundance in Lake Maggiore and in 
the Lake of Bourget in Savoy. 

Mammatls.—MM. Pouchet and Beauregard have been led by 
the examination of a portion of the “case” containing the sper- 
maceti of the cachalot, to emit the supposition that the “roots” 
of this case may be the analogue (homologue?) of the posterior 
region of the right nasal fossa, while the reservoirs situated ante- 
tiorly may represent the smooth part of the same nasal cavity, 
separated from the spouting sacs or opening into them only by 
an extremely reduced orifice. The walls of the part of the case 
examined cunsisted of mucous membrane fifteen ‘millimeters 
thick, with the surface raised into convolutions separated 
sures in such a way as to recall the surface of the brain. The 
secretion is thus non-glandular and approaches, physiologically, 
the secretion of wax by the bee. The structure of the case 
the cachalot does not recall any organ present among mam 


PHYSIOLOGY." 


Tue Puystorocy or Rumination. — As is well beckon 
stomach of a ruminant animal is a complex organ consisting o she 
distinct chambers. Of these the last, that opening direch dre" 
intestine, corresponds functionally to the single stomac h 
vertebrates, the other chambers of the herbivorous pee gh sor 
ably only being concerned in the preparation of peek na 
to digestion. The feeding of ruminants is characteri2 eee 
fact that the food when first swallowed passes only aa re enor 
first and largest division of the stomach, the pa ‘a ceased 
mous quantities may be laid up. When the anima urgitati 
feeding it seeks a position of rest and then begins oh, where iti 
by piecemeal of food from the paunch into the mout h it is swal- 
thoroughly masticated, “ chewing the cud,” after wile It is this 
lowed into the “fourth stomach” for final digestion. 
process of rumination which Professor Luchsinger 933 
studied in the goat. nation is it 

Attention is called to the fact that the act of deere The 
terrupted if the animal is disturbed in the slightest sia, whic 
goats experimented on were narcotized with gee action — 
numbs painful sensations but interferes little we to assure 
After appropriate operations, the author was ena f the paun 
himself that pressure with the hand upon the bo: f rumination 
brought about in perfectly normal manner the act di -to cloe 
there was first a movement of the vocal cords tending - upo? 
the glottis, then the diaphragm contracted so as w a 

1 This department is edited by Professor HENRY SEWALL, of Ann Arbor, | 


. 


1884.] Fhysiology. 1165 


the upper surface of the stomach, and at the same time the ab- 
dominal walls contracted energetically; a morsel of food was 
thus thrown up rapidly into the mouth, any excess of water in it 
being pressed out and swallowed; then began a long series of 
cud chewing movements, at the beginning of which occurred a 
copious flow of saliva into the mouth; finally, with a swallowing 
movement the mouth was emptied and the masticated morsel sent 
back for its complete digestion. The amount of food regurgi- 
tated was determined by the sphincter muscles at the cardiac 
opening of the paunch, these muscles relaxing at the beginning 
of the act but closing finally again when a small amount of food 
had been forced out. The whole series of movements was readily 
brought about by electrical stimulation of the wall of the paunch, 
or when this was mechanically excited by distension with warm 
water or by pressure with the hand. Strange to say the flow of > 
saliva and the chewing movements followed in regular order ex- 
pulsion of food from the paunch, though the morsel was not, in 
Some cases allowed to enter the mouth but was expelled lower 
down from the divided cesophagus. This artificially excited act 
of rumination could only be provoked when the pneumogastric 
nerves were intact. 

Luchsinger concludes that rumination is a complex reflex 
action, the stimulus to which is the distension of the walls of the 


CIRCULATION oF Bioop Corpuscies.—Dr. G. J. Hamilton has 
made an examination of the physical conditions which affect the 
movement of solid bodies suspended in a circulating fluid with 
reference to the analogous case of the blood corpuscles in the 
living body, and his results are full of suggestiveness in the ex- 

hology. bp pee 

e 


It was 


to flow throu í feet 
gh a horizontal tube several I l 

balls or disks of wax and other substances of various sizes an 
aia &ravities were dropped into the current 
the bar this simple scheme of the circulation 
. ats Or disks when specifically lighter or 
Said were carried along de aides a the tube, in the former case 


1166 General Notes. [November, 


against the upper and in the latter against the lower side, Fri. 
tion on the tube wall retarded the motion and gave a rotati 
movement to the solid bodies which tended to accumulate and 
clog the bore of the tube. 

When the balls were of the same specific gravity as water they 
were swept along the middle of the tube and remained always ia 
the “axial” or swiftest moving central current without touching 
the sides. Inthe normal circulation of the frog it can be shown 
that the white corpuscles pass along the upper wall of the blood 

vessel with a rotating motion. In order to make this observation 
the vessel observed must lie in a horizontal position while the 
web or sheet of tissue holding it is in a vertical plane. When the 
blood-vessel twists so that what was once the upper side becomes 
the under, the white corpuscle, carried on by the current, gradu- 
ally crosses the stream and reaches the new top wall. These 
facts are easily explained when it is considered that the white 
corpuscles are specifically lighter than the blood plasma. The 
red blood corpuscles move in a crowd, without rotation, away 
from the vessel wall, in the so-called axial current, which is mor 
marked the more rapid the circulation. i the 

The red corpuscles are specifically scarcely heavier than 
plasma, while the white are considerably lighter. The w = 
points out the evident conclusion from his experiments, ape 
relation between the specific gravities of red corpuscles n m 
ma must remain during health in very fine adjustment. ‘eles 
the red corpuscles to become decidedly either specifically ust 
or heavier than the plasma, they must crowd against t cain 
walls and the frictional resistance thus offered to the 


It does not seem improbable that a disturbance of the specific 


walls.—/ourn, of Physiology, Vol. v, p. 66, 1884. 


PSYCHOLOGY. pserved, of 
Emotionat Facurties of Animats.—lt will be the following. 
turning to the diagram, that I attribute to anny es historic 
emotions, which I name in the probable order of affection social 
development: Surprise, fear, sexual and parental _ play, alee 
feelings, pugnacity, industry, curiosity, jealousy, ae Jove of 
tion, sympathy, emulation, pride, resentment, gee 
ornament, terror, grief, hate, cruelty, benevolence, ae 


i 1884.] Psychology. 1167 


shame, remorse, deceit, ludicrous. This list, which leaves many 
of the human emotions without mention, exhausts all the emo- 
_ tions of which I have found any evidence in the psychology of 
animals. Before presenting this evidence in detail, perhaps it 
will not be thought superfluous again to insist that in attributing 
this and that emotion to such and such an animal, we can depend 
only upon inference drawn from actions, and that this inference 
necessarily becomes of less and less validity as we pass through 
the animal kingdom to organisms less and less like our own; so 
that, for instance, when we get as low down as the insects, I think 
the most we can confidently assert is, that the known facts of 
human psychology furnish the best available pattern of the prob- 
able facts of insect psychology. Still, as the known facts of 
human psychology furnish the best available pattern, we must 
here, while treating of the emotional faculties, follow the same 
method which we have hitherto followed while treating of the 
intellectual faculties, viz., while having full regard to the progres- 
sive weakening of the analogy from human to brute psychology 
as we recede through the animal kingdom downwards from man, 
nevertheless using the analogy, as far as it goes, as the only in- 
strument of analysis that we possess. i 

I shall now proceed, as briefly as possible, to render the evi- 
dence which has induced me to ascribe each of the above named 
motions to animals, and remembering that I have in each case 
written the emotion upon the diagram at the level of mental evo- 
lution where I have found the earliest evidence of its occurrence, 
it follows that in the majority of cases the emotion is present in 
Se higher levels of mental evolution in a more highly developed 


an as a class, to take their origin from the growing structure 
mind at the same level as that at which the faculty of percep- 


cedents of a painful perception recur in consciousness, t 
or child Must anticipate the recurrence of that perception—— mus 
— an ideal representation of the pains, and such suffering 1s 
- And that, as a matter of fact, fear of this low or oo 
inte is manifested at about the second or third week of in u 
the € general opinion of those who have most carefully _— 
x development of infant psychology. To specify the class in the- 
animal kingdom where a true emotion of fear arises is om * 
more difficult matter, and indeed it is impossible to do so im y 
nce of any definite knowledge as to the class in penne 
on first ari But while, as previously meget e ike 


Se i “on "A y whether or not the Coelenterata, an I think the 


€rmate, are able to perceive their sensations, 


1168 General Notes, [Novenbe, 


evidence becomes very strong in the case of insect larve and 
worms. And that both the one and the other manifest striking 
symptoms of alarm in the presence of danger may be easily 
shown. 

With reference to young children, Preyer is of opinion that the — 
earliest emotion is one of surprise or astonishment upon perceiy- 
ing any change or strikingly novel feature in the environment. 
In deference to his opinion, therefore, I have placed surprise upon 
the same level of emotional development as fear, but of course in 
both cases this level is so low that it is but the germs of 
emotions that are here supposed to be present. 

This earliest stage of emotional development (18) I have made 
to correspond with “ emotions preservative of self” The next 
stage (19) I made to coincide with the origin of “emotions pre- 
servative of species ;’’ and of these the first to appear are the 
sexual, In the animal kingdom—or rather let us say in the psy- 
chological scale—these emotions are first unequivocally exhibited 
by the Mollusca, which on this account, as well as for the reasons 
given while treating of the association of ideas, I have made to 


tral'psychological tree, and with the earliest recognition of ; 
spring on the side of the intellectual faculties. Ta vides. . 
which first satisfy all these conditions are the insects an ee 
For here, even if we exclude the Hymenoptera, we ere 
of parental affection in the care which spiders, | 
dry other insects take of their eggs and broods. A et | 
less species of insects are highly social in their habits ;, eee 
i te pugnacious; some are comple ine oie: | 
ying insects display curiosity ; and, accoraing che ei 
elaborate k n, it is pat this class that we find w 
evidence of sexual selection. : a 
oming now to level 21, I have assigned to it the ie 
ance of the emotions of jealousy, anger and play, W ag dawn 
tionably occur in fish. On level 23 I have placed f the ene 
affection other than sexual, in view of the evidence = ward th : 
tional attachment of a python which was exhibited aa 


pet. seeing ti 
On lével 24 I have placed the dawn of sympatiy, very ffl 
is emotion seems to be unquestionably, thon. oai E 


On the next level (25) I have given emulation, Pid gio 
~ Ment, æsthetic love of ornament, and terror as disting™” : 


1884.] Psychology. 1169 


fear, All these emotions, so far as I have been able to ascertain, 
first occur in birds; and in this class some of the emotions which 
I have already named as occurring in lower classes are much 
more highly developed. 

Next we arrive at grief, hate, cruelty and benevolence, as first 
displayed in some of the more intelligent of the Mammalia. 
Grief is shown by pining, even to death, upon the removal of a 
favorite master or companion; hate by persistent resentment ; 
cruelty by a cat’s treatment of a mouse; and benevolence by the 
following instances which I have met with since the publication 
of Animal Intelligence. Writing of a domestic cat, Mr. Oswald 
hey says, that it “ was observed to take out some fish bones 


The servant was puzzled until she heard a faint mew from beneath 
her feet, On the boards being lifted the kitten emerged safe and 
Sound, though half starved. The cat watched the proceeding 
with the greatest interest until the kitten was released; but on 
ascertaining that it was safe he at once left the room without 
na any pleasure at its return. Nor did he subsequently be- 

me really friendly with it.” oe 

On the next fevel I have placed revenge as a aor 
I €ntment, and rage as distinguished from anger. In Ani = 
-dtelligence J give some cases of apparent vindictiveness occu 
ng in birds ; but as the exact nature of the emotions in these 


1170 General Notes. [November, 


cases appears to me somewhat doubtful, I here disregard them, 
and place revenge on the psychological level which is occupied 
by the elephant and monkeys, in which animals this passion is 
very conspicuous. The same remarks apply to rage as distin- 
guished from the less violent display of hostile feeling which is 
suitably expressed by the term anger. 

Lastly, at level 28 we arrive at the highest products of emo- 
tional development which are manifested in animal psychology, 
and therefore at the highest of those products with which the 
present treatise is concerned. These are shame, remorse, deceit 
and the emotion of the ludicrous. For instances of the display of 
these emotions by dogs and apes, I need merely again to refer to 
Animal Intelligence. 

In this brief sketch of the emotional faculties as they occur i 
the animal kingdom, my aim has been to give a generic rather 
than a specific representation. I have therefore omitted all details 
of the emotional character of this or that particular animal, as 
well as the- narration of particular instances of the display of 
emotions.—Romanes’ Mental Evolution. 


Tue Measurement or Human Facutty.—Mr. F. Galton, MA, 
F.R.S., delivered, reports the English Mechanic, the Rede lecture 
at Cambridge, last spring, taking for his subject “ The ae 
ment of human faculty.” After briefly describing the art of mi 
suring human faculties as the “dawn of a new and wee 

science,” Mr. Galton said that his new evidence, "e pe 
taken some pains to obtain, showed that the actions © aye eae 
“ governed by cause and effect;” but if the conduct of ay a 
result of some external influence, then such knowledge as ñe * ng : 
obtained is of little service. Mr. Galton concluded by ee : 
that a laboratory should be opened at Cambridge to 1n 

this “ new science.” n anthropometrical laborato 
opened at the Health Exhibition by Mr. Galton. 


ANTHROPOLOGY.’ 


THE ANNALS OF CHIMALPAHIN.—Domingo Francisco oa a 
Anton de Chimalpahin, born in 1579, was a M Tessa 
descended from the kings of the State of Tzacualtitlan-16 al 
Amaquecan, whose first sovereign reigned 1269-133 ad il the 
pahin was versed in astronomy, history, geography, din Nahu- 
study of the antiquities of his country. He compose ais M 
atl, by the aid of our alphabet, eight relations, OF ann found by 
form part of the collection of Boturini. They wer am 
Aubin and their publication commenced. K is They a 
associated with Aubin and copied a part of the anna -os of Kings 
chronological tables, containing, besides the genealog! politcal : 
princes, princesses and lords, mention of the principal ae 


1 Edited by Prof. Oris T. Mason, National Museum, Washington, Ds 


1884.] Anthropology. (IJI 


events of his country. In the second relation the author com- 
mences the history of the Chichimecs at the time when they de- 
barked on the Gulf of California—[Le Muséon, 111, 334.] 


Tue BOARD oF INDIAN CommIssIoners.—Although the especial 
function of this board is not anthropological, the thoughtful stu- 
dent of the natural history of our race will find much food in 
their report for serious thought. We all believe in the continuity 
of history. As we look at the fragmentary story of the past, we 
wonder how those heterogeneous events could ever have formed 
part of a single mosaic. In the report of 1883, pp. 8-33, is a 
picture of a struggle going on in the Creek nation between the 
sig progress and the party that sigh for the flesh pots of 


“« Tantæ molis erat Romanam condere gentem.” 


Tae HeaLru Report oF WasHINGTON.—The report of the 
health officer of Washington is doubtless a parallel with the sim- 
ilar publications in most of our well regulated cities. The grow- 
ing complexity of our civilization is well exhibited by the mea- 
sures taken to defend human life and happiness against the perils 
arising out of our greatest comforts. A report of this kind is 

a good barometer to indicate whether we are advancing or 
retreating in social strength. For instance, when the health offi- 
cer informs us that the increase of calls on the public dispensary 
's greater than the increase of population, we at once sce that 
public morals are declining. When he informs us that the col- 
ored applicants are twice in number those that are white, while 
the white population doubles the colored, we know that pauper- 
ism is four times as great among the colored people. most 
accurate information comes from the mortality tables, which foot 
up as follows for eight years: 


Population. Deaths. Death-rates. 
White. |Colored| Total. | Whi.| Col. Tot. | Whi. į Col. |Total. 
1876, | | — RPE EO OE as 
Bog Tote e ee tees! 106,741| 50,859) 157,600) 2090 2072 4162 19.58 40.74 35 
we ee ee eee ed 109,505 mgd 162,375|2190| 201 ‘ou 200 7.39 25-89 
1879 m T A TO '112,340 54,960) 167,300 2167 2068 4235 19.29 37-63 25-32 
IB tte tees |115,247|57,053 172,300 2196/2113 4309 ap Sa 
mo O 118,236] 59,402|177,638 2085 2121 4207/17-63 35-71 23. 
IBGa Tsetse ee eee 121,300 61,760 183, (2205 1931/4136 18.18/31.27 22.59 
1883 creat A open nee 124,441 64,212) 188,653) 2353 pepe 15.91 A 3 
eee ft eter esas 126,300 65,680 191,980!2270 2016 4286 17.98 30- 33 
s —— aaa 
“cosas ie Ee EPEC oe aeons eas ape Ne 


Sa hel 
because while the 
list is ac : er cannot get the correct 
ee orl be noticed that the white 
'S fluctuating, but decreasing; the colored death rate fas 
ly diminished, showing a decided improvement in prosper- 

"y and hygiene. Of 3116 births reported, ge were white 
rs 


Xvi 


* 


74 


1172 General Notes. [November, 


males; 833 white females; 715 colored males; 715 colored 
females. Of 353 bastards reported, 300 were colored. Of 16% 
white births 1004 were certified by physicians, while of 1431 
colored births only 295 are returned by physicians, and of thi 


number 126 are from the hospitals. 


Tue InpIAN OFFICE REPORT.—Among the various ways of 
viewing the social transformations of any people, one that is 
easily taken and that will lead to good results, is the compari 
of tribes, at various epochs, as to their wants and their demands 
upon their conquerors. In the treaty with the Six Nations, 
dated January 21, 1795, the United States guarantees $3000 im 
addition to $1500 allowed April 3, 1792, for clothing, domestic 
animals, implements of husbandry and useful artificers. The 
series of artificers in nearly all the tribes has been as follows: 
1. Gunsmiths, to help the savages to perform old functions with 
new tools; 2. Blacksmiths, who taught rude husbandry and 
paved the way for, 3. The miller and the schoolmaster. The 
missionaries, both Catholic and Protestant, taught the Indians to 
read and to repeat service both in English and Indian from the | 
first. From the beginning of the century differentiation of func- ; 
tions and multiplication of wants have increased until the present 


commissioner’s report of crops and other products of 
P p d domestic fowls; 


School population exclusive of civilized tribes....+.++++ oe ae 
Number who can be accommodated in boarding schools. «+++? 32 
“ “cc c sé day ET ce wes res 117 
Pe oo cede eek eanaee oocnnbee eter 2 
‘Night é veouees Renee eter. 
+ eee 
‘Pupils in school one month or more { oo PA T bags a 
E E a R S oko cn vc vneseens mesere? 
of schools, Gost 361,185, Religious societies $70,588, N une 
York $17,512, employés $160..... eesseseeeoeeeeree t" "TTT i439 
Indians who can read. ...... weeceeercetcdsorsert <ii iE 11,450 
School children in civilized tribes. ........ ee veser ee Ain . 
Sittings: boarding schools 1269, day schools 6330..++++++***"" 4 
Boarding schools . foccrenenshnt Vette . F 
schools, cooseenee steel I F 
cu esi bees soose ae 
"Day pupils . erocorsaet i Sige 
Cost to Five Nations $162,030, to religious societies $135 z0 
E T O E ee 


| ME oe 
There is but one suggestion to make with eee 


. 


Do aa aE a aA x 


Anthropology. 1173 


commissioner's reports. Much of the space. that is filled with 
mere gossip and unpractical advice from agents might be the 
repository of the most useful ethnological information. 


Tue Inpran Museum at CaLcurrta.—Dr. John Anderson has 
issued Part 11 of the Catalogue and hand-book of the archeolog- 
ical collections of the Indian Museum. Gupta and inscription 
galleries, Buddhist, Jain, Brahmanical and Muhammadan, sculp- 
tures; metal weapons, objects from tumuli, etc. Calcutta, printed 
by order of the trustees, 1883. The volume contains 521 pages, 
and is much more than a list of articles. Some one has said that 
a well ordered museum is a collection of carefully prepared labels 
with specimens attached. Dr. Wilson has not only brought to 
his work a great deal of learning, but has also called to his 
several distinguished specialists. It is impossible to single out 
i. part of the volume for an example, where all is so well 


A NEW JourNAL—The following is the title of a new journal 
of comparative philology : /uternationale Zeitschrift fiir allgemeine 
Sprachwissenschaft, unter mitwirkung der Herren [L. Adam and 
many others} herausgegeben von F. Techmer, docenten der 

| n Sprachwissenschaft an der Universitat Leipzig. 1 
Band, 1 Heft. Leipzig, Joh. Ambr. Barth, 1884. 

The following papers appeared in the first number: i> 

ion to general philology. By A. F. Pott. Philosophical side; Origin of 
guage, general grammer; physical side; psychical side; natural history— 
_ Psychical side; classification of languages, pp. 1-68. , 
Scientific analysis and synthesis of audible speech. By F. Techmer. Speech >t 

without as it approaches us; acoustic, analysis and synthesis ; Speech r 
within outward : Anatomical and physiological genesis the windpipe, 
glottis, nose, palate, tongue, mouth. The classification of vowel and consonant 


his discussions on language, there has been great improvement 
in the correl t c 
sy las given us the most thorough discussion and Hue 
ill this subject. One hardly knows, when he is looxing at 
Pe tae whether he has in hand a treatise on language OF a 
* k on anatomy. : 
con STHROPOLOGY IN FRANCE.—With the current year Materiaux 
a Vol. 1, 3d series. The first two num present 
Wing valuable memoirs: weet 
of some Hallstattian n les in Austria and in Italy. By Ernest a 
[pp. 1-27, 31 figures of sv sags bronze objects. Quite a number of new 
i orms are presented. ] ne w aa 
istory of istoric anthropology. Cuvier and the — of man. si charg? 


. Mortillet’s 
of having Opposed the theory of the antiquity of man. Í 


1174 General Notes. [November, 


The Ethnogeny of Western Europe. By Dr, Hamy. [pp. 35-48. The paper is 
the opening discourse at the Museum of Paris. The subjects to be considered 
are : atural classification; 2, Linguistic classification; 
classification, In the latter will be considered prehistoric races, cont 
ous with extinct animals; the neolithic peoples, builders of the dolmens, the 
Iberians, the Ligurians, the Celts, the Romans, Germans, Franks, 
Normans. Incidentally the Slavs, Fins, Hungarians and Turks will receive 
attention. ] i 

M. Martinet reviews several works of importance on the archæology of South 
America, (pp. 49-57.) 

Discovery of prehistoric quarries for silex. By Marcellin Boule. (pp. 65-75.) 

The Société d’Anthropologie de Paris has elected, for 1884, 

M. Hamy, president, and Dr. Paul Topinard, general secretary. 


Revue Scientifique publishes a paper, by Lombroso, upon 
anthropology and criminality (No. 10, pp. 303-308), in which he 
reviews the works of Lacassagne, Ferri, Manouvrier, Heger and 
Dallemagne, Orchanski and many others. 


FURTHER DISCOVERIES OF PERFORATED CRANIA IN MICHIGAN — 
During the last two years excavations in various mounds pie’ 
the Detroit river, in the vicinity of the city of Detroit, oe 
brought to light a number of instances, in addition to pana 
I have already noted and to which I first called mang ia 
years ago, of the peculiar burial custom of perforating me 
of the deceased. While this additional material sabes 
orates the deductions based upon my former discoveries, abai 
standing the most careful investigation, I am unable to pa ret 
any new information throwing light on the special sign aA 
the custom. As in former cases not all the skulls taken 

peculiar 1 


= hea genial A oles 
or is indicative of caste simply—a mark of honor, T The 


cluded, in all probability, the suspension of the capia b 
nicety with which the position of the aperture de of the center: 


n these last examples the perforation is of the sman 
every case being less than half an inch in diant pones We 
are of the orthocephalic type, and where the othe iarites 


recovered, they were found to present most of 17 ghee tomy 


1884.] . Anthropology. t175 


late M. Paul Broca, whose recent death, shortly after his election 
as a life senator of France, is so great a loss to science and espe- 
cially to anthropology, the illustrious savant coincides with my 
opinion, long previously expressed, as to the Neolithic trepanning 
found in the caves of France having no connection with the cran- 


the publication of my discoveries, having made some slight 
changes and additions, rendered necessary by my fuller informa- 
tion and the acquisition of new material, L here append for the 
benefit of those who may not have access to my papers on the 
subject : 

Of the Neolithic perforations of France-—t. Some are surgical, 
others were made after deat 

2. Both sexes and all ages, including infants and children, were 
subjects. 

3. They are from three to five centimeters in length on the 
head of adults, with very oblique and cicatrized edges. 

4. The position is variable. 

5. The posthumous were made by the aid of an instrument 
moved like a saw, detaching the fragment, &c. i 

6. Object of the posthumous: To secure the fragments, which 
were used for amulets i 

Of the perforations in the ancient crania of Michigan—t. All 
Were made after death. 
oe They are confined to adult subjects, and probably the male 

£ 


„3. They are generally from about one to two centimeters’ in 
diameter, with oblique but not cicatrized edges. 
4. The position is constant—centrally placed 
head, and always on the sagittal suture, or at its junc 
Coronal suture. : 
„5 They were made probably with an instrument turning prin- 
pally semicircularly. 


at the top of the 
ture with the 


‘ae Diri e aa. ae ee oe Es whee 1M 


6. Object unknown (perhaps the extraction of the brain, per- ' 


‘aps the suspension of the head). 
Sary is a name that the parts remove 
at even they were cut out entire. erican 
It is ataki that, so far, the discovery of the Ameri 
perforations has been confined, perhaps with a single exception, 
tothe mounds in Michigan. It seems probable, however, th 
Proper researches would reveal similar relics from mounds on the 
Canada shores of the Detroit river and Lake Huron. | jon of 
Those who may be interested in a more extended nan ps m 
this interesting custom, I refer to the following mentioned ol my 


d were preserved, 


: third of 
an ~ Smallest of the perforations which I have as yet seen 15 parser eight- 
tenpo it diameter; the largest, of elliptical form, has the major 

of an inch. — Z. G. 


1176 General Notes. [November, 


“ Additional facts concerning artificial perforation of the cranium,” 


THE ARUBA LANGUAGE AND THE PAPIAMENTO JARGON.— The 
Aruba language—Aruba is the westernmost isle of the group of 
islands called the “ Lesser Antilles,’ which extends along the 
northern coast of South America at a short distance from the — 
mainland. It lies north of the Peninsula of Paraguana, Vene- — 
zuela, and northeast of the entrance to the Gulf of Maracaibo; it | 
belongs to the dominion of the Dutch in the West Indies, "o 
extends over the following islands: Aruba (preferable to 
orthography Oruba), Curaçao, Curaçilla at the souti aema 
of Curaçao, Bonaire or Buen Aire, and the two Aves or on 
islands, Curacao is the largest island of the archipelago, 
consists of a barren rock almost devoid of vegetation ; parke 5 
tal of the Dutch colony, Wilhelmstadt, is built on its sout ro 
ern shore. In former times the thrifty inhabitants accumu a 
wealth as the mediators of a lively smuggling trade paene 
Spanish and the other colonies ot the West Indies. ne 
the staple produce of Curaçao with its 22,000 Lage ae 
its size, it is nearly three times larger than Aruba, wal 


- . . bd : i i ra i 
some linguistic material was obtained, visited pape" have 


| language for the Pap 


; m 
mento jargon, their exterior is still of a pure pene Reds 
Aruban language was probably the same as that o ana. From 
related to the vernacular of the peninsula of ein Fe ng a fer 
natives far advanced in age, Pinart succeeded in iti also six 
terms of the Aruban language and of local nomenc me at pres 
sorcerers’ formulas, and from the Papiamento, as Ti names evr 
ent, he secured a limited number of plant and anima aaka d 
dently pertaining to the extinct Indian dialect, the 
which may be easily increased by future travelers. oan the for 

An old Aruba Indian, recently deceased, witness" F a nati 
mer Indian encampment at Saboneta the inhuma ae double 


weet 


female in one of the large conical ollas, her body oh the 
a ole the vase and the head protruding then oe a 
‘smaller urn was then placed upon the head, ok 


the whole covered with earth. Several Aruban grottos : 


1884.] Microscopy and Histology. 1177 


shelters yielded inscriptions and pictographs to the explorer, who 
considers their style as related to the pictography of the Orinoco 
and Apure countries. Fragments of pottery, hatchets made of 
shells and stones are profusely scattered around the ancient en- 
campments of the native Arubans. 

The name of Curaçao island seems to be the Tupi word coar- 
acy’, curassé, suv, in Guarani, quaraçi ; Aruba resembles the 
name of a shrub which is called in French Guyana arude. Nico- 
las Fort y Roldan, in his “Cuba indigena” (Madrid, 1881), p. 
125, gives arabo as the name of a plant as heard on one 

t Antilles. 

The Papiamento—On account of the peculiar selection and 
association of their ingredients, and the grammatic changes 
which the terms are undergoing, the jargons or medley languages 
are now being studied by linguists with the interest they deserve. 
The best known jargons of America are the conversational Tupi 
or “lingoa geral,” the various negro jargons of Guyana, of the 
West Indies and of Louisiana, the Chinook jargon, etc.; in the 
early stages of their formation English, Turkish and Neopersian 
Were jargons also. The main ingredient of Papiamento, which is 
spoken upon Aruba, Curagao and the rest of this island 
is the Spanish language; then comes Dutch, the language of the 
Netherlandish rulers, and least in frequency are the words of 
Indian origin. 

The character of this medley speech will best appear from 
a Conversational Guide, which has been published at Curaçao, 
1876.—A. S. Gatschet. 

MICROSCOPY AND HISTOLOGY 

MYRTILLUS, A NEW DYE FOR ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE TISSUES. 
—Dr. M. Lavdowsky? recommends the juice of fresh huckleber- 
ries, Vaccinium (Gaylussacia Gray) myrtilus, as an excellent yed 

ium, especially for the caryokinetic figures and the cel- 


eparation—The newly picked berries should be vane in 
Water, then the juice expressed and mixed with twice its volume 


1 * 
5 ined by Dr. C. O. WHITMAN, Mus. Comp. Zool., Cambridge, Mass. 
th. f. Mik. Anat., xxiii, pp 506-508. 


1178 General Notes. [Novini 


best staining is said to be obtained from chromic acid preparations 
2. A lilac color—more durable than the red—may be obtained ia 
‘ the following manner: Place three watch-glasses on a white _ 
ground, fill one with the myrtillus fluid, the second with aon 
per cent solution of acetate of lead, and the third with distilled 
. water. Place the object in the dye for one or two minutes, wash ia 
the distilled water, then leave in the solution of acetate of lead 
until the lilac color becomes pronounced; finally wash and mount 
in glycerine or, after treatment with alcohol, in balsam, In case 
glycerine be used, a little acetate of lead should be mixed with it 
A NEW SECTION-FLATTENER.—Dr, F. Decker! has invented à 
section-flattener which presents an important improvement on 
those hitherto described in this journal. The flattener is a cylin- | 
drical glass roller (2) which rotates on a brass rod (b). | 


ee 


irmly, forms a carrier for the roller and its shaft. re of its arns 1 


d of which 


middle of the block in a horizontal direction, and is f the gas 
position by means of the screw (4). The distance 0° © rand 
he sce 


2 prr 
ingly altered. The length of the glass cylinder (o to be 
diameter should vary according to the size of the objet Te. 


t A T ; 1884 i a 
Ein neuer Schniitstrecker. Arch. f. Mik. Anat, xxiii, pp» 53754 0 


1884.) Microscopy and Histology. 1179 


sectioned, Three cylinders, measuring 4, 6 and 9™ in diameter, 
will be found sufficient for all ordinary purposes, 

The apparatus above described can be adjusted to knives of 
different microtomes. It may be obtained from Gustav Stober in 
Wiirzburg. 

Tur Distomran Broop-sac or Sporocyst.—Our knowledge of 
the life-cycle of the digenic trematodes has become nearly com- 
plete through the researches of Leuckart, Thomas, Schauins- 
land and Biehringer. Schauinsland was the first to trace the de- 
velopment of the trematode embryo from the egg ; and Leuckart 


anarians, is shown by Biehringer to contain nuclei, and hence it 
must be regarded as a true epidermis, comparable with the Aypo- 
dermis of other worms. Hitherto the ciliated mantle of the em- 
bryo, which is thrown off during the transformation into a sporo- 
cyst, has been held to represent the entire ectoderm (epidermis), 
and hence the sporocyst was supposed to be without an ect er- 
mic layer. Biehringer takes a more rational view, holding that 
the ciliated mantle represents only the outer | 

rm, comparable to the outer epithelial layer of 
echinoderm or a nemertine. The so-called cuticula of the cer- 
carian larva is also shown to be not a cuticula butan epidermis. 
_2. Beneath the epidermis there is a thin muscular layer con- 
cared an outer stratum of transverse (circular) fibers and en 
inner stratum of longitudinal fibers. 
"ine The inner layer, which forms the chief part of the wall of 

€ sporocyst, may be called a germinal epithelium. ee 
_ Some sporocysts have a fourth layer enveloping the three 
a... ; but this layer, as was long e pointed 
rng orms no part of the proper W : : 
Tager has for the first time punting” the precise origin 

accessory membrane. Jt is formea from 

cles of the host, 

Origin of the Germ-cells of the Sporocyst—Th 
n of opinion between Leuckart and ot 
gin and nature of the cells which give rise " the yo 

mature sporocyst. The free-swimming disto! 

completely filled with coarsely granular cells, which are the 

1 . i i : i E en. Sem- 
A aE T 


1180 General Notes. [ November, 


descendants of the cleavage-cells. Leuckart holds that these are 

he germ-cells of the next generation, and that their number 
remains the same when the sporocyst stage is reached. Thomas 
also regards these as germ-cells, but thinks that their number is 
augmented by germ-cells derived from the epithelial layer which 
lines the cavity of the sporocyst. According to Leuckart then 
the germ-cells are ready formed from the outset; but according 
to Thomas some are ready formed while others have an epithelial 
origin. : 

Biehringer has settled definitely that germ-cells do arise in the 
epithelium, but leaves the question of a two fold origin of germ- 
cells still open, not having been able to trace the history of the 
cells which fill the interior of the embryo. 

A cell in any portion of the epithelium divides into two cells, 
the plane of division cutting the 
axis of the sporocyst at right 
angles, as in Fig. 1g. Further 
division gives four, eight cells, 
&c., ending in the formation ofa 
morula-like mass which escapes 
from the epithelial layer into the 
central cavity, and here completes 
its development. This mode 


THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE JAWs OF BRANCHIOBDELLA AND A 
METHOD OF ISOLATING THEM.!—The jaws, of which there are to, 
one dorsal and one ventral, are formed on small papilla as cube 
ular secretions. The papille represent slightly thickened areas 
of the epithelium lining the cesophagus. The jaws then af 
merely thickened portions of the general cuticula which covers 
the whole of the external surface of the worm as well as the epi- 
thelium of the cesophagus. . f 

The five or more denticles on the lateral and posterior ae 
the jaw are each the product of a single cell which 1s slightly 
longer than the other cells of the papilla. i icular 

In order to isolate the jaws and with them the entire cuticu 
mantle, it is only necessary to leave a Branchiobdella in an ac 
watch-glass until it has dried, and then cover it with water. Z 
cuticula will expand to its original size, leaving the she 
animal inclosed as in a sack. The sack can then be cut throni 
the middle and the animal easily removed by slight pressu"? ©, 
the aid of a small brush. The jaws will then be seen coher 
with the cesophageal portion of the cuticular sack. ye 


‘Walter Voigt. Semper’s Arbeiten, VIL, pp. 47 and 54-55, 1884- 


1884. ] Scientific News. 1181 


SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 


— We have received a description, by Professor Alfred C. 
Haddon, of an apparatus for demonstrating systems of classifica- 
tion. What he proposes is very simple, merely consisting of a 
series of glass plates placed vertically over one another, leaving 
a small space between each, and a number of small movable 
blocks. The exact method for supporting the glass plates is of 
no consequence, and may be varied to any extent. The apparatus 
which he employs “consists of an oblong mahogany board, let 
into the corners of which are four brass sockets; into these are 
inserted four brass standards which are pierced with holes at reg- 
ular intervals in such a manner that the holes in each end-stand- 
ard are vis à vis with those of its fellow, and are at the same time 
parallel with those at the opposite end: Through these holes 
rass wires are inserted, and it is upon these that the glass plates 
rest. This apparatus has the advantage of being readily taken to 
pieces, and being quite portable. The names should be printed 
on paper, then cut out and pasted on two faces of oblong blocks 
of wood in such a manner that they can be read in a front view 
or by looking down vertically upon the apparatus. A makeshift 
may be constructed by bending a small oblong piece of cardboard 
toofwise and writing the name on one face of the anticlinal. The 
several blocks may be linked together in the same plane by pins 
placed either vertically or obliquely, and reaching to the upper 

plate. Any complicated system of linkage is thus possible. 
“In a classification of recent forms, each plate might represent a 
stage of differentiation, and the arrangement of the forms on that 
superficies would indicate their inter-relationships. The lower 
planes would naturally be chosen for the less differentiated types. 
An area on each plane could always be made by a colored line to 
represent some special modification. Degraded animals might be 
tinted, and a black pin slanting from the higher to the degenerate 
fm would graphically show that it was not an ascending type. 
Missing links between more or less widely separated, living ani- 
mals could be appropriately supplied by names within brackets. 
or phylogeny the arrangement would be somewhat similar 
except that each plate would represent some geologica orizon, 
e name of which would be ona block placed in one corner. 
and name in each geological epoch should be tinted in some 
oo color, so as to distinguish at a glance its precise 
zon. 


“rT 


ee e philosophical paleontologist arranges hie eg N pE 
ane so as to indicate the relations of each animal to those p 


1182 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [November, 


some form which, if at present unknown, must once have existed; 
or, more accurately, diverging from such a common ancestor. It 
will also be made apparent that in every age there were forms 
which varied from the parent stem which lived for a longer ora 
shorter period and then became extinct. 

“ Very valuable museum demonstrations could be made by fit- 
ting up a comparatively large apparatus to the glass plates of 
which were cemented real fossils with their names. Ammonites 
and Brachiopods, for instance, are well fitted for this purpose. 
Affinities and variations would in this case be illustrated by the 
actual specimens, and so be vividly impressed upon the mind.’— 
Proc. Royal Dublin Soctety. : 

— The Ottawa Field Naturalists’ Club evinces its activity in 
promptly issuing its Transactions, Vol. 11, No. 1. The club has 
for four years maintained a strictly local character, and to this is 
ascribed whatever success it has attained. The subjects treated 
refer to the local flora of Ottawa, the sand plains of the Upper 
Ottawa, the fossils of Ottawa, edible and poisonous fungi, a list of 
the Coleoptera of Ottawa, and the deer of Ottawa valley, with 
reports of the different branches or sections into which the soci- 
ety is subdivided. If every city in America had such a local, 
enterprising society, and there are a few which have, what an 1n- 
creased interest in and respect for the study of nature would per- 
vade our people! Its effects would be seen in our common 
schools ; it would ameliorate the degrading materialism of our 
times, tone down the love of display and lavish expenditure in 
moneyed circles, and here and there give room for the growth 
and development of trained observers of nature. 

— The records of the Society of Naturalists’ of the Easter 
United States, vol. 1, part 1, Boston, 1884, contains the constitution 
and by-laws with a list of members; a copy of the original 
for the organization of the society ; with the records of the first 
meeting at Springfield, Mass., and the second meeting at New 
York, Dec. 27 and 28, 188 4. 

department of veterinary medicine and surgery ae 
been recently established in connection with the University ° 
Pennsylvania. Dr. R. S. Huidekoper has been placed in charge. 


— 


PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, Phila- 


delphia meeting, Sept. 4-11, 1884. 
SECTION E—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. nt 
The geological age, character and origin of the gypsum beds of Cayuga county» 
F, $ illiams, 


, : . Ed- 
The correlation of the lower coal measures of Ohio and Eastern Kentucky. 
war on 


: - Eu- 
On a section of the strata of Cretaceous and Tertiary formations of Alabama ~~ 
_ gene A. Smith and L, C. Johnson. : 


1884.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 1183 


Onsome fish remains recently discovered in the Silurian rocks of Penna. E. W. 
Claypole 

The horizons ‘of petroleum and inflammable gas in Ohio. Edward Orton 

A review of the geology of Delaware. Results of a survey now in progress. Fred- 


erick D. Chester. 
The saltwell at Humboldt, Minn. N. H. Winchell. 
Geographical and Saral popat as ee fossil faunas. H. S. Williams. 
‘On some large and peculiar fossil fishes fr om Ohio an iin diana, J. S. Newberry. 
On the hae bal iach fe New Je a Geo 
The chemical e of limestone of the Appalachian Sak, A. S. Ewing. 
Dee Dadio Gn the Caribbean sea. J. R. Bartlett. 
The profile of Nicaragua, geographical and commercial. ar Bedford Pim, R.N 
The pilot chart of the North Atlantic ocean. R. Bar 
Metamorphism in the Huronian of the Northwest. R. o ‘Irv 
Identification of the Green Mountain gneisses in | Eastern New f Bogland. C. H. 


coc 

Notice of a new and very important work on the origin of the crystalline schists, by 
Dr. I. Lehman, Geo. H. Williams. 

— of boulders of decomposition and gneiss at Washington, D.C. J. W. 


A Ss ais dyke across Southeastern Pennsylvania. H. Carvill Lewis. 
study of Eozoon canadense. Alexis A. ulien. 

gad aidegical survey of Pennsylvania. Chas. A. Ashbur 

A brief account of the remarkable ex pivelions in Thibet, Mongolia pe ror fron- 
tiers of India and China, recently made by reshna, or A. K., ive sur- 

veyor, en under the Trigonometrical Survey of Tndia, with ‘ficial map. 


relawney 
New identifications i in biblical geography, based on the recent survey © of Western 
Palestine, made for the Palestine Exploring Fund, with the re map of the 
survey and the settee map of vi Old desert: Apocrypha and Josephus, 


‘rela under 
An attempt to determine the amount of eet ical erosion so place in co mu’ 
stone (Caleiferous to Trenton) valley of Center county, Pa .„ and a eae i asi z 


et rrek on 


the Gulf Stream and deep-sea temperatures. J. E. H T 
Recent improvements in apparatus and methods of sounding ocean depths Daniel 


men. 
Sketch of the life and sci Wm. Libbey, Jr. 
: ientific work of Dr. Arnold Guyot. > 
On the intimate relations of the Chemung and besar groups in n the N. W. portions 


of Pennsylvani ames Hall. 
Nts nsylvania and S. W. part of New York ra systems of the U. S., with 
James Hall. 


British earth $ op . Gss 

quakes and their seismic relations. Richard : 
Geographic apogee, illustrated by a study of plains, plateaus and their deriva 

ves. W. M. Dav : ae 
On the ultimate results of converting the basin of the Desert of Sahara into an In 
N land lake. P. H. Vander Weyde. 
eae on Srseeghee from King’s aoin N. C. Chas. W. Dabney, Jf. 

olina phosphates. Chas. W. Dabney, Jr. : 
Native antimony fr fr say Prince William parish, York county, New Brunswick. Geo. 
A study ly of o one omg in the archeeanpaleozoic contact line in S.E. Pennsylvania. 
Fra 
Brides of iti glaciers i in the Cattskill Mountain K John C. Smock. 
eee ders cde ift a W. Spenc 
lssouri c gine its moraines: J. E. Todd. 


W. 
AR celal map of New York, 


— 
a) 
“<< 
A 
5 
3 

< 


a siia : 
sa a eadltteina of he interior of ae pee H. ee 
Ue sand, its wide distribution and properties. H. C. Boito 


1184 Proceedings of Scientific Societies, [ November, 


Musical sand, its wide distribution and properties, H. Carrington Bolton and 
exis A. Julien. 
Notice on the e microscopical examination of a series e hagn lake, river and desert 
sands, et reg and H. oe Bol 
On the erosive ac chon of ic J. S. Ne 
Additional facts concerning Pibe glacial An AB in Kentucky, Indiana and Illinois, 
ht. 


rig 

Deflections i in the aoe = the iceflow in Maine during the last part of the gla- 
cial epoch. O. H. 

On two series of set or i gravels which appear to cross each other like an X. 
Geo. H. Sto 


SECTION F—BIOLOGY. 


On peie n and Gyracanthus from the Chemung of Pennsylvania, E. W. 
ole. 


pom: 

Fertility in hybridization. R. B. Sass 

On the skin of insects, 3. Minot. 

Hibernation of the lower vertebrates. A. W. Butler. 

The development of Limulus. J. S. Ki 

Do the ete wn and oblongata represent two encephalic segments or only me 
der, 


urt G. Wi 
On the morpholo ogy and evolution of the tail of osseous fishes. John A, Ryder. D 
On the mammalian affinities of the saurians of the Permian epoch. Edw ard . 


On finger muscles i in Megaptera longimana and in other whales. John Struthers. all 
Som A geri ations on the influence of oxygenated and unoxygenated blood, as W ; 
ia ies od in various degrees of dilution on ike isolated heart of the frog an 
. G. Beyer 


Affinities of f Dione æa. Jos F dones 

Biological problems. Č, $. 

A — ig fa of the Seite oor on the petiole of Fuglans nigra, known as 
eum Lillie hi Mart 


The habits of some he Arvicoline. Edga R. Quick and AWD a 
The existence and — eela pd of the portæ ane a Monro) in 

adult human brai urt G. Wilder eh 
Be KON on Potion of the cerebrum and the cerebellum in anthropoid apes. 


Observations o on the phylogeny of the Artiodactyla Mammalia, derived = 
American fossils. E. D. C Cope. 

The torsion of leaves . J. Beal. 

The fossil flora of the : globe: historical view. Lester F. Ward. 

The fossil flora of the globe; geological view. Lester F, Ward. 

The fossil flora of the globe; botanical view. Lester. F. Ward. 

Influence of isolation upon oe tation. E. Lewis argi t. 

The hood of the hooded seal (Cystophora cristata). C. Hart Merriam. Merriam. 

Remarks of delegate from the E cin itn oe verein in Wien. C, Hart Me 

Polarity of leaves of Erigeron canadense. W. J. Beal. k, a 

On some points in the development of sii: ‘lanai eggs. George aie 

The dynamics of the ins t. Geo. Macloskie 


Some ee in entail nomenclature. Burt G. Wilder. 
Experimental researches on the so- called thought ho eure W. F. Barrett. 
Alleged se sensory effects of magnetism. L, F, Bar H. N. 


€ presence of eyes and other sense organs on er shells of Chitonide. 
a of 
Utricularia aata with young teleostean fishes entrapped in the bladder-traps 
H. N. Mose’ ley. 


ee oa H. N. Mosel 
Experimental research Shah to the BARES of tuberculosis. Geo. M. Sternberg: 


1884] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 1185 
note on the lymphatics of the common bull-head (Amiurus catus). F. 


L. Kilborne and S 
On the nervous system of Comatula, with observations on the mutual affinities of the 
recent gro A. Miln hall, 


3 of Echinoderms, nes Mars 
Geo. Macloskie 
Structure and E nent of suspensory ligament in the horse, ox and sheep. D. 


J. Cunningham 
Ethidene dichloride. as an anesthetic. John G. McKendrick. 
The influence of cross-fertilization upon the development of the strawberry. Wm. 
b 


enby. 
On the extinction of species. Thomas Meehan 
_ On the hitherto unknown mode of oviposition in the Carabidæ. C. V. Riley. 
Larval theory of the origin of tissue. Alpheu s Hyatt 
a to some commonly accepted views of heredity Alpheus air 
and affin ities a os a. Alpheus Hyatt 
e Endoceratidæ, Alpheus Hyatt. 
ches on growth ee ak. Charles S. Mino 
W. B. Sco 


F 

oO 

3.8 6 
28 

S 
® 

oS 

5 

7e 

O 

5 


cama Ls Wicht. 
Mya amsay Wrig 
aieas paria). R Ramay Wright, y 


a aikins inflorescence of Cuscuta glomerata, C. E. Bessey. : 

On the identification of the animals and plants of India which are mentioned by 
ancient Greek authors. V. Ba 

The comparative longevity ‘of the sexes. Mrs. A. B. Blackwell. 


TION G—MICROSCOPY. 
a pease = short pee of pee Wm. A. Rogers. 
some new microscopic devices 

Recent studies on ae theses of the Presse 
me the use of the mic oe in scientific investigations. 
Trg me Points in microto my. John A. Ryder. bo 

pon a microscopic method of studying the mee: brain. Henry F. Osborne. 

of Lingula. H.G. Beyer 


Description of the Schröder camera 
er camera a lucida. R. Hitchcock. i 
; tions of P ariaions i in the cellulose ‘alls of plant-cells. Louis Elsberg. 


nd their practical results as regnis 
R. Hitchcock. 


ei ies ey ee ee arr E a 


L 


SECTION H—ANTHROPOLOGY. 

Sae the evolution of a race of deaf-mutes in EAGER A. Graham Bell. 
iyavi of Iroquois words, Erminnie A. Sm 

The lineal mea of man in the Upper Miocene = ‘Neb 4 

Pe measures of the semi-civilized nations. À 

A search i in British vical eases for the lost colonies a "Northmen and Portu 

e D.G., Hali 


Some characteristics of the ogan ayi and shell mounds on 


! 
| 
: 


yg a D. Cope. 


the Atlantic coast of 


The mann las 
Wit secre « in which Indians so mae ‘their stone implements. P. R. Hoy. 
ipes of fri ; aa 
mar vations friendship, E a ei oe of the sacred pipes of 


eae * inte Edward S. sheik 

Suge th American races and civilization. ‘el 
— m in the evolution cf races in the Er a pol world. Danie 
"the plou ugh i In ng” Edward S. Morse. 
ure periods, Powell. 
_ W. Butler 
nolo Stephen Dn a 
ology of the Iroquois word "Rha -wen-ni-yu, Erm minnie A Stephen 
D. P he Iroquois illustrated by study of emblematic mounds, Step 


1186 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [Nov., 1884, 


Eastern archery. Edward S. Morse 

Uses of the emblematic mounds. Stephen D. Peet. 

Notes upon som panais jsh apa from Central Minnesota. Miss F. E. Babbitt. 

The importance of the study of primitive c Sei to an tao of the 
peron age in Auction. — D. x 


Local weather lore. Am 

Disputed points concerning tomes, pronouns. Erminnie A. Sm 

Archzeological explorations by the Peabody Museum of ian Archeology 
and Ethn log AAi at 6 request of the trustees of the museum. F. 


Deseription of the skeletons and skulls found in the large mound of the Turner 
e 4 a udle 


PIT aena of he Ji W. Powell, 
On the geographical ia E aa of labretifery. W. H. Dall. 


SECTION I—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 


The principles of graphic illustration. Franklin B. Hough. 
On the credit of the United States Government. E. B. Elliott. 
i . Martin. 


The structure and economic value of some of our woods. P. H. Dudley. 

Lands in pime = Indians. Illustrated by experiences with the Omaha tribe. 
Alice C. Flet 

Cahditios: of a agape m kat mute instruction in the United States, statistically 
considered. J. W. Chickering, Jr. 


Production and distribution. w. Atkinson. 

Upon the EaD of a propos ai “ new departure” in the form of schools for 
the education of deaf mutes. Joseph C. Gordon 

On indexing t a, literature of science. B. Pickman Mann. 


rcentages of nutrients in foods. W. O. Atw 
Irregularity in E teed building a chief cause of recent pastes depressions. Wil- 
liam Kent. 


Some experiments in a new method of land cultivation by the use of dynamite, and 
the important results obtained. George W. Holle 

Peak Eip question and industrial schools. Thos. Hampson. 

The learned professions and the pu laa 1870-1880. Chas. bade en. 

The aims and methods of manual tr. ning schools. C. M. Woodward. T 
T g M aon of the historical Toi to questions in yai science. t- 

. Drownin 
A new resource for the women of the Sirvan ine zan ping aa Lorin Blodget. 
Some economic and social effects of mach Edward T, Pet and of 
A discussion of the principles involved in the general ‘setae eF "vegetation 
tr eratu J alt. 


gs 2. eorom get. d the 
Brief outlines of the prieg gpa upon the power to move railroad pare Lor 


mechanical inspection of railroad tracks, as ake by the dynagraph 
nspection car. P. H. Dudley. 
An account of the first general census of gree Trelawney Saunders. 
= uses of great expositions, Lyndon . 
production for American consum mei J. R. Dodge. t the 
A review of a proceedings of the section of economic science and statistics 3 
Montreal meeting B. A. A.S. Chas. W. Smile xcel- 
Commercial aipe of the United States with Spain and her colonies. His excel 
_lency rturo de gegep 
whe American 
osophy o! of criminal Anns a. Lewis W. Hau 
An illustration of the results i by the artificial m aioa of ip a 
: Rite mi ey. Bevan. 
of pauper children, industrially and paeme. lag x 
On technical education in the British Islands, Henry Henn 
; scheme of of Mih i culture in the U, S, of America, kos Forsberg. 


THE 


AMERICAN NATURALIST. 


VoL. xvur.—DECEMBER, 1884.—No. 12. 


ROCK INSCRIPTIONS IN BRAZIL.' 


| ] BY JOHN C. BRANNER. 


r 1876 I visited Aguas Bellas, a small town in the interior of 
the province of Pernambuco, and about a hundred miles from 
the coast, for the purpose of examining localities said to contain 
the remains of extinct mammals. 
The fossils were found at and in the vicinity of a cattle ranch 
known as Lagoa da Lagea, eight leagues east of Aguas Bellas. 
7 During the time spent at this place I learned of several rocks in 
J the vicinity bearing inscriptions which, it was said, no man could 
tad. I took time to visit the most convenient of these localities 
and to make careful drawings of the markings, the characteristic 
: ‘a of which are here represented (Plates XXXIV-VI). 
The first place visited for this purpose was a small farm about a 
‘Teague from Lagéa da Lagea, known as Cacimba Circada. The rock 
found at this place, together with its inscription, is shown at k (Plate 
: a). This rock is a gneiss boulder of decomposition, about 
- ed pes, lying upon the bed rock near the Rio Garanhun- 
& zinho, On the right, as one faces the inscription, is an asterisk a 
foot in diameter, made by four lines crossing each other at equal 


“gles, while the remainder of the inscription on the left PREE of 
the top 


It was while 
der his direc- 


‘lian Naturauist for May, 1871, contains an ar 
A tock inscriptions. 


NO. XII. 75 


1188 Rock Inscriptions in Brazil. [ December, 


of the rock about two and one-half feet to where a portion of the 
block has split off from the lower left corner, probably carry- 
ing away part of the inscription. It is impossible to determine 
the exact number of these points, for some of them, especially 
those next the top, have become very indistinct through the 
weathering of the face of the rock. The inscriptions appear to 
have been made by pecking with stone implements, and in the 
case of the asterisk the stone was rubbed up and down the line 
until the furrows were well polished. After being ground out 
these points and lines were painted, the color now having a dull 
red or brown appearance. 

The next place visited was Pedra Pintada (painted stone) which 
is located upon a stream (during the rainy season) taking its 
name from the marked stones—Rio da Pedra Pintada! It is said 
to be ten leagues from Aguas Bellas, twelve from Garanhuns and 
nine from Papacaga. There are here about forty designs engraved, 
and part of them both engraved and painted upon the large 
blocks of gneiss on the banks, and upon the flat smooth rock in 
the dry bed of the stream. There is a cascade about twenty-five 
feet high just here, and at the foot of it a pot-hole, now filled up, 
which is about fifteen feet wide by as many deep, and to the pres 
ence of which these inscriptions are possibly due, as I shall show. 
The forms of the inscriptions are shown in the figures, which are 
drawn to scale, and I need not describe them in detail. Figs. % 
6, c, d, e, f,r and sare engraved on the bed rock of the stream 
above the cascade. These are not painted, and if they ever were, 
the paint has been washed off by the stream charged with san 


and gravel. Many of these are becoming indistinct, some a 
them have almost entirely disappeared, while others have a 
o 


less disappeared altogether. The concentric chipping 
rock, so common in the tropics, has also removed some of the 10- 
scriptions both in the bed of the stream and upon the banks. 
The engraving appears to have been done like that at om 
Circada, by pecking and grinding with stones having thin oF 
edges. After being thus polished these marks were painted, the 
color now showing as a dull red or brown. In some ae, 
points and lines are combined as is shown in ¢ and £- The os 
into the 
betwee? 


* Lower down this stream is called Riacho dos dois Riachos, and font 
Ipanema at Sant’ Anna, which enters the Sao Francisco about midway 


Traipa and Pao d’Assucar, 


1884. | Rock Inscriptions in Brazil. — 1189 


rangement of points in ‘parallel vertical lines is rather frequent, 
occurring several times here (Fig. v), as well as at Cacimba Cir- 
cada (Fig. 2), and at Sant’ Anna (Fig. x), There aré several 
such rings as that shown at e, one of them having thirty-four 
points instead of thirty-six, while others are broken, or the points 
are too indistinct to be determined. There are two asterisks of 
eight rays, one associated with other markings (Fig. v) and an- 
other one independent, while still another asterisk has twenty 
rays (Fig. 2). The only figure that seems to be intended to rep- 
resent anything is Fig. 7, which appears to be a rude representa- 
tion of a spear-head. Part of Fig. o might be supposed to repre- 
sent a fish, but I fancy that whatever resemblance there may be 
_ is accidental. The resemblance between some of these designs 
__ and some given by Professor Hartt! from the Amazon region is 
noteworthy, especially that of the spiral shown in / and that of 
the circle with the point at the center, such as are shown at J. 
Returning from Aguas Bellas to the Rio Sao Francisco by way 
of the village of Sant’ Anna, in the province of Alagoas, at half 
a league from this latter place I found the figures shown at * in- 
scribed upon the side of a large gneiss boulder of decomposition. 
These figures are both cut and painted, and have the same dull 
red color as those at Pedra Pintada. There are other marks upon 
the vertical faces of this and of the other boulders of the group, 
evidently made by the same hands. These are simply polished 
spots varying in size from one to two feet in diameter. They are, 
for the most part, nearly round, but some of them are oblong, 
and none of them are more than about a quarter of an inch in 
l th—most of them not so deep, and are all painted. The 
~ Stones upon which these inscriptions are made, as has already 
been Stated, are gneiss boulders of decomposition, about a dozen 
in number, from six to twelve feet in height, and are grouped 
together upon the summit of a little hill of solid gneiss, as shown 
in the accompanying sketch. F 


as... The boulders near Sant? Anna, Province of ane 
1 x 
AMERICAN NATURALIST, May, 1871. 


1190 Rock Inscriptions in Brazi. [ December, 


The inscription x is upon the largest and most prominent of 
these boulders, while many, though not 

age all the others, have polished places upon 
€) O > their sides such as I have described. 
During dry weather there is no water in 


©) ) the immediate vicinity, though the Ipan- 
ema! is only about a mile distant. 


A It should be noted that these inscrip- 

| j tions, as well as many others which I 
i % heard of through this part of the country, 

i s are all upon these large stones, and gen- 


erally in some such prominent place. 
One inscription in particular was men- 
y tioned to me by several persons, all of 
| whom gave substantially the same account 
of it. This inscribed rock is near Agua 


temia maae ee er a E E D 


Branca, twelve leagues abọve Piranhas 
| ~ and ten leagues from the falls of Paulo 
j sie Affonso, on the Fazenda da Caisara, and Is 


known as the pedra navio, or ship stone. 
It is said to be a large and nearly round 
Tre foot, X boulder, standing upon a very narrow 
Sant’ Anna inscriptions. base upon the solid rock, and to have all 
its sides covered with Indian inscriptions’ 
Through this part of the country, where the archzean rocks 
form a wide belt between the plateaus of the interior and the 
Cretaceous and Tertiary beds near the coast, these boulders of de- 
composition are not uncommon, and almost every one that I have 
seen has had some sort of artificial marks upon it, generally too 
badly eroded to be defined, but sufficiently distinct to leave n° 
doubt concerning their origin. 
Of the figures themselves I am unable to suggest any d 
explanation. The explanations given by the people in the 


efinite 
vicin- 


1 Not “ Panema ” as the geographies give it. ak 
? The inscribed rocks at Ereré described by Professor Hartt are also prominent 
ones. d 

3I was told that there are extensive rock inscriptions further up the R f 
cisco at Salgueiro on the Rio Quixaba and at Ouricury, both in the western wee 
the province of Pernambuco. On the road between Diamantina and Beribery, ™® 
province of Minas Geraes, are some rude Indian paintings of animals upon 2 
of rock, These latter I have seen, but had no opportunity of sketching them. 


io Sao Fran- 


PLATE XXXIV, 


Brazilian Rock Inscriptions. - 


PLATE XXXV. 


Brazilian Rock Inscriptions. 


PLATE XXXVI. 
m 


„nm eer u M we 


: a 
ST ee 7 
ei a 
; : 
? — g st} 
ó ‘ 
by ee f ae 
de te PEE 
: Po was 
A oe “aA 
sa g+ m =F 
' e r 
: 7 
r 


Brazilian Rock Inscriptions. 


ae A 


1884.] Rock Inscriptions in Brazil. 11QI 


ity throw no light upon the subject. Some think they were made 
by the Dutch when they held the country about Pernambuco in 
the early part of the seventeenth century, but the general impres- 
sion is that they refer to some treasure hidden in the neighbor- 
hood. This idea led a former proprietor of the country about 
Pedra Pintada to make diligent search for this supposed treasure, 
and he even cleaned out the great pot-hole at the foot of the 
cascade, but without finding anything. 

It is to be noted, however, as far as I have observed, that these 
inscriptions are always near the water, or near a place where 
water is likely to be found ate in, if not quite through the dry 
season? At Pedra Pintada the pot-hole below the fall has water 
in it long after the stream proper has dried up, the Ipanema has 
never been known to dry up entirely at Sant’ Anna, while Ca- 
cimba Circada (fenced spring) takes its name from a spring at that 
place. This occurrence of the inscriptions in the neighborhood 
of water might admit of more than one explanation. If they 
have no other relation to the water itself, they happen to be in 
these localities because these are the places where the original 
inhabitants of the country would naturally live during the dry 
season, which is here nearly half the year, and indeed a part of 
these inscriptions at least—those in the bed of the stream—must 
have been made during the dry season. I am, however, inclined 
to the opinion that a part if not all these markings refer in some 
Way to the water supply which is so uncertain in this regiom of 
Seat drouths. Exactly in what way, whether as records of sea- 
Sons, or as petitions or offerings to the powers supposed to bring 
fain, it is idle now to speculate. To one visiting this section dur ing 
the dry season, which lasts from August till January, there 1s no 
More natural explanation. The whole country is parched except 

cacti and a very narrow strip bordering the now dry beds of 
the streams, Beyond these threads of gradually disappearing 
seen one may travel for leagues and leagues without seeing a 
‘ign of water, and when, as not infrequently happens, the dry 


Season is prolonged, the suffering of man and beast is extreme. : 


The cattle subsist upon the pulp of the cacti that grow here 


' There can be no confusing these markings with the holes made in large sR 
Indians grinding their corn, and which also occur near the water. Many excel- 
kent €xamples of these mortar holes were found by me at the foot o 
meat, On the Rio Sio Francisco, They are made in the upper surface of 


of tock near the river, 


large frag- 


1192 The Amblypoda. [ December, 


abundantly, while the herdsmen obtain water for them by digging 
holes in the sand of the river beds wherever water may be found 
in this manner. If the drouth still continues beyond this stage, 
the cattle are driven toward the coast to where water may be had, 
or they are left to perish of thirst. 

Without experience of such circumstances it is, perhaps, not 
easy to realize the force of the argument, but after riding for 
days through this region with a tropical sun blazing overhead, 
the atmosphere so dry that it seems to parch one’s very vitals, 
and the heat from the glaring white sand quivering upwards toa 
cloudless sky, the thin catinga forest shriveled and still, with not 
a sign of animal life save the metallic stridulation of an occa- 
sional grasshopper, and after passing now and then a whole day 
without water, one realizes the importance which savage races, 
dwelling in such a country, would attach to a stream or pool 
where water could be had during the dry season. 


THE AMBLYPODA. 
BY E. D. COPE. 
(Continued from page 1121, November number. }? 
PANTODONTA. 
f Wiese is known as yet but a single family of this suborder, 
the Coryphodontidz. Its representatives have been found in 
the lower lacustrine Eocene beds in Europe and North America 
in considerable abundance. About twenty species have been de- 
scribed, of which three have been found in England and France, 
and the remainder in the Rocky Mountain region of North 
America. They form a curious and interesting group of hoofed 
Mammalia which did not survive the Lower Eocene time, except 
in their probable descendants, the Dinocerata. The characters 
of the suborder have already been given in the NATURALIST, page 
tiii. 

Five genera of the Coryphodontidæ are known from dental 
characters. Two of these, Coryphodon and Bathmodon, are 
known in their skeletal structure, the first-named very thoroughly. 

1 The circumstances under which I found the remains of extinct mammals mas 
region lead me to believe that their extermination was caused by long drouths 
great areas. 

2 The explanations of Fig. 7 (p. 1115) should read four-ninths nat. size; 
thirds nat. size. 


not two 


1884.] The Amblypoda. 1193 


Bathmodon is nearest to the genus Pantolambda in its foot struc- 
ture. The astragalus has the same subquadrate outline (compare 
Figs. 3d and 19 a), and possesses, as in that genus, a facet on 
its internal anterior angle, for another bone. This character 
is found among recent Mammalia in certain rodents, where a 
separate bone, the internal navicular, articulates with the internal 
extremity of the astragalus. This is probably the case in Bath- 
modon and Pantolambda, but the separate bone has not been 
found. In Coryphodon it is evidently wanting, as the astragalus 
terminates internally in a hook-like apex, which gives it a very 
peculiar appearance (Fig. 2). Until I traced this astragalus to 
Coryphodon in 1873,) the relation of this genus to the Dinocerata 
had not been suspected. 


i If of the 
pti pa ee than Core see te tan cas on 
natural size. From Wasatch bed of New Mexico. Original. 

The small size of the brain in this family is well displayed in 
the section of the skull of Coryphodon represented in Fig. 12, 
where the cavity it has occupied is exposed. Its relations to the 

ull are entirely different from those observed in at feet 
Mammalia excepting the elephants. As in them the diploë 1s 
represented by large air chambers. Fi 

The characters of the brain itself may be learned from ig. 
13. The exceedingly small size of the cerebral hemispheres 
at once arrests the attention, being much smaller than in the 


1 


: ings Amer. 
“On the short-footed Ungulates of the Eocene of Wyoming. Proceedings 
‘soph. Society, 


1194 The Amblypoda. [ December, 


cotemporary genus Phenacodus, and agreeing with Uintathe- 
rium, hich has been described 


much to the cerebellum re- 
mains uncertain. The ante- 
rior prolongation of the ante- 
| rior pyramids is visible below 
the middle brain, as though 
the pons varolii were wanting 
(Fig. 13 2). 
The characters of the long 
E 2 i bones which are common to 
= A the members of this family 
{ may be observed in the Bath- 
z - modon pachypus, Figs. 14-15. 
The humerus shows the robust 
but not hooked tuberosities of 
mar bain cavity see p sete or the head, and the simple con- 
sonar nat. size. Fig. a, left side; ” dyles. The radius shows the 
ove; c, below. z, origin of trigem inu 1 transverse ae d and 
herve ; ps anterior pyramids, Original, fei simp € ia 
Proceed. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1877. the lateral distal facet. The 
femur (Fig. 15 4) has well developed trochanters, including 
the third, and a fossa ligamenti teris. The ilium (Fig. 15 a) like 
that of animals with a large belly, is much expanded, and has a 
wide peduncle. The pubis and ischium are light. 
The five genera of Coryphodontide differ as follows: 
I. Superior molars wi a 
All the maia molars ik a erail posterior V.....-+: Manteodon. 
II. Last superior molar with but one inner cusp or angle. 
a, Last superior molar with posterior external cusp. 
Anterior two molars with posterior external V.. 


aa, Last superior molar without external posterior cusp. 
Anterior two molars with posterior external V. hodon. 
lus transverse, with internal hook and no facet... .... esse 111" Coryp 
Astragalus subquadrate, with an internal facet and A internal ga 


thmodon- 

hodon. 

tTFirst superior molar only, with posterior external V,....-. + ME 
pele RE Aletta ena noes e a permite 


*See NATURALIST, 1884, p. 898, for figure. 


ee ees. ee LE oda A 


1884.] The Amblypoda. 1195 


The general relation of the teeth-of these genera to those of 
other families of the order has been discussed (supra p. 1117). 
Their relation to each other may be understood by comparison of 
Fig. 9a and f with Fig. 16. In the latter the anterior external V 
is marked a, and the posterior p. The posterior exterior angle of 
the latter is designated by the letter e. In Manteodon (Fig. 9 f) 
the posterior external V is observed to be well developed on the 
last superior molar. In Ectacodon (Fig. 16a) its posterior edge 
is represented by an external cusp only (e), the rest of the border 

) ae 


i AE 
\ 
= ¥ 


ee 1d Bath modon ach Cope, bones of fore limb, one-fifth nat. size, from 
Wasatch beds of Wan s Se T left humerus from behind ; a’, proximal, - ’, 
“tal views, Fig. 4, left radius from behind; 4’, proximal, 6/7, distal views; ¢, 
Pisiform bone. From Vol. 11 Report U. S. Geol, Survey, F. V. Hayden. 


_ being absent. In Coryphodon this border is sometimes trace- 


e (C. anax, Fig. ọ a) or is wanting. In Metalophodon it is 
ĉntirely absent, and is represented by a conical projection of the 
Posterior crest only (Fig. 16 p). The posterior V of the second 
“tperior molar is distinct in all except Metalophodon (Fig. 16 
bp), where it is represented by a crest only, as in the last molar 

most of the species of Coryphodon. The succession 1S thus 
en to consist of the gradual conversion of the external Vs into 


1196 The Amblypoda, (December, 


transverse crests, a process which is consummated in the Dino- 
cerata of the later Bridger epoch (see Fig. 10). 

Of Bathmodon two species are known, B. radians (Fig. 18) 
and B. pachypus (Figs. 14, 15 and 19). The latter is the larger, 


Fic. 15.—Bathmodon pach : a: vtdual figured in Fig. 14 one 

2 y iypus Cope, bones of individual figu > "s Jeft 
pe hat. size. Fig. a, left anii, somewhat distorted, internal view; ‘ 
emur from behind. Original, from Wasatch beds of Wyoming. 


equaling a large ox in dimensions, The crania of these see 

are unfortunately unknown. Both are from the Wasatch beds 

Wyoming. 
Of Ectacodon Cope, but one species, the Z. cinctus, has aes 


1884.] The Amblypoaa. 1197 
7 


dis . P 
iscovered. Itis only known irom the superior molar teeth fig- 


= = 
yl ginal molar series of Corre a two-thirds nat. size, from the 
Fig. 


k $ 
Metalo p of Wyoming. Origin Fi , Ectacod 
op ao eset Cope. l. 5 tacodon cinctus Cope. å. 


ured in Fi i 
g. 16 a, i t 
2 2. It is a large species, about equal to the Bath- 


ore rae size, from below 


17. Ee apgr Lc eas tee Cope, skull, two-n! 
ooth mer., Vol. Iv, 


Oa 
fr 
pt ir om Report M. Wheeler, U. S. G, G. Surv. W. u 


belong to Cory- 


The 
greater number of species of the family 
lateral, as in 


phodon. 
Modern > this genus the temporal fossæ are 
minants, leaving a wide front with overhanging tem- 


1198 The Amblypoda. [ December, 


poral ridges (Figs. 20-21). The dental formula is the complete 
one of I.3; Pm.{; M.§. The superior canines are very power- 
ful, and have three sides, giving a ‘triangular section. In some 
of the species (C. molestus), this tooth is more compressed 


pe, from the Wasatch beds of 
Original. 


a female. 


From the small size of the canine probably 


-— Lower jaw associa:ed with the foot bones of Bathmodon radians Co 


Wyoming, three-eighths nat, size. 


Fic. 18 


towards the apex, and the posterior face is narrow and concave, 
forming a groove. The inferior canines are also triangular 1n 
section, and the anterior angle is produced into an ala at te 
base (Figs. 9 c, 232). The neck and tail are of median a 
The general appearance of the Coryphodons, as determine e 


gl in a SEE e S E 


er er 
a 


1884] The Amblypoda. 1199 


the skeleton, probably resembled the bears more than any living 
animals, with the important a 
exception that in their feet i fs 
they were much like the ele- 
phants. To the general pro- 
portions of the bears must be 
added a tail of medium length. 
Whether they were covered 

1G. 19.— Bathmodon pachypus Cope, 


with hair or not is, of course, 
Fic. 
bones of foot of individual represented in 


uncertain ; of their nearest liv- 

ing allies, the elephants, some figs. 14 and 15, one-fifth nat. size, | 
were hairy and others naked. %, page te Me, Pek esol ones 
The top of the head was 

doubtless naked posteriorly, and in old animals may have been 
only covered by a thin epidermis, as in the crocodiles, thus pre- 
senting a rough, impenetrable front to antagonists. 


Be ea renew Mane Oia kom 
tU. S. G.G. Surveys and G. M. Wheeler, Vol. Iv, pt. IT. 

The movements of the Coryphodons doubtless resembled 
of the elephant in its shuffling and ambling gait, and may 
xen even more awkward from the inflexibility of the ankle. 
“compensation for the probable lack of speed these animals 
were most formidably armed with tusks. ‘These weapons, partic- 
dariy those of the upper jaw, are more robust than those of the 
ivora, and generally more elongate, and attrition preserved 
r than diminished their acuteness. The size of the species 


"aried from that of a tapir to that of an ox. 


those 
have 
But 


1290 The Ambtypoda. [December, 


We must suppose that the Coryphodons were vegetable feed- 


inths nat, size. 
Fic. 21. cre wa formato Cope, skull from leftside, two nint 
From Wasatch bed of N xico. Original, from Report U. S. G. G. Survey a 
of 1ooth mer., Vol. rv, me I. 


Fic. Site — latidens Cope, 1 aw, one-third natural size, Fig. b 
nese ch epoch oF ew Mex 13 Fig. raped a ramus from internal a sooth 

rami from 4 stove Original, from Report U. S. G, G. Servey 7 remolat 
Sees, e G. M. Wheeler in charge. This specimen has an anomalous 


1884.] The Amblypoda. 1201 


ers, but not restricted to any particular class of food. They were 
doubtless, to a large extent, like the hogs, omnivorous. 

Fourteen species of this genus have been described. They 
range in size from the dimensions of a tapir to those of an ox. 
In the absence of the bones of the skeleton the species may be 
distinguished by the inferior true molars, which are fortunately 
the parts most frequently preserved. The simplest form is that 

_ where the posterior crest of the posterior true molar is transverse, 
and there is no crest or cusp accessory to it on the inner edge of 
the crown, as in C. /atidens (Fig. 22). A change in the form of 
this crest is seen in the C. curvicristis, where it is curved forwards 
at the inner extremity so as to enclose a crescent-shaped valley. 
This species adds several other peculiarities of this tooth, as the 
presence of two oblique crests in front of the anterior cross-crest 
(Fig. 22). The superior incisors are angulate on the external 

ce. The species was of about the same size as the C. /atidens. 


: Fig, 


half nat- 
 22.— Coryphodon curvicristis — 
‘Mal size, from the Wasatch bed of Wyoming. From Report V. >. Ga bopi 
Terrs, It. Origin Fig. a, righ andibular ramus with true ert 
» from above. F ig. 5, penultimate superior lar below 5 


ao vee rown 
. . A z é i canine, C 
: rom below ; ¢, superior incisors, external side iS TE e 
> £ A, inferior incisors, external views; 2, inferior canine, Dase 


_ The posterior cross-crest may send off the internal marginal 
Ae at an angle, as in C. eocænus Ow., or C. obliquus Cope. The 
oa marginal crest may rise into a low tubercle, as in C. loba- 
MS or C. anax (Fig. 23 and 94d). In this case the PrE 
o ie may be very oblique, as in C. anar, thus giving i 
_ “PPearance of a heel or fifth lobe to the crown. This is indee 

“e character of such a crown, which if compared with that of 
"eC. latidens only might suggest generic separation, but we 


1202 The Amblypoda. [ December, 


have every intermediate condition. Finally this internal ridge 
may develop into a conic cusp, as in the C. cuspidatus (Fig. 96). 


ig. 94, From the Wasatch 


; individual represented in Fi 
Fig. 6, head of tibia; c, distal ex- 


viewed from above. 


size 


Lee no a a ee A EA 


eee. 
Sa an 


ght ramus, 


from Report U, S. Geol. Survey Terrs., Vol. 111, F. V. Hayden. 


Fic, 23.—Coryphodon anax Cope, bones, two-fifths nat 


bed of Wyoming. Figs. a a’, mandible, less ri 
remity of tibia, end views. Original, 


_ Of Metalophodon two species are known, the M. testis (Fig: | 
16 6) and M. armatus Cope, both from the Wasatch beds of Wy- 
oming. Both species are of about the size of the Coryphoam 
latidens, and smaller than the C. anax. The skeletons aré 1 
known. 


(To be continued.) 


1884.] Relation of Color to Flavor in Fruits and Vegetables. 1203 


THE RELATION OF COLOR TO FLAVOR IN FRUITS 
AND VEGETABLES. 


BY EMMETT S. GOFF. 


URING the summer of 1882 I was struck by the coincidence 
that in several of our fruits and vegetables a white or light 

colored flesh is accompanied by a milder and more delicate flavor 
than exists in other varieties of the same fruit or vegetables hav- 
ing a dark colored flesh. Thus the white varieties of onion are 
milder in flavor than the red ones; the white currants possess 
less acidity than the red ones, and these in turn have less pun- 
gency than the black varieties; the white and yellow tomatoes 
are sweeter than the red ones; the white and yellow raspberries 
are more delicate in flavor than the red ones, and these in turn 
have a less strongly marked flavor than the black varieties. The 
familiar custom of blanching celery, endive, sea-kale, the cos 
lettuce and other plants to give them a more delicate flavor, was 
called to mind, and the fact that the inner leaves of the cabbage 
head which are white and decidedly more delicate in flavor than 
the outer green leaves > also that potato tubers “sun burned” 
through exposure to the light have a very strong and bitter taste. 
These and other instances came to mind, until I was led to ask 
whether there may not be a law of relation between the color 
and flavor in fruits and vegetables. 
i: Every fruit and vegetable has a standard of quality peculiar to 
itself. This is based upon the natural qualities that make the 
fruit or vegetable desirable to man. Thus in most fruits quality 
s based upon delicacy and richness of flavor, with a certain de- 
ree of tenderness in the flesh. In many salads it is based upon 
crispness, tenderness and mildness in flavor; in a few, as the 
cress, it is based upon pungency. In some vegetables, as the 
_ Potato and squash, quality depends upon the dryness and fare 
| mccous pr operties of the flesh, combined with a delicate, charac- 
_— Eetistic fla 
Th the amelioration of fruits and vegetables, it is : 
_ 4M of the horticulturist to intensify, so far as possible, me sA 
Table qualities and to eliminate the undesirable ones. It is evi- 
“nt, therefore, that if it can be shown that the color of the flesh 

wa direct relation to its flavor and tenderness, We have a vom 
le index in the work of selection. If by whitening the Hes 

A p ‘ 


XVHIL—no, XIL 


the constant 


1204 Relation of Color to Flavor in Fruits & Vegetables. | December, 


of a fruit, through selection, we can eliminate acid and solidity, 
or if by darkening the flesh of another fruit, already too tender 
and insipid, in the same way, we can heighten its characteristic 
flavor, and increase its firmness, we have gained a new faculty in 
the work of making the products of nature subservient to our 
wants. 

The hypothesis was therefore assumed, that in a white flesh, in 
fruits and vegetables, we escape solidity, and a strongly marked 
characteristic flavor, with a gain, or at least without a loss, of 
sweetness, This hypothesis was applied to the fruits and vege- 
tables of which I have been able to find complete descriptions. 
The results of my researches will be given further on. 

If the law exists which my hypothesis assumes, it is evident 

that the processes of selection have operated more or less to 
obliterate the marks by which it may be traced. Seedlings or 
sports yielding fruits having a very harsh or acid flavor have been 
rejected, whatever the color of their flesh. On the contrary, 
deep colored samples possessing a pleasant flavor, though excep- 
tions to the law, have been preserved. Thus in many cases we 
are compelled to trace out the law with but half of the evidence. 
For example, the blood clingstone peach, which is said by Mr. 
Downing to have flesh “ very red, like that of the beet,” is pro- 
nounced “ not fit for eating.” Red fleshed peaches are very rarely 
mentioned in our fruit books. Possibly the reason why so few 
red fleshed varieties have been preserved is, that their flavor and 
firmness were such as to make them undesirable. ` 

We may fairly assume that palatability has been a leading prin- 
ciple in selection, and that the color of flesh has had influence 
only in a few cases where appearance is of some importance. In 
the currant, the principal use of which is in the manufacture of 
jelly, the red color is preferable, because, as every one koos 
the rich crimson color of jelly made from red currants 15 more 
attractive than the pale color of that made from the white cuf- 
rant, though it is equally well known the latter has decidedly the 
milder flavor. So in the beet and carrot, the rich colors of the 
deep red varieties of the one, and orange sorts of the other, ae 
more desirable for the table than the paleness of the milder watt 
varieties; and further, as there is no acid in these roots to over 
come in their amelioration, their agreeable characteristic flavo® 
are more developed in the deeper fleshed varieties. In the 


kJ 


1884.] Relation of Color to Flavor in Fruits and Vegetables. 1205 


on the other hand, in which, as I think we may fairly assume, the 
factor which it was most necessary to eliminate in its ameliora- 
tion is a harsh acid and an over-firmness, the majority of the 
varieties are white fleshed. So in the pear, we may assume that 
toughness and astringency were the qualities'to be overcome, 
hence in this fruit we have mainly white fleshed varieties. In the 
plum and peach, however, in which the acid element is not very 
prominent, and which possess very little solidity by nature, we 
obtain higher characteristic flavors in the varieties having yellow 
or orange flesh, 

Since adopting my hypothesis I have noted down such state- 
ments as I have chanced to find in horticultural reading, as bear- 
ing directly upon this subject. The extracts here recorded from 
several different authors seem to recognize the law as applying to 
special cases, but I have nowhere found evidence that any one 
has conceived it to be of general application. 

In speaking of the leaf, or chard, beet, M. Henri Vilmorin says, 
in“ Les Plantes Potagéres,” p. 422: “It seems that in all the 
leaf beets the white color of the leaves accompanies a sweet 
taste, while a deep green color is indicative of a strong and bitter 
taste,” 


In speaking of the turnip the same author recognizes a popu- 
lat prejudice that white fleshed turnips are milder than those 
having yellow flesh, and which he is disposed to contradict. 
With all deference to this great horticulturist, I will say that the 
result of my, own investigations, the detail of which I shall give 
further on, is confirmatory to the prejudice that he declares poorly 
founded. He says in the work just cited, p. 362: “ It is certainly 
Wong that in Paris the yellow fleshed turnips should be less 
“teemed than others. It is here considered that the yellow color 
“accompanied with a strong and bitter taste, which is far from 
correct, for we find among the yellow turnips varieties possessing 
"Sty tender flesh and of very delicate flavor, as well as in the 
Mi varieties” It will be observed that this statement does ~ 
contradict the existence of a greater proportionate number o 
-Mid flavored turnips among those that have white flesh. 

Mr, Fearing Burr, Jr., says of red cabbages, in “ Gar e sed 
nes,” D. 142: “When cooked they are considered less m1 
der than the common varieties.” 

e tive tend 


>= 
Regarding the comparative tenderness and delicacy of blanched 


1206 Relation of Color to Flavor in Fruits & Vegetables. [December, 


and green asparagus stems, Mr. Robinson, in his “ Parks and 
Gardens of Paris,” p. 472, quotes the opinion of a French epicure 
as follows: “ In certain localities they do not yet value the dis- 
tinction between blanched and green asparagus, and occasionally 
prefer the latter. That is an error very prejudicial to the con- 
sumer’s interests. Properly blanched asparagus is infinitely more 
tender and delicate. All asparagus cut when it is green is not fit 
to be eaten in the ordinary way, but may be used, cut up small, 
as an accompaniment to other dishes. To serve up green aspar- 
agus is to dishonor the table. In the markets of Paris the green 
asparagus is worth one franc a bunch, when the blanched is worth 
three francs.” 

It has often been a question to my mind why the white beet is 
almost exclusively used in the manufacture of sugar. I had sup- 
posed that the difficulty of eliminating the color from the juice 
of the red beet to be the probable reason why the latter is not used 
for this purpose. I have been able to find very little bearing 
upon this subject, but that little indicates that the principal reason 
is that the white beet contains a larger percentage of sugar. 
Thus I find in Morton’s “ Cyclopedia of Agriculture,” Vol. 11, p. 
925 : “ Formerly the field beet, with rose colored skin, and pre- 
senting, on being cut, alternate layers or zones of a white and a 
red color, was much more extensively grown in Germany and 
France for the purpose of sugar making than it is at present. 
Preference is now given to the White Silesian beet, introduced 
into France by Mathieu de Dombasle. The latter gives a larger 
percentage of sugar and contains less water, saline matters and 
nitrogenous substances than the former.” According to M. Vil- 
morin, all the beets now used in France for the manufacture of 
sugar have been derived from the White Silesian variety. 

In this connection I quote a partial analysis of three varieties 
of beet from the Transactions of the New York State Agricultu- 
ral Society, 1852, p. 330. It notes the per cent of coloring mat- 
ter and of the sugar and extract in each: 


Jor- Per centof Sager 
Variety. = Arena he T and Extrat 
Turnip beets. srei ; .038 43-037 
Long blood ........... .0158 55-327 
White sugar... . van 


We may infer from this that the per cent of sugar ia yee 


1884.] Relation of Color to Flavor in Fruits and Vegetables. 1207 


samples of beet increased as the per cent of coloring matter 
decreased. 

In speaking of the leek, Mr. Wm. N. White says, in “ Garden- 
ing for the South,” p. 241: “ The whole plant is much used in soups 
and stews, but the most delicate part is the blanched stems.” 

Mr. Charles Downing, in his admirable “ Fruits and Fruit 
Trees of America,” p. 629, says of the yellow fleshed peaches as 
grown under European climates, that they “ require our hot sum- 
mers to bring out their flavor. In a cold climate the acid is 
always prevalent.” From the connection it is evident, as the 
reader may observe, that this is true especially of peaches having 
yellow, rather than “ pale” flesh. 

In speaking of the edible podded or sugar pea, the author of 
“Les Plantes Potagéres” says (p. 423): “ The seed of purple-flow- 
ered peas is always more or less colored or spotted with brown ; 
itassumes a somewhat disagreeable grayish color when cooked, 
and has besides a rather strong and bitter taste.” 
hh speaking of carrots the same author says, in “ Le Bon Jar- 
 dinier,” 1882, Part 1, p. 437 : “ The red carrots have in general a 
_ More pungent taste than the yellow and white ;” and again, on me 
_ Same page, “ the white carrots are esteemed for their sweetness. 

Mr. Burr says of the Long White carrot: “ Flesh white, and 
generally considered sweeter than that of the colored varieties. 

In Speaking of the mushroom, the author of “Les Plantes 

agères ” says, on p. 82: “It seems to us, after several compar- 
_ ate trials, that the white variety is preferable to the others as a 
vegetable, The light-colored (blonde) variety appears to us less 
tender and perfumed [than the white], the gray has, on the con- 
trary, a stronger taste,” A 
Mr. Burr, in “ Field and Garden Vegetables of Anema P- 
bu quotes the following in relation to the sea-kale : ne 
form the edible portion, and being blanched under groun 
_ Ky are tender and white, and from six to eight inches long. 
: “t shoots should be cut as soon as they reach the onset gee 
“use if the shoot comes through, the top gets purple, and 
“mts become strong flavored.” ae i 
mee same author pronounces the blood red onion, PARGA 
=" T the outer coats but the inner ones, except those mo 


- ey ined red, “one of the strongest flavored of all vari- 


1208 Relation of Color to Flavor in Fruits & Vegetables. (December, 


The large red is said to have “ purplish white” flesh, and to be 
“stronger flavored than that of the yellow or earlier red varie- 
ties.” 

But of more value than all the testimony of impressions and 
_ quotations, is the result of a careful investigation of existing vari- 
eties. Do the varieties of fruits and vegetables, as described by 
unprejudiced horticulturists, when put to the test of figures, show 
clearly that mildness and sweetness accompany light colored 
flesh to a greater extent than dark colored? This is the test 
question. In the tables that follow, the testimony on the fruits is 
gathered mainly from Downing’s “Fruits and Fruit Trees of 
America,” and that on the vegetables from Burr's “ Field and 
Garden Vegetables of America.” 

I have gathered in the table only such terms as express a defi- 
nite quality, and which apply to my present purpose. Many 
terms are used, such as “delicious,” “ pleasant,” “ agreeable,” 
“ good,” etc., which convey nothing specific in regard to flavor. 
Many shades of color are also delineated which are intermediate 
between the extremes, such as “greenish white,” “ yellowish 
white,” “ greenish yellow,” etc. These I have not used, as the 
number of varieties to which they are applied is, in most cases, 
small, and they do not apply directly to the present purpose. 
Sometimes, for the purpose of simplifying the table and increas- 
ing the number of varieties, I have united two or more terms, 
which mean very nearly the same thing, into one. Thus the 
“deep yellow” as applied to the peach in the table, includes 
those described as “orange,” “ deep orange,” “orange yellow, 
“rich yellow,” etc, 

In the table of vegetables the numbers are too small to make 
the testimony of much value, though so far as it goes the evr 
dence is decidedly confirmatory to the hypothesis: 


1884.] Relation of Color to Flavor in Fruits and Vegetables. 1209 


= 
» |. 
SSeS iElt Fle ESSE, 
a?) vo |v = = |= D a z Biel. is 
S |> izal e i te] & |S sigs 
Color of Flesh. > ZAE 2 jG) be an 
SiS ists a a a A A 
ba w |e |a | w | — ~ a ws | oh 
qovses 156/22 17| 4173) 2| 60\13| 7 124| 7143| 3 
Whitish | 402 5177| 2| 65\20| 734\20 O55) 5 
Apple = | Yellowish ..... 2.000600. 0155) 4| 5930|14 |44 3/52 6 
(Yen E TRED 7418| 9|. 142|. 0| 45/27/15. |60] 7142| 4 
ite.. 198157 6145/63 69 e e {23125135 
itish. 51149 o 27d.. jnas] 2 
Pear Yellowish .....s.2e-++0+| 16)38}..| O) 0/81) 63)../.--- 6 
WeMOWs. osc bau tele ae 3/33 o| 033) 100 e++ 33/33 i 
33 
s 
eb 
White. ..... 21|33|.-| 5|--|71| 81.» M 
K OHOWIMD e osoro inaen 2260|. .| oj. .|14| 45|. -|14 145| 9} 14 
Peach wr. wel 731521. -| Of+~|28) 521- 7 4 8 
Deep yellow...... seser s| 201231. .1 Os 1ESt Aati 8 Bod 
dis. J 
2 o| > roi eg toi ba ort S 
ale [gl |e |. S/MElgles 
a ari ss 1S WIZieisisifis 
Color of Flesh, |> $|¢ (8. ls ise g HHE 
© a a a a Te ledlalolele 
aje jeg = z elez sss 
8 S1158/8888 88S 
£ wl & les) § 15/5 sis\s|s 
Z dilda jaa fe |e Je FAs [Oe S 
Potato en i 12 3 
Yellow eel Je o| 14 + 
- ‘Turnip { ite.. 113 wef ee] > oi 
llow: a: ii „atg J 2 
Buta baga f White.. | gPsodisolas| -+| »: i 
-o O UYelow oe 6 o oj - Ee. 


SE ae 
Tt will be observed that in every case where the terms paia ; 
i mild,” g delicate,” “tender” and “ melting ” are used, e pe 
‘One was called « é 


ae 


1210 Growth, tts Conditions and Variations. [December, 


centage is highest in the white fleshed varieties. It appears also 
that the per cent of acidity is greater in varieties having dark 
colored flesh. In the pear the percentage called “ sub-acid” is 
decidedly greatest in the white fleshed varieties. This may at 
first seem contradictory to my hypothesis. It should not be for- 
gotten, however, that in the apple and pear a mild acidity greatly 
improves the flavor, and hence this apparent exception is possibly 
the result of selection. 

In the plum no varieties are said to have white flesh. I find, 
however, that in five varieties in which the flesh is called “ amber 
color,” and three called “pale green,” none are called acid; 
while in fifty-nine varieties called “ yellow,” five have some acid, 
in thirty-three called “ greenish yellow,” three are called acid, in 
twenty called “ greenish,” five are called acid, and in nine called 
“greenish yellow,” three are called acid. 

In the other fruits and vegetables I have not found sufficiently 
accurate descriptions to permit me to judge whether the hypoth- 
esis holds or not. : 

If further investigation should discover sufficient evidence in 
this direction to establish a law, this law will have an important 
practical application in the amelioration of fruits and vegetables. 


GROWTH, ITS CONDITIONS AND VARIATIONS. 
BY CHARLES MORRIS. 
(Continued from page 1101, November number.) 


AR back in the history of life we reach a period in which 
crustaceans and mollusks seem to have been the lords of the 
earth. During the greater part of the Palæozoic .age the 
ocean invertebrates were dominant, they grew to great size, devel- 
oped rapidly in functional ability, and swept the seas of ar 
stores of food. We know little of the struggle which then too 
place between the various invertebrate sub-kingdoms, or of their 
probably successive rise to supremacy. Nor can-we trace the 
struggle between the members of each sub-kingdom. So far as 
evidence goes the cephalopods would seem to have been copie 
poraneous in origin with humbler representatives of their G 
and of other races. But this is doubtless an illusion produe 
by an undue crowding together of the geological tablets. g 
This invertebrate era was succeeded by the earliest stage 


Bees aig Fs aes See Ser COTES Pky Nee ee n 


1884. ] Growth, its Conditions and Variations. 1211 


the vertebrate. The Paleozoic fishes appeared. At first they 
must have been inferior in size, weapons and food-getting power 
to their invertebrate rivals, who so long had ruled the sea. But 
their superiority of organization quickly told. They came into 
competition with their former superiors, and soon progressed be- 
yond them, gaining massive armor of defence and strong reptilian 
teeth for attack. The empire of the seas had passed into new 
hands. These great ganoid and dipnoid fishes increased in size 
and strength, the invertebrate wave sank before them, and the 
lordship of the ocean became their own. The result was the 
same that has appeared in all such cases. They not only grew 
great in bulk, from the abundance of their food supply, but they 
varied with the greatest rapidity in specific character, assuming 
every variety of adaptation to their variety of food. This rapid 
Specific variation of each type of life immediately after gaining 
the supremacy over preceding dominant types, is a fact which 
May be traced throughout the geological age, and indicates that 
Variation in form and habits, while slow under ordinary condi- 
tions, may be extremely rapid under such specially favoring cir- 
cumstances. 

These early dominant fish, while superior in power to all pre- 
ceding animals, were inferior to those that succeeded them in the 
fact that they trusted for defence to massive armor instead of to 
speed. In the whole history of life trust to armor has been an 
inferior characteristic, the armored animals have tended to grow 
More sluggish, and in most cases to assume a sedentary life, 
While all steps of higher development have been attained by the 

weighted and swifter moving animals. Such is the story of 
ocean life. As we enter the Mesozoic age unarmored reptiles 
Succeed to the armored ganoids and quickly take from them the 
“mpire of the seas. The duplex characteristics of the Palzozoic 
fishes seem to divide, developing in one direction into the more 
efficient reptiles, and in the other into the teleostean fishes, which 
ae well adapted to obtain food from the humbler life of the sea. 
`œ only continuous representative of the eatlier dominant fishes 
S the shark, which had cast off its excess weight and a ap 
“me able to contest the field with the swimming reptiles, and 
"Yen to survive them. But the immense size attained by these 


ie.. - mp 
ag details of this hypothesis see paper by Alpheus Hyatt, Science. 5 


1212 Growth, its Conditions and Variations. [December, 


reptiles, and their rapid variation in specific character, indicate 
their superiority over all the remaining ocean life of their period, 
the abundant food which they obtained with little effort, and the 
variety in organization and methods of escape of this food, which 
necessitated accordant variations in its foes. 

While these revolutions were taking place in the empire of the 
seas, life had invaded the land. Insects were the first animal in- 
habitants of the land, so far as evidence goes. They gained no 
extreme size, perhaps through a paucity of food supply and 
organic inefficiency. Yet land articulates seem to have rapidly 
increased in variety, since Spiders, scorpions and myriapods 
appear almost contemporaneously with insects. At the same 
period, or shortly afterwards, ocean vertebrates invaded the 
land. The character of their invasion singularly resembles that 
of the articulates. The latter were obviously derived from water 
articulates, since the first known forms belong to those families 
which pass their larval period in the water. In like manner the 
earliest land vertebrates were batrachians, which in their larval 
State are water animals. These creatures seem to have founda 
free field and abundant food, and to have multiplied and varied 
with great rapidity, while some of them attained great bulk 
despite their imperfect organization. Cope gives a list of thirty- 
nine genera and about a hundred species of Carboniferous batrach- 
ians, which indicates that the full degree of specific variation was 
very great. In fact they seem to have had the world of the land 
to themselves, with nothing but the imperfection of their organ a 
zation to hinder their obtaining superabundant food with little 
exertion, and thus growing to immense size. 5 

This age of batrachian dominance was succeeded by one 
which the wave of batrachian life declined, while huge land ani- 
mals took their place on the throne of the empire of life. The 
batrachians were unfitted to compete with reptiles in the struggle 
for food, and were obliged to content themselves with lesser nf 
plies, so that they quickly diminished in size before the poste 
their strong competitors. Very probably personal assault is 
these new-comers, as they grew stronger and able to cope Nae 
the batrachians, hastened the decline of the latter, and dro 
them down into the humbler fields of life. : i 

And now came a new life era. The land reptiles increased 
number and variety with the seeming suddenness of all p 


1884. ] Growth, its Conditions and Variations. 1213 


dominant forms, and grew in many instances to enormous bulk, 
far exceeding anything previously known among the inhabitants 
of the land. Step by step the animal world was learning the art 
of food taking. The lesson was slowly learned. The two ener- 
gies of escape and pursuit kept pace in development, each forcing 
the other upwards. The continued effort at escape or defence 
must have yielded steadily greater efficiency and variety. This 
in its turn rendered necessary the development of new and more 
efficient weapons and methods of assault. Thus has life been 
pushed ever upward, the Carnivora forcing their living food to 
superior development, and the food animals exerting a like influ- 
ence upon their carnivorous foes throughout the whole long reign 
of earthly life. 

But as in all preceding eras of life, during this age of reptiles 
their destined successors to dominion were slowly developing, in 
lowly forms, far below the huge reptilian monarchs. True birds 
gradually developed, and the flying reptiles disappeared before 
them. The feather proved superior to the membrane as a flying 
organ, and in the competition for food which succeeded, the 
membrane-winged creatures vanished. At a later period other 
membrane flyers, of mammalian organization, came into compe- 
tition with the feathered tribe. But they have failed to dispossess 
them. The bats have been restricted to a nocturnal life, and the 
birds still hold the diurnal empire of the air. 
- Such was not the case with the mammalian occupants of the 
other two fields of life, the land and the sea. Before their onset 
the wave of reptilian life rapidly sunk, and that of mammalian 
life as rapidly rose. This advance of the Mammalia to suprem- 

acy seems to have been a slow one, and was probably hotly con- 
tested by the strongly-armed, swift-moving and huge-sized rep- 
tiles. But as in all cases, a superior organization eventually sep 
the battle. The earliest mammals were of the lowly-organized 
Marsupial type. They seem to have been incompetent to cope 
with the powerful and vigorous reptiles, and after their first 
‘pearance, vanish from sight throughout the long period of the 
Cretaceous era, They probably continued too eget 

ave any strongly declared marks of their existence 1 e 

s. 


Just how or when the placental mammals appeared, ge 
. But their unquestionable superiority to the i 


1214 Growth, its Conditions and Variations. [December, 


organization quickly made itself manifest. The reptiles sunk 
and the mammals rose to the supremacy with such seeming sud- 
-denness that it appears almost the work of miracle. Of the hard 
battle for empire which must have taken place, not a trace 
remains, We step from the Cretaceous to the Eocene era, and 
at once we pass from a world ruled by huge reptiles into one con- 
trolled by equally huge mammals. The wave of reptilian life 

rapidly declined, while that of mammalian life broke over it. The 
~ former imperial rulers of land and sea sunk into lowly creeping 
and lurking forms, while the new lords of life grew into swim- 
ming and stalking monsters of unquestioned superiority. 

It is not probable that this change took place as the conse- 
quence of an actual battle between reptiles and mammals.. More 
likely it resulted from a sharp competition for food, in which the 
mammals gained the victory, the more specialized great reptiles 
dying out through starvation, while the generalized forms de- 
creased rapidly in bulk and gained new habits. 

In regard to this superiority of mammals over reptiles one of 
its most important features was the hot-blooded organization of 
the former as compared with the cold-blooded condition of the 
latter. The result of this condition was to make the reptiles 
essentially tropical in habitat. Such forms as ventured into colder 
regions must have hibernated in the winter, and thus could not 
well have attained any extreme bulk, Hibernation was not none» 
sary to mammals. This fact at once gave them a superiority In 
colder climates, in which they could develop unopposed, and from 
which they could descend to the tropics in bulky and vigorous 
forms to compete with their reptilian predecessors for the food 
supply. 

- As for the oceanic mammals, it is not impossible that they “ 
gained their early development in colder regions, which many © 
them continue to inhabit, and thence pressed southward to sei 
pete with the great ocean reptiles. The huge toothed whales © 
the early mammalian period, typified by the gigantic Zeuglodon, 
probably were particularly well adapted to obtain food, and may 
have rapidly Swept away the food supply of their predecessors: 
In this connection there is one point of the greatest importance, 
to which we have as yet made no allusion, though it mee 
was strongly influential in causing sudden replacements of old by 
new forms of life. If the competition between old and new tyPs 


1884.] Growth, its Conditions and Variations. : 1215 


was less one of personal battle than of success in obtaining food 
from a common source, then it does not appear at first sight evi- 
dent why the different dominant types should not have over- 
lapped, the great reptiles, for instance, continuing into the Eocene 
instead of completely abandoning the field to the mammals. 
There is a probable cause of this, to which no attention has 
hitherto been called, yet which may have been amply sufficient 
in all such cases. Thus the great carnivorous oceanic reptiles 
pursued prey which they must have found continually greater 
difficulty in capturing. The easily taken forms either vanished 
or changed in organization and habits, growing smaller, swifter, 
and more wary. They also became continually better adapted to 
the modes of attack of their foes, so that the difficulty of the 
latter in obtaining sufficient food for their needs must have steadily 
increased, and a retrograde movement in size and numbers have 
arisen. Under such circumstances a new-comer, which had at- 
tained size and strength in another region, must have possessed a 
peculiar advantage. The swimming food had learned the art of 
self defence or escape from its older foes, but lay helpless before 
this new foe, to whose mode of attack it was not accustomed. 
Such a new-comer would therefore be able to make fierce 
havoc in the ranks of the food animals, and rapidly cut down the 
harvest. It would tend to a rapid increase in bulk and strength, 
While its older competitors must shrink in size or perish, starved 
out of existence. Even when otherwise equal in organization the 
New-comer would have an immense advantage in the lack of 
adaptation of the food to its weapons and methods of assault. It 
'S perhaps largely due to this cause that sudden successions in 
reptilian forms, and in the dominant forms of other types, t 
place, New forms came from distant regions and robbed the 
indigenous forms of the bulk of the food. But when to this 
advantage was added that of a superior organization, as of reptiles 
over batrachians and of mammals over reptiles, the earlier asus 
Would be supplanted yet more rapidly and completely , = 
agg in the dominant forms of great suddenness might take 


sudden replacements 
ological times, may 
d replacement of 
which a dom- 


To this cause of the numerous apparently 
a aoe forms by newer, unrelated forms in ge i 
_ “added another, which refers to a similar rapid 
telated forms. The case so far described is that in 


1216 ; Growth, its Conditions and Variations. [December, 


inant form of animals was replaced by another form of different 
type which had been slowly growing up beneath it, or more 
probably had migrated from another locality into one whose food 
animals were helpless before its assault. But there is another 
case of extreme importance, that of the apparently sudden re- 
placement of one species by another of the same genus or family, 
usually of superior organization, with no trace of steps of suc- 
cession from the one form to the other. This absence of link- 
forms between closely related species is one of the most marked 
characteristics of paleontological evidence, and seems to strongly 
hint at specific succession by leaps instead of by minute steps. 
Yet the question of food supply yields one argument in favor of 
the latter which may be here given. 

A replacement of one species by another indicates that the 
second is in some way better adapted to the existing conditions 
of nature, or to new ones which have arisen. In other words, it 

is suited to obtain more food with equal exertion, or equal food 
with less exertion. But the competition which arises is stronger 
and closer between the offspring and the parental form than be- 
tween diverse forms. The two related forms are adapted to the 
same kinds of food, and are closely similar in weapons and hab- 
its. Hence of all forms of animal life the one which is put mot 
at disadvantage by the food taking ability of a new form iS al 
parental form. Other tribes of different organization and habits 
come less into competition with it, or at less disadvantage. If 
adapted to an entirely different food there is no competition. 

Thus two important results are likely to spring from the evolu- 
tion of a new animal form, specially well adapted to the ai 
conditions of surrounding nature, or possessed of a variety 
weapon or habit of assault to which the food has gained n de- 
fensive adaptation. One of these results must be the rapid oe 
appearance of the parental form, which will be starved out © 
existence. And if there be several successive link-forms, 
must rapidly yield to its successor. Thus if a considerable 
rapid change of natural conditions necessitates a similar rap“ 
Succession of specific variations in some animal tribe, not only © 
original form would vanish, but the link forms would quickly m 
appear. The new dominant form would tread down its steps ef 
advancement, and the intermediate forms, having a comparati fa 
short term of existence, and giving rise to comparatively ay 


1884.] Growth, its Conditions and Variations, 1217 


dividuals, would be very unlikely to leave a geological record of 
their existence. This perhaps is one important cause of that 
marked absence of link-forms between related species which has 
given rise to so much controversy. 

The effect of this influence upon animals of different type, but 
subsisting on similar food, would probably be of a different charac- 
ter. While acting to crowd out older forms it might also insti- 
gate specific variation, and the evolution of new organs and 
habits. Thus progress in any one type might powerfully tend to 
cause progress in other types, and new species evolve simultane- 
ously in several unrelated types, through the action of a single 
initial force, 

As to the succession of huge Mammalia in the Tertiary age, 
little need be said beyond the considerations already taken. One 
important fact appears, that the greater land Mammalia were 
Herbivora, a fact in opposition to that which appears in the case 
of air and ocean animals, in which elements the Carnivora have 
always held the supremacy in size. The reason for this we have 
considered in the case of the birds. As for the ocean animals it 
naturally arises from the fact that in the ocean animal food is far 
_ More abundant and nutritious than vegetable. On the land the 
*pposite conditions rule. Vegetable food is more abundant, 
While animal food can only be obtained with greater exertion 
than is required in the water. Hence we find the land Herbivora 
‘teadily tending to exceed the Carnivora in size. This is not the 
ase with those timid Herbivora which seek safety in flight, and 
thus exhaust tissue by great muscular effort. But as soon as a 
-grass or leaf-eating animal grew strong and bold enough to resist 
and fight off carnivorous foes, the diminished exertion required 
: and the greater time for nutrition, enabled it to increase ın roe and 
à quickly grow too powerful to dread the strongest CANE 
this result we find occasionally even among the ordinarily 
_ “mid deer, as in their extinct relative, the gigantic ——, 
i Of the other huge forms it will suffice to mention the mig ve 
Stalking Dinosauria of the reptilian age, whose biped vega 
. ‘Must have aided them to a superabundant supply of ste ad 
and the elephantoid mammalian type whose superior organization 
: “nabled them to persistently survive and to evolve 
_ .“t adapted forms, while other types swelled into hugeness 
_ “RK again and disappeared beside them. 


successively 


1218 Growth, its Conditions and Variations. [December, 


We cannot undertake here to consider the various huge crea- 
tures which successively appeared and vanished, with the proba- 
ble cause of their success. It is simply our purpose to generally 
illustrate the principles of growth already reviewed. A brief 
reference to the vegetable kingdom, however, is here of some 
importance. In this kingdom nutriment is not consumed in pro- 
ducing muscular, nervous or temperature vigor, and reproductive 
energy alone competes with growth vigor. In vegetables, as in 
animals, those that employ most nutriment in reproduction attain 
the least size. The trees which bear juicy fruits, and which thus 
lay up a large stock of protoplasm for the use of their offspring, 
are smaller and shorter lived than the nut-bearing, and these 
again than the seed-bearing. 

Also in vegetables as in animals the size is greatly affected by 
the degree of efficiency in food-taking, and by the character of 
the embryological development. The spore-bearing plants, the 
ferns, mosses, &c., yield cases of larval birth. The young 
needs to pass through a phase of metamorphosis which con- 
sumes much of its initial growth energy. Other facts in this 
connection are the following: Plants which are prevented from 
_ seeding are longer lived and grow to greater bulk. On the con- 
trary, those which flower early die young, and the cultivation of 
fruit trees for early and extreme bearing shortens their lives. 

Again, plants of imperfect organization often attain great size 
in situations of high temperature, abundant nutrition and de- 
creased reproduction. Such is the case with the tree ferns of the 
tropics, and such was the case with the many huge plant forms 
of low organization in the Carboniferous age of geology: 
this respect plants present phenomena somewhat parallel with 
those of animal life. With the appearance of the exogens ae 
gan a retreat of the endogens and the lower forms. While 
palms, ferns and other low forms have been able to hold their ow" 
in the tropics, the exogenous trees have gained the supremacy 
in colder climates. In these regions the competition for food z 
been decidedly in favor of the exogens, the endogens have su 
into the lowly grasses, and the ferns into feeble inmates of ot 
situations. Even the more hardy conifers have been driven the 
before the march of the exogens, and have retreated eo 
marshes and the cold and partly barren mountain sides, W s 
the character of their organization seems to give them an 


1884. | Growth, its Conditions and Variations. 1219 


tage over their rivals. The nutritive superiority of exogens over 
endogens and ferns probably arises from their habit of laying up 
each year an excess stock of nutriment for employment in the 
= early periods of the succeeding year. This relieves them from 
_ the necessity of bearing their heavy covering of leaves through- 
out the storms of winter, and gives them a decided advantage in 
cold climates over evergreen plants. As for the conifers, they 
_ have reduced their leaves to needles, probably for protection 
against the destructive action of winter storms. 

We have one other matter to consider in conclusion. One of 
l the most striking phenomena of paleontological history is the 
disappearance of most of the great Herbivora and Carnivora with 
the advent of the Quaternary epoch. Such has not been the 
, case in the air and the water. The whale and the condor have 
j probably never been surpassed in size in their respective fields. 
l Significantly this disappearance on land is closely related to the 
4 coming of man. It might appear as if man, with his superior 
_ Weapons and powers, had been the moving force in this phenom- 
‘ ‘ton. Yet such can hardly have been the case. Man did not 
_ ‘ome into destructive competition for food with these larger ani- 
_ Mals, and not at all with the grass and leaf-eating tribes. He may 
t have slaughtered many, both of the Herbivora and the Carnivora, 
_ Yet he could hardly, in his early days, have greatly diminished 
4 their numbers in this manner. For the changes which took place 
_ other causes must be sought, and probably the most vigorous of 
4 these was the radical changes in climate which took place at this 
: Period. Many of the greater animals, incited perhaps by the 
_ SXistence of partly tropical conditions in the temperate regions, 
-^l made their way far to the north. On these came down the 
7 chill of the glacial epoch, whose influence must have made itself 
4 flt even throughout the tropics, and which caused a pene 
change of condition that must have been greatly destructive © 
ay life, and particularly of the bulkier and more sluggish 


After the icy period passed and genial conditions es 
Peared, the land animals were found to have markedly gree 
~ The present elephant succeeded to the gigantic ae d 
Min and mammoths as the greatest of the land anım “ x 
And with it man had fully disseminated himself over the e = 
"ew dominant form whose advent put a final. and decided chee 

_ YL xvm —yo, x11, 77 


1220 Growth, its Conditions and Variations. [December, 


- to’ the development of any new herbivorous monster. Man 
needs the earth for himself; he demands the bulk of the food; 
and the older dominant forms of the lower kingdom of animals 
are steadily declining and disappearing before his destructive vigor 
and successful food competition. 

Some remarks in regard to the size of man are pertinent in 
conclusion. The human type, if derived from the Quadrumana, 
has, like several other animal tribes whose fossil progenitors have 
recently been discovered, steadily increased in size. The lower 
Quadrumana are arboreal in habit, and are necessarily restricted 
in size by the exigencies of their active life. Those which have 
left the trees for the earth have diverged in two directions, to- 
wards the essentially quadruped baboon, and the nearly biped 
anthropomorphic ape. To the latter the human biped is most 
nearly related. But the superior organization and powers of man 
have not resulted in an increase in bulk over the great apes. 
There has been rather a diminution. And this may have arisen 
from the great muscular activity and mental energy of man, 
necessitated in his migratory outspreading over the earth, and his 
incessant conflict with the lower animals, to which the tropical 
forest life of the modern great apes makes no demand. 

_ If we consider man in his civilized state no lack of activity 
appears. The muscular is merely replaced in great measure by 
active mental energy. Food has grown abundant, but is ae 
superabundant with the great mass of the people of any nation. 
The share of food obtained by the active farmer, for instance, 4 
much less than that obtained by the sluggish ox in his field. 
Thus the present average size of man is doubtless partly 80V- 
erned by the average quantity of food which each man pr 
obtain. ‘There: is “some: reason’. to believe that manyti i 
greater bulk than was the man of the middle ages. ya 7 
supply for each man is certainly greater than then. It might 
argued that by a decrease in the number of men, under 
conditions, an increase in the food supply of each and, iste 
in the average size might be produced, yet any such variation ae 
only take place with extreme slowness. As man now exists 
size is in harmonious relation with the conditions of his gen 
and cannot be rapidly departed from. In addition to the gr a 
restraining energies of muscular and mental activity, the ppa” 
tive capacity is such that there is a constant tendency tO 


1884] Growth, its Conditions and Variations. 1221 


the field of life and diminish the average supply of food. This 
is, as yet, obviated by the augmentation of the food supply 
through human labor, which has, for a long period, caused a 
steadily increasing ratio of food to consumers. Thus the increase 
both of leisure and of food supply of civilized man favors an in- 
creased growth vigor. If in the future of civilization human 
_ fecundity should decrease, as it shows some indications of doing, 
the size and length of life of man might markedly increase, and 
_ the development of the individual gain upon the reproduction of 
race. 

Hereditary influences act strongly to prevent deviation from any 
established: standard. Yet the leveling effects of heredity are 
constantly opposed by energies of variation, These seem to be 
_ of two kinds, variation by the preservation of minute increments, 
= and by considerable leaps of change. The Darwinian theory of 
Specific variation trusts solely to the former, yet the opposing 
_ facts it has to overcome are so many and vigorous, and the pale- 
‘ ontological evidence is so strongly in favor of considerable varia- 
tions, that the idea of leaps from species to species is steadily 
_ §aining strength. , 
: The same considerations hold in’ regard to size variation. It 
! aiy arise from minute changes, or from the preservation of con- 
_ Siderable leaps, Slight variations in size are universal, but leaps 
© giant or dwarf individuals are not uncommon. With the 
; lower animals it is quite possible that these great er ae 
_ “ze, when in harmony. with suddenly changed surrounding con- 
_ ditions, may have been occasionally hereditarily preserved, and 
pid growth or diminution in bulk of a tribe of animals have taken 
1 place. In man such abnormal variations can scarcely become dom 
: oe Human agency has so succeeded in equalizing the ne 
= Supply, and in restraining the tendency of outer nature ja "r 
a ton, that conditions vigorously aiding the preservation of a giant 
oe race are unlikely to arise. The mental force of eee 
: Salso more strongly active against such a change in man ege ae 
lower animals, Thus human variation in size is more si pi 
` in accordance with the Darwinian law, of panee 
ation with slowly varymg 
the exertion necessary to 
ant and dwarf races at 
h, probably produced 


ons, alike in the food supply, the 
nit, and the reproductive energy. Gi 
ent exist in certain regions of the eart 


1222 Note on some Fossil Fishes recently discovered (December, 


in this slow manner, but civilized man everywhere tends to a 
close conformity in size, as he also does in conditions of exist- 
ence. Thus any future change in the average size of man must 
be of very slow evolution. Its direction will probably be towards 
greater bulk. 


A’ 
e 


PRELIMINARY NOTE ON SOME FOSSIL FISHES 
RECENTLY DISCOVERED IN THE SILURIAN 
i ROCKS OF NORTH AMERICA. 
BY PROFESSOR E. W. CLAYPOLE. 
I. 
HE lowest Old Red Sandstone of Scotland, the argillaceous 
slates of Cornwall and the calcareo-argillaceous beds of 

Ludlow in England, have furnished the most ancient fossils yet 
published which can be attributed to ‘the class of fish. The first 
and second of these horizons are included in the Devonian sys- 
tem, the third, which is also the most ancient, forms the upper 
part of the Silurian. ; 

Except two species of Onchus (0. murchisoni and O. tenuisir- 
atus) all these fossils are referred to the abnormal family of 
Cephalaspids—a family so abnormal that some zoologists have 
_ seriously doubted if its members were really entitled to the name 
of fishes. But evidence recently obtained has, in the opinion of 
those who have specially studied them, Professors Huxley and 
Lankester, satisfactorily settled the question in their favor, and 
they are now, with general consent, retained among the 
brates, of which they form the most ancient type hitherto recog- 
nized, 

Fossil fish have been reported from rocks called Silurian 
Bohemia and in Russia, but the genera and species present 
aspect so decidedly Devonian, judging by the English strata, that 
it is not easy to correlate the two. Asterolepis, Gompholep®, 
Coccosteus and Ctenacanthus can scarcely be paralleled with the 
more primitive types of the English Ludlow above alluded to. 

No species of fish has yet been published from the wee 
rocks of America, or even from the Lowest Devoniale = 
most ancient fossils of this class which the western continent Ti 
yielded have been found in the Corniferous limestone of = 
and the beds at Campbellton near Gaspé in Canada. Of i 
latter is probably rather the older of the two, as oR 


in 


1884] in the Silurian Rocks of North America. 1223 


Cephalaspis, which has not yet been reported from the former 
locality. The two species known are: Cephalaspis dawsoni, 
Cephalaspis campbelltonensts. 

During my recent work on the palaontology of Pennsylvania 
I found some fossils much resembling the well-known specimens 
from the “ Ludlow beds” of England, which for fifty years have 
been the oldest known fishes. They -were an Onchus and two 
kinds of shields very close in outward form to the Scaphaspis of 

kester. 

The study of these fossils has proved that this resemblance is 
not merely superficial, and that there unquestionably existed, 
both in Pennsylvania and in England, similar species of fish 
which characterized the Upper Silurian era in both continents. 

The shield, like that of Scaphaspis, as described and figured 


by Huxley (Q. J. G. S., Aug., 1858), consists of three layers. The 


inner layer is thin and homogeneous, having a thickness of about 


: ay Of an inch. On this reposes a cellular layer about sy of 


ri 
: 
y 
‘ 
3 
i 


i 


4 above them. 


: 'S composed of the same material as the two alrea 
Mtis traversed from end to end by two systems O 


A 


firrows) a little above them and rather less in size, 


| Ü er until they terminate at the oute 


3 ter the microscope they stand out distinc 


: branches communicate with another sy 


ted from its upper surface, is a delicate and 


an inch in thickness, the walls of which are composed of the 
same material. These cells open on the interior surface by round 


_ Pores which traverse their floor, that is, which pass through the 


inferior layer of the shield. The cells also communicate by 


Openings in their covering layer with a system of canals lying 


of an inch, and 
dy described. 
f vessels of 


Which the lower is immediately above the cellular layer, with 
which it communicates by the openings above mentioned. The 
“nals of this system have a diameter of about zł of an inch, 
and from their sides issue branches almost as large as themselves. 
stem of canals (or 
running paral- 
he superficial 


The outer layer has a thickness of about 170 


€l with them from end to end of the shield under t 
Striation, 


ms of canals, and 
beautiful thicket 
tute branching tubules, becoming continually smaller and 
r surface of the shield. 
tly in black on the ; 
composes the lay- 


Connected with the former of the two syste 


nt background of the material which 


1224 Note on some Fossil Fishes recently discovered (December, 


ers and present a beautiful spectacle with an objective of a fourth 
or a fifth of an inch. 

This description coincides in all details of importance with 
those given by Professor Huxley in his figure of Scaphaspis, 
But in several minor points of structure there are differences 
which make it doubtful if the specimens here described can be 
referred to that genus. The most conspicuous of these is the 
regularity and parallelism of the vessels in the outer layer, a fea- 
ture not shown in any already described species of Pteraspid, so 
far as I have been able to ascertain. This and some other dis- 
tinctive features have induced me to place them in a new genus 
under the name of Palzaspis, in which they constitute two 
species: Paleaspis americana’ Paleaspis bitruncata. 

Accepting the usual correlation of the Upper Silurian rocks of 
Britain and America, according to which the Ludlow rocks are 
the stratigraphic and palzontologic equivalents of the Lower 
Helderberg, the lowest bed of the latter, the Water Lime must lie 
on the horizon of the English Lower Ludlow. The last is the 
lowest fish-bearing stratum known in Europe, and has thus far 
yielded only a single specimen. This, the earliest vertebrate fos- 
sil hitherto known, is, as Lankester remarks, enormously older 
than its kindred fossils from the Upper Ludlow, the bone bed of 
which has yielded numerous specimens both of the same species 
(Scaphaspis ludensis) and of others. oa 

The fossils above mentioned were found in a stratum which, 1m 
my report on the geology of Perry county, now in the press, I 
have named the “ Bloomfield sandstone.” It lies at the top of 
the variegated shale or marl, the middle portion of the great 
mass of the Onondaga. This—the upper part of the fifth group 
of Rogers in the first survey of Pennsylvania—is about 1500 feet 
thick and almost barren of fossils. The only species, excepting 
those here described, with which I have met in the county, i 
well-known crustacean, Leperditia alta. This shale 1s div! 
into three parts: 

Lower Helderberg, water lime. 


eet. 
bon oc Se OT Oa hak eas 200 ft r 
Onondaga... 1 Var T DORE, ER coe E <2 98 88S ih 5 
ER NM E E E a ce eer ; thia d 


_ The “Bloomfield sandstone” consists of a series 0 
_and gray beds separating the variegated from the gray mar 
fossils have not been found generally diffused over the ex 


j}. The 


1884. ] in the Silurian Rocks of North America. 1225 


of the rock in the county but in only a few places. Probably if 
it were more accessible they would prove to be more abundant. 
They are seldom in a good state of preservation, but fragments 
capable of exhibiting the structure are abundant in some places. 

From the above facts it may be inferred that the Pennsylvania 
fossil, Palæaspis, is somewhat older than the unique Scaphaspis 
ludensis of the English Lower Ludlow, and therefore consider- 
ably older than the specimens of Scaphaspis and Cyathaspis ? that 
have been found in the Upper Ludlow. 

A thousand feet lower down, in the middle of the red shale, I 
have met with a thin bed full of comminuted fish-scales or shields 
resembling in many points those of Paleaspis. Their matrix 
presents some resemblance to coprolites, but their condition is 
too imperfect to allow of description. 

Nor is this quite the whole. Five hundred feet lower still, be- 
low beds indisputably of Clinton age, as determined by their fos- 
sils, among which are Calymene clintont, Beyrichia lata, Hormo- 
ceras vertebratum, lies the well-known iron sandstone of the Clin- 
ton group of Pennsylvania. In this is a thin layer thickly charged 

_ with comminuted scales in much better condition than those in 
the red shale. With these occurs a spine somewhat like those 
from the Bloomfield sandstone, and which I have named Ouchus 
clintoni. : 

Associated with these are great numbers of small pellets which 
Present all the characters of coprolites, and may be referred almost 
with certainty to that group of objects, being in great part com- 
Posed of phosphate of lime. 
: It is evident that in these fossils we have the most ancient rel- 
ics of vertebrate life yet known from any part of the world, At 
the same time, though carrying the existence of fishes down 
_ through at least 1500 feet of strata and back through a cone 
‘ponding lapse of time, it must be added that these fossils do lit- 
tle or nothing to bridge over the chasm existing between a 
vertebrates and the invertebrates. Odd and aberrant from oa 
type as they are, they cannot logically be excluded from the class 
of fish, and though we know nothing of their soft parts, it = ar 
Sonable to believe they were arranged as in their nearest allies 

Which we know anything, Cephalaspis and Coccosteus. 

_ Yet on the other hand, though these particular fossi ete 
‘Mo light on the connection between vertebrates and “Ms ean 
. > an indisputable fact that the whole group to which they 


Se pid oor E oe ais hl el met Pe Eee ee r et Sr Te I R ed eS! ec ae -_ 


1226 Note on some Fossil Fishes recently discovered, ete. [December, 


\ 
long, including Pteraspis, Cyathaspis, Scaphaspis and Palzaspis 
is marked off by a remarkable peculiarity of structure from 
every known vertebrate animal. So conspicuous is this charac- 
ter that by its aid we are able to distinguish the smallest frag- 
ment of their bony shields from all other bone whatever. Nota 
trace can be seen in them of the peculiar structure which to the 
anatomist characterizes true bony tissue. The bone cells (la- 
cunz) and the tubules (canaliculi) connecting them are totally 
absent. Nor can the Haversian canals, which are usually present 
in bone, be discovered. So important is this fact that the unwil- 
lingness of some naturalists to admit them among vertebrates 
was natural and defensible. Nor was this unwillingness over- 
come until the discovery of a specimen showing a few scales 
attached to the matrix behind the shield afforded indisputable 
proof of their ichthyic affinity. 

The profound significance of this fact has not yet, it appears to 
me, been fully appreciated by systematists, nor has the fact itself 
received the recognition to which it appears to be entitled. Prob- 
ably the obscurity in which these organisms have been hidden, 
their imperfection and their local and individual scarcity have 
contributed to bring about this result, Yet it is hard to avoid 
the conviction that in this immense anatomical difference there 
may be concealed at least one stone of the bridge that shall some 
day span the gulf now separating the vertebrates and inverte- 
brates, and that in this approximation toa simpler structure we 
may see a link between the highly complex tissue of true bone 
and that simpler and more homogeneous material of which the 
hard parts of animals lower in the scale are composed. It - 
be but one link; others would still be wanting. The relative 
positions of the hæmal and neural elements would present the 
same difficulty, and the riddle propounded by these will perhaps 
be never read, as the soft parts are not likely to be preserved. 

In thus carrying down the remains of fish almost to the re 
of the Upper Silurian rocks, it becomes evident that we em 
seek in some part of our Cambro-silurian series to find yet Ca 
forms. Itis not likely that these are the first that existed. ot 
beds must be searched. Pander’s “ Conodonts” may ye iar 
their place among vertebrates, and fossils older than i - 
come to light before we can say we have found “the mi 
link,” if such ever existed—the Ichthyic Archetype. 


1884] Residence of the Harp Seal in the St. Lawrence. 1227 


THE HARP SEAL A PERMANENT RESIDENT IN 
i THE ST. LAWRENCE. 


BY C. HART MERRIAM, M.D. 


HE harp seal (Phoca grænlandica) is a circumpolar species 

abounding in the northern seas at certain times of the year 
and coming south in winter as far as the Grand Banks of the 
North Atlantic. 

It is an off-shore species, living in the open sea or among the 
ice, and rarely approaches land excepting for the procurement of 
food under certain special circumstances hereinafter detailed. I am 
not aware that it ever crawls upon rocky ledges, or even sand bars, 
as does the harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) and several other species. 

During the season of bringing forth and caring for its young, 
which occupies nearly two months (usually from the middle or. 
latter part of February till the middle of April), vast multitudes 
of harp seals congregate on the ice fields around Jan Mayen 
island, and on the drifting floes to the north and east of New- 
foundland. The fact is also well known that large numbers reg- 
ularly whelp on the ice in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, but these 
are supposed to be a branch of the main herd which has passed 

_ Southward through the Straits of Belleisle, while the main body 
_ passed to the eastward of Newfoundland. On this point Mr. J. 
A. Allen, in his excellent monograph of the Pinnipeds, observes : 
_ “Their passage southward along the Labrador coast occurs be- 
: fore the ice forms, and during this journey they are said to hug 
_ the shore’ and freely enter the gulfs and bays. They appear 
i first in small detachments of half a dozen to a score or more in 
: dividuals ; these are soon followed by larger companies, which 
: crease in frequency and numbers ; 
_ Continuous procession, filling the sea as far as t 
- Floating with the arctic current, their progress 1 
: and in one short week the whole multitude 
’ at the Straits of Belleisle, the great body 
> but Many enter the straits and pass roun 
: Newfoundland ; some, however, spend the w 
Lawrence, where they bring forth their young ohèr 
"ge (pp. 642-643). But neither this author nor any " in 
Writer, so far as I am aware, has intimated that the = 
Question might be found in any part of the St. Lawrence ter 


1228 The Harp Seal a Permanent Resident [December, 


close of the breeding season. In fact, authorities agree that its 
range, in these waters, is limited to the lower gulf, from Anti- 
costi, the Magdalens, and St. Paul’s island, outward; and that 
it is found here during the winter months only. 

In cruising about in the river and gulf during the summers of 
1881 and 1882, I saw many seals. Some were evidently the har- 
bor seal (Phoca vitulina), while others were too large for this spe- 
cies. On one occasion in particular, a stormy afternoon in July 
(July 19, 1881), not far below the mouth of the Saguenay, a 
large seal with a perfectly black head appeared alongside our 
yacht and rode over several waves before lost to view. Others of 
the same kind were seen off Portneuf and Manicougan, and be- 
tween Anticosti and Mingan. Mr. Napoleon A. Comeau, who 
lives on the north shore near the point where the river expands 
into the gulf, assured me that the seal in question was the harp, 
and that he had killed hundreds of them during a residence of 
more than twenty years on that coast. Mr. Comeau has since 
sent me, and I have now in my possession, nearly fifty skulls and 
several skins of harp seals killed between Manicougan shoals 
and Pt. des Monts. The greater number were shot in March and 
April, though some were taken in the middle of summer. During 
the present season (1884), he shot one June 16th and another 
September 8th, the latter containing a foetus 55™™ in length. 

Mr. Comeau has kindly furnished me with the following inter- 
esting notes: 

“ The harp or Greenland seal (Phoca granlandica) is the most 
abundant of all our seals, roving up and down the St. Lawrence 
in its migrations in immense numbers. It is eminently greg* 
rious, hundreds and even thousands being seen together. I my- 
self (in March) have observed one herd at Point des Monts that 
was more than a mile long; there must have been several thou- 
sand in it. They are to be met with at all seasons here, but are 
most numerous in winter, especially in December, January 4 
the early part of February, at which time they disappear *” 
resort to the ice-fields in the gulf for the purpose of depositing 
their young, which they begin to do about the 15th of peA 
As in the case of the harbor seal, the young are perfectly W% 
at birth and have a fine silky coat about an inch in length. 
killed soon after birth, or within two or three days, this fur is very 
fine; but if a longer time has elapsed, especially if the 


ae. ee oe eae EO E 


Gie 


. quently seen them come to the surface wi 


1884.] in the St, Lawrence. 1229 


be fine, it falls off quickly and the true hair and color is assumed. 
When one year old the color is whitish underneath, with occa- 
sionally a few black spots, about the size of a ten cent piece, about 
the neck and breast. These spots are not always present, the 
color very often being uniform dirty white. On the back there is 
abroad streak of grayish or blackish color. In the second year 
there is a slight change. The markings are more numerous, and 
are never absent, the black spots ate also larger and more gener- 
ally distributed all over the body, and the color of the back is 
not quite so dark or uniform, Third year: most of the black 
spots having enlarged are merged into each other and form large 
irregular patches about the size of hen’s eggs or slightly larger. 


The color of these spots also begins to fade, and they have not 


the same clearness of outline. A few occasionally bring forth at 
this age, but it is very rare. By the fourth year they have 
attained nearly their full size, and the two peculiar stripes on the 
back, from which they derive their name (as it resembles a harp 
in shape), begin to appear;.the other spots disappear gradually 
in proportion as these stripes become more distinct and perfect, 
until at such time, probably at the age of nine or ten years, these 
two bars and part of the back of the head and nose only are 
black, all the rest being pure white. After nourishing their young 
for a period of about three weeks, they are left to their own 
resources, and strange to say do not seem to take to the water 
very readily. About this time the females have lost the immense 
coat of fat they had before giving birth to their young, and take 
to the water to feed for a short while, when they again ceum to 
the ice, at intervals ; but by the 2oth of March they again make 


i ir chief 
an appearance near the shore and feed voraciously, their ch 
amiss, sculpins, 


ctiminately, They do not all leave the ic 
some remaining on it till the middle of April. 
only one young at a birth, though i 
which have come under my OW? 
in one case I shot the mother contaimng 
of this species fight very savagely amongst themselves, frequently 
leaving scars and marks from their teeth and claws. 
veloped. I have fre- 


“Th b . hi hl de 
eir sense of smell is not very M§ FER fve or six yards of, 


1230 The Harp Seal a Permanent Resident, etc. [December, 


and to the leeward of our boat, and so long as we did not move 
they did not pay the slightest attention to our proximity. On 
the slightest movement, however, they would disappear, but if 
not too shy, or previously shot at, would come up again a little 
farther off. When shy they do not reappear, except at a long 
distance, and frequently remain under water from fifteen to twenty 
minutes. When wounded with a rifle-ball or large buck-shot, un- 
less nearly dead, they will go a great distance; but if struck by 
small shot, such as number A, they soon come to the surface. 
The only way in which I can account for this is, that the blood 
does not flow freely from the small shot-holes in the thick skin 
of the throat, but forming a clot on the inside, soon accumulates 
and chokes them ; while with a ball or large buck-shot the wound 
is large and the blood escapes easily, thereby enabling them to 
breathe freely. 

“ Great herds of harps sometimes remain in this vicinity [God- 
bout] from March till June or even July, moving both up and 
down the river. They often work in towards the shore in the 
morning to feed on the shoals of herring and capelin, and go out 
again about seven or eight o'clock. When not pursued or dis- 
turbed by hunters this will be repeated day after day. During 
the months of July, August, September, October and November, 
they are usually not numerous, though, as before stated, a few 
are to be seen all the year round. 

“ I have been told by professional seal hunters that the females 
have young only every second year. I am inclined to doubt this 
statement, as it is only founded on the fact that some adult 
females are shot during the winter without young. I have often 
shot them myself, but do not consider it conclusive proof of this 
theory, as the same thing is observed amongst all mammals, 
though perhaps not quite to the same extent. . 

From a careful observation extending over several year$, I e 
found that the proportion of males to females is about equat, 
that is, judging from the number killed annually at Point i 
Monts (about 250 on an average) where they are shot in ie 
water. Of course when killed on the ice by the sealers in a f 
ruary and March the females predominate. This species and 
common seal have only two teatsand not four, as erroneously 
supposed by some.” 

At my request Mr. Comeau very kindly took the tou 


SE ote | OF er 


ble to | 


: 
; 
q 


St 5-0 eee 


rs for themselves the parents at once return, 
; Monts in great numbers on their way up the river. 


T Cannot the public press of the United Stat Spas 
_ thing of interest in the scientific literature of the day to §! 


1884.] Editors’ Table. 1231 


visit Manicougan shoals during the present year. Concerning 
this trip he writes me : 

“I took up my quarters on board the light ship there for three 

days in order to have a chance to see what kinds were likely to 
keep around the shoals. During that period I saw three large 
herds of the harp seal pass the light ship, moving east. The 
first herd, which I saw August 29, contained about five to six 
hundred o/d harps. The same day in the evening another smaller 
herd was seen, and on the 31st another herd of a couple of hun- 
dred. The captain, who is a very intelligent man and a sports- 
man, told me that it was nothing unusual but almost of daily 
occurrence, and that they did not seem to move more jn one 
direction than another, but would sometimes go up one day and 
down the other.” 
Mr. Comeau further states that, “ The harp is tolerably com- 
mon as far up as the entrance of the Saguenay. A good many 
are killed every year, both in winter and summer, around Escou- 
main (twenty-five miles below the Saguenay). I have myself 
seen harp seals above Hare island. They were numerous this 
year (1884) off Godbout, in June and July.” 

To recapitulate: From the data in hand it appears that the harp 
seal is a permanent resident in the St. Lawrence; that it spends 
the summer wandering about, sometimes sing : 
schools, sometimes in large herds; that it ascends the river at 


kast as far as the Saguenay,. and is common between Mille 


Vasches and Manicougan; that it frequents with considerable 
Tegularity particular shores and estuaries to feed on the small fish 
that congregate there at certain states of the tide; that it works 
Wn the river in the early winter, and is particularly eee 
about Point des Monts in December, January, and the early part o 
R ebruary ; that it then passes farther down to whelp on the me 
ice in the gulf; that its young are born during the latter part 0 


February or early March ; that as soon as the young are able to 
passing Point des 


——:0:——- 
EDITORS’ TABLE. 

EDITORS: A. S. PACKARD AND E. D. COPE. 

es find some- 

their 


1232 Editors’ Table. [ December, 


readers? Although it is necessary that the leaders of the press 
should cater to the public taste in order to exist, it is not the less 
true that they are educators of the public, as they often remind 
us. That large part of the populace whose opportunities of school 
or college instruction have not been great, are undoubtedly edu- 
cated in the affairs of the world by the newspaper press. The 
responsibility of editors and writers of this mass of daily litera- 
ture is, therefore, great. It is necessary to portray the events of 
the stage on which men play their part, for more reasons than 
one. Without expatiating on this truth, which is denied by some, 
we refer to two beneficial effects of a general distribution of news. 
The publication of the good works of men stimulates imitation, 
and encourages the doers. The publication of the bad deeds of 
men brings on them that condemnation, which is their natural 
punishment, and which they naturally fear. It also brands the 
characters of evil-doers so as to practically protect society from 
them, more or less. 

But does the daily press give a prominence to the good that 
men do, equal to that which they give to the evil? The most 
casual reading of our papers will convince any person that the 
purveyors to the public taste think that they must give the evil a 
great predominance. To what extent of space the columns of our 
newspapers are occupied with narrations of all forms of crimes, as 
-compared with the space given to other subjects, everyone knows. 
When we consider the extent and number of the fields of useful 
human activity, and the number of persons engaged in them, the 
amount of space given to criminals in our newspapers is phe- 
nomenal. These people have a right to consider themselves, next 
to candidates for high office, the best advertised part of the oe 
munity. If they do not become popular heroes and heroines, it 
is because the people are better than their educators of the m 

And this at a period when the greatest discoveries in — Z 
are being made with a rapidity never before known in human his- 
tory. During the last twenty years truths have been brought zi 
_ light which will revolutionize all but the most essential principles 
of the thought of the world, on which, as is believed by polit% 
PE ists, social organization and therefore governments depene. 
What newspaper ever announced the elaboration of the cet” 
theory of Haeckel; and the presentation of the ccelom theory ™ 


the Hertwigs? Who of them knows anything about the theory 


1884. Editors’ Table. 1233 


of degeneracy of Dohrn and Balfour, or the hypothesis of the 
origin of the vertebrates of Semper? Which of them ever pre- 
sented to its readers the solution of the problem of the origin of 
the existing Vertebrata and the descent of.man by the American 
palentologists ? 

Here our popular editor smiles incredulously. What do 
people know or want to know about Gastraas and cceloms and 
vertebrates? Well, we ask, what do people want to know about 
anything? The majority, not much, unless it is presented to them 
by somebody. But mankind only needs a little knowledge of 
these subjects in order to develop a strong interest inthem, They 
are likely to do so on all grounds if they have an average amount 
of mental vitality. Why not? The sciences refer to everything 
‘they see, feel and handle, their own being in fact, in the most es- 
pecial manner, The first thought of the primitive man is to €x- 
plain the phenomena of nature, and it always will be part of the 
thought of people who are in any way in contact with nature. 
And these pursuits and thoughts are not only not harmless but 
useful. As much cannot be said of the constant absorption of 
histories of crime. : 

Gastreeas and cceloms and zygosphens and corpora striata, are 
not more difficult to understand, either as to the thing or the 
tame of it, than puts and calls and straddles; and they have this 
advantage, that they are always honest. Men brought up on 4 
a diet of the first-named articles, are, to say the least, more apt’ to 
_ behonest than those brought up on the last-named. Political 
_ Tews is necessary to every citizen, yet it is mixed with scandal ; 

_ Which although a necessary concomita 
ean article of mental R Sci 
7 in i oO VIO 
Blithe proper study of mankind is man,” the study of mate 
ÈS Proper, for nature has made man. The origin of mass om7 

and of his mind are to be derived from the biological ait 
and this once learned, the way to create his future will certai pA 
follow. If the nature of human society be in question, —— 
anthropology is gradually explaining ne aati doing 
: et beyond applied science ; 
_ Something that makes a material replay naturally art a 
— attention of the beginner. It is in pure science, op griion 
the greatest beauties can be found, and n° `. g 
the interest which it has for those who give oe 

attention, 


nt of human affairs, is not 
ence contains no scandal, 
late its laws. 


1234 Recent Literature. [ December, 


—— The future of scientific research in Philadelphia is not 
hopeful. The school of biology of the University of Pennsylva- 
nia has been mainly placed in charge of men who are nearly or 
quite unknown in the field of original research, one of whom has 
publicly stated his doubts of its value! Another of the positions 
has been filled by a man who is only known as a worker ina 
widely different field. This arrangement we are told, is due to the 
fact that the services of these gentlemen are given gratuitously. 
The school of veterinary medicine has been put under direction ofa 
veterinary physician who knows nothing of general comparative 
anatomy, so that a fine opportunity of fostering original research 
has been lost. The Academy of Natural Sciences has become a 
school for teaching instead of research. The only new enterprise 
in which it has recently engaged, has been the adoption of a new 
by-law, which is designed still further to diminish its usefulness. 

Both the leading societies of the city allow the occupation of 
the hours of their regular meetings by amateur disquisitions on 
the rudiments of science, such as are well adapted for popular 
lectures, but are totally out of place in such institutions. All this 
may be traced to the imbecility and selfishness of a few of the 
leading workers in that city. 


RECENT LITERATURE. 


KRAEPELIN’s Proposcis oF Musca.—Kraepelin’s paper give 
the most complete account extant of the structure of an organ 
which has excited interest since the time of Aristotle. net 
vestigations were chiefly on the proboscis of the Blow fly (M. 
vomuoria), and exclusively on its adult anatomy. The embryology 
of these parts has not been attempted by Kraepelin, baffled ve 
mann, and remains yet to be worked out. The following !S = 
abstract of Kraepelin’s paper, with pen-and-ink copies of the pe 
important of his thirty-eight fine illustrations. I venture to 3 
some criticisms in the form of foot-notes. 


GEORGE MACLOSKIE. 

PRINCETON, April 12, 1884, 
I. Cuitinous Parts AND PRELIMINARY ORIENTATION 
Muscide have nothing corresponding to the mandi 
other insects, and the first maxilla are in a rudimentary 


also 


in, 
1 Zur Anatomie u. Physiologie des Rissells von Musca, von Karl ow 


Hamburg. Zeit. f. wis. Zool., Bd. XXXIX, 1883, pp. 683-720, mit Tafel x 


w 


1884 ] Recent Literature. 1235 


| skinned extension of the head This i 
: s conical head-part (Fig. 
ij) being retrusible into the firm head-capsule A etia A 


Fig, 2.—Section of Probos- 


Fig 1.— pa 
ig .—Head of blow fly, all the figures enlarged. 
cis of the blow fly. 


rs : ; 
| rA to be the coalescing mouth-parts till Macloskie and 
part the i he plained its true nature I shall call this soft head- 
subsequent ead-cone (the basi-proboscis). The totality of the 
tthe medi parts, including labium, labrum and hypopharynx 
strict i proboscis and disti-proboscis) I call proboscis in the 
‘ enset (The so-called epipharynx has no existence.) | 


Head-pay ; i 
a? art of Proboscis (basi-proboscis, Fig. 1, bp 1 
upper A oboscis bears a pair of unsegmented palps (2) on its 
-Tuns h €, each resting on two chitin-ri (pr) 
witha > abate the insertion of medi-pro 
dons ‘ong rigid chitin-bar (one on each side, the ma 
memb ig. 4, mt) which runs backward, free under the thin covering- 
first oes of the basi-proboscis. These bars are the rudimentary 
| axillæ, whose palp-bearing part (fr) f 
i is, and the belt-like 
h the other trophi 
Aricia, 
Me . 
on tCloskie in AMERICAN NAT read before the N. J. Mi- 
 SToscopi 4 URALIST, 1880, p. 153» : 
roi eal Society, Nov. 18, 1879, and N. Y. Academy of Sciences, Dec. is 1879. 
‘Ng apparat s Inaugural Dissertation on the anatomy of the mouth-parts an 
Er us of some Diptera. Roston, 1881. 
sa, The term 
Re ani 
terms Ace quoted, and retained as conve: 
the terin 


1236 Recent Literature. [ December, 


&c.) bear a small piece (lade) which proves them to be basal 
parts of the first maxillz.? 


Kor 
ty 


Pee ea 
Fea OG 
ee 


Seen from above, the basi-proboscis shows a strong chitinous - 
hotseshoe-shaped thickening, with the open sinus forwards, lying 


The general form of the fulcrum reminds one of a ee 
stirrup which is suspended by its supero-posterior processes 
of some 


°F . ee 
| These chitin-bars (Fig. beg were shewn by me to be the ort tena and 


the palps. I shall here use ‘maxillary tendons” as the rendering 
““spangen der unterkiefer.’—G, M. Macloskie 

* Menzbier, uber das Kopfskelett, &c., der Zweiflügler, Moscow (18805 5 repre- 
(oc. cit., 1879); Dimmock (of. cit., 1881). I gave the view that the fule declined 
sents the endocranium of other insects. My friend Dimmock cane written 
to say yes or no to this theory, and Kraepelin, without noticing va 
on this head, here enunciates the view that it is i 
cesophagus, a view which I venture to say was shewn by me to 7 


oe consideration, especially with reference to what has been 
G. M. logy of the Diptera, has strengthened my faith in the end 


5 Se ee eee 


i as On Gy a ae 


1884.] Recent Literature. 1237 


4, fs) to a band in the anterior margin of the cranium (cd). Its 
side-walls are strong chitin-plates, with a sinus looking back- 
wards. The sole of the “ stirrup” is double, of two chitin-plates 
superposed, and having a cavity between them, within which the 
esophagus passes forwards (Fig. 5, of, uf). The infero-poste- 
rior extremities of the “ stirrup” are prolonge 

into horns, one at each side (Fig. 4, 2s), which 

are connected by retractor-muscles (mr) to the 
cranial band (cd). The maxillary tendons are ,,_ 
at their proximal extremities connected by a ,¢..\. 
short muscle with the supero-posterior extrem- 
ity of the fulcrum, and by along muscle (me) ¿d7 

with its anterior horn. Below the floor of the Fig. 5—Fulcrum. 
fulcrum are seen muscles running forwards, and also the trachea- 
like salivary duct (Fig. 5 sd). 

The Proper Proboscis (medi-and disti-proboscis, Fig. 3, ™P and 
dp)—When viewed from the side, this part (representing the 
labium) is a cylinder, anteriorly divided into a two-lobed tip, the 
labellæ. Viewed from above we see that it has a superior longi- 
tudinal canal in which two unpaired chitinous stylets are em- 
bedded (Figs. 1, 4, 2,0 and 4). The upper one of these two 
stylets, the labrum (oberlippe, o) appears as the direct continua- 
tion forwards of the upper anterior margin of the basi-proboscis, 
and, like all insect appendages, is hollow, enclosing muscles, 
trachee and nerves. As the labium has a deep groove on its 
upper surface (Fig. 2, up), so the labrum has a similar groove on 
its under surface (o), and is in fact an inverted semi-cylinder with 
double walls, (Its lower wall was once deemed a distinct piece, 
epipharynx.) ay 

The under proximal extremity is articulated to a small chitin- 
capsule, described by Macloskie and Becker as a triangular 
“binding-piece,” and overlooked by other observers (Fig. 4, se). 
This “small capsule ” lies directly in front of the fulcrum, whose 
form it repeats in miniature. The floor of the small capsule is 
continuous with the under floor of the fulcrum, and the upper 
plate of the fulcrum-floor partially roofs the small capsule. The 
Side-walls of the small capsule bulge out and are chitinized, giv- 

rts of the labrum, 


whilst the floor of the small capsule supports the second stylet, 


Nutritive tube (zc) which opens on th 
and forms te lator 2 rather the antechamber, of the ali- 
Mentary canal. Imbibed fluid penetrates this canal, then eet 
the “ small capsule,” which serves as a reservoir, passing nex 
into the space between the double floor of the fulcrum, and so on 


1238 Recent Literature. [December, 


to the proper cesophagus. The inner cavity of the hypopharynx 
is, through its whole length, pierced by the salivary duct (sd) 
coming forwards from thoracic salivary glands, advancing below 
the floor of the fulcrum (Figs. 4, 5, sd), and entering the hypo- 
pharynx (not piercing it as Meinert supposed) and opening at its 
distal extremity. I place the proper mouth-opening at the ante- 
rior end of the “small capsule,” where the labrum and hypo- 
pharynx are inserted. The labium, by its grooved upper surface, 
serves as a case for enclosing the stylets, as with Hemiptera. All 
the proboscis-parts are bound together by the thin membranous 
wall of the labium. 

Labium (unter lippe)—This is a cylindrical evagination of the 
basi-proboscis, but furrowed above. Thus it serves as a be Tor 
the nutritive canal. It is divided in front by a median slit into 
two motile cushions, the labellæ, which Burmeister and Erichson 
shewed to be the metamorphosed labial palps. The internal cav- 
ity is occupied by muscles, nerves, tracheze and glands. , ts 
under part is much swollen, and is strongly chitinized, the thick- 
ening extending up the sides (Fig. 3, Z). This under part (infe- 


SN 
Fig. 6.—Side view of labium. 


rior labial plate) supports, at its distal extremity, two short, horn- , 


like processes which bear a stout triangular piece. On this pit 
1s inserted a stout chitin-fork (Fig. 6, /) whose long legs advant® 
forwards. The fork sends downwards a strong unpaired pie 
band (#4). This chitin-fork is joined to the labial plate not merey 
_ at its articulation, but also by a folding membrane which u 
them along their length! Free vertical motion is thus allow 
to the forking parts, but the extent downwards of its excursion 
is limited by the thin membrane. the 
The upper plate (the “furrow-plate,” Figs. 4, 2, /? je the 
labial cylinder forms the bed of the channel which conte 
rum and hypopharynx. The front end of this plate ie ) 
ened and bears a strong chitin-fork (the superior fork, PE two 
repeating in some measure the parts of the inferior fork, t a by 
‘branches running parallel forwards, and united and limited 7 
ŽA similar connection ; i ibed by me ints 
‘lary suspensorium of the e H e i 1881, P. 3576. P 


1884. ] Recent Literature. 1239 


nena which connects them with the rim of the furrow-plate. 
“a below this fork an unpaired piece (sd) connects it with 
the inferior fork, and sends backwards a hook-like process. 

ieh oem membrane, which is continuous with the margins of 
. e labial plate, enlarges distally and swells out so as to consti- 
= ~ = large terminal labellar cushions of the disti-probos- 
een e peer condition these lie with two flat surfaces 
“ A ea ve they have each an inner and an. outer surface. 
_ s r the lower forks support the outer cushion-walls. 
8 0 orks, whose limbs run parallel, support the inner sur- 
tell e cushions. Between these supporting bars the thin 
nah . # sculptured in a special way. Each branch of the 
x r fork has, from its place of articulation with the furrow- 
plate, a chitin-arc running longitudinally (Fig. 7, ca); between 

t o%& 


T > Hy Phic s a 
FIN a A 


ANKAA NRES 

Fig. 7.—Side view of labium. 

these arcs the membrane is extended The membrane has radial 
folds in bas-relief, soon rising to high relief, forms which depend 
on secondary foldings of the membrane, called by Macloskie and 
Dimmock “scraping teeth” or spines (Fig. 7, 4). There are 
three rows of such spines, the second and third rows being fold- 
ings external to those of the order next below. These are suc- 
ceeded by foldings of a fourth order which, instead of forming 
teeth, bend round as semicircular bars and form the beginnings 
of the often described pseudo-trachee (#ż). The supporting 
arches thus have (morphologically) the same origin as the teeth. 
On the outer rim, where outer and inner walls merge, the pseudo- 
trachee, after diminishing distally, terminate. There are also 
“oe supporting rods between the pseudo-trachee (Fig. 

» S7). 


ionally two rows of teeth.—G. M. 
. Í may add to the above that the 
crenulate with deep sinus between the 


Hes (AMER 1 p. I 
ae by the simple extremity of one arc, and at its two r 
ba joining arcs; so that the deep sinus n is bounded by the 
alis ed end of an arc. The fine membrane between the pseudo-tracheæ is hexagon- 
y areolate, like the facets of the eyes, the areoles having sunken boundaries 
mh may flatten out when the labellz are expanded). My observations are from 
e housefly. —G. M. 3 


1240 Recent Literature. [ December, 


II. Muscucature AND MOTILE Mecuanism.—t. Movements of 
the basal parts of the Probvscis——There are two pairs of re- 
tractor muscles. One pair arise from the anterior band of the 
cranium (Fig. 4, mr) and are inserted on the inferior suspensor 
processes (zs) of the fulcruin. The other pair arise from the 
postero-basal plate of the cranium and ' reach forward so 
as to be inserted on a cross-ridge (Fig. 3, x) near the end of the 
basi-proboscis. By their contraction they retract the thick wall- 
plate of the labiun telescopically into the basi-proboscis. The 
second pair also flex the hypopharynx on the “small capsule,” 
and the whole labium upon the fulcrum; we may term them 
“flexors of the labium.” 


Fig. 8.—Nerves, etc., of labium. 


Two pairs of weak muscles arise from the sides of the occipital 
foramen. One pair of these aid the unfolding of the marie 
boscis. The other run forward over the “small capsule an 
seem to be inserted in the base of the labrum; they may 
retractors of the labrum. difficult 
| The mode of protruding the proboscis involves a more @ i 
problem, The muscle which Becker describes as drawing 
fulcrum around its hinge, has no existence. The tracheal he 
ratus comes to exercise a powerful influence at this pom ramen 
large air-trunks after entering the head by the occipital a when 
enlarge to form (seemingly two) capacious air-sacs, which, is 
the proboscis is extended, fill all the cranial awy erry: 
occupied by the nerves and the invaginated “ct ak 
(Fig. 1, 4). Y This cranial cavity is serviceable for the retro the 
the proboscis, as by the collapse of the tracheal sacs t ~ for the 
withdrawal of air from the head, a vacant space 1S fe d by me 
reception of the fulcrum, (I renounce the view once ? a 
that the cranial bladder aids in retracting the proboscis. the head 
spiratory mechanism of the trunk by driving air towar® |” rye 

causes the protrusion of the basal parts of the prone 


1884.] Recent Literature. | 124I 


view that the proboscis was protruded by air-pressure was lon 
ago enunciated by Gleichen, and has been recently established by 
Macloskie and Dimmock by experiments made under water. I 
have found traces of a muscle in the head by whose action such 
inspiration may be assisted. 

imultaneously with the extension and swelling of the basi- 
proboscis, the extension of the medi-proboscis takes place. This 
is provided for by the articulation of the hypopharynx and lab- 
rum on the “ small capsule.” The long maxillary tendons (Fig. 
4, mi) are firmly united to the chitin-wall of the labrum, From 
the proximal terminal knob of these tendons a strong muscle 
proceeds to the front horn of the fulcrum (Fig. 4, me). Another 
short muscle binds the same knob to the superior wall of the 
basi-proboscis. The larger pair of these muscles are extensors of 
the medi-proboscis. 

2. Movements of the Labelle (disti-proboscis)—The bifurcating 
framework already described permits much change of the labellz. 
Muscles coming from the rigid inferior plate of the labium reach 

_ the branches of the forks, and control their movements. The 
muscles by contracting open and spread out the labellar cushions. 
_ As the muscles become relaxed the elasticity of the bars an 
_ fork-limbs suffices to bring the whole back to its position of rest. 
_ There are no antagonizing muscles to the fork-retractors. After 
_ death these retractors act so excessively as to turn the cushion- 
like labellar faces outwards. ; 
_ _As to the swelling of the labellar-cushions, Macloskie and 
Dimmock represent the tracheal air as the means of swelling. 
But careful sections shew that the tracheæ do not enter the label 
lar cushions, and there are no bladder-enlargements as must be 
Present for such an office. All the parts of the labellz not occu- 
pied by organs are filled with blood whose pale corpuscles can be 
seen. Hence it is clear that the swelling of the labellæ is caused 
by inflowing blood, as Becker supposed.” 
1T have fou lternately contracting on each side of the 
3 with scis mra pr brip M: The connection of the argik p 
tan the labrum and hypopharynx is so pliable (at least in p a y) q 
w extensor function here assigned to its ree l ‘esd 
. » Pace n “4° ished author. eer 
blood Ng “haga poa ae ae being distended mainly ym ge 
the nner 


€nt evidence to this effect be forthcoming ; an trachea j 
lp being chitinized, are not readi ecognized and ay dog ay not suffi- 
d below as glands. Kraepelin’s figures shew taat Oe ent the disti- 


icking this 
> two air-bubbles escape, and the labellar rape e f course the 
instantly collapse. Nor can they be "pe on, and easily 


Tu 
~ alt-reservoirs, when under dissection, are in the collapsed condit emen 
Piem observation; but they may be seen to swell as by peristaltic mov 


ee i 
q 


1242 Recent Literature. [ December, 


3. The Suctorial Mechanism.—The suctorial canal begins where 
the paired limbs of the upper labellar fork are fixed on the ex- 
tremity of the upper labial plate. The entrance is guarded by 
bristles to prevent the escape of fluid. Behind this are seen the 
tips of the labrum and hypopharynx, between which the entering ' | 
fluid penetrates so as to reach the proper cesophagus. 

The labrum having radial muscles between its two plates (Fig. 

2, /m) can enlarge its lumen and so effect suction. At the triangu- 
lar “ small capsule” the action of the fulcrum comes into play, its 
muscles raising the upper floor-plate (Fig. 5, of), and so enlarg- 
ing the cavity below and continuing the suctorial process. hus 
the fluids are absorbed and forced towards the stomach. 


For dissolving solid substances the secretion of the glands is 
` provided. There are three pairs of salivary glands. The chief 


proboscis (Fig. 8, /g), large-celled round masses with a common 
duct opening near the tip of the upper labial plate. A third col- 
lection of salivary glands is at the passage of the fulcrum into the 
cesophagus. 


The salivary secretion is spread over the labellar cushions by 
means of the pseudo-trachee.! Sugar, bread-crumbs, &c., Dem 
porous absorb the fluid; it is not the sugar that is absorbed by 
the saliva, but the saliva by the sugar. 


III. Harrs Ann SENSE-ORGANS.—The proboscis is covered with 
short hairs not supplied with nerves. Besides these there are 
three kinds of special hairs : 


(1) The factile hairs are on the upper rim of the es 
cushions (Figs. 8, 9, z4), hollow, having a nerve with a gang? 
(tg) below. í 

(2) Labial glands with bristles are on the outer margin of t 


side as if for conveying a secretion outwards (Künck 
naire deem these to be sense-organs with nerve-ganglia). 


(3) There are also taste-organs over the surface of the me 
between the pseudo-trachez (Fig. 7, indicated by dots, an® © > 
10, 11). Each hair has a chitinous basal ring ; its nerve © the 
gliated, and is perforated by an axis cylinder W ine organ 
surface, indicating that here we have to do with a genuine 
of special sense. 


1 An easy experiment illustrates this. Press out the probere ga Further 
labellæ swell, their surface is covered with ‘saliva like a drop of ‘i k 
pressure swells the labellæ, and instantly the saliva disappears, bemg 
now expanded pseudo-trachez by capillary action.—G. M. 


1884.] Recent Literature. 1243 


Fig. 10. 


Fig. 12. 


De L E a eer es ey gee 


oe See 


oui eee OF THE FIGURES. 


ag 1.—Median section of Fig. 
1G. 2.—Transverse section of dea ene 


he Se TE s ee e are ee eee eee ee E A 
sie 5 He St SS ale o 


3.—Head of Musca vomitoria, with id proboscis. Side view es 
Fig, 4.—Basi-proboscis with part of medi-proboscls, with the covering membrane 
he removed wa arene part of Kaelin s n 3). 
eg gr ees verse sections of basi-p d fulcrum. 
Pe 6 — Supporting parts of dist spriconeesg 
—Disti-proboscis, with pseudo tracher. 


Pi, 8 Longitudinal section of disti-proboscis. 


Fics. 10, a pere 


ving 12.—Dermal nies ‘with gland-bristle and its cross-section. 


REFERENCE LETTERS. 
For all the figures.) 
: 6, Crainal bladder. ( cb, Band on front of cranium, 
e 4p, Basi — ai anes ae 


: > Chie areh supporting pseudo-tracheæ. 4, Faleram. 


1244 Recent Literature. 


Jp, Furrow-plate 

Js, Suspensory process of fulcrum. 
go, Gland-bristles 

A, Hypopharynx. 

26, Inferior labellar band. 


ellar 
Im, Muscles brum 
Zp, Inferior labial plate 
so 


mt, — tendon. | 
n, Ner 


ae Nuttitive canal, 


[ December, 


0, priit esne ippe). 
of, Upper plate of floor of fulcrum, 


A Superior fork. 
7, Supporting rods. 
n Tee 
4#, Tactile ganglion. 
A, Tactile hairs. 
h Under plate of floor of fulcrum 
P near top of hasi- -pro 
cis 


Oser’s Travers In Mexıico.!—-In point of interest to the pub- 
lic and as a contribution to popular geography this book should 


meet with favor. To the 


naturalist desirous of kan some- 


thing of the physical features of the vast ntry , . 
scribed, and of its more prominent selva and aa 
characteristics, Mr. Ober has done a 

e work is divided into three Baake, devoted to Yucatan, 


Aboriginals of Mexico. 


Central and Southern Mexico, and the border State 
United States, so it will be seen that the author covers 


extent of ground, indeed, the number of miles trave 


1 Travels in Mexico and Life among the Mexicans. 
Estes & Lauriat. 8vo, pp- 


With 190 illustrations. Boston, 


s next to the 
a large 
led (nearly 4 


By poer A, OBER. 


PLATE XXXVI, 


: 


a 
a 
= 

i 


Donkey Boys of Guaymas, Gulf of California. 


1884. | Recent Literature. 1245 


thousand on horseback) exceeded 10,000, and although he usu- 
ally went over the routes traveled by the diligence, steamer or 
railroad, Mr. Ober kept his eyes open and records his experience 
in a graphic, pleasing way, and the illustrations, which are passa- 
bly good, add to the attractiveness of the narrative. 

On his way to Uxmal, which is briefly described and well illus- 
trated, Mr. Ober visited the water caves of Yucatan, which he 
thus describes : 

“An hour after leaving this hacienda we reached that of 


1246 Recent Literature. { December, 


though sometimes the supply is due to the infiltration of surface 
water into natural grottoes in the coral rock. The Indians, centu- 
ries ago, marked the courses of these subterranean streams by 
heaps of stones, and their cities were always built near or about 
the water-caves, as is now shown by their ruins. These caves, 
where the rivers appear to the light of day, are called cenotes. 
There are many in Yucatan, and in Merida are several, utilized as 
bathing places—most refreshing resorts in the heat of day. The 


Indian Boy, Yucatan. 
cenote at Mucuyché is a cavern, perhaps forty feet deep, wo 
down at one side, forming an arch of limestone with every $ ape 
stalagmite and stalactite, the roof full of holes in whic 
nests of hundreds of swallows and hornets. A flight of stone 
leads from the delightful garden above,and some avocado sii the 
_ cocoa palms growing at the bottom thrust their crowns a 9 cep 
general level of the ground. The water is clear and very 


1884.] Recent Literature. 1247 


Straps of the natural history of the north coast of Yucatan. 
Palenque was not visited by the author, though a chapter is 
_ devoted to this engrossing topic. 

In the account of Mexico the chapter on Popocatapetl and the 
_ «count of the ride from Vera Cruz to Mexico brings out clearly 
| the nature of the better known Mexican volcanoes and of the 
j three regions passed over in going from Vera Cruz to the City of 
| Mexico. In Southern Mexico the palaces of Mitla, among which 
r. Ober Spent a few days, are briefly described. 

_ Though written to please the tastes of the public, we may be 
Sure that the narrative is reliable, the information authentic, and 
- that this book is, all in all, the best hand-book of Mexico the in- 
ve visitor to that interesting country can take along with 


__Brterer Course 1x Borany.—We have examined this little 
_Yolume with more than usual care. Two things command atten- 
tion at once : First, that it is written by a teacher of experience ; 
{nd second, that its author is both an acute observer and a thor- 
oughly posted compiler. It is, in its text, a fresh book, that 1s, 
_ ,. Presentation of the subject matter is done in such style as in- 
dicates that the author had thoroughly considered both the lan- 
lage and order of presentation of the facts. : 
4p € appearance of this book is most opportune. Botany, in 
of country, has largely passed through the preliminary pon 
p matic work exclusively, The great masters have arrange 
“Gi Vegetable hosts into an order which will, without serious 
: >“, Stand for the next twenty years or more. An = 
“the cae Deed, as well as the growing desire, is to know more a 
p ongin, structure and evolutionary tendencies of the igen 
eta cheap microscopes can now be had which make 
just Studies possible. The LBriefer Course in Botany, then, is 
& the book required to foster the existing disposition. no 
pte Superficial in it, nothing needless introduced, nothing 
į American Scien ; ’ ] ‘any. By CHARLES E. BessEY, 
nie PD. si of po bati PEE C. TE n 
€nry Holt & Co. 


ee See ay eee 


BALE, 


1248 Recent Literature. [ December, 


essential left out. The language is lucid; and as the crowning 
merit of the book, the author has introduced throughout the vol- 
ume “ practical studies ” which direct the student in his efforts to 
see for himself all that the text teaches. It is hardly possible to 
estimate too highly the value of these “ studies” as an educa- 
tional force. 

On the first page of the brief Preface the author gives his 
reasons for introduction of the terms Zygophyta, Oophyta and 
Carpophyta. It is encugh to say that to any one these reasons 
should be satisfactory. To the teachers who know the confusion 
caused in the minds of pupils by the older nomenclature, this 
change will probably be thoroughly welcome. It is an oversight 
that instead of asexual the author did not use the term nonsex- 
ual, for besides being contrary to best usage, asexual, by slight 
typographical blunder, is often made to read a sexual, just what 
is not intended. Hence asexual should not be used or perpet- 
uated. 

As indicating the scope of this little book we give the chapter 
headings : : 


POU See ea eh ee ae ON ee ee OPES 


1. Protoplasm and Plant-cells. 
ur. The Tissues of Plants. 
1. The Groups of Tissues, or Tissue Systems, 
Iv. The Plant Body. 
v. The Chemistry and Physics of Plants. 
vi. Classification and Distribution of Plants. 

A glance shows that the student is here plainly led fro 
natural foundation on simple facts up to the latest views 
broadest generalizations. 

We have but a single criticism to make. One more pe a 
pe iat which should briefly explain the terms used in analysis 
plants. ‘ 

There is a danger that we may run from one extreme to = 
other in our teaching, and in our new love for morphol 
botany, neglect systematic botany too much. A p already 
be greater than the whole, and we regret the tendency, 
too marked, of being content to study cells and cell gror the 
aggregation, without being able to name the plant on whic 
observations are made. No one is better qualiheg tie to 
Bessey to add this needed chapter. Another edition 1s ec s 
called for soon, and when it appears we hope to fin smirable i 
chapter added to what is already a most important and a ps 
work.—/. T. Rothrock. ý a 

Tue Propre’s Cycrorepia!—This work, in three royal “j a 
volumes, contains a great deal of information in a pee but i 
form. What it may be in other directions we do not well i 
we cannot speak highly of its scientific value. 

1 Phillips and Hunt, New York. Edited by W. H. DePuy, LL-D» see 


m the 
and 


1884] Recent Literature. 1249 


known scientists appear as editors, Professor C. F. H. Peters and 
Professor Alex. Winchell, and their influence has not been largely 
felt. To give an idea of its standing, we quote two points. Of 
the Dinosauria it says “the principal genera are Megalosaurus, 
Iguanodon and Hyleosaurus!” This information, now a quarter 
_ of acentury old, indicates that the editors have not heard of the 
many American see of this order. Of the doctrine of devel- 
opment it says (p. 533): “ Asa hypothesis the theory has great 
- plausibility, ‘but AS the support of one accredited instance of 
_ the organization of species by natural selection.” The list of 
scientific men at the end of the last volume is absurdly defective. 
Johnson’s encyclopedia gives much fuller information on Ameri- 
can subjects. 
j RECENT Books AND PAMPHLETS. 
Chamberlin, T. CREDEN of angular gravel and disturbed stratification, Ext. 
} Amer. Jour 
-= —The beari n some ppors determinations on pe correlation of the Eastern 
and Western terminal moraines. From the aut 
Tullberg, Tycho.—Bau und Entwicklung der Barten bei Balenoptera sibbaldii, Ext. 
j der K. Gesell. der Wiss. Upsala, Mai, 1882.’ From the author. 
q vg L. ge the use of trinomials in " American ornithology. Proc. U.S. Nat. 
Ei-Gotibations to the history of the Commander islands. 
: 1N det Yderste Osten, 111, IV. All from the author. ac Oa aot wees 
4 —_ ohn Bunyan, Mrs Carlyle an ; 
4 Sra aid ve ore T e Yo a 1884. From the author 
T gag to Contributions to natural history. New York. 
” ao J. D., and irise h, M. E.—The Azoic system and its payee 
a divisions. Cambri e, e, 1884. From the authors 
E teed a M. ipod aa of mineralogy. New York, Barnes & on 


1883. From the 


From the 


Casey, T ; .—Revision of the Cucujidæ of America north ‘of Mexic sc 
— Contributions to the descriptive and systematic coleopterology z Non mer- 
th from the author. 
leborough, J.—Locomotory — of Trilobites. 
Nat. Hist, 1883. From the author. ee 
; sH. —The Orchids of Hine ogland. 1884. From the al 
; Baird, S. F— Annual report of the board of regents of the Smithsonian Institution 
s for 1882. 1884. Frum the Institution. 
: MER a enolog Indica. Ser. X, Vol. 11, Part 4, 
© auth 
Agassiz, A., ad Whitman, C. O.—Contributions from the ag 24 saa mad 
a pi a the fivetipaneit of some pelagic fish eggs- 
= author, . 
Bocourt y, M. F.—Note sur quelques Ophidiens nouveaux, ii I te 
A J icale. Ext. du Bull. de la Soc. Philo. d Paris, 


Ext. Jonr. Cincin, Soc. 


Siwalik birds. From 


ip des Functions wech- 


Hunden aus den Gröhern von 


- Ext. Kosmos, 1884. From the author. Smith. 
Sinan, B.—Sketch of the life and scientific work of Dr. J. Lawrence 
884. F From the author. 


1250 General Notes. [December, 


- Grimes, J. S—Mysteries of the head and the heart. Chicago, 1881. 

Problems of creation. 1881. Both from the author. ? 

Ballard, H. H.—Hand-book of the St. Nicholas Agassiz Association. 1884. From 
the author. 


Shufeldt, R. W.—The debt of science to the late Surgeon-General Chas. H. Crane, 
U. S. Arm Medical Journal, Sep. 13, 1884. From the author. 
Frazer, P.—The Peach Bottom slates of the Lower Susquehanna. 1884. From 
the author 

Shelton, E. M.—Report of the professor of agriculture, Kansas State Agricultural 
College, 1883. From the author. 

Potts, E.—Some modifications observed in the form of sponge spicules. On a sup- 
posed new species of Cristatella, Rep. Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci., 1884. From the 


“ne 


GENERAL NOTES. 
GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS.! 


Asta— Mr. Graham's Ascents of Himalayan Peaks—tn the 
August number of the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical 
Society Mr. W. W. Graham gives an account of his travels in the 
Himalayas. He reports that Kanchinjinga is inaccessible, but 
believes that the circuit of the great peak could be made in nine 
days, although one pass of 20,000 feet would have to be crossed. 

he peaks are set with rocky aiguilles impossible of ascent, for 
beside them the Matterhorn is a mere dwarf. In an attempt 
_ascend Danagiri (23,186 feet G. T. S.) Mr. Graham and his com- 


panion reached 22,700 feet, and saw below them Mount Monal 


(22,516) and A» (21,001), but were compelled to return by a hail 
storm. In one place they found the map of the topographi 
- survey highly inaccurate, “ one whole range omitted, glaciers Pe 
trayed where trees of four feet thickness are growing, and ree 
shading generally entirely imaginary.” Peak An (Mount Mo 
was successfully attempted, but A» was found to te 
wards in an inaccessible precipice. Jabonu (21,300-21 
T. S.) was also ascended, and on another occasion Mr. re 
and two companions reached to within about 40 feet 0 
summit of Mount Kabru (23,700 feet). North-west of t bial 
less than seventy miles, lay Mount Everest, said to be the 
m mountain in the world, buty in 5 jaaa x . 
am and of his skilled Swiss guide, Emil Boss, SU 
two unknown peaks, one eit and one snow. The pags 
agree that the Himalayan glaciers lie at a greater angle 
Swiss, and that the general slope of the peaks 1s gren travel- 
of the inconveniences usually described as experienced by 1 
ers who ascend to great heights were felt, but the Pade 
heart increased greatly, and its beatings became au "pleedings 
Graham thinks it possible that the headache, nausea, see 
etc., suffered by some, arise from a weak heart. At 22, 


1 This department is edited by W. N. Lock1xcTon, Philadelphia. 


his peak, 


None — 


1884.] Geography and Travels. 1251 


_ upon the slopes of Mount Kabru, a pair of snow-white hawks 
were seen flying as easily as at lower levels. The ascent of 
_ Kabru is the highest yet accomplished by man. In the discus- 
_ sion which followed the reading of Mr. Graham's paper, it was 
elicited that the two unnamed peaks near Mount Everest had 
__ been seen before by native surveyors. 


Asiatic Nores.—There is no satisfactory evidence, according 
= to Professor R. Lenz, that the Oxus flowed into the Caspian be- 
_ fore the thirteenth century, as the Arabian geographers of the 
ninth century, who have been qucted in proof of this connection, 
appear to have confounded the Caspian with the Aral. It is known 
_ that the river had two branches in the thirteenth and fourteenth 
_ centuries, but the branch emptying into the Caspian probably 
_ ceased flowing in the sixteenth century. This agrees with Tur- 
= Coman traditions. In 1850 and 1869, during great floods, the 
_ Waters of the Amu Darya penetrated into Lake Sara Kamysh. 
The level of the Caspian is slowly but steadily falling, and the 
_ ltesh-water seals are fast diminishing in number. A recent 
_ Wsue of Petermann's Mittheilungen contains a map showing the 
Toute pursued by A. Regels in his journey through Darwas in 
_ the last months of 1883. The Chingan, a tributary of the Oxus, 
Was followed almost to its source in the Garma glacier. Mr. 
a Holt Hallett has returned to Bangkok after a successful expe- 
dition to the Shan States, during which he has surveyed over 
1500 miles of route, determined the position of the Shan ranges, 


i Persian boun- 
Hungen contains a map of Merv and of the Russo- 
aries in the vicinity, with the routes of the Russian engineer, = 
M. essar. Between Askabad ‘and Sarakhs the distance 1s 2 


Russia until the Borchut range, a continuation of the Paropamissus, 

S reached. Pico moata form the northern boundary of 

Atghazistan, and the Russian frontier reaches to within ener 

m Miles of Herat, Merv was formerly erroneously supposed to 
1900 feet above the sea, but is really only 800. 


vou, XVIII.—nxo, XIL 79 


1252 General Notes. [ December, 


AFRICAN Notes.—M. Dutreuil de Rhins has communicated to 
the Geographical Society of Paris notes from De Brazza, by which 
it appears that the land route between Franceville and the Alima 
has been shortened from seventy-five miles to fifteen or twenty 
through the discovery of an affluent of the Ogowé. On his last 
visit to the Makoko M. de Brazza was accompanied only bya 
man anda boy. The French Mission at Cape Lopez now has 
fifty huts, and proves to be salubrious. Mr. H. H. Johnston 
writes to the Royal Geographical Society from Urura on the 
mountain Kilimanjaro. He speaks of it as “ one of the loveliest 
sites in the world. Above me towers into the deep blue heaven 
the snowy head of Kibo’, around me are green hills and forest- 
clad ravines in whose profound depths great cascades of water 
leap from rock to rock and splash the fronds of luxuriant ferns; 
before me lies spread out a vast blue plain—‘all the world, as 
my host, the chief Mandara, proudly says—and my view south- 
ward is only bounded by the distant horizon.” Clemens and . 
Gustav Dehardt have recently explored the Tana river and its two 
mouths. Massa, the farthest point attained, is found to be in 39 ) 
47’ E. long. instead of in 38° 20’, thus the river runs in a more | 

' 


southerly direction than has been supposed. Capt. Brandon 4 
Kirby, probably the first white man who has penetrated the od 
try due north of Coomassie, and reached the southern limits 
those inland nations who have hitherto been prevented from com 
munication with the seaboard by the formerly impassible barrier a 
of Ashanti power, does not think that that power is likely ti 
to regain its ascendancy over the neighboring tribes. Cone i 
was ruined during the civil war, but is being rebuilt. a : 
sacrifices are now forbidden by the new king, Quaco Dak | 
Portuguese expedition under Major H. de Carvalho left wo 
June ioth, with the object of establishing commercial re ree . 
with the Muata Yanvo. Thence the „expedition will ee 7 
Mozambique. (A Portuguese, Joaquim Rodriguez Graca, qa 
was the first to make known in Europe the kingdom of the “a 
Yanvo.)——The German African Association has sent out nae i 
expedition for the exploration of the southern part of the Keb 
basin, under the command of Lieut. E. Schulze, with Lieut. uttner j 
as topographer, Dr. Wolff as anthropologist, and Dr. cently 
as naturalist. Id, who has t 


o 
The yan 
gions peopled by Imaziren (Berbers) recognize no zeit has 
their own chiefs. The conflict of influences on the Y in which © 
sixteen pawns, bearing the colors of England, France, 
and Portugal, operate on a large map. 


ee 
uF 


7 Co TOCEPHALUS. —The columella auris in Clepsy 
pe, is bifurcate at the proximal extremity. The s 


1884.] Geology and Paleontology. 1253 


_ AMERICA.— The Work of the Greely Expedition—The geograph- 
ical work of the Lady Franklin Bay Expedition, according to the 
account given by Lieut. Greely at the British Association, covers 
nearly three degrees of latitude and over forty degrees of longitude. 
Lieut. Lockwood's journey to the north added nearly 100 miles of 
coast line beyond the farthest point seen by Lieut. Beaumont, of the 
Royal Navy. There were no indications that the most northern 
point of Greenland seen, 83° 35’ N. lat., 38° West long., was the 
northern termination of Greenland. The coast presented numerous 
fjords, with many outlying islands, and the interior, as seen from 
an elevation of 2000 feet, consisted of confused masses of etern- 
ally snow or ice-clad mountains, The coast-line was high and 
precipitous, the formation schistose slate with a little quartz. The 
arctic poppy and several saxifrages were seen, as were also traces 
of the polar bear, lemming and arctic fox, and a hare and a 
ptarmigan were killed. A snow bunting was heard. A curious 
fact was the existence of a “tidal crack” extending from Cape 
Bryant along the entire coast, stretching across the fjords in a 
direct line from headland to headland, and varying in width from 
one yard to several hundreds. Inside the crack was rough hum- 


GEOLOGY AND PALA/ONTOLOGY. 

IN CLEPSYDROPS 
drops leptocephalus 
horter expanded 


THE STRUCTURE OF THE COLUMELLA AURIS 


Abstract of paper read betore the National Academy of Sciences Oct. 16, 1334 


1254 General Notes. [ December, 


extremity is the stapes proper. The oblique perforation of its 
base is a character which has not been hitherto observed in any 
reptile, not even in the allied form Hatteria (Huxley). If, as is 
probable, the perforation is homologous with the foramen of the 
mammalian stapes, we have here another point of resemblance to 
this class. The longer proximal branch of the columella has only 
halt the width of the stapedial portion, and its long axis makes 
an obtuse angle with that of the latter. It is perhaps the ossified 
suprastapedial cartilage of Huxley, which that author states (An- 
atomy of Vertebrated Animals, p. 77) is not ossified in any of the 
living Sauropsida. Huxley supposes this cartilage to be the homo- 
logue of the incus, and remarks’ that in a young Mammalian fæ- 
tus “it appears exactly as if the incus were the proximal end of 
the cartilage of the first visceral arch.” This identification will 
require an excessive abbreviation of the stapes in Clepsydrops, and 
until this is proven I prefer to call this process the epicolumella 
(see Pl. xxxviii, fig. 2).. The columella now described, resembles 
a rib, of which the epicolumella resembles the head, and the stapes 
the tubercle. If this process be the incus, the stapes is shortened 
as in the majority of Mammalia, unless the primitive suture be- 
tween the two be longitudinal. The form and position of the true 
stapes give support to the view of Salensky, that it is not part ot 
a true visceral arch, but is developed in the connective tissue 
„surrounding the mandibular artery. We see that in this i 
saurian 1t is not the proximal part of the arch, and surrounds t! 

mandibular artery. The columella is d 
tinct elements. This is clearly indicated by its abru 
distally by a rough sutural surface. h gg 
distad to the stapes, it is homologous with the cartilage, whic æ 
been shown by Peters? to be distinct in Hatteria, crocodi p ey 


bones are homologous with the ossicula auditus, 1s incorrect. ae 
Pelycosauria will probably come under the head of Saur ae 


malleoferes” of Albrecht. We have here an approxima ing 
the Mammalia in two points: (1) The perforation and ? rast’ 3) is i 
of the stapes; (2) and the ossification of the incus, which u 
distinct from the malleus, thus furnishing homologues of however, 
cipal ossicles of the ear. It is unnecessary to observe, 90% 
that this part of the skeleton does not resemble the corres 
part in the known Monotremes. 
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXXVI. ie plate.) _ 
(I am indebted to the American Philosophical Society for the use o antl d 
Fic 1.—Clepsydrops leptocephalus Cope, right quadrate bone (Q) yooh bone ® 
zygomatic process (z) from the right, or external side. Zh PINE 


- 


1p lings Zool. Society, London, 1869, p. 391- 
2 Monatsberichte der Academie Sciences, Berlin, 1868 (p- 592) 187° 


i 
| 
‘ 
s 
í 
‘ 
i 
‘ 
‘ 
* 
$ 
‘ 
$ 


1884.] Geology and Paleontology. 1255 


same oo displaced so as so as to e in plane of quadrate, and to be seen from infe- 
e ha ral s 
he. 2. T- Colamnelta auris of ie individual of bei aa rarei huper 
g. = re side. Fig. 2a external side; 2 -a 


aie extremity head of Pe ge ecol, sea te as ian a cular 
ia epee represented i in nee c. All figures are half jemi size, €x- 
cepting 2c, which is natural siz 


Fic. 3.—Left be If scapiilar ch rg a Pelycosaurian, less easa wn pacer a 
one-half natural size. sc, scapula; cl, facet for clavicle oid; 
epicoracoid; s, open noar between coracoid and pareari ariaa the 
immaturity of the anim 

Fic. 4.—Dorsal vertebra a a ‘species of Embolophorus, one-half natural size; right 
et a, from front; 4, from below. de, intercentrum; ca, capit itular rib ‘articu- 

Fic. 5 Ästragalus of individual eas in fig. 4, one-half natural ne from be- 
ow, , ca, facets for gre eum; 7a, sa se navicular; fb 2, do, for bone of 
spur, or os tibiale. 5æ,s ene ne Fer Gaian or calcaneal hate ; J fibular 
facet. “gener e bone, p roximal o fibular extremi 
ior plantar) side, prs porini ener ze. as, astragalus; ca, ca 5 a, 
navicular bon ecc, entocuneiform, roe 


c and 
and ectocunelform ‘bones, respectively, I, II, ILL, IV, V, metatarsals. In this 
emai n the neum is displaced, being ‘turned backwards, so as to present 


pe 
ts two fear tb Mii (asf ') anterior rly. 
—E, D. Cope. 


Nore on THE PHYLOGENY OF THE VERTEBRATA. -— As my 
researches have now, as I believe, disclosed the ancestry of the 
mammals,! the birds, the reptiles, and the true fishes, or Hyo- 
pomata, I give the following phylogenetic diagram illustrating the 
same. This will only include the leading divisions. The special 
phylogenies of the Batrachia* and Reptilia and some of the 
Mammalia ê have been already given. 


Aves Mammalia 
Reptilia 

A 

Hyopomata Batrachia 

T 

Selachii Ichthyotomi Dipnoi 
Holocephali i 
Pe Marsipobranchi 
Leptocardit 


1 AMERICAN NATURALIST, 1884, p. 1136. 
i ? Proceedings a Phi adel 1867, 2 
eedings American Phil eo 7 1884, p- 585. 
3 Teg NATURALIST, 1884, p- 
apui ngs American jerat "for the 
23 

* Proceedi Am Philosophical Society, 1882, 447 5 AMERICAN NATURAL- 
IST, 1884, E oh agen ap ; Report U „S. Geol. Survey W. of rooth Mer., G. M. 
Wheeler, 1877, IV, Il, p. oe 


Advancement of Science, XIX, 


1256 General Notes. [ December, 


The Mammalia have been traced to the Theromorphous rep- 
tiles by the Monotremata. The birds, some of them at least, ap- 
pear to have been derived from the Dinosaurian reptiles. The 
reptiles in their primary representative order, the Theromorpha, 
have been probably derived from the Rhachitomous Batrachia. 
The Batrachia have originated from the sub-class of fishes, the 
Dipnoi though not from any known form. I have shown that 
the true fishes or Hyopomata have descended from an order of 
sharks, the Ichthyotomi, which possess characters of the Dipnoi 
also. The origin of the sharks remains entirely obscure, as does 
also that of the Marsipobranchi. Dohrn? believes the latter class 
to have acquired its present characters by a process of degenera- 
tion. The origin of the Vertebrata is as yet entirely unknown, 
Kowalevsky deriving them from the Ascidia, and Semper from 
the Annelida. à 

It is now possible to determine the nature of the evolution of 
the greater number of the vertebrata, by resolving the difficult 
problem of distinguishing primitive from degenerate types. »Y 
degeneration I understand loss of parts and organs which subserve 
what would be usually called animal vitality, as distinguished 
from vegetative life. Preéminent among these must be regard d 
varied powers of movement, which give the greatest opportunity 
for the exhibition of intelligence. Loss of parts without comple- 
mentary development of other parts is the usual form of degeneration. 

Among the true fishes there are several examples of degener- 
ation. Among Physostomi the marine eels (order Colocephali) 
exhibit this in their skulls and fins, the final degradation being 
reached by the deep-sea form, the Eurypharyngide. In ee 
clysti, the group with abdominal ventral fins descended rae < 
the Hemibranchi to the very degraded type of the Lophonrm a 
The group with pectoral ventral fins, especially the Percomani 
present us with a degraded type of the Plectognathi. e re 
scent commenced in the suborder Epilasmia (Chaetodontice, 
Teuthyidz, etc.). It is 

The Batrachia are almost entirely a line of degradation. ~ de) 
now quite safe to say that the Trachystomatous order (Sireni 
is a degraded, and not a primitive type. rae : 

The lines of Reptilia Chii terminated in the existing a z 
a line of degradation. In comparison with the Theromo 
Crocodilia are degraded, and the Lacertilia ar 
This latter order displays within itself the most rema 
ber of degraded forms, as I can agree with Dr. Boule! sig 

p . d their alli 
calling them. Among snakes, the Typhlopidæ an , 
are a degraded type, but the order displays a pa 
on the whole. Two extinct orders of Reptilia show 

1 Proceedin ri i . Sdciety, 1884, p. 585- : i Nos 

2 gp som anag aren ha pa Si unctionwechsels 
Anton Dohrn, Leipsic, 1875, p. 32. 


1884.] | Geology and Paleontology. 1257 


lines, viz., the Dinosauria and the Pterosauria, one or both of 
which terminated in the birds. 
fhe birds. appear to form an ascending series, with few or no 
exceptions, 
The line of the Mammalia is mainly ascending. Probable ex- 
os are the Edentata, the Sirenia and the Cetacea—&. D. 
ope, 
THE Permanence oF Ocean Beps.—Rev. O. Fisher publishes 
a letter in the Geological Magazine for September, in which he 
strongly supports the doctrine of the permanency of the ocean 
s, closing as follows: : 
“Extensive changes of level seem to me to be the most difficult 
to account for of all the phenomena of geology. And the greater 
the changes, the greater the difficulty. The permanence of the 
respective areas seems therefore to involve less difficulty than their 
interchange. | published in Mature (Jan. 12, 1882), a suggestion 
to account for the origination of ocean basins. It is rather re- 
markable that the first and only allusion to it which I have seen 
as just now come from New Zealand in Dr. Haast’s address at 
Canterbury College. Accepting Professor Darwin's theory that 
€ moon broke away from the earth more than fifty million years 
ago, I think the ocean-basins may be the scar that was formed, 
and that the basement rocks of continents are fragments of the 
crust which had already solidified, and which were left behind. It 
has since occu rred to me that the archzan rocks may be the verit- 
able remains of it. I would refer to my published article for the 
details of the grounds on which I think this theory plausible. Dr. 
aast uses rather too strong an expression in saying that I ie 
Eoripted to prove it. It is probably incapable of proof, even i 
e” * 


dition has 
GroLtocicat Nores.—General—The German Expe ha 

Ought back the information that the island of South T 
composed of clay slate. This was not only found i . the in- 
taken from the débris brought down by the pecs kom 


1258 General Notes. [ December, 


terior. Varieties of quartz were interspersed in some places, and 
the rock contained a little iron, insufficient to affect the needle. 
The mountains are from two to three thousand metres in height. 
Dr. Carl Ochsenius, of Marburg. discusses, in a recent num- 
ber of the Geological Magazine, the origin of metalliferous deposits, 
and states that his conclusions, as evidenced by extracts from the 
Journal of the German Geological Society, August, 1881, agree 
substantially with those arrived at by Professor Joseph Le Conte, 
and put forth in the American Journal of Scicnce, July 1883. To 
the words of the latter, “thus then subterranean waters of any 
kind, but especially alkaline, at any temperature, but mostly hot, 
circulating in any direction, but mainly upcoming, and in any kind 
of water may, but mainly in open fissures, by deposit form metal- 
liferous veins.” Dr. Ochsenius would add, “ if they contain sufficient 
quantities of ores in solution,” since many alkaline and saline 
springs: and waters form no metalliferous deposits. He says, 
“ Metalliferous deposits are in fact constituted of metallic particles, 
extracted from rocks by mother liquors, either with or without the 
operation of carbonic acid, and accumulated in fissures, cavities, 
or depressions. Mineral springs found in many metalliferous 
regions evidence the former activity of mother liquors. M 
W. T. Blanford states that it appears doubtful if the seci 
formations of India can be accurately classified by means of the 
uropean subdivisions, and that he believes that the European 
classification can only be applied as an artificial scale or renee 
of comparison. He advocates the union of the Cambrian an 
Silurian, and considers the Devonian-Carboniferous-Permi, = 
' forming a second main division of Palæozoic. “ Permian : 
not occur in Asia. In the Indian Salt Range section, the wit 
series of the Carboniferous or Productus limestone series sa = 
more Triassic forms than the Magnesian limestone of Europe. in 
Rhetic he considers as the upper member of the Triassic ya 
and advocates the Tertiary classification recommended by es as 
German and Swiss geologists, viz., the union of the OO gene 
the Eocene, and the grouping of all the higher strata as a) has 
or Mollasique——The Permian (as commonly pases shows 
recently: been roughly handled by the Rev. A. Irving, W x ee 
that the Bunter and Mergel-Schiefer are Triassic, and ar so-called 
ded by Gi í ainder of the s€ 
garded by German geologists, while the rem Rothliegende 
Permian, consisting of the marine Zechstein and the Ko 


. 


(a fresh water and land-formation with included eruptive This 


parallel with the Zechstein) form the Dyas of the 
Dyas may well be grouped with the Carboniferous. oun 
Furassic.—The stratigraphy of the middle Jurassic = separate 
of the Paris basin is elucidated by Wohlegemuth 1n middle and 
issue of the Academy of Sciences of Nancy. The i s, and 
upper Bathonian, Callovian with Ammonites athleta, tinum and 
macrocephalus, Oxfordian, Corallian with Diceras 47 


Aa 


Ment held good. In 18 
_ Ment: 4, however, Voge 
_ Asiatic basalt, and, in 1876, 


b =: 
4 «Sea U. S. Geological Survey 
a mentary on the influence of modern scien 
^ name so given. 


7 vol ‘ : . . 
cano “ Cerro de las Virgines” in 


PERERA Dr chine eae San 
Re eaters eee MY E 


mig] Mineralogy. 1259 
Gidari ; i ; 
enn, and the lower Kimmeridge or Astartian are 


seamed neuropterous insect (Æschna flindersiensis), 
a G ites and five molluscan species, including an Avicula 
= K ee. have been described by Dr. H. Woodward and 
ices. eston from the Cretaceous of Australia (Geol. Mag., 


MINERALOGY.’ 


— The history of leucite is 
rs ago Humboldt made the 


Isang found it in an 
: Zirkel announced its discovery in 
oe Territory, U. 5. 

Although the leucite was invisible to the naked eye, Zirkel’s 


overy was regarded so important that the locality was named 
the Leucite Hills, An interesting. 
ce is furnished by 


by Von Chrustschoff? who finds it in a lava in 


Gass of an ash-gray ground-mass Sp inkled wit 

of 15 of brownish-black obsidian or glass, and with light specks 

rou DEW These light specks are $ own by a lens to have a 

Shins ed octagonal outline. i jvine also occur por- 
yritically, and in the grondmass plagioclase, magnetite, nephe- 

‘ ei ted by Professor H. CARVILL Lewis, Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila- 

Min. u. Petrograph. Mitth., 1884, VI, 160. 


1260 General Notes. | [ December, 


line, mica, glass, and perhaps melilite can be found by the 
microscope. 

The leucite is remarkably clear and fresh, and shows in polar- 
ized light the well known twinning structure, even better marked 
than in the leucite of the Vesuvian lavas or of the Laacher-See. 
While generally in rounded masses, the smaller individuals are 
often clearly octagonal in outline. The microscope shows the 
leucite to contain many inclusions, among which are augite, 
apatite, olivine, plagioclase, magnetite, nepheline and glass inclu- 
sions and bubbles. ; 

Leucite has as yet never been found in rocks of pre-Tertiary 
age. 


ENARGITE FROM Montrana.—An arseniferous copper ore from 
Montana has been examined by Mr. Wm. Semmons,’ who has 
found in it crystals of a mineral resembling enargite. The crys- 
tals are rare and small. They show prismatic and pinacoidal 
planes, the macro- and brachydomes and the basal pinacoid, and 
are apparently orthorhombic. They are highly striated, like 
stibnite, and cleave into little rhombic prisms. H = 2.5. Spec. 
grav. = 3.92. Soils the fingers. Color lead-gray when freely 
broken, tarnishing on exposure, and then resembling blen 
Streak black. Before the blowpipe it decrepitates and exfoliates 
into worm-like threads like vermiculite, and gives reactions 
for sulphur, arsenic and copper. 


Composition : mean of two analyses: 
Cu As S SiO, F 
45-78 18.65 31.30 2.50 80 = 99-03 

As the hardness, the cleavage and the blowpipe pans 
differ from typical enargite, although the composition Is t gba 
it is possible that this is a distinct species falling smo pr 
other sulph-arsenites of copper as famatinite, clarite, lagoon 
guayacanite. Itis desirable that crystallographic measur 
should be taken. 


occurring at 


oa iful lazulite 
LAZULITE From GEORGIA.—The beautiful been known; 


Graves mountain, Lincoln county, Georgia, has long Dee! in 
but has until now not been investigated optically. aisi Von 
sky-blue crystals often over an inch in length and in wi Fine | 
Lasaulx? of Bonn has recently examined it optical ly. directio 
ochroism was noticed, the crystal being colorless 1n ne axes lie 
of elasticity, and sky-blue in the two others. T ne wga 
in the plane of symmetry, their divergence in air rtain kn 
The angle between the bissectrix (negative) and aa 
planes is also given. The microscope showed that 


1 Mineralogical Magazine, 1884, VI, No. 27, p- 49- 


; 1883, P 274" 
2 Sitzungsber. der niederrhein. Ges. für Natur. und Heilk. December, 


1884] Mineralogy. 1261 


_ was not homogeneous, being traversed by rutile and by other un- 
_ determined substances. 


MINERALOGICAL Notes—Professor Bonney’ publishes an ac- 
count of a case of the replacement of quartz by fluor spar. The 
rock in which it occurs is a mixture of red felspar, fluor spar and 
tourmaline, and has been named “ Trowlesworthite”* by Mr. 
orth. It is believed that the rock has been formed from granite 
_ through the replacement of quartz by fluor spar. This is an un-. 
= usual substitution. 


_ One mass of columbite was two feet long by twenty inches wide, 
and must have weighed a ton. In the cavities in the columbite 
he found a beautiful yellow powder in pellets and pill-like balls, 
_ consisting of nearly pure hydrous uranium oxide. 
À _ Garnet is reported by H. Louis‘ as occurring in the form of an 
_ igneous dyke in the province of Catalonia in the Pyrenees. The 
7 dyke varies in thickness from two to five and a half feet and is 
_ Vertical. It is made of pure garnet free from admixture of other 
- Minerals, 
E The discovery of herderite at Stoneham, Maine, described by 
Mr. W. E. Hidden’ about a year ago, and analyzed by J. B. 
_ Mackintosh, was of considerable interest. It had previously been 
_ lound only at Ehrenfriedersdorf, Saxony, where it was very rare. 


Na recent note ê Professor A. Wiesbach gives the results of a 
xon and Maine her- 


| Mineralog. Magazine, 1884, VI, P. 48. 
: Trans, Royal Geolog. Soc. of Cornwall, Vol. xX, p. !77- 
Amer. Jour. Sc. and Arts, November, 1884, P. 349- 


» Neues Jahrb. d. Miner., 1884, II, 134+ 
. Amer. Philos. Soc, Oct. 17, 1884- 


1262 General Notes, [ December, 


BOTANY .! 


NOTES ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE FLOWERS OF ZYGADENUS 
GLAUCUS Nutr.—The plant is found in low prairie lends near 
Dayton; it arises from a coated bulb, the last one or two leaves 
of which subtend buds that are to form the bulbs of next year. 
In addition to these bulbs the plant sometimes puts forth a short 
stem scarcely an inch long at the end of 
which a bulb and roots are developed. This 
stem originates in the parent bulb, but just 
where, I neglected to determine. The 
flowers are borne in panicles, are nearly 
erect, and permit the insect visitors to walk 
easily about on the leaves of the greenish- 
white perianth, sipping the excretion from 
the obcordate green glands (Fig. 3). The 
excretion had a disagreeable taste, and was 
not sweet. The open nature of the flower 
would suggest the visits of chiefly diptera, 
and such were the only visitors I saw. In 
the bud, stamens and styles are erect. The 
anthers are heart-shaped, confluently one 
celled and extorse. The three outer stam- 


til the stigmas assume 

Fic. 1.— Male state of Y” i 

flower, natural size, with the held by the anthers (Fig. 2). 3 

stamens recurved. Fic. 2— provision made for the prot 

Female state of flower, the sland excretion. The first rain coul et 
oe ee ae = it awey. All insects can readily get a 

Fic. 3.—Upper surface of a But the disagreeable taste 1S su Bees 

eterna own! (slightly en- keep away most unwelcome Mase oe 

ar EE E a seem to evade it for better plants an p : 


ably the taste of the nectar ee oe pA i 
ein i: 


ted structure 


. li 
plant as perfectly to flies as the more complica pehe 


to higher insects. The unsightly colors are 
this respect.—Aug. F. Foerste, Granville, Ohto. 
CONCERNING THE MANNER IN WHICH SOME SEEDS 
BURY THEMSELVES IN THE Sort.2—You are doubtless erp 
less familiar with the experiments of Francis Darwin Het- 
others before him on the power of seeds of Stipa, 
eropogon, Avena, and other plants to bury hem: he best, 
the surface of the soil. Mr. Darwin’s account 1S k for 1876 
can be found in the transactions of the Linnean Society 1°: 


all more 


1 Edited by ProrEssor C. E. Bessey, Lincoln, Nebraska. 
2 Read belore the Botanical Club of the A. A. A. S. 


Sa eee ee eee 


or GRASSES ‘ 


Erodium, He 


1884.] Botany. 1263 


) esi: = awns of these seeds or fruits twist about, leav- 
pill zy erable portion of the untwisted part of the awn at the 
a ait out at nearly right-angles to the rest of the awn. If 
_ wet, the awn untwists and becomes straight. The apex is sharp, 


bores forward. These seeds usually fall to the 
straws, stubble, and more or less rabbis Sy ade 
os the motion takes place in the grain. 
ly Eo, ol ago in repeating this experiment, I placed a box 
aN of small sticks or straws every inch or so over the 
ati is was to act as stubble, and by holding the awn, help 
eeds to penetrate the ground. The seeds worked wel!, some 


: ya (Stipa spartea) boring down two inches to the bottom of 


— ie ee eaa 
jee ae, Ce 


1 za eisa some in a box of earth without any straws OF 
koe eat was surprised to find that they all but one, in fifty or 
i Daes no trouble in penetrating the soil. The seeds of some 
E coubl penetrate the skins of sheep and dogs a 

i ésome. I have recently been studying t 
ea of grass with reference to this subject. 
er dry weather where some tall oat-grass (Arrhenatherum 


he grain of three 


ut, the land in places 


ee the last of July we had some days of wet 

> ot d the cracks in the soil to close up inst the seeds; the 
nd ring drops of rain scattered more or less earth into the holes 
a cracks over the seeds and they began to grow freely. : 
Toae quantities of seeds of Anthoxanthum puelli, a species 
Ot small sweet vernal, behaved just as well as thos 


‘ of Danthonia spicata were observed. 
but in this case large num- 
ak 


hills of ants were busy in their excavati 
ulls, usually not more than an inch hig 
ead IA Numerous seeds of Danthonia were a 
e young plants were coming ° he 
they had buried themselves or had been pane 


Ay ground for these seeds, : 
- A few weeks ago, some boxes Were half-filled with good garden 


1264 General Notes. [ December, 


soil. The surface seemed quite even, though there were some 
small lumps half an inch or more in diameter, and a few irregular, 
narrow depressions here and there. On the soil were scattered in 
the several boxes, seeds in the chaff of the three grasses named. 
There were no artificial obstructions placed in the soil, which was 
alternately wet and dried quite a number of times, till nearly all 
the seeds disappeared below the surface and some of them, even 
when the surface was quite dry, began to send up green leaves. 
Thus we see that even the weak and short twisting awns of some 
grasses are of use in covering the seeds with soil—JDr. W. J. 
Beal, Agricultural College, Mich. 

New Species or Norra American Funat (Continued )—Plyl- 

losticta leucothées—Apical portion, or often the entire upper half 
of the leaf discolored, rusty brown, the discolored part distinctly 
limited. Perithecia globose 150-2007 in diam., few and scattered, 
buried in the substance of the leaf, their apices slightly prominent 
above, but covered by the epidermis; spores ovate-oblong, 15-2! 
x 6-7», granular or with 2-3 nuclei. Differs from P. terminalis 
E. and M., to which it bears a general resémblance in the different 
color of the affected part and in its much larger spores. On leaves 
of Leucothée acuminata. Green Cove Springs, Fia., January, 
1884. 
Phyllosticta sinuosa.—Spots orbicular, 1.5-6"™ (mostly 2-3"), 
reddish-brown, becoming nearly white with a distinct raised, r x 
dish-black border; perithecia epiphyllous, scattered, lentic re 
(1502) mostly near the margin of the spots; spores ieee 
clavate-oblong, hyaline, 3142 (undeveloped) ?-15 and fees 
wide. On leaves of Olea americana. Green Cove Springs, 


mm) or oftener 
perithecia 
) on 


americana. Newfield, N. J., August, 1884. round definitely 


Phyllosticta apocynti—Epiphyllous on brown, y border; pet 


num cannabinum. July bose oF ellipti- 


July. 
Sacidium polygonati.— Perithecia flattened, glo bradiate cell- 
cal, 200-230 in diameter; astomous, of compact, SU 


ular structure; spores subglobose or subangular by a Ellis, 4 


5-7. On dead stems of Polygonatum giganteu 
Newfield, N. J., and Dr. Geo. Martin. 


Fee ee 


Tur DEATH oF GEORGE BENTHAM.—This eminen 
, TE — t man, wh 
pe : familiar to every botanist, died on the roth of Gaaah 
x is home in London, England, at the advanced age of eighty- 
an per He was born at Plymouth, September 22, 1800. the 
4 pm 1814 to 1826 were spent in southern France, a result 
~ os Shs his first botanical publication, a Catalogue of 
oe 3 igenous to the Pyrenees and Bas Languedoc, issued in 
Kon, 7 1854 his great herbarium and library were given to 
Be th here he worked assiduously upon genera and orders of 
riage e results of which appeared from time to time in the 
eis te monographs. The greatest work of his life 
Sted js upon the Genera Plantarum, began in 1862 and com- 
pity 1883, the joint product of Mr. Bentham and Sir Joseph 


i ete or Appress.—The editor of this department 
oe accepted the chair of botany and horticulture in the Uni- 
ra 4 = Nebraska, should hereafter be addressed at Lincoln, 

a. l 


; esa ical. Nores.—Dr. Vasey has again placed the botanists 
ek : Seale! under obligations to him by bringing out a thick 
nN phlet entitled The Agricultural Grasses of the United States. 
lpia’ notice will be given of it in the future, but we must stop 
s enough to commend this as a sample of the kind of publi- 

TARR which are creditable to the department of agriculture. 

abl rtunately many of its publications have 

ae bers of the Gardener's Chronicle Thos. 


Meehan publishes a valuable article on the fertility of hybrids, 
date. 


—In the same journal for September 27, W. S; Smith gives an 
izophyllum com- 


bac , W. G 
Ete of the growth of the little fungus Sch. 
om af upon the cut edge of ensilage in a silo. This is surely an` 

Place for it to grow, but it sounds oddly to learn that “ the 
in the tropics, rarely spreading into tem- 


“ed September Torrey Bulletin contains a paper by 
, Siving the known localities of Corema conradi, from which itap- 
i Pears that it occurs upon the (1) New Jersey pine barrens, 
mouth, Mass., (4) Bath, Me., (5) Isle au 
cotia and Newfoundland, (7) St 
e same number is a convenien 
nclature as they occurred 


| th Gray’ 1 ue 
| y’s Synoptical Flora, Vol. 1 part 1. There 
red - not follow that “ about one-fourth of 


, 


1266 General Notes. [December, 


the species are to receive different names,’ as the writer of the 
paper remarks, for by a strange slip of memory the volume is said 
to enumerate “ less than 400 monopetalous [sic] species from Ca- 
prifoliaceæ to Composite inclusive.” The Composite alone in- 
clude nearly four times that number ! 


ENTOMOLOGY, 


GREAT SWARMS OF A PSEUDO- NEUROPTEROUS INSECT IN JAPAN — 
On the 17th February of this year (1878), at about 7 o'clock AM, 
this curious kind of insect (in the bottle) was seen at Yuno- 
sawa, in the district of Kameda, near Hakodate port, flying in 
swarms of so great numbers that for the distance of about four or 
five chios (1440 to 1800 feet) it seemed quite dark. At this time 
they were very small and looked like gnats or mosquitos. But 
about one hour afterwards they seemed to grow as big as a small 
sort of fly, and each pair copulated together for several hours, 
and then they all fell down dead. 

This insect was also seen on the 29th December last year 
(1877). The residents of that place stated that they had never 
seen any before there, even in summer, and they considered it very 
strange that such insects were found there in the season of snow, 
especially during this severe winter. 

Yunosawa is situated in a small valley. A small stream runs 
through this valley, and at its bank there is a lime main 
besides only one farmer’s house, and a few rice fields, also a ʻ0 


species of Capnia.— Ed. | 5 he 
Tae LARVAL STAGES or Mamestra Picta.—lIn the pees 
September, 1876, the caterpillars of this moth did extensiv? 
jury to the ruta bagas on the farm of the Massachusetts 


AP Dit ie A 


tural College at Amherst; eight years previous they also si wing : 


beet. The fol 


the leaves of this vegetable as well as the ative study © 


pHs may be of service as data for a compar 
the early stages of the Noctuide: . the 
Larva jes the rst moult.—Length 4™™ Head mages © i 
body, pale-greenish; body pale-greenish with a ne 
dorsal stripe divided by a pale median line; three ʻā irs of ab- 
stripes, of which the uppermost is the narrower ; five pa 5 
dominal feet, first pair one-half the size of the fourth pair. 

well tuberculated, being smoother in the adult 


oe chain 
rva after the 1st moult,—Length 7™™ Markings ae band, 


the full-grown larva, deep yellow with a broad black dor 


1884.] Entomology. 1267 


_ sometimes entire and sometimes divided by a median pale line. 
_ A laterai area marbled with transverse short black and white lines, 
_ and with a row of conspicuous black spots. A row of dark spots 
_ down on the sides. Head reddish testaceous; abdominal feet 
= reddish. 

~ Larva after 2d or 3d moult—Length 25™™ Markings as in the 
_ full-grown caterpillar, straw-yellow, with a broad dorsal black 
_ Stripe, and a broader dark lateral stripe; this stripe interrupted 
_ by transverse rune-like white markings breaking up the band into 
Similar black runes, 
= A caterpillar moulted under my eyes; the sides of the head fell 
_ offaway from the rest of the body, and in an instant the anterior 
half of the body was pulled out of the old skin; I do not un- 
_ derstand where it went to; then in a minute more, stopping occa- 
sionally to rest, it withdrew itself from the remainder of its old 
_ skin, holding on by its hind legs until they were extricated from 
_ the cast skin. The whole process was but the work of one min- 
ute. It was but little larger than previous; the prothoraci¢ seg- 
_ Ment was less spotted and the head much paler than before. B 

= 4P. M., or about four or five hours after, the head was red-colored, 
and the six prothoracic black spots had appeared.—A. S. Packard. 


tred under the turf at Caribou islan 


. 


ind, a bluish-green species k 
iS concolorous with hie body: while the legs are yellowish.—A. 
Packard, 
Dancers prom THE ExcREMENT OF F Lies.—The 
‘oyal Microscopical Society for August, prints an "E 
Grassi’s experiments which show that flies are agents in Prees 
fusion of infectious maladies, epidemics, and even aeri spanar 
„Yn a plate on the table-of his laboratory he soma atra 
ber of the eggs of a human Nematode parasite (Trichocephatus). 
80 


VOL xvm, —xo., xır. 


Journal of the 


1268 General Notes. [December, 


and broke them up in water, so that a great number of t 
tapeworm’s eggs remained suspended in the fluid. The i 
came to the mixture, attracted by the sugar, and in about half an a 
- hour the ova of the tapeworms were to be found in their intes- 
tines and in the spots. Had these eggs been in a recent ang 
living state, they would doubtless have been just as easily trans- : 

‘ 


rted. To those who care to try these experiments, it is sug- 
sugar and water, 1$ a 


gested that lycopod powder, mixed with 
good material, as the lycopod spores are easily detected. 

It is self-evident that if the mouth-apparatus of the fly will 
admit of the introduction of such objects as have been a 
noted, that there will be no difficulty in its admitting scores = 
the spores of many parasitic fungi, and above all of those belong” 
ing to the Schizomycetes, the possible cause of so much -m 
Already Dr. Grassi has detected in fly excrement the aap 
Oidium lactis, and the spores of a Botrytis, this latter taken 
the bodies of silkworms dead of muscardine. : 

f how far the ad 
digestion of the intestines of the fly may not destroy i babe 5 


as objects for assimilation, but may be got rid of as foreign ? : 
Bed E pel be horae in mine that the fies themselves all | 
to the growth of a parasitic fungus (Empus@ musc@ Cohn), à 
is probably taken first into their own stomachs. he 
es objections % e. | 
k` that bees’ reo 
dye to pressure, pointing out that there 15 nO aoe he has 
the forms of the cells and of the bees’ bodies, and umber o 
observed a single female build a nest consisting “7 formed by 
"six-sided cells; further, the difference seen in CO as tobe 
bees and drones cannot be correlated with any dif r cells by 
found in the inhabitants; in the formation of the Queer 


é 


_ other bees there is no pressure to produce the rhomboid pits ; 
_ direct observation of the formation of a comb was not re 

_ by any indications of pressure; no reasonable amount of pressure 
alag walls of cells seems to have any effect in altering their 


_ The author thinks that Darwin has erred in supposing that the 
_ cells have at first the forms which they have later on, whereas 
this is by no means the case; at first there are nothing but 
_thomb-shaped spaces, the size of which is gradually increased. 
Compare also the statements made by Packard in “ Guide to the 
_ Study of Insects,” pp. 121-122, as to the way in which Polistes 
7 begins its cells. 

_ Eytomorocicat Nores.—The Bulletin of the Brooklyn Ento- 
ical Society for October republishes Herrich-Scheeffer's 


se why a well-conducted, responsible journal, well edited, free 
from crotchets, with articles and departments representing amt 
m systematic, biological and economic cr apse , wou 


r Fernald e ayei 

should be So penarally ignored, though pe peona ~ 

after a fashion described ; Mr. Smith stating that Hibner's _ apts 

of Noctuidz would not hold, Professor F ernald added that ab 
Wtricide “ Gueace has just as many baseless genera 2 veal 


1270 General Notes. ` [ December, 


of the Noctuide and Deltoide. Mr. Mann explained how 
Professor Barnard raised larve living in running water. He con- 
fined them in a glass tube, one end closed by a porous substance, 
the other fastened to a faucet. In this way a steady flow of water 
of any desired strength can be kept up. Dr. Horn stated that, 
in 1874, when working with Dr. Le Conte on the Rhynchophora, 
among all their material only a single specimen of Aramiges fullen 
was contained, and that came from Montana. A year or two 
after, it was received from all parts of the country, and was 
dreaded as one cf the worst hot-house pests. How did this 
species spread so suddenly over so large a territory? Professor 
Lintner had first found the insect in 1876. Professor Dimmock 
found it very troublesome in hot-houses, especially on roses— 
The composition and properties of the light emitted by insects of 
the genus Pyrophorus forms the subject of a paper recently pre- 
sented to the Paris Academy of Sciences by MM. Aubert and 
R. Dubois. The spectrum of the light, examined by the spectro- 
scope, is very beautiful, but destitute of dark bands. When, 
however, the intensity diminishes, the red and orange disappear, 

i The investigations of 


n d certain beet! ie 
slight, but the domestic fly and the flesh fly are killed inmedia 
y it. The inoculation of a fly with the secretion of one 0 but 


inoculation, this time with the secreti i aeni 
M. J. Chatin has studied the basilar piece of the jaw AE im- 
part which has been much neglected, yet one of consa] ae calls 
portance. In Blaps producta, this portion, which M. D P. Kir- 
the submaxillary, is produced beyond the maxillary.— on of the 
bach (Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte) gives a descripti aa 
structure of the parts of the mouth in the Lepidopter ig the 
correspondent writes us as follows: Ca 
westernmost point of the island of Cuba. f 
the night of the 23d of August, 1884, the lantern ? 
house at that place was surrounded by ac f these 
almost entirely of a bright-red hue, the presence & a 
the light to assume a decided red color; the wind "e ie 
and from the south-west; the sky was overcast. Sn cisco B 
bugs have been sent to this city (New York) by rr 
tista, the keeper of the light, and identified as Smii i 
Though other frst time — 


| 1884. | Zoology. 1271 


this one has been so re i 

2 ported. Itis to be hoped that such dan- 
peu ee will not prove chronic with the brilliant and saes 
Ee eg Professor C. V. Riley was awarded a gold 
i case e orestry Exhibition at Edinburgh, in October, for 
A ction of insects injuring forest trees sent out by the En- 
pnmo ogical Division of the Department of Agriculture. 


ZOOLOGY. 


, E ortuan Bopy-cavity.—The molluscan forms in gen- 
Tiimin o j most of the other metazoan groups in having or 
Picog A si ave no body-cavity, the spaces between their organs 

agent ry with branched cells forming a parenchymatous 
, mA $ e act has led the Hertwig brothers to subdivide the 
Biely-cavit Ai Cælenterates into two groups, animals with a true 
a one y lined with epithelial cells, including annelids, arthro- 
one hahake and animals with no such cavity, but with 
2 o-body-cavity of lacunar spaces among amceboid-shaped 


a, and greatly reduced its proport 
Pe a constant feature of true 
communication with the exterior throug 


excretory in function but also often reprod 
i nication with the exterior 


Ne remains of a body-cavity, 
thet seen Upon this view the 
Molluscan kidney and pericardiu 


| m becomes intelligible. 
ther relatio: formed that there is a fur- 
ther relation between the renal organs and the generative system 
that in the mollusks the 
ie ‘ system, and open to 

or by a special duct directly continuous i 

fhe is very unlike the animals with a „cavity, for in them 
“e genital organs very generally are related to the body-cavity 


pE 
„Mitt. Zool. Stat. Neapel, Vol. 1V, p- 4230- 
Quart . Jour. Mic. Sci., July, 1883, 
: itschr. f. w. Zool., XXIX, p- 583- 


1272 General Notes. [ December, 


and to the renal organs. Von Ihring’s studies show that in some 
mollusks there is a direct relation between the renal organs and 
the genital organs. In the lamellibranchs he found that the kid- 
neys are paired pouches opening to the exterior by paired ori- 
fices, that the genital organs are likewise paired pouches, that 
there are three modes by which these open to the exterior: 

1. By a distinct orifice distinct from the renal orifice of the 
same side. This is the common mode, and was observed by Von 
Ihring in Tridacna, Isocardia, Seripes, Cardium, Gastrochena, 
Mya, Cosbicula, Donax, Psammobia, Venus. 

2. By a distinct orifice situated upon the same papilla with the 
renal orifice of the same side, e. g., Mytilus. 

3. By an orifice directly into the renal pouch of the same 
side, e. g., Modiola, Modiolaria, Mytilus, Yoldia, Avicula, Isogno- 
mon, Margaritifera, Pecten, Spondylus. : 

There is here then ground for supposing that the genital sys- 
tem as well as the renal system may have stood in relation with 
the pericardial cavity in the early molluscan forms. 

ubrecht! describing Proneomenia states that the duct from the 
reproductive organ runs straight through the pericardium, and 1s 
in communication with it, and that in Chetoderma there is also 
a communication between the generative and pericardial cavities, 
and that this is the remnant of a primitive condition, and is esi 
lar in its meaning to the condition of things in Patella and F eek 
rella where renal and genital system open on some papilla, ` aie 
in most gastropods even this slight indication of a previous ¢ 
relation is lost. further 

The morphology of these organs has been recently ei ‘ie 
illuminated by Grobben,? who has just published a papi ig This 
renal and genital systems and body-cavity of mollus A a 
paper contains many interesting and suggestive thoughts, may 
important results as far as they concern my present purpose 
be summarized as follows: ; ks, with 

1. In Sepia officinalis there is a pair of kidney sack® si 
epithelium strongly glandular where these occu 
of the body where the hearts and main vascular by proper 
situated, and these kidney sacks open to the exterior ck from a 
papilla. . A ciliated opening leads into this kidney pa the gill 
cavity lined with ciliated epithelium; this cavity “Th ovary is 2 
hearts, the aortic heart and the genital organs. ‘thelium, 
ridge in this cavity formed of folds of peritoneal ep! caught UP 
ova are developed from its cells. Eggs from it si h it to the 
by the open end of an oviduct and conveyed throug 
mantle cavity. -< not large 35 i@ 

2. In Eledone moschata the peritoneal space 1S wa and little 
Sepia, and does not surround the hearts, it 15 SHTe © 

1 Proneomenia sluiteri, Quart. Journ. Micros. Sct. 
*Claus’ Arbeiten, Vol. v, p. 179. 


1884.] ` Zoölogy., 1273 


morethan a reproductive organ, its walls being almost completely 
occupied by the folds which give rise to the ova. But it is most 
important to observe that a narrow tubular channel runs from it 
Into the kidney sack opening, then by a ciliated mouth and lined 
with ciliated epithelium. 

Grobben in his article states the obvious conclusions that this 
reproductive organ of the cephalopod is the remnant of a body- 
cavity, and that in the vast majority of existing Mollusca we 
_ have, as the sole surviving portion of the primitive body-cavity of 
the usca, the pericardium, the renal organs and the genital 


ands. 

Grobben promises a future paper with the details fully de- 
scribed and figured, upon the subject of this communication. It 
promises to be a most important contribution. 

In the light of these facts it would seem that the separation of 
‘ the Mollusca from the animals with true body-cavity, 

_ by the Hertwigs, is not justified, for though their body cavity 1$ 
_ at present insignificant, it would seem that this is due to the loss 
__ Of the same and an early condition of greater likeness to the en- 
_ teroccels rather than to an essential unlikeness reaching back to 
_ the earliest ancestor. — Henry Leslie Osborn. 
-Norte on rae PeLvis IN BIRDS AND Dinosaurs.—By the papers 
: of Hulke! and Marsh? a new light was given upon the morphol- 
Ogy of the pelvis in birds and dinosaurs. That part in birds pre- 
a viously considered as pubis was now the postacetabular part of 
_ this bone, the real pubis was seen on the “ pectineal apr S 


— (Huxle part of the pubis was cal 
y). This preacetabu lar part O seg This view 


a Seems generally adopted to-day. ; 
I have recently had occasion to examine the pelvis of young 

d that the “ pectineal process 
a part of the 


been discussed by D 4 

ollo. Ngee 
d ollo found correctly that the pectineal 

b he homologizes it with the nom 

believing that this process was formerly distinct. ai. effet, ce vl 

ioe a un organe rudimentaire, sy être ossifiée Par usur, 

| irectement avec l'ilium ” (p- 95)- 

gather he considers the pubis and postpubis of - eee 

; ng originally two distinct dement "H tesa® ip ond 

| pubis et le post-pubis seraien 


os tes. : modified form of 
“ae «& Note on a 4 
2 M. sca; ne e Geol. Soc., Vol. XXXII, pP- a myn 
arsh. O. C. Princ. charac. of Am. Jur. page t ee hes. 1880. 
‘and Arts, Nov., 1878, Jan., 1879. Marsh, 0 - gsgeschichte des Beckengirtels der 


_ Punge, Al. Untersuchung 
Amphibien, Reptilien und Vögel. Dorpat, nsa ns de Bernissart. Bull. du Mus. 


troisième note sur les Di 


1274, General Notes. [December, 


primitivement des éléments séparés et que, sez/s, les Dinosauriens 
et les Oiseaux persideraient ce dernier” (p. 97). I can only 
agree on the last point with Dollo. 
_ Sabatier! has figured the pelvis of a young Casuarius gale- 
atus. Inthis specimen the line which separates the ilium and 
the pubis crosses the “pectineal process ;’ the upper half be- 
- longs to the ilium, the lower one to the pubis, This I think 
affords a solution to the problem. 

The upper part of the pectineal process” forming a part of the 
ilium, corresponds to the whole “ pectineal process” of the Car- 
inate and to that part of the dinosaurian ilium which articulates 
with the pubis ; the lower part is homologous with the pubis of the 
dinosaurs, which has become quite rudimentary tn the Carinate. 

With this interpretation the researches of Miss Johnson’ agree, 
though only partially, for she considers the pectineal process of 
the chicken as the pubis. She found in embryos of the chicken 
a well-developed preacetabular part of the pubis, which she 
homologizes with the pubis of dinosaurs. This is quite true for 
the lower and anterior part, but we can only detect in the upper 
part elements of the pectineal process, z. e., elements of the ilium. 
A sharp line between the ilium and pubis at this time of dere) 
ment cannot be drawn, for both the ilium and the pubis consist 0 
a single cartilaginous mass. bis in 

It is interesting to trace the development of the postpubis! 
the series of dinosaurians and birds. 


gets shorter; in the Ratitæ there is only a sma 
pubis to be seen; in the Carinate (whether in a% Mt 
tion) it is quite rudimentary, whilst the postpubis has 


pa AAE EN NT em 


greatly developed. : 
A Mamma Po 
Carn, Dinos.{ Saurop. Stegos. Ornithop. Be a a 
oe aera well develop.| very small || ie radis 
Pubis .. . . | well devel- | welldevel, | well devel. | Reduction en emis mentary- n 
oped. ginning | pect. proc- a 
` TA |} (Iguanodon). | -apa 
- Postpubis . .| wanting. begins to | well devel. | well devel. well devel developed. 
appear. 
SS ee ee 
» ; TEAPA ese wor m 
a little larger larger than or| equal smaller th 
Ischium . .| larger than | larger than | than post- equal to praest e j postpubis- 
$ postpupis. | postpubis. |- pubis. | postpubis. | pos | Ja A 
j EE a á 
E ee 
ie des 
` . dans la série 
Ceint. et des Membres antèr: et poster (Sect. des 


Sabatier, N: Comp. des sances M 
Vertébrés. Montpellier, 1880. Mém. de l’ Acad. des Sciences 
Sciences, tom. 1x, 1880, Pl. vi, Fig. 1. woud the hind 
the development of the pelvic girdle and s ie Pl, xvi and 
Quart. Jour. Micr. Soc., Vol. XXIII, new SEN © 
f 7 


| 1884. ] Zoblogy. 1275 


From this table it will be seen that the carnivorous Dinosaurs 
= stand in xo direct genetic connection with the birds. There is no 
_ “postbubis” in the carnivorous Dinosaurs; these forms seem to 
_ become extinct in the Cretaceous, leaving no descendants. 

_ _ Inthe herbivorous Dinosaurs and especially in the ornithopod- 
_ like forms we must seek for the ancestry of birds, and evidently 
_ that of the Ratitz, the Carinate being thus considered as de- 
_ Scending from the Ratite. It is not at all evident that Archeop- 
_ teryx belongs in the carinate line as Dames believes.—Dr. J. G. 
4 Baur, Yale College Mus., New Haven, Conn., October, 1884. 


_ THOMASOMYs, A NEW SUBGENERIC TYPE OF HeEspERoMys.—We 
have been greatly interested in the progress of Mr. Oldfield 
_ Thomas's studies of South American Muride—a difficult group 
_ on which we think this author has succeeded in throwing much 
_ Needed light. His latest paper, a valuable one upon Jelski’s Pe- 
_ fuvian collection (P. Z. S. June 17, 1884), divides the unwieldy 
_ genus Hesperomys into the following groups: Rhipidomys, Ory- 
_ tmys, Calomys, Vesperimus, Onychomys, Scapteromys, Phyllo- 
abrothrix and Oxymycterus. Mr. Thomas's arrangement 
shows “ that the name Calomys is restricted to the small group 
to which it was originally applied by Waterhouse; that Oryzo- 
mys, which was hitherto supposed to include only two North 
_ and Central American species, really contains the great mass of 
e South American vesper-mice to which Calomys has been 
monly applied; and that the range of Dr. Coues’s subgenus 
rimus extends down as far south as Peru, since it contains 
he two species X. cinereus and H. taczanowski, formerly placed 
by me with much doubt in Rhipidomys, but which I now think 
Must either be referred to Vesperimus or be made the type of a 
v subgenus ” (I. c., p. 450). : 
aving lately, through Mr. Thomas's courteous attentions, 
able to inspect these two species in the British Museum, we 


its monticoline. Type, Hesperomys cinereus Thos. = 
“tho Oldfield Thomas, Esq., assistant dept. of mammals, Br. 


valuable 
ear was the announcement 


ols t ia, that Mr. W. H. Caldwell, who went there for the purpose 


$ 


1276 General Notes. [December, 


that the egg is meroblastic. No statement, says Science, was 
given in the telegram as to whether the observations related to 
the duck-bill (Ornithorhynchus), or to the spiny ant-eater 
(Echidna); but the main points of interest are the discovery of 
the oviparous habits of a mammal and the meroblastic develop- 
ment of its egg, as occurs in reptiles, since the eggs of mammals 
are, as embryologists would say, regularly protoblastic. This 
shows, says the reporter, that we must turn to the reptiles for the 
ancestors of the mammals. 


THE American BADGER IN On10.—Last summer there appeared 
in.our local papers several sensational articles about a so-called 
“ shoul,” which was robbing the graves and devouring the dead 
in some village or villages in Wood county. 

I did not, of course, pay much attention to these wonderful 
stories ; but some time after noticing them I saw outside a beer 
saloon on one of our principal streets a placard to the effect that 
the “ Wood county ghoul or grave-robber,” was to be seen 
within. The man inside informed me that many people had been 
to see the strange creature, but no one knew exactly what it was, 
but the best informed pronounced it a nondescript animal hith- 
erto unknown. A single glance sufficed to show that it was 4 
fine and unusually large specimen of the American badger, Tax- 
idea americana. a 

The poor beast had been zaught in a large steel bear-trap, 
had lost one of his fore feet. He seemed quite docile and ari 
tented except when the keeper stirred him up with a stout ciu 


when he snarled viciously, and displayed enormous “Oi, whe 
0 


of course destitute of any foundation in fact. : 
animal hereabouts is evident enough from the failu! tify it. 
numerous persons, hunters and others, who saw it to idently 
—/. H. Pooley, M.D., Toledo, Ohio, Oct. 22, 1884. 

i series of 


Puases oF KANGAROO Lire. — The accompanying illustrate 
sketches, says the Justrated Sydney News, serve to ™ In its 
three particular phases of marsupial life, so to term ee kanga- 
wild state there is perhaps no animal more timid than t the acute 
roo, and in proportion to its natural timidity it possesses 
sense of hearing. When grazing in mobs they are es, 
the alert against surprise from their greatest natural tad them 


dingo and the Australian black, whose cunning in sta! cating 3P- 
_ is marvelous. What means they possess of COT ae 
Proaching danger to one another is of course 4 


PLATE x cessed 


) 
Ds 


walk ry a N) NO 


Phesses of ae Life. At Peace 


PLATE XL. 


SSS 


<A ` S 
> K 
oS S wy ere ial 
‘Ae, mew! = ne M 


a 
WS 


y a ve Kia, 
A N N Li 


Phases of Kangaroo Life, On the Alert. 


Y 
SA w LEAS 

Waste titi 
yo BUSA Ñ 


\ $ ş y 


N 5 QAR LN SY), 
PRIA A SY 
ys BO TAL GANS 

T fy. 


N D 


S 


X 
NA 
N 


NAN 
ANANN AY 
RA N AW + 


N Ne 


STS a Be 
The Stampede, 


$ 


B 
aroo Lif 


~ Phases ‘of Kang e; 


1884.] Zoology. 1277 


apparently the alarm usually is given by the warning animal 
striking the ground violently with its hind foot. The mob at 
once rear themselves up and sniff for the source whence danger 
is supposed to be approaching. The “ joeys,” as the young ones 
are called, cling to the backs of their mothers, and if very young 
secrete themselves in the pouches, and, led by some “ old man” 
Warrior, a stampede takes place. We are indebted to the Scien- 
tific American for the use of these illustrations, 


HABITS OF THE GORILLA.— The gorilla recently shipped to 
Philadelphia and now in the possession of Professor Cope, was 
shot in the Ogowé delta, on the left bank of the main channel of 


he could not have killed him. The entrails were given to some 
*atigwe (cannibals, the Fans of DuChaillu and the Niam Niam 
of Schweinfurth) who esteemed them a great delicacy, and the 
universal, opinion here is, that I sent him to America for the white 
man to eat. They were greatly disgusted with my wasting so 
much | rum on him when they would liked to have poure 
it down their throat so well. The gorilla is a rare animal even in 
‘lat part of the country where he makes his home, and opportuni- 
to obtain specimens occur but seldom. males, as this 
one, live alone, while as many as two families are seldom, at least, 
seen together. Many wonderful stories of them are told by the 
Natives, but as one never knows how much to believe of native 
Stories I will not repeat them here. In my opinion Du Chaillu 
's the best living authority on gorillas. I would believe his state- 


1278 General Notes. . [December, 


ments even if they conflicted with my own observations, because 
he understands them better than I do. It may be interesting to 
note that the people here look upon them as entirely distinct from 
themselves, yet they call them men, “wild men” and “furrent 
men.” 


The gorilla cannot make a fire, does not build a house or shel- 
ter, and does not fight with weapons except such as nature gives 
him in his own body. He will seize the gun or spear of his 
adversary and break but will not attempt to use it in his own 
defence. It is about practically impossible to keep the gorilla for 
any length of time in captivity. He becomes dejected and morose, 
and either starves himself or else dies apparently of a broken 
heart. Traders and others occasionally get young ones—I had 
one myself—but they do not seem happy as do chimpanzees and 
other apes, and they all die in the course of a few weeks. I do 
not suppose an opportunity to obtain another body will occur 
again, if it should I will send it to you. With kindest regards I 
remain as ever—oseph H. Reading, Kangwe Mission Staton, 
Ogowé river, West Africa. 


ZOOLOGICAL Notes.—General_—The British Museum has recently 
published as a separate volume a report on the zodlogical collec- 
tions made in the Indo-Pacific during the voyage of H. M.S. Alert, 
1881-82. More than three-fourths of the volume is none A 
by an account of the species found in Northeastern Australia a 
Torres straits. Examination of the specimens of Branco = 
affords Dr. Giinther an opportunity to revise that genus, of whic 


he admits six species. The report describes many new. Mollusca, ? 
four new asteroids, four new ophiuroids and six new holothurians- ce 
Most of the twenty-seven or twenty-eight kinds of crinoids i 
new, and so are forty-five of the 203 Crustacea described. ei ol 
species of fixed alcyonarians and forty-two out of 110 kinds 
Sponges are described as new. Though eighty-six of the Tide. : 
Species are siliceous, none of them belong to the Herm ero 
Among the new forms from the Western Indian ocean are tt 7 
coppingeri (named after Dr. Coppinger, the naturalist of e : 
dition). A considerable number of rare or undescribed orms of 
Crustacea were procured at the Amirante, Providence an 
rioso islands, and twenty one new sponges are describe Ro 
Mollusca.—As a result of a series of investigations om s 
at Banyuls and at the Ecole Normale, M. Houssay pina of 
conclusion that there is no homology between the ope nous ae 
the Gastropoda and the byssus of the Acephala, and f . of the 
tween the operculum of the former and the second ek of a 
latter group. The operculum is an epithelial pronu uct 
corneous or calcareous structure, while the byssus 1S This foot- 
of a gland situated in the anterior part of the fopt- ak as- 
gland of the. Acephala is represènted in a large number 


d Glo- 


Zoology. 1279 


_ tropods by a gland in the same position, but a longitudinal fur- 
_ row is added in the Acephala. Every operculum is formed of 
the same layers, the one produced at the posterior part of the 
= columellar muscle, while the other is laid down upon this, thick- 
ening it upon the inferior side. Sometimes a third layer is 


_ are macrura and other brachyura. While with rare exceptions 
the gastric skeleton of the brachyura follows the tolerably 
— uniform type, that of the macrura presents wide variations. 
_ The schizopods and stomapods present the same calcifications as 
_ the decapods, but the lateral teeth, which are rudimentary in the 
Squillidæ, are well developed in the schizopods. The latter have 

as their special character the absence of pyloric ampullz, 


they may change in form, coalesce, or occasionally disappear, no 
iti Guided by the characters of 
these parts, M. Mocquard divides the Grapsoidea into two groups, 
one consisting of the Ocypodidæ, the other including Gelasimus, 


Fishes—Mr. Gilbert has been studying the fishes of White 
Indiana, and of Kansas, and finds a few new species. 


fatious Percomorph genera.—— Professor Gill has been adding 
ou knowledge of the osteology of fishes, “cl 
Anacanthini and of the Plectognathi. All the above articles ap- 
the proceedings of the U. S. National Museum. l 


1280 General Notes. [ December, 


PHYSIOLOGY.! 


Dors Sucar Occur 1n Heattruy Urine ?—The occurrence of 
sugar in the urine is a characteristic sign of a well known disease, 
but many observers have detected in normal healthy urine a sugar 


like glucose in quantities varying from more than .05 per cent to — 


less than .or per cent. Professor Wonn Müller has attacked 
again the question in the following form: Does sugar normally 
occur in urine? Has the nature of the food influence in deter- 
mining its presence? Does the excreted sugar differ chemically 
from that ingested ? Observations were made upon two healthy 
students whose urine proved to be sugar free. Quantities of 
starch taken just before meal time had no effect upon the com- 
position of the urine. : 
` Levalose taken in the same way was also followed by negative 
results. Milk-sugar, cane-sugar and glucose, when eaten in 
quantities of 50 to 250 grammes, could be detected in the urine. 
It is worthy of observation that the sugar thus excreted was un- 
changed chemically and had therefore been unaffected by the 
ferments of the alimentary canal or by the liver cells. During 
this excretion the amount of fluid passed was, strange to say, 
rather diminished, The greater part of the sugar found was €x- 
creted in 3 to 5 hours after ingestion. Scarcely 1 per cent of the 
sugar eaten could be recovered in the urine.—//fiiger’s Archiv. 
Bad. 34, s. 576. | 

Wuy ALBUMEN Dogs not Occur in Norma Urine—The laws 
regulating diffusion in the living body are among the most impor- 
tant and darkest problems of physiology. Albumen passes, un 
the forces of diffusion and filtration, through the walls of 
blood-vessels into the lymph spaces ; why does not albumen i 
its way in the same manner into the glomeruli of the kidney 5 
form a normal constituent of urine? Graham showed, one : 
that various inorganic salts were capable of different rates © od 
fusion and that the individual diffusibility of each might be alte 
when more than one salt were mixed together; in genera’ i 
diffusion of the less soluble salt was retarded. Regeczy, a 
from these facts, has come to some interesting conclusions ‘ 
cerning the conditions regulating the diffusion of albumen. ei 
finds that albu in th f a neutral salt diffuses 1” 

men in the presence o on, and this 

difference is more marked the more salt the mixtur 
Albumen diffuses more readily into salt sol 
tilled water. Diffusion of albumen proceed 
dilute than concentrated solutions. Pressure upon 


eral the ` 


n 


e contains. 


g 
ih 
rh 


ii 


ray 


Pee 


Ses E ee aie eke 
Tee SEE ere sete eee ae ead a « Paap Be reas ee e: Nooo n ae (De r S mares ) 


1384 ] Fhystology. 1281 


these currents accelerate or retard the diffusion of albumen as 
they chance to move in the same or the opposite direction to the 
latter. Salt and water are filtered and diffused from the blood 
into the glomeruli of the kidney. The water rapidly rediffuses 
back into the denser blood, leaving salt behind and in more con- 
centrated solution in the kidney tubules. These return currents 
of water prevent the passage of albumen into the tubule, but not 
of the readily diffusible salts which still continue to leave the 
blood. The urinary secretion becomes thus progressively denser, 
and if by any cause the salt ccntents of the urine so nearly ap- 
proaches that of the blood that the water currents from tubule 
to blood-vessel cease, then the passage of albumen begins, and 
albuminuria is the result—Pfliger’s Archiv, Bd. 34, S. 431. 


LOCALIZATION OF FUNCTION IN THE Brain.—Goltz has long 
been the principal and worthy opponent of those who_ hold that 
the various psychical powers are distinctly and permanently local- 
ized in separate parts of the cerebral cortex. But the professor 
of physiology at Strassburg now concludes from the results of a 
new series of experiments that, though there can be no such 
minute distribution of function as Ferrier and others would claim, 

still there are manifest differences between the physiological 
_ properties of different cerebral areas. Goltz submitted a number 


ise but still he uses that sense ill. He treads the air with the 

when walking. No muscles are paralyzed, all are under vol- 
ary control, still the movements are clumsy and, rather help- 
ess. The attempts at feeding are particularly unskillful; he does 
not understand how to hold a bone with the fore feet. He does 
; hesitate to leap down from an elevation. Reflex irritability 
Inc 


the operation he becomes quite docile after it; he cannot 
Stirred up to any emotion. He suffers a general weakness of 


1282 General Notes. [December, 


perception and his general intelligence is very low. A dog which 
has suffered the loss of the anterior cortex has usually a tendency 
to emaciation, while one whose brain has been operated on pos — 
teriorly is always fat; the former animal is also liable to a severe 
skin disease accompanied by itching.—/Pfiiger’s Archiv, Ba. 34, 
S. 450 oo 


PSYCHOLOGY. 


THe PsycHicAL RELATION OF Man to AnrMALs.'—Professor 
LeConte’s article opens as follows: “ In the Review for Novem- 
ber, 1878, I published an article on ‘ Man’s place in nature.’ The 
present article may be regarded as a continuation of the subject 
from a different point of view. In the former article I tried to 
show how, without violating the laws and analogies of nature 
the spirit of man may be conceived to have arisen by progessivé 
individuation out of the forces of nature, through the vital prit- 
ciple of plants and the anima of animals. In this I wish í 


S 
< 
5 
© 
Oo 
s. 
w 
m 
® 
Q 
ae | 
w 
> 
È 
z 
z 
n 
a8 
me 
s 
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rt 
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sufficient mentality to animals, especially in his dis 


highest animals do not retain an idea of the true Su! 
rel events. : 


! By Professor Jos. LeConte, rom the Princeton Review (no date 


l 1884] Psychology, 1283 


___ Self-consciousness is regarded by Le Conte as peculiar to man. 
_ This may be, but we have not yet looked into the recesses of the 
minds of the lowest races of man, nor do we know the condi- 
tions of the minds of the chimpanzee and orangutan in this 
E respect. 

__ The author believes in free-will as that form of mental activity 
_ “in which consequences, especially moral consequences, are pre- 
sented to the mind and weighed; when impulses, solicitations, 
Motives, are weighed one against another; when all these mental 
conditions become themselves in their turn the objects of conscious 
thought, and we feel distinctly conscious that we ourselves deter- 
_ Mine, and are therefore responsible for, the final result,” etc. This 
- form of stating the case will naturally be regarded by the deter- 
_Minists as a fetitio principii. If the author of it had wished to 
_ Strengthen his position as fully as it is susceptible of support, he 
Should not have omitted the argument to be derived from the 
_ Condition of ignorance coincident with high intelligence, where 
the experience which is the condition of automatism is wanting, 
_ and when, therefore, if progress is made, acts must be free if they 
âre ever so. Though this hypothesis! is not a demonstration, it 
_ 18 as near to it as we shall ever get, and preferable to mere asser- 
tions of our belief in our freedom. In one paragraph, under the 
head of free-will, Professor Le Conte allows his theology to get 
ahead of his philosophy (p. 259). He says “ there is a free-will, 
Which is free only in the sense of self-determined, and therefore 
morally responsible, but is nevertheless unwillingly restrained by 


7 necessary to Gelieve that a freedom of will once gained need ever 
e lost. 

Finally, this supposed freedom of will cannot be attributed to 
mals, But it is far from certain that it is possessed by all men, 
at its assumption as a distinctively human characteristic is not 
*xact. It may be rather a possibility for men, and as such more 
*On the origin of the Will, by E. D. Cope. Penn Monthly, 1877, P- 435. 


VOL. XVIII.—=No, XIL Sr 


1284 General Notes. [ December, 


likely to prove the “ spirit” or “soul” of man, so much talked 
of, and so little explained, than any other mental quality.—E. D. C. 


MORE CONCERNING Cats’ FOOD.—It was said by some eminent 
man that no one could know any one subject perfectly without 
knowing a little of everything. I base my claim to this universal 
knowledge on cats. 

On our old place in the country we maintained a small standing 
army of cats, to keep down the rats, which had overrun the house 
and farm-buildings, and had defied fire-arms, poison and traps. 
These cats were not pets; they lived very greatly in the woods 
and fields and were just enough domesticated to give a fair chance 
of observing their ways. It was soon perceived that there was 
almost as much diversity of taste among them, in regard to food, 
as there is among human beings. They all ate meat and milk, and 
there, I think, the community of taste ended. 

ere were many generations before my own recollection serves 
me very clearly. The first one that stands out very clearly in my 
memory is “Old Trilobite” so-called, somewhat viciously, not 
from her extreme antiquity, but on account of a peculiar trill in 
her voice.~ Old Trilobite was a small, slender Maltese. She lived 
little in the house, save in the coldest part of the winter ; she was 
a mighty hunter, and the mother of a numerous and hardy prog- 
eny of almost every possible variety. : 

She would not touch butter, nor anything made with it, although 
it was the best of fresh butter, nor would she eat anything sweet. 
She was partial to sour milk. She was often absent for days on 
hunting excursions in the woods; on her return she refused every 
kind of butcher’s meat, but it was accidentally discovered that she 
would eat raw salt pork on such occasions; she also demanded 
bread, and would eat a quantity of it. I do not remember any 
other cat that ate salt pork, or indeed any salt meat or fish (unless 
it had been very much “ freshed,” which amounts to the same 
thing), and old Trilobite seemed only to eat it as a corrective to 
an exclusive game diet. : 

“Jack,” one of Trilobite’s kittens, resembled her in many re- 
spects as to habits, but did not accord with her dietary. She a 
cake. She was also very partial to cheese, which Trilobite wou 
not touch. Cats differ greatly as to their liking for cheese. 
are extravagantly fond of it; others will not touch it. oe 

Cats, in general, like green vegetables. Asparagus is a Se 
Corn, beans and peas: many cats will eat raw. Corn, Dr. ia- 
mock mentions, is often eaten by cats who do not care for 0 ar ; 

. Potatoes, generally, are refused. As an odd cae 
I remember that of one who would eat the peels 


<. 


1884. ] Psychology. 1285 


the petter eats, or at least try todo so. I have seen them eat 

= candy, dates and figs. One, only a semi-pet, who usually rejected 

| sweets, was found one day picking out and eating the raisins from 
a piece of cold pudding. 

Some cats will positively eat nothing but meat. I had one such. 

He was a yellow and black brindle, and I understood that this 
_ was a hereditary trait. But he once made an unexpected raid on 
= some cream-cakes, and once condescended to eat Brighton biscuit. 
_ My present cat, “ Pug,” has much of the same tastes. He will 
_ now and then, out of politeness, take a bit of something else, but 
will not really eat anything but meat. He does not, however, like 
it raw, except when very hungry, a few bits of raw beef, other 
meats not at all. I have known of cats who would eat only raw 
meat, but never had such a one. 

Almost all cats will eat eggs—cooked or raw. “Pug” would, 
in his younger days, but he is apt to refuse them now. “ Nanny 
Longclaws ” (originally “ Ninon de l’Enclos”) was so fond of eggs 
that breaking the shells would bring her rushing into the house 
even from such a distance that one would have thought she could 
not hear the sound. ‘ 

They are, I think, to a cat, fond of fish—many extravagantly 
so, Oysters are in the same standing as cheese among them. 
Some will cry bitterly for them as soon as they perceive they are 
on hand ; others reject them positively. i 

“ Blanche,” one of the two cats now attached to the establish- 

‘Ment, will, I believe, eat everythiug except fruit and salt pork. She 
was born omnivorous, not having been especially petted in her. 
kittenhood, nor brought up on a miscellaneous diet. 

One Maltese cat, attracted probably by the musky odor, would 
not only drink the water in which India ink had been mixed by 

| ote the brushes, but lick the ae on which the ink ha 

_ been rubbed. They are partial to perfumes. l 

A great many of as as Dr. Dimmock observes, will catch 

_ and eat insects. “Blanche” has a great tag for neces lcs 

es e á J ” T judge, are not, reme 

a gies too,” Squash eae “ite one assumed after an 


- eat them, They will kill snakes, and sometimes partially eat 


i ” i i -neglected 
- Much that is interesting can be said about the long-neg 
_ and greatly-calumniated p: I think its psychology deserves 
_ attention. I have observed in them a capacity for friendship oe 
_ themselves.—Fyancis M. Slack, Librarian Mus. Comp. Zoology. 


1286 General Notes. [ December, 
ANTHROPOLOGY .! 


AssociATion Nores.—The meetings of the British and the 
American Association in codperation brought together many an- 
thropologists of distinction, and the papers read were of uncom- 
mon interest. 

At the British Association the important feature was the ad- 
dress of vice-president Tylor on some American aspects of 
anthropology. A few of the topics discussed in the paper were: 

The effect of a quarter of a century’s research the giving to 
Quaternary man a more and more real position. 

Did man likewise inhabit America at the same period? 

Are the present Eskimo the remnant of such an early race? 

(Upon this last point Mr. Tylor suggested a yachting cruise 
down the coast of Labrador to fix the locality of Vine-land.) 

_ The recent advances of zodlogy and geology have given new 
breadth and facility to the discussion of the relation of the North 
American aborigines to Asiatic peoples. 

The only safe method of philologic research is the combina- 
tion of dictionary and grammar. Attempts to trace analogies « 
words in Asiatic and American languages have proved no corre- 
spondence beyond what chance coincidence would produce. 

The comparison of peoples according to their social framework 
has not assumed a great importance. a 

The tendency to treat everything prehistoric as necessarily 0 
great antiquity is growing weaker. ee 

e northward drift of ancient American civilization is evi- 
denced by the distribution of maize, tobacco and cocoa, and the ` 
spread of agriculture. 

r. Horatio Hale read a treatise on “ The origin and nature of 
wampum.” It was a notable fact, he said, that while the partly 
civilized Indians of Central and South America carried on com- 
merce without money, among those of the United States and 
Canada a monetary currency was in common use. Their wam- 
pum was formed in the shape of small disks or cylinders, of 4 
shells perforated through the center and strung together on Q 
strings of deer’s sinew. The system had been found so convent- 
ent for purposes of exchange that it had even been adopted by 
some of the early colonists. In most cases the material was 
the conch periwinkle and Venus mercenaria. The colors were 
white and purple, or black—which was twice as valuable as the 
white, on account of its rarity. These shell arrangements | 
fered from the cowries of the East Indies. In course of time 
they came to have a social and political significance. Im d 
acts of state policy were confirmed by the gift or exchange ° 

jem. On the occasion of treaties belts of wampum were peo 
sented. Each-belt had its own device woven in white on a aars 


1 Edited by Professor:Orıs T. Mason, National Museum, Washington, D. C. 


Sk ptt et a ee eee ie i ae 
i a ve: mer SA 


Tylor took part. All the speakers 


1884. | Anthropology. 1287 


ground, or vice versa. The rude pictorial emblems generally em- 
ployed resembled the early Chinese characters. Wampum was 
also devoted to sacrificial and funeral ceremonies. It has been 
found in abundance in the mounds of the Mississippi valley ; and, 
in our own times, was in vogue west of the Rocky mountains. 
In traffic, the value was rated sometimes by the length of the 
strings, sometimes by the number of beads. There was a 
larger kind, consisting of oblong strips, with holes for stringing. 
Going far to the westward there was found among the Microne- 
sian islanders an almost similar usage. They made their wam- 
pum of the disks of shells, of cocoa-nuts or of the tortoise-shell, 
In the Loo-Choo islands the inhabitants had what was known as 
“cash,” small circular copper coins. The Chinese themselves an- 
ciently used tortoise-shells. Of the earliest Chinese copper 
money, some pieces were round, others oblong. The Celestials 
had also mock-money, made of tin foil and paper for sacrificial 
uses, which might be taken as evidence that their money at first 
consisted of combustible material. The inference to be drawn 
from the existence of such media of commercial exchange among 
those oriental peoples was, that at some period the idea of shell 
money had been carried from East Asia or Micronesia to the 


dians. Whether, however, the use of wampum was derived from 
the East or not, it could not be denied that it gave evidence of 
good. intellectual powers. It was to be regretted that a subject of 


ica. At present there was great scarcity of wampum pa 
though some that had been preserved were of deep interest a 

of considerable historical value. One which was arnie to t r 
audience was said to be 160 years old. It was of rare beauty O 
make and significant design. Four dark squares (the rest ee 
of white beads) were interpreted to mean four Indian rae : i 

\ i ibited was even more remarka 

other which Mr. Hale exhibi irange goeie 
for mnemonic purposes was also exp 
Showed photographs o a s 
indebted for his F nterpretation. Interesting to Canadians were 


e paper gave rise to a most anima 
= Cushing (who had spent so ns aa amon 
rminni itl j nam, , 
dians), Mrs. Erminnie Smith, Mr. E a the Oop: miie 


1288 General Notes. [December, 


tion with which they had listened to the paper, and their gratitude 

to Me. Male for the light that he had shed on a subject so im- 

porta 

The i. of Professor E. S. Morse, as vice- president of Sec- 
tion H of the American Association, was upon Man in the Ter- 
tiaries, the full text of which was given in the October NATURALIST. 
The following papers were read at the meeting: 

‘Uses of the emblematic mounds. Stephen D. Peet. 

The lineal measures of the semi-civilized nations. D. G. Brinton. 

Description of the skeletons and skulls found in the large mound of the Turner 
group. Miss C. A. Studley. 

‘The sacred pipes of friendship. Frank LaFleche. 

Some observations oper the peage, symbolism and influence of the sacred pipes of 
fellowship among the Omahas. Alice C. Fletcher 

‘Notes upon some ak NOAN from Central indso: Miss F. E. Babbitt 

The importance of the study of i ap valde architecture to an understanding 4 the 
pre-historic age in America.. Stephen D. Peet. 

Local weather lore. Amos W. a tler 

Some characteristics of the Indian b and shell mounds on the Atlantic coast of 
Florida, Andrew E. Douglass 

‘The manner in which Indians made ‘their stone implements. P. R. Hoy. 

Disputed points concerning Iroquois pronouns. Erminnie A. Smith. 

The use of the plough in Japan. Edward S. Mors 

The sacrificial stone of San Juan Teotihuacan. A. W. Butler, 

Mythology of the Wintuns, J. W. Powell. 

‘Archzeological explorations by the Peabody Museum of American i Arciagio 
re at thnolo: 8Y», communicated at che request of the trustees of the museum. 


Interviews ea a Korean. Edward S. Morse. 
es ie in the evolution of races in the old and new world. Daniel 


On the geographical distribution of labretifery. W. H. Dall. 

Remarks on North American races and civilization, E. B. Tylor. 

Upon the evolution of a race of uai in America, A. Graham Bell. 
The occurrence of man in the pad a of Nebraska. Edward D. Cope: 
‘The three culture periods. J. W. Portu 
A api ia British North America pi k lost colonies of Northmen and : 


d S. 
Formation o of Iroquois words. iaineie A. Smith 
e different races who built mounds in Wisconsin. ` Stephe Stephen 
Evolution of animal life illustrated by study of Fein anaes peen T 


eet. 
Etymology of the Iroquois word Rha-wen-ni-yu. Erminnie A. Smith. 


A Correction.—In noticing the brochure on the Okada 
shell mound, at Hitachi, the editor of these notes, in prê 


Morse, and no one would be more willing to acknowledge 
fact than the present writer. 


1884. ] Microscopy and Histology. 1289 


MICROSCOPY AND HISTOLOGY: 

Impeppinc APPARATUS.—The complete saturation of objects 
more than a few millimeters in thickness with paraffine is often 
a difficult operation. After soaking for hours in melted paraffine, 
itis frequently found, when it is too late for remedy, that satura- 
tion has not been sufficiently complete in all parts of the object. 
In imbedding relatively large anatomical preparations, the pene- 
tration of the paraffine to all parts can be secured by the aid of a 
good air-pump; but this method is tedious, and robs one of time. 
The same end may be reached with very little cost of time and 
labor by means of a suction-pump, such as is used in chemical 
laboratories, provided only that the water pressure at command is 
sufficiently great to do the work. . F. W. Hoffman? has des- 
cribed a very simple apparatus to be used with the suction-pump, 


ani Bee E E T na A r ee Pw ee 


E yin cei 


EE EN T? g itt 


REP 
i iccator, Æ, by 
nnected with the exsiccator, £, 
pes rtion of which runs a 


r ads i inc pan, W, conta 
è W e ie of the pan should 
re of the water can be kept quite even 
ng. The-flask, /, uced between 
ve Zoology, Cambridge, Mass. 


1290 i General Notes. [December, 


S and Æ by means of a T-shaped tube, serves to catch any water 
which may find its way into the connecting-tube in consequence 
of variation in the water-pressure. The glass tube, mz, the lower 
end of which is in a bottle of mercury, serves as a manometer, 
The pressure indicated enables one to judge whether the prepar- 
ation is saturated with paraffine. 

In using this apparatus the water-bath, W, should be first heated 
to a temperature of about 60°; then the basin, P, containing melted 


paraffine and the object to be imbedded, may be placed in the ex- 


siccator and the pump set in operation. When the mercury 
reaches the highest point in the tube, 7, and air-bubbles cease to 
rise from the object, the process is ended, and the air admitted by 
loosening the screw-clamp, K. Before admitting the air, the stop- 
cock, Z, can be closed, in case it is thought best to leave the prep- 
aration still longer in vacuum. As soon as sufficient time has 
been given for complete saturation, the stop-cock, Z, is opened 
slowly, and the air streams in. he end of the connecting-tube 
is bent upward in Æ, in order that the paraffine may not be dis- 
turbed by the inflowing air. Finally, the object is taken out and 
placed in a box of melted paraffine and left to cool. 

With a water-pressure of 700—720 mm. Hg., most objects will 
. be completely saturated within 20 minutes. 


TREATMENT OF THE Ova AND EMBRYOS OF THE ApHIDES.—Wit- 
laczil ' gives a lengthy paper on the development of the aphides, 
and in it the following information on methods: Ape 

he embryos of the viviparous aphides were examined in a 
weak salt solution (1 ¥ percent), in which they live for about an hour. 
€ ovaries contain embryos in different stages of development, 
and have to be isolated for study. a 

The early stages in the development of the ova may be studied 
to advantage after treatment with hydrochloric acid (3 per cent), 
or acetic acid, as these reagents partially dissolve the yolk elements 
and thus render the preparation more transparent. The later stages, 
on the contrary, are rendered more opaque by the same treatme 

The ovaries of viviparous aphides were prepared for sectioning, 
by Ludwig Will,? in the following manner : a 

The aphis is killed in water heated to about 70° C., then hard- 
ened in successively higher grades of alcohol. In order to color 
in toto, the cuticula must be punctured with a sharp needle, 


then the dye will penetrate easily to all parts. As very thin see 


tions are required for the study of such small elements, it . sen 
to use dyes that stain very deeply, such as borax-carmine ee at 
matoxylin. It is further necessary to employ either the shellac or 


the collodion method of fixing the sections, otherwise the ine X = 


ant parts are liable to drop out of place. 


! Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., XL, Heft 4, p- 563-564. 
3 Semper’s Arbeiten, vI, 1883. 


ea pe ct a S SE = 


1884] Microscopy and Histotogy. 1291 


THE ORGANIZATION OF THE EcHinoruyncul.!'— 1. Method of 
Preparation —It is a very difficult matter to kill Echinorhynchi 
instantly. This cannot be done either with corrosive sublimate or 
strong osmic acid, even after preliminary treatment with tobacco 
smoke or chloroform. Thus treated, they contract strongly, and 
remain so after death. 

Much the best results are obtained by killing gradually with 0.1 
per cent osmic acid, in which they contract during the first hours, 
but stretch out again and die fully extended. This method causes 
slight swelling, but does not seriously injure the object for histologi- 
calinvestigation. Inspecimens left for twenty-four hours in the osmic 


_ acid, it is easy to isolate under the dissecting microscope the sub- 


cuticula, and the two layers of muscle-fibers (circular and longi- 
tudinal). For the study of the internal organs, the Echinorhynchi 
should be cut open immediately after death and transferred to a 
0.01 per cent solution of osmic acid. The preservation of speci- 
mens thus treated may be accomplished in the following manner: 
After carefully washing away the osmic acid, place the objects in 
avery dilute solution of potassic acetate in an open vessel, and 
leave them for two or three days, during which much of the solu- 
tion evaporates. Finally transfer to a saturated solution in order 
to clarify so far as possible. Very beautiful preparations are said 
to be thus obtained. 

The course of the nerves may be easily traced in specimens that 
have lain several days in 1 per cent formic acid. The tissues swell 
up strongly and become quite transparent so that the nerves can 
be seen. If the muscular layers be separated from the subcuticula 
in specimens thus treated, and then stained in gold chloride, the 
lateral nerve-trunks may be clearly shown. For the histological 
study of the nerves, the Echinorhynchi should be treated with 
chromic acid and then stained deeply with borax-carmine. 

romic acid preparations are also best for the study of the 
subcuticula. Echinorhynchi live for days in a one-tenth per cent 
Solution of chromic acid, but eventually die in a fully extended 
condition. Such preparations, after treatment with alcohol, may 
colored at once; or, after washing a day or more in running 


- Water, exposed to the action of osmic acid, and then colored in 


mine. : i ae 
For the study of the sexual organs, a very dilute picro-sulphuric 


- acid (one part of the acid to eight-tenths part of water) is recom- 
end 


The tissues of the Echinorhynchi are not easily stained. Borax- 
i according to Sæfftigen, is the best staining fluid, 
must be allowed to act a long time (often one or more days); after 


_ deep stain has been taken, the preparation should be partially 


TA. Seftigen, Morph. Fahrb., X, Heft 1, pp. 120-163, 1884. 


1292 Scientific News. [December, 


2. Histology.—The outer body-wall of the Echinorhynchi consists 
of four layers: a very thin cuticula, a thick sudbcuticula, an outer 
muscular layer (circular fibers), and an ¿nner muscular layer (longi- 
tudinal fibers). 

The subcuticula, which constitutes by far the larger portion of 
the body-wall, is a complicated web of muscular fibers, in which 
may be distinguished an inner and an outer zone. The inner zone, 
lying next to the layer of circular muscle-fibrils, is made up ot 
radial fibers united into bundles. These bundles have the shape 
of sheaves, the fibers spreading at the ends, but drawn ‘closer to- 
gether at the middle, so as to leave a system of spaces or canals. 
Two longitudinal canals are thus formed, having in some species 
a lateral position, in others a dorsoventral position ; and these 
main trunks are connected by a net-work of anastomosing canals. 
This system of vessels is filled with a clear fluid, in which nu- 
merous granules, resembling oil spherules, together with large 
nuclei, are suspended. The wall of these vascular spaces consists 
of radial muscle-fibers alone, showing no indication of a lining 
epithelium. Szfftigen thinks that the canal-system of the anterior 
end, including the lemnisci, does not communicate with that ot 
the rest of the body. : i 

The outer zone of the subcuticula is made up of alternating 
strata of longitudinal and circular fibers, and is not penetrated y 
the canal-system. The radial fibers of the inner zone penetrate 
this outer zone, and reach to the cuticula. Between this outer zone 
and the cuticula is found a layer which Baltzer has called the 
“ Streifencuticula,” and which has hitherto been regarded as an 
inner cuticula. Sæfftigen has brought forward pretty conclusive 
evidence that this layer is not cuticular, but muscular ; and he 
holds that it is merely a bounding zone of the subcuticula, in 
which the muscular fibers are more closely packed than in the so- 
called “ outer zone” of the subcuticula. The subcuticula presents 
essentially the same features in the proboscis and neck as in the 
body proper. 


3 
q 
i 


IA’ 
We 


SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 


— The meeting of the British Association at Montreal pet 
extremely interesting one and very largely attended ; white 
interest was mainly centered upon topics pertaining to Pr i 
the proceedings of the sections of geology and of biol OEY S 
notable. The section of geology was presided over by Oe wo 
ford ; fifty-one papers were presented. Aug. 29th was P a 
essays and debates on glacial phenomena, in the course O en : 
Professor James Geikie expressed his inability to draw any other 
line between moraines and kames, as they merge into eee 
so that one cannot say where one leaves off and the othe! eae 
Kames he regarded as partly morainic and partly of woga 
origin. Debates on the archæan rocks, and the €02000, T°” 


1884. | Scientific News. 1293 


opened by Professor Bonney. The most fresh and interesting 

_ paleontological essay was that of Mr. G. F. Matthews on the 
primitive Conocoryphean. 

= The section of biology was presided over by Professor Moseley, 

of Oxford, whose opening address was on the physiology of 
deep-sea life. A paper by Mr. C. Spence Bate, of Plymouth, 
England, on the geographical distribution of the macrurous Crus- 
tacea, led to a discussion in which Professor Moseley remarked 
that deep-sea Crustacea either had very large eyes or were eye- 
less, and that there must be a source of light in the deep sea, 
that source, he claimed, was phosphorescence, but its light must 
be very dim. 

An abstract of Dr. Sollas’ paper on the origin of fresh-water 
faunas has already appeared in this journal. Papers by G. E. 
Dobson on the geographical distribution of the bats, and by H. 
Saunders on that of the gulls and terns (Larida) was followed 
by an essay by Professor Gray on the distribution of plants, 
wherein he called attention to the resemblances and differences 

between the flora of North America and that of Europe. 

A telegram was received from Mr. W. H. Caldwell announcing 

_ his discovery that the Monotremata (whether the Ornithorhyn- 
chus or Echidna was not stated) are oviparous, while its develop- 
ment is meroblastic as in reptiles. This is certainly the most 
remarkable zodlogical discovery of the year. 

Professor A. Milnes Marshall read a paper on the mutual rela- 

tions of the recent groups of Echinoderms, with especial refer- 
ence to their nervous systems ; his results we shall present here- : 
after. Other communications we shall notice in a later number. 


for work. The building at Beaufort furnishes accommodations 
_ for only six persons, and as the party 0: 
as to Ge he work the et was compelled to refuse 
-Several applicants. : 
= — M. Bertrand, the Secretary of the French Academy of Sci- 
ence, recently made the important announcement that England 
_ had joined the International Commission, which meets once a year 


make the French system obligatory. 
England at the last Scie that is to say at the opening of the 


1294 Scientific News. [ December, 


International Congress at Washington which is to determine a 
common prime meridian, is not, perhaps, an absolutely disinter- 
ested one. England desires the ratification of the decision of the 
Scientific Congress held last year at Rome, which adopted the 
meridian of Greenwich —E£xch. 

— A useful pamphlet is Mr. John A. Ryder’s tract “On the 
preservation of embryonic materials and small organisms, together 
with hints upon imbedding and mounting sections serially. Ex- 
tracted from the annual report of the Commissioner of Fish and 
Fisheries for 1882.” The principal object of this essay, says the 
author, is to afford directions to collectors desiring to preserve 
the embryos of the lower vertebrates, fishes and amphibians in 
‘such a condition as wili enable the investigator to use them in his 
researches. “As ordinarily preserved in alcohol such objects are 
next to worthless, either for figuring or dissection, as well as 
totally useless for microscopic. preparations.” 

— The U. S. Geological Survey is engaged in a bibliography of 
North American geology. The work when completed will give 
the title of each paper with the title-page of the containing book 
and the number of plates, the whole being arranged alphabeti- 
cally by authors. It is also intended to prepare at the same time 
a number of more restricted bibliographies, each covering a di- 
vision of geological literature. The plan includes abbreviated 3 
titles of papers with references to the pages on which the special 4 
subjects are treated, the entries in each bibliography being arranged 
alphabetically by authors, ° BA 
~ — The editor of Papilio announces “that unless a more self- 

sacrificing and less impecunious and business-like editor can be 
found, Papilio will probably cease to exist at the end of this year. 
We hope that relief will be sent to the editor and publisher, a 
Eugene M. Aaron, lock box 916, Philadelphia, Pa., and would add 
apropos of entomological journals in this country, that if the three 
now published could be consolidated into one, it would be bett 
in all respects. We still need a well sustained entomo! 
journal, such as ornithologists possess in the Auk. : 

— At the meeting of the Entomological Club of the simet 


tion to the historical associations connected with the eae 
which the club then met. “On that very spot, in the old Mus 
of Natural History, Thomas Say, poor in pocket, though r 
brain, put up his bed under the skeleton of some large mall 
and this for months was his only home. There also he 
the illness which resulted in his death.” shies 
— The Museum of Comparative Zodlogy has sr a 
third in its series of bibliographies to accompany ~*~ 
from embryological monographs, compiled by Alexander 2 
Walter Faxon and E. L. Mark.” is part isa DIDIn E 
Acalephs, by J. Walter Fewkes, and bears date” of July, 


; 1884.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies, 1295 


_ This series, with its admirable illustrations, are most useful ad- 
_ juncts both for the beginner in zoology as well as the working 
embryologist. 

_ —During the quarter ending September Ist, 13,796 persons 
_ have visited the museum of the Peabody Academy of Science, 
_ the largest number on any one day being 456 July 1st, the day 
Barnum’s circus was in Salem. The most important accession 
to the museum has been a collection of lemur skins from Mada- 
gascar. i 
= — (C. H. Gilbert has been appointed Professor of Biology in the 
_ University of Cincinnati in the place of Professor W. G. Wetherby 
= resigned. Joseph Swain takes the place of Professor Gilbert as 
assistant professor in the University of Indiana. 

— George Bentham, the distinguished English botanist, died 
Sept. 10 at the age of 84. His Hand-book of the British Flora 
= was widely used in Great Britain, while Hooker and Bentham’s 
_ Genera Plantarum, finished a year ago, made his name familiar to 
= botanists the world over. His work in systematic botany has ex- 
_ tended over half a century, beginning in 1825. 

:0: 
PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 


ACADEMY oF NATURAL SCIENCES PHILADELPHIA, March 27, 
_ 1884.—Professor Lewis reported the discovery of itacolumite at 
_ two localities in Pennsylvania, one in Lancaster county, the other 
near Spring Mills, on the Schuylkill. He believed the itacolum- 
ite to be identical with the Potsdam sandstone. Mr. Hotchkiss 
_ gave details respecting the coal mine at Pocahontas, where 114 
_ Miners were recently killed by an explosion, and suggested that 
; the dry coal dust in the air of the mine, by mingling with the 
gases of the gradually rising galleries, may have been the cause 
Of the catastrophe. ; 
~ April 3.—Dr. Leidy called attention to the existence of a reef 
of Serpula dianthus at Barnegat bay. Mr. Ford reported the 
_ finding of several specimens of Mellita testudinaria on Anglesea 


. April 17.—Dr. C. Dolley suggested with regard to the so- 
called aa digestion of Salpa and Auchenia, an inter- 
Pretation totally different from the one usually received. -The 


1296 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [ December, 


i 
endostyle of the branchial sac, in Salpa, throws out a supply of i 
mucus which covers the surface, and in which nutritive particles, 
finding their way into the animal, are imbedded. The food is 
carried back by cilia, and the mucous sheet is wound up into a ; 
thread which can be traced into the cesophagus, and thence into 
the stomach. This mucous exudation Dr. Dolley believes tobe 
identical with the amæœboid cell which has been described as 1 
taking uP the nutritive particles and passing them on to the tis- 
sues. Dr. N. A. Randolph described a e for the detection of l 
small pa ii of peptones in solutio 3 

April 24.—Dr. Leidy called best to a discovery of fossil ya 
remains of mammals in Florida, indicating the existence of a 4 
formation of later Miocene or Pliocene age differing from those 
before known, , Though mostly in fragments, the fossils exhibit 
no appearance of being water worn or abraded by friction, 
Among the remains were those of a mastodon, also of a rhinoceros 
rather shorter than the existing species, bones of a llama, a tapir | 
and of a large ruminating animal exceeding in bulk the Irish 
elk. Professor Heilprin stated that rock fragments received from 
Mr. Willcox contained six or seven genera, and specimens of 
microscopic Paludina were associated with them. These mig 
indicate the presence of fresh-water swamps in ancient Florida, or 
the emptying of a river into the sea. 

NaTIONAL ACADEMY OF Sciences, Newport, R. I., Oct. 14, 15, 
and 16, 1884.—The following papers were read: 

On the columella auris of the Pelycosauria. By E. D. Cope. 
The brain of Asellus ep the eye form of Cecidotæa. By A. S. Packard. 
On the theory of atom hp Ww bbs. 


On the complex pay pinky By Wo topes Gi bbs SR 
Notice of Muybridge’s Experiments" on the motions of animals by instantaneous PhO” 
to: Fairman Roger 


ography 
Notice of Gaali f aiioa engine. By Fairman age 
On the Thinolite of Lake Lahontan. E. S. Dan 
On the Mesozoic coals of the sae By. R. Pu mpelly. 
On the work of the northern transcontinental survey. By R. Pu we 
The grasses mechanically injurious to live stock. By Wm. H. Brewer 
On gravitation survey. By C. S. Peirce. 
On minimum differences of sensibility. By C. 5. Peirce and J. Jastrow. 
Researches on Ptolemy’s Star-Catalogue. By C. H. F. Peters L 
e the operations of the United States geological survey. By J. W. Powel 
e motion of H Asa all. 
Sair on the iiia of the gates peoples of America (by request). By B 
ylor, an 

Some results of the exploration of the deep sea beneath the eeel Stream, pe 

S. Fish Commission steamer A/éatross during the past er. l 


Verrill. 
Recent popa in explosives. By H. L 
On an experimental composite photograph - ae Members of the Academy. | 
Pumpelly, 
Report on meridian work at Reterehes D W. Valentiner. 


On methods of eastern archery. By Edward S yag 
APPALACHIAN Mountain CLUB.—Oct. ree F 
Professor George Davidson entitled “ Aea of the V 


Et ead a paper entitled “ A tramp over Ossipee mountain.” 
ie Professor Samuel H. Scudder presented a communication on 
~ “The movement of Hôtel des Neuchatelois on the Glacier of the 
Aar” 
s Newton Naturat History SocieTY.—At the annual meeting 
in October the following officers were elected: president, Dr. j: 
. Frisbie; vice-president, George L. Chandler; treasurer, Sik, 
Warren; secretary, A. C. Brackett; curator and custodian, Jesse 
Fewkes. A resolution was passed in commemoration of the late 
John L. Ordway, who was an active member of the society. The 
annual address was delivered by the president, J. F. Frisbie, his 
subject being “ A tramp through Tuckerman ravine up to the 
‘summit of Mt. Washington.” 
New York ACADEMY oF ScreNces.—Oct. 13th.—The following 
‘paper was read: Notes on a recent visit to Northern Montana, 
—its scenery, resources, and geological structure (with lantern 
illustrations), by Dr. John S. Newberry. 
Oct. 20.—The following papers were read: Notes on the con- 
= stitution of oceanic, river, and desert sands, by Dr. A. A. Julien; 
On certain peculiarities of the mussel (Mytilus), by Mr. B. B. 
‘Chamberlin. 


$ 


Te 


= exposures on the east face of Orange mountain, N. J., were pre- 


= PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.—- 
Ham’s Fork coals of 


eafer, were read ; Mr. Lesley 
ittar Bald Eagle moun- 
-, E. B. Harden. Dr, 


unic inscription, found upon a rock weighing 3 
an fimadat the Soak oF the Tasket river, on the shore of the 
y of Fundy. 


1298 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [Dec., 1884. 


May 16.—Prof. Cope described the rich collections of vertebrate 
fossils in the museums of the City of Mexico. Some species are 
yet undescribed. 

June 20.—Professor Cope read a paper upon the extinct Mam- 
malia of the Valley of Mexico. 

July 18.—Dr. Gill’s notes on the Stromateidz were presented 
for publication, and Professor Cope presented a paper by W. G. 
Stevenson on a man-eating shark caught off Nantucket. 

_ August 15.—Professor Cope presented a paper upon “The 
structure of the feet in the extinct Artiodactyla of North Amer- 
ica,” also a “ Fifth contribution to the knowledge of the fauna 
of the Permian formation of Texas.” 


ILLINOIS State Natura. History Sociery.—tThe field and 
annual meeting was held at Peoria, July 7th. It was intended to 
combine for this occasion the features of the field and an- 
nual meetings, heretofore held separately, the programme of 
papers and discussions being varied with short excursions for 
collection and field observation in the vicinity. 

The following papers were read: Illinois forests and forestry, 
by T. J. Burrill; New developments in the Streater coal field, by 
+ Edwin Evans; Mastodon and other remains of the loess and 

` drift clays, and their relation to the climatology and geology 
of the deposits, by William McAdams; Explorations of Indian 
mounds in Dakota, by William McAdams; Ancient pictographic 
records on the rocks in the vicinity of the Missouri river, by 
William McAdams; Experiments with a living copper-head ser- 
pent, by William McAdams; Notes on marine alge, by 4.4 
Seymour ; Recent investigations in relation to the rise of sap m č 
trees, with experiment, by A. B. Seymour; Some corn hog ia 
A j 


d. 


At an evening session a finely illustrated description oO! 
development of the teeth in man and other vertebrates was g! 
by Dr. Will X. Suddath, of Bloomington, highly interesting 
those present, and the president-elect of the society, MT 
Adana, gave an address on the fossil remains of maa Chay 

of the Mississippi river, passing around numerous fossi! 9p, 

mens of the keth and base of land animals lately found by him 
imbedded in nodules in this formation.—S. A. Forbes, Secr 


| INDEX TO VOL XVIII. 


Abbott, Charles C., res chaniai of burrow: 


: crayfish designed? 
i 157- 
; Carolina dane a year of 
š its life, 
f recent studies of the spade- 
foot toad, 't075- 
Abyla pentagona, 198. 
é \canthephyra, 642.. 
Acrza thalia, 299. A 
Adams, Mount, 221. 
Adapis, 283. 
A pess 287. 
Æ 
Africa, explorations i in, 53, 56, 175, 277, 29» 405, 
520, 713, 811, 916, 1030, 1033, T : 
y Cent » 1133- 
= Agælæus phænicens, 
| Aganacanthus striatulus, 819 
i Agaphelus gibbo: ons ae 
x gassiz, Lak 
i Agate, 611. 
Aglossa pi oe 542. 
i addeaggd 
ocheerus, 282 
Altalirite, 9° 
nanie ga 
À ama, colo f, 112 
: Albumen oe ‘hess va 
ca "ce 
7 Aldrich, Charles, cat story, 550. 
: n the red-winged black- 
4 bir 
= Aleposomus ees ms fi 
gorog xylina 
ert, the Zoclogy of, 1278. 
_ Algæ, mo g fluid for, 749- 
Algiers Bee : ches 
eo (e) 20. 
Allaktite, ts si 
Allanite, 1038. 
m, 1145. 
~ Ambi: yctonus sinuosus, 262. 
“Amblyops is spelzus, 272. 
Amb! goede, 791, 793, 800, ITTO, 1192. 
Amblystegium serpens var. barberi, 822. 
oma mexicanum "38. 


_punctatum, 152. 
n Associatic ar for the 
nri Soy ss 


America, 12 


Advancement of 


Central, insects of, 428. 

hical discovery in, 52, 521, 
North, — area of, 755- 
h, elevati! 180. 
ey 5: 


pia 


onites, oldest yet observed, 850. 
Ammophiiz curtisii, 423. 
Amnico rata, 852 


Andalusite, 619. 


Anders, J. M., exhalation of ozone by flower- 
ing plants, 337, 470 
Animals, actio aed — on salts contained 


in m peer 
mestication of, 318 
emote sg ag culties of, 1166. 
o! 


tea ing them to talk, 441. 
Anisodexis p icarius, 36. 
Anisonchus pr oy 5795, 803- 

g! 


Anisopteryx pometaria, 
Annelid, larval, 305. 


ip aR, 619 
paee pata 59, 335° 
es, 1047, 
: ” chlo trophy i in, 537- 
phis, formation of eggs in, 168. 
pioni idæ, 237 37- 
„pis melli 165. 
Trapt coniferaria, 933- 
oe obin in blood of, 93. 


> > d on ee Nas ie ee 

> 
t- 
a 
B83 
2S o 

ans ro gS 
B 
o 
He 
oO 
fe 
D 


> b> > > > b > > 
ia! 


44. 
a eae ha of, 1153. 
ve, 202. 


\ral, 919. 
\ramiges fulleri, 1270- 
sage 529. 


4. 


ti 

iretic ne = : a or 

cen us Sopa: Ho ia, 99 

igy r Duke of, unity of atthe 807- 
\rmadilio, 


rmy worm, food plants ot, Se s 
rrhe esis tern shores I 


body compared with 


hy bp 
p 2 FEE 


Asbestos, 15. 5 
myc 1148 


rations | in, si 56, 172, 497, 519, 917s 


Astra 
Atavism, 542- 
Ateles, 469- 


1300 


Atla pus 
Atlan oo 
yoni se cae 
Aughe y, Samuel, plies companionship of the 

and badger, 644. 


Athabasca rhe 746. 


Australi ia, 279, 4% 5, I 
Australian desert, pie oo of, 9. 
Australians, 216. 

tl, 88 


ce of rouget, Aes 
423. 
Ba terial disease of the imported cabbage-worm, 


Badger, 644. 
ad Ohio, 1276. 
ey, W. W. , food g cats, 1056. 
aens cisarctica, 20 
ee exploration’ in tertiaries of New 
05 


F the Permian period, 26, 
Siain of, 1256. 
salientia, 150. 
Barachians, 835. 
nerves of heart of, 8 836. 
Batrachology, N. A., progress of, in 1880~83, 149. 
Bats, 12 
Baur, G. , pelvis i in yg and dinosaurs, 1273. 
Bdella mar ar ed 
Beal, han pe of grasses bury 
themselves in wom soil, r 
Bear, 1 
intelli igence of, 839. 
Bears, fossil Indian, 618, 
Bee, serv muscles 


of, 829. 
humbl ? 


ali Mag ll and lato organs of, 298, 
Bee’s _ coe r 


poison apparat us o 


ba cher a -, dentition ae nee nevadensis, 
es 
tees antenne of, used as defensive weapons, 
27. 
Deedes. di 


ings of, 192. 
Belostoma, 14, 251, eek 
Sonnie George, obituary of, 1265, 1295. 


Be 

Berachite 

Bess sci E il, ote ag seams inhabitants of the 
Smith, ith sent: gtr 


Bessey, C. E., adventitious — of Cus- 


ybridism in in i Spirogyr ra, 67. 

one of an structure of 
uit wf porcupine grass, 962, 

blic. 3 ation of new species, 7r. 

Ane ity in Zygnemacez, 421. 

Seed Indians, 4 ; ae Sa 

grayi 
Bibliotheca E gto, 


Biss » 998. 
Biogen, ooh, 


Index to Vol. XVIII 


Birds, Bert 2S 435, 855, 945, 949. 
of North American, 310, 
pri igi of, Pa 


ce elvis 273. 
Bivalves, pee force of, 432. 
Blackbna, crow, 832 
-wing g 
Bla fet 


oe > 729. 
Blood, gecvaucs of, 847 
t gh to pas the circulation of the 


fr 
Pea ia . scles , circulation of, 1165. 
ue bir pol ygainy in 2 94 
Bohemia n fau una ol t, 282. 
Bombus, 26. 


rador species of, 1267, 
Bonasa iene: 774. 
Borneo, ip 
Bosjesman, 1059. 
Ponit nomenclature e€, 291. 
otany, apie 373: 
ie rth am n, 70. 
pular 
Bottle, liene kaget 651. 
Bowenite, 64. 
Paeses iopods, anny of shell of, 778. 
n, localiza = function in, 436, 1281. 
Branchiobdella, 2 
, Joh noes toe inscriptions in Brazil, 


Brasil, natural history of, 464. 
= ern, pane Pegg of, 578. 
ki inscriptio 
ish Aaroin, ta ian 
oe 925. 


Brucite, 

Buffalo, home of, 628. 

Bunothe eria, rie 

Butterfield, A. 
wren, 89. 

Butterflies, ee IERES of, 730. 

Byssus se eptic erg A 


, California long-billed marsh 


Call, R. E, and r: C. E., notes on Pyr- 


E wb tosis i 


eit "of Saxony, 1139. 


Camel, 221. eo 

Cameroons, 811 

Campbell D. H. , observation of the feasan 
of the germ cell of Equisetum arvense, 

Campbell, J. T., topographi phenomena in 
Indi: 

È — 

Camponot sylvanicus, 335- 

oe ‘geological cae of, 517. 
gale gine 

Cape Horn, PERA, of, 522, 

Capivara, i 

Capnia, 1266. 

Carangidz, 207. 


an e L 31S. 

Carbohydrat es, 642, 

Carboniferous flora of ap Island, 921. 
tion, 

fo oss ee 1140. 

Carcharodon carcharis, 949. 

Carices, 626. 

Caripeta angustiorata, 1045. 

Carmarina, 303. — 

Carm 


mine emulsion, 219. 


t,5 
h m 6, z 
Cat, scat food o 
dom a he we 
raat of, 550. 
ce ay E of, 95» 97- 
Cataclysta, 82. 


Index to Vol. XVIII. 1301 


Pere speciosa, 725. 
Cat bird, 159. 
Caterpillar, Sider $ social, 727. 
n collec’ 842. 
Desa Son # 
monograph of American species of, 


28, 
Caton, J. D., abnormal deer antlers from Texas, 
733- 


accel tion i 


telligence in a pointer dog, 211. 
ignis of the horse, 318. 
Brazil, 519 
Caudina arenata, aed. 
Cave — 729. 
Cebus 
Cecropia» Poison glands of, 1046. 
Celestit 
Cells, animal, 650. 


- 


etory, 327 
E kart Scat origin of, 460. 
ime 261. 


erseæ, 189. 
Cervus macrotis, 1160. 
Ceryle alcyon, 945. 


is 
caus, = 5. 
nomi sea s5 

eyletus netefopalpus 2, 
Chilodon megalotr i, 1086. 


Chinese coins in British Columbixy 98. 


a 


in anim , 634. 

in comer 537: 
Cholera peat A 
ponad Shad 


they 6 


AA 348. 
a Sea 26r. 


— ae of the upright 
Dee wee of head of civil- 
ized man, 214- 


1222, 
Ciepsydrops ee 1254. 


Coals Sexe aa of ed, Gp 7 
n Coa Rhode, Island, 921. 
God, anifcial hatching of, 549. 

Cole tes, sei , 314, 548, 833, 943, 1057- 
a, mode of oviposition of, 

C Rm TISI. 

 Gallodiom, qas. > 

F Colonial organisms, 140, 240. 


Colorado, Sb canon, 511. 


Coloreodon, 


Columbite, r2 


Columella Ses in ‘eatin 1253, 
mensalism, 638 


Comm 
een ewa 
Condylart 


s, clay, 8 


ra, 790, 2. 
Con er 277, 104 
Conile: era cylin dra aean nii): 
Cononyctes comma, 796 
777- 


7 
Cony, 


Co, sl ag Bs ares in deer antlers, 733, 


Copepoda, 92, 834 


Coral reefs, 
Corea, I 


P E IITO, 1192, 
American Associ ation Advancement 
lence, 1121. 


Sci 
OA haa of ana — period of 


Condylarthra, 790, 892 
Creodonta, 255, 344, 47 

ol an Eocene lemuroids, 283 
genus Pleuracanthus, 81 


history of the Oreodontida, 280. 

aw and insanity, 267, 

eee on extinct Mammalia of 
dia, 717. 

nap Fork beds on the Gila river, 


Ec EE evolution, 40. 
new lemuroids from the Puerco 


note on abnormal deer r antlers, 5733, 
notice e Ribot’s 


will, 32 
observations on the ph of 
rtioda “ab a caved om 


rea oe fossi 
onan international association, 805. 
aeee Mammalia, ur 
8% research in Ph it 


Over on fossil mammals, 287. 
Philadelphia pune i, gr =a 
phylogeny of the vertebrates, 1255. 
practical types o fonts : 
psychical relation of man to ani- 


goed he the columella auris i 
Clepsydrops leptocephalus, vgs 
Tertiary Monti pialia, 686. 
the woe and science, 1231. 
zoological nomenclature, 906. 


etre s of Cuba, 18r. 


Corema conrad — 


a 


Cont ork fasi n, 532. 
Coryphodon, 7 


791, 1117, 1118, | I192, 1194, 1199. 


1302 Index to Vol, XVIII, 


Coues, Elliott, biogen, 908. 

renumeration of the spinal nerves 
and reconstruction of the plex- 

ses in the ponte’ — 379- 
n Thomasomys, 

Coyote, wee ie e 

Crab parasite, 225. 

Crabs, res en 739. 

Crambessa a palmipes, 315. 


272. 
chim neys, of, 1157. 
phrase 2555 344, 4 478. 
Cresson, H. T., constr Taction of ent Mexican 
: terra-cotta pitch- -pipes and Prevesti 498. 
Cretaceous PU 415, 720, 1140, 1259. 
ocks, 1140. 
Cricotidæ, 3 
Cricotus e 
hetcroclitus 39- 
Cirripedia, 834. 
Cri — 38 
m, ' po wer of FAE in, 57. 
Cro liia — 
rede 157, 4 
Tustacea, a 5, 7395 874, 945. 
my of stomach of, 731. 
howe of, 5 556. 
stomach of, 1279. 


Citin, 642 

Ctedoctema acanihocrypta, ing 666. 
Ctenacanthus agi tellatus 
' Ctenacodon, 


Cuculid dæ, 937- 

Cunina octonaria, 303. 

Cuscuta glomerata, ar45. 

P aeg 282, 
Cytheridz, 1058. 


Dakota Tertiary lakes 

Dall, W. H.. constitution ‘of some appendages 
of the Mollus a, 776. 

Danthonia spicata, 1203. 

Darwin, Charles 

Dead sea, 523. 

ae James, Chinese coins in British Colum- 


Deer pr abnormal, 733 1160. 
Degeeria A S 
Deltatherium OEE Sa 353. 
Derichthys serpentinus, 433. 
Dermatea sabalidis, 1147. 
Desclcizite, 65. 
Detmers Mind Dr. D. E. Pp eign be claims r 
f the germ of por ol 
ae or 
Devonian i deh, 1140. 


formation, - 
, 616 


nds, ba. a 
atoms, oe A 
Didelphodus, one 
dens, 485. 
appie 484. 
dawkinsianus, 485. 
us, 484 


sbi DE 


Didymodus, 43 sgj <i arene 
pe racy 818. 
rus, 818. 
Digestion wi thous a i stomach, 208 
i i normal or of cats, $ 
Dimorphism i in y cerenage = 
Dinematella carosa, 195. 


| Equus as 658. 


Din 

Disky i 

Dinosaurs, pelvis of of, 1273. 

Diplocynodon, 530 

anergy ve 

Dipodide, 3 

Diptera, ted urea of, 274. 

Dipterous age w 

Discomycetes, 

Dismal swamp, flora of, 288, 
32. 


Distoma ovic 


wil azilian, 579 
Dogs, k 
Dolium, 
Dorsey, Í ’6., "gsr of the war een the 
Osages 
Dreams, 98. 
o in, 552 


ui 208. 
Dys dercus step ge 1270. 
Dytiscidz, 428. 


Eagle, sea, 835. 
Ea et s interior, n nature of, 587, ae a 


okies < 550. ve 


, 642 
‘ediciones. eae ‘of, 1156. 
Echinorhyncus, gl. 
Echinorhynchi, 1291. 
Ectacodon, 1194. 
TRA ditrigonus, 795, 797- 
entates 
Edwards, He cag Aletia hen. in the North, 77. 
Eel, ar a brain of, 9 
Egy ae 
nt, flora of, 534. 
Egyptian | poppy, ae 
Ellis, J. B. new ’ Rivida fungi, 11, 69. 
— markable fungus growth, 72- 
irae on fungi, 530, 721- 
notice 


of Saccardo’s Conspectus, 
noice of Saccardo’s Genera Pyren- 


obi 
Ellis, J. B., and George Martin, new ow. Floida 
“Tangi, "r 188. 


Ellis, J. B - G. Martin, new species of N. A. 


ungi, 
Elionichthys ortholepis, ra 


Embryo Dan 395 : ‘ 

Ea material, eee 1294. 
mulsion 

Enargia 


oids, ps 
seh S, 255- 
Ephemeridze, 630, 115 s 
isetum arvense, I 
zan fert aion e germ cell of, ban. 


Parerik; 808. 


RSE TA ec dias 


Index to Vol. XVIII. 


28. 
Boe ‘ferricolus, 35: 
— 29, 33, 34- 


eas: re ons tus, 
imo pene Ae 
Eskimos, 861. " 34 


y 479 
eet eisteri 479+ 
spatularius, 479» 
Eucalyptus, = 
Euchetes, 
Eucopella’ Cupa 199. 
Sheet 282. 
Europe, 103 
Burytherium, 181. 
Eustomias obscurus, 739- 
Peinsie, 1040. 
Evolution, 979. 
Cei . 
menta 


En. ang = 

E y minata, 1084. 
i symploc 1147.» 

Fachinal 4 


Family Dearids, {s Srs. 
Faunas, — n of fresh-water, 1050. 
Feathers 
Feldspars 
Felis concolor, 578, 1160, 
onca, 578. 
Femora, human characters of, 205. 
Fernald, Mrs. C. H., northern localities for 
southern butterflies, 77 
Fewkes, J. W., e af Ai Bermuda, 315. 
gy of the itera rods of 
ee opt apt pluteus, 431. 
ic la o5. 


Fibrin- ferent, ‘ 
Filaria horrid gre 
. Finch, et chie 949- 


Pate 
ishes, ot "385 "549, 1163, 12 
fe bed th sie hee ag 79- 
deep-sea, proa 739% 
embryo, 395. 


viviparous, 1052. 
of United States, 206. 
origin of, 1256 


s, ancient Mexican, 498. 
Flies, danger from excrement of, 1267. 
Flora of Dismal swamp, m 

rence, museum of, 4 
Flowers and ered T 627- 


olr bow. pe sien of, 123 
oerste, A. F s tertilization tr giant hyssop, 928. 


ower of the glad e mallow, 724. 
notes on ion flower, : 
neues of motion in ‘crinoid 


ý stems, 58. 


structure and physiology of the |; 


passion flower, 72 
structure of flow isigi = of Zygade- 
glaucus, I 


ka azian 379. 
‘ rog, pepsin-forming glands i in, 154. 


~ Gull, 


1303 


Pec i a tal » 931. 
Fuegian ethnology, 99- 
Fungi, 292, 530, 628, 721. 
British, va 
F loridian, 68 , 69, 72 
N. A., w Species of, 1147. 
N. Aserca 
Fungus, cup, 628, 


Gage, S. H., notes on the use of the freezing 
microtome, 653. 
e preserve, aes 708. 


arman, H., Pterolichus falciger observed in the 
Uai ed Sta 


Garn: 

en ie ae 208. 
Gastman, E. A,, food of snakes, 88- 
Gas trostomus, 47. 


airdii, 222. 
Gatschet, A. S., Ans on nguage and the Papia- 


196. 
Gons. sd a ao 419. 
Himalayan 65. 


cen me moths, transfo mations of, 933- 
Geophilus re ineus me 
mus, 201. 


Gentis jopugite orial glands in, 204. 
sers a the Yellowstone, 1030. 
Gib ri bn, 58. 


Gila river, Loup Fork 
Gillman, Henry, further discoveries of perforated 
crania 


Er in Michigan, 1 

Gills o PARR s 534 

Gili, Theodore, three new families of fishes 
‘added to the deep-sea fauna in a year, 433- 

Gissler, Carl F., parasite, , 225+ 


of Magellan, orale, 1134. 
of N Zealand, 1136. 
Gloss o! aa a = 

n, 

lossophora, 776. 
iier generosa, 3t 

cobius 


Gleba hi 


s 
us, oviposition of, 1151. 


2 raion of elor to flavor in 
vegetables, 1 


dition, pie 1029. 
, Easte p Bt2. 
’ Euro popeas ruins in, 104- 
explorations in, 1133- 
fossil arpas 615., 
teoric iron in, 1141. 


Guillemot, 1017. 
kittiwake, 1016. 


1304 


Guyot, Arnold, b Sunil of, 550. 
Gymnophiona 


cage Pag in blood of Apus, 92. 
Hairs, 6 
-Halesia tetraptera, 850. 
Halite 
Ho a ial chongueti, 924. 
Hapalotis na Q, 10. 

ondit 


e , 
neatus, 795, 797- 
xiphodon, 804. 
Hare, Haka ok 105 
Hatteria 434. 
Havard, ‘the ees) 451. 
Hayden, F. V Lesqu 
Tertiary plants, 4 413- 
Haydenite, 62 
Head of embryo. va greater size of, 214. 
Heart of dog, 2 
Helia amer Meali. 
Helix, primitive kidney of, it 
Heiminthosporium fumosum 
Hemiptera, mouth parts of, 428, 5 6. 
pulsating organs in legs OF 33: 
Hemithlæus' kowalevskianus, 795, 802, 803. 
Hemlock = lech ay 2 
Hems ley, 


wild , 382. 
aro iC: = we of sex and sexual 


: E © Botti of mania’ 733. 
Hoplophorus australis, 179. 
Horse, bee oe in, 951. 


as Cini of, 791. 
wild, in Asi R ab 


275- 
measurement of, 1170. 
» Lucilia macellaria i in man, 540. 
s, A. A. aps prod of, 332. 


H siana eg ae 

Hodoh 260, 344 

Hyatt, Aan. larval the theory of ioak origin of cel- 
protoco Suoi; 919. 

mre be apa ick 1279. 

Hybri n spirogyra, 67. 

eerie a trout, 1158, 4 

Hybrids, fer Aad ee Kas 


Hypoderas columbæ, 430. 
Hyracoidea, 72. 
Hyssop, giant, fertilization of, gz8 


Indian census a 
1 


ereux on Cretaceous and ` 


; logy of, 945- 
Kingfisher, c onto rs ea me 


Index to Vol. XVITT, » 


Iceland, 812. 
Ichneumon » 300 
Ictops bienspis, 


Idiosyncrasy, individual, 318. 
Idiot’s sku Sig 
Idocrase, 
llhnois, geolog! para eA site: 1037- 
Sor, 
mbe ddin ethods of 842. 
re geology of, pie 
glaciated area 759. 
surface geology pera 


pictographs > 444. 


ag rg $ va 
Osage, Fp aie aes £135 i 

Indo-China, savages c of, 5 

Indrodon malaris, 6 bh 

Inflammation, 94 

Infusoria, 84. 89, 94 
fro eae Boge 133. 

new, Go, i , 830. 


pa 
letscion ranees dry, 21 
starch, 9 “aon 
Insectivora 912, 
7 sect, gign de to sil, 
= omy of, ia 253, 354. 


embryology of, 537- 
ning hea ids of, alive, 936. 


limbs of, 1046. 
oe es of heart in, a histogen- 
ag ig 
ot pos, Ryn 826. 
paired einanti be tlets in, 293, 1152. 
respiratory center of, 5 36. 
swarms of, in Japan, I on 
thoracic musculature of, 535. 
s of, 428. 


ES I eo te EN E E 


c 
Eg j 1062. 
nature of, 838 
Instincts, gregar rious and, aee 438. 
ma Ap Soina rodens, 


A 
2 
Pe 


2 fora of, 1149. 
ron, ‘native, from New Jersey, 618. 


en ka 
Ja itica, re 
{arit a 
spear ea d of, 848. j 
Jerboa rats, 9, 12 
et, 64. ` p 


fossils, 529, 617, 720- 
Kames, 756. 
pensani of New geste 101. 
Kangaroo, 11, 


Kaol ! 
ri i E seeds of 


Kowalevsky, W., S Sry of, Tit, 


Index to Vol. XVIII. 


Krakatau, 714. 
Krakatoa, 62, 280, 655, 1036. 
Kuilu river, 278. 


Labrador, bees and a se ae 
Crustacea 
= alba, 174» Sa 
_ tidgwayi, 774 
water pores of, 941. 


ram ain fot, 
Larviparition, 631. 
peara, Frank K, shells of Anticosti, 1053. 
s kumlieni 
ra 


cebaion, pikes fossil igh of, 819. 

LeConte, J. B Sg 

mery 1070, 

Leidy, Foes; ‘wold awarded to, 56. 

Leken, 420, 

Lemuroids, Eocene, 283. 

new, from ae Puerco formation, 59. 
Lens, Assyrian, 116. 

Lepidodendron, 1257. 

Dcgkiptere, Es 


‘ydig’s horda ti 
me beg v ese of, 1047. 
eus Raie skull of, 2 


347. 
Lept tictishaydeni, 478. 
a -n Carboniferous flora of Rhode 
dana 
peo larity i in, ue 
a, 


so ae ey ion tg 
ve: changes of, in different parts of America, 
Fn C; E mineral (cacoclasite) 
a, 416, 
of, 9 i 
Titula manent: I 


Limulus, moltin ng of, "200. 
69. 


Linosp 


hapa at 

Liotomus 

Lippincott, James S., a walk ig i the natural 
istory museum at J lorence, 

Lissolepis serratus, 923 

Lithodes, 549. 

Lobelia, cross-fertilization in, 531. 

Lachelites tessella, 1 eek 

Torkin ngton, W. N., of the progress of 

P iene batrachology in the years 


Lockwood, Baiil, sp of catastrophes, 97. 
penyt of of Limulus, 200. 

oyste 

Loco-plant, ag 8. 

Locy, Wi m h f 

7 illam : mR and physiology 0 

3 e family Nepidæ, 250, 


observations on pulsating or- 
sa = the legs of certain 
iptera, 13- 
Oscar, analysis ot i luscan jaws, 777- 
Tain 
Lonicera ae ouglassii, 71. 
» 71, 


glauca, 7i. i 
sullivantii, 71. 

pete tine nepetoides 29 

Lopho; 5 oan nes inornatus, new var. of, 95. 
Loup Sah Some o the G6 58. 
Lousewor, 


Pacate, po polymorphism ot, 728 
Lunatia 


ENE "en ns ead ot Me 


| 


1305 


Lycoperdon giganteum, 530. 
Lyrurus tetrix, 774. 


Macloskie, George, structure he the tracheæ vl 


raepelin’ s pro- 
cis of Beate, 3 1234. 
sn oblige EHIS werpe 189. 
Madag r, 916. 
mammalian ap Miocene and 
Eocene-like, 34 
Maggots, in gre 540. 


le, 724- 
Mam me-tra picta, 1266. 
malia telah of, aa 1254, I 


Mam 
, 208, 316, daar 740, 835, 1058, 
aquatic, 1 
Brazilian 
color markings o of, 313. 
G -layi 


Mammoth re. bima ya and | crayfish of, 272. 
Man, cig and of, in Brazil, 104. 
disadvantages. of pi Patti t in, r. 
fossil, in Mex 
glacial in Minnesota, 697. 
n the Tertiaries, r001. 
palæolithic, 322 
palzotithic, in Minnesota, i 
Sebi toric, in America 
a 0 ap relation of, to sanai, 1282. 
pe aman A 335- 
Mandibular PEA 205. 
Mangan-brucite, 
Manganosıtibite, 926. 
anteodon qua aan Gia 1194. 
g habits of, 1151. 


=. 
Martie ee formation of, 817. 
Marc =B; 
“American 


M eo delicate, preserving, 218. 

Marsupialia, Tertiary, 686. 

Marsupials, 805. 

artin, George, and Ellis, J. B., new Florida 

fu sinter ee 
speci 


f ungi, 1147. 
Mason, O. T., wore wes i 744- ; 
Mastodon oa | 

vag 


paiva 525. 
Mastodons of North America, 524. 
May beater pple: + 932 
e Eia August flora of Dismal 
swamp, 2 
McMurrich, J. P., abnormal Fuchsia blossom, 
LE 
new ipai of infusorian, 
830, 
on inflammation, 948. 
of, 206. 


1306 


Menignorant ot fire, 22 

Meniscoessus sais: 691, 693. 

Meniscotheriidz, 793, 901. 

Meniscotherium chamense, 904. 
tapiacitis, 903, 905. 
terreerubrz, 903. 

aeons > 


erriam, C. H., th 


Rh 1 F s 
rn in the St. Lawrence, 
migration n North American 
birds, 
varying kai 1055. 
Merychoch gn 282. 
Merychyus, 28 
Mesodectes caniculus, ag 


Mes sils, 287 
Metaliferous daa origin of, 1258. 
Metalophodon, 1194. 
stanes quercivoraria, larva of, 936. 
Meteorites, 182. 
erea ppa 831. 

cient, pitch-pipes and flageolets, 


Sasi mammals, 1298. 
Mexico, a 
bonis ps it, 
Miacide, 361, » 483. 


Michigea, perforated e crania in, 1174. 
Microscopical sections 


' Mayer 3 es of fix- 
218, 
ined of presem the 
rolling of, 106 
preparations, pure carminic acid 
or coloring, 324. 
section smoother, 107. 
Microscopists, ong en Society of, 329. 
Microtome, free 53- 
ano practical CoA of 644. 
Minerals, formation of, 288. 
phot otegraphy applied to, 1143. 
Hisia, geolog 
acial m n, s $94 
Pale stone L PERNA of, 555. 
Miocene flint mines 
Mooclzenus, 349. 
Mites, collecting, 87. 
hypopus stage of, 832. 


ate 827. 
inceatind? in, 87. 
Mitraria, 3 
Mnestra paras ita, I 


pedal mae , 
radula of, 
teeth of, 
body-ca 
Milas, 315, 548, D 944, 1058, 1278. 
“Brazilian n, 584. 
apre us cvnfusor, mode of oviposition of, 
Moons page woodiæ 
ray ey peabay of , 819. 
A. rth American geasters, 963. 


organ, 
Morgan, De Lisyd, on instinct, 833. 
Morris, Charles, colon ~ organisma, 140, 2 
grow a a vai 
, 1210. 


Morse, Edward S5., manta "the Tertiaries, roor. 


Index to Vol. XVIII. 


oo 933, 1026, 


Moss re cies of, 821. 
Mot 
Mold, e e, 628 
Moid- builder, 745, 953, 956. 
Mounds, 
Miiller, Honnai nemoral of, 330. 
Musca, ay eses ot, 1234. 
useum S, 960. 
oo in 
Mus vellerosus 59; f 
My naire PER of, 201. 
head of, 270. 


Ronco a slings’ in, 204. 


be eA 1177. 

Mythomyide, 26r. 

My osion ron 1140, 
ariabilis, 1140. 


Napza dioica, 724. 

‘Nasua, 580. 
atural His 

Naminis, hi reg 
State: yA 

Nature, pres of, toy. 

Navajos, 

Nebular hypothesis, 7 tg 

Nemastoma in 

Nemsweareints 

Nematus erichacdlly , 293- 


story, Standard, 808, 1125.. 
of, of the Eastern United 


Jers chau area of, 757. 
Ne ewport Natural pi sees Society, 1072» 
oo a ee 
rg 
Nites ‘hololeucus, 192. 
Nola ovilla, 726. 
Nomenclature, botanical, a, 
Nonagria subcarnea, 
North America, se a of, 524. 
North American hor trachians, 513. 
eptiles, 513, 
North Carolina, gold i in, 66. 
grave mounds i 
woods err timbers i ee 
siais ah in Greenland, 
Not 
Notornis, 316. 
Novaya Zemlya, 522. 


Obelia, 89. 
Obisium cavicola, 202. 
Oceania oade 196. 


> 


Ocean beds, permanence of, 1257. 
Octopus, 199. 
se mee a niveus, 537. 


f, 759 


3432 


Ohi 
Oidium tuckeri, 11 
Okadeira shell- mound, 1067. 
Omosternu m, 


i teris 


Onychogalia — II. 


191, 424- 


Op 
Ophiuran platens, 431. 
m, 687. 
er n n, 583. 

i ehanan pellucidus, 272. 

regon, snow peaks of, 561. 
Oreodon, 282. 
Oresdontid 2, 
Organisms, P asi 140- 
Organites, 51 
ee poe war customs of, 113. 


Index to Vol. XVIII. 1307 


araphia deplanaria, larva of, 935- 


Osars, 756. i 
ate a 


Osborn, Henry Leslie, molluscan steele, 


ag ere ee rh eee 
a) : 


1271. 
Osmorrhiza ongina 784. 
Osphranter rufus, 11, 12. 
Ostrich farm ın California, 222, 
Ottawa Field Naturalists’ Club, 1182. 


vertebr: ates and invertebrates, 81, 
309. 


Owl, = 

Ox, 4 

Oxide. ricci: natural, 619. 

Oxyzna, 80, 481. 

Oxyenide, 261, 480 

Oxytropis, 1044. y 
Oyster, 


200 
artificial fertilization of, 315. 
rowth of shell of, 834. 
Ozokerite, 419. 
sri exhalation of, by flowering plants, 337, 


pacit island, 813. 
d, A.S., aspects of the body in verte- 

brates and arthropods, 855. 

bees, Ps wasps, etc., of La ‘brador, 
I2 

do Labrada dogs bark? 1063. 

egg-laying ha e of the egg- 
eia of the canker worm, 


wee JDE habits of maple-tree 
borer, 1151. 

habits of àn “ag Pyralid 

, cate rpillar, 


larch worm, 293. 
life- Soe of Lochmzus tes- 
sella 
lifehisiories of some geometrid 
moths 
Mamestfa picta, hist story of, 1266. 


orn 
(Monohammus confusor), 
nature of liver of arachnids, 


origin rat bee’s cells, 1268. 
ur Aryan ances tors, gerne 
con ve arachnids, 202. 


hs, 632 
spruce-bud tortrix, 425. 
— _— sciences 


gustiorata, 10 
transformations Se Nola, 726. 
Weismann’s perpetuity of life, 


Palzolithic implements of es Jersey, 757- 
rhe 322 

Pulactinthes ar, arate, 178. 

Palzontology, N. ‘American, in 1883, 385. 

Palmas 480. 


» 719. 
é 


Panis 23, 917 


oe haliaétus, 212. 


Pamhét, orade. ‘Gaosiornek of, 945» 
Pastolaibant bai 


Possifiocn gracilis, 880, 
nearnata, 820. 


Patagonia, Roce ay ate 178. 
Patriofelis ulta, 48 
Peale, Titian R. ' Tabor-saving fis mens da cS 
men ignorant of fire, 2: 

Pebrine, 517. 
Peccary, sas 
Pedicularis canadensis, fertilization of, 822, 
Pelagic ork tof segje lakes, 939. 

larva, n 305. 
Pascoe eae 

cosauria, 1253. 

s ancestors of mammals, 1137. 


Pennatulidz 
Pen nsylvania, ‘cology of, 398. 
ted area of, 759. 
Pen orang as art 
Perak, 
Per renyi a s fuid, 558. 
As otis, 12. 
Periptychidz, 793. 
Poin ches *carinidens, $o 1, 802. 
coarctatus, 


rha abdodon, 792, 794, 795, 798. 
Permian, 1258. 
fauna of Bohemia, 282, 
formation, 287. 
Pa pig hairich of, 26, 
Perihostoma, 14, 251. 


Pestalozzia myricæ, 70. 
etrel, Wilson’s, 1016. 
Pewee, set 
Phalangist 


Phenacodontid, 793» a 


pri maeut, Pi, 893» 


puer 

ormani, 701, Jr, 893, 899. 
Philadelph 303. 
Philippines, a om races of, 1066; 
Phillipsia, 
Ph legmacera cavicolens, 203. 
Phoca groenlandica, 1227. 
Phosphorites, 1 038. 


Phyllopoda, foss l, 62. 
Phyllosticta spony sae 


Ao drag a 78. 
Physa humerosa, 851. 
Ligier ogical inquiries, 1067. 


Pile-dwellin ngs, 961. 
Pitch-pipes, ancient Mexican, 498. 
Pithec tay 282. eae. 
ityophis sayi var. 19. 
Plaginslacide, 687 687, 695. 
Planarians, mode of preserving, 1068. 
Plants, cultivated, origin of, 611, 
exhalation of ozone by, 337° 
fossil, 413- 
fossil, of Greenland, 615. 
Platyarthra, 1119. 
Platygaster, 292- 


| Pluteus, ae 431. 


34 
Podasocys montanus, 208. 
Podophyllum versipelle, 190. 


1308 | 


Podura suai, 300 

Pogonom rnc o cela, 334. 

Pollen, develop of, 2 

Polyithionite, ag 

Polymastodon fissidens, 688. 
— 


, 687 
in Rana halecina, cns 
nidæ, 728. 


7 
ae ulztormis, 721 
hydnvides, 721. 
lucidus, 721. 
oe J21. 
Polyzoans 
Pom pholyx ee 851. 


Pooley. 
Porcupine grass, 929, 933» 
207. 

Porpita linnæana, go, 850. 

Š maa of, i 8 f 
orpoise, embryo logy o 40. 

Porto Alegre, 7 

Potomogalid, 2 

ttery, ancient Malad: 498. 


rd 


» 7945 7 
Prosop ra ssn 451. 
Proteida, 26. 
Protogonia plicifera, 893. 
age ete 893. 
Protoplasm, , 422 
Protopsalis S. Sta: 


Protozoans, 548, 642. 
Proverbs, pons, 319. 
Pseudohazis he 2 


ra, 63 

Peen donea tOn oiea 546. 
Pseudoscorpion, 
Pseudosymmetry, 1 ‘ihe 
Pseudotri a s microdon, 207. 
renton 

socus €x EE 
Psychid pun 828, = 
Prar er one shedding of claws of, 774. 
Pterodon 
rs aleine, 430. 
Pterostichus, 93 
Prilodus medizevus, 692, 694. 
Puciiia aurora, 658 

ball, 5 


Pyre nom: ycetes, 187. 
Pere i, nevadensis, 851. 


k , European, 775- 
formation, 288. 


odor epee: go. 
Badia © 
Radish, 5 
peel i andromedæ, 189. 
goa ntii, 189 


cae patos me 
rigin c 


sat 740, 1058, 

Rhachitomi, 26, 2 : 

Rhiscceph alus, 5 

Rhizostoma cuvieri, 199. 

Rhode Island, Carboniferous flora of, 921. 
Rhynchonella psi ttacea, 778. 


badger in Ohio, 1276. 


Index to Vol. XVIII, 


h, C. aS L., large fungi, 68. 
Rich, Mrs. 7 B. dreaming in ve 
Riley, C. V., bacterial epatvat of: pe yee 


Ringueberg, E N. | Atavism considered as a 
aan agent in a state of nature, 542. 


Rink 

Eaka. a DNAET 605, 

Romanche expedition to e Horn 

Rothrock, J. T., notice of Bay s mort, 1248, 
Rotifers, new classification of, 115 

Rubellan, 185. 


Rumination, physiology of, 1164, 
Ryder , embryonic materials, 1294. 


Sacculina panopæi, 225. 
paadis poy ol ygonati, Ac 


ahari 


Y, 924. 


ana i 

Salmite, 9 

Salmicitdes, be tote in, Fegi 
115 


Salpa, 
Salsif Ji 95: 
Salt-water ere A 826 
Samia, hybrid, 
Sam sity F.A Tam pest 3 p Mewes 309. 
pao Pde ae 
Sa daoa: exible, ots ae bo 
Sanger, | ‘dward malian fauna of the 
Australian Jat i 
Sap, flow of, A 
Sapphire, 64, 
Sarcosporidia 5 $I 16. 
Sarcothraustes antiquus, 2 267. 


Saurocetes 
Scales, 640. 
Scaphiopus PiE ag! 

of, 94- 
282 
um commune 


argentinensis, a 


Sceleporus garmani, A 


seh sophyiia x Fa 1265. s 

lege obituary of, 450 

Schwarz, E.A. habits of Blaps and Embaphion, 176. 
ss 


Seal, har 
Section-flaitener, 557 1178. 


rm, 78. 
Si ilphium, ’white-rayed, 70. 
Siluria: poco ormation, 286. 
fos sils, 529, 616, 719- 
Silver, horn, 185. 
Si mulium, 729. 
S iredon o 152. 
£ isyrinch ium bermudiana, 623. 
itaris, 
f “hes auricapillus i, oe 
un n,5 : 
lack, Franc is M., cats’ food, 1284 
Sleep, depth 
Sm elt oviduct f, 209; 93+ 
Sm us imperator, 632- 


Smith, Herbert H., antennz of a akon bs 9 as 
defensive weapon 
ž Naturalist Brazilian’ aiii 


tion, 464, 578 
mith sound, 911. 
pata mg pis 639 
bull, hissing Fok 19. 
food of, 8 
ae Pg 732. 
pine, 19. 


| 
i 
l Socotia, BII, 
Soke, 1059. 


4 Somali, 811. 
k Southworth, Effie A., structure, development 
and ag of stomata in Equisetum 


4 Ja 

si Spea hammo: a 

à Species, new, E p K 
Spencer’s Niagar a fossils, x 


$ Spermaceti, 1164. 
: Spermophilus franktini, 1054. 
: Saban. 
È Sphinx elsa, 632 
: Spider, 6 
: : “= 78. 
à Sites oE 222. 
va Spinal ere per 
Si Spinel, cubic 
: Şpirifera trigonalis, 819. 
g Spiro 
ybridismi Re 67. 
S PEE E 
Sponges, tee be ag. 635, 654, 658, 833- 
: eaves 
à N. A. fi esh- -water, 110, 
i Spongilla stygia 
; Sporobolus oak and 420. 
— of Distomata, 1179. 
: Squirrel, gray gr sits 1054. 
| Giatinty > ar gray grou g 54 
: Stegocep i, 2 
: Stejneger, Leonard, shedding of the claws in 
$ ptarmigan mg allied birds, 77: 
: Stevenson, W. D 
Sthen argenteomaculatus, rai 
: Stibnite, . sate 
E Sites: 
smelt 20, 1263. 
Stokes, arte, 9, pig Vorticella, 829. 
notes on a new infusorian, 659. 
; motes on some apparently un- 
described Infusoria from 
; ‘putrid waters, 133- i 
ed a es of Tose new parasitic 
n IOÖĞI, 
Stomatonema re popes: 300. 
‘omolophus 
Sugar i in healthy. urine, 1280. 
Peran = a f 
ui on, ge 
Fama il 2o ee ogy of, 398 
E, Ta aaia botany, 573- 
, IIOL. P 
ic fauna of, 939- 
flora of, 46. ze 


D. H., hibernation of the gray ground 
sgala. u. 

singular see dship between two 
birds 


igrada 

a _ Mee of, 177, 280, 
l ee 261. 

pir, 582. 


Index to Vol. XVIII. 1309 


Taxeopoda, 792, 
Ment pe dg 


Tellur-sipher, 41 
Temboth i holmbergi, 17 


Ten commandmen S, 552. 
Tephroite, 62 
ertiary Bansi tion, m oor. 
formation of | ‘Patagonia, Any 
fossils, 287, 415, 529, 617, 72 
4 RES 


“Mars upialia , 686. 
Tetracis lorata, larva of, 935. 


30. 
Thereutherium abi. 
Thoburn, W. W., hd salamanders are not 
eaten by fro ogs, 8 
Thomas, Cyrus, bot os in North Caro- 
lina and East Tennessee, 2 


Thom s ciner 
Thompson, Allen, obituary of, 655. 
F ra epic 


Ti 

Tillina inflata, 1 a 
prophi we 135, 137- 

Timor Laat 


Tin, 519, raden 

Trinomial nomenclature, 1071. 

Tissue, cellular, origin of, 460. 

H S de-foot, 1075. 

Tol . B., obituary of, 222, 1448. 
Tope, 184, 4 419. 

Tortrix fumiferana, 424. 

Totanus melanoleucus, 1015. 

A oarmialine, 64, 

Towhee, green-tailed, On 94. 


Trachelius deam 850. 
rachys' ta, 26. 
Trelease, W. , self-fertilization in passion flower, 
820. 
Trematoda, 
Triassic ss Hg 529, 1 658. 
Trichomonas vaginalis, 642. 


appendages of, 529- 
retaceous, 1259. 
egs of, a 
Pinca 
ie memati am ot ort 30,32. 
900. 
Sriego te longævus, 282, 688. 
ea hoe 687. 


Cee oe leidianum, 1117. 

n; 

United States, aquatic mammals of, 11 
Entomological Comnindes. 711. 
mineral products of, 283. 

Uranothorite, 418. 

Urapterygidz, 299. 


nadinite. “i 
Vasana. 3 TEA nary rods of, 191. 
345. 


1310 


Vegetables, domesticated, origin of, 291. 
Velella mutica, go, 


778 
au ERUR 6 69. 
ta, 
saccardioides, 69. 
I 
Vertebral column, segmentation of, 31 31. 
Vertebrates, aspects w the body of, compared 
with arthropods, ‘ rA 55. 
phyl. geny of, 1255. 
Vespa rrie 12 
ee 
Misia yellowgreen, 208. 


nite, 
Voice, wring with, 438. 
s, 8 


ordillerian, ae 
Vorticella jockweodil. & 


Wadsworth, M. G., serine that the earth’s in- 
ter snor is solid, 587, 678, 767. 
litho ers of some Cordille- 
rian volcanoes, 526, 

taboo Samuel, J., heat and cold in geology, 


Wa ampum 1286. 
Wahabi Botanical oa ty = 
ealt as of, 
Weed, C. M., bird ee: (Dermaleichus pici- 
pabeace , 633. 
e “ow blackbird eat 


ayfish, 8: 
feniilizati h o m eH Pedicularis cana- 


Whale pata nosed, 317. 
White, Charles A., e: and functions of 
the 


Siepie ttis in the bull 

of the domestic 
pesa in pri cat, 21 

Whitman, C. O., connective s og in the 
Hi AS 


| 


f 


Index to Vol. XVIII, 


Whitman, C. O., ig sense organs of the 
Will, bei of, 3 

Williams, H S. Para fossils, 1138, 
Williamsite, 64 4. 

Winchell, 2s H., crystalline rocks of the North- 


west, 984 ; 
Wisconsin, geolog of, 163. ¥ 


yo 
Wor de oh 315, 434, 944, 1057. 
ocysts of, 938. 

be eneration vin, 434. 

remarkable nervous system in a, 546. 

trematode, 4 red 
hiie S pe ei xploration in Eocene of Wyo- 
Wien is 

long-billed marsh, 89. 
Wright, G. F., g! f North America, 


22 


theory of a glacial dam at Cincin- 
nati and its verification, 563. 
Wright, R. R., Dr. Coues’ renumeration of the 
spinal nerves, 641. 
review of apa researches in 
anatomy, 272. 
caida) ro in American 
crayfish, 


Zabriskie, J. L., i of the pseudoscorpion, 427. 
Zatrachys a ini alis, 

seriat 38 
Zebra f, 317. 
Zetodon acl, me, 802. 
Zeuglod 


pan L TA albicollis, 94. 
Zoölogical laboratory, Chesapeake, 1293. 
Zuni Indians, 953 
i areen glaucus, 1262, 
nemaceæ, 421.